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A V k I. !• H LI SI' i NCa : *^'>ti i.i. -i/Mi TON -"{■«--!; 1 SS A .^■'' THE INDIAN TRIBES OP THK UNITED STATES: THEIR HISTORY, ANTIQUITIES, CUSTOMS, RELIGION, ARTS, LANGUAGE, TRADITIONS, ORAL LEGENDS, AND MYTHS. KDITED BY FRANCIS S. DRAKE. ILLUSTRATED WITH ONE HUNDRED PINE ENGRAVINGS ON STEEL. IN TWO yp.JLU M.E3... . PHILADELPHIA: J. B. LIPPINCOTT & CO. LONDON : 16 SOUTHAMPTON STREET, COVENT GARDEN. 1884. Copyright, 1883, by J. B. Lippincott & Oo. PREFACE. In the following pages the attempt has been made to place before the public in a convenient and accessible form the results of the life-long labors in the field of aboriginal researcli of the late Henry R. Schoolcraft. The extensive and valuable materials collected by him with so much patience and assiduity were published some years ago by the United States government, and they form a body of reliable data concerning the Indian tribes within its borders such as does not elsewhere exist. By a careful process of elimination and condensation the six bulky quartos of the origi- nal work are now reduced to two portable volumes, without, it is believed, impair- ing the value of the work to the general reader. Some portions have been largely rewritten, in order that the fruits of recent investigations into the origin, language, and antiquities of the Indians might be incorporated in it, and the historical out- lines, general and tribal, have been filled up by the introduction of prominent events which had been omitted. The Introduction, presenting at one view the past and present status of the Indinn, the portions of the work that include an account of the present condition of the tribes, and the chapters containing the history of the last thirty years, are the work of the editor. Few persons have enjoyed greater advantages for obtaining a thorough knowl- edge of Indian life and character, or have, during a long residence among the Indians, more zealously improved their opportunities for studying their habits, tra- ditions, and history, than the author of the "Archives of Aboriginal Knowledge," which forms the basis of the present work. Henry Rowe Schoolcraft was born in Watervliet, N.Y., March 28, 1793, and (lied in Washington, D.C., December 10, 1864. His first American ancestor settled in Albany County in the reign of George II., and taught school. The change of hip name, which was originally Calcraft, is no doubt attributable to this latter fact. He spent his childhood and youth in the picturesque valley of Norman's Kill, and entered Union College in 1807. His poetical talent was early developed, and " Geehale" and " The Iroquois," anonymously published, became a part of the poetical litera- tuiH! of the country. A strong taste for the natural sciences also manifested itself, which, in 1817, led him to make his first visit to the Mississippi, the true source of whidi,' in Itaska Lake, he discovered in a second expedition in 1832, an account of which ho published in the following year. In 1819 he published "A View of the Lead-Mines of Missouri," and was appointed geologist and mineralogist to an expe- 3 7C373 PREFACE. dition under General Caaa to the Lake Superior copper region, the narrative of which appeared in 1821. The incidents of an extended journey tlirough Illinois and along the Wabash and Miami Rivera in that year are contained in his "Travels in the Central Portions of the Mississippi Valley," published in 1825. In 1822 he was appointed agent for Indian affairs on the Northwestern frontier, and in the following year was married to Miss Jane Johnston, a grand-daughter of Wabojeeg, a famous war sachem. He resided in the vicinity of Michilimackinac until her decease, re- moving to New York in 1841. From 1828 to 1832 he was an efficient member of the territorial legislature of Michigan, which adopted the system of township and county names formed from the Indian language and introduced by him. He founded the Michigan Historical Society in 1828, and the Algic Society at Detroit in 1831. Two of his lectures before the Algic Society on the grammatical construction of the Indian languages were translated by Duponccau and presented to the French Institute, which awarded him a gold medal. Commissioned to treat with the tribes on the Upper Lakes, in 1836 he procured from them the cession of 16,000,000 acres to the United States. In 1839 he. published "Algic Researches," a collection of oral Indian legends. In 1842 he visited Europe, and soon after his return pub- lished a volume entitled "Oneota, or the Indian in his Wigwam." "Notes on the Iroquois" appeared in 1845, "Personal Memoirs of a Residence of Thirty Years with the Indian Tribes," in 1853, and "The Myth of Hiawatha, and other Oral Legends," in 1856. In 1847 Congress directed him to procure statistical and other information respecting the history, condition, and prospects of the Indian tribes of the United States. The first volume of this elaborate work appeared in 1850, the sixth and coiichiding volume in 1857. In furtherance of this object, he at once prepared and issued blank forms, containing a comprehensive series of interrogatories, the fruit of ills thirty years' experience among the aborigines, which were widely distributed throughout the country, and which elicited much valuable information from persons interested in and familiar with the subject. This, together witli his own portfolios and journals, supplied an abundance of material. The illustrations to the work were from the pencil of Captain Seth Eastman, of the United States Army. Mr. Schoolcraft was a member of numerous scientific and historical societies, and in 1840 received tlie degree of LL.D. from Geneva College. Since Mr. Schoolcraft's day not much hiis been added to our stock of informa- tion respecting the American Indian, but investigators like Morgan, Foster, CJat- schet, Gibbs, Trumbull, Powers, II. II. Jianeroft, and othei-s, have enhirgcd the boundaries of our knowledge of his language and arcliicological remains. Such labors, slowly but surely enabling us to arrange the scattered tribes into generic groups or stocks, are essential to the elucidation of the yet unsettled questions as to their ancient history and origin. A complete history of our aborigines, besides being a laborious undertaking, would necessarily be one-sided and unsatisfactory, the Indian liiniself having no chronicler, and an approximation to historic truth being altiiinable only by a carcfnl PREFACE. 5 compnriBon and a thorough sifting of tho statemcnta of both parties. Nearly every foot of our exteuHivo territory lias been fought over by tlio two races, and alniost every stream and mountain has its history or tradition. The exploits and dangers of tho pioneer settlers have been recorded in numerous local chronicles, and a great mass of important material still remains in manuscript. Some valuable contributions towards su(!h a work have of late been made, notably those of ]\Ir. Francis Parkman and Mr. 11. H. Bancroft, but the nearest approach to a detailed account of the aborigines of this country, prior to that of Mr. Schoolcraft, was "The Hook of the Indians," published as long ago as 1841, tho work of the late Samuel G. Drake, the father of the present writer. Meantime, the rapid spread of tho white race over tho continent, the building of railroads, tho search for the precious metals, thus bringing the two races into still closer contact, and especially the elforts of our government to prepare the Indian for citizenship, — all these agencies have made him an object of general interest and curi- osity to a much greater degree than ever before. The future of his race, tho " Indian Question," as it is called, is one of the vital questions of the day, and is receiving a large share of attention and study. To the recognition of this fact the present vol- umes owe their inspiration; and that they may help our people to a more just appre- ciation of their red brethren, and assist in the noble and philanthropic efforts now being made to right their wrongs and to secure justice to them in the future, is the earnest hope of the editor. Boston, October 10, 18S1. I CONTENTS or VOLUME I. Introduction ""■ CHAPTER I. Origin, Traditions, Physical and Mental Type 27 CHAPTER II. Lanowoe, Literature, AND Pictookapuy • 47 CHAPTER III. INDIAN ART, INDUSTRY, AND MEDICAL KyOWLEDGE. Canoos-MuBical I„8trun.ent«-Firo by Pflrcu«8ion_Tri.,.rati..n of Maizc-Proparation of Snear and Arrow-Heads-Handicraft of Oreson Tribes-Curin- nf SLil w n[ u n ^ 64 CHAPTER IV. ANTIQUITIES. per Ba„d«, etc-Maoitocs-Hopo-Muking-Geological Cha^gt. . '"'"'-^'•"'^ ""'"^^^P; 7 81 8 CONTENTS OF VOLUMK I. Cll/'PTIOR V. IIELIOIOX ANI> MAQIC. Iiloii of God — Good luid Hvil — Spirits — Dakota Goiis — GiiinUs' Foast and Dance — Immortality — Fulur" Stato — Sun-Worsbip — Sacred Firo — Aljionicin Beliufs — Attributes of God — I'rif.sts and I'owwows — Jossakeeds — Medas — Miij;ic — War Majrie — Hunting Magic — Healing Art — Wabe- iioes 142 CHAPTER VI. MAKNKHS A.NM) CU.STt)MS. Inflni'Mco of Climate — Flora and Fauna — Domestic Animals — Similarity of Onstonis among Widely- Separated Tribes — Imitations and Changes — Observations of Travellers — Vioissitudes of Indian Life — Tlie Indian on bis Hunting-Grounds — Indian Family — Domestic Life — Women — Chil- dren — Courtship and Marriage — Polygamy — Totems — Forest Teachings — Fishing — Hunting — War — Striking tlie I'ost — Feasts and Fasts— Medicine Feast — Sports and Pastimes — Discoidal Stones — Hall- Playing— Games of Chance — Panees — Sugar-Making — Costume — Accoutrements — Characteristic Traits — Imperturliability — Taciturnity — Regard for Insanity — Revenge — Su- perstition — Manito's Spirit Cratl — Unicns, Dreams, etc. — Secret Societies — Menstrual Lodge — Human SacriQces — Uuriiil-Customs — Mourning — Ossuaries — Iro<|U(jis Customs — Creek — Dakota — Ojibway 163 CHATTER VII. THE TUIHRS. — ETHNOLOGICAL DISTRIBUTION OIlGAMZATIOX^-GOVEllNMENT. Ali/onki'iu. — Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Rhode Island Indians — Abenakis — Penobscota — Pen- iiacooks — Allegans — Delawares — Pottawatoniies — Chijipewas — Pillagers — Shawnees — Chey- cnnes — Arapaiioes — Miamis — Menotuiinies — Kiekapoos — Michigamies — lilackfcet — Mascoutins — Brothertons — Ottawas — Sacs and Foxes — Pawnees, Peoriiis, Quappaws, etc. Appnldcliians. — Chorokees — Creeks — Cli.>ctaw.^ — Cbicka.saws — Seminoles — Congarees — Natchez. Pacific ainpe. — California, Oregon, and Washingtcin tribes. Dakota or Sioux. — Dakotas — Assiniboines — Mandans — Minnetarces — Arikarces — Crows — Winno- bagoas — lowiis — Omahas — 0.-ect,and in,5upuce if deserving. Any one of sufficient prowess and reputation, who posrfes*ieJ self-contrv. ' .and )vho could preserve harmony, might be a war-chief. The sachem was sometimes a Avoman, a cu.stoni j)eculiar to the North American Indian being the exclusion of the direct male line in favor of the col- lateral branch, the nephew succeeding, unless unfit, when another waa chosen in his place. Their priests and physicians were called " mcdiciiu'-men," who, besides their simple curative remedies, made use of magic spells and incantations. The conse- crated meda-sack contained their charincd articles, which the Indian supposed to bo shields against disease, to render hlin invulnerahle to the darts of ills enemy, to draw the wild animals to his path, and to secure the great objects of prosperity in life. They used medicinal l".'rbs ius emetics and catliaitics, but the vapor bath was their most general and effective remedy for disease. A chronic state of warfare existed between many of the tribes. The art of war with the Indian consisted in patient watchfulness, stealthy approaches, surprises, and stratiigems. There was no dishonor in killing a wounded enemy or In ])rlvate deceit or treachery, though to their public engagements they were always faithful. It was INTRODUCTION. 13 no disgrace to run away when tliore seemed no chance of success. The how and arrow and the totnaliawk, his original weapons, soon gave place to fire-arms, procured from the whites, in the use of which he acquired great skill. Most of the hard work wa-s done by the women, in order that the bodies of the men miglit be kept supple and active for the purposes of war and the chase. Their amusements were the ath- letic exercises, running, leaping, paddling, games of ball and with small stones, and dances. Boys were trained from infancy in feats of dexterity and courage, acquiring a name and a position only on returning from a warlike expedition. Their implements of husbandry were of the rudest kind. They made earthen vessels, rush mats, fish-hooks of bone, nets from the fibre of hemp, stone axes and arrow-heads, pipes of clay or stone, often artistically carved, and beads, called wam- pum, also used a.s coin, out of shells. Belts made of this wampum were their on'.y record of important events, and treaties were thus for many years kept in memory. They had no written language, but communicated their ideas by means of pictures on rocks and trees. Their most ingenious inventions were the snow-shoe, the birch canoe, and the method of dressing the skins of aniuuils with the brains. The Dakota tent, or tepee, is the original of the Sibley United States army tent. Tlio Pacific tribes made baskets, some of which were so skilfully woven as to hold water. With snow-shoes they could travel forty miles a day over the surface of the snow, and easily overtake the deer and the moose, whose hoofs penetrated the crust. The canoe, sometimes thirty feet lotig and carrying twelve Indians, was very light and easily propelled. The bark of the tree was stripped off whole, and stretched over a light white-cedar frame. The edges were sewed with thongs and then covered with gum. Their canoes varied in pattern, drew little water, and were often gracefully shaped. They made the most of the materials at their command, but their stationary civilization is sufficiently accounted for by their lack of iron, by their 8i>arse popula- tion, and by the unlimited food-supply furnished by the abundance of game and fish. They were opposed to the modes of living of the new-comers, believing their own to be superior and in accordance with the design of the " Great Spirit." To such a race, the first visiting Europeans, with their ships, fire-arms, and other evidences of civilization, appeared nothing less tlian gods ; and so for a time they were accounted, being entertained by the Indians in the most friendly and hospitable manner. Soon, however, the inhuman treatment received by them from the Spanish and ot'"^'' r>arly explorers, whose cupiility led tiiem to abuse the natives because they could not gratify tiieir lust fi)r gold, or who enticed them on board their ships and carried them ofi" to ilie in a fi)reign land, — these and other atrocities forced them into a liostile attitude, and taught them that their persecutors were mortal like themselves, and to return injury for injury. Briefiy, the story of the course of our Indian history from the beginning to the present day is this : to the greed for gold, renewed with even greater intensity in our own day, succeeded the greed for land, which, as the Indian regarded it as his own property, he was naturally unwilling to give up. A fatality has seemed to 14 INTRODUCTION. attend liiin in all his relations to the while man. He has heen steadily and relent- lessly ])n.shed from '" hunting-grounds and the graves of his fathers by the ever- advancing tide of emigration, in spite of all his ellbrts at resistance. Tlic earlier relations between the colonists and the Indians were such as would necessarily exist when an invading race sought to obtain a foothold upon territory already occupied by a barbarous native population. A war of races, the result of which would be either the extinction of the weaker race or its ultimate absorjition by the stronger, would be inevitable. By alternate wars and treaties as the colonists grew in numbers the dillercnt coast tribes were either dispossessed or exterminated, in the former case taking refuge with the inland tribes. The Indians believed that the white man designed not only to destroy them as individuals, but to obliter- ate them as a i^eople ; and the white man regarded the Indian as an irreclaimable savage who in the most barbarous manner killed the innocent and unoffending set- tlers without regard to age or sex. This irrepressible conflict has continued to the present day, but is now, happily, drawing to a close. In a very few instances, and especially in Pennsylvania, the white and red races lived for a series of years in peaceful ])roximity. All the early efforts to Christianize and civilize the Indian ended in failure. A new phase in the relations of the two races was introduced by the rivalry and contention between England and France for supremacy in North America. Each preferred exclusive claims to tlie whole tcrritorj', and each, while ignoring the rights of the Indian, sought to engage him in supjiort of its own pretensions. In this effort to secure native support the French, by tlicir greater tact and deference to the preju- dices of the Indian, succeeded in attaching to themselves the numerous frontier tribes. This end was still further promoted by their intermarriages with the natives, thus producing a bond of union tlie results of which are still apparent. The half- breeds have in general foUoAved the condition of tlie mother and adhered to the native race. Some, however, have athtjUed civilized life and become citizens of the United States. The one exception to the French connection, lait a most important one, was that of the warlike Irotpiois, who sided with the English, and who constituted a formidable barrier to the French. This remarkable race, commonly known as the " Six Xations," presents to our view the extraordinary spectacle of an Indian con- federacy having a popular form of government not unlike that adoj)ted long after- wards by the United States, and dating back a century bef(jre European , left the Indian and the Englishman face to face. Pontiac's war, which immediately fol- lowed, was a desperate but unavailing en'ort on the part of tli;tt great chief to drive back the tide of English invasion. Then came tin* struggle for colonial indepen- INTRODUCTION. 15 dcncc, in which the Iroquois and nearly all the tribes sided with England. The treaty of Versailles, however, in 1783, failed in any way to recognize them, and their relations with the new masters of the continent were left undetermined. In 1778 the American Congress authorized the employment of Indians in their army, and in the year following the Iroquois were severely punished by General Sullivan's expe- dition, which laid waste their territory. The establishment and settlement of the Northwestern Territory over a region which had by treaty been confirmed to the Indian nations "forever" aroused the jealousy of the lake tribes, who, uniler the direction of Brant, and with the addi- tional incitement of British aid and sympathy, soon became openly hostile. These tribes Brant had confederated together to maintsiin the Ohio Kiver as the perpetual boundary of white settlements ; and they also claimed that only by a General Coun- cil of the tribes could cession of territory be nuvde. The stand they took was states- manlike and patriotic, as well tis timely, but, after inflicting two severe defeats upon the armies of the young republic, they were comjielled to succumb and to abandon the independent attitude they had assumed. A far greater than Pontiac or Brant was destined to renew the hoj)eless strug- gle. For years Tecuraseh labored with untiring energy, eloquence, and unsurpassed ability to arouse his countrymen to make one more effort for the expulsion of their white oppressors. In his negotiations with the chiefs of the warlike tribes from the Northern lakes to the Gulf he exhibited a sagacity and shrewdness, a knowledge of human nature, and a tireless perseverance which, though not crowned with success, won for him imperishable renown. His name stands high in the immortal roll of patriots and heroes. In the second war with England the elements of strife so suc- cessfully fomented by Tecumseh bore bitter fruit, but were attended with no perma- nent consequences other than to weaken the tribes and to strengthen in the Indian mind the conviction of the utter hopelessness of the attempt to overthrow the su- premacy of the white man. Since that period he has Avarred against him only in a desultory manner, either in the vain endeavor to retain his home and his hunting- grounds, as in the ciise of the Seminoles of Florida, or because of the non-fulfil- ment of treaty stipulations by the United States, as in the more recent wars with the Cheyennes and Sioux. Since Tecuni 'ih no great leader has appeared who could unite the red race against the white, and such an eventuality is, fortunately, no longer possible. Our civil war was ruinous to the tribes in the Indian Territory. It was taken possession of by the Confederate government, which was supjiorted by many of the chiefs. Others sided with the North, and the contest was attended with serious losses of life and property. Large additions were made to our Indian population by the purchase from France, in 1803, of the immense territory known as Louisiana, by the acquisition of New Mexico and California in 1848, and by the purchase of Alaska from Kussia in 1867. During the past half-century the Indian has been transferred beyond the Mississippi and placed upon reservations, and earnest efforts have been made to adapt him to civilized life. Progress in this direction has been necessarily slow ; but the outlook is full of promise. IG INTRODUCTION. Our intercourse with the Indian tribes has continued for three centuries, beginning with the reign of Queen Elizabeth. For nearly two centuries the policy pursued respecting them was that of Great Ikitain ; since then it has been that of the United Stjitea government. Of the tribes which have constituted the objects of our policy and laws, no one has become extinct, though some have greatly diminished. The European governments, founding their sovereignties on divine right, exercised power over the disposal of all territory occupied by the barbarous tribes of the countries discovered, taking the latter under guardianship as not being capable of sovereign acts or sound discretion in the management of their interests, and making pacifi- cations and "contentments" from time to time for intrusions on their territories or hunting-grounds. The wild tribes possessed the balance of power. They could disturb or break up the new settlements, and, had they not been strikingly deficient in the power of combination, they would have swept away the colonists at these earlier periods. To conciliate and pacify, to explain and redress acts of incidental injustice, to prevent combinations for hostile purposes, and to direct the minds of the Indians to the leading truths of labor and civilization, became the general objects of European as they have been of American policy. Indian wars were occasional and of brief duration during the whole period, and they were waged with precisely the same ulterior views. The policy was pre-eminently that of peace, and not of war ; and when war ensued the aim was to reform, not to destroy them. Such was the system of England, Holland, France, and Sweden, as it had previously been that of Spain and Portugal in South America. The colonial governors stood between the tribes and the throne, as representatives of the king. To prevent misapprehensions among an ignorant and suspicious peojile, they employed a class of executive agents to reside near or among the Indians. In the patriarchal language of the tribes the terms of a father and his children were employed. This pleased the Indians and estiiblished a political relation which they fully understood. In its dealings Avith the tribes, each of the colonies before the union acted inde- pendently of the others, endeavoring to settle difficulties as they arose and to obtain cessions of land. Afterwards the general government took charge of Indian affairs. Congress, in 1775, creating three departments, — the Northern, Middle, and S',>uthern, — and assigning to each a board of oommissicmers. Its policy was to preserve peace and to prevent the Indians from talking part against them in the struggle with the parent government. In 1785 it divided the Indian country into districts, with a superintendent for each, all business to be transacted at the outposts occupied by the troops of the United States. In 1787 Congress authorized several of the States to appoint commissioners, who, in conjunction with the Indian superintendents, were authorized to make treaties, and the latter were required to correspond regularly, in relation to tlieir official transactions, with the Secretary of War, " through whom all comnninications respect- ing the Indian Department shall be made to Congress ;" and they were further re- quired " to obey all instructions which they shall from time to time receive from the Secretary of War." The War Department, through its agents, the officers of the •■,-f INTRODUCTION. 17 nrmy, has ever since disbursed all funds due the Indiana, whether in the form of annuities or of gifts. All these oflicial duties belonging to Indian aifaird were for many years performed by one or two department clerks. With the expansion of our popu- lation and the greater frequency of treaties, the Indian business had so increased that, in 1824, Thomas L. McKenney was appointed by the Secretary of War chief clerk of this branch of the public business. In 1832 the oiTice of Commissioner of Indian Afl'airs was created and the Indian Bureau organized. In 1841) the Depart- ment of the Interior was organized, and Indian Afl'airs were transferred to it. Strong eflbrts have since been made to restore it to the War Department. In 1854 an act of Congress gave to the Secretary of War a species of general superintendency of the agents and sub-agents appointed by the President, a large majority of whom were taken from civil life. The inauguration of the peace policy in 1808 by President f J rant, by which Indian management was placed entirely in the hands of civilians, Wius expected to produce favorable results. The policy was attended with visible improvement, but it has not latterly been strictly followed. The treaty system subsisting between the United States government and the In- dians was abolished in 1871, after having endured for ninety-three years. Instead of treaties, nearly four hundred of which had been made only to be broken, execu- tive orders have since been issued by the President. The treaties first made with the Indians contemplated their incorporation into the American nation. That with the Delawares, in 1778, with the Cherokecs, in 1785, and those Avith the '"hoctaws and Chickasaws, in 178G, after guaranteeing them their territorial rights in the fullest and most ample manner, recited " that the Indians may have full confidence in the justice of the United States respecting their interests ; thoy shall have a right to send a deputy of their choice, whenever they think fit, to Congress." The Indians, as is well known, have never availed themselves of this privilege. In 1787 the ordinance for the government of the Northwestern Territory was passed, and afterwards extended to that of the Southwest. It was in the nature of an unalterable compact between the people of the territories and the old Confederated States. The third article reads, " The utmost good faith shall always be observed towards the Indians ; their lands and property shall never be taken from them without their consent, and in their property rights and liberty thoy shall never be disturbed nor invaded, unless in just and lawful wars authorized by Congress, but laws founded in justice and humanity shall from time to time be made for prevent- ing wrongs being done to them, and for preserving peace and friendship with them." Treaties since made with the tribes have related mainly to removals and the cession of their lands. In January, 1770, Congress, " in order to preserve the confidence and friendship of the Indiana, and to prevent their suffering for want of the necessaries of life," passed resolutions to import a suitable assortment of Indian goods to the amount of forty thousand jiounds sterling, the same to be distributed by the Commissioner of Indian Affairs, who was to fix the prices, no person being permitted to trade with 18 INTRODUCTION. the Indian.s without license from them, and a rcaflonable price being allowed to the Indians for their skins and furs ; trade to be carried on only ut such places as the commissioners should appoint. The commissioners in the following month were directed to select proi)er places for the residence of ministers and school-masters, for the propagation of the gospel and the cultivation of the civil arts among the Indians. Congress subsequently passed many other resolutions looking to the preservation of friendly relations with them. A (ihange in our Indian policy occurred when the government wa.s organized under the present constitution. Before that event the Indians hud been treated as a free and independent race, whoso righta and interests we were bound to respect and consider. The constitution conferred upon Congress the power to regulate commerce with the Indian tribes. TJiis the United States Supreme Court construed as giving it power " to prohibit all int(;rcoursc with them cxcej)t under license." For nearly a century, while striving to promote, to facilitate, and to extend our, trade in every direction, our government ha-s, under penalties of line and imprisonment, prohibited all intercourse, foreign and domestic, with the Indians. No person could traile with them without a license. As the Indian country had free communication with the English on the north and the Spanish on the south, they carried on free trade in both directions while we were excluding it by fine and imprisonment in the interior. Trading-houses were established in 1790 at convenient points, for which govern- ment furnished a capital of one hundred and fifty thousand dollars, the biwiness to be conducted by agents and confined to the jiurchase of skins and furs from the Indians. This policy was abandonctl at the close of the war of 1812, Avhen liberty of trade with the Indians wiis granted to licensed citizens of the United States only, and all goods bought by a foreigner of an Indian were declared forfeited. With the exception of the Cherokees, who would not submit to such a restriction, no Indian can himself legally sell anything he can raise or mainifacture. The Intercourse Act was revived in 1834. Other acts hampering and restricting the Indian have since been passed, and trade with him has been so " regulated" as seriously to hinder his efforts towards self-support and prosperity. In the central region, from Texas to Montana, where cattle-raising is th(! only profitable occupation, tlie agent.s have for years vainly implored that the Indians, who are naturally and by long habit the best of herders, be permitted to abandon farming and become stock-raisers instead. They are excluded by law from all mining and lumbering industries. For the Neah Bay Indians, who are skilful sailors and fishermen, an appropriation wa.s tusked for j)ro- viding appliances for catching, packing, canning, and marketing fish. None has ever been made, but each year the agricultural school, the blacksmith, carpenter, etc., are provided for. After treating the Indians for nearly a century as " distinct independent jiolitical commuiiiti«!s" and " independent [)Ossessors of the soil," C'ongress, on JNIarch W, 1871, enacted "that no Indian nation or tribe shall be acknowledged or recognized as an independent nation, tribe, or power, with whom the United States may contract by ; t INTRODUCTION. 11) treaty." Since then reservations liavf been assigned and homes established for more than forty thousand Indians by executive orders alone, and to those homes the Indians have no title which a similar order may not at any moment modify or destroy. The shelter of the Indian's nution, such as it was, has been removed, lie has no legal status, no legal redress for any wrong. While a Chinese or a Hottentot has a stand- ing before tlie law, the native American has none, and is neither amenable to nor pro- tected by it. According to a recent decision by Juilge Dundy, in the case of the I'on- ciis, a tribe, as such, may ai)pear by attorney in the United States courts in any civil action alfecting their property rights. For the i)urposc of relinquishing rights to us they were inde])endent nations; but when one of these nations applies to the iSui)rome Court to enforce the guarantees made by us in consideration of such relinquishment, then it is decided that they are dependent, domestic, antl subject nations, who can only bind themselves by treaty but cannot bring suits in the United States courts. Tiieir ownership of the soil is only a riglit of occupancy, and this the United States has the absolute right to extinguish either by conquest or by ])urchase. The Guudalupe-llidalgo treaty of 1848 made the Indians of the territory acquired by us from Mexico citizens of the United States. No distinction, however, between these and other Indians has ever been recognized by tlie executive or legislative depart- ments of the United States. For eighty-live years the title to Indian lands has been extinguished by treaty only, with the consent of the tribes occupying, the sole excep- tion being the Sioux title in Minnesota, extinguished by right of conquest in 18G2. While all that allects the Indian's dearest interests is arbitrarily determined at the scat of government, even to the food he eats and the clothes he wears, he is forbidden to go to Washington exccj)t by invitation. His agent is prohibited from going on pain of removal, and he is forbidden by statute to execute a power of attorney aj)pointing any one else to represent him there or elsewhere in his business with the United States. There is no law to punish crime or wrong of any kind committed by one Indian against another. The criminal laws of the United States extend over the Indian country in ciuses where crime is committed by an Indian against a white man, or by a white man against an Indian. As the trial must be in the nearest Federal court, with a jury of bortler white men, the prtictical efl'ect of the law has been that an Indian is always convicted and a white man always acquitted. In the absence of law, Indian society is left without a base, and Indian civilization lacks its only sure foundation. h\ 182."), Tresident Monroe urged upon Congress the removal of the Indian tribes, from the lands then occupied by them within the several States and Terri- tories, to the west of the Mississipj)i lliver, notwithstanding the United States had by its treaties distinctly guaranteed to each of them forever a portion of the territory in which it then resided. The immediate occasion for this measure was the demand of the State oi' Georgia that the title of the Cherokecs to their lands in that State should be extinguished. Government had, in 1802, agreed with that State to extin- guish the Indian title as soon as it could be done "peaceably and on reasonable 20 INTRODUCTION. terniH." The Indiims wore not u party to thw compact, but by the treaty of Hope- well, in 17Hr), every intnider upon their landH Hhouhl "forfeit the protection of the United States, and the Iiidianw may punish him or not, aa they please." A portion of the Cherokees, having made some progress in eivilizatictn, (h-elined to emigrate, and organized a government of their own within the Btate. The subject of their removal was everywhere! discussed, and was carrietl to the Supreme Court. The policy of removal wits adopted in l.HIJO, Congress uutbori/ing the President to sol- emnly assure the tribes, with whom the exchange was made, that the United States would forever secure and guarantee to them and their successors the country so exchanged with them, and, if they preferred it, would cause a patent or a grant to be ma(U' and executed with them for the same, and also to cause then> to be protected against all interruption or disturbance from any persons whatever. Several years were occupied in the removal of the Cherokees, which was the occasion of much sacrifice, suH'ering, and loss of life to the Indians. It is needless to say that these solemn guarantees wore disrcgariled, and that many of these removcil tribes have been obliged to abandon their new home and its improvements by the constant jiressure upon them from without. Of all the tribes removed to Kansas by the act of May, ISIJO, but a bare handful remains. Except in the case of the Cherokee lands in the Indian Territory, our government has never attempted to vindicate its honor by keeping its word with the Indian. He has no vote, no political inlluence. The policy of removal ha>5 at all times resulted disastrously to the Indians. Its effect has been to i)erpetuate barbnrism, and it has also been a fruitful source of cor- ruption. The removal of the Santeo Sioux and the Winnebagoes from Minnesota in 180;?, as narrated by ex-Indian Commissioner Manypeuny,' is a sickening recital, but it is only one of many similar instances of cruel wrong. The failure of the sys- tem was apj)arent from the outset. It failed to take into the account the inevitable and rai)id ])rcssure of advancing settlements and enterprise. The old story will be repeated wherever there is a large and valuable Indian territory surrounded by white settlements. Railroad extension will only accelerate the catastrophe. Even the Indian Territory, guaranteed to him by solemn treaty, has to be patrolled by United States troops to keej) off persistent white invaders. It did not benefit the In- dian, and brought but temporary relief to the country. The reservations j)roved to be such only in name. The Black Hills territory belonged to the Dakotas a few years ago. Adventurers crowded in in [)ursuit of mineral wealth, and sacired cove- nants of the nation were broken. The system has not secured to them i)ermanent homes, has not preserved them from molestation, has not improved them i)hysically or morally, and has not relieved the government of care and expense. The Indian is forbidden to wander from his reservation, and it is forbidden ground to the whites, thus isolating him from the rest of mankind ; and, being fed and clothed by the gov- ernment, all stimulus to self-support is necessarily wanting. ' Our Indiiin Wards, pp. 135-141. INTRODUCTION. 21 Thm Hlisht cxaininiition of Indian hmtory, and of tlio lof^al and political rclationH BubniHting iM'twccn tlio two raccH Hiiico the Hcttlenu'nt lM'};an, sullicicntly accountH for the cxistonco of the no-called "Indian Problem," and cxplainH why it has ho long rcinaiiHMl nnHolved. The wonder m that, umler all the circninHtanccH, any advance in civilization nhonld have been made by the trilx'S. In itH dealingH with them our government has been Badly derelict, and it hiw reaped only what it \\m Hown. (Jov- ernment faith pledged to them in nnmerouH treaties haw been frcfpiently broken, and government agentn have wyHtematically plundered and defrauded them. Their hiw- tory liiis been a record of brokt'ii treaties, unjust wars, and cruel spoliation. We have taken from the Indian everything ho prized ; what have we given him in re- turn? "Indian vars," say the committee of Congress of which Senator Doolittlo was chairman in 18(57, " in a large majority of cases are to bo traced to the aggres- sions of lawless white men, idways to be found upon the frontier or boundary-lino between savage and civilized life." A year later a new commission, including the Conunissioner of Indian Aflaii"s, the chairman of the Senate ('ommittee of Indian Allliirs, and three generals of the army, said, . . . "Civilization mc.de its contract and guaranteed the lights of the weaker party. It did not stand by the guarantee. The treaty was broken, but not by the savage. . . . The Downing nuissacre, in May, 1801, and the Cliivington massacre, in November, are scarcely paralleled in the rec- ords of Indian barbarities. A war ensued which cost the government thirty millions and carried contlagratiou and death to the border settlements. Fifteen or twenty Indians were killed, at a cost of more than a million apiece, while hundreds of our soldiers had lost their lives, many of our border settlers were butchered, and much property was destroyed. This was something more than useless and expensive, it was dishonorable to the nation and disgraceful to those who originated it. . . . The best ])ossible way to avoid war is to do no act of injustice. . . . Our wars with them have been almost constant; have we been uniformly unjust? We answer, uidiesi- tatingly. Yes !" These statements are the results of careful and conscientious investigation, and cannot be controverted. (Jeneral I'rook says, "When the Indian's horses and cattle are big enough to be of service, they are driven olf in herds by white renegades. When his wheat, corn, and vegetables are almost ready for nuirket, his reservation is changed, as in the ca.se of the I'oncius, and he is obliged to abandon everything." Having no legal redress, the Indian, if wronged, has no alternative but cowardly ac- quiescence or forcible resistance. The Dominiou government, which has kept faith with the Indians, has not expended in war with them a dollar or a life in the century that has cost us one hundreil millions of dollars and thousands of lives. It tscts apart a permanent reservation for them, seldom removing them ; it selects agents of high character, who receive their appointments for life ; it makes fewer promises, but it fulfils them ; it gives the Indians Christian missions, which are heartily sustained by the people, and all its efforts are towards self-help and civilization. All agree that some speedy remedy should be found for the great evils now ex- isting in our Indian system. Prominent among these are the recognition of tribal 22 ISmODUCTlON. character and rosj)onsibility, iuntoad of that of the individual; the institution of chief- tainship, and the order of " nii'dicino-UR'!!," the foes of civilization and enlighten- ment ; tlie insecure tenure of tiieir homes ; neglect of treaty stipulations on the part of the United States; and the absence of any means for the orderly redress of griev- ances. The system of annuities and gifts retards his progress, by disiouraging self- support and by fostering the iilea that tlie white man owes him tribute. Great diversity of oj)inion exists as to the jirojier remedies to apply. Those best qualified to judge ]>ronounce unanimously in favor of the ado])tion of the following measures, — viz., to educate tiie youtii of both sexes; to allot parcels of land to the Indians in severally and to give tluin individual titles to their farms in fee, inalien- able for a certain period; to set the Indians at work as agriculturists or herders, and thus to break u]) their liabits of savage life and make them self-supporting; and to obtain their consent to a disposition of ])ortions of their lands which they cannot use, for a fair compensation, in such a manner tiiat they no longer stand in the way of the development of the country, but form i)art of it and arc benefited by it, the proceeds to form a fund for their benefit, which will gradually relieve the government of tiu' exi)ense at j)resent provided for by annual appropriations; and, when this is accomplished, to treat the Indians like other citizens of the United States, under the laws of tiie land, investing them with the rights and charging them with the responsibilitii's of citizensjiip. General CJiblxm, in discussing "Our Indian (Question," advocates these views in general, but thinks that in tlie mean time the reservation Indian should be fed and clothed utuk'r the army system of sui)p!y and distribution, by whit'h some commis- sioned ofiicer is always held responsil)le. Tlu^ Indian Department, he says, haii no such system, and does not understand its ])raetieal working or value. In the judg- ment of ex-Indian ( 'omniissioner Edward P. Suiitii, " whatever of failure has at- tended the management of Indian afVairs in tiie past has been largely attributable to till' fundaiiieMtal failure to recognize aMartnient, Sitting Bull had fled to Canada and a serious Sioux war seemed imminent, and the ^«ez I'l-rces, stirred up iiy i)ad wiiite men, were on the war-path. ^V year later the Sioux were less hostile, an outbreak had oeeurred among the l>aiiiioeks, but it was because Congress had failed to make an appropriation suilieient to su|iply them with necessary food, and a few restless C'luyennes were committing murders and other atrocities. Aiiotiier year saw the Ute outiiri'ak and the (h'predations of \'ietoria"s i»ands of Apaches, in the last year the guerilla warfiire of the latter, the only disturbance, was ended, and the L'tes, one of the hardest tribes to civilize, evinced an inclination " to grow more like the white man." The Sioux are already jiartially civilized. Instead (»f living by the chase, (hey are fiirniers, freighters, and stock- raisers. This country has never had an abler or more suecessful administrator of Indian afliiirs than Secretary Scliurz. Former incumbents left everything to .subordinates ; INTRODUCTION. 23 the Indian Bureau was under no supervision, was entirely irresponsible ; business methods at the agencies were of the poorest possible description; inspection of goods was conducted in a manner to give contractors every oi)portunity to swindle the government, and the Indians were systematically cheated. Under Mr. Schurz inefficient, and weak men were weeded out and new and better men employed, and cheating the Indians became next to impossible. The rules of a reformed civil service for the guidance of agents were applied, a code of signals for agents was for the first time adopted, an Indian j)olice was established, Indians were employed as freighters, and many other reforms *vere introduced. The evils experienced under his administration were Uuu to our defective Indian system, traditions of the past, the neglect or mistakes of Congress, and the impossibility of one man in charge of five important l)ureaus watching every detail of our complicated Indian affiiirs. Incidentally to a defence of his course respecting the Poncas, for which he had been severely censured, the Secretary himself says, " If those who participate in this agitation will take the trouble to raise their eyes for a moment from that one case which alone they see in the whole Indian question, they would perceive that under this administration many things have been done which deserve their hearty sym- pathy and co-operation ; they woidd observe constant efforts to secure by statute to the Indians the equal ))rotection of tlio laws and an impregnaljle title to their lands and homes ; they would notice practicable measures, not merely to declare the Indian *a person' in theory, but to make him a person capable of taking care of himself and of exercising and maintaining his rights ; they would see the establishment of educational institutions, whioh, although new, have already produced most promising results; they would see thousands of Indians, but a short time ago vagrant and idle, now earning wages running into inmdreds of thousands of dollars as freighters; they would see the organization of an Indian police, which has not only been most effica- cious in the maintenance of law and order, but also in producing a moral discipline formerly unknown to them ; they would see multitudes of Indians, but a few years since on tlie w:,r-])ath, now building houses, cultivating their farms in their simple way, and raising cattle, and asking Congress for the white nran's litlc to their lands ; they wo'.ild nolice the eons|)ii'uous al)sence of those scan.ials in the Indian service which at another period called forth so much complaint ; they would see a general treatment of the Indians humane and progressive; they would see the introduction of jn-inciples i»'. our Tiidiiin policy which, at a future day, promise to work tlie solution of that difficult probhnu" The proposed policy of the present administraticm, as outlined by President CJar- lield in June, iSHl, to a delegation of Friends, is as ibllows: "Congress Avill be asked to pass a general bill |)rovi(ling allotments of reservations in severalty for the In- dians, and giving iIumu titles and education in mechanical and industrial arts, with the funds arising from sales of surplus lands. \\\\U will also be introduced to pro- hibit polygamy, providing for legal marriages, and for extending the criminal laws of neighi)oring States and Territories to Indian lieservatioris. Paid Indian training- Is are to be recommended, the present system of schools and police is to be ^l' scl 100 i h 24 INTRODUCTION. maintained and improved, and all the agencies for the civilization, edncation, and elevation of the Indian to the place of a citizen are to be continued and strength- ened." Notwithstanding a prevalent impression to the contrary, our Indian population, as a whole, has probably not decreased. Inter-tribal wars have ceased, and they are better clad, housed, and fed, and have better medical attendance, than ever before. l}y the census of 1880 the Indian population of the United States, exclusive of Aliiska, numbers 255,938, more than half of whom now wear citizen's dress, distrib- uted among sixty-eight agencies and one hundred reservations. Those not under the control of the agents of the government, numbering 15,802, are princi])ally in the Territories of Arizona, Idaho, and Utah, and the States of California, Indiana, Kansas, North Carolina, Oregon, and Wisconsin. The Indian Territory, with a population of 76,585, of whom 17,3'J8 are uncivilized, contains some thirty-live tribes or parts of tribes. It has no large towns. The princij)al settlements are Tahlequah, the Cherokee capital, Caddo, in the Choctjiw territory, Muscogee, in the Creek, Tis'h- omingo, in the Chickasaw, and Vinita, a railroad town on the Missouri, Kansas, and Texas line. From the Indian Commissioner's report for 1880 we learn that the five civilized tribes in the Indian Territory have 154 church buildings, 224 schools, with 6098 scholars, for the support of which $186,359 is paid from tribal funds ; 34,550 of the population — nearly rne-half— can read. They have under cultivation 314,398 acres, raising 336,424 bushels of wlieat, 2,346,042 of corn, 124,568 of barley and oats, and 595,(XX) of vegetables. The other Indian tribes have 169 schools, with 338 teachers and 9972 enrolled scholars, and 119 church buildings. Of the 150 million acres composing their reservations, 18 million are tillable. Of those, 27,078 w( ? broken during the past year. The number of allot. nents in severalty to Indians ii. the same year was 3326 ; of Indian families engaged in farming, 22,048 ; of male Indians following civilized pursuits, ;)3,125. Amount ex|)ended for education during the year, $319,901. The number of these Indians who can read is 11,780. The Com- missioner rejKH'ts favorably of their progress in the arts of industry, the demand for implements, tools, etc., being far beyond the means of the department to furnish. It is evident, from a review of all the facts, that wiiile in its dealings with the Indian our government has never been cruel or unjust in intention, it has often been so in reality. The respon. ibility for its shortcomings rests maiidy upon the people, whose moutli-pieee it is, and whose average sense of justice, and regard for natiorwil honor v/lien opposeil to material interests, it no doubt aecurnleiy reileets. Tiie stream can rise no higher than its source. The poj)ular conscience has, however, at U'ligtli been awakened, and streiuious efforts are being ma»le to rehabilitate the Indian, to whom civilization has thus far ben a curse rather than a 'ilessiiig; to accord him the rights and fit him for the duties ami responsiijilitics of citizenship. Already hits this been in some instances successfully accom|ilislied, and the old theory of its impracticability completely disj)rove(l. With its full accomplislnnent one great source of national peril and humiliation wil' have for'ver disappeared. THE INDIAN TRIBES OF THE UNITED STATES. Tca^s 25 ! U Il; ii THE INDIAN TEIBES OF THE UNITED STATES. CHAPTER T. ORIGLV, TRADITIONS, PHYSICAL AND MENTAL TYPE. AnoRioiNAL lii.story on this continent is more celebrated for preserving its fables than for recording its facts. This is emphatically true respecting the hunter and non-industrial tribes of the present area of the United States, who have left but little that is entitled to historical respect. Nations creeping out of the ground, — a world growing out of a tortoise's back, — the globe reconstructed from the earth clutched in a musk-rat's paw after a deluge, — such are the fables or allegories from which we are to frame their ancient history. Without any mode of denoting their chronology, without letters, without any arts depending upon the use of iron tools, without, in truth, any power of mind or hand to denote their early wars and dynasties, except what may be inferred from their monumental remains, there is nothing in their oral narrations of ancient epochs to bind together or give consistency to even this incon- gru(jus mass of wild hyperboles and crudities. Manco Capac deriving his i)edigree from the sun, or Tarenyawagon receiving his apotheosis from the White Bird of Heaven; tjuetzalcoatl founding the Toltec empire with a few wanderers from the Seven Caves, or Atatarho veiling his god- like powei's of terror with hissinu rattlesnakes, fearful only to others, — such are the ])roois by whii-li they aim to stay the ill-projiortioned fabric of their history, antiqui- ties, and mythology. Tiie native cosmogonists, when they are recalled from building these castles in the air, and asked the meaning of a tunnilus, or the jige of some gigantic tooth or bdiie, wliich remains to attest geological changes in the surface of the continent, answer witli a stare; and, if they speak at all, they make such heavy drafts upon the imagination that history never knows when she has made allowances enough on this head. A mammoth bull jumping over the great lakes; a grape-vine carrying a whole «18 28 THE JXDIAX TRlIiKS OF TlIK UMTED STATES. tribe across the ]Missis.-iip|)i ; an eagle's wings producing the jihenomcnon of thunder, or its Hashing eyes that of liglitning; men stcj)i)ing in viewless tracks uj) the blue arch of heaven; the rainbow made a baldric; a little boy catching the sun's beams in a snare; hawks rescuing shijiwrecked mariners from an angry ocean and carrying them u]) a steep ascent in leathern bags; these, and a plain event of last year's occur- rence, are related by the chiefs with equal gravity, and exjjccted to claim an equal share of belief and historic attention. "Where so nuicli is pure mythologic dross, or recpiires to bo put in the crucible of allegory, there appears to be little room for any fact. Yet there are some facts against which we cannot shut our eyes. AVe jierceive in them a marked variety of the human race who have been lost to all history, ancient and modern. Of their precise origin, and the era and maimer of their apiiearance on this contini'ut, we know nothing Avith certainty. Philosophical inquiry is our only guide. This is still tlie judgiiuMit of the best inquirers who have investigated the snl)J(rt through the medium of physiology, languages, antiquities, arts, traditions, or whatevi'r other nu'ans may have been employed to solve the ques- tion. Tlu'v are, evidently, aiu'ient in their occupancy of the continent.' There are ruins here which i)rol)al)lv date within five hundred vears of the foundation of ]>at)ylon. AVe have kiuiwn this continent less than four centuries. But it is now known that the Scandinavians had set foot ujwn it at a long prior date, and had visited the northern part of it from Clrcenland as early as the tenth century. AVliere the native race can lie sujtposed to have had its origin, history may vainly inquire. Herodotus is silent ; there is nothing to be learned from Sanehoniathon and the fragmentary ancients. The cuneiform and the Nilotic inscriptions, the oldest in the world, are mute. Our Indian stocks seem to be still nK)re ancient. Their lan- guages, their peculiar idiosyncrasy, all that is ]»cculiar about them, denote this. The remotest records of the traditions and discoveries of early nations in the Old "World give no traces of their former position ; and at the epoch of their discovery on this contineut they were unrecognized among tlie existing varieties of man.^ The discovery of the American continent having thus introduced a new and per- ' Tlio rcsiills iif scientific i?ivi'sti;j:ati(in tlins far, tlimt,E;li incomplete, render it liy ni) means iniprdbablo that man is as oli] hero as anywiiorc else. Pnifessor A'rassiz was of tlio opinion thai, so far as her physical history is concerned, America has been falsely dcnoininaleii the New Wmlil. Says lliat eminent naturalist, " Hers was tile lirst dry land lifteil out of the waters, hers tlie first ^horc washed liy the ocean that envel- oped all tlio earth beside, and while Kuroiie was represented only by i-liinds ri-inir here and there abovi' tho sea, America already stretched, an unbroken lini' of land. fVoin Nova .'■^cotia to the far west." — (Imhijiinl S/,'i:tchr.i, p. 1 . ' With Chiiii'se and Jajiaiiese history Wi' arc as yet loo imperfectly ac(piainled to sjieak with certainly '_'rees of jirobabilily ; but an absidnte denial of all facts in the •.. -; history, of wlii> b llie eviil'iice is not ili>iincl, ajipears to me no happy application of pbiloloj;ical and lii.-.'-v .1 criiiiisin." — (''^v/c^s vol. ii, p. III!). ^•*yf ORIGIN, TRADITIONS, I'lIYSICAL AND MENTAL TYPE. 29 pcoi)ling were plexing problem to the learned world, opinions as to its origin and various and discordant in the extreme. Turning to the Scriptures, they found all mankind descended from a single j)air. Then the (juestion arose, Might not the original pair have been American as well as Asiatic? The theory of a Jewish origin, now generally abandoned, has been discussed at greater length than any other. Professor Nordenskjold, of the Swdlish Polar Expedition of 187as point between the hemispheres, their ])hysical characteristics afford jiositive p'oof to the contrary. To the theory of Asiatic origin the most reason- able yet pi'opouudcd valid objection is found in the absence of the horse and other domestic i.nimals, and also of the useful plants and cereals necessary to a nomadic and ])astoral people. Again, how could tropical animals have reached this continent via the polar regions? It is certain, however, that the American Indian manifests a decided affinity to the jMoiigolian type Avhich prevails over the vast areas lying cast of a line drawn from Lapland to Siam. Its definition includes a short squat build, a yellowish-brown complexion, with black eyes, black straight hair, a broad skull, usually without i)rominent brow-ridges, flat small nose, and obliipie eyes. The difl'erences raise difficult problems of gradual variation as well as mixture of races. The theory of autochthonic origin, though opposed by Yirehow and others, is worthy the gravest consideration. No theory of foreign origin has been proved, or even fairly sustained. Says II. II. Bancroft,' "The particulars in which the Amer- icans are shown to resemble any given people of the Old World are insignificant in comparison with the jiarticulars in which they do not resemble them." The exist- ence here and there of Old AV'orld ideas and customs may easily be account ec' for by the fact that Asiatics or I'acific islanders, in stray vessels thrown ujjon the American coast, may have settled here and imparted their knowledge to the inhabitants. Of twenty-eight Japanese junks that drifted ui)on the American coast between the years liSr)() and 187"), only twelve were deserted. Traces of the Japanese language are found among the coast tribes of the Pacific. The ])eo[)le on both sides of Behring's Straits are known to have been in coinnumication from time imuuMnorial. If this continent was peopled from the Old World, it nuist have been at a period far remote, and at a time when men were ignorant of the use of iron. All the indi- cations point to a remote anticpiity. It is evident that the (piestion nnist be settled in acconlanee not with the old chronology, but with the discoveries of modern scieuci'. Bunsen claims for the Imlian an anticpiity of at least twenty tliousaiul years, based on a common origin of language. On the whole, it seems proltal)le that each continent has had its aboriginal stock, iieculiar in color and in character, and ill I ' Native Kaces of the fauifif Coast. no rilE IXDIAN riilUKS OF TIIK UMTKD STA T/:S. that oaeli has cxpcrionc'Cil ii'pcatc'd modi licat ions by immigrating or Hliiiiwrockctl colonists irom abroad. All tiiu prcsrnt distinct tyjios of races were c(|nally well ildincd when human history begins. No variety has since originated. "The best of the argument" as to this unsettled question, — the unity of the human race, — says j\[r. Wallace, the naturalist, " is with those who maintain the primitive diversity of man." To add to the intricacy of this problem of race, there come in the indubitable evidences of a highly civilized prc-existent family of men, not nomads, but subsisting in large aggregations by agriculture, who disappeared many centuries ago, and who, from the numerous and peculiar traces of their labors in the central valleys of North America, have received the name of Mound-lhiiiders. The object of these construc- tiims is often doubt fid, and one class of them has hitherto ballled conjecture. It is worthy of notice that the jdaces where these remains are most abundant are the pres- ent natural centres of population and trade. The site of St. Louis was so thickly studded with them as to ac(iuire the title of the !Mound C'ity. The late l*rof. J. W. Foster believed that their civilization was of an older and higher order than thiit of the Aztecs, and that they were of Southern origin, lie was also of opinion that the ruins of Central America arc more recent than the mounds of the ^Iississi])pi Valley, and the results of hi.s observations of the crania of the ]\[ound-]>uilders led him to infer that they were clearly separated from the exist- ing races of men, and particularly from the Indians of North America. "The distinctive character of these structures," says Foster, "and also the tradi- tions which have been preserved, indicate that this people was expelled from the Mississippi Valley by a fierce and barbarous race, and thiit they ibund a refuge in the more genial dinuite of Central America, where they developed their germs of civilization originally ])lanted there, attaining a perfection which has elicited the ad- miration of every modern explorer." In their domestic economy and civil relations while in the Mississippi Valley they dill'cred materially from the Indians found at the jieriod of discovery. It was olivious to Columbus that, as these newly discovered tribes were not de- scemlants of tlu; fair-skinned stocks of Kuroj)e or Asia, or of the iilack-skinned race of Africa, neither had they any of the peculiar arts or customs of the one, or the characteristically barbarous traits of the other. India appeared to furnish the ethnological liidc to which they nnist be referred; and it was i'mm that (piarter that the strongest testimonies of resendtlance came. I>elieving himself to have lauded on a I'eniote part of th(^ .Vsiatic coutiuent, he had the less hesitation in pronouncing I hem Indians. Ivegarded from other ])'iints of view besides their features, there were concurrent testimonies. They had nnt, indeed, the lixed industry of the prominent (•(last-tribes (if llindostan. or of other Asiatic races. Men^ hunters and lishernien, without any Imt the rudest arts, without popnlais towns, and roving along the shores nearly nude, with almost the same alacrity as the multiplied species of the waters and forests, they hail as little thought of lixity of location nr curtailment of their nomadic lilxriv. OliJGhV, TRADITIONS, I'lIYSICAL AND MENTAL TYPE. 81 Surprise was at its lici<,'lit to find the Curib race, with whom the intercourso began, sunk so low in the scale of human beiii; , and so utterly unfit to encounter even the lowest tasks of civilization. The whole Caribbean region, extending north- ward to Cuba, and, it is thought, at an ancient period of the history of the Leeward Island group, even to the peninsula of Florida,' was found to be overs])read with this divided and warring race, portions of whom >vere fierce and courageous.'' Viewed in cxlcnso, the race api)ears to be composed of the fragments of various tribes of men, Avho bore, however, u general affinity to each other. With some small exceptions, the tribes appear to be parts of a whole. Most of their languages and dialects are manifestly derivative. While varying widely among themselves, their languages exhiljit no affinity to any other, and form an absolutely distinct order of speech. AVhile they arc transpositivc and polysyllabic, they are i)hilosophically homogeneous in .syntax, capable of the most exact analysis and resolution into their original and simple elements ; and while some of them impose concords, in reference to a wild aboriginal principle of animate and inanimate classes of nature, they are entirely polysynthetic, — " much-putting-together." All evidence points to their very great antiquity and independent evolution.^ TKADITIOXS OF THE INDIANS RESPECTING TIIEIK OKIGIN. What may be regarded, in their traditions of the world, their origin, and their opinions of man, as entitled to attention, is this. They believe in a supreme, tran- scendent power of goodness, or Great Merciful Spirit, by whom the earth, the ani- mals, and man were created ; also in a great antagonistic power, who can disturb the benevolent jmrposes of the other power. The latter they call the Great Evil Spirit. The belief in this duality of gods is universal. They relate, generally, that there was a deluge at an ancient epoch, which cov- ered the earth and drowned mankind, except a limited number. They speak most ' Traces of aflinities between the Curib iiiiJ tbo Appniaehmn exist in their lanffnii^es. Tlie first personal pronoun Ne, or its equivaloiit X, wliit'b is eoninnm to the North Anurican lan^iia;^os, and also the pronominal sign of the seconil person, K, are found in Davis's " Voeal)ulary of the Carib Laui^uajre," London, IGliG. ' The ("aribs were the aneient inhabitants of the Windward Islands. Most of those are represented to bo oannilials, who earriod on fijrco and reloiitless hostilities a;.rainst the mild and inoffensive inhabitants of Ilis- paniola. The insular Caribs are eonjoetured to be descendants of the Oalibio Indians of the coast of ParanA in South America. It is believed, by those who have examined the subject, that this hostility towards tlio t'aribs of the larj.'cr Leeward Islands is founded on a tradition that the latter are descendants of a colony of Arrowauks, a nation of South America with whom the contiiu'utal Caribs are at perpetual war. Columbus observed an abundances of cotton cloth used for garments in all the islands he visited. Lepiu, who visited Harbadoes in KM", speaks of the pottery as bein^ of an excellent kind. Alcedo, vol. i. p. 31(!. ' The lan<:^aj;e of the American Indian throws no light upon his origin. Gallatin, Duponccau, and others, who made it a profound sludy, found it primitive in characler and differing radically from the languages of other |)co])les. "No theories of derivation from the Old World," says Ilaydcn (" Arcliieology of the United States," — Smithsonian CuiitrilMilions, p. .IP. "have stood the test of graminalieal construction. All traces of the fugitive tribes of Israel sujiposed to be found here are again lost. Neither I'liaMiician, nor Iliiuloo, nor Chinese, nor Welsh, nor Scandinavian have left any impression of their national syntax behind them." ■ V 82 rilE INDIAN TRIBES OF TIIIJ UNITED STATES. i'iii])liatii'ally of a future stale, ami appear to liavc some confused idea of rewards and puiiishiuents, which arc allcgorically rcjircsented. Tliey regard the earth as their eosinogdiiie mother, and deehiru their origin to have been in eaves, or in some other manner witlun its ilepths. The leading dogma of tlieir theology is, however, that a future state is destined to reward them for evils endured in this; and that tlie fates of men are irrevocably lixed, and cannot be altered, except, it may be, by appi'als to tiieir seers, prophets, or jossakeeds, which finally, if we are to judge by the stolidity of an Indian's death, they entirely forget, or appear to have no f'ailii in. They declare themsi'lves generally to be aborigines. Pure fables, or allegories, arc all that support this. By one authority, they climbed up the roots of u large vino from the interior to the surface of the earth ; by another, they casually saw light, while under grouuvl, from the top of a cavern in the earth. In one way or an- other, most of tlie tribes plant themselves on the traditions of a local origin. Seeing many quailrnpeds which burrow in the earth, they acknowledge a similar and mys- teri(ms relation. Tecumseh aflirmed, in accordance with this notioi\, t'lat the earth was his mother; and Michabou held that the birds and beasts were his brothers. A few of the tribes, North and South, have something of a traditional value to add to these notions, expressive of an opinion of a foreign origin. This, as gleaned from various authors, will bo now particularly mentioned. These ideas, which vary greatly in diirercnt tribes, are mingled with fables and beliefs of the grossest absurdity. The attemjit to separate tradition from mythologie belief, in the chaos of Indian intellect, has some resemblance to the attempt of a finite hand to separate light from darkness. The overflow of waters on the earth having bci'u narrated, — an event, by the way, which tliey attribute to the Great Evil Spirit, — their traditions skij) over thousands of years, which they fill up as an epoch of mythology. In this, monsters, giants, s])irits, genii, gods, and demons wield their powers against each other, and fill the world with cannibalism, murders, and com- plicated fears and horrors. The Algonkin Indians indeed say, in accordance with geological theory, that the animals at first had the rule on earth, and that man came in as a later creation. One of the chief features of this epoch of monstrosities, in each leading family of American tribes, is the tradition of some great hero, giant-killer, or wise bene- factor, whose name is exalted as a god, and to whose strength, wisdom, or sagacity they attribute deliverance. Such are Quet/alcoatl among the Toltecs and Aztecs, Atahentsic, Atatarho, ami Tiuenyawagon, among the Inxpiois, and Micabo, or the (Ireat Hare, ])opularly called ]Manabozho, among the Algonkins. Next are heard, in their history of the world, accoinits, variously related, of the arrival of Europeans on the coast, about the end of the sixteenth cen.ury. From that era to the present day is, with the exceptions below recited, the j)eriod of authentic tradition. Most of the tribes possess traditions of the first appearance of white men among them, and some of them name the place. The Lenni Lenapes and Mohicans preserve the memory of the appearance and voyage of Hudson up the ORIGIN, TRADITIONS, PHYSICAL AND MENTAL TYPE. 33 river bearing his name, in 1009. The Iroquois have the tradition of a wreck, appar- ently earlier, on the southern coast, and of the saving and, after a time, the extinc- tion in blood of a colony then founded. Tliis j)OH.sibly may be the lirst colony of Virginia, in 1588. The Algonkins have a tradition of Carticr's visit to the St. i^iiwrence in 15;}4, and call the French, to thi.s day. People of the Wooden Vessel, or Wa-mitig-oazh. The Chippewius allirnied (in 1824) that seven generations of men had passed since that nation lirst came into the lakes.* The origin of man is variously related. By the Iroquois traditions, Atahentsic, the mother of mankind, was cji«t out of lieavcn, and received on the ocean of chaos, on the back of a turtle, where she was delivered of twin sons. Areasko is the Iro- quois god of war. In Algonkin mythology, the mother of Manabozho fell through the moon into a lake. He became the killer of monsters, and survived a deluge. His brother, Chebiabo, is the keeper of the land of the dead. Pauguk is a skele- ton, who hunts men with a bow and arrows. Weeng is the spirit of somnolency. He lias myriads of tiny invisible aids, resembling gnomes, who, armed with war- clubs, creep up to the foreheads of men and by their blows compel sleep. liigoo represents the cla.ss of Munchausen story-tellers. Each of the cardinal points is l)resided over by a mythological personage. Kabaun governs the west ; Waban, the east ; Shawano, the south, etc. Many of the jilancts are transformed adventurers. An animal of the weasel family in the north sprang from a high mountain into heaven and let out the genial summer atmosphere. The Thunderers are a reverend body of warriors, armed with long spears, arrows, and shields. Winter, spring, summer, and autunm are personilied. Transformations are the poetic machinery of the wigwam stories. Ovid is hardly more prolific in his changes of men into animals, plants, and transformations of one class of objects into another. It is by these creations, spiritualities, personifications, symbols, and allegories that the lan- guage becomes capable of expressing conceptions of fictitious creations, which cover the whole panorama of hills, plains, and mountains, and fill the wide forests with imaginary beings. Three or four of the chief stocks now between the equinox and the Arctic circle have preserved traditions which it is deemed proper to recite. In the voyages of Sir Alexander Mackenzie among the Arctic tribes, he relates of the Chepewyans, that " they have a tradition that they originally came from another country, inhabited by very wicked people, and had traversed a great lake, which was narrow and shallow and full of islands, where they had suffered great misery, it being always winter, with ice and deep snow." In a subsequent passage, p. 1)87, he remarks, " Their progress [the great Athabascan family] is easterly, and, according to their own tradition, they came from Siberia, agreeing in dress and manners with the people now found upon the coasts of Asia." The Shawanoes, an Algonkin tribe, have a tradition of a foreign origin, or a II ' If ICOS, i1h> pcriiiil of the settloiiiont of Cunada, bo taken as the cm, auJ thirty years be allowed to a generation, this is u remarkable instance of accuracy of computation. 5 34 THE INDIAN TRIBES OF THE UNITED STATES. liuulin;r from ii Hca-voyiigo. John JoliiiHtoii, En(\., who wiih for nitiny yeiira their Hgont, prior to IH'JO, ohscrvoH, in ii letter of .Inly 7, l.Sl!>, imldinheil in the first volnmo of " Areiiiuoioj^iii Anierieanii," p. 'J?:!, tiiat tlu-y niif^riited from West Floriihi, und piirtH mljaeent, to Oliio and Indiana, where thin tribe waH tlien located. "The peojth) of thin nation," lie ohnervcH, "have a tradition that their aneestorH erossed the Hea. They are the only trihe with which 1 am acipniinted who admit a foi^'i^n orif^in. Until lately, they kept yearly sacriliccH for their nafe arrival in this coinitry. Where they came from, or at what period they arrived in America, they do not know. It in a ])rcvailin^ opinion amon^ tlieni that Florida iuul been inhab- ited by white people, who had the use of iron tools. JMackhoof (a celebrated chief) allirms that he has often heard it spoken of by old people, that stumps of trees, cov- ered with earth, were frocjnently found, which had been cut down by edged tools." At a Kubse(juent page he says, " It is Homewhat doubtful whether the deliverance which they celebrate luis any other reference than to the crossing of some great river, or an arm of the sea." The Chippewan relate tlie following oral tradition of the creation of this con- tinent and of the Indian tribes. They call the continent a little island, — namely, Jllinnim} When tlio Good Spirit created this island, it was a ]ierfeet i)lain, void of any trees or shrubs: he first created the Indian man, and then the Indian woman. They mnltijilied, auil when they inimbered about ten persons living, death was known to come in the midst of them. The first man that was created lamented his fate: he went to and fro over tlie earth, and, addressing himself to the author of his being, said, " Wniy did the Good Spirit create me, that I should so soon know deatli, weak- ness, and frailty?" The (Jood Spirit from on high heard the; man lamenting his condition. Touched by the appeal, he commanded his angels, or those beings whom he had created in heaven, to assemble to a great council. The Good Spirit, address- ing himself to his conclave of counsellors, said, "What shall we do to better the con- dition of man? for I have created him frail and weak." The host of assembled angels answered and said, "()(}ood Spirit, tliou hast formed and created us, and thou art sclf-exi*' lit, knowing all things, and thou alone knowest what is best for thy creatures." The consultation busted six days; and during this tiiiiv; not a breath of wind blew to disturb the surface of the waters: this calm is now called Unwatlij by the Indians. On the seventh day, not a cloud was to be seen, the sky was blue and serene; this is now called Xdf/rrz/iif/ by them. The Good Spirit, having consulted his angels during six days, on the seventh day sent down a messenger to the Indian, placing in his right bosom a piece of white hare-skin, and in his left part of the lieail of the white-headed eagle; the bare-skin, and the part of the head of the bald-headed eagle, were painted blue, representing a blue sky, — the symbol of peace, observed on the six days' consultation in heaven. ' The cedilla to the terminal a in this word is intended to earry the inflectinn mice. ORiaiN, Th'AD/rWAS, I'HYSIVAL AND MKNTAL Tyi'H. ;w The iriL'HMfiij^cr wiw (lirccU'd to tell llit; iimii wlio laiiu'iitcd, thiit his worclH wt-re heard, mid that tiicy had coiiui iH-foro tius (lood Spirit; thiit ho wiw tlic im-HHi'iigcr of glad tidiiigH to iiiiii, and that lio inuHt I'oiduriii hiiiiHclf ntrictly to tlu; (jooil Hpirit'h foinriiaiidim'iitH; that he liad hnnight a pitcc of white haic-Hkiii aiiy one of his i)rophecics, which we receive as an infallible truth, and by a tradition of many ages, preserved in our aniuils, we know that ho departed from these countries to eontpier new regions in the East, leaving a promise that, in process of i'niw, his descendants should return to model our laws and mend (air goscrnnient." The tradition of the origin of tho Mi-xican empire in bands of adventurers from tiie Seveti ("aves rests upon the best authority wo havo of tho Toltoc race, supported by tho oral opinion of the Aztecs in I.")!!*. An examination of it by tho lights of modern geography, in connection with the nautical theory of oceanic currents and tho fixed courses of the winds in tho Pacific, gives strong testimony in favor of an early expressed opinion in support of a migration in high latitudes. It is now con- sidered probable that those caves were seated in the Aleutian chain. This chain of islands connects tlu' continents of Asia and America at the most i)racticablo })oints ; and it begins precis"ly ojiposite to that part of the Asiatic coast northeast of the i-m 86 TllK INDIAN TRIBES OF THE UNITED STATES. Chinese empire, aiul quite above the Japanese group, where we sliouKl expect the !Mongolic and Tartar hortlos to have been precipitated upon those shores. On the American side of the trajot, oxtcn(Hng south of tlie peninsuhi of Onahisca, there is evidence, in the existing diak'cts of the tribes, of their being of the same generic group with the Tohcc stock. By tlie data brought to light by JMr. Ilalo, the ethnog- rapher to the Ui\ited States Exploring Expedition under Captain Wilkes, and from other reliable sources, the philological proof is made quite apjiarent. The peculiar Aztec termination of substantives in tl, which was noticed at Nootka Sound, is too indicative, in connection with other resemblances in sound and in the principles of construction, noticed by Mr. Ilale, to be disregarded. In seeking the facts of modern geography and nautical science on the jirobability of such an origin for the Indian population of Central and Mexican North America, — not the tribes of the Andes, — the observations accumulated on the meteorology find currents of the Pacific and Indian seas, at the National Observatory, have furnished a new point of light. Ijieutenant-Colonel Charles Hamilton Smith, of Edinburgh, author of a treatise on the Natural History of the Ilunuui Species, apjx-ars to have been the first observer to tiirow out the idea of the C'hichimocs, a rude Mexican people of the Toltecan lineage, having migrated from this quarter, taking, however, the word "caves" to be a figure denotirg a vessel, catamaran, or canoe, and not emjiloying it in a literal sense. Lieutenant M. F. !Maury, U.S.N., says, referring to the Chichimec legend of the " Seven Caves," that the Chichimecs might originally have been Aleutians, and that " caves," if not denoting islands, might have referred to canoes. He al.so says that "the Aleutians of the present day actually live in caves or subterranean apartments, which they enter tiirough a hole in the top." In his opinion, the I'acific and Poly- nesian waters could have been navigated in early times, supposing the Avinds had then been as the^' now ''re, in balsa.'^, floats, and other rude vessels of early ages, and, furthermore, that when we take into conslleration the position of North America with regard to Asia, of New Holland witii rigard to Africa, with the winds and currents of the ocean, it would have been more remarkable that i^ merica should not have been peopled from Asia, or New Holland from Africa, than that they should have been. PHYSICAL TKAITS. In whatever else the tribes differ, or however they have been developed in tribal or national distinctions, it is in their physiology and the general structure of mind and thought that they most closely coincide. Indians seen on the Orinoco, the Kio Grande, and the Mississippi present a set of features and characteristics ri-markably alike. From Patagonia to Athabasca, ai>(l oven to the shores of the Arctic Ocean, there is a coincidence which has been the subject of general remark. Such is this coincidence, observes a recent physiologist, whose attention has been particularly directed to this subject, that wlioever has seen one of the tril)es has seen all. It is not the traits of the man of the Indus or the Gand)ia, — not Hindostant^e, Chinese, ORIGIN, TRADITIONS, PHYSICAL AND MENTAL TYPE. 37 Tartar, or Japanese, — not even the segregated yet resembling races of tlie Pacific and the isles of the Indian Ocean, however approximating in some of their physical traits, — that we behold. There is something more fixed, more liomogeneous, more indigenous, more ethnic, than these recited varieties of the human race present. On the discovery of the race, as represented by the Caribs of the West Indies, in 1402, Columbus was so struck Avith the general resemblance of their pl)ysiological traits to those of the East Indians, or Hindoos, that he at once called them In- dianos. All subsequent observers in that area have concurred generally with him in this respect. Such haj also been the observation in Nortu America. Ninety-two years after the discovery, that is, in 1584, when the first ships sent ou^ by Sir Walter Ilaleigh, under his commission from Queen Elizabeth, reached the Virginia coasts, they landed among a generic family of the red men, difl'erii.g in language ■wholly from the Caribs, but whoso physical type was nevertheless essentially the same. The stock family found in Virginia has since become very well known to us under the generic cognomen of Algonkins. Wherever examined, betv een the original landings at Occoquan anil lloanoko and the south capes of the St. Lawrence, they have revealed the same general physiology. The most iraportant and uniform physical traits of the Indian are, — The hair coarse, black, glossy, and long, but alwrys straight, never wavy ; beard scanty ; Eyes small and black, somewhat deep-set, always horizontal ; Eyebrows narrow, arched, and black ; skin thinner, softer, and smoother than in the white races ; Cheek-bones and nose prominent, the latter often long and aquiline ; Color copper or cinnamon-brown, except the Seminoles, who are olive-brown, and the Mandans of Missouri, who are fair or whitish. Two qualities are common to all these manifold varieties, — viz., black liair and polysynthetic speech. Fulness or lankness of muscle, height or shortness of stature, and weakness or vigor of vitality may be considered as the effects of peculiarities of food and climate. But the traits that preside over and give character to the muscular mass show themselves iis clearly in the well-fed Osage and Dakota and the stately Algonkin as in the fish- and rabbit-fed Gem do Tcrre (Muskigo) on the confines of Canada, or in the root-eating Shoshone of the liocky ^fountain. ' As a race, there never wius one more impracticable; nure bent on a nameless principle o{ trlhality; more averse to combinati(>ns for their general good; more deaf to the voice of instruction. They ai)pear on this continent to have trampled ' Ii. 11 series of oxpcrimonts ili'votod to the liuir, m;iile willi the niieroscope, Mi. IVt'-r A. Browne, of Philiidelphiii, li;w ilemotistnuod three |iriiii;ir_v speeies of the h;iir am! liairy ti.ssue, or wool, of the huinnii head, as shown by the researehe^ respeetini; the .\n-h) Saxon, Indian, and Ne<;ro races. The.se experiments, which appear to iiave been eondnetod with S(ienli(ie and pliilosophieul care, denote the strnetn'-e and or^'ani- zation of each of these species to hu peenliar. They are (h'noniinated, in the order above stated, (NJindrieal or round, oval, and eccentrically elliptical or Hat. Tlio Indian hair empl.iud in these experinunt.s was the Chuctaw. I 38 THE INDIAN TRIBES OF THE UNITED STATES. on monumental ruins, some of which hud their oi';^in before their arrival, or without their participation ;^s builders. They have in the Xorth no temples for worship, and live ill a wild belief of tlic ancient theory of a demiurgus, or Soul of the Universe, which inhabits and animates everything. ]3ut, whatever their origin, when first observed the Indians presented all the leading traits and characteristics of the present day. Of all races on tlie face of the earth, in features, manners, and customs they have apparently changed the least, preserving their physical and mental tyjjo with the fewest alterations. TJiey con- tinue to reproduce themselves, as a race, even where their manners arc comparatively polished and their intellects enliglitcncd, as if they were bound by the iron fetters of an unchanging type. In this unvarying and indomitable indivi(hiality, and in their fixity of opinion and general idiosyncrasy, they certainly remind the reader of Oriental races, — of the Semitic family of man. MEXTAL TKAITS. The piiysical type is thus seen to be permanent. Nor is there much to favor the idea of the organization of a new mental germ. The same indestructibility of type, the same nou-progressiveness of the Indian Oriental mind, is perceived in the race in every part of this continent. The Indian mind appears to have no intellectual pro- pulsion, no analytic tendencies. It reproduces the same ideas in 1880 as in 14'J2. The scope of thought of the Indian tribes, when they stand forth to utter their sentiments and opinions in public, is more elevated and high-minded and evinces more readiness of expression tlian is generally found among the lower uneducated classes of civilized nations. The talent for sj)eaking is earnestly cherished. One is often surprised by the noble style of tlieir thoughts, and their capacity to rise above selfishness and assu.ne a higli, heroic attitude. It is dillicult sometimes for the interpreters to follow or understand these veins of lofty thought and do ju.stice to the aboriginal oratory. If these lliglits are not always sustained, it may be said tliat they are sometimes so; and we nnist judge the Indian, as we do civilizeil nations, by their best examples. That a peoph' who are often depressed, so as to be put to their wits' end for means of bubsistenee, slK)ukl rise to elevation of tiiought at all, is su"; rising. The hunter mind is so deeply faseinatiMl with its ideal of freedom that it seeks occasion to burst tiirough tlu fetters imposed by t'le irksome pressure of civilization ; and, as a relief, it gives vent to these bold and free ilaslics of tluaight. Tlieir forms of laiigiiiige Avoiild appear to be too iinrrow to permit tliis, were it not that the purposes u*' generalization are etlected by bold and striking metaphors, which are often violent indeed, but sometimes surpassingly sinii'le and appropriate. "1 stand in the path," tlie exelaiiiatioii of I'oiitiac to tlie eon niiinder of a Hritisli force iiiarclied into his country in \~i\'-\, is a meta])lior, di'iioting imperial sway in the West, worthy of Napoleon in the palmiest days of his wonderful career, while putting his feet on the necks of the kings and emper trs of Kiirope. It is worthy of note that tln' best ORIGIN, TRADITIONS, PHYSICAL AND MENTAL TYRE. 39 instances of their intellectual vigor were not found in the elevated table-lands and heights of Auahuac, Caxamarca, and Cuzco, on the .slope of the Andes, but among the free forest tribes who wielded the bow and arrow in North America. Struck by the bold and manly bearing of the Indian sachems, and their ready powers of oratory, the French missionaries to New France sent back the most glow- ing accounts of the natural capacity of this people. Lafitau says. " They are possessed of sound judgment, lively imagination, ready conception, and wonderful memory ;" and that " they are high-minded and proud ; jiossci^s a courage equal to every trial ; an intrepid valor, and the most heroic con- stancy under torments ; and an equanimity which neither misfortune nor reverses can shake." Charlevoix remarks, " The beauty of their imagination equals its vivacity, which appears in all their discourse : they are very quick at repartee, and their harangues are full of shining pas.sages, which would have been applauded at Rome or Athens. Their eloquence ha« a strength, nature, and pathos which no art can give, and which the Greeks admired in the barbarians," Similar testimony is jxjiresscd by n'.merous other foreign writers of early periods, all of whom, with the exception of JJuffon and De Pauw, concur in the position that the Indian mind possesses great vigor and strong powers of jierception, eloquence, and imagination. American writers have approached the subject with more sol)or- ness of apprehension, and with a perpetual recollection, it would seem, of the Indian's general defects of induction, forecast, and stability of character. The aborigines are perceived to possess an imagination of a peculiar, apparently a veiy ancient and Oriental, cast; but their powers of oratory cannot be taken as a mciusure of their capacity for meeting the practical questions of life. To think closely and consecu- tively, to plan well, and to execute with firmness and i)erseverance, are the character- istics of the human mind in a high state of civilization. Their natural eloquence has commanded general admiration, as possessing some of the very highest elements. Thoiipht lias seldom been brouglit home to human actions more forcibly tiian it is seen ',u -■' mv, of their more celebrated harangues and oratorical efforts. Mr. Jefler- so: iin ''i^ r-, us a most remarkable instance of their oratorical ])owers in his "Notes on '. '■ I'.iii "' 'i lie H ./ci of enumeration in the United States tribes has been deemed, from the earliest Vir,-:'.,;i.s, to be very low. By recent inquiry it is seen, however, that they are ' The fpcts cntitT 'T.d with tho speech of Logan arc so fully and elaborately con.sidered in a discourse (li'livi'rcd before tlu- .^l,ll \ land Ili.storieal Society, Dth May, 1851, by Brantz Mayer, Ksi(., an to le.ivp nothing more to be said on the subject. It is clearly k1 own, by the testimony of General O. U. Clarke, that Logan was mistaken in a.s,serting that the murder of his family '.as perpetrated by Captain Michael Cre.sap. It was tho net of one Daiiiil (ireallioiise, ut a time when Captain Cresap wa.s at another point on the Ohio; the latter, on hearing of this cruel and perfidious act, expressed bis utter abhorrence (d' it. Cresap was truly a i!.:in whose name and fame had rendered him an olijeet of fear and respect on the part of the Western !ridi".'>; but ho wus us humane as he was politic and brave, and his patriotism and military services were c ic.i t- •oil in tile cause of American indi'pendcnce. :-ll 111 m !l 40 THE INDIAN TRIBES OF THE UNITED STATES. by no means deficient. They generally reveal a decimal sj'stem having original names for the digits to 10. Tliey then repeat these names, with a conjunction thrown between them, till 20, for which there is a separate inflection to the decimal, and this intlection is added to the primary particle for numbers till 100, for which there is a separate denomination. By awaicing the latent powers of computation, most of the tribes, and all tlie instanced ones, it is believed, are found capable of de- noting high numbers. Inquiries made of the Choctaws i)rove that they can compute, by doubling their denominators, or by new inflections, to 1,000,000,(XX); the Dako- tas, to the same; the Cherokees, to 300,000,000; the Chippewas, to 1,(XX),000,000; the A\ inncbagoes, the same; the Wyandots, to ;},000,0(X); the liitehites, to but 1000; the Pillagers, to 100,000; the Camanches, to but 30, etc. ; and even the wild and predatory Yumas have the decimal system. To ascertain whether the Indian mind and character exhibit a type of race which may bo deemed peculiar, it 'I ' " 'ocessary to examine their religious and jxsychological notions and dogmas, t ythology, and their conceptions of a Deity, and, if their traits, opinions, and isyncrasies be indigenous or American, to inquire in what their original conceptions of art or science, religion or opinion, consist. In the Toltecan group, a calendar and system of a«irononiy and a style of architecture are found which are eminently calculated to arrest attention. More than all, the tribes over the whole continent possess a class of languages which by their principles of grammatical construction, though running through great changes, vindicate claims to philosophical stmly. Nothing is more notorious than the former prevalence of sun-worship among the Peruvian and .Mexican tribes; where, however, it was mixed with the practice of human sacrifices and tlu^ grossest rites. The Aztecs made oflerings to the sun upon the highest teocalli, and sung hymns to it. Hacred fire was supplied alone by the priesthood, and it was the foundation of their j)ower. North of the (lulf of ^Icxico the d'K'triiie prevailed with more of it.s original Oriental sim|)licity, and free from the horrid rites which had marked it in the valley of Anahuac and among the spurs of the Andes. The tribes of the pri'seiit area of the United States would admit of no temjdes, but made tiieir sacred iires in the recesses of the forest. They sung hymns to the sun as the symbol of the (Jreat Spirit. Such is their present practice in the forests. They were guilty, it is true, at all jieriods of their hi.story, of shocking cruelties to prisoners taken in war, but they never ollered tiicm as sacrifices to the Deity. They never use common fire for uncommon purposes. Sacreil fire is obtained on ceremonial occasions by percussion ; most commonly with tiie flint.' Opwaguns, or pipes, with the incense of tobacco, are thus lighted whenever the business in hand is national in character, or relates to their secret .«ocieties. This object, so lighted, is first offered l)y gt'nuflections to the four cardinal points and the zenith. ' Tlip Iroquois used an apparatus for giving voloL'it3' to a turninj; uprij,'lit stick on a basis of wood, called Dii-ya-yii dii-i;a-noat-lia. ORIGIN, TRADITIONS, PHYSICAL AND MENTAL TYPE. 41 It is then handed by the master of ceremonies to the chiefs and public functionaries present, who are each expected to draw a few whifl's ceremonially. Sir Alexander Mackenzie hat' well described this ceremony at page 'J7 of Ins "Voyages." In tliis priiaitive practice of having no temples for their worship, obtaining their sacred fire for ceremonial occasions by percussion, and keeping their worship up to its simple standard of a sort of transcendentalism, as taught by the Oriental nations to whom we have referred, the Indian tribes of the United States indicate their claims to a greater antiquity than those of the southern part of the continent. They appear to have been j^ushed from tJieir first jjositions by tribes of grosser rites and manners. " The disciples of Zoroaster," says Herodotus, " reject the use of temples, of altars, and of statues, and smile at the folly of those nations who imagine that the gods are sprung from, or bear any affinity with, the human nature. The tops of the highest mountains are the places chosen for their sacrifices. Hymns and prayers are the l)rincipal worship. The Supreme God, who fills the wide arch of heaven, is the object to which they are addressed." Let us take another of their dogmas, and try whether it hiis the character of an original or derivative belief. We allude to the two principles of good and evil, for which the Iroquois have the names of Inigorio, the good "lind, and Inigoliahetgea, or the evil mind. (See Cusic's " Ancient History of the Six Nations ;" also the Wyandot tradition of Oriwahcnto.) This is one of the earliest Oriental beliefs. It was one of tlie leading dognnis of Zoroaster. Goodness, according to this philosopher, is absorbed in light ; evil is buried in darkness. Ormuzd is the principle of benevo- lence, true wisdom, and ha])piness to men. Ahriman is the •lathor of malevolence and discord. By his malice he has long j)ierced the egg of Ormuzd, — in other words, has violated the harmony of the works of creation. The North American tribes of our latitudes appeir to have felt that the existence of evil in the world was incompati])le witii that universal benevolence and goodness which they ascribe to the Merciful Great Spirit. Iroquois theology meets this ques- tion : it accounts for it by supposing at the creation tlie buth of two antagonistic powers of miracidous energy, but subordinate to the Great Sj)irit, one of whom is perpetually employed to restore the discords and maladaptations in the visible crea- tion of the otiier. The idea of the allegory of the egg of Ormtizd has been suggested, in the progress of Western .settlements, by the discovery of an earth-work situated on the summit of a hill in Adams County, Ohio. This hill is one hundred and fifty feet above the surface of Brush Creek. It represents the coil of a serpent seven hundred feet long, but it is thought would reach, if de]irived of its curves, one thousand feet. The jaws of the serpent are represented as widely distended, as if in the act of swallowing. In the interstice; is an oval or egg-shaped mound. Thus far, tlie beliefs of the more northerly of our tribes appear to be of a Clialdec-IVrsic character. It is no ])roof that nations have been necessarily con- nected in their history because they coincide in the rites of sun-worship. Other II 42 THE INDIAN TRIBES OF THE UNITED STATES. traits must also coincide. But to those who object to the idea of the worship of the sun and moon as a natural species of idolatry for barbarous nations to select, between whom, however, no previous connection or intercourse necessarily existed, it is replied that this idea did not propagate itself west with the idolatr jus Scythians, at Iciist beyond Rome, where Sylla established the rite of an eternal Fire ; nor did it re- appear among the Celts, Cimbri, Teutons, Iberians, Sclavonians, and other tribes who filled all Europe, to its farthest confines in Scandinavia and the British isles. Nor do we find that the doctrine of the two principles of Good and Evil, so extensively believed by the nations of Central Asia, was spread at all in that direction. The Celtic priests had no such notions, nor do we hear of them among the worshippers of Odin : they both had an entirely different mythology. It is remarkable that there was no sun-worship in the area of Western Europe. The propagation of the doc- trines of the Magi appears to have been among the tribes east and south of the original seats of their power and influence. Egypt had them as early as the Exodus ; and it has been seen that the idolatrous tribes of Chaldea were addicted to the wor- ship of the sun and moon. It has been found that the Indians of the United States believe in the duality of the soul. This ancient doctrine is jjlainly announced as existing among the Algon- kina, in connection with, and as a reason for, the universal custom of the deposit of food with the dead, and that of leaving an opening in the grave-covering, wliich is very general. They also believe in tlie general doctrine of the metempsychosis, or transmigra- tion of souls. Pythagoras is supposed to have got his first ideas on the subject from the Egyptian priests and the recluse Brahmins. But, wherever he imbibed the doctrine, he transmitted it as far as \rs name hi.d influence. The views of the Northern tribes on this subject are showK incidentally in the oral tales which Mr. Schoolcraft first began to collect among tin Aigonkins and Dakotas in 1822, and which are embodied in his " Algic Researches." The soul of man is seen, in these curious legends, to be thought immortal, the vital spark passing from one object to another. This object of the new life in general is not man, but some species of the animated creation ; or even, it may be, for a time, an inanimate object. The circum- stances which determine this change do not appear. Nor can it be affirmed that the doctrine is parallel, in all respects, with the theory of the Samian philosopher. It would seem that the superior will of the individual, as a spiritually possessed per- son, himself determined the form of his future life. Great attention is paid by the North American Indians to the flight of birds, whose motions in the upper regions of the atmosphere are considered ominous. Those of the carnivorous species are deemed indicative of events in war, and they are the symbols employed in their war-songs and extemporaneous chants. The gathering of these species to fatten upon dead bodies left upon the field of battle is the image strongly thrown forward in their chants, and these warlike Pe-na-si-wug are deemed to be ever prescient of the times and places of conflict, which are denoted by their flight. As the carnivora are familiar with the upper currents of the atmosphere, ORIGIN, TRADITIONS, PHYSICAL AND MENTAL TYPE. 43 where their gods of the air dwell, their association in the Indian mind with these deities of battle as messengers to carry intelligence is a well-known fact. But no trace of the custom, so prevalent among the ancients, of seeking a knowledge of the future by the examination, after death, of entrails of any kind has ever been found among the aborigines of America. Minute observation is also bestowed by them upon the meteorology of the clouds. Their size, their color, their motions, their relative position to the sun and to the horizon, form the subject of a branch of knowledge which is in the hands of their medas and prophets. Important events are often decided by predictions founded on such observations. The imagery of this exalted view of the celestial atmosphere, with its starry background, and its warfare of thunder, lightning, electricity, aurora borealis, and storms, is very much employed in their personal names. This imagery is capable of being graphically seized on by their transjjositive languages, and is highly poetic. The habit of such observation has evidently been nurtured by living for ages, as the race has done, in the open air, and without houses to obscure every possible variety of atmospheric juxtaposition and display. We might continue this discussion of oi)inions and beliefs which appear to lie hidden in the mythology of the Indian mind, or are only brought out in an inci- dental manner, and whicli appear not to have had an indigenous origin ; but we should do great injustice to the Indian character not to mention by far the most prominent of their beliefs, so far as they govern his daily practices. We allude to the doctrine of Manitoes, or what may be denominated Manitology. And here appears to be the strongest ground for the claim of originality of conception. All the tribes have some equivalent to this. We use the Algonkin word, because that is best known. The word Manito, when not used with a prefix or accent, does not mean the Deity or Great S])irit. It is confined to a spiritual or mysterious power. The doc- trine that a man may possess such a power is well established in the belief of all the tribes. All their priests and prophets a.ssert the possession of it, but the possession is not believed by even the blindest zealot or imjiostor to be supreme or equal to that of the Great Merciful Sjjirit, or demiurgic deity. A man may fast to obtain this power. The initial fast at the age of puberty, which every Indian undergoes, is for light to be individually advertised and become aware of this personal Manito. WJien revealed in dreams, his purpose is accomplished, and he adopts that revelation, which is generally some bird or animal, as his personal or guardian Manito. He trusts in it in war and in })eace ; and there is no exigency in life, in or from which he believes it cannot help or extricjite him. The misfortune is, for his peace and wel- fare of mind, that these Manitoes are not of equal and harmonious power. One is constantly supjiosed to be "stronger," or to have greater spiritual powers, than another. Hence the Indian is never sure that his neighbor is not under the guardianship of a Manito stronger than his own. This is not the worst of the doctrine. There are malignant as well as benev- olent Manitoes. Here the two principles of good and evil, which we have dis- cussed as of Oriental origin, develop themselves. The evil Manito is constantly 44 TUB INDIAN TRIBES OF THE UNITED STATES. exercising lii« power to countenict or overreach the good. And thuH the Tndian, who believes in ii piisHive ( Jreat Spirit, or (hzlin Munito, with no other attributcH than goo(hies3 and ubiipiity, i» k'ft in u perpetnal and horrible state of tear. Ilia (Jreat Spirit is believed to rule the earth and the sky, and to be the Wa-ziia-waud, or maker of the world ; but he leaves these two antiigonistic classes of AIanit<^»e8 to war with each other, and to counteract each other's designs, to lill the world with turmoils, and, in fact, to govern the moral destinies of mankind. There is no attempt by the hunter priesthood, jugglers, or pow-wows, which can be gathered from their oral traditions, to impute to the Great Merciful Spirit the attribute oi justice, or to make man accountable to him, here or hereafter, for aber- rations from virtue, good will, truth, or any form of moral right. With benevolence and pity as prime attributes, the (}reat Transcendental Spirit of the Indian does not take upon himself a righteous administration of the world's affairs, but, on the con- trary, leaves it to be lilleil, and its atl'airs, in reality, governed, by demons and fiends in luunan form. Here is the Indian theology. Every one will see how subtile it is ; how well calculated to lead the uninformed hunter mind caj)tive and make it ever fearful ; and how striking a coincidence its leading dogma of the two opposing prin- ciples of Good and Evil attbrds with the Oriental doctrines to which we have referred. It is difficult to introduce comparisons between the barbarous tribes of America and the existing civilized races of Asia. The latter, east of the Indus at least, and bordering on the Indian Ocean, are called non-progressive races ; but they possess a type of civilization, founded on agriculture, arts, and letters, which is very ancient. They have practised the science of numbers and astronomy from the earliest times. Most or all of them have alphabets. The cuneiform character was in use in the days of Darius Ilystaspas. Many of the arts are supposed to have had their origin there. The use of iron among them is without date. Their systems of religious philosophy were committed to wiiting, if not put in print, before America was discovered. The Chinese knew the art of printing before it was discovered in Europe. They were acquainted with the jwwers of tlie magnet and the mariner's compass. Naval architecture ha.s belonged to the Chinese and Japanese time out of mind. The Ilindoas built temples in India vjf enormous magnitude and exact proportions, long, it is believed, before the use of Egyptian or Grecian architecture. The sword, the spear, the bow and arrow, and the shield and banner, came into their hands from the earliest days of the Assyrian, Chaldean, aiul i'crsian monarchies. Many have supposed that ihe Oriental arts anil-Minde(l Spirit, who is constantly seeking to destroy and overturn all good and benevolent measures. This evil power, or Matchi Manila, is represented or symbolized often by the Serpent; hence gifts and addresses are made to him by their modus and jossakceds. They also offer oblations to him directly, as inhabiting the solid earth. They pour out drinks to him. Thus the ancient Oriental notion of a dualistic deity is revealed. It has also been seen that they are worshippers of the elements, of fire, and of the sun ; and that hynms and offerings are made to the latter. It lias been shown that their oral traditions contain abundant evidi-nce of the idea of metempsychosis, or the transmigration of the soul through a wandering series of existences, human and brute. The Hindoo idea of caste is unknown to the North American Indian. To him all races are " born equal." The burning of widows at the funeral pile, the casting of bodies into any stream, like the Ganges, whose waters are believed to be sacred, are ideas and practices equally unknown. The incineration of the bodies of the dead was not practised on this continent, even in the tropica, and is a rite unknown to the tribes of the United States ; there is no infanticide, no car of Juggernaut. The periodical offering of cakes, libations, flesh, or viands at the grave, to ances- tors, or the Patras of the human race, which is stated to be a custom of the Hindoos, is, however, seen to be an idea incor])orated in the practice of the American, or at least the Algonie, Indians. These Indians, believing in the duality of the soul, and that the soul sensorial abides for a time with the body in the grave, requiring food for its ghostly existence and journcyings, deposit meats and other aliment with it, at and after the time of interment. This custom is universal, and was one of their earliest observed traits. De IJry mentions a feast to fire in 1588. Another custom, near akin to it, prevails. They offer pieces of flesh and viands, at meals and feastj^, to their O-glt-tc-zeem-e-tcug, or ancestors. This duty seems to be obligatory on every Indian in good standing with his tribe, who has been, so to say, piously instructed by the medius or his parents ; and the consequence is, he fears to neglect it. Every fcsist, in fact, every meal at which there is some particularly savory or extra dish, brings prouiinently up this duty of a gift to the spirit of fore- fathers, or of those relatives in old times, or newly deceased, who have preceded them to the grave. The first idea that a grave, or burial-grouml, or ad-je-da-tig,^ suggests ' Grave-po8t. 4A THE INDIAN TRIBES OF THE UNITED STATES. to him, is the duty he owea as uu honest man, expecting good luck in life, to hia relatives. When an Indian falls into the fire, or is partly burned, it is a belief that the spirits of his ancestors have pushed him into the flames, owing to the neglect of these ])ious offerings. Sometimes it is a wife or a child that is believed to be thus pushed. In passing a grave-yard or burial-place where the remains of his ancestors repose, the Indian is strongly reminded of this pious duty, and if ho has anything from which a meat- or drink-offering can be made, his feelings make a strong appeal to him to perform it. It is a species of idolatry laid to the charge of the Israelites, that while they were in the wilderness they " ate the sacrifices of the dead." There is hardly a form of Eastern idolatry herein alluded to into which the Israelites had not, at one time or another, fallen ; but the most common, wide-spread, and oft-recurring rite was that of burning incense on high places to imaginary beings, or devils, under the delusive idea of their being gods, the very trait which is so striking in all our Indian tribes. If Hindostan can be regarded in truth as having contributed to our Indian stocks at all, it must have been at a very ancient period, before the Vedas were written, for it is asserted that the present customs of the Hindoos are corruptions of an older system and are in many things new or traceable to those books. It will thus be seen that some of the beliefs common to all barbarous nations, as that of a flood, the destruction of the world by fire, water, or earthquake, were found among the North American Indians. Such corresj)ondences, however, may have arisen spontaneously, and do not necessarily imply inherited characteristics or affin- ities, but should be regarded as growing out of the similar contact with external nature and its exigencies, of similarly-constituted beings governed by the same natural laws and instincts and controlled and fettered by the same natural limita- tions. Like caijses have always produced, and will to the end of time continue to produce, like effects all the world over. CHAPTER II. LANQUAOB, LITERATURE, AND PICTOGRAPHY. Language is one of the most reliable aids to the student of the mental organiza- tion of the Indians. The tribes had not, until the advent of the very modern Cher- okee Cadmus, in 1824, made the least progress towards the invention of signs by which to expreH.4 sounds, but made use of the lowest form of the hieroglyphic art. In their attempts at mnemonic pictography, their invention was tasked to its fullest extent to produce ideographic representative figures. No '.ffort was made to produce a system of vocal notation. The pictographic artist made use of a series of figures having the character of nouns in grammatical definition, — action being inferrible from the proximity of the devices. Still, their languages had fixed vocabularies, and there were mental laws, older than letters, prescribing the practical bearing of one idea upon another. These vocabularies were made up from primary sounds or particles, indicating objects and acts, which denoted affiliation. There was a mental rule which prescribed how the nominative should be distinguished from the objective. Inflections were employed to distinguish numbers and personal plurals. Even in the least advanced tribes, the necessity of expressing an adjective sense was experi- enced. Black and white, red and green, were required to be denoted ; the light of the sun must needs be contradistinguished from the gloom of night ; and the location of an object, whether high or low, above or beneath, within or without, called for the use of such an adjunct. Others followed. In most of the languages, the quick repe- tition of the same syllable implies a superlative signification ; a peculiar inflection of the verb transforms it into a substantive ; there are also tensal and multiplied forms of syllabification. These peculiarities of language are common among circles of tribes, and afford a clue to their history, although philologists have as yet " found no suflicient data for determining cither the fact or the degree of relationship between one family or group and another." ' Their languages simulate an historical chart, upon which we can trace ' acl. the tribes to the period of their original dispersion over this continent, and mui & their linguistic relations. By developing those frequently obscure connections, we are enabled to perceive that a single genus or family of tribes, speaking one common language, occupied the shores of the Atlantic, from North Carolina to the mouth of the St. liawrence, thence extended westward through the great lake basins to the sources of the Mississippi, and down the left bank of that stream to the mouth of the ' J. Hammond Trumbull, in Johnson's Cycloprodia, art. " Indian Languages." 47 48 THE INDIAN TRIBES OF THE UNITED STATES. Ohio; that anothiT j!;cmiM wcro rcHulcnts of the country Huiroiiii(liiig fhii Houthern proloiigiitioii of tho Alh'^liaiiicH, or AiipalachiaiiH proper; and tliat a tliinl gctiiiH had liurnt, with ilH Hoiioroiis hiiii^uagc, and as if with Vaiidali<' iinpotiioHity, into tho central and AVOHtern area of New York. ThcHo three hIocIvh were the Algonkinn, the IrotpioiH, and the AppahichianH. In Ciilifornia, and north of it, one ntock of huignago is generally rei)reHented by Hoveral diuleetn and Hub-diah'etH, HonietinieH by a huge number of thence ; but thoro arc instances, as in Shasta and Klanuith, wliere a Htoek is represented by one idiom only. Although certain reseniblances between them may be traced, they are totjally distinct in their radicals, and by this criterion their classillcation by stocks or families becomes j)ossible.' The Algonkin language has been more cultivated than any of the other North American tongues. Containing no sounds of diilicult utterance, capable of an easy and clear expression, and with u copious vocabulary, it has been the favorite medium of communication on the frontiers from the earliest times. The French at an early period made themselves masters of it ; and, from its general use, it has been some- times called the court language of the Indian. In its various ethnological forms, as spoken by the Delaware, Mohican, iShawnee, Miami, Illinois, Chippewa, Ottawa, Pottawatomie, Kickapoo, and many other tril)es, it lias been familiar to the English colonists from the respective eras of the settlement of Virginia, New York, and New England. It was the most widely diffused and the most fertile in dialects of uH the Indian tongues. " It was spoken, though not exclusively," says IJancroft, " in a territory that extended through sixty degrees of longitude and more than twenty degrees of latitude." In 1848, Mr. CJallatiii einimerated thirty-two distinct families in and north of the United States, not including Calilbrnia and New Mexico. His classification has stood the test of subsequent critical investigation, and has been generally accej)ted.* Dialects of the Athabascan, Algonkin, and Dakota, or Sioux, are spoken in at least four-lifths of the territory of the United States east of the Kocky Mountains. Within the bounds of the Algonkin territory were inclu(h'd two groups of Iroquois speaking a radically different language. Next to the Algonkin the Dakota has In-en the most thoroughly investigated, a grammar and a dictionary by the llcv. S. K. liiggs having been j)ublished. The Iroquois and the Chahta-Muskoki (including the Cherokee) are next in importance. The Choctaws and Chickasaws speak closely-related dialects of the same language, to which probably the Ilitchita also belongs. The Creeks, Seminoles, and the small tribes of Cossattits and Alabamas speak dialects of another language of the same stock. Extensive vocabularies of these are in course of preparation by the ' For a description of tho Indian lan;,'iiagcs of the Piiciflc slope, sec Albert S. Gatechct's paper in (lie "Indian Miscellany," pp. 4111-447. ' Gallatin's " Synop.^is of the Indian Trihcs" (Tran.s. Amer. Antii|. Hoe., vol. ii.) is still the best guide for the structure and comparative grammar of the North American Indians. LAXOr.iGK, I.ITtntATriiK, AND I'lCTOGHAr/IV. 49 Smitliflonian IiiHtitiitioii. In llu« Clicrokoo lan^iinj^c cvory Byllahlt! ends with a vowol or II na-Mal, wliicli Hn;jj;('Htt'(l to Harloii an allinity witli tlie InKiiioin. Ui'twccn the Rocky Mountains and tlu' Sierra Nevada tlio niont important group iH the ISIioHJionc, nortii of whom are two conHidoralde funiilicH, — the Sahaptin and tho Kelish. For Home yearn little progresH hiw been made in chuwifying tlie hmgtiages of tho nnmerouH Hniail triben of tlie I'aeifie Hlo|)e. The languages of the village IndiauH, or I'ucbloH, of New Mexieo and Arizona pOMHOss much interest for the ethncdogist and pliilologist, dialects of four or live dis- tinct languages, no two of which u])j)ear to be related, being H])oken in their scattered villages. Our Indian hmgnages form a medium of communication admirably ailapted to all the purposes of Indian life, and capable of almost unlimited application and extension. To a vocabulary not multiform in \\m roots, the Indians apply a system of selection which enables tho speaker, by tho formation of derivatives and com- pounds, to multiply words and cx|)ressions in a manner of which the English lan- guage gives not the slightest concei)tion. Not only the subject noun, but it« qualities and its position, the persons, nominative and ()bje(rtive, and the action of which it is the active, passive, or reflective object, are all indicated in a single expression. This concrete character of the language gives to some i its words a copiousness of expression which a rigid monosyllabic language does not possess; and tho mean- ing conveyed by some single Indian words would, in tho English language, require an entire sentence for its explanation. The great art requisite is to seize upon the princij)le of combination. The objection to this process of word-making is that the ex]>ressions are inconveniently long, which defect is not, however, apparent in an oral language, but is very strikingly developed when it comes to bo written, — and written, as it usually is, without the aid of accents to guide tho pronunciation. Many of its concords, too, appear suimrfluous ; such as its double indications of tense and number, double possessivos, etc., creating a rhythmical flow of language, which, however, has a tendency to the verbose rather than to the poetic. One of its most objectionable features appears to us to be the cxt(>nsion of the principle of gender so far as to neutralize the distinction between miisculine and feminine, in its verbal forms, requiring only a concordance in animate and inanimate objects. This docs not abolish the use of masculine, feminine, and even sexual nouns, i.e., words restricted in their use to males and females ; but it leaves all the pronouns in the condition of mere animates. There is no distinction between he and she. The chief excellence of Indian speech was justly considered by Mr. Gallatin to be " the happy manner by which, through the insertion of a single particle, not only tenses and our common moods, but almast every modification of the action, is specially expressed." The languages seem to be replete with resources when apjdied to the phenomena of nature. The heavens and the earth appear to conatitute, in the iniagination of tho Indian, a symbolic volume which even a child may read. All that relates to light and shade, to color and quality, to ])urity or impurity, to spirit or mattisr, to air or earth, is blended with the subject noun, and is indicated at one 7 111 BO THE INDIAN TRIBES OF THE UNITED STATES. exhalii'lon oi* prolongation of the breath. In the sky, on the sky, or under the sky ; in or 07i the water ; by or on the shore ; in or on the tree; black or blue clouds; clear or muddy Avater ; deep or shalloxo streams; vp the river or down the river; /;» heaven or on earth, are each but single 'vords of a simple derivative cliaraeter. Says Mr. Albert Gatschet,' " The Indian neglects to express with accuracy some relation-! which seem of jiaramount importance to us, as tense and sex, but his language Is superior to ours in the variety of its personal pionouns, in many forms expressing the mode of action or the idea of property and possession, and the relations of the person or persons addressed to the subject of the sentence." Unlike the modern cultivated languages, the Indian dialects are all homogeneous in their material, and strictly philosophic, or systematic, in their principles. Their common likeness, however, exists rather in their plan of thought tuan in their vocabularies. The general tone of conversation is more elevated in point of thought than among any analogous doss of people in civilizod life. The diction is simple and pure; and hence the most common sentences of their speakoi-s, when literally translated, are remarkably attractive. Exalted and disinterested sentiments are frequently ex- pressed by their sententious polysyllables with a happy effect. In attempts to unravel the intricacies of its syntax the minil is often led to wonder whence a people so literally " peeled and scattered" should have derived, not the language itself, but the principles whioii govern its enunciation. Their language embraces over one hundred and fortv dialect.-." CIIEROKE'E ALl'IIAnKT. The aged and vinerable missionary Mr. Butrick, who died in 1851, is believed to have boon the ea/lier-t teacher in the Cherolee country, being employed under the society of Unit''d Moravian Brethren. The first school was cstal)lished by the Amer- ican Board *' Commissioners for Foreign Missions in 1817. These efforts appear, in their development, to have stimulated the vital s])ark of inventive thought which led a native Cherokee to give his peoi)le an original alphabet. George Guess, or Sequoia, appears to have been some time engnged in perfecting his invention. About 1824 it was definitely announced, and examined by the missionaries, who found it to be u syllabic system and pronounced it well adapted to teach the Cherokee population. It seemed particularly suited to the adults, who immedintely embraced it, and it has since been taugiit to all classes conjointly with tlie Eiiglisli.-' Two of the charactcfs, being found homophonous, have been abolished in practice. The Indian mind being ' Indian Miscellany, p. til). ' I p to the year 1875 the .Siuithsnn'an Institution in ^Y "iliington had collected texts, phraseology, and Eiven hundred •'nd seventy-one vocabularies of about two hundred words each. Only a small portion of this mass of matori- ' iias as yd licen pulilished. ' fiuess was a half-broi'd ('hcrokic, horn in (leorniii about the year 1770. Ho steadfastly declined to embrace Christianity, and is said to have bitterly regretted the success of his alphabet when by its means the New Testament was printed in the Cherokee tongue. LANCdAGE, LITERATURE, AND PICTOGRAPHY. 51 accustomed to view and express objects in the gross or combined form, it has natu- rally fallen on this plan for an alphabet. Nearly all the words of the vocabulary end in a vowel. Each vowel is preceded by thirteen combinations of the consonant, making sixty-four syllables. To this scheme there are added twelve characters to represent double consonants. No other American language, however, could be written by such a simple scheme. It cannot be applied to any dialect of either the Algon- kin, the Iroquois, the Dakota, the Appalachian, or the Shoshone. Consecpiently its application is limited. It provides for the expression only of such sounds Jis occur in the Cherokee language. Still, its utility in that language hus been highly appre- ciated, and it remains a striking phenomenon in the history of American i)hilology. It is a mistake to suppose that '^ecause the Indian has no alphabet, and no written productions of his mind, he has no literature of his own. That he has one worthy of attention and eminently characteristic is ijufliciently attested by those who have listened to his prophets, his orators, and his story-tellers, or who have heard his war-shouts and songs, or the mournful dirges of the women. A large number of Ojibway songs were collected and published by Mr. Schoolcraft, and a much larger number from various tribes, some of them highly poetical jjroductions, have been obtained by ]Mr. Gatschet. It is known that the seasons of leisure and recreation of all the American tribes are devoted, in no small part, to the songs and dances commemorative of their war- like deeds ; and in this way they have directed j)ublic attention s])eeially to military worth as the chief attainment. Through the iniluence of the.se gatherings and festivities, ; new body of warriors is raised every decade from the listening children who are to take the places of their fathers and progenitors on the war-path. To do as their forefathers difl is commendable and praiseworthy. The songs are gener- ally some wilil boast of prowess or achievement, or violent symbolic expression of power, and allusions to their tutelary divinities, having for their theme trium])h in battle. The chorus of tiiese chants consists, for the most part, of traditionary monosyllables, which ajjpear to admit often of transposition, and the utterance of which, at least, is so managed Jis to ])ermit the words to be sung in strains to suit the nnisic and dance. This music is a(!curately ' ept, and the bars marked with full expression by the Indian ta-wii-i'-gun and rattle, accompanying the voices of the choristers. No collections and translations of their forest or war choruses and songs have been made which do justice to the sentiments and ideas ox\n\ ed. It is perhaps too early in our literary iiistory to expect such. The expres,-! ms of warriors who join the dance with sharp yi'Us, which are resj)on(led to by th' actoi-s already in the ring of the listeners to the recital of heroic exploits, are to a large extent mnemonic, and are intended to bring to mind known ideas and conceptions of war iind bn vcrv. Many of them appeal to the names of carnivorous birds or (piadrupeds, wliii-h are employed purely as symbols of speed, prowess, or carnage. All the concomitants of the Indian war-path are jjresented to the mind. The hearers are expected to know tiic mythological and necromantic theories and dogmas of the tribe on '.vhich these il no THE INDIAN TRIBES OF THE UNITED STATES. expressions are founded, and but for which knowledge the expressions would lack all their force and pertinency. There is another department in which the feelings and sentiments of the Indian tribes have been poetically expressed : it is the memory of the dead. A fallen war- rior is honored and lamented by the whole tribe ; the gathered village attends his funeral. An address is uniformly made, which often partakes of the character of eulogy. A speaker or a counsellor is buried and lamented with equal respect, and the names of their brave and wise men are remembered with tenacity. There is no subject, perhaps, which calls fortlx more sympathy than the death of children. In a subtile system of cosmogony and creative effort, in which concurring divini- ties are recognized as having either performed a part, or as having, by antagonistic powers, disturbed the work after it was completed, the whole universe is regarded indeed as animated, either in part or symbolically. Each class of creation is be- lieved to have its representative deities, who have eyes and ears open to everything that exists, occurs, or is uttered. Viewed in this light, winds have voices, the leaves of the trees uttor u language, and even the earth is animated by a crowd of spirits who have an influence on the affairs of men. Hence many of their chants and songs, accompanied with music, have allusion to this wide and boundless theory of created matter. In short, it may be affirmed that the Intlians believe that every element is a part of the great creative God. Wherever Indian sentiment is expressed, there is a tendency to the pensive, — the reminiscent. It may be questioned whether hope is an ingredient of the Indian mind ; all the tendency of reflection is directed towards the past. The Indian is a man of reminiscences rather than anticipations. The consequence is that when- ever he relaxes his sternness and insensibility to cxternai objeet«, and softens into feeling and sentiment, his mind is surrounded by feare of evil and despondency. To lament, and not to hope, is its characteristic feature. If poetry is ever destined to be devel' ,iod ''ii such minds, it must be of the com- plaining or plaintive or the desponding ca.st. Discarding the single topic of war, such are, indeed, the specimens we possess, — words addressed to a dying man, to a lost child, death, the fear of evil genii, or a sympathy with nature. Most of the attempts to record poetic sentiments in the race have encountered difficulties, from the employment of some forms of the (Jrccian metres, or, still less atlapted to them, English laws of rhyme. They have neither. Their language is far better suitetl, !us the expression of strong poetic feeling, to the freedom of tlie Hebrew measure, the repetitious style of which reminds one of both the Indian sepulchral or burial chant and eulogy. There is, indeed, in the flow of their oratory, as well as in their songs, a strong tendency to the figure of parallelism. Ne-gau nis-sau — ne-gau nis-sati- Ivitciii-mau-li sau- I will kill— I will kill— The Americjins — I will kill. F'l:i|-- ;i the Sfl n"^ LANGUAGE, LITKRATURE, AND PICTOGRAPHY. 53 There is poetry in their very names of places : Ticonderoga, the place of the separation of waters ; Dionderoga, the place of the inflowing of waters ; Saratoga, the place of the bursting out of waters ; Ontario, a beautiful prospect of rocks, hills, and waters ; Ohio, the beautiful river,— these and a thousand other names which are familiar to the ear denote a capacity for and love of harmony in the collocation of syllables expressive of poetic thought. But the great source of a future poetic fabric, to be erected on the framework of Indian words, when the Indian himself shall have passed awoy, exists in his mythology, which provides, by a skilful system of personification, not only for every passion and affection of the human heart, but for every phenomenon of the skies, the air, and the earth. I'he Indian has placed these imaginary gods wherever, in the geography of the land, reverence or awe is to be inspired. Every mountain, lake, and waterfall is under such guardianship. All nature, every class of the animal and vegetable creation, the very sounds of life, the murmuring of the breeze, the dashing of water, every phenomenon of light or of electricity, are made intelligent of human events, and speak the language of a god. A specimen of their mythologic personification is here given. SONG OF THE OKOGIS, OR FROG IN SPRING. BY nA-BAHM-WA-WA-aKZUIO-EQUA. See how the white spirit presses us, — Presses us, — presses us, heavy and lonj» ; Presses us down to the frost-bitten earth.' Alas ! you are heavy, yo spirits so white, Alas ! you arc cold — you are cold — you are cold. Ah 1 cexse, s)iinin<; spirits that fell from the skies, Ah ! cease so to crush us and keep us in dread ; Ah ! when will j'c vanish, and Seogwuu' return ? Our earliest notices of the Indian denote a man of excellent powers in oratory . Nothing that actually exists in his life and training would seem, indeed, to justify the expectation of so much vigor of thought and propriety of expression. Bi:t it is not recollected, in this view, that he has been brought up in the school of nature, where his mind, from childhood, hits been impressed by images which are bold, vivid, and fresh. His books, truly, have been the heavens, with all their bright phenomena, and when he takes the oratorical attitude, and employs figures to enable him to ex- l)ress his meanings, within the compass of a limited vocabulary, it is from this store- house of his thoughts that the selection is made. These illustrations are striking and pertinent, because they are simple and true. He is shrewd and cautious in dealing with the whites, because his suspicions have been schooled and awakened, all his life, by his position of danger, and distrust, and perfidy from his own race. Nor is he deficient when he comes to discourse of things of the heart and of its ' Allusion to the heavy beds of snow which in the North often lie late in the spring. * Spring. 04 THE INDIAN TRIBES OF THE UNITED STATES. affections. Stoical and imperturbable, indeed, he is in Lis manner ; but it is sufficient to allude to the names of Garangula, Logan, Sagoyawatha or lied Jacket, Canasatigo, Pontiac, Skenandoa, Tecumseh, the once-powerful Passaconnaway, and a line of renowned aboriginal sj)eakers, to sustain the conclusion that the race has produced men of intellectual, energetic, and eloquent minds. So long as the North American Indian is in civilized society, he is much under the influence of its precepts. But when he retires from the council-house to his native woods, and hears the wild murnmr of nature around him, he subsides into that state of domestic repose, nonchalance, and indolence which is so characteristic of the Indian life. It is then that the aboriginal state assumes its most poetic garb. With the open heavens continually before him, his thoughts and dreams are of the spirit-world, and, as a social being in his wigwam, he aims to illustrate life in every aspect by a])peals to the wonderful and the mysterious. WABASHAW S SPEECH TO THE BRITISH COMMANDING OFFICER AT DRUMMOND ISLAND, AT THE CLOSE OF THE WAR OF 1812. Wabashaw was a Dakota To understand the force of this si)eech, it is necessary to observe that efforts were made by Tecumseh and his brother, the prophet Elk- 3watawa, as early as 1800, to assemble the Indians on the Wabash and to draw them into a confederacy to act against the United States. For this j)ur])ose the Prophet was the great agent. lie had the reputation of great sanctity and religious power among the tribes. It was believed that he could both foretell and produce events. He addressed himself to the credulous Indians by arguments suited to their knowl- edge and beliefs. To some of the tribes who occuj)ied northern latitudes he threat- ened deep snows and starvation if they did not go ; to the Southern tribes he predicted droughts ; to all he promised the favor of the Great Spirit, and the rewards due to a brave and united i)eo])le who were willing to engage in a great enterprise. Some of his Indian o])]K)nent.s he took up by charges of sorcery and witchcraft. The great Shawnee chief Tarhe, who stood in his way, was condemned to the stake as a wizard. A large number of Indians collecting in a short period on the Waba.sh, General Harrison, the Governor of Indiana, marched to disperse them, in 1811. He was treacherously attacked, about three o'clock in the morning, at Ti])pccanoe, and a sanguinary battle ensued. Afliiii-s were rapidly readiing a crisis. War wius openly declared in J 812, and tlu! Western Indians, wlio had assembled in large numbers, were instigated to the com- mission of acts of cruelty and bloodshed. For two years the American armies on the frontiers suffered defeat. At the end of this period the tide rolled back, and they were victorious along the whole frontier, from New Orleans to the river Thames, in Canada. Every hope for which the tril)es had combined was blasted; their leader fell ; the trealy of (Jhent made not even a pnnision for them. It was under these circumstances that Wabasliaw, a celebrated Sioux ciiief, uttered the following si»ee('li, at (he post of Drummond Island, a new juist occuj)led by the Pritish govern- LANGUAGE, LITERATURE, AND PICTOGRAPHY. m ment on surrendering Michilimackinac, after the treaty of Ghent. Colonel Robert McDuall was the commanding officer. My father : What is this I see before me ? a few knives and blankets ? Is this all you promised us at the beginning of the war ? Where is the fulfilment of those high speeches of promise you made us at Michili- mackinac and sent to our villages on the Mississippi ? You told us you would never let fall the hatchet till the Americans were driven beyond the Alleghanies I You said we should again be put in possession of our ancient hunting-grounds ! You said that our British fathers would never make peace without consulting his Red Children ! Has this come to pass ? We never knew of the peace ! We are told it was made by our Great Father beyond the big waters, without the knowledge of his officei-s and generals here. We are told it is your duty to obey his orders. What is this to us ? Will these paltry presents pay for the men we have lost in battle and on the road ? Will they soothe the feelings of our friends ? Will they make good your promises ? For myself, I am an old man ! I have lived long and always found the means of support I And I can do so still ! Perhaps my young men may pick up the presents you have laid before us 1 I do not want them ! MYTHS AND LEGENDS. Indian allegory presents an attractive field of inquiry. Their oral traditions of gods and monsters, spirits and genii, make a prominent display in the Avinter arcanum of the wigwam. Some of their allegories are beautifully sustained. And although in their miscellaneous legends and traditions there is much that is in- congruous and ridiculous, there is still evidence of no little variety of intellectual invention. Iroquois Cosmogony. — The tribes who compose this group of the aborigines con- cur in locating the beginning of creative power in tlie upper regions of space. Neo, or the Great Sj)irit of Life, is placed there. Atabocan is the master of heaven. Tarenyawagon, who is thought to be the same as Michabou, Chiabo, Manabozho, and the Great Hare, is called the keeper of the heavens. Agreskoe is the god of war. Atahentsic is the woman of heaven. The beginning of the creation, or of man, is connected with her history. One of the six of the original number of created men of heaven wius enamored of her immedifitely after seeing her. Atahocan, having discovered this amour, cast her out headlong to the earth. She was received below on the back of a great turtle lying on the waters, and was there delivered of twins. One of them was Inigorio, or the Good Mind; the other, Anti-inigorio, or the Bad Mind. The good and the evil principle were thus introduced into the world. Both 66 THE INDIAN TRIBES OF THE UNITED STATES. were equally active, but the latter perpetually employed himself in counteracting the acts of the former. The tortoise expanded more and more, and finally became the earth. Atuhentsic afterwards had a daughter, who bore two sons, Yos-ke-ka and Tho-it-sa-ron. Yos- kc-ka in the end killed his brother, and afterwards Atahentsic, his grandmother, resigned the government of the world to him. The Iroquois aliirm that Atahentsic is the same as the moon, and Yos-ke-ka the same as the sun. These things are elements of the earliest and best authenticated relations. They appear to denote a mixture of some of the dogmas of Zoroaster, or the ancient sun- worship, with the idolatry, perhaps, of the " Queen of Heaven." Allegorical TrmUtiouH of the Oriyin of Men — of Manabozho, and of the Intro- duction of the licligious Mijsteries of the Medical Magic. — At a certain time a great Manito came on earth and took a wife of men. She had four sons at a birth, and died in ushering them into the world. The first was Manabozho, who is the friend of the human race. The second was Chibiabos, who has the care of the dead, and j)resides over the country of souls. The third was Wabasso, who, as soon as he saw light, fled to the North, where he was ehanged into a white rabbit, and, under that form, is considered as a great spirit. The fourth was Chokanipok, or the man of flint, or the fire-stone. Wherever the Algonkins gathered around the winter fire they never wearied of roi)eating the story of Manabozho or Michabo, the Great llare, of whom they spoke as their common ancestor, and the clan that bore his totem was looked up to with j)cc'uliar respect. He was the ])atron and founder of the meda worship, the inventor of picture-writing, the father and guardian of their nation, the ruler of the winds, even the maker and i)reserver of the world, and the creator of the sun and moon. From a grain of sand brought from the bottom of the primeval ocean he fashioned the habitable land and set it floating on the waters. Manabozho appears in reality to have been the personification of the purest conception the Indian possessed con- cerning the Deity. The first thing Manabozho did when he grew up was to go to war against Cho- kanipok, whom he accused of his mother's death. The contests between them were frightful and long-continued, and wherever they had a combat the face of nature still shows signs of it. Fragments were cut from Ch()kani{)ok's flesh, which were trans- formed into stones, and Manabozho finally destroyed his antagonist by tearing out his entrails, which were changed into vines. All the flint-stones which are scattered over the eartii were produced in this way, and tiiey supplied men with the principle of fire. Alanabozho was the author of arts and improvements. He taught men how to make ag.'ikwut.s,* lances, and arrow-points, and all implements of bone and stone, and also how to make snares, and traps, and nets, to take aiiiniiils, and birds, and fishes. He and his brother Chibiabos lived retired, and were very intimate, planning things Ax. LANGUAGE, LITERATURE, AND PICTOGRAPHY. 67 for the good of men, and were of superior and surpa-ssing powers of mind and body. The Manitos who live in the air, the earth, and the water became jealous of their great power, and oon.spired against them. Manabozho had warned his brother against their machinations, and cautioned him not to separate himself from his side ; but one day Chibiabos ventured alone on (me of the Great Lakes. It was winter, and the whole surface was covered with ice. As soon as he had reached the centre the malicious Manitos broke the ice and j)lunged him to the bottom, where they hid his body. Manabozho wailed along the shores. He waged a war against all the Manitos, and precipitated numbers of them to the deepest abyss. He called on the dead body of his brother. He put the whole country in dread by his lamentations. He then besmeared his face with black, and sat down six years to lament, uttering the name of Chibiabos. The Manitos consulted what to do to appease his melancholy and his wrath. The oldest and wisest of tliem, who had had no hand in the death of Chi- biabos, oft'ered to undertake the ta.sk of reconciliation. They built a sacred lodge close to that of Manabozho, and prepared a sumptuous feast. They procured the most delicious tobacco and filled a pipe. They then assembled in order, one l)ehind the other, each carrying under his arm a sack formed of the skin of some favor- ite animal, as a beaver, an otter, or a lynx, and filled with precious and curious medicines culled from all plants. These they exhibited, and invited him to the feast with pleasing words and ceremonies. He imme this system, stand respectively for the names of men, and preserve the language very well, by yielding to the per-son conversant with it the corresponding words, of ar/ f m LANGUAGE, LITERATURE, AND PICTOGRAPHY. G3 and Laritau, records of thia rude character were formerly to be seen, on the blazed Burface of trees, along the ancient paths and portages leading from the sources of the rivers of New York and Pennsylvania which flow into the Atlantic, and in the val- ley of the St. Lawrence. Pictorial drawings and symbols of this kind are now to be found only on the unreclaimed borders of the great area west of the Alleghanies and the Lakes, in the wide prairies of the West, or along the Missouri and the Upper iMississippi. It is known that such devices were in use, to some extent, at the era of the discovery, among most of the tribes situated between the latitudes of the capes of Florida and Hudson Bay, although they have been considered as more |)articularly characteristic of the tribes of the Algonkin type. In a few instances these simple pictorial inscriptions have been found to partake of a monumental cast, by being painted or stained on the faces of rocks, or on large loose stones on the banks of streams ; and, still more rarely, devices were scratched or pecked into the surface, as is found on Cunningham's Island, in Lake Erie, and in the valley of the Alleghany, at Venango. Those who are intent on observations of this kind will find figur&s and rude inscriptions, at the present time, on the grave-posts which mark the places of Indian sepulture at the West and North. The tribes who rove over the Western prairies inscribe them on the skins of the buffalo. North of latitude «12°, the southern limit of the birch, which furnishes the material of canoes, wig- wams, boxes, and other articles, and constitutes, in fact, the Indian paper, tablets of hard wood are confined to devices which are hieratic and are employed alone by their priests, prophets, and medicine-men; and these characters unil irmly assume a mystical or sacred import. The recent discovery on one of the tributaries of the Susquehanna of an Indian map drawn on stone, with intermixed devices, a copy of which appears in the first volume of the collections of the Historical Committee oi the American Philosophical Society, Philadelphia, proves, although it is thus far isolated, that stone was also employed in that branch of inscription. This discovery was in the area occupied by the Lenapes, who are known to have practised the art, which they called Ola Walum. Picture-writing, their only graphic mode of communicating ideas, is indeed the literature of the Indians. It cannot be interpreted, however rudely, without letting one know what the lied Man thinks and believes. It shadows forth the Indian intellect, standing in the place of letters for the unishinaba. It shows the Red Man, in all periods of our history, both as he was and as he is; for there is nothing more true than that, except in the comparatively few instiinces where they have truly embraced experimental Christianity, there has not been, beyond a few customs, such as dress and other externals, any appreciable and permanent change in the Indian character since Columbus first dropped anchor at the island of Guanahani. 1 ■1 CHAPTER III. INDIAN ART, INDUSTRY, AND MEDICAL KNOWLEDOB. Canoes — MuNicnl Instrumonfj) — Fire by IVrcuwion — Trituration of Mnito — I'rcpnrntion of Spear- and Arrow- Ilcadfl — Hiindicraft of Oregon Tribes — Curing of Sliins— Wnr-Club — Oor^ct, or Rlodul — Corn-l'estio — Coin — Biiliiata — Aniulota — Antiiiuo Jnvelin — Antique Earlhcnwnro of tlio I'ucbloa — Domestic ilondi- craft of the Pueblos — Navajo HIankctJi — Spinning and Weaving of the Navajos — Medical Knowledge. Art had evinced itself at an early j)eriod, in the somi-civilized tribes of the Southern division of this continent, in peculiar and remarkable forms. These forms, lus they existed in the aboriginal stocks of Peru and Mexico, have been the toj)ic of frequent description. There has been, perhaps, a tendency from the beginning to over-estimate what was certainly surprising in the attainments made by these tribes. The chief (piestion with respect to them has been, whether these conditions of art are to be regarded as natural development^ of the aboriginal mind here, or as having had their impulsive elements of mechanical skill or knowledge from antitpu; foreign sources. These forms of Imlian art have also been made standards of comparison, us they appear to be j)rototypes for the urchieological remains and vestiges of art found among the Northern tribes. So far as relates to the Indian tribes of the United States, the types of the South- ern forms of structural art are recognized. They are perceived in the large religio- civic mounds, or teocallis, and in the earthworks, fortifications of village sites, the escarpment of hills, and the eccentric circumvallations on river-banks and alluvial tracts in the Mississippi Valley. Tlie great respect and veneration siiown by the Southern tribes for their dead, by the erection of graves, barrows, and tumuli, is equally a trait characteristic of the North American tribes. Throughout the Flo- ridian regions, and the Mississippi Valley, extending to the Great Lakes, and even to the area of New England, the j)ublic labors of the Indians were concentrated on this object, the principal difference being that both the personal and village tumuli were smaller in the area of the United States east of the Alleghany Mountains, as if the decrease in size were in proportion to the distance from the primitive seats of the parent mound-building tribes. Nor were there wanting in these Northern structures occasional instances of the partial employment of unhewn stone, derived both from the horizontal and boulder drift strata, limited, however, to cases where the material was contiguous. But, as a general fact, the architectural skill of the Northern tribes vfiis so greatly inferior and rude, or undeveloped, as to have misled oj)inion on the general character anii'(l a;;riculture and adiiercd to furms of aristocratic government. Yet the mind of the Indian, in tliesiinplc Ainjihict} oiiic or deliberative forms of the North, sliows itself as enu-rtainiiig the same ideas of architectural ait clustering itself around a |iiiblic sijuare. Tlieie is a characteristic pluusis of mind in both groups of tribes in tlie erection of tumuli and repositories for the dead, and of terraced structures for the residences of the cliiets, who here also united the political and religious power. In liotli hemis|)heres the sun appears to have been origi'nilly the great object of worship. Sacrifices were alike offered, either on tlie tojis of artificial cones of earth, or on the elevated parts of hills, overlooking extensive plains or valleys. So far us regarded art in the resistance of military force, the effort was chiefly directed in both regions to segregate coiiimanding natural jXMiinsnlas, forming often a military te ancient balza of the South Pacific tribes, the figure of that ingenious structure is at the same time presented. Two species of their handicraft contrivances have chiefly occujiied the Indian mind, — namely, instruments for killing their enemies and for capturing beasts and fishes. In the first dej)artment the arrows of different forms, the stone lunette or skull-piercer, the spear of jasper or hornstone, and the stone chib or ballista (large or small), have claims to antiquity before the iron tomahawk, or any kind of axe of that metal, knife, or metallic jacula or dart. Im])lemcnts of l>one and of the solid part of sea-shells have the same claims to priority of anticpiity. It is the same with pii)es and other sculptures of serpentine steatite, silicious pestles of grau- wakke, the primary forest cooking-pot, and other rude forms of pottery. The tips of the horns of tlie deer, elk, and moose, tied to a wooden handle, were employed at the earliest periods for j)iercing orifices through the ice in the lakes and rivers of North- ern latitudes, and this instrument is the protolyjie of the modern ice-cutter of iron, which in the Algonkin retains its old name of (iLi/i/cini. Ornaments were fabricated from folia of mica, from small and shining univalves, and from fossil red aluminouH and n\ixed minerals. Knives were formed fron\ pieces of olisidian, chert, hornstone, or even flie hard joints of the common cane of the Mississippi X'alley. Chisels and axes of native copjier were in common use thronghout America, and are believed to have constituted on? (»f the commonest articles of native exchanges of the era. Some of these chisels or blades of copper were tied to firm handles, constituting an agri- cultural implement answering the purpose of a garden-spade, with which the land was eidtivated. Such articles have been recently found in the Miami N'aliey, Ohio. Canocn of liork. — A special object wliicli has stinudated the ingenuity of the Northern Indians is bark canoes. These are maile from the rind of the Betida papyracea, from which it is peeled in large rolls. These rolls are brought to the place where the canoe is to In- constructed. .\ frame, which is called ifo/tan'r by the ( 'anadian French, is then suspended by four stout posts. This indicates the inner form and length of the vessel. ( Junwales are then constructed of cedar wood, which sustain ribs of the same material, that are arranged closely from its bows to its stern. The next })roeess is to sheathe the ribs with thin, fiat, and flexilMe pieces of cedar, place(I longitudinally. The sheathing of bark is then adjusted, and sewed together by means of a .«quare-hladed awl, and thread composed of the (ihrous roots of the cedar, called iratnh, which are .soaked in hot water. The seams are then pitched [ri- le a ic I T I II. ir, IT 1(> 1:1 wmmm f i.i \ .( IMglTiillllBW Will rnmiiif^'i -fw' rlwssaiasiMii md ■-'-*. ^v INDIAN ART, INDUSTRY, AND MEDICAL KNOWLEDGE. 67 with boiled and prepared gum. from the pitch pine, which is paid on witli a small swab. The bow and stern, which are recurved, are usually decorated with figures of animals, or other pictographi*' devices. This art of canoe-building of bark i.s peculiar to the Algonkins, who evince skill and taste in the construction. There arc canoes of all lengths, from a hunting canoe of two fathoms (twelve feet), man- aged by two persons, to the canot de maU/r, the largest known to the fur-trade, which is thirty-six feet long and reqnires fourteen paddles. The lightness of this vessel is one of its peculiar proi)erties, a canoe of the former kind being readily carried by one person. Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, Plate 9, exhibit this fabric in various positions and conditions. Fig. 5 exhibits the ordinary wooden canoe, nuide from an entire trunk, such as is employed by the more southerly and westerly tribes. Mufical Indnonents. — Plate 11 exhibits the various musical instruments of our Western Indians. Nos. 1, 2, .'J, depict the heavy and light drums used in war, religious ceremonies, and anniscments. The gourd-rattle, the shc-she-gwitn of the Algonkins, is shown in Figs. 5, (J, 7, H the latter of which is distinguished as the turtle-shell rattle' In No. 7 the war-dance rattle is shown, which is made by angular pieces of deers' hoofs, suspended to a stick. The i)U)-hc-(jwun, or j)ipe (8 anu i)), consists of semi-c^'lindrical pieces of cedar, glued together. Often they are further boinid together by rings of pewter. The Cliippewas frequently draw a snake's skin over the cedar tube. It is blown as a ilageolet, and has live, six, or seven key-holes.'* In keeping time in their songs and dances, a point in which the Indians are very precise, a notched stick is sometimes drawn on a resisting medium, being supported l)y a reversed pan (Fig. 11, Plate 11) or the shell of a gourd. Indian musit- is very simple. It consists of about four notes. The choruses are many and very regular, and are sung in the highest strains of the voice. The Indian llute is made of two pieces of cedar, half nmnd, then hollowed out (piite thin, with four holes in it, and glued together. Tiiey blow it at the end. The upper hole has a regulator, a small roll of buckskin, a little below tlie hole. It is raised or lowered, and the i)0wer of the note is all'ected by so doing. Tiiey have two kinds of drums. One is made like a tambourine, with a skin drawn over a keg. The rattle is a gourd-sliell with beads in it. Sometimes they make theni of birch bark. They make rattk's of the claws of the deer. Of these, they take two or three hundred, and bore small iioles in the narrow end, and tie them to a short stick, jerkhig them up and down to make them rattle. JLd-iii'/ Jure bi/ Friction. — It is impos>^i!>!e to conceive of the existence of the iiMiiiaii race, at least in certain latitudes, without the knowledge or use of lire. It is certain that the Indian tribes of this continent, from Patagonia to Newfoundland, on its iirst discovery, had the art of procuring it by friction. ' Tliis ralllo i.s fastonod ti> the loj,' just U'luw tlie knee. The motion of the dancer causes it to rattle. ' Tlie Dakiitas nmke tlii.s in.struuieiit frdni a siiij^le piece. 68 THE IXDIAX TIllllKS OF TIIK UXITKD STATES. It is by the violent iind coiilimu'tl riii)l)inj^ togetlier of two pieces of dry wood that they j)r()euro fire. For tliin purpone, ii th-y rounded stick of wood is [)laccd in a suuili orifice in a stout block, or in pieces of the same dry and hard material. A whirl- ing motion is given to this uprigiit stick l)y doubling a cord around it and fastening each end of it to tlie extremities of n bow held in the hand. The velocity of the revolutions given to the turning stick by means of this bow soon produces a flame at the point of contact. Two modes of conducting the operation are given. By the method in use by the Dakotas, a tabular piece of wood is held over a corresponding orifice at the end of the stick opposite to the incinerating point. By the Iro(piois method, the top of the upright stick is held by the hand, and steadiness of motion secured by a perforated block a little above the point of contact at the heating orifice. The gravity and cen- trifugal force of this block contribute to its eflicacy. The Irocpiois apply to it the descriptive name of Da-ya-ya-da-gn-nc-al-ha. A j)ieee of punk is heUl, by an assistant, at the point of incineration, to catch the flame. The operation is clumsily and j)ainfully performed by the Oregon trib&s, by turning a shaft, baseil on an orifice in dry wood, between the liands, bearing downward, till reaching its extremity, or point of ignition, when the same operation is tpiickly and dexterously continued, by another o])erator, until the result is attained. Trifuradon of Maize. — The mode of pounding dry maize, by the grain-raising tribes, varied consideraI)ly. It was a species of work left wholly to the women, who generally exercised (heir ingenuity in its reduction. Where circumstances favored it, mortars and pestles of stone were employed. The mortar was sometimes a de- pression in the face of a rock or in a detached block of stone. It was sometimes elaborately made. Frerpiently an orifice was formed in wood by burning in the surface in a circle and scraping oft' the coal. By renewing the fire on the cleaned surface a deep excavation was soon obtained. In this manner wooden bowls and entire canoes were formed out of suitably ])repared trees. But the most perfect form of the hominy-block consisted of a movable wooden mortar, hollowed by fire out of the end of a solid block or section of a bard-wood tree, some two feet or thirty inches high. The pestle cm])loyed for this consisted of a smoothly-wrought piece of hard woihI, four feet in length, rounded off at each end, with a dej>ression in the centre for the operator to take hokl of. After the introduction of the iron axe, consequent on the discovery, the stumps of trees were excavated to servt; this purpose, a practice which commended itself to the early back settlers, who improved on the idea by attaching the wooden pestle to a spring-pole loaded in such a manner as to lift the pestle from the block with but little effort. The preparation of green maize for the Indian tiible constitutes a different branch of forest art, which will be described hcreafler. Preparation of Flints for Arrow- and Spcar-IIcads. — The skill displayed in this art, as it is exhibited by the tribes of the entire continent, ha.s excited admiration. The material employed is generally some form of hornstone, sometimes parsing into 4^ 4^ # IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) :/. 1.0 I.I IL25 i 1.4 1.6 V] vl ^>. 1^ A^ V Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WIST h'Am STREET WEBSTER, NY. 141 jC< (716) 872-4503 ^ r rv "\ o^ 4;o j^ i ^ o^ ':^~*W' ^;4. ^^^sii^K^ :--J > INDIAN ART, INDVSTIiY, AND MEDICAL KNOWLEDGE. 69 flint. This mineral is often called chert by the English mineralogists. No speci- mens have, liowever, been observed where the substance is gun-flint. The horn- stone is less hard than common quartz, and can readily be broken by contact with the latter. Experience has taught the Indian that some varieties of hornstone are less easily and regularly fractured than others, and that the tendency to a conchoidal fracture is to be relied on in the softer varieties. It has also shown him that the weathered or surface fragments are harder and less manageable than those quarried from the rocks or mountains. • . ^ To break them, he seats himself on the ground, and holds the lump on one of his thighs, interposing some hard substance below it. When the blow is given there is sufficient yielding in the piece to be fractured not to endanger its being shivered into fragments. Many are, however, lost. After the lump has been broken trans- versely, it requires great skill and patience to chip the edges. Such is the art re- quired in this business, both in selecting and in fracturing the stones, that it is found to be the employment of particular men, generally old men, who are laid aside from Imnting to make arrow- and spear-heads. The Aztecs and Peruvians generally employed obsidian for this purpose, which they quarried from the volcanic mountains. It is found that the tribes of Oregon and California also employ this delicate glassy substance, in the preparation of which they evince the greatest skill. Nothing can exceed the art of some of the California arrows which have been recently examined. And the wonder increases when it is seen that these tribes are in other respects quite interior in tlieir intellectual charac- ter, and their habits of subsistence and life, to the Mississippi Valley and prairie Indians, who inhabit the plains east of the Rocky Mountains. Handicraft of the Oregon Tribes. — Nothing evinces more skill in the Oregon Indians than the manufacture of their bows, arrows, and spears. The bow is usually made from elastic wood, horn, or bone, very dexterously carved. Bows of horn are made of two pieces united in the centre by means of fish-glue and the strong fibres of the deer's sinew. Cedar is sometimes employed. The length of these bows varies from thirty to forty-four inches. The string is of elk's or deer's sinews. The iirrow-points are wrought with much art from obsidian, sometimes from nicely-worked bone. The hook for capturing the salmon and other of the larger species of fish which ascend the Columbia has exercised the ingenuity of the native tribes. The ordinary hook is of bone, with a barb two and a half inches long, which is attached to a line of native hempen grass. After the introduction of iron, a combination of bone and iron was adopted, in which a barb of iron four inches long is used. The oppo- Kito end is bone. But the perfection of the art is represented by a hook of curiously- wrouglit cedar, seven inches' curve, met by a safety-prong of bone four and a half inches in length, which is designed to secure the prey from the possibility of escape. Curimj Skinjt. — The drying or curing of skins is done by the women mostly, unless the men should be on a hunt alone ; then, of course, they have to cure the skins 70 THE INDIAN riilBES OF THE UNITED STATES. themselves. After tUe Iiide ia taken from the animal it is brought home, and the women take the flesh off with a bone, carried with them for that purpose, sharp at one end. This meat wlien taken ofl* is about as thick as the skin itself, and is gen- erally roasted by the women and eaten after the hair is shaven off with a very sharp knife. Then small holes are cut all round the skin, and strings run through, which are lashed to the poles of the lodge inside; the fire dries the skin in one night; in the morning it is taken down and folded to the size of the pack, convenient for travel- ling, say one foot by eighteen inches. When they dress the skin they take the grease off as tanners do, then dip it into water wherein are brains of deer, boil it, and stretch it on four square poles tied and pushed into the ground. They then com- mcuce scraping with an implement made either of bone, horn, or iron. A fire is kept up to dry slowly. The women scrape until dry, repeating the dipping and scraping a second and a third time, wringing out the water each time before the skin is stretched. If it still remains hairy or stiff, it is drawn over a cord as large as the finger for some time as hard as they can pull. Sometimes this is the last process except smoking. This is done by sewing it into a bag and hanging it over the smoke of a small fire of rotten sticks for ten minutes, when it is ready for use. An Indian may bring in a deer in the morning, and before bedtime his wife will have some moccasins made of the skin. Mace, or War-Club. — There is no instance, it is believed, among the North Amer- ican Indians, in which the war-club is made of a straight piece or has not a recurved head. Generally this implement consists of a shaft of heavy wood, such as the rock- maple, witli a ball carved at one side of the head, much in the manner of the Poly- nesian war-clubs. Such is the Pug-ya-nia-gun of the Algonkins. It differs from the Polynesian club chiefly in possessing a tabular shaft, and in it- less elaborate style of carving. Clubs exhibited at the war-dance or other ceremonial exhibitions are always larger than those intended for practical use, and partake decidedly of a symbolical char- acter. A practice has prevailed since the introduction of iron of combining a lance with the same implement. It is then shaped somewhat in the form of the butt-end of a gun or rifle, but with more angular lines. A lance of iron of formidable dimen- sions is inse' ted at the intersection of the most promineut angle. This fearful weapon, which appears to be the most prominent symbol of war, is very common among the prairio tribes. No warrior is properly equipped without one. Jt is often elaborately ornamented with war-eagles' feathers, and with paints and devices. Urass tacks are sometimes used in thc^ lance-clubs as ornaments, and not infrequently a small hand looking-glass is sunk or inserted in the tabular part of the handle. It is then intended to be stuck in the ground and to serve the warrior to make his war toilet. Antique Gori/ef, or Medal. — Whether this was in ancient times merely an orna- ment which any one might wear, or a badge of authority, it might be fruitless now to inquire. It is probable that tlie modern practice of conferring metallic medals on n ll- riVDlAX AUT, IXOUSTRy, AND MEDICAL KNOWLEDOE. 71 cliicfH only, luul of marking thereby their anthority, was founded on an ancient iiractioo of tiiis kind existing among tiic original tribes. The ancient gorget or medal of the North American tribes was formed of the inner and shining parts of large sea-shells. A species of ancient medal or gorget of Hmsill size, found in their ancient places of sepulture, consisted of a circular piece of fliit slioll, from one n:id a half to two inches in diameter, quartered with double lines, having the devices of dots between them. This kind waa doubly perforated in the iilane of the ci.cle. Thrw examples of this form of medal or badge of chiefltiinship nro figured in Plate ir). Figs. 7, 29, and 30. The specimen. Fig. 29, was obtained iVnin an old grave at Upper Sandusky, Ohio, and Fig. 30 from a similar position in Onondaga County, New York. These localities serve to show its use among diverse trilK>s, and prove an extensive community of the prevalent manners and customs, — a point which it is important at all times to keep in view. In connection with this subject there is given, in Plate 13, Fig. 1, the representa- tion of an ancient British medal, obtained from the descendants of the chief to whom it wiis given, about sixty years after its date (1764). It will be observed that this medal, which is rudely stamped, was struck the year of the crowning of George III. It presents the boy king's head, crowned with the olive-leaf, and the inscription — (Jeorgins III. D. G, M. Bri. Fra. et Hib. Rex. F. D. — shows that the ancient title of the British kings was then retained in full. The obverse exhibit.^ a British officer and an Indian, sitting under a tree on rolls of tobacco, shaking hands, with the motto, " Happy while united." The Indian ha.s a pipe resting in his left hand. The officer has his left hand at his breast. The liindscape in the background is manifestly the city and harbor of New York, as the stamp, " N. York," " 1). C. F.," " 17r)4,"'plainly denotes. A wing, crossed with a pipe, forms an appropriate figure at the top for hanging it by a riblHin. Figs. 3 and 4, Plate 13, are medals of the French perioeriod, from a leaden plate, and rudely representing, on one side, the figure of a man hanging by his arms, and a snake before it. The other side represents a man sitting. Fig. 3, Plate 13, is a crucifix of silver, of the same period. No. o, Plate 13, represents an ancient fonn of gorget, figured with the heads of snakes or tortoises. Cnrn-Pritfle, or Hand Bray-Stone. — Maize was cultivated by the Indian tribes of America throughout its whole extent. Cotton was raised by the Mexican and Peru- vian tribes ; but there is no instance on record of the cultivation of the plant by trilx>s living north of the Rio Grande del Norte. The Florida and Louisiana trilHN raisetl a kind of melon, and jierhaps some minor vegetables ; but the whole of the tribes situated in the Mississippi Valley, in Ohio, and on the Great Lakes, 72 TUE INDIAN TRIBES OF THE UxVITED STATES. reaching on both sides of the Alleghanies quite to Massachusetts and other parts of New England, cultivated Indian corn. It was their staple product. The valleys of the Delaware, Hudson, Connecticut, and minor rivers north of it, yielded this grain, and it was a gift which their sagamores and priests attributed to the god of the Southwest. The dry grain was prepared for boiling by crushing it in a rude wooden or stone mortar. This was a severe labor, which fell to the women's share ; but it waa mitigated by preparing, daily, only as much as was required by the family. It was not crushed fine, but broken into coarse grains, in which state it was eaten by the Eastern tribes under the name of samp, — a kind of hominy. The dish called " succotash" consisted of green corn cut from the cob and mixed with green beans. The ancient pestles, found in the fields formerly occupied by Indian tribes throughout the Atlantic States, were generally made from a semi-hard rock, often grauwacke, or a kind of silicious slate. They were about ten inches in length, tapering to the top, and would weigh five or six pounds. The mortar was some- times a depression in the face of a rock or a detached block of stone. There was an important mode of preparing the maize for the use of warriors who were expected to be out many days. The grain was reduced to a finer condition than samp or hominy. It was then mixed with a portion of sugar made from the sugar maple, and the whole was put into a small leathern bag. This constituted the warrior's entire commissariat. Meats he was expected to kill by the way. The burden was so light that it did not at all impede walking or running. When it was designed to use it, a small portion was mixed with water. It could not be eaten dry. The quantity of water might be enlarged, agreeably to the needs of the warrior. It was then, in fact, a species of soup ; and the strength given by a single gill of the meal was sufficient for the day. The piola of the Mexicans is a substance similar to that described above. It is parched corn well ground, and seasoned with sugar and spices. A gill of it per day is sufficient to keep a man alive. Coin, or its Equivalent. — The discovery of America caused a total revolution in the standard of value among the Indian tribes. Exchanges among them had been adjusted to a great extent by articles in kind. Among the Northern tribes skins appear to have been a standard. A beaver-skin long continued to be the mul- tiple of value. But, however general this standard might have been, it is certain that among the tribes seated along the North Atlantic, some varieties or parts of species of sea-shells, under the names of peag, sewan, and wampum, became a sort of currency, and had the definite arithmetical value of coin. In New England a string of wampum consisted of a definite number of grains, the whole of which was worth five shillings. At Manhattan and Fort Orange, about 1G40, three beads of purple or blue wampum, and six of white wampum, were equivalent to a styver, or to one penny English. It required four hundred and fifty beads to make a strand, which wa-s consequently valued at one dollar and fifty cents. At a subsequent period, four grains of sewan made a penny. Purple wampum was made from the Venus mercenaria, or qualiog, while the white was taken from the pillar of the periwinkle. s of lleys thia 'the )den but. lily. I by lied 18. ibea ften gth. me- iore tion the ited rhe was Iry. It the t is lay in jen ins ul- uin of ort 1 a laa of or «d, )d, us lADIAN AllT, IXDUST/iV, AND MEDICAL KNOWLEDGE. 73 In opening undent graves in Western New York this ancient coin haa been foiinil ill tiie shape of shell beads, some of which are half an inch in diameter. The same article has been discovered in the tumuli and graves of the West. It has also been taken from the plains of Handusky, and from the locations of Indian graves near Butfulo, and north of the Niagara River in Canada. It is at these localities precisely the same article. Not less than seventeen hundred of this shell coin were taken from a single vault in a tumulus in Western Virginia. It has sometimes been improperly called " ivory" and " bone." It is of a limy whiteness iiiul feel, from the decomposition of the surface, and requires care to determine its character. But in every instance it is found to yield a nucleus of shell. BalUsta, or Demoiis Head. — Algonkin tradition affirms that in ancient times, (luring the fierce wars which the Indians carried on, they constructed a very for- midable instrument of attack, by sewing up a large round boulder in a new skin. To this a long handle was tied. When the skin dried, it became very tight around the stone, and, after being painted with devices, assumed the appearance and character of a solid globe upon a pole. This formidable instrument was borne by several war- riors, who acted as ballisters. Plunged upon a boat or canoe, it was capable of sinking it. Brought down among a group of men on a sudden, it produced con- strrnution and death. Mcdlicka, or Amulets. — Charms for preventing or curing disease, or for protection iigiiinst necromancy, were the common resort of the Indians, and they are still worn among the remote and less enlightened tribes. These charms were of various kinds ; tlicy were generally from the animal or the mineral kingdom, such as bone, horn, claws, shells, steatites, or other stone of the magnesian family. The Indian philosophy of medicine greatly favored this system of charms. A liirgo part of their materia medica was subject to be applied through the instru- mentality of amulets. They believed that the possession of certain articles about the person would render the body invulnerable, or that their power to prevail over an ciiomy wa.s thus secured. A charmed weapon could not be turned aside. The posses- sion of certain articles in the secret arcanum of the gush-kc-pi-ta-gun, or medicine sac, armed the indli^idual with a new power, and this power was ever the greatest when the possession of the articles was secret. Hence secrecy in the use of their nccro- niiintic medicines was strictly enjoined. There was a class of charms that might be thrown at a person, and the very gesticulation, in these cases, was believed to be enough to secure efficacy. The mere thrusting of a meda's sac towards an indi- vidual wiis deemed to be efficacious. A beam of light was often sufl^cient, in the Indian's eyes, to be charged with the fatal influence. Where the doctrine of necro- mancy is believed, it is impossible to limit it, and the medas, who had learned their arts from regular profession in the secret chamber of the mystical lodge, formed a class of persons of whom the common people stood in perpetual fear. The terra jnediieka, applied to this class of things, relates to any article, either worn openly or concealed about the person, to which the doctrine of medical magic might be applied. 10 '>■! \ : .■■'; . :.;? 74 THE INDIAN TlilRKS OF THE UNITED STATES. Tli«! variety of iirtick-H actually worn to ward off evil influciieefl was very j^roiit. Some form of Hea-shell, manufactured or unmanufactured, was regarded iw a com- mon protective, or amulet, by moHt of the trilK«. TIuh passion for hHcIIh from the (»ea woH peculiar. The sea appearw to have l)cen invested with myHtical powers. It was regarded as one of the most magnificent displayn of the power of the Great Spirit or Deity, and a product rollecl un from '\\a deptlw, colored and glittering, as the nacre of oceanic Hhells, was regarded iw bearing Home of thin mystorioua power. The VenuH mcrccnaria was thus prized, and various articles of ornament, which the Indiana deemed sacred, were made from them. Such were tiie ancient and the modern u'limpuin, strings of which were worn about the neck, and delivered ns mcmentop at the ratification of their most solemn covenants. Ear-drops and nose-drops were anciently made from shells, and they were worn not merely as ornaments, but as a protection. A necklace of the claws of the grizzly or black bear was supposed to impart some of the powers of the animal. The red pilMJ-stone of the Coteau des Prairies was carved into various ornaments, and worn about the neck, or suspended from the cars. It is impossible to tell what form this desire might not tjike among a people whose tiuperstitions were so varied and subtile. Articles which had served the purpose of amulets in life were deposited in the tomb, for the Indian futurity is not a place of rest, end the huntc' soul, in its uneasy wanderings, still had occasion for the protecting power of the charm. Hence, on opening ancient graves and tumuli, it is found that the amulets to which the deceased was attached in life were deposited with the body. The subjoined specimens are given from the two periods of post- and ante-Colum- bian antiquities. (Figs. 1, 2, 8, 4, 5, 9, 11, Plate 15.) The antiques of this character formed from the much-prized sedimentary red pipe-stone deposit of Minnesota are pictured in Figs. 7, 23, 25, 20, 27, and 28 (Plate 15), together with amulets made from various kinds of stone or l)one. In Figs. 8, 10, 13, 14, 15, 10, 17, 18, 11), 20, 21, 22, and 23, Plate 15, we observe the change which this passion underwent among the tribes on the introduction of variously-shaped beads of glass and coarse enamel l)y Europeans, at and after the opening of the six- teenth century. Antique Javelin, or Indian Shemagon or Spear. — This antique implement was one of the most efficacious in close encounters before the introduction of iron weapons. A fine specimen of it was brought to Michilimackinack in August, 1837, by a noted chief, called Mukons E-wyon, or the Little Bear Skin, of the ^Manistee River of the northern peninsula. The material is a yellowish chert. It is seven inchef> long, and one and a half inches wide at the lower end, which is chipped thin to admit the splints by which it was fastened to the staff. The length of the pole or staff could only be conjectured, and was probably five feet. The chief said, on presenting it, that it was one of the old implements of his ancestors. K). ed ras ler hit kis m U-,J 1 >^^ p; If 1Hi PI It' I l^-il. ftij *F-"^i !'l I. INDIAN AHT, INDUSTJiY, AND MEDICAL KNOWLEDGE. 75 The condition of the Moqni and Navujo Indians, without laying much claim to urt of uneient origin, exhibits un ingenious adaptation of skill in their actual niiinncrH and cuHtonis. Earthenware of the Pueblo Indians of New Mexico. — The existing state of the poltcr'H urt among the Pueblos shows improvement us a result of contact and traffic witli the Spanish, seen in the forms of the vases and bowl, Plate IG. The lingering tusto for the gross imitative forms of the true Indian period are very strongly char- acterized in tiic water-jugs and the ladle. This existence of two eras of taste, witli- oiit mingling or fusing, is evidence of the long periods of time required to eradicate tiie old and iix new national tastes, and is a striking evidence of that undigested state of arU< in which the Pueblo Indians exist. Domestic Handicrafts, — The cradle of the Navajocs resembles that of the Western Indians. It consists of a flat board to support the vertebral column of the infant, with u layer of blankets and soil wadding to give case to the position, and having the edges of the framework ornamented with leather fringe. Around and over the head of tlie child, who is strapped to this plane, is an ornamental hoop to j)rotect it from acHudcnt. A leather strap is attached to the vertebral shell-work, to enable the motluT to sling it on her buck. A peculiar kind of net-work, or rather a close-banded cap, is worn by the men, which is gracefully ornamented with feathers, and held under the chin by a small throat-catch. Tradition gives much value to an antique pipe of serpentine possessed by this tribe, which is used for state ceremonies. This pipe is u straight tube, which admits a wooden handle, and has a rest at the point of attachment, so that it is necessary to stoop in smoking it. Makiny Blankets. — The manufacture of blankets by the Navajo Indians is by far the most striking exhibition of skill in art posses.sed by them. The patterns of tiicsc blankets are invariably compose,. m 78 THE LWDIAN TRIBES OF THE UXITED STATES. Miwter Modtt. Presiding persons, who form essentiully u fucnlty, aupcrintcnd the admissions and grant tlio awards of the society. Tiie number of botanicid remedies employed by the Indian doctors of the Muski- kiwin, in (!omj)hiint« similar to those for which they are recommended by our pliysi- cians, is enumerated by Dr. Ziua Pitcher in his valuable observations, heretofore published. The pathological knowledge possessed by the Dakotas has been described by Dr. Williamson, and that of the Winnebagoes by Dr. Andros. In some instances- the herb-doctors, conforming to the superstitions of the people, employ incantations and rattles. The yokullah, or black drink, used by the Ai>palachian tribes, is a strong decoction of the caiisina plant, imbibed periodically and regarded as a panacea or catholicon. The root of the zhigowau, a kind of turmeric, is chewed by the Chip- pewaa with the view of rousing their courage preparatory to war excursions, or to deaden the efl'eets of pain. Charlevoix states that the Natchez had a " medicine of war," which was drunk by tuem previous to their war excursions. It may be observed of all the tribes that medical services, if successful, are well rewarded ; but, if the patient dies, it frequently costs the unfortunate physicians their lives. The responsibility of practising this profession is known to have been great in all ages of their history, and the penalty of failure is, in a great measure, in pro- portion to the remote position and barbarism of the tribes. A recent observer, in the military service Qf the government iji Oregon, remarks tliat the massacre of Indian doctors who were unfortunate in their prescriptions had taken place in the central ])art.s of the Columbia Valley within a short period. It Is not to be inferrad, how- ever, that equal barbarity is manifested by bereaved Indians along the entire range of the Northwest coast ; while the respect accorded to doctors in California, Oregon, and Washington is equally high. In tliose regions, where the civil jwwer of the chiefs is very circumscribed, and no fixed form of government exists, the practitioner of medicine and the Indian priest exert the principal authority. " In all the Indian tribes," says a writer who has spent several years in that quarter, " tlie doctor, or medicine-man, holds a rank second only, and at times sujie- rior, to the chiefs. The arts they employ, the magic they use, and the varied in- formation they must necessarily acquire, can be obtained only by persons possessing natural gifts, and after severe trials by fasting and privation. I am of o])inion, from what I have observed, that the principal po^vers by which these doctors obtain such influence among the tribes are those of mesmerism, and the stronger the physical em'rgies to exert the magnetic develoj)ment, the greater is the person possessing them con8id'Ji'ed. '' VV^hei young men or women arc approaching maturity, it is customary for them to prepare themselves for the duties of life by an ordeal of fjisting, by which means they are enabled to determine their future career and ascortain wlictluT or not they are qualified to act as doctors (for, witii these tribes, female operators are quite com- mon). A young man, who had pa.sscd through the ceremony of the fast, thus related it to iiic: 'When my father thought I was old enough to seek my To-mah-na-tvas (or guardian spirit), ho told iiic liis views, and wished me to prepare myself. I 1*1 i INDIAN AKT, INDUSTRY, AND MEDICAL KNOWLEDQE. |§ thought over tho matter for three days {klone aun nika wawa kopah nika iunilum; or, throe 'Mi 1?l V If m' ' B4.) ... .:i HI H 82 THE INDIAN TRIBES OF THE UNITED STATES. nrchrcological data appear to have been accurately suited to the apparent condition of tlie tribes, and not to liave transcen(Unl it. Where an anomalous ruin or work of art occurs which inii)lies a greater degree of civilization, it is safer to consider it as intrusive, or as belonging to a diflerent era, than to attempt to disturb or unsettle the general theory of the hunter period. Time, and the hand of decay and obscura- tion, are poweiful aids to the mystery of antiquity in all lands; but they are espe- cially to be guarded against in examining the ruins of a barbarian people. Such a people do some things exquisitely well ; they manufacture arms and implements with exact and beautiful adaptation to the arts of war and the chase ; but the proficiency wholly fails when we come to examine buildings, sculptures, and like works. A savage may do his part well in the building of a mound of earth which is the joint work of a whole village and is to serve as its place of worship or sacrifice. lie may labor as one of a hundred hands in excavating a ditch or erecting a parapet for sus- taining rude picket-work to shield a community of women from the attacks of clubs or arrows. But it is vain to look for the traces of an equal degree of labor in the erection of his own dwelling. The hunter state required mounds and temples, but no permanent private residences. They could, where the fertility of the soil enabled them to dwell together in ac- cumulated numbers, erect a tumulus to serve as the ajiex of a sacrifice, to lift the resi- dence of a ruler above the plane of the village, or, it may be, to constitute his rude mausoleum. They were very apt in occupying acute and isolated geological emi- nences for the .same purposes. They sometimes placed their dead in natural caves in the limestone and sandstone rock. IJut they were themselves satisfied to live in huts built of temporary materials. They also cultivated limited fields of maize, but their main reliance was the flesh of the wild aiiimals which they chased through magnificent and almost boundless forests. They adopted their totems or ■ morial badges for their triumphs in these scenes, and tliey turneil with the ferocity of the tiger on other triix's of hunters of the same generic stocks who presumed to trench on their hunting-grounds. If they fortified a village in their warfiire, it was some sharp defile or commanding point, or a gorge, or an eminence where nature had done nearly all the work. They were natural engineers of this forest-castrametation. Their art and skill were adeipiate to resist an attack of barbarian tribes who knew no more in this line than themselves. Uut to dignify these remains by the name of monuments of military science or geometrical art, evinces an entire misconception of the |ieople of this tra. WIkmi the lofty models of ancient nrt come to be C(niipare(l with the rude scari- fications of the surface of the soil, the heaps of earth, and the inartificial ditches, mounds, and earthworks found within the limits of the United States of North America, it is not diflicult to perceive that we have wandered very fiir from the ancient seats of arts and civilization if the Old World and are surrounded by the merest vestif of barl)iirism. There are some evidences which remotely connect the tril)es of the Mississippi Valley, at ancient and unknown periods, with the tribes of ancient Central America. ANTIQUITIES. 83 Traces of a similar mode of the general expression of ideas in the language of pioto- graphs, traces of the worship of the sun and moon, of a national trait in erecting the residences of their priests and leaders on tcrracics or teocallis, general agreements in arts and in the physical and moral types, together with a general unity in manners and customs, all bespeak similarity of origin. These evidences relate primarily to periods either after the culminating of the Toltee and Aztec dynasties, or before they liad fully consolidated their jwwer. They are clearly posterior to the era of the semi-civilization of Mexico, Peru, and Yucitan. A very striking evidence of the commercial element of a more intimate con- nection of the original msisses of tribes and their progression northward is furnished l»y the zea maize, a tropic;al plant, which propagated it.self northwardly and east- wardly with the spread of the tribes. The cotton-plant does not appear from De Vaca to have reached much north of the Gila or east of the Rio Grande. The vast and naked plain of Texas — the coterminous link between ancient Florida (the present United States) and Mexico — is entirely without aboriginal monuments of any kind, and the ancient line of Mexican semi-civilization cannot be extended beyond the latitude of Cicuye, on the .juurces of the river Pecos of New Mexico, lat, 30° N. and long. 101° W., a point visitetl by Coronado in lo42. The tobacco-plant supi)lies a similar species of historical proof This plant at tlie earliest dates was confined to the latitudes of the area of the Southern States, whence it wiis an article of trallic with the more northern tribes. It had not reached and become an article of cultivation as far as the southern borders of the Great Lakes at the breaking out of the war of 1812, at which time the 8ui)plies of it reijuired by Tecumseh for his negotiations were obtained through the traders from Virginia and Kentucky. Track of Indian Migrations. — The Toltecs settled in Mexico, according to Dc riloa, in oH?, fouiuled Tula in 4'J8, and terminated their monarchy, according to Clavigero, in 1()")1. Agreeably to the most authentic writers, the ("hiduniecs and AcDJliuaus, or Ti'zcucans, settled in the Valley of Mexico in UtJo. They were dis- [ilaccd l»y the Te<'panecs of Acapidco in 1012. These tribes, agreeably to all author- itiis, came from points west and north of the Valley of Mexico. It is thought that the most northern hordes had liccn seated on the easti'rn sliures of the (Julf of Cali- liiniia. DilVer a.s they may have done in languages and dialects, the experiment of iiiiL;rating to more .southerly and tropical latitudes, which yielded abundance of the Itaiuuui and other tropical fruits, of whicii they were excessively fond, ai)pears to liavf produced a strong sensation among this genus of tribes. As time elapsed, horde liillowed horde, and it lia|)pened, indeed, as in European prior history, that the most barbarous trilies coiKpU'ied tho.se that possessed the elements of civilization, and soon partook of their higher modes of life and subsistence. Civilization, even in its rudest forms, a|)pears to have been a ]>rize to barl)arians. The delightful climate of Mexico itself was a prize. New imjjulses of the sanu' general wave of migration succeeded. Till' .Nahuatlaes hail peculiar traditions of having issued from caves. The la.'^t horde that came to dispute for sovereignty in the Mexican Valley was the Aztecs. They :■■ ■ n 'It m I 'if rfii '.111 r r:i i^ww 84 TUE INDIAN TlilUKS OF THE UNITED STATES. left Azatlan, their reputed startinj^-point, in IIGO, They advanced by distinct stages, dwelling a time in each place. At length, having reached the valley, and passed Tula, the old Toltec capital, they came in lIWo to Lake Tezcuco; and, their priests having here verified a prediction of the discovery of an eagle sitting on a cactus with a snake in its claws, in this lake they founded their capital, which has risen like another Venice. Here Cortcz found their descendants under Montezuma in 1510, in a city built on islets connected by causeways, after they liad sustained themselves through many wars with the other tribes, agreeably to Mcndoza, for a period of one hundred and forty-four yuirs. Three Indian dynasties have preceded the Aztecs, producing migrations towards the south, cast, and north. Guatemala and Yucatan are believed to have been thus peopled. They escaped from the invaders on all sides. When the flying tribes had reached Tampico, the access to the north was ready. The Mississippi Valley was thus within reach, the Alleghanies crossed, the Atlantic shores pcojjled. The tribes Avho had been infringed on in the south infringed on others in the north. They drove the Skroellings, who in 1(K)0 lived in New England, across the (Julf of St. Lawrence to Labrador. The early traditions of all the New England and Atlantic coast tribes point to a migration from the soutinvi'st. Such were the traditions of the Massacl inset ts group of small tribes, and of the Narragausetts or Wampanoags, of the Mohicans, and the maritime coast tribes. The Lenni Lenapes of Pennsyl- vania told this tradition to the Moravian missionaries, detailing the crossing of the Mississippi long after the passage of the Irocpiois and the Allegans.' The Southern Indians represent themselves as having come originally from the w^est, jnd, after crossing the ^lississippi at higher or lower points and at eras more or less remote, as having concpienMl tlic original Florida tribes and taken their places. They told this tradition to Adair, to Bartram, and to Hawkins, three of our most reliable authorities. Such were the accounts of the (/hickasaws, C'lioctaws, Creeks, and Cherokees. The Creeks proceeded eastward acrosj^ Florida to theOcniulgee branch of the Altamaha, their oldest town and permanent resting-place, vestiges of which still exist. The old tribes against whom they fought were the Yamacraws, Ogeechees, Wapoos, Santees, lichees, Yemassees, Utina<, I'aticas, and leosans, — terms some of which only linger in their verbal traditions. When the tribes west of the Mississippi ;'.re asked the direction they came from, they point south. They came up over the fertile, level ])lains and hilly uplands east of the forbie di.sap]i(arcil as a rc(iij.'iiizL'il trihi'. Trailiiimi states tlieiii to liave biM'ti overpowtred by the Delawares iiid Iru(|Uuis and driven down the Ohio and Mississippi. They are called, in this aniiont relation, TalligLwi, — a name nut v. ry diverse from Chalakee, a people aj^ainst whom a liitti'r lend was still Wa;.'ed at and al\er the eolonizitiori of llie eountry. In this war ditches anil eireiimvallalions were used, the vestiges of which still exist. Ii( ippiis trailition, as related liy Cusie ( Hist. Six Nations), confirms this. ANTIQUITIES. 86 who had crossed the Htream at and below the Falls of St. Anthony, and above the junction of tlic Missouri. Tiie Sioux proper, who are the type and were the precursors or pioneers of this group of tribas, ultimately reached the head-waters of Lake Superior and the sources of the Mississippi River at Leech and Cass Lakes. From this position they had bogun to ha driven about the period of the discovery of Canada by the French, under the severe attacks of the Chippewius of Chegoimegon, of Lake Superior, under Bainswa and Jsoka, two prominent chiefs, and of the military band of the Mu- kiiiulwii of Leech Lake. In 1825 the Sioux had retraced their steps south nearly five hundred miles, having entirely abandoned the upper coasts of Lake Superior, iind retained lands but a day's march (an Indian term of measure) on the St. Croix ami Rum Rivers. Their southern boundary was fixed at the river Watab ; and but for this guarantee of position by the United States the Sioux tribes would ere this liave been driven by the fierce spirit of the Chippewas and Pillagers to the line of the St. Peter's — now called Minnesota — River. In leaving the sources of the Mississijjpi the Sioux tribes abandoned to their fate the Assiniboinos of Red River of Lake Winnipeg, — a Sioux tribe with a Chippewa nuiue, who had, in fact, revolted from their rule, — and this tribe, who speak the Dakota language, have made their political alliances with the Chippewa and other Algonkin tribes of tiiat quarter. Of the ancient Indian tribes of Florida, who existed there before the coming of the whole Appalachian group, we have no traditions. If we are to believe Bristock, who wrote one hundred and forty-five years after the conquest of Mexico, thc^e Floridians, or " A})alachite,s," had a system of sun-worship, with a class of priesthood iiiid rulers and jurisdictions which appear to be almost wholly imaginative. That some of the descendants of these j)rimordial Floridians still exist, as elements in the groat Muscogulgee confederacy, as the Uchees, etc., is beyond doubt ; but their nation- ality has departed with the fall of the primitive falcon flag under which they fought. By the term Vesperic tribes we mean the entire aboriginal stocks of the United States, comprehending the Appalachians, the Cherokees, the Powhatans of Mr. Jeffer- son, the Aigonkins, quite to and tliroughout New Hngland, tlie tribes of the upper liikis and tiie sources of the Mississippi, the Iroipiois, or Six Nations, the Monacans of N'irginia, the WyaiuK)ts of the West, and the Dakota group of tribes of the western shores of the Mississip[)i and Missouri. The point of migration of all these tribes wius generally from the "est; prior to their crossing the Mississippi it had lici'ii generally from the south. It is the geographical area occupied by these tribes iii'ter they came to the eiwt of this river that constitutes the principal theatre of American anticjuities. It wius also the location of some antitjuities of the prior triltes, of a more antique and rustic class. These vestiges of both epochs denote a state of art which is iti no respect superior to that of the semi-civilized stock of the South; the grade of it is, in fact, tpiite inferior to it, if we except the vestiges of labors in mining, of which the evidences have been recently tliscovered, and the features of intrusive archreology existing. Tiiese latter are attributed to Celtic, Scan- ( t 1 ., I'' ■ il K'-A 86 THE JXDIAX TlilBES OF rilH UMTED STATES. dinavian, Iberian, or some otlier Eur()i)eaii sources, and can by no means be assimilated witli any of the Indian remains, wliether of tlie ancient, the mediicval or middle period, or the existing state of aboriginal art. The Lenni Lenapos tell us that they had been preceded by the Iroquois and the Talligewi, or Allegans. The Muscogulgees, or Creeks, landed above the Natchez, or Chigantualgia of De Soto, who were then the great power. The Cherokees, Choc- taws, and Chickasaws speak of tribes having two diflerent languages, of which we liear of the dialects of the Natchez, Taensa, Savanuca, and others above mentioned. All tlie Soutliern tribes of the secondary j)eriod of the Appalachian group appear, from their traditions, to have crossed the ^Mississippi River at comparatively high points, extending as far as the inliux of the Arkansas. They had, according to their traditions, fought their way, during all their migratory track, west of the Mississipj)i, and found tlie same diflicultics to be encountered on its eastern borders. The Creeks told Mr. Bartram that their ancestors had reached the Ocmulgee after contests with valiant tribes over the entire country from the Mississippi to that i)lace. Here they made a stand, and fortified themselves. It is the site of their oldest antiquities, which are pronounced by this reliable traveller to be of a striking character : "a stupendous conical pyramid, or artificial mount of earth, vast tetragon terraces, and a large sunken area, of a cubical [square ?] form, encompassed with banks of earth." The latter is what is now ])opularly called a cliunk yard ; and though Bartram regarded these as of the ancient period at iirst, he was convinced, on entering the Creek country, that they were due to that ])eople. The tribes who had reached the Mississippi in their migrations are traced on their back track l)y their peculiar kind of earthworks and vestiges, which are the chief monuiiRiits of their history. They did not come down to the forest and fertile ])rairie-lan(ls on the west banks of this river from tlie elevated, bleak, and barren deserts stretching at the east foot of the Kocky Mountains. There are no indications that they crossed that broad and forbidding barrier, where travelling in modern days has required the utmost capacities of European and American skill, energy, and en- durance. Fremont takes no notice of anticjiiities of any kind. Lewis and Clarke found the Indians of the Missouri to possess the capacity of fortifying involutions and strong points on the ^lissouri RiviT, extending to the tribes in their ethnologic disj)ersion northward, as high as the country of the Tetons, — a Sioux ])eople. This species of fortincation is remarkable, as embracing the principle of the Tliuscalan gateway, of which the principal forms, existing in the earthworks of the Mississippi Valley, have already been mentioned. A prominent object in the.se forms, as in the instance before us, seems to have been, not so much abscjiutely to bar approach, as to jmt the enemy in ; to trarc the :irl ul' ruriilicalinn df ilio .Mi»i.ssi|piii trilics down to n romparntively poviod. Tile saiiu' initiiral |.rii]i i|.l( s ul' difi me [iruvailcd, — iiainciv, liiii.s, trciidios, un involved ANTIQUITIES. 87 If it be conceived tliat the Toltces, Tozcucans, or Aztecs of Mexico passed the Pacific coast prior to their arrival at the Bay of California, — a prime point in the ardiajohigy of the semi-civilized tribes, — it must have been before tlie tumuli, the pyramid, or the teocalli forms of art were developed. For if people with their strong traits had made points of occupancy in the course of their exodus, as the Boturini picture-writings attest, there could not fail to be some vestiges of this kind. And this may serve to create the belief that the Aztalan of their story was south of these lutitudt's. It may also serve to denote that the Toltec race originally struck the coast probably as low down as the Bay of California, or else proceeded in their canoes, or l)alzas, tc that latitude. Mr. Iicwin II. Morgan' argues that the stjirting-point of Indian migrations was the valley oi the Columbia River. He bases this argument on the idea that the jirincipal reliance of the American aborigines for subsistence was upon fish., the abundance of which "created certain centres of population which first supplied and afterwards replenished the continent with inhabitants." Such a region, having no parallel in any jtart of the earth in the amount and variety of the means of subsist- once spontaneously furnished, he finds within a radius of five hundred miles from the head of Puget Sound, from the Umpcpia River on the south to Queen Charlotte's Sound on the north, and from the sea-coast to the western slope of the Rocky Moun- llere was found the concurrence of a good climate with the possession of the auis. most bountifid and widely distributed fisheries to be found in any part of the earth, llin inference is that this area would necessarily, from this cause, develop a surplus population from age to age, and that it would become permanently the point of de- jiarture of migrations to different parts of the continent. An examination of the iiivas of Indian population and their means of subsistence, of the natural highways of migration suggested by the topographical features of North America, and of the known facts of such migrations in Indian history, brings hinj to these conclusions : first, that the distributiim began on the Pacific side of the continent; second, that tlic several stock languages east of the Rocky Mountains and north of New Mexico had become distinct before these stocks migrated eiustward ; third, that the nations of Mexico and Central America were emigrants from the north ; and, last, that the initial point of all these migrations was in the valley of the Columbia. This seems at least a highly j)robable conjecture. unto, iinil u mount, or rodmibt, to defend it. In tlm cimtontions of llio various lending biind-s of Indiuns I'nr tlic |i(iss('.>i>ion of tlu' profitiililo fi^inc-landrt and tiuntlnfi-ransi's of the Mi.H.souri, no anticiiiitios have liri'ii noliccd liy tlie niodcrn traveller more .strikinu: than the remains of intrenehed or palisadoed villaires, eriiti;inknient,s which were (h\-ii;;ne(l n.i eurtains to bowmen, and small mounds, or pvrola, intended, );en- enilly. its reiloulits fur hand-to hand eombatants. In these cases the artificial mound, or cone of earth, iMoupies the position of a redoubt to pites, or an open space in the intrenchmont. Sometimes, in this |il;iii. this elevation conslitutcil a conical tower or pinnacle in n rectanjrular wall, or line of embankment. There is also unmistakable evidence in these locations of ancient strife for tribal mastery at the zi,i.'ia^' ^Mti'. an entrance peculiar to the Indian tribes, which is .so contrived that the as.sailants are left in doubt »s to the ri<;ht way. and led into a riil-th sue. from which retreat is cither impossible or very perilous. ' North American Review, October, ISlJS, and .January, 1S70. 38 THE INDIAN TRIBES OF THE UNITED STATES. ARCHJ»LOGICAL EVIDENCES THAT THE CONTINENT HAD BEEN VISITED BY PEOPLE HAVING LETTERS PKIOB TO THE ERA OF COLUMBUS. Scandinavian Explorations. — That America was visited in the tenth century by the adventurous Xorthineu from (jireonlaud, and that its geography and people con- tinued to be known to them so late as the twelfth century, is now generally admitted. The hardy and bold mariners of Scandinavia of that period crossed freely in vessels of small tonnage the various channels, gulfs, and seas of the Northern Atlantic, and were familiiir with the general islands and coa.sts stretching from Iceland to the northern parts of the continent. They visited from Greenland not only the adjacent coasts of what are now called Newfoundland and Nova Scotia, but held their way to more southerly latitudes, which they denominated Vinland, — a term which, by an interpretation of the sea-journals and nautical and astronomical observations of those times, is shown with nmch probability to have comprised the present area of Massa- chusetts and Rhode Island. They appear to have made attempts to plant a colony in this area. Finding the trending of this land to favor the spirit of adventure, they ran down to more southerly latitudes, reaching, it is thought, to near the present site of St. Augustine, in Florida : the bays of New York, Delaware, and Chesapeake do not appear, however, to have attracted notice. It is certain that their primitive maps of this part of the coast, as published at Copenhagen, bear a name that is translated Great Ireland. The fame of these discoveries reached other parts of Europe, for it is known that Columbus himself visited Iceland for the purpose of verifying what he had heard and increasing the sum of facts on which his great theory was based. Ancient Inscription on the Assonet or Diijhton Rock. — More importance has been attached to the Dighton Rock inscri])tion, perhaps, than its value in our local an- tiquities merits. This may, it is believed, be ascribed in part to the historical appeal made to it, a few years ago, by the Royal Society of Northern Antiquarians, at Copenhagen, on the occasion of their jiublishing tlie collection of old Icelandic sagas relating to early discoveries in Auierica. It is certain that it was not regarded in any otiier liglit than as the work of Indian hands before that era. It wa.s noticed by the first English settlers in 1020. This Dighton block and boulder drift extends to the Massiichusetts shore, and beyond the inscription rock, which latter is a large angular l)lock of greenstone trap, presenting a smooth inclined line of structure or natural face towards the channel. It lies on a large flat in a bend of the river, which is quite exposed and bare at ebb tide, but covered with several feet of water at the flow, submerging the rock, with its inscriptions. This diurnal action of the tide must, in the course of years, have tended to obliterate the traces of all pigments and stains, such as the natives are generally accustomed to employ to eke out their rock- writings or drawings. The effects of disintegration from atmospheri<' causes have probably been less, under this tidal action, than is usual in dry situations, but the tide deposits ujion its surface a light marine scum, which must render any scientific exam- M'1 'If J i'iM im ^ 'Ijf ■l I ANTIQUITIES. 89 illation oi' the inscription unsatiHlactory witliout a thorough removal of all recre- nifiital or (.IqMwitt'd matter. Mr. Schoolcraft, in IHIJ'J, employed Chingwauk, an Algonkin chief well versed in Indian pictography, to decipher the inscription from the engravings of it in the "Anti(iuitHtes Americana," one of which was made in 17iX), the other in 18^0. Heleoting the former, he said it wiia Indian, that it related to two nations, and con- sisted of two parts. All the figures to the left of a line drawn through it which would not touch any part of the liguris related to the acts and exploit*) of the chief represented by the key-figure No.,1, and all the devices to the right of it had refer- ence to his enemies and their acts. There was nothing depicted in either of the figures til denote a foreigner. There wa.s no figure of, or sign for, a gun, sword, axe, (jr other implement, such as were brought by white men from beyond the sea. Mr. Si'hooleraft originally considered a part of this inscrijition Icelandic, but sulwc(juently decided it to be of purely Indian origin and executed in the peculiar symbolical character of the Kckeewin. On applying a daguerrean instrument to the surface, the impression herewith presented (Plate 20) was given. It presents a unity of original drawing, correspond- ing to the Indian system, which cannot fail to strike the observer. It is entirely Indian, and is executed in the symbolic ehuracUcr whiich the Algonkins call Kckee- win, — I.e., teachings. The fancied resemblances to^old forms of the Koman letters or ligures, which apj)ear on the Copenhagen copies, Avholly disappear. The only aj)- parcnt exception to this remark is the upright rhomboidal figure, resembling some t'orms of the ancient 0, but which aj)pear8 to be an • accidental resemblance. No trace appears, or could be found by the several searches, of the a.ssumeil Runic letter Thor, which holds a place on former copies. Rock-inscriptions of a similar character have within a few years been found in other parts of the country, which denotes the prevalence of thi^ system among the aboriginal tribes from the Atlantic to tiie Mississip[)i. It is more peculiarly an Algonkin. trait, and the inscriptions are (■;illed by them ^luzzinilbiks, or rock-teachings, while the elements of the system itsilt' are called, as above stated, Kckeewin and Kekeenowin. Nor does this dis- covery militate against tiie general body of Scandinavian testimony respecting the anti'-Columliian discoveries in America. Tiiat testimony remains undisputed, even ill more southerly latitudes of the United States.' ' Tlio oviclcni'o.s (if the Sc-aniliniivinn clonient of occupancy are contained in the body of Icelandic sagas and oddas of tlie twelfth and thirteenth centuries, published in Copenhasien in 1S.'{7, in the " Anti(|uitateH Anirricana." Thes^' evidencea embrace the maritime, 'historiofti, and literary record of the aires f|ucited ; and ii \\M been exhibited with such references to the sttttc of ancient pcographical and astrononiical science during the niediiuval h);os as secure respect. Most stress is laid by the Danish historians i>ii the narrations iif I'iiic tlie Hi'il. Thorfinn llarlsefne, ami .Snorre Thorbrand.sson, whioti are ascribed to the twelfth century. T liese data are c(iiisi!.>rs. The Tuscaroras, who relate the event, are known to have been from the be;;iiiiii;)g unfriendly to the whites. Tho terrible massacre which they had j)lanned, and in part executed, against the North Carolinians in 1711, Wiis proI)al)ly a recurrence in tiieir minds of a prior tragedy of this kind, which had proved successful. Supposed O'ltio Iii^criptiom. — Assertions of a Celtic element in the Indian languages of the ancient Iluitramannaland (Virginia) have frequently been tnade. at Upernavik, in laliluilo ^^i^ Tt'l' X., furthor imlii'ate that these Northern Hpn.n and j^ulfs were well known to. and freely vLfited by, the Greenland finhermeu and adventurers during tho era of these Americuu discoveries. ANTIQUITIES. 01 Tlu«c iirst origiimtod in America, in 17H2, in ciTtuin iiocoiintH given by Ihouc Stuart, of South Ciirolinii, iin early WcHtein tnidor. Tliuy have heen rej)eate(l in vuriouu toriiiH, at HUccewHivo iieriods, hy Davey, Sutton, Hickn, Lewin, Ueatty, KogerH, Fiiwon, ("athn, and otiierrt. The; diHcovery of a Welsli element in tiie Indian langnagew iH wholly witliout proof of a philological chuructcr; nor can it ever be determined without full and aecnirate voeabularies of the weveral Indian language involved. An in.serii)tion in apparently Home form of the Celtic character came to light in the Ohio Valley in IHJW. Thia relic wan founil in one of the principal tnnuili near W'liet'ling, in Went Virginia. It purports to bo of un ajtparently early period, — namely, 13'2K. It ih in the C«'ltiberic character, but has not been deciphered.' Its archiL'ology appears e(jrroborative of the Cind)rian and Tuseurora traditions re- specting a white race in ante-Columbian periods in this part of America. This fact was announced to the Koyal (jieographical Society of London in 1842. A fuller account of it is given in the Transactions of the American Ethnological Society, vol. i. p. 2(J5). M. Jomard regarded it as of Libyan origin. With regard to the inscription, it may be said, if genuine, to be intrusive and of foreign origin. It has belonged to some adventurer or captive carried by the tribw to tiiis spot. Many contend, on what are considered slight grounds, for a compara- tively high state of civilization in the ancient iidiabitants of tlie West, and adduce their architectural ruins and attainments in fortillcation jw a proof of it. But, grant- ing whatever can be advanced on this head, it would contradict all our actual knowl- edge on this branch of American archeology to admit the possession by them at any period known to us of an alphabet of any kind. The characters employed in picture- writing by the Toltecs and Aztecs were symbolic and representative, and they have left irrefragable evidences of their high proficiency in them, but nothing more. There can be no pretence thut any Indian race who ever iidiabited this valley pos- scKsed an alphabetic art. The inscription of this tumulus, if it be true, is foreign. The (piestion of its genuineness nuist rest on the veracity of Mr. Tondinson, its pro- prietor, and his neighbors who have united in his statements. A strong objection is found in the inability of the Coj>enhagen antiquarii« to read it, while acknowledging ii huge portion of its character to be in the Spanish type of the Celtic. The follow- ing ciiaracters are common, it will be seen, to the inscription at Dighton Rock and (j rave ('reck Mcamd, namely : 0X1. A still greater amount of resemblance to it ap|ieiirs in the "stick-book" character of the ancient British Celtic. This is per- ceived in the characters ( 1 > A X X, which are common to both inscriptions, namely, the Celtic and the Virginic. There would appear to be some grounds here for the Welsh tradition of Madoc. These records hint at a still earlier period of discovery and settlement by the Erse or Celts of Ireland, on the coasts lying between Virginia and Florida, a region known umler the Icelandic name of " Iluitramannaland," — i.e., the land of white men. The testimony of the Icelandic sagas rests on admitted proofs, but there is u species I; If' Hi- iP: U m ■I 'I 51 ' C. C. Kafn. Si'c Mt'iuuiruH (le la Soci(5ti^ Riiyiilu dos Aiitii|uairt.'g f a common drawing-pencil. ' •• '' " These tubes were thin, and exterior io others of wood, through each of which a leather thong was passed, and tied at each end to a long thong passing round the body. These thongs were preserved, as well as the wooden tubes ; the copper was much decayed, and in some places was gone. This belt was fiistoned under the left arm, by tying the ends of the long string together, und pa-ssed round the breast and back a llltle below the shoulder-blades. Nothing else wius founil but a piece of coarse cloth or matting, of the thickness of sail-cloth, a few inches s(|uare. It is to be ob- served that the flesh appeared to have been preserved wherever any of the copper touched it. Tliis i.s the subject of one of Lungfellow'« balldda. ^ ■-■''■ i^ - :'■' J ■■ ^fflM m M V i ft .'C* l 1. ANTIQUITIES. 93 The bones of the feet were wanting. The skull was of ordinary size, the forehead low, beginning to retreat at not more than an inch from the nose ; the head conical, and larger behind the ears than in front. The hands and arms were small, and the body was apparently that of a person below the middle size. Very little argumeat is necessary to show that the famous Fall River skeleton must have been a North American Indian. The state of preservation of the flesh and bones proves that it- could not have been of very ancient date, the piece of the skull now exhibited being perfectly sound and having the serrated edge of the suture. The conical formation of the skull peculiar to the Indian seems also conclusive. The character of the metallic implements found is not such as to warrant any other supposition. An Aboriginal Palladium — The Oneida Stone. — Characteristic traits in the his- tory of races often develop themselves in connection with the general or local ioatures of a country, or even with some minor object in its natural history. There is a remarkable instance of this development of the aboriginal mind in the history of the Oneidas. This tribe derives its name from a celebrated stone (a view of which is annexed) which lies partly embedded in the soil on one of the highest eminences in the terri- tory formerly occupied by that tribe in Western New York. This ancient and long- remembered object in the surface geology of the country belongs to the erratic-block group, and has never been touched by the sculptor or engraver. It is indissolubly associated with tKe early history and origin of the Oneidas, and is spoken of in their traditions as if it were the palladium of their liberties and the symbolical record of their very nationality. It was the silent witness of their first association as a tribe. Around it their sachems sat in solemn council. Around it their warriors marched in martial file before setting out on the war-path, and it was here that they recited their warlike deeds and uttered their shouts of defiance. From this eminence they watched the first approaches of an enemy ; and to this spot they rushed in alarm and lit up their beacon-fires to arouse their warriors whenever they received news of hos- tile footsteps in their land. They were called Oneidas f:om Oneota, the name of this stone, — the original word, as still preserved by the tribe, — which signifies the People of the Stone, or, by a metaphor, the People who sprang from the Stone. A stone was the symbol of their collective nationality, although the tribe was comrKised, like the other Iroquois cantons, of individuals of the clans of the Turtle, the Bear, the Wolf, and other totemic bearings. They were early renowned among the tribes for their wisdom in council, bravery in war, and skill in hunting; and it is yet remem- bered that when the Adirondack and other enemies found their trail and foot-marks in the forest they fled in fear, exclaiming, " It is the track of the Oneida !" To note this discovery, it was customary with the enemy to cut down a siipling to within two or three feet of the ground, and i)eel its bark cleanly off", so tis to present a white sur- face to attract notice. They then laid a stone on the top. This was the well-known symbol of the Oneida, and was used as a warning to the absent members of the soouting-party who might fall on the same trail. I' H t «:■<; \fmm 94 THE INDIAN TRIBES OF THE UNITED STATES. Antiquities West of the AllegJMnies. — There were two great ethnological families of red men in North America, — the tribes once resident in Mexico, and those in the Valley of the Mississippi. Occupying different latitudes, separated by climatic bar- riers, and holding diverse positions in the scale of civilization, they inhabited coter- minous countries and were in character sui generis. They coincided in general features, character, habits, and modes of thought and action. The vocabularies of their languages differed, but the grammatical structure of them, and the philosophical principles upon which they were based, were remarkably coincident. Their arts and occupations were also dissimilar, the one being an agricultural people and the other still retaining their normal type of hunters and foresters. The picture-writing of the Aztecs was an improvement on pictography. Tlieir cosmogonies and mytholo- gies were rendered incongruous, and their religion converted into pure demonology ; the latter was founded on a few leading Indian principles, which, though similar to those of the North, had acquired a grosser intensity of error and idolatry. In mental strength they were likewise inferior to the Indians of the North. The climates, fauna, and flora of their countries were different. The position of one people being in the tropical and that of the other in the temperate latitudes, they resorted to dif- ferent means for obtaining subsistence. There was nothing, however, in which the broad line of separation was more clearly defined than in their modes of government. The American class adhered to a primitive patriarchal or representative form, under the control of chiefs and councils ; the other groaned under a fearfully despotic rule. Both cultivated maize and tobacco ; both raised species of the |)otato, of beans, and of melons. In the northern latitudes, in lieu of the tropical fruits indigenous to the more southerly regions, the papaw, the plum, and the orange offered their tempting products for the use of man. But while the one class of tribes had not emerged from the simple hunter state, and still roani'jd in pursuit of game through the vast forests of America, the other class had mftde important progress in arts, agriculture, and architecture, which, though lenuiiig to their advance in civilization, exercised a depressing influence on their moral character and j)lunged them tenfold •Iseper into error and mysticism. The investigation of the antiipie remains of labor and art scattered over the Indian country west of the Alleghanies develops a general correspondence between them and those common among the Mexican tribes at the era of the occupation of the Mexican Valley by the Chichemecs and Acolhuans, or Tezcucans, which event Clavigero places in 1170. These barbarous tribes were not conquered, nor was Tenochtitlan, or Mexico, founded, until 1324. Could the veil of oblivion be lifted from the events which occurred in the Mississippi Valley at that date, i.e., one hundred and ninety-five years before the advent of the Spaniards in Mexico, that region would in all probability be found to have been thickly inhabited by fierce, athletic, and barbaroas tribes, possessing all the elements of progress known to the Chichemecs and their as«een surmounted with wooden pickets and turrets for marksmen, the whole must have presented a palatial display. The height of the level floor of this fortified establishment could not passibly have exceeded 96 THE INDIAN TRIBES OF THE UNITED STATES. seven or eight feet, and, though its solid cubical contents were considerable, it was not probably beyond the ability of the inhabitants of a populous Indian town to con- struct. Such a structure, raised by the Toltecs or Aztecs, or by their predecessors, would not have excited remark, either on account of the amount of labor expended on it, or because of the skill evinced in its construction ; but, being a deserted ruin, in the territories of tribes who possessed neither art nor industry beyond the merest require- ments of pure hunter tribes, it became a theme of conjecture, and excited wonder, the more so as the discoverers had never seen the evidences of semi-civilization evinced by the Indian tribes of Mexico. As the country became more densely peopled, other remains of an analogous kind were brought to light, most of which were in the form of small sepulchral mounds, or barrows, ditches, or intrenchments once sur- mounted by pickets ; but they excited little remark, except as bearing evidence of the ordinary appearance of an Indian town. The great tumulus at Grave Creek had early attracted notice on account of its size. There was scarcely a tributary stream, from Pittsburg to the mouth of the Ohio, which did not yield some vestige of this kind ; but there was no locality in which the earthworks were so abundant and complicated as in the Scioto Valley. Those at Chillicothe, Circleville, and Paint Creek evinced the existence of a once numerous ancient population. The entire area of the States of Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois, as well as the surround- ing western borders of Virginia and Kentucky, appears to have been the theatre of dense Indian occupancy, partial cultivation, and a peculiar character of inter- nal commerce. There the antiquary found specimens of hammered native copper, steatites for amulets and pipes, the delicate raarginolla shell, mica, obsidian, and hornstone, suitable for arrow-heads. The art of making cooking-pots and vases from tempered clay was understood and practiseil by all the tribes from the mouth of the Mississippi to the farthest extent north and east. The conch and other heavy sea- shells were ingeniously carved into medals, beads, and wampum. An extensive trade was carried on in native copper mined from the basin of Lake Superior. The fine red pipe-stone from the dividing grounds between the Missouri and the Mississippi has been found in the antique Indian graves around Oswego and Onondaga. Wrist- bands and chisels of hammered native copper have been of frequent occurrence. The tips of the horns of quadrupeds were used as awls ; and a thin, tubular piece of silicious clay-slate, worked into the shape of a parallelogram and pierced with two orifices, was employed to separate the strands in making cords or ropes. Thin pieces of bone, with an eye delicately drilled in them, served the purpose of bodkins. Mor- tars for crushing corn were scooped out of solid pieces of rock. Fire was prodiu-ed by the rapid rotation of a stick, with a string and bow. Disccidal stones, fabricated with great labor from pieces of hard granite and porphyry, were used in games. Chisels made of hard stone were employed for removing the incinerated part of trunks of trees in the process of felling them, and also in converting them into canoes. Tomahawks, in the 8ha|)e of lunettes, having sharp {)oints and an orifice in which to insert a handle, supplied the place of iron blades. Smoking-pipes were formed of clay ; but these cher'shed articles were generally carved out of stone with «.•.!<■ 2;3 V '...Li ;r.r.-.-r ANTIQUITIES. 97 much skill and ingenuity. Long mpoar-points were made from chert and hornstone. Fleahing instruments, used in the primary process of preparing skins, were made from porphyry and other hard stones. The manual art« of the Indians were well adapted to their condition and necessities. They ingeniously made a 8])ecies of fish- hook, sinkers, and spears from compact bone ; their war-clubs, bows, arrows, and canoes were constructed with as much skill as those of the semi-civilized tribes of Polynesia. Their musical instruments consisted of a pipe or flute, tambourine, drum, and rattles. The attempts they made to sculpture objects in natural history on their pipes and va»scs exhibited much spirit ; and tlieir braided work on pouches, as well as on the stems of their pipes of state, displayed the exercise of much patient ingenuity. Had not warfare so completely engrossed their minds, they must have made rapid advances in the arts. Stones, on which were carved figures for embossing skins, or fabrics of bark, intended to be used as clothing, were manufactured with considerable skill. The mounds erected by the Indians varied greatly in size. The largest spherical circumference of any of these mounds is six hundred and sixty-six feet, and the smallest twenty feet. The greatest height attained is ninety feet ; and the two prin- cipal mounds, those of Cahokia and Grave Creek, could not contain much less than three million square feet of earth. The most copious evidences of the density of the former population, and of their cultivation, were found in the Mississippi Valley, on the extensive and fertile alluvial plains in Illinois, opposite to the present city of St. Louis, thence extending to Kiiskiuikia and the junction of the Ohio, and up the valley of the latter into the territory of the ancient Andastes, Eries, and Iroquois. The Scioto Valley must have contained a dense hunter and semi-agricultural population previous to its occupancy by the Shawneos, and the Grave Creek flats appear to have been the central location of populous tribes. The most striking evidences of agricul- tural in. TluTf is lilifwine iiinpht reiiHon for Itciicving thiit thi' j)rocefis of ininiiig in tlio hititiidcM of the rcfjioii of Liikt' Superior wiw curried on periodically by [n'rwuiH wlio derived their mmtenuiico from, or who pernmnentiy refiided in, the genial plainH south of the great laiic. The exphirution appears to liavo been suddenly abandoned for some cause, ua if the miners had been driven ott' Ity un inroad of barbarous hordes. The fortilications constructed by the Mississippi Valley tribes wero well adapted to the partieidar kind of enemy to be encountered. Lines of pickets were placed around a village situated on an eminence, or in tlu( valley, or on the plain. Ditches formed no part of the defensive plan, at leiust in their technical nulitary sense. They were sometimes located without the walls, and occa-sionally within. In the former cu«e they denote a contingent state of hd)or in the construction, in the latter they appear to have been intended as pits of refuge, or for heroic resistance, — an Indian feature in lighting. The principal artistic feature in the construction appears to have been the gate, which wius in all cases formed according to the Tliwcahin i)lan, though varied in sundry ways. The principal object appears to have been to lead the enemy into a labyrinth of passages, in which lie would become perplexed how to proceed. Sections of curved walls produced the same effect, and a small mound-shaped reiis fruits, the legumes, the rich dyes and drugs, and other productions peculiar to the tropics, which had been ehimcnt^ of industry to the native Indians of Mexico, its mineralogy included none of the native precious metals. The zeu niui/e watt convened north to about latitude 10°, and disseminated to the farther shores of New ICiigland, and even to the sourees of the Mississippi. The tobacco-plant wa« also cultivated in some of the temperate latitudes; but it is inferred that these Northern Indians were seduced into the line of barbarism by the ready means of subsistence iiU'orded by the deer and the buffalo, which ranged freely through the foresbs anil plains. In 1H4H, some twenty -eight years sidwequent to Mr. Atwater's examinations, the Smithsonian Institution published in the first volume of it« Transactions a full and comprehensive memoir on the subject, under the caption o' " Monuments of the Mis- sissippi Valley," the information contained therein having been derived from jiersonul surveys principally made by Mr. E. G. Stpiier and Dr. Davis. In this work de- scriptiona are presented of the ])rineipal earthworks of the Ohio and Mississippi Valleys from minute instrumental examinations. Whatever had been previously described is reproduced, with much new nuittcr respecting mounds, fortifications, altars, articles of art, and other remains of human labor and ingenuity found scat- tered over those vast plains and valleys. The prominent impression produced in the minds of tlu«e writers by a survey of this field is that the country must have been inhabited by a population vastly more dense than any which ha.s existed there since its discovery, or else that these accumulated labors are the results of much longer and more indefinite periods of occupation than is generally supposed. One great merit of this work is that extravagant theories are avoided. There is, however, a gloss thrown over rude and enigmatical monuments which presupposes the wcupation of the valley in former ages by a people more advanced in arts and polity than the ii'iuote ancestors of the present race of Indians. This conclusion, which is produced l»y the actual declension of Indian art in the North since its first occupancy, had been the tluiory of Mr. Atwater in 1820 ; it had been entertained by (General I'utnam and the Ohio colonists in 1787, and by Dr. Stiles, president of Yale College, to whom till' facts were reported. A prominent feature in the Smithsonian memoir is a description of the fortified lines erected around the escarpment of abru]>t hills, which eomnuinded a view of the valleys and plains, and gave great capacity of defence to a comparatively small body of men. This appears to have been the Indian mode of fortification, requiring but little lalwr and lexs art, yet evincing a strong natural judgment as to the best means } I \ '* I. I f ^n 100 THE INDIAN TRIBES OF THE UNITED STATES. of defence against missiles and hand-to-hand warfare. Passessing no metallic instru- ments, trees wert felled by kindling fires aronnd their trunks and then beating ofi' the incinerated jiarts. This process of girdling and ringing supplicil them with pickets to erect arouiid the brows of eminences. Among the pecnliar earthworks of the Ohio Valley are the raised earthen plat- forms at Marietta, Ohio, with their geometrical lines and counter-lines and interior redoubts, which have, on account of their anomalous character, been frequently re- lerred to. It wiis thought by the early discoverers that there must have been a subterranean j)iussage to these works from the MuskinguTi River. A mound of acute conical form near the smaller platform indicates that it was only one of the numerous specimens of the Indian archiU'cture. The whole field of anti(puirian research, as represented in the Mississippi Valley monuments, may be regarded ius the local nucleus and highest point of development of arts and industry attaliiud by the rod race at^er their segregation from the nomadic Toltec sioeka. These monun.ents were widely scattered, but they assume the same mixed sepulchral and civic character which is apitarent in those found along the Alleghany branch of the Oiiio, in Western New York, and in otlicr parts of the Union. The largest mounds in the Union, and those which are truncated or terraced, bear the closest resemblance to the Mexican teocallis. Tlie'y occupy the most southern portions of the Mississippi V^alley and Florida. They become less in size iis we advance nortiiward, and ce;ise entirely after reaching the latitude of Lake Pepin, on the Upper Missi.'sippi, the head-waters of the Wisconsin, and the mining excavations of Lake Superior. Mouxns. When the Ai;glo-Saxon race began, late in the eighteenth century, to cross the Alleglianies, d to explore the Valley of the Mississippi, the forest was observed to have encroadu'd upon and buried a class of ruins in the shape of tumuli, barrows, abandoned fields, and military earthworks. These relics, of the origin of which the tribes knew nothing, have continued to be the theme of philosophical speculation to the present day. They have been variously ascribed to Celtic, Hebrew, and Aztec sources. This new period of geographical and anti(|uarian discovery followed almost imme- diately the conclusion of the ilelinitivc treaty of peace between (Jrcat IJritain and the United States. Thai event gave s'-jpe for the spirit of geographical and C(»mm('rcial enterprise which had been constantly pushing from the Atlantic shores westward. The initial ooint of .settleim nt, cons((|i;, iit on this t'caty, was Marietta, at the numth of the Muskin'^um. Accounts of '.iiest! anti(piitie were fir.st published by Dr. .Manas- seli Cutler a. id the Il one or two hundred feet the path is barely wiile enough for one lerson to ascend aided by till' scattering shrubbery. It then widens, so that t.'o persons might a.sccnd al>rea.-f sixty or more mounds between Alton and St. Louis, stands the most magnificent of all the Mound-Builders' works, the great mound of Cahokia, opposite St. Louis, wliich rose to a height of ninety feet, and extended its huge mass in the form of a iKirallelograni with sides •.^loa.'^r ing respectively seven hundred by five hundred feet. On the southwest there wa.-< a terrace one hundred and sixty by three hundred feet, reached by means of a graded way. The summit of the pyramid is truncated, affording a platform two hundred hy four hundred and fifty feet. Upon this platform stands a conical mound ten feet high. Furt Ancltiif. — IVrhaps the most remarkal)le fortification left by the Mound- Builders is that known as Fort Ancient, Ohio, on the Little Miami River, forty-two miles northeast of Cincinnati. It occupies a terrace on the left bank of the river, two hundred and thirty fett above the water-level. The place is naturally strong, being a peninsula iii«'d a nunu lous ancient popidation, who left their altars, tunuili, and places of strong defence tn attest a power and strength which, we say unhesitatingly, made Chillicothe il« central oap'tal Other parts of this stream, as at Marietta, Gallipolis, the Great Miami, anl numerous minor sites, attest by their monumental remains the residence and dominion of tribes liaviiig considerable power. The long and fertile area of the American bottom opposite St. Louis appears to liiive Imhmi another central seat of this occupancy, and the relative positions ol the Monk mound and its satellite mounds furnish in some respects a strong coincidence witii the astronomical and a.strological structures of the Toltec race. In Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee, and ahmg the borders of the lower Mississippi the number of works of defence and the deeply idolatrous character of the ancit m inhabitants are denoted l)y other remains, which are seen to have covered large areas of the most valual)le and fertile portions of those States. These arelueologieal ves- tiges extvMid eastwardly and then northeastwardly from Mississippi and Ix)uisiana, through Alabama, Florida, and Georgia, to South Carolina, where a work of this V: s. \ -'v.' ! ■SI 1 J ■ I 104 THE INDIAN TRIBES OF THE UNITED STATES. kind exists on the estate of the late Hon. John C. Calhoun, which is called Fort Hill. They were observed in the region traversed by De Soto simply truncated so as to receive a superstructure of wood. Though generally small, they were im- posing, reaching an elevation of from nine to ninety feet, and having a diameter of from twenty to six hundred and sixty-six feet. He encountered two stockaded works built of tiniLcr, namely, at Mauvila (Mobile), where he fought his great battle, and at the mouth of the Yazoo River, where stood the fortress called Alibamo. The striking remains of eaiihworks in the Ohio Valley lie several hundred miles north of the utmost point reached by the Spanish adventurer. Works of this character again appear in Western New York in the ancient ter- ritories of the Iroquois, extending as far south iis Auburn ; they are seen on the highest and oldest ridge of land, extending through Erie and Chautauqua Counties to the portages of the Alleghany Iliver. It is not apparent that all these works are of the same strong military character and required so many hands to defend them as the prime fortifications of the West, but they embrace the same principles, so far a.s they are carried out, and the sepulchral and general remains indicate the same era. Tiiere is one feature in which the works found in the West all agree. They evince a strong natural capacity for defence. They cover the highest points of land, and are so placed as to command the approaches. The form and size of the work to be adoi)ted were immaterial. Whenever a hill-top or a j)lateau was occupied, it was walled or ditched in according to its geological outlines. The principle of the bastion was necured by any heiglits of land which commandi d a length of wall or jticketing. Traverses, generally roscmbling a segmert of a circle, were drawn in front of the gates, sally-ports, or openings. Small hay-cock mounds were, in other situations, erected to rake with missiles these entrances. The entrances themselves were some- times of an oval or zigzag form. Difficulties of ingress and facilities of issue of a hand-to-hand force wore created by curved or parallel lines, or by gaps suitably defended. lyieir Object. — The kind and state of art which were necessary to erect the mounds and mound-itlatforins, and which characterize the Mound-liuilders, could best be determined by fixing beforehand the object of these structures. A great deal of speculation has Ixhmi indulged in on this siilijcct. That they were intended to be primarily tumuli was the opinion of JeftVrson (see his "Notes on Virginia"). They are of all sizes, from artificial mounds a few feet in In i^rlit and eighteen or twenty feet in circumference to hillocks ninety feet in altitude and sometinuvs reaching at the base a girth of seven hundred feet. Their magnitude appears to have Ih-cu dependent upon the size of the town or village and the amount of its population. It rested, also, on the fact whether the structure Wiis designed to be a public or a private tumulus, or mausoleum. No thought existed at the period of their discovery that Indian art could not ac- complish these works. " These works," says (Jovernor Cass, an acute observer, " are not confined to any particular situation. We fiinl them on hills and ii valleys, ANTIQUITIES. 105 in positions favorable to military defence, and in others where they are completely commanded by elevated ground, and where defence would be impracticable. "A supply of water has not been deemed an indispensable requisite. Between Detroit and Chicago, in the midst of an immense plain, and remote from any stream, one of these works yet remains. There are others similarly situated with regard to water, and upon the Muskingum there are some on the most barren and elevated hills. " They are found in every state of preservation and decay. In some the walls are at least fifteen feet high, particularly near Newark and Lebanon, Ohio, and the whole work is as distinct as it was on the day of its completion. Others are almost mouldered away, and it is difficult to distinguish them from the natural inequalities of the ground. Some of them have ditches and some of them are without, and these ditches are as often found on the inside as the outside of the walls. There is an elevated mound in Marietta enclosed with a wall, and having a ditch be- tween the wall and the mound. It is impossible that this wall and ditch could have been made for any purpose of defence, because the elevation of the mound, which occupies the whole interior space, would have exposed those within to the attack of the assailants. Their form is as various as their situation. They are square, round, ellipticsil, hexagonal, and in almost every shape which fancy can imagine." That the tumulus proper was not intended as a work of defence could not be more conclusively shown than it is by these remarks of a person whc' was very familiar with the topic of Western antiquities. The mound was, however, frequently, when erected on low grounds, connected with walls and ditches, which in these cases were clearly designed to defend the mounds themselves, which were the sepulchres of their forefathers, and may, under the mythologic belief of the Indians, have been designed to incite the defenders to greater acts of heroism. It is stated by Colonel Hawkins that there are five conical mounds of earth on an isolated bluff on the river Coosa, which he regards as having been places of refuge ill seasons of high water. The largest of these artificial mounds of refuge is thiity yarils in diameter and seventeen feet high, and the base of each of the mounf*;* on the bluff is forty-five feet above the river. The maximum rise in late years (1793 to 179'J) of this river he states to be forty-seven feet ; hence the fugitives from the Hood would have been lifted fifteen feet above the point of inundation. He also men- tio'is, as a tradition then current, that the Creeks, from the era in which they had dwelt in the valleys west of the Mississippi, and prior to their migration, had bec'i in tlif habit of constructing such mounds of refuge as shelters from the sudden inun- dations of those rapidly-rising waters in the great slopes esist of the Rocky Mountains. These artificial mounds, it is stated by that observer, were also designed to entomb the remains of their distinguished men. But we are to incpiire. Does the mound, or the defensive work, or any of the surrounding objects, of antiquarian character, imply a degree of skill, or art, or of mere numual lal)()r, superior to that which may be a-ssigned to the ancestors of the present race of Indians? Mounds may be considered as tumuli proper, propyla or U v! sifj! Hi mm^ 100 TlfE INDIAN TRIBES OF TI.'i: UNITED STATES. redoubt mouiula (iit the outer or inner wide of gates), and burrows, or small structures of eartli, generally under nine or ten feet in height. To these may be added the small JSeiotie mounds of saerifice, the eeeentrie totemic or imitative mounds, and the miuwive truneated square or oval platform-mounds. CJeneral Oeorge Kogei-s C'larke, a man extensively acquainted with Western geog- raphy, as w«'ll lus with the Indian manners and customs, believed, from the inspection of these remains of embankment.s, redoubts, and mounds of earth, that they were due to the predecessors of the present race of Indians, or of men of similar language, manners, customs, and arts. " iSome of them," says (leneral Clarke, "have been fortified towns, others encamp- menl.s intreiu-hed, but tlit> greater part have been common garrisoned forts, many of them with towers of earth of considerable height, to defend the walls with arrows and other missile wciipons. "That the people had commerce is evident, because the mouth of every river has been fortified ; where the land was subject to floods, it hius been raised out of the way of water. That they were a numerous people is also evident, not only from their many works, but i Iso from their habitations being raised in low lands. I had frequently observed seaitered, in what we call the low country on the Ohio, little mounds, that I took to be graves, sjich as Mr. .lefl'erson describes ('Notes on Vir- ginia'), which are fre(iuent all over this country, but could not comprehend them. What could induce the people to bring their dead several miles from the high into the low lands for burial? "That they had great armies in the field is evierland Cap, and perhaps but few observers have taken notice of the curiosity there. The gap is very narrow, and what is generally viewed a.s a little hill, that nearly fills up the gap, is an ancient fortress for the defence of the phu'e, a fine spring breaking out within a few yards of it. That they made use of wells is evident, l)ecause they yet appear, in many places, lus little lta.sins by the earth wjuxhing in. The one in the ancient fortress at Ijouisville wo-s filled up by Captain Patten, who made use of part of the old wall for that ])urpose. " Covered ways to water are common ; causeways across marshes frequent. The highroad across Little (Irave Creek did, and I suppose still does, pass over an ancient causeway, made of sand and gravel, across a marsh. "The Indian trailitions give an account of tlu^' works. They say they were the works of their forefathers; tiiat they were as numerous as the trws in the wood; that they affronted the tJreat 8j>irit and he made them kill one another. The works on the Missi.ssippi near the Caw River (Kaskaskia) are among the largest we ANTIQUITIES. 107 know of. The Kaaktwkiu chief, Bapti.stc Ducoign, gave me a history of this. He Hiiid tliat was the palace of his forefathers, when they covered the whole country and had large towns ; that all those works we saw there were the fortifications round the town, which must have been very considerable ; that the smaller works we saw so far within the larger comprehended the real palace ; that the little mountain we tliere saw flung up with a basin on top was a tower that contained part of the guard belonging to the prince, as from the top of that height they could defend the king's house with their arrows, etc." 15a[)tiste Ducoign, who is particularly referred to for this tradition, was a Kas- kaskia chief of intelligence and note, living on the Kaskaskia River, in Illinois, during the latter part of the eighteenth century. This is not the only Indian tradi- tion giving iin account of these antiquarian monuments of a by-gone era which have elicited so much remark. Tiie traditions of the ancient tribe of the Lenni Lenape, recorded by Mr. Heckewelder in 1819, distinctly refer to a general war with more southerly and westerly nations, against whom this once warlike and powerful tribe was engaged, in close alliance with the Iroquois. They are called by him Alligowi. Ileckciwekler says that they were a remarkably tall and athletic jieople, and that they embraced persons of gigantic growth compared to the Lenape. They had built regular " fortifi(!ations and intrenchments," many of which he had seen, and two of which he describes. One of these was located near the mouth of the river Huron (now called Clinton River), Michigan, which empties itself into the nortli side of Lake St. Clair, about twenty miles from Detroit. In the year 178G, when this dis- covery was made, the ground was owned and occupied by a Mr. Tucker. The other work referred to was seated on the south banks of Lake Erie, east of Handusky Bay, and on the river Huron, of Ohio, about six or eight miles from the open shores of Lake Erie. It consisted of two proper intrenchments, or walls and banks of earth regularly formed, with an outer ditch. These intrenchments were a mile ai)art. Outside of the gateways or saliy-ports of each wall were a number of large flat mounds, which his Indian guide afhrmed contained the bones of hundreds of the slain Alligewi. Who were the Mound-BHildersf — Rut it may Ix; inquired, Had the ancestors of the pri'sent race of Indians skill to erect the fortifications and earthworks which are scattered through the Mississippi Valley? Mr. Caleb Atwater, an antiquarian writer, who lived in Ohio, where tlu'se works have always commanded great interest, writing in 1820, discredits the particular fact of the /«////rtry character of most of these works, as well as their actual nniiibvr. " Fii-st, then," observes he, "as to the immense inunber of military works : they are not here. The lines of forts, if forts they were, cominencing near Cattaraugus Creek, New York ; those at Newark, at Circleville, on I'aint Creek; one on the Miami, and one opposite Portsmouth, have been de- scribed ; and I by no means believe that even all these were real forts. Between the Rocky Miauitains aiul the Alleghani(«, the Northern lakes and the Mexican Gulf^ it may be possible that there were originally about twenty forts to defend a country nearly iw large as Europe, and these were probably two thousand years in building, ip-^^ 108 THE INDIAN TRIBES OF THE UNITED STATES. situated, too, in a thickly-Hcttled country." Mr. Atwater believed that these earth- works were archtcological ovidonce-s of a dense occupancy of the Mississippi Valley by a people of superior civilization and of another race, anterior to and different from the ancestors of the Indians. General Clarke, whose opinions are entitled to great weight, deems these encamp- ments, ditches, and lines of defence to be due entirely to the ancestors of the present race of Indians. In favor of this conclusion he adduces the additional testimony of Indian tradition. Since his examinations were made, the Mississippi Valley, which was at that era a vast and sublime wilderness, has been fdled with a civilized popu- lation of the Anglo-Saxon and the various Celtic races of Europe. The labors of agriculture have obliterated many of the earthworks and made it more difficult to form a judgment of their extent and character. Mr. Schoolcraft's impressions also are that they cannot be ascribed to a people of high civilization. No people pos- sessing any high degree of art and knowledge would, in his opinion, have con- structed such inartilicial and eccentric works, which are incapable of enduring a siege. Entire towns were often embmced in lines of defence, together with the tumuli. That many of these mounds are the results of human labor is unquestionable, but it is also true that some are of geological origin. One of the most regular and per- fect of these in form and shape, that of Mount Joliet, on the D&splaines, in Northern Illinois, proved of diluvial origin when excavated in 1839 for the Illinois Canal. The great double mound of St. Louis is purely geological. To add to the popular idea of its being artificial, Indian graves had been dug in its sides and on its summit. Credulous people have indulged in many ingenious speculations occasioned by the numerous impositions and forgeries which have been essayed in connection with these mounds. The Mound-Builders appear to have cultivated public fields, situated in the plains or valleys, near some fortified hill, where the whole mass of the population could nightly, or as danger threatened, resort. The very great area of ground covered by defences in many j)laoes is a strong reason for supposing that the military work itself was a town or village where the women and children were under permanent protec- tion. In the wide area of these fortified towns they could erect their dwellings, which were probably of wood, and therefore perishable, and have left no truce. The military force of such a " fenced city" or town wits more effective, as many of the females could be emj)loyed in carrying arrows and other light work. There were no boml>H, as nowadays, to full over an enclosure: the great struggle was ulwuys at the gates, which were nuiintuined in a desj)erate hund-to-hand contest with darts and clubs. Such mounds as those at Grave Creek and Cahokia indicate not only a dense agricultural population, l)ut ulso a state of society essentially different froi?i that of the existing race north of the tro[)icri. The larger mounds, which were the places of offerings and sacrifices and of the singing of hymns, were outside of the works. These, it is most probable, were only approached by the priests before or after the conflict, and were the sites of public ANTIQUITIES. 109 supplications and public tlrinksgivings. It wa« no desecration of the object to which the large tumuli were dedicated to employ them aa sepulchres for their celebrated men, but rather served to invest them with additional respect and sanctity. The minor mounds, such as we have denominated hay-cock mounds, appear to have been seated inside or outaide of a defended town or fort, of a military character, anil were a sort of redoubt. When seated at places distant from such works, they were generally mere barrows. A third species of the class of minor mounds were evidently of an altaric charac- ter. This appears to have been first shown by Dr. Davis in his elaborate examina- tion of the antiquities of the Scioto Valley. That offerings were made by fire by the Mound-Uuilders, as well as by the existing race of Indians, is clearly shown. An altar of earth, not very imposing in its height or circumference, was made by them IVom loose earth, in which two simple principles were observed, namely, those of the altar and the pyramid. In shape it was like a small inverted blunt cone or tin cup. None exceeded eighteen feet in height, with a base-diameter of twenty-five feet. It wiis circular, so that all could approach and stand around it, and concave enough at the top to prevent the fire from tumbling oft". Here the people could freely make tlieir offerings to the officiating jossakeeds. These appear to have consisted most commonly of the pipe in which incense had been offered, and which was prob- ably, from its ordinary and extraordinary uses, one of the most cherished objects in the household. By long use the bed of the loam or earth composing the altar wt)ul(l become hard, and j)artake in some mejisure of the character of brick. What circumstances deter- mined ita disuse we cannot say. It is certain that in the end the fire was covered up, with all its more or less burned and cracked contents, and the earth heaped up so jis to bury it most effectually and constitute a mound. This peculiar formation was first exposed by the action of the river, which undermined one or more of these Ktructures, expasing the baked red line of earth of a convex form which had made the former bed of the altur, and upon which vast numbers of sculptured pipes were fouiwl. Wiiiconsln Mounds. — One class of mounds, the simplest of all, differ wholly in their object and mode of construction, as well, probably, as in their era of erec- tion, from all the preceding species. These are called the imitative and Wisconsin mounds. These symbolic mounds, or monuments of earth, consist of the figures of animals raised on the surface of the open country and covered with grass. None of them exceed ten fet^t in height, although many of them include considerable areas. Their connection with the existing totemic system of the Indians who are yet on the field of action is too strong to escape attention, liy the system of names imposed upon tiie men composing the Algonkin, Irof^juois, Cherokee, and other nations, a fox, a bear, a turtle, etc., is fixed on as a badge or stem from vrhich the descendants may trace their parentage. To do this, the figure of the animal is employed as an heraldic sign or surname. This sign, which by no means give^ the individual m»me of the i 'A ^ no THE IXDIAX TltlBES OF THE UNITED STATES. person, is called, in the Aig»>nkin, Totem, or " town-mark." These people must have been fUmiliur with tlio miwtodon or elephant, judging from the "Big Elephant" monnd found recently a few miles below the njouth of the Wisconsin liiver. It is one hundred and thirty-five feet long, its other proportions being in accordance therewith. Its shajjo is indicated by its name. A tribe could leave no more permanent trat^e of an esteemed sachem or honored individual than by the erection of one of these monuments. They are clearly sepul- chral, and have no other object than to preserve the names ot distinguished actors in their history. The Fox, the Bkau, the Wolf, and the Eagle, are clearly recog- nizable in the devices published. The mounds most common in the Mississipj)! Valley are sepulchral, those at Grave Creek and Miamisburg, Ohio, indicating by their groat height the importjince of their innuites when living. Age of the Mounds. — Could we determine the age of those works, one great object in their consideration would be attained. The opening of the great tumulus of Grave Crook, in Western Virginia, in 18.'J8, revealed the mode which brought structures of earth of this capacity within the means of the semi-industrial tribes. It was evident that tiie lowermost of tiie two ancient vaults discovered was of vastly the more ancient era. It api)oarod conclusively that the structure was the result of com])ara- tively trivial sej)ulchr,il labors during an immense period, one age and tribe having added to another the results of its easily accomplished and slowly accumulating toils. It also appeared that a mound-like natural hillock had boon selected as the place of the first interment. By the original surface-line of the sod, disclosed by the lower gallery, it was further shown that the first interment was in a vault some six feet below the sod-line, over which earth was heaped, — probably by carrying it up in leather bags from the surrounding plain. The personage interred — judging from his ornaments, and from the attention bestowed in excavating a square vault, lining it with timber and covering it with stones — was a j>atriarch or ruler of trank. Accu- mulations of irregular artiiicial strata of yellow and black sand, with a carbonaceous appearance and alkaline! and acidulous properties, denoted the rise of the structure through the slow process of the incineration or natural decay of human bodies. So great was the epoch devoted to tliGse sepulchral labors that the bones had undergone entire decay, and every osseous vestige had submitted to decomposition and become blended with the earth. The ohh'st inscription in America, exclusive of the muzzinabiks or rock-picto- graphs of the Indians, is one discovered in Onondaga County, New York, bearing the date of l-JliO, — an inscription, manifestly sepulchral, which appears to have been due to gold and silver hunters who accompanied the ill-fated and chivalrous De Leon. But there are no indicia of this kind resj)ecting the mound j)eriod. With regard to tiie platform mounds, it is a recorded tradition of the Musco- gees and Appalachian tril)os that these were public works, laid out on the selection of a now site for a town, and engaged in immediately by the whole tribe, to serve as the offi(;ial seat for tiieir chief ruler. But little al)solnte art wius recjuired to build a tunnihis, — a raised teocalli jilatform or earth wall, such as that of (.'ircleville, Ohio. ANTIQUITIES. Ill The nctiml place in the heiiveiiH of tlie rising and the setting of the sun, without marking ita solstitial changos, would be suilicicnt to guide the native builder in determining with general exactitude the cardinal points. liy whom the mounds were built, or what became of the builders, will in all probability never be known. From the decayed condition of the human remains found in their wonderfully compact and dry soil, and from the fact that none of these works occur on the lower of the four terraces formed by the subsidence of the Western streams at as many ditterent eras, while they were erected promiscuously on all the others, their age ha.s been estimated to be not less than two thousand years. Mr. Lewis II. Morgan, judging from their artificial embankments, their implemcnta and utensils, and their selection of areas poorly jjrovided with lish and game, pro- nounces them agricidtural or Village Indians from New Mexico, whose disappearance was gradual and voluntary, the attempt to transfer the type of village life of New Mexico to the Ohio Valley having proved a failure. Arts and Implements of the Mound-Builders. — Among the articles attesting a mechanical or artistic power, found side by side with tho remains in the sepulchral and other mounds, are well-wrought needles of bone, shuttles of the same material, disks of porphyry, axes and knives of chert, block-prints for clothing, rope-makers' rc'ods, suction-tubes of steatite, elaborate carvings on stone, pottery, often of elegant design, articles of use or ornament in silver and native copper, mica, shells from the (iidf of Mexico, obsidian, and various other objects of utility or ornament. It is from a consideration of these antiquities, which have been disclosed by tumuli and the plougii, that the true state of arts and fabrics of the Mound- and Fort-Builders' epoch must l)e inferred. It appears to have embraced a trnnxition period between tlie i)ure hunter and the agricultural state, and to have felt the moving impulses of iiii al)undant and reliable means of subsistence for its numerous population, some ilxed power of govermnont, and the expansive influences of interior commerce so far as the exchange of articles in kind went. This incipient state of a commercial element, and the first steps of a kind of centralism in government acknowledged by this ancient people, are shown by the remains of antique mining ruins, such as those on liake Superior, where the supplies 1)1" native copjuT were got; also in the area of Indiana, where there appear to have been some attempts at metallurgy, perhaps post-Colinnbian ; and by the antique traces of the same species of labor existing in the valley of the Unica or White River, and that of tlie Arkansas River, and perhaps by the recent discoveries of antique gold- iniiiiiig in (California. Tiiese attempts, which evince industry and skill beyond the wants of the mere hunter era, are proliably of one epoch and admit of being grouped together. The whole of the Western and Northern antiquities of the highest clits.s, einl)racing every monuiiu'nt of the kind north of Utah and the country north of the (tila, to which the Toltee and Aztec civilization probably reached, may be looked upon by the antiquary as forming the second type of American antique civilization. That this type was distinct from the Toltecan system, which led to imperialism and idolatry, is probable. It clearly included various and conflicting tribes, whose i i 'fl Ml 14 112 r//A' /M>JAX TRIBES OF Tilt! UNll'KD STATES. independent spirit und loowcly-knit bonds of union without the true principle of confederacy drove it to an opposite system, and led to llnul disunion, tumult, ami downfall. This ancient group of tribes, who have left their nunains in the Missipsippi Valley and appear to have culminated and fallen there before fresh hordes of adven- turous hunters and warriors, had no coin, no science beyond the first elements of geometry, numbers, anil nahind astronomy, und necessarily (from this want of coin) no fiscal system. Yet there were evidently contributions in kind to enable them to work together on the public defences aiul tumuli which remain. There was another element besides their tendency to monarchy which separated the Toltecan from the Utah or Northern tyj)e of tribes. It wiw the strong bias to idolatry which led theiu to found their monarchy on it, while the Northern tribes preferred the simpler worship of their gods of air, without temples or an edifice of u local character, except elevated j)laces for olfering incense and supplications. When these could not be secured by the selection of natural eminences, they raised urfi- ficial heaps of earth. The West has hundreds of such geological or drift mounds. This was the origin of the tumuli. The minor and more remote tribes, who had fled across the Alleghanies probably at an earlier datt?, in the attractive pursuit of the deer und bear, and in quest of that wild freedom which they loved, do not, when their habits and traditions and character are closely scrutinized, ajtpear to have been of a radically difl'erent stock from the Mound-Muilders, for these Algonkin tribes worshipped the same gods of the winds and mountains. Even in Massachusetts, where there is not an artificial mound, nor anything which can be dignified with the name of an antique fosse, they had, according to John Eliot, the apostolic missionary of 1040, their " Qiiiiu/k/u! (vjc noiu/anh," or high jdaees, where the sagamores and powwows lit their fires and onered incense. ANCIENT AORICtTI.TtTRE. Being destitute of metallic implements, the thought of subduing the forest never entered the Indian mind, and field-agriculture wius equally impossible without the horse or ox and the plough, none of which were known to the American aborigines. Tliey cultivated, therefore, only small patches of alluvial land uikhi the margins of rivers and lakes, such shreds of prairie as they were able to dig over, und such bottom-lands in the dry regions as they could irrigate by means of canals. A stick or a bone wa.s the usual implement for breaking the soil. Irrigation was ex- tensively practised by the Village Indians (Pueblos) of New Mexico. Besides Indian corn, beans, s(piashes, and tobacco were the chief products of their agricul- tural labors. Some curious anficpic garden-beds, or traces of ancient field-hu.«!bandry, appear to denote an ancient period of fixed agriculture in the prairie regions of the West. These vestiges of a state of industry which is far beyond any that is known to have existed among the ancestors of the present Indian trilx's exist chiefly, so far ua is ANTIQUITIES. 113 known, in tho soutliwcHtcrn parte of Michigiin and the luljoining (lintricte of Indiana. Tlioy extend, so far uh olwervcd, over tiio level and fertile |)rairie landn for about one liimdrcd and fifty miles, ranging from ti.e source of the Wabanli and of the west lininch of the Miami of tho Lakes to the valleys of the St. Joseph's, the Kalamazoo, and the Grand lliver of Michigan. The Indians represent them as extending from the latter point up the peninsula north to the i 'cinity of Michilimuckinac. They are of various sizes, covering generally from twenty to one hundred acres. Some of them are reported to embrace even three hundred acres. As a general fact, they exist in the richest soil, as it is found in the prairies and burr-oak plains. In the latter ease trees of the largest kind are scattered over them, but in the greater number (if instances the preservation of their outlines is due to the prairie grass, which forms a (•((nipact sod over them as firm and lasting as if they were impressed in rock: indeed, it is believed, by those who have examine«l the grass which has prwerved the Western mounds and earth-works, that tho compact prairie sod which covers them is more permanent in its qualities than even the firmest sandstones and limestones of the West, the latter of which are known to crumble and waste with marked rapidity under the combined influence of rain, frost, and other atmospheric jdienomena of the climate. As evidence of this, it is asserted that the numerous mounds, embankments, and other forms of Western ttnti(piitii>s are as iwrfcct at this day, where they have not been disturbed by the plough or by excavations, as they were on the earliest discovery of the country. These anti(pie beds offer new and unique traits in our antiquities, denoting a ajwies of cultivation in primitive times of an unusual kind, but which has Itecn aban- doned for centuries. They are called "garden-beds," in common parlance, from the (liliiciilty of assimilating them to anything else, though it would be more proper [u'rhaps to ccmsider them lus the vestiges of ai\eient field-lalmr. The areas are too lai'i^e t(» admit the a.ssumption of their being required for the purposes of ordinary hi)rti('iilture. Plats of land so extensive lus some of these were, laid out for mere ^'aniens or pleasure-gnmnds, would presuppose the existence, at the unknown period of their cultivation, of buildings and satrapies or chieftaindonis of arbitrary authority over the masses, of which there is no other evidence. The other antiquarian proofs of the region are, indeed, of the simplest and least imposing kind, not embracing large mounds or the remains of field fortifications, unless we are to ccmsider these horticultural labors of the table-prairie lands as having existed contemporaneously with, and as appendant settlements of, the prinei|ial ancient defenced towns and strongholds of the Ohio Valley. Tiie main point of incpiiry is, by whom and at what ])oriod were these beds constructed anil tilled, — whether by the ancestors of the existing race of Indians, by tlieir |)redecessors, or by a people possessing a higher degree of fixed civilization? In most of tho other antitiuarian earth-works or remains of human labors of the West, we observe no greater degree of art or skill than may be attributed to hunter races, who, wiicii infringed upon by iieighboriiig tribes, conibine, for the purpose of (li'fince against hand-to-hand missiles, upnd other places dependent on CJrand River, attribute these beds to a people whom they and the united ('iii|ipewiw call the Musheodainsug, or Little Prairie Indians. Ihit there is no evir di nee that this people j)ossessed a higher degree of industry than themselves. The Ottawsus did not enter Lake Michigan till after their defeat in the St. Lawrenco Valley, along with the other Algonkins, about the middle of the sixteenth century, Till' trees growing on the beds tbrougliout Southern Michigan and Indiana denote clearly that at that period the cultivation had been long abandoned. It was evidently (if a prior period. It his been seen that it could not have l)een of European origin, it' we conline (mr view to known or admitted periods of history. It seems ieasonal)le ti) attribute these labors to races of Indians of an early period, and of a more advaneeil grade of industry and numners, wiio were yet, however, to a certain extent Inniters. Are not these beds contemporary vestiges of the epoch of the Mound- Iluilders, if not interior positions of tiie people themselvi's, who have so plaee. Honu! of them still pre- serve the tradition of their ancestors' having landed, amid snow and ice, on the bleak ami frigid shores of the Arctic Ocean. c()1'im;u-mi\i\(j. The use of native eo])))er by the ancient tribes appears to have bwn extensive in the making of various ornaments and implenu-nts. It Wiis found by the natives in the metallic state in lumps and masses of various forms through extensive districts of the West and Northwest, where it was coiiecled and sul)jected to mechanical labor by the tribes, who wrought it out exclusively with liie hanuner. This nu't^d s(m»('- times exhibits itself on the surface in tiie form of regular veins in formations of ANTIQUITIES. 117 the trap rock, llocont discovi'rics in the biisiu of Lake Superior denote that these veins were worked by niiners in ancient times in their natural courses with more skill and energy than have ever been exhibited by the present Indian race. Vestiges of ancient mines have been discovered in this basin of so important u character that modern miners have paused in astonishment ujion beholding them. Tliey indicate the application of a peculiar system of labor whicli was never in known jieriods a characteristic of savage tribes, and in wi\ich at the best they could have been em- ployed only as auxiliaries. True it is that *his ancient mode of mining vvas altogether simple, and evinced a bestowal of incipient art in the department, such as ia conformable to the earliest suggestions of ingenuity in regard to tiie sulyect. After the external masses had been removed, the metallic leads appear to have been worked by building fires upon or against the walls of the trap rock. After this calcining process had been con- tiiuied to the desirei' j)oint, water was poured on the heated rock to render it friable. Mauls of hard stone; were then applied to beat off the calcined rock. These mauls are abundantly found in the reopened works. They are generally of (piartz rock, or the silicious parts of granitic or Azoic rocks. Stone and copper wedges are also founroduetive at present ill iPi'tallic (Mtpper, appears to have lieen sudileiily dropped, a.s if occasioned by some pol.tieal change or revolution in Indian history by which more barbanms tribes of nun had prevailed. \-' n ! I" ■ Ipl'i 118 THE INDIA]^ TRIBES OF THE UNITED STATES. ANTIQUITIES OF LAKE ERIE. The occupation of the shores and islands of this lake by the ancient and extinct tribe of the Eries, who were once the acknowledged pacificators of the neighboring Indians, and who preceded the Iroquois in warlike and civic power within that basin, gives a melancholy interest to whatever, in the existing archteological remains of the country, serves to restore the memory of their power. The recent discovery of ancient earthworks and two inscriptions in the picto- graphic character on Cunningham's Island, in the archipelago of islands in the western part of this lake, gives birth to the idea that these islands were one of the strongholds of that tribe when attacked by the Iroquois. They appear to have been in all the plenitude of their power and barbaric boast of strength and influence at the period of the first discoveries of the French, in the beginning of the seventeenth century. The Wyandots, who afterwards were known to have exercised a controlling influence on the contiguous waters of Sandusky Bay and the Straits of Detroit, had not yet been disturbed from their ancient seats in the Valley of the St. Ijawrence. Le Jcuue, who published the first account of the Iroquois, in Paris, in 1658, men- tions the angry negotiations carried on at Hochelaga, the site of Montreal, by which the Iroijuois attempted to control that tril)e, and during which they commanded them, on pain of their direst vengeance, to br6ak their league with the French ; and when this threat was put into execution a few years after, the Wyandots, having been defeated in the St. Lawrence Valley, fletl west through the country of the friendly Algonkins to the basin of Lake Huron, and at a later period to the basin of Lake Erie, where the canoes of the vengeful Iroquois were already prowling in their adventurous thiixt for military renown. The Erics present one claim to remembrance which cannot be urged by any other Americjin tril)e, namely, as the ancient kindlers of the council-fire of peace for all the tribes prior to the rise and destruction of this institution, and before the origin of the Irocpiois confederacy. There can be no (juestion, from the early accounts of the French missionaries, that tiiey were at the head of that singular confederation of tril)es called the Neutral Nation, which extended from the extreme West to the eastern shores of Lake Erie, including the Niagara Valley, and of whom the Kaukwas, of Seneca tradition, were manifestly only one of the powei-s. The history of this people, their rise, their s|)read, and their final fall, is involved in a degree of obscurity which is the more stimulating to curiosity from the few gleams of light that tradition gives. There is no doubt that an institution which nuist always have been Hul)jeet to a very delicate »'xercise of authority, and which was often fluctuating in its pcjwer, was finally overthr iwn for some indiscreet act. The power to light this pacific fire is rej)resented lus having been held by female hands before its final extinction in the area of Western New York. It is etjually eh'ar that after it began to flicker it wjis finally put out in blood by the increiu>'ing lro|| 1 ]■<:•■{< Sl'lltll .'l.i'' i..l' ' 'lllliltll J^il.llll .- !S I..1I li Tju.' «? tr I "X ::^: -&■: .■••itj»r' ''sn, •;5js.- ;«M '>^ -O,- :it:' ■n- 1 i H hli 'i iiil ^ l*-l ^?' ANTIQUITIES. 110 who app<>iir to have conquorcd somc^ of tlio bandH in battle, and to have driven otherH, or the remnants of othcrH, away. Tiie prcHCiit Htate of our traditions on this subjcert ia interoHting, and adds new niotiveH to rcHcarch. Jt is afliriii<oplo who huvo left their name on tlie laite. A crescent-Mliaped and irrcguhir earthwork on tho Bouth Hide of the inhind has tho general appearance of an embankment or circumvallation intended to encloHe and defend a vilhige. Tlie gatCH or sally-portH, which were probably constructed of wood, occupy tho eiwt side and tho extreme northwestern angle. The embankment is twelve hundred and forty-six feet around the crt^seent-shaped part, and about four hundred feet on the rock brink of the island. A second enclosure, marked by a circumvallation, is situated a short distance west of tlie former, fronting like it on the rocky and precipitous nuirgin of the lake. This front line is six hundred and fourteen feet. The embankment, which is without gate or sally-port, is twelve hundred and forty-three feet around. Within these enclosures were found stone axes, pipes, jK-rforators, Iwno fish- hooks, fragments of pottery, arrow-heads, net-sinkers, and fragmentw of human bones. The arrow-heads were found in a fissure of the rock in large (piantity, and were apparently new. With them was found the largest sjMJcies of axe, figured, which had also apparently been unused. These vestiges of art correspond entirely with the general state of knowledge and wants of the surrounding aborigines. Five small mounds on the southern and western part of the island are of the kind denominated barrows. On a bay on tho north shore of the island there is a brief pictograi)hie inscrij)tion on a limestone boulder which has Ik'cu reversed by tho action of tempests on that shore. MUZZINAniKO.V KOCK-WIMTINU Oil IIISTOUY. W(; have seen the application of i)icture-writing among the trik's from its first or simple drawings in the inscription of totems and memorials on grave-jiosts, through the various methods adopted to convey information on sheets of bark, scarified trees, and other substances, and through the institutions and songs of the Meda and tho AVabeno societies, the mysteries of the Jeesuk'iwin, the business of hunting, and the incidents of war and affection. It remains only to consider their use in an historical point of view, or in recording, in a more i)ermanent form than cither of the preceding instances, such transactions in the aflairs of a wandering forest life as a{)pear to them to have demanded more labored attemjits to j)rcserve. The term kckcewin is applied to picture-writing generally. Another syllable (ho) is thrown into the centre of the wortl when the figures are more particularly designed to convey instruction. TIh^ term tlicn is Icrkmiowiii. It is the distinction which the native vocabulary appears to establisii between simple representative figures and symbols. The term muzziiidbikon is strictly apj)lied to inscriptions on rocks, or, as the word literally implies, rock-writing. Of ro(!k-writing, or nuizzinabikon, tiiere are many examples in North America, If 1 ;i 1 I'fa Kr ./'; i ;■ >j \% J r'i » *S! i; .; m (■ Sliai ■ iCia?^ mi [J 1. *.••■■■• »»fki ,*#nt most of tlie known inscriptions consist of single or at most but few figures. An Indian pictographic rock on the right bank of the Ohio, near Steubenville, O., bears a marked resemblance to that at Dighton, Mass. Allusion has been made to several instances of this kind, which are generally in the simple representative character. There bae been- noticed a striking disposition in the persons inscribing th(se figures to place thtem in ponitions on tlte rock not "tej&ily nccessiblej^as on the perpendicular face of a cliff, to reach -which soine artificial cohtrivanco must have been neces.sary. The Object clearly was to produce a 'feeling- of Surprise^'ot mystery. Tii'j mottled and'sha nienibeiw bear the same mark. His individual name is given by Figure No. 4, tlie woir. The whole of the rcmainiiig eight figures are syml)olical representations of the various spirits or gods upon whom he relii'd. No. 5 is the Misshibezhieu, or faltnlons panther. The drawing shows a human head crowned with horns, the nsiial symbol of power, with the body and claws of a panther and a m.ine. The name of the panther, Misshibezhieu, is a great lynx. Tlu' eross«'s u])on the body W. :■■■■- ! ' *, '■■;' ' Tills I. rill iliiidtci nil circct iiuTily, liiit conVi'ys iti^ •■'I'u of tlu; cau-c or iiiiiiimT of prmliniii'r llu' efli'ct wliirli is Ml i^ranliii'iilly lii'iKilnl in llii' I'rriiiun. Itl 122 THE INDIAN TRIBES OF THE UNITED STATES. denote night, and are supposed to indicate the time proper for tho exercise of the powers it conveys. No. G is a representation of the same figure without a mane and without crosses, and denotes the exercise of its powers by dayliglit. In No. 7 he depicts his reliance uj)on Mong, or the loon ; in No. 8 upon Mukwah, or the black bear ; and in No. U on Moaz, or the moose. Each of these objects is emblematic of some proi)erty or qualification desired by the warrior. The loon, whose cry fore- tells changes of the weather, denotes forecast ; the bear, strength and sagacity : and the moose, wariness, being the most keen of hearing and wary of any of the quad- ru[)eds. In No. 10 he depicts a kind of fabulous serpent resembling a saurian, having two feet, and armed with horns. Both of these appendages are believed to be symbolic of the ser{)ent's swiftness and power over life. It is called Misshikinabik, or Great Serpent. In No. 11 there is shown a reptile of analogous powers, but it has a body mounted on four legs, and is therefore more clearly of the lizard or saurian type. The name is, however, the same. Thus far are detailed the means and power upon which the chief relied, and these were (symbolically) inscribed in the region of his residence, on the southern shores of the lake. The results of the expedition are given in pictograph B, Plate 28, which Wiis painted on the face of a rock at Wazhenauhikinignning Augawong, or the Place of the Writing, or Inscription Kock, on tlu; north shores of Lake Superior, Canada. It is near a bay between this point and Namabin Itiver that the lake was crossed. The passage was made in five canoes of various sizes and containing in all lifty-nne men. Of these, sixteen men were in No. 1, nine in No. 2, ten in No. 3, eight in No. 4, and eight in No. o. The first canoe wiis led by Kishkemunasee, or the Kingfisher (No. (5), who WJis the chief's principal auxiliary. The crossing occu- pied three days, as shown l)y the figure of three suns, under a sky and a rainbow, jn No. 7. In Xos. 8, !>, and 10 he introduces three objects of reliance not j)reviously brought forward. No. 8 is the Mikenok, or land-tortoise, an important synd)ol, which appears to imply the chief point of triumph, — that is, reaching land. No. i) is the horse, and reveals the date of this adventure as being subsequent to the settle- ment of Canada, The Meila is depicted on the horse's back, crowned with feathers, and holding up his drum-stick, such as is used in the mystic incantations. No. 10 is the Migazee, or eagle, the prime symbol of courage. In No. 11 the chief records, the aid he received from tin- fabulous night-jtanther, — tiiis jtanther, by the way, is generally located in the rlouds, — and in No. 12 a like service is recorded to the credit of the Great Serpent. AXanNT BUILDING. Floi'idSitii TcncnlUs, or I'lnlfonn-Jia^idviicvH of tlir Native Jiulcrx and Pritit/s. — (larcila-^so de la Vega infortiis us that the dwelling-houses of the cacirpies or chiefs of Kl')rida in l."»l(), during I)c Soto".-; march through the present area of Florida, Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi, were generally erected on large arlilicial mounds, or a species of teocalli. These artilicial platforms were sometimes eightein hundred 10 IS -tfs;^— V < m I ANTIQUITIES. 123 feet in circumference at the base, and from twenty to fifty feet high. They were capable of furnishing space for the houses of the chief and his family and their attendants. The sides were steep, and ascended by steps cut in the earth and cased with wood. This structure for the micco, or chief, is stated to have constituted the centre of every newly-laid-out village or town. Around it was drawn a large square, where the principal and subordinate persons and commonalty had their residences. It was the first object erected on the selection of a town-site ; the earth was brought to the spot. The chief and his priest, who were often one in their functions, were thus placed in a position not only of greater security, but one from which they could overlook the whole town. It is perceived from Mr. Pickett's History of Alabama that remains of such structures are found in many places in the extensive area of the United States denoted by De la Vega. They are clearly distinguished from the mass of remains called in- discriminately tumuli and mounds, by being flat at top, sometimes square, and as- suming the character of precipitous raised plains or platforms, while the tumuli proper are conical, often acutely so, and carried up sometimes to the height of ninety feet. When they are not terminated in a cone, the horizontal area is small, and appears by its reduced size to have been rather suited to the temple-wigwam than the niici'o's residence. These remarks seem to be deserving of attention. At an age of our Indian population when every few hundred men constituted a separate natirn, who lived in constant hostility, such platforms of elevated earth afforded vantage-ground not only for residence but for a battle, and it was quite natural that afterwards, when they com- bined into confederacies, as the large Muscogee stock is known to have done, the use of these select places for the rulers should have been forgotten in the lapse of centuries, or concealed from the curiosity of inquirers. The observation of these ancient plateaus throws light on this class of our antiqui- ties. It is not only the earliest light we have on the subject north of the Gulf of Mexico, but it reveals one of the purposes of these antique tumuli which are scattered so profusely over portions of the ancient area of the western and souil^ern parts of llio United States. The Muscogees, under several cognate names, trace their origin to the Mexican empire, and these plateaus appear to have had their j)rot()typc in the more imjwsing Mexican teocallis ; and thus we may perceive that the United States, and indeed all Xnrth AnuTloa, was overspread in its native pDpulation l)y religious rites and notions, wliicli : ^■t'anie, indeed, fainter and fainter as they spread northward and escaped from a spi'cies of sacerdotal tyranny, but were yet of the same general character. It is something in all archieological investigation to reach a jKriod where wonder and speculation end and reality begins. It is perceived that in the extension of these artiiitial iieaps of honored earth from tlie (Jnlf northward, they became teocallis or |ilatturni pyramids (if les*s area and greater acuteness, but they were in all instance's of tins kind trnncated, or had a level area at their tops. We allude here exclusively tu the "tumuli prti|H'r," and not to the "redoubt mounds" or "the barrows," (u- to I % i'a rS ^1 ■1 \ " > ' fj^ < t H i i ' =1 i % i I :mmm 124 riJE INDIAN riilBES OF THE UNITED STATES. small " altars of sacrilico." Yet this suiuinit plateau was fully developed in the chief mounds of the Mississippi Valley and its tributaries, as at Cahokia, in Illinois, which has a base of six hundred ami sixty-six feet, and at Grave Creek Flats, Mianiisburg, and other noteil points of central anti(jue native ])owcr in the West, at all of which places the i)riest had room amply suflicient for his residence and ollicial functions on the summit. Cam Grande. — Father Tedro Font, a Spanish friar, who visited the Qusa Grande in 177-J, thus describes it: "The Ciusa Grande, or Palace of Montezuma, may have, according to the accounts and scant information there are of it which the Indians give, iin anti(iuity of five luuidred years, for it appears that its foundation was laid by tiie Mexicans, wiien in their transmigration the devil took them through many lands, until arriving at the promised country of Mexico, where, in their extensive settle- ments, they raised edilices and })lanted a population. The place on which the lumse stands is level, separated from the river tJila to the distance of a league, the remains of the houses which formed the town extemling more than a league to the eastward anil to the other points. All this ground is strewn with ])ieces of pots, jars, plates, efc, some coarse, and otliers colored of a variety of tints, white, blue, red, etc., a sign that it was once thickly inhabited, and by a people distinct from the Pimas of the Gila, as these know not how to make like ware. " The house is square, and sets exactly to the four cardinal points. About it are some ruins indicating a i'ence or wall which enclosed the house and other buildings, remarkable at the corners, where there appears to have been a structure like an interior castle or watch-tower, for at the corner which stands to the .southwest there is a piece up, with its divisions and one story. The exterior wall of the house is four hundred and twenty feet from north to south, and two hundred and sixty feet from t st to west. The interior is composed of live halls, three in the middle of e<|ual size, and one at each extreme of greater length. The three are twenty-six feet from north to south, and from east to west ten feet. The two at the ends are twelve feet from north to south, and thirty-eight from east to west. In height they are eleven feet, anil in this arc efpial. The doors of comimmieation are five feet high and two feet wide, are nearly all of the same size, excepting the four first, being the four outer, which appear to be as wide again. Tiie thickness of the walls is four feet; they are well enclosed ; those of the exterior are six feet. The house had a measurement on the outside iVoin north to south of seventy feet, and from east to west of fifty. Tlie walls are scarped from without. Before the door on the east side there is, apart fnun the house, another room, which is from north to south twenty-six feel, and from east to west eighteen feet, exclusive of tiie ihiekuess of the walls. The wood-work was of pine, from what could be -ecn, um<1 the nearest lidge of jiines is some t\venty-fi\e leagues distant, which has also .««inie mesijuile. The entire structure is of earth, and according to appearan<-«s iIk; tapia was made in iiloeks of dilVen iit sizes. A very large canal leads up a goi»«l 'listance from the river, from which the population wire supplied, and whicli i.s now much llllid up. It is eviilcnt, liowiver, tlial (lie edilin' ha-< haii Three storii-s, aiel ir that be true which could be gleaned from the Indian.s, and ANTIQUITIES. 125 from the marks which were to he seen, tliere had been four, the lower floor of the house having been below, like that of a cellar. To give light to the rooms there are only fo be seen the doors and some round holes in the middle of the walls which look to the eiust and west, and the Indians said that through these holes, which are some- what large, the j)rince, whom they called the JJitter Man, looked out to salute the sun when it rose and set. No a|)[)earance3 of stairs were found, from which we judged that they had been consumed by the fire which had been set to the building by the Apaches. " Tlu! windows are square and very true, are without hinges or bolts {sin qulclos III (itnivcmdoa), were Tuade with a mould and arch, the same as the doors, although narrow, and in this i>articular might be recognized to be the work of Indians. It is tliirty-six ])aces in length and twenty-one in width, of good symmetry, as the fol- lowing design, with the gnuind-plan, will show. H •m 1-t I " At the distance of the shot of an anjuebuse twelve other houses are to be seen, also half fallen, having thick Widis, and all the ceilings burnt, except in the htwer room of one house, which is oi' round timbers, sm(»oth and not thick, which !i|)pt'ared to he of cedar or savin, and ovit them sticks [otulcs) of very e(|iKil size, and a cake of mortar and hard clay, making a roof or ceiling of great ingennity. In the environs arc to be seen many other ruins and heaps of broken earth, which circumscribe it two l(';igncs, with much broki'n earthenware of plates and pots of line clay, piiintcd of iriMny colors, and which rescnd)le the jars of (Juadalajara in New Spain. It may be inferred that the population or city of this body politic was very large; and that it was one of government is shown by a main canal which comes from the rivr by the plain, running around for the distance of three leagues, and enclosing the inhabitants in its area, being in breadth ten varas, and about four in depth, throngh which pcr- ha|)s was directed one-half the \olnme of the river, in such a manner that it might serve for a defensive moat as well as to sn|iply the wards willi watei' and irrigate the plantations in thi' adjacencies. The guides said that at the distance of a day's 1} m ■1^:^ 12() THE INDIAN riilBES OF TUE UNITED STATES. journey there were a variety of other edificea of the same construction towards the north, on tiie opj)osite t(M> manufacture a very good eartlieii pot or a splendid bow and arrow, be would not many years continue to cul- tivate these arts when lie could, by the exchange of a few skins, obtain in j)lace of the one a light brass kettle, and for the other a gun. Nor W(add he htng continue to clothe himself with lynx, black-fox, and beaver skins, when for a tithe of their worth he coulil procure the woollen blankets and cloths of JOngland, Fraiu-e, and Holland. He niig of vore, but it lit prefer, indeed, to carve and engrave his pij)e from fictile stones, us he did inevitable that the state of native art should decline. We must admit that the ancient Indian was a better artist than the modern. This is a funda- mental truth in our arclueology. When the Spanish discovered America, Europe was shaken to it.s centre by re- tations. For the Keformatioii was then on the point of breaking forth, lijjious a<;i UK 1 in a few years was at its height. Luther commenced his open career just t wo years before ("ortez first apjicareil before the city of Mexico. That j)art of the Church controlled by Spain was swayed by the y.cal and energy of Loyola, and it was a jioint of deep icligioiis ciiiiihitioii and ti'iuiiipli to show the divided Churches of lOurope that she was siicccsst'iilly engaged in convei'ting the millions of new-found idolatrous aliorigines to the true faith. In this eil'ort conipiest itself beciune one oi' the eliief means of securing the triuniplis of tlie Spanish Church. The very state ANTJQUJTIKS. 129 of tli« liiiililingH, artH, und jm)\viu" of tlie Iiuliiins wiw oxaggeriiU'tl to hIiow the grciit- lU'HH of tilt' victory uiul t(» fiiliaiici! tlio glory of the coiKiiicst. Let the Hiiiniht journal of lieriial Diaz, nay, the poliHlied und elahorate luHtory of J)e Soiin, be read with a view to tiiin general stat(^ of things, and the olwerver eannot fail to diHcover at every Hte|» the strong tendency tt) overewtiniate the state of arts, the power of the Indian government, and the general type of seini-eivili/ation. A dressed deer-skin, with rude deviecM of animals and men, folded in a (piadrangnlar form, was |)ronouneed " a Itoolv ;" the stroke of an Indian drnm-sliek, "u gong;" rude walls, witlunit a door or a roof, "a fort;" the merest crude fabrics of wearing, without the knowledge of a dis- tair or a shuttle, were likened to the mantles of European kings; a cacitjue, with his plunu's, was " a noble ;" and Montezuma himself, a sagamore swaying chiefs of lesser power, was exalted by the term of "emperor," a word unknown to the Aztec lan- guage. They made j)ot.s and vases by hand, but had not the knowledge of the pot- ter's wheel or of the wooden lathe. What sort of civilization would Europe have without these simple arts? They ha()'.), lound the same remark applicable to the Manhattanese and Mohi- cans of \cw York, and the same observation was made by the English Pilgrims who landed in New England in 1<)2(). Their early writers describe the tribes as being in a very low state of barbarism, and as demon-worshippers, under the ]>ower of A'«- mii/o-wi/. Cartier, who had discovered tlu^ St. Lawrenci' in I'')'.)'), six years before Coronado's expedition to New Mexico, describes them as having only the manners and arts of hunters. Champlain, the real founder of Canatia, in IdOK, takes the same vi«'W, although he found both generic stocks of the Jro([Uois and Algonkins, as is perceived from comparisons, a decidedly more athletic, vigonais, and brave people than the Tra.s-Gila or Mexican tribes. Among the Inxjuois especially he notict'd tlicm to U' cultivators of large (|uaMlities of maize, very brave in war, and actuated by the ccntr:!!i:^;'d and progr»'ssive principles of a conl'eileration of cantons. Colden, in% /;^^4? 'V ^S" A% 1.0 I.I 1^ Hi u us Itt 1.8 1.25 1.4 1.6 ^ 6" ► V v] ^> Photographic Sciences Corporation ^^"- ^^U ^ 23 '-'ji-'iY fV\»N ilREET WEBSTER, NY. MS 80 (716) 872-4503 ■<^' \ t. ^ o^ ^ MB i jSH H [ ■ .-1 ^t 130 J7/i; INDIAN TRIBES OP THE UNITED STATES. respect they stood out prominently among all the Northern tribes, evincing a degree of wisdom and policy that would not have been unworthy of Greeks, and they con- tinued to exorcise this influence and standing through all the colonial period till the close of the American Revolution. As the other colonies were jjlanted, their leaders concurred in the views originally expressed by their predecessors of the Indian tribes, and also in the opinion of the veiy obvious advantage which the politico-agricultural element had given to the Iro- quois. Robert de la Salle in 1G78 laid the foundations of Fort Niagara, and pro- ceeded the following year to the Mississippi River, of which, through Joliet, the commissioner, and Marquette, he was the discoverer, at the influx of the Wiscon- sin. These exjilorei-s found the Western tribes, as well as the Irofjuois, to be culti- vators of maize. But neither he nor any of his lieutenants or missionary teachers make detailed observations on the history, migrations, antiquities, or tn>ditions of the tribes. It was not, in fact, the age for this species of research. The subject of an- tiquities is never named. It does not ap2)ear from this comparative silence that during the settlement of New France the active adventurers and missionaries of the jwriod observed any evidences of skill or arts which they did not suppose to bo common to the existing tribes, or which their predecessors had not erected. Pipes, tobacco, sea-shells, copper ornaments, mica, flint-stones, and Indian corn were objects of native traffic. They viewed the intrenchments and ditches formed to protect villages from the sudden attacks of hostile bands as requiring no labor which the pojnilation was not adecjuate to bestow, or which called for remark. The heaps or mounds of earth at that jwriod were regarded as simple mausolea for the dead. It was not necessary to imagine a state of arts and semi-civilization which at best was very far inferior lo what the same race of tribes had attained a few degrees farther south. Louisiana was colonized late in the seventeenth century. La Salle made the effbrt in IG80, and a settlement had been made at Biloxi in 109!> ; but New Orleans was not founded till 1717. This was ten years after the settlement of Vincennes in the country of the Illinois, sixteen years after the ('.>^tablishiuent of a military post at Detroit, and full eight-and-thirty after the foundation of Michilimaokinac, the Pcck- wulinong of the Inpi Valley and the great chain of lakes. The French admired the tribes, and spoke enthusiiustically of their character, but it did not apjjcar to them that they possessed arts or had any skill in the application of labor beyond that of their actual condition as foresters. They made bows and arrows, clul)s and spears, skilfully. They carved their pipes artistically from steatites and other soft material. They fre<[ueiitly chose the sites of their villages on emi- nences, which deiioted good taste and a poetic feeling, and often surrounded them with pickets. They buried their dead in mounds or simple graves, with pictograjdiic lieadposts. Fires were usually lighted on tliose at night. No discrimination was made between iu!W and ancient works of this kind, which latter had itccii al)anwn, Ohio. It is evident (hat the Indians never made this cloth, for they did not understand weavin<;, and they did not obtain it from Kurope, for it is not such as would have been made for their trade. This cloth poes far towards authorizing' a distinction between the North American Iniiian.') and the Mound- Builders. It is composed of a material closely allied to hemp. Dr. Ooadby said that it was easy to distinguish between the fibre of flax and that of cotton. The former is round and solid, while the "ther presents the appearance of a vegetable tube. Prof Agassiz suggested that this clotli might be made of nettles. He said he hud seen such in Switzerland, and on the first view it was his iinpre,s,sion that the cloth in (|ueslii>n wa.s made of the North American nettle. Prof. Uenwick, of Newark, then inquired if this was not spoken of by Columbus in his discovery. It was his impression that it was."— /?ry)or( .4m. Sd. .Umc. ih ht w I I I ssa n ss^^Hi iHmm aM—MBK i i i i r i i ii m i nitniiftm m m ANTIQUITIES. 133 and Ezekiel. There is no evidence whatever tliat this wheel was used in America at the period of its discovery. All the Mexican and Peruvian pottery examined is found to have been formed by a species of handicraft without machinery. It ex- hibits no striflB to denote the centrifugal force, and it is without exactitude of diame- ter. Least of all are these requisites present in the Mississippi pottery. This article is found in every instance to be unglazed. The aborigines knew nothing of the vitric art. The area covered by relics of Indian pottery in the United States is very ex- tensive. Fragments of it taken from the valleys of the Merrimac, Connecticut, Hudson, Susquehanna, Delaware, Congaree, Savannah, and Alabama are nearly iden- tical in their composition and mechanical texture, and it also agrees in character with the vases and fragments from old sites of Indian earthworks and occupation in the Ohio and Mississippi Valleys. This antique pottery is a very coarse and peculiar species of terra-cotta ; it admitted, from its coarse texture, the aj>plication of sudden heat. The tendency of the aluminous material of common clay to shrink and crack is counteracted by the admixture of silicious granitic particles, or finely pulverized shells. The ancient akeek or hominy-pot of the tribes was generally used like the sand-bath in operative chemistry. It was set in a bed of coals or ashes, or sus- pended by a tripod with bark strings. In the Southern States vases and i>orringers were made from the saino coarse materials. Human figures were sometimes moulded from the phustic mass, antique specimens of which are thought to indicate the trans- ferrence to this hemisphere of the 2)hallic worship of India. The Florida pottery is superior in composition, manufacture, and ornament to that of the Atlantic and Lake tribes. It is a tradition of the Shawanoes that Floriila was anciently inhabited by white men, and that their ancestors found vestiges of arts such as were not common to the red men. PIPE-SCULPTUUE. Another example of the ancient state of art of the tribes of the United States is found in the enamels, and wrought shells and pipes, sculptured and earthenware. Indian art appears to have had its germ in this latter peculiar species of sculpture, which was the only one of their arts that withstood the shock of the introduction of European skill. The ancient forms of these are shown by the disclosures of their graves and altar-mounds in the West to have been very elaborate. The specimens iigured by Mr. Scjuier from the Scioto Valley evince a very close observation of the peculiar and distinguishing traits of various species of carnivorous birds, quadrupeds, and reptiles. The imitative faculty appears to be very strong in the Indian in all periods of his history, and has been brought out with much skill in connection witii this very striking habit. We observe a similar, but not in this instance a superior, degree of skill to have existed among the Toltecs, Aztecs, and native Teruvians. Their ardor seems to have Iwen drawn off in a measure from pipe-stulpture to pot- tery, arcliitecture, picture-writing, and perhaps jiure hieroglyphics, while the United States tribes continued to devote their highest skill to pipe-sculpture. 11 I 'a i ti'ls.! 134 THE INDIAN TRIBES OF TUB UNITED STATES. The sculpture of jiipcs from stones and various brittle species of minerals is an ancient and truly Indian art, as is most completely shown by all ages of Indian sepulture, and ])!irticularly by those of the mound epoch. It is a mistake to suppose that the pipe-sculptures of the Scioto Valley, the ancient capital of Indian power in the Ohio Valley, evince a state of art superior to the general aboriginal type. Mr. Squier (see Monuments of the Mississippi Valley), who advances this idea, deceives liinisclf if he imagines that these offerings from the altar-mounds of that valley denote a higher state of art than that of the Toltecs or Aztecs, the state of pipe-carv- ing of the old Allegan tribes, or even that of some of the United States Indians of the present day. From the earliest date a character of sacredness has been attached by the Amer- ican tribes to the incineration of tobacco, an article which has been in use as an acceptable gift to the Deity. It was supposed by them to be the most desirable of all offerings to the Great Spirit, and it entered largely into their ceremonial rites and social pleasures. The art of sculpture with them was concentrated on this single branch, namely, the making of pipe-bowls. These were wrought usually from steatites, serpentines, shales, soft tertiary red stones, or other fissile indurated minerals. Even fossil coal has been found as the material. The object of art was to conceal the chief design of using it as a smoking apparatus under some animated form, as a lizard, frog, bird, or quadruped, which was sculptured often with considerable spirit and justness of proportions. 1 INDIAN AXES. Various stone implements of the antique period of the hunter occupancy of America have received the name of " Indian axes." The ancient Indians, prior to the era of the discovery of America, had no use for an axe in the sense in which we apply the term nowadays. Fire wius the agent they employed in felling trees and reducing their trunks to proper lengths. There w.is no cutting of trees. No stone axe possesses the hardness or sharpness essential to cut the solid fibres of an oak, a pine, an elm, or any other species of American tree. When the wants of an Indian hunter had determined him to fell a tree in order to make a log canoe or 01 instruct pickets for a palisade, he lighted a lire closo around it upon the ground. When the fire had burned in so as to produce a coal that might impede its further progress, a stone instrument of peculiar construction, with a handle to keep the pei"son from the heat, was employed to pick away the coal and keep the surface fresh. This is the instrument called by the Indians agakwul, to which popular opinion has usually applied the name of axe. The mode of using this ancient axe, which would be more appropriately classed as a pick, was by twisting around it, of a size corresjMinding to the ring, a supple withe, forming the handle, which could be firmly tied together, and which would enable the user to strike a firm inward blow. This handle wius not at right angles with the axe. It was so placed, as the ring shows, that at about the length of three feet it would intersect a line drawn at right angles from the foot of the blade. ANTIQUITIES. 185 or edge of greatest sharpness. This incidence of the handle to the hiade would en- able an indrawing blow to be struck, for which there were practical reasons. FUNERAL VASE. The idea of placing food in or near the grave to serve the departed spirit on its journey to the fancied land of rest in another world is connected with the ancient belief in a duality of souls. It exists among the present tribes of the United States. One of these souls is liberated at death, but the other is compelled to abide with the body, and it is to provide for this that a dish or vase of food is deposited generally at this day, not in the grave, to be buried with the corpse, but under a close covering of bark erected over the grave. The ancient Indians placed this food in a vase of unglazed pottery in the grave. This pottery, as disclosed by graves, is of a dark color, and consists of clay and shells slightly baked. The vase is generally small, sometimes not more than six inches in height, but occasionally from nine to ten ; it is seldom more. It is uniformly without a foot, and with the lip slightly turned, and externally ornamented. The ornamenta were evidently impressed on the vase in its soft state, and are unpainted. Nearly every ancient Indian grave that has been opened in the State of Ten- nessee has one of these ancient vases, or " crocks," as they are popularly called. Their use can hardly be imagined without adverting to this ancient custom. The small burial-mounds of Florida, along the Gulf coast, are literally filled with these antique vases. These places of sepulture are locally denominated " feasting- inounds," from an evident impression that the ancient vases were dedicated to some purpose of this kind. It apjwars to be a peculiarity in those discovered near the Ap- l)alachicola, as observed by Mr. Hitchcock, that at the bottom of each vase a small orifice is found, broken in. The late Dr. Douglas Houghton obtained fragments of the same species of ware from some ancient works existing in Chautauqua County, New York. This locality is near the village of Fredonia, but a little distance from the banks of Lake Erie. Dr. Houghton found at the same place, and made of the same material, the fra' ments of a small but curious clay image, which was ornamented with a head-dress resem- bling very accurately the skin of a bear's head, the nose pointing directly in front. The great extent of country over which the vases are found denotes the general preva- lence of the custom at the ancient era of these graves, and of the mounds and earth- works which exist. AISUKUN, OE BONE AWL. Before the discovery, men's and women's clothes were made of skins or dressed leather. It was neceasary to the formation of garments for the body and legs, and of shoes for the feet, that some hard and sharp instrument should be employed, capable of readily j)enetrating the skin or leather. The ancient luothod of sewing practised by our tribes resembled that of a motlern cordwainer rather than of a ^^^P^"^WPP ll I 136 THE INDIAN TRIBES OF THE UNITED STATES. seamstress or tailor. Leathor, droHsod or undressed, being the material to be put together, this was accomplished by making holes in the edges of the garment or skin, and pushing through these the ends of deer sinews, or other fibrous integument. For this j)urpose the small and compact end of a horn, which is cul'ed a'ushkun by the Algonkins, wiw em])loyed. Sometimes a rib bone, at other times the tibia of an animal, was used. These articles are still employed for this purpose for coarse work among the remote tribes. These awls were of various sizes. BONE SHUTTLE. In making their mats or rude lodge-tapestry, and other coarse fabrics, the aborigi- nes employed an instrument of bone of a peculiar construction which has the prop- erties of u shuttle. It was designed to introduce the woof in preparing these fabrics, as they did, from rushes and other llexible nmterials used for the purjjose. The art was rude, and of a kind to fall into disuse among the coast tribes a.s soon as European manufactures were introduced. It is, therefore, when found in opening graves, etc., a proof of the ante-European period. One of these antique implements was disclosed about ISIJS in opening an old grave in the course of some excavations which were undertaken within the enclosure of Fort Niagara, New York. This grave must have been older than the origin of that fortress, the foundations of which were laid by La Salle among the Seneca Iro- quois in 1G78. This instrument is constructed of finely-polished bone. It is ten and a half inches in length, jjcrfectly cylindrical, about one-eighth of an inch in thickness, and has a double barbed head one and a quarter inches in length. Between the barbs is a mouth or slit which would enable it to carry the thread across and through the war]). The instrument is slightly curved, j)robal)ly owing to the dilliculty of finding a bone of so fine a quality perfectly straight. FLESHING INSTRUMENT, OK STONE CHISEL. It is known that in skinning an animal some par'^ of the flesh and integuments will always adhere to the skin. With a hunter the operation of skinning is often done in haste, and even when there is ever so much leisure the fear of cutting the skin induces the flayer to infringe upon the carcass rather than to endanger the value of the hide. In the hunter state of society it becomes the duty of the women to dress and prepare the skins taken in the duuse. For this jjurpose the skins are stretched iii the green state on a frame, and the flesh and integuments are cleanly removed. This was done in the early times by means of an instrument of stone which has often been mistaken for a small axe. It is a s])ecies of hand chisel, blunt that it may not cut the skin, and yet of sufficient edge and hardness to permit a stout jerking blow. It wits grasped firmly by the top. It recpiired no crease for the purjjose of binding it ANTIQUITIES. 137 t») a hitndlo. It wiis often very rude in construction, being nothing but an elongated Htone, Hinall, and brought to a blunt edge. By this means ekiuH of the deer and of other animals were completely rid of adhering lle«h prior to currying, braining, HUioking, or such other processes as were required to fit them for the various uses to which they might be devoted. ANTIQUK INDIAN KNIFE. Various substances have been used lo supply the purpoee of a metallic knife. The Peruvians and the Azte(» at the epoch when the Spanish appeared among them employed obsidian, a species of volcanic rock which exists in the Andes and the Cordilleras. Sj)cciniens of this article have been found in the Western barrows, where, however, it seems most probable they came by traffic. We may suppose, in other instances, that tribes displaced along the Gulf shores brought them to new locations. Generally our United States tribes employed flint, chert, hornstone, or some other form of the silicious class of minerals. The first wants of society are easily supplied. Teeth are a primitive resource among savage nations, and any accessible hard and sliarp substance comes next. It is well attested that the Appalachian tribes, who all lived in the latitudes of the caue, used that very hard and durable substance to fabricate knives from. ANCIENT STONE BILL, POINTED MACE, OR TOMAHAWK. The jwinted mace found in the early North American graves and barrows is uniformly of a 8<'niilunar form. It appears to have been the cassr-tvtc or head- breakoctation that we may yet, by patient investigation, receive new lights on this subject. r i* 1 T^ m^. CHAPTER V. RELIGION AND MAGIC. Idea of God — Oojd and Evil — Spirits — Dakota Gods — Giants' Feast and Dance — Immortality — Future State — Sun- Worship — Sacred Fire — Algonkin Beliefs — Attributes of God — Priests and Powwows — Josstikceds — Mcdos — Magic — War Magic — Hunting Magic — Healing Art — Wabenoes. The fundamental beliefs in the uninstructcd mind of the red man are the creation of the world from chaos by the Great Spirit, a universal deluge by which men were destroyed, the existence of two antagonistic principles, Good and Evil, and the worship of the sun as the symbol and effulgent representative of the Creator, the Great Manito. A belief in the immortality of the soul is also very prevalent, but the idea of future punishment had no place in his system. Idea of God. — Deism probably exists in no purer form among the uncivilized nations of mankind than that in which it is found in the abstract beliefs of the North American tribes. The Indian is, psychologically considered, a religious being. His mental organization leads him to trust in the power of a Deity. He is a believer in th 'J mysterious and wonderful. To him the world is replete with mysteries and wonders. Every phenomenon in nature which he cannot explain is the act of a God. The clouds, in their varied display, are invested with the sublime symbolic teachings of a God. God is everywhere present. The thunder and lightning, and the brilliant displays of the aurora borealis, are identified as manifestations of the power of God, who is the great creative Spirit. The Indian's ear is open to his teachings in every sound of the forest ; living as he does in the open air, his eye is familiar with the face of the heavens, which are spread out before him as a vast volume of pictography, in which he reads wonderful things. Such at least is the idea of the Indian of the tribes of the United States, with which we are most familiar. He sees a supernatural power in all those surrounding telluric and sublime ethereal manifestations. He lifts his voice to him in supplication in his native forests without temples or formality, and when ho offers a sacrifice to such a deity it is not in a roasted (juadruped, such as so often smokes on the alUir of the other deities of the uncultured man, but in the light and curling fumes of tobacco. The Great Spirit of the Indians is a purer deity than the Greeks or the Romans, with all their refinement, possessed. Good and Evil. — That there exists .i unity in this idea of a great Spiritual l'2x- istence who made all things, upholds all things, and governs all things, even to the minutest destinies of men, is apparent to those who closely scrutinize this man and direct their attention to tlio object*) and sources of his hopes and fears. While I(K>k- ing directly to the Great Spirit for success in life, and acknowledging life and death, 142 RELIGION AND MAQIC. 143 fortune and misfortune, as due to his supreme power and omnipresence, his mind has been strongly impressed that tliere is also an evil influence in the world. To account for this, without impugning the benevolence and goodness of God, an antagonistical God is believed in, who is the author of evil. Thus there are two Gods created in the Indian theology, all good and benevolent acts being ascribed to one, while the other is regarded as the potent power of malignancy. The primary term for the Deity is still retained by the Indians, but they prefer to it an epithet signifying " good" or " bad." In this manner there is created a duality of Gods, rather than a dual Deity. It is impossible, however, to witness closely the rit«s and ceremonies which the tribes practise in their sacred and ceremonial societies without perceiving that there is no very accurate or uniform discrimination between the powers of the two antagonistic Deities, while the benignant power which accords life and death is regarded as possessing the spiritual mastery. It was not enough for the founders of the Indian religion to generalize the powers of good and evil by creating in their theology two Gods. To enable these diverse Gods to exercise their powers in a certain conceivable godlike manner, each is pro- vided with an innumerable host of minor gods or spirits, who, under the shape of birds, beasts, reptiles, men, angels, demons, giants, dwarfs, sorcerers, enchanters, fairies, pygmies, and other forms, inhabit the world. These are classified into be- nign and malignant spirits, or semi-gods, agreeably to the Deity under whose influence they are sent abroad. Minor Oods or Spirits. — An implicit believer in these antagonistic powers, nothing is too astonishing, mysterious, and subtile for the Indian to believe. Every- thing he sees or hears in the animate world may be the subject of intense fear or hope ; he is perpetually in doubt which. He is a ready believer in transformations, possessions, and incarnations. A deer, a bear, or a swift-flying bird may be the messenger of good or of evil. He is constantly on the qui vive, but especially on the lookout for something untoward. The movement of a bush or the voice of a wild animal may be as premonitory a sign to him as the roar of Niagara or a clap of thunder. This is not the limit of his susceptibility to mysterious fears ; not only is he a believer in the influences of magic, sorcery, and necromancy, and constantly on the watch through these or other sources for hosts of good or evil spirits, but all these influences may Iw exhibited or excited through the evident powers of invisible and invulnerable agencies. Sometimes the Indian imagines, as night approaches, that he sees small spirits like fairies skip before him over the plain and suddenly vanish; at other times he fancies li.j sees them dancing in the moonlight on the tops of cliffs. One class of these aboriginal fairies, or little vanishing men (I'u/c-wud-jin-inie), are of the land, another are of the water. Tlie most formidable and dreaded of the class of demoniacal terrorists are the Windegoes, a kind of giants or ogres who are always cannibals and destroy whole fanillies. Hut, however freciuent these several objects of imagination are in the Indian's I I III ii4 '- ' 5 i I m 144 THE INDIAN TRIBES OF THE UNITED STATES. lore, by *"■" the greater part of his creations of fancy are the tutelary or guardian spirits Oi individuals. These are often encountered and made palpable to the senses in the shape of quadrupeds, birds, reptiles, or other organic forms. The Indian's dwelling, or wigwam, is constantly among these wild animals of hoof and wing, and in his view they may be either enchanted or unenchanted, spirits or real animals. He chases them by day, and dreams of them by night. He subsists on their flesh. He sells their skins for European fabrics. He wears the feathers of the falcon tribe on his head, he trims his buckskin hunting-shirt with the rattling shreds of the deer's hoof, the claws of the grizzly bear adorn his neck. A dream or a fact is alike potent in the Indian mind. He is intimate with the habits, motions, and character of all animals. He feels himself peculiarly connected at all times with the animal creation. By the totemic system he identifies his personal and tribal history and existence with theirs, and he feels himself to be the peculiar favorite of the Great Spirit whenever they exist in abundance on his hunting-grounds. And when he dies, the figure of the quadruped, bird, or reptile which has guarded him through life is put in hieroglyphics upon his grave-post. His medical system is largely connected with magic. Believing in this, he wields the influence which the spirits of animals exercise over human health and disease, for he not only regards all animals, whether in a state of metamorphosis or not, as possessing souls and reasoning faculties like man, expecting to meet them in a future state in the Indian elysium, but they are believed to possess a necromantic influence over this life. When it is considered that the human mind under its best phases was so strongly fettered by this superstitious belief in witchcraft, sorcery, and magic, it cannot be deemed strange that similar delusions should have been found to prevail so univer- sally among the Indian tribes of this continent. And the fact only serves more con- clusively to show that the Indian mind Is of an ancient stock of the human race, of an cpocli when a belief in magic and sorcery held undisputed sway, and when it was distracted and disturbed by polytheistic theories and wild dogmas. Gods of the Dakotas, — Tah-koo-wah-kfin is the marvellous, the mysterious, the incomprehensible of the DakoUis. It covers the whole of the spirit-world and the God manifestsition to man. Unk-ta-he is the god of the water. The DakoUis say that this god and its asso- ciates are seen in their dreams. It is the master-spirit of all tiieir juggling and superstitious belief. From it the niediciiK'-mon obtain their su{)ernatural powers, and a great part of their religion springs from this god. Fig. A, Plate 31, representing the abode of this god and its a-ssociatts, is explained thus. The inner circle represents the sea, and Fig. 7 the principal god. Figs. 3, 4, 5, and are its jussociates. Fig. 2 is an Indian. Fig. 8, comprehending the space between the two circles, is the world. Fig. 1 is a river with an Indian village on its banks. Figs. 11 are doors through which the gods go out into the world. Figs. 9 represent lightning which the associate gods use for defence. Figs. 10 are trees growing in tiie w(K)ds and on tlui bank of tiio river. The Indian wiio drew this diagram says that Unk-ta-he came out of le sea, and the the laiul If ' !1, 'IP^ l^f^M I Ml t ! Il ll 1 BELiaiON AND MAO JO. 145 took him from his village on the river in the spirit, before he was born, and carried him down into the great deep. As he passed by the associate godn, each of them gave him some advice, but when he got to the lust one, Fig. 3, he received a drum, and was told that when he struck it and used the language he had received from the gods of the deep, everything would go as he wished. Afler receiving the last in- Htruction the principal god of the water put him out on dry land, when he was born of a woman, in flesh an Indian. The advice that the Indian received from the gods while in the deep he refused to tell, for it is a part of tlieir great medicine. Fig. B represents the god of the forest (Chah-o-ter-dah). This god lives in a tree that grows on the highest eminences, and his house (Fig. 13) is at the foot of it. When this god wants anything he leaves his house and sits on a branch of the tree (Fig. 12), which, they say, is as smooth as glass. By his power of attraction he draws around him all the birds of the forest, who act as guards and sentinels, and inform him when anything approaches liis residence, that he may prepare for defence. This god and the god of thunder are mortal enemies, and often have severe combats, in which the latter is generally worsted. When the god of thunder comes racing along, casting his lightning at the tree in expectation of killing the god of the forest, the latter, huving been timely informed of his approach by his faithful senti- nels (Figs. 14, 14), has retired to the water below. The god of thunder sends his lightning after him at the foot of the tree, but, coming in contact with the water, it is lost. The god of the forest then ascends the tree and hurln 'lis lightning with such skill and force at the god of thunder as to bring him down a victim at his feet. There being a great many gods of thunder, the killing of one now and then does not exter- minate them. The god of the forest being considered superior to the god of thunder, the latter seldom attacks the former, but passes his abode at a grciit distance. The crooked line in the hand of the god of the forest (Fig. 12) is a crooked gun, by which 1h! can shoot in any direction around tiie earth. Fig. 15 is one of the gods of thun- der. Fig. C represents the gods of thunder ; sometimes they are represented with a hawk's head. The Dakotas say that thunder is a large bird flying through the air, and the noise we hear is the flutt«ring of the old and young birds. The old ones commence the noise, and tlie young ones carry it on. The old one is wise and will not injure the Indians, but the young ones are foolish anil do all the mischief they can. Thus, if an Indian is killed by lightning they say the young rascals of thunder did it. They say that once there was a bird of thunder killed back of Little Crow's village, on the Mississippi Iliver. It had a face like a man, with a nose like an eagle's bill ; his body was long and slender. Its wings had four joints to each, which were painted in zigzags to represent lightning. The back of its head was red and rough, resembling a turkey. Fig. D is the god of the grass, or god of the weeds (Whitte-ko-kah-gidi). The projKir translation of this word is " to make crazy." This god, they say, is formed from a coai"se kind of weed called pajee-ko-tah, which has the i>ower of giving them fits or making them crazy, and also of giving them success in hunting. In his right I'J ;'];: m 146 THE INDIAN TRIBES OF TUE UNITED STATES. I i!' liaiul he holds a rattle of deer-hoofs. There are sixty-four deer-claws in this rattle, or, aa they say, the deer-claws of eight deer. In his left hand he carries a bow and arrow, and although the arrow is made blunt by chewing it, still ho can send it through the largest aninuils. From his cap dart streaks of lightning so brilliant as to dazzle the eyes of animals, and thus enable huu to approach close to tlicm. In his mouth is a whistle, which is used in the dance to invoke the assistance of this god. AVhcn the Indians have bad luck in hunting they get up a dance to invoke the assistance of this god. Fig. E, Wa-hun-de-(hin, or Aurora Borealis, or Old Woman, or Goddess of War. The Dakotas worship this god under the above names. When they are about going to war, the war-chief invokes this god, who appears to him as represented in Fig. E, and instructs hinj how to act, where he will find the enemy, their condition, the suc- cess and misfbrtunes that will attend the: war-party. The goddess is represented with hoops on her arms, and tile-number oftheee that she throws on the ground indi- cates the number of scali)8 the party will take. If the party is to have bad luck, she will throw to the ground as many broken arrows as there will be warriors killed and wounded. The little balls running out from the cap (see Plate) represent tufts of down which the Indians wear on the head after having killed an enemy. The liatchet with a fringe to it is one which has Tiilled an endmy. -Jt- is their custom always to fasten a piece of an animal's skin to any implements use^ iii ■war. Tlie rays around ihe figure represent the aurora borealis, which the goddess has forced up in honor of victory. Fig. F, Eah, or Big-Mouth. This is another god that the Indians invoke to assist them in their wars. He is represented with a big rattle in his hand. When the Indians are on a war-party the war-chief calls to his aid this god and another named Schun-schun-ah (Mirage, or the glimmering of the sun), to inform him. of the whereaboutij of the enemy, and they say that he seldom fails to receive the correct information. ir •.-vi' .' '<• • "■ ::■ .•*i--."'if' ,>^" ■' The Dakotas have many other gods. ^ ' . Giant's Feast and Dance. — This feast and dance is made in honor of a god whom the Dakotas call Ha-o-kah or the Giant, whom they believe to possess super- natural powers, and to be second only to the Great Spirit. The Dakotas have a party or clan in their tribe called the Giant's party. This clan believe in tlie exist- ence of this god, and occasionally give a feast and dance in honor of him. This is performed by the men only, within a wigwam, around a fire over which are kettles of meat boiling. They have no clothing excepting a conical cap made of birch bark, streaked with paint to represent lightning, and some stripis of the same material around the loins. While hopping and singing around the kettles, they will thrust in their bare hands and pull out the pieces of meat and eat them while scalding hot. After the meat is all oaten tlicy will splash the hot water over their bare backs, all the time hopjjing around ami singing out, "Oh, how cold it is!" pretending that the hot water docs not scald them, and that the god will not allow any of his clan to be injured by it. It is presumed that previous to going to the feast they prepare them- ^ ! J f>i' fr- ij J 1 ■1 1 )» B ht iMIk^B m ||BH - .';* .^1 ( 11 »t .'>, I wiif;'*--! * ■ V ^u RELIGION AND MAGIC. 147 selves for it by covering themselves with an astringent which they obtain from a root. This deadens the cuticle, and thereby prevents the hot water from injuring them. Immortality. — The doctrine of the immortality of the soul is a distinct belief of most of the North American Indians. No one can have been a witness to their funerals, and heard the address which it is customary to make to the corpse while it is lying dressed out ready for burial in the best of habiliments, without being strongly impressed with this idea. And the customs and observances connected with its inter- ment on elevated dry ground, with the implements and ornaments of life, and the lighting of tne symbolical funeral fire for several nights on the grave, which is an Algonkin custom, appear to denote that the soul i« believed to be observant of the respect paid to the body, and that a reunion of the two is believed in. A very ancient notion appears to reveal itself in the gift of food that is offered for some time to the dead, namely, the soul's duality. It would seem that they believed in a sensual and local soul OS distinguished from an ambient and absent spirit. Future State. — The Indian is a man who emphatically and positively relies on the indications of dreams, which are believed to be inspired by the guardian spirit. His dreams are his revelations. The Great Spirit is indeed still enthroned in his mind as the creator and pxesider overihft universe, but he is shorn of his power by these myriads of local gods and spirits who mediate bet.veen him and them. He is, in fact, a negative being, — negatively good. Goodness and merc^^ are the two great attributes ascribed to him. They are relied on by the hunter and warrior, through the mediation of the guardian spirits, in every situation in life and in death. And the savage dies with the faith of his ancestors on his lips and in his heart, believing that all good hunters and brave warriors will be received into the Indian paradise. It is a theory of the Indian that the evils and trials of this life are, as it were, a merit- roll, compensation, or sort of expiation made to the Great Spirit for the gift of life, and its many abuses and crimes, of which his conscience makes him sensible, and that in a future state men will be admitted to an easier life. Hence death to him is not fraught with terrors, it is rather a stjvte full of attractions. Hell is a foreign word to the In Jian mind and language ; although :i compound word, Majimonidonong (} lace of the IWl Spirit), has been coinetl for it, Hence it is that the peculiar doc- trines of ChriHtiauity, which vindicate the justice as well as iha goodness and mercy of ( Jod, are so di.stii«teful and repulsive to the Indian mind. For ho, so far as we can ju.lge, deems man justifiable per se. - ' - Indian Theory of the Deification of the Sun. — The Oriental world held tlie same views as our aborigines^ on ths subject of tho deification of animals, to whom offerings were nui<5e. Nor was it less united in its ideas with regard to tlie mysterious nature of fire and the sun. Uoth these theories infatuated the American Indians. None of the gfu.eral customs of the American tribes have so greatly changed us those con- iieoted with the external ceremonies of the worship of the sun, once go prevalent throughout the continent. The idea of a trinary central seat of heat, light, and life ill th(^ sun was once the general bolief of the entire Indian population of America. When Cortez landed in Mexico tlie theory was there still in vogue, and was recog- 9S rs' I' I I ,iF f ) f^f- i?wr^ 55!SrT!??S= ,M 148 TUE INDIAN TRIBES OF THE UNITED STATES. nized by the priesthood, who annually renewed the sacred fire, and thus secured their influence, but its vitality was sapped by a system of horrid human sacrifices to the Mexican Moloch, who was worshipped under the name of Huitzilopochtli. In the Mississippi Valley, the Natchez, or Chigantualgas of the Spaniards, one of the early groups of tribes, practised its prominent rites for at least a decade after the close of the seventeenth century. As late as the year 1721, P. de Charlevoix, the learned envoy sent by the French Court to inspect the American missions, found it in existence among the Natchez occupying the present area of the State of Mis- sissippi, who had a temple in which the fire was kept burning, and a regularly ap- pointed priesthood who enforced the system. They received the ofieriags, dedicated them to the sun, and exacted the fees, or tenths, whether of birds, fish, animals, or other objects. A rustic temple forty feet by twenty, constructed of wood, without any floor, was erected for the worship of the luminary. In this edifice a fire was kept perpetually burning by means of three massive pieces of wood, which appointe. n, took them to the chief, as his prerogative. Offerings of bread were also made at every full moon, and the corn and other grains before planting were first brought to the temple f'>r a ben- ediction. Compare this custom with the bloo It ' ^^^ 150 THE INDIAN TRIBES OF THE UNITED STATES. of this rite and the solemnity attached to it. Sir Alexander Mackenzie haa well described it as it existed among the Kenisteno nation. Their medas, or priesthood, erect a particular lodge, or temple of offering, for the purpose. " The scene of these ceremonies is in an o\icn enclosure, on the basin of a river or lake, and in the most conspicuous situation, in order that such as are passing along or travelling may be induced to make their offerings. There is also a particular custom among them, that on these occasions if any of the tribe, or even a stranger, should be passing by and be in real want of anything that is displayed as an offering, he has a right to take it, so that he replaces it with some article that he can spare, though it be of far in- ferior value ; but to take or touch anything wantonly is considered as a sacrilegious act, and highly insulting to the Great Master of Life, to use their own expression, who is the sacred object of their devotion. " The scene of private sacrifice is the lodge of the person who performs it, which is prepared for that purpose by removing everything out of it, and spreading green branches in every part. The fire and ashes are also taken away. A new hearth is made of fresh earth, and another fire is lighted. The owner of the dwelling remains alone in it, and he begins the ceremony by spreading a piece of new cloth, or a well- dressed moose-skin, neatly painted, on which he opens his medicine-bag and exposes its contents, consisting of various articles. The principal of them is a kind of house- hold god, which is a small carved image about eight inches long. Its first covering is of down, over which a piece of birch bark is closely tied, and the whole is enveloped in several folds of red and blue cloth. This little figure is an object of the most pious regard. The next article is his war-caji, which is decorated with the feathers and plumes of scarce birds, beavers' and eagles' claws, etc. There is also suspended from it a (juiil or feather for every enemy whom the owner of it has slain in battle. The remaining contents of the bag are a j)iece of Brazil tobacco, soveral roots and simples, which are in great estimation for their medicinal (lualities, and a pijie. These articles being all exposed, and the stem resting upon two forks, as it must not touch the ground, the master of the lodge sends for the person he most esteems, who sits down oj)posite to him ; the pipe is then filled and fixed to the stem. A pair of wooden j)incers is provided to i)ut the fire in the ])ipe, and a double-pointed pin to empty it of the remnant of tobacco whicli is not consumed. This arrangement being made, the men assemble, antl sometimes the women are allowed to be humble spectatoix, while the most religious awe and solemnity pervade the whole. The Mic;hiniwais, or Assistant, takes up the pipe, lights it, and presents it to the officiating j)erson, who receives it standing, and holds it between both his hands, llu then turns himself to the east anil draws a few whiffs, which he blows to that point. The same ceremony he observes to the other three cpiarters, with his eyes directed ujtwards during the whole of it. He holds the stem about the middle, i)etwe< n the first three fingers of both hands, and, raising them upon a line with his forehead, he swings it three times round from the east, with the sun, when, after pointing and balancing it in various directions, he rejwses it on the [sacred] forks." RELIGION AND MAGIC. 161 ALGONKIN BELIEF. The fundamental points of religious belief of the Algonkin tribes are much the same, and resemble those of the cognate tribes of other stocks and lineage. They believe that the world was created by a Supreme Spirit, whom they call Monedo, and 0/heaud, the Maker, and who is specifically addressed under the prefix of Giizha, the Benevolent or Merciful, and Gitchi, the Great. To Monedo they assign some of the leading attributes of God, believing that he is everlasting, all-powerful, and all- wise, and of immaculate and unchanging goodness and mercy. In this they agree. With respect to ubiquity and invisibility there is some discrepancy. A sjiirit, and dwelling in the upper atmosphere, or hhpiming, yet whenever the arcanum of their belief is reached they locate him in the sun or moon or indefinite skies, or as the presiding spirit of the Indian Elysium. In their pictorial scrolls they paint the sun as a man's head surrounded with ruys, and appear to confound the symbol with the substance. They attribute life and light, vitality and intelligence, the world over, alike to Monedo, and to GC'zis, the Sun. It'isco, who visited the sun, as their legends say, found it to be a man, and walked a day's journey with him around the exterior line or rim of the globe, through the periphery of which they could look down, at the sun's noon-place, upon the inhabitants of the earth. Again, the Great Spirit is said to be invisible in form, and to possess ubiquity in the guise of symbols, as he is recognized in the pleasing or frowning shapes and colors assumed by the revolving clouds, the moaning tempests, the vivid lightnings, and the appalling thunder. In these shapes he is clearly represented, not in a human shape, but by symbols. They api)ly to him also the terms Upholder of the World, Miister of Life, and, as the original author of life. Father. HEAVEN. Ishpiming, the term employed by all the missionary translators of the Lord's prayer for "heaven," means simply above, or in the high illimitable space. It is a local phrase for abiding on high. But Ishpiming is not the fancied Indian paradise so often referred to in their traditions, where the good are tt) be rewarded with hunt- ing-grounds and the bad are to sink in a retributive black stream. Whatever else can be said of the La. d of the Blest, or the country of souls, which is identical, its locality is not in the sky. We are presented ratlier, in the lively imagery with which it is painted, with a new earth, or terrene abode, which is to be replete with the afllu- eace of animal life, disporting its varied creations amid beautifid groves, or along the banks of smootli streams and lakes, where tliere are no tempests, no pinching and chilling vicissitudes of weather, and no broken formations of rough mountains, cata- racts, or volcanoes, but where tiie avocations of life are so sweet and varied, and so completely exempted from the power of llie Spirit of Evil, that human happiness is complete. Death, it is fancied, opens the door to this sweet land, and death is tluret'ore viewed with eoinplaceiicy. When tliis Indian paradise is, however, closely 1 1 ^<« I - H ^ 152 THE INDIAN TRIBES OF THE UNITED STATES. scanned, it turns out to be a gorgeous and soft region of shades and shadows. Stream8 flow softly, groves wave their branches in gentle airs, birds warble sweetly, herds of noble and stately animals browse on the level plains ; but these are all the shadows of the elements of the earth : it is, in fact, the earth itself restored to its pristine beauty, with all its classes of creation in a state of shadowy metamorphosis. The Great Monedo is indeed heard of there, but he is not a god of judgment or of punishment ; his voice is exclusively that of a Father welcoming home his wandering children from a land of sufferings, trials, and death. It is under this view of his philosophical indifference to life and repose of char- acter in death that it is said in " The Man of Bronze," — " Time comes unsighcd for, unrcgrettod flics, Pleased that ho lives, but happy that ho dies." ATTKIBUTES OF GOD. Of justice and holiness, as attributes of the supreme Indian Monedo, the nar- rations are silent, unless they be recognized in the typical form of the stream to be crossed prior to the soul's entry into the realms of the blest. According to their funeral addresses, the cpialities necessary to secure a safe passage across are fidelity and success as a hunter in providing for one's family and bravery as a warrior in defending the rights and honor of his tribe. There is no moral code regulating the duties and reciprocal intercourse between man and man. Such views as these would leave the Indian theology comparatively mild, were they not united with a general theory of tlie moral government of the world which leaves the whole practical system of life and death dark, wild, and visionary indeed. In the sense in which the Indian God has been exhil)ited he is little more than a sublime abstraction, depicting an image of transcendent power and glory, vast, un- defined, and unfixed, lie is believed to be the necessary and uncreated j)rinciple of benevolence and goodness. It is therefore not necessary to propitiate his wrath. lie nnist needs be good. lie is not made resi)onsible for the right government of the world which he Ikus created and upholds. He is no lawgiver and no judge. To lie, to steal, to murder, are not offences against him ; they may be offences against man, but must be answered to man. To be good, wise, benevolent, as the Great Monedo is, appears to be a duty of the aboriginal man, viewing man as the friend of man. But in the st^it*; the Indian actually occupies he regards man ils the enemy of man. He docs wrong, and is the just object of retaliation. He is wronged, he retaliates. Every tie in a good and just .society is broken by the sons of the forest. Who is to be appealed to? Is the Monedo to arbitrate the cause in another state of existence? Does he hold out a reward as an inducement to do good, or a punishment to dissuade from doing evil? Xeitlier. He stands, indeed, on tlie high grounds of a Supreme Gov- ernor of tlie World, but shrinks from his su|»reine independent duties, and while he wraps around him the awful robes of might and majesty, evincing his presence in the glory of the sun, lifting up his voice in lliundi-r, and riding, like Israel's God, on RELIGION AND MAGIC. 153 " the wings of the wind," he commita hia practical government to demi-gods and sub-creations of every possible hue, malignant and benign, who fill the air, the earth, and the water, and convert the globe into a vast moral chaos. The class of evil spirits range themselves under the power of the Great Spirit of Evil, who is called ]\Iudje Monido, — that is, a bud spirit. The good spirits of every class are believed to be under the chief spirit of good, but as these are bound by the principles of their creation eternally to be good and do good, and cannot be evil or do evil, and as the Indian God do&s not prescribe- their mission, nor even overrule them to " bring good out of evil," but has left all these spirits in a state of jarring collision, the connc- qj'.once is that, judged by his sentiments, the unrestrained evil spirits have the mas- tery and bear rule in the world. To this class, therefore, the chief offerings are made. The Indian who is instructed in the lore of his tribe is prone to recognize these malignant spirits on every hand, and is kept in constant mental fear of their power, lie recognizes them not only in his dreams, and in numberless signs and omens among birds and beasts, he not only lypijics if he does not identify them in the whole animal tribes, but he hears them talk in tempests, he sees them in dark clouds, they beset him in almost every possible angry sound which the jarring elements can make, and they crawl in the very insects of curious shape that creep out of the earth. lie attributes sickness and death to the power of these malignaiit but subor- dinate gods, and there is no temporal evil which they are not supposed to bring. Fear is thus on every hand, and the forest in his migrations through it is little else than a visible scene of audible but admonitory .sounds and threatening signs. 'K w m H 1*1 H \ ' I PRIESTS AND POWWOWS. Whatever other trait may exist in the character of the Indian tribes, it is religion that is most important to their prosperity and weli'are. It is on this point that they come most prominently in conflict witii the axioms and practices of civilized nations; and, as if conscious that the chief thing to be guarded against was a change in their ancient religion or rites, as a fundamental interest on which their fate nmst turn, it is on this vital point that they have from the earliest era made the most general, resolute, atid constant defence, for it has been the defence of the ancient priests against Christianity. Distrustful of the j)0Wir of these tuti'lar spirits, or of his own fiiitii in them, the Indian relies on a class ')f diviners to whom it is believed the power and will of God are peculiarly revealed. These persons are believed to be more holy than others. They pa.ss nvore time in fasting in secret and studying to make themselves mediums of God's will. To j)reserve their ancient religion intact, to (lefond its doctrines and promulgate its rites, the power of the Indian priest, pow- wow, magician, soothsayer, meda, medicine-man, wakon-man, prophet, or by whatever other name he may be called, is brought constantly into requisition. The children learn the rites, ceremonies, and choruses of the sacerdotal oflice as soon as they can learn anything, and long before they have reached llir threshold of manhood they are adepts in the Indian ceremonies and beliefs. 20 i t i. T^ i 1 1 1 II {'III 1 154 THE INDIAN TRIBES OF TUB UNITED STATES. We must call tliis clnss of men a priesthood, because they profess to administer in holy or mysterious things, things that pass the ordinary comprehension of their listeners. Whatever is wonderful in invention or phenomena, sublime, incomprehen- sible, godlike, — whatever relates to futurity and is unknown, — whatever, in short, is connected with the exercise of power for good or evil, which is not merely human, but " spiritual," or rather such as a spirit or demon, a monedo, a wakon, or an ° abainka, may exert on the mind of man, leading it to put forth powers not innate, — this it is the profession, art, and province of this class of men to do. Above all, the Intlians believe in them. They believe that these men have this supernatural power : that they can foretell events, cure or inflict diseases, and influence life or death. There are three classes of men in the Indian nations who afiiect to be exponents of the will of the Great Spirit and of the Evil Spirit. They are, in the order of estimation in which they are held — 1, Jossakeeds ; 2, Medas ; 3, Wabenoes. Each of these constitute a class or society of themselves. It is not known that one may not be a member of either or of all, if duly initiated. They are generally, however, distinct in their powers and functions. THE JOSSAKKED. The Jossakeed is a prophet. He affects sanctity and a contempt of riches, goes poorly clad, retires to secret places to commune with the Great Spirit, and builds a high conical lodge, formed by stout poles wound about with skins, in order to utter his responses. He holds the relative situation of the ancient oracle. Unknown events, lost articles, the fate of friends, the location of animals sought in the chase, tlie coming of an enemy, and such like topics, are put into the shape of questions asked of him after he has entered his prophetic lodge anil announced his readiness to give answers. If he be a man of shrewdness of observation, and a good knowledge of his people, the resources of the country, and the character and causes of migration of its animals at each season, he always shapes his replies with due scope of oracular indcflnitoness to secure respect and confidence and become a person of leading influ- ence in the tribe. This olfice is liable to become degraded into mere trickery and jugglery in the hands of weak ami bad men. THE MEDA. The Mcda is a magician. He is a professor of the arts of the Grand Medicine Dance. He makes use of various articles which are supjK)8ed to have the power of curing the sick. He exhibits magical boncjH, Htufftul birds, skins of animals, and other articles of superstitious awe, which are carefully kept in medicine-sacks. He is, however, professedly a magician. The power imparted to his medicines and charms is ascribed to necromancy. He sings while he operate,". He is, in fine, the medical mountebank and juggler of the tribe. In the society of the Medawiii the object is to teach the higher doctrines of ster lieir len- lort, lan, an' e,— the ver : ents r of iach may sver, goes (la a titter (own lUSC, ;ion8 88 to wlge ition ular hilu- and cine r of ther i is, rms icul of ^^ o o ■W? T ItKLIGIOK AND MAGIC. 156 pplritual oxiHtonce, ite nature and mode of existence, nnd the influence it exercises iiniong men. It is an oHHociation of men who profess the highest knowU'dge known to the tribes. Meda is one of those primitive forms of words of wliieli tlie meaning cnn Imj inferred only from its a])plieution. It is rendered a noun of nudtitude by the inflection win. The meda is to be distinguislied from the Indian doctor or physician. Tlie only use lie makes of medicines is one wliolly connected with the doctrine of magic. He is u seer or sootlisayer, a fortune-teller, a diviner, and a prophet. The term specifically applied to the acts of the last-named oflice, is to jcmkii or divine. This word becomes a substantive in jcaukad,yi\\\\c the ceremony is ^Vs. The theory is that ho can send these agents to the uttermost parts of the continent in u few seconds to bring an answer. There is no limihition to the power of the diviner. The range of his skill relates to the whole realm of the distant, unknown, past, [)resent, and future. To give ex- amples : one wishes to know the precise spot on the bottom or shores of Lake Supe- rior where lies the body of a person who has been drowned. Others ask wiiy the tribe has been deprived of the range of animals in the chase, and where these ani- mals are now to be found in the forest— east, west, north, or south ; whether the enemy approaches their territory ; what the great ruler of the white men is now thinking about; whether the keeper of the mysterious land of the dead has allowed such a j)er8on to enter his premises ; where a lost article is to be found. In short, there is no limit to their wishes, wants, or desires. But this may ha renuirked of the responses, — that they are usually couched in generalities or equivocal terms. MAGIC. The Indian's character can never be properly understood without studying his arts of sorcery and divination. To comprehend the scope and influence; of these among the Indian tribes, as they are taught by the prophets and mcdos in periodical public assemblages in the villages throughout the forest latitudes, it is necessary to have u clear idea of two things, — namely, first, the Indian doctrine of monedoes or spirits, and, second, the prophetical ceremonies of divination, and the mysteries of the meda- win, JUS [)ractiscd by the mcdiis and nuigical doctoi» of the grand national society devoted to my^•tical arts. Whatever the Indian cannot explain, whatever appears to hiii> iaexj)licable, whatever is made use of for nourishment, for health, for curing, contril.'ios to his sensual pleasures and to his prcicrvation, is in his eyes a thing of mysterious power, a spirit, — in his language, a inonedo. The monedoes relieve the Indian from the neci'ssity of induction and reflectiui, of comjtaring and judging; and his life c(msists in trying to do what the monedoes do, to imitate them, to equal them ; and when the prophet believes himself to have arrived at this point he calls himself monedo, and becomes a teacher. MAOIC APl'LIKD TO WAR. In the hour of danger, on the war-path, or on the hunt, the influence of the prophet is especially brought to bear. The Dakota war-chief who heads an ex[)edi- tion is always one of these medicine-men, and is believed to have the power to guide H ( \ t I -J- ■_ i. A H^iX .f: J\ mLjIj \ \ ■■\ t .."#*>, y\ ••*., • • • V, I'i i~-L RKLIGIOX AND MAGIC. 167 the party to success or save it from defeat through the all-powerful irifluence of his mediciue. lie interprets the signs observed, such as the flight of birds, the running of animals, distant sounds, atmospheric olfects, etc., all of which he construes to influ- ence the movements of his party as his own whims may dictate. These spiritual operations are usually carrietl on at night after the party has encamped; and through his mysterious doings, and the a-ssistance he derives from the gods, he foretells what will occur the next day, the position of the enemy, their strength, and the number of scalps that will be taken. In his juggling he calls upon such gods for assistance as have especial influence in war. The war-chief's operations are thus described by a Dakota Indian, from whose sketch was taken the drawing for the accompanying plate. Fig. 1 is the war-chief, liolding in his right hand a war-club shaped at tho end like a hawk's head. Fig. 2 is his wigwam in which he performs his spiritual operations. Figs. 3 and 4 are gods that are invoked for assistance in war. These arc usually cut out of birch bark and stuck up on poles near his wigwam. Fig. 7 is the god E-yah, or IJig-Mouth. This god is oiten represented with horns on his head and a rattle in his hand. He has the power of telling the position of the enemy. Fig. 8 is the god Wa-hun-de-dan (interpreted old woman, aurora borealis, or goddess of war.) She informs tlie war- chief not only where the enemy is to be fbund, but also of his strength and the success or misfortune that will attend the party. She ev ii tells th: number of scalps that will be taken, and the number of warriors that will be killed or wounded. But the most powerful influence the Indians bring to bear on their war excursions is u mys- tery which they call >Schun-scluin-ah (Mirage, or glimmering of the sun). This is re[)resented by the small dots 5 and (i. This is so powerfid that it never fails to inform the war-chief of the position and strength of the enemy. Fig. VI is the war- pipe, the smoke of which \t. oflered to E-yah and to the spirits of the enen:y, which tlicy (h-ead, and to appea.se which oflerings of different kinds an. made. Fig. !) is a h()i(^ in the ground directly in front of tn* vijrwam (»f the chief, into which the old woman. Fig. H, rolls her hoops, as representatives of the enemy's spirits. These the war-chief kills by striking them witii his war-club. Fig. 11 is a bowl of sweetened water sot before the hole for the purpose of enticing the spirits into it. Figs. 13 and It are the lances of the warriors set around the wigwam of the chief, and Figs. ID and '20 are sacks in which the war-implement.s are kept. I igs. lo and Itl are the camp-fires of those warriors who ha\e i)efore Ikvu on tiie war-path, and Figs. 17 and l.H are tiiosc wlio iiave never beforo been to war. The latter are not allowed lo approach the war-chief during his spiritual oj)erations. Fig. 'Jl is the enemy's cr-mp, and Figs. 22, 23, 21, and 25 are tho spirits of tlie enemy, indicating the number of scalps that will be tak. u. Plate ;{,, is another example of Indian superstition, representing the contest be- tween the gods of the North and South for warm and cold weather. Fig. 1 represents the world. Fig. 2 is the god of the North, represented in a snow-storm. He is called Wa-ze-at-tah We-chiw-tah. Fig. 14 is the god of the South, represented in a rain- storm. He is called Eto-kah \\'e-chas-tah. Figs. 3 and 4, representing wolves, are (.1 f:i I ! \ ¥ f\ 158 THE INDIAN TRIBES OF THE UNITED STATES. the soldiers of the northern god, who fight his battles. When he wants cold weather, he sends il>rth these soldiers to battle witli the southern god. The latier is assisted by the crow and the plover, Figs. 15 and 16. When the battle begins, the wolves are aided by a snow-storm. A terrible conflict ensues, in which the southern god is discomfited, I'old weather prevails, snow and frost ai)pear, and the world is frozen up. As spring aj)prGaches, the southern god desires warm weather ; thereupon he sends out his soldiers, the crow and plover, armed with war-clubs, and assisted by a thunder- storm, to attack the wolves. The thunder-storm melts the snow and ice, and the crow and plover fall u])on the wolves with their war-clubs, and after a severe contest succeed in beating them to pieces and drowning the god of the North in a fiood of spray arising from the melting of the snow and ice. Thus these two gods will battle for waru> and cold weather as long as the world shall stand, according to Indian mythology. Wlien eitlier god goes out to battle, he leaves a young god at home, co that if he be defeated there shall be another one left to renew the ounfiict at the next season. Fig. 8 is the northern god in reserve, with a flute in one hand and a rattle in the other. Fig. 5 is his house, and Figs. G and 7 are poles ornamented witli eagles' feathers. Figs. 9 and 10 are lances, ready for defence. Figs. 20 and 21 are small hand-rattles, used with the drums. Figs. 11 and 12, to sound the alarm. Fig. 17 is the southern god in his wigwam, and Figs. 18 and 19 are ornamciits similar to Figs. and 7. MAGIC APPLIED TO THE CHASE. That the Indian's belief in the magical power of the meda, and the art of the mc(I(t-w!iiinci', or meda-meii, should be brought to i)ear on the business of hunting, may naturally be inferred. The ceremonies which the father adopts to propitiate success the son imitates, and long before he reaches manhf)od he esteems these cere- monies of the higlii'st importance. The eflicacy of the difiereirt baits put in traps, the secret virtues and power of certain substances carried in the medicine-sack and exhibited in the secret arcanum of the meda's and jossakeed's lodge, are (objects of eager and earnest attainment; and no small \nirt of the time the hunter devotes to ceremonial ritcw is given up to this mystical part of his art. It is believed tliat these secret and sacred objects of care preserved in his skipeta- gun are endowed with virtues to attract animals in certain ranges of country to which they are wUhd by the jossakeed. An arrow touclied by their magical med' • in and afterwards fired imo the tniclc of an anhnal is believed to arrest his course (*r other- wise alfect iiiin until the hunter can come up. A similar virtue is believed to be exerted if but the figure of the animal sought be drawn on wood or bark and after- wards sul)Miitte(l to the efficacious iuHuences of the magic medicine and the incanta- tion. Pictographs of sucli drawings are fr<.'(}uently carried alxjut by the hunter i avail himself (»f their influence, or of .iic means of Uromiiig more perfect in the mystical art by intercommunication with other and distant Indians. 'J'iiese figuri's are often drawn on portal)le objects of his jtroperty, such iis injplements of hunting, canoes, utensils, or H)\\< of hjdge-lnirks, or sheathing. Ho subtile is tiie infiuence tiiite L^ere- ■aps, und of tes to M'tn- lirh and KT- bo ftcr- mta- T I tlie ruros L'lice ^ Q f _y VI '',v ■ '-•>*,«*■ V'->^ >v:,-:'i ^^. V . ^, v . \ \ /' /'^ \ ( / ^c>- ^ ^,<^- •^ : ■Hi m i ■iS ' I "'—!' T Y llKLiaiON AND MAGIC. 159 exerted by the medawug or iniise ceremonies are conducted on open elevated places, and the lodge is built without a roof, so that the minutest changes can be observed. It is a fact worthy of notice that attempts of the medas to heal the sick are only made when the patients have been given over by, or have failed to obtain relief from, thi' niuxke-ke-wui-in-ci', or physician. If success crown the effort, the by-standers are ready to attribute it to sui)erhuman power, and if it fail there is the less ground to marvel at it, and the friends are at least satisfied that they have done all in their power; and in this way private affection is soothed and public opinion satisfied. (Such are the feelings that operate in an Indian village. All these rites and ceremonies, with the messages and responses, are executed with great address and cunning. Tlie Indians, who are anuised by them, nevertheless be- lieve the marvellous things achii'ved, and it would be hazardous to attempt to di.sabuse them. During this ordeal of trial and trick the gifts psuss at each moment into the iiands of the singers and musicians, by whom they are transferred to tlie grand jossa- kced, who receives others also from under the lodge. After the ceremony the result is that tlie jossakeed and the singers order a feiust, which has no particular form, at the expense of the dupes of the day. It is carefully to Ixj notetl that the power possessed by the proj>liet or jossakeed Hr i 1 ; i i 'i :il ■• ■ \ 1 ill m ill •J ! f ■I i «i^p IGO TUB INDIAN TRIBES OF THE UNITED STATES. is pcraonal. There is no succession of the office. It is a position arrived at from tho opinion of the tribe that he excels in the knowledge of and power of inllucncing the spirit-world. He can call spirit** from the " vasty deep." There is no limit to hia knowledge of the mysterious and the supernatural. He even affects to call life back to the dead, anil by a series of subtle tricks and concealments i^ersuades his people that miracles are within his power. While he thus exercises the functions of a prophet, he is also a member of the highest class of the fraternity of the mediiwin, a society of nu'u who exercise the medical art on the principles of magic and incantations. To ac(piire the frame of mind and state of purity deemed necessary to the exer- cise of both cla.sses of functions, fasts and the frequent use of the secret hot vapor- bath are resorted to. In all ceremonies, j)rophetical or medico-magical, great reliance is placed on the vapor-bath. This bath consists of a tight lodge, which is filled with vapor by throwing water on heated stones. It is entered with sacred feelings, and is deemed a powerful means of purification. Secret arts are here often disclosed between medas of h'"h power, which could not be imparted in other places or positions, believed to bo less subject to the influence of sanctifying power. They are called Madodinwou ; their office is a consecrated practice, made use of to ask something which is wished not to be made public, some private request. Vapor-baths arc not a matter of luxury or sensuality among the Indians of North America ; their use be- longs to the medicine rite. They are prohibited to the vulgar, and are used in conse- secrated cases only, and according to prescribed forms which must not be departed from. The whole tendency of the secret institutions of the Indian is to acquire power through belief in a multiplicity of spirits ; to pry into futurity by this means, that he may provide against untoward events ; to pro])itiate the chu • I ill 1 I- 1. P- ; ■ Si. iAi ^ .'«t^ Ui HKUaiON AND MAOIC. 161 ni|;ht, it may gcncrully bo iuferrcJ with ((trtainty to proceed from the circle of tho wiibcnooii. Tho term toabeno iteolf is a deriviitivc from wabun, tho morning light. ItH orgies are protracted till morning dawn. Mcn-of-thc-Dawn is a free translation of the term in \.\& ])lural form. The following synopsis, referring by figures to the hieroglyphic devices, exhibit tho words of tho chants and incantations in their simplotit forms, togother with the key-sign or ideographic terms of pictorial notation. SYNOPSIS OP WABENO SONGS. Chant, or Inoantittion. Key-Symbol, or Ideographic term of Notation. 1. My lodge crawls by the wabeno power. A lodge for nocturnal dances. 2. Under the ground I have taken him. A man holding a live snake. 3. I too am a wabeno. The fifijure of a man sitting, crowned with i' ithers. 4. I make the wabeno dance. A man standing on half the celestial hemisphere. 5. The sky — the sky I sail upon. A mugic bone, decorated with feathers. 6. I am a walxjno spirit — this is my A horned serpent. work. 7. I work with two bodies. 8. The owl ! the owl ! the black owl ! 0. Ijct me hunt for it. 10. The burning flames. . 11. My little child, I show you pity. 12. I turn round in standing. 13. Tho wabeno's power. 14. Wabeno, let us stand. 15. I have made it with my back. IG. I have made him struggle for life. 17. I dance till daylight. 18. Dance around. 19. And I too, my son. 20. He that is a wabeno I fear. i 21. Your body I make go. 22. I paint my tree to the sky. 31 A hunter with a bow and arrow. An owl. A wolf standing on the sky. Flames. A human figure with one wing. A tree. A female figure. An artificial figure representing a spirit. A demoniacal spirit. A magic bone with wings. A tree with human legs. A magic bone. • ,^ A drum-stick. A man with one horn, holding a drum- stick. A headless man standing on the sky, de- picted with a charmed heart. A tree reaching the supposed arc of the sky. 1 :! 1 a .. . TT—J- 162 TUB INDIAN TRIBES OF THE UNITED STATES. Chant, or Incantation. 23. I wish a son. 24. My wabe-no sky. 25. My body is a great wabeno. 26. My son's bone — ^the crawling bone. 27. They will fly up, my friends. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 30. 37. 38. The turkey I make use of. 7^he wolfs skin I have. There is no spirit — no wu.beno spirit. Great wabeno. I make the wabeno. What spirit, brother, do you see ? I At night I come to harm you. I am sitting in the ca^jt. With my mr.Ia, brother, I shall knock you down. Run, wolf! your body's mine. Key-Symbol, or Ideographio term of Notation. A man, depicted with the emblems of power. A swaliow-tailed hawk. A man, depicted with one arm and one Lorn reversed. A nondescript bird. A human body, with the head and wings of a bird. A turkey. A wolf. A flying lizard, A man with wings and horns, A pipe. Symbol of the moon. Symbol of the sun. A monger snake, or dragon. A wolf, depicted with a charmed heart. A magic bone. It is manifest from this examination that there is no clue given to the wordi of the t chants except that rei^ulting from the pow<'r of aKsociation of ideas, and that the words must have been committed to memory before this pictorial record could be roiul or sung. As an aid to the memory of the meda, or the wabeno, seated in a large assemblage, and surrounded with objects suited to withdraw his attention from the chants and weaken his verbal memory, such inscrii)tions must l)e of great use. To others besides the modas, jossakeeds, and walxnoes they nnist present only such general ideographic information as is denoted by the simple symbols or representative signs. It is not Qii'iv to draw the line between the principles of the mala and those of the wabeno. The gciieral objects of the signs and chants are the same. The sun is einployt'd here, as there, as tbi- symbol of the (Jreat Spirit. The ideas that are enter- tained of this spirit an; f:, 'no drawn fr(>m the belief of the wabeno that lu^ will exert liis power tlirniigli necromancy in the vegetable kingdom and among the chusses of ;ini.iials and l)irds, tliat he will endow inanimate ohjirts with ecpial power, and, finally, that he will not favor the designs of men when they are not directed to right and virtuous objects. Thiw is clearly the province iissigned by Indian belief to the antagonistic power of evil. CHAPTER VI. MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. Influonco of Climate — Flora and Fauna — Domestic Animals — Similarity of Customs among Widely-Sepa- rated Tribes — Imitations and Changes — Observations of Travellers — Vicissitudes of Indian Life — The Indian on his Hunting-Grounds — Indian Family — Domestic Life — Women — Children — Courtship and Marriage — Polygamy — Totems — Forest Teachings — Fishing — Hunting — War — Striking the Post — Feasts and Fasts — Medicine Feast — Sports and Pastimes — Discoidal Stones — Ball-Playing — Games of Chance — Dances — Sugar-Making — Costume — Accoutrements — Characteristic Traits — Imperturbability — Taciturnity — Regard for Insanity — Revenge — Superstition — Manito's Spirit Craft — Omens, Dreams, etc. — Secret Societies — Menstrual Lodge — Human Sacrifices — Burial-Customs — Mourning — Ossuaries — Iroquois Customs — Creek — Dakota — Ojibway. INFLUENCE OF CLIMATE. Geographical phenomena, the means of subsistence, and the natural history of countries exert an important influence on customs. Tribes living under the equator or within the tropics need little or no dress. Where the banana, the yam, and other tropical fruits furnished the spontaneous means of subsistence, only a small amount of labor was required. The ancient Caribs, who resided in a country possessing a delicious cliinate and on a soil which protluced all that was required to support exist- ence, went almost entirely naked, and loitered away life in idleness, while the Atha- bascas, of the Arctic latitudes, were comiKilled to wrap their feet in furs, and to rely on the forests for their entire supplies of animal and vegetable food. There were no generic differences between these tribes, either mentally or physically. A Carib transferred to the northern confines of British America would envelop his body in warm clothing, and an Athabascan who emigrated to St. Domingo woulil throw away liis elk-skin coat, coarse woollens, and moccasins, and soon fall into the effeminate manners of the subjects of Queen Anacoana. It is remarkable tliat the open sea-coasts of America were adverse to civilization. On the contrary, remote interior positions surroi" 'U>d by mountains, as the valley of Anahuac, or the basin of Titicaca, favored the germs of Indian civilization. This was not successfully developed, it is true, with-it bloody wars, and the effects of extravagant and dreadful superstitions, leading to dynasties in which tlio liberty of tiie individual was lost. It was, however, less these acts of power than the stationary habits of the peoph' — thase habits that jK'vmitted lalwr to Imj applied in local «listricta — that mainly fostered, it is conceived, the true germs of civilization. The tendency to a central power wius also developed among the Iro(jU()is at a j)oint remote from the seaboard, and they were surrounded by hostile tribes, against whom they maintaineil 103 P 4 i wmm 164 THE INDIAN TRIBES OF THE UNITED STATES. the most bloody wars. But they were situated on elevated and advantageous table- lands, which poured their surplus waters down large and prominent rivers to the distant sea. They had likewise the element of the zca maize, all of which, however, might have proved insufficient for their rise had they not fallen on the policy of tribal confederation. If the United Stiitcs tribes be compared with one another, there will be found numerous coincidences of a striking character. Take a Muscogee from the plains of the Red River or the Arkansoij, an Algonkin from the banks of Lake Superior, and a Dakotii or an lowi. from the plains of the Missouri or the Mississippi, and it will require an interpreter to make them undei-stand one other; but notice their loading features and expressions, ascertain tlieir thoughts and modes of action in war and in peace, their customs of hunting, war-dances, and ceremonials, endeavor to get at the texture aad [)hilo8ophy of their minds, and the coincidences will be found so striking that they nmst impress every beholder with the existence of a character sui generis, which nobody can mistake. " Not Hindoo, Afghan, Cushito, or Parsco : The ludiun his own prototype must bo." FLOKA AND FAUNA. The flora of the United States has greatly affected the Indian customs. When the exploratory ships of Sir Francis Drake first visited the coasts of Virginia, they there procured the potato, which was thence introduced into Ireland and England. The Powhatanic tribes, in whose territories this valuable tuber grew, had never thought of cultivating it. The females sought it in tl:'' forests, as the Assinilx)ineis seek the tepia at the i)resont day on the plains of the Red River. When in after- years the same root Avas reintrodiufd into this country from Europe, the tribes began to cultivate it very exten 'vely, ind the potato is so easy of cultivation and so productive that its use haa been disseminated by them througiiout a wide lati- tude. The customs of the Indians are, to a great extent, founded on the fauna inhabiting their country, and many of tiieir rites antl superstitions take their complexion from tiie objects of the chiise. The bison hiis ever been deemed by them one of the prime ()l)jects of the hunter's prowess and skill. Rut it is a wild and untamable specjes, wliich they consider as one of the j)eculiar tokens of a kind Providence to them in their nomadic state, and which they regard only lus an obj»rt of the chase. In an interview of (Jovernor Stevens with one of the prairie tribes of the buffido plains of the North, he informed them of the scheme of a eontemjtlated railroad to the Pacific which would intersei-t their hunting-grounds. An evident alarm wtus produced. Adhering to the idea that the herds of InittiiKj were an inestimable boon to them, the venerable chief said, "The CJreat Father of Life, who made us and gave us these lands to live upon, made also the buffalo and other game to afford us the means of life: his meat is our food ; with his skin we clothe ourselves and build our houses; n iraH i n1 i !* r ffHl! ! ii y 1 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 16S he is our only means of life, — ^food, fuel,* and raiment. I fear we shall soon be deprived of the buffalo ; then starvation and cold will diminish our numbers, and we shall all be swept away. The buffalo is fast disappearuig. As the white man advances, our game and our means of life grow less, and before many years they will all be gone." He resumed : " I hear of a great road to be built through our lands. We do not know what the object of this is ; we cannot underbtand it, but we think it will drive away the buffalo." The advance of civilization was evidently regarded by these tribes not as a blessing which was to furnish them new means of subsistence, but as a curse which was to sweep them from the earth. This is emphatically the opinion among the hunter tribes. They will not even consent to raise domestic cattle, far less wild. They abhor milk as the cup of an enchanter. DOUESTIC ANIMALS. The Spaniards introduced the horse into Mexico in 1519. In 1538 both the horse and the hog were introduced into Florida. A drove of hogs had been driven through Florida by De Soto to sustain his army under possible exigencies. Coronado adopted the same precaution in 1541, by driving flocks of sheep into New Mexico under the protection of his army. Many of these were taken by the celebrated seven tribes of Cibola, against whom he waged war with the view of compelling them to reveal the location of treiisures of gold. Thus the Navajoes and Moquis obtained the breed of sheep which have so multiplied in tlioir liands, whence have originated the false and extravagant theories regarding their condition and origin. The horse multiplied so rapidly on the plains and savannas of Mexico that all the tribes of Indians east, west, and north of that country soon supplied themselves with this efficient auxiliary to man in his journeys and labor. The predatory tribes west of the Missouri carried this animal with them to the north, and introduced it among the Dakotas and the Assiniboines, whence it found its way int) Oregon through the passes of the Rocky Mountains. A singular and marked result at- tciuled the possession of the horse by the outgoing tribes of the Sl'.oshone stock, which is indigenous to the broad range of the Rocky Mountains, a barren region abounding in rugged jwaks and defiles, possessing a very limited flora and fauna, and but few natural resources. These Indians are comjielled to live on roots and larvae. Driven by the Pawnees and Crows from the open country at the foot of tlie mountains, they at times venture down from their gorges to seek t»ie buffalo ; but tliey have always evinced a pusillanimous diameter, and have been gbnerallv pronounced to be the lowest and most degraded of all the tribes. Yet the tribes of this inferior stock who successfully emigniteil to the plains of Texas, where they are known by tlie Spanish name of Comanohps, have l)een improved both in spirit and chanicter by the possession of the horse, and have acnpiired so much skill in his man- agement that they are regarded as the Arabs of the plains. Those portions of the '0 ' With the dried excrement of thi^ nniiuni, picked up ud the bleak plains, the Indian builds \m fire. h 3- ;WT^ lOG TUB INDIAN TRIBES OF THE UNITED STATES. Shoshone stock who descended the Lewis or Snake River into Oregon, have also progressed in the social scale by the use of the horse, whilst the tribes inhabiting the interior of California still retiiin their grovelling habits, are footmen, and dwell in caves and in excavations in the earth. Nothing produces a more immediate effect upon the customs of tlie Indians than the introduction of domestic animals. All the stock-raising habits of the Nortli American tribes, as developed in their attention to the rearing of the horse, cow, hog, and sheep, date back only to the period of the discovery and conquest of the country. Among the tribes of the Great Lake basins, extending thence to the sources of the Mississippi and to the forest regions east of that river, the canoe has supplied the ])lace of the horse. The same remark applies to the country north of latitude 40°. In all this part of America hay must be cut for the horse, and he must be housed during the winter. The tribes living on the Atlantic coasts at the era of the estab- ILshmcnt of the colonies navigated the rivers in canoes formed from solid trees hol- lowed out by the alternate use of fire and stone picks. In the latitudes in which flourished 'he paper birch, sheets of the outer rind of that tree spread over a frame- work of ceJar furnished the common facilities for conveyance and transportation. Yet, when the Shawnees and various other tribes of the Algonkin stock removed from the north to the interior latitudes of Kansas, they abandoned the art of fabri- cating the bark canoe, and relied solely on liorsos. SIMILAKITY OF CUSTOMS OF WIDELY-SKl'ARATED TRIBES. To the evidences of the nientrtl capacity of the Indians, their power of computing numbers, iheir skill in arts, ancient and modern, their oral attempts in fiction and fancy, and their power of pi(;tographic noUition, — to these topics, which are essential to any philosophical view of the man, it will be snflTicient here merely to allude. In whatever respect they differ, or however one tribe or class of tribes may excel another, there is a remarkable agreement in their general manners and customs and opinions, and in their physical and mentul traits and character. Indians from the Itio Grande del Norte, and from the plains of Texas, Kansas, Nebraska, and Min- nesota, present striking points of agreement. Their physique and their morale are one. Peculiarities of manners and customs, where they exist in the most striking forms, are found to be due in great meiusure to the diversities of latitude and longi- tude, the changes of climate, gcdgraphicul position, and the natural products and distinctive zoology of the country. Their modes of war and worship, hunting, and amusement'', were very similar. In the sacrifice of prisoners taken in war, in the laws of retaliation, in the sacred character attached to public transactions solemnized by smoking the i)ipe, in the adoption of persons taken in war into families, in the exhibition of dances on almost every occasion that can enlist human sympathy, in the meagre and inartHirial style of music, in the totemic tie tliat binds relationships together, and in the system of syinlxds and figures cut and marked on tlieir gravo- j)ost«, on trees, and sometimes on rocks, there is a })erfect identity of principles, arts. MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 167 and opinions. The mere act of wandering and their petty warfare kept them in a savage state, though they had the element of civilization with them in the zea maize. And when the inquiry is extended to external customs and to physical traits, such as the color of the skin, eyes, and hair, and the general stature and features, the resem- blance is found to be of a character which may be called continental, so that whoever has seen one tribe may be said to have seen all. IMITATIONS AND CHANGES OF CUSTOMS. The tribes have been much given to imitation of one another's customs. Some of the Iroquois dances hav« been deemed very characteristic of that family, but it is found that one of the most noted of their war-dances has been derived from the Dakotas. The Algonkins of the Lukes, who are forest tribes, invariably bury their dead, while the Dakotas, of the plains of the Mississippi, place the remains of their deceased friends and relatives on scaffolds. It has been observed that for many years pa.st the Chippewas of Lake Superior and the Upper Mississippi, and also the Sacs and Foxes, who anciently practised the same mode of sepulture, have adopted the Dakota custom of placing their dead on scaffolds. The dead are placed in canoes by the Chinooks of the Pacific coast. While their mental habit;^ are remarkably permanent, many changes in the external customs of the Indian tribes are constantly occurring, in accordance with their varying positions and circumstances. Nor can it be inferred from tlie con- stitution of hunter society that changes which are adopted on the Mississippi, on the Great Lakes, and on the Western prairies, may not be found to have previously (existed, under the same circumstances, among affdiated nations residing on the banks of the Yenisei, the Lena, and the Obi, where the Mongol and Tartar races |)rwlonunute. These changes, it should be borne in mind, have been remarkably rapid and numerous since the materials for this chapter were collected, the last three decades having extended our civilization over the hitherto-undisturbed domain of the Indian and necessitated a total reconstruction of his social and political life. The inevitable result will be the abauilijiiment of all his former habits and a complete conformity to those of the white race. OBSEnVATIONS OF TRAVELLERS. Prior to the American Revolution the Indian country had been visited at long intervals by travellers, who aimed to give more or loss information of the aborigines. The theatre of such observations had been chielly the Atlantic coasts. The interior had been furtively visited, and lo a very limited extent. The Alleghanies had not been crossed, except by Indian traders for the purposes of commerce. The Great Lake chain was chiefly known to readers from the pages of the old missionary French autlu rs. The Mississippi had actually been less explored than the Nile and the Gangt^fs. The Indian wjis regarded as a mere wild man of the woods, roving with ^ir.( 'ni 168 THE INDIAN TRIBES OF THE UNITED STATES. nearly the same principles cf action as the bears and panthers he chased, and what- ever was wild and fierce in manners and customs, rites and opinions, it was thought might be attributed to him. There was, in truth, a singular succession of prejudiced, theoretical, or grasping discoverers and travellers at early periods. It was not the age of exactitude in observation. The French writers were prone to exalt the char- acter and intellect of the Indian ; the English writers were as prone to depress it ; the one class was ever ready to excuse ferocity, treachery, and ingratitude, the other to behold the man as destitute of every element of mental exaltation ; one elevated him to the level of a sage and a philosopher, the other depressed him to that of a brute. Charlevoix, one of the most learned, benevolent, and candid of observers, remarks that, " with a mien and appearance altogether savage, and with manners and customs which favor the greatest barbarity, the Indians enjoy all the advantages of society. At first view, one would imagine them without form of government, law, or subordination, and subject to the wildest caprice ; nevertheless, they rarely deviate from certain maxims or usages, founded on good sense alone, which hold the place of law and supply in some sort the want of authority. Keason alone is capable of retaining them in a kind of subordination, not the less effectual towards the end proposed for being entirely voluntary. They manifest much stability in the engage- ments they have solemnly entered upon, particularly in affliction, as well as in their submission to what they apprehend to be the appointment of Providence ; in all of which they exhibit a nobleness of soul and constancy of mind at which we rarely arrive, with all our philosophy and religion." After the close of the American Revolution the attention of Europe was more particularly direct<'d to the aborigines.' But the character of the men into whose hands the task fell was such as to elicit little new information respecting them, while these visits exposed the Republic and its treutment of the tribes to a considerable amount of obloquy. VICISSITUDES OF INDIAN LIFE. The season of revelry and dissipation among the tribes is that which follows the termination of the winter and spring hunts. At this time the hunter's hands are filled, and he quits the remote forests where he has exerted his energies in the chase, to visit the frontiers and exchange his skins and jieltries and sugar for goods and merchandise of American or European manufacture. Means are thus enjoyed ' Chastcllux, Vulncy, and Clintoaubriiind viRitcd thii) country, and wrote comments on it and its abori;;!- ncs, William Humboldt placed liiniself in ibc front mnk of the pbilologiMs of Europe, but never visilvd Amerii'a ; Alexander, his distin<;uiHli('d brother, devoted himself almost esclugivcljr to natural history and climatic and philosophic ]ihoi!omena, and confined himself to the Southern hemisphere. It does not appear that he wade inquiries into the character, langun<^es, or condition of the aborigines of the United Slates. Mr. Ilalket published a severe review of the treulnicnt of Indians at the hands of the Americans (" His- torical Notes respecting the Indians of North America," London, 182.')). Travellers of the John Dunn Hunter or Psalmunazar school continued to pour out their vapid descriptions and illdigestcd theories to a lute period. Mr. Oeorjre Catlin, in his Letters, gives a spirited view of hunting-scenes. hat- iight iced, b tho shar- » it; jther grated . of a rvera, s and ;efl of iw, or eviate place bleof e end igage- i their all of rarely 1 more whose while erable W8 the Ids are |in the goods ijoyed J aborigi- Ir visited tory and It appear Sutes. (" His- ■n Dunn Ito a late I |! 1 ...:: I ) . > M •'-• If! MANNEllS AM) CUSTOMS. 169 wliicli ho cannot as well conimiind at any other season. But, above all, this is the portion oF the year when the hunting of animals inust be Uiseontinueil. It is the season of reproduction. Skins and furs are now out of sciuson, and if bought would coniniaiul no price. Nature herself provides for this repose: th(! \)ii\i is bad and parts from the skin. Uy the first of June, throughout all the latitudes north of 42°, tiie forests arc deserted, and the various bands of hunters are found to be assembled round th(! frontier forts and towns, or dispersed along tiie shores of the lakes and rivers in their vicinity. It is th»,' natural carnival of the tribes. The young amuse themselves in sports, ball-phiying, and tlances. The old take counsel on their affairs. The mi'das, the wabcnocs, and tiie jossakeeds exert their skill. It is the 8eas(m for feasts ; all hearts are disposed to rejoice. As long as means last, the round of visits and feasting is kept up. IJy a people who are hal>itually j)rone to forget the past and are unmindful of the future, the cares and hardships of the hunter's life are no longer thought of. The warmth and mildness of the sea-son form a jMiwerful incentive to these jwriodical indulgences ; dissipation is added to sloth, and riot to indulgence. Ho completely absorbing are these objects, so fully do they harmonize with tlu; feelings, wishes, theology, and philoso]diy of the Indian mind, that tiie hours of summer may be said to slip away uni)erceived, and the Indian is awakened from his imaginary trance at the opening of autumn by the stern calls of want and hunger. He now sees that he must again rouse himself for the cha.se, or starve. He must prepare once more to plunge into the reces.ses of the forest, or submit to the penury and degrada- tion which his continuance within the settlements will entail. The tempests of autumn, which begin to wiiisth; around his summer wigwam, are no surer tokens of tlie ice and snows which will Idock up his j)ath than is the failure of all his means a sign that it is only by renewed exertion, and a manly resort to his gun and traj), his arrow and spear, that Ik; can replace them. Such is the round of vicissitudes of the Indian's life. He labors during the fall and winter that he may enjoy the sjuiiig and Slimmer. He accumulates nothing but his experience, and this tells him that life is a round of severe trials, and that he is soonest happy who is first relieved of it. He has no religion to inform him of the rejilities of a state of futurity, ami the conseijuence is that he is early wearied of this round of severe vicissitudes, and is absolutely glad when the hour of death arrives. The failure of wild animals has in some instances led the Indians to resort to the planting of corn as a safeguard against want, but the greatest obstacle to the success of agricultural life among them has hitherto been a haughty si)irit of jiride and the un i ^M •"^rymm 170 THE INDIAN TRIBES OF THE UNITED STATES. THE INDIAN ON 1II8 UUNTINO-O HOUNDS. The sociul state of the Iiuliuns, however, when viewed l>y the eye of unpreju- diced candor and benevolence, ia far from being as revolting as it has HometiniCB been represented. In situations where they have good means of hunting, trapping, and iishing, and where the j)re88ure of the expanding scttl(;ments and frontier views of an antagonistic race do not strongly and immediately press on them, their simplo institutions of the forests insure them means of social enjoyment on which, in their condition of hunters, they set a high value. When the season of hunting returns, and they have reached their wintering- grounds and placed a wide margin between the frontier towns and themselves, the tense, cautious reserve and suspicion of harm which marked them while in the set- tlements tralRcking off their furs, and gliding with easy steps through the mazes of civilized society, are relaxed. The savage softens into something like assurance to find himself again surrounded exclusively by his own people, and he sinks back to the natural state of the Indian sociability, and it is seldom that the most prudent and reilecting elders do so without recounting t\w scaths and losses that they have encountered on the frontiers. The conflicts of the savage and civilized state are, indeed, in a moral sense, terrible. The Indian . has parted with the avails of his last year's hunts, and received his exchanges on such terms as he had not the means of prescribing, and generally feels under obligations to those who have transacted his commercial mattei's, and who are his most symi)athizing white friends ; but ho feds, under the best state of things, as if he had been plundered. If his family and himself have complet !y escaped the perils of debauchery and other frontier vices, ho is happy ; it is more than he can generally expect ; and his best resolve for the futuro seems to be that another season he will stay a shorter time about the towns, and try to come l)ack with less cause of reproach to himself. The circle of wild foresters to whom he has again returned look up to him with the utmost respect and trust. They hang upon his words as the maxims of wisdom. lie counsels and feasts them, and is regarded as their oracle and guide. In this periodical reunion of aboriginal society the most perfect sincerity and cheerfulness prevail, and their intercourse is marked with the broadest prin(!iple8 of charity and neighborly feeling. The constraint and ever-watchful suspicion which they evince at the post on the lines, or in other situations exposed to the scrutiny and cupidity of white men, are thrown aside, and give way to ease, sociability, and pleasantry. They feel a security unknown to them in any other situation. The strife seems to be who shall excel in oflices of friendship or charity, or in spreading the festive board. If one is more fortunate than the other in taking fish with net or spear, or in killing a deer or any ether animal, the spoil is set aside for a feast, to which all the adults without distinction are invited. When tlie tiuK; arrives, each one, according to ancient custom, takes his dish and spoon, and pnuceds to the entertainer's lodge. MANiXKllS AND CUSTOMS. 171 The victuals arc Bcrvod up with Hcrupulous attention that eacli rccoivcs a portion of the beHt piirtH according to his standing and rank in tiiu village. While at the meal, which is j)rolonged by cheerful coiu erHation, anecdotes, and little narratives of per- sonal adventure, the feinah-H are generally among the listeners, and no female except the aged ever obtrudes u remark. The young women and girls sliow that tliey par- take in the festivity by smiles, and are urcful to evince their attention to the cUlvr part of the company. Conversation is chiefly engrossed by the old men, chiefs, and middle-aged men. Young men who are desirous of actpiiring a standing seldom otter a remark ; and when they do, it is with modesty. The topics discussed at these public meals relate generally to the chase, to the news they have heard, to personal occurrences about the camp or village, or to deeds, real or fabulous, of " uuld lung syne." But these matters are discussed in a lively style. Business, if we may be allowed that term for what concerns their trade and intercourse with white men, is never introduced except in formal councils specially convened and opened by smoking the pipe. It seems to bo the drifl and object of conversation in these sober festivities (for it must be recollected that we are speak- ing of the Indians on their wi uteri ng-gounds, and beyond the reach, certainly beyond the free or ordinary use, of whiskey) to extract from their hunts and adventures whatever will admit of a pleasing turn or joke, or excite a laugh. Ridiculous mis- adventures or comical situations are sure to be applauded in the recital. Whatever is anti-social or untoward is piussed over, or, if referred to by one of the company, is ])arried by some allusion to the scenes before them. Religion, like business, is reserved for its proi)er occasion. It does not, as with us, form a free topic of renuirk, at least among those who are connected with their medicine societies, or who enter- tain a proper veneration for what the Indians call " the Master of life." When the feast is over, the women retire to their lodges and leave the men to smoke. liil-? },'f,| CONSTITUTION OF TIIK INDIAX FAMILY. One of the most striking, universal, and permanent customs which distinguish the Anu^rican tribes, and the one which most of all commends them to our humanities, is that which exists in connection with the family tie. It is this trait, indeed, that deprives barbarism of half its repulsiveness, and gives to this erratic and benighted branch of the species their strongest claims to our sympathies and benevolence. Ages of waiulering and privation incident to savage life have done little to shake the laws of consanguinity. The marital rite is nothing more among our tril)es than the j)ersonal consent of the parties, without any concurrent act of a priesthood, a magistracy, or witnesses; the tie is assumed by the parties without the necessity of any extranecms sanction except that of parental consent ; presents are, however, often made, if the parties be able. It is also disannulled, and the wife dismissed from the wigwam, whenever the husband plesixes, or the marital state is continued under the evils of discord or in a state of polygamy ; the latter is, however, the usual method among the hunter and j)rairie tril»es. But the ties of consanguinity are I I I VIP«I III 172 THE INDIAN TRIBES OF THE UNITED STATES. still strictly acknowledged ; children become possessed of all their natural rights, and family tradition traces these ties to their remotest links. No savage tribes on tho face of the earth, so far as geographical discovery extends, are more tenacious of their relationships. No earthly calamity causes such deep grief to them as the loss of a jiromising son at his entrance into life. Instances have been known where the father has redeemed his son from the stake by giving himself up to be burnt in his stead. A notable insbince of this kind occurred in the history of the war in the seven- teenth century between the Chippewa? and the Foxes, after the latter had allied tlu'iusclvcs in the Wist to the i:^ioux. In this war the Foxes captured the son of a (clebrated and aged chief of the Chippewas, named lil-am-wah, while the father was absent from his wigwam. On i ■ aching hi^; home the old man heard the heart- rending news, and, knowing what the fate of his son would be, he followed on the trail of the enemy alone, and reached the Fox village while they were in the act of kindling the fire to roast him alive. He stepped boldly into the arena and offered to take his son's j)lace. " My son," said he, " has seen but a few winters ; his feet have never trod the war-path; but the hairs of my head are white ; I have hung many scalps over the graves of my relatives which I have taken from the heads of your warriors; kindle the lire about me, and send my son home to my lodge." The offer wiLS accepted, and the old man, without deigning to utter a groan, was burnt at the stake. 8uch are the severities of savage warfare, amidst which the family tie is maintained with a heroism which has no parallel in civilized life. But whatever were the plans of separation which the original families and clans adopti'd to preserve the lineage, they are all found to have distinct and appropriate iianies for the different degrees of relationship. In one respect these names have u pcculiariiy • they denote by their orthography whether the person be an elder or younger brother or sister, an aunt by the father's or the mother's side, or some other like distinctions, which appear to have their origin in the very transitive nature of tlif language. UOMIiSTIO Liii:. It has often been a question how order is obtained in so confined a space as an Indian wigwam, where so many persons seem to the looker-on to be huddled together in confusion. The wife of the hunter ha.s the entire control of the wigwam and all its temporalities. To each person who is a member of the lodge-family is assigned a lixed seat, or Iialiitnal abiding-place, which is called ii//hinnn. To the master and mistress of the lodge belongs the chief location. To each of the adult and grown chihlren is also assigned his or her particular abbiui The very infant scmn learns to know its place, and hastens to the mother's abbinos. Indeed, the term for a child — nhhinnjtr — appears to be derived from this radix; the termination ojcr, which is iiffixejrr, etc. If ihe son is married and brings his bride home (one of the commonest modes of assembling the lodgt-circle), the mother assigns thi! bride her al)binos. This is MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 173 prepared by spreading one of the finest skins for her seat, and no other person except her husband ever i,ita there. A visitor who is a neighbor is wek'omed to the liighest seat temporarily. Inmates of the lodge have their bed, mokuk, wallet, etc., placed behind their own abbinos, and generally war-clubs and arms, if the individual be a warrior, are placetl within reafJi. In this manner the personal rights of each inmate are guarded. The feini»,le is punctilious as to her own, so that perfect order is main- tained ; and it would be ius much a violation of their eticpiette for an inmate to take possession of another's abbinos at night as it would be, in civilized lifi% to intrude into a private bed-chanilwr. IJy these known rules of the wigwam an Indian's notions of propriety are satisfied, while to the European stranger who casually lifts up the lodge door (a bit of cloth or skin) and peeps in, its interior appears to be ap- j)ropriated with as indiscriminate a " communism" as if it were occupied by so many j)igs, sheep, or bears. The division of labor between the man and wife in Indian life is not so unequal wldle they live iu the pure hunter state as many suppose. The large proportion of the hunter's time spent in seeking game leaves the wife in the wigwam with a great deal of time on her bands. Tlu're is no spinning, weaving, or preparing children for school, no butter- or (fheese-making, nor any of a thousand other cares which are inseparable from the agricultural state, to occupy her skill and industry. Even the iirt of the seamstress is practised by the Indian woman on a few things only. She devotes much of her time to making moccasins and quill-work. Her husband's leggings are cjirefully ornamented with beads. His shot-pouch and knife-sheath are worked with quills. The hunting-cap is garnished with ri!)b()ns. His garters of dotli are adorned with a profusion of small white beads, and colored worsted tassels are prepared for his leggings. The present state of the Indian trade renders it more thrifty for the hunter to purchase his coat, shirt, aziaun, and leggings of cloth, and employ his time in hunt- ing the small furred animals to pay for them, and this relieves the female in a great mcib'ure from the dressing of skins, which wjus fi)rnierly quite a labor. The labors of the Inisband ant! wife among the Dakotas are not equally dividetl. Take the year round, it is probably f babes from Tlie ', who ■^-•-!^P MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 175 hiis been made the creature of rough endurance, also forljids it. But, though her lips are silent, she is busy. She hands her husbanril that preceded and followed the fall of Quebec, in 1751). lie had been one of the lu^sailants at the memorable capture of old Fort Michilimack- inac, in 1703, and is mentioned by the name of Le Grand Sable as one of the most sanguinary actors on that occasion. He lived many years afterwards, shifting his tent, as the seasons changed, from the open shores of Lakes Huron and Michigan to the thick woods whicrh are the shelter of the natives from the wintry winds. Eighty yeai"s and upwards had now whitened the locks of the aged chief, and he felt that his continuance in these scenes nuist be short, when he accompanied his relatives for the last time, during the month of March, from the borders of the water to those forests which yield the sugar-maple. This is a season of enjoyment with the Indians, ami they usually remain at their sugar-camps until the sap assumes too much acidity to he longer capable of being made into syrup, and the trees begin to jnit forth leaves. In tlu! mean time, the days of the enfeebled patriarch who had pitched his tent in a liundred forests approached their close. It was found thai when they had packed up their effects to return co the open lake he was unable to sustain the journey. Ilis daughter, Nodowiujua, the wife of Saganash, determined to carry him on her shoul- ders, that he might for the hust time be permitteil to witness those refreshing shores. I'or this purpose, as soon lus the carriers were ready to move, she took her long and stout deer-skin apekun, or head-strap, and, fastening it around his body, bent herself sinMigly forward under the load, then rose under the pious burden, and took the path for the lake. It is usual to put d(jwn the burdens at set places, and to proceed by rests (»n ihi'ir way. These she obeyed, and brought her father safely to the open shores of Lake Michigan, The distance was about ten miles. ISlv. Schoolcraft obtaiiu'd the.se particulars from the woman herself at Michilimackinac in 1831?, wlieii she was aged. The feat of J'lneas in carrying Anchises, when infirm, on his slKudders through the Hanies of Troy, has long l)een celebrateil, but is rivalled here by that of an Algnnkin woman. I*(Htiy has emlialmed the one act, let history do liie same for the other. '% »■! ! \'- ^'*' :?■ 176 THE INDIAN TRIBES OF TUE UNITED STATES. BIETU AND ITS INCIDENTS. Parturition, with the Iiuliun female, is seldom attended with severe or long-con- tinued suffering ; it is generally very much to the contrary, and leads to but a slight interruption of her onlinary pursuits. It is the simple result in obstetrics of the continued exercise in the ojxjn air of the Indian woman, and her consequent hardi- hood. A few hours on a journey in the forest is often the whole time required for the confinement, and there api)ears in most cases to be but little if any premonition. A Avife has been known to sally into the adjoining forest in quest of dry limbs for firewood, and to return to the wigwam with her ncAV-born child placed carefully on the back-load. Their exemption from the usual sufferings of child-birth may be said to be tlie general condition of the hunter state, and one of the few advantages of it which the female enjoys above her civilized sister. Names are generally bestowed by the mtndcmoia, or nocomiss, of the family : that is, by the matron or the aged grandmother, Avho generally connects the event with some dream. If the child be a male, the name is generally taken from some object or phenomenon in the visible heavens. The returning cloud (kewanoquol), the sun in contact with a cloud (kc-tche-tosh) , the bright cloud [na-gcczhig), the little thundcrer {an-nc-ma-kens) , a bird in continued flight in the higher air {ka-ga-osh) , are common names. If it be a female, the imagery is generally drawn from the surface of the earth, the vegetable kingdom, or the waters. The woman of the pass- ing stream, the woman of the green valley, the woman of the rock, are not uncommon names. The flexible charactf-r of the language renders these compound terms prac- ticable. There is no rite of any kind analogous to baptism, nor a thought of it; but the name thus given is considered secret; it is, indeed, deemed sacred, for it is not generally revealed, and it is one of the hardest things to induce an Indian to tell his real niinie. Inste^id of this, and in order, it would siH;m, the better to conceal it, men are culled by some common nickname, an little fox, wolf, red-head, bad lK>y, bird, and such like sobriijuet*, which are generally given by the mothers to infants as terms of endearment.* It is these secondary names, which continue to be borne in adult life, that we constantly hear, and the real name is studiously concealed, and frequently not even revealed by the ojcilatig, or grave-post ; for ujwn this the totem of the family is deemed to be sufHcient. The true c^iuse of the concealment of names must be ascribed to their religious and superstitious dogmas. Among the Inxiuois, after the birth of the child a name was selected by its mother from tliose not in use behmging to the tribe, witii the concurrence of tiie chief and near relations. It was then bestowed upon the infant, and its name, with that of tiie father and mother, ' The pcrfi'ct identity cif npiniini ciitcrtiiinoil on tliis Huhjeet by tlie Indians of tli« present day with that held hy the Vir;,'iniii Indians in 1584 is sliuwn in the double name of I'oeahontas. " Her true name," Hiiys I'urehas, " was Matokes, whieli they eoneealed from the Kiijilish in a superstitious fear of hurt by the KnL'li-h if lier name was known." — I'i/i/riins, Part V., Hook VIII. Chap. V. pp-' H i r I i V 1 1 '"Si iiii il.lVtn ip MANNEIIS AND CUSTOMS. 177 wiw announced at the next ensuing council of the tribe. One class of names was adapted to children, and another to adults, which were exchanged at the age of fif- teen or sixteen, in a formal manner. When a chief was elected, his name was " taken away," as they expressed it, and a new one given in its j)Iace. Ciiildren are immediately after their birth tied with feminine care on a flat piece of carved wood, called tikk'magon, wliich has a small hoop to protect the head, and a little foot-piece to rest on. Moss is placed between the heels of female infants, which maivcs them in-toed; in males the adjustment of the moss is designed to produce a perfectly straight position of the foot. The " one-point" blanket of trade wraps it, and a bandage of cloth, if the mother be able to get it, is bound around the whole person, giving it some resemblance to a small mummy. It is the pride of the mother to garnish this cradle-band with ribbons and beads. From the hoop some little jingling ornament is generally suspended, to attract the child's notice. An apekun, or carrying-strap, is securely fastened near the head of the infant, by which the mother can swing it to her back and carry it without injury throughout the forest. Indeed, she can hang it up by the strap on the limb of a tree or in the lodge, and the fixtures are so ingeniously contrived that even if it falls down the child cannot be hurt. In this confinement, during which the child rarely if ever cries, it learns its first lesson in endurance. The management of children is left mostly to women. A male child is not whipped as much as a female. Some women think it wrong to strike a boy at all. COURTSHIP AND MARRIAGE. Among the Dakotas, courtships can be carried on at almost any time, owing to tlu'ir being huddled together, and constantly meeting one another about the lodges. Some make their visits regularly to the lodge ; othei*s do not ; and some nuiy not visit the lodge at all, or may never have spoken to the woman, and the first thing she knows she is bought. Both sexes adorn themselves. Red is the color most used. The young men play on tlie chotunkah, or flute. If they make presents, it is of little aiii'sunt. Finger-rings or ear-rings are about the amount of presents to girls. Con- sent is a.sked by sending the price of the girl. If accepted, the girl is sent ; if not, tlie goods are faithfully returned. The goods have been known to be returned because there was no powder-horn. There are many matcnes made by elopement, much to the chagrin of the parents. They marry at the age of from ten to twenty. The men have a little more respect for the women and themselves than to live a single life. The young only are addicted to dress. Widowers and widows generally remarry. They have a marriage cere- mony, or form of marriage, which is considered lawful and binding. The j)arents or relations are the only persons consulted. Tiie ceremony is outside the lodge. The mother-ill-law has sometliing to say in the choice, and that is about all. The bride is received in the open air, and with some pomp and ceremony. The dress for the bride is as costly as can be obtained. Polygamy is the cause of nnich misery and trouble among them. The women, 23 ■i '! ?n i iil irli ! ;i t' Si' i "1 '•^\ 178 Till) IS'DIAN TRIBES OF THE UNITED STATES. most of thciu, abhor the j)ractic'e, but are overruled by tlio men. Some of the wouien coiumit Huicule on this account. Some of the Htepmothers are kind ; Home are very bad ; and the chikhen are treated accordingly. Their wives — or dogH, as Home of tiie IndiiuiH term them — are well treated an long aa they let the men have their own way, and do all the work except hunting. Tlie man has an many wives a.s lie want.s, antl if one of them remonntrateH against this, she will probably be beaten. The men do not otlen interfere with the work of the women ; neither will they helj) them, if they can avoid it, for fear of being laughed at and called women. As children increase, the jjarents appear to be more affectionate; but then this friendship is often broken up by the husband taking a second or even a third wife. At the age of forty, fifty, and even sixty years we see some of the Indians seeking to get a new wife. In the case of plurality of wives, the strongest and most vicious one is mistress of the lodge. The Indian is generally sedate and dignilied. The women are as fond of ilress as any other people in the world, and put on all the finery tlu^y can get, — silver brooches, wampum, ribbons, or blankets of fine cloth. A wonnin's dress has been seen that was all covered witii large and small brooches, and instances have been known of garnished blankets and leggings which cost probably two hun- dred dollars. Where there is a plurality of wives, if ' c gets finer goods than the others, there is sure to be some (juarrelling among the women ; and if one or two of them are not driven off, it is because the others have not strength enough to do so. The man sits and looks on, and lets the women fight it out. If the one he loves most is driven off, he will go and stay with her, and leave the othei-s to shifl for themselves awhile, until they can behave better, as he says. TOTKMS. There is a peculiar form of jierpetuating the social bond through a reliance on spirits, which is revealed in the system of totems, IJy totemic marks the various families of a tribe denote their alliliati(jn. A guardian si)irit has been selected by the ])rogenitor of a family from some object in the zoological chain. The rej)resentativ(! device of this is called the totem. Indians are proud of their totems, and are prone to surround them with allusions to bravery, strength, Uilent, j)ower of endurance, or other qualities. A warrior's totem never wants honors in their reminiscences, and the mark is put on his grave-post, or ndjrdnt!//, when he is dead. In his funerciil pictograph he invarialdy sinks his personal name in that of his totem or family name. There ai)])ear to have been origiuidly three totems that received the highest honors and respect. Tlu^y wei-e the turtle, bear, and wolf These were the great totems of the InHjuois. Other totems appear of secondary, subordinate, and ap])ar- ently newer origin.' ' The Iriii|iiiiis liavo iniiircsscd ihomsdvps very ftninfily on our history, liiit in nnlliinfr Iiiih their iiituriiiil orgiiiiizHtiiin lit.'iii \i\iiTi'. ri'iiiurkalili! than in their in<;uiiioU!4 iind I'liniplicnted Hyxtein of tutenjs. Each of tile .six tribes or eaiiloiis of wliiili tlie league eoni-iMtod in its) nioHt perfect Htiito hud eijilit lottjuiH, five beinj; secondary mid tliree primary t'*' |i« ■i M ■imp \'im 180 TlIK INDIAN TRIBES OF TUB UNITED STATES. of precept iiiul oxiimple. The mule chililroii are early instructed in the art« of the chiuse. Their eiiiicution beginn iiM Hoon tut they are capable of walking and run- ning about. A tiny bow ia given to the little abbiiiojec^ as a plaything; and vtn Huun 118 he uccpiiren Htrcagth ho is encouraged to Hhoot at Hniall birds or mjuirrelH. Honietiincs the triumph that attendM the initial hucccsh in learning the hunter's art in gained by the anare that children wet to catch little animals. The first eviilence of success is extravagantly praised, and the object killed, however nmall, is prepared by the females for a feast, to which the chiefs and warriors urc ceremoniously invited. Skill in killing large (piadrupeds is the result of years of ellbrt, but the art so acquired is as carefully taught, and its principles are lus anxiously impressed on the rising generation, tus are the elements of reading, writing, and arithmetic in civilized society. The Indian youth, as he advances in the principles of the hunter's art, is instructed by the native priesthood to believe that this art can be facilitated by unseen spiritual agency, and a subtle system of medical magic, which is exhibited in connection with devices and figures of the ))rincipal animals hunted, is drawn on bark. To these great attention is paid, and the secrets respecting them are treasured up, and its knowledge sedulously cultivated, by the Meda, whose rites and ceremonies have been describeil on foregoing j)ages. I'lHHlNlt. In a region abounding with lakes and streams, fishing also becomes an art tuught to the young. There are some modes of iishing through the ice which arc very ingenious. One of the most common of these is to play a decoy through a hole perforated in the ice by means of an instrument called (UK/ikun by the Algonkin tribes. It consists of a sort of stout chi.sel of iron attached firmly to a pole. The >Wy Wi »^pp h i .1 « f POPvp MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 181 When the ponds and rivers where the musk-rats harbor are found, their houses are perforated with a strong and peculiarly shaped spear, by which the victim is transpierced, and the animal brought out upon its point. Salmon-fishing at the Kettle Falls of the Yakima, a tributary of the Columbia River, by means of immense baskets suspended uj)on poles beneath the water as traps, is thus described. The basket is made of willow, from fifteen to twenty feet long, five or six wide, and about four deep, with a high back upon one side, which is designed to rise above the surface of the water. A stick of timl)er is firmly anchored in the rocks below the falls, extending out over the stream twenty or thirty feet. Upon this the basket is suspended, and so far submerged as to leave the back just above the water up stream, while the opposite side is several inches below the surface of the water and down stream. The a.scending salmon rise up the side of the basket and spring into it, wlu^re they are held, their progress being arrested by the high back, and, as tliey never turn tlioir heads down the current, they are retained securely. Two hundred salmon, weighing from six to forty pounds each, have been caught in this way in a few hours. Tiie falls are fifleen feet high, but they present no barrier to the passage of the salmon up the river. The fish shoot themselves up at one dart, — it is simply swimming up at a faster rate than the water falls, — and then continue tiieir course. The salmon of tlic Columbia, unlike those oC other parts of the world, do not take the hook, and, strange though it may seem, are Siiid nevi i to stop search- ing for the source of the stream they are in. The streams which traverse tiic Indian country are often barred near their outlets with stakes securely Ixaind together, with transver poles extending f'nim bank to liank. These jjoles are so close as to prevent sturgeon a/id all the larger sjtecies from ascending except l)y a single aperture which is purposely left. Through this tlu' fish ascend in their fre(juent attempts to force their way up stream for the purpose of depositing their spawn, but in descending they are arrested by (he poles of the dam, and forced against then). The Indian, walking on the transverse poles, with a iiook at the end of a pole which is placed on the upper side of the dam, feels the pressure of the rings up his victim. During the low waters of the summer solstice, lines of stcnes are placed from each bank where the river has a marked descent, pointing downwards at an acute angle, until they meet, within three or four feet. This space is tilled with stones of less height, over whidi the pent-up water rushes and falls on a platform of j)()le.s. This platform, which performs the purpose of a coars.^ longitudinal sieve, lets through the water, leaving the llsii to flounder and hi picked up ad liiUuin. This contrivance is sometimes called ntiiiu kowaydn, or sturgeon's yoke. At the foot of rapids and falls the fish are followed up in their continued struggle to ascend by fishermen in a canoe, who provide tlieinselvcs with a scoop-n>'t attached tiv the end of a long pole, and capture their victims by a dexterous swoop of the im- plement. This act recpiircs great care, activity, and exertion, since, the canoe being made of hark, and almost as light as an egg-shell, the fisherman is liable, the moment he stands on the gunwales, to be tipped over into the boiling, foaming waters. In . ( ^'♦' 182 TIIK JXDIAN TJilliKS OF THE UMTKD STATES. order to prevent it from shooting from under hira, a man sits at the stern with his })addle to keep the boat Iieaded, and tlie iisliernian stands watching his oi)portunity as tiie .seliuol of iisli jia.s.s by ; then, bahmeing himself with the manoeuvring and consumnuite skill of a rope-dancer, he lifts his ])rey into tlie canoe. This species of fishing nuiy be seen j)ractised in the most striking manner during the fishing seiwons at the Falls of iSt. Mary's, on the straits between Lakes Huron anil Suj)erior, which have long been noted for the abundance and fine flavor of the white-fish. Sometimes fish anj shot with an arrow by a watcher sitting on the banks of the river. Fish are also speared from a canoe, usually in the morning, when they are close in-shore, lying under the leaves and rushes that grow on the banks of streams. An Indian woman or l)oy paddles the canoe gently along the shore, while the man stands up in the bow or on the gunwales, liolding his sjjear ready to strike the fish when seen. The fish-hook is employed chiefly in deep waters, and is intended for the larger species. The wliitc-lisl'L, so common to the whole line of lakes, never bites at a hook, and is captured sijlely by nets or spears. The ordinary tnmt- and cod-hook has been supplied by commerce since the discovery of America, but the ancient Indian hook of bone was shajx'd nuich like it, and its use was in every way similar, as is seen from an antitjue bone hook found in the mounds on Cunningham's Island, Lake ICrie. AKT OK mXTlN(i. This ingenuity in the taking of lisli evinces a degree of skill which challenges admiration, 15ut it is tar inferior to that art whi'-;h is u necessity to the hunter in his nobler pursuit of game on tiie laud. To him are known the habits, ranges, and foot! t)f all the quailrupeds which constitute objects of the cha.se. It is essential that he should know not only tlu' species of food which each (piadruped C(»vets, but also the lime most favorable to his sallying out of his coverts to obtain it, together with the various j)rec'autions necessary in order to elude the (piick ear and instincts of his victims. Tlie -implest of all species of iiunting i<, perhaps, the art of hunting the deer. This aniriial, it is known, is cnilowed with liie liital curiosity of stopping in its flight to turn round and look at the object that disturbed it ; and as this is generally done within rifle-range, the hi. bit is indulged at the ctxst of its life, whereas if it trusted nnwaveriniily to its licjis it would escape. One of the most ingenious ukkIcs of hunting the deer is that of //'/•'-//(//(////*/, taking advantage of the aniund's habit of resorting to the banks of streams at night. In the latter part of spring and snnuncr, the lndi;itter; tlien a light or torch is mad by small rolls, tv o or three feet long, of twi>ted liireli-liark Iwliirb is verv inflammablel, atnl ' I alii v ! 1 I . . ■ f I 1 1 J mt w l_ ; i ■ ■'i . 'i !■■" . ^ ■1 i- f t:-. ■ ' f- ' »i' .. '- t: ,'■ ; f. i p). i i > i| ;! fS 1 s m MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 183 this is placed on the oxtroino bow of tin; l)out, ii little in front of the bark nereen, In whieli iHwition it thrown it.s rayn Htronj^ly forwani, h'living all behind in (hirknens. The (h'er, whoso eyes ai(( fixed on tlie li<;ht as it iloats (h»wn, is thus bron<^ht within ranj^e of the gun. Swans uro hunted in the same way. The mazes of the forest uro, however, the Indian hunter's peculiar field of action. No footprint can be impressed there with which he is not familiar. In his temporary journeys in the search after game he generally encamps early and sallies out at the first pet'p of day on his hunting tour. If he is in a forest country, he choosi's his ambush in valleys, for the plain reason that all animals, as night ajiproaches, come into the valleys. In ascending these he is very careful to take that side of a stream which throws the shadow from it, so that he may have a clear view of all that ])as.ses on the oj)posite side, while he is himself screened by the shadow. IJut he is particu- larly (Ml the alert to tuke this precaution if he is a|)prehensive of lurking foes. The tracks of an animal are the subject of the minutest observation ; they tell him at a glance the species of animal that has passed, the time that has elapsed, and the course it has pursued. If the surface -of the earth is moist, the indications are l)lain ; if it is hard or rocky, they are drawn from less palpable, but scarcely less unmistakabhi, signs. One of the most successful ami most varied day's hunts of which we are apprised was performed by a notctl ("hippcwa hunter named Xokay, on the Upper Mississippi, who, tradition asserts, killed in one day, near the mouth of the Crow-Wing River, sixteen elk, four buffaloes, live deer, three bears, one lynx, and a porcupine. This feat has d(mbtless been exceeded in the buffalo ranges of th(! Southwest, where the bow and arrow are known to have been so dexterously and rapidly applied in respect to that animal, but it is seldom that the chase in forest districts is as successful as in this instance. If a Dakota kills a deer, the one who gets to him fii-st receives the best piece. Sometimes the slayer gets nothing but the hide, for when they are very hungry there is great pulling and hauling for the meat. The chief never interferes. The strongest is the best fellow, and keeps what he gets. They have no secret arts, beyond their jugglery and the medicine-dani-e. Any one belonging to the nu'dicine-dance can act ius doctor, priest, juggler, or any other character that he can pei-sonate. They steal, get drunk, murder, do all sorts of mischief, and notwithstanding all this are looked upon as great medicine-men. JJcars and wolves are shot with a gun. The antelope is a singular animal, and is easily decoyed by the hunter's hiding himself in the gnuss and sticking something red on a small stick and raising it above the grass a little. The antelope will come t(t see what it is ; the hunter raises the red article every now and then, and lets it fall again. The anteh)pe keeps approaching, until it is decoyt'd close enough to be shot. The Indians us-- baits of different kinds for beaver. An Indian who can kill a large number of b avers ihinks himself a gri'at medicine-man. The Indians say that there is a great art in se.tiag traps for beaver to be successful. They pretend to charm some kind of ujnmils by mimicking them, and sometimes succeed in killing game in this wav. ■ ■^''il-lfflln •1 "1 • ''' i:: SJ .■ y f I: WB, ^. ^> ^> IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-S) k A {./ ^^ « 23 WEST MA'M ST»?ET WEBSTER, NY. 14;>6> (716) 872-4503 ^ 'V- ■ A* f/. )■) 184 THE INDIAN TRIBES OF THE UNITED STATES. WAE AND ITS INCIDENTS. Success in war is to the Indian the acme of glory, and to learn its arts the object of his highest attainment. The boys and youth acquire at an early period the accomplishment of dancing the war-dance ; and although they are not permitted to join its fascinating circle till thoy assume the envied rank of actual warriors, still their early- sports and mimic pastimes are imitations of its various movements and postures. The envied eagle's feather is the prize. For this the Indian's talent, subtlety, endurance, and bravery are taxed to their utmost, and persevering fasts and religious jwaances and observances are practised. The war-path is taken by youths at an early age. That age may be stated, for general comparison, to be sixteen ; but without respect to exact time, it is always after the primary fasi during which the youth choosr ^ his ])ersonal guardian or monedo; — an age when he first assumes the duties of manhood. It is the period of the assumption of the three- pointed blanket, the true toga of the North American Indian. The whole force of public opinion in our Indian communities is concentrated on this point: the early lodge teachings (such as the recital of adventures of bravery), tlie dances, the religious rites, the harangues of prominent actors made at public assem- blages (such as that called " striking the post") , — Svhatever, in fact, serves to awaken and lire ambition in the mind of the savage is clustered about the idea of future dis- tinction in war. Civilization has many points of ambitious attainment. The Indian has but one prime honor to grasp : it is triumph in the war-path ; it is rushing upon his enemy, tearing tl: scalp rooking from his hciid, and then uttering his terrific m-sa-kuon (death- whoop). For tliis crowning act he is permitted to mount the honored feather of the war-eagle, — the king of carnivorous birds. By this mark he is publicly known, and his honors are recognized by all his tribe, and by the sur- rounding tribes whose customs a.s8imilate. When the scalp of an enemy has boon won, great pains are taken to exhibit it. For this purj>ose it is stretched on a hoop and mounted on a polei The inner part is painted red, and the hair adjusted to hang in its natural manner. If it is the scalp of a male, eagles' feathers are atbched to denote Ihat fact; if of a female, a comb or scissors is hung on the frame. In this condition it is placed in the hands of an old woman, who bears it about in the scalp-dance, while opprobrious epithets are uttered against the tribe from whom it was taken. Amidst these wild rejoicings the war-cry is vociferated, and the general sentiment with old and young is, " Thus shall it be done to our enemies." The feather of the eagle is the highest honor that H warrior can wear, and a very extravagant sum is sonietimes given to procure one. The value of a horse bus been kn(»wn to Ih' paid. The mode in which a feather is to be cut and worn is a mutter of iniportaiice. The scale of honor with the several tribes may vary, but the essential features are the same. Among the Dakota tribes an eagle's feather with a red notch cut 111 it and the pot denotes tliat the wearer has killed an enemy, a rod iiidioato that the throat of edges of tlie feather j)aiitto( ■SI I \' I '1 ( fti r i;!'5;t«!p ^*W"rWl*^W■l^J«»l■.';!«•'•!^'^t■■•^!|? WSUffW^ffV^m^W 'w^mm I r ■ ii MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 185 an enemy has been cut. Small consecutive notches on the front side of the feather, without paint, denote that the wearer is the third person that has touched the dead body ; both edges notched, that he is the fourth person that has touched it ; and the feather partly denuded, that he is the fifth person that has touched the slain. The feather clipped off, and the edges painted red, are indicative of the cutting of an enemy's throat. The warlike tribe of Chippewas on the sources of the Mississippi, who, from a national act in their history, bear the distinctive name of Pillagers, award a success- ful warrior, who shoots down and scalps his enemy, three feathers ; and for the still more dangerous act of taking a wounded prisoner on the field, five : for they con- ceive that a wounded enemy is desperate, and will generally reserve his fire for a last act of vengeance, should he die the moment after. Those of the war-party who come up immediately and strike the enemy, so as to get marks of blood on their weapons, receive two feathers. It is customary for as many as can to perform this act. It is considered a proof of bravery, and in their future assemblies for the purpose of " sinking the post" they will not fail to allude to it. All who can rise in such assem- blies and declare the performance of such a deed in the presence of the warriors are ranked as brave men. They never, however, blame one another for personal acts denoting cowardice or any species of timidity while on the war-path, hoping by this course to encourage the young men to do better on future occasions. All war-parties consist of volunteers. The leader, or war-captain, who attempts to raise one, must have some reputation to start on. His appeals at the assemblages for dancing the preliminary war-dance are to the principles of bravery and nation- ality. They are brief and to the point. He is careful to be thought to act under the guidance of the Great Spirit, of whose secret will he affects to be apprised in dreams or by some rites. He takes the war-club in his lu ids, smeared with vermilion to symbolize blood, and begins his war-song. The war-songs are brief, wild repeti- tions of sentiments of heroic deeds, or incitements to patriotic or military ardor. They are accompanied by the drum and rattle, and by the voice of one or more choristers. They are repeated slowly, sententiously, and with a measured cadence, to which the most exact time is kept. The warrior stamps the ground as if he could shake the His language is oft«n highly figurative, and he deals with the machinery universe. of clouds, the flight of cariiivorous birds, and the influence of spiritt/'.l agfcies, as if the region of space were at his command. He imagines his voice to be h'^wd in the clouds ; and while he stamps the ground with well-feigned fury, he fauci* '< him- Hclf to take hold of the " circle of the sky" with h'" hands. Every few moments lie stops abruptly in his circular path, and utters the piercing war-cry. He must be a ook' listener who can sit unmoved by these appeals. The ideas thrown out succeed one another with the impetuosity of a torrent. They are suggestive of heroic frames of mind, of strong will, of high courage, of burning sentiment: ^11 Hear my voice, ye warlike birds I I prepare a feast for you to batten on; 24 TfTm^ , V, •. If fliilii ')' m m |;;: ^m' !!-■' S ' 'fl^i ^ :^ ■::;•■ 183 77/^ INDIAN TRIBES OF THE UNITED STATES. I see you cross the enemy's lines ; ' Like you I shall go. I wish the swiftness of your wings ; I wish the vengeance of your claws ; 1 muster my friends ; . • I follow your flight. ' Ho, ye young men, that are warriors, Look with wrath on the battle-field. Every warrior that rises and joins the war-dance becomes thereby a volunteer for the trip. He arras and equips himself, he provides his own sustenance, and when he steps out into the ring and dances he chants his own song, and is greeted with redoubled yells. These ceremonies are tantamount to " enlistment," and no young man who thus comes forward can honorably withdraw. Whoever has heard an Indian war-song and witnessed an Indian war-dance must be satisfied that the occasion wakes up all the fire and energy of the Indian's soul. His flashing eye, his muscular energy as he begins the dance, his violent ges- ticulations as he raises his war-cry, the whole frame and expression of the man, demonstrate this. And long before it comes to his turn to utter his stave or part of the chant, his mind hjis been worked up to the' most intense point of excitement. His imagination has pictured the enemy, the ambush and the onset, the victory, and the bleeding victim writhing under his prowess. In thought he has already stamped him under foot and torn off his reeking scalp. He has seen the eagles hovering in the air, ready to pounce on the dead carcass as soon as the combatants quit the field. It would reijuirc strong and graphic language to give descriptive utterance, in the shape of a song, to all he has fancied and sees and feels on the subject. Physical excitement has absorbed his energies. He is in no mood for calm and collected descriptions of battle-scenes. He has no stores of measured rhymes to full back on. All he can do is to utter brief and often highly symbolic expressions of courage, of defiance, of indomitable rage. His feet stamp the ground as if he would shake it to its centre. The inspiring drum and mystic rattle communicate new energy to every stop, while they serve, by the observance of the most exact time, to concentrate his energy. His very looks depict the spirit of rage ; and his yells, quick, sharp, and cut off by the application of the hand to the mouth, are startling and horrific. Nothing but the taking of life is considered by the Winnebagoes as just cause of war. When an Indian has had a relative killed by Indians of another tribe, and wishes to raise a war-party to avenge him, in case the enemy is not in the immediate neighborhood, and instant action for self-defence is not required, he, in the first place, fasts until he has a favorable dream ; if, perchance, he has had a bad dream, he gets up and eats, and commences his fast again, and continues until his dream is favorable to his purpose ; he then makes a feast, invites his friends, relates his dream, and asks them to go with him on a war-path. The war-chief is usually invited to take com- mand of the party. -i s 4 ■I ■TPy ^M =1 1-1 S s Q n M MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 187 All who join the party volimteer ; none are compelled to servo, and those who volunteer do not obligate themselves to serve during the war, or for any fixed time. If a wartior turns back after starting on a war-path, he is laughed at, perhaps, but not punished for deserting. The man who gets up the party and his friend.s furnish a feast at starting ; after that each warrior takes care of and supports himself. The Indian goeS to war on hifl o1vn •" charges ;" no munitions of war, subsistence, or trans- portation are ft rnished at the public expense; each warrior furnishes himself with arms and ammunition. To these facta the peculiar character of Indian warfare is to be attributed. Having no commissary department, they cannot subsist an army, and when, under a general and strong excitement, several hundred warriors start together on a war-path, they are of necessity obliged in a short time to separate in search of subsistence. The Indian who raises a war-party furnishes a horse and as much wampum as he is able ; the war-chief also furnishes something. The warrior who takes the first scalp receives the property furnished by the man who got up the party ; and the warrior who takes the second scalp receives the property furnished by the war-chief. Warriors start for the first place of rendezvous singly or in squads, as may be most convenient. No order is observed. After they are assembled, and before starting on the war-path, they dance, and sacrifice dogs and deer-skins dressed white. Each warrior cjirries a bag made of skins or rushes, in which is carried a root. Be- fore going into battle they chew this root, swallow some of its juice, and put some of it on their bodies, to make them brave and keep them from being hurt. This medi- cine does not have the effect to deaden pain. After the ceremony of the dance is concluded, the party start in single file, the war-chief at their head. When they arrive in the neighl)orhood of their enemy, tliey have a vanguard when marching, and sentinels stationed when encamped at night. Neither priests nor jugglers are consulted respecting the result of a campaign ; the dream of the warrior who raises a war-party is relied on. The war-chief directs the movements of the party and commands in battle ; he plans the attack, issues orders to his braves, and assigiis them their post. They sometimes fight in line when they happen to meet an enemy in the open field by f' y. In such case they commence firing as soon as they come within range, and then advance, the object of each party being to drive the other from the field. When one party breaks and retreats, the other pursues, killing with the knife and war-club. The wounded retire to the rear. The usual plan adopted by tht party making the attack is first to ascertain by reconnoissance the exact position of the enemy, then start upon him in the night, and at a given signal attack him promiscuously. The war-whoop is not used as an order or signal after commencing an attack, but, like the shout of the white soldier in battle, is intended to defy the enemy and exult in success. •"* ' " . - The Dakotas seldom amputate a limb. They have no surgical instruments. They are not skilful in splints. If a limb is broken, it is almost sure to be crooked afterwards. The mode of carrying the sick or wounded is in a litter on two poles i i ' a ['tirvJ ! ^, 5! i j". 188 THE INDIAN TRIBES OF THE UNITED STATES. lashed together, with a blanket fastened on top. (Plate 49.) Two men carry this litter, one at each end, by means of the head-strap, which is fastened to each side of the litter and then brought over the carrier's neck. It is wonderful how fur two Indiana will carry a heavy man in this way. Sometimes a war-party agree to take one or two prisoners. If a warrior wants a prisoner for the purpose of adopting him into his family , he is allowed to take one. No important ceremony is observed in adopting a prisoner. Wi'^'^out a previous arrangement, male prisoners are seldom taken in battle. Quarter is neither given nor asked ; the Indian, when outnumbered and surrounded so that he cannot retreat, knows that it is useless to surrender, and fights to the last. When, as sometimes liai)i)ens, a warrior is taken in battle, and his captor does not wish to adopt him, and the war-chief is not present to decide his fate, he is bound and taken to the village where that chief resides. The prisoner is then made to go about in the village, and if he enters the lodge of the war-chief he is condemned to die, but if the war-chief shut.s his lodge against him his life is safe. The war-chief has the power of life and (loath in the case. They do not bury their dead who fall in the field of battle, neither do they strip them of their ornaments, but leave them as they fall. They kill and scalp the wounded of their enemy. Sometimes Indians, after being scalped and left for dead on the field of battle, recover and get b^ck to their tribe. There are indi- viduals now living who have recovered under such circumstances. Prisoners whose lives are spared are not made slaves of, but generally marry, and are treated as members of the tribe. The Winnebago warriors say that chastity is by their tribe uniformly respected in war. They say that the Great Spirit has told them not to abuse the women. The warriors start on the war-path attired in their usual dress, but go into battle divested of most of their clothing. They paint their faces and bodies so as to appear as hideous as possible. They use vermilion and most of the pigments employed by j)ainters, ruid when these cannot be obtained they besmear their bodies with clay. The feather of the war-eagle is worn by those warriors who have taken a scalp in battle. Some wear frontlets, and this ornament is constructed of various materials, and in various shapes and patterns. They wear a small portion of the hair on the top and back part of the head long and braided. Their ornaments are worn in battle. These consist chiefly of necklaces of animals' claws, bracelets, and rings. The rifle is now in general uue instead of the bow and arrow. The war-club, toma- hawk, and knife arc still used as weapons. War-parties are raised by any person who feels aggrieved or has had a relative killed. If he cannot carry out his designs, he will employ some one else whom he considers able to make a successful raid. The head of the party must be a great medicine-man, a pro])het, or in some other way distinguished. The war-chief makes a dance every three or four nights for two or three weeks before the party marches. This is in the lodge. On these excursions the war-chief makes laws after they get started, and if any one breaks them his gun is broken and his blanket cut by five or six warriors who are appointed for that purpose by the war-chief. They dance when i m 'ti'Ji rr w "^k MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 189 thoy como in the ncij^hhorluxMl of the oiiomy'H country. Tho order of tlie miirch is nuulc by tiie wiir-cliiof. Ho tollH tho party vviiero they will ciimj), wlmt tlioy will kill, ami what they will boo during tho day. Tho war-chiof niukcH \\\a dancon, which is tho only corcinony before the march. Thoy move as HiiitH thomselvcH, in Indian lilo generally. They have no ruloH for that purpose. Thoy have very gootl roots which thoy apply to wounds. They have many rootfl which they use for food. In these war oxcui'sions they pretend that tho medicine in their war-sacks will give them courage and success without eating it. Great precaution is used on the march. Three or four arc sent ahead of tho party as spies, who stop two or three times in a day and let the party come up, aiul tell what they have seen and heard ; and then there! is a council on the subject. Tho chiefs have very little comnumd or control of a village, or in the war ; and chiefs do not otlen go to war. Tt; ^attle there is no order. After the battle commences there is no concert or calmnes.s Everything is irreg- ular. If they retreat, each one makes the best of his way l:o?u.'. The plan of attack is made known to the party by the war-chief if possible. Tho xpies reconnoitre tho enemy's camp, and the plan of the battle is then fixed. When they are near enough, they have a whistle to blow, at which sound they all lire ; then ilic war-whoop conu's, and they thicj^e on the enemy. There is lu) order of re rent; no rallying-placo named. When the worsted party flies, their antagonist.) follow in irregular ])ursuit. I'risuners have their hands tied behind them, and have to walk with the war-party. ; t HTUIKIXd TIIK POST. Whoever has observed the varying phases of Indian society as it exists both in the forests and prairies that stretch between the Alleghany and Rocky Mountains, nnist have bccomo sensible that the feature of military glory constitutes the prime object of attainment. Tlu; civilized warrior receives a badge of lioiU)r and a title from his monarch's hands. The Indian is content with an eagle's feather fa.-" 1^ ^|:P F^i'-:| : m IIS MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 193 The public exercises of dancing, singing, praying, and exhorting, which precede the initiations, commence the previous morning. Before tlie candidates are brought forward, the ground through the centre of the bower is carpeted with blankets and broadcloth laid over the blankets. The candidates are then led forward and placed on their knees upon the carpet near one end of the bower, and facing the opposite end. Some eight or ten medicine-men then march in single lile round the bower with their medicine-bags in their hands. Each time they perform the circuit they halt, and one of them makes a short address ; this is repeated until all have sjtoken. They then form a circle, and lay their medicine-bags on the carpet before them. Then they commence retching and making efforts to vomit, bending over until their hi'acls come nearly in contact with their medicine-bags, on which they vomit, or deposit from their mouth, a small white sea-shell about the size of a bean ; this they call the medicine-stone, and claim that it is carried in the stomach and vomited up on these occasions. These stones they put in the mouth of their medicine-bags, and take their position at the end of the bower opposite to and facing the candidates. They then advance in line, as many abreast as there are candidates ; holding their medicine-bags before them with both hands, they dance forward slowly at first, and uttering low guttural sounds as they approach the candidates, their step and voice increasing in energy, until with a violent " Ough !" they thrust their medicine-bags at their breasts. Instantly, at, if struck with an electric shock, the candidates fall prostrate on their faces, their limbs extended, their muscles rigid and quivering in every fibre. Blankets are now thrown over them, and they are sufl red to lie thus a few moments : as soon as they show signs of recovering from the shock, they are insisted to their feet and led forward. Medicine-bags are then put in their hands, and medicine-stones in their mouths ; they are now medicine-men or women, as the ea.se may l)e, in full communion and fellowship. The new members, in company with the old, now go round the bower in single file, knocking raembera down pro- miscuously by thrusting their medicine-bags at them. Afler continuing this exer- cise for some time, refreshments are brought in, of which they all partake. Dog's llcsh is always a component part of the dish served on these occasions. Atler pur- taking of the feast, they generally continue the dance and other exercises for several hours. The drum and rattle are the musical instruments used at this feast. The most perfect order and decorum are observed throughout the entire ceremony. The members of this society are remarkably strict in their attendance at this feast: notliing but sickness is admitted as an excuse for not eomjdying with an invitation to attend. Members sometimes travel fifty miles, and even farther, to be present at a fea-st, when invited. The secret of the society is kept sacred. It is remarkable that neither want nor a thirst for whiskey will tempt the members of this society to part with their medicine-bags. AVliether those medicine-men jKissess the secret of mesmerism or magnetic influence, or whether the whole system is a humbug and imposition, is difficult to determine. A careful observer of the ceremonies of this order for six years has been unable to detect the imjwsition, if there be one ; and it is unreasonable to suppose that an imposition of this character couUl be practised for l>5 k tl- kM m 194 THE INDIAN TRIBES OF THE UNITED STATES. centuries without detection. Tliere is no doubt that the tribe generally believe that their medicine-men possess grout jmwor. The feast of Mundamin, represented in the accompanying, drawing, is strictly an offer of fir8t-fruit« to the power which has caused their growth and perfection. The ceremonies begin with the gathering of the corn from the field. It is then conveyed to the lodge. It is boiled in water and then served up in the ear to the invited guests, after having been duly offered to the Groat Spirit in thankfulness and with an appro- priate address. Each guest bruigs his own dish, and retires backwards to the door, whence he proceeds to his own lodge with the food he has received. This is the ceremony culled " liusk" by the Creeks, i! . SPORTS AND PASTIMES. — DISCOIDAL STONES. " \ Games of various character have attracted the Indian tribes from the earliest notices we have of them. Some of tlu-se games are of a domestic character, or such as arc usually played in the wigwam or domicile. Of this kind are the game of hunting the moccasin, the gume of the bowl, and sundry minor games known to the Algonkins, the Cherokees, and other tribes. But by far the greater number of games practised by the North American Indians are of an athletic character, and are de- signed to nourish and promote activity of limb and manual expertness in the field or on the green. Such arc the various ball-plays and wrestling and running matches which whole tribes are a.sserabled to witness and participate in. To run swiftly, to fend adroitly with the baton, to strike or catch, to lift great weights, to throw stones, to shoot darts, to dance with spirit, — in short, to exhibit any extraordinary feat of agility, strength, or endurance in mimic strife, has ever been held to be among the principal objects of applause, especially in the young. It is, indeed, in these sports that the elements of war are learned, and it is hence that excellence in these feats is universally held up to admiration in the oral recitals of the deeds of their heroes and prodigies. Mauabozho excelled in his superhuman and godlike feats, and killed the mammotli serpent and bear-king. Papukewis could turn pirouettes until he raised a wliirlwind, and Kwiisind could twist off the stoutest rope. These things are related to stimulate the physical powers of the young, and there is not a tribe in the land, whose customs we know, of whom it is not a striking trait to favor the acquisition of skill in games and amusements. Among these field-sports the CJtsting of stones is one of tiie most ready and natural traits of savage tribes. With such accuracy is this done that it is astonishing with what skill and precision an Indian will hurl stones at any object. The numerous dLscoidal stones that are found in the tumuli, and at the sites of ancient occupancy in the Mississippi Valley, serve to denote that this anuisement was practised among the earlier tribes of that Valley at the Mound period. These anticpu; quoits are made with great labor and skill from very hard and heavy pieces of stone. They are generally exact disks, of a concave surfaee, with an orifice in the centre, and a broad rim. A specimen now ix'fore us, from une of the smaller tunnili at i ! 1 t In ' 9 ; 1 1 1 1 ■'j » y ' i [ < f rr-^f' fr 'I I 1 1' " < 1 1 ^' ii 1 HnH^^^^^HT r m 1 > in£*i(j^l ^■1 ;V ''S^^^^H *' 1! ; 1 1 ^^^J^B 1 T 1 1 ill^^H H r,, i '4 1 ■ i'. 1 . 1 i BommiinnaiMvnnMvnnsia MANNHIiS AND CUSTOMS. 195 4 ■) ' \'. Grave Creek Flats, in the Ohio Valley, is wrought from a solid piece of porphyry. It is three and a half inches in diameter, with a thickness of one and five-tenths inches. Tiie perforation is half an inch, and the rim, forming the disk, a small fraction under the same. The object of hurling such an instrument was manifestly to cover an upright pin or peg driven into the ground. Whether, like the ancient Greeks in hurling their discus, a string was used to give additional velocity and direction to its motion, cannot be stated. BALL-PLAYIXG. This game is i^ayed by the Northwestern Indians in the winter season, after the winter hunts are over, and during summer, when, the game being unlit to kill, they amuse themselves with athletic sports, games of chance, dances, and war. The game is played by two parties, not necessarily equally divided in numbers, but usually one village against another, or one large village may challenge two or three smaller ones to the combat. When a challenge is accejHed, a day is ajipointed to play the game, ball-bats are made, and each party assembles its whole force of old men, young men, and boys. The women never play in the same game with the men. Heavy bets are made by individuals of the opposite sides. Horses, guns, blankets, buffalo- rol)es, kettles, and trinkets are freely staked on the result of the game. When the parties are assembled on the ground, two stakes are placed about a quarter of a mile apart, and the game commences midway between them, the object of each party being to get the ball beyond the limits of its ojij)onents. The game commences by one of tile old' men throwing the ball in the air, when all rush forward to catch it in their l>idl-bats before or after it falls to the giound. The one who catches it throws it in the direction of the goal of the opposing party, when, if it be caught by one of the same side, it is contimied in that direction, and so on until it is thrown beyond the limits, Itut if caught by an opponent it is thrown back in the opposite direction. In this way the ball is often kept all day between the two boizndarics, neither jiarty being able to get it beyond the limits of the other. Wlien one has caught the ball he has the right, before throwing it, to run towards the .'iniits until he is overtaken by the other party, when, being com])elled to throw it, he endeavors to send it in the (iinrtion of some of his own party, to be caught by some one of them, who continues sending it in the same direetion. If a village or party get the ball over the eastern lioiindary, tliey change sides, and the next tinn* they have to try and get it over tiie western boundary ; so if the same party propel it over the western boundary, they win one game, and anotlier bet is played foi'. When the t)all is seen Hying through the iiir there is a great shout and hurrah by the spectators. The players sometimes piek it up and run over the lines without being overtaken by ajiy of the v)pposite party. Then a great shout is raised again to urge on the players. This game is very laborious, and oeeasionally the participants in it receive some hard blows, either from the club or the ball. Plate "»■) represents a ball-jday on the ice. The young mar has the ball in his f ■ M ; 1 3 Mil ^'' I:ji m n i: m 196 THE INDIAN TRIBES OF THE UNITED STATES. ball-bat, and is running with it towards the limits of the other side, pursued by all the players. Plate 56 represents a ball-play on the prairies in summer. The ball is on the ground, and all are rushing forward to catch it with tlieir ball-bats, not being allowed to touch it with their hands. The ball is carved from a knot, or made of baked clay covered with raw deer- hide. The ball-bat is from three to four feet long, one end bent up in a circular form about four inches in diameter, in which is a net-work made of raw-hide or sinews of the deer or buffalo. V GAMES OF CHANCE. One of the principal amusements of a sedentary character which our tribes practise is that of various games in which success depends on the luck of numbers. These games, to which both the prairie and the forest tribes are addicted, assume the fascination and intensity of interest of gambling, and the most valued articles are often staked on the result of a throw. For this purpose the prairie tribes commonly use the stone of the wild plum or some analogous fruit, upon which various devices indicating their arithmetical value are burned in, or engraved and colored, so as to reveal at a glance the character of the pieces. Among the Dakota tribes this is known by a term which is translated "the game of the plum-stones" {kun-tah-soo) . A representation of this universally popular game is given in Piute 57. There are five sets of stones. Each set consists of eight pieces. To play this game, a little hole is made in the ground and a skin put in it. It is alst- played on a robe. Tlio woi uui and young men play. T o bowl is lifted witli one liand about three or four inches, and pushed suddenly down to its place. The j)lum-ritones fly over several times, and the count, as in all games of chance, is advanced or retarded by the luck of the throw. The stake is ilrst put up by ail who \y\s\i to play. A dozen can play at once. Seven is the game. Sometimes they throw the whole count ; at other times they throw twice or thrice, but frequently miss, and the next one takts fhs dish. The dish which they play in is round, and will hold about two quarts. Women play this game more than the men, and often lose all their trinkcis at it. The game of moccasins is practised by the men, and large bets are made. In this game they tivke sides, one party playing against the other. One side will sing, whilst one man of the other party hides the ball in a moccasin. There are three mocciu^ins used for the purpose. The man takes the ball or stick between his thumb and forefinger, slips it froJii one moccasin to another several tinuM, leaves it in one of *'"em, and then stops, — something like thimble-play. The jmrty that has been singing hius to guess in which moccasin the bull is, for which purpose one man is chosen. If he guesses where the boll is the first time, he loses. Should the ball not be in the mocciisin that he guesses the Ihst time, he can try again. lie has now to guess which one of the two remaining moccasins the bull is in. If he is successful, ■m. .«*rii H . > A (• it ! 1 'I r.) o I !s I'M 11- lfl k..M. ym M ;l ^^H 1 1 i ! j i , If l! MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 197 he wins ; if not, he loses. So they have only one chance in two of winning. When one side loses, the winning side gives up tlio moccasins to the other party, that they may try their luck awhile at hiding the ball. They have no high numbers in the game. A more complicated mode of reliance on the luck of numbers is found in the Chippewa game of the Bowl, called Puffgtming. It is played with thirteen pieces, nine of which are formed of bone and four of brass, all of circular shape. Eight of the bone pieces are stained rM on the right side, with edges and dots burned black with a hot iron ; the reverse is left white. The brass pieces have the right side convex and the reverse concave. The convex surface is bright, the concave surface dark or dull. The game is won by the red pieces, the arithmetical value of each of which is fixed. Any number of players may take j)art in the game. Nothing is required but a wootlen bowl, which is curiously carved and ornamented (the owner relying somewhat on magic influence) and has a plain, smooth surface. The Indians now play cards mostly for beta and amusement. Some play away everything they possess except their wives and children. They are never known to gamble them away. DANCING. Dancing is a national trait, and is a part of the religious, social, and military system of the tribes. The war-dance is celebrated before starting on a war-path ; but although a tribe may not for several years have been engaged in war, this dance is kept up, and frequently practised. The object of this seems to be the same as that sought to be effected by martial nuisic and military reviews among the whites, — naniely, to keep alive a martial spirit, and " in peace prei)aro for war." The old warriors sometimes join this dance, but usually only the middle-aged and young men engjige in it ; occiwionally boys are allowen, or something to represent a weapon, in their hands. The nnisicians are seated around a flag in the centre : the music consists of drums, rattles, and singing. Wben the music commences, the dancers spring into the ring and dance promiscuously, brandishing their wea|)ons and making menacing gestures. Tills exercise is violent, and cannot be long sustained without rest. Occasionally a warrior will step forward and go through a pantomime of the discovery, ambus- cade, attack, killing, and scalping of an enemy ; another will give a history of his exj)loits, and accximpany the recital with aj)propriate gestures. When an officer of the government, or any «llstlngulshed person, visits their village, they assemble and dance ; this is done ostensibly as an honor to the visitor, but in reality with the exi)ectati()n of receiving a present. The scalp-dance affords a striking Illustration of the vindictive and bloodthirsty spirit of the savage, and the means by which this spirit Is imblbetl by and cherishetl in 1 I m 198 THE INDIAN TRIBES OF TllK UNITED STATES. their children. At an occurrence of tliis kind witnessed by Mr. Schoolcraft in 1861 among the Cliippewas, the scalps of a murdered Sioux family were hung up on sticks set in the ground, and men, women, and children danced around them ; occa- sionally the women and children would take a scalp and carry it round the ring. This dance was continued for hours, with great excitement. One of the Chippewaa had killed his man with a spear ; finding it diflicult to extricate his weapon on account of the barb, he cut out a piece of flesh with his knife, and brought it home, still adhering to the spear : this flesh was cut in pieces and given to the boys, who ate it raw. The funeral-dance is performed at the grave when a sacrifice is made for the dead. They dance around the grave to the music of the drum and singing. The pipe-dance and otlu3r convivial dances are joined in with spirit and glee by both old and young. The women in dancing have but one motion : they spring on the toes, both feet together, the body erect, and hands by the side. The men bound on the right and left foot alternately, with the body slightly bent forward. DOG-DANCE OF THE DAKOTA INDIANS. This dance is peculiar to the Dakota tribe, and takes its name from the fact that the raw liver of the dug is eaten by the perforqiers. It is not often i)erformed, and only on some extraordinary occasion. The performers are usually the bravest war- riors of the tribe, and those having stomachs strong enough to digest raw food. When a dog-dance is to be given, the warriors who arc to take part in it, and all others who desire to witness it, assemble at some stated time and place. After they have talked and smoked for a while, the dance commences. A dog with his legs pinioned is thrown into the group of dancers by one of the spectators. This is despatched by one of the medicine-men, or jugglers, with a war-club or tomahawk. The side of the animal is then cut open, and the liver taken out. This is cut into strips and hung on a pole about four or five feet in length. The performers now begin to dance around the pole, smacking their lips and making all sorts of grimuces, showing a great desire to get a taste of the delicious morsel. After performing these antics for a while, one of them will make a grab at the liver, biting off a piece, and thou hop off, chewing and swallowing it as he goes. His example is followed by all the other warriors until every morsel of the liver is eaten. Should any par- ticles of it fall to the ground, they are collected by a medicine-man in the palm of his hand, who carries it round to the dancers to be eaten and his hands well licked. After disjwsing of the first dog, they all sit down in a circle and chat and smoke awhile until another dog is thrown in, when the same ceremonies ire re{)eated, to be continued so long as any one is disposed to present them with a dog. They are re- quired to eat the liver, raw and warm, of every dog that is presented to them ; and while they are eating it, none but the medicine-men must touch it with their hands. Women do not join in this dance. The object of this ceremony is, they say, that those who eat the liver of the dog while it is raw and warm shall become possessed '0 q ii ■! n ■■•■ i fi I I'] ■,,11 i. :l» iiJj MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 199 of the sagacity and bravery of the dog. The Ojibwas, the tribe bordering on the Dakotas, and their liereditary enemies, look with disgust on this ceremony. BUOAE-MAKING. . ■< .. As the spring season approaches, and the cap begins to ascend the still leafless trunks of the acer saccharinum, or sugar-maple, the Indian families throughout the northern and middle latitudes repair to their sugar-camps, and engage in preparing that, to them, favorite luxury. The sap is carried in bark buckets, and boiled down in kettles of iron or tin. This labor devolves chiefly on the females. It forms a sort of Indian carnival. The article is profusely eaten by all of every age, and a quan- tity is put up for sale in boxes made from the white birch bark, which are called mococks, or mokuks. These sugar-boxes are in the shape of tlie lower section of a quadrangular pyramid. They are of a light-brown color, or, if new, of a nankeen- yellow. While the careful and industrious wife prepares and fills these boxes for sale, the children and youth carry sap from the trees, and have a grand frolic among themselves, boiling candy and pouring it out oi; the snow to cool, and gambolling about on the frozen surface with the wildest delight. Their mothers supply them, too, with miniature mokuks, filled with sugar from the first runniugs of the sap, which make the choicest sugar. These little mokuks • re ornamented with dyed porcupine-quills, skilfully wrought in the shape of flowers and figures. The boxes designed for sale are of various sizes, ranging in capacity from twenty to seventy [nnuids. The number of these boxes made in a single season by an industrious and Ktrong-handed family is known to be from thirty to forty, in addition to all the si'f^ar that hiis been consumed. It is seldom less than a dozen or twenty boxes to tlie family, and the average yield nay be put between twenty-five and one hundred and fifty dollars in trade. The heyday scenes of the Scensibaukwut, of sugar-making, crown the labors of the spring. The pelt of animals is now out of season, winter has ended with all its rigors, and the setting-in of warm weather prepares the Indian mind for a season of hilarity and feasting, for which the sale of his "golden mokuks" gives him some means. It is now that religious observances are in order. The Medawin, the Ji'sukawin, and the Wabeno societies assemble. Feasts ar . given iis long as their means last. The sounds of the drum and the rattle echo through their villages. Tli(* streams, loosened from their icy fetters, utter a deeper murmur, the forests are decked with the leafy clothing which fits tiiem for purposes of concealment, and the Int'ian mind prepares itself for renewing its darling schemes of war. CXJSTUME. It is in these fetes that the Indian nations should bo seen if one would acquire a correct idea of their national costumes and of tlieir customs, and not in their wars, in 'vhich their universal custom is, from a fixed prineiple, to make themselves appear ;" II ^\ 7r I i - 200 TJIE INDIAN TRIBES OF THE UNITED STATES. hideous and t'^rrible. See the Sioux and tlu Chippewaa in the field of battle, it is difficult to distinguish one from the other ; see them in their civil or religious fetes, and they cannot be mistaken one for the other. The dress of tlie tribes is changeable, and dependent on climate. The skins of the beaver and fine-furred animals were extensively used in the North at the period of the first planting of the colonies ; and it often so happened that an Indian was thus clothed at an expense which would have covered him with the finest and richest broadcloths. Deer-skins furnished the clothing in deer-yielding districts, and the dressed skins of the buffalo ditl the same throughout the latitudes west of the Mis- sissippi, reaching from about 32° to 52° N. Throughout the plains and level forests of the tropical and southern latitudes of North America the Indian wears little or no clothing during a large part of the year. But it is different on the eminenccb elevated thousands of feet above the sea, and also very different as the observer extends his views over the temperate zone. Nudity, where it is asserted of tribes within the present area of the United States, as is done by De Bry of the Virginia Indians, implied generally uncovered limbs and body. But it permitted the azian, or loin-cloth, a necklace of shells, claws, or wam- I)um, feathers on the head, anil armlets, as well as ear- and nose-jewels. The Pow- hatanese women had, if nothing else, a short fringed kirtle of buckskin ; the bust was nude,' but this was doubtless only the sumhicr costume. But even in summer the Northern Indians were less scantily clothed. The skins of beasts were adapted to every purpose of garment, and the severity of winter was averted by the richest and warmest fure. Commerce immediately altered this, and Umght the Indian the wastefulness of wearing skins and })eltrie8, one tithe of the market-price of which would clothe him in woollen. Moccasins have stood their ground as a part of the Indian costume with more entire success against European innovution than ])erhaps any other part of the aboriginal dress. They are made of buckskin or buffhlo-skin, dressed and smoked af\cr the Indian fashion. The skin is then maceraf«(' and dressed with the brains of the animal, till the harslicr projKirties are well discharged, and it is brought U) a soft, smooth, and pliant otJite. If it is designed for a bride's moccasins, or to be worn by fomales on some ceremonial occiisions, and to be ornamented with porcupine-quills and ribl>ons, the dressing is continued till it is as soft and white as the finest white dre»ssed doe-skin; but 'f intended fur ordinary use, it is smoked, and brought b\ lie pyroligneous j>ro}wrties of the smoke to a brown color and conipait texture, in which state it is fitted the better to reiH"! moisture. This smoking is effected by burning hard -wood chips in a smouldering fire, in the bottom of an orifice dug in the ground, the skin being su.sjjended by a light frame around and above the orifice. There is a fa-siiion in the cut, closing, am! pncker of the shoe which denotes the eer-skin and dressed buffalo-skin constitute their ordinary materials. They are elaborately wrought and profusely ornanieuted. In this department dyed por- cuitine-quills, -woet grass, and colored hair are chiefly employed. The favorite colors in the ornaments of their dressiM are bright red and blue. At the treaty of Prairie (iu Cliicn, on the Upper Mississippi, in 1J32"), a great variety of these dresses were cxiiibited. None, however, exceeded in majestical style the robe of a Yankton chief. M-^ i '.VJ ( .! ' 'fit \i \l i tl ' In the (luintinj; of Pocniionlas, in tlio rotunda of t1u> Oapitol, tho sister of tlio licroino is rcprcscntod '..>f: o!< \\t: floor, will) u luun's li'^gin^v' roiiohin>j; tlio ontiru ien^tii of iier linilis, tinj tied in tiio uiulo fubliion lui.uii . li.'i l)i)(iy. Notliing could be nioro erroneous in respeet to Iiuiiun t'o.stuiuc. 2G r I i ,'y 202 TBE INDIAN TRIBES OF THE UNITED STATES. from the Minnesota River, who was called Wanita. He was a remarkably tall man, with features that might have done honor to any of the Eoman emperors of early periods as we see them figured on coins. He was clothed in a war-robe of buft'-colored buflfalo-skin, ornamented with porcupine-quills brilliantly dyed. This garment reached to his feet. He had bunches of red horse-hair tied above his elbows. His moccasins had appendages of the skin of the hystrix, which dangled at his heels. He carried gracefUUy a highly-ornamented Bioux pipe-handle four fct in length. Nothing, however, creates so much pride, or receives such elaborate attention, or is purchased at such a cost, as the head-gear in which a chief or warrior presents hiinself. Taking his ideas probably from the male species of the feathered creation, which are decorated by nature "ifh the brightest and most gaudy colors, he devotes the greatest attention to this | i V^nd the result is almost as various as these species, so far as respects form anu . The primary point aimed at is to denote his prowess and standing in war. T. _ scale by which this merit is measured has been mentionetl. But this mode of denoting a specific honor does not interfere with or prevent persons from j)reparing a highly-ornamented head-dress. The feathers of the eagle are generally chosen for the purpose. Sometimes there is a fillet of colored skins, with a feather of honor attiiche^l. Horns are often fiistened to this. These are j-ymbolical of power. Where much pains have been bastowed in framing an elaborate head-dress of feathers which would be easily deranged, a ca.se to contain and preserve it for ceremonial days is constructed. The Northern tribes in the winter wear a cap of cloth made to fit closely to the head and fall down the neck, being tied over the shirt or coat in such a manner as to prevent the snow from reaching the neck and throat. It is also during the prevalence of the rigors of winter that the very singular appendage to the moccasin, cidled t'.iC snow-shoe, is worn. It is siinply a contrivance to keep the f(K)t from sinking in soft snow. For this purpose two bows of hard wood are formed and iK'nt elliptically, the two ends of the bows being brought together and closed behind the foot, forming a projection. Two cross-pieces are put to the front part for the foot to rest on, and a third piece l)ehind the heel to give firmness to the frame. The whole surface is then laced over with deer's sinews or strips of hide. A thong of leather confines tiie foot to the thwarts, jKirmitting it to play freely, and the whole appendage hangs from the tnaf^, resembling a vast sandal, allowing the muscles the freest s('0|>e. Various sizes and shapes of the snow-shoe iire worn by the difli'rent tril>es. There is also always a female snow-shoe, which is shorter and has sohk; }K'culiiiritie,s of shape. The cording of the latter is often painted in fanciful colors and furnished with light tassels. No tribe in the United States dis|K'ns(is with the aziau. This is generally made of a quarter of a yard of stniuds, drawn closely about the person iK'fiire and Ix'hind, and held up by tiie abdominal string, wliich also siipj»ort.s the leggings. A (lap of the cloth hangs down an e(|ual length behind and before. This Uap is usually ornamented bv elaljorate needle-work. MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 203 Over his shirt, or around his coat, if that garment be worn, the warrior winds his baldric or girdle, which is woven of worsted from beaded threads. The ends of these filaments depend as a tassel. The garter is generally constructed of similar materials. An ornament made of the claws of the grizzly bear, the most ferocious beast of the West, is much coveted by warriors, who fancy themselves, when carry- ing such a symbol, to be endowed with that animal's courage and ferocity. It is in this sense an amulet as well as an ornament. Indeed, there are few of the orna- ments of the Indians that have not this twofold character. Winnebago Indians of both sexes consider the Mackinac blanket an essential article of dress at all times. White blankets are preferred in the winter, and colored ones ill the summer. Red is a favorite color with the young, and green with the aged. Three-point blankets are worn by men, and two-and-a-half-point by women. The calico shirts, cloth leggings, and buckskin moccasins worn by both sexes are similar. In addition to the above articles the women wear a broadcloth petticoat or mantelet, suspended from the hips and extending below the knee. No part of the garments worn by this tribe is made of materials tlie growth of their own country, except that their leggings and moccivsins are sometimes made of deer-skins dressed by themselves. The Winnebago chiefs wear nothing peculiar to designate their office, except it be medals received from the President of the United States. These Indians attach great value to ornaments. Wampum, ear-bobs, rings, bracelets, and bells are the most common ornaments worn by them. Head-dresses ornamented with eagles' feathers are worn by the warriors on j'ublic occasions. Some of the young men and women of the tribe paint their blankets with a variety of colors and figures. This is usually done with vermilion and other paints purchased of their traders. Vegetable dyes are used but little by them. They do not tattoo their bodies. A large majority of tlie young and middle-aged of both sexes paint their faces when they dress for a iliinco, and on all public occasions. Vermilion, prussian blue, and chrome yellow are generally used for this purpose. The men frequently besmear their bodies with white clay when they join a public dance. Dyes are made from Howers mostly, and from roots and barks of trees. They tlye red, purple, blue, black, green, yellow. The red dye is made from the toj) of the sumach and a small root found in the ground, by boiling. Yellow is from flowers, by boiling. Black is from maple- bark, butternut, and black mud taken from the bottom of rivers. Vermilion is still sold them in considerable (juiintities ; red clay, blue, and yellow are also used by the men to paint their faces and boilies. Cxide of iron, making a paint somewhat resembling Spanish brown, is largely used by all the Sioux. Sometimes, though not very often, they puncture the skin for ornament, as well as their arms and breast, their forehead and lips. Tlie men make many imprints on their blankets with paint as marks of bravery, etc. The hair of both sexes is worn long, and tied or braided, and is carefully attended SaH i ' ' vM i'^ fl w ll %, 204 TUE INDIAN TRIBES OF THE UNITED STATES. to. They have no beards. They sometimes part the hair from superstitious motives, and sometimes for ornament. For war costume among the Indians of Oregon and Tapper California paint is freely used, the color principally red, applied to the face, arms, and chest. Feathers and leaves are also used to decorate the head, some having the hair tied up in a knot. Some of these Northern tribes wear for their dress a jacket of mail, something like the cut on the opposite page, which covers them in front, and affords protection against arrows to the most vitid portion of their bodies. It is composed of thin parallel battens of very tough wood, woven together by a small cord, with arm-holes »;nd strings at the bottom corners to fasten it around the waist. ACCOUTREMENTS. The quiver is variously constructed and ornamented, but is generally made of leather or bark. It is suspended from the shoulders by a strap around the breast. An Indian's riches and olliciency in war and hunting consist greatly in the number of his arrows. These are not generally fabricated by the warrior himself, but are made by a person who has the requisite skill in the business and is known as a pro- fessional arrow-maker. He is rewarded for his services, and thus is relieved in a great measure from the necessity of hunting on his own account. The shield is the only protection which the Indian possesses against the arrow. The Aztec guarded himself by a wadded cotton doublet. But there was no such defence against rifles or arms north of the Gulf of Mexico. The prairie tribes who employ the shield use the thickest pieces oi the hide of the buffalo. It is an appendage which they pai'.it and decorate with 'jrnaments of eagles' feathers with the greatest nicety. The Indian ensign is formed by attaching the feathers of the eagle to a polo some six feet in length, the bearer of which is conceived to bo intrusted with a high honor. These feathers are attached longitudinally, by puncturing the quill and drawing a line through the orifice. Wherever the Indian goes, in peace or war, and whatever he does, his pipe is his constant companion. He draws consolation from it in hunger, want, and mis- fortune, and " when fair skies betide him" — his constant expression for good fortune — it is the pipe to which he appeals, as if every puff of the weed were an acceptable oblation to the Great Spirit. The various sacks in which he carries this cherished 2)lant are ornamented with great skill and patience. CIIARACTEKISTIC TRAITS. Imperturbability in all situations is one of the most striking and general traits of the Indian character. To steel his muscles to resist the expression of all emotion seems to be the point of attainment, and this is to be particularly observed on public occjisions. Neitiier fear nor joy is permitted to break this trained equanimity. The newest and most ingenious contrivance placed before him is not allowed to produce MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 205 the least expression of wonder ; and, although his language has provided him with many exclamations of surprise, he cannot, when placed in the gaze of public obser- vation, be induced to utter any, even the slightest of them, to mark emotion. The mind and nerves are schooled to this from the earliest hours, and it is deemed a mark of timidity or cowardice to permit his countenance to denote surprise. In this stern discipline of the mind and nerves there is no appreciable difference in the whole Indian race situated between the tropic and arctic zones. Heat of climate hiis not been found to have the affect to relax the habit, nor cold to make him forget the unvarying severity of cautiousness, or of what is conceived to be its manly requirements. The Inca Atahualpa ordered some of his warriors to be immediately put to death because they had evinced some emotion of surprise at the sight of Pizarro's cavalry, who had been directed to curvet before him ; although the horse was everywhere, on his first introduction, known to be the especial object of Indian wonder and fear. Taciturnity is a habit of mind very consonant to the maxims and experiences of the hunter life. Where the punishment of hot or hasty words is often the knife or the club, a man is compelled to deliberate before he utters a sentiment. It is a maxim in Indian life that a man who is sparing of his words is discreet. The habits of the forest tend to show this. Public speaking and talking are different acts. A speech or an oration is left for public councils and occasions, and is therefore thought- fully prepared. There is always a private council to determine what shall be said, and a man appointed to sjieak, who is not always a chief. This preparation is often so carefully made that it was customary in early times on great occasions to have a string of wampum to serve sis a memorial or symbol for every paragraph or topic. The requirements of the highest diplomatic circle could hardly, indeed, prescribe greater caution and concealment than are observed in their public treaties ; and in these two qualities we may take a Talleyrand and a Metternich, and a Pon- tiac and a Tecumseh, as the two extremes where barbarism and civilization meet : it would be difficult to determine in which tv/o classes of diplomatists profound con- cealment and deception most abound. n ,/ ii'ti'Wti ..;■'". Mm m m Wm j^.;y ^^t\ ' ( I ■.,'1,1 BEQABD FOE THE INSANE. Regard for lunatics, or the demented members of the human race, is a universal trait among the American tribes. It is even found among the Indians of Oregon, who have been often, and perhaps not erroneously, supposed to be inferior in mental endowments to the tribes of the Atlantic slope and of the Mississippi Valley. Lewis and Clarke, in 1806, saw an Oregon woman who appeared to be demented. She sang in a wild, incoherent manner, and would offer to the spectivtors all the little articles she possessed, scarifying herself in a horrid manner if any one refused to accept her presents. She seemed to be an object of pity among the Indians, who suffered her to do as she pleased without interruption, her lunacy being considered by the Indians a jierfect exemption from responsibility. >■' 'r iiiip' 206 THE INDIAN TRIBES OF TIIE UNITED STATES. KEVKNGE. Any one, two, or three may revenge the death of a relative, and it sometimes hapjiens that two or three are killed for one. A compromise is frequently made by the offending party giving large presents. Fleeing, too, from justice has saved the life of a murderer for years, and ho sometimes escapes altogether and dies a natural death. Other murderers are killed years after the offence : when they think all is forgotten, revenge is taken in a moment. They have no particular place of escape, jis the people of old had. In feuds arising from j)olygamy, if a death occurs, the relatives of the deceased almost always seek revenge. In cases of murder the parties aggrieved generally seek revenge themselves, although there are some instances where a murderer is put to death by the authority of the council. An instance of this kind happened in 1846 at Little Crow's village. An old chief had tluee wives, and also had children by each of the three, who were always wrangling with one another, although the father had taken great pains to bring them up to be good men. After the old chief's death, the eldest son of each of these three sets of children set up claims to the chieftainship, although their father had previously given it to his first son. The younger brothers were very jealous, and made an attempt to kill him, in which they very nearly succeeded. They shot him with ball and shot ; both his arms were broken, and he was also wounded in the face and breast. After this heinous act the young men made their escape, but a month afterwards returned home again, got drunk, and threatened to kill other persons. The village called a council, and resolved to put the young men to death. One of them had fallen asleep, the other was awake. The three appointed to kill them, one of whom was a half-brother, went to the lodge where they were, and shot them. No notice of the decision of the council was given them. The executioner seeks the most favorable opportunity he can find to kill the man. Guns are generally used for this business, although the tomahawk or clubs sometimes are preferred. Messen- gers are sent out for the restoration of i)roperty. The most of the pilfering among themselves is done by women and children. The men say it is too low a practice for them to live by. Stealing horses, however, from an enemy the men regard as an act of bravery and right. The women have severe and bloody fights on account of stealing from one another. The men scarcely ever interfere in these quarrels. Polygamy also gives rise to bloody battles among the women, and the strongest gen- erally keeps the lodge. The men attend to their own diiliculties, and let the women settle theirs among themselves. INRiAN SUPERSTITIONS. The Indian appears to be so constituted that whatever is mysterious, wonderful, or incomprehensible is referred by him to the agency of spirits or local gods. Whetlier engaged in the business of ])eace or war, these mysterious influences are MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 207 ever uppermost in his mind. In war-parties they are often invoked on the use of simples or botanical medicines. Rev. Cotton Mather, a celebrated divine of the early epoch of New England, observes that "every remarkable creature haa a peculiar god within it, or about it, and that the HIh of life are believed to be due to the anger of these goils, while their success is ascribed to their favor. Chief over these local deities, they describe the great god Kamantowit, who is represented as the creator of all mankind." Every object that possesses life in any department of the universe may be supjwsed to be inhabited by a manito or spirit. They do not bow down to the images of them, as the Oriental nations do, but merely recognize their spiritual ])ower. Neither do they ever worship any of them, as a principle analogous to the Bndima, Vishnu, or Siva of the Hindoos. The manito is a god showing himself often in an animal form, or in the higher phenomena of the atmosphere, as thunder, lightning, meteors, stars, or the sun and moon. Material objects merely typify the deity, but the idea of the god in most cases is latent in the Indian mind. There is a custom among the Chippewa warriors of eating small portions of a bitter root, which is supposed to produce insensibility to pain. This is carried as a sacred talisman, and is never resorted to till thry come into the vicinity of the enemy. They call it zfie-t/o-wauk. After the warriors have seated themselves in a ring in the prairie to chew this root, tliey arise with renewed courage and spirits. MANITOES. Manitoes, except those of the tutelary cla&s, are believed to be generally invisible and immaterial, but can assume any form in the range of the animate creation, and even, when the occasion calls for it, take their place among inanimate objects. They also, in communicating with mankind, often assume the human form, and take the shai)es of giants, dwarfs, or cannibals. The power of this assumption is common to the evil and to the good spirits. In the oral tales of the Indians the form is most commonly assumed by malign disturbers of Indian jMiacc, as sorcerers, witches, etc. The Great Spirit and his messengers are also recognizetl, sometimes in the human form, as in the narratives of the creation of the world and of mankind, and in the legends concerning the origin of the knowledge of making fire and of killing and roiustiug the deer. They also teach a perpetual struggle and fundamental war be- tween the two opposing powers or original spirits of good and evil. These, Charle- voix tells us, were twins, believed by the Iroquois to be brought forth by Atahentsic, the mother of mankind. Oriwahennic, a Wyandot chief, related to Mr. Schoolcraft the same tradition in 1838. The tribes of the Iroquois stock believe that Tarenya- wagon cleared their streams of insuperable obstructions, and taught them the arts of life and of government. 'J'otcmic marks are not only the ideographic signs for families, denoting consan- guinity, but also perform an iriii)ortant office in the Indian bark scrolls, and picto- graphs, and painted skins, on which the warlike feats of individuals are depicted. These totemic devices are also shown in their application to public transactions. n >~i ■■ ' ■1 1 1 u ''?< I'S 1 •1 1 jf^ '.SI j^tt' d1 208 THE INDIAN TRIBES OF THE UNITED STATES. They are employed, with a formula expressing numbers, to denote the census of Indian villages. The Indians, living in vast forests abounding in enormous trees, adopted the belief in wood-dryads, the demons of the Greeks, whom they propitiate under the name of Monedoes, or local spirits, regarding them as subordinate powers of the Great Spirit. As these dryads were generally thought to be of a malignant nature, the oll'ering to them, at consecrated spots, of tobacco, vermilion, red cloth, or any other highly-valued article, was adopted lus the means of appeasing them. Giants, sorcer- ers, wizards, and other creations of a timid fancy were supiwscd to be in8j)ired by these wood-demons. Another striking feature of their system of deification was the belief that the Indian Monedo not only concealed himself under the forms of men who mingled in society and were familiarly conversed with, but also frequently assumed the shape of a wolf, deer, bear, elk, bird, tortoise, amphibious animal, or even an insect. Here appeal's the evidence of a fruitful imagination, corresponding with the ancient forms of deification existing among the nations resident in the valleys of the Euphrates and the Nile. Of the clan of evil deities are the Kluneolux of the Irotjuois, the Che- pian, the Wabeno, and the Manitoash of the Algonkins, and the Skookum of the Oregouiaus. SPIRIT-CBAFT. The transition from tlie Monedoes, or spirit-worship of the North American In- dians, to demonology is slight. The American aboriginal demon, or maiiitoosh, is ever one of malign power to the luiman race. As such he was exhibited in l')M, on the St. Lawrence, by the followers of Donnaconna, to Jacques Cartier, in order to induce that explorer to relinquish his contemplated visit to Hochelaga (the modern Alontreal). j'^or this purpase, three of the Indians, who had been selected to repre- sent the part, issued from the forest in the shai)e of wild and fierce demons, and j)layed tricks before the intrepid Norman by passing near Carticr's vessels in their canoes, dressed with horns, and singing and yelling like "devils." A similar demonstration wius witnessed by David lirainerd, the missionary, on the sources of the Sus(juehanna, in 1744. One of the Indian sorcerers on this occasion enacted the clmracter of an enraged fiend, clothed in the hide of a huge bear. He sprang suddenly from the sacred lodge of the Indian powwow, and, with no slight power of diabolical resemblance, played the part of a wild demon so as efl'ectually to deter the Indian sjiectators from listening any longer to the white man's teachings. Analogous representations of a great wood-demon have been wit- nessed among the Western triU's. The study of this complicati'd system of spirit-craft reveals many of the shifts and resources of the Indian mind in peace and in war, and under one of its most sub- tile phases, — namely, the power of the jossaki'eH a tnliHiniinic influence, the niiigieni nnd nicdit'ul eluiriiiH of IiIh purHuibi arc dcMtroyed, tlie mvrot power of the Mcdii hiw been couriterueted, — in line, iiin panoply of nieduic and toteniic iniluenee \h, for tiie time, paralyzed. The warrior'a Inelc iitus b«!n eromed for that tlay. Merely to toueh u eiip with the niarku of uneleanneHs ia equally malign. ..... IIUMAX 8ACBIFICEH. It has been doubted wlu^ther human life has ever been Hacrificcd to demons, or to ol)ject8 of idolatrous wonshij), by the United States Indian tribes. The burning of j>risoncrs of war at the stake is a familiar phase of Indian character. It is generally the ebullition of savage vengeance, under u highly excited state of hostility, and, as such, is often known to be the retaliation of one tribe against another. To excite pain and to prolong cruelty is one of the highest objecta of the Buccessful capture of an enemy. To endure this ordeal is the greatest glory of the expiring and defiant foe. With the Aztecs human sacrifices were a religious rite. Nothing wiw deemed 80 acce{)table an ofl'ering to Iluitzilopochtli as the human heart warmly torn from the bleeding victim. But the whole history of our tribes may be appealetl to, it is believed, without finding that a single human being has been sacrificed to a spirit, u demon, or a god. Smith was not condemned' by Powhatan to satisfy a wood-demon or evil spirit, nor was Crawford tied to the stake by the Delawares and Wyandots as a religious victim demanded by the powwows. In the month of April, 1838, an event occurred on the Missouri, about one hundred and sixty miles almve Council Bluf!s, at the recital of which the heart shudders with horror. The Pawnees and Bioux had long carried on a fierce and sanguinary warfiire on that remote border. In the month of February, the former tribe, which luus long had a name for cruelty, captured a Sioux girl named Ilaxta, only fourteen years of age. She was taken to their villager, where, during several months, she was treated with care and kindness. More than the usual attention was perhaps i)aid to her diet, but not a word was uttered respecting her fate. The dread- ful truth first flashed on her mind on the 22d of April, at the time when spring had already assumed her mild and genial reign, and the tribe had begun to plant their corn. A council of the chiefs and warriors assembled, at which her destiny was determined. Still, the result of their deliberations was carefully concealed from her. At the breaking up of this council she was brought out from the lodge in which she had been domiciliated, and, accompanietl by the whole council, was led from wigwam to wigwam. At each of these they gave her a small billet of wood and a little paint, which she handed to the warrior next her, passing on through the round of visits till she had (died at every lodge. Two days after this ceremonious round of visits, she was led out to the ground which had been chosen as the j)lace of her sacrifice, and not till she arrived at this spot did she conjecture the true object of the .symbolical contributions, and the gen- eral concurrence in the (l(»(>iii she was destined to undi-rgo. The spot selected was fl p i> ' 1 *wtl ,; , 1 ■ A ' "^^ ' UWit ; 1 'X'^V. : I e Mi t \k ;' 1 4 ^1 4-= !l f'i -I. lit !' ifX* MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 211 between two trees standing five feet apart. Three bars of wood had been tied from tree to tree as a platform lor her to stand on. A small, equably burning fire had been kindled under the centre of this stand, the blaze of which was just sufficient to reach her feet. Two stout Pawnee warriors then mounted the bars, taking a firm grasp of her, and holding her directly above the blaze. Small fagots of light dry wood were then kindled, and held under her armpits. A wide ring of the assf Jibled population of the village, and its chiefe and war- riors, stood around to witness this extraordinary spectacle, but not in immediate juxtaposition to the spot. Each warrior had his bow and arrow ready. The moment of the application of the little burning fagots under her arms was a signal to them to fire ; and in an instant her body was pierced with arrows so thickly that every vital part of her body was penetrated. Life being extinct, these arrows were quickly withdrawn, and while the flesh was yet warm it was cut in small pieces from her bones, and put in little baskets. All this was done with almost inconceivable quickness. The baskets of human flesh were then taken to an adjacent corn-field. The principal chief took a piece of the flesh and squeezed a drop of blood upon the newly-deposited grains of corn. This example was immediately followed by the rest, till all the corn had been thus bathed in human blood, when the hills were covered over with the earth. It is' stated that this is by no means an isolated instance of human sacrifice among the Pawnees. The Otoes, who are very near neighbors of the Pawnees, have a peculiar mode of sacrificing a horse at the funeral ceremonies of his master. The animal having been shot, his tail is cut off and tied to a long pole, which is tlum planted in the grave. The carcass of the horse is also deposited in the grave before it is fillo' '^^^mmmmm'^ 212 THE INDIAN TRIBES OF THE UNITED STATES. the rain. A small aperture is cut through the bark at the head of the grave. On a Chippewa's being asked why this was done, he replied, " To allow the soul to pass out and in." " But you believe tliat the soul goes up from the body at the time of death to a lana of happiness. How then can it remain in the body ?" " There are two souls," replied the Indian philosopher. " You know tliat in dreams we pass over wide countries, and joc hills and hikes and mountains, and many scenes which pass before our eyes and affect us. Yet at the same time our bodies do not stir, and there is a soul left witji the body, else it would be dead. So you perceive it must be another soul that accompanies us." It is near this orifice left for the soul that the portion of food consecrated in feasts for the dead is usually placed, in a wooden or bark dish. It could not but happen that victuals thus exposed should be devoured by the porcupine, fisher, wolf, or some other species of animals which seek their food by night. From whatever cause, however, the Indian makes no scruple in believing its abstraction to be the work of the soul in its supjiosed visits to or from the body. Along the shores of the Pacific, where a canoe constitutes the principal personal property of an Indian, the deceased owner is placed in it, and the vessel deposited in the forks of trees until the flesh has resolved itself into its elements, when the bones are carefally buried. The Indian has a peculiar regard and respect for his dead; and, whatever other traits he lacks in this world, he makes '.mportant provisions, according lo his creoil, for the convenience of his friends iu the next. The rites of sepulture are always performed with exact and ceremonious attention. Their belief is that the spirits of the dead, though unseen, are present on these occasions, and that they are very scrupulous that the rites should be duly performed. The ritual of canoe-burial as practised by the Chinooks, at the moutii of the Columbia, is given by Mr. James G. Swan in the following words : " When a chief or person of consequence, either male or female, is taken sick of any fatal disease, recourse is had to the Indian doctor, or medicine-man, after it is found that all their applications of simples have failed. The doctors are supposed to possess different powers : one excels in removing the Skookuni, or evil spirit, which is thought to prey upon the vitals, causing death ; and another professes to be en- dowed with the faculty of driving away the spirits of tlic dead, that are believed to be always hovering round their friends on earth, ready in all times to carry them to the land of spirits." The same observer, who was present at the i)urial of uii aged female of rank ut Shoalwater Bay, in Washington Territory, gives the following graphic account of what occurred : " She had been sick some time of liver complaint, and, finding her symptoms grew more aggravated, she sent for a medicine-man to mamokc to-mah-na-waa, or work spells, to drive away tlie mcmelose, or dead people, who, she said, came to her every night. "Towards night the doctor came, bringing with him his own and ;..iother family to assist in the ceremonies. After they had eaten supiKjr, the centre of the lodge It ^^\ i K.t \ ; n"i iivmmmeiw'mmimmmiff! m :\ -M WM'^^- P<8; 1^ !: '^4' m^mmm mmm F MANN.URS AND CUSTOMS. 213 was cleaned up, and fresn eand strawn over it. A bright firo of dry wood was then kiiuUcd. One of the best canoes belonging to the deceased was taken into the woods a short distance from the lodge, and prepared for the reception of the body. These canoes are carved out of a single log of cedar, and are of the most beautiful propor- tions. 8ome are of a size capable of holding a hundred persons, with all their arms and accoutrements. The canoe in question was about thirty-five feet long. It was first thoroughly washed, then two large square Jioles were cut through the bottom, j)robably for the twofold purpose of letting out any water that might ooHect in the canoe during rain-storms, and also to prevent the canoe from ever again being used. Nice new mats of rushes were then placed inside, and on these the corpse, wrapped in new blankets, was laid. "All the household implements and utensils that had been the property of the deceased were placed in the canoe beside her, care being taken to crack or break all the crockery and to punch holes through the tin or copper utensils. Blankets, calico dresses, and trinkets were also placed around the body, which was then covered over with more new mats, and a small canoe that fitted into the large one was turned bottom up over all. iFour stout posts of cedar plank were then driven into the ground, and through holes mortised near the top were thrust two parallel bars about four feet from the ground. The canoe was then raised up and firmly secured on the top of the bars, and the whole covered over with mats. " The object of elevating the canoe was to keep the wild beasts from tearing the body, and to allow of a free circulation of air, which, by keeping the canoe dry, prevented a rapid decomposition of the wood, which would be likely to take place if the canoe was on the damp earth. Although the majority of canoes I have seen were placed on the horizontal bars, yet it is not a general rule, as sometimes two |)0st8 formed of forked branches are used, and the canoe rests in the fork. Neither do the coast tribes always use the canoes to bury their dead in, for I have noticed at the mouth of the Columbia several insttinces where boxes made of boards were used instead of canoes. " After a person dies, and before the body is removed from the lodge, there are no outward signs of grief, but no sooner are the burial-rites completed than they com- mence singing the death-song, which is simply an address to the spirit of the departed friend or relative, bewailing their loss, and telling of their many virtues. " The burden of the song in the instance just cited was, — " ' Oh I our mother, why did you leave us ? We can hardly see, by reason of the water that runs from our eyes. Many years have you lived with us, and have ofVcn told us words of wisdom. We are not poor, neither were you poor. We had plenty of food, and plenty of clothing : Then, why did you leave us fur the land of the dead ? Your limbs were stout, and your heart was strong. You should have lived with us for many years longer, and taught us the deedsi of the olden time.' " This song, with some slight variation, was sung every morning at sunrise, and \ih ■B \r-: :, i I 1 4 ^ Kr 1 m -ife m i*t M I j,fU 111 ^ •" lU'iJ 214 THE INDIAN TRIBES OF TUB UNITED STATES. i i; every evening at sunset, for thirty days, at the expiration of which time the lodge was pulled down and the family moved to another part of the Bay." In speaking of the general customs regarding sepulture among the tribes of that part of the Pacific coast, the same gentleman gives the following account : " At the expiration of a year the bones are taken out of the canoes, and, after being wrapped in new white cotton cloth, are enclosed in a box and buried in the earth, usually under the canoe, but in some instances they are gathered into a sort of family burying-ground. " There are many instances where bones may be found in canoes, where they have lain for many years, but in these cases the immediate relatives of the deceased had either died or gone to some other part of the coast. I endeavored to witness the ceremony of collecting and burying the bones of several Indians, but, as I found the relatives objected, I did not urge the matter. They said they were afraid to have me with them, as the dead were standing round to see the ceremony, and would be angry if a stranger was there. It was formerly the custom, and is now among the tribes farther nortli, to kill a favorite slave whenever a person of importance dies; or, instead of a slave, a favorite horse ; but where there are any white settlers among the Indians this custom is abandoned. It has been stated that the Indians of Oregon and Washington always kill the doctors when they are unsuccessful. Instances have undoubtedly occurred where the relatives of a deceased person have become exasper- ated with a doctor and have killed him, but it is not a general practice, nor have I ever known of an instance of the kind from personal observation. " When any jierson dies in a lodge, the family never will sleep in it again, but either burn it up or, as in the instance I have mentioned, remove it to some other location. This, I believe, is an invariable custom. Sometimes the lodge is immedi- ately destroyed, and at other times remains for a while and is then removed ; or, if the boards are not wanted, the lodge will be deserted entirely, and suffered to remain and gradually go to decay. Since the whites have settled among the coast tribes they have induced the natives in many instances to bury their dead in the ground, but when left to themselves they almost universally retain and adhere to their ancient custom, and bury their dead in canoes." The prairie, by its extent and desolateness, appears to exert a deleterious influence on the savage mind. Some of the grosser and more revolting customs of the prairie Indians resi)ecting interments are no doubt traceable to their wild and lawless habitn. Nothing observed respecting burials among them reaches so absolutely a revoltinj; l)oint as a custom which Iuls been noticed among certain of the Oregon trilxjs, and which is perhaps not general. An eye-witness, writing from tlie mouth of the Columbia, describes it as follows : " I have just returned from a visit to the Chinook Indian country, where I witnessed a mast revolting ceremony, — that of burying the living with the dead. One of the chiefs lost a (huightcr, a fine-looking woman, about twenty years of age. She wjis wrai)i)ed up in a rush mat, together with all her trinkets, and placed in a canoe. The father had an Indian slave bound hand and foot, and fastened to the body of the deceased, and enclosed the two in another MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 215 mat, leaving out the head of the living one. The Indians then took the canoe (which was employed in lieu of a coffin) and carried it to a high rock and left it there. Their custom is to let the slave live for three days, then another slave is comi)elletl to strangle the victim by a cord drawn around the neck. They also kill the horse that may have been a favorite of the deceased, and bury it at the head of the canoe. I was desirous of interfering and saving the life of the poor victim, but Mr. Hirris, the gentleman with nie, and the two Indians, our companions, assured me that I should only get myself into serious trouble ; and as we were at a great distance from the settlements, and our party so small, self-preservation dictated a different course from the inclinations of our hearts." At tlie interment of a warrior and hunter in Upper Michigan, in 1822, the corpse was carefully dressed, as above described, and after it was brought to the grave, and before the lid was nailed to the coffin, an address was made by an Indian to the corpse. The substance of it relating to this belief was this : " You are about to go to that land where our forefathers have gone ; you have finished your journey here before us. We shall follow you, and rejoin the happy groups which you will meet." When the speaking and ceremonies are concluded, the coffin is lowered into the trench prepared to receive it, and thus " buried out of sight." This mode of inter- ment is common to the forest tribes of the North, and appears to have been practised by them from the earliest periods. They choose dry and elevated places for burial, which are completely out of the reach of floods. Oflen these spots selected for the burial of the dead are sightly and picturesque points, which command extensive views. They bury east and west. They are without proper tools, and do not dig deep, but generally make the place of interment secure from the depredations of wild beasts by arranging the trunks of small trees in the form of a parallelogram, notched at the angles, around it, or by stakes driven into the ground. In other instances a bark roof is constructed which will shed the rains. The raising of " heaps" of earth over the grave, in the form of small mounds or barrows, appears to have been practised in ancient jjcriods as a mark of distinction for eminent persons. But whatever was its prevalence at other eixKjhs, while they were in the West and Southwest, and before they crossed the Alleghanies, it fell into almost entire disuse in the Atlantic and Lak^ tribes. There are some traces of it in Virginia, Pennsylvania, and Western Mew York. Rarely the resting-places of Indian heroes were marked by heaps of stones. In Georgia, Alabama, and Missis- HJppi this species of tumuli, formed of earth, is found to be common, and the tradition of the Muscogees respecting the custom is well preserved. But by far the most striking theatre of this rude mode of sepulture is the Mississippi Valley, whose plains and alluvions have been literally sown with the dead. The tribes of the Mississippi Valley, where the })opulation was more dense and the means of subsist- tnoe more abunilant, were not satisfied that their great warriors and orators should l)e so quickly " buried out of sight ;" and the small sej)ulchral mound, as well as tiie more lofly villiigo, or public tumulus, wius, at the ejwch of the maximum of their power, frwpiently oret'tod. liip'i ^ 210 THE INDIAN TRIBBii OF THE UNITED STATES. Biiriiil among the wild hordoa of tlio prairies aHHumi^ n feature that mnrlcH it as a poeuliur habit of those tribtw. Tiicy Hcaftbld thoir dead on cniinenceH where they may be descried afar off. The corpse, after it has received its wrappings, is placed in a rude coffin, which is generally garnished with rod nigments, and rendered pic- turesque to the eye by offerings to the dead, hung on poles, aud, if it can be got, a flag. Burials, or deposits of the body in (uives, are otleii resorted to. No trait has commended the forest tribes of the old area of the United States more to the respt^ct and admiration of beholders than the scrupulous regard with which they are found to remember the burial-grounds of their ancestors, the vener- ation and piety they exhibit in visiting, at all periods, these spots, and the anguish of their minds at any marks of disrespect and disturbance of the bones of their ancestors. Gifbi are made at graves so long iis it is supiH)sed there is any part of the perishable matter remaining, and oblations are poured out to the spirits of the departed after other rites are discontinued. MOURNING. . They mourn their dead with pious lamentation. They oflen visit the burial- place, and linger around it, with a belief that such visits are agreeable to the de- parted spirit This trait of reverence for the departed is one of the most universally observed characteristics of Indian life. And it is one which at the same time most emphatically denotes the Indian to be a man of heart. He has l)een said to be as imjH'rturbable as the cliffs he often gazes on with fixity of muscle. He recounts his atrocities and aeliievemcnts in war at the recitations of the war-post with shouts. lie niaintnins his stoical ii.,liH'erence at the stake, and even breaks forth in a funeral song of trium])h ; but he is subdued by the stroke of death in his scK-ial and family circle. Black is the universal sign for mourning; it is the symbol for death, and is taken from night. In their j)ictography the innige of the sun is represented to stand for or symbolize night, for which purj)osc it is crossed and bluekt-ned. The face of the mourner is smeared with some simple black mixture that will not readily rub off. On occasions of deep afiliction the arms and legs are cut or scarified, an Oriental custom with many nations. The corpse is dressed in its best clothes. It is wrapjKid in a new blanket, and new mocca.sins and leggings put on. The crown-band, head-dress or frontlet, and feathers, are also put on. His war-club, gun, and pipe are placed be^^ide him, together with a small quantity of vermilion. The corpst' is laid in public, where all can gather around it, when an address is made, partly to the spectators, describing the charactc^r of the decea.se»l, and partly to the deceased himself, 8|H'aklng to him a-s if the orhkhuf), or soul, were still present, anil giving directions iw to the path he is supposed to be about to tread in a future state. If it is a female that is about to be interred, she is provided with a paddle, a kettle, an apekun, or carrying-strap for the head, and other feminine implements. The Pawnees, and other prairie tril)es, kill the warrior's horse upon his grave, that I H »!{'' m iiv;5 i4 •ii B ■,t W' i» k::!!: t -. ;,;.^:M- J it y 1 i 1 1 ■lfi« 1 1 1 ^ il|| p»wi5*"«"T'W^^''''^P''P™'" ,!Hi "•^■"^ TPPPWf^lPp^lPUlPPW* -^m^w^m MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. •, V he may be ready to mount in a future state, and proceed to the appointed scene of rest. The idea of immortality is strongly dwelt upon. It is not spoken of as a suppo- ■jition, or a mere belief not fixed ; it is regarded as an actuality, as something known and approved by the judgment of the nation. However mistaken they are on the subject of accountability for acta done in the present life, no small part of their entire mythology, and the belief that sustains the man in his vicissitudes and wan- derings here, arise from the anticipation of ease and enjoyment in a future condition, after the soul has left; the body. The resignation, nay, the alacrity, with which an Indian frequently lies down and surrenders life, is to be ascribed to this prevalent belief. He does not fear to go to a land which, all his life long, he has heard abounds in rewards without punishments. GRAVE-POSTS. The character of the devices which are placed on the grave-post of the Indian has been described under the head of Pictography. Such devices are appropriate for adults who have trodden the war-path and made themselves conspicuous for bravery or heroism. Children and youth generally pass away from the scenes of Indian life without any such memorials, but their loss is often bewailed by mothers with inccin- Koluble grief and bitterness. It is the intensity of this grief which lies at the foun- dation of the practice of adopting white children stolen from the settlements on the frontiers. Such cases are generally, if not in every instiince, traceable to a request of the Indian mother to replace the child of which she has been bereft by death. 1 »l tf' \.0 OSSUARIES. Tribal changes in the mode of disiwsing of the dead, from interment to exposure on scafiblding, it is Iwlieved, result from the military element in the Indian character, which Slicks to preserve by sepulchral display the memory of the brave exploits of till! departed. But this is not the most important change in their sepulchral customs which has taken place since the discovery of the continent. No fact is better estab- lished than the former existence of the custom of permitting the body to decay in charnel-lodges, or otlier situations above ground, and of subseiiuently interring the bones, with public ceremony, in trenches, accompanying this duty with ])ious rites, in which the inhabitants of entire villages participated. In these ultimate rites the iimuli'ts and charms were carefully redejxwited. These articles of cherished value letl by the deceased jwrson consisted of medals, or pieces of sea-shells forn»ed into seg- niciits and circles, or beads of the same material ; sometimes of entire shells, bones, iiiiiinals' claws, sculptured pijHsi, ornaments made ot red steatite and of other soft or tissile stones, domestic or warlike utensils, or articles of copper. One of the ancient (WHiiiiiies referred to exists on the small island of Mennisais, one of the Micliiliniiiok- inac group These anti<[ue ossuaries have somctinu's given rise to the opinion that 28 I 218 THE INDIAN TRIBES OF THE UNITED STATES. great battles had been fouglit at these localities, and the slain promiscuously buried. But such an oj)iniou is controverted by the discovery of these carefully and deliber- ately deposited mementos. The large size and number of the sepulchral bone- trenches found in the West and North, such as the noted depositories at Beverley, Canada West, are often matter of surprise. Such ossuaries would appear to have been the charnel-houses of entire districts. There are localities in the Mississippi Valley where the bones have been walled in with flat stones, as on the lauds above the Battery Rock, on the Ohio. MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF THE IROQUOIS. The following account of the manners and customs of the Iroquois is taken from Cadwallader Coldcn's history of that famous confederacy : " When any of the young men of those nations have a mind to signalize them- selves, and to gain a reputation among their countrjmen by some notable enterprise against their enemy, they at first communicate their design to two or three of their most intimate friends, and if they come into it an invitation is made in their names to all the young men in the castle to feast on dog's flesh, but whether this be because dog's flesh is most agreeable to Indian palates, or whether it be as an emblem of fidelity, for which the dog is distinguished by all nations, that it is always used on this occasion, I have not sufliciont information to determine. When the company is met, the promoters of the enterprise set forth the undertaking in the best colors they can ; they boast of what they intend to do, and incite others to join from the glory there is to be obtained ; and all who eat the dog's flesh thereby enlist themselves. "The night before they set out they make a grand feast; to this all the noted warriors of the nation are invited, and here they have their war-dance to the beat of a kind of a kettle-drum. The warrioi-s are seated in two rows in the house, and each rises up in his turn and sings the great acts he has himself performed, and the deeds of his ancestors; and this is always accompanied with a kind of a dance, or rather action, representing the manner in whidi they were performed ; and from time to time all present join in a chorus, applauding every notable act. They exaggerate the injuries tliey have at any time received from their enemies, and extol the glory which any of their ancestors have gained by their bravery and courage; so tliat they work up their spirits to a higli degree of warlike enthusiasm. I have some- times persuailtKl some of their young Indians to act these dances for our diversion, and to sh(»w us the manner of them ; and even on these occasions they have worked themselves uj) to such a jtitcli that they have made all present unciu^y. "They come to these dances with their faces j)alnted in a frightful manner, as they always are when they go to war, to make themselves terrilde to tlieir enemies; and in this manner the niglif is spent. Next day tlicy march out with much for- mality, dressed in lliuir finest apparel, and in their march oltserve a proud silence. An ofllcer of the regular troops told me that wliilf he was commandant of Fort Hunter liie .Nioliawks, on one of these occasions, tolil liitn that they expected the sssssm *. 1 1' MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 219 usual military honors as they passed the garrison. Accordingly, he drew out his garrison, the men presented their pieces as the Indians paa^od, and the drum beat a march, and with less respect, the oflBcer said, they would have been dissatisfied. The Indians passed in a single row, one after another, with great gravity and profound silence ; and every one of thera, as he passed the officer, took his gun from his shoul- der and fired into the ground near the officer's foot. They marched in this manner three or four miles from their castle. The women on these occasions always follow them with their old clothes, and they send back by them their finery in which they marched from the castle. But beftjre they go from this place where they exchange their clothes, they always peel a large piece of the bark from some great tree ; they commonly choose an oak, as most lasting ; upon the smooth side of this wood they, with their red paint, draw one or more canoes going from home, with the number of men in them paddling which go upon the expedition ; and some animal, as a deer or fox, an emblem of the nation against which the expedition is designed, is painted at the head of the canoes ; for they always travel in canoes along the rivers which lead to the country against which the expedition is designed, as far as they can. " After the expedition is over, they stop at the same place in their return, and send to their castle to inform their friends of their arrival, that they may be prepared to give them a solemn reception, suited to the success they have had. In the mean time they represent on the same, or some tree near it, the event of the enterprise ; and now the canoes are painted white, their heads turned towards the castle ; the number of the enemy killed is represented by scalps painted black, and the number of prisoners by as many withes (in their painting not unlike pot-hooks), with which they usually pinion their captives. These trees are the annals, or rather trophies, of the Five Nations. I have seen many of them, and by them and their war-songs they preserve the history of their great achievemente. The solemn reception of these warriors, and the acclamations of applause which they receive at their return, cannot but have on the hearers the same effiact in raising an emulation for glory that a triumph had on the old Romans. " After their prisoners are secured, they never offijr them the least maltreatment, but, on the contrary, will rather starve themselves than suffer them to want ; and I have bnen always a.ssured that there is not one instance of their offering the least violence to the chastity of any woman that was their captive. But, notwithstanding, the poor pri-soners afterwards undergo severe puniHhment.s before they receive the last doom of lifo or death. The warriors think it for their glory to lead them through all the villages of the nations subject to them which lie near the road ; and these, to show their affection to the Five Nations, and their abhorrence of their enemies, draw up in two lines, through which the poor prisoners, stark naked, must run the f^auntlet ; and on ,iiis occasion, it is always observed, the women are more cruel than the men. The p'isoners mci't with the same sad reception when they reach their journey's end ; and after this they are presented to those that have lost any relation in that or any other former enterprise. If the captives be accepted, there is an end to their sorrow from that moment; they are dressed a.s fiiR' lus they can make them ; id VkSkm t lii J 4>» "IP ?1 W^"^ 1 220 THE INDIAN TRIBES OF THE UNITED STATES. they are absolutely free (except to return to their own country), and enjoy all the privileges the person hud iu whose vlace they arc accepted; but if otherwifie, tliey die in torments, to satiate the revenge of those that refuse them. " If a young man or boy be received in place of a husband that was killed, uU the children of the deceased call that boy father : so that one may sometimes hear a man of thirty say that such a boy of fifteen or twenty is his father. " Their castles are generally a square, surroundtid with palisadoes, without any bastions or outworks, for since the general peace their villages lie all open. " Their only instruments of war are muskets, hatchets, and long sharp-pointed knives. These they always carry about with them. Their hatchet in war time is stuck in their girdle behind them ; and, besides what use they make of this weapon in their hand, they have a dexterous way of throwing it, which I have seen them often practise in their exercise, by throwing it into a tree at a distimce. They have in this the art of directing and regulating tiic motion, so that though the hatchet turns round as it flies, the edge always sticks in the tree, and near the place at which they aim it. " They use neither drum nor trumpet, nor any kind of musical instruments, in their wars : their throats serve them on all occasions where such are necessary. Many of them have a surprising faculty of raising their voice, not only in inarticu- late sounds, but likewise to make their words understood at a distiince; and we find tlie same was practised by Homer's heroes. " ' Thrice to its pitch his lofty voice ho rears, O friend I Ulysses' shouts invade my cars.' " The Five Nations have such absolute notions of lilierty that they allow of no kind of superiority of one over another, and banish all servitude from their territo- ries. They never make any prisoner a slave, but it is customary to make a compli- ment of naturalization into the Five Nations; and, considering how highly they value themselves al)ove all others, this must be no small compliment. This is not done by any general act of the nation, but every single jwrson hius a right to do it by a kind of adoption. The first time I was among the Mohawks I had this com- plinu'ut from one of their old sachems, which he did by giving me his own name, Cayendcrongue. lie bad been a notai)le warrior, and he told me that now I had a riglit to assume to myself all the acts oi' valor he had performed, and that now my iiaiiH^ would echo from hill to hill all over the Five Nations. As for my part, I thought no more of it at that time than as an artifice to draw a belly-full of strong liquor from me for himself and his companions; but when, about ten or twelve years afterwards, my business led me again among them, I directed the interpreter to say something from me to the sacluiins ; he wa.s for some time at a loss to understand their answer, till he asked me whether I had any name among them. I then found lliat I was known to them by that name, and that the old sachem, from the time he bad given nie his name, had iussiimed another for himself I was adopted at that MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 221 time into the tribe of the bear, and for that reason I often afterwartls had the kind compliment of brother Bear. " The hospit^ility of these Indians is no less remarkable than their other virtues. As soon as any stranger comes, they are sure to offer him victuals. If there be several in company, and come from afar, one of their best houses is cleaned, and given up for their entertainment. Their complaisance on these occasions goes even further than Christian civility allows of, as they have no other rule for it than the furnishing their guest with everything they think will be agreeable to him. " This nation, indeed, has laid aside many of its ancient customs, and so likewise have the other nations with whom we are best acquainted, and have adopted many of ours, so that it is not easy now to distinguish their original and genuine manners from those which they have lately acquired ; and for this reason it is that they now seldom offer victuals to persons of any distinction, because they know that their food and cookery is not agreeable to our delicate palates. Their men value themselves in having all kind of food in equal esteem. A Mohawk sachem told me with a kind of pride that a man eats everything without distinction, — l)ears, cats, dogs, snakes, frogs, etc., — intimating tbat it is womanish to have any choice of food. " I can, however, give two strong instances of the hospitality of the Mohawks, which fell under my own observation, and which show that they have the very same notion of h()si)itality which we find in the ancient poets. AVhen I was last in the Mohawk country the sachems told me that they had an Englishman among their people, a servant who had run from his master in New York. I immediately told them that they must deliver him up. * No,' they answered, ' we never serve any man so who puts himself under our protection.' On this I insisted on the injury they did thereby to his master, and they allowed it might be an injury, and repliecl, • Though we will never deliver him up, we are willing to pay the value of the servant to the master.' Another made his escape from the jail at Albany, where he was in prison on an execution for debt. The Mohawks rweived him, and as they protected bim against the sheriff and his otficers, they not only paid the debt for him, but gave him land over and alwve sufficient for a good farm, whereon he lived when I was lust there. To this it may l)e added, all their extraordinary visits are accompanied with giving and receiving presents of sonie value. " Polygamy is not usual among them ; and, indeed, in any nation wliere all are on a par as to riches and power, plurality of wives cannot well be introduced. As nil kind of slavery is banished from the countries of the Five Nations, so they keep them-selves free also from the bondage of wedlock ; and when either of the parties becomes disgusted, they separate without formality or ignominy to either, unless it be occasioned by some scandalous offence in one of them. And in case of divorce the children, according to the natural course of all animals, follow the mother. The women here bring forth their children witii as much ea.se as other animals, and without the help of a midwife, and stxm after their deliviTv return to their usual cmploynuait. They alone also perform all the drudgery about their houses. They plant their corn, and labor it in every respect till it is brought to the table; they '■' ' * If ■ ' ■ h h' "' ' , '- ' Mv ' ( , I'.i'li;'.' '' "'ifti ■ 1 iM%J; : '^8^?' \ - \ ,■■, g^ '■ \m w I l^»i' m m y-^^ 222 TIIH INDIAN TRIBES OF THE UNITED STATES. likewise cut all their firewood, and bring it home on their backs, and in the marches bear thu burdens. The men disdain all kind of labor, and employ themselves alone in hunting, as the only proper business for soldiers. At times when it is not proper to hunt, one finds the old men in companies in conversation, the young men at their exercises, shooting at marks, throwing the hatchet, wrestling, or running, and the women all busy at labor in the fields. " Thefl is very scandalous among them, and it is necessary it should be so among all Indians, since they have no locks but those of their minds to preserve their goods. " There is one vice which the Indians have all fallen into since their acquaintance with the Christians, of which they could not be guilty before that time ; that is, drunk- enness. It is strange how all the Indian nations, and almost every person among them, male and female, are infatuated with the love of strong drink ; they know no bounds to their desire while they can swallow it down, and then indeed the greatest man among them scarcely deserves the name of a brute. " They never have been taught to conquer any passion but by some contrary passion, and the tradei-s, with whom they chiefly converse, are so far from giving them any abhorrence of this vice, that they encourage it all they can, not only for the i)ro(it of the liquor they sell, but that they may have an opportunity to impose upon them. And this, as they chiefly drink spirits, has destroyed greater numbers than all their wars and diseascii put together. < " The |)eople of the Five Nations are much given to speech-making, ever the natural consequence of a perfect republican government. Where no single person has a power to compel, the arts of persuasion alone must prevail. As their best speakers distinguish themselves in their jiublic councils and treaties with other nations, and thereby gain the esteem and applause of their countrymen (the only superiority which any of them has over the others), it is probable they apply them- selves to this art by some kind of study and exercise. It is impossible for me to Judge how far they excel, as I am ignorant of their language, but the speakers whom I have heard had all a great fluency of words, and much more grace in their manner than any man could expect among a peo])le entirely ignorant of all the liberal arts and sciences. " I am informed that they are very nice in the turn of their expressions, and that few of themselves are so far masters of their language as never to offend the ears of their Indian auditory by an impolite expression. They have, it seems, a certain urbanitas, or atticism, in their language, of which the common ears are ever sensible, though only their great speakers attain to it. Tliey are so much given to speech-making that their common compliments to any i)erson they respect at meeting and parting are made in harangues. " They have some kind of elegancy in varying and compounding their words, to which not many of themselves attain, and this principally distinguislua their best H|)eakers. Sometimes one word among them inciludcs an entire definition of the thing ; for example, they call wine Oneharadeschoengtseragherie ; as much as to say, a liquor made of the juice of the grape. The words expri>ssing things lately come MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 223 to their knowledge are all compounds. They have no labials in their language, nor can they pronounce any word wherein there is a labial, and when one endeavors to teach them to pronounce these words they say it is too ridiculous that they must shut their lips to speak. Their language abounds with gutturals and strong aspirations ; these make it very sonorous and bold ; and their speeches abound with metaphors, after the manner of the Eastern nations, as will best appear by the speeches that I have copied. As to what religious notions they have, it is difficult to judge of them ; because the Indians that speak any English, and live near us, have learned many things of us ; and it is not easy to distinguish the notions they had originally among themselves from those they have learned from the Christians. It is certain they have no kind of public worship, and I am told that they have no radical word to express God, but use a compound word signifying the Preserver, Sustainer, or Master of the Universe ; neither could I ever learn what sentiments they have of future existence after death. They make a large round hole in which the body can be placed upright or upon its haunches ; which, after the body is placed in it, is covered with timber to support the earth which they lay over, and thereby keep the body free from being pressed. They then raise the earth in a round hill over it. They always dress the corpse in all its finery, and put wampum and other things into the grave with it ; and the relations suffer not grass nor any weed to grow on the grave, and frequently visit it with lamentations. But whether these things be done only as marks of respect to the deceased, or from a notion of some kind of existence after death, must be left to the judgment of the reader. " They are very superstitious in observing omens and dreams. I have observed them show a superstitious awe of the owl, and be highly displeased with some that mimicked the cry of that bird in the night. An officer of the regular troops told me also that while he had the command of the garrison at Oswego a boy of one of the far westward nations died there ; the parents made a regular pile of split wood, laid the corpse upon it, and burnt it ; while the pile was burning they stood gravely looking on without any lamentation, but when it was burnt down they gathered up the bones with many tears, put them into a box, and carried them away with them ; and this inclination which all ignorant people have to superstition and amusing (HTomonics, gives the popish priests a great advantage in recommending their religion beyond what the regularity of the Protestant doctrine allows of. " Queen Anne sent over a missionary to reside among the Mohawks, and allowed him a sufficient subsistence from the privy purse ; she sent furniture for a chapel, and a valiuible set of plate for the communion-table, and (if I am not mistaken) the like furniture and plate for each of the other nations, though that of the Mohawks was only applied to the use designed. The Common Prayer, or at least a considerable part of it, was translated also into their language and printed ; some other pieces were likewise translated for the minister's use, — namely, an exposition of the Creed, Di'calogue, Lord's Prayer, and Church Catechism, and a discourse on the Sacra- ments. But as that minister was never able to attain any tolerable knowledge of tlieir language, and was naturally a heavy man, he had but small success ; and, his 5 s 224 THE INDIAN TRIBES OF THE UNITED STATES. allowance fulling by the queen's ileuth, he lefl them. These nations had no teacher from that time till within these few yearu, that a young gentleman, out of ])iouH zeal, went voluntjirily among the MohawlcH. Ho was at first entirely ignorant of their language, and had no interpreter except one of the Indians, who understood a little English and had in the late missionary's time learned to read and write in his own language. He learned from him how to pronounce tlit; words in the translations which had been made for the late missionary's use. He set up a school to teucli their children to read and write their own language, and they made surprising proficiency, considering their muster did not understand their language. I happened to be in the Alohuwk country, and saw severul of their iwrformances. I was present at their wor- ship, where they went through some |)art of the Common Prayer with great decency. I was likewise present several times at their ])rivute devotions, which some of them jierformed duly morning and evening. I had also many opiwrtunities of observing the great regard they had for this young man ; so far, that the fear of his leaving them made the greatest restraint on them, with which he threatened them afler they had been guilty of any offence. Soon after that time this gentleman went to Eng- laneud some ]mrt of his time among the Mohawks. "I had lately a letter from him, dated the 7th of Dec* i cr, 1741, in which he writes as follows: 'Drunkenni'ss was so common among them that I doubt if there was one grown person of either sex free from it ; seldom a day piiKsed without some, and very often forty or fifty, being drunk at a time. But I found they were very fond of keeping me among them, and afraid 1 should leave them, which 1 miule use of to good purpose, daily tlweatening them with my departure in case they did not forsake that vice, and freipiently re body of people will appear among the Indians, and they will be destroyed, and then the Great Spirit will destroy the earth to keep others from getting possession of it. They have no name for the year but the two general divisions, winter and summer. The month and week are divisions unknown to them generally. They consider all days alike. The day is not subdivided into hours or any other portion of time. They have but one general name for all the stars. They have nothing corresponding to our signs of the zodiac. They do not attach any importance or influence to the stars, except the meteoi-s commonly called "shooting stars." The meteoric ilust wliich falls from these they suppose to be excrement cast upon the earth : this they mix with their medicine, and, when thus prepared, consider it very efficacious. They do not Ix'lieve that the moon has any influence upon men, plants, or animals. Corn is |ilanted with regard to the particular periods of the moon. There is nothing known among them of the moon's intlui'ucing tiie gn»wtli of corn. The aurora borealis they sui)p()se imlicates changes in the weather, and always :i5 ^ i.t '!'^ j 1 * ■ 1 , * 'i ; :n i . , ' I 1 In.' . jr ^, 1 1 ;s>l ■4 'm i-d -t- f , i'ii \\i: 22G TUB INDIAN TRIBES OF THE UNITED STA TES. for the worse. Tho Milky Way they consider to bo the paths of the npirits, but the Hpirita of whom or of what they do not know. Coineta they think indicate war, but of their nature they know notliing. Tiie phenomenon of falling aUin they explain by saying that tho falling body is efHoacious for medicinal purposes. The Winne- bagoes believe the aurora borcalis is produced by a bad spirit, and that it is ominous of death. They call the Milky Way " tho road of the dead." They cannot account for comets or meteors, but consider them ominous of calamities. The Creeks have an annual " busk," which formerly embraced a periotl of eight days, but now covers a period of four days ; this time is devoted to thanksgiving and fasting. It resembles very much the year of jubilee among tho Hebrews. At the return of this festival all offences are cancelled. It commences at the ripening of the now crops, at which time a general purgation and cleansing take place. At intervals singing and dancing are introduced. On the first day of the " busketau" there is a general feast prepared from the old crop, to which all contribute, and attendance upon which is obligatory. Sacred fires are built, upon which four pieces of green oak wood are arranged in positions corresponding with the four cardinal jjoints of the compass. They count by decimals, and can compute up to millions. Beyond ten the digits are employed in connection with the decinuds, and this method is used to any extent. Each perpendicular stroke stands for one, and each additional stroke marks an ad- ditional number. The ages of deceased jjcrsons, or the number of scalps taken by them, or tiie war-parties which they have headed, are recorded on their grave-posts by this system of strokes. The sign of the cross represents ten. The chronological marks that are in present use are a small number of sticks, made generally of cane. Another plan sometimes used formerly was to make small holes in a board, in which u peg was inserted, to record the days of the week. They use herbs and incjintations in their general medical practice. They are careful and tender of their sick, as a general thing. The CrtH;k nation is divided into two districts, the Arkansas and the Canadian. The officers consist of a i)rincipal and a second chief, who are chosen by the general council ; in addition, each district has two principal chiefs, chosen in the same manner as the two principal chiefs of the nation. Each district is governeproval of the body of the people is an effective bar to the exercise of their powers and functions. The chiefs in public council speiik the opinions and sentiments of the warriors. In local matters they consult the priests, old men, and young men composing the tribe. Sometimes they are subject to be influenced by extraneous opinions. In many cases they watch over the interests of the people with shrewdness and intcii- nity. In their councils their decisions are generally determined by the oj)inions of the leading chiefs, whose dictum usually inUuences the mass. The right to sit in council is nominally equivalent to giving a vote. Tho ayes and noes, if counted, would be taken by the clerk. Casting the vote, however, has not been introduced among the Creeks. Powers are sometimes exercised by the chiefs in advance of I)ublic opinion, but anything gross or outrageous would be indignantly repelled. The public or general councils are opened with a good deal of ceremony. The principal chiefs first enter and take their seats. The next in order then enter, and, addressing themselves to the whole body, ask, "Are you all i)resent, my friends?" They then take their seats. The principal chief, rising from his seat, presents to the second chief his tobacco ; and this interchange takes place throughout the whole jiKsembly. These interchanges having been gone through with, they next spejik about their domestic affiiira ; then local matters are discussed ; after which they proceed to business. Their business is conducted irregularly, daily, and generally with regard to the position of the sun. The principal chief adjourns the council to the appointed time next day. Before the close of their deliberations the two bodies agree u{)on a day of final adjournment. At the appointed time for adjournment tho two bodies come together. The second chiefs, rising first, address themselves to the first chiefs, telling them " they are going to leave them." They then seat themselves, the whole council following in regular order according to their grade. The prin- cipal chiefs, then rising, say, " We return home." There is still some respect paid to ancient ceremonies. Regard also is paid to the weather in their deliberations. They have two national clerks, and one United States and one national interpreter. All questions are considered with more or less deliberation. There arc no cases that HMpiire absolute unanimity. There may be cases in which the voice of a leading chief might be taken as the will of the tribe. !':a mi f< 1 ^ I 11.' ',S 1^.^ ^i ii F-fti m I V I I ' 228 THE INDIAN TRIBES OF THE UNITED STATES. Decisions made by the chief's in eonncil are carried into effect with unquestioning obedience. In cases of caj)ital punisliment, the executioner is selected from a body of men called " the Light Horse." He uses neither tomahawk, club, nor arrow. The gun is generally employed ixa the instrument of execution. If the culprit has no choice of place for executioi:, the executioner may appoint the j)lace, which is usually selected with reference to convenience for burial. In case of the restoration of i)roperty, a messenger is sent to the parties. There is, however, no regularity on this subject. In case of a vacancy by death or otlierwise, the office is fiiled by the selection of the general council. iSometimes the vacancy is lilled by the town to which the chief belonged, and then tli>^ matter l)r()ug]it before the general council for suiiction. In case of a vacancy among the Icailing chiefs, it is filled by the general council. The chiefs may be deposed from olHce for gross outrage. The eiislom of wearing medals is an ancient one, but is gnidually falling into disuse. There are but few tiiut wear (hem. The medals received from the ( uited !Stat<'s are valued and picsewed, but are not worn. Tlie ])riesthood or pliysic-makers do not constitute a distinct power in the gov- ernment. They do not sit in tlie council as a priesthood, and their advice in political matti rs is not resorted to. Sometimes, however, in local matters their conjurations have influence. The weather, about the time of the distribution of the annuity, in some parts of the nation, falls under tlie scrutiny of the physic-makers. Among tlie Creeks tiiere is no such tiling as selling or ceding of lands. " // in for me, fur thcc, and for all" Sometimes, however, iiii[)rovemeiits are disposed of The powers of a civil chief and tliose of a war cliief are often united in the same person. Tlie distinction between war chiefs and civil ciiiefs is sc.i.i'cly known. There is a limit when a young man may express his opinion; this is at the age of twenty-one. The matrons iiave no rights whatever in ''ouncil. They \\\iw no separate seat in council. I'hey have no preserip.ive right of i>eing heard by an oilicial pei's(»n who bears the character of a messenger from the women. The widows of di,' tinguisiied chiefs, or tiiose of acknowledged wisdom, are never a(bnitted to sit in council. The Creeks !iave a right to summon a general council of the tribes. These councils may be called for any purpose, and l>y any of tlie triites. A general council of the tribes was held at Talile(juali, Cherokee Nation, about the year 1vever, the iiiiirderer undergoes a reg- i;! ir ti'ial liv'fore some of the leading chiefs of the nation, and is dealt with according to tiieir decision. If an Indian shouhl murder a negro, the law is sutisiied with the value of the negro being paiil to the owner. The lapse of time and the fleeing of the murderer generally allay resentment anoon for planting; June, the moon for strawberries and hoeing corn; July, midsumKijr ; August, the moon when corn is gathered ; September, the Tuoon when they gather wild rice ; OctolK-r and November, the moon when the does run ; Decemlter, the m(K)n when the deer shed their horns. They have no particular place for their departed souls. They say there are large cities somewhere in the heavens where they will go, but believe they will still be at war with their former enemies, and will have plenty of game. Time diminishes, in their view, the obligation to pay a debt, because, they say, the white people can get goods by merely going after them or writing for them, and that Avhen a trader obtains a new supply of goods he is not in want of the y Indian ruK', iii 232 THE INDIAN TRIBES OF TUE UNITED STATES. The red hand spoken of by Mr. Stevens, Oo seen on the wulls of the ruins in Central America, is a very common thing among the Dakotas. One will sometimes see a row of the stamps of the whole hand, with red paint, on their blankets. This denotes that the wearer has been woimded in action by an enemy. If the stamp is Avith black \vAuii, it denotes that he hii.s killed an enemy in action. The clans in the great medicine-dance are kej)t secret. The Indians that are not nienibcrs of the dance know no more about it than the white people. They have many fea.st.s that they call religious feiists. There are two societies : one is the medi- cine society, the others are not members of the medicine society ; still, out of these feasts and dances they have no distinction, — all are on an equal footing. In the great medicine-dance there are a.sKociated people of all sorts and morals^, — the mur- derer, the drunkard, the adulterer, the thief, etc. Still, it is a mysterious thing, and probably more of a secret than Freemasonry; for there are instances where tiic secrets of Freemasonry liave been divulged, but those' of the great medicine-dance of the Dakota.s have never been revealed. Apparently there is no more wisdom among the medicine party than there is in those that do not belong to it. Neither are they more artful, except in doing mischief, and in keeping the people in ignorance. They oppose everything that tends to enlighten them. Could their absurd })ractices be broken up, no doubt this people would listen to good counsel ; but the medicine party claim to be j)ossessed of su])eruatural powers ; therefore ihey inspire fear, and so their dupes end their days in awe of this imaginary power. As for songs, they have no long ones; three or four words is about the length of them. They have a number of tunes or choruses, which they sing on many occasions nt feasts, dances, etc. As to tlu'ir belief in evil spirits, they do iKit understaiio the diU'crence between a great good spirit and a great evil s[iirit, as we do. Tiie idea that the Indians !iav(i is that a spirit ciiii be good when necessary, and can do evil if it thinks (it. The rattlesnake is iniich feared !)y them, and in fact nil kinds of snakes are looked upon with liorror; still, tiiev will not kill one of (lieiii. They use the skin of tiie rattle- snake in tlie great medieine-diince. Tiie rattles are also ke])t in their ineilieiiie-biigs. The Indians say that if they kill a rattlesnake some other one will bite them for so doing. Indians sometimes smoke to serpent.s, and ask them to be friendly to them, and go awav and leave tliem. Soiaelinns thev will leavi' a piece of tobacco as a jieace-otlering. The honor tliat is paid to the turtle, the wolf, and the bear is for the purpose of keeping peace with them, for they fear that they can supernaturally send diseases upon them. This myth is kept up by the clans of the medicine party, and probahlv in some instances deters them from injuring one aiiolher. They have a name for each of the four cardinal point.s, which are described as follows: the way of the sitting sun is west, the situation of the pines is north, t!ie way the sun rises is east, the downward direction is south. There is supposed to he an animal in the water which has large horns, and which they call I'nk-n-tit-hr. They pretend to he in possession of its Itones, in snu'.ll jueees, which thev value very highly for nie.licine. MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 283 The Dakotas believe in fairies of the water, and say they often see them in all shapeH of animals ; they think them vicions, and consider the appearance of one an omen of some calamity that is to befall them. They believe there are fairies of the land as well iis of the water. There are local spirits inhabiting almost all parts of the Indian country, — as clilfs, mountains, rivei-s, lakes, etc.; they believe these spirits trouble them often. The only fabled monsters are the Giant and the Unk-a-ta-he ; the Giant surpasses all in power, and th'j Unk-a-ta-he comes next. The Giant, or lla-o-kuh, can kill anything it looks at merely by its piercing eyes; the UuK-a- ta-he has great power, and can even kill the thunder. Thunder is a large bird, tbny riiiy ; hence its velocity. The rumbling noise of thunder is caused by an immense quantity of young birds ; it is commenced by the old bird, and carried on by the yoi.ng birds : this is the cause of the long duration of the i)eals of thunder. The Indian says it is the young birds, or thunders, that do the mischief; they are like young mischievous men who will not listen to good counsel. The old thunder, or bird, is wise and good, and does not kill anybody, or do any kind of mischief The Dakotas have a degree of relationship three and four generations back. The old women generally keep this account, and are very correct. They have no sur- names, but always live near together ; their houses are not more than ten feet apart. Tiiey cannot well forget their relationshij) ; the father's name, iis well as tiiat of tJie iiiuther, is recollected for three or four generations. They are nut named after either of the parents; an Indian may be called a White Spider, and his son a White Whale or lied Eull'alo ; and so with a woman. The mother may l)e called the Checkered Cloud, and the (hiughter may be called Gray Hand or lied Bhinket. The same names are not used for elder brotiier and younger. Tin lirst male chihl may lie named Chiska ; the sec(md, Ha})an ; the third, llape; the fourth, Chahlun; the liflh, llah-ka; the first female, Wenvonah ; the second, llalipim ; the third, Ilaii- pistinah; tiie fourth, Wauska ; the fifth, Wehahka. If there are any more born, lliey have to give tiiem some otlier name, for tiiey have no more regidar names fur iliililnn ; and after a short time these names are changed to some outlandish ones. Aunt and uncle are tlu; same on liutli sitles. The names of the deceased are seldom spoken i>y the Indians; they say such a one's brotlu'r or sister, uni'le or aunt, as the case may be, is dead. All Indian names are peculiar to their habits and customs ; I lie men liave dilferent expressions from the womi'U, and new beginners are laughed at fnMpiently iiy l)oth men and women. To a man they say, " You talk like a won m," and tu a woman, " You talk like a man." Tiie languages of all the nations ditl'er so nuu'h that they cannot understand one another. The hunter does not furnish abundance of food and cluthiii;^ Now and then an Indian will provide al>undance of venison for his family fur a month or two in the winter. Some of them do not kill mure than frum two to ten deer during the winter lumts. Some kill from ten to fifty. Those that have guud luck feed the pour. Cluthiiig the Indian (tbtains in credit frum the traders, paying from uiie-lialf tu iwu- liiirds of ihe amniint. 234 TUE INDIAN TRIBES OF THE UNITED STATES. There is but little order in the lodge. Children act much ns they please, and every Indian is a king in his own lodge. The children generally roll themselves up in their blankets by themselves ; that is, after they are four, five, or six years old. Under this age they generally sleep with their parents or grandparents. There is a fixed scat for the man, and one for the wife. The woman sits next the door, and the man sits next to her, or in the back part of the lodge. As the woman lias all the drudgery to do, she nits next the door, so as to be able to get out readily. The woman has one particular v/ay of sitting. She always draws her feet up under her to the right side, and will thus sit for hours sometimes ; a position no white person could remain in twenty minutes. The man tumbles and lounges about as he jileases. They all sit Hat upon the ground on some straw and skins of different kinds. This is in the lodge. The summer-house is from twenty to thirty feet long, and fifteen to twenty wide, with a platform on each side about two feet high and six wide. On this I)latform they all sleep in summer ; generally four families in a lodge, sometimes more. If there are four families, each one will have a corner, and if there are more (young married people, for instance) they take the middle. They are diffident, and have some respect for strangers, and are more modest before them than at other times. Their habits and customs are not the same in winter as in summer. In the winter they have no particular hours for eating. If they have plenty, they eat often ; if not, they make one or two meals per day suffice. In the common meals they seldom offer up thanks. Sometimes an Indian will say, " Wall negli on she wan da ;" which means, Spirits of the dead, have mercy on me. Then they will add what they want ; if good weather, they say so ; if good luck in hunting, they say so. Their appetites are capricious, admitting of great powers of abstinence and of rejiletion. When an Indian dies, he is wrapped up in the clothes he died in and is laid upon a scaffold. If his friends think enough of him to cover him decently, they do so by throwing new blankets, white, scarlet, etc., over him. Calico is also thrown over the dead body in some instances. As many as Uni blankets are thrown over a corpse, l)ut these do not remain. When the c<)r[)se is al)an(lone(l, these are all taken off' but one. The rest are kept to make a great inedicine-dance with for the repose of the spirits. A few words are addressed to the spirit of the (le|)arted, and all present burst into a Hood of tears and wailing. The purport of the address is for the spirit to remain in his own place, and not disturb his friends and relatives; and promises are made on the part of the mourners to be faithful in keeping their laws and cus- toms in making feasts for the departeil spirits. The custom of lairying implements witli the (lead is not practised except by particular rcfpiest. This is done in onler thai the spirit may iiiaki' use of the implements the same as in this life, — to earn a livelihiHid with fbeni. The Dakotas gather tlie bones of the d<>ad about a year af\er they have been jdaceij on the >i afl'old. and mourn over them for the last time as a final honor to tlie nniains. Tlie cerei:niny is piililic, and much grief is displayed. The wouien neurify ttiemselves, aii^i y boil whole. Salt is u.-:od, hut not a large amount. Milk they ilo not relish. Tliey never use vessels of bark or wood to boil in. Tin, sheet-iron, copper, and brass kettles are now in use. The clay pots have disappeared altogether. They have no regular time for meals. In curing, the meat is cut into thin slices one or two feet square, and laid on a tVaine over a gentle fire until dry. No salt is used. The meat of all kinds of nninials is dried. Heaver-tails are boiled before drying. Fish are cut thin and dried over afire. In the fall the C'hippewas hang uf) the wiiite-fish and the toalabe, a species of white-fish, running a sharp stick through the tail, and placing ten on a stick. In this way they are kept fresh through the winter. Little reliance is ()ut on the spontaneous products of the forest. Koots are much iiiid beneficially usod for food. Plums, whortleberries, cranberries, hay.el-nuts, tipsi- iiiili (turnips), and psinchah (a species of potato) are abundant. The latter is found oil the prairies. Wild honey, of which the Indians are remarkably fond, has of late years been found in their country. They put a (piantity of it, cou)b, dirt, and all, into a kettle and boil it, making a fea.st of hot honey, dirt, comb, and water. Of (dinse tliey are unable to keep such a compound on '.heir stomaelis. Sugar-making t :-i i^f» '"^ T 1 ;i' fl 1 1 i {' ^■i 236 77/ A' INDIAN TRIBES OF THE UNITED STATES. B ill :;• is curried on to hoiuo extent by tlio Sioux, but, as the children cut it almost hh fa«t aa they can make it, they tlo not .sell mudi. Wihl rice is gathered in the ahallow waters of the rivers and lakes extending north of latitude 40°, in such quantities as to fur- nish one of the principal means of Indian subsistence. It is thus still obtuhied in the i)rincipal shallow lakes and streams of Michigan, Wisconsin, Iowa, and Minne- sota, and in the valleys of the Upper Mississippi and Missouri. It ripens in Sej»- tembcr. The labor of gathering it falls to the females. Two or three of them in a cauoe enter the licld of rice, and, bonding the stalks in handfuls over the sides of the canoe, beat out the grain with paddles. The labor of keeping the croj)s from l)eing destroyed by birds devolves u[)on the women and children. So fierce some- times are the attacks of the winged marauders that a staging is erected in the field on which the watchers sit and frighten them away. OJIBWA MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. The Ojibwa believes that his soul or shadow, afler the death of the body, follows a wide beaten j^ath which leads towards the west, and that it goes to a country iiboumling in everything the Indian covets on earth, game iu abundance, dancing, antl rejoicing. The soul enters a long lodge, in which are congregated all his rela- tives for generations past who welcome him with gladness. To reach this land of joy and bliss he crosses ii dcej) and rapid water. When the Ojibwas first became acear, elk, and dei'r ; and the buffalo, in those days, ranged in herds within half a • lay's journey from tlie lake shore. Every stream that flowed into the lake abounded with beaver, otter, and niuskrat. The waters of the lake also afforded them fish of many kinds. Tlie trout, siskiwit, white-tish, and sturgeon, in spawning-time, would fill tiieir rivers. Making racks across the stream, they would spear and hook up great (piantities of them a.s the fish came down after spawning. They made nets of (■(•dar and hasswood bark, and from the sinews of animals. The ril)s of tiie moose and buffalo made materials for their knives; u stone tied to the end of a stick, with which they broke sticks and branciics, aiiswcrid tl-.r pp.r- pose of an axe; the thigh-bone of a muskrat made their awls, clay supplied them with tlic material for kettles, and bows of wood, stone-headed arrows, and spear- heads of iioiie, formed their implement.s of hunting and war. Fire w;us ol)tained from the friction of fivo sticks. Their sluiio and u-ggiiif;s were made of finely-dressed skins. IJlankets were made of beaver-skins, eight of wliicii Slewed together formeil tiie roln' of a man. It is a fact worthy of record that copper, though abounding in their country on the lake shore, they never formed into implenn'nt.s for use. They considered it in the light of a sacred article, and ni'ver used it except to oriuiment their niediciiie- bajrs. ■J'VJT flM ' ^^ * ' ■ ■: ■ i -fi-- ■CJ| I' li"^ k'» '.i p4 IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-S) :/j 1.0 I.I 1.25 •u IM 112.2 2.0 1.4 !.8 1.6 Photographic Sciences Corpomtion 23 WEST MAIN S1KEEY WEBSTER, N.Y. 14S80 (716) 872-4503 ? MANJVERS AND CUSTOMS. 237 If ancient tools have been found and marks are discovered showing that copper was worked on Lake Superior ages ago, it is not at all probable, on this account, tliat the race now living there were the workciS of it. At this era there was maintained at Mo-ning-wun-a-kan-ing, the central town of the Ojibwas, a continual fire as a symbol of their nationality. They maintained also a civil polity, which, however, was much mixed up with their religious and medicinal beliefs. The totem of the Ah-dw-wa* ruled over them, and Muk-wah, or the Bear Totem, led them to var. The rites of the Me-da-we-win, or the worship of the one Great Spirit, and of the lesser spirits that fill earth, sky, and water, were practised in those days in their purest and most original forms. They say that a large wigwam was erected on the island, which they called Me- da-wig-wam, and in which all the holier rites of their religion were practised. Though probably rude in structure, and temporary in its materials, it was the temple of these primitive sons of the forest. And in their religious phraseology the island of their ancient temple is known to this day as Me-da-wig-wam, or Meda lodge. In those days their native and primitive customs were in full force and rigidly adhered to. Neither man nor woman ever passed the age of puberty without severe and protracted fasts. Besides the one great and overruling sjiirit, each person sought in dreams and fasts his particular guardian or dream-spirit. Many more persons are said to have lived the full term of life allotted to mankind than do at the present day. When a person fell sick, a smallpox lodge was immediately made purposely for him, and a medicine-ni'vn called to attend and cure. Only this personage had any intercourse with the sick. If a person died of a severe or violent disease, his clothing, the barks, and even the poles tluii formed his lodge, were burned by fire. Thus did they guard against iiestilence, and sickness appears to have been more rare than at the present day. The old men all agree in saying that before the white man came among them there were fewer murders and thefts, and less lying ; more fear and devotion to the Great Spirit, more obedience to their parents, respwt for old age, and chastity in man and woman, than exist among them now. The ties of blood were stronger, there was more good-will, hospitiUity, and charity, and the widow and the orphan were never allowed to live in poverty and want. ' Ah-dw-wii, Mo-awli-wauk, uad Mong are nearly syaonymous, and mean the Loon, which in the totcui of the royal Ojibwa family. t I i 4 K In I '-k fc .t fi 4 CHAPTER VII. THE TRIBES.— ETHNOLOGICAL DISTRIBUTION— ORGANIZATION— GOVERNMENT. Algonkini. — Massachuautts, Connecticut, and Rhode Island Indians — Abcnakia — Penobscota — Pennacooks — Allegaiis — Delawarc8 — Pottawatomica — Cliippewas — Pillagers — Shawnces — Cheyennes — Arapa- hoes — Miamis — Mcnomonics — Kickapoos — Michigamics — Blackfeet — Mascoutins — Brothertons — Otta- was — Sacs and Foxes — Pawnees, Peorias, Quappaws, etc. Appalachians. — Cherokees — Creeks — Choctaws — Chickasaws — Seiuinoles — Congarces — Natchez. Pacific Slope. — California, Oregon, and Washington tribes. Dalcota or Sioux. — Dakotas — Assiniboincs — Mandans — Minnctarees — Arikarecs — Crows— 'Winnebagoes — lowos — Omahas — Osages — Poncas. Iroquoi* Onondiigas — Oneidas — New York Indians — Wyandot Hurons — Catawbas — Eries. Alhabasca$. — Alaskas — Apaches — Navajoes. Shoshonet. — Conianches — Utes — Bannocks — Wichitas — Kiowas — Pueblos — Zuiii — Moquis — Snakes. Yumas. — Pimos — Papagos — Maricopas. ETHNOGRAPHICAL POSITION OF THE PRINCIPAL STOCKS — GEOGRAPHICAL AREA OCCUPIED. The aborigines, on the planting of the colonies, rather roved over than occupied the continent. To hunt the deer and go to war were their prime employments. Powhatan called himself a king in Virginia, and Massasoit so styled himself in Mas- sachusetts. But the governing power of thoir kingdoms was a rope of sand, and the Indian tribes were so many camjjs of anarchy. This was a necessary result of the hunter state, which is bound together by slight cords, and always requires large dis- tricts of forest to lie in the wilderness condition that wild animals may multiply. Anotlier striking trait in the Indians wjis that they existed in an infinite variety of tribes and septs having affinities of language and blood, yet each having its peculiar beliefs, customs, and manners. All the knowledge we can truly be said to possess of the pioneer race of this continent relates to its modern history, and it is desirable that we should gather this in relation to every prominent tribe in existence while we yet have the means to do so. Of the remoter forest bands and roving tribes who have done nothing but kill animals and men, little need be said, for they excite little interest. But the history of those tribes that have produced exalted leaders, eloquent orators and councillors, or captains who have exhibited unusual Ciipacity or wisdom — and there have been many such — will always be of permanent interest and value. Every great valley, lake, or mountain-range had its separate tribe, although, when closely examined, the languages proved them to be only speaking dialects of a few parent stocks. While many of the tribes that differed in speech are evidently of one 238 i. i -5? '■">/«/„ I » * '••«^„.J ■ 5* St ^ "Sll* :^4 iMJn 'A i; ^, tttiypiiff / ^^•: a. -<' "■* •.-1 -1 ^^1 - ^ !~ -i TVQ . T-^1 fis J Ti "%l, tti \ i'l '' r^ P •^ o f^ » t 1 b 1 t -i^ ' e Soto westward (l/>4()) from Cutifachiqui, which is thought by Mr. Pickett to have been on the; Savannah River, he passed through the southern THE TRIBES. 241 portion of the territory of the Achalaques, — the Clierokccs of our day, — a region which la branded by him as " barren." He was now among the foot-hills of the A]>palachian range. The name Achalaque represents, indeed, the sounds of the term for this group more fully than does the English term Cherokee. It is known that the sound of r is wanting in this language. David Brown, the brother of Catherine, a native Cherokee, calls it "the sweet language of Tsallake." The boundary of the territory possessed by this tribe appears to have been loss subject to variation than that of any other tribe with whom we have been in intorcourHC, not excepting the Iroquois, whose domains grew, however, by accessions from conquest. The Cherokees occupied the termination of the Appalachian, neither reaching to the Atlantic, the Gulf, nor the Mississippi in Northern Alabama. In this secluded posi- tion, abounding in pure streams of water and fertile valleys, they had lived from prehistoric times. The Cumberland River anciently bore their name, and appears to have been their outlet to the Ohio Valley. By some ethnologists the Cherokees, the Natchez, and the Catawbas are classed with the Appalachian family. ! I thought I southern III. — CUICOUEAN GROUP. The genera of tribes to whom we apply this name claim the States of South and North Carolina as the peculiar theatre of their occupancy at the earliest era. We fii-st hear of them about 1510. The credulous governor of Porto Rico, Ponce de Leon, rendered himself memorable by his early discovery of, and adventures in, Florida, which he named ; but he was morUdly wounded in a conflict with the natives. An adventurer by the name of Diego Meruelo, being afterwards driven on the coiist, received a small quantity of the precious metals. This inflamed the golden hopes of a company engaged in mining at San Domingo, who fitted out three ships tor a voyage thither. The leader was Lucas Vusquez de Ayllon, whose object was the kidnapping of Indians to work in the mines. With this nefarious purpose he Sillied eastwardly along the coasts of what is now called South Carolina. At Com- hahee River he traded with the Indians (Yamassees), and, after completing his traflic, invited them on board of his vessels ; and when a sufficient number had gone into the holds of his ships, he closed the hatches and sailed back to San Domingo. The Yamassees spread along the sea-cotu^t of South Carolina. The midland and interior portions were covered by the Catawbas and Cheraws, artful and valiant races, who extended into North Carolina, and who have signalized their history by their friendship for the whites. The Catuwbas were not an indigenous jwople in South Carolina, having been driven from the north by the Iroquois, who continued to be tlioir deadly enemies. The mountain-region and uplands were debatable ground, which was made a hostile arena by the contending Cherokees and Iroquois, The latter, in the Tuscaroru branch, spread across North Carolina, and preserved a point (if approach for their kindred in Western New York and the Lakes. They main- tained a war of extraordinary violence against the Cherokees and Catawbas, which was conducted generally by small parties. There is rojuson to suppose that the Clierokees 31 \ .1 ' 242 THE INDIAN TRIBES OF THE UNITED STATES. were tlic " Tallagcwy" of the Lenapos, who were defeated in the north, and driven down the Ohio by that ancient tribe in alliance with the IroquoiH, TIuh group abrtorbs the sniall sea-coiwt triben of North Carolina. It extends into Southern Virginia, south of Albemarle Sound. IV. — ALOONKINS. * This is the most important group, historically and nurao'-'cally, in the United States. Nearly all of the Atlantic tr'bes have either disapp'-ared, emigrated west, or been placed u])on reservations. We meet with some traces of this language in ancient Florida. It first assumes importance in the sub-genus of the Powhatanese circle in Virginia. It is afterwards found in the Nanticokes, ass'imes a very decided type in the Lenni Lenajies, or Delawares, and is afterwards traced, in various dialects, in the valleys of the Hudson and Connecticut, and throughout the whole geographical area of New England, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia. The term appears to have Iwen first employed as a generic word by the French for the old Nipercineans, Attawiis, Montagnies, and their congeners in the valley of the St. Lawrence. It is applied to the Saulteurs of St. Mary, the Maskigoes of Canada, and, lus shown by a recent vocabulary, the Blackfeet of the Upper Missouri, the Siuskatchewan, the Pillagers of the Upper Mississippi, the Cheyennes and Arapahoes of the Platte, Missouri, and Upper Arkansas, and the Crees or Kenis- tenos of Hudson Bay. Returning from these remote points, where this broad migratory column was met by the Athabascan group, the term includes the Miamis, Weius, Piankeshaws, Shawneos, Pottawatomies, Sacs and Foxes, Kickapoos, and Illinois, and their varieties, the Kaskaskias, etc., to the junction of the Ohio and Mississippi. At the point where the Jiirisoi)ulous, the tribes had then recently suflfered much from a general epidemic. There were five principal tribes : the Nausets, on Cape Cod ; the Pokanokets, or Wampanoags, living between Plymouth and Massa- chusetts Bay ; the Massachusetts, on and near the bay of that name ; the Penna- cooks, on the northern frontier extending into New Hampshire ; and the Nipmacks, in Central Massachusetts, extending into Connecticut and Rhode Island. In manners and customs, forest-arts and traditions, and language, they did not differ in their eth- nological type. They made use in their wars of the balista, which antique instrument is represented several times, agreeably to Chingwauk's interpretation, on the Dighton Rock. In his Life of Rev. John Eliot, the Rev. Cotton Mather, in the quaint language of the times, describes the Massachusetts Indians at the close of the seventeenth century as follows : " Know, then, that these doleful creatures are the veriest ruins of mankind which are to be found anywhere upon the face of the earth. No such estates are to be expected among them as have been the baits which the pretended converters in other countries have snapped at. One might see among them what an hard master the devil is to the most devoted of his vassals. These abject creatures live in a country full of mines ; we have already made entrance upon our iron ; and in the very sur- face of the ground among us there lies copper enough to supply all this world ; beside? other mines hereafter to be exposed. But our shiftless Indians were never owners of so much as a knife till we came among them. Their name for an English- man was a knife-man ; stone was used instead of metal for their tools ; and for their coins they have only little beads with holes in them to string them upon a bracelet, whereof some are white, and of these there go six for a penny, some are black, or blue, and of these go three for a penny. This wampum, as they call it, is made of the shell-fish, which lies upon the sea-coast continually. " They live in a country wiiere we now have all the conveniences of human life. But as for tliem, their housing is nothing but a few mats tied about poles fastened in the earth, where a good fire is their bed-clothes in the coldest seasons. Their clothing is but a skin of a beast, covering their hind-parts, their fore-parts having but a little apron where nature calls for secrecy. Their diet has not a greater dainty tlian their uokchich, that is, a spoonful of their parched meal, with a spoonful of water, which will strengthen them to travel a day together ; except we should mention the fiesh of deers, bears, moose, racc(K)iis, and the like, which they have when they can catch thein ; iis also u little fish, which if they would preserve, 'twjis by drying, not by salting, for they had not a grain (,f sjilt in the world, I think, till we bestowed it on them. Their pliywic is, excepting a few odd specifics, which some of them encounter certain cases with, nothing hardly but an hot-house, or a jmwwnw. Tlieir hot-house is a little cave, alxiut eight feet over, where, after they have terribly heated it, a crew of them go sit and sweat and smoke for an hour together, and then imme- (liately run into sonic very eiild atljacent brook, without the least mischief to tliem. THE TRIBES. 261 'Tis this way they recover themselves from some diseases. But, in most of their dangerous distempers, 'tis a powwow that must be sent for; that is, a priest, who has more familiarity with Satan than his neighbors. This conjurer comes, and roars, and howls, and uses magical ceremonies over the sick man, and will be well paid for it when he has done ; if this don't effect the cure, the man's time is come, and there's an end. " They live in a country full of the best ship-timber under heaven, but never saw a ship till some came from Europe hither ; and then they were scared out of their wits to see the monster come sailing in, and spitting fire, with a mighty noise, out of her floating side. They cross the water in canoes, made sometimes of trees, which they burn and hew till they have hollowed them, and sometimes of barks, which they stitch into a light sort of a vessel, to be easily carried over land ; if they over- set, it is but a little paddling like a dog, and they are soon where they were. "Their way of living is infinitely barbarous; the men are most abominably slothful, making their poor squaws or wives to plant, and dress, and barn, and beat their corn, and build their wigwams for them ; which, perhaps, may be the reason of their extraordinary ease in child-birth. In the mean time, their chief employ- ment, when they'll condescend unto any, is that of hunting ; wherein they'll go out some scores, if not hundreds of them, in a company, driving all before them. " They'll continue in a place till they have burnt up all the wood thereabouts, and then they pluck up stakes to follow the wood which they cannot fetch home unto themselves; hence, when they inquire about the English, 'Why come they hither?' they have, themselves, very learnedly determined the case, — it was because we wanted firing. No arts are understood among them, unless just so far as to maintain their brutish conversation, which is little more than is to be found among the very beavers upon our streams. " Their division of time is by sleeps, and moons, and winters ; and, by lodging abroad, they have somewhat observed the motions of the stars ; among which it has boon surprising unto me to find that they have always called Charles' Wain by the name of Paukunnawaw, or The Bear, which is the name whereby Europeans also have distinguished it. Moreover, they have little, if any, traditions among them worthy of our notice ; and reading and writing is altogether unknown to them, though there is a rock or two in the country that has unaccountable characters engraved upon it. A 11 the religion they liave amounts unto thus much : they believe 1' ' there are many gods, who made and own the several nations of the world; of which a certain great god, in the southwest regions of heaven, bears the greatest figure. Tliey believe that every remarkable creature has a peculiar god within it, or about it ; there is with them a sun-god, or a moon-god, and the like ; and they cannot conceive but that the fire must be a kind of god, inasmuch as a spark of it will soon produce very strange effects. They believe that when any good or ill iiuppcns to them, there is the favor or the anger of a god expressed in it; and hence, lis in a time of calamity they keep a dance, or a day of extravagant ridiculous devotions to their god, so in a time of prosperity they likewise have a feast, wherein !•■!» 252 TUE INDIAN TRIBES OF THE UNITED STATES. they also make presents one unto another. Finally, they believe that their chief god, Kamantowit, made a man and woman of a stone ; which, upon dislike, he broke to pieces, and made another man and woman of a tree, which were the fountains of all mankind ; and that we all have in us immortal souls, which, if we were godly, shall go to a splendid entertainment with Kamantowit, but, otherwise, must wander about in a restless horror forever. But if you say to them anything of a resurrec- tion, they will reply upon you, ' I shall never believe it I' And, when they have any weighty undertaking before them, 'tis an usual thing for them to have their assem- blies, wherein, after the usage of some diabolictil rites, a devil appears unto them, to inform them and advise them about their circumstances ; and sometimes there are odd events of their making these applications to the devil : for instance, 'tis particu- larly affirmed that the Indians, in their wars with us, finding a sore inconvenience by our dogs, which would make a sad yelling if, in the night, they scented the approaches of them, they sacrificed a dog to the devil ; after which no English dog would bark at an Indian for divers months ensuing. This was the miserable people which our Eliot propounded unto himself the saving of." Eliot, who has been justly styled the Apostle of the Indians, came from England in 1631 ; and although charged with the duties of a pastor, and taking a prominent part in the ecclesiastical government of the New England churches, he turned his attention, at the same time, very strongly td the conversion of the tribes. To this end he engaged native teachers, and learned the Indian language. In this he made great proficiency, and soon began to preach to them in their vernacular. Colaborers joined him ; and by their eflbrts, native evangelists were raised up, under whose labors, superintended by Mr. Eliot, Indian churches were established at various points. Fifteen hundred souls were under religious instruction on Martha's Vine- yard alone. In IGGl Eliot published a translation of the entire Scriptures in their language, which is seen to be a well-characterized dialect of the Algonkin. This work evinces vast labor and research. Many English terms for nouns and verbs are employed, with the usual Indian inflections. The words God and Jehovah appear as synonymes of ]\Ianito, the Indian term for Deity. He found, it appears, no term for the verb " to love," and introduced the word woman as an equivalent, adding the ordinary Indian suffixes and inflections for person, number, and tense. Eliot's translation of the Bible into the Indian language constitutes an era in American philology. It preceded, it is believed, any missionary effort of eciiial magnitude, in the way of translation, in India or any other part of the world, and it must forever remain as a monument of New England zeal and active labor in the conversion of the native tribes. The term Massachusetts language is aj)plied to the various cognate and closely-affiliated dialects of the tribes who formerly inhabited that territory. It constitutes a peculiar type of the Algonkin, wiiich was spread widely along the Atlantic and in the West. It is interesting to observe the fate of this jieople, who were the object of so nmcli benevolent care, after the lapse of little less than two centuries. The g. at blow to THE TRIBES. 253 the permanent success of this work was struck by the general war which broke out under the indomitable sachem called Metacom, better known as King Philip, who drew all but the Christian communities and the Mohicans into his scheme. Even these were often suspected. The cruelties which were committed during this war produced the most bitter hatred and distrust between the parties. The whole race of Indians was suspected, and from the painful events of this unwise war, on the part of the natives, we must date the suspicious and unkind feelings which were so long prevalent, and which yet tincture the American mind. In 1849 the Legislatui-e of Massachusetts directed inquiries to be made respecting them. From the report made on this occasion, there were found to be remnants of twelve tribes or local clans, living respectively at Chippequiddic, Christiantown, Gay Head, Fall River, Mar.shpee, Herring Pond, Hassanamisco, Punkapog, Natick, Dud- ley, Grafton, and Yarmouth. Their number was estimated at eight hundred and forty-seven, only about seven or eight of whom were of pure blood, the remainder being a mixture of Indian and African. A plan for their improvement was proposed. This plan embraced the following features: 1. The enactment of a uniform system of laws, to apply to every tribe in the State, in the spirit of modern philanthropy. 2. The merging of all except those at Marshpee, Herring Pond, and Martha's Vineyard into one community. 3. Granting to every one who wishes it the privileges of citizenship, involving the liability to taxation. 4. The appointment of an Indian commissioner for their supervision and improvement. At present these Indians number about five hundred, the larger part of whom are at Gay Head, in Duke's County, and Marshpee, in Barnstable County. They have all lost their original language, have generally intermarried with negroes, and are commonly regarded as mulattoes. The two towns above named were incorporated in 1870. Of the Stockbridge tribe, one hundred and twenty-six remained, and are at the Greon Bay agency, Wisconsin. The Stockbridges were formerly an intelligent and prosperous people. Unfor- tunately for them, they left their valuable lands in New York, and in 1857 removed to tlieir present home. This has proved highly detrimental to them. The soil of tlicir new reservation is poor, and hiis never yielded them more than a meagre subsistence. For this reason man^ have left tlie tribe, and quarrels and bickerings among the residue have been prejudicial to the peace and progress of the community. •}&. > 'i ' &M m MAINE INDIANS. — ABENAKIS. The Abenakis formerly iniiabited the territory which now comprises a part of the States of Maine and New Hampshire. They include the Cauibas, or tribes of the Kennebec, Androscoggin, Saco, and Sheepscott, of whom the Sokokes oi Pe(iuawketfl, of the Saco, speak a distinct dialect, the Penobscots, called Tarrantines by the early writers, and the Malecites (Marechltes), of the St. Croix and the St. John. The two latter are the Etchemins of the early French writers. All of these speak dialects of the Algonkin, and understand one another's speech. Abenakis is a Y. W^m^ V i % im 111! m ¥ 254 TIIE INDIAN TRIBES OF TUB UNITED STATES. geographical term adopted by the French, denoting the area occupied by this tribe on the first settlement of Canada. Having at an early period received missionaries from Canada, they espoused the French interests in tlie long contest between that province and the British colonists in New England, and were engaged in hostilities with the latter until the conquest of Canada. A few years previous to this event, about 1754, all but the Penobscots withdrew into Canada. The fullest vocabulary we possess of the Abenaki language is furnished by the manuscripts of Father Kale, the zealous missionary among the Norridgcwocks. These papers were published a few years ago by the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, at Boston, under the direction of Mr. Pickering. To the valuable data thus furnished, Mr. Gallatin has added a vocabulary of the Penobscot dialect, derived from other sources. He observes that the Abenaki language has close affinities with the dialects of the other two nations east of the St. Lawrence, namely, the Etche- mins or Canoe-men, and the Micmacs or Souriquois. He fixes their geographical limits in a.d. ICOO between the Kennebec and the Piscataqua, observing that Gov- ernor Sullivan had placed it definitely at Saco, a point which is thought to be cor- roborated by the fact that the French writers speak of a tribe called Sokokies, whom they locate in that particular quarter. This last tribe is also mentioned by Colden, under the name of Sohokies, as living eastward of Boston ; and if, as seems probable, the term Saco is derived from them, it is perhaps the strongest trace they have left in the geography of New Hampshire. In 1724 the Norridgewocks suffered a total defeat from the New England troops, losing their missionary. Kale, in the conflict; after which they migrated into Lower Canada. There are at present a missionary and a teacher among them in the service of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions. By a report from the former, made in 1839, there were sixty persons returned as attending Protestant worship, of which number twenty-four were church members, and twenty youths who attended a daily school. Abenaki is a term of obvious imi)ort. Wa-bun-onff is a term denoting the east, literally called " a place of light." By dropping the local inflection in Ohff, and adding the word aki, " earth" or " land," the phrase Abenaki — " Eastlander" — is formed. The w is dropped by the French. They also in early times sometimes spelled the word Abenaquies, in the plural, and sometimes Oubenakis. The Iroquois, according to Colden, called them Owenungas, along with the Pennacooks and other Northeast Indians. Some of the early English writers call them Tarrantines, a toriii employed by Wood to distinguish them from the other New England tribes who did not use the letter r. ' V ^ '-.' PENOBSCOTS. The Penobscot or Panawanskek tribe were found by the earliest explorers on the river of that name, near the present location of the small remnant of the tribe at Oldtown, near Bangor. Their especial places of rendezvous were Mattawamkeag, Passadumkeag, and Penobscot Falls. At the two latter places were French forts, THE TRIBES. 255 with French and Indian villages. The fort at Passadumkeag was destroyed by Colonel Thomas Westbrook in 1722-23, and the fort and village at Penobscot Falls by Captain Joseph Heath in 1725. June 21, 1776, the Provincial Congress of Massachusetts recognized their claims to " territories beginning at the bead of the tide on the Penobscot River, extending six miles on each side of the said river."* Bangor was first settled in 1769, and its chief settlement for several years was near the head of the tide. This claim being afterwards found an obstacle to the settlement of the country, Massachusetts, in August, 1786, sent three commissioners, General Benjamin Lincoln, General Rufus Putnam, and Dr. Thomas Rice, to obtain a cession of the territory. The tribe after- wards refused to ratify the agreement then made, and in 1796 a new commission, consisting of General William Shepherd, Nathan Dane, and Daniel Davis, succeeded in obtaining a release of all their land on the river, except Oldtown and the islands in the river above it, for thirty miles. This territory embraced one hundred and eighty-nine thousand four hundred and twenty-six acres, and was afterwards sur- veyed into nine townships. The Indians subsequently claimed the territory six miles wide on both sides of the river above the thirty miles thus relinquished, to an indefi- nite extent, and assumed to sell the timber from it. This territory they also ceded for a consideration in 1818, and aft«r the separation of Maine from Massachusetts, Maine assumed the obligations of the latter, and renewed the treaty at Bangor, August 17, 1820. The Penobscots are nearly related to the Passamaquoddics (of whom about five hundred reside at Davis Island and Pleasant Point, on the bay of that name), and to the Micmacs or Malecites of New Brunswick. They are Roman Catholics, have a church and several schools, and possess some devotional works in their own lan- guage, prepared by Rev. E. Vetromile, S.J. They have established an elective government, and number about five hundred. PENNACOOKS. This tribe formerly occupied the Merrimac Valley. Their seat of power was at Amoskeag Falls. They were in amity with the surrounding tribes, over whom they exercised an important influence. They were under the government of a powerful sagamore, called Passaconnaway, who was the depository botli of political and of religious power. His wisdom in council was respected, but his power as a native priest and sorcerer caused him to be feared. He resisted the gospel when it was first offered him and his band by Eliot, and they regarded the advent of the whites in the country as fraught with influences adverse to their prosperity and destructive to the aboriginal tribes. They made the most determined resistance to the settlement of New England, and of New Hampshire especially, of any tribe on the borders of the North Atlantic ; and when they were expelled from the Merrimac they returned ' This Innd, which Hecured their alliance in tlie Revolutiunary War, they have since soUl picccnioal. i: or ^^ I- i - M' 'it i m i: 256 THE INDIAN TRIBES OF THE UNITED STATES. from the nortli and west, whitlier they had fled, with a degree of fury and spirit of vengeance which ia ahnost without a jniniliel. These eventa are stated in their order in the following observations, as gleaned from the authorities by a gentleman resident in the district of country whose aboriginal history is under discussion.* The voyagers to the coast of New England in the early part of the seventeenth century found multiplied divisions among the several tribes of Indians, though all speaking radically the same language, namely, the Algonkin. Captain John Smith, one of these early voyagers, gives the most minute account of these tribes. lie says, " The principal habitations I saw at Northward was Pennobscot, who are in Warrcs with the Terentines, their next northerly neighbors. Southerly up the Rivers, and along the coast, wee found Mecaducut, Sogocket, Pemmacjuid, Nusconcus, Bagadahock, Satcpiin, Aumughdvwgen, and Kenabeca : to those belong the countries and peojde of Begotago, Puuhuntanuck, Pocopassum, Taughtanakagnes, Wabigganus, Nassaque, Mauherosquec'k, Warigwick, Moshoquen, Waccogo, Pasharanack, &c. To those are allied in confederacy the Countries of Aucocisco, Accominticus, Passataquak, Auga- woani, and Naemkeck ; all those, for any thing I could jierceive, difl'er little in language, or any thing, though most of them be Bagamos and Lords of themselves, yet they hold the Bashabes of Penobscot the chiefe and greatest amongst them. The next is Mattahunt, Totant, Massachuset, Paconekick, then Cape Cod, by which is Pawmet, the lies Nawset and Capawuck, ndere which are the shoulcs of Rocks and sands that stretch themselves into the niaine Sea twenty leagues, tujd very dangerous, betwixt the degrees of 40 and 41." Most cf those tribes named by Bmith occupied the same relative positions for more than a century after the country was permanently settled by the English. West of Cajjc Cod were the powerful tribes of the Narragansetts and Pequots, while in the country, ujion the rivers and lakes, were several other large tribes, — the Nipmucks, in the interior of Massachusetts and New Hampshire, and occupying the valley of the Merrimac in New Hampshire and Ma.ssachusetts, and the Norridge- wocks, seated upon the branches of the Kennebec and the lakes in the northern interior of Maine. The Norridgewocks were called Abenakis by the French, and were principally noted for their adherence to the French interest.s, and for their inroads upon the li^nglish settlements, which their connection with the French led them to undertake. East of the Penobscot were the Scootucks, or Passamaquoddies, inhabiting the Bcootuck or Bt. Croix River and the shore of Piussamacjuoddy Ray ; the Milicetes, in the valley of the river Bt. John ; and the Micmacs, occupying the rest of New Brunswick and the ]>eninsula of Nova Bcotiu, The Micmacs were, and still are, a warlike iwople. Living mainly upon the sea-shore, athh^tic, of jwwerful frame, and most expert canoe-men, they were fond of warlike expeditions, and often were a source of fear and anxiety to their western neighbors, under the dreaded name of Tarrantines. They even extended their hostile ' CImiidlor E. Potter. TUE TRIBES. 267 expeditions against the tribes of Massachusctta, wiihiu the knowledge of the English ; and in some of the carlient stipulations between the tribes of New Hampshire and Massachusetts and their English neighbors, mention is made of their dread of the Tarrautincs. When Captain Smith coasted along the shore of New England, in 1014, making the island of Monhegun the centre of his oi)erations, the I'enobscot trilw; was one of the most powerful in New England. It was under the control of a bashaba or chief who held the tribes of Maine, as far west as the Saco, tributary or subject to him. He was then at war with the Tarrantines, and in 1016 that warlike people sent an expedition against him with such secrecy that they took him by surprise and put him and his family to death. Divisions arose as to the succetfsion of the bashabu, and the Tarrantines, taking advantage of these, soon overpowered the other tribes of Maine, and extended a war of extermination along the coast of Massachusetts. Hand in hand, as it were, with war stalked pestilence, so that in 1020 the tribes upon the sea-coast from the St. Croix to Cajie Cod had become greatly diminished in numbers, and some places were almost entirely dejMjpulated. Speaking of this depopulation, Captain Smith says, " They had three jilagucs in three years successively, neere two hundred miles along the sea-coast, that in some places there scarce remained five of a hundred, . . . but it is most certaine there was an exceeding great plague amongst them ; for where I have scene two or three hundred, within three years after remained scarce thirty." Whatever this disease may have been, it seems to have extended little farther south than Cape Cod, and to have been limited in violence, at least, to the tribes of the sea-coast, so that the Pilgrims in 1020, and for many years subsequently, had little to fear from the once powerful tribes upon the sea-shore north of Cape Cod ; while they had to use every precaution against the power of the southern trilxjs and those of the interior, which had been less afflicted by disease and war. At this period the most powerful tribes of the interior, and probably of New England, north of the Pequots, had their residence in the valley of the Merrimac, upon the productive falls and fertile meadows of that beautiful river. These meadows, or " intervales," as they are usually called, are ba.sins made up of alluvial and vegetable deposits, and were doubtless once covered with water, which has grad- ually passed away through the Merrimac, that, continually deepening its channel, has burst the rocky barriers of those bays, or lakes, and left their former beds dry and aral)le land. That these " intervales" were submerged at a comparatively late period hardly admits of a doubt, as the barriers of these ancient bays can be readily traced above Pawtucket, Amoskeag, Hookset, Garvin's, and Sewell's Falls; and upon most of these basins, or intervales, have been found, far below their surface, logs, fresh-water shells, and other unmistakable evidences of submersion. The Merrimac then was a succession of bays from Lake Winncj)esaukee to the ocean, some of which still remain at SanlM)rnton and Meredith, contributing so much to the bctauty of the scenery of that neighborhood. These intervales were of great fertility, and of such ready jjroductivcnest; as to afl'ord an abundant harvest to the :5i{ (kt I ' 1.4^1 ' -. 1 m I ii- • .li 4., J itl %' '■". I (J' I I 208 TIIK INDIAN TRIBES OF T/IIJ UNITED STATES. rfcanty huHbiUiii!d the forks of the Merrinmc and Concord llivcrH, near the Pawtiicket FallH in the former river. Wumesit is derived from wame, " all" or " whole," and uiikc, " a place," with the letter « thrown in hetween the two Byllablea for the Hake of euphony. The Indian village at this place undoubtedly received this name from the fact that it wiw a larffe village, the plure where all the IndiauH collected together. This was literally true in the spring and summer, an the Pawtucket Falls, near by, was one of the most noted fishing-places in New England, where the Indians from far and near gathered together in April and May to catch and dry their year's stock of shad and salmon. Yv'amesit is embraced in the present town of Tewksbury, and the city of Lowell, in Middlesex County, Massachusetta. The Indians in this neighborhood were sometimes called Pawtucket, from tho falls in the Merrimac of that name. Pawtucket means the forks, being derived from the Indian word pochatuk, "a branch." The name seems, however, to have been applied by the English rather to all the Indians north of the Merrimac than to the particular tribe at the Pawtucket Falls. The Nashuaa occupied the lands upon the Nashua, and the intervales upon the Merrimac, opposite and below the mouth of that river. Nashua means the river with a pebbly bottom, a name which is said to have been peculiarly appropriate before art had deprived the stream of this distinctive beauty. The Souhegans lived upon the Souhegan River, occupying the rich intervales upon both banks of the Merrimac above and below the mouth of the Souhegan. Bouhegau is a contraction of Souhekenush, an Indian noun in the plural number, meaning worn-oat lands. These Indians were ot\cn called Natujooks, or Nacooks, from their occupying ground that was free from trees, or cleared land, — Natacook meaning a clearing. The Namaoskeags resided at tho falls in the Merrimac known at present by tho name of Amoskeag, and lying mainly in the city of Manchester. This word, written variously Namaske, Namaoskeag, Naumkeag, and Naimkeak, means the Jishinff-place, from namaos, " a fish," and auke, " a place." The Pennacooks occupied the rich intervales at Pennacook now embraced in tho trtwns of Bow, Concord, and Boscawen, in the county of Merrimac. They were thus called from pennaqui, " crooked," and auke, " a place ;" the intervales at Concord, which are extensive, being embraced within the bends of the Merrimac, which winds its way along in a very crooked manner.' The Winnepesaukees occupied the lands in the vicinity of the lake of that name, one of their noted fishing-places being at the outlet of the Winnepesaukce, now known as the Weirs, parta of permanent Indian weirs having remained at that place long after the advent of the whites. Winnepesaukce is derived from winne, " beau- ' It umy be that Pcnnncouk means tha grouml-nut place, in which cage it would bo derived iiova penak, " u ground-nut," and auke, " a phice," ! 'I »' ^'i fl:; 1 -^ n WT^ 260 TIJJ-J IXDIAN TRIBES OF THE UXITED STATES. tiful," 7iipc, "waiiiv" kccs, "high," tind aukc, "a place," meaning literally the beautiful water of the h'lyh land. Of these several tribes the Peniiacooks were the most powei ful ; and either from their superior civilization, arising from a long residence upon a fertile soil, or from having been for a long period under the rule of a wise chief, or perhaps from both cauises united, they had become the head, as it were, of a powerful confederacy. It is well known that the Winnepesaukee, Amoskeag, Souhegan, and Nashua tribes were completely subservient to the I'emiacooks ; while the Wamesits, with whom they were connected by constant intermarriage, were mainly under their con- trol, acknowledged fealty to Passaconnaway, and finally, with the other tribes upon the Merrimac, became merged with them, and ceased to be a distinct tribe in fact or name. The Agawams were also intimately connected with the Pennacooks, acknowledged fealty to them, and doubtless were one of the earliest tribes to become merged with them, but they ceased to exist as a distinct tribe at so early a date that few i)articulars of their history have been pre^icrved. Besides the tribes in the valley of the Merrimac, the Pennacooks had control over most of the tribes from the Concord River, in Massachusetts, to the sources of the Connecticut,' and from the highlands between the Merrimac and Connecticut to the Ki'nnebec, in Maine. It is known that tlie Wachusetts, from wadehu (a moun- tain) and (iii/ce (a place), near Wachusett Mountain, in Massachusetts; the Coosucks, from voodKli (pines), upon the sources of the Connecticut River; the Pequacpuiuki's, from pe(jiifi(ju!if (crooked) and nuke (a place), upon the sources of the Saco, in ('arroll County, New Hampshire, and Oxford County, Maine; the Ossipeea, from cnoasfh. (pines) and xipe (a river), upon the Ossipee Lake and River, in Carroll County, New Hampshire, and York ('(Uinty, Maine; tlie S(piamscotts, from wiiiiie (l)eautiful), a.'ifjuxin (water), and auke (a place), upon Exeter River, in Exeter, and Htratham, in llnckinghiim County; the Winnecowetts, from w'uine (lu'autiful), roo«.sA (pines), and aitke (a place), in the Hiimpfons in tl>e same cininty ; the Piscata- (piankes, Wmn poi^ (great), altiirk (a deer), and nuke (a place), up(Mi the Piscatacpia River, tlie buinidapy l)etween New Hampshire and Maine; the Newicliewannoeks, f"r(tni nee (my), veek (a contraction of weekienm, a h(), Passaeonnaway had his prin( ipal residence, and was so anxious to have tiie Rev. Mr. Eliot come here and establish his community of Christian, or " I'rayinj;," Indians, as his pr()selyte.s were called, that he offored to furnish him with ;my amount of land he migiit want for that purj)ose. The old sagamore held out such inducements, and the place was of so much imimrtiince, that Eliot at one time had serious thoughts v>f establishing himself here; Imt the dillieulty of transporting siip|tlies, and the aversion of the natives in Massachusett.s to going farther north, wire so great that he thought "the liOrd, by the Eye of Providence, seemed not to Iddk thither," and ho located himself at Natick.' .»H ^?' 'M ' Somo miiko Notiok to luoun d phuv of kill*; but wo uro iiu'linud to tliiiik tliat Nudik iiu'uiis a clear- \nij, or jiliK'c froe trinu troi's, troiii tlio Iiuliiiii words lute (bare) and tuke (a jilaco). Iliiiec Suldock (ii h w 262 THE INDIAN TRIBES OF THE UNITED STATES. There is no doubt that Mr. Eliot afterwards found opportunity to visit Namaos- keag, and to preach and establish a school there, as Gookin, in his account of the " Christian Indians," names " Naamikeke" as one of " the places where they (the Indians) met to worship God and keep the Sabbath, in which places there was at each a teacher, and schools for the youth at most of them." And as no other man established schools or preaching among the Indians of the interior save Mr. Eliot, it follows that he both preached and taught at Namaoskeag. So that Namaoskeag, now Manchester, not only has the honor of having been the scene of the philan- thropic labors of " the Apostle Eliot," but also that of having established within its limits the Jirst "prcaohing and school" that existed in the State north and west of Exeter, however remiss the white inhabitants of that region may have been in these particulars. There was another noted fishing-place within the territory of the Pennacooks, where shad alone were caught, which was almost equally celebrated with those at Namaoskeag and Pawtucket. It was located at the outlet of Lake Winnepesaukee, and wsis known by the name of Ahquedaukenash, meaning literally stopping-places or dams, from ahque (to stop) and auke (a place). This word had for its plural Ahquedaukenash, hence, by contraction of the English, Ahquedauken, and again, by corruption, Aquedoctau, a name which was extended by the whites to the whole Winnepesaukee lliver. It is a curious fact in the history of the fisheries upon the Merrimac, that while alewives, shad, and salmon passed up the lower part of the Merrimac in company, yet most of the alewives went up the small rivulets before coming to the forks of the Merrimac at Franklin, while the salmon and shad parted company at the forks, — the former going up the Pemigewasset,' and the latter passing up ♦he Winnepesaukee. This peuiliarity was owing to the nj< res of those fish. The alewives were a small fish, and sought to deposit their spawn in small lakes or ponds which were easy of access, warm, and free from the larger fish that would destroy them and their j)rogeny. The shad wjis a much larger fish, and in spawning sought large lakes where the water wiis warm and abundant ; while the salmon, delighting in cold, swift water, sought only those rivers which were fed by springK or by rivulets from the ravines and gorges of the mountain-sides, and which, mean- dering through dense forests, rij)j)ling over pebbly bottoms, or rushing over rocks or precij)i(!es, founed those ripj)les, rajjids, whirlpools, and fiUls which the salmon love, and those dark, deep, cool basins or eddies in which they deposit their spawn. Hence the fact that alewives were seldom found above the forks of the Merrimac, while tlie salmon held exclusive possession of the cool, rapid, dark Pemigewasact, and the shad appropriated the warm, clear waters of the Winnepesaukee, none of them trespiissing upon tlic domain of the other. The Ahquedaukenash, then, of the cape in Yurk County, Maine), and Nnticook, or Nacook, the nnuicnt name of Litchfield, the town upon tlie east Hide of tlie Merriinae, iin.l joining Maiiclicster, New lliiinpsliire, on the nouth. ' J'emlgeiraiufI means, literally, the crnok 7 muunlaln-pinr placf, from pcnniiquit (crooked), wadclur (a mountain), ciioiinh (pines), ami auke (a place). B;' contraction it became I'ennachu-ash-aukc, and liv corruption I'eniigewusset. THE TRIBES. 263 Indians, and the Aquedauken and Aquedoctau of the English, were one and the same name, applied to the fishing-place of the Indians at the outlet of Lake Winne- pesaukee, now known as "The Weirs." This was called Ahquedaukee, or the Weirs, from the fact thnt the dams or weirs at this place were permanent ones. The Winnepesaukee is not a variable river, and at the outlet of the lake the water for some distance passed over a hard pebbly bottom and did noi average more than three feet in depth. This was an excellent place for Ahquedaukenash or dams, and could not fail of being duly improved by the Indians. Accordingly, as before sug- gested, they had here permanent weirs. Not being able to drive stakes or posts into the pebbly bottom of the river, they placed large rocks at convenient distances from each other in a zigzag line across the river. Ajainst these they interwove their brushwood weirs, or Ftrung their hempen nets, according to their ability. Such weirs were used in the spring and fall, both when the fish ran up and when they ran down the river. Such Ahquedaukenash were frequent upon this and other rivers, and the rocks thus placed in the river by the Indians remained in their position long after the settlement of the English in that neighborhood, and were used by them for a like purpose : hence the name of the Weirs, as continued at the present time. The valley of the Connecticut in the northern part of Massachusetts and the southern parts of New Hampshire and Vermont was a kind of " debatable ground" betwixt the Mohawks and Pennacooks, between which tribes there was continual war. Few places in it, consequently, were occupied permanently by the Indians. At Bellows' Falls, and below, occasional parties of Indians were to be found, both of the Mohawks and of the Pennacooks ; yet neither made permanent settlements there, for fear of the other, nor made much stop there, or in its neighborhood, unless they were in such force as to be regardless of an attack from the other. On this account the upper Connecticut Valley affords few materials for Indian history. The Coos country, extending from Haverhill to the sources of the Connec- ticut, is an exception, as it wa.s occupied by a band of Pennacooks, attracted there by its hunting- and fishing-grounds. Those kept a kind of armed possession of that country for the protection and relief of the frequent parties which were passing and rcpiussing from the various points upon the Merrimac to the Aresaguntacook' Indians, upon the river St. Lawrence, a tribe with which the Pennacooks ever main- tained the most friendly relations. With this tribe the Pennacooks were allied by frequent intermarriages ; and with a band of this same tribe, located at the " Three Rivers," and known as the St. Francis, the remnants of tiie various New England tribes continued to unite, under French policy, till ut length it became a powerful tribe, and proved an inexhaustiblo source of annoyance and hostility to the colonists of New England. In fact, from KUH) to 17(M) most of the war-parties that visited the New England frontiers started from St. Francis as a rendezvous, or had pilots and leaders from that tribe, naturally so hostile to the English. It was during the period IVom 1030 to 1725 tliat the :t Suid tti moan Ihf place <>/ ilrlnt ment. 264 THE INDIAN TRIBES OF THE UNITED STATES. i Indians of the Merrimac Valley were in any degree formidable to the English colonists. Having thus given a general account of the localities occupied by the Pennacooks or Nipmucks in the valley of the Merrimac, as well as of the several bands or tribes under their control, or connected with them, we shall follow out their history more particularly. Passaconnaway was at the head of the powerful Indian tribe, or virtual confed- eracy, of the Pennacooks, when the whites first settled in this country. His name is indicative of his warlike character, — Papisseconewa, as written by himself, meaning " The Child of the Bear." * AVe first hear of him in 1627 or 1628. Thomas Morton, " mine host of Maremount," as he writes himself in his " New English Canaan," thus speaks of him, being in this country at that time : " That Sachem or Sagamore is a Powah of greate estimation amongst all kind of Salvages, there hee is at their Revels (which is the time when a greate company of salvages meete from severall parts of the Country, in amity with their neighboure), hath advanced his honour in his feats or jugling tricks (as I may right tearnie them), to the admiration of the 8j)ectators, whonic hee endeavoured to jjcrswade that hee would goe under water to the further side of a river to broade for any man to undertake with a breath, which thing hee I^erformed by swimming over and deluding the company with casting a mist before their cies that see him enter in and come out ; but no part of the way he has bin scene : likewise by our English in the heat of all summer, to make ice apj)eare in a bowle of faire water, first having the water set before him, hee hatli begunne his incantation according to their usuall accastom, and before the same hath bin ended, a thick clowde has darkened the aire, on a uodane a thunder^clap hath bin heard that has amazed the natives ; in an instant hee hath shewed a firm peece of ice to flote in the midtlest of the bowle in the ])resence of the vulgar people, which doubtless was (lone by the agility of Satjiu his consort." From which marvellous story we are to infer that to the character of a brave warrior Pas.saconnaway added tliat of a clever juggler. In fact, he held his people in great awe of him, the Indians supjxjsing him to have supernatural powers which gave him control over their destijiies. It was waid that he could miike a dry leaf turn green, could cause water to burn and tlien turn to ice, and could take the rattlesnake in his hand with impunity. AVitli such reputed powers, his acknowledged ability as a warrior, and his wisdonj !is a sagamore, Piussaconnaway, as we have said, was the recognized head of the most powerful Indian tribe east of the Mohawks, and as such received the title of IJasliabu, a title of much the same import as that of eniperor. Prior to 102'J the tract of land extending from the Piscataqua to the Merrimac westward, and from the line of Massachusetts thirty miles into the country north- ward, had been ex])lored, and Mr. Edward Cok'ord, at the request of certain gentle- men of Alassaclinsetts, had 8ti])ulate(l with Passaconnaway, the sagamore of llie Pennacooks, and with certain tributary chiefs, for its i)urchi»se. On the 17th day of ' Tliis iKiiiir i.s (Ii'rivc'il fniiit ])iij>ijiiii, a cliild, anil kuiimttrn^, a l)car. THE TRIBES. 265 May, 1629, a deed was executed at Squamscut (now Exeter), with due form and ceremony, conveying the above tract to John Wheelwright and his associates for certain stipulated and valuable considerations. This deed was signed by Passacou- naway, the sagamore of Pennacook, Runnawit, the chief of Pawtucket, Wahong- nonawit, the chief of Swamscut, and Rowls, the chief of Newichawanack, and was witnessed by two Indians and some of the most respectable men of the plantations at Piscataqaa and at Saco. The transaction was one of importance. It shows that Passaconnaway, as early as 1629, was not only the chief of the Pcnnacooks, but was also a sagamore at the head of a powerful confederacy, and that thus early he had the sagacity to see the superiority of the English and to wish to establish them as a barrier betwixt his j)eople and their eastern enemies. The deed expressly acknowledges, on the part of the chiefs of Pawtucket, Squamscut, and Newichawanack, their being tributary to the sagamore of Pennacook, the seventh and last article stipulating that " every town- ship within the aforesaid limits, or tract of land, that hereafter shall be settled, shall pay Passaconnaway, our chief sagamore that now is, and to his successors forever, if lawfully demanded, one coat of trucking-cloth a year." It has been suggested that the Pennacooks were an offshoot of one of the South- western New England tribes, and it is certain that they spoke the same language sa the Massachusetts and Rhode Island Indians. Some feud may have driven the ancestors of Passaconnaway to seek an asylum upon these meadows of the Merrimac, where he could find for himself and companions ready subsistence by taking game in the forests, fishing at the falls, and raising corn and other vegetables upon the inter- vales. And here we see the striking effect that the cultivation of Indian corn has upon Indians. At the present time the Indians of the West who plant corn are more civilised than their neighbors who live by hunting. They are less inclined to rove, and are more robust and intellectual. Planting, maturing, and gathering corn detain them longer in the same locality than any other occupation, and this detention makes them more social, more friendly and hospitable among themselves, and less inclined to a roving life. The result of this is that such tribes become more civilized, more numerous, and more powerful. This position is true of the former state of the Pcnnacooks. They were a semi- a<:;ricultural tribe, and this fact, coupled with another, that they were for nearly a hundred years under the control of a wise and j'olitic sagamore, accounts for their acknowledged superiority and power. It may be that their power had been increasing with the increase of the tribe for centuries, but, as nothing is learned from tradition or otherwise of any sagamore of the Pennacooks prior to Passaconnaway, it is fair to presume that the Peniuicooks, as a tribe or nation, rose and fell with this sagacious, politic, and warlike chief. Nor in tliis a strange presumption. When we first hear of Passaconnaway, in 1629, he had doubtless been at the head of his tribe for many years, long enough for a saga- more possessing his j»olitical and religious authority to have brought the number and power of his tribe to the height at which our fathei-s found it at that time. In ;t4 •Ki> (ft i M ? ' ! 1- ' ,^ i ^ ^<:' 266 THE INDIAN TRIBES OF THE UNITED STATES. 1G29, Passaconnaway was full one hundred years old, for Gookin, who spoke the language of the tribe, and was acquainted with their manners and customs, says that " he lived to a very great age, tis I saw him alive at Pawtucket when he was about one hundred and twenty years old." This was written in 1675, and it reads as tliougli the old chief were at that time dead. General Gookin probably saw him in 1048. Eliot visited Pawtucket in 1647, and again in 1648, and found the Pennacook chief there. As Gookin jissisted Eliot in his labors, and often visited the Indians with him, it is probable that he saw Passaconnaway at one of these visits. This would make the sagamore one hundred years old at the time of signing " The Wheel- wright Deed," in 1629. Still, it is possible that Gookin is the man to whom Hub- bard refers when he says that in 1660 " one much conversant with the Indians about Merrimac River" was invited to a dance, when Passaconnaway made " his last and farewell speech to his children and people." If this be so, it would make Passacon- naway twelve years younger in 1629 than he is made by other accounts. Be this as it may, in 1629 he was an " ancient Indian," and had doubtless been at the head of his tribe more than sixty yeare. The Pennacooks must have numbered at this time from twelve hundred to fifteen hundred souls. Dudley mentioned, in 1631, that Passaconnaway had " under his command four or five hundred men," plainly meaning warriors ; and to allow the tribe to consist of three times the number' of fighting-men is not an exaggerated estimate, when due account is taken of women and children, and old men and others unfit for duty. Two thousand would doubtless be a fair estimate for the tribe. These were scattered up and down the Merrimac, occupying the intervales from the Pawtucket Falls, in Miissachusetts, to Lake Winnepesaukee. Passaconnaway ami the chief men of the tribe resided at Pennacook, Amoskeag, and Naticook. Amos- keag was the place of their abode during the fishing-season, when the banks of the river were thronged, as is evident from the vast quantities of arrow-heads, pestles, j)ieces of pottery, and the large number of graves that have been discovered up and down the river, while in the planting-sciison the residence of the bashaba was at Pennacook and Naticook. In time of peace, Piissaconnaway had his principal summer residence upon the large island in the Merrimac, in Concord, known as Sewall's Island. This island contains some forty acres of excellent intervale, and, being situated at the foot of the falls, where fish abounded, it was doubtless the favorite retreat of this powerful chief In time of war he retired to his fort, which was at Pennacook. Major Waldron states, in a deposition made for the informa- tion of the General Court of Massachusetts, in 16(55, that six years previous he visited the fort of the Indians at Pennacook, at the invitiition of Passaconnaway, and found there a large gathering of Indians. Tradition, well preserved, has located this fort upon one of the headlands either next north or next south of the intervale known as "Sugar Ball," in Concord. From a personal examination of the head- lands in that neighborhood, made within a short time, we have no doubt that the Pennacook fort occupied the headland next south of "Sugar Ball," and, in fact, there are still visible unmistakable signs that this is tiie locality. In this situation, secured m TUB TRIBES. 267 by nature and art, the baahaba could bid defiance to the Mohawks and others of his enemies. Directly west of the fort, and overlooked by it, were extensive planting- grounds, easy of access, and under cultivation. In fact, within the knowledge of the writer, the old " Indian corn-hills" have been plain to view at this place, never having been disturbed by the settlers, who found this part of the intervale cleared, and used it for pasturage until a few years ago. It is probable that soon after the occupation of Penuacook by the traders, in 1665, and the building of trading- and block-houses there, Passaconnaway took up his residence mainly at the iflands of Naticook. These romantic and lovely spota upon the bosom of the Merrimac, which (verc chosen as chief residences, though now shorn of most of their beauty and dff lived of the grandeur that surrounded them then, still bear witness to the taste of the Pennacook bashaba. P.issaconnaway saw the superiority of the English, and with his usual sagacity he perceived the entire hopelessness of the attempts of his people to subdue them. His policy was to make terms of peace with them, and it was in pursuance of this policy that he disposed of his lands to Wheelwright, reserving alone his right to fish and hunt. He lioped to make use of the English as a protection against his enemies, who were becoming a source of terror to his people since the plague had thinned them out. The Tarrantines of the East and the Maquas of the West were making continual inroads upon the New England Indians, and the Pennacooks, like the Mohicans, were quite willing to secure the friendship and protection of the colonists. Yet in 1631 the prejudice of Dudley led him to denounce Passaconnaway as a " witch," when the old sagamore was exerting himself to keej) on terms of friendship with the colonists. In September of the following year he gave a striking evidence of the sincerity of his professions. Jenkins, of Cape Porpoise, had been murdered upon the territory of the old chief, while asleep in the wigwam of one of his tribe. Pas- saconnaway anticipated the English in the arrest, and, though the murder wiis com- mitted upon his extreme limits, he sent with 2>rompt dispatch, had the murderer arrested, and delivered him to the English. In 1642, upon suspicion that a conspiracy was forming among the Indians to crush the English, men were sent out to arrest some of the principal Indian chiefs, Forty men were dispatched at this time to secure Passaconnaway, but he escajjcd tiiem by rciison of a storm. Wannalancet, his son, was not so fortunate. He was taken by the party, while his squaw escaped into the woods. But while they bar- barously and insultingly led Wannalancet with a rope, he loosened it and attempted to make his escape. His captors fired several shots which barely missed him, and finally succeeded in recapturing him. For this outrage the government of Msussachusetts feared the just resentment of Passaconnaway, and they sent Cutshamokiu, whom they had arrested upon the same occasion and had discharged, to excuse the matter to the old chief, and to invite him to go to Boston and hold a conference with them. The answer of the old sagamore savors a good deal of an independent spirit, and had lu' been younger by a half- '¥' lb hi: i'i \ 268 THE INDIAN TRIBES OF THE UNITED STATES. century his reply might have been still more proud and haughty: "Tell the Eng- lish," said he, "when they restore my son and his squaw, then will I talk with them." The answer was that of a man who felt that he had been deeply wronged. His haughty spirit must have chafed under such wrongs, and it is possible that, under the sting such outrages could not fail to inflict, he regretted the policy he had marked out for himself. That the affair made a deep impression upon his mind and led him to distrust the English, was plainly shown by his conduct to Mr. Eliot in 1G47. The missionary had visited Pawtucket for the purpose of preaching to the natives. It wiis the fishing-season, and a vsist multitude of Indians were present. Among them was Passaconnaway, with two of his sons. The old chief, doubtless smarting under his wrongs, and thinking that a religion which tolerated such wrongs wius not worthy his attention, refused to see Mr. Eliot, and retired immediately from the neighborhood, taking with him his sons, saying that " he wiis afraid the English would kill them." In 1648, however, Mr. Eliot visited Pawtucket with better success, for, it being the fishing-season, he found Passaconnaway there, and in a mood to hear his preach- ing. Mr. Eliot preached to the assembled Indians from Malachi i. 11. This verse he paraphrased thus : " From the rising of the sun to the going down of the same, thy name shall be great among the Indians ; and in every place prayers shall be made to thy name, pure prayers, for thy name shall be great among the Indians." The Indians paid the most respectful attention, and after the discourse was closed asked many appropriate questions. After others had suggested questions and made remarks, Pa-ssaconnaway arose amid the most profound attention, and announced his belief in the God of the English. " He remarked," says Mr. ICliot, in a letter of November 12, 1648, " that indeed he had never prayed unto God as yet, for he never had heard of God before as now he doth. And he said further that he did believe what I tjiught them to be true. And for his own part, he was purposed in his heart from thenceforth to jiray unto God, and that hee would persuade all his sonnes to doe the same, pointing to two of them who were there present, and naming such as were absent." The old sagamore was doubtless sincere in his change of religion, and continued in the Christian belief till his death. For, " long after," says Eliot, " he said to Captain Willard 'that he would be glad if I would come and live in some piac*; thereabouts to teach them. . . . And that if any good ground or place that \iw had would be acceptable to me, he would willingly let me have it.' " Mr. Eliot, in a letter bearing date October 21), 1(541), thus speaks : " I had and still have a great desire to go to a great fishing-place, Namaske, upon the Merriniac lliver, and because the Indians' way lieth beyond the great river, which we cannot j)ass with our horses, nor can we well go to it on this side of the riv 272 TUK INDIAN TRIBES OF THE UNITED STATES. three miloa on either Hi(U) in length, provided ho nor they do not nlienate any part of thi« grant without leave and lieenwe from thiH Court, (irnt ohtained." Two perHoiiB were a})pointed surveyorn to lay out tluH townehip for riiHsaeonnaway and IiIh uwo- ciatos, — a duty which they executed promptly and faithfully, giving liiin an ample tract a mile and a half in depth along the Merrinuic, together with two Hmall inlandH in the river. One of the iHlaiulH' I'aM('Ution referred to above. The wife of Naldiow appears to have been the daughter of i'a.ssaconnaway. Another danghtiT of his n»arried Montowampatc, the sagamon; of 8augns, prior to KJ'JH, and was sej)arated from him in conse(pience of a dilficulty betwixt him and her father. ' Thc«c islnnilH are now known as Rood's ImIiukIm, and it would be a tribu'u wortliilv bestowed upon u worthy man, should they bo known hcroulU-r ax 1'a.s.saL'unnaway'M iHland.s. In fact, the opposite hinds, once the home of \n» tribe, would have a more appropriate and more euphonious name were they called Pu8sa- eonnawuy rather than Litchfield ; and the inhabilants of this town would diH|iluy ;;(iod taste should they follow the example of 8unnapec, and by Aet of Liv^islalure axsunie llu^ a|ipri>]>rial(' and euphonious name of " Pa«saconnaw»y." 1 TUK TRIBES. 273 !'..;■ BUOOK IBLAND INDIANS. Thrco tribes claimed jurisdiction over the territory which now constituteH Soutli- wcHteru llhode Island, — tlie Niantics, the I'etiuotw, and the NarragansettH. Tho former, a comparatively mild and jH!aceful tribe, were wellnigii cruHlied by tho more warlike l*e(|Uotjj, and atlerwanU confederated with the Narragansett*!, with whom iw tributaricH they ever after remained. The territory of the Niantics extended from the I'aweatuck Kiver to VVeecapang, on the coast, and back into the forests about thirty miles. Tliis was the theatre of struggle with the Pequots, who succeeded iu 1G32 in extending their territory ten miles east of tho I'aweatuck. . THE NARRAOAN8ETT8. This famous tribe, which anciently held jurisdiction over most of the present State of Rhode Island, were able in their palmy days, under Canonicus and Miantonomo, to call into the lield nearly four thousand warriors. Within a distance of twenty miles they had twelve town«. Historians have treated the Narragansctts and tJie Niantics lU) one nation. After the " (Jreat Swamj) light," in Kingston, in 1G75, which broke the sway of the Narragansetts and nearly exterminated them, these tribes were con- solidated. The territory of the Narragansetta included the islands in the bay, and a {wrtion of Long Island. They were the most civilized and the most faithful to the English of all the New England tribes. They cultivated some of their land, and were skilful in making wampum, stone tobacco-pipes, and earthen vessels for domestic use. Their hospitality was a conspicuous trait. Koger Williams aiys, " They had many strange relations of one Wectucks, a man that wrought great miracles among them, and walked upon the waters, &c., with some kind of broken resemblance to the Sonne of God." They believed that Kan- tantowit, their chief divinity, resided far away to the southwest, in the land of soft winds, summer warmth, jwrennial fruits, and prolific hunting-grounds. That he might reach this happy place was the Indian's highest hope. But the grossly wicked, it was believed, would forever wander in regions of coldness, barrenness, and dark- ness. The two great divinities among the Pequots were Kitchtan, the author of good, and Hobamocho, the author of evil. They held to a threefold nature in man, — the flesh, which at death returns to the earth ; the ])ure spirit, which at death piu> , "wpp 276 THE INDIAN TIfIIij!.S OF TUE UNITED STATES. selves, the Alleghans surrounded their villigcs with intrenchments, and luiilt fortifi- cations. This story is sustained, and enhirged in some particulars, by Iroquois tradition, in which the combination of the Northern against the Southern tribes is made to appear more extensive, and tlie power possessed by the latter in building forts and compelling labor is represented as very great. Both traditions agree that the Alleghan confederacy was finally defeated and driven down the Mississippi. The rude vestiges on the banks of the Ohio and Mississippi sufficiently tell the story of the people who once dwelt here, and present as correct a, picture of their arts and condition as the ruins of civilized nations do of theirs. A pipe of the laph oHurix, or of serpentine ; an awl, fish-hook, or needle of bone ; a knife or dart of obsidian or flint ; a discoidal stone, to be used in athletic amusements ; a medal of sea-shell ; a gorget of mica ; an arm-band of native copper ; a tumulus raised over the dead ; a mound of sacrifice to the sun ; a simple circumvallation, or a confused assemblage of ditches, mounds, and lines around a village ; a ring-fort on a hill ; a terraced ])latf')rm of earth to sustain tlie sacred residence of the Indian priest and ogima, — these must be deemed evidences which accurately restore to the mind of the iiKjuirer the arts of tlieir authors. They answer, 1 am inclined to think, the oft- repeated inquiry, Who erected these earthworks? The only wonder vi that, with such vigor of character as the traditions denote, the Alleghans had not done more in arts and refinements. The evidences of antique labors in the alluvial plains and valleys of the Sciot(i, Miami, and Muskingum, the Wabash, Kaskaskia, Cahokia, and Illinois, denote that the ancient Alleghans, and their allies and confederates, cultivated the soil and were semi-agriculturists. These evidences have been traced, at late periods, to the fertile table-lands of Indiana and Michigan. The tribes lived in fixed towns, c\iltivating extensive fields of mai/e, and also, as denoted by recent discoveries, of some species of l)eans, vines, and esculents. It is not improbable that the Alleghans were the Mound-Builders. DELAWAUES. At the beginning of the sixteenth century this tribe occupied the banks of a large river, flowing into the Athmtic, to which they applied the name of Lenapihittuk. This term is a compound of Letiapi, the name given to themselves, and !t(uk, a geo- graphical term which is ecjuivalent to the English word "domain" or "territory," and is inchisive of the specific tsrpu, th.eir name for u river. After the sii> rcssful planting of a colony in Virginia, the coast became more subject to observation than at prior perioils, by vessels bound to Jamestown with supplies. On one of these voyages. Lord 1 )e la Warre j)ut in to the capes of the river, and hence the present name of both the river and the tribe. The true meaning of the term Lcnapi has been the subject of various interpreta- tions. It appears to carry the same meaning as Iitaha, "a male," in the other Algonkin dialects, and the word was probaoly used nationally, ami with emphasis, in the sense of " men." ^Ve learn from (heir traditions that tiiey liiid regarded them- selves in past ages as holding an emiiieiil position for anti([uity, valor, and wisdom; THE TRIBES. 211 I wisduiu ; and this claim appears to have heen recognized by the other tribes of this lineage, who applied to them the term Grandfather. To tlie Iroquois thcj applied the word Uncle, and this relation the Iroquois reciprocated with the term Nephew. The other tribes of Algonkin lineage the Delawares called Brother or Younger Brother. These names establish the ancient rank and influence of the tribes. Most of tlie tribes are organized on the principle of emblematic totems. The Delawares originally consisted of three of these subdivisions, — namely, the turtle, or unami, the mins% or wolf, and the unalachigo, or turkey. Their sachems, with the council of old men, regulated all their atfairs. The French, who had little intercourse with them till they crossed the AUeghanies, called the whole nation Loups, or wolves, confounding them with the Mohicans of the Hudson, who appear in the formative tribal ages to have been descendants of the wolf totem. The turkey and turtle tribes occupied the country along the coast between the sea and the Kit- tatinny or Blue Mountains, their settlements extending as far east as the Hudson and west to the Potomac. The Monseys or wolf tribe, the most active and warlike of all, occupied the mountainous country between Kittatinny and vhe sources of the Sus- quehanna and th.f Delaware, kin«'.iing their council-fire at the Minisink Flats, on the Delaware River above the W.iter-Gap. A part of the tribe dwelt on the Susque- hanna, and they had also a village and a peach-orchard at the Forks of the Delaware, where Nazareth is now situated. These three principal tribes were subdivided into numerous small clans. The Delawares, from all accounts, held a prominent place in Indian history. Their wars against the ancient tribes of the Ohio Valley, the great influence they possessed for so long a period among the ilgonkin tribes along the Atlantic coasts, extending from the Kanticokes, on the Ciicsapeake, to the Hud- son, and even into New England, the wisdom of their ancient chiefs and council- lors, and the bravery of their warriors, — these are the themes of their ancient traditions. And these reminiscences of the Delawares' golden age apjjcared to rest !ipon their minds, at late periods, with more force in proportion as the tribe grew weak and lost power. T.'ieir ancient alliance with tlie ^nxuiois during the wcr ;■ linst the AUeghans contunied, we may infer, as long as they retained thjir li'Uury prowess and enterprise. i • the rise of the Iroquois power the Delawares lost their independence, and ■I inrced to tussuuie the name of women and forego the us(r of arms. We have no dai ; . these mutations. Early in the seventeenth century the Dutch carried on a friendly traflic with them. They were kindly treated, in l(i82, by William Penn. We hear of no Iroquois protests against their selling their lands at that time. It is probable ln.il imne had been made. The progress of the settlements, however, shows tiiat in a few years such a power to control the Delawares Wiis gained. A very striking evidence of this occurred d-.nng the negotiation of a treaty at Lancaster in 1744. The Iroquois, in the pnwence of the large assemblage of the tribes on thi« occiusion, denied the right of the Delawares to alienate lands, (^inassatego, an Iro- quois chief, upbraided them in public C(Uincil for some former act of that kind, !; >eaking in a strain of mixed irony and arrogance, he tohl theiu not to reply to his !;-'s ' i. •i 1:1 ■^.il i! ; .11 .-, 278 THE INDIAN TRIBES OF TIIE UNITED STATES. words, but to leave the council in silence. He peremjjtorily ordered them to quit the section of country where they then resided, and to remove to the banks of the Susquehanna. Whatever may have been the state of submission in which the Dela- waress felt themselves to be to the confederate power of the Iroquois, it does not appear that the right to control them had been publicly exercised prior to this time. It was, however, with this proud nation but a word and a blow. They accordingly quitted forever the banks of their native Delaware, the scene of many memories, and the resting-place of the bones of their ancestors, and turned their f^ices towards the west. At the opening of the lievolutiou they shook off' the Iroquois yoke, and a few years afterwards the Iroquois confessed at a public council that the Delawares were no longer women. In 1756 we find them living at Shamokin, and at Wyalusing, on the Susque- lianiui, — positions in which ! •/ were threatened, on the one hand, by the intrusion of the white emigrant, and, o/) ther, harassed by the momentary dread of the Iroquois tomahawk. It was tlu sfortune of the Delawares that an impression prevailed in the English colonies that they were under French influence. This impression, whether well or ill founded, pervaded society in Southern New York to such a degree that in 1744 the Moravian mission at Shikomico, in Dutchess County, was broken up and transferred to Bethlehem, on the Susquehanna, which Count Zinzendorf, three years before, had chosen as the seat of his operations. The impres- sion lost none of its force from an avowal, by the band at Wyalusing, of the princi- ])les of peace and non-resistance taught by the conscientious disciples of both Penn and Zin/ondorf. This doctrine wivs embraced with great zeal by one of their speakers, called Papanhank, who, in 17oG, made a journey of two hundred miles to Philadel- phia, whore he addressed an assemblage of moral persons, and concluded by kneeling down and making an impressive prayer. Men who devoted themselves with simplicity of intention to one object did not probably make as much effort to disabuse the public mind on this head as would appear to have been desirable at the jjcriod. The country was engaged in an Indian war, which raged on the frontier from Quebec to New Orleans. IJraddock had beou defeated the year before. France wiu making a formidable effort to save her Indian empire, and England and Americ^a an ecpially formidable one to destroy it. It is certain that the suspicion of being friendly to the French followed the Delawares in their removal across the Alleghanies, and during their settlement, under the auspices of their teachers, on the waters of the Muskingum. Nor did their position hen' tend to remove it, but rather to strengthen it. Gnadenhiitten became to the Dela- wares in heart, as it was in name, the Tents of Peace. They addressed themselves to agriculture and grazing. They were devoted to their teachers. They refused to join the warlike j)arties that j)assed through their towns on their forays of murder and plunder against the frontiers. It was not in their power to refuse these parties victuals, but tliey supplied them with no means of offenw, and expressed their prin- ciples of peace, both as among tiie Indian tribes and the whites. But the impression grew stronger and stronger in the Ohio Valley that they were in communication THE TRIBES. 279 with the enemy. The borders of the new States were literally drenched in blood by marauding parties of Indians, who butchered the pioneers in their cabins and carried their childrcii away into captivity.* And this impression against the Delawares finally levl to tlie most tragic results. Nor wa.s it alone the frontiersmen who were excited. The Indian tribes, towards whom they had observed the policy of neutrality, were alike displeased. Counsels of peace to them were thrown away. They could neither understsind nor tolerate them. They lived in war and plunder, and the result was that, after repeated threats, a Wyandot war-party suddenly appeared on the Muskingum and ordered the Dela- wares to Upper Sandusky. All excuses were vain. The party were inexorable. They killed many of the cattle and hogs, and, in 1781, removed the population of three towns, numbering between three and four hundred persons. After living at Sandusky a year, the Delawares were j)ermitted to return to the banks of the Mus- kingum. The settlers on the Monongahela heard of this return with alarm. The British not having yet surrendered their northern posts on the Miami of the Lakes and at Detroit antl Michilimackinac, and the Indians throughout that vast region continuing to manifest the deepest hostility, iis shown by the fierce battles against Generals llarmar and St. Clair, the return of such a body of men, who had been, it seems, removed by the authority of the commanding ofiicer at Detroit, looked like a hostile movement. Such it was not, as is now known, for the Moravian converts ainong the Delawares had been instructed in, and sincerely adopted, the principles of peace and non-resistance. Of all doctrines, these were the least understood by the hardy frontiersmen, who, through a long and bloody experience, had been led to look upon the Indian, when under the excitement of war, iis a tiger in his thirst for blood, and alike destitute of mercy or symjiathy. So much may be said in apology for the inhuman and unjustifiable mtussacre in 1782 of the unresisting Moravian Delawares, who evinced in their submissive deaths no little of the spirit of St. Stephen. This massacre wrought up tiie feelings of resentment of the Wyandots and other hostile tribes of the West, who were under the influence of the basest white counsellors, to (lie highest pitch of fury; and when, later in the same year. Colonel Crawford and Ills command were defeated on the plains of Sandusky by the Wyandots and their allies, they sacrificed that ofiicer and his son-in-law at the stake in the presence of some of their renegade white counsellors. The Delawares, with the Wyandots, Shawanoes, Miamis, and other Western tribes, who had been in arms on the frontiers, were parties to the general treaty of (ireenville in 17! (5, and were admitted to the terms of peace. Friendly relations witli the whites were further strengthened by the treaty of Fort Wayne in 1803, and that of Vincennes in 1804 ; and from the earliest of these dates the frontiers were relieved of their war-parties, and rested in a general peace with all the tribes till the ' Botwecn the years 1777 and 1779 not less than fourtocn persons of the name of Schoolcraft (roliitions of the author) were killed by the Indians, in tlieir hiniseM or on their jmnuises, in Clarke County, Virginia, liy Nkulking war-partieH. (De HWs Herder Warfare.) ;( il w \ \-'\n. a TiWP 280 Tilt: INDIAN TRIBES OF THE UNITED STATES. \ : 'If' ': primary movement made by Tecumseli in 1811-12. Tlie idea of Indian supremacy in America, so strongly urged upon the tribes by Pontiac in 1763, when Great Britain waa the impinging powei-, was revived by Tecumseh after the lapse of fifty years. But fifty years' decline had broken the spirit of the population, and had almost annihilated Indian nationality. The Delawares have been regarded by some as an ancient tribe in the Ohio Valley. Their traditions denote, indeed, that they had in former ages crossed the Mississippi from the west, but their domiciliation there as a tribe was recent. Their first movement from the Delaware River towards the west appears to have been within fifty years of Penn's landing. We find by the manuscript journal of Conrad Weiser that he reported the numbor of Delawares in the Ohio Valley in 1748 at one hundred and sixty-five warrioi-s, which, agreeably to the usual rate of computation, would give eight hundred souls. Going back from this date to the French tables of 1730, it appears that there were no Delawares in the West at that time. So that it is in a period of twelve years, from 173G to 1748, that they must have arrived from the esist of the Alleghaniea. Yet within sixteen years from this time, Colonel Boucpiet estimates them ius capable of bringing five hundred warriors into the field, — a manifest exaggeration. Once west of the Alleghanies, the Delawares, at least the body of the tribe, do not appear to have adhered with much tendcity to the excellent teachings they had received on the banks of the Delaware and the Susquehanna. The labors of the plough, the loom, and the anvil do not possess much attraction for a tribe where it has (juit the precincts of civilization and come under the exciting influences of war and hunting. After a few years they iook shelter on the Whitewater River of Indiana, but, findiiii, themselvet pressed l.y the intrusive feet of a raj)idly gathering civili/ed population, ceded their I'lnds t!icre, and in 1829 went to Kansas. Thence they removed to the Indian Territory, their present home, where they have dwindled to a more handful. In 18(52 the Delawares enlisted one hundred and seventy-two men for the Union army, out of a poj)ulation of two hundred males between the ages of eighteen and forty-five. They officered their own companies, and were good soldiers, tractable, sober, watchful, and obedient. By a treaty blunder, only eighty- one remain called Delawares, the residue of the tribe in the Indian Territory having been inc()rjM)ratc'd with tiie Chcrokocs. The.se latter show in their habits of dissipa- tion and unthrift the debasing effects of the process of removal of which they have been the victims for two generations. The history of the Delawares has little to distinguish it, in the principles of action, from that of the other tribes. The West had l)een regarded in their tradi- tions as tlie paradise of hunters, and when they were disturbed by the footsteps of the white men tln^y fled in that direction. Evidences that the pressure they felt in the Ka.st would follow them a long time in the West are found in the j)ermission to settle in Upper Louisiana, granted by CJovernor (-aroudelet, on the 4th of January, 1793. In a treaty conchuK-d at Fort I'itt in 1778 (the first treaty made by the United States with any Indian nation), they entered into relations of amity with the mm THE TRIBES. 281 United States, granted power to march armies through their country and procure supplies, in return for which it was stipuhited that a fort shouhl be built for the protection of their women and children against the hostile tribes. This was the origin of Fort Mcintosh. This alliance was effected seven years before the Iroquois succumbed at the treaty of Fort Stanwix. How well the treaty was kept by the nation at large appears from the supplementary articles of the treaty of Fort Mcin- tosh of 21st January, 1785, in which it is agreed by them that Kelelimand and other chiefs who liad taken up the hatchet for the United States should participate in uU the beneficent provisions of the treaty. Their good faith is further shown by the treaty of Fort Harmar of the Uth of January, 1789, in which they renew cer- tain unfulfilled conditions of the prior treaty, and agree to deliver uji all American prisoners in their hands. Michigan, Ohio, Indiana, Pennsylvania, all are largely made up of the lands which by the treaty of Fort Mcintosh were given to the Indians. It will be suflicient to state the commencement of our intercourse with this tribe. To continue the record of these negotiations from era to era would only exhibit dry details of facts, similar in their general aspect to the changes in residence and muta- tions of time and place which have attended the transfer of most of the tribes from (he Atlantic borders to the west of the Mississippi. There is much resemblance in the princi])les and general incidents of these removes. One generic truth applies to all. The tribes were perpetually at war or variance with one another. They had not elevation of mind enough to appreciate one another's motives, principles, senti- ments, or character. The suspicion they had of their chiefs, priests, and warrioi-s kej)t them in continual dread. They believed in witchcraft and necromancy, which could be exercised on all, present or absent. Treacherous themselves in point of fealty, they expected treachery from neighboring tribes. Good motives were ascribed to bad actions with a plausibility which would have done credit to a Talleyrand or a JMctternich. Tarlie wiis burned at the stake under the accusation of witchcraft, but really to take him out of the way of Elkswattawa and Tecumseh. The history of the tribes agreed also in this : each remove involved the loss of something in civilization which they had attained. By throwing them into new regions of wilderness it exposed them to new temptations in the line of hunting, and rivalry for distinction in the war-path. Thus, a considerable portion of the Dela- wares, when they had reached Missouri and the Indian territory west of it, went into Texas, where they have the reputation of being first-rate guides, huntei"s, woodsmen, and, if necessity call for it, warriors. All the tribes felt sensibly the effects of the failure of game on their lands, as they pursued their line of migration west, and would have suffered miserably had it not been for the increased demand for their refuse hunting-lands. Acres took the place of beaver-skins. But while this gave tliem, at least periodically, a plethora of means, it exposed them to the influence of indulgence. The Indian who had lost the industry of hunting had no other occu- pation. It wa« noble to hunt, but mean to labor. And when he found that his lands could be s])eedily turned into money, in the shape of annuities, he fell into the 282 THE INDIAN TRIBES OF THE UNITED STATES. snare of luxury. The hunter and nonuulic Indiiin has but little idea of the value of raonev or silver coin ; he a|)peai"s to regard it lus something to get rid of, and often deals it out lavishly to those who have little or no claim upon him. The luimbcr of the Delawares iu 1850 vma estimated at iifteen hundred. It has since that time greatly decreased. BLACK FEET. The Saskatchewan River of Lake Winnipeg rises in the Rocky Mountiiins in north latitude about 52°. Retween its great southern and northern forks, in a fertile game country, are found the Recaneaux, Rlackfect, and Rlood Indians. These tribes constitute a group which is dillerent from their neighbors, those on the lower parts of the river s])eaking a language akin to that of the Assiniboinos, who are Dakotas, or of the Kenistenos, who are Algonkins. Traders and interpreters of the region jirouounce it })eculiar. Mackenzie informs us that their track of migra- tion has been vwards the northwest, and he exi)reHse8 the opinion that they have a "language of their own." From a vo(;abulary exhibited to Mr. Gallatin, he was indincil to consitler it as referable to the Algonkin family, and he has so classifled it in his "(Synopsis of Tribes." However these tribes may difi'er from their neighbors and the rest of the Indian stocks, they agree with them in their hostility to one another, and in their continuous broils and disputes. These i)er])etually recurring disturbances finally led to a general feuil, in which they separated into two parties, the one distinguished by the red or bloody Hag, and the other, from reverence to a noted leader who had fallen, by the black Hag. The younger and more warlike warriors generally ranged themselves under the red banner, the more elderly and setlate under the black ensign. After numerous skirmishes and endeavors to entrap each other, a great battle was finally fought, in which the party of the red Hag triumphed. This led to a final separation. The party of tiie black Hag lied towards the scmth. Continuing on in this direction, they reached tiie l)auks of tlu; Missouri. This ilight appears to have taken place in the autunui, after tlie prairies had been burned over, and when the black ashes of the grass and shrubbery colored their moccasins and leggings. In this plight they were iirst met by the Upsaroka or Crow Indians, who called them Rlackfeet. The term was adopted by the CJros Ventres and the Mandans, aiul soon spread among all the tril)es. They had extended their hunting- and war-parties to the head-watoi-s of the liver Maria's, and never proceeded farther east than Milk River, a stream falling into the Missouri on the west, about one hundred and fitlty miles above the mouth of the Yellowstone. Ry this Ilight they had found a new country, abounding in every requisite of In- dian life. Rut they had not left behind them that sj)irit of internal dissension and discord which had j)roduced the split on the Saskatchewan. A new feud arose among the Missouri Rlackfeet, which resulted in another division of the tribe, under an ambitious leader ca 'ed l'iegan,or the I'heasant. After several defeat.s, he was driven across the Missouri, ami took shelter in the mountains. The three recognized TUE TRIBES. 283 ^i (livisioas of the tribe are, therefore, in tlie order of their orgiinization, the Bloods, the Bhiekfeet, and the Pii'gana. They Huilbred nuieh from the ravages of Hiuallpox, which Hwept tlirough the Miasouri Valley in 1837. The character of the Blackfect nation haa been perhaps underrated on account of oecurrencea which took place in 1805, during the celebrated expedition of Lewia and Clarke. They are deaeribed by later observera as having more decision and iixity in their camp regulationa, or laws and customs, than other tribea on tlie Mis- souri, but not as more cruel or blood-thirsty. Like all prairie tribes, they wander over the plains, following the buffah), and having no permanent location. Priding themselves on great courage, they bring up their youths to follow in their footstejia. As soon as a young man ia capable of drawing the bow he enlista under the wolf- akin banner of some ambitious chief, and takes his first lesson in war. To bring back the scalp of an enemy is the great object of ambition, and this alone settles the youth's position and character in the lodge circle and at the festive and council l)()ard. The tribe holds itself up as surpassing all others on the war-path. They disdain alliances with any of the other tribes, and bid defiance to them all. Their enemies on the Missouri are the Dakotas, the (Jros Ventres, and the Crows. But they push their hostile excursions over the Rocky Mountains in (juest of the Indian horses of Oregon, where they fight the Flatheads, the Pends d'Oreilles, and the Nez Perec's. They endure the extremes of savage life with stoicism. They never com- plain under hunger or suffering. The jn-airie is their spontaneous garden. It yields them roots and medicines. They cultivate nothing. They have abundance of food when game is plenty, and starve when it is scarce. The only enterprise in which they engage, besides war and the chase, is horse-stealing ; and this, too, is considered an honorable achievement, and a source of great distinction for the young, the brave, and the active. Human scalps are their glory, and the buP'ilo their reliance. They are the most perfect specimens of savage life found on the continent. Accustomed from infancy to bear pain, they soon become sui)erior to the dangers of fear : forest precepts and practices never cease to j)recede or follow one another ; and however they may fail in their enterprises, they at once flatter themselves with the hope of better success in the future. They are as sly as a fox, possess the agility of a deer, the eyes of a lynx, and the uuconcpu^-able ferocity of a tiger. They are generally well proportioned, tall, and straight, and there is seldom a deformed person among them. Their skin is of a reddish or copper color, their eyes large and black, their hair coal-black and straight and very seldom curly ; they have very good teeth, and their breath is jus pure as the air they inhale. The bones of the cheeks are a little high, particularly so in the women. The latter are not so tall as the European females, although there are often agreeable and pretty figures among them ; they incline more towards fatness than does the other sex. When the fenuile seats herself, she })laees her limbs decently, both knees together, iiiul turns her feet sideways ; but that posture cramps her limbs, and is one reason tliat she walks badly, so that she seems to be hune. The men take little notice of domestic affairs: indolent from pride and custom, they not only leave the women to llin. »• '': 284 THE INDIAN TRIBES OF THE UNITED STATES. do all tlio home work, but often send them after the meat of the game they have killed, although Hometimcs it may bo at a great distance. The women place their children, as aoou as born, on a piece of hooped board stuffed with grass. The child is laid on its back on a cradle of this kind, and enveloped with pieces of skin or cloth to keep it warm. Tiiis forest-cradle is tied with pieces of leather bands ; to these the mother tics other straps to suspend the cradle from her head, or to hung it to the limb of a tree, while she does the necessary work of the lodge. This tribe, which now numbers seven thousand live hundred, has a large reserva- tion on the northern boundary of Montana, about seventy-five miles from Fort I3enton. The severe punishment inflicted in 1870 by the military (" The Piegan Massacre") broke down their hostility, and they have latterly shown an inclination for such pursuits ius would prepare them for the change from hunting buffalo and other game to the cuUivation of the .soil. The inadccpiacy of the ajipropriation for their support compels them to continue to hunt, but each succeeding year finds an additional number employed in building and farming. CIIIPPEWAS. This term is derived from Ojibwa, the cognomen of the tribe for themselves, whose meaning has not been satisfactorily explained. Mackenzie uses the term Jibwa as the c(piivalent of this term in his "Voyages." The name of the tribe is not to be found in the older writers. The French, who were the earliest to meet them in their tribal seat at the falls, or iSault de Ste. Marie, named them Saulteurs from this circum- stance. They are referred to, with little difference in the orthography, in General AVashington's report, in 1754, of his trip to Le Bojuf, on Lake Erie, but arc first recognized among our treaty-tribes in the general treaty of Greenville, of 1795, in which, vith the Ottawas, they ceded the island of Michilimackinac and certain dependencies conceded by them at former 2)eriods to the French.' The Chi])pewas are acknowledged by writers on American philology to speak one of the j)ure8t forms of the Algonkin, and may be regarded as identical with the Algonkin group in history, manners, and customs. History is clear as to the unity of origin of the Algonkina and the Chippewas, while it fails to inform us when or why the latter term was adopted. The Nipis- singos, also written Nipissiriniens, form the btusis of both. This was a terra applied to the peoi)le who lived on the banks of Lake Nej)issing, at the source of French Kiver. This lake, lying on summit-lands, occupies the line of the portage betwwn Lake Huron and the great Ottawa River of the St. Lawrence, and wius the channel of Cijinmunication and the route for the transportation of merchandise from Mon- treal to the Great Lak(! basins, and to the uttermost regions of the sources of the Missisaipi)i and the trading-posts (»f Hudson's ]3ay. It avoided altogether the hostile ' Tliis grunt beciiiiii! tlic basin of the cession luado by tbeiu ut Suult 8to. Mariu in the treaty of Juno 16, 1820. (luJiun Treaties, p. 28U.) THE TRIBES. 285 Iroquois country by the route of Niagara, and wua at the Hatno time much tlie nearest route. In fixing on early points of movement of the Indian tribew of the North, it is of primary importance to refer to tlie period of 1(541). It was in tliis year tliat the Iroquois finally succeeded in overthrowing the Wyandots, whom tlie French called Ilurons, and driving them out of the lower St. Lawrencie. The latter fied up the Ot- tnwa to what is now known as Lake Huron. Here they finally settled, after having been pursued by the infuriated Inxjuois to their refuge on the island of Miehili- mackiiuic, and even to the upper shores of Lake Superior. Their ilight carried with them their allies the Atawawas or Atowas, and other Algonkin bands, who had been in close alliance with them. A more particular reference to the events of this period, as detailed by missionary writers, may be made. Le Jeune and the early writers of " Lettres Edifiants" inform us that at the earliest known period there was a group of tril)es living in the northern latitudes of the (Jreat Lakes who called God Manito, the res'L ui their vocabulary answering to this test and showing them to lie of one family or mother-stock. The most ancient point to which they refer as the place of their origin is the summit of Lake Nepisaing, north of Lake Huron, — a summit which shed its waters easterly through the Ot- tawa lliver into the St. Lawrence, and southwardly through French River into Lake Huron. Long l)efore Canada was settled this wiis the ancient Indian route of travel between the valley of the I^ower St. Lawrence and the great area of the Upper Lakes. It was not only the shortest line, but it avoided the numerous cas- (uules and rapids of the St. Lawrence above Montreal, which I'ppearcd so formidable to Cartier in ISIM, as well tis the j)ortage at Niagara. Besides these groat advantages in point of time and distance, it was entirely within the territory of the tribe ; and altliongh its course was broken by numerous rapids, these were ea.sily overcome by short portages, which permitted the boatmen to transport their light canoes by hand. This wjis the route which the Indian trade from New France first took and long maintained, even from the period of Chanii)lain down to the el(>se of the supremacy of the Northwest Company, about 1820. After this time all the main supplies of goods and merchandise were 8hii)ped direct from England into Hud- son's Bay. To the i)eople who were early found on this summit, and who had migrated down the Ottawa into the St. Lawrence Valley, occupying its north bank between Mon- treal and Quebec, the French at first ai)plied the name Algonkii 'ibis became a generic name for all the bands and tribes of the same language whom they subse- quently discovered on the continent, however widely dispersetl from their summit home, and by whatever tribal or local names they were called by themselves or by other tril)es. The French, indeed, nuiltiplied these local names by applying to each of the new-found bands a nom de (jucrre, so that they might lull the active suspicions of the natives by making no apparent reference to them in conversation. To such of this people as had migrated down the French River to Lake Huron, '*»S.. ii' ill i 11 1» u ■ si '280 77/ A' INDIAN TltlUES OF TtlK UN IT HI) UTATJ-JS. and along itw nortli BlioroH to tlio AUHHinnagiiig or llig-Moutlicd River, they f»avu tlio l( rill of jMLssissiigii's. Tlicsc at a later day migrated eiwtwardly to the head of Lake Ontario and the vaUey ot" tiio river Niagara heh)W the Itidge, where, aeeording to Indian tradition, tiiey were in liondH of elone ailiaiiee witii the Iro<|iioiH, and aided lliein in exterminating the Wyandot^ iruni thu territory in Canada, which id utill oeeiipied in part l)y tlie 3IiH.siMHagies. To thoKtf of the Algonivin or Nipereinean type who had prior to the dineovcry proceeded northwest through tlie Straits uf Ht. Mary into the hiwin of Lake Superior an*l to the eountries north of it, they simply gave the name of Saulteur, or Falls- men. These three local tribi's, that is to say, the Nipercineans, or Algonkins proper, till' Mississagies, and the Sanltenrs, or ()jil)was, were originally one and the samo people. They spoke, and they still speak, the same language. It would he easy to pursue this ethnographical chain, giving names, boundaries, and events which mark the multiplication of the numerous North American family of the Algonkiii tribes. Hut it is unnecessary for the puri)ose in hand. It will be suHieient to say that the new names given by their enemies, often in derision, or assumed by themselves, contain no evidence whatever of their national genealogy. To a particular branch of those who distinguished themselves during their residence in the St. Lawrence Valley, and afterwards in Lake Huron, they applied the name of Traders, or Odawas, denoting a falling-oil' in tbe habitw of the jjure hunters and warriors, or a probable industrial trait, which ia yet strikingly observable in the desceiuhints of that band. To another, and one of the latest multiplications of the tribe, they gave the name of Pottawatomies, or Fire-Makers, that is to say, a people who arc building their own council-fire, or betting up a separate government. To another they gave the name of Kenistenos, or Killers, on account of the sanguinary character of the war which they maintained northwest of Lake Superior. This l)eople the French call Crees. Another branch, who sul)sisted on wild rice in the interior or rice-lake region, between Lakes Superior ami VViiiiiebago, they culled Menomonics, or Wild-Kice Men. The bands north of Lake Nepissing, extending to Hudson's IJay and Lake Abbitibbi, they called I'eojile ot tlie Swamps and Low Cirounds, or Muskigoes. Others of the same latitude, but more westerly in longitude, they called Nopemiiigs, or Inlanders, named by the French Gens den terrca. The Sagiiiaws are so called from Saiik-i-nong, Saiiktown, from the Sauk tribe who lived in Michigan in the seventeenth century. To a band of energetic warriors who went to Leech Lake, on the sources of the Mississipjii, but who at a subse(juent period plundered the boats of a leading trader while lying at the mouth of the Crow- Wing River, they gave the name; of Mukkuiid- Wius, or Pillagers, literally Takers. This summary penalty was inflicted upon the trader for his temerity in disobeying the commanders of the fierce barbarians, who had forbidden him to sell arms and ammunition to their enemies the Sioux. All the local tribes above named, although tlisperscd at various and tlistant points, call themselves ( )-jib-was. The Miainis, Wea.s, and Piankcshaws, the Sues and Foxes, Kaskjuskiius, Peorias - I 77/A; TRl/ifJS. 287 s, I'uoriii.s and KickiiiHMiH, the SIiiiwiuth, Muiiwch, Sti)('kltri(lj;cH, niul Moliiciuis, toj^ctlicr witli Ht'Vcnil tiilx's nut hero niuiicd, (■(Histitiitt! nnotlicr cIukh or, nunc prKpcrly, Hiilt-gcmw of tin' iNi|KM('iii(!un or Algonkin typo, tlio (liitu of wIiohci Hcpiiration, liowuvcr, from (licir prt'Hoiit Htoc^k, wlu'tlicr timt wiw tlui iinnicdiatL' Algoiikiu or tlie remoter Ii('iiii|Mf liniiu'li, Ih Hlutwa l)y dialectic evidenccH to have i)eeii more remot-;; wliile at tlie name time the Htroii;^ alliuitieH of hingiiaf^e, and itn aiwohito aj^reoment in granimaticul forniH, are not U-hh certain proofn of a common origin. It in Hcen from tiie text of Kliot'H trannhition of the IJilde into the Natick or Mas- HachnwettH hinj;iia}!;(', in llie year l(i(il, that tiie lanijiinj;*! \w einpioyH, nn well as that of the Narraganwett, an given in lloger Williams's key, jh like\vis«( of the Algonkin type; while the plirasen endxulied in the early history of Virginia, and the still- existing names of prominent streams of the Virginia coast, denote the ancient exten- sion of this generic form of speech far along the Atlantic borders. The parent language, varying lus it progressed, appears to have been i)ropngated from the south and siaithweHt to the Virginia, the Chesapeake, and the Pennsyl- vania coast; and it was thence dellectcd oil", nudtiplying in dialects exceedingly, towards the east and northeast, along the North Atlantic ; and tinally it extended northwest up the Ht. Ijawrence Valley into the region of the Lakes. All the Amer- ican tribes appear to have migrated trlbally in sniiill bodies, abiding for periods at ii place until the pressure of popidation, want, or feinls jmshed them farther, — a result which may be supposed to have given great scope for the multiplication of new triix-s and the formation of new dialoetH, by which the jmrent language of each triln) was more and more shorn of its verbal integrity, while its grammar or plan of utterance essentially remained. This result is indicated by language. These preliminary remarks denote the position, geographically and ethnologically, in which the nuMh'rn Chippewas, or Algonkin Chijipewas of Lake Superior, stand in relation to the other mend)ers of the general group, and their alwolute identity of origin with the Nij)ercincans, or the old Algonkins of 1(»()wa war-party, taken prisoners, and incorporated into their tril)e. Individuals are pointed out to this day as descended from them, who have the marten totem. We will now relate events which happened a few years pri(tr to the actpiaintanco of the Chippewas with the whites. The exact lime, huwi'ver, is utieerlain. TUE TRIBES. 291 One prominent reason why the Ojibwaa chose to live on an island is evident: tliey wished for more security from their numerous foes. The Nodowa war-i«irties did not here reach them, as tliey came no fartlier than tlie Sault at the foot of the hike. But they had as powerful and inveterate enemies in the Odug-aum-eeg and the A-boin-ug, upon whose territory they were constantly encroaching. The Odug-aum-eeg occupied a country towards the southwest, about the head- waters of the Wisconsin, '^)ntonagon, and Chippewa Rivers. The Sioux lived about the head-waters of the St. Croix, Mississippi, and St. Louis Rivers. Sandy Lake, ]\lille Lacs, and Yellow Lake were then the sites of their principal towns. A tribe called 0-man-ee is also sj^oken of as one of their earliest enemies. They are said to have lived at Mille Lacs in earthen house- , and to have been exter- minated or driven ofl' in a general battle. The Ojibwas were most harassed by the Odug-aum-eeg and A-boin-ug, or Sioux and Foxes. The shores of Lake Superior were familiar to the war-parties of these two warlike tribes. At one time a war-party of Sioux found their way from the nearest point of the mainland to the island of La Pointe, and during the night two of their warriors crossed on a log a distance of two miles, and returned in u canoe with four scalps they had taken on the island. On another occasion a party of four hundred Foxes lloated down the Ontonagon in their small inland bark canoes. They landed in the night on the island of their foes, and early in the morning captured four women who had gone to gather wood. The revenge of the Ojibwas was (juick and complete. A dense fog covered the lake, and, depending on this for eventual escape, the Foxes, intoxicated with their success, kept up a continual yelling and singing. Thus gui'Ird, tlie Ojibwas, many hun- dreds of whom had at the llrst sound hastily enil)ark(il in their liii<;u lake-canoes, silently and swiftly pursued them, keeping pun dy in their wake, till they arrived opposite a line of steep rocky coast, a mile al)o\r iln mouth of ^lontreal River, ami eight leagues from La Pointe. Here they fell on t!ie Foxes wiili gr( at fury. Tin ii own large canoes sat lirmly in the water, while the small ■ oes of the Foxes were vi\A\y upset, and most of the marauding party Averc either drowned or disjiatohed in the water. This is the only naval engagement the old men of this (rilte tell of. At another time a party of Foxes fell on a camp of Ojibwas at Kah-puk-wa-1 i while the men were out hunting. They captured two youths, having driven them into boggy ground. One of these prisoners was the son of a principal < 'jibwa chief named lii-ans-wah, belonging to the Ah-awh-wauk family. At the time the capture was made, the father of the young man was out on a hunt. Returning Iioiim', he heard the heart-rending news, and, knowing that his son's fate would be the .ike, he immediately followed the trail of the returning captors. Arriving at on i their principal villages just as the Foxes were in the act of setting lire to the tiigots with which they had surround'jd their victim, he stei)pcd boldly into the midst of his enemies, and ollered to take the place of his son. "My son," said he, " has seen but a few winters; his feet have never trodden the war-path: but the hairs of my head lire white, and over the graves of my relatives 1 have hung many scalps that 1 have Ii 292 TUB INDIAN TRIBES OF TUE UNITED STATES. taken from the heads of your warriors." The okl chief's offer wtis accej)ted : his son was released, and he himself was burnt at the stake with all the tortures that savage ingenuity could invent. The son returned to his people, and was afterwards known by his father's nauio, and became a noted man in his tribe. The old chieftain's murder was terribly avenged by the Ojibwa tribe. A large war-party marched against the towns of the Foxes on the Chippewa River, and did not return until six villages of their enemies had been laid waste, and their inhab- itants destroyctl. After this event the Fox tribe retired from the country bordering on Lake Superior, and foil back on the Mississippi. The war between the two tribes was bloody in the extreme, and was carried on with all the cruelty of savage warfare. Captives were burnt at the stake. This custom originated in the following manner. A noted warrior of the Ojibwas was once taken caj)tive by his own nephew, a son of his sister, who had been captured by the Foxes and had married among them. The nephew, to show his adopted people his utter disregard of any tie of relationship with the Ojibwas, planted two stakes in the ground, and, taking his captive by the arm, tied his feet and hands to the stakes, remarking " that he wished to warm his uncle by a good fire." He then built up a large fire, and after roasting one side of his victim he turned the other to the blaze. AVhen the naked body had been burnt to a blister, he untied him, and told him " to go home and tell tlie Ojibwa.s how the Foxes treated their uncles." The uncle recovered from his fire-wounds, and in a subsec^jjut incursion succeeded in capturing his nephew. He took him to the village of 'J\o Ojibwjut, where he tied him to a stake, and, taking a fresh elk-skin, on which a layer of fat had purposely been left, he placed it over a lire until it became one immense blaze, and then, throwing it over the naked shoulders of his nephew, i'cmarked, " Nephew, when I was in your village you warmcil me before a good fire; now I, in return, give you a mantle to warm your back." The elk-skin, covered with fat, burnt furiously, and, crisping, lighted around the body of his nephew a dreadful mantle that soon consumed him. This act was retaliated by the Foxes, and death by lire soon became customary with both tribes. Soon after their lake-figlit with this tribe, a war-party of Sioux, numbering one hundred ami fifty men, found their way to the extreme j)oint of Shag-ah-waum-ik, directly opDosite the present town of La Pointe, and one mile distant. Here they lay in wait, and one morning attacked two ymmg nun who had gone to the point to look for ducks. The spot being covered in those daw \\ ith sand-hills, the young men defended themselves till the village oj)posite becanu' alarmed, and tiie (Jjibwa war- riors, quickly collecting, ran to the southern extremity of their town, embarked in their canoes at (iooseberry Creek, and paddled straight across to the little portage, a place where Shag-ah-waum-ik is but a few rods wide. Once the Ojibwas had gained j)Ossession of this spot, the Sioux would be entirely cut off from retreat. The van of both parties arrived there at the same moment, and a desperate fight ensued. The Sioux were driven back, however, and, l)eiiig caught as it were in a trap, were cut to pieces. Two men only are said to have escaped. They s am into the lake, antl, as their bodies were not found, it was su]>posed that they ]•( li'ormed the almost THE TRIBES. 293 Buperliuman feat of swimming three or four miles in fresh water. Tlie particles of bones still strewn over the whole point are said to be the remains of the slain warriors. The encounters which are here briefly mentioned are related by the old men with great minuteness. As they took place before their intercourse with the whites, the Indians fought with their primitive weapons, — spears, bows and arrows, and war- clubs. "We now come to the period when the white man first became known to them. The traditionary story of this important event in their history is briefly as follows : A principal man of the Medawin, named Ma-so-wa-pe-ga, dreamed a dream, in which he beheld spirits in the shape of men, but having white skins, and coverings on their heads. They approached him with a smile on their faces and with their hands extended. This dream he told to the principal men of his tribe in a council and over a feast in honor of his dream-spirit. He informed them that the spirits he had seen in his dream resided in the east, and that he would go and find them. For one year Ma-se-wa-])e-ga prepared for his journey. He made a strong canoe, and dried meat for his wappo, and, with only his wife as a companion, left La Pointe to go and find the spirits he had seen in his dream. He went down the Great Lake, and entered a river that flowed towards the rising of the sun. He pa.ssed through tribes of red men that spoke different languages. At last, when the river had become wide and like a lake, he found on the banks, one night as he encamped, a hut built of logs, and the stumps of large trees that had been cut by other and sharper instruments than the rude axes of the Indians. The signs thus discovered were a])parently two winters old. Much encouraged, Ma-se-wa-j)e-ga continued his course down stream, and the next day came to another deserted log hut. The third day he saw another log hut, from the chimney of which smoke arose. It was occupied by the white si)irits of his dream, who came out and cordially wel- comed him with a shake of the hand. When he returned to his people he brought the presents he had received, — an axe, a knife, beads, and some scarlet cloth, — which he had carefully secured in his niodicine-bag. Collecting his people in council, he showed them the sacred jiresents of the white spirits. Tiie next season numbers followed Ma-se-wa-pe-ga on his second visit to the whites. They carried with them many beaver-skins, and returned with the fircarn>s tiiat henceforth made them the terror of their enemies. From this time the dispersion of the tribe from La Pointe can be dated. The Indians say it occurred eight generations or "strings of lives" ago, which, estimating an Indian generation at thirty-five years, would make two hundred .md eighty years. This dispersion is said to have beou owing to tlie fidlowing causes. Poisoning was a common mode of revenging an injury, anil it required but the ( I n-. 294 THE INDIAN TRIBES OF THE UNITED STATES slightest cause for a person to draw down upon himself the displeasure of a medicine- man, and die of his poison. Instances have occurred where the poisoners were known to have dug up their victims and invited the relatives to a feast on the body. This horrid ceremony was got up in utter darkness, and, when the friends of the deceased had received their share of the feast, torches were suddenly lighted, and they became aware of the nature of the banquet. Fear of the poisoner's power and vengeance would constrain them to eat what was placed before them. This was a usual sacrificial feast to the spirit of the poison. At this period the tribe lived in great awe of their medicine-men, the fear of whom has not even yet quite died away. It is also affirmed that it was customary to offer to their different Me-da-we spirits human sacrifices of one another and of their children. This sacrifice is said to have been made at the roots of a huge pine- tree which stood somewhere in the centre of the island, and which reared its branches far above other trees. The virgin feast of human flesh, which we sometimes hear spoken of, and read of, was also in full practice; and there was an old woman alive at La Pointe a few years sincti who could tell tales on this head, from her own experience, that would make the blood ru:i cold. To such an extent were these evil practices carried that at last fear fell on the inhabitants of La Pointe ; the weeping and wailing oi je-bi-ug, or ghosts, was heard nightly resounding through their town, till finally they fled, and a general dispersion took place, which left their island entirely deserted. It is worthy of mention that before traders made their residence on the island, none of the Indians, it is said, would dare to sleep overnight on the site of their old town, for fear of the je-bi-ug. The first traders that built on the island, during the old French domination, found their gardens overgrown with many years' growth of trees, and it is compara- tively lately that the band living on the opposite bay of Shag-ah-waum-ik returned to live on the island. When hard pressed by their enemies, or in time of great famine, such a practice as the eating of human flesh might have Ijcen adopted to save life, as it occasionally is even at the present time among the Indians north of Lake Superior. Thin, together with the fact of their poisoning one another, might have given rise to the above story, and might have conduced in some measure to their dispersion, which 1 am inclined to believe took place naturally as they prevailed against their enemiis and became possessed of a larger extent of country. After this, being aware of the white man's presence on the continent, the next occurrence of importiince was the taking of the Sioux village of Sandy Lake, on the Mississippi. Bi-ans-wah, the young man whose father had died for him at the stake, became a fierce and inveterate enemy of the Sioux and Foxes, tjiking every opportunity, aiul indeed making it the business of his life, to revenge the death of his brave father. With a large band uf his tribe he pushed on up the lake, and made a stand at Fond THE TRIBES. 295 du Lac (Wi-a-quah-ke-che-gum-e). At this point Bi-ans-wah collected a largo •war-party from the different villages of the Ojibwas on the lake-shore, at the head of which he proceeded up the St. Louis and successfully attacked the then large Sioux town of Sandy Lake. They destroyed numbers of their enemies, and drove them forever from the lake. Here Bi-ans-wah and his band eventually made their abiding-place and village. It is at this point that the Ojibwas, in their western conquests, first came on to the Mississippi. They made this their central point and rallying-place, where parties collected who marched against the Sioux and wrested from them Leech, Cass, Winnipeg, Mille Lacs, and Red Lakes. The different bands now living about the head-waters of the Mississippi radiated from this point. Bi-ans-wah, besides his deeds in war, is noted as having put a stop to the inhuman custom of burning prisoners. This he effected by a treaty of peace with the Sioux, and though the peace was soon after broken, yet both parties mutually refrained from the practice. From this time prisoners were seldom taken, and those taken were never burnt. Besides the large band that pushed their way to the head-waters of the great river, other bands left the lake-shore, and made their towns at Courtoreille, Lac du Flambeau, and on the St. Croix River, conquering the country as they advanced at the expense of much bloodshed. One morning a party of young men, going out from the Bay of Shag-ah-waum-ik to spear fish through the ice in the early part of the winter, discovered smoke arising from the eastern extremity of the then unfrequented island of their old town. La Pointe. They proceeded thither, and in a rude cabin made of logs found two white men in the last stages of starvation. They had evidently been driven on the island by ice late in the fall, and had remained there for some time suffering the pangs of hunger. When discovered, they had been reduced to the extremity of roasting their cloth and blankets over the coals, and eating them as a last means of sustaining life. The Indians carefully conveyed them to their village, and fed them with judicious kindness. One of them survived, and, after remaining with his hosts through the winter, returned to Quebec, whence he had come. The above story is invariably given by the old men of La Pointe on being asked the question, " Who was the first white man that found the Indians at La Pointe after they were known to be on the continent ?" The events narrated happened seven " strings of lives" ago. Of Fathers Marquette and Allouez, who, according to Mr. Bancroft's statement, found their way one hundred and eighty-two years ago to the Bay of Shag-ah- wiuim-ik and there opened a mission among a large band of Indians, there is no traditionary record, unless, indeed, they were the two men mentioned in the above story. An antique silver crucifix was, in 1847, found by an old woman in her garden, near La Pointe, where it had been ploughed up. This circumstance would seem to prove that the fearless and enterprising Jesuits had been of old about the 8])0t. The first white men who made a permanent residence among them were traders. Ms n i A I ii 296 THE INDIAN TRIBES OF THE UNITED STATES. During the old French dontination, n poHt wiih built on Ihc IhIiuuI of La Pointc, at tlio mouth of 11 crock or nlough between the present witc of the American Fur Com- pany's j)OMt and the Presbyterian mission. The buildings were surrounded by pali- sadcs of cedar, and cannon arc said to have been mounted on them. It had be(!onio customary during the French domituition for the Ojibwas of Luko Superior to make yearly visits to Mackinac, Montreal, and even Quebec. They were well treated by the French, who even at this time had begun to intcrnuirry with them, and had thus formed a link that made them ever atlcr their fast friends. After the concpiest of Canada by the British, the different French truding-posts were dismantled, and but few of the old French traders and voyagers rennuned in Lake Sui)erior. Among these they Lr.ention Ke-che-sub-ud-ese, or John Baptist t/adotte, who was in the vicinity at the taking of Fort Mackinac and the massacre of the garrison by the Ojibwas and Ottuwiw. It wius this man's Indian wife who is said to have saved the life of Alexander Henry, the only Englislunan that survived the massacre.' Cadottc and his partner, Ilenry, were the first traders who came into the country of the Ojibwas after the full of the Fn^nch. They wintered two years at Na-ash-ib- ik-ong, a point of sand-rock in the Bay of Shag-ah-waum-ik, and for two years are said to have worked the mines of coj)per on th(! Ontonagon Itiver. Cadotte wius the first perunment white, settler on the Sault Ste. Marie, where he died at an advanced age, leaving a family of children and grandchildren, hulf- breeds, spread over the whole Ojibwa country. It was about the period of the taking of Fort Mackinac that the last figlit between the Ojibwius and Inxpiois is said to have taken place. The 8te. Marie Indians inoh- ably know more of this occurrence than old Bc-she-ke of La Pointc, who related it. As the story goes, a war-j)arty of Ojibwas were collected to march into the Nod-o-wa country in search of scalps. Kncamping a short distJince below the ra]>id8 of Ste. Alarie, they heard yelling, singing, and other noises on the river below them, and, sending out scouts, they soon learned that they proceeded from a party of Nod-o- ways bound on a war-excursion into their country. The enemy had also encamped, and were making merry on li(juor stolen probably from white tradei-s. The Ojibwas, waiting until they had drunk themselves lusleep, fell on them, and nearly destroyed the whole i)arty. The spot, from this circumstance, was named Point Irost them, the fight ended. Short intervals of pciiee have oceitsionally oci irred in tiio course of the bloody feud between these two tribes. ' In lliL- Ojiliwii (i)nj;uo thin river is puIIlmI Oih-kr-liuj-r-itr-hr (New Loaf HIvit). ' Tlirnuj^li tliJK iiliice the main roail up to the Mi.s.sisra-l)e-se-guii-dil)-a (liig Curly-Head), and he was the chief of the lower and more liardy bands who followed close upon tlie Tlie war-sun;; of tliitt I'lricf wius uildri'.ssril to lii.< >;uanliaii lipirit, sccli tlirouj^h » liiilc in the sky. THE TRIBES. 305 retreating footsteps of the Sioux on the Missi.ssip]>i. This chief is aptly spoken of as tlic vanguard or bulwark of his tribe, llis is a name that will long be cherished in the memory of the Ojibwas. In the words of one of their principal men, "He was a father to our fathers, who looked on him as a parent ; his lightest wish was quickly obeyed ; his lodge was ever hung with meat ; and the traders vied with one another who should treat him best ; his hand was oi)en, and when lie had plenty our fathers wanted not." Three times he led his warriors with success against their enemies, each time his band returning with bloody knives and reeking scalps. Twice he was attacked in his hunting-camp ly Hioux war-parties, and both times he, with his warriors, rejjulsed them. Strong Ground and Hole- in-the-sky were in their youth his pipe-bearers, and they waited on him till the daj of his death. Song-uk-um-ig was as fine a specimen of an Indian as ever trod the soil of America, lie was an honor-loving chief, not only by name, but by nature also, lie Avas noted for his unflinching bravery, generosity, and firmness, the last of which is a rare quality among the Indians, not more than one out of ten of whom is possessed of any strength of character. To give an instance of his daring, on one occiision he fought singly, by the side of a mounted comrade, with seven Sioux, and drove them off' with loss. His first fight was, when a mere boy, at Long Prairie battle. Again he was present at an attack of a Sioux camp at Po])lar Grove, on Long Prairie, where the Ojilnvas killed many of their foes. On another occasion he led a night-attack on a camp at Crow River. At Hound I'rairie, also, he with an Ottawa cut off from a large Sioux camp three boys while they were sliding on the ice in i)lain view of their friends. At Fort Snclling he was the one who fearlessly went into the guard-house and led out four Sioux prisoners, armeil with their knives, who had shot into their camp (as usual in time of peace) and killed four Ojibwas. These prisonei-s Song-uk-um-ig took out of the fort, and in the presence of the officers and garrison,' and a large assembly of Si(Uix, he bade them run for their lives from the bullet.s of the Ojibwas whose relatives they had killed. The Chippewius, who established their council-fire and seat of government on the isliind at La Pointe Chegoiiiiegon, — shortened in modern days to La Pointe, — had other enemies to encounter besides the Sioux. The Outagamis, or Foxes, who were iilso emigrants from the east, had settled in the valley of Fox River, and had ex- tended to the series of lakes about the sources of the Wisconsin and Chippewa Rivers. Between the Outagamis and the Sioux a good understanding existed, which bad been so cultivated that mutual aid was expected to be given in eases of emer- gency. Through this alliance the Chippewas were well received on their first appearance at Chegoim(>gon, for they are affiliated with the Foxes by language and early history. During this early period offices of civility were exchanged, and inter- marriages took place. The Chippewiis were in fact seateil on the borders of the )»r ' This wii.H (lime liy unlcr ol' ColMnoi Snclling. — II. K. S. an 306 THE INDIAN TRIBES OF THE UNITED STATES. Outagami lands, and the three tribes lived in a state of friendship. But when dissension arose between the Cliij)pewas and Sioux, the Outagamis, agreeably to the reputation given them by the French, were found to be treaclierous. They secretly sided with the Sioux against the Chippewas. A war between the Chippewas and the Foxes was the consequence, in the course of which the latter were driven from the rice-lakes and the intermediate hunting-grounds around Lac du Flambeau, and conlined to the lower waters of the Wisconsin. This war still existed when Waub-ojeeg came on the stage of action. He was born at Chegoiinegon a few years })rior to the capture of Quebec. Mamongizida, his father, was the ruling chief of that place by right of descent, bearing the totem of the Adik, or American reindeer. He had ever been, together with his tribe, firmly attached to the French. His family traditions affirmed that he had visited Montcalm at Quebec and carried a speech from him to his nation. For two years after the nuussaere at jNIichilimackinac, in 1703, there had been no trader allowed by the English to enter Lake Superior. Waub-ojeeg visited Sir William Johnson to request that traders might be allowed to come among them, and received from his hands a gorget and a belt of wampum. The cause of the French fell with the capture of Quebec, while Waub-ojeeg was still bound in his Indian cradle, and he grew up to manhood with vivid ideas of the English supremacy. The British flag tho^ waved triumphantly from the walls of Quebec to Michilimackinac and the country of the Illinois. As soon as he reached the tlirc'shold of his entrance to authority, he welcomed the English traders who came with their ventures of goods to Chegoimegon, or who pursued their way to the sources of the Mis.si.ssip])i. Waub-ojeeg was early regarded sus a successful leader of war-parties, and the nation looked to him to defend their borders against the Sioux, if not to extend them. During a period of twenty years, dating from about 1770, he was the governing spirit of his tril)e. lioth as a hunter and as a warrior he was unexcelled. His step had a lightness and energy whicli lietokened great activity in the chase. He stood six feet six inches in his moccasins. He wius spare and rather lightly built, but possessed a degree of strength, united to activity, which left him few competitors in Indian circles. He was seven times a leader against the Outagamis and the Sioux. lie had received three wounds in Ijattle, — one in his thigh, a second in his right sli()u]ewas of Superior and Mississippi next year to deny the Pillagers a share In the annuity. This circumstance caused a tem- porary breach between them and their felIow-Clii|)j)ewiis ; but u few years' inter- course with the governuient has led to harmony of interests, and all are now ])ursuing the same policy of improvement and industrial progress. Within the remend)rance of the old men, beaver were once plenty in the country they now occupy, and it was as easy in those days to ti-ap a ])caver as it is now to trap a muskrat. About seventy-live or eighty years ago, the beaver suddenly died ; their dead bodies were found floating on lakes and jmhkIs, and only a few living in running water escaped the U-aver i>estilence. At this tlay there are none found in the country. Among the Pillagers all the old men, and many of the old women, are mcdawlii, and j)ractise medicine. There are a few, say seven, who are noted medicine-men, having pas.sed through the eight gratlos of medawe, which nuikes them high priests, or initiators. They are (leenied masters of their religion and medicine. As priests they have no recognized authority iu the councils of the tribe. The older chiefs are ])riests at the same time. Soon after the death of the great Shawano jtrophet, brother of Tecumseh, who caused such commotion among nearly all the Western and Northern tribes, a proi)het arose among the ("liippewa.s of Lake Sujyerior, whos the morning, and on his return howie killed a very large, fat porcupine, and presented it to his father, but did nut itlate anything concerning his adventure. The party tliat \v;ts sent fur corn, on arriving at the Miami town and opening their corn-reposituries, were dismayeil to find them all empty. They returned to heir temporary Iiomes exhausted and hungry, and they were so reduced that they could searcelv raise their voices to tell the s.'id tale. Tiie young visitor to the lodge of the corn-spirit then told his father the adven- ture he had had, and all that the old broken-backed man had said to him. Indii'.ns are very cautious, and do not now i)lay with corn in the ear and they are careful nut to break the ears when gathering it. Alter the harvest is over, the corn returns to heaven, and the "ars that are in gooil condition come back ag. 'ii the next spring upon earth if the Indian who raised such corn paid proj>er attention to it. Here ends the tale of Ogimawish, one of the old sages of the village of (Irand Traverse Buy. The Miehigamies iiuld the Shawanoes in the highest respect, as their traditions are given iiy this band, and as it is believed that they had the original precedence among all the tr.'bes. It' any tribe has the right to call general councils, it should be they. They received from Shawnee, about seventy years ago, a message tor a great council to be held on the Wabash, and gladly sent delegates to attend it.' They call the Obui'.gos (Jrandl'ather, but give no rea.son why. The tSlmwanoes are ealhil Eldest JJruther ; the ( Klawas, Elder IJroilier; the I'edadiiniies, brother. They say that these terms are descriptive of the relationship in which they have been placed to one anuther by the Great Hpirit. Eacii clan or family has a totem, which serves to keep up the line of desceiU.-. This is (liirereiii in |)rinciplc from the systt'in of gwardiaM spirits. Every indiviiluai, male and female, lias one ut the latter, no matter what ihc lutem may lie. Tttenis are by descent, — guardian .spirits by ehuieti or ex[K'rience. This ex])erience is ehielly ' Tliis was cviilcnily the call of the great Sliuwaiid pruplit't in IS12. ?i:il THE TRIBES. 317 sought in fasts and dreams, o, series of which are undertaken for this purpose at the age of puherty. The fast is undertaken to prepare the body for the dream. These dreams are continued until some beast or bird, or other animate object, appears, which is fixed on as the guardian spirit. It is believed that this spirit leads the man safely through the vicissitudes of life, preserves him in battle, and gives him success in the chase. With the rest of the Algonkin tribes, they believe in magic, witchcraft, sorcery, and the power and influence of minor monedoes, as well as one great ruling good monedo and one great counteracting bad monedo. Like those tribes, too, they are under the direction of their forest-priests, niedas, prophets, and medicine-men ; for with them medicine is generally connected with necromancy, incantations, and songs. The ties of consanguinity are apparently mi lield with a good deal of strength. Mar- riage is observed in a manner which is beneficial to the Indian state of society. Polygamy has been for years almost unknown in their villages. Children are loved, and wives, in general, well treated. The greatest evils known have resulted hereto- fore from intemperance, but this is greatly abated. The tribe has been under teachers since \KV.). iSchools are kept under the care of efficient instructors, tiy whom the children are brought forward in the elements of knowledge, civilization, and Christianity. Farming and some of the mechanic arts have been taught. They dress in some measure after the civilized costume, and wear hats and shoes. Their houses are small tenements of logs. They split rails, and put up their own fences. A limited number of the adults are united in the obligations of church-fellowshij), umder the care of a regular j)astor. Temj)erance, industry, and morals thus go hand in hand, and, notwitlistandiiig some adverse circumstances, their prospects are such ius to inspire brigiit li()|>es for their advance. Their jircsent condition is as follows. For the Chipi)ewas of Minnesota three reservations have been set apart, — the White Earth Ileserve, containing thirty-six sipuire mill's of the best fiirming-laad in Minnesota; the lied Lake Keserve, and tlie ijcech Lake Rt-scrve. The three tliousand Indians at Wi;ite Earth and Ked Lake are practically self-supporting; nearly all at Whites Earth w ar citizens' dress, live in houses, send their children to school, and lead a (luiet, industrious life. The Red Lake Indians have for many years taken care of themselves, and are sluwly and steadily advancing to the degree of civilization which the White Earth Indians were enabled to reach in a few years by liberal appropriations fn an Con- gress. Tlu! only hope for the Pillagers of Leech Lake lies in their removal to White Earth. A l)ill to effect this is now pending in the Senate of the United States. It also providi's for the remov.d to White Earth of the Chippewas at White Oak Point, at Mille Lacs, and Snake River, all of whom are from close contact with the whites wretched, poverty-stricken, drunken, debauched, and diseased almost past iiope. The La Pointe Agency, at liaylield, Wisconsin, opposite La Pointc, includes in its boundaries seven dilVerent rescrsations, four in Wisconsin and three in Minne- sota, with a population of three thiaisand. The Red ClilV l)an(ls live in houses, dress rii m ;1 il 318 rilE INDIAN TRIBES OF THE UNITED STATES. like wliitos, aro prosjicroua, ami in the jiulgmciit of their agent hIiouIcI be made citizens, 'i'he lied Jiivc" hands, located in Ashland Connty, Wiseonsin, are next to those of Red C'litf in Mie scale of civilizati(in. Tliey are gradually giving up their old habits, und their progress is steady and healthy. The Fond dn Lac bandt), located on a reservation about tiiirty-iive miles from Duluth, 8t. Louis County, Min- nesota, come next. The young people make their living by work in the woods, logging-camps, and saw-mills. The Lac ('(mrte-Oreille bands occupy a reservation of sixty-nine thousand one hundred and tliirty-six acres. Two hundred and five allotments of eighty acres each have been made to these Indians. The Grand I'ortag*! bands have fifty-one thousand eight hundred ami for.y acres in Cook County, Minnesota, and are next in rank. As their land is unfit for cultivation, the elder Indians hunt and fish, the young men earning a living by various laboi"s. Tlie JiUc de Flambeau bands have sixty-nine thousand eight hundred and twenty-four acres in Lincoln County, Wisconsin, and the JJois Forte bands one hundred and seven thousand live hundred and nine acres one hundred and forty miles northwest of tin' agency, "out of reach and good for nothing." Few of these Lidians live on the reserve: they have scattered over N'ortiieru iMiuiu'sota and into Canada. Those at Vi'rniillion l^ake are the most prosperous. The moral condition of tiie Indians of this agency has been di'ciilediy improved, according to the latest report of their agent. The ten thousand Chi|>pcwas and Ottawas of Michigan, at the Mackinac agency, are indigenous to the country, have aiiopted the dress and habits of the white man, and are making gratifying progress in farming, though a large number of the young naviiration, and various other industries. nun arc cni|iioye(l m luniiicr-camps, nii 11.^ The sdiools arc succi's>i'ul, and tiic Indians arc biroming more aiid more inijtressed with the importance of education as a means of sncci'ss in life. They have, with few exceptions, been allotted lands under treaty provisions, for which they havo received pati'Uts, and are now entitled to all the privileges and benefits of citizens of the United States. The L'Anse band belong with the other bands of Chippewas of Lake Superior. Their reservation, of forty-eight tlnaisand three humlred acres, is in the extreme northern part of the State, bordering on that lake. They depend for suosistence mostly upon Inintingand lishiti d fish MAscorrNs. The traditions of the Ottawas and Chippewas re|iresent their tribes as coming into liostile collision at first, as a nation, with a j)eople who appear to have been their pre- deces.sors on the lakes. They encountered them on the inner shores of the island of Fortagunasee,' and on the narrow peninsula of Point Detitnr, Lake Huron (the western cape of the entrance into the Straits of St, Mary's), fought and defeated them at thn'c several places, and drove them west. To this primitive peojtle, who Lutlcrly known ll^< Druniiuond Inlunil. •*■ THE TRIBES. 319 ni)pear to Imve ruled in the region about Mioliiliinackinac, they gave the name of Muslikodains, or Little I'rairie IndiauH. Cluiseo, an aged Ottawa jossakeed of Michiliniaekinac, invariably used the word in its diminutive and plural forms, namely, MuHh-ko-daiiiH-ug, that is to say. People of the Little Prairie. lie spoke of them an the people whom the Algonkins drove off, and he invariably referred to them when (piestiomsd about ancient bones and oaves in the region of Michili- maekinac. They had magicians for their leadi-rs. Their war-captain escaped, the tradition says, underground, in the battle at Point Detour. They fled on this occasion u[) the coast to Michiliniaekinac, and so by degrees along the eastern shores of Lake Michigan, whence traditions follow them as far south as the Washtenong, called (Irand River by the French. These Muslikodains are re[)resented by the Ottawas and (^hippewa-s ius powerful and subtle and excelling themselves in art« and necro- mancy. They deposited the human bones, Chusco said, found in caves at Michili- mackiuac. They are tlu; authors of the trenches lilled with human bones on Menissing or Round Island, in Lake Huron. The Ottawas attribute to them the small mounds and the old ganlcn-beds in Grand River Valley and at other places, and, in short, point to them for whati^ver they cannot explain or account ibr in the antiquities of the country. Who these Little Prairie or Fin^ Indians were is uncertain. May not we regard them ius the lost Mascot ins of the early French writers? Were they not contemporary in the lakes with the Assigunaigs, or Roue Indians, spoken of by the Western and Lake tribes? No rciLsonable doubt can exist <»n this subject. They are nanu's ever in the iuregruund of Algoukin history, and these people" appear to have fought for the pos.session of the Lake country. l{y them the ancient ossuaries were |irobably con- strucletl, and in Mr. Schoolcral't's jiidginent they w( re the nations who worked the iiiifient copper-mines on liake Superior. They a|.pear to have jtassed south by the |)resent sites of (irand River and ('hicago. The similarity of the ground-form of the rames for prairie and fire may Jiavo led to confusion in tlir minds of writers. Miishroos! is grass or herbage in gerxTid. Ishhnibi means lire. The only dill'erence in the root-form is that between usklcu and Algonkin tradition, as given by the Ottawa chief Ke-wa-goosh-kum in 1821, rcjiresi iits the separation of the Chippewas, Ottawas, and Pottawatomies to have taken place in the vicinity of .Micliiliiuackinac. Ohusco, the jossakeed above men- tioned, who die(l in IHIW, spoke of the Ottawas, with pardonable vanity, as the most valiant trilu' in the war against .he Prairians or Muskoda men. Islupiagonabi, chief ol' the Chippewas on (Jrand Travi'rse Ray, a man well versed in these traditions, speaks of the war as having been carried on by the Chippewas and Ottawas, and in this manner he accounts for the fact that villages of Chii)pewiis and Ottawas alter- nate at this day on the eastern shores of Lake Michigan. Ossigenac. an Ottawa chief of note of Penetanguishene, says that the Ottawas went at (Irst to live among the men calh'd the Pottawatomies, alxait the southern shores or head of Lake Mich- igan ; but the latter used bad medicine, ami when com[>lained of for their necnmiancy 1 ;; ;■' j ;■ , r ! 5. ,■..1 ! 1 i ! . '1 :. ■ :t i ■ i ■ ;■ ■■■ 820 TIIK INDIAN TRIBES OF THE UNITED STATES. they told the Ottawas they n.ight go back to>vards the north if they did not like them : they luid made a fire for themselves.* The earlier French writers, when acquainted with the Hurons in Upper Canada, menLioii the Assistaeronons, which in the Huron tongue means Fire-Nation. They were at war with the Ottawas, or Cheveux-relevez, the latter being supported by the Neutral Nation. Sagard represents them iis trading over a distance of five hundred leagues, and as dwelling nine or ten days' canoe-journey (about two hundred leagues) beyond the Ottawas. The latter are placed in Manitoulin at that epoch. Cham- plain, in his map of 1632, seems to i)lace them south of Lake Huron, but this is not clear. In I(]o9-G0 a nation is mentioned under the name of Ontonagannha, or Fire- Nation, but the former epithet is an Iroquois term for those who did not speak their language. Tlie first European who has recorded a visit to them is Father Claudius Allouez. He found tlie Mascotins on the Wisconsin Kiver, and in the following year exjiressly states that they are the tribe formerly called by the Hurons Assistaeronons, or Fire-Nation. Whether Mascotins had the same meaning he does not state. Maniuette, the next to visit them, s])eaks in doubt: "It may mean fire." Dablon subse(jiiently treats this a.s an error, and gives "2)rairie" as the meaning of Ma.scotins. In this he is followed by Charhtvoix, and confirmed by Schoolcraft. As to situation, Manjuettc, in 1073, found them mingled with Miamis i'iid Kickapoos, on the head- waters of Fox River, near the portage. Hennepin places .hem, in 1080, with the Miamis and Foxes, on Winnebiigo Lake; though Membre, at the same time, places them with the Foxes on Melleoki (Milwaukee) Kiver, about 43° N. In 1712, Fatiier Marest writes that a short time l)efore the Mascotins had formed a settlement on the Ohio (Ouai)aclu'), Ijut that it had greatly sull'ered from contagious disorders. In lilt' same year tlic ii|i|ier ]\Iascotins, togetlier with the Kickapoos, joined the Foxes in their plot against tiic French; but tiiey were surprised by the Ottawas and Pdttawatomies, and one hundred and lifty were cut to pieces. They probably suffered still more in the ultimate defeat of that nation. A few years later, in 1730, a list in .'lie Paris Documents reckons the Wolf and Stag tiibe.s of the Maseotiris .;u Fox liiver at sixty men, but is silent as to any on the Ohio, in Sir William .Johnson's list, 1704, in the same volume of the Uoen- mentary History, no allusion is made to them; but Bouipiet, in 1701, jMits them down at live hundred on \,\\\n' Michigan ; and Ilutchins, in 170S, imdudes them with other tribes in a pretty high estimate. This is the last mention of the Masco- tins of Wi.-eonsiii. In June, 17t)"), (.Colonel Croghan was attacked near the Wabajih by eiglity Indians, cliieily Kickapoos and Mascotins. Under the name of Meadow Indians, we next find the Mascotins mentioned in Colonel (.'lark's journal. During a council held by that officer at Cuhokia, in 1777, ' Till! woi'l l'uin»wiiti)iuic8 iui.;iiis in:iiwir.i of lire, — ii symliulii; jihruou by wlii' ii Is lucnlit thuy wliu lussuiiii! Bcpa.Mto m)Vfrii:;iily liy building a ciiuucil firo lor tbt'iiwelvfu. THE TRIBES. 321 ; them : Canada, They 1 by the lundred leagues) Cham- lia is not or Fire- 3ak their ChiudiuB ving year leronoiiK, lot state. Dablon laseotins. situation, the head- with the me, phices ad formed contagious ouied the aw as ami sulVori'il Wolf and to any <>ii (' Doeu- uts them dcs tlii'iii (■ Masco- if Wabajih til itiont'd in I. in 1777, uy who a.-'sumu a party of this tribe attempted to cut him off by treachery, but were foiled, and Clark availed himself of their defeat to acquire a complete mastery over them. The last mention found of this part of the tribe is in 1779, when Dodge estimates the Mas- cotins on the Wabash, with the Piankeshawd and Vermilions, at eight hundred. As will be seen, they seldom appear alone, Idt almost always in connection with tlieir kindred, the Outagamies or Foxes, and the Kickapoos, and like them bear a character for treachery and deceit. Tlte three tribes may in earlier days have formed the Fire-Nation, but, as Gallatin observes in the " Archajologia Americanf., ' it is very doubtful whether the Mascotins were ever a distinct tribe. If they were not, the (lisai)pearance of the name will not be strange. The Mascotins in Illinois were mixed with the Kickapoos, and at last confounded with them. The latter alone are mentioned in late accounts, a- d yet seem to be in the same location as the Mascotins. The upper section were, in all probability, similarly absorbed in the Foxes after the French war on that tribe. SHAWNEES on SIIAWAXOES. This tribe, — the Chaouanons of the French, — a bold, roving, and adventurous body of men, at an early period occupied the Ohio Valley. Driven south by the Iroquois, tiiey shared in the defeat of the Andastes, and about 1G72 Hed, some to the Lena])c, others into the Carolina^ and Florida, spreading northward as far as New York. Again encountering the Inxpiois, they were driven to Ohio, where they were after- wards joined by the refugees from the Lenape. They joined Pontiac, exhibited the most determined bravery in the severe contest with the Virginians in the battle of Point Pleasant in 1774, fought under the English Hag in 177(!, and were brought to icrnis by (Joneral Wayne in 171)4. They suH'ered severely during the civil war, tlicir country being devasUited by both armies. At an early day the head of the Kentucky River became a favorite and important point of eniimrkation for Indians moving in predatory or hunting bands from the .-onth to the luu'th and west. The Shawnees, after their great defeat by the C'lier- okees, took that route, and this people always considered themselves to have claims to these attractive hunting-grounds, where the deer, the elk, the buffalo, and the bear iiiionnded. A discontented portion of the Shawnee tribe, from Virginia, broke off from the niition, which removed to the Scioto country, in Ohio, about the year \1'.)0, and i'ormed a town, known by the name of Lulbegrud, in what is now Clark County, aiiont thirty miles east of Lexington, Kentucky. Thi.-. tribe left this country ;'i(uit 17"»0, and went to Fast Tennessee, to the Cherokee Natiim. Soon after they retiMiied to Ohio and joined the rest of the nation, after spending a few years on the Ohio River, giving name to Shawnee Town, in the State of Illinois. in LSoL' they were si (tied on a line n'seivatiitn on 'he sonth side of the Kansas Iviver, containing twenty-live hundreil square miles. AtU'r forty years' residence iiiTe, tliey were torced to leave tlicir well-cultivated farms and comfortable residenees •11 n"-s'i? U v| 322 THE INDIAN TRIBES OF THE UNITED STATES. to make a new home for themselves in tlie Indian Territory. This is at the Quiipaw Reservation, in the northeast corner of the Territory, one of the gar(len-82)ot« of the United States. The Shawnees are orderly and temperate, j)unctual and honest in their dealings. They are proud of having one of the best manual-labor schools in the country, and their children are being rapidly educated and civilized. The great Tccumseh was a member of this tribe. Logan, whose pathetic speech has been made a classic by Jeiferson, was by birth a Shawnee. The " Absentee" Shawnees, numbering six hundred and sixty, separated about forty years ago from the main tribe, then located in Kansas, and settled in the Indian Territory, on the l*ottawatomio Reservation, where they engaged in farming, and have since supported themselves without aid from the government. BROTHERTONS. This was a tribe which was formed in Western New York on the basis of Mohican emigrants who followed the Rev. Mr. Occum from Connecticut, and were Joined by certain Nanticokes, etc. A grant of land was made to them by tlie Oneidas, who had previously received the Stockbridges from the banks of the Housii- tonic, in Massachusetts. Occum had visited England, and was instrumental in obtaining the large donations which served to organize Dartmouth Oollege. His little colony was joined by other members of affiliated tribes, who in the end dropped their several dialects and assumed the English language alone. Tiiey migrated to Wisconsin after 1820, where they occupy one entire township of fertile land on the east banks of Winnebago Lake, Calumet County. They raise cattle and grain, and exhibit all the essential characteristics of a civilized community. Rev. Samson Occum, a Mohican, the first pu])il who, about the middle of tlio eighteenth century, attended Mr. ^Vheelock's school for Indian youth, at Lebanon, received there the rudiments of a good English education. lie lived in Mr. Wheel- ock's family, and was conlirinee<'ame an el.ieient means of introducing Christianity to the Indian bands liK-iMcd at separate places in New England and New York. He was jiroiii>une»'| to lie an excellent pieaclier in his native tongue, and judged to 1)0 jieculiarly fitted \n teach and edify his Indian liretliren, who, when lliey belield one of their pieaehed to Knglish eongiegatioiis at New York, lloslcai, uapaw of the lest in ools in e great a made I abont Indian ng, and basis of md were by the B Housa- lental in ge. His dropped grated to ul on tlie ,rain, and e of the ^ebanon, Wheel- he hiid le (luaiut X peeled issiduity vangelifit )n JiOiig the l>an(l ytery to ty to tlie He was ^(■d to Ik? lu'ld one lie truths anni'd of lloHlon, <.(?••.? .fj ;rV"tV..'iM "Wt^^V** TUE TRIBES. 323 and other populous places, where he attracted attention, and he became instrumental in the general conversion of the Indian race. Occum was the first Indian preacher who ever visited England. This visit occurred in parts of the years 1755-50, when he took passage for Loudon, in com- pany with the Rev. Mr. Whitaker, in order, by personal appeals, to solicit funds for the support of Mr. Wheelock's Indian school. The mission was eminently suc- cessful. The spectacle of a Mohican holding forth in a London chapel, with his peculiar physiognomy and manner, created a deep sensation, iind he was listened to with the same curiosity in the interior towns. The result was a substantial contri- bution for Mr. Wheelock's school, and the creation of an interest in England in Western education, which is understood to have been one of the inducements that led to the granting of a royal charter for Dartmouth College, one of the fundamental endowments of which embraces the education of Indian youth. "Occum was looked upon," observes the historian Sparks, "as a wonder in Eng- land. Wherever he went, crowds gathered around him, and it has been the lot of few speakers to address audiences so large. A North American Indian in a pulpit, eloquently preaching the English tongue, was a phenomenon too nearly miraculous to pass unseen or unheard. It was said, moreover, that he exhibited in his person and character a practical example of what might be done with Indians when fairly brought under the influence of instruction. All this was highly favorable to the groat ends of the mission, and in a few months a subscription was obtained and money paid to the amount of nearly ten thousand pounds. The king (George II.) gave two hundred pounds, and several gentlemen one hundred pounds each. The money wius deposited in the hands of trustees in England, and drawn out as occasion required. With this addition to his resources, Dr. Wbeelock began to think of enlarging the plan of his school, and removing nearer to the frontiers, both to diminish the expense of living and to be near the Indians. After examining several situations, he selected Hanover, then almost a wilderness, to which place he removed in 1770, cut away the trees, and erected the institution, which he tailed Dartmouth (Jollege, in honor of Lord Dartmouth, who had manifested great zeal and liberality in collecting the Indian fund in England." About 1780, Mr. Occum went to the country of the Oneidas, in Western New York, taking with him several Indians of kindred blood, who clung to him as their loader. lie obtuiued u cession of fertile land from the Oneida tribe, which booaino a i)lace of refuge of the Indians, chiefly of the Mohicans of the sea-coiists of New England, and a few Nanticokes, Narragansetts, and Pequots. Differences existing in their dialects, they agreed to drop the native language altogether and adopt the English, taking the name of Brothertons. Mr. Occum was their first pastor, and continued to devote himself to their interests till age incapacitated him, and younger liil)()rors stopi)e(l in. During his old age he went to live with the Massachusetts Alohioans, who were settled at New Stookbridge, in the Oneida Crook Valley, where he died in July, 17U2. Ilis ago, judging from the period of his life at which he probably went on the mission to England, was about sixty-six. i ' i I ^ ^m 324 Tin: INDIAN TlilBKS OF THE UNITED STATES. It Ih cxprc'Hsly stated by tlic New Eiijfliiiul clergy, to whom we are indebted for tlii'se iiotii'OH, that \m Christian and ministerial ciiaraeter was well approved, and that he was deemed to possess a peculiar fluency and aptness in teaching the Indians, over whom he exercised a happy inlluence. The foundation of the tribe of tiio IJrothertons is a work due to his enterprise, foresight, and zeal. It \» to his educa- tion and his knowledge, so far lus it went, of English literature, that we nnist ascribe the wise advice to the Mohican refugees to drop their own and adopt the English lan- guage. For it is the result of the most obvious principles that it is easier to acquire a new language which has a literature, than to create ii literature (antl that by mere translations) for a barbarous language. The i)ractical working of this new plan of organization for an Indian community whose institutions had melted away before the power of civilizaticm was excellent. Tlii^ Urothertitns continued to dwell together at their first location in Oneida County till they had well adviinced in elementary education and the arts. At this period of their history they sent delegates to Wisconsin to procure a cession of territory from the indigenous Indians of Fox Iliver of that State, on the borders of Wiimebago Lake. Having ilisposed of their j)ossessions in Oneida County, they in due time migrated to that location, where they now reside. ]{y an Act of Congress the JJnttJiertons of Wisconsin were admitted to all the rights of citizens of the United States. They were also admitted, by a State act, to the rightn of citizens of Wis- consin. The pr(ii)li'm of their triple emancipation from barbarism, idleness, and political disfranchisement is thus comjiletely worked out, and worked out in a prac- tical way, in which the experience and wis(h)m of Oceum and his clerical teachers of the olden tin>e had predicted it could only be done.' CIIEYENNES AND AUAI'AUOES. These tribes, to the nundn'r of about six thousand, occupy a large reservation in the western portion of the Indian Territory. While the Northern Cheyennes, under Little Cliii'f, make no concessions to civilization, refusing even to jH'rmit their children to attend school, the Southern Cheyennes and the Arapalioes engage in every kind of remunerative labor. The Arapalioes have shown more interest and perseverance in farming than the Cheyennes. The Arapalioes ("pricked or tattooed peo[)le") formerly roved over the ceiitnil plains between the Platte and Arkansas Ilivers. They are a part of the Atsina or Fall Indians, of the iJlackfeet stock. They are warlike and pn-datory. With tlu'ir friends the Cheyennes and the Sioux, they have continually warred upon the Utes. From time to time they have made raids upon the Ixtrder white s<'ttlement4. The Northern bands are on the Shoshone Reservation in Wyomuig. ' It is stalcil (hilt tlio nuiiiIxT of this trilic wiis two liiinilrcd and fifly in 1701 ; only fivi' yciirH iifliT which it was ri'iinLcd, |iriiliiil)ly l)y cpidcniiii iliseascs, U.) ono hundred un. Driven westward hy tlie Dakotiw, tiiey were fonnd i)y early explorers at the ea.stern luwe of tho Blaek Ilills. SuhHeijnently a portion of them went nonth and joined the ArapaluK«. Tlio Chcyenneri uro a lar};(!, powerful, and athletic race, and arc mentally Huperior to most of tho trihcH with whom, an with the whites, they have been constantly at war. War and the chase Ixiing their favorite pnrsuits, they make blow progress in civilization. These two tribes have had a bitter — though by no means among tho native race a singular — experienco of the bad faith of the United States government. By tho treaty of September 17, IKal, an annuity was to be |)aitl tlusin for (ifty yeai"s, and they were to be " protected" in their new home. Without their consent, the Henate shortened the time to ten years, and, in order to " protect" them, they were removed to a much smaller reservation in Colorado by the tn^aty of February 18, 1e.-ts. A few women and children who survived were sent to the Dakotas. IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) ^-^^^^4^^ 1.0 I.I 11.25 us 116 1^ 12.2 20 m M. 11.6 Hiotographic Sciences Corporation 23 WESr HA^tN STVEET WEBSTER, N.Y. KJi: (716) 872-4503 • O^ 326 THE INDIAN TRIBES OF THE UNITED STATES. MIAMIS. The Miamis, a warlike race, formerly numbered eight thousand. They were con- tinually engaged in broils with their neighbors the Iroquois and the Sioux, and also with the French, in which they lost heavily, reducing themselves still further by subsequent ware against the United States, and by quarrels among themselves. Only a few of them now remain, and these are scattered over the Indian Territory and Kansas. In the latter State, in Linn and Miami Counties, they have a reservation of ten thousand two hundred and forty acres, the larger part of which is held in sev- eralty by them. Much trouble has been given them by the aggressions of white settlers upon their lands. They have become greatly demoralized, and their school hiis been abandoned. They are native to Indiana, where three hund.ed and forty- five of them are now citizens. Most of the tribe removed to Kansas in 1846, and in twenty-four years were reduced in numbers from five hundred to ninety-two. In 1873 most of their Kanssis lands were sold, and the tribe confederated with the Peorias in the Indian Territory. In the Indian war in the West, which broke out in the early part of Washing- ton's first term, the Miamis were the principal central power. With their confed- erates, they occupied the valleys of the Wabash and the Miami of the Lakes, and stretched like an impassable line between Lake Erie and the Lower Ohio, forming a complete bar to the settlement of the West. The outrages they committed, in con- nection with the Shawnees and Delawares, and the threatening aspect they assumed, led eventually ' > the invasion of their territory, at separate periods, by Colonel ilarmar and General St. Clair. The defeat of both of these expeditions, in successive seasons, carried dismay and terror to the exposed frontiers. These defeats were essen- tially the work of the celebrated chief Little Turtle, a man of extraordinary energy, courage, and foresight. This chain to the advance of settlements was finally broken by the third Federal army, led by General Wayne, who defeated the combined enemy in a general battle at the Kapids of the Maumee, and brought the Indians to terms at the treaty of Greenville in 17U5. From this date, except during the war of 1812, when they again sided with England, the Miamis have remained at peace with the United States, finally realizing from the sale of their fertile lands on the banks of the Wabash ten thousand times iw much lus their furs could possibly have brought them. After the death of Little Turtle, who had been their counsellor, leader, and war-captiiin before and after the Revolution, the chieftainship, being in the female line, fell into the hands of Pesh- kewah, or the Lynx, a man better known on the frontiers as John B. llichardville. Inheriting French blood, of the vulif ctiste, from the father's side, he was a man well adapted to conduct the affairs of the Miamis during this peculiar period. Exer- cising higli powers as the governor of a numerous tribe who had a reputJition (or their warlike qualities, and with a strong teeliiig of self-interest, he secured the best terms in every negotiation, enriching greatly both his tribe and himself. iJt> \!im THE TRIBES. 327 I- According to tradition, Peshkewah was born about 1761, on the St. Mary's River, Indiana, a few miles from Fr rt Wayne. This was the period of the Pontiac war in that locality, when the Western tribes followed the lead of the energetic and intrepid Algonkin in resisting the transfer of authority from the French to the English power. He was too young for any agency in this war, and the event has no further connection with the man than as it introduced him and his people to a new phase of liistory. A new era had now opened. France had lost Canada, and Great Britain had assumed the power which she has so long wielded among the Indian tribes. But France had left an influential element which could not be eliminated by a treaty. The French population had extensively intermarried with the Indian females, and tie whole line of frontiers was composed almost entirely of this half- breed population. The Indian trade, that lever of power, was in their hands. They almost exclusively were acquainted with the Indian languages, and no negotiation could be accomplished without their aid. Thus England, from the fall of Quebec to the outbreak of the American Revolution, may be said to have worked on the fron- tiers with French hands. America has also been obliged to employ the same influence among the Indian population up to the present day. It was this condition of things that gave Peshkewah, and all of his class who were similarly situated, such influence on the frontiers. Within a dozen years of that time the American Revolution broke out, and the colonists found the Western Indians as ready to take up the hatchet against them as they formerly were to fight against the English. In this feeling, common to his tribe as well as to others, Peshkewah naturally participated. Being only nineteen at the close of the Revolutionary War, he could have taken but little part in it. He assisted at Harmar's defeat in 1790. Circumstances early brought young Peshkewah into notice. His mother being a chieftainess, he became the leading chief. His talents were those of the civilian rather than of the warrior. He was kind and humane to prisoners while the war histed, and as soon as peace was restored he became a worthy citizen, and enjoyed the confidence of the whites to the fullest extent. He spoke both the French and English languages, as well as his native tongue, and for a long series of years his house, which wiis eligibly situated on the banks of the St. Mary's, about four miles from Fort Wayne, was known as the abode of hospitality, where friends and strangers alike were received with open hands. To these generous qualities he united strict honesty, and a capacity for the trans- action of business far above the ordinary class of aboriginal chiefs and rulers. In the negotiations with the United States government for the cession of the Miami lands, he was the leading spirit of his tribe, and, as we have already remarked, he invariably secured the best terms. These lands embniced the sources of the Wabash and the Miami of the Lakes, and they are not exceeded in point of fertility and beauty of scenery by any in the Western States. Peshkewah is believed to have been, at the time of his death, the most wealthy man of the native race in America, the estimate of his property exceeding a million :n'p m J', ;. I i '« 328 THE INDIAN TRIBES OF THE UNITED STATES. of dollars. A large part of this was in the best selected lands, reserved out of the original cessions of his tribe, and other real estate. He died on the 13th of August, 1841, aged eighty, within a few miles of the place where he was born. JfENOMONIES. The Menomonies, or Wild-Rice Men, were so named because they subsisted on wild rice, in the llice Lake region, between Lakes Superior and Winnebago. They are settled on the Peoria Reservation, near the city of Sliawano, Wisconsin, especially valuable for its pine forests, but of little value for cultivation. It was secured to them by treaty May 12, 1854, they ceding to the United States their land in the eastern part of the SUite. The tribe numbers about fifteen hundred, is advancing rapidly in agricultural and industrial pursuits, l)eing largely engaged in lumbering, and takes an interest in the education of its children. The Menomonies joined the French in the war against the Fox Indians in 1712, and against the English up to 17G3. In the Revolution and in the war of 1812 they sided with England. They were constantly at war witli the Sioux. ■9 OTTAWAS. The Ottawas lived formerly on the northern shore of Lake Michigan. In 1650 they were driven by the Iroquois beyond the Mississippi, only to be forced back by the Dakotas. They then settled at Mackinaw, and allied themselves with the French. They sided with the Englisli in 1776. In 1836 they sold their lands at Grand Traverse liay and removed to Kansas. They are now a mere handful, residing on the Quapaw Reserve, in the Indian Territory, whence they removed from Franklin County, Kansas, in 1870. Tliey are citizens, are temperate and industrious lus a rule, possess good business qualifications, and arc desirous of having their land allotted. A large iuim))er of Ottawas remain in Michigan with the Chip- pewiis at the Mackinac Agency, and are, like them, well advanced in civilization, lands having been allotted them, and the rights and privileges of citizenship having been accorded them. I•AWNK^>^, QUAPAWs, inc. The Indians of the eight small trilxs belonging to the Quapaw Agency, in the Indian Territory, — the Senecas, Sliawnees, (iuapaws, confederated Peorias, KaskiiK- kias, Piankeshaws, and Wciis, and the Ottawas, — wear citizens' dress, are comfortably housed, have ami)le schiwl facilities, and are virtually civilize*!. The Pawnees are slow to renounce their former habits, and few have as yet adopted civilized dress or exchanged their tejK'cs for houses. In schW- THE TRIBES. 839 they soon after suffered severely from smallpox. They removed to the Indian Ter- ritory in 1874. The Kaws still rely on the government rations. The proximity of the Quapaw Reservation to the Kansas border proving highly injurious, — a large proportion of the Indians becoming dissipated and indolent, — tliey have removed to the agency of the Osages, with wliom they have intermarried and properly belong. They number three hundred and ninety-seven, l diminution of one-half in twenty years. In their new locality they have made commendable improvement. The confederated tribe of Otoes and Missourisis, numbering four hundred and thirty-four, were removed from Iowa and Missouri, and have a reserve of forty-three thousand acres in the valley of the Big Blue River, on the State line between Kan- sas and Nebraska. Although this is one of the finest tracts for agricultural purposes west of the Missouri River, these Indians have done little towards self-support, and cling to their old customs. Some of them, however, have opened farms and built themselves houses, and a school has been established. Their moral condition is in many respects far in advance of that of other tribes. There are no squaw-men among them, nor are there any known cases of illegitimacy. The remnant of the Modoc Indians are on the Qui'naw Reserve, and are rapidly improving their condition. The Pottawatomie Reservation, fourteen miles north of Topeka, Kansas, of which the present " Diminished Reserve" of seventy-seven thousand three hundred and lifty-seven acres is a portion, was set apart by treaty in 184G. The soil is rich, and there are many fine farms on the Reserve. Only the Prairie band of Potta- watomies now remain in Kansas, many having removed to the Indian Territory. They have an ample school-fund, and an improvement-fund for the purchase of lumber and agricultural implements. They are 1 ')nest and industrious, have learned to acquire property, have abandoned tribal relations, and are fast becoming civilized. These Indians were formerly settled on the lower jieniiisula of Michigan, and were driven into Wisconsin by the Iroquois. They were allies of the French against the Inxpiois, and took part in Pontiac's war. They sided with the English in the wars of the Revolution and of 1812. By the terms of the treaty of February 21, 18(>7, many of the Pottawatomies have become citizens of th;' United States, and received patents for their lands. Those in the Indian Territi ly now 'lumber three liundretl, and are located seventy miles southwest of the Sac and Ft x Agency, on tlie Canadian River. They have on their reservation a day-school a;td a Catholic mission. The Peorias, Kaskaskias, Wesis, and Piankeshaws, who were confederated in 18")4, now number one hundred and forty-six. They occupy a reservation of seventy-two thousand acres adjoining the Quapaw Reservation on the south and west. Under treaties made with tiicse tribes in IHo'J, they removed to Kansas, whence they removed after the treaty of 18(>7 to their present reservation. Tliey are geiicndly intelligent, are well advanced in civilization, and are very successful in their agricultural operations. 42 330 THE INDIAN TRIBES OF THE UNITED STATES. KICKAPOOS. The first treaty with this tribe, tlicn in Illinois, was in 1795. By the terms of the treaty of 1883 they were settled in Kansas. In 1854 they ceded all their Kanssis lands to the United States, except one hundred and fifty thousand acres, which were reserved to them for a permanent home. They were in 18G2 induced to make another treaty, by which individual homes were given to such as desired them, the adult males, heads of families, receiving patents in fee-simple foi their land. A small wi'act was set apart to be held in common by such as preferred it* This tribe numbers but two hundred and thirty-four. Their reservation of twenty thou- sand two hundred and thirty-seven acres lies in Brown County, Kansas. It is well watered, and well adapted to agriculture and grazing. They have sixty-four farms enclosed and thoroughly cultivated. They are industrious and progressive, and since 1870 have had a good educational system. They are entirely satisfied with their present homes and with their treatment by the United States. During the rebellior , about one hundred, dissatisfied with the treaty of 1862, went to Mexico. Finding that they had been deceived, they attempted to return to the United States. Only a few succeeded in reaching the Kickapoo Agency. The others still remain in Mexico, whence their raids across the border have been frequent, and have been a sore affliction to the people of Texas. SACS AND FOXES. The Sacs and Foxes of the Mississippi number at the present time four hundred and twenty-one. In 1840 they numbered two thousand four hundred and seventy- eight. They have a reservation of four hundred and eighty-three thousand three hundred and forty acres, adjoining the Creeks on tlic west, and between the Nortii Fork of the Canadian Iliver and the lied Fork of the Arkansas. They formerly o'jcupieil large tracts of country in Wisconsin, Iowa, and ISIissouri, whence they removed by virtue of treaty stipulations to a reservation in Kansas. By the terms of the treaties of 1850 and 1808, all their Kansas lands were ceded to the United States, and they received in lieu thereof their present reservation. Three hundred and seventeen of these Indians, after their renjoval to Kansas, returned to Iowa, and are now receiving their share of tribal funds. They bought four hundred and nine- teen acres of land in Tama County, part of which they are cultivating. Seven luuulred acres have since been i)urcha.sed for them by government, and are held in trust for them by the Governor of Iowa. They are averse to schools, preferring to instruct their eliililren in their own language, and have made some progress by that system of education. The Sac and Fox tribe, once famous for j)rowes8 in war, are supposed to be lus true a type (»f (li(( native American Indian as there is in existence. Though averse to labor, some of them have fine farms and considerable stock. Most of them retain \>-Z r } THE TRIBES. 881 the breech-cloth and blanket, and adhere to their old customs. The increased attendance on the manual-labor school shows a growing disposition on their part to pay more attention to education. The Mo-ko-ho-ko band, numbering one hundred and seventy-five, persistently refuse to remove to their reservation, and are now in Osage County, Kansas. A portion of the Sacs and Foxes of Missouri have been removed from Nebraska to the Indian Territory, but the larger part of them still remain on their old reservation. The refusal of a portion of this tribe to remove from their home in the Kock River Valley to lands assigned them beyond the Mississippi, brought on the Black Hawk war. This hostile rising terminated speedily in their defeat by General Atkinson at the battle of the Bad Axe, August 2, 1832. KENISTENOS, The word " Kenisteno" is derived from the Chippewa verb nisau, to kill. The people are an early offshoot of the Algonkin family, the language of which they apeak, but with less purity and richness of inflection than the Chippewas. We are informed by Mackenzie that they are spread over a vast extent of country, and that their language is the same as that of the people who inhabit the coast of British America on the Atlantic, with the exception of the Esquimaux, and that it continues along the coast of Labrador and the Gulf and lliver St. Lawrence, to Montreal. The line then follows the Ottawa River to its source, and continues thence nearly west along the highlands which divide the waters that fall into Lake Superior and Hud- son's Buy. It then proceeds till it strikes the middle part of the river Winnipeg, following that water through Lake Winnipeg to the mouth of the Saskatchewan ; thence it accompanies the latter to Fort George, when the line, striking by the head of the Beaver River to the Elk River, runs along its banks to its discharge in tlie Lake of the Hills ; from which it may be carried back east to the Isle a la Crosse, and so on to Churchill by the Missinnippi. Tlie wliole of the tract between this line and Hudson's Bay and Straits (except tiiat of the Esquimaux in the latter) may be said to be exclusively the country of the Kenistenos (or Knisteneaux). Some of them, indeed, have penetrated farther west and south, to the Red River, to the south of Lake Winnipeg, and the south branch of the Saskatchewan. They are of motlerate stature, well proportioned, and of great activity. Exam- |)les of deformity are seldom met witli. Their complexion is of a copper color, and tlieir hair is black, like that of all the natives of North America. It is cut in various forms, according to the fancy of the several tribes, and by some is left in the long lank flow of nature. They very generally extract their beards, and both sexes manifest a disposition to pluck the hair from every part of their body and limbs. Tiieir eyes arc black, keen, and i)enetrating, their countenances open and agreeable, and it is a principal object of their vanity to give every possible decoration to their |K!rsons. A material article in their toilet is vermilion, which they contrast with tlieir native blue, white, and brown earths, to which charcoal is frequently added. Mi 1 1 1 1 'i I i' i i t 'I 1 I X 1 •> t i I I 332 THE INDIAN TRIBES OF TUE UNITED STATES. Their dress is at once simple and commodious. It consists of tight leggings, reaching ahnost to the hip ; a strip of cloth or leather, called assian, about one foot wide antl five feet long, whose ends are drawn inward and hang behind and before over a belt tied round the waist for that purpose ; a close vest or shirt reaching down to the former garment, and cinctured with a broad strip of parchment fastened with thongs behind ; and a cap for the head, consisting of a jjicce of fur, or a small skin, with the brush of the animal as a susjiended ornament. A kind of robe is thrown occasionally over the whole of the dress, and serves both night and day. These articles, with the addition of shoes and mittens, constitute the variety of their apparel. The materials vary according to the season, and consist of dressed moose-skin, beaver jn-eparcd with the fur, or European woollens. The leather is neatly painted, and fancifully worked in some parts with porcupine-quills and moose-deer hair; the shirts and leggings are also adorned with fringe and tassels ; nor are the shoes and mittens without their share of appropriate decoration, worked with a considerable degree of skill and taste. These habiliments a'-o put on, however, as fancy or con- venience suggests, and they will sometimes proceed to the chase in the severest frost covered only with the slightest of them. Their head-dresses are comi^osed of the feathers of the swan, the eagle, and other birds. The teeth, horns, and claws of different animals are also the occasional ornaments of the head and neck. Their hair, however arranged, is always besmeared with grease. The making of every article of dress is a female occujiation, and the women, though by no means inatten- tive to the decoration of their own persons, appear to have a still greater degree of pride in attending to the appearance of the men, whose faces are painted with more care than those of the women. The dress of the women is formed of the same materials as that of the other sex, but is of a different make and arrangement. Their shoes are commonly plain, and their leggings gartered beneath the knee. Their coat, or body-covering, falls down to the miildle of the leg, and is fastened over the shoulders with cords, a flap or cape turning down about eight inches both before and behind, and agreeably ornamented with quill-work and fringe ; the bottom is also fringed, and fancifully i)aiiitcd as high as the knee. As it is very loose, it is enclosed round the waist with a stiff belt, deco- rated with tas.sels, and fastened behind. The arms are covered to the wrist with detached sleeves, which are sewed as far as the bend of the arm; thence they aie drawn up to the neck, and the corners fall down behind as low as the waist. The cap, when they wear one, consists of a certain quantity of leather or cloth, sewed at one end, liy which means it is kept on the head, and, hanging down the back, is fastened to the Ix'lt as well as under the chin. The upper garment is a robe like that worn by the men. Their hair is divided on the crown and tied behind, or sometimes fastened in large knots over the ears. They are fond of Euroj)ean articles, and prefer them to their own native commodities. Their ornaments consist of bracelets, rings, and similar articles. 8omo of the women tattoo three perpendicular lines, which are sometimes double, — one from the centre of the chin to the centre of the under li]), and one parallel on each side to the corner of the mouth. ■v\ /• / »V:.. THE TRIBES. " Of all the nations which I have seen on this continent," says Mackenzie, " the Knisteneaux women are the most comely. Their figure is generally well propor- ^■jned, and the regularity of their features would be acknowledged by the more civilized people of Europe. Their complexion has less of that dark tinge which is common to savages who have less cleanly habits." These people are naturally mild and affable, as well as just in their dealings, not only among themselves, but with strangers. They are also generous and hospitable, and good-natured in the extreme, except when their nature is perverted by the infiuence of spirituous liquors. To their children tliey are indulgent to a fault. The father, though he assumes no command over them, is ever anxious to instruct them in all the preparatory qualifications for war and hunting ; while the mother is equally attentive to her daughters, teaching them everything that is considered necessary to their character and situation. It does not appear that the husband makes any distinction between the children of his wife, though they may be the offspring of different fathers. The brand of illegitimacy is attached to those only who are born before their mothers have cohabited with any man by the title of husband. Notwithstanding the assertions of travellers, it appears that chastity is looked upon by them as a virtue, and that fidelity is believed to be essential to the happiness of wedded life ; and it sometimes happens that the infidelity of a wife is punished by the husband with the loss of her hair, her nose, or perhaps her life. But a temporary interchange of wives is not uncommon, and the offer of their wives' persons is con- sidered a necessary part of the hospitality due to strangers. When a man loses his wife, it is considered his duty to marry her sister, if she has one ; or he may, if he pleases, have them both at the same time. When a young man marries, he immediately goes to live with the father and mother of his wife, who treat him, nevertheless, Jis an entire stranger till after the birth of his first child ; he then attaches himself more to them than to his own i)arents, and his wife no longer gives him any other denomination than that of the father of her child, — m niibaim. War and the chase form the chief employment of the men. Tliey also spear fish, but the management of the nets is left to the women. The females of this nation are in the same subordinate state as those of all other savage tribes, but the severity of their labor Ls much diminished by their situation on the banks of lakes and rivers, where they use canoes. In the winter, when the waters are frozen, they make their journeys, which are never of any great length, with sledges drawn by dogs. The women are at the same time subject to every kind of domestic drudgery ; they dress the leather, make the clothes and shoes, weave the nets, collect wood, erect the tents, fetch water, and perform every culinary service; so that when the duties of maternal care are added, it will appear that the life of these women is an uninter- rupted succession of toil and pain. This, indeed, is the sense they entertain of their own situation ; and under the influence of that sentiment they are sometimes known to destroy their female children to save them from the miseries which they themselves have suffered. They also have a ready way, by the use of certain simi)les, of pro- I 334 THE INDIAN TRIBES OF THE UNITED STATES. curing abortion, which they sometimes practise from hatred of the father or to save themselves tlie trouble that children occasion ; and it is said that this unnatural act is repeated without any injury to the health of the women who perpetrate it. The funeral rites begin, like all other solemn ceremonials, with smoking, and are concluded by a feast. The body is dressed in the best habiliments possessed by the deceased or his relations, and is then deposited in a grave lined with branches ; some domestic utensils are placed on it, and a kind cf canopy is erected over it. During this ceremony great lamentations are made, and if the departed person is very much regretted, the near relations cut o5' their hair, pierce the fleshy part of their thighs and arms with arrows, knives, etc., and blacken their faces with charcoal. If he has distinguished himself in war, the corpse is usually laid on a kind of scaflblding; and it is said that women, as in the East, have been known to sacriflce themselves to the manes of their husbands. The whole of the property belonging to the departed is destroyed, and the relations take in exchange for the wearing apparel any rags that will cover their nakedness. The feast bestowed on the occasion, which is, or at least used to be, repeated annually, is accompanied with eulogiums on the deceased, and is unattended with any acta of ferocity. On the tomb are carved or painted the symbols or totems of his tribe, which are taken from the different animals, birds, or rci)tiles of the country. War is, however, the prime pursuit. Many are the motives which induce savages to engage in it, — as to prove their courage, to avenge the death of relations, or in consequence of some portentous dream. If the tribe feel themselves called ui)on to go to war, the eldei-s convene the people in order to know the general opinion, and, if it is for war, the chief publishes his intention to smoke in the sacred stem at a certain period. Solemnity, meditation, and fasting are required as preparatory cere- monials. When the 2)eriod has arrived, the chief enlarges on the causes which have called them together, and the necessity of the measures proposed on the occasion. He then invites those who are willing to follow him to smoke out of the sacred stem, ihe token of enrolment, and, if it should be the general opinion that assistance is necessary, others are invited, with great formality, to join them. Every individual who attends these meetings brings something with him as a sign of his warlike intention, or lus an object of sacrifice : these are suspended from poles near the 2»l«ce of council aller the assembly has adjourned. They have frequent feasts, and particular circumstances never fail to produce them, such as a tedious illness, long fsisting, etc. On these occasions it is usual for the person who means to give the entertainment to announce his design of opening the medicine-bag and smoking out of IiLs sacred stem on a certain day. This declara- tion is considered a sacred vow that cannot be broken. There are also stated iieriods, such as the spring and autumn, when they engage in very long and solemn ceremo- nies. On these occasions dogs are offered iis sacrifices, and those which are very fut and milk-white are preferred. They also make large offerings of their property, whatever it may be. The scene of these ceremonies is an open enclosure on the bank of a river or lake, and in the most cons])ieuous situation, in order that such as m THE TRIBES. 336 are paflsing along or travelling may bo induced to make their offerings. There is also a particular custom among them that on these occasions if any of the tribe, or even a stranger, should be passing by, and be in real want of anything that is dis- played as an offering, ho has a right to take it, so that ho replaces it with some article ho can spare, though it bo of inferior value. But to take or touch anything wantonly is considered a sacrilegious act, and highly insulting to the great Master of Life (to use their own expression), who is the sacred object of their ceremonial devotion. The scene of private sacrifice is the lodge of the person who performs it, prepared for that purpose by removing everything out of it, and spreading green branches in every part. The fire and ashes are also taken away. A new hearth is made of fresh earth, and another fire is lighted.* The owner of the dwelling remains alono in it, and ho begins the ceremony by spreading a piece of new cloth, or a well-dressed moose-skin neatly painted, on which he opens his medicine-bag and exposes ita various contents. The principal of these is a kind of household god, which is a small carved image about eight inches long. Its first covering is of down, over which a piece of birch bark is closely tied, and the whole is enveloped in several folds of red and blue cloth. This little figure is an object of the most pious venera- tion. The next article is his war-cap, which is decorated with the feathers and plumes of scarce birds, the fur of beavers, eagles' claws, etc. There is also suspended from it a quill or feather for every enemy whom the owner of it has slain in battle. The remaining contents of the bag are a piece of tobacco, several roots and simples which are in great CHtimation for their medicinal qualities, and an opwagun, or pipe. These articles being all exposed, and the pipe-stem placed upon two forks, as it must not touch the ground, the master of the lodge sends for the person he most esteems, who sits down opposite to him. The pipe is then filled and fixed to the stem. A pair of wooden pincers is provided to put the fire in the pipe, and a double-pointed pin to empty it of the remnant of tobacco which is not consumed. This arrange- ment being made, the men assemble, and sometimes the women are allowed to bo humble 8i)ectjitor8, while the most religious awe and solemnity pervade the whole. The Michiuiwai, or assistant, takes up the pipe, lights it, and presents it to the olficiating person, who receives it standing, and holds it between both his hands. He then turns himself to the east and draws a few whiffs, which he blows to that point. The same ceremony he observes to the other three quarters, with his eyes directed upwards during the whole of it. He holds the stem about the middle, between the three first fingers of both hands, and, raising them upon a line with his forehead, he swings it three times round from the east, with the sun, and, after pointing and balancing it in various directions, he reposes it on the forks.* He then makes a speech to exphiin the design of the meeting, and concludes with an acknowl- edgment for past mercies, and a prayer for the continuance of them, addressed to the ' Tliis was also done by tho Indians in Mexico on receiving the new fire from the Aztec priests. ' Tiiis ceremony roculU Clmrlcvoix'.s ubiiervatiuus, in 1721, on tlio priest .standing at sunrise in the door of the Temple of tho Sun, at Natchez, making his genuflections with the pipe. "'mi li m 330 THE INDIAN TRIBES OF THE UNITED STATES. Miistcr of Life. Ho then hIIh down, anil tlic wliolo company tleclaro their approba- tion and thankH by uttering the word ho ! with an ciiipliatic prolongation of the last letter. The Michiniwai then takoH up the pi])e and hokk it to the mouth of the ofliciating person, who, after smoking three wliiffs out of it, utters a short prayer, and then gws round witli it, taking liis course from east to west, to every i>erson present, who individually says something to him on the occasion, and thus the pi]K) is generally smoked out. After turning it three or four times round liis head, ho drops it downwards, and replaces it in its original situation. Ho then returns the company thanks for their attendance, and wishes them, as well as the whole tribe, health and long life. These smoking rites precede every matter of great importance, with more or less ceremony, but always with equal solemnity. If a chief is anxious to know the disposition of his ])eop]c towards him, or if ho wishes to settle any difference between them, he announces Ids intention of oi)cning his medicine-bag and smoking in his sacred stem ; and no man who entertains a grudge against any of the party thus ussenibled caii smoke with the sacred stem, as that ceremony dissipates all differences, and is never violated. No one can avoid attending on these occasions ; bul a {x^rson may attend and be excused from assisting at the ceremonies by acknowledging that he has not undertronc the necessary puriii- cation. If a contract is entered into and solemnized by ..ue ceremony of smoking, it never fails of being faithfully fulfillei^. If a person previous to his going a Journey leaves the sacred stem as a pledge of his return, no consideration whatever will jirevent him from executing his engagement.' The chief, when ho proposes to make a feast, sends quills or small pieces of wood iis tokens of invitation to such as he wishes to jmrtake of it. At the appointed time the guest.s arrive, each bringing a dish or platter and a knife, and take their seats on each side of the chief, who receives them sitting, according to llieir respective ages. The pipe is then lighted, and he makes an ecjual division of everything that is pro- vided. While the company are enjoying their meal, the chief sings, and accompanies his song with the tiuubourine, or shishi(juoi, or rattle. The guest who has lii-st eaten his j)ortioii is considered as the most distinguished jwrson. If there should be any who cannot linish the whole of their mess, they endeavor to prevail upon some of their friends to eat it for them, who are rewarded for their assistance with ammuni- tion and tobacco. It is proper also to remark that at these feasts a sniall quantity of meat or drink is sacrificed before they begin to eat, by throwing it into the iire or on the earth. These feasts differ according to circumstances. Sometimes each man's allowance is no more than lie «in dispatch iu a couple of hours. At other times the quantity is suliicient to sujiply each of them with food for a week, though it must be devoured in a day. On these occasions it is very diflicult to procure substitutes, and the whole must be eaten, whatever time it may recjuire. At some of these entertainments there ' It iH, however, to be lamented that of late llioro is a relaxation of the dutioa origiuully attached to tlii'Ho fcMlivaJM. THE TRIBES. 837 Bcuti^ on in u more rational arrangnmont, when the gueHts arc allowed to curry homo with thcra tlio HnperlUtouH part of their portionn. Clreat care is iilways taken that the hones Hliall hu hurned, ua it would ho conHidered a proi'uinitiun were the dogn permitted to touch them. The ])uhlic feoab) are conducted in the same manner, hut with some additional ceremony. Several chiefs officiate at them, and procure tlie neeesHary provisions, as well as prepare a proper place of reception for the numerous company. Here the giK!8t« discourse upon puhlic topics, dilate upon the heroic deeds of their forefathers, and incite the rising generation to follow their example. The entertainment on these occasions consist of dried meats, as it would not he practicahle to dress a suf- ficient quantity of fresh meat for so large an asscmhly, though the women and children are excluded. The women, who are forhidden to enter the places sue- d to these festivals, dnnco and sing around them, and sometimes heat time to the music within them, which forms an agrecahle contrast. With respect to the divisions of time, they con;pute the length of their journeys hy the nuniher of nights passed in performing them, and ilif y divide the year hy the succf.' vi n of moons. In this calculation, however, they arc not altogether correct, as they cannot account for the odd days. The names which they give to the moons are descriptive of the several seasons. They are, in their order, heginning with the month of May, called the frog moon, the moon when hirds hegin to lay their eggs, the moon when hirds moult, the moon when hirds hegin to fly, the moon in winch the moose casts its horns, the rutting moon, the hoar-frost moon, or ice moon, the whirl- wind moon, the cold moon, the hig moon, the eagle moon, and the goose moon. Superstition h )lds its usual place with the Kcnisteuos. Among their various heliefs are those of a funereal phantom and the personality of the ignis-fatuus. They helieve that the vapor whicii is seen to hover over moist and swampy places is the spirit of some person lately dead. Tiiey also fancy another spirit, winch appcara in the shape of a mon upon the trees near the lodge of a person deceased whose property has not heen interred with him. He is represented as hearing a gun in his haiul, and it is helieved that he does not ;cturn to his rest till the i)roperty that luis heen withheld from the grave ha-s heon sacrificed to the dead. If philosophy cannot protect the common masses in civilized life from similar fancies, we should not regard it as strange that the Indian trilxjs yield to such impressions. ••1: "MY ' M \\ \ r f kttuoliud tu APPALACHIANS.— THE FIVE CIVILIZED TRIBES. The five civilized trihes .)f the Indian Territory — the Creeks, Cherokees, Choc- taws, Chickasaws, and Seminoles— tlifl'er from all others in the fact that they have ac(iuired a good degree of social culture, each has executive, legislative, and judicial hrajiches of government constructed on the same i)lan as ohtsiins in the States, and each tril)al government has exclusive jurisdiction over its own territory in csjse all the inhabitants are citizens of the nation. The executive in each of these tribes -1:1 338 THE INDIAN TRIBES OF THE UNITED STATES. ii consists of a principal j-iief and an assistant. The former receives eight hundred dolhirs per annum, the latter six hundred dollars. The legislature consists of a senate and a council, which meet annually in November and hold sessions of thirty days. The judiciary consists of a supreme court of three judges, elected for terms of three years, one being chosen each year, throe circuit judges, nine district judges, a ])rosecuting attorney or solicitor, and a sheriff for each district. The chiefs, membem of botli houses, circuit and district judges, and sheriffs, are elected by the people, — the chiefs for four years, members of senate and council for two years, circuit judges for four years, sherifl's and county judges for two years. Tlie treasurer of each nation receives five hundred dollars jier annum, and is (dected for four years by joint vote of the senate and council. As there is no court with jurisdiction to try ciises where an Indian is one party and a citizen of the United States or a corporation is the other, the agent is compelled to act as arbitrator. Each party agrees to abide by his decision, subject to appeal to the Indian Commissioner in cases involving large amounts. As farmers tliese peoj)le com])are favorably with the whites. They recovered slowly from the effects of the war of 1801-05, but they are now in a position, if not disturbed, to become a strong and wealthy jieople. Their only fear is that the United States will forget their national obligations and in some way deprive them of tlieir lands. They are willing that the wild Indians from the plains shall he settled on their unoccupied lands, but they emphatically object to the settlement among them of the wild white men from the States. It is estimated that there arc six thousand citizens of the United States living within the limits of the Union Agency who have no right there whatever. Crime is no more frequent than in the adjoining States, and convictions by local authority are about as sure. Nine-tenths of the crime in the Territory is caused by whisky, which is introduced from the adjoining States. The ]\Ii'tli()(list, Presbyterian, and IJaptist denominations have missionaries here, some of whom have labored among the Indiiins for many years. Their influence has been very great. Many of the ordained ministers are Indians, and Sunday is well observeil. The tribes have had inilf a ci'utury of missionary instruction, and a large number of them are members of the churches. The school system is that of the States. English is taught exclusively. Many of iJie children of the wealthy are sent East for education. There are also private schools with good attendance. There i're several newspapers, — one printe two hundred Cherokees, rejiresenting those averse to removal, and who elected ti. remain under the provisions contained in the twelfth article of the treaty of 18;}"). The government has no agent residing with these Indians. Their condition is repre- sented to be deplorable. They were prosperous before the late rebellion, but suHered niiKJi during tlie war, and are now, from this and other causes, greatly impoverished. CUEKKH, OK MITSKOKIS. Tlie Creeks own five thousand and twenty-four scpiare miles, or three million two hundred and lifteen thousand four hundretl and ninety-live acres, in the central portion of the Indian Territory, and number fifteen thousand. In l.S8() they spent Iwenty-eight ihousaiid (luce bundreil and iif'ly-six dollars for educational purposes. Besides their thirty-four public scho(»ls, they have two high schools. Tallalia.s-^ee i. TUE TRIBES. 341 Manual Tiabor School, under the care of the Presbyterian Board, with ninety-two students, and Asbury Manual Labor School, Methodist, with eighty-six students, are successful institutions. The sum of five thousand dollars has been appropriated by the council towards building a new mission school under the care of the Southern Baptists, and one of three thousand dollars towards the erection of a seminary for the frcedmen of the nation. Though generally less advanced than the Cherokees, Choctaws, and Chickasaws, they are making rapid progress. The following traditions of the origin, early history, and customs of the Creeks, or Muskokis, are from the lips of Se-ko-pe-chi (Perseverance), one of the oldest Creeks living in 1847 in their new location west of the Mississippi. There is a general reluctance on the part of the Creeks to enter upon subjects of this character, owing in a measure to their superstitious notions, and more, perhaps, to their innate disposition to secrecy. The admission of an inter-tribal rank in ancient days inferior to the ancient Lenni Lenai)e, and their concurrence in the gejieral title of Grandfather, ascribed by the North Atlantic tribes to that important branch of the Algonkin stock, denote that their nationality is of more recent origin than had been supposed, and adds another proof to the many we have had before of the limited character of the Indian traditions, and the recent date of all their known tribal relations. There is nothing in these reminiscences of.' Se-ko-i)e-chi which can be crijdoyed to sustain an opinion that the Muskokis are in any wise to be deemed as lpears to connnend itself very generally to the resj)e('t and adherence of the common people. The origin of the Alabama Indians, as handed down by oral tradition, is that they sprang out of the ground bi'tween the Cahawba and Alabama Rivers. The Muskokis formerly called themselves Alabamians, but other tribes called them Oke-ehoy-atte (I'fc). The earliest migration recollected, as handed down by iiral tradition, is that tiiey emigrated from the Cahawba and Alabama Rivers to the junction of the Tuscaloosa and Coosa Rivers. At tiie point formed by the junc- tion of the Tuscaloosa and Coosa the tribe sojourned for the space of two years, after which their location was at the junction of the Coosa and Alabanui Rivers, on tlie west side of what was subsecpiently the site of Fort Jackson. It is supposed that at this time they mimbered fitly effective men. They claimcHl the country from Fort .Tackson to New Orleans for their hunting-grounds. They are of the o|)inion that the (Jreat Sj)irit brought them from the ground, and that they are the rightful owners of this soil. They lirst became acipiainteil with tlie use of fire-arms, cloth- ing, etc., through the Spaniards. Ardent spirits have lieen in use among tliem iH'yond the recollection of the oldest citizens. Tiieir first plai'cs of trade with the whites were MobiUi and New Orleans. They l»elieve tluit domestic animals were 'W mi If I i< iHi: '¥ ■ w It; 342 THE INDIAN TRIBES OF THE UNITED STATES. .i'.M im: ■ W: introduced by the whites. They have no knowledge of their old lands having been occui>ied before thera by the whites, or by a more civilized people than themselves, but they do believe that they were originally occupied by a people of whom they have no definite knowledge. The only name they have for America is " the land of the red people." They have no oral tradition of any other name for it. In the reminiscenc'^s of their former condition they state that they enjoyed a greater degree of peace before the discovery of the continent by the whites than they did afterwards. They had no treaties, no alliances or leagues, previous to the discovery. They erected breastworks of a circular shape for the protection of their families. They pride themselves most upon killing their enemies, and memorialize these events by hieroglyphics and by various personal decorations. Their greatest source of grief was the death of a son, brother, father, or mother. They claim to have conquered a people who wended tlieir way south, and assert that they themselves had never been conquered until their conflicts with the whites. Tlie present rulers of the nation consist of a first and a second chief, who, in con- nection with the town chiefs, administer the afihirs of the nation in general council. Their j)rineipal chief. General Roly Mcintosh, was of Scotch descent, and the second chief, Benjamin Marshall, was of Irish extraction. Both were friends of the white man. Tlie former fouglit under General Andrew Jackson against the hostile Indians. The tribe at present is in a very prosperous condition, and rapidly increasing. The Creeks first commenced migrating to their new country west of the Mississippi in piii-tios in 1828, between which period and 1837 the principal part of the migration took place. The causes which led to their removal to their present location were a treaty with the United States and an unwillingness to fall under the State laws of Georgia and Alabama. This feeling still exists among them. They have doubts about their l)eiug prepsired to take part in deliberative a.ssemblies. The Southwestern tribes occupy diflerent st;iges in civilization, some being almost wholly civilized, others partly so; others, again, retaining the wandering habits of their forefathers, may with projiriety be termed hunter-tribes. All the Southwestern tribes speak ditterent languages, excej)i. perhaps the Choctaws and Chickasaws and the Creeks and Seminoles, tribes whose languages have a strong affinity to one another, that of the Choctaws having a likeness to the (Jhiekasaw tongue, while tiie Creek language resembles that of the Seminoles. The different tribes do not under- stanil one another. There is no common interest among the people ; for what would be to the advantage of the hunters would only induce the agriculturists to idle; away their time and neglect their farms. Nor is there any commercial intercourse worth speaking of among them : in fact, there is little intercourse of any kind, if we except the traific in stolen horses. Tlieir opiniims and customs in many re- spects are different : that which is regarded as a virtue by the civilized Indians is considered as a weakness by the hunters, and actions wliicli are viewed as manly and heroic by the wandering tribes are looked upon as vices when practised among tiie semi-civilized. THE TRIBES. 343 The Muskokis speak six different dialects, — viz., ]Miis-ko-ki, Hitch-i-tee, Nau-chee, Eu-chee, Alabama, and Aquas-saw-tcc. The Creeks, although speaking these dif- ferent dialects, understand generally the received language of the nation, which is the Muskoki or Creek language, and consequently the business with the government requires but one interpreter. The relationship which this tribe Ijears to the other tribes is that of Grandchild to the Delawares and Senccas. Their traditions iussign them a medium position in the political scale of the tribes. Whether this relationship is sanctioned by the tra- dition of all other tribes is not known, but by some it is. Discordant pretensions to original rank and affinities of blood have never been set up among the Muskokis. They have no method by which blood aflinities can be settled in cases of difficulty. The kindredship of the tribe is denoted by terms taken from the vocabulary of the family ties. The clans are made up of families, each clan adoiiting its own peculiar badge, such as crocodile, bear, bird, etc. It is supposed that these badges denote rank or relationship. Major Caleb Swan, in his report to the Secretary of War in 1791, gave the following account of the origin, history, and customs of the Muskoki or Creek Indians, and the Seminoles : " Tradition handed down from one generation to another has established a general belief among them (which may be true) that a long time ago some strange, wander- ing clans of Indians from the northwest found their way down to the present country of the Seminolies ; there, meeting with plenty of game, they settled themselves in the vicinity of the then powerful tribes of the Florida and Appalachian Indians; and for iome time they remained on a friendly footing with each other. The new-comers were styled Seminolies, signifying Avanderers, or lost men. "These wanderers from the north increased in numbers, and at length became so powerful a body liS to excite the jealousy of their Appalachian neighbors. Wars ensued, and finally the Seminolies became masters of the country. The remnants of the Ai)palachians were totally destroyed by the Creeks in 1719. " In process of time the game of the country was found insufficient to support their increasing numbers. Some clans and families emigrated northward, and took possession of the present district of the Cowetas : having established themselves there, other emigrations followed, and in time spread themselves eastward as far as thf Ocmulgee Iliver, and other waters of Georgia and South Carolina, and westward as '■■r as the Tallapoosa and Coosa Rivers, which are the main branches of the Ala- liaiiia. Here tliey were encountered by tlie Alabama nation, whom they afterwards (•()n(jiien'd, and, by restoring to them their lands and river, gained their attachment, and tiu'v were incorporated with the Creek nation. The Creeks became famous for tlieir abilities and warlike powers, and, being possessed of a well-watered country, were distinguished from their aiu'estoi-s (tlie Seminolies of the low barren country) by the name of Creeks or Miiseogios. The kind soil, [Hire water and air of their cDuntry being favorable to their constitutions as warriors, have perhaps contributed to give them a character superior to most of llie nations that surround them. ■■\ m 'HVi it! H ^B|1. ' r .liM ^^Hi . ' t,; 1 lip! I If ■'hi lit;- Ife, 344 ra/; INDIAN TRIBES OF THE UNITED STATES. "TI If mimbors have increased faster by the acquisition of foreign subjects than by the increase of tiie ori}i;inal stock. It appears long to have been a maxim of their policy to give etpial liberty and protection to tribes conquered by themselves, as well jis to those vancpiishcd by others, although ma?iy individuals taken in war are slaves among them, and tlicir children are called 'of the slave race,' and cannot arrive to much honorary distinction in the country on that account. " The Alabamas and Coosades are said to be the lii-st who adopted the ceremonies and customs of the Creeks and became part of the nation. The Natchez, or Sunset Indians, from the Mississippi, joined the Creeks about fifty years since, after being driven out of Louisiana, and added considerably to their confederative body. And now the Shawanese, called by them Sawanes, are joining them in large numbers every year, having already four towns on the Tallapoosa lliver that contain near three hundred war men, and more are soon expected. "Soon after the settlement of South Carolina an intercourse and trade took place from Fort JMoor, in that j)rovincc, between the white peoi)le and the lower Creeks, which appears to have been the first communication they had with British subjects ; before this they traded altogether with the French of Louisiana and the people of IVnsacola and St. Mark's. The upper Creeks continued to send all their skins to the l'"'rench of Mobile for many years after the trade of the lower Creeks had been drawn into South Carolina. " In 1732, when the colony of Georgia was founded by General Oglethorpe, he called eight tribes of the lower Creeks to a treaty in Savannah. lie states the num- ber of wariiors in these tribes then to have been thirteen hundred. By the kind treatment and good management of Governor Oglethorpe, they soon became strongly attached to the British interest. " The French of Louisiana, jealous of this step, immediately sent troops and agents among the upper Creeks, and erected a fort at Little Tallassie of fourteen guns. By estjiblishing a jiost in the midst of them, they found means to attnch them to the French people, — the Choctaws being before in their interest, as well as the Chickasaws and lower Cherokees. In 173!), General Oglethorpe called his allies (the lower Creeks) to a conference at the Cowetas, anil attended in person. He renewed the former treaties, and confirmed them in their attachment to the British government. At this conference deputies attended from the Oakfiiskies, Choctaws, Cliickasaws, and Cherokees. The Ciierokees and Creeks afterwards joiiu'd the British in an expedition against tiie Spaniards at St. Augustine in the year 174'2. " Jt appears that after 1732 the affections of the upper and lower Creeks were divided between the French and Knglish until tlie peace of 1703, when the FIoridiLs were ceded to the English, and the French fort, ' Aliabamous,' at Little Tallassie, was then abandoned. The British kept up a captain's command at this fort for some years after the peace of 17. Thousands of their warriors were slain, the greater j)art of their towns were destroyed, and the Creek nation, formerly so arrogant, wius effectually humbled. t'lIOCTAWS. The Choctaws own ten thousand four hundred and fifty square miles, or six mil- lion six hundred and eighty-eight thousand acres, in the souihciLst corner of the Indian Territory. They number nearly sixteen thousand. In 1880 they paid thirty-one thousand seven hundred dollars for educational purposes, besides four thousand two lumdred dollars for the education of students sent to colleges in the States. They have fifty-nine common schools and two seminaries, — " New Hope," with llfty-one girls, and " Spencer Academy," with sixty male students. The schools are in a flourishing condition. Among the Clioctjiws there are three thousand negroes, descendants of their former slaves, whom the government in 18(!() stipulated to remove and j)r()vide for. It hiis done neither, and the blacks are almost wholly destitute of school privileges. The tribe made its first treaty with the United States January '.\, 178(>, and its first ces- sion of hinds in ISO'J. In IS'JO it expended ninety-six liiousand dollars for schools, provided for the deaf and diniil), and appropriated lit'ly-l'our sections of land to be 4: THE TRIBES. 347 Bold for educational purposes. It bad a code of written laws in 1826, and the first law passed by tbe CbocUiw nation after it crossed tbe Mississippi was a liquor law similar to tbat long afterwards known as tbe " Maine Liquor Law." Tbe Cboctaws and Cbickasaws originally inbabited tbe territory now embraced witbiu tbe State of Missitisippi. ClIICKASAWS. Tbe Cbickasaws are a progressive people, and bave many wealtby citizens. Tbey own seven tbousand two bundred and sixty-seven square miles, or four million six bundred and fifty tbousand nine bundred and eigbty-five acres, adjoining tbe ("boctaws on tbe west, and tbey number about six tbousand. Tbe nation expends iifty-eigbt tbousand dollars a year for educational purposes, and in proportion to its numbers luis more seminaries and more students in attendance tban any otber of tbe five civilized tribes. Tbe Cbicka.saw Male Academy, tbe Bloomfield Female Semi- nary, tbe Wa-pa-mucka scbool, and tbe Orpban Scbool are well managed and suc- cessful. Tbe same trouble exists among tbe Cbickasaws in regard to tbe status of tbe negro as among tbe Cboctaws. Tbere are a large number of wbite intruders upon tbeir lands. Tins tribe first entered into treaty witb tbe United States January 10, 1786. Tbey first ceded tbeir lands in Mississippi in 1805, completed tbe cession at Ponto- toc in 1832, and united in government witb tbe CbocUxws, wbo speak tbe same language and witb wbom tbey are intermixed, in 1837. The funds of tbe Cbick- iisiiws in tbe bands of tbe government, for lands ceded, are aiu])le for tbe purposes of educating every member of tbe tribe, and of making tbe most liberal provision for tlii'ir advancement in agriculture and tbe arts. Tbe Cbickasaws say tbey originally came from tbe West, and tbat a part of tbeir tril)e remained tbere. Wben about to start eastward, tbey were provided witb a liirge dog as a guard and a pole jus guide. Tbe dog would give tbem notice wbcnever an enemy was near at band, and tluis enable tbem to make tbeir arrangements to receive tbe foe. Tbe pole tbey would plant in tbe ground every nigbt, and tbe next morning tbey would look at it, and go in tbe direction in wbicb it leaned. Tbey continued tbeir journey in tbis way until tbey crossed tbe great Mississippi River. ( )n tbe waters of tbe Alabama River, tbey arrived in tbe country about wbere Ilunts- ville, Alabama, now is. Tbere tbe pole wiui unsettled for several days, but finally it scttb'd, and pointed in a soutbwest direction. Tbey tben started on tbat course, |ilaiiting tbe pole every nigbt, until tbey got to wbat is called tbe Cbickiusaw Old l''i('lds, wbere tbe pole stood perfectly erect. All tbe people tben came to tbe con- clusion tbat tbis wiis tbe Promised Land, and tbere tbey accordingly renuiined until they emigrated to tbe lands west of tbe State of Arkansas, in 1837 and 1838. While tbe pole wius in an unsettled situation, a part of tbe tribe moved on ('list, and became mixed witb tbe Creek Indians, but as soon as the majority of the tribe settled at the Old Fields tbey sent for tbis party, who answered that they were very tired, and would rest awhile wbere tbey were. Tbis clan was called Cusb-eb-tab. M. ■I 'i H " 1 1' ' 348 THE INDIAN TRIBES OF THE UNITED STATES. pHpf I'lVRi , 1 i They iiovcr Joined the parent tribe, but tbey iilwayH remained friendly to it until tliey eunie in eontact with the wiiites; then they became a separate nation. In their tradition of travelling from the Wewt to the East the Chickaflaws have no recollection of croHHing any large watcr-courHC except the MiswisHij)pi Kiver. When they were travelling from the West to the Promised Land in the East they had enemies on all sides, and had to light their way through, but they cannot give the names of the peoj)le they fought with while travelling. Tiiey were informed when they left the West that they might look for whites; that the wiiite men would come from the Eiwt; and the red men were to be on their guard, and to avoid the whites, lest the hitter should bring all nuinncr of vice among them. They say that they believe in a Great Spirit, and that they were created by him ; but they do not believe in any punishment after death ; they believe that the spirit will leave the body as soon as they die, and that it will assume the shape of the body, and move about among the Chickiusaws in great joy. When one of the Chick- asaws dies, they put his finest clothing on him, with all his jewelry, beads, etc. ; this, they say, is to give the dead a good appearance. The sick are frequently thus dressed before they die. They believe that the spirits of all the Chickasawa will go back to Mississippi, and join the spirits of those that have died there, and then all the spirits will return to the West before the world is ilestroyed by fire. They say tiuit the world was once destroyed by water ; that the water covered all the earth ; that some nuule rafts to save themselves, but something like large white beavers would cut the strings of the raf\s and drown the people. One family was saved, and two of every kind of animal. They believe that when the world is to be destroyed by fire it will rain down blood and oil. When they are sick they send for a doctor, for they have several doctors among them. After looking at the sick perscm awhile, the family leave the patient and the doctor alone. The latter then commences singing and shaking a gounl over the patient. This is done not to cure, but to find out what is the disea.'^e. As the doctor sings his songs, he watches the patient closely, and finds out which song pleasi's. Then he determines what tiie diseiuse is. He then uses herbs and roots, and resorts to steaming and conjuring. The doctor frequently recommends to have a large feast, which is called Tonsh-pa-shoo-i)hah. If the patient is tolerably well off, and remains sick for two or three weeks, they may have two or three Tonsh-pa-shoo-phahs. They eat, dance, and sing at a great rate at these fea.sts. The doctors say that it raises tiie courage of the sick, and weakens the evil spirit. They say they got the first corn just after the flood ; that a raven flew over them and dropped a j)art of an ear of corn, and they were told to plant it by the Great Spirit, and it grew up ; that they worked in the soil around it with their fingers. They never had any kind of metallic tools. When tiu'y wanted logs or poles a cert4iin lengtii, they had to burn them ; and they made heads for their arrows out of a white kind of lliiit-rock. They say that it has not been more than a hundred years since they lirst saw cattle, horses, and hogs. THE TRIBES. 849 After their Hettlcment in MiHwisHippi they Imd Bcveral warn, all (Icfonsivc ; they fouglit with the CiioctawH, and came ofl' victorious ; witli tlie CreelcH, and killed Hcvcral hiiiidred of them, and drove the invaders oil"; with the Cherokees, Kickapoos, OsagoH, and Heveral other tribes of Indians, all of whom they defeated. A large number of French landed once at the Chickasuw Blufl', where Memphis (Tennessee) is now, and made an attack on the ChickasawH, but were driven off with great loss. At one time a large body of Creeks came to the Chickasaw country to kill them all, and take their country. The Chickasiiws had received information of their approach, and built a fort, assisted by Cajjtain David Smith and forty-five Ten- nesseans. The Creeks came, and but few returned to the Creek Nation to tell the sad tale of their slaughter. The government of the Chickasaws, until they moved to the west of the Missis- sippi, had a king whom they called Minko; and there is a clan or family by that name that the king is taken from. The kingship is hereditary through the female line. At the time of their removal they had chiefs out of diiVerent families or clans. The highest clan next to that called Minko is the Sho-wa. The next chief to the king is out of this clan. The next is Co-ish-to, and the second chief is out of this clan. The next is Oush-peh-ne. The next is Min-ne ; and the lowest clan is called Ilus-co-na. Runners and waiters are taken from this family. When the chiefs thought it necessary to hold a council, they would go to the king and rtMjuest him to call a council. He would then send one of his runners out to inform the pcoj)!© that a council would 1)C held at such a time and place. When they convenetl, the king would take his seat. The runners then placed each chief in his proper place. All the talking and business was done by the chiefs. If they passed a law, they informed the king of it. If he consented to it, it wius a law ; if he refused, the chiefs could nevertheless make it a law, provided every chief was in favor of it. If one chief refused to give his consent, the law was lost. As to the large mounds that are in Mississippi, the Indians do not know whether they are natural or artificial. They say these mounds were there when the tribe fii-st got to the country. The mounds are called " navels" by the Chickasaws. They thought that the Mississippi was the centre of the earth, and those mounds were as the navel of a man in the centre of his body. 8KMINOLES. The Seminoles, whose attempted removal from Florida to the West, in 1835, occasioned the most troublesome and costly of the luviian wars in which our govern- ment has ever been engaged, own three hundred and twelve and one-half square miles, or two hundred thousand acres, in the Indian Territory, adjoining the Creeks on the west, and number two thousand six hundretl and thirty-six. In 1880 they spent seven thousand five hundred dollars for educatioiuil purposes. They have six public schools and one boarding-school under the care of the Presbyterian Board. ! -'fl 800 TUK INDIAN TJilliES OF TJlh' UNlTF.l) STATh'H. Tiicy cultivuto H(>vi>iiteon thousand iicroH, live in log Iiouhoh, and own largo Htocka of cattle, li()rH(>H, and Hwine. Tlicm; pi'oplv, whom it wa^ tiiu iauliion at onu tinio to call "roptiicH" and " rattli'HnakoH," aru making rapid HtridcH to ovvrtako their nioru advanced bretiiren, and in a tew yearH they will be e((ual to, and in Honic rcHpcctM even in advance of, the peo|de of the adjoining Staten. The CrcekH Hold landH to the United HtatcH on which to locate the HeniinoleH, but by Home nuHcalculation they were located on lan, in which the Choctaws and Chickiusaws also engaged, and only a few French escaped. Attacked January 27, 17:50, by Lesueur, with a larger (Choctaw force, eighty of the Natche/ w^re killed, and many captives were recovered. in 17'il, (iovcrnor IVrrii-r fought ihem on IMack Itiver, west of the Mississipj)i, and captured a large luimber, including the Sun and other |)rincipal chiefs, who were taken to San Domingo and sold as slaves. The remmmt of the tribe lied to tla? ('hicka.saws, but never rcaj)peared as a distinct nation. They afterwarils joined the Muskokis, and in 18;{.') were reduced to three hundred in inind»er. The Natchez Indians were first visited by La Salle in l()81-82. Tonty, his lieu- teiiiint, entering the great town of the Tensas, an allied people, gazed at it with astonisliinent. He had seen nothing lik(f it in Am.-rica. Larg(( sijiiarc! dwellings, built of sun-baked nuid mixed with stone, and arched over with a dome-shaped roof of canes, were placed in regular order annuul an ojten area. Two of them were larger and better than the rest; one was the lodge of the chief, the other wius the temjile or the house of the Sun. The Frenchmen repaired to the temple wherein were kept the bones of the departed chiefs. In construction it wius much like the royal dwelling. Over it were rude wooden figures representing three eagles turned towards the eiust. A strong mud wall surrounded the tcmph', planted witii stakes, on which were fixed tho skulls of slain enemies sacrificed to the sun. There was u 4 »». 'HII THE TlilUKS. 351 Htnu'turo in the middle, which iVrcinhr^^ thiiikH wim u kind of altar, and iipoti it imrncd a |ifi|K'tnal lire, ftil with thri'o logH hdd c-iid to end, and watched hy two oM men H(;t apart to tlie nacred ollice. Th\iH the Natchez, who were woinliippei-H of tho hum and took tlioir cognomen from the nanu! of tliat himinary, kept itn Hymhol perpetually hnrning. JJoth (liarlevoix and Dii I'ratz W(!re eye-\vitneHHcn of this rite. Tlu? hereditary dignity of rnler, or ('hi((f Hnn, descended in the femalt! line, and the lawH of intermarriage were ho regnlated that the head cirujf'H dcHcendantH were ohiiged to ally themiselveH with the lower chiHscH of the trihe, a nyHtem hy which all came to he iilcntified and honnd together in their political and rcligionH ties and honors. The title of Sun was e(inivale'.it to that of Inca, or Kmjx'nir, and the chief exercised a more ahsolnte power than appeal's to have l)een awarded to him in any other nation north of Mex- ico. The chief's despotic power and the national worship were kept up with an Oriental display, an*l with an Oriental nsc of the language' of honor and ceremony, long after the French settled in the Mississippi Valley, and, indeed, up to the de- Htniction of the trihe in 17:51. "The Sun has eaten," proclaimed an ollicial func- tionary daily hefore the Ruling Ohief of the Sun, after his morning's repast, "and the rest of the earth may now eat." Charlevoix, who visited the Natchez nation in 17*21 and inspected their temple, pronounces the descriptions which had hcen given hy prior writers of its ceremonies and appointments to have heen greatly exaggerated. He ohserves that the v.orship of the sun had prevailecrior, in latitude r,:," N ! h M *'4, 352 TIIK INDIAN TRIBES OF THE UNITED STATES. CONOARE13S OF SOUTH CAROLINA. The most considerable streams in South Carolina, ami especially those which, taking their rise in the Apijalachiau Mountains, traverse the State in their way to the ocean, receive their names from the Indian tribes which were found occupying their shores at the advent of the white man. The Catawba, rising in the mountains of North Carolina, on receiving the Wateree Creek becomes the Wateree River, and its valley was the favorite abode of the Catawba Indians. The Saluda and Broad, uniting at the town of Columbia, form the Congaree, and this, after its junction with the Wateree, becomes the Santee, which bears this name till it falls into the Atlantic. The Broail Kiver was calhnl by the Catiiwbas Eswau Huppeday, or Line River, because it was the established line between them and the Cherokecs. Of the Con- garees, who gave their name to the river which is formed by the conf.uence of the Saluda and Broail, little is historically known. The earliest European voyager who travelled through the country and hiis left behind him any account of the tribes occupying it Wiis John Lawson, afterwards Surveyor-General of Nortli Carolina. He left Charleston on Saturday, December 28, 1700, in a canoe, and, threading the bays and creeks of the coast, entered the Santee on the Friday following. He soon allerwards encountered a party of the Sewee Indians, who have given their name to Sewee Bay, near tlie mouth of that river, and whom he represents as having been formerly a large nation, but at that time much diniinished in numbers by intemper- ance, by the ravages of the smalljwx, and by a disiister at sesi which reduced still more the remnant of this peoi)le. Under the mistaken idea that England was not far from the coast, tliey fitted out a large licet of canoes laden with skins and furs tor tht purpose of traffic, and embarked all their able-bodied men, leaving the old, impotent, and those under age, at home. Mimy of them were lost in a storm, and tlie remainder were taken by an English vessel, whose ca])tain sold them as slaves in the West India Lslands. After j)!issini'; the settlement of the French Huguenots, which he describes as already a tiiriving connnunity, he visiteil the "Seretees or Santees" (Zantees), sonu; of whose customs he describes in pa.ssing. After travelling about seventy-iive miles, a journey which occupied about five days, Lawson reached the town of the Congarees. This he describes as consisting of some dozen houses, thougli the tribe had straggling plantJitious uj) and down the country, lie found them occupying the river-b(jttoms, having " curi(uis dry marshes and savimuiis" near. Tiiey had large stores of " cliinkaj)in-nuts,'' kept in large baskets for use, and hickory-nuts, " which tliey beat Ijctween two great stones, then sift them, and so thicken their venison-broth therewith," the small shells precipitiiting to the bottom of the pot, while the kernel, in the form of Hour, mi.ves with the liijuor. " Both tliese nuts made into meal nnike a curious soup." When he arrived among them he found the W(mien engaged in sonu; game wiiich, though he looked on for two hours, he could not understand. "Their arithmetic! was kept with a heap of Indian grain. He represents these Indians as kind and all'able to the English, HS >0i M'f THE TRIBES. 353 the queen being very kind, giving him wliat rarities her cabin afforded, such as " loblobby," made with Indian corn and dried peaches. The existence of the peach among them he elsewhere aihhices as evidence of the Eastern origin of the Indian tribes. One of the finest varieties of this fruit in Carolina is to-day commonly known as the " Indian peach," a variety not met with at the North. The Sewee or Carolina bean, known throughout the United States, bears the name of the Sewee Indians. Tlie red- or cow-pea, one of the most useful crops of the South, Lawson partook of among tlie Indians. Indian corn and tobacco we have received from the native tribes, just >;s we have received various other vegetables which our gardens yield from the Africans among us, — among the iutter, the egg-plant, the okra or gumbo, and Guinea corn. " These Congarees have abundance of cranes or storks in their savannas. They take them before they can Hy, and breed them as tame and familiar as a dung-hill fowl. They had a tame crane at one of their cabins nearly six feet in height, his head being round, with a shining natural crimson hue, whicli they all have." In another place he says of the cranes, " They arc above five feet high when extended. Their (juills are excellent for pens ; their flesh makes the best broth, yet it is hard to digest. They are easily bred, and are excellent in a garden to destroy frogs, worms, and other vermin." He extols the beauty of the Congarees: " These are a very coniely sort of Indians, there being a strange difference in the proportion and beauty of these heathen. The women here are as handsome as most J have met withal, there being several fine-figured brunettes among them." Their liospitality is applauded. " When their play was ended, the king or Casseta's wife invited us into her cabin. (The men of the tribe were absent on a hunting expedi- tion.) The Indian kings always entertain travellers, either English or Indian, taking it as a great affront if they pass by their cal)ins and take up their quarters at any other Indian's house. The queen set victuals before us, which good compliment they use generally iis .soon a.s you come under their roof." Again : " The queen got us a ;.!;ood breakfast before we left here." The following instance of medical j)ractice occurred as an j»ccoinpaniment : "She had a young cliiM which was much atllicted with 'he colic, for which distemper she infused a root in water, which was held in a gourd ; this she took into her mouth and spurtijd it into the infant's, which gave it ciise." "After we had eaten, we set out witli our new guide for the Wateree Indians." 'i'lK' Congarcis are represented as a people inconsiderable in nundter. "These Indians are a small people, having lost much of their former numbers by intestine liroiN, but most by the su'.alli)ox, whicli hath often visited them, sweeping away whole towns, occasioned by the immoderate government [improper treatment] of tiiemselves in their sii'kness. Nor do I know any savages that have traded with the 1 jiglish but what have been great losers by this distemper." Putting thi; " Wateree and Chickaree Indians" in comparison, lie says, "This nation is more populous than the Congarees and their neighbors,' yel understand not one anotiier's s2)eech." m ^'' (I III' riMilicd tluiii at a ili.sl:iii(.'u of thirty riiilit iiiilr.s. B'f I 354 THE INDIAN TRIBES OF THE UNITED STATES. But the Watereea on their part were dosjjised by the Waxhaws as a "poor sort of Indians,'' and among these last they found more style and a higher manner of living. The next notice we find of the Congarces is fourteen or fifteen years later. In 1715, to the great vexation of the inhabitants of Carolina, the Congarees, the Catsiw- biis, nnd the Cherokees united witli the Yamassees in a war of extermination against the cc'lonLsts. The conspiracy embraced every tribe from Florida to the Cape Fear. The southern division of the Indian force consisted of about six thousand bowmen ; the northern, among whom were the Congarces, of between six hundred and one thousand. The massacre of Pocatnligo was i)crpetrated by the southern division ; the church of stone Wiis burnt, and all the inhabitants south of Charleston either lied for refuge to that city, or were miserably slain by the cruel enemy, such as had no friends among the Indians being subjected to the fiercest tortures. The northern division, among whom were the Congarees, advanced beyond Goose Creek on tlie way to Charleston, and murdered the family of John Ilearne. During this expedi- tion, Capt'iin Thom-is Barker, who opposctl them with a company of about ninety mounted militia, fell into an ambuscade, and, with several of his men, was slain ; and in the Goose Creek settlement, seventy white men and forty negroes, who had hastily entrenched themselves, rashly agreeing to terms of peace, admitted the Indians within their breastwork, and were by them inhumanly butchered. After the Yamassee war was brought to a close by Governor Craven, the Congarees seem to have conlin-jd themselves to their ancient haunts. In 1722, some eight years after, a fort or garrison was in existence among them to protect the settlements below from hostile incursion. In 1730-;}8, Thomas Brown had taken un his abode near this fort as an Indian trader. He '>ud, perha|)s, been preceded b^ others in the capacity of travelling mercliant.s. At what time the Congarees disappeared from their ancient haunts is not accurately known. Cirants were made in Amelia township, laid out on ilie southern side of the Congaree, as early as 17J55, and in the townsliip of Saxe (Jotha, north of Amelia, in 171^7. In 17'{o, Thomas Brown, Indian trader at Con- garee, Old Fort, purchased of the Waterees the lands l)etween the Santee (Congaree) and Wateree as far up as the Catawba Fording-Piace. About this time, then, we may siip[)0se they began to change! tlieir residence. What became of them history does iK)t inform us, but they probably withdrew to the northwestern j)art of the State, and were merged in the great body ot the Cherokees. THE TUIUKS OF TIIK PACIFIC SWl'K. The Indians of the Pacific sh)pe are divided into numerous smuil tribes, and are genemliy lower in the scale of humanity than tiiose of the interior. In Northern California, ( Jrcgon, and Washington Territory they sulisisted ehielly upon the salmon l)efore government undertook their support. Tiio. e on tiie California coast wv re peaceable and inclined to lie i'liendly to tlir whites wiien settlements were first estab- lished among tlicni. Along the Klamath and its triliutaries, as well as on the 1 poor sort anner of ater. In le Catsiw- n against ipe Fear, bowmen ; and ono division ; on eitluT cli as had northern k on tlie is expcdi- ut ninety vas shiin ; who had ,c Indians A.t'ter the 3 seem to irs after, a elow from near this e capacity lir ancient iiid ont on p of Saxc IT at Con- Congarec) !, then, we (m history the State, 'S, and arc Northern Jie sahnon coast were (irst estah- as on the *>ii prwii' • ^f.^"™-— fK"*-^' • Mill 72 ipr^ ^- ^ \.5;:?:i-.'- • ^.s ,,„ VWa/- IlI. 72 I H i-it<- 73 m \lKlt TUK TRIBES. 355 Trinity, Mad River, Eel River, and lining the entire coast from Point St. George to below Mendocino, they were very numerous. A marked distinction existed between the Indians living on the coast and those inhabiting the mountains, the former being indolent and improvident, while the latter possessed more of the bravery, cunning, and superstition peculiar to the savages of the Northwest. They associated but little with those on the coast, and seldom inter- married, seeming to consider themselves a superior class. They killed an abundance of game with their bows and arrows, and caught immense quantities of sjilmon, which they smoked or dried for winter use. In respect of food, deerskin clothing, and .'omfortable houses they were well provided. Those Indians living on the coast, at the mouths of the rivers, and around Humboldt Bay, subsisted principally upon mussels and fish, or an occasional stranded whale, gathering also roots, seeds, and b3rries. They had comparatively comfortable houses, and lazily basked in the sun or indulged in the favorite pastime of gambling, while the squaws did all the drudgery. The Indians living on the banks of a river, though composed of different bands having neither ethnic nor tribal affinity, generally take the name of the stream. It is a remarkable fact that a separate and distinct language is spoken by the Indians on these ditlerent rivers, or on nearly all of them. Those on the Klamath speak a different language from those on the Trinity, one of its tributaries. The fact of this entire want of unity, or of a recognized head, rendered it exceedingly difficult to treat with these Indians, or successfully to colonize them on reservations. When placed together they did not harmonize, retaining their petty divisions and distrust of one another. Though naturally indolent and degraded, they are not devoid of a certain kind of intelligence. They are superstitious in the extreme, seeming to derive more of the little moral restraint they exhibit from this source than from any other. CALIFOKNIA TRIUICS. Among the numerous families or stocks of Indians found in California are the Shoshones, rejn-esented by the Payute (Pi-Ut<') and Kanonya (Spanish, Coahuila), the latter of whom prevail from the Cabezon Mountains and San Bernardino Valley to the Pacific coast ; the Yumas, of whom the Iiigueno and Comoyei are around San Diego, along the coast, on New River, etc. ; Mutsun, designating a family of dialects extending from the environs of San Juan Bautista, California, northwest to the Buy of San Francisco and the Straits of Carquinez, reaching probably to the San Joaquin River on the east, and identical with the language called Runsien ; Yoyeut, a tribe in the Kern and Tulare biusins, and on the middle course of the San Joaquin River, consolidated in 1800 into one coherent body by their chief Piuscual ; Meewoc, the largest tribe in population and extent, reaching from the snow-line of the Sierra Nevada to the Sati Joaquin River, and from the Cosunnies to the Fresno ; Meidoo, a merry, dance-loving race, formerly extending from the S;u ramento River to the snow- line, and from Big Chico Creek to Bear River; Wintoon, a timid, superstitious, and m 1 % 1 i ii^ w 35G rill'] INDIAN TRIIiES OF THE UNITED STATES. grossly sensuiil race, settled on both sides of Upper Sacramento and Upper Trinity Rivers, found also on the lower course of Pitt River ; the Yukiis, a revengeful people, conspicuous by very large heads placed on smallish bodies : they originally dwelt in Round Valley, cast of Upper Eel River ; Pomo, a populous, unoffending race, settled along the coiut, on Clear Lake, and on the heads of Eel and Russian Rivers, a ]iortion of whom are now on tiie Round Valley Reservation ; Eurok, a tribe on the Klamath River, from its mouth up to the Great Bend, at the influx of the Trinity River ; Cahrok, a tribe extending along Klamath River from Bluff' Creek to Indian Creek, a distance of eighty miles ; Shasta, a tribe which, becoming involved in the Rogue River war, was at ita close removed from its old homo in the Shaata and Scott Valleys, and is now on the Siletz and Grande Ronde Reserves in Oregon ; the Pitt River, a poor and abject-looking race on Upper Pitt River and its side-creeks ; Klamath, inhabiting the table-land between the Sacramento and California River basin, the central part of which now forms their reservation ; and the Tinn6 family, of which are the Hoopa, a populous, warlike, and compact tribe on the Trinity, wlio formerly kept the surrounding tribes in submission ; the Rogue River, who speak a language replete with guttural and croaking sounds; and the Umpquas, who live in and around Alsea, a sub-agency on the sea-coast. The chief reliance of the California Indians, summer and winter, is on seeds. The females construct, with great ingenuity, baskets of willow cr osier for gathering and cleaning these seeds and for transporting them to their lodges. MISSION INDIANS. The Mission Indians of California are composed of the following tribes, viz., Seranos, Diguenos, San Luis Rey, Coahuilas, and Owongos. They number about three thousand, and their settlements are scattered over portions of San Bernardino and San Diego Counties, and chiefly iti the mountain and desert districts embraced in a range hundreds of miles in extent. The first of the Jesuit missions, from which they received their name, was estab- lished at San Diego in 17G9. In 1804 there were nine missions at different ])oints between San Diego and San Francisco. The emissaries of the priests gradually brought the natives under control, and gathered them in settlements around the missions, instructing them in agriculture and civilized life. In 182(5 there were twenty-one missions and a population of twenty-five thousand, having large {wsscs- sions in cattle and grain. The tide of gold emigration and trade, in 1849, dispos- sessed them of their lands, made them homeless wanderers, and introduced a course of extermination, tlieir condition becoming yearly more deplorable. As a class tlic Mission Indians arc industricms, sustaining themselves by cultivating their little fields, or by ]al)()ring for ranchmen in their vicinity. During the sheep-slieariiig season their services are greatly in demand, a.s they are especially skilled in this kind of labor. Besides the ^fission, Iloopa Valley, R(nin(l Viillcy, and Tule River Agencies, \. m.-/. '!• THE TRIBES. 357 where nearly all wear citizens' dress, there are the Klamuths and other Indians, to the number of six thousand, scatteroa through different counties in the State, and upon whom civilization has as yet exerted no beneficial influence. Of the Iloopa Valley Reservation, containing over one hundred thousand acres, nearly all is still in the possession of the settlers, who have never been paid for their improvements. Only twelve hundred acres of this land are cultivated by the Indians, none of whom subsist by the chase, all the able-bodied men being required to work. The practice of seeking their " medicine-men" in ca.se of sickn^s ir> gradually dying out. Of the Tule River Reservation, in Tulare County, containing forty-eight thousand five liundred and fifty-one acres, not more than two hundred and fifty can be utilized for farming purposes. It is a rough, mountainous district, too rugged and rocky even for grazing. Only one hundred and sixty of the six hundred and ten Tule and Ttyon Indians, for whom it was designed, can live on it, the remainder residing in Tulare and adjoining counties. All these Indians wear citizens' dress, the women gen- erally making their own clothing ; and they are gradually improving their condition. There is one school in operation at the Tule River farm, with an attendance of thirty-seven scholars. The Indians belonging to the Round Valley Reservation are the Konkau, Little Lake, Pitt River, Potter Valley, Redwood, Wailakki, and Yuki tribes. The reser- vation contains one hundred and two thousand one hundreed by white trespassers. The disbandment of the Jesuit missions of California, and the disjiersion of the population which had been thus brought under instruction, have rendered it im- piticticable to distinguish the various grades of the aboriginal population. When the Americans succeedeil to the occupancy of California, the sites and buildings of these missions existed all along the coiist from San Diego to San Francisco ; but they appeared to have been long abjindoned as centres of teaching the natives. Lieutenant A. W. Whipple, U.S.A., who passed through the bands on the line of survey between San Diego and the coiust opposite the mouth of the Gila, found the Diguenos. lie laid stre^ss on the fact of the tribe's having boon formerly organized iu a Spanish mission ; and tlioy still spoke many Sj)anish words, anil gave some evi- dence of iujproved manners, though without nmch industrial energy or moral char- acter. But before reaching the Colorado he entered the territories of the Cushans or Yumas, who are the merest barbarians. " Warriors dye their faces jot-bhuk, with a strip of red from the forehead down the nose and acrass the cliin. Women and young men usually paint with red, and ornament their chins with dots or stripes of blue or black ; around their eyes are circles of black." Tiiere wore also encoun- i ) i t m ill 1 1, !■ 3o8 Tilt: ISDIAN Tliini:S up the UNITtW STATES. tcred on this part of the route other hands, and he pronounces those living near the mouth of the (lila "a desperate set of raseals." In tiie manners and customs of tlio trihes living in the circle of country around San Diego we perceive nothing that lit\s them above the darkest superstitious of the most degraded luinter-tribea of other latitudes. " In their religious ceremonial dances," says an observer on the spot, " they differ much. AVhile in some tribes all unite to celebrate them, in others men alone are allowed to dance, while the women assist in singing." Of their dances the most celebrated are the dance of the liawk- i'eiist, tl»e dance of peace and plenty, the dance of victory, the dance of puberty, and the dance of deprecation. These are uU considered religious, and apart from dances of mere amusement. The dance of dei)recation is performed when any person of the tribe fulls sick unaccountably. All believe such illness to be the work of witches, or rather of wizards ; for among them males are more liable than females to be accused of occult practices. On occasion of the dance in question all the mon'bci-s of the tribe assem- ble, bringing with them each an offering of the products of their gathering. The whole is deposited in u basket, and the dance begins. Significant words are sung by the women, tiie children, and the old, while generally the warriors alone dance, to time kept in their ordinary way, by arrows used lus cjistanets. This is kept up till a lute hour, when the priest rises and presents ^he offering, waving it high from right to left, and shouting at each wave, the tribe responding by a deep groan. During this jnirt of the ceremony no other noise is heard, but all is deep and respectful attention. At last the dunce breaks uj), uiul uU disperse. The offering is prepured und cooked on the following duy, und in the night the inefficient old men of the tribe alone meet und eat it. Here the ceremony ends, and they believe that the evil genius has been appeased. On the first proof of womanhood in the maiden a great ceremonial feast comes off". The girl is covered up in the earth, and the ground beaten, so that a profuse sweut succeeds, und this is kept up for twenty-four hours. During this intervul she is withdruwn and washed three or four times, and re-embedded. Dancing is kept up the whole time by the women, and the ceremony ends by uU joining in a big feast given by the parents of the girl. One of their most remarkable superstitions is shown in the fact of their not eating tlie llesh of large game. Tliis arises from their belief that into the bodies of all large animals the souls of certain generations, long since past, have entered. It is not the metempsyf;hosis of Pythagonis, but one of their own, since they always say it is u i)eople long since jMissed away whose souls have been thus trunsluted. It is j)robable that the superstition once extended to all large animals; but the Mission Indians being fed entirely on beef, and their robberies consisting mostly of herds of horses, the superstition ha.s been rcunoved from the domestic animals, except the hog. This unimul was kept in the Missions for its lurd, and was difficult to steal in (juuntity : hence the continued prohibition of its flesh among them. These prohi- bitions are set aside in ease of the old and inefficient men of the tribes, who are m^ ' THE TRIBES. 359 allowed to cat nnytliiiig ami cvcryfiiing that comes in their way. A white man at firfit finds it diflicidt to believe in their good faith in this regard, but a couple of proofs may bo adduced. On one occasion u half-Indian wished to amuse him- self at the expense of the devout. He prepared a dish of bear-meat for them, and said it was beef, and all ate heartily of it. When the trick was made known to them, they were seized with retchings, which ended only with the removal of the cause. A term of reproach from a wild tribe to those more tamed is, " They eat venison !" On an eclipse all is consternation. The people congregate and sing,— to appease the evil spirits, as some say, to frighten them, according to others. They believe that the devils are eating up the sun or the moon, and they do not cease their singing until the eclipsed luminary comes forth in it« wonted splendor. The Mission Indians have suffered great losses from epidemic diseases since their first intercourse with the whites, and these diseases have exterminated whole tribes. The introduction of the smallpox they attribute to the Hudson Bay Comj)any : the disease wiis very fat^U to them in the year 1839. The fever and ague, which also proves fatal to many every year, they say was never known among them until the year 1830, when an American captain by the name of Dominis arrived at Astoria in a vessel from the Sandwich Islands. These, and sundry other bodily complaints of modern date to which they are subject, they attribute altogether to the whites, whom they seem to look upon as having the power to communicate these diseases to them. Hence one cause of their avowed hostility to the whites. • T TOTONIC TRIBES OF SOUTHEUN OREGON, ifuio. Nfttnofl of Banda. « i y. 1 1 S a la I 1 % Chli'fi. Location. 18 30 CO i) 24 3U 10 18 117 «!) r)3 32 20 40 45 10 18 22 11 17 23 59 85 133 50 27 102 120 51 00 171) 120 153 124 1 1 3 Clcmtna (John) ChcUiikds Unhultcuh Ciiqiiilln River. Cociiiillc Kni'k.'i. Florcs Creek. Elk River. Port Orfnnl. Yiiquft I'rcek. Rojjuii River. Pistol River. Whale's Head. Chct Ko. Six niile» iibovo the month of Rop;no River. Ahove the bif; bend of Rojjiie River. Fourteen miles above mouth of Rogue River. (!li(»kr«l('tan (jtiuhtoniiih C(>.<>iilht'ntnti YllqUrtfllO » 41 4r> ir, 20 18 47 1)1 58 6 18 24 11 12 22 22 23 17 3 1!) 12 10 1!) 12 10 17 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 C'hHtullinkt'iili... Ahohc.«S('e C'Hlwnwt'Alt Enotiis Ni'lyotiihiipsku.. Tohushiiqiu'us... THiiiiiincti-sti .... Yarhiuiist'o Tiilliiiltus YhIi Hlmlt'8 t'lii't';i'«»cnt«n WliistKHBtin Sisti('ii(i>4tu Miii|iic'lncit>-ii Total 1290 On tlu' settlement of Oregon, the ino.st considerable of the Indian tribes spread over that portion of the country were tliose stretching north of Klamath River, of California, and the northorii boundiiry-line of that State, up the Pacific coa.st. They 1- ■ p T 3G0 THE INDIAN TlilliKS OF rill': UNITED STATES. coiiHiHtod of tliirtooii Imnds, bearing soparuto iiainoH, the mo8t coiiHidcrahIc and j)roin- inciit of wliidi woro tlie four bandn clusU'ring about tlio coullucuw of the rivor, whic'li, from tbeir bad faith in trade, had been called by the early Freueh traders Cotiiiille (or Kogue) liiver. These four bands bore the naiiies Nasouia, Chokreletaii, Yah yiiutes, anil Tototens, and, as the whole group of these sea-eoast tribes H[>eak dialeet.s of tlie same language, they imiy be grouped together under the name of Totonie. About the year IHaO they were united in u league for defensive purposes, at the head of whieli was a ehief of some note, called dial Nah, and the combina- tion of tril)es, it is allirmed, bore the name of Tototen. The princii)al wars in this region liave been with these Tototcns, whose numbers have raj)idly decliued, partly owing to internal discords, and partly through lios- tilities with the settlers. The names and numbers of the bands, with their principal chiefs) anil residences, are embraced in the above table. •'1 ^wP» ORKOON TKinES. The five agencies in Oregon contain a population of about five thousand Indians. Besides these there are some eight hundred roving on the Columbia liiver, on the eastern side of the Coast Range. Tiiose ;>t the Grande Ilonde Agency were placed here in 185(>, and are remnants of the jiumerous and once powerful tribes wliich formerly occupied the Willamette and Koguc liiver Valleys. With the extinc- tion of tribal relations among them, and the removal of the different families to the lands allotted them in severalty in 1877, the bitterness of feeling and jealousies once existing among them have been removed, and they are, u.s a rule, industriously engaged in agricultural pursuits with creditable progress. All now live in houses, wear civili/ed costume, and have adopted many of the habits of the whites. The great majority are earning their own support by farming and stock-raising. The Klamath llescrvation contains one million and fifty-six thousand acres, in the ex- treme southern j)ortion of the State. Tliough not well adapted to agriculture, it it* good grazing country. No more industrious or cnterjjrising tribe can be found thy.: the Klainaths. Had they an agricultural country, they would soon be self- supporting. They have a population of one t'unisand. The Modoc tribe were joint occupants of this agency with the Kfamaihs, but the overbearing (lis])ositioii of the latter forced a jwrtion of them to leav, and brought on the JNIodoc war of 1872-7o. Those who took no part in the war are at Yamax Station, on the Klamath lleservation, under chief Schonschin, brother of the man who Wiis executed with Caj)tain Jack. The Silet/. Reservation borders on the I'acillc Ocean, and contains two hundred and forty-six thousand acres, of which only twenty-three thousand, on or near the Siletz River, are tillal)le. These Indians, numbering about eleven hundred, are the remnants of fifteen dilferent tribes, formerly scattered along the coast in small vil- lages, each governed by its own chief, and generally hostile to the others, having nothing in common with them but haired of tlii' whites. These tribes were placed mJ ■' ■ ' ■<■■ THE TRinES. 361 5j',' here nt the concluHlon of what w known iw the " Roj^uo Rivor war," iti 1855, in wliich they won; tho priiicipiil iictors, mid Hcpiiriite trciitii'H luivt! hct'ii niuilo with them. Sonic of thusc trcaticH wens in pint confirnuul iiml coinpliisd with hy tho United StutcH, bnt nuwt of them wore wliolly disregarded, and for Bixtcen years tlio Indians were kept as prixonerH, and HnhsiHted upon a scanty huiu annually doled out by CongrcHH. The earnest efforts ntcently made for their improvement have been very sueecssful. They now have a local govijrnnu'iit, modelled after that of Oregon. Many already have their farms well fenced and stocked, with good comfortable dwellings and out-houses erected thereon. IJcsides a day-school, they have a board- ing-school recently established. About one-fourth of the Umatilla Reservation, in Northeastern Oregon, containing three hundred and twenty-six thousand live hundred and fifty-one acres, is moun- tainous and covered with tiinbi'r. The remainder is well adapted to agriculture and grazing. The Indians are of the Walla- Walla, Cayuse, and Umatilla tribes, and number one thousand. Nearly all are self-supporting, a small number subsisting by root-gathering, hunting, fishing, etc. There is a steady improvement in this resjKJCt, and the Indians are slowly adopting civilized customs. Their revenue is mainly derived from stock-raising. They own about twenty-six thousand head, mostly horses. They arc the wealthiest of the tribes on the Pacific slope. Their children show great aptitude for learning. Eight miles south of the Warm Springs River is the agency that derives its name from the hot springs in its vicinity, whose waters passess valuable medicinal (pialities. Tho Indians of this agency are widely and favorably known. They con- sist of five distinct tribes, — Wascoes, Warm Springs, Tenninoes, John Days, and I'i-Utes, five liundred and fifty-eight in all. The Pi-Utes were brought here in October, 1871), from Vancouver Rarracks, where they had been held prisoners of war. Nearly all these Indians wear citizens' dress, and all, except the Pi-Utes, are self-sustaining. They are making constant progress ; they have a boarding- and day-school with a large attendance, and have greatly improved in morals, polygamy, gambling, and drunkenness being far less common among them than formerly. iw. i.''*i TnilJES OP WASHINGTON TERRITOIIY. There are seven agencies in Wa.shington Territory, — Colville, Neah Bay, Nis- qually, (iuinaielt, S'Kokomish, Tiilalip, and Yakima, — in which citizens' dress is worn by nearly all the Indians. Including the Pi-Utes and the Bannocks, who left liie Malheur Agency at the outbreak of the Bannock war in 1878, the population of the Yakima Reservation, in the southern part of the Territory, containing seven liundred and eighty-three thousand three liundred and sixty acres, is thirty-nine hundred. Remote from contact with the whites, it is the model agency of the Pacific slope. These Indians are extensively engaged in agriculture and stock- raising, and own twelve thousand horses. They manifest an increasing desire to learn and practise the arts of civilized life, to accumulate property, to increase the 4(i ;5(>2 Tin: ISDIAN TlilliES OF THE UNITED STATES:. iirciv of ciiltiviitfd liind, iiiul to acquire comfortable liomea and otlier adjuncts of civilization. Tlicy have erected a cimrcli capable of seating seven hundred people, and have two schools in successful operation, the Manual-Labor School having proved of incalculable benefit to them. The Neah Bay Indians live almost entirely by iishing and seal-hunting, and are not inclined to cultivate the ground. They have an iuvlustrial boanling-school, and are gradually renouncing their old habita. Their reserve, in the extreme northwest point of the Territory, is mostly rough and moun- hiinous, and unfit for cultivation. The Nis(jually Agency embraces the Puyallup, Nistjually, Stpiaxin, and Ciichalis Reservations, in the northwestern part of the Territory, and seven bands not on reservations, numbering in all about iitlw'u iiun- dred. The Nisipiallies and I'uyallups have churclu^, schools, and other evidences of progress and improvenu'nt. The 8quaxins and Chehalis are in a non-progressive or even declining condition. At the (^uinaielt Agency the agent reports that in 1880 he could perceive a marked change for the better in conforming to civilized habits. The H'Kokomish tribe have for six years pjust nwidcd on lands allotted to them in severalty, have cleared small farms, built comfortable housw, and ac(piired the substantial comforts of civilized life. Their children all attend school, and their young men arc learning trades. The Tulalip Agency c;»nsists of five reservations, covering an area of eighty- three sqjiare miles, and containing a jiopulation of two thousand eight hundred .ind niiH'ty-eight Indians. Most of these have discarded their fornier habits and vulopted the ciistoms of civilization. There are six schools in this agency, two of them boarding-schools managed by the Sistei*s of Charity. Nearly all the Ir.dians of tiiis agency are llonuin Catholics. There are nearly four thousand Indians on the Yakima Reservation, who are daily improving in thrift and industry, and manifest an incrciisi.ig d«'sire for the ac(piisition of the comforts of life, and for tlie relin- (piishment of their old ways, that they may become more closely fussimilated to the whites around tiicm. TheColville Reservation, in the nortbesusttfrn por^'in of the Territory, established in 1872. contains two million i'iglit hiiiKircd thousand acres, and a population of three thousand live liiinilrcd and three. The C(eiir irAlem-s (four hundred and lifty) are on this reserve, tlic Lakes, Okanagaiis, ainl t^an P(M!ls (nine hundred and eighty-three) are on the Colville Reserve, and the Met-hows (three hundred and lifteeii) are on the Columbia Jieserve. i^ix hundred and seventy Colvilles are .'settled on the east side of the Coiiiinitia Iviver. The Spokans (six hundred ami eighty-five) are living along the Spokan River, and the I'end d'Oreilles (lour liiiii- died) are principally ups»' labors are highly salutary and praiseworthy. THE TIWiES. 3G3 J0AKOTA8, OH SIOUX. Dr. Tlioinius S. Williamson, of (Jhio, wlio spent sevoral years among the Dakotas of the MisHi8sii)i)i, settles definitely the ancient locality of a portion of the river tribes of the Dakota stock at Mille Lacs, the source of Rum Itivor, in Minnesota ; and this is ai)parently the ancient location of the " Issati" of Hennepin, a fact which restores full credibility to an important part of that intrei)id nnssionary's narrative. It is known that the l>akotas have for more than two centuries been receding before the fierce and warlike forest clans of the Algonkins, whom the French were the first to supply with fire-arms. "They have rcsidcil," says Dr. Williamson, " near the confluence of the Missis- sippi and St. Peter's for at least two hundred years. They say they were residing in this neighijorhood bef(jre the Assinilmines si'i)aratcd from tliem, and that when their ancestors came to that country it was inhabited by Indians of other tribes, who left the country when they came into it. They say that their ancestors before they came to the Mississippi lived at Mille Lacs, whicli they call Isantamde (Knife Lake). From their having resided at that i)lace probably comes the name Isanyati (dwelling at the knife), by which the J)akotius of the Missouri cull those who live on the Mi.s- sissippi and St. Peter's. Their traditions all show that they came from the northea.st and are moving to the southwest. Their country ('..temleil from the Mississippi to the Black ilills. Its eastern j>ortion is now the Suite of Minnesota. They were almost without agriculture, and depi-nded upon iish, game, and wild rice. Their proper name, Dakota, signilics aUird or li'or/iud loijil/wr, and is ecpiivalent to our r.iune United, as applied to the States, and all who are not Dakotius, or allies, are consiilered enemies, and it is deemed glorious to kill one of them, though dfsccnded fmm the Dakotu family ; as the similarity of language shows to be the ca.se with not only Assiniboines, but the \Vinnebag(i> s, lowiis, Omahaws, OsMges, and Quapaws. Tiu'y were called by the Algonkins Xadonessieux (enemies), shortened by the French to Sioux. "There are three grand divisions of the Dakotius : L The Isanyati (Santees), who re,sided on or near ihe waters of the Mississippi and St. Peter's, and most of whom plant some corn. Tlie.se are subdivid'Ml into ;'ie Mde-wahantonwan, Warpe- tduwan (\Vah|)eton), Sisitonwaii (Sis.seton), and Warpekute, and altogether are lii'tween five th(aisand ;iiid six thousand souls. Witiiin the memory of jiersons still living, these all lived near the Mississippi and St. Peter's, within narrower space tlian they now occu[)y, their eastern limit being about the Falls of St. C'roi.x, the iiorlhern limit not far beyond the Falls of St. Anthony, and the western not far from tlie mouth of JMuc Fartii Kiver. "lid. The Ilianktonwan (Yankton), of whidi the lhinki)atida!i and Ilianton- wanna are subdivisions. Tt)nwaii signifies 'to dwell,' or 'dwelling.' Ihanktonwan signifies 'inhabiting tlm end or extremity,' and probal)ly was given them from tiieir liaving fi)rnierly dwelt at the head-waters or extremities of the Mississippi or St. 1 1 r 3G4 77/ A' INDIAN TRIBES Of TIIL UNITKD STAl'fJS. Peter's, in which country they dwelt at tlie commencement of this century. They at present [1855] range over the immense prairies between Bt. Peter's and Red River of Lake Winnipeg on the nortlieast and the Missouri on the southwest, often crossing the latter stream. A few of them planted on an island in Lake Traverse, and a i'ew on the Missouri, but most of them depended for a subsistence entirely on the buffalo. Their numbers arc variously estimated at from four thousand to eigiit thousand, or even more. Tiieir dialect differs considerably from those of the other divisions, and, like their location, seems to be intermediate between them. " 3d. The Titonwan (Tetons) constitute the last grand division of the Dakotas, and are said to be more numerous than both the others. They are divided into many bands. It is said that none of them 2>liiiit) and but few of them are found to the northeiist of the Missouri. In the Titonwan dialect the sounds of / and g hard are both very common. In the other dialects the former is never heard, and tlie latter only at the end of words." The Dakotas acknowledge seven nations or divisions, of which the seventh, the Tetons, wiis subdivided into eight bands. They are now organized into twc'vi bands, known as Isaunties, or Santees, Yanktons, Yanktonnais, Sissetons, Ogalallao Brules, Uncpapsus, lilackfeet, Dakotas, Ohenonpas, Minikanyes (Minneconjou8),Sans Arcs, and Itazipcos. Isaunties is n generic term used by the Western Dakotas to designate their kindred on the Mississippi; and Tetons is another employed by the latter to describe the former. They also speak of their confederacy as the Seven Council-Fires, from their seven political divisions. Our diplomatic relations with the Sioux began in the year 1815. The treaty of Prairie du Chien, in 1825, dolined ihe boundaries between the Chippewas and the Sioux, and it was hoped that their incessant feuds might be brought to an end. Fighting, however, went on as before, white traders suffering as much as the Indians themselves. Subsequent treaties have been made with them as follows : at Prairie du Cliicn, in 1830, ceding land between the Mississippi and Des Moines Rivers; another, in 183(5, ceding to the State of Missouri a long, narrow belt of country on tlie Missouri Rive; at Washington, in 1837, ceding all their land east of the Mis- sissippi River; and in 1841, ceding thirty-five million acres on the west side of that river, " the garden-spot of the Mississij)pi Valley, larger than the State of New York, and fertile beyond description." In its transactions with the government tliix tribe has been tricked and cheated on all sides, — promised a home in ring and ordered off before harvest. The pi'ople have been in a starving condition much of tiie time, liable at any moment to have bodies of United States soldiers swoop down on them and punish whole bands for depredations committed by a handful, perhaps, of a totally distinct band, and the whole nation has been bantlied aimut from civil authori v fo military ; aiid yet the Ogalalla band, which has jtecn nu)ved eight times since 18v,.» hius made tiie most decided advance towart'.-t civilization of any Indian community since that dale. 15y the treaty of Fort Laramie, in 1851, the bonntlaricf^ with the Western tribes were settled, and the United States were by payment of an annuity of fifty thousand dollars for fifty years entitled to estai)lish roads and military posts THE TRIBES. 866 They at River of crossing nd a lew e buffalo, usand, or ions, and, Dakotas, ided into found to id g hard , and t'.ie /enth, the to twe'vi Ogalallac, ous), Sans )akotas to ployed by the Seven } treaty of 3 and the an end. le Indians at Prairie s Rivers; ountry on f the Mis- dc of that e of New inent thi-* ing and uch of the down on hups, of a author! ; iiice \h\..j, onimunity witii tlie miniity of itary posts m within their limits. The United States Senate virtually annulled this treaty by limiting the annuity to fifteen years, and hostilities broke out in 1854. In 1855, General Harney destroyed a peaceful Sioux village, killing eighty-six men, women, and children. The " Powder River" war of 186G-68 resulted from the attempt to open to travel the route to the gold-fields of Montana through the especial buffalo range of the Sioux. In the course of it the massacre of Colonel Fetterman and his entire command occurred. The result of the Sioux war of 1862 in Minnesota was their removal from that State to Dakota, where they were placed upon reservations. Ordered in 1875 by General Sheridan, in violation of their treaty stipulations, to abandon their hunting-grounds and come into their reservation, the Sioux, disre- garding the order, were attacked in the following spring, and the village of Crazy Horse was destroyed. On June 25, 1876, at the Little Big Horn, General Custer and his entire command were destroyed by Sitting Bull and his warriors, who subse- quently made their way into the British possessions. This hostile force surrendered to Major Brotherton at Fort Buford, July 10, 1881. The Sioux are at present the most numerous and powerful tribe in North Amer- ica. They are of fine physirae, are endowed with great personal courage, and are skilful warriors. Though backward in adopting civilization, their intellectual powers compare favorably with those of other tribes. They have long been a terror to their white and Indian neighbors. They number thirty-two thousand two hundred and eighty -six, gathered at eleven agencies, — nine in Dakota, one in Montana, and one in Nebraska. At Santee, Sisaeton, and Devil's Lake Agencies, the point of self-support is nearly reached. They are located in severalty, live in hr uses, wear citizens' dress, send their children to school, and own farming implements, and stock. About three- fourths of the Sioux at the Yankton Agency have made equal progress in adopting the customs of civilized life. At Cheyenne River, Crow Creek, Standing Rock, and Lower Brule Agencies, progress wiis seriously retarded by the Sioux war of 1877 ; but the erection of seven liundred and eighteen houses, the selection of individual farrafe, the breaking of six hundred acres, and the raising of forty-ono thousand bushels of whes.t and !i»in and twelve thousand bushels of vegetables by these Indians in the year 1880, h. ■)W them to l)e advancing with the remainder of the Sioux nation. The four ■ luvisand seven liundrod and thirteen Yanktonnais Sioux at Fort Peck, with the V:i them Sioux who deserted Sitting Bull's camp and attached themselves to this agency, are the only Sioux who now engage in hunting to any extent. They are wild blanket-Indians, who have only recently made their first ailvance towards eivilizii .'111. During the winter of 1878 the Ogalalla and Bruh*' Sioux, under chiefs Red Cloud and Spotted Tail, remov -t from the Missouri River to their reserve, where they are opening farms and building hoijscs. They have engaged enthusiastically in freighting, and are locating their housi's at wide distances from one another, instead of crowding together in one central camp or village. They are orderly and peaceful, aiiu a fairer record could not reasonably be expected from fourteen thousand wild, m iW ■*y r .;■ 366 THE INDIAN TRIBES OF TUE UNITED STATES. restless Indians, who, during tlio Sitting Bull campaign in 1876-77, furnished the largest number of recruits for the hostile force. Red Cloud, head chief of the Sioux, was born at the Forks of the Platte in 1820. He was made a chief for bravery in battle, and rose to be head chief in 1850. He is said to have been in eighty-seven engagements, and has frequently been wounded. He is six feet and six inches in height, possesses wonderful sagacity and eloquence, and is skilful in the use of the tomahawk, rifle, and bow and arrow. He was in the battle with Fetterman's command at Fort Phil Kearney, and visited President Grant in December, 1866. Spotted Tail, another leading chief of the Sioux, was shot at the liosebud Agency, August 1, 1881, by Crow Dog, chief of the Indian police. Perceiving the uselessness of flghting the wliite man, he managed to keep peace with them whi'n preserving his popularity with his tribe by appearing to hate and opjjcse the whites, j .>'' occasions. His sagacity and adroitness are shown by the following anecdote. 1 aterview with the President at the White House, after the latter iiad been adcii-, A by all the other chiefs standing. Spotted Tail called for a chair, seated himself near the President, and talked with him with easy familiarity, >is with an ecjual. The Santee Sioux left Minnesota about 1862, and, after several removals, 8ettle-i TUE TRIBES. 375 lie arclui'o- of St. Croix and Francis Ilivcr, on the Upper Misnissippi. They were defeated, along with the Sioux, by tlie Chippewiis under Waub-ojoeg, in a great battle at tlie Falls of St. Croix. For the Winnebagoes to preserve their relations with the French under these circumstance.s recpiired skill and diplomacy ; but in tliis they had the support of the great body of the Sioux, their relatives, who dwelt immediately west of them on the Mississippi. On the fall of the French power in Canada, in 1700, the Winnebagoes were cau- tious about entering into intimate relations with Great Britiiin. But the French had left a»i clement of great influence with the Western Indians, in the vulif population, or the half-breeds, of mixed French and Indian blood. This power was conciliated l)y the English agent.s and of'icers, who thus mollified the Indian resentments, and iinally gained the confldcnce of the aboriginal tribes. The Winnebagoes were firm in their ne,v fealty. They opened their country to English traders ; and when the Americans rose, in 177(>, to a.ssert their independence, the Winnebagoes sided with the crown. In all local questions of jurisdiction, such as were discussed at Prairie du Cliien, Green Bay, and Michilimackinac, they were arrayed, without a single exce{)tion, on the side of the British authorities. Wh(!n the (piestion of fealty a-ssumcd a new vitality, in the war of 1812, the same pn'ferences prevailed. They sided with the crown and flag of the red cross against the Americans. They helped to defeat Colonel Croghan .at Michilimackinac, Colonel l)u In 1811 they had listened to the false Shawnee prophet of the Wabash, Elkswat- tawa, and his more celebrated brother Tecumseb, who told them, along with the whole mass of the Western Indians, that the time had arriveil for checking the Americans in their progress, and for regaining, under the Briiih standard, their lost dominion ill the West. They accordingly contributed an .iiiaries in the war that ensued. Tliey, like the other Indians, reduced their po| ..lation thereby, lost every promised object, were wholly deserted or unrecognized in the treaty of Ghent, and returned to their homes gloomy and sour-minded. They showed some insolence in the years immediately following towards certain travellers in the Fox and Wisconsin Valleys, lloo-choop, a stern chief at the outlet of Winnebago Lake, assumed to be the keeper of the Fox Ilivcr Valley, and levied tribute, in some cases, for the privilege of ascent. l-i 1.: '!''^M 37G THE INDIAN TUIHES OF THE UNITED STATES. In the autumn of 1821, a young Winnebago, called Ke-taw-kah, killed Dr. Madison, of the United States army, under eireumstanees of great cruelty, and Avithout the slightest j)rovoeati()n. The nuirderer was promptly arrested, tri(Hl, and executed. The act was disavowed by the nation, and led to no interruption of j)eaceful relations. For some years after the war of 1812, in which the political hopes of all the tribes were wrecked, Jhey were looked upon with distrust by travellers. But with the exception of the murder of J)r. Madison, and that of a man named Ulric, at Green Hay, they j,ave way to few passionate outbreaks, and preserved peaceful relations with the Ijnited States. All the lake tribes had been misled by the war of 1812, supposing that its result, through their adherence to the mother country, would be to restore to them their hunting-grounds west of the Allegha- nies, or at Iciust to set bounds to the encroachments of the Anuu'icaiis ; and when the contrary result was made known to them, most of the tribes retired from the field of condict to their native woods, as angry as a bear that hius been robbed of her cubs. The Wiiinebagoes were not, tlu'refore, peculiar in their moodiness after this war. The history of their dealings witli the American government is brief and delinite. The fnvt indication that they could not permanently remain in Wisconsin was 2)er- baps given l)y tlie exju'dition to explore the country, in 1820. They gazed at that expedition silently, as if n<»t understanding it. In 1822 tiiey were visited by Rev. Jedcdiah Morse, who says, " They have five villages on the lake, and fourteen on llock lliver. The country has abundance of springs, small lakes, ponds, and rivers; a rich soil, prodiu-ing corn an, 181(), abm . live months after the treaty of (ilient, in which tlicv pledged themselves to peace, conlirnied all j>rior grants to the IJritish, French, and Spanish governments, and agreed to restore prisoners. On the lUth of August, 182."), and tlie lltli of August, 1827, tliey adjusted, at Prairie du C'liien and JJntte des Morts, with the other trilx's and with the United States, their territorial bounda- ries, and also agreed upon t real ie> of peace and t'riendsliip. The lingering unfriendly feeling j)roduced by the war of 1812 l»roke out at Prairie du Cliien, on the Missis- sippi, in the summer of 1827, when they iired on a l>arge descending that stream, and committetl other outrages. This led to the prompt movement of troops fniiii St. Louis, who checked the outbreak; and lloo-choop, tiieir principal cliief in Fast Wisconsin, with thirteen other prin(i|)al men, signed the treaty of the 11th of August, 1827. In the year 1828 tlie discovery of valuable lead-mines in their territory, north of llock Iviver, led the inhaliitaiils of tiie tVoiitiers of Illinois t<» pass over and coiii- nience mining operations in that ipiarter. This |)roducei| alarms and collisions on both sides, whi of territory. IJy this treaty stipulations were made for the introduction of schools, the removal of shops and agencies, and their advance in agriculture and civilization. The treaty, which was concluded at Rock Island on the 15th of September, 1833, was of great benefit to the tribe, who prospered and increa.sed in population under its execution. One of the worst acts resulting from their connection with the Sac war, and one which stains their character by its atrocity, was the assassination of Mr. Pierre Pacquetto, the interpreter at the agency, on the Wisconsin I'ortage. He was a man of Winnebago lineage, and was reputed to be one of the best friends and counsellors of the nation. M«jfe than one-fourth of the tribe was carried off by smallpox in 1830. By a treaty concluag(K's tb m- selves disliked the removal, and could not be induced to go soutli The com- missioner, in his report of November 28, 1840, remarks that after ^ome of the contiguous bands had piu«sed over the Mississippi, the rest manifested so much aversion to (piitting their old homes in Wisconsin that the task of inducing t'lem to migrate wsus committed to (Jeneral Atkinson, who eventually extended tli' mie to the sjtring of 1841. (Jreut efforts were retjuired to overcome their rein ..mce. In September, 1840, the aged chief Karamanee, as well as Weenoshaik and other chiefs, lUiide speeches to the agent strenuously opposing it. At length the government (Icterniiiied to remove the agency, schools, and shops to Turkey River, and directed tlie next annuities to be paid tiiere. The nation still dung, as with a death-grasp, to tiie hills and valleys of Wisconsin but tl so steps were effective. 48 378 THE INDIAN TRIBES OF THE UNITED STATES. Mr. Lowry, their agent, remarked in 1842 that the depopuhition from indulgence, drink, and disease, which had attended the removal, had been very great and demoralizing. He says that the number of children to each female in the tribe did i^ot exceed the average of one, and that wretchedness and bloodshed were of so frequent occurrence as to have ceiised to excite attention. Thirty-nine persons had ])erished in this way in a short time, and sometimes two or three were stabbed to death in a night. Under this arrangement subsequent removals were made to the stipulated grounds in Iowa, till the whole tribe had migrated. During a period of ten or twelve years, while they occupied the Neutral Ground, they appear to have augmented in their numbers and means and improved in habits. There was a visible change in habits of cleanliness, and their opinions respecting the subject of labor underwent a marked change, so that the females were no longer expected or allowed alone to work in their fields. On the 13th of October, 184G, in a treaty concluded with authorized delegates, the tribe ceded the " Neutral Ground," in Iowa, and agreed to accept an adequate tract of country north of the river St. Peter's, on the Upper Mississippi. By this treaty one hundred and ninety thousand dollars was to be paid them in various forms, of which sum the interest of eighty-five thousand dollars, at five per cent., was directed to be paid to them in annuities during a period of thirty years. In conformity with this treaty, the tribo was removed to a tract on the Upper Mississippi, between the Watab and Crow-Wing Ilivers ; which tract was jjurchascd from the Chippewas by the treaty of the 2d of August, 1847. The seat of the agency was established at Long Prairie River, where buildings and sliops were put up for them, and extensive fields ic'iiecd in and ploughed by the farmers appointed to teach them agriculture. Some difiiculties were encountered in inducing the entire tribe to concentrate on this position, and in overcoming the erratic habits of the tril)e. Although in no way im]tlicated in tlic Sioux outbreak in Minnesota in 18(i2, government was compelieil l)y tiie |)()pular outcry from thiit State to remove tiiom. They were taken to the ('row Creek Agency, Dakota, whciu'c, after great hardsiiijis and suffering, and to avoid starvation, they fled to tli<' Omaha Reservation, in Eastern Nebraska, where, after six removes, they now air. The earliest notice we have of the W'iiineba^ |iopulali(in is one found at Paris, in a manuscript list of Indian tribes jmpared liv M. C'liaurignerie in 173(». He puts the Puants or Winnebagoes at eighty warriors ;iiid seven huiKh'cd s(»uls. It is to l)e renuMuliercd in rclalioii {>> tlicse sniiili nunihcrs tiiat .MIkucz iiad re- ported them to have been almost desti'oyed by the Illinois at a prior period. In tlie estimates published by Colonel IJoucpU't, in the mirrative of his march west of the AMeghanies, in 17()1, they are put down at seven hundred warriors, — an evident mistake. Pike, the first Amerieaii author on th(( subjeet, estimates the entire Winne- bago populatiun in ISiKi at two tliousand. Their pi'esent |in|Mil;ition is I'oiirteeii hundred iiiid twenty-nine. They liave the re|iulatiuii of beiii;., ilie most tn'aelieidiis and C(twar8s in itself, and this waa as strong in the female as in the male. Thus, a turtle totem denoted the brother or sister of a turtle family, a wolf totem of the wolf family, a Ix^ar totem of the In'ar family, etc. The appeal to tlic totem wa.s a testimony uiKiuestioned. This tutemic tie wa.s a jioint of srf SB THE TRIBES. 387 proud and Htoicul honor, iiiul the plodgo of a totem wiw a tcHtinumy never doubted, whether in the Bociiil circhi or wij^wam, the gnviul council, or in lifc'H liiHt extremity at the stake, and a warrior's toten ^a« recorded by a representative device at the grave. The history of the worhl shows that it is one of the tendencies of bravery to cause woman to bti respected and to assui ic her proper ranlc and inlhience in society. Tiiis was striltingly nuuiifcHted in the iiistory of the Inniuois. Tiiey are the only tribes in America, North or Houth, so far as we have any accounts, who gave to woman a jiower in political deliberations. The Inxpiois matrons had their r('[)re8cn- t^itives in the public councils, and they exercised a sort of veto power in the important question of the declaration of war. They had the right also to interpose in bringing about a peace. It did not compromise the war policy of the cantons if the body of the matrons expressed a decision in favor of peace. This was an extraordinary feature in a government organized on the war principle, and among a race which, both in the domestic circle and in the corn-field, laid heavy burdens on their fenudes. To such a pitch of power had the Iroquois confederacy reached on the discovery of what is now New York, in 1G()9, that there can be little doubt that if the arrival of the Europeans had been delayed a century later, the Five Nations would have absorbed all the tribes between the Gulf of St. Lawrence and the mouth of the Ohio. Such a j)roceHs of extension was in rapid progress when they were first supplied with fire-arms by the Northern colonists ; and as fire-arms were furnished them long before the Western tribes received such arms, the Iroquois supremacy was for a long time promoted by this circumstance. In a map prefixed to Mr. Colden's History, published in 1747, the most southerly and wi'stwardly points of the Iro<]uois infiuence are placed at the mouth of the Wabash, and along the eiustern shores of Lake Michigan. In the elaborate map of Lewis Evans, published by Benjamin Franklin in 1755, the country subject to their sway is called " Aquanishuonig," and reaches from the Wabash to the St. Lawrence, including both sides of Lakes Erie and Ontario. It extends to the source of the Illinois and to the mouth of the Ohio, and tradition denotes that the Five Nations extended their warlike incui"sions even to the entrance of Lake Superior. Not that they had permanently conquered all this region, but they had rendered their name a terror to the tribes who lived fiir west as well as east of the AUeghanies. They drove the Eries from the Ohio Valley and the south shore of Lake Erie, together with their allies, the so-called Neuter Nation of ("anadii. They gave the Missis-sagies a location there, and reserved most of it tus hunting-grounds. Not a village was siiilered permanently to exist along the Ohio from the M(mongahela to the Kentucky River, a territory which they ceded to Great Britain. They pushed their forays along the entire range of the Alleghany Mountains, through Pennsylvania, Mary- land, West Virginia, and North Carolina, to Fort Hill, in South Carolina, the resi- dence of the late Hon. John C. Calhoun, which wsls a Seneca station, waging the most inveterate war against the Catawbas and Cherokees. According to the tables of Mr. Jefferson, the kindred tribes, called Nottoways, Meherrins, and Totelos, i!:, !V«a ';! 388 THE INDIAN TRIBES OF I'lIfJ UNITED STATES. occupied tlio luomituinoua districls of Virginia; mulcr tho name of Tuscaroras tliey spread over the interior of Mortli Carolina. Tlie pride and arrogance with which they addressed the nations whom tht^y had sul)jiigaicd east of the mountains, particii- hirly on the waters of the Sustpiehanna and Dilaware, have no paraUel in history. " Cousins," said Canassatego, achlressing the once proud Lenni-Lenape, at the treaty of Lancaster, in 1744, "let this helt of wampum serve to chiustise you. You ought to he taken hy the hair of the head and sliaken sevcu'cly till you recover your senses and heconie soher. You don't ''now on what ground you stand, nor what you are doing. Our brother Onas's' cause is very just and plain, and his intentions are to preserve friendship. On the other hand, your cause is had, and your hearts far from being uj)right. You are nudicioi' dy bent on breaking the chain of friendship with our brother Onaa and liis people. We have seen with our eyes u deed signed by nine of your iiieestors, above flt^y years ago, for this very land, and a release signed not many years since by some of yourselves and chiefs now living, to the number of fifteen or upwards. Jiut how came you to take upon you to sell land at all ? We conquered you ; we made women of you ! You know you are women, and can no more sell land than women ; nor is it fit you should have the power of selling land, since you would abuse it. This land tiiat you claim is gone thn/Ugii your guts! You have been furnished with clothes, meat, and drink by the goods paid you for it ; and now you want it again, like children a? you are! Ihit what makes you sell land in the dark? Did you ever tell us that you had sold this land? Did we v\vr receive any i)art — even the v due of a pipe-shank — from you for it? . . . You hav(( told us a blind story! . . . You act a dishoiK .iid i'or all these iciisons we charge you to remove instantly, — we don't give you the liberty to think about it. You are women ; take tlu^ advice of a wise man, aiul n'lriove immediately. You may return to the other side of the Delaware, where you came from. lUit we do not know whether, considering how ycm have demeaned yourselves, you will be permitted to live there; or whether you have not swallowed that land down your throats as well iis the land on this side. We, therefore, assign you two places lo go to, either to Wyoming or Shamokin ; you may go to either of these places, and then we shall have you more under our own eye, and see how you behave. Don't deliberate; but remove away, and take this lielt of wampum." 'I'liis is the language of a coiKjueror Hushed with success and conscious of power. The fact that the mandate was immediately oinyed is a suflicient proof of the existence of this jiower. The Delawares went to Shamokin. After a pause, ihiring which the speech was tian lated into the Iroquois and Del- aware languages, ( 'ani'.ssalego resumed his speech, and, taking a string of waiiipimi in his hand, added further, " After our just reproof and absolute order to de|iari from the land, you are now to take notice of what we iiave In rt her to say to yon. (JoviTiKir IVmi. ■dSBUMiaSw^ i| rill-J TlilBKS. 389 This string of wampum serves to forhid you, your children, and your grandchildren, to the latest posterity forever, meddling in land iiHiiirs; neither you, nor any who shall descend from you, are ever hereafter to presume to sell any land. For which purpose you are to preserve this string, in memory of what your uncles have this day given you in charge. We have some other husiness to transact with our brethren, and therefore (hfpart the councii, and consider what hius been said to you." 8uch reproa(rhfu'i language was not often heard in the Inxpiois councils. It renunds one o*" the ironical speech of (jlarangula to the Governor-(jeneral of Canada on the failure of his vaunted expedition to the Onondaga country. They always deliberated with the utmost calmness, and uttered their opinions ami sentiments with emphasis and gesture, but in language lofty and dignilied. That they were some- times pathetic is proved by the speech of the Cayuga chief Logan, the son of Shikellanius. The Oneida sachem Skenandhension, breadth of forecast, and appositeness and sharpness (»f reply, — no other representative of the tribes of North America has e(p.ialled the Seneca orator Ruil .Jacket, or Sagoyewatlia. Many white peoph of enlarged and cultivated minds listened with admiration to \\\a manly and eloquent orations. Such wi're the Ircxpiois ; and if this celebrated league had done nothing else to prove their capacities ;us thinking men, the instances cited would justify us in pro- nouncing them to present high (pialities of mind. One feature of their league resembles strongly the system of the United States. Tills is the principle of its extension. Every new canton which was added to the original Mohawk league augmented its strength and durability. Wlicii, after long experience of the working of the league, the live cantons admitted a sixth, in the Tiiscarorius, they were still more formidable to the surrounding nations. This was in 1712. Eleven years afterwards, in a full council at All)any, they received the seventh nation, in the Necariages of Michilimackiiiac and Lake Huron, a peojile from whom they had been estranged since the first settlement of Lower Canada. They also received the Mississagies into their league, making the eighth nation. This was a people of iiv» castles and eight hundred and lil'ty men. They were Algonkins, but faitht'ully adhere8agiu!i &* Iruqiuiis, :is lio dues in the Kcciinil viiluino uf the .Xiui'riuaii Klliiiulouiuui Sociuly'ti Trunsactiuns, h I 390 THE INDIAN TRIBES OF THE UNITED STATES. Meherriii River, in Virginia, and some other tribes of the Monalioac stock. If they luul received into their confederacy, with eipial rights, all the nations whom they conquered, they would have become a most powerful confederacy, stretching from the banks of the Mississippi to the St. Lawrence. This fact appears to have been per- ceived by Cana.ssatego when he gave that remarkable piece of advice to the Colonial Commissioners at Lancaster, in July, 1744, recommending union and agreement among the colonies, and stating that this had been the cause of the Iroquois strength and power. OXKIDAS, Tlu! name of this tribe holds a prominent place in the aboriginal history of the country. Iroquois tradition regards tiiem as one of the youngest members of their confederacy, but a,s far as the deeds of this noted confederacy are known, the Oneidas ever held a prominent rank. It is averred that an Oneida sage first suggested in council the j)lan of the confederacy, and the tribe has been noted down to modern days for a succession of wise counsellors and benevolent men. The name of Oneida is indicative of the origin of the tribe. They had lived at a ])rior period on the banks of Oneida Lake, at the confluence of Oneida Creek. They migratrKl from their first j)osition up tiie beautiful and fertile valley of the Oneida to Kunalua, the })resent site of the town of Oneida Castle, and subsequently to the elevated lands at the source of the stream. Tiie sachems pitched their wigwams near a large crystal spring on tliese heights, in a snuill rural valley shaded ])rofusely with butternut- trees. Tiie site wius sheltered from the eastern winds by the contiguous summit of an elevated hill. Its western borders afforded a range for hunting the deer and elk, — a range extending to the banks of the Suscpiehanna. Near this spring, resting on the gra.ssy jilain, stood an upright boulder of tSilurian limestone, which is figured in the cut on the opposite jiage. This has sometimes been called by Europeans the Oneida Stone, but not correctly. Some five or six hundred yards east of this secluded and romantic location the sheltering hill reaches its apex. On this elevated position they found an orbicular boulder of rock partly embedded in the soiK at which they built their council-fin' while assembled around it to delilterate on their national affairs. This spot l)eeanie the site of their beacon-fire when it was necessary to summon the tribe to war. For it was the apex of the summit-lands, and a light kindLd here could be seen for a aiily derived originally from the Irocpiois on, a hill, its local and participial forms in Id and aiif/ being dropped in usage. Nationality with our Indian tribes is dated fmni the period (»f their assuming to build a separate council-fire. Viewed under tliese striking circunistanees in their history, — always present in the minds of the Oneidas, — the term carries the signilication of the Tribe of the Light of the Council-Fire, THE TRIBES. 391 and Council-Stone. Actuated by the respect wliich is felt for the tribe, the people of Oneida County, New York, have within recent years transferred this monument of Oneida history from its ancient resting-place between the waters of the Mohawk and Sus(piehanna to an artificial mound prepared for i\h reception in the cemetery at Utica. The Oneidas invariably mairtainod a high rank for the urbanity of their manners and the wisdom of their counsels. Urave in war, mild in peace, and hospitable under all circumstances, no visitor or wayfarer, wiiite or red, ever entered their cabins without having his wants supplied and being kindly put on his track. Humanity thus apjjeaicd to quenched the spirit of vengeance, and it was only necessary for the weak to fall into their ])ower to be assured of kindness and safety. During tiie course of our b.icitory thi-y have uttered expressions which would not disgrace the lips of a fJrccian sage, and as the claims of civilization became understood they have endorsed those claims in expressions which nuiy be said to embody the very essence of Ciiristianity. No maxim of anticpiity excels in sublime simplicity or trutlifu!nes.s the expressions t)f the venerable 8kenandoah, uttered in view of his (h^ath, wlien the years of more than a century had passed over his head, and he waited in total blindness and calm sul)mission for the hour of his recall from earthly scenes. The French called this tril>e Onioiih, and the Canadian authorities made early and strenuous efforts to bring tiiem under their inHncnce ect and esteem of Wash- ington, and that their noble sachems stood by lini in the darkest and most perilous days of the Revolution. All that marked the aboriginal state of the Oneida prosperity and power has pas.sc(l away. Many of their number have taken shelter in the distant valleys of Wisconsin, and a portion of the tribe has Joined the Iro(piois settlements in Canada : in both positions, however, they arc no longer hunters and warriors, but farmers, mechanics, and Christians. The remnant who linger in their beloved valley have almost entirely conformed to the high state of industry and morals around them. Their only ambition now is centred in the school, the church, the farm, and the work- shop. Not a trace of paganism is left. Not a single member of their compact and industrial conununity is known -ho is not a temperate man. Education and industry have jjerformcd their usual oflices, and the iState of New York has within late years extended over them the shield of her protective laws and given them the benefits of her school system. Few men have appeared among the aboriginal race who are as well entitled to respect a.s was the Oneida chief tSkenaiidoali. Few men in the narrow sphere of Indian action have passed through such varii'd scenes, and still fewer have been spared to abide so many years on the earth, for he was reputed to be one hundred and ten years of age when he died. If he was so, he must have been born in the early part of the reign of Queen Anne, and he lived on to the close of Air. Madison's Presidential term. In the Kevolutionary contest he and his tril)e joined the colonists, and rendered essential services to the Auierican arms; while the Mohawks, and other members of the celebrated and powerful Inxpiois league, cast in their lot with tlie cause of the mother-country, and, ui-der the leadership of Brant, hung like a pesti- lence around the settlements of the frontiers. .Skenandoah early evinced the most active character iis a hunter. Khrewd in the observation of the habits of animals, and skilful to track them in the forest, his agility was compared to that of the deer, and this is the idea embraced in the name of Skeimii<}<)(t]t. \\\ person he was tall, brawny, erect, and dignilied. Jlis coun- tenance was rather light for an Indian, his eye was gray, his li|)s very pleasing and <',\pressive, his voice sonorous, and his whole air nobh' and commanding. In his youth be had been a brave and intrepiil warrior. In his ripei- years he was one ot" the ablest of counsellors. He pos.sessed a strong and vigorous mind. He never gave THE TRIBES 393 way to violent passion. He calmly weighed every subject that was presented to him, and generally preserved a blandness of manner, which, without lowering hid aignity, was very captivating. According to tradition, he was born of Oneida parentage, at Couciitoga, in the quasi-military colony which tlie Iroquois confederacy maintained on the banks of the Husquehanna for the purpose of surveillance over the Southern tribes. It is believed tliat he left this stream and returned to the Oneida tribe at Oneida Castle, in New York, after the tragical events which mark the history of Conestoga. At Oneida ('astle we hear of him as a ruling chief. In this capacity he was from an early date recognized among the deloguies and ambassadors of his tribe at oflicial convocations. In 175o he iussistcd in making a treaty at Albany. Like most of his tribe, he had after the conclusion of the ceremonies indulged freely in the use of ardent spirits, and he found himself in the streets on the following morning stripped of every ornament and of all his clothing. His pride revolted at this degradation. He saw in the clearest light the evils which threatened his tribe from this destructive practice, and he resolved from that moment never more to indulge in strong drink. This resolution he firmly kept for more than half a century to the day of his death, and this was doubtless one of the leading causes of his advancement among the counsel- lors of his tribe. Skonandoah possessed a strong sense of justice, and exerted himself to control the wild young men, who in those days sometimes committed depredations on the property of the frontier settlers. First in the line of early settlements that had begun to stretch from the Mohawk beyond the present site of Utica, were Whites- town, Middle Settlement, and Clinton, on the Oriskany. At the latter place a party of young, lawless, and iiungry Oneidas killed a cow in the woods, the flesh of which they ate, and carefully buried the bones, hoping thus to hide all trace of the act. Tiie frontiersmen of th'^s" days were, however, but little behind the Indians in the knowledge of signs. Tlie inicpiity was soon found out, and was reported to Skenan- dctah at Oneida Ca.stle. It was confessed by the guilty parties, and the chief, who had some cattle, ottered one of them to make restitution. Among his herd was a iiiie milch cow, by which he set great store. This was the animal pitched upon by tlie (Minton men. The chief heard their decision with dismay. But he refrained from giving any expression to his regret, merely saying, "Oh, you acute people, you are, indeed, excellent judges of cattle." The ruilowing was related l)y the chief himself to Mr. Williams.' " In IV "iS, the Chevalier de I?elstrie headed a i)arty of French and Indians, three hundred strong, from Oswegatchie, to attack Herkimer, on the Mohawk River. It so hapjK'ned that one of the Oneida Indians, who was then on a hunt, fell in witli a Caughnawalma, who disclosed to him the olyect of the expedition and advised him to alarm the v)neidus and the people of Herkimer. The Oneida immediately tied to his canton with the intelligence. But in the council held on the occasion no one \ 1 1 :.: ' Ht'V. Kloiizar \Villi;inifi (tho n'putdl Louis XVIt."). jit fr PHin" t^ ¥ !' 1 f' 1(1 Iffi^i! 394 77/^ INDIAN TRIBES OF THE UNITED STATES. would volunteer to go to Herkimer, as it was supposed that between the two jjlaoeH the country was already infested by the enemy's scouts, liut Hkenandoah volun- teered, and without delay was on his way tlirough the pathless wilderness. Being a 'swift rtuiner,' as was said by one of his contemporaries, he reached the place of his destination in a short time. On his arrival, he informeil the proper i)erson8 of the alarming news which had reached tlie Oneidas, and that he had come on jmrpose to coninuinicate the same to the people of Herkimer. Ihit, unfortunately, the intelli- gence was discredited by many, though the few particular friends Skenandoah had among those Germans adhered to his advice. Tiiese moved immediately down the river for safety. As for the rest, who gave but partial credit to his report, they made little pre2)aratiou for self-defence, and fell a sacrifice to their incredulity and apathy." The Oneida Indians had ever since they were known to the whites held a high reputation. Speaking one of the softest of the Irocjuois dialects, the Oiu'idas were also men of greater amenity of manners than others of that fic^rce rej)ublic, which had achieved its ])ower alone by war. They were noted not less for their friendly manners tlian for the wisdom of their counsels. And they ever held a prominent place in the councils of the confe^leracy. Skenandoah was pre-eminently a just representative of the nation. Wlier. the English determined to establish Fort Stan- wix in the Oneida dominions, the measure had his assent. In every jjoint of view it was one of ])ul>lic beneiit, for, while it gave his j)eo[)le the means of regulating the abuses of the fur trade, it interposed a check to the predatory parties of French and Indians, who for so many years had poured down upon the country, making the Mohawk Valley literally a Held of blood. When the contest arose between the colonies and the mother-country, Skenan- doah's long hal)its of association with the English, and his own personal feelings, would have naturally kept him on the side of the crown, luid not other views of life and duty made impressions on his mind. He was naturally a benevolent man, and as bis years advanced, and war and the chase jtri'sented less vivid attractions to him, he was plea.'^ed to see the increasing attention paid l)y his tribe to the cultivation of fields and the raising of cattle. No other inlUience had so direct a tendency to develop tliis disposition as the instructions given by Mr. Sanniel Kirkland, who lived in the Oneida country as a teacher and missionary. Mr. Kirkland's mission to the Oneidas was undertaken in IH'A. Oneida Castle, the ancient seat of the Oneidas, is some five-and-thirty miles west of Herkimer, wbicii was at tbat time tiie outermost (if the frontier white settlements, and the only mad to it was by the winding Indian paths that led through tlie deep forest wliieli tlien covered the whole country. One of the pi'culiar hardships of missionary enterprises at that day wiis the scant means of sustenance. Like other cantons of tlie IrcMpiois, the Oneidas rai.sed Indian corn, but often not in siitlicient (pianlities to last over till the new crop came. Kirk- land counselled them to lely more on agrienlture. The cliief at once acknowledged tlie excellence of tlie ailvice, and tlie people began to enlarge tlieir iields and to cul- tivate eseiiK'nt veiretabies. In the end Skeiiandoah embraced ("lirislianil v. To iiain I THE TlilJiJ-JS. 395 Skenaiuloah wiis, in fact, to gain the Oneida tribe, and he adhered to Christian tenets and forms with stability, and continued steadfastly to honor his i)rofes8ion till he descended to the grave. The willing attention which Skeiiandoah gave to moral instruction appeared to prepare the way for the enlargement of his mind on other subjects. It is known that Mr. Kirkland was a personal friend of Washington, and he often conveyed to the Indians Washington's advice with regard to the conduct of their national affairs. AVashington desired the Indians to maintain neutrality in the contest, and to adopt the ordinary means which civilized nations employ to secure comfort and happiness. It luus always been one of the hardest and most unsuccessful of tasks to repress the insatiate passion of the Indian for war, for war seems to most of the aboriginal races the only path to honorable distinction. The Mohawks, who had been the peculiar recipients of royal favor at Johnson Hall, rushed eagerly into the contest, supporting the royal cause. The Senecas, who covered the country from the lake at Geneva, the ancient Canadagia, to the banks of the Niagara, followed them. The Cayugas, the Onondagas, and a portion of the Tuscaroras adopted the same policy. All tin; Western tribes, in fact, took up the tomahawk on the royalist side. Tribes who had lived in war for uncounted generations, and who had sucked in the love of warfare with their mothers' milk, listened coldly to all counsels of peace, and could hardly fail to suspect that the ardor of Washington's pacific advice arose in part from the weakness of his jtosition, hedged in as he was on one side by the armies and fleets of one of the most powerful of nations, and on the other by their own numerous and formidable countrymen. Skenandoah was not led astray by any such impression. The accuracy with which he was furnished with intelligence respecting the causes and progress of the contest, placed him in a position to judge calmly and correctly. From the begin- ning he espoused the American cause. When the struggle assumed, perhaps, its most disheartening aspect, in 1777, the Oneidas offered the struggling colonies two hundred and fifty men. These men were not accepted for service in the field, but were employed, under the conduct of Skenandoah and a chief called Lewis, as scouts and mes.sengers. As such they were useful during the war, and rendered signal ser- vice in ol)serving the progress of the enemy from Canada, under Sir John Johnson, previous to the seizure of Fort Stanwix. In the winter of 1780, Skenandoah and two others undertook a long and tedious journey to Niagara, with the ostensible purpose of relieving the sufferings of those Oneidas who were prisoners at that place, and they were bearers of a friendly letter from the Oni'ida chiefs to the commandant of Niagara. Mr. Dean, the United States interpreter, has stated that this journey was undertaken by the advice of Governor Clinton, General Schuyler, and the commandant at Fort Stanwix, who supplied them with neces.saries for the journey. Although the nature of their mission Wiis not (liscovereil, yet they were suspected of being spies, and in consequence were held as prisoners at Niagara. They were eon lined there three months in irons, but were released from their confinement after having made a promise to the commandant of 11 li iyt 39G 77//; h\DlA!f TJillih'S OF THE UNITED UfATES. the post to roinain with the Britisli during the war; to which promise two among them, of whom Skenandoah was ono, adiiercd strictly, not returning to their nation until after the peace, in 1782. To carry out the original design of their visit to that post, one of the three, with the approbation of his two friends, said he would attempt to return to his tribe, and go to Albany with the intelligence he had obtained of the enemy's strength and position, — points which had been examined wiih an Indian's eye. " There is no honor or justice in this kind of war," said Hkcnandoah. " We are unjustly detained as prisoners. We came here, so far as the Ikitish knew, on a friendly mission ; but they took us for enemies without any information concerning us, and they have treated us as such. Let us carry out our original plan." Skenandoah's person was tall and brawny, but well made ; his countenance was intelligent, and strongly expressed the native dignity of an Indian chief. He possessed a strong and vigorous mind, and, though terrible as a tornado in war, he was bland and mild in peace. With the cunning of the fox, the hungry perseverance of the wolf, and the agility of the mountain-cat, he watched and repelled the Canadian invasions. His vigilance once preserved from massacre the inhabitants of the infant settlement at German Flats, and among the Indian tril)es he was distin- guished by the aj)pellation of " the white man's friend." So strong was the attachment of the Indian chief to Mr. Kirkland that he obtained from the Kirkland family a promise that he should be buried near his spiritual father (whom he survived several years), in order that, as he said, " he might cling to the skirts of his garments, and go up with him at the great resur- rection." When he died, March 11, 181(>, aged one hundred and ten years, his remains were conveyed to Clinton, where a funeral service was held in the church, after which his body was deposited as he had desired. A monument has been erected to the chief at Hamilton College. In his old age visits of honor were frequently made to him. It was on one of these occasions, when his visitors were gathered before him, and the thoughts of other days came strongly upon him, that he uttered these words : " I am an aged hemlock. The winds of a hundred winters have whistled throusrh my branches. I am dead at the top. The generation to which I l)elonged have run their course and left me. Why I live, the (Jreat Good Spirit only knows. Pray to my Jesus that I may have j>afieiK'e to await my appointed time to die." OXONDAGAS. Iroquois liistory, like tluit of many nations of fur higher pretensions to wisdom mid glory, begins in an obscure period of mythical deities, giants, monsters, and nondescripts. The Indian cosmogonies are not a whit behind those of early Greece ' The term nij/ii, in tlic TroquoiM, signifies place or lorality, and is tlic e(|uiviilpnt of tin- Kn^lish tormi- nutions in iy, bury,fiild, ham, etc. On, in compound words, denotes a liiil ; its duplication gives intensity. In tliis uiunncr tiiu expression Onondaga (i.e., place of liills) has its ori^'in. THE THlliES. 397 for extravagance and incongruity. Beginning their historic narrative (hke the old nations who lived about the Mediterranean) bj the acknowledgment of a First Great Cause, and recognizing in tlieir history the occurrence of a general deluge, the Iro- quois take into the councils of their god Owayneo a great antagonistical power called Kluneolux, and a multitude of lesser demoniac agencies, and they soon get the creation under the influence of conflicting spirits of a character such as the J]vil One alone could have inc^pired. Their fabulous accounts of the origin of things are very note- worthy, but are rendered uninteresting by the clumsiness of their narration. The Arabs themselves do not exceed the aboriginal Americans in their wild tales of necromantic transformations. The actors slip themselves into the shape of beasts and birds, reptiles and insects, dancing feathers, sunbeams, trees, and stones ; and as for sorcery and magic medicine, Nineveh and Babylon could not exceed the pre- tended powers of the Iroquois priests, prophets, wabenoes, and medas. Atahentsic, the Irotjuois affirm, is a goddess in heaven. To see her six of the original men ascended to the celestial regions. The ruler of the skies, having discovered the amour, cast her headlong to the water, which then filled the abyss where the earth now is. She was received on the back of a turtle, which rapidly extended itself and grew to the dimensions of the earth. On the earth she fixed her abode, and here she was delivered of male twins, of whom one was called Youskika, the other Thon- itsanon. The two typified the conflicting powers of good and evil. Youskika, the elder of these, finally killed the younger. Soon after Atixhentsic resigned the gov- ernment of the earth into the hands of the murderer. Atahentsic is regarded in a symbolical sense as being the sanjc as the moon, and Youskika is identical with the sun. The origin of the Iroquois the traditions ascribe to a place in the vicinity of Oswego, and from thence they dispersed over New York. Cana-ssatego, a venerable chief, speaking of the times of old, used the following words ; " When our good Owayneo raised Akanishiogeny out of the waters, he said to his brethren, ' llow fine a country is this ! I will make red men, the best of men, to enjoy it.' Then with handfuls of red seeds, like the eggs of flies, did he strew the fertile fields of Onondaga. Little worms canic out of the seeds and penetrated the earth, when the spirits who had never yet seen the light entered into and united with them. IManeto watered the earth with his rain, the sun warmed it, the worms with the spirits in them grew, putting forth little arms and legs, and moved the light earth that covered them. After nine moons they came forth perfect boys and girls. Owayneo covered them with his mantle of warm, purple cloud, and nourished them with milk from his fingers' ends. Nine summers did he nurse them, and nine sum- mers more did he instruct them how to live. In the mean time he had made for their use trees, plants, and animals of various kinds. Akanishiogeny was covered with woods and filled with creatures. Then he assembled his children together and said, ' Ye are five nations, for ye sprang each from a diflerent handful of the seed I sowed, but ye are all brethren : and I am your father, for I made you all : 1 have nursed aud brought you up. 3l>8 77/ A' /\/)/AX T/i/nh'S UF TllK UMTh'P A7'.17'AW. " ' .^[()Im\vks, I liavo iimdo yoii hold itiid valiant; and hcc, 1 give you corn for your food. Oni'idas, I have made yon patient ol'|)ain and iinngcr; the nnt« and f'ruit;< of the treert arc yours. 8eneea.>i, I iiave made you inchistriou.s and active; heans do I give you for your iiourinhiuent. Cayug;i.><, 1 have made you strong, friendly, and generous; ground-nuts and every ro"!, shall refresh you Onondagas, I have made you wise, just, and ehMjuent ; s(|ua>ihes and grapes have I given you to eat, and tohaeco to smoke iu council. The hea.stM, hirds, and iishes 1 have given to you all in common. " ' As I Imvo loved ami taken care of you, so do you love and take care of one another. Communicate freely to each other the good things 1 have given you, and learn to imitate each other's virtui». I have made you the hest pcoph; in the world, and I give you the best country. You will defend it from the invasions of other nations, from the children of other gods, and keep [)ossession of it for yourselves, while the sun and moon give light, and the waters run in the rivers. This you shall do if you observe my words. >S])irits! I um now about to leave you. The bodies 1 have given you will in time grow old and wear out, so that you will be weary of them; or from various aceitlents they may become unlit for your habitation, and you will leave them. I cannot remain here always to give »n new ones. I have great aifairs to mind in distant ])laces, and I cannot again so i ng attend to the nursing of children. I have enabled you, therefore, a,niong yourselves to produce new l)odies to supi)ly the place of old oiu's, that every one of you, when he parts with his old habitation, may in due time find a new one, and never wander longer than he chooses under the earth, dej)rived of the light of the sun. Nourish and instruct your children as I have nourished and instructed you. JJe just to all men, and kind to strangers that come among you. So shall ye be happy, and be loved by all, and I myself will sometimes visit and a-ssist you.' " The Onondagas early attracted notice for their expertness in the cha«e, and their bravery and enterprise in war. They were also celebrated for the wisdom of their counsellors, and the eloquence of their .speakers. The name of CJarangula will long be remembered for the elo(juence of his words and the keen irony of his satire addressed to an unsuccessful French invader of his country. No person in their early history, however, appears to have received so much of the applause of the tribe as Atotarho. Jle was not only a hunter and warrior of great renown, but lie had a reputation for sorcery and necromancy which made him the dread of his enemies. When the (piestioii arose of placing a permanent presiding ollicer over the delibera- tions of the general confederacy, the position was olfered to him. The Mohawks, who apj)ear from the lirst to have been the foremost of the live tribes in a military j)oint of view, sent a delegation of their chiefs to Atotarho to announce the choice. Tliey found him, after a search in the forest, sitting in an open space smoking his j)ipe. His body was surrounded and defended, such was his power of sorcery, by a throng of serpents, which darted out their tongues towards the intrusive delegates, who never- theless stood before him with unmoved composure, armed with bows and arrows and spears. Their heads were crowned with tlie llowiiig white plumes of the heron, and i. T w o ;:) c o pi* 1 THE TRIBES. 890 tlicir necks und brcnstH orimiiionti'd with warlike inHifjti'ni. Atotarho accpptpd the triiHt, and \m name, liku lliat of Cnsar, lipoaino in atlcr-tiiucn tlic title of tiio chief ollicer, altliiiiij;h tiie titles implied notliin^r lik(! iiiipeiiul dij^^nity, for the Inxiuoifl j^ovt'rninent was always strongly federative and represeiitalive. Accordinj^ to the annalist Cnsic, there were thirteen snccessors l(» this title before the era of Cohnnhns, — a circninstance which n>ay he named withont attaching innch vahie to the chronol- ogy of that writer. The first attempt of the French of (!anada to explore the Ononilaga eimntry and obtain a footing in it was mad(! in KioIJ. I^ Moine gives us the (h'tails of tint expe- dition. The war with the I'ries was then being hotly waged, and thi'l tribe was finally concpiered, as we learn from other scairces, and the Kries were eiliier killed or expelled from the country the next year. This visit of the French was fidlowed in after-years l>y the esfablishnient of a mission and a French colony in the country of the Oiiondagas. A chief named Karnikonta appears to have been the principal person who extended an invitation to the French to establish this mission. The cliapel and fort were located within the present limits of the township of De Witt, and i\\v lindts of the colony extended scaitherly from that point across the elevated lands to the site of Pompey, New York. It does not appear that either the mission or the colony existed in a state of prosperity more than a few years. The native priesthood opposed the introduction of principles which c(»nHicted so directly with their own. Tratlition asserts that the entire settlement was, in KWiCt, secretly risen upon, and that every colonist wa.s massacred and the torch applied to all the houses in one night. The Onondaga tribe now numbers about six hundred, residing principally upon the ( )nondaga Reserve. The St. Kegis Indians, also Iroquois, number seven hundred and eighty-live. Of the Oneidas and Cayugas few remain. When the Onondaga country came to be explored, surveyed, and settled, after the close of the Revolutionary War, much interest and curiosity were excited by flnding, together with relics of Indian art, anti(initics which betokened a prior period of civilization. Such interest ceased as soon as the narrative of the French missionary labors became aircssible to American readei-s. The New York Indians reside upon eight reservations; they number five thou- sand two hundred and seventy-live, one-half of them ISenecas. They are slowly increasing in nnnd)cr, and are steadily progressing in farming enterp-ise and in civilization. For over twenty years the State has provided school-houses, school- books, teachers, furniture and apparatus for the education of Indian children, nearly all of whom above the age of twelve can read and write. There are thirty-one schools, with an attendance of twelve hundred and thirty-one sdudars out of fourteen hundred and seventy-one children of schoid age. Some of the teachers are Indians, who are fully as competent as their white a.ssociates. The Oneida.s, whose lands were partitioned in fee to the heads of families in \M'.\, are prosperous farmers, and arc now citizens of the United Slates. Some fourteen hundred and ninety-two mem- bers of this tribe, constituting its larger portion, have a reservation of sixty thousand eight hundred ac-res near Green liay, Wisconsin. The Cornplanter Reservation was 1 1 400 THE INDIAN TRIBES OF THE UNITED STATES. partitioned in fee amons the Scnecas in 1871. These allotments have imparted additional incentives to industry, as is shown by the improved and now prosporons condition of the people. The Seneca Nation, residing upon the Alleghany and Cat- taraugus Reservations, wj;ich formerly belonged to Massachusetts, receive an income of about ten thousand dollars per year from lea.ses of certain lands in the Alleghany Reserve. The Tuscaronis, numbering four hn» dred and twenty-five, own in fee a small reserve of six thousand and forty-nine acres, near Niagara Palls. The title is held in common, but their land, except that covered with timber, has been piac- tically partitioned to heads of families for many years, anc? these families nov/ have l)ermanent homes. Most of their reservation wa.s purcluused about 1804 with money arising from the side of their lands in North Carolina. They are good farmers, tem- perate, industrious, and thrifty, take a deep interest in education, and are the only one of the six tribes of New York who have not received money aniuiities either from Mic State or the United States. About seven hundred of the Mohawks reside on the Grand River, near Brant- ford, Canada, and the residue, ;d)()ut three hundred, live on the Ray of (^uinte. They have made considenilik' advaiu'«! in husbandry and the meclianic arts, and are be- lieved to be slowly increasing in numbers. They have always been noted for their indomitable pride, i)iuming themselves upon the fact of their having been the head of the famous league of the Iroquois. This pride has st(X)d in the way of their progress. The more tractable Chippewas of Canada, turning tlieir backs upon the j)ast, bid fair to outstrip their ancient enemies, the Iroquois, in the race of civilization. WYANDOT-IIUKOXS. The Wyandots or Iliirons, a once numerous and powerful trilx; of Iroquois, located for many years in Northwestern Ohio, were, until the end of the last century, driven alternately east ii id Avest by the Six Nations and Sioux. They were jdaccd on a reservation in Kansas in 18.'}2, and in 18o5 nmny became citizens. A small remnant of this trilw, numbering two hundred and fifty, have twenty-one tiiousand seven hut' Ired i.n I six acre^s in the Quapaw Reservation, Indian Territory, most of it suitable only for grazing. They are engaged in farming and eattle-raising, and have sixty-four children a( the Mission School. The llurons, alone among the In- dian tiibes, held it disgraceftil to turn from the face of an enemy when (he fortunes of the light wen; adverse. The expulsion of the Wyandot-IIuron tribe from the valley of the St. Lawrence by the fury of the Iro(|uois. in \M\), is one of the most important events in the lilstory of the Northern Indians, 'i'lieir villages were destroyed and their j)eople slaughtered. Some lied to Canada (llnir descendinits are still at Lorette, near Que- bec), others were incorporated witii the iriMiuois, and others still sut>s('(pien«ly settleil at Detroit. This expulsion thus brought a part of that ancient trilte into the basin of Lake Huron, which derives its name from their residence upon some of its prin- cipal islands. Mieliilimaekinac, with its nniral eliils and nxrky barriers, oil'ered an f^l, THE TRIBES. 401 Giigible retreat to the fugitive tribes, while its fertile calcareous soil offered them the taeana of cultivating extensive gardens. The vestiges of decomposed limestone strata cover large areas of the island's interior, which is well sheltered and has an elevated position above the waters c:' the lake. But from this strong position the Hurons were eventually driven by the war-canoes of the conquering Six Nations. They were then coni])elled to flee to the western shore of Lake Superior. While this tribe had their council-fire on the island (which bore the name of Ticonderoga in their dialect), Kondiaronk (the rat), sometimes called Adario, was the leading chief and counsellor in their transactions. He was an able, brave, and politic chief, possessing an uncommon d(!grce of energy and decision of character, united to a keen foresight. Much of wlrt is known of the Wyandot history might be narrated in connection with a sketch of his life, but of this we must restrict ourselves to a mere outline. The Wyandots having been dispossessed of their ancient possessions on the St. Lawrence by their relatives, the Six Nations, on account of their alliance with the French, and the hostilities of th«^ Six Nations having been continued against the French settlements, it became the policy of the Wyandots to avail themselves of this hostility and keep up this irritation, in order to draw the vengeance of the French against the Iroquois. Freiu-li they were at heart when expelled from the St. Law- r(!nce, and Fn^nch they exhibited themselves in policy ; and accordingly it was their object to keej) the Englisli from participating in the fur-trade of the Northwest. In the attempted execution of both tliese designs Adario took an active part. In KiHM the ICiigli.sh of tiie province of New York resolved to avail themselves of a recent alliance between the two crowns, and to attempt a participation in tlu' fur-trade of the upper lakes. They persuaded the Iroquois to set free a number of Wyandot ea])tives, who were induced to guide them across the lakes, so as to open an intercourHe with the Northwestern Indians. Owing to the high price and scarcity of goods, this ])liui was well leceived by Adario and his people, and also by the OttJiwaj^ and Pottawatomies, but the enterprise ut -ertheless failed. Major McGreg- ory. will) led the party, was intercepted by a large body of Frenca from Mackinac, and the whole party was captured, and their goods distributed }. ratuilously to the Indians. The Lake Indians, who had covertly countenanced t.iis attempt, were thrown back entirely on the French trade, and were henceforth subjected to suspi- cions whicli made them uneasy in tl eir councils, and they became anxious to do away with the mistrust entertained of their iidelity by tin' French. In order to prove his iidelity, Adario marched a party oi" one hundred men from jMackinac against the Inxjuois. When he stopped at Fort C'adarackui to get intelligence which might guid«' him, tlie commandant informed Adario that the Governor of Canada, Denon- ville. Wits in iiopes of concluding a peace with tiie Six Nations, and expected their aml)a.ssadors at Montreal in a few days. He then fore advised the chief to return. Should such a jteace take j)lace, Adario feared that it would leave the Iroquois free to pusii the war against his nation, vhich had already been driven from the banks of the St. Lawrence to Lake Huron. He dis,s(!nd)led his fears, however, before the ■l)i 'U y ; -I ■¥.l 'I 402 THE INDIAN Tin RES OF THE UNITED STATES. t commandant, and loft the fb;t, not for the purpose of rcturninj;; home, but to waylay the Iroquois delegates at ii portage on the river where he knew they must puss. He did not wait over tour or live days, when the (K'puties arrived, guarded by forty young warriors, who were all surprised, and either killed or taken prisoners. His next object was to shift the blame of the act on the (lovernor of Canada, by whom, he lold his prisimei-s, he had been informed of their intention to |)iiss this way. The Iroipiois were imieh surprised at this apparent a(;t of perfidy on the part of the French, and they assured Adario that they were truly and indeed on a mission of peace. Adario affected rage against J)enonville, declaring that he Wvudd some time be revenged on the French for making him a tool, and for committing so horrid a treachery. Then looking steadfiustly on the prisoners, among whom was Dckanefora, the head chief of the Onondaga tribe, "(Jo," said he, "my brothers: I untie your bonds, and send you home again, although our nations be at war. The French governor has made me commit so black an action that I shall never be easy after it until the Five Nations have taken full revenge." Tiie aniba.ssadors were so fully pei-suaded of the truth of his declarations that they replied in the most friendly terms, and said the way was open to their concluding a peace. He then dismissed his prisoners with presents of arms, powder, and ball, keeping but a single man (an adopted Shawnee) to supply the place A' the only man he had lost in the engagement. Thus by one bold effort he rekindled the fire of discord between the French and tlieir enemies at the monwut it was aUjut to expire, and at the same tinu! laid the foundation of a peace with bis own nation. Adario delivered his IShaw- nee prisoner to the French on reaching .Mackinac, who, in order to keep up the old enmity between the Wyandots and tiie Five Nations, ordered the Shawnee to be shot. On this ,\dario called up an Iroipiois prisoner who was a witness of this scene, and who had long bci'ii detained among tiicni, and told him to escape to his own country and give an accimnt of the cruelty of the French, fnmi whom it was not in his power to save a prisoner he had himself taken. This trick increased the rage of the Five Nations to such a pitch that when Dcnonvillc sent a message to disown the act of Adario, the Indians put no faith in it, lait burned for revenge. Nor was it long iK'fore the French felt the efl'ects of their rage. On the L'tith of .Inly, H'lHH, they landed with twelve hundred men on the np|)er end of the island of Montieal, and carried destruction wherever they went. Houses .vere burned, plantations sacked, and men, women, and children massacreil. About a thousand of the French inhabitants were killei'ui;ilicd, l)ut wliicii led to the tiital breach of tlie peace. The circum- stances were these. Two C'anandaigua (Seneca) warriors liad been received, and had begun to smoke the peace-pipe, when a deputation of Mississagics from the nortii of the Niagara was announcfcd. The new-comers intbrmcd her that the two Seneca warriors Iiad just returned from the assassination of the son of their principal Mis- sissagic chief. They demanded tiie right of blood, and this demand was grantetl, in violation of the sanctity of the refuge which the Seneciis had sought. Tiie visitors were given up to the Mississagics and executed by them. Intelligence of this viola- tion of the <|tieen's office spread in every direction. The InKjuois tribes, who were tiu' aggriev(vl pai'ty, fhnv instantly to arms. Tlie (juecn despatched messengers to Onon- daga to explain her positi.in, and to Kalorthern Indians, acting under French influence, occasionally hung upon the Catawba settlements, and carried on against them a sort of predatory and irregular warfare. A few warriors from time to time fell in these guerilla contests, which were kept up for many years. The hatred of the French towards the Catawlnis may be judged of from the fact that, iw late as 17u3, the Canadian authorities determined to extirpate them, and that the Connewangos declared, in a great council at Albany which was held about this time, that they never would make friends with the Catawbius while the grass grew or the waters ran. When Colonel Barnwell, about the year 1720, was sent against the Tuscaronis, who had broken up New-IJerne, then just founded by the Baron De Graffenreid, uj)ward8 of one hundred Cutawba.s accompanied him. A few warriors fell in the prosecution of that admirably-conducted expedition. In the campaign against the Cherokees, during the govcmorsliip of II. W. Littleton, undertaken without cause, except the gratiiication of \m excellency's heartless and guilty vanity, about one hundred Catawba.s marched under the Colonial flag, and several fell in different skirmishes. This disgraceful campaign was unsuccessful, as it deserved to be. About 17513, Governor Dinwiildie sent a message to the Catawbas to induce them to unite their forces with the militia under the command of Colonel Washingtcm. They j)romptiy agreed to do so, but were restrained l)y tiie Carolina governor (Glen), who reminded tiiem that peace was their true policy, as they were a little nation, so mucii hiid their ranks been thinned, even at that early day, by war. During an attack upon Sullivan's Island a full company of Catawlnis, under the command of Colonel Thompson, participated in its defence. But, as tlie British general on Long Island entertained strange suspicions about the colonel's eighteen-pounder, the loss of tiic (jitawbas was inconsiderable. A company of Catawbas man'iied under Colonel Williamson in his Ciierokee expedition, during which a few of their number jut- ished. The Catawbas were always ready to engage in the American service, and always accpjitted themselves like brave soldiers. The nation was greatly reduced, in the early st;igc of tlie Revolution, by the smallpox. The Indians adopted a practite common to all the altorigiiial tribes for the cure of this di.sease, of thoroughly steam- ing themselves and then j)lunging into tin- river. By rea.son of this malpractice hundreds of them died. Indet'd, i\w woods were offensive with the dead bodies of the Indians, and dogs, wolves, and vultures were so busy for moiilhs in baiujueting on them that tli(T would scarcely reheat from their prey when approaelied by mim. Ju fact, so greatly were the Catawbas thinned by this malady, that at the close of the THE TRIBES. 409 war, by the advice of their wliite friends, they invited tlie Choraw Indians to come and form a union witii them. The present nation is about e(iually composed of (/'atawbas and Cheraws. They have lived in great harmony. The Clieraws have retained a knowledge of their own language, but ordinarily use the Catawba. Among the causes whidi tended to diminish the numbers of the Catawba nation, we have mentioned their wars and skirmishes on their own account, their adherence to the military fortunes of their white friends, and the ravages of the smallpox. Other causes were the intemperate use of ardent spirits; the loss of their game through the encroachments of the white hunters; the assassination of their great chief, King Ilagler, by a few Shawnees, about 17(50 (so im|)ortant is the life of an indi- vidual sometimes to a whole peo])le) ; the fact of their being encircled on every side by a much more powerful and energetic race, whereby a sense of inferiority and depression was kept up among them ; and, above all, impolitic legi>lation, which gave them permission to leai;e their lands for long periods, a measure which entailed ui)on them a miserable subsistence, although it exempted them from labor. In the year 1735 the nation had in reservation only thirty acres of their once large and fertile territory, not a foot of which was in cultivation. In his "History of South Carolina," llamsay solemnly invokes the people of that State to cherish this small remnant of a noble race, always the friends of the Carolinians, and always ready to peril all for the safety of the whites. They never have shed a drop of American blood, nor stolen property to the value of a cent. They have lost every- thing but their honesty. Ilsigler was a great man, and the nation still speak of him with much reverence. He was succeeded by King Prow, or Frow, who reigned but a short time. On his death, Cieneral Newriver, who had gained a splendid victory on New River, in Virginia, over the Northern Indians, was called to rule over them, the tribe having determined, in imitation of their white brethren, to rej)udiate royalty. Newriver was succeeded by CJeneral Scott, and the latter by Colonel Ayres. Scott was a considerable man. The old set of Catawbas were a likely peoi)le ; Major ( 'antry, for example, was a noble sj>eciincn of a man. m lill >/; ;l i\ ' ATIIAIIASCAS. This name has been a{)plied to a class of tribes who live to the north of the great (.'iHirchill Iviver, and bc^yond the source of the North Fork of the Saskatchewan, their country extending westward to within about one hundred and fifty miles of the Pacific Ocean, and including most of Alaska and a large area in the Canadian dominion. Excopt the Krtsjiiimaux, along the coast of the Arctic Ocean, and the IjOo-C/Iioos, all the tribes within this wide boundary speak dialects of the same generic language. Without counting the Loo-Choos, the thirteen Athaba.scan tribes are estimated to number about twelve thousand semis. The grouping of these tribes at points of latitudi' north of the utmost line to which the Algonkin family has reaihed, forms a convenient basis for reference. The name is derived arbitrarily iVom Lake Athabiusca, which is often ealled the l^ake of the Hills. Surrounding s i^ II I sh? 410 r///: INDIAN Til in E^ of tiik united states. tliis lake, wo find the tribe of the Cliippewyans, a people so called by the Kenistenos nnd Chipi)ewas because they were found to be clothed, in some ancient and tradition- ary encounter, in a Hcanty garb made of the marten's or fisher's nkin.' According to Sir John Franklin, they call thcmHclvcH >Siiw-(rnK(tir-ist in timir journeys, is preparod in the following manner. Tlie lean purls of the flesh of tliu hirgcr animals are cnt in lliin slices, and are placed on u woodi^n j;ratc over a slow fire, or exposed to the sun, and sometimes to the frost. These operations dry it, and in the dry state it is pounded hetween two 8tuno«; it will then keep, with care, for several ycsirs. If, however, it is ki'pt in large (piantitics, it is apt to fer- ment in the .^iiring of the year, when it must he expo.scd to the air, or it will soon decay. The insi!e people are not addicted to the use of spirituous liquors, they have an uninterrupted command of their understanding, which is always directed to the ad- vancement of their own interest; and this disposition, as may l>e readily imngined, sometimes wH'asions them to be charged witii fraudulent practices They will submit with patience to the severest treatment when they are conscious that they deserve it, but will never forget or forgive any wanton injury. They are, it would appear, the most peaceful tribe of Indians known in North America. There are conjurers and high-priests among them, who certaiidy operate in an cxtraordinarv maniu'r on tlie imaginations of the people in the cure of disorders. f..; 414 THE INDIAN TRIBES OF THE UNITED STATES. I Their principal maladies are rheumatic pains, the flux, and consumption. The venereal complaint is very common : though its progress is slow, it gradually under- mines the constitution, and brings on premature decay. They have recourse to superstition for curing diseases, and charms are their only remedies, except the bark of the willow, which is burned and reduced to powder and strewed upon fresh wounds and ulcers. They also use vapor-baths, or places contrived for promoting perspiration. Of the use of simples and plants they have no knowledge, nor can it be expected, as their country does not produce medicinal herbs. Though they have so long enjoyed an intercourse with Europeans, their country is ;o barren that the natives cannot j)urchiuse many of the goods which might be introduced by such a communication, and they continue in a great measure their own inconvenient and awkward modes of taking their game, and of preparing it when taken. Sometimes they drive the deer into the small lakes, where they spear them, or force them into enclosures, where the bow and arrow are employed against them. Animals are also taken in snares made of skin. In the former instance the game is divided among those who have been engaged in the pursuit of it. In the latter it is considered private property ; nevertheless, any unsuccessful hunter passing by may take a deer so caught, leaving the head, skin, and saddle for the owner. Thus, though they have no regular government, Jis every man is lord in his own family, they are influenced more or less by certain princi|>les which conduce to their general benefit. ' In their quarrels with one another they very rarely proceed to a greater degree of violence tlian is occasioned by blows, wrestling, and j)ulling of the hair ; while their abusive language consists in applying the name of some oft'ensive animal to the object of their displeasure, and adding tlie terms ugly, and ch'iay, or still-born.* Their arms and domestic apparatus, in addition to the articles procured from Europeans, are spears, bows, and arrows. Their tishing-nets and lines are made of green deer-skin thongs. They have also nets for taking the beaver as he endeavors to escape from his loilge when it is broken open. Tiie net is set in a particular manner for the purpose, and a man is emj)loyed to watch for the moment when he enters, or tlie beaver would soon cut his way through. When caught, the beaver is thrown upo*: the ice, where he remains iis if he had no life in him. The snow-shoes are of a very superior workmanship. The inner part of the frame is straiglit, the outer one is curved, and the shoe is i)ointed at both ends, with the end in front turned up. Snow-sIioes are laced with great neatness with thonj^s made of deor-skin. The sledges are formed of thin slij)s of board, turned up also in front, and are highly polished with crooked knives, so that they nniy slide along with facility. Close-graineil wood is the best for sledge-construction, but the Chip- pewyan sledges are made (jf tiie red or swamp spruce fir-tree. Their amusements or recreations are but few. Their music is so inharmonious. ' Tliix riiiiiit! is iilsu iipplit'il tu tliu fuetu.t of an animiil, when killed, wliivli ih eoiiMidercJ uii uue uf tbo greatest deliciulL's. HBR! Ha! m mm THE TRIBES. 415 and their dancing so awkward, that they may well be supposed to be ashamed of both, for they very schlom practise either. They also shoot at marks, and play at the games common among Indians, but they much prefer sleeping to play, and the greater part of their time is passed in procuring food and resting from the toil necessary to obtain it. They are of a querulous disposition, and are continually making complaints, which they express by a constant repetition of the word eduiy, " it is hard," in a whining and plaintive tone. They are superstitious in the extreme, and almo?*^^ every action of their lives, however trivial, is more or less influenced by some whimsical notion. They have no particular form of worship ; but, as they believe in a good and an evil spirit, and in a peculiar state of future rewards and punishments, they cannot be devoid of religious impressions. At the same time tl'_ey manifest, in common with the rest of their race, a decided unwillingness to make any communications on the subject. 1' ALASKA INDIANS. These comprise two groups, the native tribes, mostly inhabiting the interior, and those on the coast, whom Mr. Dall* terms Orarians. The latter include the Innuits, or Esquimaux, the Aleutians, living west of the IGOth degree of longitude and in the Aleutian Islands, ami the Tuski, occupying the country west of the Chukchee Pen- insula (in Asia), from Kolinchin Bay on the north to Anadyr Bay on the south. The cast of countenance of these people is slightly Mongolian : this is especially noticeable in the complexion and in the eyes. They are much more intelligent than the Indians of the interior, and are indeed in every respect superior to them. In the other group or family tiiere are two stocks, — the Thlinket.s and the Tin- neh. The former are confined to the coast, and the latter occupy the greater part of the interior. The Thlinkets include the Cliinsyins, the Kygani or llaidahs, tlie true Thlinket.s or so-called Koloohcs, and tiie Yakutats, or tribes which inhabit the vicinity of Bchring Bay. The Ugalenses have also been referred by some writers to this stick. The Tinneh stock includes a large number of North American tribes, extending from near the mouth of the Mackenzie River south to the borders of Mexico. The Apaches and Comanches belong to it. The tribes of this stock in the lortli '•xtend westward nearly to the delta of the Yukon, and reach the coiist at Cook Inlet nd tlu; mouth of the (!oj)pi'r River. Eastward they extend nearly to the moui?tiuns which divide the water-slu'd of Hudson Bay from that of the Mackenzie aua Atha- l)ii.sca. They have been called Chippewyans (paintcv. coat.s) from the shape of their p.irk...=!, and Athabascans from the district some of them inhabit, but their own national designation is Tinneh, meaning " people" in a collective sense. They may be divided into three natural groups: the E;i.stern Tinneh, who form W. H. Diill, " Alaska and its Resources," Boston, 1870. 416 THE INDIAN TRIBES OF THE UNITED STATES. tlieir tribal name by the addition of " t^^na," an evident modification of the same word ; the Kulchin, wlio principally occupy the valleys of the Yukon and its tribu- taries ; and the "Western Tinneh, who occupy the region west of the Yukon, and the banks of that river below Naklukahyet. They form their tribal designation by the addition of " t;ina," another modification of Tinneh. They are bounded every- wliore on the coast by the Innuit territories. The total Indian population in 1870 numbered twenty-six thousand eight hundred and forty-three. APACHES. The elevated summits of New Mexico lying north of the Gila and west of the upper Rio Grande may be said to be rather infested than occupied by this predatory, 2)0werful, and warlike nation. They are the most completely nomadic in their habits of any tribe in North America. Tliey have no permanent towns or villages, but rove over large portions of New Mexico and Arizona in small bands in quest of subsistence and plunder. They are the dread of the contiguous Spanish settlements, from whose ranches they steal horses, cattle, and sheep. They fall upon the unwary travellers who are weak in numbers and unprotected, and for the sake of the booty often take life. They rely upon their bows and darts for everything to sustain life, and when this resource fails, as it often does,, they wander about wretched and poor, without a morsel to eat, and with scarcely a shred of clothing to hide their nakedness. They have been almost constantly at war with the whites, and recently the band, under chief Victoria, infested the border settlements of New Mexico. They were placed upon reservations in 1858-59. From the time of the Gadsden inircliase, in 1848, until 1801, they were friendly to the Americans, who for the next ten years tried to exterminate them, at an expense of from three to four mil- lions per annum, with no appreciable result. One hundred and twenty-five friendly Apaches were ma.s.sacred by a party of Mexicans and Indians while assembled near Camp Grant under the charge of United States officers, in April, 1871. The Apaches speak a language the tones of which are difficult to be expressed by the English alphabet. It abounds equally with guttural, hissing, and indis- tinctly uttered mixed intonations. A full vocabulary of it ha.s been obtained. It is very meagre in sounds, and in equivalents for English and Spanish words, and so deficient in grammar that the verbs appear to have no tenses. Deficient as it is, however, many of its sounds are peculiar, and denote it to be the parent language of tlie surrounding tribes. It abounds in the sound of tz, so common to the Sheinitic; languages, and in those of zl, d, and the rough rr, which are wanting in tlie lan- guages of the old Atlantic tribes. It is assigned with confidence to the great Tinneli or Athabascan stock, being equally removed from the mountain genus of languages, from tliat of the Shoshoncs, and from the wide-spread Dakota languages of tiie Mississippi Valley. The traditions of the Apaches are that they came originally from the north, and they would appear to have migrated in base of the Itnckv .Mountains. >ast ages along the eastern THE TRIBES. 417 " The Apaches," observes Governor Lane, " the Navajoes, and the Lipans of Texas speak dialects of the same language. The Jicarillas (Hic-ah-ree-ahs), Mes- caleros, Tontos, and Coyoteros, are all bands of the Apaches, and 1 am induced to think the Garoteroa (who handled Aubrey so roughly) are also an offshoot of the Apache tribe." The traditions given to Dr. Ten Broeck by the Navajoes only go to prove a gen- eral uniformity of beliefs held by the Indian tribes from the Arctic circle to the Straits of Magellan. It is affirmed by these people that they originally dwelt in some con- cavity of the earth, from which they, with the quadrupeds, emerged to the surface. The introduction of the " horse" (only known to America about three centuries) into the tale of the flood, together with certain symbolic allusions to modern moral tenets, denotes that tlie web of this story has been woven from mixed materials, some of them furnished since the advent of the Spaniards in Mexico. With regard to their history, Lieutenant-Colonel Eaton, U.S.A., was informed that they attribute their origin to the northeast, which, in their present position, agrees generally with the Apache traditions. In speaking of their manners and customs, he notices their practice of carrying a waving brand of fire, a custom which is mentioned in the narrative of Coronado as having been observed on the banks of the Colorado in 1542. The history of the Apaches appears to be one of much interest, although it is in great part involved in obscurity. Their habitat at the earliest dates was the region lying between Sonora and Chihuahua. Their bounds did not at first reach to the banks of the Rio Gila, and when checked by the Spaniards for their depredations their warriors sheltered themselves in the Mimbres Mountains, or the Sierra Madrc. They have for generations been retracing their track of migration from the north, and there seems to be little question that they were the destroyers of that semi-civili- zation of which there are ruins on the banks of the Gila. The following observations on the history, manners, customs, and condition of this leading tribe of New Mexico, Jis they existed thirty yeiirs ago, are from Dr. Charlton Henry, U.S.A. It would seem that the Apaches took very little part in the events which oc- curred at the period of the discovery and conquest of Mexico. This circumstance is the more readily explained when we view the geographical position of their country, and when we remember that they had less to do with Montezuma than other Indian tribes. However, it is probable, in view of the veneration they have until this day for the name of JMontezuma, tliat they acknowledged and were under the sway of his powerful empire, and had attained a certain degree of civilization, because, according to their tradition, they were in his time living in peace and culti- vating the land. The banks of the Del Norte, tlie Gila, and the Mimbres were covered with rich crops of corn, and their caravans, frequenting tlie principal towns of the empire of Montezuma, procured luxuries and food of every kind. But after the fall of Montezuma, when the great temple of the sun liad been pillaged, and tiie cross of the Spaniard was everywhore displayed, thoir extreme rajtacity fur gold led i < I !! 1 lU It- 418 THE INDIAN TRIBES OF THE UNITED STATES. I I large and numerous parties towards the high and distant lands where the Apaches dwelt. While searching for gold, the Castilians met with these bands. At first the simple and pacific natives, allured by trifling presents and protestations of friendship, received the invaders graciously. But among the Spaniards were many priests of the Franciscan and Jesuitical orders, who, forwarding the conquests of the Church of Rome under cover of the Spanish sword, had already succeeded in planting the cross among the more pacific natives of the plains. But this method of introducing religion met with no success in the case of the Apaches. The holy doctrines of the cross were losing their force under this mode of treatment, and did not accord with the wild temper of the mountain tribes : therefore the priests were forced to retreat and discontinue their mission. They, however, established missions along the Rio Grande, from which the Apaches kept far aloof. Ere long a series of hostilities commenced between the mountain Apaches and those Indians who had settled on the plains in company with the Spaniards. The latter had by this time made settlements as far north as Santa F^, a central post, from which further explorations were made and conquests extended. In the course of time the Spaniards had penetrated west to the coast of the Pacific, to which they gave the name of California, a regica which some writers think was probably the Chersonesus Aurea of the ancients. At the same time, their increasing rapacity for gold, and their exactions against the Indians, whom they kept in a state of scrvituc^e, raised ill feelings against them. The year 1688 brought about a revolution, in which the Apaches made common cause with the Pueblo Indians, for the purpose of driving the Spaniards out of the land ; and as this revolution was kept secret until it broke out at once at every point, taking the Spaniards by surprise, the assailing party drove them out of New Mexico to the other side of El Paso del Norte, where the assailed made a stand. Soon reinforce- ments enabled the Spaniards to reconquer their lost ground, and bring again to submission at lesist the " Pueblos." But much mischief had already been done. The missions had been destroyed, and their priests massacred. Most of the mines were in the hands of the insurgents, and any Spaniard who went towards them was massacred without pity. In this state of affairs the Spaniards gave up the Indians, and contented themselves with holding their own ground till more reinforcements should arrive. But, the prosperity of the mother-country being on a decline, matters remained in statu quo until the natives of Spanish blood, emboldened by their own increase, and smarting under the tyranny of the Spanish government, took up arms in turn, and with the help of the Indians (Pueblos mostly) in many instances overwhelmed the Spanish troops ; and Mexican valor finally enabled Iturbide to complete the overthrow of the Spanish dominion, himself then as.suming the supreme power. Dissensions and pronunciamientos, however, soon threw the States of the North into fresh trouble. The Apaches frequently sided with one or other of the opposing parties, and often harassed both conjointly. The States of New Mexico, Chihuahua, and Sonora suffered much from their incessant inroads ; and on both sides the most barbarous war was carried on. In those times the various Apache tribes had one TUE TRIBES. 419 common chief of great valor. The latter was finally killed, some say, by the unex- pected discharge of a cannon in the hands of an American, a trader with the Sono- rians, others say, in a pitched battle between the Apaches and the people of the State of Sonora. His death caused dissensions among the Apache tribes, the various chiefs of each aspiring to the supreme command. Since then the Apaches have never been united in a common cause, but carry on war only in small marauding parties ; and, though very treacherous and bloodthirsty, and often extremely annoy- ing and even dangerous to small parties of whites, they cannot be looked upon as being a very formidable tribe. The following are the different bands, according to Dr. Henry, with their respec- tive chiefs, and the range of each : Jicarillas, under Chacon Rouge, who range about i.he Sacramento Mountains ; Gila Apaches, Mangus Colorado, who range chiefly about the Gila River. A few smaller tribes, under Ponci, range up and down the valley of the Rio Mimbres. The names of the different tribes for the most part have reference to their location. " Los Apaches Tontos" were so named by the Mexicans for their notorious imbecility, the word tonto meaning " idiot" in the Spanish language. The low development of the mental faculti&s of this tribe (which is very numerous) has been conjectured to have had its origin in the slight intercourse they have had with the whites. They formerly ranged about the head-springs of the Gila, and near the Sierra del Mo- goUon. This mountain seems to have been the head-quarters and stronghold of all the Apaches on the western side of the Rio Grande. They used to boast of being able within a few days, by means of signal-fires, to muster a force of five hundred warriors ; and, as they had in this region " caches" full of mescal, with plenty of live-stock, they deemed the place impregnable. Los Gilefios, or Gila Apaches, ranged as far as the Rio San Francisco and the range of mountains of the same name. They are the best warriors of any Apache tribe. Los Mimbrefios, who derive their name from the Sierra de los Mimbres and Rio de los Mimbres, near which were their hunting-grounds, had their range from the Sierra San Mateo on the north to the Sierra Florida on the south, the Sierra de los Burros lying to the west, and one of the spurs of the Mogollon to the east, o^. which latter is situated the old Mexican mine of Santa Rita del Cobre, in New Mexico, about fifty miles east from the Rio Gila, and ten miles westerly from the Rio Mimbres. Los Apaches Mescaleros used to range from La Sierra de Guadalupe to La Sierra de San Andre north, and south to the Rio Pecos, and thence to the Rio Grande to the west, — which range includes mines of silver worked in former times by the Spaniards ; " but these mines," says Henry, " have been in possession of the hostile Mescaleros since the revolution of 1688. The name borne by this tribe is derived from a certain plant called mescal, which being roasted in holes in the ground, cov- ered over with hot stones, and reduced to a pulpy mass, is the principal food of the Apaches when hard pressed by their enemies, or from other causes." „ ''- ' mi r; lit imi IV' 490 TlJtJ INDIAN TRIBES OF THE UNITED STATES. i The Lipans are an Apache tribe of considerable importance, and may be ranked ne^it to the Comanches among the Indians of Texas. They have affinity with the Seraticks and the Mescaleros. Tlicy are more enterprising and warlike than tlie Comanches, who regard tliem with a respect in whicli fear is a chief ingredient. Their liabits are very similar to those of the Comanches in some particulars, but they have made more progress towards ci lization. Many of them speak the BpaniHli language, having formerly had much intercourse with the Me: icans. The Seraticks live on the Rio Grande above El Paso del Norte. Verv little is known concornina them. The Mescaleros also inhabit the valley of the river Puerco (Pecos), a con- siderable eastern afiluent of the Rio Grande. They are of dark complexion, peace- able in their habits, cultivate the ground, and raise stock, and have many horses and mules, also sheep, goats, and black cattle. The Tonkawas are a separate tribe, having no traceable affinity to any other band of Indians in the country. They are nomadic, live on game, are extremely indolent, and in consequence often suffer severe privations. They have generally been friendly to the whites, though often suspected of having stolen horses from the frontier. A few of these accompanied our small army in the campaign against the Cherokees in 1839, and rendered good service. The Wacoes, Tawacanies, Tow-e-ash, Aynics, San Pedros, Nabaduchoes, Nacado- cheets, and Hitchies are small tribes or fragments'of tribes. They have been long resident in Texas, and properly belong to it, but they are originally, the Hitchies excepted, of the Caddo stock. The Wacoes are the most considerable of these bands, amounting probably to one hundred and fifly warriors, it being understood that among Indians every adult male is a warrior. They are a stealthy, thieving, faith- less race, and have done much mischief on our frontier. They live in a village on the Upper Brazos, and raise corn, beans, pumpkins, etc., usually spending the winter months in hunting. The other small parties, amounting to about fifty families each, live in villages on the waters of the Trinity and Neches, and cultivate the ground to a small extent. The Hitchies, once a distinct and isolated tribe, have so intermarried with their neighbor bands that they have lost their identity and may be considered as merged into the common stock. The Caddoes formerly resided on the Red River of I^ouisi- ana, above Natchitoches and below the Great Raft, and were included in the juris- diction of the Indian Agency stationed in 1819 at Natchitoches. They removed to Texas several years ago, and now claim to be Texas Indians. The more barren and sandy portions of the Apache country abound in rattle- snakes of highly venomous character. The Apaches dread them, and believe that these serpents are possessed by evil spirits, or are the abode of the souls of evil men. From this it is to be inferred that the Apaches hold the doctrine of metempsychosis. Like many of the California Indians, they pay great respect to the bear, and will not kill one, or partake of bear's flesh ; and they entertain the same opinion with regard to the hog as do some Asiatic tribes, — viz., that it is an unclean animal. They have a great respect for the eagle and the owl, and appear to think there are spirits of n: THE TRIBES. 421 divine origin connected with them. The same liolds true with regard to any hird which is perfectly white. Among the Apaches are found no ruins or mounds which might throw any light on their former history, or which might prove them to have once been civilized : still, there are ruins along the Rio Qrande, the Gila, etc., which might be supposed to prove they formerly lived in villages. They say that during the time of Mon- tezuma they had the skill to manufacture a kind of pottery, painted with different colors of imperishable hue, but that they have now entirely lost the art, together with that of building ; and when asked now why they do not build houses, they reply they do not know how, and that those of their nation who did know are all dead. Some, however, give as a reason for not building that it is because they always move a camp when any one of their number dies. The calumet, or pipe of peace, is not now used by the Apaches : they use instead the corn-shuck cigarrito of the Mexicans. Their utensil for grinding breadstuff consists of two stones, one flat, with a concavity in the middle, the other round, fitting partly into the hollow of the flat stone. Their arrows are long, sometimes pointed with flint, but usually with iron, and are feathered mostly with the plumes of the wild turkey, unless they can procure those of the eagle, which they are rarely able to do. The feather upon the arrow is bound down with fine sinew in threes instead of twos : in other words, the shafl is fledged on three sides, or with three feathers. The arrow-shafl is usually made of some pithy wood, generally that of a species of yucca. Besides the iron-pointed arrows, these Indians use others, with the heads simply of wood hardened in the fire, for the purpose of killing small game. All Apaches are mounted on small ponies, descendants of the wild breed, and capable of great endurance. The women all ride astraddle. The Spanish bit is used, but oflen a simple cord of hair is passed between the horse's jaws and serves as a bridle. Pan- niers of wicker-work for holding provisions are generally carried on the horse by the women. The shells of the pearl-oyster, and a rough wooden image, are favorite ornaments with both sexes. They arc also fond of beads and metal buttons. Their feet are protected by high buckskin moccasins with lengthened square toes, pierced at the sole i;ear the end with holes to admit the air. The principal articles of clothing are made of coarse cotton, which they seem never to wash. Their quivers are usually made of deer-skin, and sometimes of the skin of the wild-cat. The organization of the Apaches is much like that of some of the ancient tribes, the chiefs being the wealthiest men, the most warlike, the first in battle, the wisest in council ; and the more popular take a wife, whom they buy from another tribe, giving in exchange horses, blankets, and trinkets of various kinds. A chief can have any number of wives he chooses, but one only is the favorite. She is admitted to his confidence, and superintends his household affairs ; all the other wives are slaves to her ; next come his peons, or slaves, and his wife's slaves, and the servants of his concubines ; then the young men or warriors, who are often youths who have desertetl other tribes on account of crimes and have fled to the protection of the chief of this tribe ; then come the herdsmen, and so on. m 41". >•) rilE INDIAN TRIBEH UF WfJ UNITKl) STATES. 1 I The atrength of a tribe or bund rangcn from one hundred to two hundred bouIh, and Bucli a band can niuHter from twenty-five to fift;' wiirriorn, headed by a capitun- cillo, or capitan, under the command of the chief, who nioHtly remains at liome, and very seldom leads in a foray, taking the iiehi only in cases of emergency. This captain is often the oldest son of the chief, and assumes command of the tribe on the death of his father, and then he chooses a captain among Iiis bravest warriors. A council of chiefs is assembled in case of undertaking a marauding expedition. Hhould the son of a chief prove unfit for the situation of captain from want of courage, energy, or otherwise, he soon finds himself deserted by all his warriors, who join a more expert captain or chieftain, leaving him (the former) at the head of a crowd of women and children. Many of the Apaches dress in the breech-clout only, but they are beginning now to imitate the Mexicans, the men wearing the scrape or blanket pretty generally, while not a few wear the straw hat or sombrero. The women have a short petticoat, and wear their hair loose over the naked shoulders. The women in mourning for husbands killed in battle cut their hair off short. The younger children often go entirely nude. Those under the age of two years are carried by the mother in a kind of osier basket, in which the child is fastened in a standing posture. There is a cover over the head of the child, and the whole outfit much resembles the niche of a statue of a saint such as is seen at the corners of the streets of cities in Spain. When on a roving ^expedition, if on foot, the mother fastens this basket to a strap which depends from the forehead, while the basket is swung down the back as she walks in a stooping position. Wlien the woman is on horseback, the basket is fastened to the saddle on one side. The women color their faces with a kind of paint, black or red, or both of these colors, and the men daub vermilion on their faces all over evenly ; when they are about to go to war they also grease their bodies. The captains of the bands wear a kind of helmet made of buc^kskin, ornamented with crow or turkey feathers. The Apaches wear no beards on their faces. They are naturally rather bare of this appendage, and they pull away by the roots whatever hair may present itself on any part of the body. The women do the same, but they allow the hair of their head to attain its full length. Their hair is very black and straight, much resembling horse- hair. In general, the shape of the head and body of the Aj)ache apjwars to belong to the Asiaiic type of the human family. Their behavior is grave and often pas- sionate ; they are naturally inclined to intemperance in strong drinks, though necessity often obliges them to adopt temperance, — a restraint which they seem to bear with great ease. Promiscuous intercourse between the sexes seems to be common among the Apaches, although they are very jealous of their women. A wife found guilty of infidelity is mutilated by having her nose shaved off even with the face. Their knowledge of medicine is very limited. They seem to be hydropaths mostly. They have not any fixed rates of barter. A great many of the Indians are addicted to falsehood. They believe in one God. They are very much given to frequent " fiestas," or feasts, on which occasions the females do the principal part of 1 THE TRIBES. 423 tho (lancing. The women and children captured from the Mexicans they treat very cruelly. They have no respect for female virtue in the cuhc of their enemies or captivcH. They do not scalp their enemies. They dread to have the body of one of their people, killed in fight, fall into the hands of their enemij-s, and make every effort to prevent it. Probably they bury their dead in caves, for their graves are not often found. They are fond of smoking, but do not chew tobacco. They practise tho still-hunt mostly, except for antelopes, which they surround on horseback in largo parties. Their lodges are built of light boughs and twigs. They never remain in one encampment long at a time, and have probably no knowledge of taking game by means of traps or snares. They are so;newhut given to a monotonous kind of sing- ing when idle, and are fond of cards, the use of which they learned from the Mexi- cans. When fighting, they keep their liorses in rapid motion, and are never at rest in the saddle. Among articles which they use for food are the seeds of soveral species of weeds, aa well as the cones of the piQon, and cedar-borrieij. Since Dr. Henry's account was written, this tribe has been La' ight to a condition of partial dependence on and obedience to the United Stat, government, and an Indian police organized from its own memliers has remlured r'markably efficient service. They are inclined to agriculture, and are now at work upon a school- building, frcT their desire to have their children educated. " With a reasonable amount of assistance and instruction," says the Indian Coinmissioner's Report of 1880, the Apache can soon become self-supporting." The Tonto Apaches, who are of the Yuma stock, are now collected in large numbers at the San Carlos Agency, in Arizona, together with the Mimbre and other smaller bands. They are cowardly and murderous, and formerly killed more pio- neers in Northern Arizona than any other tribe. Prior to 1865 they were peaceable. From that year until 1871 they were on the war-path. The Mescalero Apaches, numbering about twelve hundred, are established near Fort Stanton, in the eastern part of New Mexico, and range generally south of that point. Prior to 1864 they were on the Bosque Redondo Reservation. When the Navajoes, their enemies, were removed to that place, the Mescaleros fled, and for a time were hostile, but they have long been at peace. They have no treaty with the Unitecf States, but are in part subsisted by the government. They care little for farming or industrial pursuits, and have but a single school, with twenty-eight scholars. The San Carlos, White Mountain (Coy otero), Tonto, Chiricahua, Southern and Ojo Caliente Apache, and Apache Yuma and Mohave, since 1875 have been located in the White Mountain Reservation, Arizona, containing three thousand nine hun- dred and fifty square miles. They number altogether four thousand eight hundred and seventy-eight. The Southern Apaches comprise two bands, the Mimbres and Mogollons, and number about twelve hundred. They are warlike, and generally hostile to the government. They were removed in 1871 from Southern New Mexico on account of their depredations upon the settlers there. The Jicarilla Apaches, seven hundred and fifty-two in number, are located at the Abiquiu Agency, New I 'I 424 THE INDIAN TRIBES OF THE UNITED STATES. Mexico. These Indians have no homt, no work, no schools, no moral or religious training, and are greatly demoralized by whiskey, but are anxious for a reservation where they can cultivate land and make homes for themselves. The Chiricahua Apaches, Cochise's tribe, were removed in 1870 from their reser- vation in Southeastern Arizona. They had been peaceable prior to this removal, when about four hundred of them refused to go, and, like Victoria's band, took the war-path, killing and plundering indiscriminately. The Coyoteros (White Mountain), the largest and fiercest of the Apache tribes, number about two thousand, and were the perpetrators of the massacre of a part of General Carr's command at Camp Apache, August 31, 1881. Since its formation the San Carlos Agency has been four times reduced in area, twice in order to exclude mineral lands, and twice to deprive it of choice agricultural lands upon which white men had settled. NAVAJ0E8. The Navajoes are also Athabascans far removed from the main body. They have a fine reservation in the northern part of New Mexico and Arizona, set apart under the treaty of June 1, 1868, embracing about six thousand one hundred and twenty square miles. They number about twelve thousand. Says Lieutenant-Colonel Eaton, U.S.A., writing in 1853, — " They are a branch unquestionably of the great Apache tribe, the most enter- prising and formidable of all the Indians in or near New Mexico. Their language is nearly the same as that of the Jicarilla Apaches, who live in the mountain-ridges east of the Rio del Norte. They cultivate tiie ground but to a limited extent, and not enough so as to restrain them from occasional depredations in winter upon the Pueblo and New Mexican settlements. They raise corn, pumpkins, and melons, and a little wheat. They make blankets, some of them pretty in color, of close texture, and of a very durable quality, though this art may have been acquired from the New Mexicans, or the Pueblo Indians. As warriors they certainly are not formida- ble, and they owe their existence and security to the rude and unfertile country to which they evidently have been driven by more powerful enemies. They owe much of their undeserved repute for prowess to the pusilhiiiimity of tlii Mexicans, rather than to any particular bravery of their own. Tliey do not live in houses built of stone, as liius been repeatedly roprosentcd, but in ciives, caverns, and fissures of the clift's, or in the very rudest of huts, hastily constructed of branches of cedar-trees, and sometimes having flat stones for roofs. The raising of horses is carried on, but the hcrses are of the smallest and most indifferent kind. They never make butter or cheese, nor do they know what such things are. They certainly have no well-recog- nized government among themselves, being pre-eminently of the most democratic habits. The chiefs are simply men of influence by virtue of manliness of character or of wealth in horses or sheep, and are afraid to enforce a command or exert any oouuol over their respective bands. They have, therefore, neither hereditary nor elective chiefs. The women do not labor as much as Indian women of other tribes, THE TRIBES 425 !'■ :! but are very independent of menial duties, and leave their husbands upon the slight- est pretext for dislike. A remarkable superstition seems to govern these Indians in their great unwillingness to make known their own Indian names, or those of their friends, and they are universally known by some Mexican name given to them on their visits to the settlements. They are notorious thieves, the women more so than the men. In the winier season they practise the habit of carrying a firebrand in the hand when travelling from place to place, like the Indians near the shores at the head of the Gulf of California, as related in Casteflada's narrative of Coronado's expedition. If jealous of their wives, they are apt to wreak their spleen and ill-will upon the first person whom they may chance to meet. Several uf the chiefs are doctors, but the curative art with them does not go beyond singing with the patient, and other incantations. The welfare of the whole community is a matter which is never entertained by them, individually or collectively, their organization — if they have any — being the veriest rope of sand. Dishonesty is not held in check among them, for frequent cases occur of their stealing horses from each other without fear of punishment from the chiefs or from the nation at large. No such thing as in- dustry is known among them, and a more lawless, worthless tribe is not to be found in any portion of the United States. Hospitality may to some small extent be observed among them, but it is as much as a white man's life is worth to be among them except as a trader, and then their intcests lead them to treat him with good faith and kindness. Their country, though rude and wild, is readily accessible by very tolerable roads, even into the caflon of Chelle, their stronghold and main dependence. It is a gross error to descrilnj these Indians as being * the most civilized of all the wild Indians of North America.' So far from this, they are among the rudest, least intelligent, and least civilized of all the tribes. Some trifling improve- ment has resulted from their intercourse with the Mexico-Spanish population of the Del Norte, but it has not {)rogressed to an extent worthy of particular remark." A much more favorable account of the Navajoes is that furnished by Major E. Backus, U.S.A., who, writing at the same period, says,— ^ " There is probably no tribe of Indians within the limits of New Mexico which has so signally redressed its own wrongs, or inspired ita inhabitants with so great a degree of terror, as the Navajoes. Having no permanent habitations, and being in possession of a hardy and active race of horses, they have usually been prepared to resent or inflict injuries, and to appropriate to their own usp ♦he property and persons of their neighbors the Mexicans. A bitter and mutual -3eling of hatred has long existed between thimi, and many years of friendly intercourse will be requisite to efface the recollection of injuries inflicted and of wrongs unredressed. " The Navajoes-' occupy a largo extent of country directly west from Santa Fe, extending from near the Rio Grande on the cast to the Colorado on the west, and from the land of the Utahs on the north to the Apaches on the south. It is nearly bisected by tiie Sierra de los Mimbres, and presents to the eye a succession of elevated mountain-peaks, of timbered table-lauds, of dry and unproductive valleys, and of broken fields of lava. There is no considerable stream of water within their Iwrtlers, 5( &:i 426 THE INDIAN TRIBES OF THE UNITED STATES. ii i and those traced upon the maps as rivers are usually dry during three-fourths of the year. There are some excellent springs in the valleys and caflons of the mountains, hut the water is soon absorbed by the thirsty and porous soil, after having flowed but a few hundred yards upon its surface. " Before the period when New Mexico l)ecamo an integral portion of the United States, little or nothing had been done towards subjugating the Navajoes. Their depredations upon the citizens of the upper Rio Grande became so frequent and formidable that in 184G an expedition was fitted out against them by Colonel Doni- phan, who marched into their country and met their principal men at a place known as the Ojo del Oso ('Bear Spring'). A treaty was entered into, only to be violated on the part of the Navajoes as soon as the troops had retired. In the summer of 1849, Colonel Washington marched from Santa F^, with a suitable force, for the Navajoe head-quarters, at the Cafion de Chelle. In a collision which (snsued, one of the prin- cipal men, a rich Navajoe, was killed. A satisfactory treaty was finally entered into, and Colonel Washington returne, but the Indians were brought under subjection by Colonel Kit Carson in 18(»4. As a nation of Indians, th(> Navajoes do not (h-serve tlie character given them l>y the people of New Mexico. They are a fine, athletic race, and are industrious, intel- ligent, and warlike. Though not aggressive, tiiey have frequently lieen at war with I>V I 6 """l mmmm MHPPIVHMMHIHMMIi"^ )i ■^ V> \%^ ^\ W ■'%. ^ a an^ aHHHOHiMBidBiiiiHaB THE TRIBES. 427 the whites. From the period of their earliest history, the Mexicans have injured and oppressed them to the extent of their power, and because these Indians have redressed their own wrongs the Mexicans have represented them as a nation of thieves and assacsins. The government of the Navajoes seems to resemble more nearly the patriarchal than any other form. There are many rich men among them, whose possessions consist mainly of horses and sheep. Every drove and flock is necessarily attended by its herders. Hence every rich man has many dependants, and these dependants are obedient to his will in peace and in war. The only elective ofiice among them is that of war-chief, and even that office expires with the occasion which created it. Every rich Navajoe may be considered the chief of his clan, or of his own de- pendants, and these clans are usually friendly with each other and make common cause against a common enemy. In addition to the clans referred to, there are many Navajoes who recognize no leader, and who live the lives of vagabonds, stealing indiscriminately, as occasion offers, from friends and foes. They are never trusted by the rich Navajoes, who are in perpetual dread of their depredations. The habitual position of the Navajoe is on horseback, and few men can be found to equal him in the management of a horse. There are rich men among them, who have four or five hundred horses, of which many are worth from fifty to one hundred dollars each, and some few will command a still higher price. These Navajoe horses are active and hardy, having much endurance, and a fair amount of speed. The Navajoes live much in the open air. Their lodges are exceedingly rude structures of sticks, about four or five feet high, with a triangular opening for ingress and egress. On the outside, against the sticks, are placed flat stones and earth, to cover the intervals and protect them from the weather. As often as they change their grazing-grounds, so often do they reoccupy and repair some deserted lodge; and, as their residence in it is to be but brief, the repairs and labor bestowed upon it are of the most meagre and trifling character. In the summer and winter these Indians are found in the southern portion of their country, where there is little snow, and where their animals can find good pasturage. Early in the spring they return to the cienagas and mesas of the north, where most of them remain during the summer. Although missionaries were established among them in 1680, the Navajoes are considered a wild tribe, and do not proiess the Christian religion. Like all nomadic tribes, they are imbued with superstitious which influence them in all their social and domestic relations. A Navajoe girl is considered the property of her parents until she marries. Prior to her marriage, a contract is made between the father of the girl and the destined groom. The usual consideration paid is five or six horses. Twelve horses is con- sidered an exorbitant price for a wife, and is paid only for one possessing unusual qualifications, such as beauty, industry, and skill in their feminine employments. A woman was once pointed out to me for whom *:fteen horses had been paid. She had a tall, fine form, good features, and an agreeable and lady-like expression, with exceedingly quiet manners. Her face was also clean, in which respect it differed 428 THE INDIAN TRIBES OF THE UNITED STATES. from tlie faces of most of the Navajoe belles, who usually evince a cat-like antipathy to the use of water. When a Navajoe woman marries, she becomes free, and may leave her husband for suiHcient cause. For this reason the women are treated more kindly than the squaws of the Northern tribes, and perform far less of laborious work than the Sioux or the Chippewa women, such labor being mostly performed by the poor dependants, both male and female. The females *lo not usually maintain an elevated character for chastity of sentiment or modesty of manners, a natural result from the nature of their marriage obligations, rather than a fault of the people themselves. Like many other savage tribes, they are much addicted to gambling. Horse- racing is a frequent amusement, but their favorite game consists in throwing a lance or pole at a rolling hoop, in which they are said to exhibit much skill. The Navajoes are not given to intoxication. Some of them have never tasted ardent spirits, and only those who have visited the Mexican settlements ask for it. They never fail to beg tobacco, which they smoke, like the Mexicans, in the corn- shuck. In detailing the leading events of the introduction of a fort into the territory of the nation, in 1851, Colonel Backus observes that the Navajoes raise no cotton, and of course have no fabrics of this sort, while the Moquis, who cultivate the plant, make nothing but fabrics of the coarsest cloth. He represents many of the principal Navajoes as being rich in sheep, which they drive^ from valley to valley to find grass and water. But these men possess no houses, and they sleep, like the sheep they drive, on the grass and chips. To these details of the statu of art among the Navajoes and Moquis we add one or two suggestive facts. We have observed descriptions of the Navajoe dwelling denoting a higher social condition than this tribe has at present any claims to. Drawings of this kind of structure, made by persons on the spot, have been given. The drawing depicts a lodge of deflected poles, tied at the top in the Sioux manner, and forming a pentagon, or a many-sided figure, partly covered with flat stones, — a material evidently adopted from the scarcity of bark or wood in those bleak positions. The Navajoes own forty thousand horses, seven hundred thousand sheep, and three hundred thousand goats. Of eight hundred thousand pounds of wooi raised by them in 1880, at least one hundred thousand were made into blankets and clothing for their own use. They are natives of the country in which they now live. SHOSHONE, OK SNAKE NATION. The various tribes and bands of Indians of the Rocky Mountains south of lati- tude 43°, who are known under this general name, occupy an elevated area in the Utah basin, including the territory of the Creat South Pass between the Mississippi Valley and the waters of the Columbia. Traces of the Shoshones in this latitude are first found in ascending the Sweetwater River of the North Fork of the Platte, or Nebraska. They spread over the sources of Green River, one of the highest i tfi THE TRIBES. 429 northern branches of the Colorado of the West, along the summit south of the great Wind River chain of mountains, and thence westward, by the Bear River Valley, to and down the Snake River, or Lewis Fork of the Columbia, Under the name of Yampatick-ara, or Root-Eaters, and Bannocks, they occupy, with the Utahs, the vast elevated basin of the Great Salt Lake. The language is spoken by bands in the gold-mine region of the Sacramento. The Shotjhoncs extend down the Snake River Valley, to and north of latitude 44°, but this is not the limit to which the nations speaking the Shoshone language, in its several dialects, have spread. Ethnolog- ically, the people s]K!aking it are one of the primary stocks of the Rocky Moun- tain chain. They are located immediately west of the wide-spreading tribes who speak the Dakota language, and south of the sanguinary Atsina-Algo, or Blood and Blackfeet race, in Wyoming, Idaho, and Northern Nevada. They are a passive and indolent rather than an aggressive or implacable race, though they are savages in the true sense of the word. The Yampatick-ara are represented as timid, degraded, and wretched, without arts, picking up a miserable subsistence from roots, and using other spontaneous means of subsistence in a barren region, often eating larvae, not planting a seed, and wandering for food and shelter amid scenes often as rugged as those of the Alps or the steppes of the Uralian chain ; yet a closer examination denotes that their tinudity, degradation, and wretchedness are measurably the result of untoward circumstances, the improvement of which would raise them to the same rank as their more favored kindred and neighbors the Comanches, who at unknown periods of their history descended southeastwardly into the plains of Texas. That the climate is not itself such as to repel an alpine industrial population is proved by the success of the Mormons. Portions of the Alps, and other highland or mountain areas of Europe, less favorable to human life, are the residence of a fixed population. The cereal grains are raised in abundance in the great area of the Salt Lake basin. Sheep, goats, and cattle thrive upon the rich bunch-grass of the sloping steppes, where the disintegrated volcanic detritus has produced a soil. The expansive power of frost is perpetually lowering those altitudes. The entire summit-region abounds in pure water, and has a healthful atmosphere, and a high summer temper- ature at noonday. Rains are not wanting, though they are perhaps too unfrequent, and there seems to be no insuperable obstacle to the formation of settlements at favorable points, where the comforts of life could be permanently relied on. The dryness of the atmosphere, which has been noticed as unfavorable to agriculture without irrigation, is not found, however, to prevent the growth of grass in auspicious locations. To a region thus adaj)ted to pasturage and grazing, the existence in abundance of rock salt must prove an inestimal)lc advantage. Lewis and Clarke, to whom we are indebted for our first notice of this nation, found them, under the name of Shoshones, in the valley and at the source of the Jefferson Fork of the Missouri River, which rises in about latitude 43° 30. Their old encampments, and the battle-grounds where they had been assailed and defeated by their enemies the Pawkecs, or Minnetarees, were fornjerly to be found as far north as the mouth of the Jefferson, in latitude 45° 24'. This band, who numbered about v! •iii^ \ ;i ^ M 430 TllK INDIAN THIHES OF Tilt: UNlTKh STATHS. four hundred houIm, were found to pohmchh horwH. Tlx! Slioslioiu'H formerly lived, ucfording to their own recollect ionH, in the plains, Itiit hud been driven by roving Indiiiii.s of the Siutkiitchewiin into the niountains, from which they then rurely Hal lied. Thin band w»8 deemed a part of the great tribe of Hnake IndiauH. They were found not only on the liigheHt altitudcH but also on both Hides of the Rocky Mountuinn. On the west of the mountains they occupied the heatl-walei-H of the Lewis llivor, where they subsisted, in part, on salmon. The whole number of the nation speaking dialects of the Shoshone language was vaguely estimated at that date (1H()(J), in the table of Indian population, at thirteen thousand six hundred. They were found scattered, under various names, over nniny degrees of latitude and longitude. When lli-st found by Lewis and Clarke on the spurs of the Iloeky Mountains, they employed the expression Ah-hi-e ! to signify pleiwure at the sight of u white man. Their name for u white man was, however, Tabba-honc. " Their cold and rugged country," observe the explorers, " inures them to fatigue ; their long abstinence makes them support the dangers of mountain-warfare ; and, worn down, a-s we saw them, by the want of sustenance, they yet had n fierce and ad- venturous look of courage. They sutler the extremes of want : for two-thirds of the year they are forced to live in the mountains, pansing whole weeks without meat, und with nothing to eat but a few fish and roots. Nor can anything be imagined more wretched than their condition when the salmon is j-etiring, when root« are becoming scarce, and they have not yet accpiired strength to hazard an encounter with their enemies. So insensible are they, however, to these calamities, that the Shoshones are not only cheerful, but even gay ; and their character, which is more interesting than that of (Uiy Indians we have seen, ha.s in it much of the dignity of misfortune. In their intercourse with strangers they are frank and communicative, in their dealings jHirfectly fair, and without dishonesty. With their liveliness of temper, they are fond of gaudy dresses, amusements, and games of hazard, and, like mo8t Indians, delight in boiwting of their martial exi)loit«." Such is the account given of the most northerly tribe of this people. Of the tribes living south of them on the same high altitude of mountains, far less favorable accounts have been given. Mr. Hale, the ethnographer of the United States Ex- ])loring P^xpedition, takes but little notice of this leading nation of the mountains, their relations, languages, or popuhiticm ; which fact is probably owing to their remote and inaccessible position. Fremont came among those bands of the Shoshone stock who possess no horses, live chiefly on root.-^, and present the most deprt«sed type of their condition. Accuracy in relation to our knowledge of the topography of those regions, and, incidentally, of the tribes inhabiting it, begins with the exploratory journeys of this ollicer. He ascended the mountains from the North Fork of the Nebraska or Platte, through the Sweetwater Valley, which carried him, by a gentle and almost imperceptible ascent, to the South Piuss. Here, at an altitude of seven thousand feet above the sea, in longitude 101)° and latitude a little north of 42°, he found himself among the Shoshones, of whom he had observed traces in the Sweet- water Valley. He had ncjw advanced nine hundred miles from the mouth of the TTl THE TRIBES. 431 KnnROA. In hifi Rcparntc topogrnphicnl Hhcct-mapB, piibliHhccl in 1840, he iniMTibeH the wordn " Wiir-CJround of th(^ HniikdH and 8ioux IiuliunH" Iwtwwfn tlic Red HiittcH of thfl North Fork of th« PhitUi luid tho junction of th« IJig Hundy Fork of the Orccn or Colorado of California. Wu arc thni. apprimMl of tho fact that titu HhoHlioncH or Hnak<>H had Itandri of tlu; great Dakota family for thvir cncmiiM at tho vufltorn f(M)t of tho niountiiinH. Tho distiincio lH>twc(>n the cxtretnoH of the two points thuH marked in one hundred and ninety-two milcH. Says Mr. J. H. Holman, the agent for Utah, in IiIh re|)ort for 185:i, — " For yearn a largo trilM! of the HhowhoneH, who are Hometimea called Snukefl, in- hahited tlx; Upper MiHHouri. TImh tribe, in hantlH, eacdi under some favorite chief, occupied the co.Mitry upon the liead-waterH of the ArkanHux, and the region extend- ing iw far aM F »rt Hall, Halmon liiver, etc. Tho Hnake« were at war with all the variouH trihcH by whom they were Hiirrounded ; and by thoHO warn and the Hmall|)Ox, which wiiH very fatal among them, they were retluced in numlH'rH, and njilit up into small bands. In the spring of 1822 a war broke out between them and the largo and warlike triln) of the C'rowH, anproach to absolute nudity. When about to attack an enemy, which they always do on horseback, they disrobe themselves of everything but the breech-cloth and moccasins. Their saddles are light, with high pommels and cantles, and they never encumber their horses with useless trappings. The women are held in small estimation ; they are " hewers of wood and drawers of water" for their indolent and supercilious lords. They pay much less attention to j)ersonal adornment than the men, and appear, in the degradation of their social condition, t) have retained but little self-respect. They are disgustingly lllthy in their porso'is, and seemingly as debased in their moral as in their physical constitu- tion. They are decidedly more ferocious and cruel to prisoners than tiie men, among whom may sometimes be witnessed faint indications of a benevolent nature. It is an ancient custom to surrender a prisoner to the women for torture for tiie lirst threts days of his arrival among them. These fiends stake out the unhappy victim by day, — that is, fasten him on his back to the ground, with his limbs stretclied out by TUE TRIBES. 437 cords and stakes. At evening he is released and taken to the dance, where he is placed in the centre of a living circle, formed by the dense mass of his tormentors, and made to dance and sing, while the furies of the inner line beat him with sticks and thongs of raw-hide, with great diligence and glee, until their own exertions induce fatigue,, when he is remanded to his ground-prison to abide a series of small vexations c'uring the coming day and a repetition of the fell orgies the ensuing night. At the expiration of the three days he is released from their custody, exempted from further annoyance, and tiiken to the lodge of his captor to enter upon his servi- tude. This course is not universal, however. Adult prisoners are sometimes delib- erately put to death with protracted tortures, when the party taking them have suffered much loss of life in the foray. At such times these savages will eat a portion of the flesh of their victims, and so far they are liable to the charge of being canni- bals. But they eat to gratify a spirit of revenge, and not to satiate a morbid appetite. Cannibalism, disgusting in all its phases, is with them a purely metaphysical passion. It is perhaps more abhorrent to a correct moral sense, though less loathsome, than that which results from mere brutal appetite. When boys or girls are captured, they are not subjected to any systematic punishment, but are immediately domiciliated in the family of the captor. If docile and tractable, they are seldom treated with ex- cessive cruelty. They are employed in menial services, and occasionally, in process of time, are emancipated and marry into the tribe, when they become de facto Comanches. Polygamy to an indefinite extent is permitted. One chief, Carno-san-tua, the son of America, a name of Mexican bestowment, had ten wives, all of whom seemed to live together in uninterrupted harmony, although one of them was evidently the favorite. Wives are divorced unceremoniously by the husbands, and sometimes marry again. Infidelity on the part of the wife is punished by cutting off the nose. The excision is made from the lower extremity of the cartilage diagonally to the lip. The women do all the menial work. They often accompany their husbands in hunting. The men kill the game, the women butcher and transport the meat, dress the skins, etc. Several women will sometimes accompany a war-party, when they act as hostlers and servitors generally. When in the enemy's country, and near the scene of intended assault, the party select some sequestered sjiot, in a tlense thicket or chapparal, if possible, where they encamp, deposit their feeble horses and surj)lus baggage, with a few of the p<»ed or inefficient warriors and the women as a camp- guard, while they sally out, usually by moonlight, in quest of prey. They war for 8j)oils, and their favorite spoils are horses and mules. They often drive off several hundreds of these from a single Mexican ranch on one foray. The Comanches are not deficient in natural courage, and no people excel them in the art of horseman- ship, and few, if any, in the use of the bow and the javelin, l)oth of which weapons they handle with great dexterity on horseback. As foot-soldiei-s they are comj)ara- tively of little account, but they are never found on foot by an enemy, except by surprise. They use ligivt shot-guns, having an aversion to the weight of the rifle. Experience has taught them to dread this formidable weapon in the hands of our 438 THE INDIAN TRIBES OF THE UNITED STATES. V\y •■^1 brave frontiersmen, and to this sentiment may be attributed much of their forbear- ance from hostilities. They are generally men of good stature, there being among them very few instances of diminutive size or personal deformity. They use a shield made of raw buffalo-hide contracted and hardened by an ingenious application to fire. It is oval or circular, about two feet in diameter, and is worn on the lefl arm. It will effectually arrest an arrow, but is not proof against a rifle-ball. The geographical knowledge of the Comanches is confined within the small limits of their own actual observation. All beyond is, to their minds, obscure and doubtful, and an Indian's doubt is positive, unqualified disbelief They are excessively incred- ulous of any facts in relation to other countries that conflict with their own experi- ence. They have no settled, intelligible notion of the form or constitution of our j)lanet, and none of the great planetary system. They know the north star, and are guided by it in their nocturnal journeys. They call it karmeadtdsheno, — literally, " not-moving star." They recognize the sun as the great fountain of heat, but of its nature, or of the motions of the heavenly bodies, tliey know nothing. They refer to the lapse of time by counting the colds and heats, — that is, the winters and summers ; and although they pay much attention to the phases of the moon, the revolutions of that planet are too frequent and would soon involve too high numbers to constitute a means of computing the chronology of events that have taken place more than a year ago. For short periods, past or future, they (iount by moons, from full to full. The time of day they determine by the apparent position of the sun in the heavens. The Comanche notions of religion are as crude, imperfect, and limited as their ideas of geography and astronomy. They believe in, or have some indefinite tradi- tional idea of, the Great Spirit, but have no mode of worship, except that early in the morning a shield, such as they use in war, is elevated on the point of a javelin (the hilt in the ground), and invariably facing the east. They believe in witchcraft, and sometimes attribute their ailments to the magical influence of some subtile and malignant enemy. They held the Kitchies, a small and distinct tribe formerly residing on the waters of the Trinity River, in peculiar detestation, on account of their supposed powers of sorcery. They imagine that good men (and adroitness and daring in taking scalps or stealing horses are capital evidences of goodness) are translated at death to elysian hunting-grounds, where buffalo are always abundant and fat. The reverse of this maximum of Coniaiiohe felicity is assigned to the wicked. In order to facilitate the posthumous enjoyments of a deceased warrior, they sacrifice some of his best horees, and bury in his grave his favorite implements of the chase for his future use. They have no determinate idea of the locality of these imaginary hunting-grounds. They mourn for the dead systematically and |)eriodically with great noise and vehemence; and on these occiisions the female rela- c's of tlje deceased scarify their arms and legs with sharp flints until the blood ickles from a thousand pores. The duration of these lamentations depends on the tjii 'ity and estimation of the deceased, varying from three to five or seven days, after which the curtain of oblivion seems to be drawn around the grave. No order of priesthood, nor anything analogous to it, exists among them. If they i fl i f ': iili THE TRIBES. 489 recognize any ecclesiastical authority whatever, it resides in their chiefs ; but their religious sentiments arc entirely too loose, vague, and inoperative to have produced any such institution. The elevation of the shield is the only act that affords the slightest indication of religious concernment, and it is doubtful if they have any opinions relative to future rewards and punishments that exercise any moral influence upon them. They have nothing like a system of mythology, neither do they enter- tain any religious myths of a traditionary or settled character. Robert S. Neighbors, special agent to this tribe, communicated the following information respecting them to Mr. Schoolcraft : "The (!omp,nches know nothing positively of their own origin, and their tradi- tions on thio point are very vague and unsatisfactory. They believe they have always lived near the same country they now occupy, and they know of but one migration of their tribes ; this took place many years since, when they travelled from the west, and met with what they term the ' Mountain Spaniards,' in the mountains of New Mexico. They lived with them many years, and the two peoples intermarried with each other. The first chief they recollect was named * Ish-shu-ku' (Wolf-house) : he was a great and wise chief. At the time he lived they resided in Mexico. From thence they visited the prairies for the purpose of hunting, and intermarried with the other tribes inhabiting those regions. These were the Wacos, Tah-wac-car-ros, Toriuash, and branches of the Pawnee tribes. "They call themselves * Na-uni,' which signifies 'first alive,* or 'live people.' They are called Comanche by the Mexicans, Nar-a-tah by the Wacos, Tah-wac-car- ros, etc., Par-too-ku by the Osages, and Sow-a-to by the Caddoes. When they came from the west there were no people living on the lands they now occupy. The first white people they saw were on the west side of the Rio Grande or Del Norte. They lived there at that time, and made a treaty with the white traders that they met. They got the first tobacco from the Wacos, who raised it themselves, but they are ignorant at what time this took place. " They have an imperfect tradition that another race of people inhabited this country before them, and that there was a great flood of waters which covered the whole earth, and that the inhabitants, who they suppose were white and civilized, were metamorphosed into ' white birds' and flew away, by which means they saved themselves from being destroyed. After this, they believe, the Great Spirit made the Comanches on this continent. " They have never heard of any animals except those which are generally known in this region ; neither are they aware of anything connected with crossing the large waters. The first war they recollect was with the Lipans, a branch of the Apaches. They believe in and venerate several deities. They worship one Supreme Being, who they think inhabits a country above the sun. The sun, moon, and earth are their principal objects of worship, — the sun as the primary cause of all living things, the moon as the god of night, and the earth as our common mother. They believe that the will of the Great Spirit is supreme, that he dispenses good and evil at his will, also life -and death. iiie if I I 440 THE INDIAN TRIBES OF THE UNITED STATES. I " They use many charms, and arc very superstitious. All charms are supposed to be derived from the Great Spirit, which they buy from their ' medicine-men.' They offer him many sacrifices. The first puff of smoke is offered to the Supreme, the second to the sun, the third to the earth, and, afler these, to whatever they venerate. The first morsel of what they intend to eat is presented to the Great Spirit, and then buried in the ground. All their implements of war are made by, or undergo charms from, their priests or magicians, who practise charms for the purpose. Their shields are made in imitation of the sun, and before going to war they are stuck upon their lances facing the rising sun, and no person is permitted to handle or touch them except their owners. They believe that they were made by a secondary spirit, who was sent down to the earth by the Supreme. When he first made tiiem, they were imperfect. The spirit returned to the Supreme, and told what he had made. He was then directed to return and complete his work by giving the beings he had cre- ated sense, and to instruct them how to live. He taught them how to make bows and arrows, and gave them horses, etc. " They have no accounts : all their business transactions are simple trade and barter. They are ignorant of the elements of figures, even of a perpendicular stroke for 1, 11, etc. They make no grave-posts or monuments indicating the rank of a deceased person. There is little known of their medicines. So far as has been discovered, these are confined to simple roots and herbs. They'trust chiefly to incantations made by the medicine-men, who also bleed in fevers by scarification on the part affected, but their principal treatment in diseases is starvation. They do not understand amputation, but bind up a broken limb with splints. Their litters for conveying the wounded or sick are composed simply of two poles, with skins stretched across them, and long enough to be supported by a horse in front and rear. " The position of a chief is not hereditary, but the result of his own superior cun- ning, knowledge, or success in war, or some act or acts that rank him according to his merits. The subjects under discussion in council are at all times o{)en to popular opinion, and the chiefs are the main cx])onents of it. The democratic principle is strongly implanted in the tribe. The chiefs consult principally the warrior class, and the weaker minds are wholly influenced by popular opinion. War-chiefs com- mit hostilities without consulting the other tribes. Any propositions or treaties pro- posed by the whites are discussed privately, and the answer given by the chief as the unanimous voice of the tribe. In deliberations in council they consult each other, and one addresses the meeting. The council is opened by passing the council-pipe from one to the other, and invoking the Deity to preside. It is conducted with great propriety, and closed in the same manner. There is one appointed as crier or mes- senger, whose duty it is to fill the j)ipe, etc. Questions of importance are deliberately considered, and considerable time frequently elapses before they arc answered, but they are all decided on the principle of ap])arent unanimity. Capital punishments are rare, eac-h party acting generally for himself, and avenging his own injuries. Each chief is ranked according to his popularity, and his rank is maintained on the same principle. A chief is (le2)rived of his office by any misfortune, such as loss of TUE TRIBES. 441 many men in battle, or even a signal defeat, or being taken prisoner, but never for any private act unconnected with the welfare of the whole tribe. They have no medals except those lately given them, and these are worn more aa symbols of peace than as marks of distinction among themselves. The priesthood appear to exercise no influence in their general government, but, on war being declared, they exert their influence with the Deity. Any principal chief has a right to call a general council of his own tribe, and a council of all the tribes is called by the separate chiefs of each tribe. The principal chiefs have shown every disposition to advance in civilization, and only require the co-operation of the Americans to influence their followers in the same course. " No individual action is considered aa a crime, but every man acts for himself according to his own judgment, unleso some superior power — for instance, that of a popular chief — should exercise authority over him. They believe that when they were created, the Great Spirit gave them the privilege of a free and unconstrained use of their individual faculties. They do not worship any Evil Spirit, and are not aware of its existence, attributing everything to the Great Spirit, whether it be good or evil. They use fire in all their religious observances and dances, or medicine- making. " They believe in the immortality of the souls dwelling in their happy hunt- ing-grounds, but have no definite idea of the transit from this life to another. The ties of consanguinity are very strong, not only with regard to their blood relations, but also with regard to relations by marriage, etc., who are considered as, and gen- erally called, ' brothers.' Offences committed against any member are avenged by all, or by any member connected with the family. In this nation a hunter will generally supply a sufficiency of food and clothing for one family. The marriage state only continues during the pleasure of the parties, as a man claims the right to divorce himself whenever he chooses. Polygamy is practised to a great extent, some chiefs having more than ten wives, but inconstancy is the natural result of it, and this offence is frequently punished by cutting off" the nose of the transgressor, and sometimes even by death ; but more frequently the woman escapes unpunished, and the seducer is deprived of all his available property, which is yielded to the injured party, by custom, without resistance. The women perform all manual labor, war and hunting being all ihe occupation of the men. Jealousy is frequently a great cause of discord, but the husband exercises unbounded authority over the person of his wife. Their lodges are generally neat, and on the entrance of a stranger the owner of a lodge designates the route he shall pass, and the seat he shall occupy. Any infringement of this rule is liable to give offence. " They are formal and suspicious to strangers, but hospitable and social to those they consider their friends. They have no regular meals, but eat when they feel hungry, each party helping himself, and joining in the meal without invitation or ceremony. The parenta exercise full control in giving their daughters in marriage, they being generally jmrcluised at a stipulated price by their suitors. There is no marriage ceremony of any description. They enter the marriage state at a very 5U m !-: I) 442 THE INDIAN TRIBES OF THE UNITED STATES. early age, frequently before the age of puberty. The children are named from some circumstance in tender years, but the name is frequently changed in after-life on account of some act of importance. Whatever children are stolen from their enemies are incorporated in the family to whom they belong, and are treated like their own children, without distinction of color or nation. There is considerable respect shown by the younger branches of the community to the patriarchal chiefs of the tribe. " When they make a sacrctl pledge or promise, they call upon the Great Spirit as their father, and the earth as their mother, to testify to the truth of their assevera- tions. Their talk in council is short, and oratorical powers are held in snudl esteem, but good judgment is in high cstinuition. The children are practised at u very early age in the use of the bow and arrow, but the chiefs and principal braves are accus- tomed to the use of the shot-gun and rille, without dispensing with the bow and arrow, which are always carried and used in war. When a chieftain wishes to go to war, he declares his intentions, and the preliminaries are discussed at a war-dance. When the afl'air is agreed upon, a certain place is designated near the point of action, where to congregate at a specified time, to which place the chiefs repair, the warriors pro- ceeding separately in small bands by various routes, in order, if discovered, to deceive the enemy as to the lunut of attack, and to procure subsistence, each party living on the produce of the chase, no provisions being carried for public use. They fight on horsebiick, with whatever arms they can procure, but their princi^jal reliance is on the bow and arrow. " They are the most expert riders in the world. Men arc never taken prisoners by them in battle, but are killed and scalped in all cases. Women are sometimes made prisoners, in which case their chastity is uniformly violated. " The Comanches have dances of various descriptions, and women are frequently admitted to them, but the women's dances are entirely distinct from those of the men. Thcj have contests in racing, and several games of chance. Their principal game is the same as in all the Northern bands, called * bullet,' ' button,' etc., which con- sists in changing a bullet rapidly from one hand to the other, accompanied by a song to which they keep time with the motion of their arms, and the opposite party guessing which hand it is in. They sometimes stake all they possess on a single game. " When pressed by hunger from scarcity of game, they sul)sist on their young horses and mules. The flesh of the young wild horse is considered a delicacy. " Their common dress is the breech-cloth and moccasins, with a bufliilo robe flung loosely over the shoulders, but some have now begun to imitate the more civilized tribes. Tliey have a great variety of ornaments, many of which are of pure silver, principally fashioned into large brooches. Their decorations are deriv(y Colonel Mtickcnzic; and Victoria'H bund of hostile ApacheH wa8 dontroyed by the Mexican Culunel Ternwati in 1880. I r- M.) m -i UTAU8. The Rocky Mountains have from time immemorial been the location of certain tribes of IndiimH, who appear at first to have souglit shelter there from sanguinary hunter-tribes, roving over the plains or slopes on either side of the chain; or it may be that the mounfuin-tribcs reached these eminences in search of the builalo, which were wont to pass through tlie mountain-gorges at certain seasons of the year. Lewis and Clarke, who, in 180'), crossed the range between the sources of the Mis- souri and Columbia Rivers, found its summits in posseasion of the Shoshone group of tribes. These people, in their divisions, appear to have been progressive, at least from this point, towards the south ; from about 42°, which is the verge of the Great Salt Lake biisin, they have diverged towards the southwest into Californiai and towards the southeast into Texas, at the same time continuing tiic track southerly into New Mexico. Two distinct tribes, speaking dialects of other languages, appear as intrusive, or, at least, to have shared with the Shoshone group this general position, — namely, the Upsarokas, or Crows,, and the Utidis. The Upsarokas, according to some traditions, lied from the Missouri Valley during a time of extensive commotions of the tribes in that quarter. The Utahs appear to have been progressive from the south, where, from an early period, they have, with the Apache tribes, been residents of the elevated plains and geologically disturbed districts of New Mexico. The great Colorado River of the West has its principal origin and course through the Utah territories. Of good, middle-sized stature, and much strength of muscle, the Ut^ihs are preda- tory, voracious, and perfidious. They have long been the terror of the Spanish set- tlements of New Mexico, and have severely taxed the energies of the Americans to keep thei. .vithin bounds. The use of the horse has doubled their power of (iepredation, vui\ excited their energies and ambition. To kill and rob on foot is a far less exciting exploit for these Lulians than to perfoon the same atrocities on horseback and lly to their recesses for safety; and this iHgbt, too, leads through gulches and cafions which put cavalry at defiance. From their mountain-fastnesses they made raids upon their hereditary enemies the Sioux, Clieyeiines, and Arapahoes. With the whites they have nearly always been friendly, the outbreak in 1879 being almost the only instance on record to the contrary. The rapid settlement of Colorado has driven them westward and deprived them of the best part of their lands, and negotiations witii them are now pending for the purchase of their lands in Colorado, and their removal thence. Some of the more important bands of the Utidis are the Elk-Mountain Utahs, in Southeastern Utah ; Pah-Vants, on Sevier Lake, southeast of Salt Lake ; San Petes, on Sevier Lake, and in San Pete Valley ; Tash Utahs, in Northern Arizona ; Uintali Utahs, in Uintah Valley Reserve ; Weber Utahs, northeast of Salt Lake ; Yampa TUE TlilBKS, 446 UtaliB, south of the Uintah Utiiha. Tlio Uintah VuHoy Reservation, of two million Bcrea, in the northeaHtern corner of the Territory, coinpriHca Home of the bcHt farming land in Utah, and w of Hiiflicnent extent to maintain all the IndianH in the Territory. The Weber Utes, numbering about three hundred, live in the vicinity of Salt Lake City, and HubHiut by hunting, fmhing, and begging. The TimpauagoH, numbering alM)ut five hundred, live Houth of iSalt Luke City by hunting and fulling. The Bun I'etea, three hundred in numl)cr, uoiith and cuHt of the TimpanugoH, HulMiut in the 8ume manner. The I'uh-Vunts, twelve hundred in number, occupying the territory south of the (ioHhipn, hunt and fish and cultivate small patehcM of ground. The Elk-Mountain, Yampu, and other bands live in the eastern and southern purtti of the Territory. They number over five thousund ; they do not cultivate the soil, but subsist by hunting und fishing. They are wurlike und migrutory in their habitu, carrying on a petty warfare much of the time with the Southern Indians. They have no treaties with the United States, and receive no annuities and but little assistance from the government. I'AII-UTES. These Indians, numbering about six thousund, inhubit the western part of Nevada. Two reservations have been set apart for them, — the Walker River and Pyramid Lake Reservations, containing each three hundred and twenty thousund acres. They ure a peaceable, intelligent, ugriculturul people, all weuring citizens* dress, are geiierully sober, and possess little property except ponies. They live in tule houses in winter, and, while not complaining of their lot, are desirous thut the government, which does so much for those who ure far less deserving of its assistance, should aid them in their efforts to attain the blessings appertaining to a higher civ- ilization. Those on the Walker River Reservation are cultivuting small patches of ground. The Pyramid Luke Reservution uffords, in uddition, excellent fishing, and the surrounding settlements provide u ready market for the surplus catch. They have one school, with thirty scholars. PI-UTES. The Pi-Utos, numbering two thousand five hundred, inhabit the southeastern part of Nevada, They have no reservation, nor any treaty with the United States, but roam at will, are very destitute, and obtjiin u living principuUy by pilfering from the whites, although a few are engaged in a small wuy in farming. The following facts ure derived from the report of Agent Holman in 1853 1 To the south of the Shoshones, or White River, and on Green River and its tributaries, there once resided u lurge bund of the Utah tribe, under the chief Birne (One-Eye), — ubout one hundred und fitly lodges. They lived on friendly terms with all the Indians, and were kindly disposed towards the whites, although they had once been accounted bad Indians. Being some one hundred miles from the emigrant route, they had but little intercourse with the whites, except the traders who visited their country. i 440 TUE INDIAN TRIliES OF THE UNITED STATES. There in a part of the Utiih tribe who reside on the Elk Moiuit;iiuH, towards Taos, in New Mexico. Tliis tribe is very hirge, and claims the country from the Elk Mountains, west and southwest of Salt Lake, to the Sierra Nevada. It is controlled by various chiefs, who command separate bands who are friendly towards each other, all being of the Utah tribe, though some are called Pi-Utahs. Home of these bands have been inclined to rob and murder the whites since the first settlement of Salt Lake Valley, — a disposition occasioned, it is said, by the forcible occupation and settlement of their land by the Mormons, against whom they make many grievous complaints. Another band of Utahs, called the Uwiuty Utalis (Uintah Utahs), were formerly under the chief Ca.stcl. They are descendants of a band whose chief was named Uwinty, from whom the band and the valley in which they reside take their desig- nation. They number about one hundred lodges. There were also other bands of these Utahs, — one under the celf^brated chief Walker, the other under his brother, Saw-ry-ats. They resided in and about San Fete Valley, about one hundred and fifty miles from Salt Lake. They number one hundred and fifty or two hundred lodges. They were formerly much more powerful^ but have been greatly reduced in nuuibers by the attacks of hostile tribes. Walker, although a prominent chief, with much intluence in his tribe, was not considered a great warrior. His high standing was a consecjuence of his daring and ingenious thefts. He made akWiual visits to the Mexican territories south, and stole horses, sometimes hundreds in a drove. Upon one occasion he left the Mexican country with about three thousand, but was closely pursued, and driven so hard that half of his lot gave out, and were left. He got in safe with the remainder. Upon another occasion, after collecting i large dro>e, he was pursued by a strong force of Mex- icans for several hundred miles. Being avs'are of the pursuit, he knew he must be overtaken or abandon his drove, as the animals were much fatigued, unles.s he cculd extricate liimself by stratagem. Late in the evening he selected a point suitable for operations, and encamped. The Mexicans came in sight, and frt)m the careless appearance of Walker's camp concluded that he was not aware of the pursuit, and, being fatigued themselves they determined to rest for the night, and {'aj)ture Walker and his party in the morning, iis they considered it impossible for him to escape. Consequently they lay io' -s. Then other voices broke in from time to time as the females joined in the m^rniiig. On day breaking, I found the whole camp in great grief, jumping and howijii^ in a most pitiful manner. "After sunrise the body of the deceased was tied up in her blanket and rags which she jx)sse.ssed when living, and borne to a spot some hundred yards distant, where her funeral pyri' was being raised. The entire camp followed, most of whom were crying and wailing greatly. The body was laid on the ground while the pyre was being built. This occuj)ied considerable lime, owing to the difficulty the Indians had ""•uriny: this time the mourniiiff wai gel purj)ose. pt tm in loud and wild wailings. The females were blacked around their chin, temples, r IS, and forehead, and juKi})ed and cried as they uttered their wild lament. They I'Mvii • fOilrated themselves upon ^he ground, and not unfrequently on the body of 450 THE INDIAN TRIBES OF THE UNITED STATES. the deceased. The pyre being finished, the body was placed upon it, with all her baskets, beads, and earthly effects. This done, the pyre was fired all around, and, as the blaze enveloped the body, the mourners, who had continued jumping and wailing, seemed to give way to unbounded grief. During this scene I observed the females as they jumped about pointing in several directions and ejaculating something I did not understand. On inquiry, I learned they were pointing towards places where they had been with the deceased in childhood, — gathering food, feasting, or on some other occasions of pleasure, — and they were crying, ' no more yonder,' ' no more yonder,* ' no more yonder.' " During the whole time from the death of the woman, there was one Indian who gave utterance to his sorrow in loud and broken strains. He was naked, as were most of the men, except a small girdle •. ind the middle. As he half cried, half sung his sorrow, he would occasionally ; > mething distinctly, but without appearing to address himself jiarticuhirly to i ■ jple, or any portion of them. I learned he was the speaker, or what might, perLups, on this occasion be termed the priest, of the tribe. In the course of the ceremony, groups of Indians would occa- sionally gather around him. On one occasion I observed him drawing marks in the sand as he spoke. He said, ' We are like these lines : to-day we are here, and can be seen ; but death tnkes one away, and then another, as the winds wipe out these lines in the sand, until all are gone.' " After death the name of the departed is never breathed among them. When death tsikcs one away, the living suppose the name has gone also, and should not be spoken. I am told that when the nan.e of a deceiised person happens to be spoken among them, a shudder passes over all present instantly. They seem to know but little of the pa.st of those living, and to (^ndeavor to forget everything connected with the dead." WICHITAS. The Wichita tribe formerly inhabited the mountain region of that name, tilling the ground, and exchanging the products of the soil, and the bows and arrows which they made, with the Intlians of the plains, for mules, horses, and buffalo-robes. When the government sent a party of engineers to mark the western boundary of the country given to the Chickasaws, they guided and guarded them with great kindness. Tlie result disclosed the fact that their village was in the Chickasaw country. Soon afterwards, their chiefs wore induced, by tlie United States officers at Fort Arbucklo, to invite the Comanches to a peace-council to be held with the officers at the Wichita village. They succeeded in their mission ; but no sooner had the Comanches, six hundred in number, reached the vicinity of the village, than they were surprised at daybreak by Major Van Dorn, with six companies of cavalry, many of them killed, and all their property taken or destroyed. Major Van Dorn, it is said, had not been apprised of tiie ariaiigeniont. To escape the vongeance of the Comanches for their supposed treachery, the unfortunate Wichitas fled from their homes and became wanderei-s. In 1854 they were placed by the government on the Brazos River, but g ll i. le s. n e, ta ix al d, en ;ir nc lilt THE TRIBES. 461 were driven thence by the Texans, and took refuge in the neighborhood of Fort Arbuckle. When the rebellion broke out, they abandoned their homos, following the troops north into Kansas. At its close, greatly reduced in numbers by starvation and diseiise, they returned to the vicinity of their old home. Rush Creek. The treaty of Medicine Lodge Creek having given their home to others, they have been l)laced upon an agency in the Indian Territory, with the Kiowas, Couianches, and Apaches. " The affiliated bands belonging to this agency," says the Indian Commis- sioner's Report for 1880, " except the Caddoes and Delawares, continue to advance in industry and thrift. They wear citizens' dress, live in houses, cultivate the ground, and at times require but small issues of rations." KIOWAS, The Kiowas, a wild, roving tribe of Shoshones, formerly ranged from the Platte to the Rio Grande, and about the Arkansas and Canadian Rivers, in the Indian Territory, Colorado, and New Mexico. In 18G9 they were placed on a reservation in the Indian Territory, with the Comanches, Apaches, and other wild tribes. They are a brave but cruel and treacherous tribe. Up to June, 1871, with short intervals, they had made repeated raids on the settlers in Western Texas. Returning from one of these, their chief, Satanta, boasted of having captured a train and killed seven men, and, on his making application for rations, he was arrested at Fort Sill by order of General Sherman. While Satanta, with other prisoners, was being taken to Fort Richardson, he attempted to kill a soldier, and wa.s shot. The effect of arresting some of the leading Kiowas and sending them to Texas for trial was most salutary, and since this tribe, the Comanches, Apaches, and other wild tribes have been removed to the Indian Territory, they have been to some extent brought under civilizing influences, and have determined never again to take up arras against the white man. At the opening of hostilities in the Indian Territory, in 1874, full nine-tenths of the Kiowas at the agency were friendly, but at the time of the Wichita fight one- third of them fled, and were afterwards obliged to surrender as hostilos. Twenty-six leading Kiowa chiefs and braves, including Swan, and the noted raider Lone Wclf, were taken to Fort Marion, with a number of Cheyenne and Comanche captives. In 1875 the Kiowas sustained a severe loss in the death of Kicking Bird, who, though a young man, was their head chief. He had abandoned raiding some years before, had gained the reputation of loyalty to the government, and endeavored to promote the elevation of his people. His dying request to be buried after " the white man's way" was carefully complied with. PUEBLOS. Scattered here and there over various parts of New Mexico and Arizona are found small towns or villages of semi-civilized Indians, denominated Pueblo Indians, these last all having to some extent acquired the language and many of the customs 452 TllK INDIAN TRIBES OF THE UNITED STATES. k \ and manners of the Mexican population of the country. They retain, however, most of the ancient rites, ceremonies, and customs of their progenitors, which are still sacredly observed among them. They were subdued by Coronado in 1540. Two years later they threw off the Spanish yoke, but were again concjuered in 1597-98 by Oflate. In 1G80 they again revolted, but without success. They became citizens of the United States in 1848. Five dift'erent dialects are spoken in the nineteen pueblos. The records of New Mexico were destroyed by the natives in 1680, during the revolt, and again in 1870, when, to the disgrace of the nation, the acting governor of the Territory suffered its archives to be sold as waste paper. The pueblos, the chief of which are Acoma, Isleta, Sandia, Taos, Laguna, Zufli, and Moqui, are scattered at intervals throughout the country. These are at the present time the most populous, and the most noted for intelligence and for agricultural and pastoral habits. The inhabi'^-^nts of these pueblos, though part of the great abo- riginal race of the American continent, differ in many respects from the wild and marauding tribes, in having the habits, intelligence, and enterprise of a semi-civilized jieople, and in having been known as such from the period of the expedition of the lirst Spanish explorers from the city of Mexico in 1541-42, when they were found living in these towns. Through what means, or from what source, this progression towards civilization has proceeded, still remains, and probably ever will remain, shrouded in obscurity. It is probable that they are descendants of the Aztec popu- lation who occupied this country previous to ita discovery by the Spaniards. The traditional " seven cities of Cibola," of which Coronado was in search, have been located by recent investigators on the site of the Zufli group of pueblos in the western part of New Mexico. Mr. A. F. Bandolier, in his " Report on the Iluins of the Pueblo of Pecos,"' has satisfactorily determined that "Tusayan," which lay to the left of Cibola, must be the Moqui group of pueblos in Eastern Arizona, and that the rock of Acuno, east of Cibola, must be the same as the pueblo of Acoma, " whose remarkable situation on the top of a high isolated rock has made it the most conspicuous object in New Mexico for nearly three centuries." In a circle of sixty miles from Santa Fe there are to be found the ruins of over forty deserted towns, and similar ruins in other localities show that these Indians were once a powerful, industrious, and intelligent people. These are the remains of the ancient communal dwellings of the agricultural or village Indians, ancestors of the present race. The most interesting of these abandoned pueblos are those of Pecos, twenty-five miles east of Santa Fe; Ojo Caliente, near a hot spring in Rio Arriba County, New Mexico: and others in the Caflon de Chelle and in Peach Orchard Cafion. Mr. Bandelier concludes that the ruin of Pecos is " probably the largest aborigi- nal structure of stone within the United States so far described." He estimates the number of compartments contai ed in it at five hundred and eighty-five, and believes ' Papers of the Arcbseolugiuul laiititutc of America, — American Series. THE TRIBES. 463 thnt for size it will bear comparison with many of the ruina of Mexico and Central America. As there are no traces of steps, it is probable that the house was entered by means of ladders, us is still the custom in Zufli and Moqui. Espcyo, who visited the region in 1582, estimated the tribe at twenty-five thousand souls, inhabiting five towns. The pueblo of Pecos continued to be inhabited down to 1840, when the remnant of the tribe, dwindled to the number of five men, removed to the pueblo of Jemes, a trilie speaking the same language. Mr. Bandelier identifies this ruined pueblo of Pecos with the village of Cicuy<5, to which Coronado sent an expedition, under his lieutenant Alvarado, in 1540. The population of the nineteen pueblos is nine thousand five hundred, in a terri- tory containing one thousand three hundred and eighty square miles, of which Zufli has three hundred and thirty-six. They are all self-supporting. The names of the pueblos are Acoma, San Juan, Picuris, San Felipe, Pecos, Cochiti, Taos, Santo Do- mingo, Santa Clara, Tesuque, San Ildefonso, Pojoaque, Zia, Sandia, Isleta, Nambe, Jemes, Laguna, Santa Ana, and Zufli ; and besides these there are seven Moqui pueblos in Arizona. Jemes, Laguna, and Zufli have each a school. Each village contains an estufa (place of worship), partly built under ground, and so enclosed that it cannot be entered without the consent of those in charge. It is constructed of adobes, the usual building-material. Many of their houses are from two to five stories high, and are entered by ladders reaching to the roof, from which admittance is obtained through a trap-door, a mode adopted for security from hostile attacks. a.,...'. , .. '.i ■ '• The high civilization secured to the Pueblos under the Spanish rule was main- tained until after the establishment of Mexican independence, when from want of government care and support, decay followed, and they measurably deteriorated down to the time when the authority of the United States was extended over them : still, they are a remarkable people, noted for their sobriety, industry, and docility. They have few wants, and are simple in their habits and moral in their lives. These people have their own laws and forms of government, each town having its own, and all are nearly alike. Each has its governor, lieutenant-governor, cacique, fiscal, superintendent of irrigation, war-captain, lieutenants, and constables. These are elected annually, except the cacique, or high-priest, who holds office for life. In nearly all the villages there are Roman Catholic chapels, which are seldom used, as, notwithstanding the efforts made by that Church, the Pueblos still adhere to their native belief and ancient rites. They believe that Montezuma, their prophet, priest, and king, was born in Teguayo, one of their ancient pueblos, in 1480. Governor Arny was told by a venerable Indian that all the Pueblos in secret perioim rites and ceremonies connected with the looked-for return of Montezuma. The pueblo of Moqui, and its six neighboring pueblas, are at an easy distance from the main residence of the Navajoes. The following are the Navajoe names for these seven pueblos : Ai-yah-kin-nee (Moqui), Tset-so-kit, Qset-so-kit-pee-tsce-lee, Kiu-ahs-tl^e, 0-zi, Et-tah-kin-nee. These six all speak the same tongue, — a Shoshone variant. The 464 THE INDIAN TRIBES OF THE UNITED STATES. I seventh, cuUcd Ntih-flhah-shai (Oroybo, or Huro), B|)t>aka a different language,— one of the true Pueblo tongues. ZURlB. The pueblo of Zufli iu situated in the western part of New Mexico, upon a small creek called Rio de Zufii, having its source in the Ojo Pescado (fish spring), about sixteen miles to the eastward, and is near the eastern border of Arizona. Tlic Zuflis number about sixteen hundred. In their own language, which is not spoken by the Indians of any other pueblo in New Mexico, they call themselves, as a tribe, Ah-shee- wai. Like all other Pueblo Indians, they wear their hair knotted behind and bound with parti-colored braid ; but in front it is allowed to grow so aa to cover the entire forehead, being cut off sharp and square at the line of the eyebrows. This last, they say, is to enable the Pueblos to distinguish one another from the wild Indians. Their only head-covering is a colored handkerchief, passed like a band from the forehead to the back of the head. These Indians physiognomically resemble in all respects those of the more northern Territories of the United States. They say they have inhabited their country since the world was made, that originally they, in common with the wild tribes, came from the west, and that as the world grew they became separated from one another, and the Navajoes, being separated the farthest, finally established themselves near the Pueblos. The ZutiiB have many mean and dis- agreeable traits, being close and tricky in trade, inhospitable, and given to pilfering and lying. They have no substantial tradition of their origin, other than the trivial one just mentioned. They are governed by a cacique or head chief, who is also their chief priest. The succession is hereditary in the family of the cacique. A few miles to the southeast of Zufli, on the mesa of Gallisteo, is what is called Old Zufii ; but there is no reliable evidence that it was ever the residence of the ancestors of the Zuflis. They have been living in their present villages since the time of the Spanish conquest. The Zuflis are mild and peaceable. Their habits are regulated by the sun and moon, and by the changes in the seasons. They have a house where the cacique of the sun sits, and through a hole in the wall tells by the sun's rays shining in what time of the season it is. Especially does he watch when the sun travels his last day northward, and with dancing and joy they welcome his backward march. They are economical to tho lost degree, and arc slowly improving in condition. For many years these Indians were at war with the Navajoes, and in 1863 they held one hundred of the latter captive. Finding it too expensive to feed them, they decided to give them a chance for their lives and liberty. The streets and alleys of the town are very narrow, and egress from them is difficult, unless one is well ac- quainted with them. In the public square of the town the Zuflis placed the captive Navajoes, and bade them escape if they could. At each corner were placed two Zufli warriors, armed with clubs and knives ; and npt one of the Nav^oes got out of the town alive. 8- >g 111 iir es ut he Q<1 of lat lay ley ley ley eye ac- ive two out THE TRIBES. 455 MOQUIS. ■ . The Moqui Pueblos are in Arizona, and their reserve adjoins the Navajoe Reser- vation on the west. It has a population of one thousand seven hundred and ninety. Tiic Moquis revolted against the Spaniards in 1G80, and have since been independent. Their houses arc built of stone set in mortar, and for security are perched upon the summits of almost inaccessible mesas. Their villages are Tayroah, Se-cho-ma-we, Jualpi, Me-sluing-a-na-we, She-powl-a-we, and Shung-o-pa-we. Ten miles west of the latter is Oreybe, where dwells a distinct race, speaking a different language. The Moquis are an agricultural people, but are very poor, as droughts are fre- quent and their lands are not susceptible of irrigation. The scarcity of water pre- vents stock-raising. They were formerly a numerous people, possessing large flocks and herds, of which they have been deprived by their more warlike neighbors tiie NaviijooH. They an; kind-hearted, hospitjible, virtuous, and honest, but their isolated situation keeps them ignorant and superstitious. With the exception of the Oreybes, who spoak the Tegua dialect, the Moquis belong to the Shoshone group. The followii5g description of the Mocjuis is taken from the diary of Father Francisco Garccs, who in 1775 was ordered by the Spanish viceroy, Bucarali, to the f/olorado River : " At night I entered the Moqui, astonished at the sight of the many people on the roofs of the houses, looking at me as I passed with my mule in search of the corner of tin preceding night, which, after making some turns, I fimnd. " In this town were two kinds of people, and two languages. The first is seen in the color and stature ct" the males and females, the second in their different manner of singing. Some arc of a color clear and somewlipt red, and are good-looking; and others are small, black, and ugly. When they go out of town they appear in clothing like Spaniards, wearing dressiid skins, tight sleeves, pantaloons, boots and shoes. Their ai-ms are ' xavius' and lances. In town thoy wear shoes, and sleeves of colored cotton (' manta pinta'), and a black blanket of the sort they make. The women wear tunics as low as the ankle, without sleeves, and a black or white shawl over the head like a square mantilla, — the tunic, confiaed by a belt, usually of a variety of colors. Thoy do not pounce or paint themselves, nor did I see l)cads on them, or ear-rings. The old women wear the hair in two braids, and the young women in a tuft over each ear, or altogether drawn to one side, taking much care of it. "Notwithstanding that they did not favor me, I formed iue idea that there were many good people among them, and that the bad were nly those who governed. There might have l>cen other reasons for this besides that of not wishing to be bap- tized, or of admitting Spaniards into their country ; like that of knowing that I had come from the Tamajabs and from the Yuinas, friends of their enemies, and rnnse- qucntly they held me as the spy of the Yavipais, Tejua, and Chemeguabas. They also knew thai [ came from and Wius a minister among the Piinas, with whom they were at war, as I had l)een told by the Indians of my mission ; and Iwcause of this. 456 THE INDIAN TRIBES OF THE UNITED STATES. and the ruins which are found on the river Gila, I have suspected that anciently the Moquis extended as far as there. I asked some old Sabaijiuris of my mission, many years ago, who had made those houses which were fallen down, and the earthen- ware that is found, broken, in various places on the river Gila ; for neither the Pimas nor Apaches know how to make such. They answered me that the Moquis only know how to make those things; and they added that the neighboring Apaches are not related among themselves ; that there are some much farther to the north, where they used to go, long since, to figh*. ; but they had never been up into the pla- teau where these people lived. This information was confirmed, in that the Yavipais took out for me a bowl of earthen-ware, like the cups found in the house of Monte- zuma ; and I asking them whence they had gotten it, they said that in the Moqui there is much of that ware. As I did not go into a house, I could not see any in them ; but from below I saw on tho azoteas some large colored pots. So likewise the Gila Pimas have told me that anciently the Apaches came from the house which is called of Montezuma, to give them battle ; and it being certain that those whom we know for Apaches have no house or fixed habitation, I am inclined to think that they were the Moquinos who came to fight, the which were made war upon by the Pimas, who have ever been numerous and brave, and that they forsook these habitations of the jiver Gila, as tliey have that ruined town which I found before coming to Moqui, retiring to where they now live, in that advantageous position, defended as it is with so many precautions against every attack. " Within the town there was no water, but on the side to the east I saw an abun- dant spring, with a de^^cending stairs of stone, and curbing of the same. In my corner I rested that night, and my mule was t^iken by the Yavipais to the pen of the preceding day." YUMAS. Of the Yuma group of Southern Arizona and Southern California, a portion of the Mohaves live at the Colorado River Agency ; the Pimas, Maricopas, and Papagoa are at tlie agency named for tlioni ; a liirge number of the various bands of Apaches and of the Mohaves are at the San Carlos Agency, in Arizona ; while the Yunias, Cocopas, Ilualapais, and others are not on reservations. The Mohaves at the Colorado River Agency number about four thousand, of whom only eight hundred and twenty- eight are on the reservation, the rest either roaming at large or being fed at other reservations. They are industrious and fond of agriculture, and skilful in raising their crops under tiie adverse circumstances of their location. They are willing and anxious to work, but make slow ])rogress in civilization. The parents objecting to the education of their children, no schools have been established among them. The land of the Apaches is fertile in the valleys, and water is plenty from the mountain- streams. The squaws cultivate the soil, ami the men hunt, fish, and fight. The Coyoteros had a famous chief, Cochise, reckoned the ablest and most vindictive Indian in Southern Arizona. J lis animosity was nttributed to an ill-advised attempt to take him and his family prisoners with a view to holding them as hostages for the return i;i ^m^ THE TRIBES. 457 of property stolen by some other Indiiins. A reservation was set apart for them at Camp Goodwin in 1866, some fifteen liundred of them drawing rations there at one time. But on their refusing to deliver up some prisoners who were reported to have attacked a train, they became alarmed, and fled to the mountains, remaining hostile until 1871, when they were placed on their present reservation. The Aravapais, or Mohave Apaches, at this agency, were the bravest and most inveterate of our Indian foes in Arizona, and had more than once defeated our troops in action. The Hualapais, a brave and enterprisii.g race, located on the eastern slope of the Black Mountains, live by the chase, and have little stock. For several years following 1866 they were hostile to the whites, who killed in that j oar their head chief, Wamba Yuba, on a mere suspicion that he had been concerned in the killing of a white man. They number about fifteen hundred. The Indians of the Yuma stock are scattered along the borders of the Lower Colorado and its affluents the Gila River and the Bill Williams Fork. Their name is derived from one of the tribes, — the Yumas, — whom their neighbors frequently call Cuchans, or Ko-u-tchans. They number about two thousand, and inhabit the country near the mouth of the Colorado River. Tliey gain a scanty subsistence by planting and wood-cutting. Scattered tribes are the Kumnos, and the Yavipais or Yampais, east of the Colorado River. :l PAPAGOS. These Indians, numbering about six thousand, are of the same class in some re- spects as the Pueblos of Nc" Mexico, living in villages, cultivating the soil and raising stock for a support. They have no reservation, bi^t inlmhit the southoii.stern part of the Territory. Many of them have embraced ^Christianity, and tliey are generally well-behaved, quiet, and peaceable. They msi -^t a strong desire to have their children educated. They have no treaty relations >\ ihr United Btntes, artd receive no a-ssistance from the government. They are industrious, ami excil in the manufacture of mats and pottery. PIMA8 AND MAIirCOPAS. The earliest S|)anish accounts of the Piniiis locate the tribe in the Gila Valley, very nearly in the position which they now occupy. This is about two hundreu iiid forty n.iles above the present site of Fort Yuma, at the junction of the Gila and Colorado Rivers. Their association with the Coco Maricopas luis produced a general concurrence in manners and customs, dress, and modes of living, the same kind nt' houses, and the same general policy; but the language is different, and the Iji are an entirely distinct tribe, having, according to their own traditions, come to their present pasition from the west. Tlieir union with the Pimas is recent. These tribes are said to have been in former years " Village" or " Pueblu" Indians. Missions were early established among them by the Spaniai'ds, with good success. 458 THE INDIAN TRIBES OF THE IGNITED STATES. Tlie Piinsw assert that their ancestors migrated to their present position from the east, or, as they phrase it, the rising sun. Like most of tlie Indian tril)es, mingling fable with fact, they assert that their first parent was caught up to heaven. After this, those of the tribe that remained on earth wandered west, and fixed their abode ou the Gila. The men and women of the Pimas and Coco Mari(!oj)as have the custom of wearing long hair reaching to their waists. They put it up in twists, and sometimes coil it around their heads ; by others it is allowed to hang down the back. In front it is cut straight across the forehead, where it hangs in a thick nuiss and ])rotects their eyes from the glare of the sun. The sexes practise this custom alike, the only perceptible dillerence being that the males wear their liiiir the longest. It grows very thick. They sometimes put it up as a turban, with a kind of clay, which serves to give permanency to the coil or folds of this species of tiara. With resjiect to their history, it may be suggested that prior to the era of the Spaniards the country they now occupy was inhai)ited by the Navajoes or Moquis, who have passed north to their present position. The Pima language bears a dose rela- tionship to the various dialects of the Opata family, and to a number of languages spoken in the interior Mexican States. The two tribes, numbering about five thousand, .occupy a reservation of tw» hundred i iid forty-three scpiare miles, set apart for them un-.'cf the act of February L'8, I80I), and located in the central part of the Territory, on the (lila River. They have always been jjeaceful and loyal to the government, are considerably advanced in a rude form of civilization, are industrious farmers, and are nearly self-sustaining. They are greatly interested in the education of tlieir children, and have two schools in successful operation. They produce the best wheat in the Territory. They wear citizens' dress and live in houses. They are brave and enterprising, and have fre- (juently accompanied our troops lus scouts and guides. The Maricopas, of whom there are but about iive hundred, are among the best and most useful of all the tribes. iND or vou I. ai 11^1 ■. I i;l!' riuiN-i rili;iVI iNKVV IVI KXlcii