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^•v.

BRITISH AMEklCA.

VOL. I.

FAJ.I.S or NIAGARA.

OLIVER & BOYD, EDINBURGH.

;■ • #

* v$

liisi!

HISTORY

BEITISH AMERICA;

COMPRKHBNOINQ >

CANADA UPPER AND LOWER,

NOVA SCOTIA, NEW BRUNSWICK, NEWFOUNDLAND,
PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND, THE BERMUDAS,
I AND THE FUR COUNTRIES.

TO V7HIca IS ADDKD,
A PULL DETAIL OF THE PRINCIPLES AND BEST MODES OF

EMIGRATION.

BY HUGH MURRAY, F.R.S.E.

WITH

ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE NATURAL HISTORY,

BT JAMES WILSON, F. R. S. E. dc M.W. S.

R. K. ORETILLE, LL. D.

AND PROFESSOR TRAILL.

SIX MAPS BY WRIGHT, AND TSN BNORA VINOS BY JACKSON.

THREE VOLUMES IN ONE.

itc^ WkL

EDINBURGH:
OLIVER & BOYD, TWEEDDALE COURT.

ENTERED IN STATIONERS* HALL.

Printed by OUvV. * B(»y4i
Tweeddale Court, High Street, Edinburgh.

PREFACE.

The Work now submitted to the Public will, it is hoped,
equal in the interest of its subject any hitherto included
in the Edinburgh Cabinet Library. The territories
of British America, even after having lost enough to
constitute one of the greatest states in the world, embrace
a very large proportion of the earth's surface, and ph;-
sent natural features at once extremely grand and
romantic. The native inhabitants were distinguished
by energy and intelligence above all the other rude
tribes of the Western Continent, and displayed, perhaps
beyond any similar race, the most striking peculiarities
of savage life. Their long and fierce struggles, before
yielding to the superior numbers and martial skill of
Europeans, gave rise to scenes much more interesting
than ever diversify the routine of civilized warfare.
Finally, the exploits by which those regions were added
to the dominion of Britain are readily acknowledged to
rank among the most brilliant that adorn her annals in
any age.

These colonies, too, have acquired an augmented im-
portance from the great changes effected in our own times.
Their rich and varied products, their vast extent, and the
strong direction which emigrants from Britain have taken
towards their shores, encourage the expectation that they
will one day become the seat of great nations, equalling
or even surpassing the power of the mother-country. A
deep interest is naturally felt in their future prospects^

PREFACK.

moro csppcially when conneotcd with tlip numhcrs,
HmoiintiMgduriiij? tlio lust twenty years to nearly half a
million, who have removed thither from various parts of
the United Khigdom. Ilenee it luia happened that many
among us, who do not oven know an individual in the
adjacent county, find thematdves hound, not hy friendship
only, hut hy the most intimate ties, with the dwellers in
those transatlantic regions. All such persons must he de-
sirous to receive information in regard to the capahilitics
of the country in which their friends arc placed, and the
hopes that may he entertained as to their future prospe-
rity in that distinit land. It may he added, that to the
merchant and manufacturer, British America affords a
market already very importtmt, and susceptihle of al-
most indefinite enlai-gement.

The Author, thus deeply impressed with the import-
ance of his task, has mixionaly sought every means of
rendering its perfonnance complete and satisfactory. In
tracing the condition and history of the ahoriginal trihes,
as influenced hy the early settlement of Europeans, he
lias had access to extensive works and collections in the
French hinguage, to which fonner writers in this country
appear to have heen strangers. Ho has devoted much
attention to the still more important ohject of delineat-
ing the statistics and present state of the colonies ; an
undertaking which was attended with considerable dif-
ficulty, on account of the rapid changes which have re-
cently occurred, and rendered all previous information
in a great measure useless. Hence, besides the works
of Bouchette, McGregor, Martin, and others, it was neces-
s*»Ty to examine the tables published by the Board of
Trade, the voluminous reports laid before Parliament,
and to compare them with the narratives of the latest
travellers and residents.

PRKPACK. 7

Even with all these resources, it was found impossihlc
to render the information complete, without ohtuining
personal communications from various quarters. It is
gratifying to the Author to mention, that on the mere
statement of his ohject, and of the name of tlie Work for
which he was collecting materials, the most valuable intel-
ligence was cheerfully conveyed to him. Particular ac-
knowledgments arc due to Mr Simpson, the enlightened
rcsidentgovemorof the IIudson'sBay Establishment, who
fortunately happened to bo in England, An ill-founded
impression, that the Company sought to shroud its trans-
actions in mystery, had, it appears, deterred former in-
([uirers. The Author, however, upon making an applica-
tion, was met with a liberality almost unexampled, and
was furnished with a large store of original information
respecting their trade, and the general state of the fur
countries.

A very well-informed gentleman, who long carried
on mercantile transactions, and still maintah^s in exten-
sive correspondence in Canada, contributed the valuable
chapter on the commerce of the two provinces. An intel-
ligent friend, filling an important situation at St John,
Newfoundland, transmitted full and recent statistical de-
tails relative to that interesting colony. Respecting Prince
Edward Island, very useful materials were frankly sup-
plied by Mr Stewart, a gentleman deeply concerned there
both as proprietor and manager. To Mr Bruyeres and
other distinguished persons connected with the Land
Companies, the Author is indebted for several important
communications. From other sources of high authority,
which cannot here be fully particularized, valuable in-
formation, otherwise inaccessible, has been obtained.

The reader will appreciate one peculiar difficulty
under which the Author laboured, namely, that while

PREFACE.

he was composing the Work, and even supermtendmg its
passage through the press, the subject was undergoing an
incessant change ; and at length the principal provinces
became the theatre of some very momentous occurrences.
He has assiduously studied to trace, by means of the most
authentic documents, the course of those events, and to
exhibit them in a condensed and connected view. He
hopes that he has thereby conveyed to the general reader
a more distinct idea of their nature than could have been
derived from scattered notices in the daily journals. At
a crisis so important, when the two principal colonies are
about to receive a new form, he has felt himself justified
in submitting such reflections on the various methods
proposed as a long study of the subject has suggested to
him. These, however, he has anxiously sought to rest,
not upon ephemeral interests, or the exclusive reasoning
of any political party, but upon enlarged views of history
and govenunent, which ought alone to guide legislators
in so important a measure, of which the consequences
will be so serious and so durable.

Emigration, the most important light under which
British America can be viewed, will be found to have
occupied a very prominent place in the writer*s re-
searches. He has endeavoured to supply the intending
settler with more comprehensive and precise details than
have hitherto been collected. The prospects which will
open to the emigrant, the course wliich he ought to
pursue, the difficulties to be encountered, and the best
means of overcoming them, have been considered at full
length. In subservience to this object, a very minute
account has been given of the different districts, their
situation, climate, and soil, in connexion with their
natural and acquired aa vantages of every description.

The different branches of Natural History, — Zoology,

PREFACE.

Botany, and Geology, — have been very carefully illus-
trated by Mr Wihon, Dr Greville, ard Professor Traill, —
gentlemen whose names afford a sumcient guarantee for
the value and accuracy of their information. These
ample details, combined with f^ 'ers in a former volume
of the series, will present ai;. structive view of those
remarkable features which Nature displays throughout
the northern part of the American Continent.

To illustrate these various subjects the utmost care
has been taken to prepare a series of Maps, exhlbitmg
at once the general geography of British America and
its most important localities. One, on a large scale,
comprehends all the provinces already occupied, while
four of smaller dimensions show the topography of those
districts in Lower and Upper Canada which are best
adapted for settlement. Various divisions and towns
that have recently sprung up, and could not be in-
cluded in any former map, have been carefully marked.
To the Third Volume is annexed a delineation of the
whole of the Northern and Western Regions which form
the theatre of the fur-trade and of those recent expedi-
tions which had for their object an extended knowledge
of the remote shores and neighbouring seas. The most
picturesque features of costume and scenery have been
made the subject of wood-engravings by Mr Jackson.

June 17, 1839.

CONTENTS OF VOL. I.

CHAPTER L

GEKERAL VIEW OF BRITISH AMERICA, AND PARTICULARLY

OF CANADA.

Extent and Boundaries— General Aspect— Limits of the present
Work— Canada, its Boundaries and general Features — Lakes-
Superior— Huron— St Clair—Erie— Niagara Channel— Lake
Ontario— Islands and Rapids of the St Lawrence— The Ottawa
—The St Lawrence from Montreal to Quebec— Its lower Course
—This Region remarkable for its Waterfals— Niagara— Its
Description— Supposed Changes in its Position — Climate — How
it differs from thatof Europe— Effects on Agriculture— Boundary
Question with the United States— Reference to the King of
Holland— Its Issue, Page 17

CHAPTER IL

THE NATIVE INDIANS INHABITING CANADA AND ITS

BORDERS.

Peculiar Condition of those Tribes— Their Physical Character-
Form— Colour— Hair and Beard— Bodily Strength— Dress—Or-

CONTENTS.

naments—Painting and Tattooinjr of the Skin— Modes of Sub-
sistence —Hunting — Cultivation — Food — Houses — Canoes —
Spirit of Independence — Internal Order— Marriages— Rearing
of Children— Intellectual Character — Oratory— Style of Compo-
sition — Religious Ideas — Importance attached to Dreams — The
Manitou — Ideas of a Future State— Reverence for the Dead —
Ceremonies of Interment — Superstitious Modes of curing the
Sick — Indian Wars — Their Motives — Preparations — March —
Modes of attacking and surprising the Enemy — Return — Treat-
ment of Prisoners ; Tortures; Adoption — Treaties — Indian
Amusements— Music — Dancing — Smoking — Games — Different
Tribes inhabiting Canada and its Borders, Page 44

CHAPTER III.

HISTOBT OF CANADA UNDER THE FRENCH.

Earliest Discoveries of the English and French — De la Roche —
Chauvin and Pontgrave — De Monts — Champlain, employed by
him, ascends the St Lawrence — Founds Quebec — Dealings with
a Party of Natives— Joins a v^arlike Expedition — Victory —
Torture — Transactions in France— Fresh military Encounter —
Foundation of Montreal — Various Transactions — Voyage up the
Ottawa — Great Expedition against the Iroquois — Unsuccessful —
Difficulties in France — Appomtment of De Caen — Peace among
the Indian Tribes — Duke de Ventadour Viceroy — Rupture of
the Treaty — Quebec taken by the English — Restored — Large
Supplies sent out — Death of Champlain — Great Power of the
Five Nations — Treaty with them — War renewed — Destruction
of the French Indian Allies — A Remnant flee to Quebec — Iroquois
Masters of Canada — Louis XIV. determines to reinforce the
Colony — Expedition under De Tracy — Government of De Cour-
celles — Frontenac — De la Barre^His fruitless Expedition —

CONTENTS.

Denonville— His violent Proceedings— Critical State of the Co-
lony — Second Government of Frontenac — Capture of Corlaer or
Sclienectndy— The English under Phipps attack Quehec— Re.
pulsed— Negotiations with the Indians— Invasion of their Ter-
ritory — Death of Frontenac — De Callieres — Peace, and speedy
Renewal of War — Attempts by the English to conquer Canada-
Treaty of Utrecht— Charlevoix's Account of the State of the Co-
lony— Its Prosperity — Administration of Du Quesnc, Page 97

CHAPTER IV.

HISTORY OF CANADA UNDER THE BRITISH.

War between Great Britain and France — Advantages gained by
the latter — Expedition against Canada under Wolfe — His first
Repulse — Lands a second Time — Victory — Death — Conquest of
Canada— State of the Population — Their good Treatment — Re-
fuse to join the Rebellion by the United Colonies — The latter
invade Canada — Siege of Quebec — Repulse and Death of Mont-
gomery — Americans driven out of Canada — A Constitution grant-
ed — Division into Upper and Lower — Rise of Internal Dissen-
sion — ^War with the United States — Advantages gained by Britain
on the western Frontier — On the Niagara, &c. — The Ameri-
cans take York (Toronto) and Fort Geoi^^e — Obliged to retreat —
Their Successes in the West — Fruitless Attempt on Montreal-
Events on the Niagara Frontier — Large Reinforcements from
England — Failure of Sir Geoi^e Prevost — Peace — Discontents
of the Assembly— Administration of the Duke of Richmond —
Earl of Dalhousie — Sir James Kempt — Lord Aylmer — Increased
Discontent — Commission of Inquiry — Earl of Gosford — Assem-
bly stillrefuse Supplies — Resolutions of the British Parliament —
Disturbances in Canada — Insurrection — Suppressed — Political
Movements in Upper Canada — Sir Francis Head Governor —

CONTENTS.

Rising and Defeat of Mackenzie — Aggressions from the United
States — Conduct of their Goveminent — Mission of the Earl of
Durham— Recent Events, Page 173

CHAPTER V.

TOPOGRAPHY OF LOWEE CANADA.

Boundaries— Surface — Divisions — District of Quebec — City (Xfthat
Name — Situation; Edifices; Upper and Lower Town; Vici-
nity — Fall of Montmorenci— Isle of Orleans — ^Tadoussac and
the Saguenay — Lower Coast — Shores above Quebec — Trois
Rivieres, Town and District— Montreal District — City — Ca-
tholic Cathedral — Other Edifices — Rural Districts — Settlements
on the Ottawa — Country South of the St Lawrence — Settlements
on the Richelieu — Southern Part of Trois Rivieres District —
Eastern Townships — American Land Company's Territory —
Southern Part of Quebec— Townships — Lower Shores of the St
Lawrence — Gaspe — General Summary...... 241

CHAPTER VI.

TOPOGRAPHY OF UPPER CANADA.

Boundaries — Surface and Extent — Progress ot' Settlement and
Cultivation— Climate and Soil — Divisions — Eastern Division —
Eastern District — Johnstown — Bathurst; Perth and Bytown —
Central Division— Midland District — ^Town of Kingston — New-
castle District ; Coburg and Port Hope ; Peterborough — Home
District — City of Toronto — Settlements on Lake Simcoe — West-
ern Section — Its early Settlement — Gore District — Canada
Company — Giielph — Gait — NiagaraDistrict — Town — Queenston

CONTENTS.

—Falls —London District; Colonel Talbot ; Town of London-
Huron Tract; Coder .< -Western District ; Amherstburg and
Sandwich—General Summary, Page 284

CHAPTER VIL

AGRICULTURE Or CANADA.

Local Peculiarities — The Climate — The unbroken Forest— Mode
of Clearing— Ashes— Soil indicated by the Timber— First Crops
— Wheat — Other Grains — Grasses, Flax, Hemp, Tobacco — Live
Stock, Quality and Treatment— Horticulture — Floriculture—
Mf^le Sugar — Agricultural Processes — Hunting and Shooting
—Fishery, 331

II
l>

ENGRAVINGS IN VOL. I.

Map of British America, To face the Vignette.

Vignette— Falls of Niagara.

Native Indian Costumes, Page 50

Tattooed Indian, 53

Infant in a Frame, 66

Indian Warrior, 84

Map of Eastern Tonvnships, Tofacepage 274

Map of Eastern Districts, Tofacepage 291

Map of Central Districts, Tofacepage 301

Map of Western Districts, .To face page 312

CONTENTS OF VOL. II.

CHAPTER I.

COMMERCE OF THE CANADAS.

Export Trade— Productive Industry— Export Trade— Wheat
— Ashes— Fish — Furs — Tobacco — Timber — Miscellaneous —
Manufactures — Household Stuffs — Iron Wares — Import
Trade— Import Trade and Consumption — Spirits and Wines —
West India Produce — British Manufactures — Miscellaneous

— Trade with the United States — Exchanges, &c Ex.

change — Weights and Measures — Banks — Inland Communica-
tion, ,.., Page 13

CHAPTER II.

SOCIAL STATE OF CANADA.

Different Classes of People — French Habitans— Their Tenures-
Outward Appearance — Mode of living — Religious and moral

CONTENTS.

I 1

!li

Character — Manners in Upper Canada — Mode oF living — NatiTc
Indians — Their Numher — Catholic Indians — Hurons of Loretto
— Different Tribes — Effects of Protestant Conversion — Govern-
ment Expenditure on them — Present Dress and Mode of living
— Religious Instruction in Lower and Upper Canadb — Educa-
tion, Page A3

CHAPTER III.

POLITICAL STATE OF CANADA.

Government under the French — British Arrangements— Constitu-
tion granted to the Canadaa — Division into Upper and Lower
— Revenue — Military Force— Justice — Reflections on the pro-
posed new Constitution — Enmity of Races — Best Modes of
appeasing it — Executive Government — Its Collision with the
Assembly — Origin of the late Disturbances — Remedies suggested
— Views of Sir Francis Head — Distinction between F<»-< ign and
Internal Affairs — Executive Council — Representative Assembly
— Its Defects— Best Mode of raising its Character — Legislative
Council — Proposed Union of the Provinces — Its Advantages-
Dangers to be guarded against — Municipal Institutions, 77

CHAPTER IV.

OEKERAL VIEW OF THE MARITIME PROVINCES.

Situation and Extent — Chkn. 'er of the Coast — Fisheries — Forests
— Early Voyages— Sir Hm; , ; vr/ Gilbert— His Equipment —

CONTENTS,

Adventures on the Voyage — Transactions in Newfoundland —
LoN8ot'his lar^^est Vessel — Final Catastrophe — French Voya^rcn
—Nova Scotia, Pa^r,- 10*2

CHAPTER V.

OEKERAL DESCRIPT)Oy AND HISTORY OF NOVA SCOTIA.

Extent and Liinlf^^ — INfountaias — Streams— Soil — Climate — First
Settleroevi' !\y De ivionts — Captured by the English — Colony
under Sir tV^illiam Alexander — Ceded to France — Contests
aiuong the Proprietors — Conquered by the New Englanders —
Wars with the Indians — Cape Breton captured — Restored — Set-
tlement of Halifax — Disputes with France — War — Expulsion
of the Acndians — Capture of Louisbourg — Return of the Acadians
— Representative Assembly — Peace with the Indians — Nova
Scotia during the American Contest — Increased by numerous Re-
fugees —Subsequent Events, 114

CHAPTER VI.

TOPOGRAPHICAL DESCRIPTION' Or NOVA SCOTIA.

General Divisions— Country on the Ailantic—District of Halifax—
oity— Dell tmouth— Northern Part of Halifax District— South-
western— Lunenburg— La Have —Queen's County— Liverpool—
Shelburne— Argyle and Yarmouth— Territory on the Bay of
Fundy— Annapolis County— The Acadians— Digby— Annapo-
lis Township— Bridgetown— Basin of Minas— King's County—

■ I [

CONTENTS.

Hants— Windsor—District of Colchester— Truro— Bay of Chij;:-
necto — Minudie — Country on Northumberland Strait and the
Gut of Canseau — Cumberland County — Township of Wallace —
Pictou District — Town — County of Sydney — Dorchester — Guys-
borough — Cafe Breton — Extent and Situation — Appearance
of the Country — Climate— Population — Coal District — Town of
Sydney — Island of Scatari — Ruins of Louisbourg — Arichat —
Port Hood— Cheticamp — Island of St Paul— Bay of St Anne-
Bras d'Or — Settlements on its Coasts, Page 152

CHAPTER VII.

INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE OF NOVA SCOTIA.

Agriculture — Different Soils — Chief Products — Mode of Culture
— Minerals — Coal — Gypsum — Sandstone — Metals — Fisheries —
Timber — Commerce — Various Articles of Export and Im-

port,

.1»9

CHAPTER VIII.

SOCIAL AND POLITICAL STATE OF NOVA SCOTIA.

Population — Anglo-Americans — Scots in Pictou — Acadians —
Negroes — Indians — Religious Professions — Education — Poli-
tical Constitution — Judicial Establishment — Revenue — Mili-
tary Defence, 20!l

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER IX.

HISTORY AND DESCRIPTION OF NEW BRUNSWICK.

Extent and Boundaries— Surface — Settlement and Progress

Statistical Tables— St John County and City— King's and
Queen's Counties — Sunbury — York — Fredericton — Carleton
County— Falls of* the St John— Charlotte County— Town ofSt An-
drew — Westmoreland — Northumberland — Kent — Gloucester
— Ristigouche, Page 224

CHAPTER X.

INDUSTRY, COMMERCE, SOCIAL AND POLITICAL STATE OF

NEW BRUNSWICK.

Agriculture — Productions — Timber-trade — Mode of collecting the
Timber — Saw-mills — Ship-building — Fishery — Exports and Im-
ports — Recent Improvements — Population — Constitution— Re-
venue— Military Defence, 242

CHAPTER XL

PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND.

Situation and Extent— Surface— Climate— Soil— Discovery— Early
Settlement— Capture by Britain— Plans to colonize it — Name
changed to Prince Edward— Various Governors— Local Divi-
sions — Charlottetown — Ring's County — Prince's County —
VOL. II. a 2

CONTENTS.

Agriculture — Timber-trade — Fishing — Commerce — Imports
and Exports — Population — Constitution — Revenue — Edu-
cation, Page 257

CHAPTER XII.

NEWFOUNDLAND.

General Description — Abundance of Fish — The Great Bank.>-Dis-
covery — Early Fisheries — First Attempts at Settlement — Colo-
nies by Lord Baltimore and others — Persecution against the
resident Fishermen — Contests with France — Extension of the
Fishery — Effects of the American War — Continued Progress —
Flourishing State during the last War — Subsequent Events —
General StatisticalTable— St John, the Capital — Eastern Coast,
Ferryland, &c. — Conception and Trinity Bays, Harbour Grace,
&c. — Placentia, St Mary, Sec. — French Coast — St Pierre and
Miquelon — Labrador, its Stations — Descriptions by Cartwright
and Curtis — Settlements by the Moravian Missionaries — The
Cod-fishery — Modes of conducting it — Produce — The Seal-
fishery — Salmon, &c. — Agriculture — Commerce — Tables —
French and American Fisheries — Population, Society, Govern-
ment, &c. — Native Indians — Esquimaux, 275

CHAPTER XIIL

BERMUDAS.

Situation — Climate — First Discovery — Shipwreck and Deliverance
of May— Of Gates and Summers — First Settiement — Company
formed — Its Constitution— Administrations of Moore, Tucker,

CONTENTS.

and Butler— Improved State — Queries by the Royal Society —
Subsequent Neglect — Becomes important as a Naval Station —
Agriculture, Fishing, and Commerce — Naval and Military Esta-
blishments — Population and State of Society — Local Divl.
sions, Page 329

1 '"I

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ENGRAVINGS IN VOL. II.

ViGNETTE_St John, Newfoundland.

Dance of Habitans, Pane 66

Domiciliated Indians, 72

Province Building and St Matthew's Kirk, HoUis Street,

Halifax, 150

CONTENTS OF VOL. III.

CHAPTER I.

HUDSON'S BAY TERRITORY: EARLY DISCOVERY AND

SETTLEMENT.

Outline and Boundaries— Mountain Ranges— Rivers and Lakes —
Discovery by Cabot and Hudson — Button— Byiot — Fox— James
■^Hudson's Bay Company — Their Settlements — Contests with
France — Voyages by Knight— Middleton — Moor and Smith —
North-west Company — Harmon's Account of their Trade and
Settlements, Page 13

CHAPTER II.

HUDSON'S BAY TERRITORY: RECENT DISCOVERY AND
PRESENT STATE.

Hearne and Mackenzie— Parry, Franklin, and Richardson — Cap-
tain Back sent in search of Captain Ross — Aided by the Hudson's
fiayCompany — Reaches Great Slave Lake — Discovers the Thlew-
ee-choh — Winters on the Lake — Voyage down the River —
Arrested by Ice— His Return— Successful Voyage by Messrs
Dease and Simpson — The North-west incorporated with the
Hudson's Bay Company — Privileges of that Body — Its Consti-
tution and Management — Indian Tribes within its Jurisdiction —
Valuable furred Animals, Beaver, Martin, Fox, Otter, &c. —
Modes of catching them — Principal Stations — ^York Fort-
Moose — Montreal — Fort Vancouver — Claims of the Americans —
VOL. III. a 2

!•

: I

CONTENTS.

Settlement on the Red River — Import of Furs — General Course
of the Trade, Page 54

!!^ ■]

\ r

CHAPTER III.

ON EMIGRATION TO THE BRITISH NORTH AMERICAN

COLONIES.

Advantages of Emigration — Classes of Emigrants — Prospects of a
Settler in the middling Rank — Choice of Land — Situations best
suited for him — Estimates of Expenses and Profits — Modes of
obtaining Credit — Terms of Government and the Companies —
Emigration of Half-pay Officers — Of distressed Farmers — Of
Persons of Capital — Of labouring Settlers — Advantages of their
Situation — Their means of purchasing and clearing Land —
Pauper Emigrants — Parties sent out by Government — Military
and Naval Pensioners — Plan formed by Mr BuUer — Obser-
vations — Conveyance of the Emigrant — Modes and Expenses
of Passage — Outfit requi' ed — Of Journey into the Interior from
Quebec — From New York — The Canada and British American
Land Companies — Comparison between Canada and the United
States — Observations on Lord Durham's Statements — Numbers
of Emigrants for the last Seventeen Years — Quarters to which
they went — Emigration to Nova Scotia— New Brunswick —
Prince Edward Island — Newfoundland and Hudson's Bay, ...98

CHAPTER IV.

GENERAL SUMMARY.

General Retrospect — Extent of British America — Proportion cul-
tivated — Produce — Exports of Timber — Fishery — Agricultural
Products — Imports — Shipping — Interior Communications —
Those proposed by Mr Buller — Others suggested — Welland and
St Lawrence Canals — Population — Different Classes.— Church

CONTENTS.

eral Course
....Page 64

XRICAK

Establishment— Political Constitution — Proposed Union of the
Colonies — Other Su^estions — Proceedings on the Boundary
Question — A ward accepted by Britain — Rejected by the American
Senate — Various Negotiations — Encroachments by American
States and consequent Dissensions — Violent Proceedings of Maine
— Threatened Hostilities— Temporary Adjustment,... Page 183

aspects of a
lations best
— Modes of
ompanies —
armers — Of
ges of their
ng Land —
t — Military
ler — Obser-
l Expenses
iterior from
1 American

le United
—Numbers
rs to which
runswick—

Bay, ...98

CHAPTER V.

NOTICES REGARDING THE PRIKCIFAL ZOOLOGICAL PRO-
DUCTIONS OF BRITISH AMERICA.

The Quadrupeds— The Birds— The Reptiles— The Fishes— The
Insects, 221

CHAPTER VI.

SO»IE ACCOUNT OF THE MOST INTERESTING PLANTS
BELONGING TO BRITISH AMERICA.

Plants deserving particular Notice in the natural Orders — Ranun-
culacese — Podophylleae— NymphaeaceaB — Magnoliaceae — Umbel-
liferae — Araliacese — Grossulaceae — Vitaceae — Sarraceniaceae —

Comaceas Aceraceae Rosacese — Leguminosae— Betulaceae —

Juglandaceae — Platanaceae— Ericaceae— Vacciniaceae— Composi-
tae— Coniferse — Orchidaceae, 304

CHAPTER VII.

ortion cul-

gricultural

ications —

Hand and

—Church

GEOLOGICAL SKETCH.

General Geological Sketch of British North America — Lakes-
Rivers — Barrow's Strait — Melville Island — Prince Regent's
Inlet — Melville Peninsula — Upper and Lower Canada — New
Brunswick— Nova Scotia — Cape Breton— Prince Edward Island
—Newfoundland, 331

Ih Jl

.' if!

t'r

;; >

CONTENTS.

APPENDIX.

Narrative of the Expedition of Messrs Dease and Simpson alony^
the North Coast of America, under the Employment of the Hud.
son's Bay Company, Page 355

Copy of Letter from Governor Simpson to Messrs C. W. Dease
and Thomas Simpson, 356

To the Governor and Council of the Northern Department, Ru-
pert's Land, 35!*

ExpediUonofl838 372

Index, 377

ENGRAVINGS IN VOL. III.

Map of Northern Coasts of America, To face the Vignette.

Vi£tN£TT£ — Cascades on Hoar-frost River.

Hi II'

..'I

HISTORICAL AND DESCRIPTIVE
ACCOUNT

BRITISH AMERICA.

CHAPTER I.

General View of British America^ and particularly of

Canada.

Extent and Boundaries —General Aspect —Limits of the present
Work — Canada, its Boundaries and {^neral Features — Lakes —
Superior — Huron — St Clair — Erie — Niagara Channel — Lake
Ontario— Islands and Rapids of the St Lawrence — The Ottawa
— The St Lawrence from JMontreal to Quebec — Its lower Course
— This Region remarkable for its Waterfals — Niagara — Its
Description — Supposed Changes in its Position — Climate — How
it difiFers from that of Europe — Eflectson Agriculture — Boundary
Question with the United States — Retereuce to the King of
Holland — Its Issue.

That portion of North America claimed by Britain, and
which is generally recognised by the civilized world as
belonging to her, forms a region of immense extent,
embracing considerably more than a third part of the
entire continent. On the north its boundary is the
coast of the Arctic Ocean, westward as ftir as the 141st
degree of longitude. The region beyond, by a treaty
concluded in 1825, was assigned to Russia, though the
survey of its shores, still very incomplete, has been

VOL. I. A

li'i

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III I

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Jjii

GENERAL VIEW OP

chiefly cffbctcd by British navigators. The lino of the
northern shore runs nearly along the 70th parallel of
latitude, though at different points it slightly deviates
from it. All the large islands in the Aretic Sea belong
also, by right of discovery, to England ; though their
value, unconnected with the several fisheries, is by no
means considerable.

The eastern limit, coinciding also with that of the
continent, is formed by the Atlantic and its bays, from
the Strait of the Fury and Hecla, in about lat. 70° N.,
to the mouth of the St Croix, the southern boundary of
New Brunswick, in lat. 45° 6' N. Along this coast, too,
Britain has several large islands ; on the north. Cock-
burn and Cumberland ; farther south, Newfoundland,
with the exception of a small portion occupied by
France ; and those of Cape Breton and Prince Edward
in the Gulf of St Lawrence.

From the St Croix, the southern boundary extends
in a long ir.egular line across the continent. After in-
cluding r>ew Bmnswick and a large part of Canada, it
strikes the St Lawrence at St Regis, in long. 74° 45' W.
about sixty miles above Montreal. From that point the
river, with its grand chain of connected lakes, divicVs the
British territory from the United States. Commencuig
again at the head of Superior, the frontier stretches
to the north-western angle of the Lake of the Woods,
in lat. 49° 20' N. ; and following this parallel it runs
across the continent to the Rocky Mountains, beyond
which considerable uncertainty prevails. By a con-
vention signed at London in October 1818, all questions
connected with this remote region were left open for ten
years ; but that period was allowed to elapse without
any decision being formed on the subject. The United
States, Britain, and Russia, advance respectively cer-
tain pretensions which do not well harmonize, but
these our present object does not lead us to examine
minutely. Farther north, however, the boundary of
the provinces claimed by the court of St Petersburg!!
has been fixed in a direct line along the 141st degree of

BRITISH AMERICA.

?eb the

west lonp;itu(lc, extending from Mount St Elias to the
Arctic Ocean.*

The British dominions in America arc understood to he
situated l)etween the parallels of 41° 47' and 7B° north
latitude, and between 62° and 141° of west lon!»;itudc. It
may be o))served, however, that the eastern and northern
boundaries are both insular, and comprehend vast tracts
of ocean. If we assume limits on the mainland, we must
take, on the cast, Cape Charles in Labrador, in about
lon^. 5.5° .SO' W. ; and on the north, Cai)e Clarence in
Boothia, in about lat. 74° N. ; though indeed on the latter
side no considerable mass of the continent extends be-
yond 70°. Thus the whole area amounts to nearly
4,000,000 square miles. Of this vast space the greater
portion wears an aspect peculiarly dreary, being buried
the greater part of the year in snow, and pr(jducing
nothing valuable except the skins and furs of the wild
animals that roam over its surface. Yet there seems
reason to think that, as cultivation advances and the
means of intercourse are improved, very extensive tracts
may be found fitted for all the productions of the tem-
perate zone.

The tenure by which Britain holds the larger share of
these wild domains is of a peculiar and somewhat equi-
vocal nature. Her claim, which is not admitted by
the original owners, is allowed only by other ])owers
equally destitute with herself of any natural right ; and
yet, when we consider that though she dispossesses a few
naked savages, she plants numerous colonies consisting
of a civilized and industrious population, there will ap-
pear little reason to condemn her conduct. If provision
be duly made for the subsistence and wellbeing of the
natives, it will be acknowledged that the benefits of
European occupation are so great as fully to compensate
for any defect in the title.

It is not, however, our intention to take a minute

* Bouchette, British Dominions in North America (2 vols 4to,
London, 1831), vol. i. pp. 10, 13.18.

l ,1

^ !

OENEUAL VIEW OP

HUivry of thoHo (tutcr triuts, many of which aiv un-
known to Hiitiiin luTsi'lf, and wIukso inhahitants huvo
lU'viT heard hor nanu-. 'rhcse have hvvu the ohjtrt of
rooi'nt «HHC'(»Vfrv, the ivsults of which luivo hern siitis-
factoriiv stated in ii fonner vtdunuof tlie JvlinhuryhCa-
])inet liihrary.'' The |)i'est>ijt W(»rk will relate to the
Hmaller, hut more important part, which has heen re^ai-
larly re<luced intoprovinces,an«l isi;radually falling' un«ler
cultivation; comprehendini;' Cana<la Upper and Lower,
Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Caju' Ihtton, J'rince
Edward Ishind, and Newfoundland, with certain detached
wettlements on the shores of l^ahrador and Hudson's Bav,

These colonies are naturally divided into two classes,
distinct in their situation and character: 1. The in-
land ])rovinces, Avatered only hy ureat lakes and rivers ;
and, 2. 'J'lie maritime i)rovinces, or such as extend uloni?
the shores of the Atlantic.

Canada, U])])er and Lower, is as yet the only jiart of
British America which helonys to the first class. Thouifh
fonninj^-, as it were, only one country, it is more exten-
sive, more productive, and more p«>pulous than all the
maritime j)rovinces united ; and hesides, it is the prin-
cipal resort of emigrants from the motlu^r-country. To
its history and description we shall therefore devote
the first i)ortion of this work.

Canada is hounded on the north hv a ranae of hills
soparatinLr it from the territory of the Hudson's Bay
Company ; on the east, hy Lahrador, the CJulf of St
Lawrence, and New Brunswick ; and on the south, hy
the United States. The western limit is very vatrue ;
but \\si\'j;e does not seem to extend it farther than Lake
Su[)erior. (Canada may therefore he <lescrihed as lying-
between the meridians' of 57° 50' and 1)0° W., and the
parallels of 42° and 52° N. ; heinuf about L'lOO miles from
east to west, and 700 fi'om north to south. The area is
estimated at 048,000 square miles.f

* No IX. Historical View of the Proj^^ress of Discovery on tlie
more Northern Coasts of America.

t Bouchette, vol. i. pp. 03, 04, 1/3-1 U2.

^^^

nniTlSU AMKUICA.

CaniKl.i, in a p^cniTal viow, consints of n very extensive
jdiiiii, sitimtel hctwi'cii iwo nuij^es of h'vj^U liiiul ; one
on the nortli, se|»aratin'4 it from tiie Hudson's IJuy ter-
ritory', another on the south, dividing; it from New
IJrniiswielv and the I'liitcd States. Tiu' ;i;roun(ls whieh
stretch alonj; the hordei-s of the St liawrenee and the
l.dces are esteemed tlic most valuahle portion of it.
Neither of th(^ ranu^es now mentioned us|)ireH to an al-
pine eiiaraeter ; nor, if we exeept Mars lliil in tlie dis-
puted territory, does any part of tiiem api»ear to reaefi
2000 feet. Hut they extend over a vast surface, an^
very I)roken and runu:ed, covered witli dense forests,
while torrents dash down tiieir sides, lillinii; tiie valleys
with mimerous lakes. Both on the north, in the upper
part of (^uehec district, and on the south, in that of
Gaspe, the hills i)resH on the hanks ol" the river,
giving' to it an air of much grandeur. Higher up they
recede, and form on either si<le agradually-witlening antl
heautiful plain, susceptihle of the most perfect culti-
vation. In Ui)per Canada tliis level tract attains a very
great breadth, and partly includes the basin of the noble
stream of the Ottawa. On the west it appears to ter-
minate with Lake Huron ; for the northern coast of
tliat fine sheet of water, as well as of Lake Supi'rior, is
flanked by the mountains, — a circumstance which ren-
ders their chores rough and craggy. It is said that be-
hind this rocky screen there is much valuable land still
uncultivated.'*"

But the characteristic feature of this region is its wa-
ters, more particularly its immense lakes, which, in re-
spect to depth and extent of surface, have no e([ual on
the face of the earth. The Caspian certainly exceeds the
largest of them, separately considered ; but that great
body of salt water, besides being comparatively very
shallow, has no outlet ; whereas the Canadian lakes
supply, without apparent diminution, the vast stream of
the St Lawrence. The smallest of them is tossed bv teni-

Boucliette, vol. i. pp. l»5, !»(>, 2»3.2y4, 297, 2U3.

••i

122

GENERAL VIEW OP

<: :.*'

I S'l

I'll'''

( i

■■ \

I 'i

pests like the ocean, and on its surface war was recently
waged in ships of the first magnitude.

Lake Superior is the largest of these inland seas, and
indeed the most extensive body of fresh water in the
world. Its form is an irregular crescent, having the
convex side towards Canada ; it is very broad in the
centre ; but the south-eastern and south-western extre-
mities terminate almost in points. Its length, following
the line of the curve, is estimated by Captain Bayfield
at 360 geographical miles, the greatest breadth at 140,
and tlie circumference about 1500. Its surface appears
to be 627 feet above the level of the Atlantic, and
the shores afford indications of its having once been
40 or 50 feet higher. The soundings have been given
variously from 480 to 900 feet ; and the greatest depth
is believed to be about 1200. The transparency of the
water is completely crystalline, rendering rocks, even
at extraordinary depths, distinctly visible. The bottom
consists chiefly of a very adhesive clay, which speedily
indurates on exposure to the atmosphere. In violent
gales, the waves rise nearly as high as those on the
ocean ; and though there are of course no tides, the wind,
"when it blows strongly from any one point, throws the
water with considerable force on the opposite shore. In
spring, too, it is sometunes greatly swelled by the melting
of the snows.

This lake, as formerly observed, is bordered by hills,
which in some places rise precipitously from the shore,
and m others leave intervals of various breadth, amounting
occasionally to fifty or seventy miles. It is remarkable,
that while every other large lake is fed by rivers of the
first order, this, the most capacious on the surface of the
globe, does not receive a third or even fourth rate
stream ; the St Louis, the most considerable, not having
a course of more than 150 miles. But whatever deficiency
there may be in point of magnitude, it is compensated
by the vast number which pour in their copious floods
from the surrounding heights. The dense covering of
wood, and the long continuance of frost, must also in

■i '■'ii

BRITISH AMERICA.

this region greatly diminish the quantity drawn off by
evaporation.*

The surplus waters of Lake Superior enter near its
south-eastern extremity into St Mary's Channel, by
which they are transmitted into Lake Huron, nearly
forty miles distant. About midway are St Mary's Falls,
scarcely entitled to this appellation, being merely a con-
tinued cataract, in which the current forces its way
through broken rocks with tremendous noise, and amid
clouds of foam. These rapids cannot be ascended ; but
canoes, though with great danger, sometimes shoot down-
wards. The more prudent avoid them by a portage of
two miles.

The Huron, into which this channel expands, is the
second in succession as well as in magnitude of this great
chain. Its outline is very irregular, but may, in a gene-
ral view, be said to have three sides, two facing the north
and east, and belonging to Canada ; while the third looks
to the south-west, and forms part of the United States.
Its extreme length, from the entry to the outlet, is about
240 miles ; its breadth is not less than 220 ; and the cir-
cumference is supposed to be nearly 1000. Its surface
is only thirty-two feet lower than that of Superior ; and
it is equally distinguished by its extraordinary depth, esti-
mated at 900 or 1000 feet, and by the brilliant transpa-
rency of its waters. A range of islands runs parallel
to its northern shore, and, with the peninsula of Cabot,
separates almost completely the upper part from the
main body, so that it was considered by the earliest
discoverers as a distinct basin. Among these islands
the cliief is the Great Manitoulin, seventy-five miles
long, viewed by the Indians with superstitious awe as
the chosen abode of their Great Spirit. At the outlet
of the St Mary the two islets of St Joseph and Drum-
mond are fortified as frontier-stations, the foiTner by
Britain and the latter by the United States. The coast is

* Bouchette, vol. i. pp. 127, 128. Darby's View of the United
States (18rao, Philadelphia, lt52b), p. 200.

GENERAL VIEW OP

! '1

'I
f ■

t > i

generally rugged, broken into heights of from 30 to 100
feet, formed of clay, rolled stones, precipitous rocks, and
woody steeps. Towards the north the bold ridge of the
Cloche Mountains exhibits several lofty summits ; but
the eastern territory is wholly dissimilar, and forms one
of the finest portions of the great plain of Upper Canada.
This lake receives the Maitland, Severn, Moon, and
French rivers, — broad streams, though not of long course,
' — but its chief supply is from the St Mary. Near its north-
western point a narrow strait connects it with the lake
of Michigan, entirely included within the boundary
of the United States, It is equally deep and clear with
Huron, and, though nearly on a level with that lake, is
not completely so, as a constant current sets from the
former into the latter.

The Huron pours out the surplus of its waters at its
southern extremity, thus carrying in that direction the
great chain of communication. A channel called the
River St Clair, after a course of about thirty miles, ex-
pands into the comparatively small lake of the same
name. Thence issues the Detroit, a spacious stream cele-
brated for the beauty and fertility of the adjacent
country. Both it and the lake, however, are so shallow,
as not to admit vessels which draw more than seven or
eight feet of water.*

After running twenty-nine miles, the Detroit opens
into the grand expanse of Lake Erie, about 265 miles
long, and at its centre sixty-three broad, the circumfer-
ence being estimated at somewhat less than 658. The
surface is calculated to be 565 feet above the level of
the ocean ; making it thirty feet lower than Huron, and
sixty-two than Superior. The depth seldom amounts
to 270 feet ; and the difficulties of the navigator are in-
creased by the want of harbours and anchorage, as well
as by the projecting promontories, which render a fre-
quent change of course necessary. The direction of the
great water-communication, which, from the head of

* Bouchette, vol. i. pp. 133, 1S4. Darby, p. 203-206.

I ni

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BRITISH AMERICA.

Lake Huron, has been nearly due south, changes here
to the north-east, till it opens into the Gulf of St Law-
rence. The coasts, almost equally ivided between the
Britisli and Americans, are generally very fertile. Lake
Erie has acquired a peculiar importance, from having be-
come the main centre of inland navigation. The two great
canals reaching from it to the Hudson on one side, and the
Ohio on the other, render it a medium of communication
between the Atlantic, the Mississippi, and the Gulf of
Mexico. The Welland canal and river, joining it to the
Ontario, form a channel by which it is expected that a
great part even of the produce of the United States will
be henceforth transmitted.*

The outlet of Lake Erie, at its north-eastern point,
is the Niagara Channel, which, after pursuing its course
thirty-three miles and a half, opens into Lake Ontario.
In its progress it forms those stupendous falls which
have no equal in the world, and will be afterwards
described ; but as they interrupt the navigation, a canal
has been formed on a nearly parallel line, to unite the
two lakes for commercial purposes. The waters, in
passing to Ontario, are calculated to fall 334 feet ; this
lake being so much lower than Erie, and consequently
only 231 feet above the level of the Atlantic.

Ontario, the smallest of the great lakes, extends almost
due east, with some inclination northwards; it is 172
miles long, 69 J- broad, and about 467 in circumference.
The deptli of water varies from 15 to 300 feet ; and in the
middle, a Hno of 300 fathoms has been let down without
reaching the bottom. The banks are generally level,
though a ridge of moderate height rises at some distance
from its western and north-western shores. They are for
the most part covered with wood, though now variegated
with partial and increasing cultivation. Toronto and
Kingston on the British, and Sackett's Harbour on the
American side, are excellent stations, in which fleets have

• Bouchette, vol. i. p. 184-137. Darby, p. 206-208. Gourlay,
Statistical Account of Upper Canada (2 vols. 8vo, London, 18221,
vol. ii. p. 53. ^^ ^ > > jy

i-.«

GENERAL VIEW OF

I' Mi

i .'•

been constructed, including ships of the largest size.
Tliere are several small islands at the eastern extremity,
of which the principal is named Grand Isle. The long and
winding bay of Quinte, to the west of Kingston, encloses
a very beautiful and fertile peninsula.*

From the eastern extremity of Lake Ontario issues
the stream which bears now, for the first time, the name
of St Lawrence, though it has also been called Iroquois
and Cataraqui. Its channel is here so spacious that it
is called the Lake of the Thousand Islands. The vast
number implied in this name was considered a vague
exaggeration, till the commissioners employed in fixing
the boundary with the United States actually counted
them, and found that they amounted to 1692. They
are of every imaginable size, shape, and appearance ;
some barely visible, others covering fifteen acres ; but
in general their broken outline presents the most pic-
turesque combinations of wood and rock. The navigator
in steering through them sees an ever-changing scene,
which reminded an elegant writer of the Happy Islands
in the Vision of Mirza. Sometimes he is enclosed in
a narrow channel ; then he discovers before him twelve
openings, like so many noble rivers ; and soon after a
spacious lake seems to surround him on every side.t

At the end of this reach the St Lawrence is obstructed
by an island in the centre, producing what is termed the
Long Sault. The stream, rushing through a narrow
passage on each side, hurries on the bark with danger-
ous velocity ; and the two currents, meeting at the lower
end, dash against each other, forming what is called the
Big ^itch. The river then, expanding to the breadth
of more than five miles, is named the Lake of St Francis.
At its termination begins a succession of very formidable
rapids, named the Coteau du Lac, the Cedars, the Split
Rock, and the Cascades, which, continuing about nine

* Bouchette, vol. i p. 151. M'Greffor, British America (2 vols
8vo, Edinburgh, 1«32), vol. ii. p. 533-630.

t Howison^ Sketches of Upper Canada (8vo, second edition, Edin-
burgh, 1822), p. 46. Bouchette, vol. i, p. 15G.

BRITISH AMERICA.

miles, complotoly interrupt thejiavigation for vessels of
even moderate dimensions. The hardy Canadian boat-
men mdeed contrive, with poles ten feet in length, to
force through certain flat-bottomed barks of from six to
twenty tons. Huge rafts of timber are also seen descend-
ing the current ; but passengers by steam leave the
vessel at one end of the declivity and re-embark at the
other. Great operations, however, are now in progress
to overcome these obstacles, and to secure a safe navi-
gation to the inland seas.

Below these rapids the river spreads out into Lake
St Louis, near which there is a beautiful fall bearing
the same name. This impediment to navigation has been
recently overcome by a canal called La Chine. The St
Lawrence now receives an important accession by the
influx of the great stream of the Ottawa from the north-
west, after a course of about 450 miles,* through an ex-
tensive plain, generally very fertile, and covered with
magnificent forests. These rivers at their junction form
several large islands, on the principal of which is built
the city of Montreal.t

Below that place the St Lawrence presents a magni-
ficent expanse, navigable for vessels of 600 tons, thus
giving to the town just named all the advantages of a sea-
port. About forty -five miles farther down, indeed, where
it widens into the Lake of St Peter, it becomes somewhat
shallow, and allows only a narrow passage to large ships.
Again, about ninety miles nearer the ocean, the rocks
forming the Richelieu rapids so contract the channel as to
render it unsafe unless at particular periods of the tide.
At Quebec, it narrows to 1314 yards ; yet the navigation
is completely unobstructed, while there is formed near

• Bouchette, vol. i. p. 187. Accordinj^ to Mr M'Gregor, Brit.
Amer. vol. ii. p. 6'25, this river " is said to have its source near the
Rocky Mountains, and to traverse in its windings a distance of 2500
miles." He adds, that it certainly flows ten or twelve hundred
miles before joining the St Lawrence. We have no hesitation,
however, in preferring the sober statement of Bouchette to these
extravagant estimates.

t Bouchette, vol. i. pp. 156, 162-211.

,<ll

■u.

t ;|'

GENERAL VIEW OF

tho city a capacious harbour. About twenty-one miles
lower, its waters, beginning to mingle with those of the
sea, acquire a saline taste, which increases till, at Ka-
mouraska, seventy-five miles nearer its mouth, they
become completely salt. Yet custom, with somewhat
doubtful propriety, considers the river as continued down
to the island of Anticosti, and 1)ounded by Cape Rosier
on the southern, and Mingan Settlement on the northern
shore.*

In considering the St Lawrence as one of the grand
hydrographic features of the globe, different views have
been taken. Some authors consider it as originating in
Lake Ontario, and view the interior channels as onlv
the means of uniting one lake with another. Yet when
it is considered that there is a continued current from
the most remote tributary of Lake Superior to the Gulf
of St Lawrence, we may seem justified in regarding it
as an entire river, extending upwards of 2000 miles,
and forming one of the most important water-commu-
nications on the face of the earth.

In this river-system a striking and peculiar class of
objects is exhibited on a grander scale than in any other
region ; we mean the waterfals. These are not, indeed,
like such as descend from alpine precipices, distinguish-
ed by height or by the picturesque forms of the rocky
cliffy amid which they are precipitated ; but while the
latter are usually mere streamlets, the others are mighty
rivers, swelled to their full magnitude, and pouring the
entire volume of their waters into the abjj-sses beneath.

Among these cataracts of Northern America there is
one which stands without a rival, — Niagara. Here an
immense river, after receiving the surplus waters of four
extensive lakes, projects them downward in a united
mass. In general, when such large streams are obstructed
by rocky barriers, they force their way through them
in a number of narrow channels, with noise and impe-
tuosity, but without any considerable descent. There

* Bouchette, vol. i. p. 164-169.

BRITISH AMERICA.

is scarcely another instance where a sea-like flood, having
brought its wliole weight of waters to the ])rink of a
lofty precipice, throws them down in one unbroken
sheet. The fall of the Rhine at Schaffhausen alone,
though without either its height or volume of water,
bears some resemblance to that of Niagara, which is
acknowledged to be not only the greatest of cataracts,
but, according to the general opinion of travellers, the
Bublimest object on earth. The ocean and the gigantic
steeps of the Andes or the Himmaleh may include
scenery of more varied magnificence, but probably ex-
hibit no single spectacle so striking and so wonderful.

Without attempting to convey to the reader's mind
any image of this stupendous scene, which perhaps no
human pen can ever accomplis , we will simply state
the elements in which its grandeur appears to consist.
Several objects that compose the chief beauty of other
celebrated watcrfals are altogether wanting. There are
no cliffs reaching to an extraordinary height, crowned
with trees, or broken into picturesque and varied forms ;
for, though one of the banks is wooded, the forest-scenery
on the whole is not imposing. The accompaniments, in
short, rank here as nothing. There is merely the display,
on a scale elsewhere unrivalled, of the phenomena ap-
propriate to this class of objects. There is the spectacle
of a falling sea, the eye filled almost to its utmost reach
by the rushing of mighty waters. There is the awful
plunge into the abyss beneath, and the reverberation
thence in endless lines of foam, and in numberless whirl-
jjools and eddies. There are clouds of spray that fill the
whole atmosphere, amid which the most brilliant rain-
bows, in rapid succession, glitter and disappear. Above
all, there is the stupendous sound, of the peculiar cha-
racter of which all v/riters, with their utmost efforts,
seem to have vainly attempted to convey an idea. Bou-
chette describes it as " grand, commanding, and majestic,
filling the vault of heaven when heard in its fulness," —
as " a deep round roar, an alternation of muffled and
open sounds," to which there is notliing exactly corre-

I A

GENERAL VIEW OP

sponding. He mentions the report made from a little
distance by a great naval battle like that of the Nile ;
but this few can have experienced. Captain Hall's simi-
litude to the ceaseless, rumbling, deep, monotonous sound
of a vast mill, though not very poetical, is generally
considered as approaching nearest to reality. The diffu-
sion of the noise is impaired by the rocky heights that
enclose the fall, and perhaps even by the volume of
spray which it throws up around itself. It varies also
according to the state of the atmosphere and the direc-
tion of the wind ; but under favourable circumstances it
reaches to Toronto, across Lake Ontario, distant forty-six
miles. Some have thought that the absence of the ac-
companiments above alluded to impairs its effect ; while
others, perhaps with reason, conceive that these would
only distract the attention from the one great object ;
and that this is more deeply felt when there is nothing
seen but the cataract itself, " no sound but its eternal
roar."

The Niagara Channel, as already mentioned, extends
from Lake Erie to Lake Ontario, and the falls are si-
tuated twenty miles from the former and thirteen from
tlie latter. Being occasioned only by a general and not
very great descent in the level of the land, there is
nothing in the country around to indicate the vicinity of
such a striking phenomenon. From the Erie boundary,
in particular, the approach is along a smooth though
somewhat elevated plain ; through which the river,
about a mile in breadth, flows tranquilly, bordered
by fertile and beautiful banks, and enclosing a large
island. The deep awfiil sound, however, is soon heard,
and becomes gradually louder. Yet nothing appears
till about a mile above the fall, when the water begins
to ripple, and a little below is broken into a series of
dashing and foaming rapids, which form a grand spec-
tacle. The stream then becomes more tranquil, though
rolling with prodigious rapidity, till it reaches the brink
of the great precipics.

The fall itself is divided, by the intervention of Goat

! r I ■

BRITISH AMERICA,

Island, into two unequal portions. The one called the Bri-
tish, 01' Horse Shoe, according to tlie most careful esthnato
is 2100 feet broad, and 149 feet 9 inches high. The other
or American fall is only 1140 feet broad, and even
in proportion to this inferior dimension pours a much
smaller body of water. It has indeed ■' me picturesque
beauty, being lined by a wooded shore, and diversified
by a number of small islands covered with stunted cedar.
Its height is about 164 feet. The British one, however,
being that in which the phenomenon is presented on
the greatest scale, simple and without accompaniment,
is properly the fall. The most approved point of view
is from the Table Rock, that reaches close to the
waters, and forms part of the very ledge over which
they descend. A daring visiter may even, by lying flat
on his face, stretch out his hand, and plunge it into the
descending surge ; and it is from this station that the
nearest view of the catiiract is obtained, and all its
vastness is most distinctly perceived. An elevated spot
behind affords a more extensive but less imposing sur-
vey, wliich however combines the surrounding scenery.
Nearly half a mile below, at a small chasm in the clifi^,
a spiral staircase leads the traveller down towards the
water, and a narrow slippery path, amid fragments of
rock, conducts him up to the foot of the fall, and even
a little above. To look from beneath on this immensity
of rushing waters produces a peculiar sentiment of
mingled grandeur and terror. Some travellers even
venture into a singular hollow formed beneath the
rocky ledge, where they may see in front the descend-
ing flood, and be wet only by its spray. Hennepin
asserts that four coaches might be driven abreast through
this awful chasm ; and several individuals have pene-
trated this recess to the distance of more than a hundred
and fifty feet.

Goat Island, as already observed, divides the two falls,
interposing between them its perpendicular fa9ade, 984
feet in breadth. Its length, extending up the river, is
nearly half a rule. It was unapproached by human

■\

GENKRAL VIKW OP

n •

foot till Mr PortiT, j)r()])riot<)r of oxtoriHivo mills at
Mjinchi'.stiT on tlu' Aiiu'i-inm sidi*, contrived, by sinking
stronf»; caissons in the water, tlowini; ])oriuij)s cij^htccn
miles an hour, to rear a wooden bridge JOOOfeet loni»,an(l
practicable for carriai^es. A road, now formed round the
island, commands very fine views both of the fall and
the rapids above. This spot is richly clothed with trees,
amonjj^ which the li^dit foam is often seen flyin*;. It is
described as a little Klysiiun, amid the chaos of the sur-
rounding"^ elements.

The watei's projected down this awful steep continue
for some space in a state of violent au;itation ; yet a ferry
has been established about half a mile below, across which
the passen<;er is wafted over the heaving current without
serious danger. The high level of the country extends
seven or eight miles lower, to Queenston and Lewiston,
for which space the Niagara rolls through a rocky channel,
between high and steep banks, its breadth contracted to a
quarter of a mile. Somewhat more than half-way down,
high cliffs, encircling the current in a peculiar manner,
cause it to wheel round with an imi)etuous violence,
which would instantly destro}' any object that should
come within its action. This is called the Whirlpool.
Below^ Queenston the ground sinks by a steep descent to
the level of the Ontario basin. The river then emerges,
and agJiin rolls a smooth stream between level and
cultivated banks.'-^

This great foil has excited an additional interest from
the remarkable change sui)j)osed to have taken place
as to its position. It is believed that the impetuous
waters, wearing away the rock over which they descend,
are gradually removing the cataract higher up the river.
By this })rocess it is siiid to have receded from a point
between Queenston and Lewiston, to which, as already
observed, the high level of the country continues, and to
have excavated the present deep and narrow chaimel

* Bouchette, vol. ij). 138-14f». Howison, p. 108-121. Darby,
p. 211-213. Stuart, Three Years in North America (2 vols 8vo,
2d edit. Edinburj,-h, 1833j, vol. ii. pp. 142, 143.

HHITISH AMEUICA.

le river.

more than Bcvcn miles in lenjj^th. Upon this point fj^eu-
lop^ists mul traveUcrs seem p^eneniUy a|;ree<l, the only
<lifference hein/if uh to the nite at whieh the chunj^e j)ro-
ceeds. Mr CJourluy, long a, resident, wiys the oldest
inhahitants think that the Great Fall lias reee:'.ed
*•' several paws. ^* Mr M'Gregor mentions an estiii ate
whieh fixes this recession at eipfhteen feet durinjj^ the
thirty years previous to IIUO ; hut he adds another more
recent, which raises it to 1/50 feet in fifty years. Lastly,
Captain Hall heard it reckoned, hy two persons lonj;
resident on the spot, at 150 feet in forty years. This
measure, having heen adopted hy Mr Lycll in his recent
work on geology, may he considered as the established
belief on the sulrject.*

It is not without particular diffidence that we oppose
a conclusion thus almost unanimously fonncd by the
most eminent writers. Yet we think we can state facts,
of which they were apparently not aware, and which
seem completely to refute the supposition that any con-
siderable change has taken place, or is perceptibly in
progress, as to the s'tc of this extraordinary object.

We possess two early descriptions of these falls ;
one by Father Hennepin in 1679, very nearly 100 years
ago, illustrated by a plate ; the other by Charlevoix in
1721. Now, on comparing these delineations with the
best accounts given by recent travellers, it appears im-
possible to discover any sensible diiference between
them. In answer to this it may indeed be asserted, that
the cataract, w^earing away its rocky ledges in an equable
manner throughout, may have considerably changed its
place, yet retain still nearly the same dimensions and
aspect.t But this supposition seems precluded by the

* Bouchette, vol. i. p. 14t}. M'Gregor, vol. ii. ^. 546. Hall's
Travels in America (3 vols 12mo, second edition, Edinburgh, 1830),
vol. i. p. 195. Lyell's Principles of Geology (4 vols 12mo, 5tli
edition, London, f}{37), vol. i. p. 278.

+ Hennepin, Nouvelle Decouverte d'un tres grand Pays dans
TAmerique (18mo, Utrecht, 1697), pp. 44-46, 443-462. Charlevoix,
Journal of a Voyage to North America (2 volsBvo, London, 1761),
vol. i. p. 3d3-350. Hennepin, judging only by the eye, exaggerates

VOL. I,

I i I

I t

■ 1

■ , i
i '

J'5

.rl:

GENERAL VIEW Op

existence in its centre of one great fixed object, — the im-
mense rampart of Goat Island, — wluch,wlule it divides tho
two falls, is on a line with both, or, acconling to Bouchette,
fonns along witli them the chord of an irregular arc.
Now, Hennepin's description, and more particularly his
plate, represent tho island jis dividing tho falls, and
standing every way in the same relative position to them
that it now does. But if tho catiiracts had changed
their place in the manner supposed, they must have
receded behind the lower extremity of the island, which
would thus have been thrown forward, and appeared
in front of them in the middle of the stream. If we
assume Captain Hall's estimate, there must have been
a change, since Hennepin's date, of COO feet or nearly
a furlong, which would have caused a most conspicuous
alteration in the relative position of these objects. Some
may urge that the lateral action of the fallingwatersmight
demolish this projecting front, and thus cause the island-
boundary to recede along with them. Such an hypothesis
seems quite out of the question as applicable to this huge
mass, nearly a quarter of a mile in breadth. Even sup-
posing it possible, a rock thus demolished from two
opposite sides must have been irregularly acted upon,
reduced to a broken and shattered state, and in some
degree to a pyramidal form. There appears no agency
which could cut it down like slices from a loaf, so as
to preserve always the same smooth perpendicular face
separating the two falls, which it had in 1079, and
continues to have at the present moment. No observer
has noticed in this island any symptoms of progressive
demolition. Mr Howison so little suspects such a pro-
cess, that, following up the common idea, he contemplates
the period when it will be left ** isolated in the midst of
the river as a colossal pUlar." From what we have
stated, however, if any such change were taking place,

greatly the height, making it 600 feet, — which Charlevoix corrects.
Botii agree as to the appearance and relative position of the diiferent
objects.

u'-i*J

BRITISH AMERICA.

it must ])y thin time have afforded some manifest prwf
of its opemtion.

It iniiy be urged, that water acting vith sueli stupen-
dous force must produce greater changes than we have
liere supposed. We would, however, refer to a fact
which seems too little noticed by geologists, yet which
any one who walks along the seashore may at once
verify. Rocks daily washed by the tide liave their
surface hardened and polished to such a degree, as in a
great measure to protect them against the action of the
waves. Even the loosest sand, when within high-water
mark, acquires a comparatively firm and smooth surface.
The ledge, too, over which the waters of the St Law-
rence rush, being beneath them, and not opposing
any resistance to their course, is little liable to be
disintegrated by their action. We are not aware of
such an effect being produced on any other cataract, nor
does Mr Lyell refer to any, although several falls are
known to have existed from the remotest antiquity. The
statements made by the neighbouring inhabitants are so
vague, and differ so very widely, that little importance
can be attached to them. The only changes which can bo
considered well authenticated are the occasional breaking
down of the rocks in the middle of the great fall. Of
this an example occurred u the 28th December
1828, when a huge fragm< nt fell with a crash which
shook the glass vessels in the adjoining inn, and was
felt at the distance of two miles. It destroyed in a great
measure the angular or horse-shoe form, and, by ren-
dering the line of the fall more direct, heightened its
grandeur.* In 1818 there had been a similar dislocation
of the Table Rock, other sections of which still wear :i
threatening aspect.t But this change was not produced,
as is commonly supposed, by the wearing away of the
rocky ledge itself ; it was by the undennining of the bed
of soft shale on which it rests : and hence the reason

* Hall, vol. i. p. 19H. Mackenzie's Sketches of Canada (8vo, Lon-
don, 1833), p. 103.
•f* Bouchette, vol. i. p. 142.

h ill

GENERAL VIEW OF

i !

■ li

why the hollow space already described has been formed
beneath it and behind the descending waters. As this
softer stratum, however, is acted upon merely by the
spray thrown back upon it, the effects appear to be
both limited and partial, and the consequent changes
to occur only at long intervals.

Having treated the subject with reference to the term
of human life and the common historical eras, we feel little
inclined to consider it in its bearing upon geological theo-
ries. It is only necessary to observe that, admitting
the deep chasm through which the river flows to Queens-
ton to have been excavated by its waters, it does not
follow that a similar process must still continue in opera-
tion. Upon every minemlogical hypothesis it is admit-
ted that the strata, which form the crust of the earth,
were at one time in a state very different from what they
are at present ; having a soft and yielding texture, pro-
duced either by the influence of fire or by recent depo-
sition from water. The action of so mighty a flood might
then very easily, and in a comparatively short period, ex-
cavate such a channel. But it is unphilosophical to apply
reasons, drawn from so remote an era, to a period when
the materials of the land have acquired that fixed and
consolidated form under wliich they appear in our days.

With respect to climate, this country exliibits, in
many particulars, a striking dissimilarity to Europe. In
the first place, the temperature is much lower under
the same latitude ; and this remark applies to the whole
of Noilh America. Thus Quebec, in 46° 49' N., has almost
the same latitude with Nantes in 47° 13'. Yet the mean
annual tempemture of the former is 41*74° ; of the lat-
ter 64'68°, — a difference of nearly 13°. Edinburgh and
Copenhagen, though more than 9° farther north than
Quebec, exceed it in mean aimual heat, the one by 6°
the other by 4°.*

The next distinction is the great difference in the

* See Table by Professor Jameson, in Murray's Encyclopaedia of
Geography, p. 104.

Li:

BRITISH AMERICA. 37

temperature of winter and summer, — the cold of the
one and the heat of the other heing much more intense
than in those European countries where the annual mean
is the same. While the medium temperature of winter
at Nantes is about 40*46°, at Quebec it is 14*18° ; but
that of summer is nearly identical, — at the first 68*54°,
at the second, 68*00°. Nay, the mean of the hottest
month, which at Nantes is 70*52°, at Quebec is 73*40°.
The summer of this last, when compared to that of Edin-
burgh, is almost tropical, exceeding it by ten degrees,
and in the hottest month by fourteen. Even in London
tlie heat rarely attains 83° ; whereas in Canada, during
July, it rises occasionally 20° higher.* These great
hea , however, leave the average still much lower than
in European places under the same latitude.

We do not intend to enter here into any discussion of
the theories formed on this subject, none of which seem
yet to be fully established. The influence of the winds,
which blow chiefly from the north-west, over a vast ex-
panse of frozen continent ; the position of the adjacent
ocean, filled with fields and islands of ice, detached from
the arctic shores; the uncultivated state of the soil,
covered with vast forests and swamps ; these have been
the chief causes assigned for so remarkable a difference.

There prevails a general opmion that, since British
America has been partially cleared and cultivated, the
extremes both of summer heat and of winter cold have
been sensibly mitigated. Others, however, maintain
that the variations are casual and temporary, and that
the changes referred to have as yet taken place on too
small a scale to produce any marked effect.

The prevailing winds in Canada are, the north-east,
north-west, and south-west. The first, blowing from the
ocean, brings rain, snow, and tempest ; the second, from
a vast extent of frozen land, is dry and intensely cold ;
the last, from warmer regions, is mild and agreeable. In
the height of summer, the air is often quite still, the
sky brightly clear, and the rays of the sun beat fiercely

• Bouchette, vol. i. p. 337.

GENERAL VIEW OP

i. i

'%. !

upon the earth. The nights at this season are beautifully
transparent.

Great and sudden transitions from heat to cold also
characterize this region. These are of course produced
by changes of wind, occasioning a rapid transition from
the one to the other of those extremes to which the
whole continent is liable. The tropical countries being
equally warm in the New as in the Old World, the hot
and cold climates are in the former nearer to each other,
and more apt to come into collision. These sudden changes
have the effect of rendering every kind of atmospheric
agitation, and more especially thunder and lightning,
peculiarly violent.

The order of the seasons also varies materially from
that which prevails in Europe. The absence of spring
is generally incident to climates where the winter is
very long and severe. The moderate heat of the ad-
vancing season appears absorbed in the process of con-
verting the snow and ice into a liquid state, and can
thus act only imperfectly upon the atmosphere. By the
time this change is accomplished, the sun's rays have
become powerful, and summer is established. Scarcely
is the ground cleared of snow when vegetation breaks
forth, not gradually, as with us, but with almost preter-
natural rapidity. The months of June, July, and August
are intensely hot, and bring all the crops to a speedy
maturity. Autumn, wliich, according to some writers,
does not exist in America, is described by others as the
most agreeable of all the seasons. In September and
October the days are warm, but the mornings and even-
ings cool and agreeable ; and the foliage, assuming the
varied autumnal tints, presents an enchanting picture.
In November, when frost is about to set in, a grateful
interval usually occurs of what is termed the Indian
summer. A delightful warmth is then felt through the
air, while a thin and beautiful haze covers the face of
nature.* No rational account appears to have been yet

* Bouchette, vol. i.
123-135. Howison, p.
Darby, p. 421-431.

pp. 339,
243-245.

340-344. McGregor, vol. i. p.
Gourlay, vol, ii. p. 141-144.

H:i:i

'4^

BRITISH AMERICA.

given of this phenomenon ; for the Canadian theory, that
it is produced by the smoke of distant prairies fired by
the Indians, is unworthy of refutation. We cannot help
suggesting, that all the waters, here so abundant, are then
undergoing the process of conversion from a fluid into a
solid form ; in the course of which they must necessarily
give out in large quantities the caloric which held them
in a state of ('. uidity. Heat thus developed will naturally
be accompanied with thin mist, which is in fact usually
seen rising from the surface of a newly-frozen stream.

The winter of Lower Canada commences in the end of
November, and lasts five months, or till the close of April.
In the southern parts of the upper province it is nearly
two months shorter. This period, which, in our concep-
tions, appears so dreary, is to the Canadian a season
of cheerfulness and enjoyment. Wami clothing and due
precaution secure him against any dangerous or even
pahiful effects from the extreme cold. As the country
is easily traversed in every direction by light carioles,
large parties assemble, and enliven the gloom of the
year by festivity and social intercourse.*

It might havv.- ■ expected that the excessive rigour
of the climate, j : ;> especially its extremes and sudden
changes, would have been peculiarly trying to the human
constitution. Experience, on the contrary, has esta-
blished its decided salubrity. The countries, too, in
which the cold is most severe, and the contrasts greatest,
are found the healthiest. Hence Lower is more salubri-
ous than Upper Canada, and the latter than the United
States. It is true, at the same time, that diseases origi-
nating in cold, such as rheumatism and pulmonary con-
sumption, are the most common ; and it is remarkable
that overall America the teeth are subject to early decay.
The upper province suffers from intermittent fever,
though not so severely as the countries farther south ;
it is distressing and v/eakening, but seldom fatal.t

The action of the climate upon agricultural produc-

• Bouchette, vol. i. pp. 343, 344, 409. Howison, p. 243. Back-
woods of Canada (lOmo, London, 1836), p. 206.
t Bouchette vol. i. p. 344. M'Gregor, vol. i. p. 136-139*

GENERAL VIEW OP

■• *l

' I

tions is more favoumblo in these countries than in others
wliich have the winie mviin temperature. The intense
lieat even of the short summer rij)ens corn and fruits
which will not thrive in regions where the stiine warmth
is more eiiually distributed throughout the year. 'IMius
Q,uebec agrees in mean annual temperature with Chris-
tionia ; yet wheat, scarcely ever attempted in Norway,
is the staple of Lower Canada. The upjier province
nearly coincides with the north of England; yet the
grape, the peach, i...d the melon come to as much per-
fection as in their native soil. Even rice is found growing
wild. In this res})ect British America seems not to fall
much short of European countries under the same lati-
tude. Its Avinter-cold at the same time enables it to
combine the products of the northern with those of the
southern temperate climates. By the side of the fruits
above mentioned flourish the strawberry, the cranberry,
juid the raspberry ;* while the evergreen pines are co-
]>iously intermingled with the oak, the elm, and others
of ampler foliage. The woods are filled with the rich
fur-bearing animals that belong to an arctic climate,
llie only difliculty is found with such agricultural pro-
ductions as, under milder skies, are improved by win-
tering in the soil. Autumn wheat, for example, has not
vet succeeded in Lower Canada ; and several of the more
delicate artificial grasses have failed. The farmer like-
wise suffers inconvenience from the short interval in
which all his operations of sowing, reaping, and harvesting
must be completed, while he is left without occupation
during the long remainder of the year.

Before closing tliis general view of Canada, ft may be
necessary to introduce some notice of the question which
has arisen between Britain and the United States, re-
specting their common boundaries. The vague terms
often used in treaties have given rise to disputes and
difficulties ; but it is seldom, as in the present instance,
tliat they apply to a territory of 10,000 square miles, or
(),400,000 acres. Though this tract is at present only

• Bouchette, vol. i. p. 336. Backwoods, pp. 143, 144.

i .1 ' ■

URITISII AMERICA.

an unbroken forest, yet, ay it consiHts in penenil of fertile
land, the j)roceH8 of colonization, now rapidly approaching
it, will, at no very distant period, render it of ^reat value.
Uoth nations maintain their claim in u very j)eremptory
manner ; and Li)i;chette, with other respectable writers
on our side, re])els with the utmost indignation the idea
of yielding; a shigle inch.* We respect the i)atriotic
zeal of these authors ; yet, when sucli feelings carry a
people to unreasonable demands, and prevent them from
listening to argument, it may lead to calamitous consc-
(juenees. We shall therefore endeavour to aj)proach the
subject impartially, and view it as if totally abstractcil
from either British or American interests.

The terms of the treaty on which the dispute hinges
are, that the boundary shall be drawn " alo7ig the high-
laudii whichdivide those rivers that empty themselves into the
rivei' St Lawrence from those which fall into the Atlantic
Ocean," These words were penned in complete ignorance
resi)ectirig the country of which they were intended to
dispose. Instead of one highland tract, whose opposite
waters fall into the specified recttptaeles, there are two
ridges, considerably distant, and enclosing between them
the wide expanse of the disputed territory. Throughout
its centre, from west to east, flows the St John, receiving
nearly all the waters from the north side of the one range
and the south side of the other. The British, as their
boundary, claim the most southerly, the Americans the
most northerly of these two lines. Let us see how
these claims w^ill agree with the terms of the treaty.

The British boundary clearly fulfils one condition ; all
the rivers on its southern side fall into the Atlantic.
But on the northern it entirely fails, for there they all flow
into the St John, and not one drop reaches the St Law-
rence. Here, then, we cannot but own a want of coin-
cidence with the literal tenns of *he convention. Bou-
cliette does not deny this, and allows "that the letter
of the treaty of ] 783 has described a boundary which the
physical and hydrographical divisions of the country to

* Bouchette, vol. i. pp. 10, 26. M*Gregor, vol. i. p. 140.

' ii Hi

!, '»

JM ■

I .i

GENERAL VIEW OF

be divided rendered it utterly impossible substantially to
establish." He contends, however, that its professed de-
sign of contemplating " reciprocal advantages and mutual
convenience," and of proceeding upon " i)rinciples of
liberal equity and reciprocity," clearly decides the point
in favour of Britain. These, however, are very vague
grounds on which to determine a matter of fact ; and,
besides, we do not very distinctly sec their bearing in
our favour. No doubt it would be advantageous and
convenient for Britain to get the whole of this territory ;
but we cannot expect that the Americans will see the
reciprocal benefit of their losing the whole. They,
on the contrary, maintain that their boundary is strictly
and literally conformable to the terms of the treaty.
The rivers on one side of it undoubtedly flow into the St
Lawrence, while on the other they reach the St John ;
which last falls into the Bay of Fundy, and that bay
communicates with the Atlantic* This, they pretend,
is equivalent to the original rivers falling directly into
the Atlantic Ocean. But such an interpretation appears
to us wholly inconsistent with the precision which ever
ought to be observed in the terms of a positive treaty.
Tlie obvious meaning was that the rivers descending
from the ridge in question were such as fall into the
open Atlantic, and not merely connected with it in this
indirect manner. It cannot for a moment be doubted,
that the first was the meaning of the negotiators ; that
they had in view the Penobscot, the Kennebeck, and
other streams flowing from the north into the ocean.
We do not therefore think, that the Americans stand
on better ground than ourselves as to the literal terms
of the treaty. Nay, we are convinced that these terms
are wholly incapable of being executed, as they were
obviously framed by persons entirely ignorant of the
territory in question.

In order to adjust this diffbrence, it was agreed by the
two contracting powers, on the 12th January 1829, to

• Some of them fall into the Ristig;ouche, and thence into tlie
Bay of Chaleur, which is also connected with the Atlantic ; the ar-
gument with regard to these is exactly the same.

1: !'

BRITISH AMERICA.

refer it to the arbitration of the King of Holland. Ac-
cordingly, on the 10th January IStSl nis majesty de-
livered his award, in which he concluded, that neither
of the proposed boundaries could be held as at all con-
formable to the terms of the treaty, and proposed there-
fore in their stead the river St John, which, as already
stated, flows through the middle of the disputed dis-
trict.* Tliis decision was rejected })y both parties, who
represented that the office intrusted to the friendly
monarch was to interpret the treaty in reference to the
original terms, not to throw it aside and substitute an
entirely new boundary of liis own contrivance. He had
produced, they said, not an interpretation, but a com-
promise. This is no doubt true ; yet, agreeing with his
majesty, that the treaty cannot be intelligibly interpreted,
or possibly acted upon, and that the affair can be adjusted
only by mutual concession, we cannot help thinking that
the expedient proposed was deserving of a favoumble
consideration. The St John divides the territory in
dispute into two not very unequal portions ; the posses-
sion of the northern bank would secure to Britain the
communication between New Brunswick and Canada,
and prevent the frontier of the United States from en-
croaching too close on the St Lawrence. A water bound-
ary, where it can be procured, is usually preferred as the
most precise and defensible ; and it is very proba])l(^ that
in this case it would bjivc been adopted by th .ego-
tiators, had they not been who^l - ignorant of its existence.
At all events, it is extremely desirable that some adjust-
ment should take place as speedily as possible, before the
increasing importance of the land shall render it a sub-
ject of serious dissension between two great nations.t

• His majesty proposes that the line, after fbllowint^ for a con-
siderable space upwards the course of the St John, should take that
of its small tributary the St Francis, and by it reach and follow the
American land-boundary. We do not perceive the motive or ad-
vantage of this deviation ; our reasoning proceeds upon the St John
bein^ made the boundary throughout, tin it strikes the American
frontier.

t Bouchettc, vol. i. p. 18-22, 489-498. M'Gregor, vol. i. j). 140.

THE NATIVE INDIANS INHABITING

CHAPTER II.

The Native Indians inhabiting Canada and its Borders.

Si ;

r •-.

Peculiar Condition of those Tribes — Their Physical Character

Form — Colour— Hair and Beard— Bodily Strength — Dress— Or-
naments— Painting and Tattooing of the Skin— 31odes of Sub-
sistence — Hunting — Cultivatic.^i — Food — Hoo&uS — Canoes —
Spirit of Independence — Internal Order — Marriages — Rearing'
of Children — Intellectual Character — Oratory — Style of Compo-
sition — Religious Ideas — Importance attached to Dreams — The
Manitou — Ideas of a Future State — Reverence for the Dead —
Ceremonies of Interment — Superstitious Modes of curing the
Sick — Indian Wars — Their Motives — Preparations — March —
Modes of attacking and surprising the Enemy — Return — Treat-
ment of Prisoners; Tortures; Adoption — Treaties — Indian
Amusements — Music — Dancing — Smoking — Games — Different
Tribes inhabituig Canada and its Borders.

Among the intellectual advantages de/ived from the dis-
covery of America, perhaps the most important was
the opening of a new page in the history of man ; for he
Wi\B there presented under an aspect never before viewed
by the sages either of the ancient or modem world.
The rudest form under which they had observed the hu-
man being was * ^j called barbarous ; and among the
Greeks and Romans the Scythians were received as
representing the man of nature. But though compara-
tively rude, that people had already made a considerable
pro,T:ess in the arts. They had reached the pastoral
sti possessed numerous herds and flocks, and were
d in large bodies under hereditary chiefs. The mo-
^lox. aropeans, again, have records of a time when they

■r

CANArA AND ITS BORDERS.

themselves were little removed from a similar condition,
of which examples still exist in the outer borders of the
continent ; but they have never beheld nations con-
sisting only of liandfuls of men, roaming through an
unbounded and continuous forest, having scarcely any
animals tamed for service or food, and supporting them-
selves solely on the precarious product of the chase.
On the first intimation of the existence of such tribes,
they were in this part of the world supposed to be a
mere assemblage of meagre and shivering ^vretches,
whose constant exertions must be employed in at-
tempting to escape the famine with which they were
perpetually threatened. The firet discoverers, accord-
ingly, were surprised to find among them warriors,
statesmen, and orators ; a proud race, of dignified port,
terrible in war, mild in peace, maintaining order with-
out the restraint of law, and uniting by the closest ties
the members of the same community. Such, though
with some remarkable exceptions, was the picture ex-
hibited by the savages of the New World, particularly in
its northern regions ; and those nations who dwelt on
the rivers and lakes of Canada presented it in the most
decided features, least modified by the restraints and
refinements of civilized life. The English and French,
who, during nearly three centuries, have been engaged
with them in the relations either of close alliance or of
deadly war, have learned to appreciate all that is bright
as well as all that is dark and terrible in the character
of this extraordinary race. From this intercourse we
are furnished with ample means of estimating a state of
society so peculiar, and so remote from that civilisation
to which Europe has attained.

In their physical character, the Americans are con-
sidered by Blumenbach as forming a particular variety
of the human species, differing, though not very widely,
from the Mongolian. Believing, as we do, that the New
World was peopled from the Old, and considering that
the Mongol race was situated nearest to the point where
Asia and America come almost into contact, we incline

THE NATIVE INDIANS INIIABITINO

to ascribe these variations merely to a change of oiitward
circuinHtances. The face is broad und iiat, with liigh
cheek-bones, more rounded and arched, however, than in
tlie allied type, without having the visage expanded to tlie
same breadth. The forehead is generally low, the eyes
deep, small, and black ; the nose rather diminutive but
prominent, with wide nostrils ; and the mouth large, with
somewhat thick lips. The stature, which varies remark-
ably throughout the continent, is, in the quarter of
which we treat, generally above tixe middle size. This
property, however, is ccmfined to the men, the females
behig usually below that standard, — a fact which may be
confidently ascribed to the oppressive drudgery they
are compelled to undergo. The limbs, in both sexes,
are well proportioned ; and few instances of dcfonnity
ever occur.*

The colour of the skin in the American is generally
described as red or copper-coloured ; or, according to Mr
Lawrence's more precise definition, it is " an obscure
orange or rusty iron colour, not unlike the bark of the
cinnamon-tree." Although we believe that climate is
tlie chief cause of the diversities in human colour, yet it
is certain that all savages are dark-tinted. This pecu-
liarity may be accounted for by their constant exposure
to the inclemency of the seasons, to sun, air, and tem-
pests ; and the same cause in civilized countries pro-
duces a similar effect on sailors, as well as on those
who work constantly in the fields. In the Old World,
the intermediate tints between white and black are gene-
rally varieties of brown and yellow. The red tint is
considered characteristic of the New World. We must
however observe, that the traveller Adair, who lived
upwards of thirty years among the Indians, positively
asserts that it is artificially produced ; that in the oil,

• Lawrence's Lectures on Physiology, Zoology, and the Na-
tural History of Man (12mo, London, 1834), p. 365. Adair's His-
tory oF tlie American Indians (4to, London, 1/75), pp^ 5, 6. Weld's
Travels in North America and Canada (4to, London, VJ^^\ p.
375^77.

CANADA AND ITS UORDEllS.

grcjiso, and other unctuous 8u})8tances with whi«jh they
keep their skin couHtuntly smeared, there is dissolved
the juice of a root which gradually tinges it of this
colour. He states, that a white man, who spent some
years with the natives, and adorned himself in their nmn-
ncr, completely acquired it. Charlevoix seems also to
Iwui to the same opinion. Wehl, though rather inclined
to dissent from it, admits that such a notion was adopted
by missionaries and others who had resided long in the
country. It is certain that the inha))itants glory in this
colour, and regard Europeans who have it not as non-
descript beings, not fully entitled to the name of men.
It may be noticed also, that this tint is by no means
so universal as is commonly supposed. HumholiU de-
clares that the idea of its general prevalence could
never have arisen in equinoctial America, or been sug-
gested by the view of the natives in that region ; yet
these provinces include by far the larger part of the
aboriginal population. The people of Nootka Sound
and other districts of the north-western coast are nearly as
white as Europeans ; which may be ascribed, we think,
to their ample clothing and spacious habitations. Thus
the red nations appear limited to the eastern tribes of
North America, among whom generally prevails tlie
custom of painting or smearing the skin with that
favourite colour. We are not prepared to express a
decided opinion on this subject ; but it obviously re-
quires a closer investigation than it has yet received.*

The hair is another particular in which the races of
mankind remarkably differ. The ruder classes are g( le-
rally defective, either in the abundance or quality of
that graceful appendage ; and the hair of the Americans,
like that of their allied type the Mongols, is coarse,
black, thin, but strong, and growing to a great length.

* Lawrence, p. 365. Humboldt's Personal Narrative of Tra-
vels to the Equinoctial Reunions of the New Continent (9 vols Mvo,
London, 1818), vol. iii. p. 223. Adair, p. 3. Weld, p. 375. Char-
levoix's Journal of a Voyage to North America (2 vols Bvo, Lon-
don, 1761), vol. ii. p. 90.

;fi^

nil.

THE NATIVE INDIANS INHAniTINO

Like the latter, also, ])y u eurious ooincidonce, most of
them remove it from every part of the head, with the
exception of a tuft on the crown, whieh tliey elierish
with much care. The eirciimst4mee, however, whieh has
excited the greatest attention, is the ahsenco of beard,
apparently entire, amonp^ all the people of the New
World. The early travcllei-s viewed it as a natural
deficiency ; whence RohertHon and other eminent writ-
ers have ven inferred the existence of somethinj^ pecu-
liarly fee])le in tlieir whole fnune. But the assertion,
with all tht> inferences founded upon it, so far as relates to
the North American tribes, has been completely refuted
by recent observation. The original growth has been
found nearly, if not wholly, as ample as that of Euro-
])eans ; but the moment it apj)ear8, every trace is stu-
diously obliterated. This is etfeeted by the aged fe-
males, originally with a species of clam-shell, but now
by means of spiral pieces of brass-wire supplied by the
traders. With these an old squaw will in a few minutes
reduce the chin to a state of complete smoothness ; and
slight applications during the year clear away such strag-
gling hairs as may happen to sprout. It is only among
old men, who become careless of their a])pearance, that
the beard begins to be perceptible, A late English travel-
ler strongly recommends to his countrymen a practice
which, though scarcely accordant with our ideas of manly
dignity, would, at the expense of a few minutes' pain,
save them much daily trouble. The Indians have pro-
bably adopted this usage as it removes an obstacle to the
fantastic painthig of the face, which they value so highly.
A full beard, at all events, when it was first seen on their
French visiters, is said to have been viewed with peculiar
antipathy, and to have greatly enhanced the pleasure with
which they killed these foreigners.*
The comparative physical strength of savage and

• Weld, pp. 377j ^JO" Adair, p. 6. Relation de ce que s'est
passe de plus remarquable aux Missions des P.P. de la Corapagnie
de Jesus, en la Nouvelie France (32 tomes 8vo, Paris, l()85-lo7l)
an 1607, p. 104.

CANADA AND ITS liORDIilllS.

civilized nut ions has been ft subject of controverHy.
A penenil iminesHion hjis obUiined that the fomuT,
inured to simple and active habitH, ae<iuire a decided
superiority ; but experience appears to have proved that
this conclusion is ill founded. On the field of battle, when
a struggle takes place between man and man, the Ame-
rican is usually worsted. In sportive exercises, such as
wrestling, he is most frequently thrown, and in leaping
comes short of his antagonist. Even in walking or run-
ning, if for a short distance, he is left behind ; but in
these last movements he possesses a power of perseverance
and continued exertion to which there is scarcely any pa-
rallel. An individual luis been known to travel nearly
eighty miles in a day, and arrive at his destination with-
out any symptoms of fatigue. These long journeys, also,
are frequently performed without any refreshment, and
even having the shoulders loaded with heavy burdens,
their capacity of supporting which is truly wonderful.
For about twelve miles, indeed, a strong European will
keep ahead of the Indian ; but then he begins to flag,
while the other, proceeding with unaltered pace, out-
strips him considerably. Even powerful animals cannot
equal them in this respect. Many of their civilized ad-
versaries, when overcome in war, and fleeing before them
on swift horses, have, after a long chase, been overtaken
and scalped.*

Having thus given a view of the persons of the Ameri-
cans, we may proceed to consider the maniysr in which
tliey are clothed and ornamented. This last object
might have been expected to be a very secondary one,
among tribes whose means of subsistence are so scanty
and precarious ; but, so far is this from being the case,
that there is scarcely any pursuit wliich occupies so
much of their time and regard. They have availed them-
selves of European intercourse to procure each a small
mirror, in which, from time to time, they view their

• Lawrence, p. 253. Weld, pp. 388, 389. Long's Voyages
and Travels of an Indian Interpreter and Trader (4to, London,
1791), p. 36.

VOL. I. C

THE NATIVE INDIANS INHABITING

Native Indian Costumes.

])ersonal decorations, taking care that every thing shall
be in the most perfect order. Embellishment, however,
is not much expended on actual clothing, which is sim-
ple, and chiefly arranged with a view to convenience.
Instead of shoes, they wear what are termed mocassins,
consistuig of one strip of soft leather wrapt round the
foot, and fastened in front and behind. Europeans,
walking over hard roads, soon knock these to pieces ;
but the Indian, tripping over snow or grass, finds them
a light and agreeable chaussure. Upwards to the middle
of the thigh, a piece of leather or cloth, tightly fitted
to the limb, serves instead of pantaloons, stockings, and
boots ; it is sometimes sewed on so close as nev^r to
])e taken off. To a string or girdle round the waist are
fastened two aprons, one before and the other at the back,
each somewhat more than a foot square ; and these are

CANADA AND ITS BORDERS.

nvenience.

connected by a piece of cloth like a truss, often used also
as a capacious pocket. The use of breeches they hav(i
always repelled with contempt, as cumbrous and effemi-
nate. As an article of female dress, they would con-
sider them less objectionable ; but that the limbs of a
warrior should be thus manacled, appears to them utterly
preposterous. They were particularly scandalized at
seeing an officer have them fastened over the shoulder
by braces, and never after gave him any name but Tied-
Breech.

The garments now enumerated form the whole of their
permanent dress. On occasions of ceremony, indeed, or
when exposed to cold, they put over it a short shirt fas-
tened at the neck and wrists, and above it a long loose
robe closed or held together in front. For this purpose
they now generally prefer an English blanket. All these
articles were originally fabricated from the skins of
wild animals ; but at present, unless for the mocassins,
and sometimes the leggings, European stuffs are pi oferred.
The dress of the female scarcely differs from that of the
male, except that the apron reaches down to the knees ;
and even this is said to have been adopted since their
acquaintance with civilized nations. The early French
writers relate an amusing anecdote to prove how little
dress was considered as making a distinction between the
sexes. The Ursuline nuns, having educated a Huron girl,
presented her, on her marriage to one of her country-
men, with a complete and handsome suit of clothes in the
Parisian style. They were much surprised some days
after, to see the husband, who had ungenerously seized
the whole of his bride's attire and arrayed himself in it,
parading back and forward in front of the convent, and be-
traying every symptom of the most extravagant exulta-
tion. This was farther heightened, when he observed the
ladies crowding to the w^indow to see him, and a univer-
sal smile spread over their countenances.*

* Creuxius, Nova Francia (4to, Paris, 1664), pp. 63, 04. Adair,
J). 7. Weld, p. 380-38J.

•'«

THE NATIVE INDIANS INHABITING

These vestments, as already observed, are simple, and
adapted only for use. To gratify his passionate love of
ornament, the Indian seeks chiefly to load his person
with certain glittering appendages. Before the arrival
of Europeans, shells and feathers took the lead ; but,
since that period, these commodities have been nearly
supplanted by beads, rings, bracelets, and similar toys,
which are inserted profusely into various parts of his ap-
parel, particularly the little apron in front. The chiefs
usually wear a breastplate ornamented with them ; and
among all classes it is an object of the greatest ambition
to have the largest possible number suspended from the
ear. That organ therefore is not bored, but slit to such
an extent that a stick of wax may be passed through
the aperture, which is then loaded with all the baubles
that can be mustered ; and if the weight of these gra-
dually draw down the yielding flap till it rest on the
shoulder, and the ornaments themselves cover the breast,
the Indian has reached his utmost height of finery. This,
however, is a precarious splendour ; the ear becomes
more and more unfit to support the burden, when at
length some accident, the branch of a tree, or even a
twitch by a waggish comrade, lays at his feet all his de-
corations, with the portion of flesh to which they were
attached. Weld saw very few who had preserved this
organ entire through life. The adjustment of the hai,
again, is an object of especial study. As already ob-
served, the greater part is generally eradicated, leaving
only a tuft, varying in shape and place, ax3Cording to taste
and national custom, but usually encircling the crown.
This lock is stuck full of feathers, wings of birds, shells,
and every kind of fantastic ornament. The women wear
theirs long and flowing, and contrive to collect a consi-
derable number of ornam' nts for it, as well as for their
ears and dress.*

But it is upon his skin that the American warrior
chiefly lavishes his powers of embellishment. His taste

* CreuxJHS, p. 1)3. Charlevoix, vol. ii. pp. 1111,120. Weld, pp.
;^81-383. Adair, pp. IJI.

f-ir

CANADA AND ITS BORDERS.

Tattooed Indian.

in doing so is very different from ours. " While the
European," says Creuxius, " studies to keep his sk..*
clean, and free from every extraneous substance, the
Indian's aim is, that his, by the accumulation of oil,
grease, and paint, may shine like that of a roasted pig."
Soot scraped from the bottoms of kettles, the juices of
herbs having a green, yellow, and, above all, a ver-
milion tint, rendered adhesive by combination with oil
and grease, arc lavishly employed to adorn his person,
or, according to our idea, to render it hideous. Black and
red, altcrnatii' with each other in varied stripes, are
the favourite tmts. Some blacken the face, leaving in
the middle a red circle, including the upper lip and tip
of the nose ; others have a red spot on each ear, or one
eye black and the other of a red colour. In war the
black tint is profusely laid on, the others being only

THE NATIVE INDIANS INHABITING

;^i ii

';i !

: !: I

employed to heighten its effect, and give to the coun-
tenance a terrific expression. M. de Tracy, when go-
vernor of Canada, vv^as told by his Indian allies, that,
with his good-humoured face, he would never inspire
the enemy with any degree of awe. They besought
him to place himself under their brush, when they
would soon make him such, that his very aspect would
strike terror. The breast, arms, and legs are the seat
of more pennanent impressions, analogous to the tat-
tooing of the South Sea Islanders. The colours are
either elaborately rubbed in, or fixed by slight inci-
sions with needles and sharp-pointed bones. His guar-
dian spirit, and the animal that forms the symbol of his
tribe, are the first objects delineated. After this every
memorable exploit, and particularly the enemies whom
he has slain and scalped, are diligently graven on some
part of his figure ; so that the body of an aged warrior
contains the history of his life.*

The means of procuring subsistence must always form
an important branch of national economy. Writers
taking a superficial view of savage life, and seeing how
scanty the articles of food are, while the demand is ne-
cessarily urgent, have assumed that the efforts to attain
them must absorb his whole mind, and scarcely leave
room for any other thought. But, on the contrary, these
are to him very subordinate objects. To perform a
round of daily labour, even though ensuring the most
ample provision for his wants, would be equally contrary
to his inclination and supposed dignity. He will not
deign to follow any pursuit which does not, at the same
time, include enterprise, adventure, and excitement.
Hunting, which the higher classes in the civilized parts
of the world pursue for mere recreation, is almost the
only occupation considered of sufficient importance to
('■1,4- ige his attention. It is peculiarly endeared by its
i! L. mblance to war, being carried on with the same
weapons, and nearly in the same manner. In his na-

• Creuxius, p. 62. Charlevoix, vol. 11. p. 118. Weld, pp,
382, 383. Missions en la Nouvelle France, ans 1664, 1665.

CANADA AND ITS BORDERS.

tivc state, the arrow was the favourite and almost ex-
clusive instrument for assailing distant ohjccts ; hut now
the gun has nearly superseded it. The great hunts are
rendered more animating, as well as more effectual, from
being carried on in large parties, and even hy whole
tribes. The men are prepared for these by fasting, dream-
ing, and other superstitious observances, similar to those
which we shall find employed in anticipation of war.
In such expeditions, too, contrivance and skill, &s well
as boldness and enterprise, are largely employed. Some--
times a circle is formed, when all the animals surrounded
by it are pressed closer and closer, till they are collected
in the centre, and fall under the accumulated weight of
weapons. On other occasions they are driven to the
margin of a lake or river, in which, if they attempt to
seek refuge, canoes are ready to intercept them. Else-
where a space is enclosed by stakes, only a narrow
opening heing left, which, by clamour and shouts, the
game are compelled to enter, and thereby secured. In
autumn and spring, when the ice is newly formed and
slight, they are pushed upon it, and their legs breaking
through, they are easily caught. In winter, when the
snow begins to fall, traps are set, in which planks are so
arranged, that the animal, in snatching at the bait, is
crushed to death. Originally the deer, both for food and
clothing, was the most valuable object of chase ; but
since the trade with Europeans has given such a pro-
minent importance to furs, the beaver has in some de-
gree supplanted it. In attacking this animal, great care
is taken to prevent his escape into the water, on which
his habitation always borders ; and with this view va-
rious kinds of nets and springes are employed. On
some occasions the Indians place tiiemselves upon the
dike which encloses his an.phibious village. They then
make an opening in it, when the inmates, f»larmed by
seeing the water flowing out, hasten to this barrier,
where they encounter their enemies, armed with all
the instruments of destruction. At other times, when
ice covers the surface of the pond, a hole is made, at which

If, I

in.

iii'

It' I

;

• 1

,1 ?

THE NATTVE INDIANS INHABITING

the animal comes to rtspire ; he is tlien drawn out, and
secured. The bear is u. formidal lo enemy, which must
be assailed by the combined forct> of the hunters, who
are ranged in two r')W8, armed with bows or muskets.
One of them advances, and wounds him, and, on being
furiously pursued, he retreats between the files, fol-
lowed in the same lino by the animal, which is then
overwhelmed by their united on ^et. In ^ Uling these
quadrupeds, the natives seem to feel a sort of kindness
and sympathy for their victim. On vanquishing a be. v/er
or a bear, they celebrate irs praises in a song, rocountirg
those good qualities which it will never more l>o. able U.)
display, yet consoling themselves wit?i the ustjiul pur-
poses to wiiioh its flesh and its skin will be applied.*

Of the animals usually t^xmf d and rend<jred subservif nt
to useful purposes, tbe Aroericaas have only the dog, tl^at
faithful friend of m^\^, Tltorgh his services in hunting
are valuable, he is taejted * ith no tenderness ; but is
left to roam ab<»v(t the d '^•liujg, very sparingly supplied
with food and ftiielter, A missionary who resided in a
Huron viUage icpresents bis life as having been ren-
dered miserable by these animals. At night they laid
themselves on his person, for the benefit of the wannth ;
ai^d wlienever his scanty meal was set down, their snouts
wwro aJ ways first in the dish. Dog's flesh is eaten, and
has even a peculiar sanctity attached to it. On all solemn
festivals it is the principal meat, the uhq of which on such
occasionb seems to import some high and mysterious
meaning.

But besides the cheering avocations of the chase, other
means must be used to ensure the comfort and sub-
sistence of the Indian's family ; all of which, however,
are most ungenerously devolved upon the weaker sex.
Women, according to Creuxius, serve them as domestics,
as tailors, ss peasants, and as oxen ; and Long does not

• Chaiaaubriand's Travels in America and Italy (2 vols 8vo,
London, 1828), vol. i. p, 269-279. Carver's Travels thioug-h the
Interior Parts of North America (Bvo, London, 1778), p. 287-290.
Long, p. 96.

CANADA AND ITS BORDERS.

out, and
ich must
era, who
muskets,
on being
lies, fol-
i is then
Ing these
kindness
f abe.'/er
icount.l'ng
>o able tt)
iiiul pur-
)lied.*
bserviont
dog, that
1 hunting
IS ; but is
f supplied
sided in a
jeen ren-
they laid
warmth ;
eir snouts
laten, and
tU solemn
h on such
lysterious

ase, other
and sub-
however,
aker sex.
omestics,
does not

vols 8vo,
looffh the
J. 287-290.

conceive that any other purposes of tlieir existence are
recognised, except those of bearing children and per-
forming hard work. They till the ground, carry wood
and water, build huts, make canoes, and fish ; in which
latter processes, however, and in reaping the harvest,
Mieir lords deign to give occasional aid. So habituated
are Ihey to such occupations, that when one of them
saw a party of English soldiers collecting wood, she ex-
claiins. t' , that it was a shame to see men doing women's
v/ork, ;; ad began herself to carry a load.*

Through the services of this enslaved portion of the
tribe, those savages are enabled to combine in a certain
degree ^lie agricultural with the hunting state, without
any mixture of the pastoral, usually considered as inter-
mcdiafce. Cultivation, however, is limited to small spots
in the immediate vicinity of the villages, and these being
usually at the distance of sixteen or seventeen miles from
each other, it scarcely makes any impression on the im-
mense expanse of forest. The women, in the beginning of
summer, after having burned the stubble of the preced-
ing crop, rudely stir the ground with a long crooked
piece of wood ; they then throw in the grain, which is
chiefly the coarse but productive species of maize pecu-
liar to the continent. The nations in the south have a
considerable variety of fruits ; whereas those of Canada
appear to have raised only turnsoles, water-melons, and
pompions. Tobacco used to be grown largely ; but that
imported by Europeans is now universally preferred, and
has become a regular object of trade. The grain, after
harvest (which is celebrated by a festival), is lodged in
large subterraneous stores lined with bark, where it
keeps extremely well. Previous to being placed in these,
it is Sometimes thrashed, on other occasions merely the
ears are cut off, and thrown in. When first discovered by
settlers from Europe, the degrees of culture were found
to vary in difl^erent trib'. -. Th'-^ Alj.-, jnquins, who were
the ruling people pre^'-sius to the arrVal of tiie French,

" Colden's History c; the Five Nations (2 vols 12mo London,
1755), vol. i. pp. 7j 14. Creuxius, p. o"}. Long, pp. l.'»/, 138.

-^.-f*,

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THE NATIVE INDIANS INIIAlJITINa

wholly despised it, and branded as plebeian their neigh-
bours, by whom it was practised. In general, the north-
ern clans, and those near the mouth of the St Lawrence,
depended almost solely on hunting and fishing; and
when these failed they were reduced to dreadful extre-
mities, being often obliged to depend on the miserable
resource of that species of lichen called tripe de roche.

The maize, when thrashed, is occasionally toasted on
the coals, and sometimes made into a coarse kind of unlea-
vened cake. But the most favourite preparation is that
called sagamUy, a species of pap formed after it has been
roasted, bruised, and separated from the husk. It is in-
sipid by itself ; yet when thrown into the pot, along with
the produce of the chase, it enriches the soup or stew,
one of the principal dishes at their feasts. They never eat
victuals raw, but rather overboiled ; nor have they yet
been brought to endure French ragouts, salt, pepper, or
indeed any species of condiment. A chief, admitted to the
governor's table, seeing the general use of mustard, was
led by curiosity to take a spoonful and put it into his
mouth. On feeling its violent effects, he made incredible
efforts to conceal them, and escape the ridicule of tlie
company ; but severe sneezings, and the tears starting
from his eyes, soon betrayed him, and raised a general
laugh. He was then shown the manner in which it
should be used ; but nothing could ever induce him to
allow the " boiling yellow," as he termed it, to enter
his lips.

The Indians are capable of extraordinary abstinence
from food, in which they can persevere for successive
days without complaint or apparent suffering. They
even take a pride in long fasts, by which they usually
prepare themselves for any great undertaking. Yet
when once set down to a feast, their gluttony is described
as enormous, and the capacity of their stomachs almost
incredible. They will go from feast to feast, doing ho-
nour to each in succession. The chief giving the entertain-
ment does not partake, but with his own hands distributes
portions among the guests. On solemn occasions, it is

CANADA AND ITS BORDERS.

a rule that every thing shall be eaten ; nor does this obli-
gation seem to be felt as either burdensome or unplea-
sant. In their native state, they were not aequainted
with any species of intoxicating liquors ; their love of
ardent spirits, attended with so many ruinous effects,
having been entirely consequent on their intercourse
with Europeans.*

The habitations of the Indians receive much less of
their attention than the attire or at least embellishment
of their persons. Our countrymen, by common consent,
give to them no better appellation than cabins. The bark
of trees is their chief material both for houses and boats ;
they peel it off with considerable skill, sometimes strip-
ping a Avhole tree in one piece. This coating, spread not
unskilfully over a framework of poles, and fastened to
them by strips of tough rind, fonns their dwellings. The
shape, according to the owner's fancy, resembles a tub,
a cone, or a cart-shed, the mixture of which gives to
the village a confused and chaotic appearance. Liglit
and heat are admitted only by an aperture at the top,
through which also the smoke escapes, after filling all
the upper part of the mansion. Little inconvenience is
felt from this by the natives, who, within doors, nev.jr
think of any position except sitting or lying ; but to
Europeans, who must occasionally stand or walk, the;
abode is thereby rendered almost intolerable ; and mat-
ters become much worse when rain or snow makes it ne-
cessary to close the roof. These structures are sometimes
upwards of a hundred feet long ; but they are then the
residence of two or three separate families. Four of
them occasionally compose a quadrangle, each open on
the inside, and having a common fire in the centre.
Formerly the Iroquois had houses somewhat superior,
adorned even with some rude carving ; but these were
burnt down by the French in successive expeditions,
and have never been rebuilt in the same style. The

* Charlevoix, vol. ii. p. 121 ' Adair, p. 409-412. Creuxins, p.
(i6. Missions en la Nouvelle 1 iue, ans 1657, 1658, pp. 1U6, lOy.

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THE NATIVE INDIANS INnABITINO

Canadians in this respect seem to be surpjissed by the
Choktaws, Chikasaws, and other tribes in the south,
and even by the Saukies in the west, whose mansions
Carver describes as constructed of •well-hewn planks,
neatly jointed, and each capable of containing several
families.

In their expeditions, wbeUK"' ''<»• war or hunting,
which often lead them thiough desolate forests, several
hundred miles from home, the Indians have the art of
rearing, with great expedition, temporary abodes. On
arriving at their ev<'iung station, a few polc-v ■^.. "ting
at top in the form of a cone, are in half uu liour covered
with bark, and having spread a few pino-branches
within by way '^^ mattress, they sleep as soundly as on
beds of down. Li\ ' the Esquimaux, they also understand
how to convert 8 icw into a material for building ; and
find it in the depth of winter the warmest and most
comfortable, A few twigs platted together secure the
roof. Our own countrymen, in their several campaigns,
have, in cases of necessity, used with advantage this
species of bivouac.

The furniture in these native huts is exceedingly sim-
ple. The chief articles are two or three pots or kettles
for boiling their food, with a few wooden plates and
spoons. The fonner, in the absence of metal, with which
the inhabitants were unacquainted, were made of coarse
earthenware that resisted the fire ; and sometimes of a
species of soft stone, which could be excavated with
their rude hatchets. Nay, in som^ cases, ' icir kitchen
utensils were of wood, and the water made to boil
by throwing in heated stones. Si'ice their acquaintance
with Europeans, the superiorit}'^ of iron vessels has been
found so decided, that they are now universally pre-
ferred. The great kettle or cauldron, em' »loy . only on
high festivals associated with religion, ' itin-r, or war,
attracts even a kind of veneration ; tiiiu potent chiefs
have assumed its name as their title of honour.

Canoes^ another fabric which the Indians construct
very rudely, are yet adapted with considerable skill to

CANADA AND ITS BORDERS.

their purpose. These are usually framed of i i . hark of
a single tree, strenfj^lu ned at the centn> wiili rihs of
tough wood. The ends are of hark only, but being
curved upwards, arc always above water, and thus
remain perfectly tight. Our sailors can scarcely believe
such nut-shells safe even on the smoothest waters, and
see with surprise the natives guiding them amid stormy
waves, where their very lightness and buoyancy pre-
serve them from sinking. They have another quality
of great advantage in the devious pursuits of the own-
ers ; being so extremely light, that tliey can be easily
conveyed on the shoulder from one river or branch of a
lake to mother. One man, it is said, can carry on his
hack a canoe in which twelve persons may navigate with
safety.*

Having taken this minute survey of the physical con-
dition of the Indians, we shall proceed to an examination
of their social condition. The fundamental principle of
their polity is the complete independence of every indivi-
dual, his right to do whatever he pleases, be it good or
bad, nay, i^v^n though i riniinal and destructive. When
any one ann<«"nces an intention which is disagreeable to
his neighbouiv^ they daie not attempt to check him by
reproach or coitc -on ; these would only rivet his deter-
mination more htro.igly. Their only resource is to sooth
him, like a spoiled cliil ', by kind words, and especially
by gifts. If, notwithst. ulin;.', he proceeds to wound or
murder any one, the public look on without -oncem,
though revenge is eagerly sought by the kindred of the
injured person,

NotwithsUmding this impunity, which, on our side of
the Atlantic, would be followed by the most dreadful
consequences, it is somewhat mortifying to the pride of
European civilisation to learn, that there reigns a degreo
of tranquillity greater than the strictest police can pre-
serve with us. The Indians are divided into a number
of little nations or tribes, fiercely hostile to each other,

* Charlevoix, vol. ii. p. 127-130. Weld, p. 383-38,). Creuxius,
p. 68. Carver, pp. 4^5, 231-233. Adair, p. 413-420.

■»:

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(52

Tin: NATIVE INDIANS INIlAlUTINa

but whose members are bound amon^ thcinselvcH by the
strictest union. The honour and welfare of tlie chui sup-
ply their ruling? principle, and are cherished with an ar-
dour not surpassed in the most brilliant eras of (1 reek and
Roman ])atriotism. This national attachment forms a so-
cial tie, linkinj,' the members to each other, and renderine^
exceedingly rare, n(»t only deeds of violence, but even
personal quarrels, and banishinu: entirely that coarse and
abusive language which is so pu'valent among the vulgar
in more enlightened comnumities. This feeling, added
to the sentiment of dig/' ty and self-connnand considered
suitable to the character of a warrior, rendei's their de-
portment » :ceedingly pleasing. Tlu»y are com})letely
free from tliat false shanu^ which is termed mauvaise,
hortte. When seated at table with Kun)i)eans of the
liighest rank, they retain the most thorough self-jjosses-
sion ; and at the same time, by carefully observing the
proceedings of the other guests, they avoid all awkward-
ness in their manners. Their generosity, too, in relieving
each other's necessities scarcely knows any bounds, and
only stops short of an absolute community of goods.
No member of a tribe can be in the least danger of
starving, if the rest have wherewith to supply him.
Children rendered orphans by the cjisualties to which
savage life is subject, are immediately taken in charge
by the nearest relative, and supplied with every thing
needful, as abundantly as if they were his own. Nothing
gives them a more unfavourable opinion of the French
and English, than to see one portion revelling in abund-
ance, while the other suffei-s the extremities of want ;
but when they are told that, for want of these accom-
modations, men are seized by their fellow-creatures
and immured in dungeons, such a degree of barbarism
appears to them almost incredible. Whole tribes,
when obliged by the vicissitudes of war to seek refuge
among their neighbours, are received with unbounded
hospitality ; habitations and lands are assigned to them,
and they are treated by their new friends in every
respect as a part of themselves. It may, however, be

CANADA AM) ITH HORDKHS.

c<\

s by the
Ian HU])-
I) un ur-
iTck ami
ms a so-
'luloring
Imt even
larMc and
ic vulf^ar
itr, adcUd
jnHidtTcd
their de-
nipk'tely
mauvime
18 of the

•lt-])OSSl'S-

rving the
iwkward-
i relieving

observed, thata» such an accesHJonof nnnd)ersaugnientM
the military strength of the tribe, tliere may be a mix-
ture of j)()liey in tiiis cordial reception,*

In consecjuence of this spirit of order and ijiternal
union, the unbounded ])ers()nal freedom which n)ari<s
their social condition seldom breaks out into such crimes
lus would disturli the ])ublic peace. Its greatest evil, of
wliicli we shall see repeated instances, is, tliat indivi-
(hials actuated by revenge or a spirit of daring enter-
prise, think themselves justified in surprising and mur-
dering a hated adversary. From this cause every treaty
between the tribes is rendered precarious ; though, as
each is aware of these lawless ])ropcnsitics, room is left
for mutual explanation, so that particular outrages may
not involve a general war. Tills circumstance leads us to
notice, that the favourable asjjcct presented by the inte-
rior of these communities can by no means warrant any
conclusion as to the superiority of savage life when com-
])iired with that of civilized man. On the contrary, the
most perfect form of government devised by the human
being in the state of nature, has never been exemj)ted
from those feelings of relentless enmity and continual
fear with which bordering nations regard each other.
These, as will appear in the sequel, often impel them to
the most direful crimes ; but at present we shall i)ro-
ceed with our survey of their domestic usages.

Some writers have denied that there exists among the
Indians any thing that can properly be termed a matri-
monial union. This, however, seems only a i)rejudice,
in consequence of there not being any regular cere-
mony, as with us. The man, it appears, after having
made an arrangement with the parent of his bride, takes
her home, and they live in every respect as husband and
wife. The mode of courtship among several of the tribes
is suigular. The wooer, fittended often by several com-
rades, repairs at midnight to his fair one's apartment,

* Charlevoix, vol. ii. pp. 30-32, 86, 87. Creuxius, pp. 72, 73. Car-
ver, pp. 248, 412. Adair, pp. 378, 412. Missions en la Nouvelle
France, ans 1(557, lii5i?, p. 128.

THE NATIVE INDIANS INHABITING

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and three times twitches her nose. If she be inclined to
listen to his suit, slie rises ; otherwise he must depart.
Though this visit be so very unseasonable, it is said to
be rarely accompanied with any impropriety ; the mis-
sionaries, however, did not think it right to sanction such
freedoms in their converts. The preliminary step is,
in this manner, taken with the lady, but the decision still
rests with the father, to whom the suitor now applies.
Long has given no unpleasing specimen of the address :
" Father, I love your daughter — will you give her to me,
that the small roots of her heart may entangle with mine,
so that the strongest wind that blows may never separate
them ?" He offers at the same time a handsome present,
the acceptance of which is considered as sealing the
union. Considerable discrepancy prevails in the de-
scriptions, and apparently in the ^u ctice, as applied to
different tribes ; yet, on the whole, great reserve and
propriety seem to mark this intercourse. The young
men of the Five Nations valued themselves highly for
their correct conduct towards the other sex. Of nume-
rous female captives who fell into their hands during
a long series of wars, though some were possessed of
great personal beauty, no one had to complain that
her honour was exposed to the slightest danger. The
girls themselves are not always quite so exemplary ;
but their failures are viewed with indulgence, and form
no obstacle to mari'iage. Once united by that tie, how-
ever, a strict fidelity is expected and commonly observed.
The husband, generally speaking, is not jealous, unless
when intoxicated ; but when his suspicions are really
excited regarding the conduct of his partner, he is
very indignant, beats her, bites off her nose, and dis-
misses her in disgrace. There are occasional instances
of a divorce being uiflicted without £»ny assigned rea-
son ; but such arbitrary proceeding is b^ no means fre-
(juent. As the wife performs the whoi:^ Ir.boiir, and
furnishes a great part of the subsistence, sue is usually
considered too valuable a possession to be rashly parted
with. In some cases these domestic drudges become

CANADA AND ITS BORDERS.

even an object of dispute and competition. A mission-
ary mentions a woman, who, during the absence of her
husband, formed a new connexion. Her first partner
having returned, without being agitated by any delicate
sensibilities, demanded her back. The question was
referred to a chief, who could contrive no better scheme
than that of placing her at a certain distance from both,
and decreeing that he who should first reach her should
have her ; " thus," says he, " the wife fell to him who
had the best legs." With regard to polygamy, the
usual liberty is claimed, and by the chiefs in the west
and the south it is indulged to a considerable extent ;
but among the tribes on the lakes the practice is rare
and lunited. When it does occur, the man very com-
monly marries his wife's sister, and even her whole
family, on the presumption, we may suppose, that the
household will be thereby rendered more harmonious.
The Indian is said never to betray the slightest symp-
tom of tenderness towards his wife or children. If he
meets them on his return from a distant expedition,
lie proceeds without taking the slightest notice, and
seats himself in his cabin as if he had not been a day
absent. Yet his exertions for their welfare, and the
eagerness with which he avenges their wrongs, testify
that this apparent apathy springs only from pride and
a fancied sense of decorum. It is equally displayed with
regard to his own most urgent wants. Though iie may
have been without food during several days, and enters
a neighbour's house, nothing can make him stoop to ask
for a morsel.*

The rearing (for it cannot be called the education)
of the children is chiefly arranged so that it may cost
the parents the least possible trouble in addition to the
labour of procuring their subsistence. The father is
either engrossed by war and hunting, or resigned to total
indolence ; while the mother, oppressed by various toils,

• La Potherie, Bacqueville de, Histoire de TAuerique Septen-
trionale (4 tomes 12mo, Paris 1674), vol. ii. pp. 21<,3I. Lontr, pp.
93, 136. Carver, pp. 230-241, 367-376, 410.

VOL. I. "D

'•;

THE NATIVE INDIANS INHABITING

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Infant in a Frame.

cannot devote much time to the cares of nurture. The
infant, therefore, being fastened with pieces of skin to
a hoard spread with soft moss, is laid on the ground
or suspended to the branch of a tree, where it swings
as in a cradle, — an expedient which is so carefully
adopted as scarcely ever to be attended with accident.
Af: soon as the creatures are able to crawl on hands and
feet, they are allowed to move about every part of
the house and vicinity, like a cat or dog. Their fa-
vourite resort is the border of the river or lake to
which an Indian village is usually adjacent, and where
in summer they are seen all day long, sporting like
fishes. As reason dawns, they enjoy in the most ample
degree that independence which is held the birthright
of their tribe ; for, whatever extravagances they may
indulge in, the parents never take any steps to restrain
or chastise them. The mother only ventures to give
her daughter some delicate reproach, or throws water
in her face, which is said to produce a powerful effect.
The youths, however, without any express instructions,
soon imbibe the spirit of their forefathers. Every thing
they see, the tales which they hear, inspire them with
the ardent desire to become great hunters and warriors.
Their first study, their favourite sport, is to bend the
bow, to wield the hatchet, and practise all those exercises

CANADA AND ITS BORDERS.

wliich arc to be their glory in after-life. As manhood
upj)roaehe8, they spontaneously assume that serious cha-
racter, that studied and stately gravity, of which the
example has been set by their elders.*

Tlic intellectual character of the American savage
presents some very striking peculiarities. Considering his
unfavourable condition, he of all other human beings
might seem doomed to make the nearest approach to the
brute ; while, in point of fact, without any aid from let-
ters or study, many of the higher faculties of his mind
are developed in a very remarkable degree. He displays
a decided superiority over the uninstructed labourer in
a civilized community, whose mental energies are be-
numbed amid the daily round of mechanical occupation.
The former spends a great part of his life in arduous
enterprises, where much contrivance is requisite ; and
whence he must often extricate himself by presence of
mind and ingenuity. His senses, particularly those of
seeing and smelling, have acquired by practice an almost
preternatural acuteness. He can trace an animal or
a foe by indications wliich to a European eye would be
wholly imperceptible ; and in his wanderings he gathers
a minute acquaintance with the geography of the coun-
tries which he traverses. He can even draw a rude out-
line of them by applying a mixture of charcoal and
grease to prepared skins, and on seeing a regular map
he soon itnderstands its construction, and readily finds
out places. His facility in discovering the most direct
way to spots situated at the distance of hundreds of
miles, and known perhaps only by the report of his
countrymen, is truly astonishing. It has been ascribed
by some to a mysterious and supernatural instmct, but
it appears to bo achieved by merely observing the dif-
ferent aspect of the trees or shrubs when exposed to the
north or the south, as also the position of the sun,
which ho can point out, although hidden by clouds.
Even where there is a beaten track, if at all circuitous.

e exercises

Chateaubriand, vol. i. pp. 129, 213. Weld, pp. 387, 3B8.

THE NATIVE INDIANS INHABITING

1 I

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he strikes directly through the woods, and reaches his
destination by the straightest possible line.*

Other faculties of a higher order are developed by the
scenes amid \thich the life of savages is spent. They
are divided into a number of little communities, be-
tween which are actively carried on all the relations
of war, negotiation, treaty, and alliance. As mighoy
revolutions, observes an eloquent writer, take place in
these kingdoms of wood and cities of bark, as in the
most powerful civilized states. To increase the in-
fluence, and extend the possessions of their own tribe, to
humble and if possible destroy those hostile to them, are
the constant aims of every member of those little com-
monwealths. For these ends, not only deeds of daring
valour are achieved, but schemes are deeply laid, ana
pursued with the most accurate calculation. There is
scarcely a refinement in European diplomacy to which
they are strangers. The French once made an attempt
to cinish the confederacy of the Five Nations, by at-
tacking each in suc(?ession ; but as they were on their
march against the first tribe, they were met by the
deputies of the others, who offered their mediation,
mtimating, that if it were rejected, they would make
comn. on cr.use with the one threatened. That associa-
tion also showed that they completely understood how
to employ the hostility which prevailed between their
enemy and the English for promoting their own aggran-
dizement. Embassies, announced by the calumet of
peace, are constantly passing from one tribe to another.

Tb e same political circumstances develop in an extra-
ordinary degree the powers of oratory ; for nothing of
any importance is transacted without a speech. On every
emergency a council of the tribe is called, when the
aged and wise hold long deliberations for tJie public weal.
The Ijest speakers are despatched to conduct their ne-
gotiations, the object of which is unfolded in studied
harangues. I'he functions of orator, among the Five

• Weld, p. 391-394. Long, p. ll'd. Carver, pp. 241, 242.

CANADA AND ITS BORDERS.

Nations, had even become a separate profession, held in
c(iual or higher honour th in that of vhe warrior ; and
each clan appointed the most eloquent of their number
to speak for them in the public coimcil. Nay, there
was a general orator for the whole confederacy, who
could say to the French governor, " Ononthio, lend
thine ear ; I am the mouth of all the country ; you hear
all the Iroquois in hearing my word." Decanesora,
their speaker at a later period, was greatly admired by
ih?. English, and his bust was thought to resemble that
of Cicero. In their diplomatic discourses, each proposi-
tion is prefaced by the delivery of a belt of wampum, of
which what follows is understood to be the explanation,
and which is to be preserved as a record of the conference.
The orator does not express his proposals in words only,
but gives to every sentence its appropriate action. If
he threatens war, he wildly brandishes the tomahawk ;
if he solicits alliance, he twines his arms closely with
those of the chief whom he addresses ; and if he invites
friendly intercourse, he assumes all the attitudes of one
who is forming a i oad in the Indian manner, by cutting
down the trees, cleaning them away, and carefully remov-
ing the leaves and branches. To a French writer, who
witnessed the delivery of a solemn embassy, it suggested
the idea of a company of actors performing on a stage.
So expressive are their gestures, thaii negotiations have
been conducted and alliances concluded between petty
states and communities who undc^rstood nothing of one
another's language.*

The composition of the Indian orators is studied and
elaborate. The language of the Iroquois is even held
to be susceptible of an Attic elegance, which few can
attain so fully as to escape all criticism. It is figurative
in the highest degree, ever}'' notion being expressed by
images addressed to the senses. Thus, to throw up the
hatchet, or to put on the great cauldron, is to begin a
war ; to throw the hatchet to i

sky,

wage open

* Missions en la Nouvelle France, an 1644, p. 87-93. Carver, p.
200. Golden, vol. i. p. 169, et scq. Adair, p. 79'

I :

111

I i

"•Br

!l»

.) (I

\ I

I i

THE NATIVE INDIANS INHABITING

and terrible war ; to take off the cauldron, or to bury
the hatchet, is to make peace ; to plant the tree of peace
on the highest mountain of the earth, is to make a
general pacification. To throw a prisoner into the
cauldron is to devote him to torture and death ; to take
him out, is to pardon and receive him as a member of
the community. Ambassadors coming to propose a full
and general treaty say, " We rend the clouds asunder,
and drive away all darkness from the heavens, that the
sun of peace may shine with brightness over us all."
On another occasion, referring to their own violent
conduct, they said, " We are glad that Assarigoa will
bury in the pit what is past ; let the earth be trodden
hard ovci- it, or rather let a strong stream run under
the pit to wash away the evil." They afterwards added,
" We U()^v plant a tree, whose top will reach the sun,
ar> its branches spread far abroad, and we shall shelter
Hi .Ives under it, and live in peace." To send the
collar u .^rground, is to carry on a secret negotiation ;
but when expressing a desire that there might be no
duplicity or concealment between them and the French,
they said, that " they v/ished to fix the sun in the top
of the Iieaven, immediately above that pole, that it might
beat directly down, and leave nothing in obscurity." In
pledging themselves to a firm and steady peace, they
declared that they would not only throw down the great
war-cauldron, and cause all the water to flow out, but
would break it in pieces. This disposition to represent
every thing by a sensible object extends to matters the
most important. One powerful people assumed the ap-
pellation of Foxes, wlille another gloried in that of
Cats. Even when the entire nation bore a different ap-
pellation, separate fraternities distinguished themselves
as the tribe of the Bear, the Tortoise, and the Wolf. They
dil not disdain a reference even to inanimate things.
The Black Cauldron was at one time the chief warrior
of the F'ive Nations ; and lied Shoes was a person of
distinction, well known to Long the traveller. When
the chiefs concluded treaties with Europeans, their

;; ■ M }■'■

III pI

CANADA AND ITS BORDERS.

signature consisted in a picture, often tolerably well
executed, of the beast or object after which they chose
to be named.*

The absence among these tribes of any written or even
pictorial mode of recording events was supplied by the
memories of their old men, which were so retentive that
a cei-tain writer calls them living books. Their only
remembrancer consisted in the wampum belts ; of which
one was appropriated to each division of a speech or
treaty, and had seemingly a powerful eflect in calling it
to recollection. On the close of the transaction, these
were deposited as public documents, to be drawn forth
on great occasions, when the orators, and even the old
women, could repeat verbatim the passage to which each
referred. Europeans were thus enabled to collect in-
forniation concerning the revolutions of different tribes,
for several ages preceding their own arrival.t

The earliest visiters of the New World, on seeing
among the Indians neither priests, temples, idols, nor sa-
crifices, represented them as a people wholly destitute of
religious opinions. Closer inquiry, however, showed that
a belief In the spiritual world, however unperfect, had a
commanding influence over almost all theiractions. Their
creed includes even some lofty and pure conceptions. Un-
der the title of the Great Spirit, the Master of Life, the
maker of heaven and earth, they distinctly recognise a
supreme ruler of the universe, and an arbiter of their
destiny. A party of them, when informed by the mis-
sionaries of the existence of a being of infinite power,
who had created the heavens and the earth, with one
consent exclaimed, " Atahocan ! Atahocan /" — that be-
ing the name of their principal deity. According to
Long, the Indians among whom he resided ascribe
every e^'^ent, propitious or unfortunate, to the mvour or

• La Potherie, preface to tome iii. Colden, vol. i. pp. IS, 49,
175. Missions en la Nouvelle France, ans 1055, 1d56, p. 21.
Weld, p. 395.

t Missions en la Nouvelle France, ans 1659, 1660, p. 28. Weld,
pp. 389, 390.

I M

THE NATIVE INDIANS INHABITING

'1 f

:! ;h

1 ■ 1 ;(

anger of the Master of Life. They address him for
their daily subsistence ; they helieve him to convey to
them presence of mind in battle ; and amid tortures they
thank him for inspiring them with courage. Yet though
this one elevated and just conception is deeply graven
on their minds, it is combined with others which show
all the imperfection of unassisted reason in attempting
to think rightly on this great subject. It may even be
observed, that the term, rendered into our language
" great spirit," does not really convey the idea of an
immaterial nature. It imports with them merely some
being possessed of lofty and mysterious powers, and in
this sense is applied to men, and even to animals. The
brute creation, which occupies a prominent place in all
their ideas, is often viewed by them as invested, to a
great extent, with supernatural powers, — an extreme
absurdity, which, however, they share with the civilized
creeds of Egypt and India.

When the missionaries, on their first arrival, at-
tempted to form an idea of the Indian mythology, it ap-
peared to them extremely complicated, more especially
l>ecause those who attempted to explain it had no fixed
opinions. Each man differed from his neighbour, and
at another time from himself, and when the discre-
pancies were pointed out no attempt was made to re-
concile them. The southern tri])es, who had a more
settled faith, are described by Adair as intoxicated with
spmtual pride, and denouncing even their European
allies as " the accursed people." The native Canadian,
on the contrary, is said to have been so little tenacious,
that he would at any time renounce all his theological
errors for a pipe of tobacco, though, as soon as it was
smoked, he immediately relapsed. An idea was found
prevalent respecting a certain mystical animal, called
Mesou or Messessagen, who, when the earth was buried
in water, had drawn it up find restored it. Others spoke
of a contest between the hare, the fox, the beaver, and
the seal, for the empire of the world. Among the prin-
cipal nations of Canada the hare is thought to have at-

:,■»

CANADA AND ITS BORDERS.

lim for
[ivcy to
•es they
though
graven
h show
smpting
)ven he
mguage
a of an
ly some
, and in
8. The
;e in all
3d, to a
3xtreme
civilized

val, at-
Y, it ap-
pccially
10 fixed
lur, and

taincd a decided pre- eminence; and hence the Great Spirit
and the Great Hare are sometimes used as synonymous
terms. What should Iiave raised this creature to such
distinction seems rather unaccountahle ; unless it were
that its extreme swiftness miglit appear something super-
natural. Among the Ottawas alone th heavenly liodics
become an ohject of veneration ; the sun aj)pears to rank
as their supreme deity.*

To dive into the abyss of futurity has always been a
favourite object of superstition. It has been attempted
by various means ; but the Indian seeks it chiefly
through his dreams, which always bear with him a
sacred character. Before engaging in any high under-
tiiking, especially in hunting or war, the dreams of the
principal chiefs are carefully witched and studiously ex-
amined ; and according to he interpretation their cok-
duct is guided. A whole nawion has ])een set in motion by
the sleeping fancies of a single man. Sometimes a person
imagines in his sleep that he nas been presented with an
article of value by another, wlio then cannot without
impropriety leave the omen unfulfilled. When Sir
William Jolmson, during the American war, was nego-
tiating an alliance with a friendly tribe, the chief con-
fidentially disclosed that during his slumbers he had
been favoured with a vision of Sir William bestowing
upon him tlie rich laced coat which formed his full dress
The fulfilment of this revelation was very inconvenient ;
yet on being assured that it positively occurred, the
English commander found it advisable to resign his uni-
form. Soon after, however, he unfolded to the Indian a
dream with which he had himself been favoured, and in
wliich the former was seen presenting him with a large
tract of fertile land most commodiously situated. The
native ruler admitted that since the vision had been
vouchsafed it must be realized, yet earnestly proposed
to cease this mui,ual dreaming, which he found had
turned much to his own disadvantage.t

* Adair, p. 32. La Potherie, tome ii. pp. 3-!», 11, 12. Lonj^,
p. 139. Creuxius, p. 84.
f Charlevoix, vol. ii. p. 156-150. Creuxius, p. 84. Long', p. 89.

'SX

THE NATIVE INDIANS INHABITING

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The maniiou is an ol)jeot of peculiar veneration ; and
the fixinjj; upon this ji^uavdian power is not only the most
important event in the history of a youth, l)ut even con-
stitutes ^I. Initiation into acti • life. As a preliminary,
his face is painted black, and lie undergoes a severe fast,
which is, if possible, prolonged for eight days. This is
preparatory to the dream in which he is to behold the
idol destined ever after to afford him aid and protection.
In this state of excited expectation, and while every noc-
turnal vision is carefully watched, there seldom fails to
occur to his mind something which, as it makes a deep
impression, is pronounced liis?manitou. Most commonly
it is a trifling and even fantastic article ; the head, beak,
or claw of a bird, the hoof of a cow, or tven a piece of
wood. However, having undergone a thorough perspira-
tion in one of their vapour-baths, he is laid on his back,
and a picture of it is drawn upon his breast by needles of
fish-bone dipt in vermilion. A good spechnen of the
original being procured, it is carefully treasured up ; and
to it he applies in every emergency, hoping that it will
inspire his dreams and secure to him every kind of good
fortune. When, howeve i', notwithstanding every means
of projjitiating its favour, misfortunes befall him, the
manitou is considered ;<• ! irdng exposed itself to just
and serious reproach. i\v. begins with remonstrances,
representing all that has been done for it, the disgrace
it incurs by not protecting its votary, and, finally, the
danger that, in case of repeated neglect, it may be dis-
carded for another. Nor is this considered merely as an
empty threat ; for if the manitou is judged incorrigible
it is thrown away ; and by means of a fresh course of
fasting, dreaming, sweating, and painting, another is
installed, from whom better success may be hoped.*

The absence of temples, worship, sacrifices, and all
the observances to which super? cition prompts the un-
tutored mind, is a remarkable circumstance, and, as we
have already remarked, led the early visiters to believe
that the Indians were strangers to all religious ideas. Yet

* Charlevoix, vol. ii. pp. 145, 146. La Potherie, vol. ii. p. 11, &c.

CANADA AND ITS BORDERS.

the missi' > rrics found room to suspect, tliat some of
their grt .o feasts, in whicii every thin<^ presented must
l)e eaten, l)ore an idohitrous character, and were held in
lionour of the Great llare. The Ottauas, whose mytholo-
gical system seems to have ]>een the most complicated,
were wont to keep a regular festival to celehrate the hene-
iicence of the sun ; on which occjision the luminary was
told that this service was in return for the good hunting
he had procured for his people, and as an eiie( urii '•fo-
ment to persevere in his friendly cares. They W' re.
observed to erect an idol in the middle of their t<»w
and sacrifice to it : hut such ceremonies were
means general. On first witnessing Christian worb.uj
the only idea suggested by it was that of their asking som
temporal good, which was cither granted or refused.*
The missionaries mention two Ilurons, who arrived from
the woods soon after the congregation had assem])led.
Standing without, they began to speculate vvhat it was
the white men were asking, and then whether they were
getting it. As the service continued beyond expectation,
it was concluded they were not getting it ; and as the
devotional duties still proceeded, they admired the per-
severance with which this rejected suit was urged. At
length, when the vesper hymn began, one of the savages
observed to the other : — " Listen to them now in despair,
crying with all their might."t

The grand doctrine of a life beyond the grave was,
among all the tribes of America, most deeply cherished,
and most sincerely believed.;}; They had even formed
a distinct idea of the region whither the}'- hoped to be
transported, and of the new and happier mode of exist-
ence, free from those wars, tortures, and cnielties, which
throw so dark a shade over their lot upon earth. Yet
their conceptions on this subject were by no means either
exalted or spiritualized. They expected sunply a pro-

* Missions en la Nouvelle France, an 1635, p. 72.

+ La Potherie, vol. ii. p, 12. Missions en la Nouvelle France,
an 1667, p. 53-55 ; an 1635, p. 72.

X Aniinorum immortalitatein persuasissimara quidem omnes lia-
bent. Creuxius, p. 87.

'^Si^.

IMAGE EVALUATION
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THE NATIVii INDIANS INHABITING

longation of their present life and enjoyments, under
more favourable circumstances, and with the same objects
furnished in greater choice and abundance. In that
brighter land the sun ever shines unclouded, the forests
abound with deer, the lakes and rivers with fish ; bene-
fits which are farther enhanced in their imagination by
a faithful wife and dutiful children. They do not reach
it, however, till after a journey of several months, and
encountering various obstacles, — a broad river, a chain
of lofty mountains, and the attack of a furious dog.
This favoured country lies far in the west, at the remotest
boundary of the earth, which is supposed to terminate in
a steep precipice, with the ocean rolling beneath. Some-
times in the too eager pursuit of game the spirits fall over,
and are converted into fishes. The local position of their
paradise appears connected with certain obscure intima-
tions received from their wandering neighbours of the
Mississippi, the Rocky Mountains, and the distant shores
of the Pacific. This system of belief labours under a
great defect, inasmuch as it scarcely connects felicity in
the future world with virtuous conduct in the present.
The one is held to be simply a continuation of the other ;
and under this impression, the arms, omaments,and every
thing that had contributed to the welfare of the deceased,
are interred along with him. This supposed assurance
of a future life, so conformable to their gross habits and
conceptions, was found by the missionaries a serious ob-
stacle, when they attempted to allure them by the hope
of a destiny, purer and higher indeed, but less accordant
with their untutored conceptions. Upon being told that
in the promised world they would neither hunt, eat,
drink, nor marry a wife, many of them declared that,
far from endeavouring to reach such an abode, they would
consider their amval there as the greatest calamity.
Mention is made of a Huron girl whom one of the Chris-
tian ministers was endeavouring to instruct, and whose
first question was, what she would find to eat \ The an-
swer being " Nothing," she then asked what she would
see ; and being informed that she would see the Maker
of heaven and earth, she expressed herself much at a

CANADA AND ITS BORDERS.

loss what she could have to say to him. Many not
only rejected this destiny for themselves, hut were in-
dignant at the efforts made to decoy their children after
death into so dreary and comfortless a region.*

Another sentiment, congenial with that now described,
is most deeply rooted in the mind of the Indians. This
is reverence for the dead, with which Chateaubriand,
though perhaps somewhat hastily, considers them more
deeply imbued than any other people.t During life
they are by no means lavish in their expressions of ten-
derness ; but on the approach of the hour of final sepa-
ration it is displayed with extraordinary force. When
any member of a family becomes seriously ill, all the
resources of magic and medicine are exhausted in order
to procure his recovery. When the fatal moment arrives,
all the kindred burst into loud lamentations, which con-
tinue till some person possessing the requisite authority
desh'es them to cease. These expressions of grief, how-
ever, are renewed for a considerable time, at sunrise and
sunset. After three days the funeral takes place, when all
the provisions which the family can procure are ex-
pended in a feast, to which the neighbours are generally
invited, and, although on all solemn occasions it is re-
quired that every thing should be eaten, the relations
do not paiiake. These last cut off their hair, cover
their heads, paint their faces of a black colour, and con-
tinue long to deny themselves every species of amuse-
ment.;}; The deceased is then interred with his arms and
ornaments, his face painted, and his person attired in the
richest robes which they can furnish. It was the opi-
nion of one of the early missionaries, that the chief ob-
ject of the Hurons in their traffic with the French was
to procure materials for honouring their dead ; and as
a proof of this, many of them have been seen shivering
half-naked in the cold, while their hut contained rich
robes to be wrapped round them after their decease.

* Missions en la Nouvelle France an 1637, pp 121, 170; an
1635, p. 41. Creuxius, p. 87. Charlevoix, vol. li. pp. 154, 155.
•\- Cura ingens mortuorura. Creuxius, p, 91.
X Charlevoix, vol. ii. p. 191.

ti •

'i i it iJ fe'

1 1

THE NATIVE INDIANS INHABITING

The body is placed in the tomb in an upright posture,
and skins are carefully spread round it, so that no part
may touch the earth. This, however, is by no means
the final ceremony, being followed by another far more
solemn and singular. Every eighth, tenth, or twelfth
year, according to the custom of the different nations, is
celebrated the festival of the dead ; and till then the
souls are supposed to hover round their former tene-
ment, and not to depart for their final abode in the
west. On this occasion the people march in procession to
the places of interment, open the tombs, and, on behold-
ing the mortal remains of their friends, continue some
time fixed in mournful silence. The women then
break out into loud cries, and the party begin to col-
lect the bones, removing every remnant of flesh. The
remains are then wrapped in fresh and valuable robes,
and conveyed emid continued lamentation to the family-
cabin. A feast is then given, followed during several
days by dances, games, and prize-combats, to which
strangers often repair from a great distance. This
mode of celebration certainly accords very ill with the
sad occasion ; yet the Greek and Roman obsequies were
solemnized in a similar manner ; nay, in many parts of
Scotland, till very recently, they were accompan )y
festival, and often by revelry. The relics are theu car-
ried to the council-house of the nation, where they are
hung for exhibition along the walls, with fresh presents
destined to be interred along with them. Sometimes they
are even displayed from village to village. At length,
being deposited in a pit previously dug in the earth, and
lined with the richest furs, they are finally entombed.
Tears and lamentations are again lavished ; and during
a few days food is brought to the place. The bones of
tlieir fathers are considered by the Indians the strongest
ties to their native soil ; and when calamity forces them
to quit it, these mouldering fragments are, if possible,
conveyed along with them.*

Under the head of religious rites we may include

* Chateaubriand, vol. i. p. 215. Creuxiiis, p. 91. Charlevoix,
vol. ILpp. 186, 187; 193-195.

CANADA AND ITS BORDERS.

medicine, which is almost entirely within the domain
of superstition. The great warmth of affection which,
amid their apparent apathy, the natives cherish for
each other, urges them, when their friends are seri-
ously ill, to seek with the utmost eagerness for a re-
medy. An order of men has thus arisen entirely dif-
ferent from the rest of the society, uniting the characters
of priests, physicians, sorcerers, and sages. Nor are
they quite strangers to some hranches of the healing art.
In external hurts or wounds, the cause of which is ob-
vious, they apply various simples of considerable power,
chiefly drawn from the vegetable world. Chateaubriand
enumerates the ginseng of the Chinese, the sassafras, the
three-leaved hedisaron,anda tall shrub called I. ellis ; with
decoctions from which they cure wounds and ulcers in a
surprising manner. With sharp-pointed bones they sca-
rify inflamed or rheumatic parts ; and shells of gourds,
filled with combustible matters, serve instead of cupping-
glasses. They learned the art of bleeding from the French,
but employed it sometimes rashly and fatally, by opening
the vein in the forehead : they now understand it better,
but their favourite specific in all internal complaints
is the vapour-bath. To procure this, a small hut or
shed is framed of bark or branches of trees, covered with
skins, and made completely tight on every side, leaving
only a small hole, through which the patient is admitted.
By throwing red-hot stones into a pot of water, it is
made to boil, and thus emit a warm steam, which,
filling the hut, throws the patient into a most profuse
perspiration. When he is completely bathed in it, he
rushes out, even should it be in the depth of winter, and
throws himself into the nearest pond or river ; and this
exercise, which we should be apt to think sufficient to
produce death, is proved, by their example as well as
that of the Russians, to be safe and salutary. As a very
large proportion of their maladies arise from cold and
obstructed pei*spiration, this remedy is by no means
ill chosen. They attach to it, however, a supernatural
influence, calling it the sorcerer's bath, and employ it

'\ h ^li

THE NATIVE INDIANS TNHABITING

[.: !R ,>

not only in the cure of diseases, but in opening theiv
minds whenever they are to hold a council on great
affairs, or to engage in any important undertaking.*

All cases of internal malady or of obscure origin are
ascribed without hesitation to the secret agency of ma-
lignant powers or spirits. The physician, therefore, must
then invest himself with his mystic character, and direct
all his efforts against these invisible enemies. His pro-
ceedings are various, and prompted seemingly by a mix-
ture of delusion and imposture. On his first arrival, he
begins to sing and dance round tlie patient, invoking his
god with loud cries. Then, pretending to search out the
seat of the enchantment, he feels his body all over,
till cries seem to indicate the bewitched spot. He then
rushes upon it like a madman or an enraged dog, tears it
with his teeth, and often pretends to show a small bone
or other object which he has extracted, and in which
the evil power had been lodged. His disciples next day
renew the j^rocess, and the whole family join in the
chorus, so that, setting aside the disease, a frame of iron
would appear necessary to withstand the remedies.
Another contrivance is, to surround the cabin with
men of straw and wooden masks of the most frightful
shapes, in hopes of scaring away the mysterious tor-
mentor. Sometimes a painted image is formed, which
the doctor pierces with an arrow, pretending that he has
thereby vanquished the evil spirit. On other occasions
he professes to discover a mysterious desire, which exists
in the patient unknown to himself, for some particular
object ; and this, however distant or difficult of attain-
ment, the poor family strain all their efforts to procure.
It is alleged, that when the malady appears hopeless, he
fixes upon something completely beyond reach, the
want of which is then represented as the cause of death.
The deep faith reposed in these preposterous remedies
caused to the missionaries much difficulty even with
their most intelligent converts. When a mother found

• Chateaubriand, vol. i. p. 247-249. Creuxius, pp. 58, 51).
Carver, pp. 390, 391. Long, pp. 46, 100.

CANADA AND ITS BORDERS,

ling their
on great
king.*
origin arc
cy of ma-
fore, must
and direct
His pro-
by a mix-
arrival, he
voking his
ch out the
T all over.
He then
og, tears it
small bone
i in which
IS next day
join in the
ime of iron
remedies,
sabin with
st frightful
erious tor-
led, which
;hat he has
r occasions
hich exists
particular
of attain-
procure,
lopeless, he
reach, the
se of death.
IS remedies
even with
>ther found

pp. 58, 59.

one of her children dangerously ill, her pagan neighbours
came round and assured her, that if she would allow it
to bo blown upon, and danced and howled round in the
genuine Indian manner, there would be no doubt of a
speedy recovery. They exhorted her to take it into the
woods, where the black-robes, as they called the Chris-
tian priests, would not be able to find her. The latter
could not fully undeceive their disciples, because in that
less enlightened age they themselves were impressed
with the notion that the magicians communicated with
and derived aid from the Prince of Darkness. All they
could do, therefore, was to exhort them resolutely to
sacrifice any benefit that might be derived from so un-
holy a source. This, however, was a hard duty ; and
they record with pride the example of a Huron wife,
who, though much attached to her husband, and appa-
rently convinced that he could be cured by this impious
process, chose rather to lose him. In other respects the
missionaries suffered from the superstitious creed of the
natives, who, even when unconverted, believed them to
possess supernatural powers, which, it was suspected,
they sometimes employed to introduce the epidemic
diseases with which the country was from time to time
afflicted. They exclaimed, it was not the demons that
made so many die, — it was prayer, images, and baptism ;
and when a severe pestilential disorder followed the
murder of a Frenchman who fell by their hands, they
imagined that the priests were thus avenging the death
of their countryman.*

We have still to describe the most prominent object
of the Indian's passions and pursuits, — his warfare. It
is that which presents him under the darkest aspect,
effacing almost all his fine qualities, and assimilating his
nature to that of fiends. While the most cordial union

• Missions en laNouvelle France, an 1685, partiii. pp. 166, 217;
ans 1642, 1643, p. 49; an 1637, partiii. pp. 216, 5l7; \^\i ii.
p. 238, &c. La Potlierie, vol. ii. p. 36-40. Charlevoix, vol. ii.
p. 176-180.

VOL. I. E

THE NATIVE INDIANS INHABITING

I. ■!

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l9 '1

reigns between the members of each tribe, they have
neighbours whom they regard with the deepest enmity,
and for whose exiermination they continually thirst.
The intense excitement which war affords, and the glory
which rewards its achievements, probably give the pri-
mary impulse ; but after hostilities have begun, the
feeling which keeps them alive is revenge. Every In-
dian who falls into the power of an enemy, and suffers
the dreadful fate to which the vanquished are doomed,
must have his ghost appeased by a victim from that
hostile race. Thus every contest generates another and
a more deeply embittered one. Nor are they strangers
to those more refined motives which urge civilized na-
tions to take arms — the extension of their boundaries,
an object pursued with ardent zeal, and the power of
their tribe, which last they seek to promote by incorpo-
rating in its ranks the defeated bands of their antago-
nists. Personal dislike and the love of distinction often
impel individuals to make inroads into a hostile territory
even contrary to the general wish ; but when war is to
be waged by the whole nation, more enlarged views, con-
nected with its interest and aggrandizement, guide the
decision. To most savages, however, long-continued
peace becomes irksome and unpopular; and the pru-
dence of the aged can with difficulty restrain the fire of
the young, who thirst for adventure.

As soon as the determination has been formed, the
war-chief, to whom the voice of the nation assigns the
supremacy, enters on a course of solemn preparation.
This consists not, however, in providing arms or supplies
for the campaign, for these are comprised in the personal
resources of each individual. He devotes himself to ob-
servances which are meant to propitiate or learn the
will of the Great Spirit, who, when considered as pre-
siding over the destinies of war, is named Areskoui.
He begins by marching three times round his winter-
house, spreading the great bloody flag, variegated with
deep tints of black. As soon as the young warriors see
this signal of death, they crowd around, listening to the

CANADA AND ITS BORDERS.

they have
st enmity,
illy thirst.
I the glory
{c the pri-
begun, the
Every In-
and suffers
re doomed,
from that
nother and
f strangers
vilized na-
joundaries,
J power of
)y incorpo-
eir antago-
iction often
le territory
1 war is to
views, con-
guide the
continued
the pru-
. the fire of

)rmed, the
assigns the
reparation,
or supplies
le personal
iself to ob-

leam the
red as pre-

Areskoui.
his winter-
igated with
mrriors see

ling to the

oration by which he summons them to the field : " Com-
rades," he exclaims, " the blood of our countrymen is yet
unavenged ; their bones lie uncovered ; their spirits cry
to us from the tomb. Youths, arise ! anoint your hair,
paint your faces, let your songs resound through the
forest, and console the dead with the assurance that they
shall be avenged. Youths ! follow me, while I march
through the war-path to surprise our enemies, to eat their
flesh, drink their blood, and tear them limb from limb !
We shall return triumphant, or should we fall, this
belt will record our valour." The wampum, that grand
symbol of Indian policy, is then thrown on the ground.
Many desire to lift it ; but this privilege is reserved
for some chief of high reputation, judged worthy to fill
the post of second in command. The leader now com-
mences his series of mystic observances. He is painted
all over black, and enters on a strict fast, never eat-
ing, nor even sitting down, till after sunset. From time
to time he drinks a decoction of consecrated herbs, with
the view of giving vivacity to his dreams, which are
carefully noted, and submitted to the deliberation of the
sages and old men. When a warlike spirit is in the
ascendant, it is understood that either their tenor or
their interpretation betokens success. The powerful in-
fluence of the vapour-bath is also employed. After
these solemn preliminaries, a copious application of
warm water removes the deep black coating, and he
is painted afresh in bright and varied colours, among
which red predominates. A huge fire is kindled, whereon
is placed the great war-cauldron, into which every one
present throws something ; and if any allies, invited by
a belt of wampum and bloody hatchet to devour the flesh
and drink the blood of the enemy, have accepted the sum-
mons, they send some ingredients to be also cast in. The
chief then announces the enterprise by singing a war-
song, never sounded but on such occasions, and his
example is followed by all the warriors, who join in the
military dance ; recounting their former exploits, and
dilating on those which they hope to achieve. They

THE NATIVE INDIANS INHABITING

.; :' I

>>^-'>

I .* i

.! l!

Indian Warrior.

now proceed to arm, suspending the bow and quiver, or
more frequently the musket, from the shoulder, the
hatchet or tomahawk from the hand, while the scalp -
ing-knife is stuck in the girdle. A portion of parched
corn or sagamity, prepared for the purpose, is received
from the women, who frequently bear it to a considerable
distance. But the most important operation is the col-
lection of the manitous or guprdian spirits, to be placed
in a common box, which, like the Hebrew ark, is looked
to as a protecting power. The females during these pre-
parations have been busily negotiating for a supply of
captives on whom to wreak their vengeance and appease
the shades of their fallen kindred ; sometimes also with
the more merciful view of supplying their place. Ten-
derer feelings arise as the moment a|.proaches when the

CANADA AND ITS BORDERS.

warriors must depart, perhaps to return no more, and it
may he to endure the wime dreadful fate whicli they are
imprecating on others. The leader, having made a short
harangue, commences the march, singing his war-song,
while the others follow at intervals sounding the war-
whoop. The women accompany them some distance,
and when they must separate, they exchange endearing
names, and express the most ardent wishes for a tri-
umphant return ; while each party receives and gives
some ohject which has hcen long worn by the other, as
a memorial of this tender parting.

As long as the warriors continue in their own country,
they straggle in small parties for the convenience of
hunting, still holding communication by shouts, in which
they imitate the cries of certain birds and beasts. When
arrived at the frontier, they all unite and hold another
great festival, followed by solemn dreaming, the tenor of
which is carefully examined. If found inauspicious, room
is still left to return ; and those whose courage shrinks
are on such occasions supplied with an apology for re-
linquishing the undertaking ; but such an issue is rare.
On entering the hostile territory deep silence is en-
joined ; the chase is discontinued ; they crawl on all
fours ; step on the trunks of fallen trees, or through
swamps. Sometimes they fasten on their feet the hoof
of the buffalo or the paw of the bear, and run in an
in*egular track like those animals. Equally earnest
and skilful are they in tracing through the woods the
haunts of the enemy. The slightest indications, such
as would wholly escape the notice of a European, enable
them to thread their course through the vast depths of
the western forests. They boast of being able to discern
the impression of steps even on the yielding grass, and of
knowing by inspection the nation or tribe by whom it
has been made. Various and ingenious artifices are em-
ployed to entrap their foe. From the recesses of the
wood, they send forth the cries of the animals which
are most eagerlj'^ sought by the rival hunters. Their
grand object, however, is to surprise a village, and if

■

THE NATIVE INDIANS iNnABITINO

possible tho principal one belonging to the hated tribe.
Thither all their steps tend, as they steal like silent ghosts
through the lonely forest. On opprooching it, they cost
hasty glances from the tops of trees or of hillocks, and
then retreat into the thickest covert ; but in total disre-
gard of the most disastrous experience, the obvious pre-
caution of placing nightly sentinels has never been
adopted. Even when aware of danger, they content
themselves with exploring the vicinity two or three
miles around, when, if nothing is discovered, they go to
sleep without dread. This supineness is much fostered
by a delusive confidence in the manitous enclosed in
the holy ark. If during the day the assailants have
reached unperceived a covert spot in the neighbour-
hood of the devoted village, they expect the satisfaction
of finding its inhabitants buried in the deepest slumber
in the course of the ensuing night. They keep close
watch till immediately before daybreak, when silence
and security are usually the most complete. Then,
flat on their faces, and carefully suppressing the slightest
sound, they creep slowly towards the scene of action.
Having reached it undiscovered, the chief, by a shrill
cry, gives the signal, which is instantly followed by a
discliarge of arrows or musketry ; after which they
rush in with the war-club and the tomahawk. The air
echoes with the sound of the death- whoop and of arms.
The savage aspect of the combatants ; their faces painted
black and red, and soon streaming with blood ; their
frightful yells, make them appear like demons risen from
the world beneath. The victims, too late aroused, spring
from their fatal slumber, and foreseeing the dreadful
fate which awaits them if taken prisoners, make almost
superhuman struggles for deliverance. The contest rages
with all the fury of revenge and despair, but it is
usually short. The unhappy wretches, surprised and
bewildered, can seldom rally or resist ; they seek safety
by fleeing into the depth of forests or marshes, whither
they are hotly pursued. The main study of the victo-
rious party is to take the fugitives alive, in order to

CANADA AND ITS nORDERS.

subject them to the hurrihle piiniuhmrnts which will
be presently described. Should this Im; impnicticAble,
the tomahawk or the hatchet deHpatches them on the
spot ; and the scalp is then carried off as a trophy.
Placing a foot on the neck of his fallen enemy, and
twisting a hand in the hair, the warrior draws out a long
sliarp-pointed knife, specially formed for this operation ;
then cutting a circle round the crown of the head, by a
few skilful scoops he detaches the hair and skin, lodges
the whole in his bag, and returns in triumph.*

At the close of the expedition, the warriors repair
to their village, and, even in approaching, announce
its result by various signals well understood among
their families. According to the most approved custom,
the evil tidings are first communicated. A herald ad-
vances before the troop, and for every kinsman who has
fallen sounds the death- whoop, — a shrill lengthened note
ending in an elevated key. An interval is then allowed,
during which the burst of grief excited by these tidings
may be in some degree exhausted. Then rises the
loud inspiring sound of the war-whoop, which, by its
successive repetitions, expresses the number of captives
brought home as the fruits of victory. The barbarous
joy thus kindled banishes for the moment all trace of
lamentation. The women and children form two rows,
through which the prisoner is led, having his face painted,
and crowned with flowers as for a festival. Then begins
the darkest of all the scenes by which savage life is de-
formed, A series of studied and elaborate torture com-
mences, in which ingenuity is tasked to the utmost to
inflict the intensest agony that can be endured with-
out actually extinguishing life. The first caress, as the
French call it, is to tear the nails from the fingers ; the
flesh is then pierced to the bone, and fire in various forms
applied to the extremities. Blows are also given to the

• Charlevoix, vol. i. pp. 317, '^27, 330, 338, 339, 359-361 . Adair,
p. 3H0-3H8. Rogers' Concise Account of North America ( London,
1765), p. 222.

THE NATIVE INDIANS INHABITING

i. ;

1 I

last degree that nature can sustain ; and sometimes an
amusement is found in tossing, for a long time, the victim
like a ball from one to another. Other contrivances,
peculiar to infuriated savages, are sometimes resorted to.
One missionary, for example, being made to lie on his
back, had his stomach covered with sagamity, on which
hungry dogs were set to feed, which tore his flesh with
their teeth. The unhappy wretch is occasionally paraded
from village to village, kept for weeks in this state of
suffering, fed on the coarsest refuse, and allowed only
a neglected corner of the cabin to sleep in. At length a
grand council is held, to decide his fate ; or, in other
words, to determine whether all the furies of vengeance
shall be let loose upon him, and his life be taken
away amid the most frightful tortures, or whether he
shall be saluted as one of themselves, and treated as a
brother. The decision is influenced by various consider-
ations. If he be a youth, or new to the field, a lenient
course may probably be adopted ; but a veteran warrior
who has been the terror of the nation, and on whose
skin is painted a record of triumplis, has to dread a
sterner sentence. The women have much influence,
according as they either demand revenge for the loss of a
husband or brother, or solicit that the captive may sup-
ply the vacancy. The Iroquois, though the fiercest of
these barbarians, being the deepest politicians, were
always anxious to augment their numbers ; hence, though
they prolonged and heightened the preliminary torture,
they usually ended it by adoption. This was carried so
lar that they are described as having at length become
less a single nation than an aggregate of all the surround-
ing tribes. The stranger being received into one of the
families as a husband, brother, or son, is treated with
the utmost tenderness ; and she, who perhaps immedi-
ately before exliausted her ingenuity in tormenting him,
now nurses the wounds she has made, and loads him with
caresses. He becomes completely one of the clan, and
goes with them to war, even agamst his former country-
men, and so far is the point of honour carried, that to

CANADA AND ITS BORDERS.

r, in other

retura into their mnks would he hranded as an act of
baseness.*

There are however many occasions in which the more
inhuman resolution is taken, and a fearful display is then
made of the darkest passions that can agitate the human
breast. The captive is infonned of his fate ])y being
invested with mocassins of black bear's skin, and having
placed over his head a flammg torch, — the sure indica-
tions of his doom. Before the fatal scene begins, how-
ever, he is allowed a short interval to sing his death-
song, which he performs in a triumphant tone. He
proelauns the joy with which he goes to the land of
souls, where he will meet his brave ancestors, who
taught him the great lesson to fight and to suffer. He
recounts his warlike exploits, parfie'ilarly those per-
formed against the kindred of his torme.:Lors ; and if then-
was any one of them whom he vanquished and caused Ut
expire amid tortures, he loudly proclaims it. He de-
clares his inextinguishable desire to eat their Hesh, and
to drink their blood to the last drop. This scene is con-
sidered, even when compared to the field of battle, as the
gi*eat theatre of Indian glory. When two prisoners were
about to be tortured by the French at Quebec, a
charitable hand privately supplied a weapon with which
one of them killed himself ; but the other derided his
effeminacy, and proudly prepared himself for his fiery
trial. In this direful work the women take the lead,
and seem transformed into raging furies. She, to glut
whose vengeance the doom has been specially pro-
nounced, invokes the spirit of her husband, her bro-
ther, or her son, who has fallen in battle or died amid
torture, bidding him come now and be appeased. A feast
is prepared for him ; a warrior is to be thrown into the
great cauldron ; his blood will be poured out ; his flesh
torn from the bones ; let the injured spirit then cease to

* Charlevoix, vol. i. p. 1^68-373. Missions on la Nouvelle France,
ans 1H42, lt)43, p. 257, &c.; ans 1643, 1644, p. 162-168. Adair, p.
389.

]

THE NATIVE INDIANS INHABITING

complain. A game begins between the torturers and
the tortured, one to inflict the most intense suffering,
the other to bear it with proud insensibility. That
there may be some appearance of open contest, he is not
chained, but merely tied to a post, and a certain range
allowed, within which, while the brand, the hatchet,
and every engine of torture are applied, he can do some-
what to repel his assailants, and even attack in his turn.
He struggles fiercely in the unequal strife, and while
his frame is consuming in agony, still defies his tor-
mentors, and outbraves death itself. Some even deride
the feeble efforts of their executioners, boastinghowmuch
more effectively they themselves had applied torture to
individuals of their tribe. Yet there are instances, when
the murderers at last triumph ; the sufferer exclaims,
" Fire is strong, and too powerful ;" he even uttei"s loud
shrieks, which are responded to by exulting shouts of
savage laughter. Some few have been known, by almost
incredible efforts, to break loose, and by rapid flight ef-
fect their escape. The general result, however, is death,
after protracted suffering ; when the scalp, if still entire,
is taken off and deposited among the military trophies.*
It has been made a question whether the Indians can
be justly charged with cannibalism. It is certain that
all the terms by which they designate their inhuman
mode of putting a prisoner to death bear reference to
this horrid practice. The expressions are to throw him
into the cauldron, to devour him, to eat soup made of
his flesh. It has hence been plausibly inferred that
this enormity really prevailed in early times, but was
changed, we can scarcely say mitigated, into the present
system of torture. Yet, as every action is described by
them in terms highly figurative, those now quoted may
have been used as expressing most fully the complete
gratification of their revenge. Of this charge they can-
not now be either condemned or wholly acquitted. In

* Charlevoix, vol. i. p. 37^. Adair, pp. 390, 3D1. Golden, vol. i.
pp. 144, 145.

CANADA AND ITS BORDERS.

the excited fury of their \j :: i)ns, portions of the flesh are
often seized, roasted, and eaten, and draughts taken of the
blood. To eat an enemy's heart is considered a peculiar
enjoyment. Long mentions a gentleman who came
upon a party who were busy broiling a human heart, when
he with difficulty prevailed on them to desist. There
is little hesitation amongst them, in periods of scarcity,
to relieve hunger with the flesh of their captives ; and
during one war, this fate is said to have befallen many
French soldiers who fell into the hands of the Five Na-
tions. Colonel Schuyler told Golden, that having entered
the cabin of a chief who had some rich soup before him,
he was invited to partake. Being hungry and tired, he
readily agreed, till the ladle being put into the great
cauldron, brought up a human hand, the sight of which
put an immediate end to his appetite and meal.*

Although war may be considered as the ordinary
state of those tribes, yet, after having for a considerable
time experienced its destructive eflfects, there usually
arises a desire for an interval of tranquillity. To pro-
cure this, a regular form is observed. The nation which
resolves to make the overture despatches several in-
dividuals, usually of some note, as ambassadors, with
at least one orator. They bear before them the ca-
lumet of peace, which renders their character sacred,
and secures them from violence. They carry also a
certain number of belts of wampum, with which are
respectively connected the several motives and terms of
the proposed treaty. The orato^ having obtained an
audience of the chiefs on the other side, expounds the
belts, dancing and singing in unison, and by actions
expressing the peaceful purpose of his mission. If the
opposite party be favourably inclined, they accept the
offered symbols, and next day present others of a si-
milar import. He then smokes in the calumet, and
the contract is sealed by burying a hatchet ; if there

• Charlevoix, vol. i. p. 318. Adair, p. 199. Lonjj, pp. 77, 78.
Coldeo, vol. i. p. 156.

'i : i

t f

I I

'li::

It ' !

1'^

> i

•ill

f ^

THE NATIVE INDIANS INnABITING

he any allies, one is deposited for each. This agreement
is often accompanied with professions, at the moment
perhaps sincere, of maintaining the sun always in the
heavens, and never again digging up the hatchet ; but
the turbulence of individuals, and the satiety of long
peace, to which the whole nation is subject, usually
rekindle hostilities at no distant period.*

Some notice may finally be expected of Indian
amusements ; the most favourite of which are smoking,
music, and dancing. These, however, are viewed in a
much higher light than mere pastime ; being ranked
among the most serious occupations, and esteemed quite
indispensable in the conduct of every important affair.
Without them a council cannot be held, a negotiation
carried on, peace or war proclaimed, nor any public or
private contract entered into ; for not one of these trans-
actions is accounted valid, till it has been smoked over
and sung and danced to. The calumet is the grand instru-
ment of their policy. No important affair can be taken
into consideration without the pipe in their mouths ;
and hence, to call an assembly of the chiefs is said to
be lighting the council-fire. This tube accompanies
and is the guardian of every embassy, and to smoke
together is the chief cement of national union.

Music and dancing accompanying each other are
equally indispensable to every solemn celebration. Yet
the instruments and performance are alike simple and
rude ; for their song, though often continued for a long
period, consists merely in the perpetual iteration of a
few wild melancholy notes. The words are usually of
the minstrel's own composition, and record his exploits
in war or hunting, and sometimes the praises of the
animals w^hich he has killed in the chase. The song is
accompanied by perfoiinance on the drum, and on the
chichikoue, or pipe. The former is merely a hollowed
piece of wood, covered with skin ; the latter is formed
of a thick cane, upwards of two feet in length, with eight

• Charlevoix, vol. i. p. 321.

CANADA AND ITS BORDERS.

or nine holes ; and a mouthpiece not unlike that of a
common whistle. Those who know how to stop the
holes and bring out a sound consider themselves per-
formers ; yet they cannot play upon it even those simple
airs which they execute with the voice, though they will
often continue for hours drawing out wild irregular
notes.

The dances of the Indians, even those at common fes-
tivals, are on an extensive scale ; requiring to a complete
performance forty or fifty persons, who execute their
evolutions by following each other round a great hie kin-
dled in the centre. Their movements, monotonous but
violent, consist in stamping furiously on the ground,
and often brandishing their arms in a manner compared
by an able writer to a baker converting flour into dough.
They keep good time ; but the music is so exceedingly
simple that this implies little merit. They conclude
with a loud shout or howl, which echoes frightfully
through the woods. The dances in celebration of parti-
cular events are of a more varied character, and often
form a very expressive pantomime. The war-dance is
the most favourite and frequent. In this extraordinary
performance, a complete image is given of the terrible
reality ; the war-whoop is sounded with the most frightful
yells ; the tomahawk is wildly brandished ; and the enemy
are surprised, seized, and scalped, or carried off for torture.
The calumet-dance, which celebrates peace between na-
tions, and the marriage-dance, which represents domestic
life, are much more pleasing. Some mention is made of
a mystic dance, carried on by the jugglers or doctors,
with strange superstitious ceremonies, and in which a
supernatural personage, termed by some the devil, rises
and performs ; but it does not seem to have been wit-
nessed by any European, and is said to be now in a great
measure disused.*

* Missions en la Nouvelle France, ans I64r), 1646, pp. 20, 21.
Weld, p. 412-417. Creuxiiis, p. 67. Chateaubriand, vol. i. p. 205.
Charlevoix, vol. ii. p. 7^. Carver, pp. 270, 2/1.

THE NATIVE INDIANS INHABITING

m M

There are, moreover, games to which the Indians are
fondly attached, which, though they be only ranked
under the head of amusement, are yet conducted in the
same serious manner as their other transactions. Their
great parties are said to be collected by supernatural
authority, communicated by the jugglers; and they
are preceded, like their wars and hunts, by a course
of fasting, dreaming, and other means of propitiat-
ing fortune. The favourite game is that of the bone, in
which small pieces of that substance, resembling dice,
and painted of different colours, are thrown in the air,
and according to the manner in which they fall, the
game is decided. Only two persons can play ; but a
numerous pai'ty, and sometimes whole villages, embrace
one side or the other, and look on with intense inte-
rest. At each throw, especially if it be decisive, tre-
mendous shouts are raised ; the players and spectators
equally resemble persons possessed ; the air rings with
invocations to the bones, and to the manitous. Their
eagerness sometimes leads *o quarrelling and even
fighting, which on no other occasion ever disturb the
interior of these societies. To such a pitch are they
occasionally worked up, that they stake successively
all they possess, and even their personal liberty ; but
this description must apply only to the more southern
nations, as slavery was unknown among the Canadian
Indians,

A temporary interval of wild license, of emancipation
from all the restraints of dignity and decorum, seems to
afford an enjoyment highly prized in all rude societies.
Corresponding with the saturnalia and bacchanals of an-
tiquity, the Americans have their festival of dreams,
which, during fifteen days, enlivens the inaction of the
coldest season. Laying aside all their usual order and
gravity, they run about, frightfully disguised, and
committing every imaginable extravagance. He who
meets another demands an explanation of his visions,
and if not satisfied, imposes some fantastic penalty.
He throws upon him cold water, hot ashes, or filth ;

CANADA AND ITS BORDERS.

lans axe
ranked
iin the

Their
natural
d they

course
ropitiat-
bone, in
ng dice,
the air,
•all, the
; but a
embrace
ise inte-
ive, tre-
)ectator8
igs with
. Their
id even
iurb the
ire they
jessively
ty ; but
southern
ianadian

cipation
seems to
societies.
s of an-
dreams,
a of the
rder and
and
who

ed.
He

visions,
ppiialty.

sometimes rushing into his cabin he breaks and destroys
the furniture. Although every tiling appears wild
and unpremeditated, it is alleged that opportunities
are often taken to give vent to old and secret resent-
ments. The period having elapsed, a feast is given,
order is restored, and the damages done are carefully
repaired.*

On the first settlement of Europeans in Canada, that
territory was chiefly divided between three great na-
tions, — the Algonquins, the Hurons, and the Iroquois or
Five Nations. The first held an extensive domain along
the northern bank of the St Lawrence, about a hundred
leagues above Trois Rivieres. Shortly before, they had
been the most powerful of all these tribes, and consi-
dered even in some degree as masters over this part of
America. They are described also as having the mildest
aspect and most polished manners of any. They sub-
sisted entirely by hunting, and looked with proud dis-
dain on their neighbours, who consented to bestow on the
soil even the smallest cultivation.t The Hurons were a
numerous people, whose very extensive territory reached
from the Algonquin frontier to the borders of the great
lake bearing their name. They were also more industri-
ous, and derived an abundant subsistence from the fine
territory of Upper Canada. But they were at the same
time more effeminate and voluptuous, and had less of
the proud independence of savage life, having chiefs
hereditary in the female line, to whom they paid con-
siderable deference.

The Iroquois, destined to act the most conspicuous
part among all the native tribes, occupied a long range of
territory on the southern border of the St Lawrence, from
Lake Champlain to the western extremity of Lake On-
tario. They were thus beyond the limits of what is now
considered Canada ; yet, as all their transactions were

filth

•Charlevoix, vol. ii, _p. 13-15, 159 164, &c. Chateaubriand,
vol. i. p. 238-242. La Potherie, vol. ii. pp. 126, 127.

t La Potiierie, vol. i. p. 232-289.

THE NATIVE INDIANS INHABITING

completely connected with the interests of that country,
we cannot at present avoid considering them as be-
longing to it.

This people were divided into five cantons, each of
which was considered as an independent nation. They
were united, however, by the closest alliance ; are never
found waging war with each other ; nor did they often
fail to combine their forces when attacked by neigh-
bouring tribes.* The following are the names given to
them by English and French authors : —

English. French.

Mohawks. Agniers.

Oneidas. Onreyouths.

Onondagoes. Onontagues.

Cayugas. Anniegue.

Senekas. v Tsonnonthouans.

La Potherie, vol. i. p. 232-289. Rogers, p. 237. Colden, pp. 3, 4.

'iv*1

country,
1 as be-

IIISTORY OP JANADA UNDER THE FRENCH. 97

, each of
1. They
are never
tiey often
)y neigh-
j given to

)uans.

den, pp. 3, 4.

CHAPTER III.

History of Canada under tlie French.

Earliest Discoveries of the English and French — De la Roche —
Chauvin and Pontgrave — De Monts — Champlain, employed by
him, ascends the St Lawrence — Founds Quebec — Dealings with
a Party of Natives — Joins a warlike Expedition — Victory —
Torture — Transactions in France— Fresh military Encounter —
Foundation of Montreal — Various Transactions — Voyage up the
Ottawa — Great Expedition against the Iroquois — Unsuccessful —
Difficulties in France — Appointment of De Caen — Peace among
the Indian Tribes — Duke de Ventadour Viceroy — Rupture of
the Treaty — Quebec taken by the English — Restored — Lai^e
Supplies sent out — Death of Champlain — Great Power of the
Five Nations — Treaty with them — War renewed — Destruction
of the French Indian Allies — A Remnant flee to Quebec — Iroquois
Masters of Canada — Louis XIV. determines to reinforce the
Colony — Expedition under De Tracy — Government of De Cour-
ceiles — Frontenac — De la Barre — His fruitless Expedition—
Denonville — His violent Proceedings — Critical State of the Co-
lony — Second Government of Frontenac — Capture of Corlaer or
Schenectady— The English under Pliipps attack Quebec — Re-
pulsed — Negotiations with the Indians — Invasion of their Ter-
ritory — Death of Frontenac — De Callieres — Peace, and speedy

Renewal of War — Attempts by the English to conquer Canada

Treaty of Utrecht — Charlevoix's Account of the State of the Colo-
ny — Its Prosperity — Administration of Du Quesne.

The English took decidedly the most prominent part
in the d^covery of North America. In 1497, John
Cahot, under a commission from Henry VII., landed on
its shores, four years only after Columhus had reachcl
the West Indies, and nearly twelve months before that
celebrated navigator had touched at any part of the con-

VOL. I. F

t 1

(If

t I'l

I I

1 i;i ih

m''

HISTORY OP CANADA

tinent. In the following year, Sebastian, son to the
first discoverer, performed a most extensive exploratory
voyage along the greater part of the eastern coast, to
lat. 56° or 68° N., and south as far as Florida. The
same eminent seaman took part in another expedition
undertaken in 1517, for the discovery of a nor*h-wcst
passage. The squadron appears to have penetrated into
Hudson's Bay, but through the pusillanimity of Sir
Thomas Pert, the commander, returned without com-
pleting the object in view. These interesting voyages,
however, have been illustrated with such diligent and
acute research by Mr Tytler, that to our readers an-
other detailed narrative of them would be very super-
fluous.*

Various circumstances combined to withdraw the suc-
cessors of Henry from this brilliant career. They were
succeeded in it by France ; and it is singular that the
settlement of by far the greater part of what is now
British America was effected by that power. When, too,
England had wrested these possessions from her rival,
she retained them after most of her own colonies had
established their independence ; for which reason we
find it necessary to enter at considerable length into the
proceedings of those Gallic adventurers who laid the
foundations of civilisation in the Canadian provinces.

In 1524, Francis I. commissioned Giovamii Verazzano,
a skilful Florentine navigator, who appears to have
sailed along the whole coast from Carolina to the northern
extremity of Nova Scotia. It was then appropriated
in the name of his Most Christian Majesty, under the mag-
nificent title of New France. His second expedition was
disastrous ; but in 1534, Jacques Cartier, a bold and able
mariner of St Malo, was sent out with a similar view.
This discoverer made two voyages, in the second of
which he penetrated up the St Lawrence as high as the
position now occupied by Montreal, and brought home

• Progress of Discovery on the more Northern Coasts of Ame-
rica, from the Earliest Period to the Present Time (Edinburgh
Cabinet Library, No. IX.), pp. 19-28, 39-41.

1 1.

UNDER THE FRENCH.

son to the
exploratory
rn coast, to
)rida. The

expedition
, nor*h-west
ctrated into
nity of Sir
ithout com-
np; voyages,
liligent and
readers an-
very super-
raw the suc-

They were
lar that the
ivhat is now

When, too,
m her rival,
colonies had
li reason wc
igth into the
vho laid the
provinces,
li Verazzano,
ears to have

the northern

appropriated
iderthemaj?-
cpedition was
bold and able
similar view,
he second of
is high as the
)rought homo

Coasts of Ame-
me (Edinburgh

with him Donnaconna, a native king. He was employed
a third time in 1540, though in a subordinate rank, under
the Sieur de Roberval, an opulent nobleman of Picardy,
who, liaving agreed to defray the expense of the exp<"-
dition, was created Lieutenant-general and Viceroy. The
enterprise was begun with spirit ; and a fort named
Charlesbourg was erected near the site now occupied by
Quebec. The natives, however, showed a ho.stile spirit ;
the two leaders quarrelled ; and Roberval abandoned tlu^
undertaking. He renewed it in 1649, but with an issue
singularly unfortunate, neither he nor his brother, who
accompanied him, being ever again heard of. For the
details of these voyages also we refer to the work above
mentioned, where they will be found naiTated in a very
satisfactory manner.""'

These failures, and still more perhaps the distracted
state of France during many years, occasioned by reli-
gious wars, withdrew the attention of the government
from schemes of transatlantic colonization. The mer-
oliants, however, of the great commercial towns, parti-
cularly Dieppe, Rouen, St Malo, and Rochelle, had
opened communications, and even established posts for
the prosecution of the fur-trade. That of Canada was
earned on chiefly at Tadoussac, near the mouth of the
river Saguenay.

Tranquillity being restored by the union of parties
under the sway of Henry IV., the public attention was
again directed towards New France. The Marquis de
la Roche, a nobleman of Brittany, undertook to equi]>
an expedition on a large scale, and form a settlement on
that remote shore. The encouragements to such enter-
prises were always liberal ; and Henry in this respect
seems to have surpassed all other monarchs. The
marquis was authorized not only to levy troops, make
war, build forts and cities, and enact laws, but even to
create lords, counts, barons, and similar dignities. Hv
accordingly equipped several vessels, with a considerabh^

* Pages 53-67.

' ill

i \

F>;

\ II

I !

' 'I

,.l

100

niSTORY OP CANADA

number of settlers, wlioin, how(!ver, he was oblip;cd tn
<lraw partly from the prisons of Paris. He sailed under
the guidance of Chedotel, a Nornmn pilot ; but of the
voyage it is only narrated, that he landed and left forty
men on Sable Isbmd, a small l)arren spot near the coast
of Nova S(rotia. lie then returned ; when being thwarted
in his designs at court, he fell sick, and died of chagrin.
The colonists were entirely forgotten, and soon expe-
rienced such hardships as caused even the criminals
among them to regret their dungeons. Having with a
few planks, obtju'ned from a wrecked vessel, erected a
hut, they were obliged to subsist on the fish which they
caught, and to replace their worn-out garments with the
skins of sea-wolves. In this condition they were left
seven years, when the king, or according to Champlalu
the parliament of Rouen, sent out Chedotel to see what
was become of them. He found only twelve survivors,
who exhibited the most wretched and deplorable aspect.
On their return to France, they waited upon Henry,
who received them kindly, and made them a handsome
donation.*

The king was still disposed to oiicourage colonization.
In 1599, two eminent navnl characters, Chauvin of
Rouen and Pontgrave of St Malo, undertook to settle
five hundred persons, and prevailed on his majesty to aid
them, by granting a monopoly of the fiir-trade on the
St Lawrence. Chauvin, it is alleged, was disposed to
execute as little as possible of the agreement, his chief
object being to avail himself of the exclusive traffic.
However, being under the necessity of making some show,
he fitted out two vessels, and anivod at Tadoussac. IJ/io
situation being bleak and barren in the extreme, T ,> • .''.s
strongly advised to proceed farther up the river, to one
which was reported to be much more advantageous. Dis-
regarwiii-; this suggestion, he built a house twenty-four
feet long, v -'hfrsn broad, and eight high, surrounded it

• Histolre 'jt Cf vi.ic des Voyages (19 vols 4to, Paris, 1746-
1770), ton>» xir. p. afi9-69!. <;?;3mplain, Voyages du Sieur de
(2 vols Cvo, Paris, 1830), tome i. p. 41-43.

UNDER THE FRENCH.

JOl

J oblipfcd to
lilcd under
hut of the
[1 left forty
;r the cooHt
ij^ thwarted
of chup;rin.
Hoon expe-
; criminals
ing with a
, erected a
which they
ts with the
f were left
Champlaiii
to see what
J survivors,
iblc aspect,
►on Henry,
i handsome

)lonization.
!;!hauvin of
)k to settle
jesty to aid
pade on the
disposed to
t, his chief
iive traffic,
some show,
issac. ii'u
!me, T xi '•"•^
iver, to one
jeous. Di»-
wenty-four
rrounded it

Paris, 1746-
du Sicur de

with a ditch, and lodfjftd there sixteen -'ttlerH for the
winter. Tiiey had, liowever, a very .slendiT stock of
provisions, and on the scttini; in of tho col ., '^ere reduo'd
to the laht extremity, and tiniilly ohlii^fl to throw them-
selves on the mercy of the natives, i'l-.in that .simplr
people they exp(;rienced a ^'reat de;;ree of kiri(hi('HS, hut,
nevertheless, suffered such iiardsliips, that man)' <>f tliem
perished hef«)re tlie arrival of vessids from France. Chau-
vin performed im »lur voyage, which was as fruitless as
the first; \vi<\ in the course of a third he was taken ill
and died, •

Fnsh ;, b , i^turors were never wanting in this hazard-
ous i.iterprisv?. The next was the Comnumdeur de
Cii;i;.(,i), governor of Dieppe, who, though already gray
with years, engaged in it, and prevailed upon some con-
siderable merciumts to second him. He made a nu)st
important acquisition in Samuel Champlain, the destined
founder of the French settlements in Canada, who had
just arrived from the East Indies. He and Pontgrave
were sent out to Tadoussac, with instructions to ascend
the St Lawrence, and examine the country on its upper
borders. They penetrated as far as the Sault St Ltmis, a
little above Montreal ; but finding it impossible to pass
that cataract, they with some difficulty reached the height
above it, where they made the best observations they
could on the river and country. Champlain, on his arrival
in France, was dismayed to find De Chaste dead, and
the whole undertaking deranged. He proceeded, how-
ever, to Paris, and showed to the king a chart and de-
sc^ription of the region hi had surveyed, with which his
majesty ap|)eared highly pleased.t

•Suarcely an interval elapsed, when the same enter-
prise was taken up by De Monts, a gentleman of opu-
lence and distinction, and a special favourite of Henry.
He obtained the highest privileges that had been granted
to any of his predecessors, and having prepared an expe-
dition on a more exteni*ivc scale than any former one,

ti '

1 ■

Champlain, tome i. p. 44-43. t ^^^^ tome i. p. 49-53.

i I

iri

102

HISTORY OF CANADA

h 1 \

■\'u

he put to sea ; but as he had accompanied Chauvin to
Tadoussac, and viewed that bleak shore, he felt very
averse to enter the St Lawrence. It appeared to him
that the seacoast, being in a more southern latitude,
was likely to enjoy a milder climate ; an idea plausible,
though erroneous. He directed his chief efforts, there-
fore, to the country now named Nova Scotia ; and though
his operations there were disastrous to his companions,
and ultimately to liimself, they were the means of found-
ing the important colony of Acadia. Our narrative of
these adventurers, however, is reserved till we come to
treat of that province.*

Champlain whose services he had secured, then remon-
strated with him on the error of preferring an iron-bound
coast to the beautiful and fertile banks of the upper St
Lawrence. De Monts listened to the suggestion, and,
undeterred by previous losses, applied to the king for a
commission. He obtained it without difficilty, asso-
ciated, as before, with the grant of a monopoly of the
fur-trade on the river. He fitted out two vessels, but
not finding it convenient to command in person, placed
them under Champlain, who, accompanied by Pont-
grave, was authorized to act as his lieutenant.t

The expedition sailed from Honfleur on the 13th
April 1608, and on the 8d June reached Tadoussac. The
Saguenay, hitherto the chief seat of the traffic in furs,
was described as flowing from a considerably distant
source in the north. Forty or fifty leagues up, its cur-
rent was broken by a succession of falls, beyond which
was a lake (St John) which it required three days to
cross. On the other side were wandering tribes, from
whom the skins were chiefly procured, and who rc-
])orted, that in their roamings they came in view of
the Northern Sea. Champlain had sufficient informa-
tion to know that this could only be a large gulf ; though
he had no knowledge of Hudson's Bay, which had not
yet been entered by the great navigator whose name it

Champlain, tome i. p. 54-56.

t Ibid. pp. 160, 151.

UNDER THE FRENCH.

103

bears. The small port of Tadoussac was tolerably safe ;
))ut the shore consisted only of dreary rocks and sands,
scantily clothed with larch and pine. He could find no-
thing to catch except a few small birds, which visited the
spot only in summer. The natives who traded with the
French sailed in canoes of birch-bark, so light that a
man could easily carry them from one river or lake to
another.

The navigator continued to ascend the stream, though
the banks were still naked and unpromising, till he
reached the Isle of Orleans, which formed the com-
mencement of the most valuable part of the river, being
adorned with fine woods and meadows.*

After passing this island, he immediately sought a
commodious place of settlement, and soon fixed on a
hill richly clothed with vines and walnut-trees, called
by the natives Quebeio or Quebec. Having begun to
clear and build, he formed an acquaintance with a number
of the natives busily employed in the fishery of eels.
They showed a considerable disposition to adopt Euro-
pean culture and other improvements, the introduction
of which he was led to hope might issue in their con-
version.t

The Frenchman spent the winter here, and sowed
some grain, for which he found the soil well adapted.
The inhabitants, who, unlike those higher up the river,
did not practise agriculture in any degree, were often
reduced to the most dreadful extremes of famine.
Of this the settlers witnessed a painful example in Fe-
bruary 1609, when a party of the savages, seeing them
from the opposite bank, and hoping to obtain relief, re-
solved to cross, without regard to the floating ice. The
French considered the attempt quite desperate ; and, ac-
cordingly, in mid-channel, the canoes were dashed to
pieces, and the poor creatures leaped on a mass of ice,
whence they raised the most doleful cries. By peculiarly
good fortune, a larger piece struck that on which they

■I

* Champlain, tome i. liv. iii. ch. 3, 4. -f Ibid. liv. iv. ch. 5.

:• ■) •

I';

III

• it'

■(

104

HISTORY OF CANADA

stood, and caused it to drift ashore. They landed with
joy, but in a state of such ravening hunger, that had the
<liscoverers made any attempt to satisfy it, their whole
stock would have been swallowed up. A limited al-
lowance was, however, granted, which they sought to
augment by very strange expedients. A dead pig
and dog had been laid out as a bait for foxes ; but
having been exposed two months, and the weather be-
coming milder, such a scent issued from them, that the
French could scarcely approach the spot. The new
comers, however, on discovering this store, exultingly
carried it to their hut, and began to feast upon it.
Their hosts ran to warn them of the danger of such
food, but found them so busily engaged, each with a
piece in his hand, that remonstrance was vain, and be-
ing themselves assailed with disgusting odours from the
half-cooked victuals, they were glad to retreat. An-
other dead dog had been placed on the top of a tree to
attract birds of prey. The natives were so extremely
weak, that they could not climb, but having by great
efforts cut down the tree, they possessed themselves of
this highly-flavoured morsel.*

As soon as the season admitted, Champlain resumed his
voyage up the river, the banks of wliich were covered
with noble forests. Twenty-five leagues above Quebec,
at a small island named St Eloi, he met a band, belong-
ing chiefly to the celebrated nation of the Algonquins,
commanded by two chiefs, Yroquet and Ochasteguin. It
now appears that a treaty had already been opened at the
winter station by a son of the former, through whom
they had promised to assist the stranger in his attempt
to traverse the country of the Iroquois, on the condition
that he should aid them in a war against that fierce
people. The zeal of our adventurer blinded him not only
to the danger, but to the guilt of this most unprovoked
aggression on a nation who had never offended him. In
reply to a solemn appeal from the savage chiefs, he

Champlain, tome i. liv. iii. ch. 6.

UNDER THE FRENCH.

105

assured them of his determination strictly to fulfil this
questionable engagement, and accepted of their proposal
to visit him previously at Quebec* They accompanied
him thither, and, exulting in the prospect of approach-
ing triumph, spent five or six days in dancing and fes-
tivity, while Champlain procured a reinforcement from
Tadoussac. He set out with his new allies on the 28th
May ; and in a short time, havhig passed through Lake
St Pierre, he reached the mouth of the river which
takes its rise in the country of the Iroquois. He had
been apprized that fifteen leagues farther up there was a
considerable fall, but had been led to hope that his light
shallop might be conveyed beyond it. On reconnoitring
the spot, he found this to be quite impracticable, as the
stream, from bank to bank, was dashing with violence
amid rocks and stones ; and his party had not strength
to cut a road through the woods. Nothing, however,
could damp his ardour ; and in the failure of every
other resource, he determined to commit himself to the
canoes of the savages, and share their fate. As soon,
however, as this was announced to his men, they " bled
at the nose ;" and two only were found who did not
shrink from accompanying the Indians, f

By carrying their canoes, arms, and baggage, half a
league overland, the natives avoided the fall and re-
embarked. When night approached they landed, reared
huts covered with birch-bark, and having cut down large
trees, formed round the spot a barricade oF such strength,
that five hundred assailants could not have stormed it
without much diificulty. They sent some of their num-
ber to reconnoitre a few miles up and down the river, but
rejected the advice of their European ally to set a watch
during the night. High conj urations were now performed
by the pilotois or priest, who was placed alone in a cabin,
while the multitude sat round in solemn silence. Violent
and mysterious movements shook the wigwam, which
-he Frenchman clearly perceived to be produced by its

• Champlain, tome i. li\r. iii. ch. 7. + Ibid, tome i. liv. ill ch. 8.

106

HISTORY OF CANADA

I l!

'- J-i

?■! ■ I •

crafty inmate ; whib, in answer to his solemn call, the
demon appeared, and, in the form of a stone, foretold
the issue of the enterprise. Solemn sounds overawed
the spectators, though it was easy to discover that they
were all uttered by the pilotois himself. The French
chief was also every morning carefully examined regard-
ing his dreams, and great exultation was expressed when
they appeared to portend success. The only drilling em-
ployed to prepare them for the approaching battle was
confined to their taking a number of canes, one for each
man, with two longer ones for the chiefs, and fixing
them in the ground according to the order in which the
troops were to advance. The Indians then practised the
various movements till they could arrange themselves
exactly in the same manner. The river was diversified
with numerous low islands, aboundmg m woods, mea-
dows, and game, but deserted in consequence of the deadly
wars which had for some time been raging. It opened
into an extensive lake, now named, from our traveller,
Champlain, and containing four large islands, also un-
inhabited. They had reached its southern extremity,
and even entered a smaller one (George) connected with
it, when, on the 29th June, at ten in the evening, they
beheld the Iroquois, who raised loud shouts of defiance,
and began hastily to arm and to form a barricade with
trunks of trees. The invaders sent two canoes to ask
if their adversaries would fight ; the answer was, there
was nothing they more desired, but the hour was unsuit-
able, adding, however, that they would be ready next
morning at daybreak. This delay was approved ; but
the two parties, instead of qualifying themselves for the
combat by taking suitable rest, danced the whole night
without intermission, exchanging the most embittered
expressions of reproach and contempt. The Algonquins
being told that neither their courage nor arms were of
any value, and that to-morrow would witness their doom,
threw out in return mysterious hints, that their adver-
saries would then see something never before witnessed.
In the morning they landed, and the French chief saw

UNDER THE FRENCH.

107

the enemy come out of their barricade, two hundred
strong, firm and robust, headed by leaders with waving
plumes, and advancing with a bold and detennined
aspect which struck him with admiration. He and
his two countrymen stationed themselves at different
points, and the natives made way for him to go
about twenty paces in front. He then fired an ar-
quebuss, loaded with four balls, by which two Indians
were killed, and one mortally wounded. His allies
raised shouts which would have drowned the loudest
thunder, while the enemy were astounded at seeing
armour, proof against native weapons, pierced by this
unknown instrument of destruction. Yet they still
poured in clouds of arrows, till another shot fired from
a thicket excited such a degree of fear that they fled
precipitately, abandoning their fort, and seeking refuge
in the heart of the forest. A number were killed, and
ten or twelve taken prisoners.*

The savages, having celebrated then* victory with
dance and festival, immediately began their return to
their own country. After travelling sixteen leagues,
they took one of the captives, and in a formal harangue
recounted to liim all thecrueltiesof his countrymen, which
he must now expiate ; they then summoned him, if he
were a man of courage, to sing. He did so, though in a
somewhat lugubrious tone. Champlain then was per-
haps the first European wlio beheld that horrid scene of
torture, which we spare our readers, though described
by him in the most minute detail. He did not, how-
ever, witness that stoical apatln^ so often displayed, for
the sufferer occasionally uttered loud shrieks, though
his fortitude was on the Avholc wonderful. The French-
man was asked why he did not join in this triumphant
vengeance ; and when he declared that the sight gave
him jmin, and even showed a disposition to withdraw,
they allowed him to terminate the scene by a discharge
of his arquebuss. The most shockuig indignities were in-

• Champlain, tome i. liv. iii. ch. 9.

108

HISTORY OF CANADA

( , ;

flicted on the lifeless body ; even the heart was plucked
out and cut in small pieces, which the other prisoners
were compelled to receive into their mouths, though
they were not expected to swallow the horrid morsel.
The Algonquins marched on with the remaining Iro-
quois, who continued to sing, though fully aware of
their approaching fate. Another employment of the
victors was to ornament the heads of the slain, to be dis-
played in triumph on their arrival. With this view they
earnestly solicited from Champlain some copies of the
paternoster, which sacred article, amid all his profes-
sions of piety, he did not hesitate to bestow for this pro-
fane purpose. Thus prepared, as the party approached
home, the heads were fastened on the ends of poles, and
exhibited to the women, who came swimming across the
river to meet their lords. The adventurer himself was
presented with one of these savage trophies, with a re-
quest that he would offer it to his sovereign, which, to
please them, he engaged to do.*

On the author's return from this expedition, which
seemed to hold out a great promise of ultimate success,
he was greeted with unfavourable tidings from France.
The merchants of that country, to his deep indignation,
though we think with very good reason, had raised loud
complaints of the injury which they as well as the na-
tion at large sustained by the fur-trade being confined
to a single individual. De Monts' commission was in
consequence revoked, and his lieutenant was obliged to
return home. He gave an account of his transactions,
first to his patron, and then to the king, who listened
to them with much satisfection. All his attempts, how-
ever, to procure a renewal of the monopoly proved
abortive ; yet such was his zeal, that he determined
even without this aid to retain the settlement. To
lighten the expense, he made an agreement with some
traders at Rochelle, to give them the use of his buUd-
iug at Quebec as a depot for their goods, while they by

• Champlain, tome i. liv. iii. ch. 10.

UNDER THE FRENCH.

109

way of recompense engaged to assist him in his plans of
colonization. He was tlms enabled in 1610 to fit out
Champlain with a considerable reinforcement and fresh
supplies.*

On his return to the St Lawrence, he received an ap-
plication from the Algonquins to assist them in a new
war ; and they promised to join him with 400 men at
the entrance of the Iroquois river. Undeterred by any
motive either of fear or principle, and seemingly without
any hesitation, he accepted the proposal ; but on reach-
ing the spot affairs were found more urgent than had'
been supposed. A canoe arrived with intelligence that
a hundred of the enemy were so strongly intrenched in
the vicinity, that without the aid of the Misthigosches,
as the French were termed, it appeared impossible to
dislodge them. The savages, on this information, hur-
ried on board of their canoes, and prevailed on their
European friend to quit his bark, and accompany them
with four of his countrymen. On landing, the natives
ran forward so swiftly that they were soon out of the
sight of their allies, who floundered after them through
woods and marshes, tormented by mosquitoes, and much
at a loss for their way. They met, however, an Indian,
who came in all haste to inform them that his brethren,
ill acquainted with military tactics, had no sooner arrived,
than, without waiting for the French, they rushed to the
assault ; and that, having sustained a most severe repulse,
in which several of their cliiefs were killed and a num-
ber wounded, all their hope was now placed in their
auxiliaries. Having proceeded about half a mile, they
heard the bowlings of the hostile parties, who, as usual,
poured on each other torrents of invective. On their
appearance, these illustrious allies raised shouts louder
than thunder, while Champlain advanced to reconnoitre
the fort. He found it very strong, composed, according
to the usual fashion, of large trees fixed close together
in a circle. He himself was immediately wounded in the

ill

Champlain, tome i. pp. 152, lb'3.

110

HISTORY OP CANADA

11 ■ '

I I:

■; t

! %

l"-i«

I):

ear and neck by an arrow pointed with stone, yet not so
as to disable him from acting. At the discharge of fire-
arms the Iroquois, who seem to have been a different
party from those formerly encountered, felt the sumo
astonishment and dismay. Covered by their intrench-
ments, however, they continued to pour forth clouds
of darts, and Champlain, whose ammunition began
to fail, urged the savages to exert themselves in forc-
ing a way into the barricade. He made them fasten
ropes round the trunks of single trees, and apply all
their strength to drag them out, undertaking mean-
time to protect -them with his fire. Fortunately, at this
moment, a party of French traders, unconnected with
our leader, being seized with martial ardour, came to
join him ; and he thought it fair " that they should
have their share in the diversion." Under their cover,
the Algonquins pulled so stoutly, that a sufficient open-
ing was soon made, and though the stumps still stood
six feet high, the allies leaped in, and the enemy were
completely routed, most of them being killed or drowned,
and fifteen taken. Of the assailants three fell in the ac-
tion, and fifty were wounded. Instead of carrying off
the heads of the slain, they " flayed them," taking the
scalps as their trophy. Champlain asked and obtained
one of the captives, whom he saved from the dreadful
tortures which were inflicted on most of the others, one
by one at different stages ; the rest being carefully re-
served for their wives and daughters, who took peculiar
deliglit in these scenes of savage vengeance, and were
even ingenious in devising new and exquisite tonnents.
His prisoner, not being very carefully guarded, made
his escape. The Frenchman, before taking leave of his
allies, prevailed on them to allow one of his people to
remain with them and leam their language, while he, at
their request, took a native youth with him to Europe.*
In 1611 Champlain returned to America with his Sii-
vage, and on the 28th May arrived at the place of ren-

Champlain, tome i. liv. iii. cli, 11, 12.

UNDER THE FRENCH.

Ill

dezvous appointed for another warlike expedition. Not
finding the Indians, he employed his time in choosing
a spot for a new settlement higher np the river than
Quebec. After a careful survey he fixed upon ground
in the vicinity of an eminence which he called Mont
Royal ; and his choice has been amply justified by the
prosperity to which this place, under the name of Mont-
real, has subsequently risen. He cleared a considerable
space, sowed some grain, and enclosed it by an earthen
wall. A distressing accident soon afterwards occurred.
Savignon, the native who had accompanied him to
France, with Louis, a European, and Outetoucos, an
Indian leader, set out on a hunting excursion to an
island in the Chambly. After excellent sport they were
returning, when Savignon, who guided the canoe, pro-
posed to make a circuit to avoid a dangerous rapid. The
chief, however, insisted that it was quite safe, without
even lightening the boat, and the other allowed himself to
be persuaded ; but as soon as they came within the action
of the whirlpool, the bark was tossed up and down in the
most violent manner. Louis was thrown into the water
and drowned. The chief endeavoured to swim to land,
but could not stem the eddies, and sunk. Savignon
alone, clinging to the canoe whether above or below
water, at length reached the shore. Champlain, on
coming to the spot, could scarcely believe it possible
that any person should have attempted to pass tliis for-
midable rapid.*

At length, on the 13th June, three weeks after
the time appointed, a party of his savage friends ap-
peared. They evinced much pleasure at meeting their
countryman, who gave the most favourable report of
the treatment which he had received in France ; and
after a liberal present of beaver skins, they unfolded the
cause of t'lis long delay. The prisoner who escaped the
previous year had spread a report that the French, hav-
ing now resolved to espouse the cause of the Iroquois,

1 ;'

;iM

Champlain, tome i. liv. iii. ch. I'i.

112

UISTORY OP CANADA

I I "

were coining in great force to destroy altogether the
Algonquin nation. Champlain bitterly complained of
their having listened to such a rumour, which all hw
actions belied. They protested that it hud never gained
credence with them, but only with those of their tribe
who had no opportunity of knowing the foreigners.
However, having received solemn protestations of friend-
ship, they declared their determination of adhering to
their alliance, and aiding to the utmost of their power
his projects of penetrating into the interior. They gave
him very extensive information respecting the conti-
nent, their acquaintance with which was found to reach
southward as far as the Gulf of Mexico. They agreed to
his proposal of returning with forty or fifty of his people
to prosecute discoveries, and even form settlements in
the country. The warlike designs, for some reason not
explained, appear to have been dropped for the present ;
but they requested that a French youth should accom-
pany them and make observations upon their territory
and tribe. They asked their visiter to use his in-
fluence in order to dissuade one of their bravest war-
riors, who had been three times made prisoner by T'ic
Iroquois and always escaped, to relinquish the purpose
he had now formed of setting out with only nine com-
panions to attack the enemy and avenge his former
wrongs. Attempts were made to divert him from so
rash a purpose ; but, exhibiting his fingers partly cut off
and his whole body covered with wounds, he declared
that it was impossible to live unless he obtained re-
venge.*

Champlain again returned to France with the view of
making arrangements for those more extensive opera-
tions which he contemplated and had recommended to
his Indian allies. The negotiation was attended with dif-
ficulty. De Monts, who had been appointed governor of
Saintonge, was no longer inclined to take the lead, and
excused himself from going to court, on account of the

* Champlain, tome i. liv. iii. ch. 14.

UNDKR THE I'llENClT.

113

ther the
lained of
h all his
;r gained
leir tribe
Feigners.
•f friend-
ering to
ir power
hey gave
le conti-
to reach
igrecd to
is people
nents in
!ason not
present ;
i accom-
territory
his in-
est war-
bv I'ie
purpose
ine corn-
former
from so
y cut off
declared
lined re-

e view of
e opera-
lended to
with dif-
v^ernor of
lead, and
nt of the

urgency of his own affairH. lie connnittod the whole to
his former agent, advising him to seek some powerful
protector, whose authority might overcome the oj)posi-
tion to his plans. Our adventurer was so fortunate as
almost immediately to gain the Count de Soissons, who
obtained the title of Lieutenant-general of New France,
and who, by a formal agreement, delegated to him all
the functions of that high office. The count died soon
after ; but a still more influential friend was found in
the Prince of Conde, who succeeded to all the privileges
of the deceased, and made them over in a manner equally
ample. His commission, including a monopoly of the
trade, excited loud complaints among the merchants ;
but our author endeavoured to remove the principal
objection by allowing as many of them to embark in
the traffic as chose to accompany him. There came ac-
cordingly three from NoruKuidy, one from Rochelle, and
one from St Malo. These were allowed free trade, bur-
dened only with the condition of contributing six men
each to assist in his projects of discovery, and a twentieth
of their profits to defray the expenses of settlement.*

In the beginning of March 1613, t this expedition sailed
from Honfleur, and on 7th May arrived at Quebec.
Champlain however had an aim which diverted him from
his grand schemes of war and discovery in the west.
Among the objects of adventure in that age, a favourite
one was a north-west passage to China ; hence every
thing connected with the report of a sea beyond Canada
inspired the greatest hopes. There was a Frenchman
named Nicolas de Vignau, who had accompanied our tra-
veller in former expeditions, and spent a winter among
the savages. This person reported that the river of the
Algonquins (the Ottawa) issued from a lake which was
connected with the North Sea ; that he had visited its

* Champlain, tome i. liv, iv. ch. 5.

t Champlain's dates are jumbled in tlie most confused manner ;
but on comparing page 312 with pages 245 and 246, it will be evi-
dent that the one here given is correct, though the narrative of his
voyage precedes the account of his departure.

VOL. I. G

t >;

\t\

»n

114

HI.STOUY or CANADA

shorcH, and had there witncHscd the wreck of an Enp^lisli
vessel. The crew, eit^'^hty in nuniher, had reaelied tlio
land, vvliere they had all hceii killed and scalped hy the
inhabitants, except one hoy, whom they would have been
haj)py to present to him, alonji^ with the trophies of
their victory. Wishinj,' to assure himself as to this
story, the navigator caused the man to sign his declara-
tion before two notaries, warning him, if it were false,
that he was putting a rope round his own neck. Find-
ing the fellow persevere, and learning that some Eng-
lish vessels had really been wrecked in 1012 on the coast
of Labrador, his doubts were removed, and he deter-
mined to devote a season to the j)rosecution of this grand
object.

With this view he did not stop at Quebec, but setting
sail on the IStli May, arrived on the 21st at the fall of
St Louis. Here, with only two canoes, containing four
of his countrymen and one native, he began his voyage
up the river. The hardships and difficulties were very
severe. He encountered a succession of cataracts and
rapids, which it was necessary to avoid by carrying the
skiffs and stores overland. Sometimes, the woods being
too dense to admit of this, it became requisite to drag
them through the foaming current, not without danger
of being themselves ingulfed. If they had lost their
boats, they could neither have proceeded back nor for-
ward, unless by the mere accident of meeting with friend-
ly Indians. There was reason, besides, to dread an attack
from some w^andering bands of Iroquois, who, if victo-
rious, would have doubtless treated the French as they
treated theu* Algonquin captives. As the difficulties of
navigation increased, they were obliged to leave their
corn behind, and trust entirely to the produce of their
guns and nets, which affijrded a precarious and some-
times very scanty supply. Nicolas, to our author's sur-
prise, was forward in recommending parts of the river
which the natives declared to be highly dangerous. At
length the party reached the abode of Tessouat, a friendly
chief^ whose country was only eight days' sail from that

.M,:;:'

Lv r^u

TJNDKii Tin: riiKNcir.

of tho Nobiceriru (Ni|)issinjifH), on whoso l)or(lorstli(» ship-
wivck WHS Hiiid to Imvo (HTiurrd. Tl»e jh-ojiK' nrt'ivnl
our jul venturer L'<;urleousIy, ii»i«l a<;rec«l to his recjuost ot*
ndniissiou to a soK'iriu couiuil. It was proceclcd hy an
ontcrtainment of boiled maize, with meat and hsii ;
after whieh the youjij; men went out, and the (dd took
their pipes and smoked for half an hour in silence,
Champlain being then asked his object in s(dieiting tin*
interview, after many courteous professions re((uested
four canoes to escort him into the country of the Nipis-
sings, which he earnestly desired to visit. To this the
Indians demurred, stating that the route was very difli-
cult, and that they were l)ad men and sorcerers, who had
caused the death of many of their tribe ; nevertheless,
upon liis earnest entreaty, they at length consented.
After tho meeting had broken up, however, the French
chief learned that there was a great indisj)osition to
fulfil the engagement, and that no one could be found
who was willing to accompany him. He therefore again
called them together ; reproached them with their me-
ditated breach of faith ; and in refutation of their asser-
tions of danger as arishig from the people, referred to the
fact of Nicolas having s])ent some time among them with-
out any annoyance. Hereupon De Vignau was called
on to say if he had ever made such a journey ; and
when, after long hesitation, he answered in the affinna-
tive, they raised loud and fierce cries, declaring that he
was speaking falsely, having never passed beyond their
country, where he had gone to bed with them every
evening and risen every morning ; and that he ought to
be tortured to death for having so grossly deceived his
chief. Champlain, seeing his follower a good deal con-
fused, took him aside, and adjured him to state the truth.
The fellow, however, having recovered his confidence,
renewed his former averments, and gave the fullest
assurance, that if canoes could be procured they would
erelong reach the spot. The commander, unable to
believe that any individual could persevere in such
audacious falsehoods, went back to the savages, re-

f!!

116

HISTORY OF CANADA

¥ I

■U'

, i !; !

if I

I; I

ferred to the interior sea, the English shipwreck, the
eighty scalps, and the young boy in possession of the
natives. Hereupon they shouted louder than ever,
proclaiming his deceit to be now quite palpable. They
began to put close interrogatories, to which he return-
ed only unsatisfactory replies. Champlain, extremely
perplexed, called him again to a private interview,
and told him that every thing already past should be
forgiven ; but that if, by persisting in false assertions,
he should induce the expedition to go a step fjarther,
he would most assuredly be hanged. The man then,
after remaining silent for some time, fell on his knees and
confessed that all he had said, and which had induced
his master to undertake so long and painful a journey,
was a complete untruth. The motives of this crime had
lieen the eclat derived from the supposed discovery, and
the being brought out to New France in a conspicuous
situation. He had trusted that the obstacles would be
such as, at some earlier point, to lead his superior to re-
nounce the attempt ; and with this view, in passing the
falls he had urged him to prefer the most dangerous
channels. Champlain was obliged to inform the Indians
that they were right, and himself egregiously deceived.
They earnestly entreated him to place the liar in their
hands, who they would take eifectual care should never
again deceive him. But, though much and justly en-
raged, he resolved honourably to redeem his pledge.
He had the vexation, however, to reflect, that not only
had he encountered in vain a long series of labours
and fatigues, but that the whole season had been spent
without any effort to promote other objects which
he had much at heart. He had now no alternative
but to commence his voyage down the Ottawa, and
on his way he was joined by a considerable number of
s<avage allies, who rendezvoused at the fall of St Louis.
They agreed, though with difficulty, to allow two young
Frenchmen to accompany them, with the view of ob-
tainuig a knowledge of the country. Champlain left
also De Vignau, as a punishment for his falsehood ; who

UNDER THE FRENCH.

117

Gck, the
1 of tlic^
m ever,
. They
} retum-
ctremely
iterview,
tioiild be
ssertions,
farther,
an then,
:nees and
induced
journey,
rime had
very, and
ispicuous
would be
cior to re-
,ssing the
iangerous
e Indians
deceived,
r in their
uld never
ustly en-
pledge,
not only
labours
)een spent
ts which
Itcrnativc
awa, and
lumber of
St Louis,
wo young
cw of ob-
plain left
ood; who

promised to undertake further discoveries, and to reach,
if possible, the North Sea ; but none of the natives would
have any intercourse with him. Our author then sailed
to Tadoussac, and thence to St Malo, where he arrived
on the 26th August 1014.*

Affairs in France continued favourable to the colony.
The Prince of Conde being still powerful at court, no
difficulty was found in equipping an expedition from
Rouen and St Malo, though it gave some discontent to
the merchants of Rochelle, who were excluded on ac-
count of their not having come in time. They were
accompanied by four Fathers RecoUets, whose benevo-
lence led them to attempt the conversion of the Indians.t

Champlain, with this new company, arrived on the
25th May 1615 at Tadoussac, whence he immediately
pushed up to Quebec*, and thence to the place of ren-
dezvous at the fall of St Louis. He found his old allies
there full of projects of war against the Iroquois, whom
they proposed now to assiiil among the lakes to the west-
ward ; and they promised to muster for this attack no
fewer than 2500 fighting men. The Frenchman, never
slow to embark in such enterprises, now laid down
a plan of operations, at which they expressed the
utmost satisfaction. He accompanied them in a long
route, first up the Ottawa, then, partly carrying the
canoes overland partly launching them on small pieces
of water, till they came to Lake Nipissing, northward
from that of Huron. Tlie country through which he
passed is described as in many places broken and rocky,
though not mountainous, and completely uncultivated ;
yet there was a profusion of berries and delicate small
fruits, which the natives preserved for winter use. The
Nipissings, about 700 or 800 in number, who inhabited
the shores of this lake, received the party well. After
remaining two days, they made their way by land and
water to the coast of the great lake Attigouantan, which
appeared a complete fresh-water sea, 300 leagues in

Champlain, tome i. iiv. iv. ch. 1, 2, 3. -f- Ibid, tome i. p. 313-31 ]

118

HISTORY OF CANADA

U ' ,.'1 '

length by 60 in breadth. It is evidently the northern
part of Lake Huron, apparently separated into a distinct
body of water by the continuous chain of islands which
extend parallel to this shore.* After coasting it for about
forty-five leagues, they turned a point which forms
its extremity, and struck into the interior, with the
view of reaching Cahiague, the appointed rendezvous
of their savage friends. This country was found much
superior to that liitherto passed, being well cultivated,
and abounding in Indian corn and fruits. At the place
just mentioned, a large body were found collected, who
gave them a joyful welcome, stating their expectation of
five hundred more, who also considered the Iroquois as
enemies. While their forces were mustering, several
days were spent in dancing and festivity, the usual pre-
lude to their bloody expeditions. They then set out and
j)assed several small lakes, one of which led to the great
one, which they now named Entouhonorons (Huron).
On the way they employed themselves in several hunt-
ing parties. Upon one occasion they made a large circle,
enclosing the whole of a promontory that stretched into
the lake ; after which, by loud cries and volleys of arrows,
they drove all the animals to the extreme point, where
they were either taken or threw themselves into the
water. To meet this last case, a range of canoes were
drawn up, and the quadrupeds fell beneath the weapons
darted from either side. Having met a detachment re-
turning with a band of prisoners, our adventurer was
shocked to see them begin the horrid work of torment
upon a female, and reproached the leader with a cruelty
so unworthy of a genuine warrior. The Indian replied,
that it was no more than the enemy did to his country-
women ; but in courtesy to his ally he would desist, re-
taining, however, his full right to torture the men.

After quitting the Huron Lake, they struck into the
interior, and came to a smaller expanse of water finely di-
versified by islands, which seems to be Lake George. On

* Champlain, tome i. liv. iv. ch. 6.

p 1

UNDER THE FRENCH.

1J9

northern
a distinct
ds which
for about
jh forms
with the
ndezvous
nd much
iiltivated,
the place
jted, who
ctation of
oquois as
g, several
isual pre-
t out and
the great
(Huron),
sral hunt-
[•ge circle,
,ched into
of arrows,
nt, where
into the
loes were
} weapons
iment re-
;urer was
• torment
a cruelty
,n replied,
country-
desist, re-
men.

: into the
finely di-
orge. On

its banks they descried the Iroquois fort, which, in expec-
tation of this attack, had been rendered peculiarly strong.
It was defended by four successive palisades of trees
twined together, and with strong parapets at top ; and it
enclosed a pond whence streams were led to the different
quarters, with the view of extinguishing fire. They had
advanced, and were skirmishing with success against
their assailants ; but w^hen the firearms began to play,
and they heard the balls whizzing about their ears,
they hastily retreated within the rampart. Thence, how-
ever, they poured forth showers of arrows and stones,
which induced the allies, in spite of the exhortations
and reproaches of Champlain, to withdraw beyond their
reach. He now, however, endeavoured to train them
to the use of European machinery, teaching them to
construct with wood an elevated enclosure of planks,
calle^ a cavalier, which should command the enemy's
entrenchment. The discharge from this platform was
meant to drive them from the parapet, and afford to the
assailants an opportunity of setting fire to the defences.
The savages showed the utmost activity in constructing
this work, which they finished in four hours, and 200 of
the strongest moved it forward close to the palisade. The
shot from it drove the Iroquois into the interior of their
stronghold, whence they still continued to return mis-
siles of various kinds. The Indians might now, with the
greatest ease, have set the fort in a blaze ; but Cham-
plain soon found that he had to do with men who would
make war only as they were inclined and accustomed.
Instead of following his directions, they preferred to
pour out execrations upon the enemy, and shoot ar-
rows against the strong wooden defences. At length
they began to throw pieces of burning tunber, but care-
lessly, and with little effect. Their European ally
called out to them in what manner to proceed ; but the
field was filled with such clamour and confusion, that his
voice was lost amid the tumult. The Iroquois mean-
time drew water from their reservoir so copiously, that
streams flowed through every part of the fortress, and

]20

HISTORY OF CANADA

the slight fires were speedily quenched. Taking advan-
tage of the disorder in the adverse ranks, they made
arrows descend like hail, which pierced two chiefs and
a number of their followers. Champlain himself was
twice wounded in the leg. His allies hereupon felt a
strong inclination to retire, and, as usual, they followed
their own views, without any regard to his exhortations.
They justified themselves by alleging the absence of the
500 auxiliaries, promising, on their arrival, to renew the
assault. Although, therefore, for two days a strong wind
blew most favourably for another attempt, nothing could
induce them to advance. Several petty attacks were
made, but with so little success, that the French were
always obliged to come to the rescue ; while the enemy
bitterly taunted the Algonquins as unable to cope with
them in a fair field, and obliged to seek the odious aid of
this strange and unknown race. ^

As the reinforcement did not appear, the savages de-
termined to abandon the enterprise altogether, and re-
turn homeward. The retreat was conducted with a degree
of skill and judgment which had not appeared in any
of their offensive operations. They placed the wounded
and aged in the centre, while araied warriors guarded
the front, rear, and flanks. The Iroquois followed a
short way, but soon gave up the pursuit. If, however,
the safety of the disabled was well provided for, their
comfort was very little considered. Their bodies were
bent into a circular form, bound with cords, and thrown
into a basket, where they lay like infants in swaddling-
clothes, unable to stir hand or foot. Champlain feel-
ingly describes the agonies he endured while carried
twenty-five or thirty leagues in this position, on being
relieved from which he felt as if he had come out of a
dungeon.

He now claimed the promise to convey him home
after his campaign. First, however, guides were want-
ing, then a canoe ; and he soon found that they were
determined to detain him and his companions, with a
view to their defence in case of attack, or to aid them in

» i

UNDER THE FRENCH.

121

ng advan-
iiey made
chiefs and
mself was
ipon felt a
^r followed
lortations.
ince of the
renew the
rong wind
hing could
acks were
ench were
the enemy-
cope with
lious aid of

javages de-
er, and re-
th a degree
red in any
B w^ounded
rs guarded
followed a
, however,
for, their
odies were
nd thrown
swaddling-
plain feel-
ile carried
on being
le out of a

him home
vere want-
they were
ns, with a
lid them in

future expeditions. He was very ill provided for win-
tering in so desolate a region ; but a chief, Darontal,
gave him his hovel, built in the best Indian style, and
he found considerable amusement in their hunting ex-
cursions. On one occasion they constructed a wooden
enclosure, of a triangular form, each side nearly a mile
long, with a narrow opening at the point, into which,
by loud cries, and imitating the howling of wolves, they
contrived to drive all the deer in the vicinity. The
aperture being then shut, the animals became an easy
prey.*

On the 20th May of the following year Champlain
set out, and found himself in the end of June at the
Sault St Louis. Having remained there a short time,
he repaired to Tadoussac, whence he sailed, and arrived
at Honfleur on the 10th September 1616.t

The interests of the colony were now in considerable
jeopardy. The Prince of Conde, in consequence of the
share taken by him in the disturbances during the
minority of Louis XIII., was not only in disgrace, but
under confinement. The Marshal de Themines, how-
ever, was prevailed upon to undertake the duties of the
situation, on condition of sharing its emoluments. Un-
fortunately he was soon involved in controversy with
the merchants, and after many and tedious transactions,
during two years and a half, the Duke de Montmo-
rency was induced to treat with Conde for his office of
viceroy, and obtained it upon the payment of 11,000
crowns. Champlain considered this arrangement as every
way eligible, the duke being better qualified for such
functions, and, from Ms situation of High Admiral, pos-
sessing the best means of forwarding the object. A body
of associated merchants had already, in January 1619,
agreed to send out a larger colony than any preceding
one, of eighty persons, including three friars, with the
necessary supply of furniture, arms, seed-corn, and do-
mestic animals. Their departure was, however, delayed

■ Champlain, tome i. liv. iv. ch. 7. f Ibid, tome i. p. 396-398.

122

HISTORY OF CANADA

] II 'I

a whole year by the disputes between Rochelle and other
commercial cities, and between the Protestants and the
Catholics. Attempts were also made to degrade Cham-
plain from the high situation in which he had been
placed ; but by virtue of commissions both from Mont-
morency and the king, he succeeded in crushing this op-
position.*

In May 1620 he set sail with his new equipment, and
after a very tedious voyage, anchored on the 7th July
near the port of Tadoussac. He found that, during his
long absence, the settlements had been considerably ne-
glected, especially at Trois Rivieres, which he enlarged
and defended by a fort, placed on a mountain that com-
manded the passage of the river. After all that had been
done for the colony, there remained, when winter arrived,
not more than sixty inhabitants, including women, chil-
dren, and clergy, and ten of the number were employed
in establishing a religious seminary.f

The following year, as soon as the season permitted,
a vessel was sent out with letters from Montmorency
and his secretary, announcing a change which greatly
surprised and by no means delighted our commander.
The association of merchants who had fitted out the last
expedition were deprived of all their privileges by the
duke, who had intrusted the care of the colony to the
Sieurs De Caen, uncle and nephew, one a merchant and
the other a mariner, the latter of whom was to visit it
personally in the course of the summer. The local gover-
nor, who saw many causes of complaint against the mer-
chants, had no ground on which he could object to this
arrangement ; yet he was thereby virtually divested of
his command, and subjected to the control of another,
^med with formidable powers.;]:

About the middle of July he received notice that
De Caen had arrived at Tadoussac, and was desirous of
an interview. After some delay, he set out, and met
him on the 3d August. He was received with the ut-

• Chatnplain, tome i. liv. iv. ch. 4. + Ibid, tome ii. liv. i. ch. 1.
:[: Ibid, tome ii. liv. i. ch. 2.

UNDER THE FRENCH.

123

most courtesy, but soon found the new superintendent
disposed to act in a very violent and arbitrary manner.
He claimed the right of seizing all the vessels belonging
to the associated merchants, which might have come out
for the purpose of traffic ; and he actually took that of
Du Pont, their favourite agent, and an intimate friend of
our author. Champluin remonstrated strongly against
these proceedings, but without any effect, as he possessed
no power which could effectually check the violence of
this new dictator. De Caen, however, left a supply of pro-
visions, arms, and ammunition ; f lough this last is said
to have been both scanty and ill adapted to its object.
In consequence of these arrangements, a great part of the
population connected with the European traders took
their departure, while the agent of Montmorency had
brought only eighteen new settlers ; so that the colony,
instead of being augmented, was thereby reduced to
forty-eight.*

Notwithstanding these vexatious occurrences, as soon
as the governor had time to breathe, he turned his
attention to discovery and settlement in the interior.
He formed an intimate connexion with a Huron who
had assumed the name of Mahigan Aticq (Wolf Stag),
to express the union of ferocity and mildness which
became the savage character. Through him intelli-
gence was received of a proposal made to terminate the
long and desolating war which had raged between his
nation and that of the Iroquois. Champlain, on former
occasions, when such an accommodation was mentioned,
earnestly represented to them its great advantages ; and
he now expressed the utmost anxiety to forward it.
Learning, therefore, that two individuals of the hostile
people had arrived at Trois Rivieres, he invited them to
Quebec, and met them at a village of friendly Indians in
that vicinity. On his arrival, Mahigan took his hand,
kissed and locked his own into it, causing the two
strangers to do the same to his companions. Thus,

* Champlain, fome ii. liv. i. ch. 4.

' ;'

m\u

!''•

■■in.

■

124

HISTORY OF CANADA

hand in hand they entered the chief cabin, where a
number of the natives were seated, according to their
respective ranks, and learned with satisfaction the good
understanding that now prevailed. They then proceeded
to the important operation of dancing, which was kept
up a long time by the allies and the three visiters ; then
each of them kissed his hand, and put theirs into that
of the governor. The Hurons now danced in a body,
men, women, and children, when harmony was considered
as completely established. At this stage the Iroquois ex-
plained their object, which Champlain readily engaged
to promote. They represented this proposal for amity
as proceeding entirely from themselves, and that they
came not as authorized envoys ; though this, we sus-
pect, was rather to avoid prematurely committing the
nation. The Hurons, however, treated them with
friendship, and, in concurrence with their French ally,
determined upon sending four of their number to com-
plete, if possible,, the negotiation opened under such fa-
vourable auspices.* On arriving at the headquarters of
the Iroquois, they met a very kind reception, and the
treaty was nearly concluded, when it was almost broken
off by an event strikingly characteristic of this fierce
independent race. Even before they set out, a savage,
whom the French named Simon, declared his determi-
nation to accompany them, but in a hostile character,
singly to wage war against this hated enemy ; and such,
in this rude tribe, was the total want of any public
authority, that they could use nothing beyond impotent
remonstrances to deter him. They had recourse to their
ally, who employed warm representations, and even
threats, to make the barbarian desist. But though the
latter admitted it to be verv wicked in him, he declared
that he was perfectly miserable, and could have no peace,
till he had cut off the head of an enemy. After this as-
surance all argument was vain, the community not having
any means of placing its members under the slightest

* Champlain, tome ii. liv. i. ch. 6.

UNDER THE FRENCH.

125

restraint. He aceompanied his countrymen, and shared
in their good reception ; but as they were returning
home, he met one of the detested tribe f d gratihed his
vengeance by despatching him. Such a deed, by any
member of a civilized mission, must at once have ter-
minated all negotiation ; but the deputies having satisfied
the Iroquois, w)io were no strangers to such sallies, that
it was completely an individual act, lamented by the
nation, they overlooked it, and sent six of their number
to conclude the treaty.*

In the mean time the progress of the colony was still
checked by dissensions in the mother country. A union,
indeed, was foiTned between the old and new companies,
which enabled them to proceed for sometime with greater
vigour. But though united, they were not of one mind ;
contentions were soon kindled, which made Montmo-
rency complain, that he had more trouble with this con-
cern than with his most important aifairs ; so that he
was well pleased, for a moderate consideration, to trans-
fer it to the Duke de Ventadour. The new viceroy, how-
ever, soon found himself involved in serious troubles. He
professed, in a manner peculiarly decided, that his main
object was to diffuse the Catholic religion throughout the
New World ; but it so happened that the Protestants
were the only French citizens who possessed the nau-
tical skill to conduct such an expedition, or were willing
to brave its dangers. In despite of the court, therefore,
they formed the majority of every crew ; and thoug)i the
most illiberal restrictions were laid upon their worship,
their numbers enabled them to treat these with little
ceremony. Even De Caen professed this faith ; and the
new viceroy had the affliction to learn that he had not
only allowed Protestant prayers to be publicly offered
up, but even desired the Romanists to attend them. He
was restless, therefore, till an arrangement could be
made, by which a captain of sound belief should be
appointed to command the vessels. He could not, how-

* Champlain, tome ii. p. 79-89.

126

niSTORY OF CANADA

It .' ! i

-V.

ever, escape the fatal necessity of employinpf a crew
most of whom were accounted heretical ; but in return,
he directed that the means of exercising their religion
should l)c confined within the narrowest possible limits.
In particular, he strictly enjoined that they should not
sing psalms in the St Lawrence ; but the mariners, who
had freely performed this act of worship in the open
sea, loudly exclaimed against such a capricious restric-
tion ; and though the express orders of the duke could
not be departed from, a compromise was made, allowing
them greater latitude in other parts of their ritual. Our
author uniformly expresses a pious horror touching the
Refonners, and the utmost reluctance to grant them the
slightest favour ; but oddly excuses himself by saying :
— " They were almost two-thirds Huguenots ; so of a
bad debt, one must take what payment he can get."*

Champlain was continued in all his powers by the
Duke de Ventadour, who kept him a considerable time
near his person, so that two years and a half had
elapsed before his return to Canada. He found the
colony in the same unsatisfactory state as after his for-
mer absence ; the fort, for completing which all the
materials and full instructions had been left, was ex-
actly in the same condition as when he departed.
The settlement at Quebec consisted still of no more
than fifty-five persons, of whom twenty-four only were
fit for labour.t He learned, moreover, that the In-
dian affairs were by no means in a good state. The
Iroquois, being on their way to attack a tribe called
the Wolves, had killed a party who opposed their pro-
gress, among whom were five of another nation. The
latter forthwith sent messengers, bearing as gifts collars
of wampum, to the chiefs of the French allies, and en-
treating their aid in a war of revenge. It was easy to
kindle a hostile spirit among these fierce clans, and a
strong party was soon formed in favour of warlike mea-
sures. The more prudent anxiously recommended a

• Champlain, tome ii. pp. 41, 94, 103, 104, 133.
•|- Ibid, tome ii. pp. 13/, 138.

tJNDKR THE FRENCn. 127

pacific policy, ami Muhigan Aticq ha-stcned to Quebec,
to apprize Cliani])laiii of what was passing. Deeply re-
gretting these events, he reiterated all his arguments
for the preservation of the blessings enjoyed under tl 'j
present tranquil system. As it was not in his power t >
go in person, he sent BouUe, his ])rother-in-law, and
afterwards one of his people, named Emery, to impress
these views upon the savage assembly. They were both
well received, and their advice approved by the great
body of the nation ; but the lawless system wliich still
prevailed in the tribe made it impossible to prevent nine
or ten hot-headed youths from making an unauthorized
inroad into the Iroquois territory. This band having
reached Lake Champlain, surprised a canoe with three
individuals, two of whom they seized and brought home
in triumph. The preparations for the work of torture
were already going on, when Emery hastened to convey
the intelligence to Champlain, who immediately re-
paired to the spot. The sight of the captives, fine
young men, and of i.he tortures preparing for them,
quickened his ardour in the cause of peace and huma-
nity. He strongly urged that, instead of such barba-
rous treatment, they should be sent home unhurt,
with presents to compensate for this wanton attack.
After due deliberation, this advice was so far adopted
that one individual was sent back, with two allies, one
of them a chief, and Magnan, a Frenchman. This ex-
pedition, sent with so laudable an intention, had the
most tragical issue. An Algonquin who wished to foment
war, contrived to rouse the jealousy of the Iroquois, by
persuading them that this mission, though professing
friendship, was devised with the most treacherous intent.
Misled by these views, the latter prepared to take coo)
and deliberate revenge. When the strangers arrived,
they found the fire kindled, the cauldron boiling, and
being courteously received, were invited to sit down. The
Iroquois then asked the chief if, after so long a journey,
he did not feel hungry. As he replied in the affirmative
they rushed upon him, and began to cut slices from his

^f>

n ■

' i

f [

128

HISTORY OF CANADA

anuH, and throw tlicm into the j)ot ; soon after, thry
presented tliein to him halt" eooked. Tliey then ent
pieces from other parts of liis l)o«iy, ar.d continued their
torture till he died in lin^'crinj; af^onies. The Frenchman
was tonnented to death in the usual numner. Another
Indian, more fortunate, while attemj)ting to escape, wa«
shot dead on tlu? Hj)ot ; a fourth was made prisoner.
When news reached the allies of this dreadful tragedy,
the war-cry was immediately wounded, and the remain-
ing captive was put to death with every refinement of
cruelty.* Chani])lain himself, though deeply afflicted by
the intelligence, saw no longer any i)ossihility of avert-
ing liostilities ; he felt that, as a countryman had been
deprived of life, the power of the nation would be held in
contempt if no resentment were shown at so dreadful
an outrage. Indeed he experienced no little trouble,
even among the friendly tribes, who immediately sur-
rounded him. In scvci'al cases, Euroi)eans were mur-
dered in an atrocious manner, and under circumstances
which rendered it impossi])le to accept as an explana-
tion the assurance that parties of Iroquois had pene-
trated to the spot. After overlooking these as much as
possible, a fresh instance having occurred, he demanded
that an individual, to whom strong suspicion attached,
should be put into his hands. lie detained him fourteen
months ; but being unable to procure positive evidence,
and pressed by other circumstances now to be related, he
set him at liberty.

The dignity of the French required that vigoro>\is
measures should have been taken to avenge so great a
wrong ; but their attention was soon called to other
quarters. Hostilities having broken out with England,
two of their subjects, David and Louis Kertk, Calvinist
refugees, entered the service of that country, where they
were known unde: the name of Kirk. They equi})-
ped a^ squadron, which sailed to the mouth of the St
Lawrence, captured several vessels, and intercepted the

• Champlain, tome ii. pp. 14f>, 211-214.
5

UNDER Tin: FRENCH.

129

coromimication between the mother-country and the
colony. Tlie aettU'rn, who hud not yet sufficiently ex-
tended cultivation towupply theniHelves with provv'ions,
were thus reduced to the greatest distress. At IcngLli,
in July 1({21), Sir Duvid Kirk sununoned Quebec. As,
in addition to famine, the ammunition was nearly ex-
hausted, the governor considered himselt* as havmg no
choice but to surrender. The invader, who still retainotl
many of the feelings of his birth, promised honourable
conditions) and every species of good treatment to his
countrymen. They were allowed to depart with their
arms, clothes, and baggage. The rec^uest of a ship to con-
vey them directly home could not be complied with ;
but they were promised a commodious passage by way
of England. Champlain was desirous to take with him
two little native girls, whom he had carefully educated,
and although at first objected to, this was granted on a
fuller explanation. The place being surrendered, ICirk
and the English showed to the garrison every species of
courtesy ; though Baillif, a renegade Erenchman, to
whom he intrusted the keys of the magazine, seized a
great quantity of furs, besides various articles of church
property, and subjected his countrymen to all the ill
treatment in his power.

Champlain, who arrived at Dover c a the 27th Oc-
tober, proceeded thence to London, For the purpose of
conferrmg with the French ambassador. The differences
between the two nations were now in a train of adjust-
ment ; but a large party in tho Gallic cabinet set too
little value on the settlement to think its restoration
worth insisting upon. Champlain strongly deprecated
this view of the subject ; his counsels at length pre-
vailed at the court of Louis XIII. ; and when the
English found the matter seriously pressed, they con-
sented without much difficulty. The final treaty,
however, was not signed till the 29th March 1632.

The indifference with which both countries viewed this
colony, though bearing the pompous title of New France,
was not Ul justified by its actual condition. A fort

VOL. I.

J 30

HISTORY OP CANADA

' 'I

[)' I

with some houses and bftrracks at Quebec ; a few huts
for fishing and trade at Tadoussac, Trois Rivieres, and
Montreal, formed nearly all that answered to that im-
posing name.* But even prior to its late disaster,
arrangements had been made witli a view to rescue
it from this depressed state. Under the direction of
Cardinal Richelieu, whose administration was marked
by a bold and enterprising character, an association
was fonned of a hundred distinguished individuals, who
undertook that, by the year 1643, they would raise the
population to 6000. They engaged to maintain the emi-
grants for three years, bestowing upon them lands and
seed-corn. Thev were also to send a suitable number of
clergymen, subsisting them for fifteen years, and at the
end of that period to assign them glebes sufficient for their
support.t Their operations were suspended by tlie
disiistrous events just narrated ; but when the above
treaty restored Canada to the French, their rights were
fully confirmed, and they made no hesitation in rein-
vesting Champlain with his former jurisdiction. The
year 1633 had arrived, however, before an expedition
was ready to sail, which carried with it more property
than was supposed at the time to exist in the colony.
The governor found most of those whom he had left ;
but their prosperity must have been greatly cheeked })y
the bigoted spirit which induced the court to prohibit
altogether the exercise of the reformed religion, by
whose professors chiefly the settlement had been su])-
ported. Some small compensation was afforded, by
the institution of religious establishments embracing-
objects of general education and instruction. A son
of the Marquis de Gamache, whose fervour had hnpel-
led him to join the order of Jesuits, conceived the
ambition of founding a college at Quebec, and was ena-
bled by his friends to offer 6000 gold crowns for this
purpose. His proposal was readily accepted, and, though

• Heriot, History of Canada, 8vo, London, 1804 (translated
from Charlevoix, Histoire de la Nouvelle France), p. 4'J.
-|- Charlevoix in Heriot, pp. lijj 38.

'/*u

UNDER THE FRENCH.

131

delayed hy the misfortunes of the colony, was carried
Jnto effect in 1(535. Four years later, under the auspices
of the Duchess d'Aiguillon, a party of Ursuline nuns
were sent out, nnd a seminary estahlishcd by tliem at
Q,ue])ec. But the religious foundation from which tlu^
greatest advantages were derived was that projected by
the Abbe Olivier, who had originated the order of St Sul-
piee, and ])roposed that a seminary, bearing its name
and composed of its members, should be formed in New
France. Tl king listened favourably to this sugges-
tion, and, wi I the view of realizing it, made a grant of
the whole island of Montreal. A party was formed, the
Sieur Maisonneuve was placed at its head, and invested
with the government. That important place, where hi-
tlicrto there had been only a few detached huts, assumed
now the aspect of a regular settlement, and rose, by gra-
dual steps, until it attained a great degree of j)rosperity.*
But, in the mean time, the rising colony was destine<l
to encounter severe disasters. The death of Champlain,
early in 1G86, was a severe blow. Though some parts of
his early policy were very questionable, his devotion to
the cause, his energy and high reputation, were generally
viewed as the chief l)ond by which the whole undertaking
had been held together. The company, after their first
great effort, soon relaxed, and allowed the settlement to
relapse into a languisliing state. They had sent indeed a
considerable number of monks and nuns ; but of troops
and stores, which were more urgently wanted, the
supply was very scanty. The situation of M. de Mont-
magny, the new governor, was rendered more critical
by the state of the Indian nations. We have already
seen the renewal of the war with the Iroquois ; and
as the weakness of the French had rendered it im-
possible for them to afford any aid to their native
allies, that warlike confederacy had advanced by rapid
steps to a sui>remacy of power. They had completely
humbled the Algonquins, who formerly held the fore-

• Charlevoix in Heriot, p. 49-55.

132

HISTORY OF CANADA

'i'.'

I \

w\ ^H

most place in the savage world ; they closely pressed
tJie Hurons, scarcely allowing their canoes to pajss up
and down the river ; and they now threatened in great
force the settlement of Trois Rivieres. In this exigency,
Montmagny's resources enabled him only to carry on
a defensive warfare, which he appears to have done
with vigour, erecting a fort at the mouth of the river
Sorel, by which the Iroquois chiefly made their de-
scents. That fierce people, whether tired of so long a
contest or awed by the renewed power displayed by the
French, began to make proposals for a solid peace ; and
though the governor had good reason to doubt their since-
rity and dread some sinister object, his situation left no
choice but to receive them with apparent cordiality. He
therefore repaired to Trois Rivieres to meet their de-
puties, while the chiefs of the tribes in alliance with
him came also to the interview. The envoys of the
Five Nations then produced seventeen belts, which they
had arranged along a cord fastened between two stakes.
Their orator came forward and addressed the governor-
general by the title of Ononthio, which, in their language,
signifies Great Mountain ; and though it was in refer-
ence to his name of Montmagny, they continued ever after
to apply this term to the French viceroy. They often
added the respectful appellation of father. The speaker
declared the sincerity of their intentions, and their wish
*' to forget their songs of war, and to resume the voice
of cheerfulness." He then proceeded to the exposition
of the belts, which occupied three hours, each explana-
tion being accompanied with appropriate gestures, which
alone would have been almost sufficient to unfold his
meaning. Thus, having occasion to refer to the diffi-
culties of canoe-navigation, he performed all the move-
ments necessary in guiding one through the rapids, and,
representing himself as striking against a rock, used
signs expressive of the pain caused by such an acci-
dent. These belts variously expressed the calming of the
spirit of war, the opening of the paths, the mutual
visits to be paid, the feasts to be given, the restitution

UNDER THE FRENCH.

133

of the captives, and other friendly proceedings. The
governor, in conformity to Indian etiquette, delayed his
answer for two days, when, at another general meeting,
he bestowed as many presents as he had received belts,
and through an ir.terpreter expressed the most pacific
sentiments. Piskaret, a great Algonquin chief, then
said, — " Behold a stone, which I place on the sepulchre
of those who were killed in the war, that no one may
attempt to remove their bones, and that every desire of
avenging their death may be laid aside." Three dis-
charges of cannon were considered as sealing the treaty.
It was for some time faithfully observed, and unwonted
tranquillity reigned throughout this savage region. The
Iroquois, the Algonquins, and Hurons forgot their deadly
feuds, and mingled in the chase as if they had been
one nation.*

' M. de Montmagny, like his predecessor, appears to
have commanded the ^'^'^^'^ral respect of the native inha-
bitants. Unluckily, ii • i • jquence of an attempt by De
Poinci, who command .^^ iii the West Indies, to render
himself independent, the court adopted the jealous po-
licy of continuing no governor in power longer than
three years. This system was peculiarly ill suited to a
settlement like that of Canada, where intimate local
knowledge, and a peculiar mixture of firmness and ad-
dress, were necessary to deal with tumultuary tribes
whom they had not strength to subdue. Montmagny
was replaced by Ailleboust, said to have been a man of
probity, but scarcely possessing the energy required in
so difficult a situation. During his government the Iro-
quois formed the resolution of renewing the war in all
its fury. No ground is stated ; but the Europeans and
their allies in consequence of it became exposed to a
series of dreadful calamities.

The missionaries had not merely formed establish-
ments at Quebec and Montreal, but had also penetrated
into the territory of the savages. In this task they cer-

Charlevoix in Heriot, p. 51-63.

134

HISTORY OF CANADA

f! ;)

k'."!.

i\i^

^ tainly gave full proof of sincerity, renouncing all the
comforts of civilized life, and exposing themseb'^es to
every species of hardship and danger. They have been
accused of unduly combining political with religious ob-
jects. They did certainly employ their influence for
the furtherance of French power ; since they induced a
number even of the Iroc, ;, ois not only to quit the country
to which fhey were so strongly attached and settle within
the limits of the colony, but even to fight against their
own relations. But, at tlie same time, they undoubtedly
reclaimed their votaries from many savage habits, and
trained them to some degree of order and industry. The
Hurons were found the most docile and susceptible of
improvement, and their great numbers afforded a wide
field of exertion. Upwards of three thousand of them
are recorded to have been baptized at one time ; and
though it was easier to make converts than to retain
them, yet a considerable change is said to have appeared
in the aspect of this wild region, and very favourable
prospects to have been opened.* The main object was
to unite them in villages, of which the chief was Sillery,
or St Joseph and St Mary, with several smaller de-
pendent ones.

In 1648 the Iroquois, as already stated, determined
to renew the war; a resolution adopted by them, if
we may believe the annals of the colony, without
any ground, or even pretext. The settlement, how-
ever, was now destined to experience the terrible
effects of their rapid movements; that they could
advance like foxes, and attack like lions ; and that
their arrival and triumphant return were usually an-
nounced at the same moment.t In the village of Sillery,
where four hundred families were settled in the most
profound peace, and the missionary was celebrating the
most solemn ordinances of religion, the cry was suddenly
raised, " We are murdered !" An indiscriminate mas-

; :

* Missions en la Notivelle France, ans 1642, 1643, p. 32 ;
1H47, p. 19 ; ans 164U, 16A(), p. 92.
•f- Missions, ans Hiiti), 1660, p. 17.

) I

UNDER THE FRENCU.

135

sacre had begun, without distinction of sex or age. In
vain did women flee into the depth of the forest with
infants in their arms, wliose feeble cries betrayed
themselves and their mothers. Finally, the assailants
fell upon the priest, and, after each successively had
struck a blow, threw him into the flames.*

Notwithstanding this dreadful example, the Iroquois
having disappeared for six months, the villages relapsed
into their former security. This tranquillity, however,
was again disturbed in 1649 by a party of the same
people, amounting to a thousand, who made an attack
upon the mission of St Ignace. Some resistance was
offered, and ten assailants fell ; but ultimately all the
inhabitants, except three, were killed or carried off; St
Louis was next attacked, and made a brave defence,
which, though it was finally stormed, enabled many of the
women and children to escape. The missionaries could
have saved themselves ; but, like others of their brethren,
attaching a high importance to the administration of the
sacrament to the dying, they sacrificed their lives to the
performance of this sacred rite. They were not killed on
the spot, but " reserved for greater crowns," having to
pass through a dreadful series of torture and mutila-
tion.t

Deep and universal dismay now spread amongthe Huron
people. Their country, lately so peaceable and flour-
ishing, was become a land of iiorror and of blood, a sepul-
chre of the dead, and no hope appeared to the survivors.
The whole nation, with one consent, broke up and fled
for refuge in every direction. A few reluctantly offered
to unite with their conquerors, who, according to their
usual policy, readily accepted them. The greater num-
ber sought an asylum among the natiors of the Cat, tlie
Ottawa, and others still more remote. The missionaries
were greatly at a loss how to proceed with the remnant
of their converts, now nearly reduced to the single vil-

* Mission-., ans 1648, 1649, pp. 12, 13.

+ Missions en la Nouvelie France, ans 164% 1649. pp. 12, 34-39,
c. iv.

i: ■'

I'l!

136

HISTORY OF CANADA

;!!:

]a;>e of St Mary. The island of Manitoulin, in Lake
Huron, was proposed ; but though they wanted the
means or courage to defend their country, they felt a
deep reluctance to remove to such a distance from it.
Tliey preferred the insular situation of St Joseph, in
Lake Ontario, which, it was hoped, would secure them
against this dreaded foe. They enjoyed for some tune
an unwonted tranquillity, but were obliged, by the dif-
ficulty of subsistence, to form stations on the opposite
coast, at the distance of six or eight leagues. It was
hoped, that on any alarm the inhabitants might thence
flee to the island for safety ; but the Iroquois, on learn-
ing the existence of these posts, came upon them suc-
cessively, with such suddenness and fatal precision, that
it seemed as if a destroying angel had guided their steps.
One after the other was surprised and destroyed, till of
many hundreds only a single individual escaped.

The unhappy remnant of the Huron nation, now re-
duced to 300, renounced every hope of remaining in their
native seats. One of their chiefs addressed the mission-
ary, representing the extremity to which they were re-
duced, being ghosts rather than men, and hoping to pre-
serve their wretched existence only by fleeing into the
depth of the forests, or to some distant country. If he
chose to remain where he was, he could only have trees
and rocks to instruct. This was the preface to a solicita-
tion that he should convey them to Quebec, and place
them under the immediate protection of the French set-
tlement. After serious consideration, this was deemed
the most eligible course, and arrangements were imme-
diately made for its execution. They were then led
through the wide regions lately peopled by their coun-
trymen, to the number of ten or twelve thousand, but
which now presented a scene of unbroken ' silence and
desolation. The sombre aspect of the vast forest was
only interrupted by the traces of havock and slaughter
at every spot formerly inhabited, attesting the general
destruction of the Huron name. Overwhelmed with
distress, they reached Quebec, where they experienced

UNDER THE FRENCH.

137

a mortifying contrast to the reception which they would
have found among any neighbouring tribe of savages.
There they would have had every want supplied, and
been welcomed as countrymen and equals. Here they
were viewed only as objects of charity ; and though in
this light considerable exertions were made, the reli-
gious houses finding room for a hundred of the most
destitute, yet the remainder were in danger of perishing
from cold and hunger, till a station could be formed for
them, which, from their fornier chief settlement, was
named Sillery.*

As the Iroquois now lorded it completely over Ca-
nada, the French wore virtually blockaded in the three
forts of Quebec, Trois Rivieres, and Montreal, from un-
der the very cannoxi of which they and their allies were
8i»metimes carried off ; and, almost every autumn, bands
of hostile invaders swept away the limited harvests raised
in the immediate vicinity of these places. Yet in 1653
this fierce nation began, of their own accord, to make
overtures of peace ; and it was found with surprise that
the missionaries had powerfully contributed to this reso-
lution. Thev had been regarded at first with extreme
antipathy, being probably considered as enemies of
their race, seeking to subvert the native deities and
customs. In the course ^f the late inroads, however, a
considerable number had been canied off, and after sul
fering protracted torture and partial inutilation, had been
spared and adopted. Then their meek deportment, their
solemn ceremonies, and the fervour with which " they
raised to God hands without fingers," made a strong im-
pression on the savage breast. Hence, at different
times, deputies from the ruling horde said in their
figurative language that they came to wipe away the
blood which had reddened the mountains, the lakes,
and the rivers, to bring back the sun, which Imd
liid his face during the late dreadful scenes of war-
fare. They solicited, at the same time, " black-robes,"

Missions en la Nouvelle i ranee, ans 1649, 1650, pp. 83-88, 100.

138

HISTORY OF CANADA

If!

-!Mi

i: t

as they termed the missionaries, to teach them the
Christian doctrine. This invitation to go into the midst
of ferocious enemies, into a land yet smoking with
European blood, would have shaken the nerves of most
men. Yet individuals were found who, with a generous
self-devotion, did not shrink from the undertaking ; nor
does it appear that the implied pledge of safety was vio-
lated even during war.* The Onondagoes, in 1656, went
so far as to solicit that a settlement connected with a
mission should be formed in their territory ; and Lauson,
then governor, having acceded to this proposal, sent the
Sieur Dupuys, with fifty of his countrymen, who built a
church in the bosom of that savage region. This establish-
ment, however, was generally dis'^.pproved by th. other
tribes; and after it had subsisted two years, formi-
dable assemblages took place, which Dupuys could not
doubt were intended to attack him. He therefore con-
sidered himself fortunate in being able, while their at-
tention was attracted to a great feast given for that
purpose by a friendly Indian, to embark his troops, and
convey them to Montreal.f

The French felt themselves too weak to reject proposals
for peace, though often made with mortifying haughti-
ness. The Viscount d'Argenson, who went out in 1658,
considered it necessary to accept their terms, especially
as the utmost cruelties were otherwise threatened to the
captives. Yet even by these means his countrymen
scarcely cLtained any degree of the expected repose. This
disappointnient arose either from deliberate treachery,
or the impossibility of confining in one course the va-
rious unruly elements " which the confederacy con-
sisted. The most amicable professions hardly procured
a respite from hostility ; for while one party treated,
another attacked : " Peace, it is said, is proclaimed at
Montreal while war rages at Trois Rivieres ; we are
daO y a: iked and murdered by those who call them-

* ..-- .u la Nouvelle France, ans 1655, IGSfi, p. 18-20;

ans }()«0, luul, p. 33-40.
. -|- Charlevoix m Heriot, pp. 74, 81-86.

UNDER THE FRENCH.

139

selves our friends.'* At length, in 1663, it was an-
nounced that a grand deputation was coming from all
the cantons, with the professed intention to unite the
whole earth, and to bury the hatchet so deep, that it
might never again 1)0 dug up ; and they brought with
them a hundred colUrs of wampum. Unhappily a party
of Algonquins, stung by accumulated wrongs, deter-
mmed to violate even the sacred character of such a
mission ; and having formed an ambuscade, they sur-
prised and killed the greater part of them. All prospects
of peace were thus blasted, and war raged with greater
fury than ever.*

The Iroquois, during this period, continually extend-
ed their dominion. Having seen the powerful effect of
firearms, they procured them from the Dutch at Maii-
hatti, and thus acquired an additional superiority over
the neighbouring tribes. They attacked the Ottawas, on
account of the shelter afforded to their fugitive enemies.
That people did not make even an attempt at resistance,
but sought refuge amid marshes or in the islands on
Lake Huron, while others penetrated far south-west into
the valley of the Mississippi, where they formed a junc-
tion with the Sioux. On the same ground the Iroquois
commenced a desperate vjar with the nation of the
Eriez, — a name in their language signifying Cats. After
a somewhat hard struggle, they completely succeeded ;
seven hundred of them stormed the mair fortress of
the enemy, though defended by 2000 men ; and the
survivors were either incorporated with the victors,
(vr fied into remoter regions. This once powerful nation
has left no memorial of its existence except the great
lake which bears its name. It is reckoned that the con-
querors held undisputed sway over a country five hun-
dred miles in circuit. The very sight of one of them
.struck terror into the neighbouring tribes ; and on the
side of New England, the cry of " A Mohawk I" echoed

• Missions en la Nouvelle France, ans IGJiO, lf)6I, p. 12-2G
ans l(jt)3, 1604, p. 160, &c. Heriot, pp. 87, 94, 95.

140

niSTOllY OF CANADA

I . 'I

from Iiill to hill, cauHing gonenil conHirrnation and
flight.*

Amid this Hori(«s of (lisaHtrous events, fhc I<'ronch go-
roniors, whether from weakness or juisiliaiiiinity, heheld
tlio destruetion of their alili'S and tlie eoinplete Jiseend-
oiicy of tliisliostile power, witiiont any attempt to prevent
either. They did not even goto war, hut thought it enough
to kee]) the eidonists shut u|) in fortified posts, whieh
tJio enemy had not skill to i)esiege : >'iu\ notiiingelse pre-
vented them from speedily destroying tiu'se settlenu'iits,
tlieenvironsofwhieh they ilaily insulted. They even made
adeseeiit upon the isle of Orleans, where they surprisid
A party of ninety llunms ; and having killed six, Ixmnd
tlic rest, and made them sing in front of C|uehee, thus
oi>cnly defying the governor. M. Maisonneuve, appre-
luMisive for Montreal, and unahle otherwise to procure
aid, repaired to J^'ranee, where, hy earnest solicitation,
he. ohtained a reinforcement of a hundred men. The
Ilurona, under Kuro])can i)rotection, in a moment of
despondency, had made an offer of uniting themselves to
tlie Iroquois, which, as usual, was readily accejjted ; hut
tlio fomner soon repented. That ])roud nation then sent
tljirty dt>i)uties to remonstrate, not only with them, hut
with the governor-general, M. de Lauson. To him they
said, " Lift up thy arm, Ononthio, and allow thy chil-
dren, whom thou holdest pressed to thy hosom, to de-
part ; for if they are guilty of any imprudence, thou hast
reason to fear, lest in coming to chastise them, my
lilows fall on thy head." They even demanded canoes
to convey these reluctant associates. Lauson, insten/l
of resenting this haughty address, caused them to he
itifomied, that if the Hurons were inclined to go, h(^
would not oppose their departure ; that he had no
cjianoes, but they might construct as many as they
wanted. After this, considering that no option was
left them, except to which of the live nations they

• Heriot, p. 7:^-77. Missions, ans 1659, 1660, p. 33-35. Colden's
History of the Five Nations, vol. i. pp. 3, 4,

rNDKIl Tin: FUICiNCIf,

141

nation and

U36. Colden's

hIiouM unite tluMnsolvos, the? ^ontor part in coUMO«|uen«j
li'ft tlu' islimil.^

A mill tiu'Hc (ixtcrnal cvIIh, the colony w«w fartlmr
visitt'd l>y u tiirrihlo convulHion of imtiiro. A HucccHHion
ofciirtluiuakcH, which commenced on the r>t!i Fehnmry
KKIM, were felt for half u year with little inttfrnuHnion
throughout all (.'anjwla, recurring two or three tinws
every day, agitating hoth the earth and the watenn,
and spreading universal alarm ; yet, as tluy did not
iniliit any pennanent injury, nor caust; the Iosh of
a single life, the accountb given of them are probably
much exaggerated.t

Meantime! the most urgent representations wcire nuido
to iiouis XIV. that his government was tot^illy neglect-
ing one of tlu! finest countries in the world, and exp<)»-
int' the b'rench nanu! to contempt, by allowing it to Ihj
truir)pled u[>on by a handful of savages. 'J'hat j»rince,
who ii.id recently assumed the reins of power, being eager-
ly bent u[)on every means of aggrandizement, wjw not
likely to overlook one so considerable, lie was seconded
by Ids minister Colbert, who had speciiilly devoted hiw
thoughts to the extension of commerce ; and it was there-
fore immediately resolvtul to take sttsps for raising Canada
to her due importance. Four hundred troops were ordered
thither ; and M. de Monts wjis appointed commissioner to
examine into and regulate the different branches of ad-
ministration. The governor had hitherto exercised in
person, and without control, all its functions ; but there
was now united with him u council of royal appoint-
ment, and an intendant, to whom were intrusted the
weighty concerns of justice, police, finance, and marine.

This new system did not at first work altogether
smoothly, nor did the independent materials of which it
was composed well harmonize. M. do Mesy, the gover-
nor, after having sent back to France two of the prhici-
pul members of council, was himself recalled. Tlve

• Heriot, pp. 7.i, 75, 7H-H2.

t Ibid. pp. yy.102. Missions, an 1603, pp. 17, 10.

V ID

, I

'' 1

'1 jl

% i .tent'it

]42

HISTORY OF CANADA

court, however, pci-scvcred in its detorminfttion to raise
the new colony to a j)roi)or rnnk. Tlie UHHociates who
had HO kmg negk'cted it, and were unwilling- to involve
theniwelves in a largo outlay with uncertain returns, re-
signed their privileges into the hands of the crown ; and
government, according to the unvarying system of that
age, placed it in the hands of the West India Company,
though it retauied for some time the admmistration of
itvS affairs.*

In pursuance of these views, the Marquis de Tracy
was sent out in 1(505 under the joint character of vice-
roy and lieutenant-general, and thus invested with un-
controlled power. Along with hun, in addition to the
former detachment, was despatched the entire regiment
of Carignan-Salieres, for some time employed in Hun-
gary against the Turks, where it had acquired a high
reputation. A considcrahle numher of settlers, including
artisans, with horses and cattle, fonned an accession to
the colony exceeding the amount of its actual memhers.

The new viceroy lost no time in taking measures for
checking the insolence of the Iroquois, and estahlishing
a supremacy over these proud savages. He began by
erecting three forts on the river Richelieu, in a situa-
tion fitted to cover the French territory from their in-
cursions. Overawed by these movements, and by the
report of his large force, three of the cantons sent depu-
ties with ample professions of friendship, proposing an
exchange of all the prisoners taken on both sides since
the last treaty. The viceroy was pleased with their de-
portment, and agreed to the terms. The fierce Oneydas
and Mohawks, however, still kept aloof ; and a party of
the latter even killed three officers, one of whom, De
Chasy, was nephew to the viceroy. But as two corps
were advancing into their territory, an envoy from each
nation soon appeared at Quebec, professing to negotiate
for peace. They were well received, and invited to the
governor's table, when the conversation happening to

• Charlevoix in Heriot, pp. 97, 103-112.

UNDER THE FRENCH.

143

rown ; and

full on Do Chft«y's doatli, tlu* Moluvwk, in n pjiroxvHin
(>f wivage pride, lifted his unn, Maying, " With this
liiind tlmt y<)»ni^' otticer was slain." 'IVaey, in a trans-
port of raj»;e, t(d«l him he Hlu)nld never live to kill
another Frenchman, and ordered him to he iinine<liatelv
strangled ; while the other dejmty wa« detained a pri-
soner.*

This event put an ci\d to all pacific overtures. Do
Coureelles had already hegun his march into the Mo-
hawk dominions ; hut as it was the depth of winter, the
excessive cold, together with the wary conduct adopted
})y the enemy, prevented hhn from effecting much. On
his return he found the viceroy ready to take the field,
with an expedition on a greater scale, in which 000 of
the Carignan regiment were employed. He detained,
without listening to them, two new ambassadors, and,
notwithstanding his advanced age, resolved to command
in person. In spite of every i)rccaution, the Indians had
received notice of his approach, and, abandoning their
villages, they left him to march through a desolate*
country, lie found, however, an abundance of grain
buried near their deserted abodes, which enabled him to
subsist his troops till he reached the extreme frontier,
where he found the Indians assembled on a spot whither
they luid not expected him to penetrate. On discovering
the French they attempted no resistance, but fled witli
precijiitation into still more remote and less accessible
retreats ; and as the viceroy could not attempt to occupy
this extensive territory, he found it necessary to return,
without striking any decisive blow.

Though this expedition had not fully answered its
object, yet the awe which it inspired, added to the
protection of the forts, secured the colony in a great
degree from the inroad of these fierce marauders. It
enjoyed a long tranquillity, and began (^ven to assume
a flourishing and cultivated appearance. Most of the
regiment of Carignan, both officers and soldiers, settled

• Heriot, p. 113.116.

144

HISTORY OF CANADA

i^'

I ,

hi' I H- M . if

ii. llie country, where they received liberal grants
of land. As many of the former belonged to families
of rank, they rendered society more polished than was
usual in transatlantic communities, though they intro-
duced the feudal laws and usages at that time common
in Europe. Considerable inconvenience having arisen
from the scattered manner in which a great part of the
lands had been brought into cultivation, an attempt was
made to concentrate them ; but the amount of labour
and property already invested rendered this to a great
extent impracticable.*

M. de Courcelles, who succeeded Tracy in 1667, is
accused of some faults in the internal administration ;
but in his conduct towards the Indians, which formed
the most important and difficult branch, he displayed a
happy union of firmness and address. He even suc-
ceeded, though not without difficulty and some indig-
nation on their part, in preventing his savage allies
from engaging in war against the Iroquois. He availed
himself of this auspicious interval to extend the power
of France to the interior of Canada and the upper
j)arts of the St Lawrence. Two Jesuits, Perrot and
Marquette, were employed to survey those districts.
The latter induced a large body of the Hurons to settle
at Michillimakinac, on an island in the river, between
the great lakes Huron and Michigan, a situation very
favourable for the fur-trade. Agreeably to the reports
transmitted to him, the governor fixed upon Cataraqui,
on Lake Ontario, near the present site of Kingston, as an
advantageous point both for the protection of the trade
and for holding the Five Nations in awe. He visited
the spot, and having procured a meeting of tbe savage
cliiefs, obtained their consent to the measure, carefully
concealing, of course, the most important object con-
templated in its erection.

Courcelles had requested his recall, and on his return
to Quebec in 1672 found his place supplied by Louis,

»!

• Heriot, p. 120-125.

UNDER THE FRENCH*

145

:al grants

families
[ than was
hey intro-
e common
ing arisen
part of the
tempt was

of lahour
to a great

in 1667, is
nistration ;
Ich formed
displayed a
! even sue-
some indig-
ivage allies
He availed
the power
the upper
Perrot and
30 districts.
)ns to settle
er, between
lation very
the reports

1 Cataraqui,
gston, as an
)f the trade

He visited
the savage
e, carefully
object con-

n his return
d by Louis,

Count de Frontenac, who was destined to act a most im-
portant part in the history of Canada. He was able, en-
terprising, active, and ambitious, but proud, overbearing,
and subject to capricious jealousies and enmities. He
entered, however, cordially into the views of his prede-
cessor in regard to the fort at Cataraqui, which he
immediately caused to be established ; and it has often
from him been called Fort Frontenac. At the same
tune he set on foot, or actively promoted, vast projects
for exploring the interior regions of America.*

Although this leader conducted the aflfairs of the
colony with spirit and energy, his domineering temper
could not brook the checks by which a jealous court
sought to limit his jurisdiction. It was enjoined that
all affairs of importance should be decided in a council
composed of himself, the bishop, and the intendant, each
wiih an equal vote. The prelate was supported by a
numerous body of clergy, many of whom were connected
with powerful families at home, and were accused of
wishing to obtain the supreme direction of affairs.
Their influence was laudably exerted in opposing the
sale of spirits to the savages, which produced most per-
nicious effects, but which the count considered as at once
extremely profitable, and a means of attaching them to
the French interest. The government, on carefully con-
sidering the opposite statements, decided according to the
opinion of the clergy, and strictly prohibited the traffic.
But the count had still more violent dissensions with the
intendant, M. Chesneau, who was not only a member of
the council, but authorized to act as its president ; and
being considered a man of a mild temper, the chief blame
was thrown on the governor. As it was found unpos-
sible for them to act together, the court determined to
re<;all both ; and M. de la Barre, accordingly, in 1682, was
sent out as the new viceroy.t

Canada was then in a critical situation, which ren-
dered it ill able to sustain the want of a vigorous

• Heriot, p. 123-140.
VOL. 1.

t Ibid. pp. 146-149, 160, 161.

146

HISTORY OP CANADA

" f"

ill!

liiffi

administration. The fine territory on the Hudson, at
first occupied by the Dutch under the title of New
Belgium, was subsequently claimed, and, after several
contests, secured by the English, who named it New
York. Here, according to European ideas, they held
the Iroquois country as included within their domi-
nion ; and though this pretension could not be yet
declared, they endeavoured with success to court that
people, and alienate them from the French. Their
merchants, carrying on a free trade, while that of
their rivals was fettered by an exclusive company, dealt
with the tribes on more advantageous terms. The
Iroquois, therefore, found it their interest, not only to
carry all their furs to the English market, but to buy
up those of the savages in alliance with France. Heavy
complaints were made by that power ; but the Indians,
assured of British support, treated them with great in-
difference ; and that shrewd race soon discovered, in the
eager competition between these two European na-
tions, the means of rendering their own position more
secure and imposing. The military strength of the
colony, too, was greatly reduced ; the troops who had
gone out with De Tracy, having had lands assigned to
them, were become proprietors and cultivators rather
than soldiers ; and though they held their tenures on
the condition of military service, they could not be
called out without interrupting the agriculture of the
country, and endangering its subsistence.

M. de la Barre, however, determined upon war, and,
having obtained a reinforcement of 200 men, advanced
up the river. He was met at Montreal by deputies from
the cantons, who made strong ; »rofessions of friendship ;
but these he considered vague and unworthy of credit,
and was confirmed in this opinion when soon after a
party of fourteen of his countrymen were attacked and
plundered.* He endeavoured, however, to divide the
strength of these fierce tribes, by sending belts of peace

Heriot, pp. 162.108, 174, 175.

r \

UNDER THE FRENCH.

147

to three of them, and directing all his force against the
Senekas, whom he considered the most hostile, and also,
we suspect, because it was through their territory that
the English penetrated to the fur-trade on the lakes.
This hope was quite illusory in regard to the members
of so politic a confederation. In proceeding upwards,
he received notice that deputies from the other tribes
were coming to mediate a peace between him and their
neighbours ; that in case of refusal, they were deter-
mined to make common cause with them ; and, in the
event of this alternative, they had received ample as-
surances of support from New York. The difficulties of
the French commander were greatly increased by sick-
ness, which, in consequence of the bad quality of the pro-
visions, had broken out in his army. Yet when the
deputies met him on the northern shore of Lake Ontario,
he assumed a lofty tone. He complained of their inroads
into the country of the Illinois and other tribes in alliance
with France ; of their outrages against the traders of that
nation ; and particularly of their havmg conducted the
English to the lakes, and enabled them to supplant
the commerce of his countrymen. He concluded by
stating that unless reparation were made for these in-
juries, with a promise to abstain from them in future,
war and the devastation of their country must be the
immediate consequence. The deputies very coolly re-
plied, that Ononthio appeared to speak like one in a
dream ; and that if he would open his eyes, he would see
himself wholly destitute of the means to execute these
formidable threats. They defended their right to make
war upon any Indian nations by whom they conceived
themselves aggric i ; adding that the French party
were attacked by then: because they were conveying arms
to their enemies. As to the English, they had allowed
them to pass through their lands, on the same pruiciple
that they had given permission to his people, and
would continue to do so. They Avere afraid lest the
great number of warriors here present, if they proceeded
to Cataraqui, should trample down the tree of jeace

148

HISTORY OF CANADA

h!,f

there so happily planted. They were still willing to
dance the calumet-dance under the shadow of its branches,
and to leave the hatchet buried, unless the country
granted to them by the Great Spirit should be attacked.
The Onondago deputies guaranteed reparation for any
actual plunder inflicted on French traders, but added
that no more could be conceded, and that the army must
be immediately withdrawn. However humiliating these
terms were, after such lofty threats and preparations,
De la Barre had no choice but to comply.* The
English, on the other hand, reproached the Iroquois
for not having prosecuted the war, and in terms which
seemed to indicate a right to direct their movements.
They replied, however, in the same determined man-
ner : " Ononthio," said they, " is our father, and Cor-
laer (as they called the Governor of New York) our
brother ; but neither of them is our master. He who
created the world gave us the land which we occupy ;
we are free ; we respect both ; but neither has a right
to command us ; and no person ought to take offence
that we prevent the earth from being troubled." On
another occasion, they said, " Brother Corlaer, we tell
you, that we shall bind a covenant chain to our arm
and to his as thick as that post."t We cannot forbear
remarking, that in this whole transaction the savages
appear to great advantage compared both with their
European allies and enemies.

De la Barre, on arriving at Quebec, received de-
spatches which placed him greatly at fault. A fresh rein-
forcement had been landed, and the letters from court
intimated the full expectation that he was carrying
on a triumphant war with the Five Nations. On
this siiwuosition, the king made an absurd and cruel re-
quest, i lat he would send a number of Iroquois pri-
soners to man his galleys. We may then imagine the
dissatisfaction felt at home when the real issue of the
campaign was reported. The governor was immediately

Heriot, p. 170-189. f Ibid. p. 179-180. Colden, vol. i. p. 66.

UNDER THE FRENCH.

149

pronounced unfit for his situation, and was superseded
in 1685 by the Marquis de Denonville, distinguished as
a brave and active officer.

This commander on his arri^'dl liiade some professions
of a w^ish to maintain peace ; though he must have under-
stood that a quite opposite course was really expected of
him. After giving what he professed to consider a fair trial,
he soon declared his conviction that the Iroquois could
never be conciliated, and that it was a matter of political
necessity either to extirpate or reduce them to entire
dependence. He proposed also to erect a strong fort at
Niagara, both to hold them in check and also to pre-
vent their introducing the English to the fur-trade on
the lakes. He opened his campaign with a measure
the most iniquitous and unjustifiable that can well be
conceived. Having, under various pretexts, allured a
number of chiefs to meet him on the banks of Lake
Ontario, he suddenly put them in irons, and sent them
off to France, to fulfil the king's absurd scheme with
regard to the manning of his galleys. He had not
scrupled to employ two missionaries in this base stra-
tagem ; but the Indians believing them to be uncon-
scious instruments of the crime, generously spared them
both.*

There could now be nothing on either side but war
to the utmost extremity. Denonville was fully pre-
pared for it, and had 800 French regulars, with 1300
Canadians and savages, ready to advance into the Seneka
country, with the resolution, it is said, of putting all to
the sword. On approaching the first villao^c, they were
suddenly attacked in front and rr:ar by 800 of the enemy,
and it was most mortifying to the ZJ'rench to find them-
selves thrown into a good deal of confusion, and to see
the battle retrieved by their undisciplined allies, I'he
Iroquois, being repulsed, did not again make their ap-
pearance in the field. The conqueror marched for ten
days through vast woods, burning and destroying the

* Heriot, pp. 190-194, 208, 209.

150

HISTORY OF CANADA

ii '

r A

U'l

■I't

li\.

m'.

I:r|:lli^i'

grain and provisions, but not meeting i single enemy.
A doubt respecting the lid«lity of his allies, and, as we
suspect, the exhausted state of his general equipment,
then induced him to retire. He carried into execution,
however, his plan of erecting and garrisoning a fort at
Niagara.

Notwithstanding the semblance of success in this expe-
dition, it appeared, on the retreal. of the. invaders, that
the Iroquois were complete masters of tlio uppei- course
of the St Lawrence. They blockaded the two forts oi' Nia-
gara and Catoniqui, the former of which they redut-ud
and rased to tdc ground. Tliey covered Lake Ontario
with their caiio* s. The native alliefi of the Fro ach, seeing
no prospecL of tl3^iis+anc^ from thi'in, began to waver ;
nor is it doubted tliat,. if ilio savages had understood
tlie art of siege, they v/oulid hp.v rooted tl^e Europeans
entirely oat of Cauiidn. A& 'J. \fai , tliey determined on
the course, which, it must lit ownt d, they had often
shown themsv'^ves vt ry ready to embrace, of making
proposals of peace. Deputies -arrived at Montreal, leav-
ing at two days' maroh behind a corps of 1200 of their
countrymen, ready for immediate action. They boasted
to the go senior of their commanding position, and, insist-
ing upon the restoration of the chiefs unjustly seized
and of all o? lu r captives, allowed him only four days to
accept the oiicr, otherwise the whole country would be
in flames. Th.^ deepest consternation prevailed at Mont-
real ; and Denonville saw himself under the necessity
of accepting these humiliating terms, and requesting
back from France the chiefs whom he had iniquitously
sent thither.*

This treaty was inten'upted by an unexpected act of
treachery. The Hurons had entered into the war on the
full understanding that it should not terminate till the
Iroquois were destroyed or completely humbled. They
drt^aded now that they might be left defenceless, and have
to sustain the attacks of that potent tribe ; an issue which

• Heriot, p. 212-219. Colden, p. 9'? .i Potherie, vol. ii. pp. 207
200.

UNDER THE FRENCH.

151

their principal chief, the Rjit, took a most savage means
of averting. Having learned that a body of their de-
puties were to land at the cascadea of St Lawrence on their
way to ?Iontreal, he and a party of his countrymen lay
in anibvif^h, a^id killed or captured them as they succes-
sively diseitiharkcd. He then informed the prisoners
that this crirn, Ijad been committed at the instigation
of ilie j^avvip r, \/ho had even practised a decep-
tion to induce him to coRimit it, and pretending to be
shocked at the trtiachery into which he had been seduced,
he sent them home. It is easy to conceive the indigna-
tion of th.3 cantons at this intelligence ; and though
Dcnomville disavowed, in the strongest terms, the alle-
• f^atioiis of tlxc Rat, the flame once kindled could not be
fully quenched. The Hurons were also encouraged by
the hope of gaining over the allies of the French, who,
seeing that people no longer able to protect them, were
all disposed to make terms with the party which now
appeared the strongest. The Iroquois made a sudden
descent on the island of Montreal, which they laid waste
with fire and sword, carrying off 200 prisoners, without
having experienced any resistance. The fort at Cata-
raqui, like that at Niagara, was blown up and aban-
doned.

In this extremity, when the very existence of the
colony was threatened, it was judged indispensable to
place at its head an officer possessing energy of cha-
racter, and address in dealing with the savages. These
qualities were united iii the Count de Frontenac, who,
during his former administration, had made himself both
beloved aid feared by all those nations ; and experi-
ence, it was hoped, would teach him to avoid the errors
which had led to his recall. The count took out with
him the captive chiefs when Im rre^'-^cessor had so
unjustly seized ; and so fiscmatiug vere his manners,
that he completely ga' .jd their favour, -Oureouhare,
the principal one, ren^aining ever after most str- ngly
attached to him.
Frontenac, >n his arrival in 1689, endeavoured

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152

HISTORY OF CANADA

to open a negotiation with the Iroquois, whom he
entertained sanguine hopes of conciliating. By the
advice of Oureouhare, he sent a deputy of that nation
whom he found at Montreal, with four of his captive
countrymen, to announce to the cantons his return, and
his wish to resume amicable relations. The friendly
chief transmitted a message, requesting them to send an
embassy to their ancient father, from whom they would
experience much tenderness and esteem, and whom he
would not quit till the affair was satisfactorily adjusted.

The council of the Iroquois, after some deliberation,
sent back the same deputies with six belts, intimating
their resolution. It was expressed in lofty and even
embittered terms. Choosing to consider Ononthio as
always one and the same, they complained that his rods
of correction had been too sharp and cutting. The
roots of the tree of peace which he had planter!, at Fort
Frontenac had been withered by blood ; the ground had
been polluted with treachery and falsehood. They de-
manded atonement for these injuries, and that Oureou-
hare, with his captive companions, should be sent back,
previous to the liberation of the French prisoners.
Ononthio would then be at liberty to plant again the
** tree of peace, but not on the same spot." This answer
was regarded by Frontenac as very unsatisfactory ; yet
anxious to keep open the negotiation, he sent an
ojfficer with eight belts from Oureouhare, importing
that they should detach themselves from the English
and Dutch, and unite in close alliance with France. Till
then that chief declined returning to his canton.*

Two circumstances emboldened the Iroquois to assume
this high tone. In consequence of the revolution of
1688, when the cause of James II. was embraced by the
French monarch, the two kingdoms were now at open
war ; and the Five Nations could depend upon the cor^-
dial co-operation both of the English and the Dutch. At
the same time, they were engaged in a treaty with the

• Heriot, p. 220-236.

TTNDER THE FRENCH.

J53

Ottawas and other tribes, who, besides being anxious
to have a better market for their furs, complained that
the alliance of the French was only a burden to them,
as they found it necessary to protect them instead of
enjoying their protection. In this crisis, the count feeling
a strong inducement to do something to retrieve the repu-
tation of hiscountry, resolved to strike the first blow against
the English, on whose support the enemy so strongly
relied. An expedition was fitted out at Quebec in 1690
against Corlaer or Schenectady, the frontier town of New
York, and from which the Indians gave name to the go-
vernor. This party, composed of 110 French and a num-
ber of savages, succeeded completely in surprising the
place. They found the gates open, and encountered re-
sistance only at one point, where it was soon overcome.
The fort and every house were pillaged and burnt. The
English accounts add, that all the horrors of Indian
warfare were let loose on the defenceless inhabitants ;
that sixty-three men, women, and children were mas-
sacred in cold blood, and a small remnant carried away
as prisoners. The victors, on their return, suffered
severely from want of food, being obliged to kill almost
all their horses. The Iroquois were not intimidated nor
estranged from the English by this catastrophe ; on the
contrary, they sent to the survivors a number of belts,
importing that they felt and would avenge the wrong, as if
done to themselves. Not a man in Canada should dare to
go out to cut a stick. " We are," said they, " of the race
of the bear, and a bear you know never yields while a
drop of his blood is left." One belt, importing eye-
water to make their sight sharp, delicately intimated
the necessity of greater precaution in future. Others
were to wipe away their tears, and assure them that
" the sun, which had been cloudy, and sent this disaster,
would shine again with his pleasant beams."*

Meantime, a smaller expedition from Trois Rivieres
succeeded in surprising and dc*?' roying an English village

• Herict, •. 237-242. Colden, vol. i. p. 120-125.

iii

mim

■ Mitfti

154

HISTORY OP CANADA

I f

named Sementcls. The count also sent M. dc Louvigny,
with a large detachment, to strengthen the remote post
of Michillimakinae, which had been maintained with
great difficulty. This service was effected, and a party
of the enemy, who attempted to surprise them, were
cx)mplctcl}' defeated. NotwithstandirT this success, the
Iroquois maintained the same acUvi loviaty; but a
favourable influence was prodiiod en the old allies of
the French, who seeing them resume their former
energy, determined to prefer their support to that of
new and suspicious friends. The Ottawas owned that
they had made some progress in a negotiatiop hvi. i.^
soon as they heard of the return of their ancient father,
had determined to break it off. The Hurons, who had
not taken such open .tops, denied having ever entered
into any treaty.*

Meantime, a storm was ready to burst, which threat-
ened the very exibtence of French power in America.
The English determined to strike a blow, which might
at once deprive the enemy i^-^ all his possessions. Two
expeditions were prepared, one by sea from Boston,
against Quebec, the other by land from New York,
against Montreal. The first was commanded by Sir
William Phipps, a native of New England, of humble
birth, who had raised himself by his talents to a high
station. Having sailed with thirty-four vessels of dif-
ferent ^sizes, and a large body of troops, he proceeded
with such activity that he had captured all tiie posts in
Acadia and Newfoundland, with several on the St Law-
pence, and was within a few days' sail of Quebec, before
tlie alarm spread thither. Frontenac, who was at Mon-
treal, hastened dovm to strengthen the defences, which
at that time consisted in a great measure of rude in-
trenchments of timber and earth. On the mornir-'/ of
the 16th October 1690, the fleet appeared ii^ viev and
an officer came with a summons, which was j < mp ' orily
rejected. Sir William took no active measure till mid-

• Heriot, pp. 243-248, 249, 250.

UNDER THE FRENCH.

155

em, were

day on the 18th, — n rcmissncsa which was much ])l.nned.
Hr, then landed 1500 men on the hanks of tht^ ver
St Charles. The French could muster only -"^OO re-
gulars ; but these, posting themselves among rocics and
i)ushcs, witli which tlie marshy ground was covered,
kept up a constant fire, that caused great loss to their
enemy. Before night, however, they retreated into the
town, leaving the assailants masters of the field. In the
evening, the large vessels anchored in front of the city,
and opened a hrisk fire ; but heing directed against the
upper part, it produced little effect. It was renewed
on the following day, and continued till noon, but wa»
equally fruitless, wliile the ships sustained considerahle
damage. Tho squadron was then moved up the river,
beyond Cape Diamond. On the stune day, the troops
'ontinued to advance, though slowly, and harassed by
constant attacks. Phipps, whose only hope was now
fi-om land-batteries, sent on shore six pieces of ordnance,
and next day endeavoured again to push forward with
his men. The militia, however, with increased numbers
and activity, harassed them, and at length, covered
by some pali Nirles, kept u]) so brisk a fire as to arrest
their progress. The English commander at this stage
considering the > terprise 1 .opeless, embarked his soldiers
on the 22d, submitting at the same time to the mortify-
ing necessity of li.t^'ing his cannon and ammunition.
Golden considers it cei-tain, that had he at once made a
vigorous attack on the bo; \ of the place, he would have
easUy carried it. The French, he says, returned fervent
thanks to Providence for having, by a special interposi-
tion, deprived their enemies of common sense.*

The expedition against Montreal did not take place at
the appointed time, owing to a want of concert between
the parties. Next year, however (1691 ), after some desul-
tory ravages by the Iroquois, news arrived that they, with
their English and native allies, were advancing along the
river Sorel. The command at Montreal was then held

i< ii

* Heriot, p. 255-262. Colden, vol. i. pp. 137, 138.

Mat-

11 :

156

HISTORY OP CANADA

I, )|

' ^4*

^}^

il. •'.

by Do Cnlliercs, a very a})lc officer, who Imd pained the
respect and nttjichment of his wivapc n('igh!)our8. It is
said, that on this and other hiph occasions, he danced
with them the war-dance, brand isiiinf^ the hatchet,
slioutinp and hallooing in their national manner. In
addition to his countrymen, he had assembled al)out 800
Indians at the Prairie de hi Magdeleine, near the town.
Still the Iroquois, by their rapid movements and skill in
ambuscade, succeeded in surprising several of the ad-
vanced posts, and carrying off a considerable number of
prisoners. But when the force on both sides was fully
mustered, the assailants, tliough after a very hard con-
test, were o])liged to retreat.

After these successes, the governor felt himself in a
very commanding position, and no longer entertained
any fear for the safety of the colony. Yet the Iroquoia,
under a favourite chief named the Black Cauldron, con-
tinued to make sudden inroads in every direction, render-
ing seedtime and harvest alike precarious, and exposing
every one who stirred out of the forts to the hazard of
losing his life. It was their boast, that their enemies
should have no rest except in the grave. In this de-
sultory contest, the advantage was usually on their side ;
and though a French detachment penetrated into the
canton of the Mohawks, they were obliged to return
without gaining any decisive advantage.*

The Iroquois, however, in the beginning of 1694,
began to show a disposition towards peace. Two Onon-
dadoes came to Montreal, and asked De Callieres if
certain deputies, who were on their way, would be re-
ceived. They were answered in the affirmative ; yet two
months elapsed before they availed themselves of this
concession. In March there came only an apology from
the chief, who was to have been at the head of the em-
bassy, and who threw the blame of the delay upon the
English. A dark suspicion was now entertained, that
these missions were contrived with a most treacherous

• Heriot, p. 265-278. Colden, vol. i. p. 139-142.

UNDIiR THE FRENCH.

157

doiji^, — to Rtab the governor nnd M. de Callieres in
;f.»b!ic council, while u large boily concealed in ambuBli
should take advantage of the confusion. Nothing ever
(Xicurred that could seem to justify this horrid appre-
hension, so little consistent with the cold and tardy man-
ner in which the proposals were made. The truth
appears to be, that two parties divided the councils of
the savages. One, supported by our countrymen, and
relying on their promises, eagerly urged the prosecu-
tion of the war. But the other, seconded by the " pray-
ing Indians," or the converts made by the missionaries,
represented that the nation was wasting itself in a fruit-
less warfare ; that the British made large promises, and
|)ut them on bold enterprises, but did nothing to sup-
port them ; that, in short, they were lavish of American
blood, but sparing of their own, A vacillating policy
resulted from this conflict. However, in May, the chief
arrived with eight deputies, and was well received by the
governor, notwithstanding his want of confidence. This
was the season of sowing, during the continuance of which
a truce was extremely convenient. They expressed the
most friendly disposition, and even solicited the resto-
ration of the fort of Cataraqui, — ^a request which Fron-
tenac little expected, but was quite disposed to grant.
Oureouhare went with these deputies, and returned in
the company of others, bringing also thirteen French-
men, several of whom were persons of distinction, who
had been long held in captivity. They came, however,
only from two cantons, and though the first belt, relating
to the prisoners, was conceived in friendly terms, the ex-
position of the others was obscure and unsatisfactory ; and
all attempt to obtain a properexplanation proved fruitless.
It transpired, however, that the English interest was
powerfully exerted against peace ; and all that was at
present contemplated was " to suspend the hatchet."
The count, though courteously, rejected all the belts
except the first, declaring, that he wished to chastise
them only as a father does his children ; but that, unlets

»&»^

rf j

158

HISTORY OF CANADA

!f-!

r fi

more friendly sentiments were entertained, he could not
long withhold the intended hlow.*

Affairs continued for some time in this uncertain
state, the enemy making repeated proposals, to which
little credit was atUiched ; while the governor, not
having yet sufficient force to open the campaign in an
imposing manner, against a people who could muster
3000 warriors, was not unwilling to have a pretext for
delay. Instead, however, of showing 'a more friendly
temper, the deputies began to assume a loftier tone,
demanding that he should send envoys to their villages,
and should cease at once all hostilities against them
and the English. It was also understood that various
attempts were made on their part to detach the allies,
not without some prospect of success. The count,
therefore, considered it indispensable to proceed to some
measure which might impress the savages with an ade-
quate idea of his power. The prevailing opinion was,
that he ought at once to march his whole force into the
heart of their territory ; but he preferred sending, in
the first instance, an expedition to re-establish the foii
of Cataraqui. This service was effected with prompti-
tude, and almost without opposition. It did not,
however, stop the tendency/ to defection among his
confederates, who loudly complained of the disadvan-
tageous terms on which the French traders dealt with
them, when compared with those obtained from the
British through the Five Nations. The lead was taken
by a Huron chief, named the Baron, who concluded a
treaty, not only comprehending his own adherents, but
even embracing the Ottawas ; all of whom promised to
desert the French, and unite with their mortvil enemies.
Yet La Motte Cadillac, commander at Michill'makinac,
by impressing on them with great address a dread of his
sovereign's power, contrived to change the resolution of
these fickle tribes. They were even guilty of a counter-
treachery, attacking a party of the Iroquois, who had

f! f

Heriot, p. 282-288.

I ^^ '• K ^

UNDER THE FRENCH.

159

joined them, and defeating them with great loss.* These
proceedings, however, were felt by the governor as
strongly calling for some vigorous steps to restore
the reputation of his arms ; and this could only be
effected by carrying war on a great scale into the ene-
my's country. As this resolution, however, was formed
in the autumn its execution was delaye4 till the fol-
lowing summer, De Callieres being convinced that the
anny could not, without much suffering, march amid frost
and snow into those desolate regions. He listened to a
plan for sending a detachment during the winter into the
canton of the Mohawks ; but it was soon understood
that, through the aid of the English, they had placed
themselves beyond the hazard of being overwhelmed by
any sudden attack. An attempt to surprise hunting-
parties, who crossed the St Lawrence in spring, w^as
attended with only partial success.

It was not till the month of June 1696 that operations
could be regularly commenced. At that period all the
forces which could be mustered, regulars, militia, and
Indians, were marched upon Cataraqui, and thence into
the canton of Onondago. Great difficulty was found in
conveying the army and baggage in batteaux along rapid
streams ; and on one occasion the greater part had nearly
been carried down an impetuous waterfal. On entering
a lake, they discovered, suspended to a tree, two bundles
of rushes, which intimated that 1434 warriors were'wait-
ing to engage them. They therefore sailed across, and
formed themselves in regular order of battle. A fort-
was constracted to serve as a magazine and place of re-
treat, and the troops then cautiously began their march
into the heart of those savage regions. De Callieres com-
manded the left wing ; the Chevalier de Vaudreuil the
right ; while the count, then seventy-six years of age,
was carried in the centre in an elbow-chaM*. The host
of the Five Nations, however, did not appear ; and, on
reaching theu* principal fortress, it was found reduced to

• Ileriot, pp. 21!'», 291-298, 305-308.

160

HISTORY OF CANADA

' If

ashes, while two Frenchmen, long detamed there, had
been recently massacred. This excited surprise, as the
fort had been carefully constructed by the English, in a
regular fonn, with a double palisade, and strengthened
by bastions and redoubts. It soon, however, became
evident that the cantons had determined to adopt the
same policy as on former occasions, of allowing the
enemy to march unresisted through their territory, sa-
tisfied that they would never be able to form any per-
manent establishment. Several prisoners escaped ; but
the invaders could only overtake one Indian, nearly a
hundred years old, who was barbarously given up to the
allied savages to be tortured. It was a dreadful spec-
tacle to see more than four hundred men venting their
I'age on this venerable and infirm w^-^rior, who endured
all they could inflict upon him with unshaken fortitude,
deriding his adversaries as slaves to a contemptible race
of foreigners.*

After tlii} Onondago canton had been thus overrun,
the Oneidas sent deputies ; but Frontenac, under present
circumstances, would accept nothing short of uncondi-
tional submission. De Vaudreuil marched into their
territory, and laid it waste. It had been determined in
council to advance, and treat the Cayugas in a similar
manner ; but the count, influenced probably by the ex-
hausted state of his armament, resolved upon returning
to Montreal. This conduct is much censured by the
French writers, who consider that operations might
have been carried further with great advantage. English
authors, on the contrary, consider the whole expedition
as an act of heroic folly, by which nothing was effected,
except the destniction of some grain and wooden cabins.
The Iroquois presently rallied, and harassed the invaders
severely in their retreat ; nor did they afterwards cease
their incursions into the settlement till they found the
frontier so strongly guarded, that they could not carry
off^ any important plunder, t

* Heriot, p. 3UJU321. La Potherie, vol. iii. pp. 207, 208.
t Ibid. p. ^22-327. Colden, vol. i. pp 197, ^02.

UiVDER THE FRENCH.

161

IS overrun-

The governor, meanwhile, had a difficult negotiation
with his own court, who had heen pei-suadcd that tlie
advanced posts maintained in the upper parts of tlie
colony were of very little advantage, while they chiefly
caused the desolating wars in which it had been involved.
The traffic thither, in fact, was carried on very irregu-
larly by an adventurous but desperate race, called the
coureurs du hois. It was, besides, a strict monopoly,
being only allowed under licenses granted to old offi-
cers or favourites, who sold them for about 600 crowns
each to the merchants. The purchasers fitted out the
coureurs with canoes and merchandise, reaping profits
so ample, that the value of 8000 crowns was procured for
French goods worth only a thousand. The savages, by
their intercourse with the English, learning the extent to
which they were cheated, made incessant complaints ;
and it was therefore proposed to allow them to bring
their own furs and dispose of them at Montreal, while
the colonists should devote all their attention to the
cultivation of the soil. But the governor and other mem-
bers of the administration argued that this step would
throw the Indian allies entirely into the hands of the
Five Nations and the British ; adding that, while the
fur-trade would be entirely lost, a general confede-
racy of the tribes against France might be also dreaded.
They were probably influenced by the fear of sacrificing
their own power and patronage ; and they contrived so
to modify the injunctions from court, that they pro-
duced little practical effect.*

The Iroquois continued the war with vigour, but
both they and the English met with repeated disasters,
which made them wish for peace. The Black Cauldron
himself, in a hunting expedition, was surprised and
killed by a party of Algonqums. Negotiations were
cpened through Oureouhare, whose sudden death again
retarded them ; but their success was secured by tidings
that peace had iDcen concluded in Europe between France

Heriot, pp. 200, 201, 334-336.

VOL. I.

162

HISTORY OP CANADA

il^' i

1' Itei I

and Britain. The colonists of the latter power, who first
received the intelligence, sent a deputation to Quebec,
to propose an exchange of prisoners, both as respected
themselves and their allies. The count, however, pre-
ferred to negotiate separately with the cantons, and he
soon had the satisfaction to discover that, notwithstanding
the alliance which had so long united them to the English,
a deep jealousy was now felt lest that people, when no
longer obliged to court their aid, should endeavour to
enforce certain claims of sovereignty. He studiously
cherished this impression, hoping to improve it into a
friendship with his own countrymen. But in the midst
df these transactions he died, on the 29th November 1698,
leaving a high reputation for the energetic measures by
which, with little aid from the mother-country, he had
retrieved the affairs of the settlement, and raised it into
a powerful and flourishing state. He was disinterested,
but ambitious, haughty, and jealous of his authority ;
qualities which created him many enemies, and consi-
derably obstructed his designs.*

De CalMeres^ who had already distinguished himself by
important services, was appointed his successor, and ad-
ministered affairs in a manner which gave entire satisfac-
tion. With more steadiness and prudence than the count,
he possessed nearly equal vigour and address. Much time
and many difficulties, however, still intervened before all
natters oould be finally adjusted with the Iroquois, and
between them and the allies ; but at length, in 1700, a
pacification was effected, and the numerous prisoners on
both 3ides were allowed to return. On this occasion,
tliere was witnessed a surprising and somewhat morti-
fying occurrence ; for, wliile the natives eagerly sought
their homes, the greater part of the French captives
were found to have contracted such an attachment to
tlie wild freedom of the woods, that neither the com-
mands of the king, nor the tears and entreaties of their
friends, could induce them to quit the savage associates
with whom they had Uu ed.

•Heriot, p. W;345]

UNDER THE FRENCH.

163

>r, who first
to Quebec,
IS respected
wever, pre-
jns, and he
withstanding
the English,
le, when no
adeavoiir to
5 studiously
ve it into a
in the midst
ember 1698,
neasures by
itry, he had
aised it into
lisinterested,
I authority ;
, and consi-

d himself by
isor, and ad-
itire satisfac-
m the count,

Much time
led before all
Toquois, and

in 1700, a
prisoners on
hm occasion,
iwhat niorti-
erly sought
nch captives
tachment to
er the com-
ities of their
^e associates

After peace had been thus established with their
encrmies, the French were involved in a contest with
their allies. Bourgmont, governor of Detroit, had endea-
voured to unite the Ottawas with the Miamis in an
expedition into the interior of the continent ; but ani-
iDosities had been for some time fermenting between
theae tribes, aggravated by some imprudent and violent
actions on his part. At length the former, instigated by
a leading chief named " the Heavy," commenced an
attack upon the latter, whom they pursued under the
cannon of the fort. The guns being opened upon them,
a contest ensued, in wliich two Frenchmen, one of whom
was a priest, were killed. The assailants then retired,
and an old chief came to the governor to make the most
humble apologies for this outrage, describing it as a mo-
mertary ebullition, for which they could not themselves
account. The European leader promised pardon, pro-
vided the savage, who had instigated them to this vio-
lence, were delivered up, To tliis step they showed the
most extreme reluctance, even pretending that it was
out of their power ; but as the condition was held indis-
pensable, they at length produced the offender, though
with the most earnest entreaties for his pardon. This
was granted, though rather imprudently ; for the Mia-
mis, who had considered themselves fully entitled to
his head, raised a violent commotion, which it required
some force to put down.*

Scarcely had peace been thus concluded among the
savage tribes, with some hope of duration, when it was
broken by their civilized neighbours. The succession of
Philip of Anjou to the throne of Spain gave rise to a
long and eventful contest between France and England.
It was begun by Louis XIV. in the height of his power,
and with every prospect of giving law to all Europe ;
instead of which, tlie exploits of Marlborough and
Eiigene, the fields of Blenheim and Ramillies, reduced
him to the lowest condition, and at one time even

• Heriot, pp. 34(1, 362, 3/4-377, 380-384.

164

HISTORY OP CANADA

•fS

'^^

seemed to place his crown in peril. In these disastrous
circumstances, the mother-country was obliged to leave
her colonies to their own resources ; while England, elated
"with repeated triumphs, conceived the bold design of em-
bracing within her territory the whole north of America.
Tlie situation of Canada was rendered still more critical
by the death of De Callieres, her able governor, which
took place in May 1703, though he was succeeded by the
Count de Vaudreuil, who proved himself by no means
destitute of the qualities requisite for his high office.

The English now called upon their allies of the Five
Nations to renew hostilities against their old enemies ;
but these tribes were exceedingly unwilling to inter-
rupt their repose. They alleged that, when they con-
cluded treaty, they did so with an intention to keep
it ; wii • the Europeans seemed to enter into such en-
gagements sol iy with the view of immediately breaking
them. One cnief, with the rude freedom of his nation,
intimated his suspicion that the nations were both drunk.
They did little, therefore, of themselves, or by their own
impulse ; and when called upon to join an expedition,
came slowly and reluctantly forward.

De Vaudreuil, in contemplation of a formidable at-
tack, sought to dissipate it by an offensive movement.
He sent out a detachment 200 strong, which, after a
long march, succeeded in storming and destroying a
frontier village named Hewreuil ; though while returning
they fell into an ambuscade. Thirty of their number
were killed ; but, having beaten off their assailants, the
remainder reached Montreal in safety.*

In May 1709, an individual named Vetch, who had
become intimately acquainted with the navigation of
the S*^ liawrence, laid before the cabinet of Queen Anne
a plan for the conquest of Canada. It being approved, he
was sent to New York, then called Manhattan, with
authority and resources supposed sufficient for its ac-
comnlishment. De Vaudreuil soon learned that 2000

I'^i

• Heriot, pp. 3G3, 3f)4, 38H, 397.

UNDER THE FRENCn.

165

English had issued from the place just mentioned, and
that these were to be joined by an equal number of sa-
vages. Having mustered his troops, he at first thought
of carrying war again into the enemy's country ; but
after the march had begun, his allies objected, and he
adopted the more prudent course of merely protecting
his frontier. The British, after forming a chain of
posts from New York, had occupied in great force Lakes
Goorge and Champlain, and were erecting forts, with a
view to cover their descent upon Canada. Tlie Iroquois
had joined them according to promise ; but it appears
that a general council of the cantons was held at Onon-
dago, when one of their chief orators remarked, that
their independence was only maintained by the mutual
joalousy of the two European nations, each of whom,
if they could, would lord it completely over them, and
that it was therefore highly imprudent to permit the
English to conquer New France. These views were
considered accordant with the policy which had always
governed the cantons, and were immediately acted upon,
though the manner in which this was accomplished
does not very exactly appear. Our countryinen, however,
in consequence of this want of co-operation, and of
a pestilential disorder which broke out among their own
troops, abandoned the enterprise, burning their canoes,
and reducing their forts to ashes.*

Canada now enjoyed an interval of repose, though it
was understood that the enemy were making active
preparations for a fresh expedition, and sparing no pains
to secure the co-operation of the Five Nations. All
means of conciliation were therefore studiously employed,
and wore so far successful as to obtain friendly profes-
siaiis from the Senekas and the Onondagoes, but from
them alone. At this time, however, the French were
involved in a desperate struggle in the upper territory,

, ,, ,1

* A report has generally prevailed that the Ironuois caused this
malady by throwing the skins of wild beasts into the stream out of
which the English drank ; but we cannot think tlxis a very probable
story.

166

HISTORY OF CANADA

? 'I

with a nation hitherto unheard of, called the Outagamia
or Foxes. This they ascribe to the machinations of their
old antagonists, who yet do not appear to have taken
any share in the contest. By the aid of a large body of
Indian allies, these people were reduced to the necessity
of humbly soliciting terms of peace. But the subjects of
Louis were persuaded by their savage auxiliaries to push
matters to the last extremity ; and after a fresh and
dreadful struggle, this unfortunate tribe was nearly ex-
terminated. The victors, notwithstanding, had reason to
repent of their barbarous conduct, as the remnant of the
defeated nation carried on against them a ceaseless and
harassing warfare, and rendered insecure their commu-
nication with the settlements on the Mississippi.*

The English in 1710 prepared a new and greater
armament. General Nicholson arrived at Boston with
a considerable squadron ; and fresh forces were ex-
pected, which, with those already in the colony, were
to be employed in two joint expeditions, by sea
against Quebec and by land against Montreal. Not-
withstanding every possible preparation, these tidings
excited deep apprehension, which continued unabated
till a report arrived, and proved ultimately correct, that
the invading squadron had been wrecked at the Seven
Islands, near the mouth of the St Lawrence. Several
barks having sailed thither, found the remains of eight
vessels, which having struck upon the rocks, had been
abandoned, after being stripped of their cannon and
stores. A number of dead bodies scattered along the
shore attested this calamitous event. The commander,
impatient to proceed, and disregarding the warning of
an experienced pilot, had involved his armament in this
disaster. General Nicholson had already taken the field,
but learning the loss of the fleet, and foreseeing that
the whole force of the enemy would now be turned
against him, he fell back upon New York.t

Though Canada had thus been twice delivered, in-
telligence was received that fresh preparations were

Heriot, p. 397-416,

t Ibid. p. 399-404.

UNDER THE FRENCH.

1G7

Outagamis
ions of their
have taken
,vge hody of
le necessity
! subjects of
ries to push

fresh and
) nearly ex-
ad reason to
inant of the
Baseless and
cir commu-
ppi.*

md greater
Boston with
8 were ex-
)lony, were
Qs, by sea
real. Not-
iiese tidings
id unabated
iorrect, that
t the Seven
le. Several
ins of eight
s, had been
3annon and
1 along the
joinmander,
warning of
Qent in this
en the field,
sseeing that
' be turned

livered, in-
ttions were

p. 399-404.

making, and there was reason to fear that, if left without
aid, she would at length be overwhelmed by superior
forces. The governor, however, was relieved by the in-
telligence that, in consequence of a complete change of
ministry, the English cabinet had deteiTidned to se-
parate from its allies, and had opened a negotiation
at Utrecht. Instructions were sent to the colonial
councils to suspend hostilities. Both the European
powers being favourably inclined, the negotiations pro-
ceeded smoothly, and on the 30th March 1713 this
memorable treaty was signed. France retained Canada,
though obliged, by the urgency of her circumstances,
to cede Acadia and Newfoundland. She made over
likewise all her claims to the sovereignty of the Fi.e
Nations ; a very empty coii icssion, by which she gave
that which she had never possessed, and England re-
ceived a nominal right which she could not enforce.*

After this treaty, Canada ..ijoycd a long period of
uninterrupted tranc^uillity. The observations of Charle-
voix, who visited the principal settlements during the
years 1720 and 1721, give a pretty good idea of their
condition at that period. Quebec was estimated to contain
about 7000 inhabitants ; both the lower and upper town
were partially built, but none of the extcr.sive suburbs
appear to have then existed. The view from the summit
of the rock appeared to him extremely striking, and
anticipating the change, since partly fulfilled, when the
surrounding shores and islands, then covered with al-
most unbroken forests, should display cultivated fields,
meadows, and villages, with numberless barks studding
the broad expanse of the St Lawrence, he expects it te
fonn a prospect which nothing could equal. The society,
composed in a great measure of military officers and
noblesse, was extremely agreeable ; and nowhere was the
French language spoken in greater purity. Under this
gay exterior, however, was concealed a very general po-
verty. The settlers, while tney admitted that their Eng-
lish neighbours knew better how to accumulate wealth,

"^'^ ' » Heriot, pp. 418, 419. "

I I

168

HISTORY OF CANADA

J-' \i

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were consoled by reflecting that they were quite ignorant
how to enjoy it. They themselves, on the contrary, under-
stood thoror'^ \y the most elegant • t<l agreeable modes of
spending money, but were greatly at a loss where to ob-
tain it. The only employ ment suited to their taste was the
fur- trade, the roving and adventurous habits of which
were extremelyattractive to them, and little fortunes were
thereby occasionally made ; but they were in such haate
to expend these in pleasure and display, that the author
compares them to hillocks of sand in the deserts of Africa,
Avhich rise and disappear almost at the same moment.
Many, who had made a handsome figure, were now lan-
guishing in distress. They began by retrenching the
luxury of their table, and, as long as possible, were richly
dressed. The patient and laborious process of agriculture
liad drawn little attention, and the timber- trade was yet in
its infancy, though the author points out the great im-
poiiance which it was capable of attaining. The absence
of gold and silver, almost the only objects then considered
i\& giving lustre to a colony, had always caused New
Fi-ance to be viewed as of very s( condary importance.*
The coasts of the St Lawn ueo, for some extent be-
low Quebec, were already iaid <£ut in seigniories, and
tolerably cultivated. At Poiiilo aux Trembles, seven
leagues from the capital, many of the farmers were found
in easy circumstances, and richer than their landlords ;
the latter, having obtained grants which they had neither
capital nor industry to improve, were obliged to let
tliem at very small quit-rents. On reaching the mouth
of the Be^ancour, he found a baron bearing the title of
tliat river, and holding the office of inspector of the
highways. He lived almost in a desert, and derived his in-
come chiefly from traffic with the neighbouring Indians.
Thence Charlevoix crossed to Trois Rivieres, which he
found an agreeable place, amid a c'jcuit of well-culti-
vated fields, but not containing more than 800 inhabit-
ant§. The fur-trade, with a view to which it was founded,

"V ■> ■

* Charlevoix*s Journal, vol. i. pp. 104, 111-114, 121-125, 145,
263-265.

UNDER THE FRF.Nrn.

169

hftd alreat' been in a great measure transferred to
Montreal, and the iron-mines had not yet begun to bo
worked.

P'rom Trois Rivieres he proceeded through the Lake
of St Peter, and, coasting along its southern sliore,
made particular observations on the river and district
of St Francis. From its excellent soil, covered with
timber, it appeared to him well fitted for cultivation :
but the farmers were few, and had made such suia'
progress, that, but for the opportunities of trade, they
would have been extremely poor. A more chec '' '^
scene presented itself at the island and city of Montrw-i,
the beauties of which he describes in terms similar to
those of all subsequent visiters. He does not make any
e4?timate of the population ; but it must have been con-
siderable, as both the upper and lower towns were al-
i-eady built, and a suburb had been commenced. The place
was then enjoying a respite from the alarms and calamiti^
of war ; and the two neighbouring villages of Sault St
Louis and Montgomery, inhabited by friendly Indians,
served as barriers against their more savage countrjrmen.*

Above Montreal, uiv traveller appears to have found
nothing but detached stations for defence and trade. He
made his way through the rapids to Lake Ontario, in In-
dian canoes formed of birch-bark. We find no mention
of any thing French till he comes to Fort Cataraqui or
Frontenac, at the entrance of the lake ; but in his short
description there is no appearance as if the neighbour-
hood contained either cultivation or settlement. He had
then a tedious voyage to perform along the southern shore
in slender canoes, in which he was obliged to follow every
winding of the coast, and often to sail two hundred
leagues in order to shun a direct passage of twenty. He
was liable also to be detained for an indefinite period by
violent or adverse winds. At length he entered the rivei
of Niagara, and came to a cottage which had been dig-
nified to him with the name of fortress, and was occu-
pied by the Sieur de Joncaire. There were two or three

• Charlevoix, Journal, vol. i. pp. 172-178, 190, 213-218.

IMAGE EVALUATION
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Photographic

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Corporation

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WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580

(716) 872-4503

170

HISTORY OF CANADA

officers of rank, and, we presume, a few troops, but
apparently no trace of cultivation.*

After having surveyed the falls, he ascended the
channel of Niagara, and having entered upon Lake
Erie, proceeded along its northern shore. The voyage
appeared to him delightful, in a charming climate, on
waters clear as the purest fountain, and landing every
night on the most desirable spots. He found always
abundance of game, and a beautiful landscape, bounded
by the noblejt forests in the world. He fancied himself,
like the ancient patriarchs, wandering through wide un-
appropriated tracts, where he could pitch his tent in the
most pleasant scenes. The oaks of Mamre and the foun-
tain of Jacob seemed realized to him in the wilderness.
Five days' sail along these beautiful shores brought him
to the channel of Detroit, at the other end of which,
near Lake St Clair, he found the fort bearing that name.
He inclined to the opinion of those who regarded this
as the most beautiful and fruitfiil part of all Cana^.
A French settlement had been begun there fifteen years
before, but various untoward circumstances had reduced
it almost to nothing. He proceeded thence to Michilli-
makinac, near the adjoining extremities of the great
lakes Huron, Superior, and Michigan. Like the others,
it was a mere fort surrounded by an Indian village.
Ota the whole, it appears that, above Montreal, there was
nothing at this time which could be called a colony.t

The repose procured for Canada by the treaty of
Utrecht was followed by a long continuance of pros-
pei-ity. Vaudreuil, till his death in 1726, administered
her aflFairs with judgment and activity ; and under him
cultivation was greatly extended. To remedy the want
of hands, he proposed sending out annually 160 con-
victs, of the class usually condemned to the galleys. ,

This governor was succeeded by the Chevalier de
Beauhamois, who continued in power twenty years.
This long period seems to have been diligently em-
ployed in promoting the interests of the colony, and was

•Charlevoix,Journal,vol.i.pp. 293-297, 312-316, 341.
t Ibid. vol. ii. p. 3-7*

UNDER THE FRENCH.

171

productive of a remarkable improvement. The range of
cultivated farms was extended along the whole shore
from Quebec to Montreal, and even several of the tri-
butary streams. As the French Canadians studiously
sought a river-frontage, they were content with lots in-
cluding only a small portion of this, with extensive back-
ground. The proportion, in some degree fixed by sta-
tute, was an acre and a half in front, with an extent of
forty behind. In the course of this period, too, the
"settlement at Detroit, which Charlevoix had found in
such a languishing state, was raised to some consequence.

The French, likewise, during this interval, appear to
have entirely overcome that rooted enmity so long
cherished by the great Indian tribes. Their pliant and
courteous manners, their frequent intermarriages, and
in some instances an actual adoption of the habits of
savage life, rendered them better fitted than the English
to secure the confidence of this savage race. Instead of
having to dread them as allies of Britain, they could
usually, when occasion required, employ them as foiv
midable, or, at least, harassing enemies to her. By their
aid, and by the erection in commanding positions of the
forts of Crown Point andTiconderago, they kept the rival
colonies in perpetual alarm. The struggles, however,
carried on during almost the first half of the eighteenth
century were chiefly confined to Nova Scotia, under
which head they wUl be narrated. Canada enjoyed a
happy exemption from thope eventful vicissitudes which
form the materials of history.

An equally favourable change took place in respect
to the fur-trade, which had shown so great a preference
of the English market. A more liberal and equitable
system appears to have been adopted ; and a large an-
nual fair, opened at Montreal under judicious regula-
tions, became the general centre of this traffic. Even the
Indians in the back settlements of New York brought
their furs thither, rather than to the capital of that state.*

- ■ -AA- .■..._,.- ■■ ■■ -

• M 'Gregorys British America, vol. ii. p. 374. Burke's Account
of the European Settlements in America (2 vols 8vo, London,
1808), vol. a. pp. 42,43.

'■h

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4^
if'-

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■■■r-

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172 HISTORY OP CANADA UNDER THE FRENCH.

M. de Beauhamois was followed in office by a rapid
succession of governors, each holding sway for an ex-
tremely short period incompatible with any steady system
of administration. The Count de la Galissoniere, though
a nobleman of great acquirements, ruled only a year,
being superseded in 1746 by M. de la Jonquiere, who took
Ml active part in the war for the reduction of Nova
Scotia. After a temporary occupation of power by the
Baron de Longueuil, the Marquis du Quesne, in 1752,
went out as governor-general. This officer appears to
have carried on more openly than ever the system of en-
croaching upon the British colonies ; and ilic fort bear-
ing his name was erected within the confines of Virginia.
So great an alarm indeed spread through our settle-
ments, that a general convention was held at Albany,
when a plan of common defence, proposed by the
celebrated Dr Franklin, was approved, but, from dif-
ferent causes, never carried into effect. A census taken
of the colony in 1753, is said by Raynal to have shown
a population of 91,000 ; but, from the number afterwards
found by the English, this appears to be somewhat ex-
aggerated. The finances were, however, involved in consi-
derable disorder. The expenditure, which in 1729 did not
exceed 400,000 francs, had risen in 1750 to 2,100,000
livres ; in 1758 it was 27,900,0^^0 ; but this last, we may
dbserve, was a period of ger war, of which North
America became one of the ).irincipal theatres. The
conduct of Bigot the intendant was loudly complained
o^ and proved indeed to have been most fraudulent, his
defalcations amourting to i^400,000 sterling. In 1755,
Du Quesne was succeeded by De Vaudreuil Cavagnal.*

• M^Jregor, vol- ii. p. 375-381. Raynal, Histoire Philosophique
et Politique des Etablissements et du Commerce des Europeens
dans less deux Indes (4 vols 4to, Geneva, 1780), vol. iv. pp. 125, 137.
Hawkins' Picture of Quebec (18mo, Quebec 1834), pp. 316, 317.

HISTORY OP CANADA UNDER THE BRITISH. 173

CHAPTER IV.

History qf' Canada under the British,

War between Great Britain and France — Advantages gained by
the latter — Expedition against Canada under Wolfe— His first
Repulse— Lands a second Time — Victory — Death — Conquest of
Canada — State of the Population — ^Their good Treatment — Re.
fuse to join the Rebellion by the United Colonies^The latter
invade Canada — Siege of Quebec — Repulse and Death of Mont-
gomery — Americans driven out of Canada — A Constitution grant-
ed—Division into Upper and Lower — Rise of Internal Dissen-
sion—War with the United States— Advantages gained by Britain
on the western Frontier — On the Niagara, &c. — The Ameri>
cans take York (Toronto) and Fort George — Obliged to retreat —
Their Successes in the West— Fruitless Attempt on Montreal-
Events on the Niagara Frontier — Large Reinforcements from
England — Failure of Sir George Prevost — Peace — Discontents
of the Assembly — Administration of tlie Duke of Richmond-^
Earl of Dalhousic — Sir James Kempt — Lord Aylmer — Increased
Discontent — Commission of Inquiry — Earl of (iosford — Assem-
bly still refuse Supplies — Resolutions of the British Parliament-
Disturbances in Canada — Insurrection — Suppressed — Political
Movements in Upper Canada — Sir Francb Head Governor-
Rising and Defeat of Mackenzie — Aggressions from the United
States— Conduct of their Government — Mission of the Earl of
Durham— Recent Events.

We now approach the most memorable period in the his-
tory of Canada, when its dominion was finally transferred
from France to a rival power. As the events of this
contest, however, though extremely memorable, form a
portion of general history, and are familiar to many
readers, we shall here content ourselves with a rapid
summary of them.

The great war which broke out in 1765 opened in a
manner most unfavourable to the British arms. Gene-

174

HISTORY OP CANADA

ral Braddock, who marched from New York against
Canada, having neglected the precautions necessary in
such a country, was completely surprised by a com-
bined force of French and Indians. He himself being
killed, only part of the army was saved by the skill
and intrepidity of Colonel (afterwards General) Wash-
ington, who on that occasion distinguished himself for
tile first time. His troops being afterwards joined to the
provincial force under Generals Shirley and Johnson,
repulsed near Lake George an attack made by a large
body of the enemy under Baron Dieskau. Johnson
having acquitted himself with great ability, and received
several wounds, was rewarded with the honour of
knighthood, and was long much esteemed in Ameji-
warfare.* But in the two following years the

can

enemy, headed by the gallant Marquis de Montcalm,
obtained a series of successes, terminating in the reduc-
tion of the important forts called Oswego and William
Henry. This last triumph was stained with the barbar-
ous murder, by the Indians, of fifteen hundred English
prisoners ; which Montcalm, though it should seem un-
justly, was accused of sanctioning. These disasters,
joined to the failure of Byng at Minorca, and other abor-
tive expeditions, deeply depressed the spirit of the nation,
and seemed to sink their reputation in arms lower than
at any former period. Yet tlie courage of the British lion
was soon afterwards roused : the public voice called to
the helm of affairs William Pitt, the greatest statesman
then living, and who was destined to raise her name to
a pitch of glory before unrivalled.

It was one of the main objects of Pitt's policy to
obtain possession of the French territories in America,
and to form them, together with the British colonies,
into one va&t range of dominion. He chose as his chief
instrument Wolfe, a young man without family or par-
liamentary interest, or even any established character as
a commander. He had served only in subordinate situa-

* Hawkins, pp. 3li), 319. Bouchette, vol. i. p> 440.

r ;

r a com-

VNDER THE BRITISH. 175

tions ; yet the minister, with intuitive sagacity, saw in
him the man hest fitted to lead British troops to victory,*
In the expedition against Louisburg, in 1768, the most
active though not the highest post was assigned to him,
and, through his exertions chiefly, that main bulwark
of French America fell. After the great name thus
earned, there could no longer be any objection to in-
vesting him with the chief command.

In 1759 preparations were made on a great scale for
the conquest of Canada ; comprising twenty sail of the
line, with smaller vessels and transports, having on
board 8000 veteran troops. These were placed under
the direction of Wolfe, who was allowed the choice of
all his officers. After a prosperous voyage the armament,
on the 26th June, arrived off the Isle of Orleans. Quebec
was defended by the Marquis de Montcalm, having under
his command 1 3,000 men, of whom indeed only 2000 were
regular troops, the rest being Canadian militia, with a
few Indians. The attack having been long foreseen, full
time was given him to entrench and strengthen his posi-
tion. An attempt was first made to destroy the British
fleet by fi -e-ships ; but these were caught with grap-
pling ironS; towed aside, and allowed to bum out without
doing any injury. Brigadier-general Monckton then oc-
cupied Point Levi, opposite to the capital, which was
thence bombarded with vigour ; but, though a number of
houses were destroyed, the defences remained almost
uninjured. The place therefore could only be carried
by storming the entrenchments which the French had
thrown up in front of it. This bold measure Wolfe re-
solved to adopt, and on the 31 st July he effected a land-
ing. The boats, however, had met with an accidental
delay ; the grenadiers, it is said, rushed forward with
too blind and impetuous a valour ; Montcalm, strongly
posted between Quebec and Montmorenci, poured in
upon them a destructive fire ; the Indian rifle told with
fatal effect ; and the assailants were finally repulsed
with the loss of 182 killed and 650 wounded.

* Entick's History of the late War,* vol. iv. p. 91.

, t

176

HISTORY OP CANADA

Wolfe felt this disappointment so deeply that his
delicate frame was thrown into a violent fever ; and in
a despatch to Mr Pitt he afterwards expressed the ap-
prehensions under which he laboured. The fleet, his
strongest arm, could not act against the wall of rock
on which Quebec is seated ; and with his weakened
force he had to storm fortified positions defended by-
troops more numerous than his own. As soon, how-
ever, as his health permitted, he called a council of
war, desired the general officers to consult together ; and,
it is said, proposed to them a second attack on the French
lines, avoiding the errors which had led to the failure
of the first. They were decidedly of opinion that this
was inexpedient; but on the suggestion, as is now
believed, of Brigadier-general Townsend the second
in command, they proposed to attempt a point on the
other side of Quebec, where the enemy were yet
unprepared, and whence they might gain the Heights
of Abraham which overlooked the city. Wolfe assent-
ed, and applied all his powers to the accomplishment
of this plan. Such active demonstrations were made
against Montcalm's original position, that he believed it
6till the main object ; and though he observed detach-
ments moving up the river, merely sent De Bougainville
with 2000 men to Cape Rouge, a position too distant,
being nine miles above Quebec. On the night of the 12th
September, in deep silence, the troops were embarked
and conveyed in two divisions to the place now named
Wolfe's Cove. The precipice here was so steep, that
even the general for a moment doubted the possibility
of scaling it ; but Eraser's Highlanders, grasping the
bushes which grew on its face, soon reached the
summit, and in a short time he had his whole army
drawn up in regular order on the plains above. Mont-
calm, struck by this unexpected intelligence, at once
concluded that, unless the English could be driven
from this position, Quebec was lost ; and, hoping pro-*
bably that only a detachment had yet reached it,

pushed forward at once to the attack. About 1500 light

UNDER THE BRITISH.

177

infa:itry and Indiana arrived first, and began a desultory
fire from among the bushes ; but the British reserved
their shot for the main body, which was seen advancing
behind. They came forward in good order, and com-
menced a brisk attack ; yet no general fire was opened
in return till they were within forty yards, when it
could be followed up by the bayonet. The fii-st volley
was decisive ; Wolfe and Montcalm both fell almost
at the same moment ; the French instantly gave way
in every quarter ; and repeated charges, in which the
Highland broadsword was powerfully wielded, soon
completed the victory. As soon as Wolfe received his
mortal wound, he said, " Support me ! let not my bravf
soldiers see me drop." He was carried to some distance
in the rear, — and hearing the cry " They run !" he asked
" Who run V* Being told " The enemy," he gave some
short directions, and then said : " Now, God be praised,
I die happy !" We cannot forbear quoting the simple
and feeling observations of General Townsend respect-
ing his heroic friend, whose fate threw so affecting j;
lustre on this memorable victory : " I am not ashamed
to own to you, that my heart does n':t exult in the
midst of this success. I have lost but a^friend in Gene-
ral Wolfe ; our country has lost a sure support and a per-
petual honour. If the world were sensible at how dear
a price we have purchased Quebec in his death, it would
damp the public joy. Our best (consolation is, that
Providence seemed not to promise ui U he should remain
long among us. He was himself sensible of the weakness
of his constitution, and determined to crowd into a few
years actions that would have adorned length of life."

The battle had scarcely closed when De Bougainville
appeared in the rear, but on seeing the fortune of the
day, immediately retreated. On the I7th a flag of truce
came out, and on the 18th a capitulation was concluded
on honourable terms to the French, who were not made
prisoners, but conveyed home to their native country.*

• Entick's History of the late War, vol. iv. p. 05-1 IfJ.
kins' Picture of Quebec, pp. 331, 359, 373, 374.

VOL. I. L

Haw-

n ■

178

HISTORY OF CANADA

Canada was not yet conquered. General Amherst,
indeed, marching from New York with a large force,
had reduced the strong posts of Ticonderago and Crown
Point ; while Greneral Prideaux, aided hy Sir William
Johnson with a body of Indians, had taken Nia-
gara. But the winter arrested their farther advance ;
and General de Levi, who had assembled at Montreal
upwards of 10,000 men, conceived the design of recap-
turing Quebec in the spring, before it could obtain suc-
cours, either by sea or land. Being baffled in his projects
to carry it by a coup de main, he landed his army on
the 27th April 1760, advanced to the heights of Abra-
ham, and prepared to carry on a regular siege. General
Murray had been left *vith a garrison of 6000 men ; but
a severe attack of scurvy had reduced to half that num-
ber those who were capable of bearing arms. This offi-
cer, dreading that the place was unfit to stand a siege,
and hoping much from the bravery of his troops, attacked
the enemy on the 28th April at Sillery ; but, being
overpowered by superior numbers, he was defeated with
great loss. If guilty here of any rashness, he atoned for
it by the activity with which he placed Quebec in a state
of defence, and held out the town till the 15th May, when
a fleet, under Admiral Swanton, arrived and raised the
siege. The French army then concentrated itself in
Montreal, where the Marquis de Vaudreuil made an at-
tempt to maintain his ground ; but being enclosed by the
forces under General Amherst, and by those from Que-
bec and Niagara, he found himself obliged, on the 8th
September 1760, to sign a capitulation, by which that city
and the whole of Canada were transferred to British
dominion. He obtained liberal stipulations for the good
treatment of the inhabitants, and particularly the free
exercise of the Catholic faith, and the preservation of
the property belonging to the religious communities. He
even demanded that the bishop should continue to be ap-
pointed by the French monarch, but this was of course
I'efused.* Th e possession of Canada, as well as of all
* Hawkins, p. 410.413. Entick, vol. iv. pp. 473, 474.

UNDER THE BRITISH.

179

Amherst,
irge force,
md Crown
r William
iken Nia-
r advance ;
Montreal
I of recap-
)btain sue-
lis projects
s army on
s of Abra-
!. General
men ; but
that num-
This offi.
id a siege,
s, attacked
but, being
•eated with
atoned for
c in a state
May,when
raised the
itself in
lade an at-
)sed by the
from Que-
n the 8th
ih that city
to British
»r the good
T the free
irvation of
nities. He
e to be ap-
of course
1 as of all
M74.

the adjoining countries, was confirmed to Britain by
the peace of Paris, signed on the 10th February 1763.

The population at the time of the conquest was stated
by Governor Murray to amount to 69,276, consisting
mostly of cultivators, a frugal, industrious, and moral
race ; with a noblesse, also very poor, but much re-
spected among them. The Indians converted to Catho-
licism were estimated at 7400,* The inhabitants were
involved in great calamity by the refusal of the
French government to pay the bills drawn and the
paper currency issued by M. Bigot, the late intcnd-
ant, already mentioned as having been guilty of most
extensive peculation. The gross sum is stated by Raynal
at 80,000,000 of livres (£3,333,000 sterling) ; but, con-
sidering the small number and poverty of the people,
we cannot help suspecting it to be much exaggerated.
It is said that the claims were, on grounds of equity,
reduced to 38,000,000 ; though, according to M*Gregor,
no more was received in return for them than £250,000
in money, and £126,000 in bonds, which never became
efFective.t

The terms in favour of the French residents were
faithfully, and even liberally, fulfilled by our govern-
ment. All offices, however, were conferred on British
subjects, who then consisted only of military men, with
not quite 500 petty traders, many of whom were ill
fitted for so important a situation. They showed a bigoted
spirit, and an offensive contempt of the old inhabitants,
including even their class of nobles. General Murray,
notwithstanding, strenuously protected the latter, with-
out regard to repeated complaints made against him to
the ministry at home ; and by this hnpartial conduct
he gained their confidence in a degree which became
conspicuous on occasion of the great revolt of the
United Colonies. During that momentous period,
though pressingly invited to assist the latter, the
Canadians never swerved from their allegiance. With

• M'Uregor, vol. ii. p. 382i

•)• Raynal, vol. v. p. 2dO. McGregor, vol. ii, p, 381.

180

HISTORY OP CANADA

a view to conciliate them, the " Quebec Act," passed in
1774, changed the English civil law, which had been
at first introduced, for the ancient system culled the cou-
tume de Paris. The French language was also directed
to be employed in the law-courts, and other changes
made with the view of gratifying that nation. These
concessions did not, however, give universal satisfaction,
especially as they were not ottended with any grant of
a national representation.

The Americans, finding all their proposals rejected,
determined to view Canada as a hostile country. They
observed that the Biitish, almost entirely occupied in
the attempt to put down the insurrection, had left this
country very slightly defended. In September 1776
two expeditions were fitted out, which were distin-
guished by tragical events, as well as by the brilliant
and romantic valour of their chiefs. While the main
body, under Montgomery, marched by Lake Champlain
upon Montreal, Arnold, with 1100 men, sailed up the
Kennebeck, and proceeded through the vast forest that
stretches between it and the St Lawrence, hoping to sur-
prise Quebec. The sufferings of the party were extreme,
being obliged to eat dogs' flesh and the leather of their
cartouch-boxes. Yet they arrived, on the 9th Novem-
ber, at Point Levi, without any alarm having reached
the capital ; but all the shipping had fortunately been
removed from that side. Arnold was thus unable to
cross, and in twenty-four hours the inhabitants were
apprized of the danger. On the 14th that active officer
contrived to pass the river and occupy the heights of
Abraham, though his force was too small for active
movements,, till joined by Montgomery. This com-
mander sent forward a reconnoitring party under
Colonel Ethan Allen, who made a brave but rash at-
tempt on Montreal, in which he was taken with his
party, and afterwards sent in irons to England. Mont-
gomery, however, having reduced the posts of St John
and Chambly and made prisoners of their garrisons,
which included a large proportion of the reg-ular force

tJNDKU TIIK nUITISII.

IBl

passed in
had been
d the eoU'
9 directed
r changes
n. These
ttisfaction,
y grant of

9 rejected,
ry. They
3cnpied in
A left this
iber 1776
sre distin-
e brilliant
the main
Dhamplain
lied up the
forest that
ing to sur-
e extreme,
sr of their
th Novem-
ig reached
ately been
unable to
m\ts were
tive officer
heights of
for active
This com-
rty under
lit rash at-

with his
id. Mont-
3f St John

garrisons,
gular force

in Canada, that city was quite unable to resist ; and
General Corleton, the governor, with difficulty es-
caped in a boat witli muffled paddles. The Ameri-
can leader then advanced upon Quebec, and took the
command of the united force. Carleton had under
anns only 1800 men, of whom not more than seventy
were regulars ; 230 of Fraser's Highlanders, who had
settled in the country, were re-embodied under Colonel
M'Lean ; the rest wcra British and Canadian militia,
seamen, and others. The summons to surrender, how-
ever, was at once rejected ; and Montgomery, after
pushing the siege during the month of December
without any prospect of success, determined to carry
the place by a night-assault. On the 31st, two storm-
ing parties were formed, — one under himself and the
other under Arnold. They were to advance from op-
posite sides, and meet at the foot of Mountain Street,
then force Prescott Gate, and reach the upper town.
The first battery encountered by Montgomery was de-
fended chiefly by a party of Canadian militia, with
nine British seamen to work the guns. Having re-
ceived some previous notice, they were on the watch ;
and, about daybreak, saw amid the snow a body of
troops in full march from Wolfe's Cove. Orders were
given to make no movement ; and the enemy having
halted at the distance of fifty yards, sent forward an
officer to reconnoitre, who found every thing perfectly
still. On his return the Americann rushed forward in
double quick time to the attack. When they were
close to the spot, Captain Bamsfare, at the critical mo-
ment, gave the signal for a general discharge of guns
and musketry. It told with unexpected and fatal effect ;
for, among many others, Montgomery himself, the gal-
lant chief^ fell, to rise no more. The troops, on wit-
nessing this disaster, made a precipitate retreat.*

* This event has heen very variously related. Hinton (History
and Topography of the United States, 2 vols 4to, London, 1834,
vol. i 33ti) even represents it as a men? casual fire by which
Montgomery was killed; hut we have followed Hawkins, w hove
narrative appears to be the result of very careful research.

182

HISTORY OF CANADA

Meantime Arnold, from the opposite side, pushed on
his attack with desperate resohition. In assaulting
the first harrier, he received a severe wound in the leg,
which ohliged him to quit the field. But his party, led
on hy Captain Morgan, carried the post, and pushed
on to a second. Here, however, their eflForts were vain ;
and General Carleton having sent a detachment upon
their rear, they were surrounded, and finally, to the
number of 426, obliged to surrender. Neither of the
parties thus reached the main point of attack at Prescott
Gate, where the governor w^as stationed, with the deter-
mination to maintain it to the last extremity.

The British were not yet aware of all the results of
the contest. As soon as the retreat of the first party
was ascertained, they went out and collected, from
under the snow which had already covered them,
thirteen bodies. The surmise soon arose that one of
them was that of the commander ; yet some hours
elapsed before an officer of Arnold's division identi-
fied him, with the deepest expressions of admiration
and regret. Montgomery, a gentleman of good family
in the north of Ireland, had served under Wolfe, but
having afterwards formed a matrimonial connexion in
America, he had adopted with enthusiasm the cause
of the United States as that of liberty. His military
character, joined to his private virtues, inspired general
esteem, and has secured to him a place on the roll of
noble and gallant chiefs who fell beneath the walls of
Quebec.

Arnold succeeded to the command, and attempted
still to maintain his ground ; but the dispirited state of
his men, still more than his actual loss, rendered him
unable to keep up more than an imperfect blockade, at
the distance of three miles. In April 1 776, his place was
taken by General Wooster, who brought a reinforcement,
and made some fresh attempts, but without success.
Early in May several vessels arrived from England with
troops and supplies, on which the enemy raised the siege,
and fell back upon Montreal. Thence they were driven

UNDER THE BRITISH.

183

, pushed on
1 assaulting
J in the leg,
is party, led
and pushed
were vain ;
ment upon
illy, to the
ther of the
at Prescott
1 the deter-

r
•

t results of
first party
!cted, from
5red them,
hat one of
ome hours
iion identi-
admiration
ood family
kVolfe, but
nnexion in
the cause
5 military
ed general
the roll of
e walls of

attempted
ed state of
lered him
ockade, at
5 place was
brcement,
t success,
^land with
the siege,
ere driven

from post to post, till, on 18th June, they finally eva-
cuated the province, on which they never made any
farther attempt.*

This long war terminated, in 1783, by the indepen-
dence of all the colonies which had united against
Britain. The issue, unfavourable or at least mortify-
ing to the mother country, was attended with consider-
able advantages to Canada ; for a large body of loyalists,
expatriated on account of their political principles,
sought refuge in her territory. They received liberal
grants of land, and laid the foundation of that pros-
perity which has since so eminently distinguished the
upper province.

The country continued for some years in a state of pro-
gressive advancement, being only agitated by the desire,
sometimes strongly expressed, of obtaining a representa-
tive government. In 1790 Mr Pitt determined to grant
this boon oii a basis as nearly as possible resembling
that of the British Constitution. As a preliminary, it
was resolved to divide Canada into two governments.
Upper and Lower : and it is somewhat remarkable
that this arrangement, so much deprecated by the
present loyalist party, originated with the minister,
who carried it through in the face of strong opposi-
tion from Fox and other Whig members. He con-
sidered that the attempt to unite tM'^o classes of
population, so different in origin, language, and man-
ners, would inevitably lead to disunion and dissension ;
while they argued, that this union would afford the
best means of harmonizing them into one social system.
Another question arose with regard to the constitution
of the legislative council. Mr Pitt proposed to form it
of an hereditary noblesse, to be created for the purpose,
and to include the more respectable among the French
seigneurs. Mr Fox recommended a representative
council, or, in default of this, one composed of members
chosen by the king for life. This last suggestion, though

* Hawkins' Picture of Quebec, pp. 424-434, 43B. Hinton, voi. L
p. 344.

184

HISTORY OF CANADA

m i

I-

not at firat well received by the premier, Avas the plan
ultimately adopted.

Thefir^tHouseof Assembly, consisting of fiftymembers,
was openedinl792by Lieutenant-govemorClarke. Thoir
proceedings were for some time of no great importance.
In 1797 Lord Dorchester, who had been governor since
] 786, was succeeded by General Prescott. Loud com-
plaints were soon afterwardsmade respecting the granting
of lands, the Board for that purpose having appropriated
large districts to themselves, and thereby obstructed the
general settlement of the country. In 1800 Sir Robert
S. Milnes was appointed lieutenant-governor. In 1803
a decision of the Chief Justice of Montreal declared
slavery inconsistent with the laws of the country, and
the few individuals in that condition received a grant of
freedom. In 1807, apprehensions being felt of war with
America, Sir James Graig, an officer of distinction, was
sent out to superintend the affairs of the colony.

About this time beg.m those internal dissensions
which have since so generally agitated the colony.
The House of Assembly, though meeting regularly, do
not seem previously to have aimed at tlie exercise of
any high powers, or to have obstructed the governor in
the discretionary exercise of his authority. But at this
epoch they appear to have formed the design of render-
ing themselves independent, and even of controlling the
executive. With the former view they demanded that
the judges should be expelled from their body, as being
dependent upon and removable by government. To gain
the latter object, they offered to defray from the funds of
the colony the whole expense of the civil administration.
Although this was a boon, and unasked for, yet on ac-
count of its apprehended purpose it was repelled with
indignation, and the Assembly soon afterwards dissolved.
The novel exercise of a free press by a newspaper called
" the Canadian," in attacking the measures of govern-
ment, was severely checked ; the printer was sent to
prison, and all his materials destroyed. Six individuals
were also taken into custody, though never brought to

UNDER THE BRITISH.

185

,s the plan

|r members,
rke. Their
mportance,
ernor since
Loud com-
le granting
►propriated
iructed the
Sir Robert
In 1803
il declared
untry, and
I a grant of
f war with
iction, was
ny.

dissensions
le colony,
nlarly, do
jxercise of
governor in
But at this
of render-
rolling the
anded that
y, as being
it. To gain
he funds of
inistration.
yet on ac-
>elled with
3 dissolved,
iper called
of govern-
'■as sent to
individuals
brought to

trial. These proceedings gave to this period the appella-
'on of the " Reign of Terror." *

In 1811 a new Assembly was called, which did not show
itself more compliant. In the autumn of that year, how-
ever, Sir George Prevost, a more popular governor, as-
sumed the reins of administration ; and circumstances
soon after occurred which induced the Canadians to sus-
pend their complaints, and to make displays of loyalty
as ardent as if they had never been dissatisfied.

The war commenced by the United States against
Britain in 1812 produced a formidable crisis in the
history of Canada, especially of the upper province.
It is not proposed to enter into any discussion of
the grounds or merits of the hostile resolution adopted
by Congress. Doubtless, however, as Britain then stood,
with her whole disposable force engaged against Na-
poleon, they calculated with full confidence on obtain-
ing possession of the Canad&s, and, indeed, of all Bri-
tish America. Dr Eustis, secretary at war, said in Con-
gress, " We can take the Canadas without soldiers : we
have only to send officers into the provinces ; and the
people, disaflFected towards their own government, will
rally round our standard." Mr Clay added, " It is
absurd to suppose we shall not succeed in our enter-
prise against the enemy's provinces. We have the
Canadas as much under our command as Great Britain
has the ocean. — We must take the continent from
them. I wish never to see a peace till we do."t A simi-
lar impression prevailed in the colony itself, defended then
by only 4500 troops, of whom not more than 1450 were
in the upper province, though the most exposed, and pre-
senting the most extended frontier. Not a few were in-
clined on the first alarm to pack up and quit the coun-
try ; but Sir George Prevost, seconded by the majority

• Bouchette, vol i. pp. 443, 445. M'Gref^or, vol. ii. p. 391.
Roebuck on Existing' Difficulties in the Administration of the
Canadas ( London, U{>S6), [>. ii.

t James' Military Occurrences of the late War (2 vols 8vo,
London, 1818), vol. i. p. 77.

f
11

186

HISTORY OF CANADA

i m

:yi

of the inhabitants, adopted a more spirited resolution.
The militia were called out ; Quebec was garrisoned by
the citizens ; and the frontier placed in a state of de-
fence.'*

The States, though they had plunged into hostilities so
eagerly and with such sanguine anticipations, were by
no means in a forward state of preparation. Few of
the officers who had distinguished themselves in the
war of independence survived the lapse of nearly
thirty years.t General Hull, however, one of these
reterans, was sent with a force of 2600 men to open
the campaign on the western frontier of Upper Canada.
On the 6th of July ] 812 he arrived at Detroit, and on the
12th crossed the river and took possession of Sandwich,
whence he issued a proclamation inviting the colonists
to join him, or at least to remain neutral. He an-
nounced that no quarter would be given to a white
man fighting by the side o'f an Indian, though this is
said never to have been acted upon. Having no cannon
mounted, he did not think it practicable to attack Fort
Maiden, which covered Amherstburg, where Lieute-
nant-colonel St George with his small force was posted.
Hull, however, pushed forward detachments into the
country, which gained some advantages and induced
a few of the inhabitants to join them. But his prospects
were soon clouded. Captain Roberts, with a small de-
tachment, had early reduced the Fort of Michillimaki-
nac, which " opened upon him the northern hive of
Indians." Almost the whole of that race, indignant at
the encroachments of the Americans upon their territory,
eagerly espoused the British cause, and poured in from
every quarter to support it. Meantime General Brock,
having embarked all the troops that could be spared
from the Niagara frontier, arrived on the 12th August at
Amherstburg, where he mustered about 330 regulars,

• Montgomery Martin's History of the British Colonies (5
▼ols 8vo, London, 1834), vol. iii. p. 1} 8.

•f* Carey and Lea, Geography, &c. of America (8vo. London,
1823), p. 69.

ifc '

UNDER THE BRITISH.

187

400 militia, and 600 Indians. Hull, whose force, weak-
ened by sickness and by sending away two detachments,
is said not to have exceeded 800 effective men, retreated
across the river, withdrawing the cannon prepared for
the siege of Amherstbiirg, and shut himself up in
Detroit. Genenil Brock instantly crossed, advanced
upon the fort, and prepared for an immediate assault ;
but a white flag then appeared from the walls, and a
capitulation was quickly signed, by which the whole
American force, including the detachments, were sur-
rendered prisoners of ^^ar. The Canadian citizens, who
had despondingly anticipated speedy conquest, were not
a little surprised to see in less than three months the
whole army destined for that object marched in as cap-
tives. Loud complaints were made by the Americans
against the conduct of Hull, who was afterwards tried
and condemned to be shot, though spared on account of
his age and former services.*

The Americans made great efforts to obtain a more
fortunate result on the Niagara frontier. Though the
New England States, disapproving of the war, withheld
their militia, yet early in September more than 6000
men were brought to the banks of the river, with the
view of crossing it and penetrating into Canada. They
were encouraged by the exploit of two row-boats, which
captured the same number of British gun-brigs with valu-
able cargoes as they were passing Fort Erie. The troops
are represented as filled with enthusiastic confidence,
urging and almost compelling General Van Rensselaer,
tlieir commander, to commence active operations. Ac-
cordingly, after one abortive attempt he succeeded, on
the morning of 13th October, in pushing across to Queen-
ston a detachment which, being well reinforced, gained
possession of the heights. General Brock having come
up, resolved to check their progress, but making his ad-
vance with too small a force he was repulsed and killed,

• James, vol. i. pp. 6fi.fi8, 374:^76, 72, 73. Martin, vol. iii. p.
IflJ). Brackenridge's History of the late War(12mo, 6th edition,
Piiiladelphia, lUbO), p. 32.41.

188

HISTORY OP CANADA

i!-

closing his brilliant career by a glorious death. Van
Rensselaer, however, complains that when he returned
to the other side, the heroes, who tlie day before had
boasted so loudly, having now witnessed an actual en-
gagement, though a successful one, were seized with such
a panic that neither commands nor threats could induce
one of them to enter the boats. Meantime General
SheaflFe, having brought up the main force of the British
from Fort George, and being joined by a body of In-
dians, with a detachment from Chippeway, attacked
the enemy ; and, after a sharp contest of half an hour,
compelled the whole, amountmg to above 900, to sur-
render at discretion.*

The Americans made yet another attempt to retrieve
this unfortunate campaign. Greneral Smyth, who suc-
ceeded Van Rensselaer, had assembled on the 27th
November 4500 men in the vicinity of Black Rock.
Early on the following morning, two detachments suc-
ceeded in crossing, and after a long and confused iight
in the dark, drove in with loss the British outposts ; but
when day broke, and Lieutenant-colonel Bisshopp had
collected about 600 regulare and militia, they hastily re-
tired to the other side, leaving a party of thirty to fall
into the hands of the Englislu Another division began
to cross ; but some rounds. of musketry and artillery in-
duced them to return. In the course of the day, after
a vain summons to surrender Fort Erie, nearly half the
force was embarked ; though in the afternoon the post-
ponement of the enterprise was announced. After several
days of uncertain councils, it was finally decided that the
expedition should be abandoned for the season. The
troops are said to have displayed the fiercest indignation,
threatening even the person of their commander, whom
they named General Van Bladder ; but whether their
courage would have been equally conspicuous in the
hour of trial their former conduct leaves some room to
question.t

• James, vol. i. pp. «1, 37<x -377, 3«24J84. Brackenridge, p. 65-63.
flbid. pp. llU-l:iO,3lJii, 309.

UNDER THE BRITISH.

189

The severity of the season caused a suspension of
operations scarcely interrupted unless by an attack on
Ogdensburg by Captaui M'Donnell, who, crossing the
St Lawrence on the ice, drove out the garrison, and ob-
tained possession of eleven pieces of cannon and a consi-
derable quantity of stores. The Americans meantime
were making extraordinary exertions to open the new
campaign under better auspices. At Sackett's Harbour,
on the southern shore of Ontario, a naval armament
was equipped, which gave them for some time the con-
trol of that fine lake. A large force had been assem-
bled and placed under a new commander. General Dear-
bom. The plan of this campaign was limited to the eon-
quest of Upper Canada, the achievement of which, as
that country was defended by only 2100 troops, was
considered beyond the reach of chance. On the 25th
April 1813, the general with Commodore Cliauncey em-
barked about 2000 men, and sailed to York (Toronto),
the rising capital of the province. It was then very ill
prepared for resistance, scarcely at all fortified, and
defended by General Sheaffe with only about 600 men.
On the morning of the 27th they reached the place and
succeeded in landing, when, after a brave defence pro-
tracted till two o'clock, the English were obliged to
abandon the town. The invaders suffered chiefly by the
explosion of a mine, which killed or wounded about 260,
including among the former General Pike, a young
officer of distinguished merit, who had planned and con-
ducted the attack. After burning all the public build-
ings, they cari'ied off^ the artillery and naval stores, and
by the 1st May evacuated the place.*

The next enterprise was still more important, being
directed against Fort George, near Newark, at the entrance
of the Niagara channel, considered the chief military posi-
tion in the country. Nearly the whole force was employ-
ed, a small part only being left to defend Sackett's Har-
bour. Brigadier-general Vincent, on the other hand, had

Janie», pp. 136-149, 397-400. Brackenridjje, p. 102-105.

• "!R-

;■ \

:^A

|;'t i

190

HISTORY OP CANADA

ill-

only a British detachment of about 1000 regulars and
300 militia ; and Newark had been exposed to so severe
a fire from the American fort on the opposite side, that it
was no longer defensible. The enemy, therefore, could be
resisted only by opposing his landing, or by beating him
afterwards in the field. When Commodore Chauncey, on
the 27th May, disembarked 4000 men under Dearborn
and Lewis, both these operations were attempted ; but,
after a long and severe contest, were rendered unavailing
by the superior numbers of the invaders. Vincent was
obliged, after calling in the garrisons of Chippeway and
Fort Erie, to retreat first to the Beaver Dams, and then
to Burlington Heights, near the western extremity of
Lake Ontario. The victors could not intercept his re-
treat, but they established for the first time a regular
lodgement in Canada.*

Meantime a respectable naval force having been or-
ganized at Kingston by Sir James Yeo, Sir George
Prevost, the governor, was prevailed upon to employ
it in the attack of Sackett's Harbour, defended only by
a small party, while the main body of the enemy was
employed against Fort Greorge. He sailed on the 27th of
May, with about 760 men ; but on approaching, showed
considerable hesitation, and even gave orders for a return
to Kingston, till, encouraged by the success of the Indians
in capturing twelve boats with seventy dragoons, he suc-
ceeded in effecting a landing on the morning of the 29th.
Notwithstanding the difficulties of the ground, he drove
the enemy before him, till they took shelter in a log-bar-
rack and stockaded fort. Thence they kept up such a
destructive fire, that General Prevost, considering it im-
possible to force the position, and panic-struck, it is said,
by a false alarm raised by General Brown in his rear,
ordered a retreat. Much difference of opinion, however,
prevailed among the officers. Major Drummond is re-
ported to have said : " A few minutes, sir, and I will
put you in possession of the place." He was ordered to

* James, voL i. pp. 151-164| 407-412. Brackenridge, p. 108-112.

UNDER TUE BRITISH.

191

^lars and
) so severe
ide, that it
e, could bo
mating him
iuncey, on

Dearborn
)ted ; but,
unavailing
incent was
)eway and
, and then
treraity of
jpt his re-

a regular

f been or-
Jir George
;o employ
id only by
nemy was
he 27th of
g, showed
)r a return
le Indians
^ he suc-
the 29th.
he drove
a log-bar-
up such a
ing it im-
it is said,
his rear,
however,
)nd is re-
nd I will
)rdered to

>. 108-112.

IS,

obey ; upon which discontent and a want of confidence
in the commander-in-chief became general, and had a
most injurious effect on the subsequent operations.*

Fortune, so favourable to the Americans at the open-
ing of the campaign, did not continue so throughout.
Extraordinary exertions were made in the western states,
particularly Kentucky. Two corps were formed, and
despatched under Generals Winchester and Harrison to
march in different lines through Michigan ; then to
unite and co-operate in recovering Detroit, and invading
the adjoining districts. Winchester, suspected of a desire
to achieve something before yielding the command to
his coadjutor, advanced with about 1000 men to French-
town, withm twenty-six miles of Detroit. Colonel Proc-
tor, justly appreciating the importance of attacking him
before the junction, hastily collected all the force within
his reach, amounting to about 500 whites and 450 In-
dians. With these, on the 22d January 1813, he succeeded
in bringing the enemy to action. They made an obsti-
nate resistance, and being posted in houses and enclo-
sures, caused considerable loss to the assailants ; but
tliey were ultimately overpowered, and nearly all made
prisoners. The general himself was among the number,
having fallen into the hands of a Wyandot Indian, who
stripped off his uniform, adorned his own person with
it, and could not without great difficulty be induced to
make restitution.t

General Harrison, on receiving intelligence of this
disaster, took up a position near the rapids of the
Miami to await reinforcements. Colonel Proctor felt
equally the importance of attacking him before their
arrival. Having assembled about 1000 regulars and
militia and 1200 Indians, he embarked them at Am-
herstburg on the 23d April, then sailed across Lake
Erie, and up the Miami. Many delays, however, occur-
red, by which the enemy was enabled so to strengthen
his position, that the attack made on the 1st May had

• James, vol. i. pp. 163-176, 413-416.

t Ibid. pp. 184.1^ 418-425. Brackenridge, pp. 88, 89.

192

HISTORY OP CANADA

very little effect. The Americans were then encour-
aged to assume the offensive, which they did with large
bodies of troops, partly landed from the river, partly
sallying from the fort. At first they gained possession
of the British batteries ; but they were then attack-
ed at different points with such decisive success, that
upwards of a thousand were killed or taken, and the rest
with difficulty found refuge within the intrenchments.
These Proctor found himself still unable to storm ; but
he had so weakened the enemy's force as to remove all
immediate danger of invasion.*

Let us now return to the main theatre of operations
on the Niagara frontier, where we have seen the British
driven before the enemy to Burlington Heights. Dear-
born immediately sent forward Generals Chandler and
Winder, with 4000 men, to destroy if possible this
shattered remnant ; a success which would have been
followed by the conquest of all the western provinces.
On the 6th June they took post at Stoney Creek, to
prepare for operations on the following day. In this
critical situation. Lieutenant-colonel Harvey, having
carefully reconnoitred the enemy's position, suggested a
night-attack, to which General Vincent readily assented.
It was made with 700 chosen troops, and being favoured
by deep darkness, was completely successful ; the Ame-
ricans fled in every direction, and the two commanders,
with seven officers and 116 men, were made prisoners.
The British at daylight withdrew their small force ;
and the Americans boast, that but for the unaccount-
able capture of the two generals, the advantage was
all on their side. Their loss, indeed, had not been
great ; yet such was the panic inspired by the events
of this night, that before eleven next morning they had
abandoned their camp, and commenced a retreat to
Forty-mile Creek, eleven miles distant. Here they re-
ceived a reinforcement ; but being threatened by Sir
James Yeo, who had come with a squadron and a small

• James, vol. i. pp. 194-201, 426-428. Brackenridge, p. 96-98.

iU¥

A I I.

UNDER TIIK URITISII.

1C3

len enrour-
with large
ver, partly
[ possession
len attack-
access, that
ind the rest
enchments.
jtonn ; but
remove all

' operations
the British
lits. Dear-
andler and
3ssible this
have been

provinces.
y Creek, to
y. In this
ey, having
suggested a
ly assented,
ig favoured
; the Ame-
mmanders,
e prisoners,
nail force ;
unaccount-
antage w^as

not been

the events
g they had

retreat to
!re they re-
led by Sir
md a small

;e, p. 96-98.

J)ody of troops to Hupi)ort General Vincent, they deter-
mined on rctreuthig to Niagara. Nor did their disgrace
st^p here. Intelligence being received that the English
had a snuiU advanced post at Beaver-dam, Lieutenant-co-
lonel Boerstler, with about 700 men, was sent to attack
it. That dticer, however, being unexpectedly assiiiled,
first by a party of Indiiuis, and soon afterwards by a
small body of regulars, conceived himself to be sur-
rounded, and on being summoned by Lieutenant Fitz-
gibbon, surrendered his whole corps prisoners of war.
The Americans now held nothing on the right bank
of the river beyond Fort George. The British even
made incursions on the opposite shore, in one of which
Colonel Bisshopp gained j)osse8sion of Black Rock,
where he destroyed or carried off the arms and stores ;
but ])eing unfortunately attacked while re-embarking
by a superior force, his party suffered some loss, and he
himself received three wounds, which proved mortal.*

Our countrymen at this time gained some advantages
on Lfike Champlain, taking several vessels, and destroy-
ing the enemy's magazines at Plattsburg and Swanton.
They were now, however, destined to experience some
severe reverses, and that too on the theatre of their
most brilliant triumphs.

The Americans made extraordinary exertioifc to re-
trieve their affairs on the western frontier ; volunteers
crowded from Kentucky, a territory of fierce and war-
like habits, — and by September they had succeeded in
augmenting General Harrison's army to upwards of 6000
men. They had formed another fortified station on San-
dusky river, which Major-general Proctor, without suc-
cess, attempted to reduce. A squadron of nine vessels,
mounting fifty-six guns, had been equipped by them on
Lake Erie, and it was with great difficulty that one at
all able to contend with it could be fitted out by the
British, under Captain Barclay. An engagement took
place, which was maintained with the utmost obsti-

' ■■■"■"■ ' — ■■- ■ ' ' - — - — — ^ — — m • — • ' ■ .■■.■■■ —

• James, vol. i. pp. 205-229, 431-442. Brackenridge, p. 114-119.
VOL. I. M

194

UISTORY OF CANADA

hi.

nacy, and the American commodore's ship had even
struck her flag; but fortune afterwards turned, and
tlie conflict ended in the defeat and entire surrender
of the English squadron.* This event reduced General
Proctor to extreme distress, depriving him of access
to supplies and reinforcements, while his stock of pro-
visions had become quite hiadequate for his own troops
and the numerous Indians who had joined his standard.
On the arrival, therefore, in the end of September, of
General Harrison at Detroit, he did not attempt to
maintain his position at Amherstburg, but retre"** I
up the river Thames. The other pursued him « 'oicl y
Avith 3600 troops, while Proctor was deserted by p^os* of
his Indians, of whom he had now only about f>< MV, withbt*!)
whites. At the Moravian town, on the Atl\ v( October,
he took up a strong position flankcrt by the river on
one side and a wood on the other where he hoped to
render unavailing the superior numbers of the enemy,
Harrison, however, had with him a body of combatants
yet unknown in warfare, the Kentucky mounted rifle-
men, accustomed to ride through the woods, using their
weapon with almost preternatural skill. Their very
novelty, li« justly hoped, would make a strong im-
pression. Following his instructions, they received the
Are of their opponents, then galloped forward, and in
a few minutes completely broke the British ranks,
spreading among them a general confusion. The severest
conflict was with the Indians, who lost their chief Te-
cumseh, one of the bravest of the brave, stamped a hero
by the hand of nature, and equally distinguished by policy
and eloquence. The main object of his life had been to
unite his followers in agrar 1 voruRdoracy against Ameri-
can encroii; hment. In enrvlty ! ^: om he '^ warmly
attached himself to the »..i . or tiie British, and aided
them in successive victories. He was shot through the
head by Colonel Jolmson, a member of Congress. Ge-
neral Proctor retreated to Ancaster, where he could rally

* James, vol. i. p. 263-274. Carey and Lea, p. 62.

\ i

ti.*.^--

UNDER THE BRITISH.

105

hip had even
9 turned, and
ire surrender
luced General
^im of access
stock of pro-
is own troops
1 his standard.
September, of
it attempt to
but retre9^< 'I
I him <'oteiy
ed by p^OBt of
(i(MV,withbtW»
!x ri October,
the river on
he lioped to
f the enemy.
)f combatants
lounted rifle-
8, using their
Their very
strong im-
received the
ward, and in
ritish ranks.
The severest
lir chief Te-
mped a hero
led by policy
I had been to
ainst Ameri-
• ^ warmly
h, and aided
through the
tigress. Ge-
e could rally

* $ t

1, p. 62.

only 200 men, with whom he joined the Niagara army.
Harrison, also, having thus recovered Michigan, and
conquered the western districts, marched to rcini'urce hiM
countrymr ■ in that quarter.*

The AmericnnH now formed a plan of 0|>cration8
on a gran.li^r scale, directed against Montreal, the suc-
cess of which would have ^loffd in their iiands the
whole of Upper Canada. In this entc rprise, two armies
were destined to co-operate ; one consisting of nearly
COCO under Major-general lIainj)ton, from Lake Cham-
plain ; the other amounting to BOOO under Major-general
Wilkinson, from Grenadier Island, near Stickett's Har-
bour on Lake Ontario, As the city was defended by a
very small proportion of the regular soldiers, who were
chiefly employed in the upper province, Hampton hope I,
by pushing vigorously forward, to capture the place with
little difficulty. But having passed the frontier in the
end of October, he found on the 1 inks of the river
Chateauguay the advanced corps ol 800 British with
172 Indians, commanded by Lieutenant-colonels De
Solaberry and M'Donnell. These offi ers posted their
troops so judiciously amid woods, and b< ) skilfully con-
cealed the smallness of their number, that the enemy^
though they mode several brisk attacks, were always
repulsed ; and Hampton, believing himself opposed by a
large force, determined to retreat.

Meantime the larger expedition under General Wil-
kinson having crossed Lake Ontario, entered the river
St Lawrence. At Williamsburg, two considerable de-
tachments were landed in order at once to ck ar the banks
and to lighten the boats while descending the rapids.
On the 11th November, one of these, unler Major-
general Boyd, encountered Lieutenant-colont 1 Morrison
with an inferior British force. A very obstinate con-
flict ensued, in which both parties claimed the vic-
tory. The English seem to have gained the chief
honour ; but their success was not so decisive as to pre-

. w ■— ■ -^- »-• * tf -■ ' ■— -

* James, vol. i. pp. 276-298, 451-458. Brackenridge,^. 146-156.

196

HISTORY OF CANADA

vent the enemy from continuing to descend the river
towards Montreal. Near Cornwall the commander re-
ceived despatches from General Hampton, intimating
that he declined the expected co-operation, and intended
to fall back upou Tuake Champlain. Wilkinson then
conceived it necessary to give up for this season any
attempt upon Montreal, especially as he found the po-
pulation altogether hostile to the States, and attached to
the British government. He therefore placed his army
in winter quarters near French -mills on the Salmon
river, where he fonned a plan for attacking Prescott and
Kingston ; but finding himself much straitened for pro-
visions, was induced to fall back upon Plattsburg.*

Meantime the employment of the main army of the
Americans in this abortive expedition, enabled their op-
ponents to resume the offensive on the Niagara frontier.
On the first intelligence of the disasters sustained in the
west. General Vincent had been ordered to fall back upon
Kingston ; but he considered that circumstances now jus-
tified him in maintaining his position. The enemy's force
in this quarter was not only reduced, but was under
the command of Major-general M'Clure, an officer of
little spirit or enterprise. On the advance of a strong
detachment under Colonel Murray, he first fell back
upon Fort George, then abandoned that post, previous to
which he barbarously reduced the adjoining town of
Newark to ashes. Murray was not content with driving
him beyond the river : he crossed it, surprised arid
stormed Fort Niagara, taking above 400 prisoners, 'vith
a large quantity of arms and stores. The English after-
wards surprised and plundered the villages of Lewis-
ton, Black Rock, and Buffalo, where they retaliated
not very considerately the outrages of M*Clure at Fort
George.t

Operations vv-ere recommenced early in the spring of
1814. Lieutenant-colonel Williams, with 1500 British,

• James, pp. 301-333, 347-350, 467-475. Brackenridge, p.
168-167.
t James, vol. ii. pp. 4, 8-22, 396403. Brackenridge, p. 169-171.

UNDER THE BRITISH.

197

[d the river
imander re-
intimating
nd intended
iinson then
season any
md the po-
attached to
ed his army
he Salmon
i*rescott and
aed for pro-
;burg.*
irmy of the
ed their op-
jra frontier,
lined in the
1 back upon
eesnowjus-
lemy's force
was under
officer of
of a strong
t fell back
previous to
town of
ith driving
prised arid
loners, 'vith
glish after-
of Lewis-
retaliated
ire at Fort

le spring of
OO British,

:kenridge, p.

p. 169-171.

having taken post at La Colle on the river Richelieu,
Wilkinson, who had upwards of 4000 men at Platts-
burg, determined to attack them. On the 30th March
he completely invested a large mill, which the British
had converted into a fortress. All his attempts to
carry it were, however, fruitless. Major Handcock even
made two attacks on the artillery posted in a wood,
though without success. The American general finally
gave up the undertaking, and fell back upon Platts-
burg. In the beginning of May our countrymen gained
another advantage, carrying, though with some loss, the
fort of Oswego, where they captured a considerable
quantity of ammunition and stores.*

The main efibrt of the enemy during this campaign
was made on the Niagara frontier, where about 5000 men
were placed under Major-general Brown, an officer who
had distinguished himself on several occasions. On the 8d
July he crossed and summoned Fort Erie, which, with
its garrison of 170, immediately surrendered. He then
mai'ched towards Chippeway, and beat at Street's Creek
the advanced-guard of Major-general Riall, which had
endeavoured to stop his progress. The English general
was then obliged to retreat to Fort George, and thence
in the direction of Burlington Heights. Brown here-
upon laid siege to the fort, but finding it stronger
than he expected, and being disappointed of assistance
from Sackett's Harbour, he fell back upon Chippeway.
General Riall, on his part, having received some rein-
forcements, advanced ; the armies came close to each
other, and on the 25th the republicans commenced the
attack. The battle of Lundy's Lane was fought long,
obstinately, and with various fortune, a great part of it
amid thick darkness, which caused several strange mis-
takes. The American general and his second in com-
mand were wounded, and Riall, on the other side, was
taken prisoner. By a singular accident, in the midst of
the conflict, Lieutenant-general Drummond arrived with

* James, vol. i. pp. 83-90, 421-427. Brackenridije, p. 190-193.

! I\

198

HISTORY OP CANADA

ifl

• l!

!!-

i;i ■ '■

'I !

a reinforcement from York, which restored the battle.
Both sides claim a dearly bought victory ; but the real
issue seems clearly indicated by the retreat of the enemy
to Fort Erie. On the night of the 1 4th of August, Drum-
mond made an attack on the place in two divisions ;
but his men, in both cases, were repulsed with very
severe loss.*

Meantime another part of Canada became the theatre
of important operations. After the successes of the
allied powers in Europe, the capture of Paris, and the
abdication of Napoleon, Britain was enabled to turn
her whole strength against the United States, over
whom a full triumph was then anticipated. A strong
detachment from the south of France arrived in Canada,
and enabled Sir George Prevost to place himself at the
head of 11,000 men, with whom he undertook to carry
the war into the enemy's country. He proceeded to the
attack of Plattsburg on Lake Champlain, defended only
by 1500 troops, the rest having been sent to the upper
province. Macomb, the American commander, on being
pressed by this superior force, fell back on his main
position, which he strongly fortified. Sir George on
the 11th September arrived in front of it ; but a flotilla
imder Captain Downie, destined to co-operate with him,
was attacked by the enemy, and under his very eye
completely defeated and captured. Conceiving, after
this disaster, that any success in storming the enemy's
position would be fruitless as to ulterior objects, and a
useless sacrifice of men, he immediately withdrew his
army. This course was not approved by all ; and the
general result, so contrary to expectation, gave rise to
much discontent and recrimination.t

The Americans were still strong in Upper Canada.
On the l7th General Brown sallied from Fort Erie, and,
though driven back, caused a severe loss to the British,
who soon after raised the siege. Being pressed by a
large additional force under Izard, General Drummond

*' " !■ ...I I ...III. ■ - V- ' '

" James, voJ. ii. pp. 143-147, 436-452. Brackenridge, p. 219-23«.
t James, vol. ii. pp. 213-217, 4(l2.4t)8. Brackenridge, p. 266-271 .

UNDER THE BRITISH.

199

ed the battle,
but the real
, of the enemy
.ugnst, Drum-
wo divisions ;
ed with very

(le the theatre
cesses of the
Paris, and the
ibled to turn

States, over
id. A strong
red in Canada,
limself at the
•took to carry
iceeded to the
lefended only

to the upper
ider, on being

on his main
ir George on

but a flotilla
ate with him,
his very eye
eeiving, after

the enemy's
Dbjects, and a
withdrew his

all ; and the
, gave rise to

pper Canada,
ort Erie, and,

the British,
pressed by a

1 Drummond

ise, p. 219-23«.
Ige, p. 266-271.

retreated to the old position at Burlington Heights ;
but receiving a reinforcement, consisting of a detach-
ment of the troops newly arrived from Europe, he again
advanced. Izard, who did not dare to face him, evacuated
Fort Erie, and took up winter quarters on the opposite
side of the river. During this autumn the republicans
gained some advantages on Lake Erie, but were re-
pulsed with considerable loss in an attempt to recover
Fort Michillimakinac.*

The war meantime in other parts of America was
productive of important events. The British obtained
possession of Washington, where they destroyed the
public edifices and property ; but they were defeated
in their attacks upon Baltimore and New Orleans. Thus,
wliile one party felt itself engaged in an unequal contest,
the other had not reaped the expected advantages from
its superior means. Both became inclined for peace,
which was concluded at Ghent on the 24th December
1814 upon terms which, after this long and chequered
contest, brought back the two powers to exactly the
same position as when they had commenced.

Sir George Prevost was succeeded in April 1816 by
Sir George Gordon Drummond, under whom some dis-
contents began again to appear. These referred chiefly
to the conduct of the judges, whom the Assembly viewed
with such jealousy that they had impeached at one time
tlie heads of the court both at Quebec and Montreal. In
1816, Sir John Coape Sherbrooke went out as governor-
general ; and under his administration, at once vigorous
and conciliatory, harmony was little interrupted. In 1818,
he was instructed by Earl Bathurst to accept the offer
formerly made to pay the whole civil list out of the funds
oC the province ; and he applied, not for a permanent
settlement, but merely for the sum necessary to meet the
current expenses. This was readily granted, and in order
to raise it new taxes were imposed, of which, however,
the Assembly reserved to themselves the appropriation.

* James, vol. ii. pp. 230-240, 470. Brackenridge, p. 241.

(I 'I

;:|i'l

■h

) '

^li ii ■ ll

200

HISTORY OP CANADA

Sir John being obliged by severe illness to return
to England, was succeeded in 1818 by the Duke of
Richmond. This amiable nobleman, though personally
popular, introduced an innovation, which led to the
long and serious conflict between the Crown and the
Assembly. Instead of submitting, like his predeces-
sor, a detailed estimate of every object of expendi-
ture, he divided the whole into chapters, each compre-
hending a head or branch, the entire amount of wliich
was alone specified. The Assembly refused to sanction
such a change, and passed a vote according to the estimate
of the former governor, stating each payment in detail.
The legislative council, however, withheld their con-
currence from this resolution ; and the duke, express-
ing his displeasure with the lower house, had recourse
to the irregular measure of drawing upon the receiver-
general for the sum which he had demanded.

In September 1819, his Grace's life and government
were suddenly terminated by an attack of hydrophobia.
After short intervals under the Hon. James Monk and
Sir Peregrine Maitland, the Earl of Dalhousie, in 1820,
was removed from Nova Scotia to Canada. This noble-
man, possessing a high military reputation and an amiable
disposition, had been very popular in his former station ;
yet, sharing with his advisers, it is probable, those ex-
treme monarchical ideas which had hitherto prevailed
in tlie colonies, he was ill fitted to meet the new crisis
that had arisen. Having estimated £22,000 as the
amount necessary for the public service, in addition to
the revenues vested in the Crown, he solicited this sum
as a permanent grant. But the Assembly refused to pass
more than an annual bill of supply, in which they spe-
cified every item. The council again rejected their vote,
with the entire concurrence of the governor, who hesi-
tated not to draw upon the treasurer for even a larger
amount than had been asked from the Assembly.

Earl Bathurst, on receiving notice of these proceed-
ings, did not disapprove of Lord Dalhousie's conduct,
but strongly recommended economy. He directed also,

UNDER THE BRITISU.

201

88 to return
he Duke of
h personally

led to the
wn and the
is predeees-
of expendi-
ach compre-
mt of which
I to sanction
the estimate
'nt in detail.
I their con-
ke, express-
[ad recourse
;he recciver-
1.

government
lydrophobia.
! Monk and
sie, in 1820,
This noble-
i an amiable
iier station ;
, those ex-
;o prevailed
e new crisis
000 as the
addition to
id this sum
used to pass
h they spe-
i their vote,

who hesi-
'^en a larger
iibly.

se proceed-
's conduct,
rected also,

that two estimates should be presented, one embracing
the government expenses, to be defrayed by funds of
which the Crown claimed the entire disposal ; the other
to be employed on popular objects, in regard to which
the members might be left uncontrolled. At the same
time, it was enjoined that both of these should l)e given
in full detail. This arrangement was well received, the
required sum was voted, and the session terminated amid
mutual courtesies.

In the year 1823, the popular cause was strengthened
by the insolvency of the receiver-general. Sir John Cald-
well ; an inquiry into whose accounts had been vainly
demanded by the Assembly, and who proved to, be in-
debted to the public nearly L.l 00,000. When, in the
following year, the governor i)resented his estimates, the
representatives assumed a high tone ; dis])uting the right
of the Crown to select the olyects on which to employ
its revenue ; condemning the unlawful appropriation of
public money, and materially reducing the amount of
the sum demanded. These proceedings drew fortli a
strong expression of displeasure from Lord Dalhousie.

In 1825, the government, during his lordship's tem-»
porary absence, was administered by Sir Francis Burton,
This officer, anxious to conciliate the lower house, yielded
nearly all the points in dispute. He sanctioned a bill of
supply, in which no distinction wiis made between the
government and the popular expenditure ; an annual
grant being made, with considerable reductions, so that a
virtual control over the whole revenue was thereby con-
ceded to the members. Accordingly, they now openly
claimed the right to appro})riato all that was raised
within the province, denying the privilege, hitherto ex-
ercised by government, of the uncontrolled disposal of
certain branches. These were the produce of duties on
imports, imposed by act of Parliament in 1774, and
yielding annually about L.JU,000, with some of smaller
amount arising from the sale of land, timber, and other
casual sources. Earl Bathurst strongly disapproved of
the concessions made by Burton ; and Lord Dalhousie,

202

HISTORY OP CANADA

^;:'i

!*■ I r i '^ :

having resumed office in 1826, disallowed a bill in which
the above claim was incorporated.

Lord Goderich, who in 1827 received the seals of the
Colonial Office, though he maintained the right of go-
vernment to dispose of the disputed revenue, yet directed
that an offer should be made of resigning it to the Assem-
hly on their granting an annual civil list of L.36,000. On
the meeting of that body, however, M. Papineau wafi
elected speaker ; an appointment which, on account of his
violent opposition to the measures of administration,
Lord Dalhousie refused to sanction. The consequence
was, that no session of either house was held in tlie
winter of 1827-1828.*

Discontent had now risen to an alarming height ; and
in the latter year, a petition was presented to the king,
signed by 87,000 inhabitants, complaining of the conduct
of successive governors, particularly of the Elarl of Dal-
housie, and urging a compliance with the demands of the
Assembly. Mr Huskisson, who had become colonial
minister, moved that this petition should be referred to
a committee of the House of Commons. One was accord-
ingly named, composed in a great degree of members
attached to liberal principles, who, after a very elaborate
investigation, gave in a report, in which they strongly
condemned the practice of appropriating large sums
taken from the public revenue without the sanction of
the representatives of the people. With regard to the
main portion of the disputed income, being that produced
by the duties of 1774, its disposal appeared, from the
report of his majesty's law officers, to be vested in the
Crown ; yet the committee judged, that the real interests
of the province would be best promoted by placing tho
whole under the control of the Assembly. At the samo
time they distinctly expressed their opinion that the
governor, the judges, and the executive council, should
be made independent of the annual votes of that body.

• Despatches from the Earl of Aberdeen to Earl Amherst (ordered
U\ be printed 22d March 1838), pp. 10, 11. M'Gregor, vol. ii. p.

UNDER THE BRITISH.

203

They recommended that a more liberal character should
be conferred on the legislative and executive councils ;
and that the public lands should be assigned in a more
beneficial manner. Generally admitting that the griev-
ances complained of were more or less well founded, they
advised a thorough and effectual redress.

This report appears to have given very decided satis-
faction in the colony, and the Assembly ordered it to be
printed, and 400 copies distributed.* In a series of
resolutions passed on the 19th March 1830, they seem to
limit their demands to the complete fulfilment of its
provisions.t Sir James Kempt, who was sent out in
1828,had been furnished with instructions to carry the re-
commendations of the committee into effect with as little
delay as possible, and generally to follow a conciliatory
system. He appears to have proceeded with zeal and
dficiency in the prescribed course. Three new mem-
bers were added to the legislative council, who are said
to have been agreeable to the popular party. The
judges, with the exception of the Chief Justice, whose
advice on legal questions was considered desirable, were
requested with some earnestness to resign their places in
tliat body. They declined compliance, but agreed to
take no share in its deliberations, and did not after-
wards attend its sittings. New members were also added
to the executive council, in which seats were even of-
fered to Neilson and Papineau, the leaders of the oppo-
sition. The act transferring to the Assembly the revenue
in dispute could not be obtained immediately, but it
was promised on the first meeting of Parliament. The
Assembly, however, in voting the supplies of 1829, had
proceeded on the supposition of having the whole at their
disposal, and cut off several thousand pounds from the
governor's estimates ; but as the vote did not appear to
involve any absolute recognition of their claim, and as it
seemed inexpedient to dispute a point virtually given up,

• Minutes of the Evidence taken before the Select Committee
appointed in 1834 on the Aifairs of Lower Canada,
t Ibid. p. 8.

f !

204

HISTORY OF CANADA

ill.

i',

Sir James yielded his assent. This step, though not ap-
proved by Sir George Murray, was not, under the peculiar
circumstances of the case, positively disallowed. The
governor is said to have treated the ruling party in the
Assembly with a courtesy of manners to which they had
not been accustomed ; and on his departure in 1830,
addresses were presented to him by the most respectable
inhabitants of Quebec and Montreal, which were signed
by Papineau and other popular leaders.*

Lord Aylmer immediately succeeded to ,the govern-
ment. His communications with the Assembly were
of the most friendly description ; and though circum-
stances consequent on the death of George IV. had
still prevented the passing of the proposed act, it was
promised with all practicable speed. Lord Godericli,
who now presided in the Colonial Office, directed that the
items, which had been again rejected in 1880, and amount-
ed now to £7500, should not be longer pressed, but a
compensation be requested for several individuals who
had been thereby deprived of their income. On the
24tli December, his lordship sent two despatches, inti-
mating his intention to bring in a bill which should em-
power his majesty to place the proceeds of the duties in
question at the disposal of the Assembly. In return,
that body was expected to make a permanent provision
for the judges, as well as for the principal officers of go-
vernment. The demand was fixed, according to a very
moderate estimate, at £19,100, which, by a grant of
£5000, made in 1795 for the support of the civil govern-
ment, would be reduced to £14,100. It was intimated,
however, that the casual and territorial revenues, arising
from the sale of land, the cutting of timber, and other
sources, were still to be considered as belonging to the
king. Theyhadamountedinthepreviousyearto £11,231 ;
but were reduced, by expenses of collection and other
deductions, to about £7500. This sum it was proposed

• Evidence before Committee of 1834, pp. 4, 5, 8, 87, 91-93.
Existing Difficulties in the Government of the Canadas, by J. A.
Roebuck, M. P. (London, 1836), p. 16.

UNDER THE BRITISH.

20o

to employ chiefly in paying the stipends of the clergy of
the Established Church, hitherto drawn, not very ap-
propriately, out of the anny extraord* ries. It was
urged, that these funds belonged legally and constitu-
tionally to his majesty, whose employment of them upon
objects, not of mere patronage, but closely connected
with the interests of the province, could not be reason-
ably olvjected to.

Lord Aylmer was well aware that this last reserva-
tion would be deemed very unsatisfactory ; but he con-
sidered it most prudent to lay before the Assembly a
full and frank statement of the views of government.
That body, after inquiring into the mode of collection
and amount of these revenues, passed a resolution, that
" under no circumstances, and upon no consideration
whatever, they would abandon or compromise their
claim to control over the whole public revenue." Parti-
cular objection was also intimated to the support of ex-
clusive religious establishments ; doubtless more strongly
felt from the circumstance that the church to be endowed
was different from that of the ruling party. They deter-
mined, therefore, for the present, not to grant any per-
manent supply ; and on the 8th March 1831, drew up,
on the motion of Mr Neilson, a pretty long list of griev-
ances, which was presented to the governor. He ex-
pressed in return an earnest wish to know if these com-
prised the whole of their complaints ; giving them to
understand that silence would be construed mto an ad-
mission of their being so. They were accordingly silent ;
l)assed a bill of annual supply ; and showed on the whole
a more favourable tone and temper.*

His lordship transmitted the list of complaints, with
an admission that many of them were well founded, at
the same time strongly eulogizing the loyal disposition
of the people of Canada. Lord Goderich, in a long reply,
dated July 7, 1831, declared, that there was scarcely a
poin which government were not ready to concede, and

* Evidence before Committee of 1834, pp. 9-13, 19-25, 31-40.

206

HISTORY OF CANADA

expressed his satisfaction at the prospect thus afforded
of a termination to this long and harassing contest. This
despatch was laid hefore the House, who, in a series of
resolutions, declared their gratitude for the expressions
of his majesty's paternal regard, the proofs of a just and
liberal policy, and the feelings of kindness and good-will
manifested in it. The different points to which it re-
lated were referred to separate committees.*

Soon after, a despatch from the colonial secretary
made known thaL the act for transferring the funds in
dispute had passed the houses of Parliament and re-
ceived the royal assent. Whether from extreme libera-
lity or total inadvertence, it was so worded as to preclude
the unperial treasury from ever exercnsing any control
over them, leaving thus no room for negotiation with
the Assembly. Lord Aylmer was ii\Htructed, however,
to demand, in return, a grant of pennanent salaries to
the judges, who were also, according to the Assembly's
desire, to be made independent of the crown ; and a si-
milar provision was asked for the governor and a few of
the chief executive officers. This matter being referred
to the Assembly, they be'j;an,on the 20th January 1832,
with the first particular. On providing that the judges
should be independent of the crown, and, with the excep-
tion of the Chief Justice, should not sit in the executive
or legislative councils, it was determined that permanent
salaries should be paid to them. But, at the same time,
a motion of Mr Neilson was carried by a large majority,
that these should be drawn in the first instance from the
casual and territorial revenues, which Lord Goderich
had expressly reserved to the Crown. Lord Aylmer
considered it therefore necessary to send home the bill,
yet with an advice to accept the terms, as the best
there was any likelihood of obtaining. It was rejected,
however, on two grounds ; — ^first,that it did not render the
judges really independent of the Assembly, but left an
annual vote still necessary. We cannot help suspecting

• Evidence, 1834, p. 37-47.

ir ','

UNDER TIIE BRITISH.

307

IS afforded
;est. This
a series of
ixpressions

a just and
i good-will
'hich it re-
secretary
le funds in
nt and re-
eme libera-
te preclude
my control
iation with
i, however,

salaries to
Assembly's

; and a si-
nd a few of
ing referred
luary 1832,
; the judges
I the excep-
e executive
; permanent

same time,
re majority,
ice from the
•d Goderich
)rd Aylmer
me the bill,
as the best
ras rejected,
>t render the

but left an
p suspecthig

that there was here an unhappy miscuiu'optioi Tlic
terms of the bill are, " that the salaries shall bi; se-
cured to them in a fixed and permanent manner ;" and
" shall be taken and paid out of the proceeds of tht*
casual and territorial revenue, and the revenue now ap-
propriated by acts of the provincial Parliament, for
defraying the charges of the administration of justice,
and the support of the civil government, and out of any
other public revenue of the province which may be, or
come into the hands of the receiver-general." It would
appear that, according to the plain meaning of lan-
guage, these terms involved a full warrant for pay-
ment. Probably Lord Goderich had legal advice, and
some technical terms usual in British acts might be
wanting ; but a provincial legislature could scarcely be
expected to be fully aware of these niceties. The legisla-
tive body, the governor, and we doubt not also the As-
sembly, had considered this as a permanent settlement ;
the latter, had it been so acted on, probably would not,
and certainly could not reasonably have objected. Tlie
other ground was the encroachment upon the casual and
territorial revenue, which, made in this indirect manner,
was considered peculiarly offensive, though Lord Goderich
had been fully apprized of their determination against
any agreement in which this article was not included.*
The next question which came before the Assembly
was, the demand of a permanent provision for the go-
vernor and a certain number of the leading executive
officers. After a long debate, however, it was carried
by a large majority in the negative. This decision
placed the Assembly completely at issue with the Crown,
and lias been represented as a breach of faith on tlieir
part. They had not, it is true, come under any formal
engagement ; yet the report of the committee of 1828,
which decidedly connected this arrangement with the ces-
sion of the disputed revenues, had always been referred
to by them as embracing almost every thing desired ;

• Evidence, 1834, p. 56-65.

208

HISTORY OP CANADA

•I i

t !il

U!'

f..i !i

and to this part of it they had never liinted any
objection. On the (Jth December lOHO, they had iMissed
resolutions, insistini? indeed on tlie control of the entire
revenue, but expressing an intention, were tliis gained,
to grant the permanent provision now demanded. That
])reliminary cUiim certainly embraced also the casual
and territorial branches still withheld ; yet these were
not of great amount ; and the present bill, like that
relating to the judges, might have been so framed as to
be inoperative without these funds being embraced by
it. No reason was assigned ; but the view of the As-
sembly is stated to have been, that the executive not
being dependent on them for a naval and military esta-
blishment, would, in case of such a permanent settle-
ment, have been entirely free from that control which
they sought to exercise over it. They passed, however,
a vote of annual supply, which Lord Goderich, though
much dissjitisiied with the tenor of their proceedings,
thought it expedient to sanction.*

Next year (1833) the Assembly still gi'anted only an
annual bill, in which, according to a requisition of Lord
Goderich, they stated the purposes to which each par-
ticular sum was to be applied. They added, without
its being asked or wished, the individuals to whom it was
to be paid ; and appended a number of conditions, chiefly
bearing, that such persons should not hold any other situa-
tion, and should not be members of the executive or
legislative councils. This was considered objectionable,
because public officers were thus suddenly deprived of
situations which they had long held, without any con-
sideration of their claims to compensation ; also because
those regulations ought not to have been tacked to a
money bill, but made the subject of a separate enactment.
On these grounds this bill was negatived by the legis-
lative council, and Lord Stanley, who had been placed at
the head of the Colonial Office, intimated, that had it
reached him, he could not have advised his majesty to

* Evidence, 1834, p. 68-63.

Ml i

UNDER THE nitlTISII.

209

am'^nt to it. In the siuno Hcssion, a mcnsurc wft8 intro-
duced for sccurinp^ indojH'ndviicc an<l pernmnont pro-
vision to the judges, in a form ciUculated toohviate Lord
Godcrich's chief olyections ; l)ut on the nioti«)n of M.
Papineau it was rejeeted, and the npceehcH of the lea(h»rs
of the AsfH'inbly are 8aid to have implied, that it was no
longer considered advisable to excmjjt these functionaries
from their control."'

Tlie breach now continually widened. Lord Stanley,
considering the conduct of the Canadians as manifesting
a resolution to engross the whole power of the state,
directed the funds not yet made over by Parliament to
be employed in the partial payment of the civil officers ;
and he is said to have determined to bring in a bill
for repealing the act by which the concession had been
made. Meantime the Asseml)ly had raised, and placed
in the front of their demands, a new article, which
almost entirely precluded all hope of accommodation,
namely, the abolition of the present legislative council,
and the sul)8titution of one elected, like themselves, by
the body of the peoi)le. Such an arrangement was with-
out example in any British colony ; and the existing state
of political feeling in the mother country would have
rendered it scarcely possible for ministers to propose
it in Parliament. It had been first started in March 1831,
when Lord Aylmer had just gone out with the an-
nounced intention of acting upon the report of 1828,
and redressing, if possible, every grievance hitherto com-
plained of. There seemed therefore room to suspect, that
the conciliatory disposition shown, instead of producing
final satisfaction, had only prompted to higher demands,
tlirough the belief that by perseverance they would
finally obtain whatever they chose to ask. Yet, though
a resolution of the committee to that effect was approved
1)y the members, it was not expressly included in the list
of grievances then presented. But on the 20tli March
1838, a petition to the king, signed by M. Papineau,

VOL. I.

Evidence, 1834, p. 74-79.

210

HISTORY OP CANADA

iii,

k ■

,1 I

>■■(

I !

speaker of the House of Assembly, strenuously urged
this measure, and the calling of a body of delegates to
arrange the conditions. The leading ones proposed were, a
qualification in the electors of £10 in the country and of
.£20 in towns, a certain income to qualify the councillor,
and the duration of his functions for six years. Lord
Stanley in reply said this was an object to which, deeming
it altogether inconsistent with the v^ry existence of mo-
narchical institutions, he could never advise his majesty to
consent ; and he particularly objected to the proposed mode
of effecting it, by what he termed "a national convention.'*
A counter address, however, by the legislative council,
was censured as intemperate in its language, and ap-
pearing to ascribe generally to his majesty's subjects of
one origin views inconsistent with their allegiance. In
conclusion, he alluded to " the possibility that events
might unhappily force upon Parliament the exercise of
its supreme authority to compose the internal dissensions
of the colonies, and which might lead to a modification
of the charter of the Canadas."*

This despatch was submitted to the Assembly, and
its entire tenor, particularly the implied threat at the
close, excited the highest indignation in tliat body.
They declined this year (1834) to pass any bill of
supply whatever, and employed the session in prepar-
ing another long list of grievances. They complained,
that while those formerly urged were still unredressed,
there had been added the partial payment of the civil
officers without their consent. They made a peremptory
demand of the elective legislative council, without
which nothing would be accepted as satisfactory. Lord
Aylmer's conduct was reprobated as violent, unconstitu-
tional, and contemptuous, and his recall urgently de-
manded. The published correspondence assuredly doe&
not bear out this charge. His addresses to the As-
sembly are particularly courteous ; and he recommends
generally to the government at home concessions so ex-

♦ Evidence, 1034, pp. 78, ll'3-2C0. Roebuck, p. 17.

i^ii if

UNDER THE BRITISH.

211

jusly urged
ielegates to
osed were, a
intry and of
e councillor,
ears. Lord
ch, deeming
bence of mo-
is majesty to
oposedmode
3onvention.'*
Ave council,
ige, and ap-
s subjects of
egiance. In
' that events
e exercise of
al dissensions
, modification

gsembly, and
threat at the
1 tliat body.
i any bill of
an in prepar-
er complained,

unredressed,
t of the civil
a peremptory
ncil, without
actory. Lord
it, unconstitu-

urgently de-
assuredly doe&
js to the As-
e recommends
cessions so ex-

uckyp. n.

tensive, that Lord Goderich, himself considered liberal
towards the colonies, refused to accede to them. The
petition, however, was presented to Parliament, and a
committee appointed for its consideration.

Meantime Lord Stanley retired from power, and was
succeeded in the colonial department by Mr Spring
Rice. This gentleman renounced the design entertain-
ed by his predecessor of recalling the revenues yielded
to the Assembly, and gave intimation, it is said, that he
would follow a more conciliatory course. He only asked
a little time till he could make himself master of the sub-
ject ; and thus the popular leaders were induced to delay
taking any strong measures. They bitterly complained,
however, that the administration was carried on as before.
Lord Aylmer was continued in the government, and
though the Canadian funds were not entrenched upon,
a sum of £31,000 was advanced from the military chest
for payment of the civil servants, by which their re-
sponsibility to the Assembly was equally evaded. Before
Mr Rice had matured his plan, he was removed from
office by the accession of Sir Robert Peel to power.
He stated that he had it completed, and was ready
to submit it to the cabinet on the very day^when this
change occurred ; an assertion which Mr Roebuck treats
with evident scepticism, though seemingly without any
adequate ground.

Sir Robert, on assuming the reins of office, early di-
rected his attention to the disturbed state of Canada.
After some deliberation, he determined to send out a
commissioner, with power to examine on the spot, and
redress without delay, every real grievance which should
be proved to exist. Even the casual and territorial re-
venues were to be surrendered, on condition of the set-
tlement of a civil list for at least seven years. The
elective legislative council, however, and the entire
management of the public lands could not be conced-
ed.* Viscount Canterbury, the late speaker, was first

* Despatch from the Earl of Aberdeen to Earl Amherst, p. 3-^

iiteSlii

212

HISTORY OF CANADA

t '*■ } '

{1 1

r i .

' I

invited to fill this important appointment, and, on his
declining, it was conferred on Earl Amhei*st. This ar-
rangement, however, was nullified by the vote which
led to the resignation of Sir Robert, and the return of
Lord Melbourne to power.

The restored ministry followed up, with certain modi-
fications, the plan of their predecessors. A commission
was sent out, for inquiry only and without the power of
decision, composed of the following individuals, — the Earl
of Gosford, Sir Charles Edward Grey, and Sir George
Gipps. The first, an Irish nobleman, professing prin-
ciples decidedly liberal, succeeded Lord Aylmer as go-
vernor. Lord Glenelg, now the colonial secretary,
drew up for their guidance a series of instructions,
in which he considered the claim to the disposal of the
entire revenue somewhat exorbitant, and not warranted
by British example, yet was willing, for the sake of
peace, to consent to it, on certain conditions. These
were, an independent provision for the judges, and sala-
ries for the civil officers, fixed for a certain number of
years, ten being mentioned as particularly suitable.
With regard to the uncleared lands, the whole proceeds
arising from their sale were to be placed at the disposal
of the Assembly ; but government could not consent to
part with the management of them, or annul the con-
tract made with the Land Company, though they
would be ready to guard against all abuses, and even
to receive any suggestions on the subject. The exist-
ing pensions were also to be retained, but the future
power of granting them would be surrendered. In re-
gard to the critical question of the elective legislative
council, it was said, — " The king is most unwilling to
admit, as open to debate, the question, whether one of
the vital principles of the provincial government shall
undergo alteration." The right of petition, however,
was fully recognised, and his majesty would not " ab-
solutely close the avenue to inquiry," even where, " for
the present, he saw no reasonable ground of doubt."*

* Copy of the Instructions to the Earl of Gosford, &c. p. S-IJ).

UNDER THE BRITISH.

213

and, on his
)t. This ar-

vote which
he return of

certain modi-
L commission
the power of
lis, — the Earl
I Sir George
»fessing prin-
ylmer as go-
al secretary,
instructions,
sposal of the
Lot warranted
• the sake of
ions. These
ges, and sala-
n number of
arly suitable,
rhole proceeds
it the disposal
not consent tt>
mnul the con-
though they
ises, and even
t. The exist-
)ut the future
iered. In re-
bive legislative
t unwilling to
whether one of
remment shall
tion, however,
ould not " ab-
en where, " for
1 of doubt."*

)rcl, &c. p. 5-Vd.

The Earl of Gosford having arrived in Canada, lost no
time in calHng a meeting of the legislature, who were
convoked on the 27th October 1835 ; and in his opening
speeches, he professed the most conciHatory views, par-
ticularly towards the French or popular party. He
avowed the opinion, that " to be acceptable to the great
body of the people, is one of the most essential elements
of fitness for public station." He intimated his readiness
to place the whole revenue at the disposal of the Assem-
bly on the conditions formerly stated. All the other
grievances were to be carefully examined and redressed ;
and allusion was made to " still graver matters," respect-
ing which the commissioners " were not precluded from
entering into an inquiry."

The legislative council returned an answer which, in
all respects, was extremely moderate. They generally
concurred in the sentiments of the speech, deprecated the
idea tiiat difference of origin should affect political rights,
wliich ought to be equal to all his majesty's subjects.
But the House of Assembly, while holding conciUatory
language, advanced much more lofty pretensions. The
cliange in the legislative council was repeatedly pressed,
as absolutely essential to the tranquillity and content-
ment of the province. The entire control of the pv bile
revenue was referred to, not as a boon, but an incontest-
able and essential right ; and while they stated their
readiness to consider attentively any measure tending to
facilitate the exercise of this right, they avoided all
mention of conditions to be performed in return. Not-
withstanding the high ground thus taken, the inter-
ooui'se between the popular leaders and the governor
was extremely friendly. He admitted them to his table
and his intimacy, and treated them on every occasion
with much kindness. They were understood to represent
the great body of the people, whom he had expressed his
desire to conciliate ; and he professed liberal views to
those who would understand that term in its widest
sense. So decided was the impression produced, that
the opposite party loaded liim with the bitterest invec-

214

HISTORY OF CANADA

i .'

y I

i I

tives, and even threw out menaces of insurrection ; while
the leaders of the Assembly went so far as to intimate,
that they would relieve the immediate financial em-
barrassments by granting the three years' arrears, and a
half-year in advance. They attached to the grant some-
what hard conditions, which, however, were not rejected ;
and on the remark being made, that these would ensure
its rejection by the legislative council, an intimation is
said to have been given, that it would be accepted di-
rectly by address, without being liable to the veto of
that body.*

This good understanding was suddenly interrupted.
The governor's language above cited, in regard to the elec-
tive council, had been very different from that of his in-
structions, not pledging him indeed to the measure, yet
such as, combined with his other conduct, conveyed to
both parties the idea that it was determined upon. This
course is defended as the only one by which the supplies
so urgently wanted could be obtained ; and it was hoped,
that by a continued conciliatory coui"se, the Assembly
might, when the real intention of the cabinet could no
longer be concealed, be induced to wave their demand. Any
degree of duplicity in a government, however, must, when
discovered, lower its dignity, UTitate the deceived parties,
and, at the same time, give them an impression of their
strength, which had driven those in authority to such an
expedient. Unhappily all those effects followed, before
any of the expected fruits had been reaped. Sir Francis
Bond Head had at the same time been sent out to Upper
Canada, and being a very straightforward person, and
seemingly unapprized of Lord Gosford's intentions, had
made public a part of the instructions, including that
momentous passage already quoted, relative to the le-
gislative council. It was such as, though not wholly
precluding discussion on the object, left to the popular

4 -•!

" Papers relating to Lower Canada (20th February 1837), p. 4-12.
AnU-Gallic Letters, by Camillus (Montreal, 1836), p. 35-41. Cor-
respoodeoce od Canada Affairs (Bri^^hton, 1836), p. 3-6, &c.

UNDER THE BUITISH.

215

Bction ; while
J to intimate,
financial em-
irrears, and a
e grant some-
! not rejected ;
would ensure
intimation is
accepted di-
> the veto of

interrupted,
rd to the elec-
thatof hisin-
measure, yet
, conveyed to
d upon. This
1 the supplies
. it was hoped,
the Assembly
>inet could no
demand. Any
ir, must, when
;eived parties,
jssion of their
rity to such an
llowed, before
. Sir Francis
b out to Upper
i person, and
itentions, had
ncluding that
ive to the le-
h not wholly
X) the popular

leaders scarcely a hope of its attainment. Their rage
knew no bounds ; they complained not only of disap-
pointment in their favourite olject, but of a deception
by which they had been nearly misled. It was now
determined not to grant the tiiree years' arrears, but
merely a supply for the current half-year, allowing
only that short period to comply with their demands.
This slender boon, too, Wiis clogged with conditions
which, as had been foreseen, induced the upper house
to reject it, so that the session, in all respects very stormy,
passed over without any provision whatever being made -
for the public service. The legislative council felt na-
turally indignant at the violent attempts meditated for
its overthrow, and instead of studying to show these to
be unmerited, the members vented their resentment by
rejecting almost every bill sent up from the Assembly.
Among these was the vote continuing the funds for
national education, which were thus entirely withdrawn.
All the political elements were disturbed, and in violent
collision with each other.*

The commissioners, in March 18.%, viewing this state
of things, and seeing no prospect oi obtaining money to
carry on the government, without immediately yielding
to every demand of the lower house, considered it indis-
pensable to obtain it without their consent. This, they
thought, would be best accomplished by Parliament
repealing the act passed on the motion of Lord Goderich,
by which funds to the amount of £38s,000 had been
made over to the Assembly. This would indeed excite
bitter resentment ; but with the other reserved reve-
nues, it would at least enable the government to proceed
without any grants from tliat body. Lord Glenelg was
not forwai*d to act on this recommendation. He wrote
to the Earl of Gosfoi*d, expressmg a hope, on grounds
which do not very distinctly appear, that the violent
resolution complained of had been induced by the partial

ry 1837), p. 4-12.
, p. 35-41. Cor-
I. 3*6, &c.

• Roebuck, p. 39. Tlie late Ses&ioa of the ProTiDcial Parlia"
meat (Montreal, 1836), p. l3.->9.

r,iiiiiii'vii"TTT-

akMH

216

HISTORY OP CANADA

I 'I!

I ■■ i' I

fill'

h i<

i I !

'■ •■{

and imperfect knowledge of tlic Instructions, and that a
communication of the whole might lead to more favour-
able views. He expressed a wish, tlierefore, that the
provincial Parliament should be again called, and an
opportunity aftbrded for retracting, before recourse was
had to extreme measures. The meeting was accordingly
held on the 22d of September 1836 ; but the majority
soon presented an address to the governor, denying that,
according to the apprehension expressed in his speech,
they laboured under any kind of misconception ; they
saw nothing to make them change their views, or pre-
vent them from insisting on the same demands, parti-
cularly that of the elective council. They adverted in
an indignant manner to certain pretended authorities,
as they termed the commission, and maintained that they
themselves were the legitimate and authorized organ of
all classes of inhabitants ; that they had used their power
in such a manner as ought to have secured confidence ;
and to them, not to a few strangers, ought to have been
committed the fate of the country. They declared it
their imperative duty to adhere to the contents of their
last address ; " and to them do we adhere." Thev
finally expressed a resolution not only to do nothing
more in regard to supply, but to adjourn their delibera-
tions altogether, unless government should commence
the great work of justice and reform, particularly in
regard to the second branch of the legislature.*

Matters had now reached an extremity which seemed
to render it no longer possible to delay an interposition.
The stoppage wf the supplies, like the granting of them,
was no doubt a right inherent in a representative assem-
bly. Yet it is one, the exercise of which is attended
with such formidable evils, that the Commons of Eng-
land, during more than a century, had merely kept it
in the background as a last resort, and never brought
it into actual operation. The constitutional character

• Second Report of Canada Commissioners, p. 93-95; &c. Pipers
relating to Lower Canada, p. 31-41.

UNDER THE BRITISH.

217

-95, &c. Pi'pers

of the measure became still more questionable, when
employed, not to control the abuses of the executive,
but to overthrow a separate and co-ordinate branch of
the legislature, deriving its existence from the same
source with the Assembly itself. This was a mighty
change, amounting to a kind of revolution, and to be
effected only with the utmost deliberation. The stop-
ping the whole machine of government, and not allow-
ing even an intei^val of time to eifect it, was a measure
of extreme violence. Had the popular leaders listened
to the dictates of prudence and moderation, they might,
availir^' themselves of the conciliatory disposition shown
by the new governor, have obtained all their substantial
objects. They would have gained the chief control in
the executive, after which the legislative council, whom
they continually reproached with subserviency to the
latter branch, were not likely to persevere in unavailing
opposition. ,

Ministers now determined no longer to delay mea-
sures for counteracting the proceedings of the violent
party, and placing the executive government in a state
of regular action. Parliament having assembled, and
the reports of the commissioners being laid on the table.
Lord John Russell, on the 6th March 1837, moved a
series of resolutions on which acts were to be founded.
After a statement of the actual posture of affairs, it was
proposed that the sum of ^£142,000 should be taken out
of the provincial funds locked up by the Assembly, and
applied to the payment of the judges and other civil
officers, down to the 10th April. It was afterwards
agreed, not, as the commissioners had recommended, to
resume any part of the ceded monies, but by a strict
economy to carry on the government from that date with
the casual and territorial revenues, which circumstances
had now raised to about £28,000. The elective legislative
council, and the direct responsibility of the executive
one to the Assembly, were both declared inexpedient ;
though it was stated as desirable that considerable im-
provements should be made in the composition of both.

218

HISTORY OF CANADA

I I

;i '

These suggestions gave occasion to very warm debates.
The Tories, while they supported the proposals of go-
vernment, accused them of an imprudent indulgence
and want of energy, which had emboldened the factious
party to proceed to extremities. On the other hand,
a small but active section of the popular leaders jus-
tified all the claims and proceedings of the Canadian
Assembly, denounced the Resolutions as unconstitutional
and tyrannical, and predicted as their result civil war
and the loss of the colonies. The motion of Mr Leader,
however, in favour of an elective council, was negatived
by 818 to 56, and the cabinet measures were carried by
overwhelming majorities ; but the death of William IV.
intervened before they could be embodied in acts of
Parliament. The necessity of a dissolution, and the
unwillingness to begin the government of a young and
popular queen by a scheme of coercion, induced ministers
to substitute the expedient of advancing the amount by
way of loan from the British revenue, in the pros-
pect of being ultimately reimbursed from the provincial
funds.

As an interval was to elapse between the passing of
the Resolutions and their being acted on, Lord Gosford
was instructed to make a last trial of the Assembly, in
hopes that, seeing such a vast majority in Parliament
against them, they might be induced of themselves to
vote the money, and thus save the necessity of any un-
wonted interference. Already, however, several violent
demonstrations had taken place. Meetings were held in
the counties of Montreal and Richelieu, in which it was
affirmed, that the votes of the commons had put an end
to all hopes of justice ; and that no further attempts
should be made to obtain redress from the Imperial
Parliament. They considered the government as now
only one of force, to be submitted to from necessity
during their present weakness ; and in order to re-
duce as far as possible its power, they declared that all
consumption of British manufactures and of articles pay-
ing taxes, ought to .be discontinued ; and finally, that a

u t

UNDER THE BRITISH.

219

general convention should be held, to consider what
farther measures were advisable.

Lord Glenelg, in consequence of this state of things in
Canada, had solved to send out two additional regi-
ments ; but afterwards, finding this to be inconveni-
ent, he gave authority to apply to Sir Colin Camp-
bell for such force as could be spared from Nova Scotia
and New Brunswick. On the 6th May the governor
replied, that he had not the least expectation of any
thing serious, though in case of a dissolution he ad-
mitted that " there might be some broken heads." On
the 10th June, however, upon learning that a system
of organization was carrying on under the influence of
Papineau, he applied to Sir Colin for a regiment, which
arrived early in July. He had already issued a procla-
mation, warning the people against all attempts to se-
duce them from their allegiance. Meetings, numerously
attended, were held in Montreal and Quebec, condemn-
ing the violent conduct of the House of Assembly, de-
claring attachment to British connexion, and deprecat-
ing any breach of the public peace.*

On the 18th August Lord Gosfprd again called the
provincial Parliament. The Resolutions were laid before
the Assembly, with the expression of a hope that its pro-
ceedings would supersede the necessity of their being
acted on. The changes in the constitution of the councils
had been unfortunately delayed by difficulties as to cer-
tain appointments ; but these improvements were solemn-
ly promised. Warm debates ensued. Mr Andrew Stuart,
one of the members for Quebec, proposed a compliance
with the request of government, which was negatived by
63 to 13. An address was then moved by M. Taschereau,
a representative of the county of Beauce, expressing a
willingness to give a trial to the means proposed for
amending the legislative councU, but declining any grant
till they were brought into operation. Another address.

* (Copies, &c/ of Correspondence relative to Lower Canada
(23d December 1837), pp. «-13, 20-33.

^iaM

220

ITISTOnY OP CANADA

.il I'

ii pi

i •{

breathing the most dctcrinmed hostility, wns then moved,
and carried by 40 to 31. It denouneed the step now
tJiken as an absolute dcstinietion of the representative
fiovernmcnt in the provinee, — a total refusid of all
tlic reforms and improvements demanded. If these lie-
solutions were carried into effect, the colony, it was said,
would no longer be attached to the mother country by
feelings of duty, of affection, and mutual interest, but
solely by physical force, in this conjuncture they
could see no motive for the slightest de})arture from
their intention to withhold the supplies ; and they
adhered in every respect to their resolutions of OOtli
September 1830. Lord Gosford, in re])ly, gave utterance
to his deep regret at measures which he considered a
virtual annihilation of the constitution, and immediately
2)rorogued the Assembly.*

The popular leaders seem now to have formed tlic
resolution of having recourse to arms. They, as well as
their organs in this country, had often asserted,t and
seem at length to have believed, that only an effort was
required to sever the colonies from the mother country.
This was a most hasty and inconsiderate conclusion.
The example of the American colonies was referred to ;
but they were much stronger than the Canadians .are
now, while the power of Britain, on the other hand, was
considerably smaller. Yet it was only after a long and
calamitous contest of eight years, that they establishe<l
their independence ; and their success would have been
doubtful, had they not been aided by a most powerful
European confederacy. The aid of the United States
was indeed held forth ; but the latter had been so little
disposed to intermeddle on such occasions, that they re-
mained neutral during the long contest between Spain
and her colonies, although her situation gave them little
to dread from her resentn.ent. It was therefore very
unlikely that they should now engage single-handed in
a contest with the whole power of Britain.

* Corresjwndence, &c. p. 36-45. -f- Roebuck, pp. 'd'd, 4*3, 50.

rNnrn tin: iiimtish.

221

■le-lianded in

The meetinc^H in j)iirsumi(;c of tlu-so vicw.s were n(»t
held on HO grrut u Hcalr, or in tlu; Huine public uiul oHtin-
t4itiou3 inaniuT iis formorly. Tlu y were nmiu'roiis, how-
ever, and breathed the inovl, hostile spirit, renouncing'
i\\\ hope of redress from tlu? j)arent state, and pointini,'
<Iirectly to a separation. A central eoniniittee was form-
ed at Montreal, whose proceedings were in a great mea-
sure: secret, and preparations were understood to he
making for a general convention. It was nearly vain
to attemi)t repressing the most violent demonstrations
againstthc government, since no pcttyjury could he found
to convict, and in two instiinccs, when the evidence was
considered perfectly conclusive, the hills were ignored hy
the grand jury. The governor, however, learning that
numerous individuals holding her majesty's commission
had taken a share in those meetings, caused letters to
1r' written to them demanding an explanation. On
receiving none that was satisfactory, he dismissed eighteen
magistrates and thirty-five militia officers. Among the
latter was Papincau, whose answer was couched in the
most defying and contemptuous terms, lie, it is ob-
served, had now gone such lengths, as made it impossible
for him to recede without losing all his influence ; he must
either be put down, or allowed to put down the govern-
ment. In the beginning of October, the new arrange-
ment of tlie two councils was carried into effect, at least
to a great extent ; but it excited little interest, and
was rejected by the violent leaders as wholly unsatisftic-
torv.*

The malecontcnt party became every day bolder. An
association was formed, under the title of " The Sons
of Liberty," who, without committing actual violence,
paraded the streets of Montreal in a hostile and threaten-
ing manner. They emitted a proclamation containing the
most violent expressions. " The wicked designs," stud
they, " of British authorities have severed all ties of
sympathy for an unfeeling mother country." — " Aglori-

* Corrospondencc, pp. 47-50, (jo, /-.

222

HISTORY or CANADA

. ti

f)<

,t '

■ i

0U8 destiny awaits the younf? men of these colonies ;'*
and this was explained to he " to disfranchise our heloved
country from all human authority, except that of the
bold democracy residing within its hosom." They alluded
to " the struggle for life and liberty in which we must
sooner or later be engaged, when the day of glory ar-
rives, that will see us emerge from a long dark bondage
to the splendour of light and freedom." At the same time,
in the county of Two Mountains, the people deteiinined
not to obey the mogistrates appointed in the room of
those displaced ; an organization was formed of pacifica-
tor justiceSfto compose differences without recourse to the
cjonstituted authorities, and in whose decisions all true
patriots were required to acquiesce. Meanwhile, the
militia in that district were organized in a new form,
under officers of their own selection, including those
recently dismissed ; and an active training was carried
on. All loyal and neutral residents were by violent
measures compelled either to join the malecontcnts or
quit the territory, throughout which British authority
entirely ceased.*

No long time passed before this course of proceeding
was imitated in the more populous portion of the Mon-
treal territory lying southward of the St Lawrence. On
tlie 28d October, a meeting was held of the five counties
on the Richelieu and the Yamaska, when a petition was
presented from L*Acadie to be admitted as a sixth. The
petitioners used the most intemperate language, declaring
themselves prepared to sacrifice every thing most dear
to them in this world, to emancipate from a vile slavery
the land that gave them birth. They renounced all
principles but those of the purest democracy, and desired
to place themselves under the guidance and behind the
buckler of L. J. Papineau. At the meeting of the six
counties, the numbers attending were variously esti-
mated from 1500 to 6000, of whom a proportion were
armed. Their resolutions, without absolutely announcing

* Correspondence, &c. p. 63-70.

u.NDKii Tin: imiTiHir.

223

colrtiik'8 ;"
our beloved
that of the
hey alluded
'h we must
)f glory ar-
irk bondage
} same time,
deteiTOined
lie room of

o{ pavifica-
;ourse to the
jns all true
nwhile, the
, new form,
uding those
was carried

by violent
ccont<'nts or
jh authority

F proceeding
of the Mon-
ATence. On
five counties
petition was
1 sixth. The
ge, declaring
ig most dear
vile slavery
mounced all
', and desired
i behind the
ig of the six
riously esti-
portion were
" announcing

rebellion, went to place every thing in preparation for it.
The recent appointments to the two councils were de-
clared wholly unsatisfactory, while the introduction of
an armed fore 3 into tiie province was stigmatized as ft
new and enormous grievance. The magistrates and
militui were to be organized after the model of those of
the Two Mountains, and the example of the Sons of
Liberty was also recommended, " that they might Ikj
prepared to support each other with promptitude and
effect, shouhl circumstances re([uire them to protect and
defend their threatened liberties." A similar address
was drawn up on the following day, and circulatc^d
through the province. The same course was followed,
of compelling by violence and threats the otticei's to
resign their situations or leave the country.*

Government could not remain passive while its autho-
rity was openly set at nought, and insurrection matured
under its very eye. Applications were made to Sir Colin
Campbell for two additional regiments, and likewise for
what force could be spared from the Upper Provhice.
The zealous offers of the loyal inhabitants to place
themselves in arms, which had been long declined from
motives of prudence, were now accepted, and volunteer
corps were zealously and rapidly organized. The Catho-
lic c^ gy took a decided part in the s^upport of order
and peace, and an address was published by the Bishop
of Montreal, exhorting his flock against the violent and
illegal proceedings now in progress. This, among a
religious people, though it did not stop the career of
those who had so deeply committed themselves, had
probably a powerful effect in arresting the spread of tlM3
disorder, and keeping it confined, as it still was, to Mon-
treal district.

The first blow was struck at the town now mentioned,
between tlie " Sons of Libt rty" and a loyal association
formed in opposition to them. The former were complete-
ly worsted, and pursued through the streets ; none were

* Correspondence, 6:c. pp. 86-139, 95-100.

. •<

I' n

^ I .1

' ; !'

, I

1 :

■.!

224

HISTORY OF CANADA

killed, but several severely hurt, particularly Browir
from New York, who had assumed the title of their
general. Papineau's house, which the victors attempted
to bum, was saved, but the office of the Vindicator
newspaper was destroyed. Exaggerated reports of this
affair being spread throughout the country, heightened
the general femient ; and it was announced from various
quarters that resistance was daily extending, and as-
suming a more organized form.

It was now obvious, that unless some decisive step
were taken, the malecontent cause must cont i ally
gain new strength, and the connexion of the coionies
with the mother country become seriously endangered.
The course deemed most effectual was immediately to
arrest the most active leaders. A warrant was accord-
ingly issued at Montreal against twenty-six, of whom
seven were members of Assembly, including Papineau
and Viger. Nine were apprehended ; but the arch-
agitator himself had disappeared, and doubts were even
entertained if he were still in the province. This step
necessarily led to a crisis, especially as some of the war-
rants were against persons residing in the heart of the
disturbed territory. Two being in the vicinity of St
John, on the Richelieu, a party of eighteen volunteer
militia were des]}atched thither to apprehend them. An
oversight seems to have been committed in sending so
small a force, not regular, into the midst of a hostile
country. They succeeded, however, in capturing the
parties ; and an armed body of thirty who appeared
near Chambly made no attempt to intercept them. Near
Longueuil, however, they found a field on the right of
the road occupied by 300 well armed men, protected by
a high fence. From this assemblage a fire was imme-
diately opened upon the detachment, which, from its
])osition, could not be returned with effect. Several
v.'cre wounded, the rest retreated, and the two prisoners
AN ere rescued by the insurgents.*

Correspondence, pp.05, 102-110.

UNDER THE BRITISH.

225

The standard of insurrection having thus been openly
raised, it became necessary to act with the utmost
promptitude. Information was received that Papineau,
Brown, and Neilson, were at the villages of St Denis
and St Charles, on the Richelieu, which had been occu-
pied by the armed inhabitants ; and accordingly, Sir
John Colbome, the commander-in-chief, sent strong
detachments under Colonels Gore and Wetherall to
attack these places. The former, on the 22d November,
having conveyed his force in a steamer to Sorel, pro-
ceeded up the river against St Denis ; but being obliged
to take a circuitous route, through tracks which, from
previous rain, were knee-deep, the troops arrived in a
very jaded state. Though the whole country was in arms,
no serious resistance was encountered till they reached
the village, the entrance to which was defended by a
large stone-house strongly fortified, from which, as well
as from others on each side, a heavy fire was opened.
A howitzer was brought up against it, whence round-shot
was fired with a view to batter it down, but without
effect. Captain Markham, with the advance, had gal-
lantly cleared the way and taken an adjoining house,
but was then severely wounded, and obliged to quit the
field. Findmg that no impression could be made on the
main barrier, that his ammunition was nearly exhausted,
and that the troops were overpowered with fatigue. Gore
considered a retreat unavoidable. It was efifected with-
out serious inconvenience, though it became necessary
to leave a cannon on the road, while his loss was six
killed, ten wounrled, and six missing. No blame seems
to have been attached to the colonel, whose means,
especially in ammunition, were scarcely adequate ; but
this second advantage, gained by the rebel cause at the
opening of the contest, was a most unfortunate circum-
stance, and unless counteracted might have spread dis-
affection to an alarming extent.

Meantime, Colonel Wetherall with his detachment
proceeded by way of Chambly to St Charles, a point
higher up the river. He was delayed in a similar manner

VOL. I,

\V.

■iS¥

226

HISTORY OF CANADA

I) P 'I

; I

I M ^i

by the badness of the roads ; and on reaching St Hilaire,
found it necessary to procure another company from
Chambly, and even to send a messenger to Montreal, we
presume for farther aid. Having reason, however, to cor
sider his communications with that place intercepted, he
determined, on the 26th, to advance to the attack. About
1500 insurgents, under the command of Brown, had
posted themselves in the village, and surrounded it with
a strong stockade. The English commander, on his
arrival, drew up his force at a short distance, in the hope
of producing some defection ; but none taking place,
and a heavy fire being opened upon him, he pushed
forward to the assault. In about an hour the intrench-
ment was carried, the fortified houses and palisades were
set on fire, the troops were masters of the town, and
the rebels fled in every direction. The carnage was
great, the entire loss of the malecontents being about 300.
Charges have been made of severe and vindictive pro-
ceedings, which we should hope are exaggerated. An-
other body took up a position in his rear, with the view
of cutting off his return to Chambly ; but when he ap-
proached them on the 28th, they broke and dispersed at
the first onset.*

The affair of St Charles decided the fate of the con-
test. A general panic spread among the peasantry,
and they began to consider themselves betrayed by
leaders who did not show the courage expected of them
in the hour of trial. Colonel Gore, strongly reinforced,
again advanced upon St Denis, which he entered with-
out resistance on the 2d December, Neilson and Brown
having quitj;ed it on the preceding evening. He then
marched upon St Hyacinthe, but found it also unde-
fended, and made a vain search for Papineau. The
chiefs, renouncing their hopes, were already seeking safety
in the territory of the United States. Brown reached it
with great difficulty, through many perils ; Neilson was

3-ti.

Papers relating to Lower Canada (I6th January 1838), p.

St Hilaire,

npany from

ilontreal, we

ever, to cor.

;ercepted, he

tack. About

Brown, had

nded it with

nder, on his

, in the hope

making place,

he pushed

the intrench-

talisades were

le town, and

carnage was

ng about 300.

ndictive pro-

;erated. An-

vrith the view

, when he ap-

i dispersed at

,e of the con-
hie peasantry,
betrayed by
ected of them
fly reinforced,
entered with-
n and Brown
ag. He then
it also unde-
pineau. The
seeking safety
iwn reached it
; Neilson was

inuary 1838), p.

**^

UNDER THE BRITISH. 227

taken in a barn, conveyed to Montreal, and thrown
into prison. Papineau could not be traced ; nor is
there any record of his having ever compromised his
personal safety in a contest which he had been the main
instrument in exciting.

Attempts, however, were made to support the cause
from a quarter which, under certain circumstances,
might have proved very formidable. The United States
contained many individuals disposed to sympathize deep-
ly with the Canadians, and many restless spirits were
inclined to join them, allured by the promise of large
lots of confiscated land. Even in the present hopeless cir-
cumstances, 200 passed the frontier ; but before Sir John
Colborne could send a force against them, a party of the
volunteers of Missisqui county, under the command of
Captain Kemp, took arms and drove them back with
some loss. Thus the whole of the six counties, so lately
in open rebellion, were in a fortnight reduced to perfect
tranquillity.*

There remained still the districts of Two Mountains
and Terrebonne, north of Montreal, where insurrection
had been first organized, and still wore its most de-
termined aspect. Sir John Colborne had judiciously
postponed operations against this quarter till, the south
being completely tranquillized, he could direct thither
liis whole force. On the 14th December, he marched
in person, with about 1300 regular and volunteer troops,
against the large village of St Eustache. The disasters
of their brethren elsewhere had spread a well-founded
alann ; and the greater number of the men and their
leaders, including Girod the supposed commander-in-
chief, fled precipitately. About 400 of the most des-
perate, however, continued to occupy a church and
adjoining buUdings, which had been carefully fortified ;
and here so obstinate a stand was made, that a British
detachment was at one point obliged to recede. But

• Papers (16th January 1838), pp. 18, 19; (2d February),
p. 3.

■4'

I',

h it

Ik. 1 11

If; .: I

•!■■

f-'U

iHi=ii!H

11 1%,

i !

228

HISTORY OF CANADA

fire having reached the adjacent edifices, soon spread to
the church itself, the defenders of which were thereby
speedily dislodged ; while the troops, being protected by
the houses, did not lose more than one killed and nine
wounded.

Colonel Maitland now marched towards St Benoit,
the chief village of the Grand Brule district, which
hart been the focus of insurrection ; but on his way he
met a deputation, tendering the most humble submis-
sion, and he entered the place without resistance. Un-
fortunately, the loyal inhabitants, who had been plunder-
ed and driven out of the country, could not be restrained
from acts of violence, and a considerable portion of the
houses were reduced to ashes. Maitland, after occupying
St Scholastique, returned to Montreal, leaving the dis-
trict in a state of perfect tranquillity. The people,
complaining that their chiefs, after instigating them to
revolt, had deserted them, seemed determined not to be
again seduced into such a course. Several of the leaders
were taken ; Gii'od himself, being surrounded so that
he could not escape, committed suicide.*

Upper Canada, meantime, had become the theatre of
important events. For a considerable time, especially
since the residence there of Mr Gourlay, a party had
existed supporting extreme political opinions. These,
it is true, were not imbittered by any feelings arising
from difFeren'!e of race ; but many of the inhabitants had
migrated from the United States, to whose institutions
they were naturally partial. They gained over a number
of the British residents, influenced by the usual motives,
and who complained especially of the favouritism shown
in the granting of land. These grounds of discontent
were carefully investigated by the committee of 1828,
and instructions issued by Lord Goderich, which here, as
in the Lower Province, gave general satisfaction. The
discontented party, however, proceeded from one step to

• Papers (29th January 1838), p. 11-14; (2d February),
p. 4, &c.

UNDER THE BRITISH.

229

another, till Mackenzie, Duncombe, and other leaders,
scarcely made any secret of their desire to separate from
Britain and join the American union. In 1834, this party,
for the first time, obtained a majority in the Assem-
bly ; and though they had hitherto confined themselves
to complaints on particular subjects, they now com-
menced a general opposition to the royal government,
and at length, as in the other province, came into vio-
lent collision with the legislative council. They trans-
mitted to the king a long and elaborate list of grievances ;
complaining that the offices in the colony were too
numerous, too highly paid, and the Holders removable at
the pleasure of the crown ; that support had been unduly
given to particular religious establishments ; and that
Lord Groderich*s recommendations had by no means been
fully acted upon. They also urged with the same vehe-
mence as in the sister colony the demand for an elective
legislative council.*

This union of the two provinces pushing with equal
zeal the most extreme measures, brought affairs into a
somewhat hazai*dous position. Wlien Lord Gosfoid
and the commissioners were sent to Lower Canada, the
ministry placed the upper province under Sir Francis
Head, a man of literary talent, and of peculiar firmness,
shrewdness, and energy of character. Having arrived
early in 1836, as already related, he took the straightfor-
ward course of at once publishing the extent and limits
of liis instructions ; at the same time assuring the people
of his most zealous efforts to remove every practical
grievance. The Assembly, however, were by no means
satisfied ; and another ground of contest soon arose. Sir
Francis added to the executive three members, whose
appointment was highly sjxtisfactory to the popular
party; but as several weeks elapsed without their
having been consulted on any subject, they stated in a
letter, that they considered themselves thus rendered
responsible for measures in which they were allowed

* Instructions to Lord Gosford and Sir rrancis Head, p. dd-bd.

«««*f

■MB

.!!

•i ri

«l

l4»

i., t*

ii,

; !

230

HISTORY OF CANADA

no share, and therefore tendered their resignation. While
accepting it with regret, he maintained that he lay
under no obligation to consult them on every measure ;
but was at perfect liberty to judge of the occasions
on which the public interest might require their aid.
The House of Assembly immediately took up the affair,
and having, agreeably to request, been furnished with
a copy of the correspondence, drew up a report, and
afterwards a long address to the king, strenuously con-
troverting the governor's doctrine, and in the course of
it, broadly charging him with " deviations from candour
and truth." Proceeding in the same hostile spirit, they
for the fii-st time stopped the supplies : in consequence
of whicli Sir Frjmcis reserved all tlieir money bills for
his majesty's decision, and rejected the application for
payment of their incidental expenses.*

All hopes of accommodation being thus closed, he
determined, on the 28th of May, to make an appeal to
the people by a new election. It was contested with ex-
traordinary ardour ; and a war of manifestoes, procla-
mations, and addresses, was forthwith waged between the
])arties. Perhaps no ruler ever effected more by writing
than Sir Fi*ancis. The frank, energetic, and popular style
in which his addresses were penned, produced an extra-
ordinary effect ; and already the peaceable inhabitants had
begun to shrink from the ex+remes into which the po-
pular leaders were huiTying them. These several causes
produced the impoi^tant result, that in the new Assem-
bly a decided majority supported the constitutional side.
The demagogues complained to the ministry that this
effect had been produced by illegal means, by extraordi-
nary grants of land, and even by violence and bribery.
The Assembly, however, after strict inquiry by a com-
mittee, declared these allegations to be utterly false, ex-
pressing, at the same time, the strongest attachment to
the mother-country and to the governor.

During this tranquil and satisfactory state of Upper

* Upper Canada Papers (30th June 1836), pp. 6, 48-50.

UNDER THE BRITISH.

231

ion. WhUe
lat he lay
y measure ;
e occasions
their aid.
p the affair,
nished with
report, and
uously con-
le course of
om candour
spirit, they
consequence
ley bills for
jlication for

s closed, he
m appeal to
3ted with ex-
itoes, procla-
[ between the
re by writing
popular style
ced an extra-
tiabitantshad
hich the po-
ieveral causes

new Assem-
tutional side,
jtry that this
by extraordi-

and bribery,
ry by a com-
Birly false, ex-
ttachment to

ate of Upper
3. 6, 48-50.

Canada, insurrection broke out in the lower province ;
and Sir Francis being requested to state what force he
could spare, his answer was, All. He considered it not
only practicable, but desirable, that every soldier should
be removed out of his district, and a full display thus
made of its loyal and peaceful condition. He caused the
arms to be deposited in the city hall of Toronto, under
charge of the mayor ; declining even to place a guard
over them, to prevent sudden capture. In this state of
things Mackenzie determined to make an attempt upon
the capital. Having a number of small detached parties
throughout the province, who were ready to obey
his mandate, and had even been trained to the use of
weapons, he ordered them to assemble on the 4th Decem-
ber on the great road called Yonge Street, leading to
Lake Simcoe. Hurrying by cross paths through the
forest, they mustered at Montgomerie's Tavern, about
four miles from Toronto. Their numbers, at first esti-
mated at 3000, are not supposed to have exceeded 500.
With the view of effecting a surprise, they attacked
every one going to the city ; among whom Colonel Moodie,
a distinguished officer, was wounded, and died in a few
hours. Alderman Powell, however, having shot one of
his assailants, escaped, roused the governor, and gave the
alarm ; upon which Francisran to the town hall, where
^e found the chief justice with a musket on his shoulder,
surrounded by a band of brave men, who had hastily
assembled. The arms being unpacked and placed in their
hands, they posted themselves in a defensive attitude at
the windows of the building, and of others flanking it.
But Mackenzie, presuming that Powell would instantly
give notice, did not venture to advance ; a pusillanimous
resolution, assuredly, since he could never again expect
so favourable an opportunity. By morning, 300 loyalists
were mustered ; and in the course of the day, Mr Allan
M'Nab, speaker of the House of Assembly, arrived with
sixty from the Gore District, and others from different
quarters raised the number to 600. On the 6th, the force
was considered sufftcient for offensive operations ; but the

232

HISTORY OP CANADA

I .

i I."

,i in

governor, anxious to avoid the effusion of blood, sent
a message to the insurgents, inviting them to lay down
their arms. Mackenzie offered to comply, on condition
that a national convention should be called, allowing till
two o'clock for the answer ; but as no reply could be
given to this proposition, arrangements were immediately
made for an attack on the following day.

On the 7th December at noon the whole force marched
out. In this civic array, principal commands were held
by Colonel M'Nab, the present, and Mr Justice Maclean,
the late speaker of the Assembly, while the clerk of
the House officiated as adjutant-general. The rebels
had occupied an elevated position in front of the tavern,
where, being in some degree protected by houses, they
endeavoured to make a stand ; but the militia, advancing
to the charge with the utmost enthusiasm, soon broke
the whole corps, which dispersed in every direction,
Mackenzie himself escaping with extreme precipitation.
They were pursued four miles ; two of the chiefs were
taken ; the tavern was burnt to the ground ; and the re-
volt was so completely quashed, that Sir Francis consider-
ed he might safely exercise the attribute of mercy, by dis-
missing the greater part of the misguided prisoners.*

The militia, meantime, had been marching towards
Toronto in vast numbers ; 2600 from the Newcastle Dis-
trict, and in all upwards of 10,000. Immediate notice was
now issued, that they might return to their homes ; and
those of the eastern districts were authorized to give their
aid to Lower Canada. As it was understood, however,
that Duncombe had assembled a corps in the London
District, which had been a main seat of faction, Colonel
M'Nab was sent thither with a sufficient force. On its
approach, the chiefs disappeared, and about 300 of their
followers laid down their arms, expressing deep regret,
and even a readiness to serve in the royal army.

The insurrection had thus been entirely put down,
and Upper Canada was every where completely tranquil.

• Papers (16th Jan. 1838), pp. 21, 22; (29th Jan.), pp. 3, 5.

UNDER THE BRITISH.

233

■' 1

a, advancina:

when a sudden danger arose, which threatened to become
very serious. Mackenzie fled to th«» town of Buffalo,
in which he held crowded meetings, and kindled a con-
siderable enthusiasm in his cause. Besides the prevalent
democratic feeling, commercial distress had thrown num-
bers out of employment, who were ready to engage in
any desperate enterprise. Some of a more opulent class
furnished resources ; while Van Ransselaer, Sutherland,
and other individuals acquainted with military service,
presented themselves as leaders of the aimament. Thus a
small corps was quickly assembled, which took posses-
sion of Navy Island, situated in the Niagara channel,
between Grand Island and the British shore, which they
fortified with thirteen pieces of cannon. Hence Mac-
kenzie issued a proclamation in the assumed name of the
provisional government of Upper Canada. Volunteers
were invited from that country and from the States ; be-
ing assured that out of the ten millions of acres which vic-
tory would place at their disposal, each should receive 300
in full property. There was to be no more dependence on
Downing Street ; the Assembly, council, governor, and
officers, were all to be elected by the people. Trade
was to be freed from all restraints ; and in a strain of
rhodomontade, it was added, that the largest vessels
would be enabled to ascend to Lake Superior. Ret ^ruits
continued flocking to this post, till their numbers amount-
ed to about a thousand. Colonel M*Nab soon arrived
with double that number of militia ; but lie wanted
materials for crossing the channel and forcing the strong
position held by the rebels.*

All eyes were now turned to the government of the
United States, on which the question of peace or war
evidently depended. As soon as the first notice was
received, there was displayed the most sincere determi-
nation to maintain a strict neutrality. Van Buren, the
president, issued two successive proclamations, warn-
ing the people of the penalties to which they would be-

• Papers (2d February 1838), p. 12-14.

234

HISTOnY OF CANADA

. f.

come liaSlc by cngnging in hostilities with a friendly
power ; and the de])ate8 in Congress displayed the most
complete unanimity against any measure which might
commit the American government in such a contest.
Clay, Davis, Benton, Calhoun, leaders of opposite parties,
united with one voice in this sentiment. The last of
these declared that, " of all calamities which could befall
thp civilized world, a war with Great Britain would at
this moment be the most to be deplored." There was
scarcely time for a legislative enactment, but the presi-
dent appointed General Scott, a veteran officer of ener-
getic and decisive character, to take the command of the
disturbed frontier.

Meantime an event occurred, which, while it weak-
ened the insurgents, excited a strong fermentation
among their adherents. A small steamer, named the
Caroline, had been purchased, or at least was regularly
employed by them, between Fort Schlosscr on the
American shore and Navy Island, conveying to the
latter troops and stores. Captain Drew was instructed
by Colonel M'Nab to intercept her return. He did not
succeed, but seeing her in the channel, moored to the
American shore, determined to attack her. He approach-
ed undiscovered to within twenty yards ; and being
then asked the countersign, promised to show it when
on deck. The Caroline immediately opened a fire ; but
the British boarded, and in two minutes were masters
of her. Those who resisted were killed or made prisoners;
while others, who appeared to be peaceable citizens, were
put on shore. The vessel itself, which the strength of the
current made it inconvenient to tow across, was set on
fire and abandoned, when the stream hurried it rapidly
to the brink of the great cataract, down which the flam-
ing mass was precipitated. The wild and picturesque
character of this scene acted strongly on the imagination ;
and the Americans resolutely, though, it would appear,
without reason, asserted that unoffending persons had
been involved in the massacre, and several even hurried
down the awful abyss.

r t . :

UNDER THE BRITISH.

235

The I088 of the Caroline was soon followed by the
arrival of General Scott, who took vigorous and effective
measures to prevent any supplies or recruits from reach-
ing Navy Island. Meantime the force of the assailants
was continually augmented ; two companies of regulars,
with a train of artillery, had been sent from Lower
Canada, and a tremendous cannonade was commenced.
The insurgents seeing their position become every day
more desperate, determined to evacuate it, — an object
which they effected on the 14th January. Van Hans-
selaer and Mackenzie were arrested by the American
authorities, but admitted to bail.

Sutherland, with a party of the fugitives, hastened to
the extreme west, wiiere, being reinforced by some
adventurers in that quarter, they attempted an esta-
blishment on Bois Blanc, an island in the Detroit channel.
A body of troops, however, was soon despatched against
them ; and a vessel, containing not only supplies, but
several chiefs dignified with high military titles, was
captured. Finding it impossible to maintain themselves
there, they sought an asylum on Sugar Island, which
belongs to the United States. General Scott, meanwhile,
was hastening to the place ; but Mason, the local com-
mander, addressed the refugees, and by mere dint of re-
monstrance prevailed upon them to disperse. Attempts
were made at other points to form tumultuary assem-
blages for invading Canada ; but, under the altered cir-
cumstances, these did not excite any serious alarm.

Meantime intelligeTice of the first irsurrectionary
movements reached Britain, where it excited the strongest
sensation. A few of the popular leaders exulted in the
event itself, and in the anticipation of its triumphant
issue ; but the nation in general by no means shared
this sentiment. The Tories, though they accused govern-
ment of having, by want of energy, prepared this con-
vulsion, expressed their cordial concurrence in all the
means suggested for its suppression. As the house was
about to rise for the Christmas holidays, ministers pro-
posed that, instead of postponing their meeting, as usual,

236

HISTORY OP CANADA

!i;.

till the beginning of Februury, they should fix it for
the 16th January, when, according to the course of
events, suitable resolutions might be adopted.

Parliament had no sooner reassembled than informa-
tion arrived, which left no room to doubt that the re-
bellion would be suppressed without having assumed
any formidable character. The aims of t^e government
were therefore directed towards reorganizing the execu-
tive on such a footing as, without suppressing Canadian
liberty, might secure future tranquillity. But it was
considered indispensable, for the present at least, to
suspend the constitution of the lower province. A council
was to be named by the queen, which, with the gover-
nor, might exercise the functions now performed by the
two legislative bodies ; but their powers were not to last
beyond the Ist November 1840, nor were any of their
enactments, unless continued by the proper authority, to
be valid beyond the Ist November 1842.

Sir John Colbome, then acting as provisional gover-
nor of Lower Canada, was instructed to carry these
measures into immediate execution. The ministry, how-
ever, had determined upon a farther step, with a view
to the ultimate settlement of the provmce. The Earl
of Durham was solicited and prevailed upon to under-
take its government as well as that of all British Ame-
rica, and also to turn his attention towards an im-
proved plan for its future management. His lordship's
high reputation as a statesman, and the liberality
of his views on political subjects, seemed to afford a
security that he would act with vigour, and at the same
time with a strict regard to national freedom. He was
empowered to form a species of representative council
composed of thirteen members from each province, but
to use them merely as advisers, and to call and dismiss
them at pleasure.*

On the 29th May 1838 his lordship arrived at Que-

• Correspondence relative to the affairs of British North Ame-
rica (ordered by the House of Commons to be printed 11th Feb.
1839), pp. 1, 7.

UNDER TIIR RRITISH. 237

bee, where he was received in the most cordial manner,
for all parties seemed to unite in expecting from him a
settlement of those dissensions which had so greatly dis-
tracted the country. In his subsequent progress to other
districts, and to Upper Canada as far as Niagara, he met
similar expressions of confidence and congratulation.
He was soon, however, called to decide upon a delicate
and difficult question, which Sir John Colbomo hod
thought it expedient to reserve for his determination.
Wolfred Neilson, Bouchette, Viger, and other individuals
of some distinction, were lying in the jail of Montreol
charged with high treason. Some strong punishment was
necessary to mark their crime, and deter fr'-m its repeti-
tion ; yet an impartial jury could not bo expected for
their trial, which besides would b ive re-rnened all those
party animosities which it was the object of his ordship
to appease. Under this view he adopted the fc liowing
course : The prisoners, bfivhig been induced to mak-.'s
a confession of guilt, were sentenced <o b;' deported lo
Bermuda, and to be there kept in strict surveillance.
If they should ever return to Canada without leave
from the governor, they were to suffer the penalty of
death. The same was awarded to Fapineau and others
implicated in the late rebellion, but who, after its disas-
trous issue, had fled the country.*

As soon as this ordinance was known in Britain, it
created an unusual excitement in the legislature. Lord
Brougham, in the House of Peers, made a motion, de-
claring it illegal as condeirT'iir<g to death without trial,
and to transportation to a colony which was not within
the jurisdiction of the governor-general ; but, under the
peculiar circumstances ot" the case, he proposed a grant of
indemnity. This vote, though strenuously opposed by Lord
Melbourne, was carried in the Upper House by a consider-
able majority. Ministers then having received from the
law-officers of the crown an unfavourable report, at least
as to the last particular, considered it impossible to make

• Correspondence, pp. 103, 104, 128, 129.

238

HISTORY OP CANADA

i, M

any farther resistance. They annulled the ordinance ;
but at the same time conveyed to Lord Durham ex-
pressioxis of their regret, of their general approbation of
his measures, and of the unaltered confidence with which
they regarded his administration.*

His lordship, however, was not of a character to
brook this interposition. He had, it is true, passed the
limits of strict law ; but he maintained that these were
scarcely applicable in the critical and convulsed state of
the province ; that the sentence was lenient ; and on the
principle of volenti nulla fit injuria, the parties concerned
could not be wronged by a decision in which they had
cheerfully acquiesced. In short, there being no sub-
stantial injustice inflicted. Lord Durham thought he had
reason to complain that his scheme was not allowed a-fair
trial. He had perhaps an equal ground of dissatisfaction
in reference to the hostile interference of the opposition
lords, and more especially because the ministers, his em-
ployers, did not resist it to the utmost. Yet it would
certainly have been more magnanimous on his part had
he endeavoured, under every discouragement, to have
done his best to accomplish his undertaking. He yielded
too far to passion and pride when, even before receiving
the official accounts, he publicly announced his intention
of throwing up the administration. He did not even fol-
low the established course of requesting her majesty's
permission to resign, and waiting till he received it. In
announcing, too, the disallowance of the ordinance, he
commented on the decision with a severity which was
considered irregular, and tending to compromise the royal
authority. On the 1st November his lordship set sail
from Quebec, and on the 26th arrived at Plymouth.t

Meantime a fresh storm of rebellion brooded over the
province. In the course of the summer, even amid appa-
rent quiet, the burning of a steam- vessel called the Sir
Robert Peel in the St Lawrence, and the acquittal of the
murderers of Chartrand in the face of the clearest evi-

* Correspondence, p. 55-()0.
t Ibid. pp. 206-209, 243, 245.

UNDER THE BRITISH.

239

ordinance ;
irham ex-
robation of
^ith which

laracter to
passed the
these were
sed state of
, and on the
!S concerned
h they had
ing no sub-
ught he had
[lowed aiiair
ssatisfaction
e opposition
iters, his em-
fet it would
his part had
ent, to have

He yielded
ore receiving
his intention
not even fol-
ler majesty's
ceived it. In
ordinance, he
Dy which was
mise the royal
dship set sail
Plymouth.t
)oded over the
en amid appa-
called the Sir
cquittal of the

clearest evi-

dence, showed that the spirit of disaffection was still deep-
ly cherished. By the beginning of winter arrangements
had been made for a general rising of the habitans, sup-
ported by a numerous body of American citizens who,
under the title oi sympathizers, had vehemently espoused
their cause. Arms and ammunition had been clandes-
tinely introduced ; and a species of association, bound by
secret oaths and signs, had been formed along the whole
frontier. Lord Durham imputes this movement to the pro-
ceedings at home, which had shaken the confidence in
his authority, and raised the hopes of the disaflfected ;
but Sir John Colborne considers that those preparations
had been actively pursued ever since the preceding
June. The government of the United States, though they
had no adequat > power to prevent the part taken by
their subjects, showed a good disposition by giving the
first intimation of what was going on to Mr Fox, the
British ambassador at Washington. The tidings were
soon confirmed from other quarters ; and Sir John Col-
borne lost no time in putting the province in a state of
defence, and procuring an additional force from Nova
Scotia.*

On the night of the 3d November, a concerted rising
took place in all the southern counties of Montreal
District ; but owing to some failure of arrangement,
the stations along the Richelieu were not found supplied
with arms according to appointment, so that most of
the inhabitants there dispersed and returned to their
homes. The chief seat of insurrection was now farther
west, between that river and the St Lawrence. There
three arch-rebels, Dr Robert Nelson, Cote, and Gagnon,
had collected about 4000 men, and established their head-
quarters at Napier ville. Their first object was to open
a communication with their friends in the States, for
which purpose 400 men were detached to the frontier.
There a body of British volunteers, as brave as loyal, had
stationed themselves, by whom the rebels were attacked

* Correspondence, pp. 106, 125, 174-180, 222, 246.

! I'l

240

HISTORY OF CANADA

■■ ii

ia.

and obliged to retreat with great loss. To retrieve this
disaster, Dr Nelson, with upwards of 900 men, marched
against the loyalists. The latter, only 200 strong, took
post in Odelltown chapel, on which the enemy com-
menced a brisk attack, but, after two hours and a half,
were obliged to retreat, with the loss of one hundred
killed and wounded. The defenders had an officer and
five men killed, and nine wounded.*

Meantime Major-general Sir James M*Donnell, under
orders from the governor, with seven regiments of the line,
crossed the St Lawrence, and marched upon Napierville.
The rebels, discouraged by former losses, after a vain
attempt to unite their forces, dispersed in every direction
without firing a shot. They still retained a post at
Beauhamois ; but Colonel Carmichael, with a detach-
ment of regulars and 1000 Glengarry militia, drove them
out, though with the loss of two men killed and the
same number wounded. Mr Ellice and a party of friends,
who had been made prisoners by them at the outset,
were allowed to return to Montreal. On the 11th, a week
only after the first movement, McDonnell could announce
that the insurrection war. completely at an end, without
the rebels having been able to open any communication
with their supporters beyond the frontier.t

We must now turn to Upper Canada, where, even be-
fore the former outbreak, Sir Francis Head had resigned.
The immediate cause was the disapprobation expressed by
Lord Glenelg for his removing Judge Ridout on account
of his democratical principles, and his refusing to obey an
order to raise to the bench Mr Bidwell, late spenker
of the Assembly, and an opposition leader, iio at
the same time, in no measured tenns, condemned
the system of conciliation hitherto pursued in the Colo-
nial Office, whose members he even branded as republi-
cans ; insisting that a stern uncompromising maintenance
of the monarchical principle, and the exclusion from

* Correspondence, pp. 248, 261, 262.
t Ibid. p. 260-263.
2

UNDER THE BRITISH.

241

lieve this
marched
ong, took
my com-
id a half,
hundred
officer and

ell, under
rf the line,
apierville.
ter a vain
y direction
a post at
a detach-
Irove them
;d and the
^ of friends,
the outset,
1th, a week
d announce
id, without
munication

re, even he-
ad resigned,
xpressed hy

on account
g to ohey an
ate sppnker
ler. lie at

condemned
in the Colo-
i as republi-
maintenance
[jlusion from

office of all opposed to it, was the only basis on which
Canada could be governed. Ministers unwillingly ac-
cepted liis resignation ; while the loyal inhabitants, among
whom he had rendered himself highly popular, expressed
on the occasion deep regret and disgust. Colonel Sir
George Arthur, who had previously held a similar situa-
tion in Van Diemen's Land, was named his successor.*

The new governor soon found himself involved in
difficult circumstances ; for early in June, bands to the
number of 1000 or 1200 Americans crossed the Niagara
channel, and endeavoured to excite the people to insur-
rection. They attacked a party of fourteen lancers
posted in an inn, and, by setting it on fire, obliged them
to surrender. But no sooner did they learn that Sir
George had arrived at Niagara, and that the country was
rising against them, than they hastily recrossed the fron-
tier, leaving about forty prisoners, among whom were
Morrow and Waite, the first and second in command. In
the end of June, a smaller party passed the St Clair, and
invaded the Western District ; but finding themselves
unsupported, and the militia advancing, they returned,
a few falling into the hands of the pursuers.

The summer now passed in comparative quietness,
though the great movement at the beginning of Novem-
ber continued to be deeply felt along the upper frontier.
Almost simultaneously with the rising in Montreal Dis-
trict, a body of about 400 sailed from the vicinity of
Sackett's Harbour and landed at Prescott. On the 13th,
Colonel Young with what force he could muster, and
aided by Captain Sandom with an armed steamer,
compelled a large proportion of them to disperse, while
the rest took refuge in a windmill and an adjacent
house built of stone, whence they could not be dislodged.
Eighteen British were here killed and wounded. In the
course of the day. Colonel Dundas arrived with four
companies from Kingston, but considered the buildings,
the walls of which were three or four feet thick, too
strong to be redi.ced without cannon. A few guns and

* Narrative by 1: ir Francis B. Head, Bart. (8vo, London, 1839,
2(1 edition), p. 218-344.

VOL. I. *o

242* HISTORY OP CANADA UNDER THE BRITISH.

I !

I f

some additional troops being brought up, an attack was
commenced on the 16th, when the party within the stone
building, after some stand, sought to escape among the
brushwood, but were all captured ; upon which those
iu the mill displayed a white flag, and surrendered at
discretion. The whole number of prisoners was 159.
The militia, suspected of some lukewaminess, showed
the utmost zeal, and mustered to the extent of 6000.

The Niagara frontier was found by the enemy so
wall guarded that no attempt was made there. But
early in the morning of the 4th December, about 360,
organized at Detroit, landed near Sandwich, set fire to a
steamer and to the barracks, and killed several individuals
in cold blood. Being as cowardly as cruel, when attacked
by a party of militia, they fled either to the woods or to
the American shore, leaving 26 killed and 25 prisoners.

The captives on the former occasion had been treated
with extraordinary lenity ; but this forbearance not
having produced its due effect, and being loudly com-
plained of by the inhabitants, it was judged necessary to
exercise greater rigour on the present occasion. A consi-
derable number of the ringleaders were put to death, and
the rest condemned to severe orignominiouspunishments.

During the rest of the winter and succeeding summer,
the Canadas remained in tolerable tranquillity. A deep
interest was excited by the proposal of a union of the two
provinces, strongly recommended by Lord Durham, and
a proposition to that eflfect was announced by the British
minister in the session of 1839. The House of Assem-
bly in the upper province declared themselves favour-
able to it under certain conditions ; but objections were
raised by the legislative council, which, with other
obstacles, induced the government to postpone the mea-
sure till a future session. A bill was passed to continue
and somewhat augment the extraordinary powers under
which Sir John Colborne administered the affairs of
Lower Canada ; and in the autumn of the same year,
Mr Poulett Thompson, formerly President of the Board
of Trade, was nominated to the important office of Go-
vernor-general.

TOPOGRAPHY OP LOWER CANADA.

241

CHAPTER V.

Topography of Lower Canada,

Boundaries— Surface— Divisions— District of Quebec— City of tha
Name— Situation ; Edifices; Upper and Lower Town; Vici-
nity — Fall of Montmorenci — Isle of Orleans — Tadoussac and
tlie Sa^uenay— Lower Coast — Shores above Quebec — Trois
Rivieres, Town and District— Montreal District— City—Ca-
tholic Cathedral— Other Edifices— Rural Districts— Settlements
on the Ottawa— Country South of the St Lawrence— Settlements
on the Richelieu — Southern Part of Trois Rivieres District —
Eastern Townships — American Land Company's Territory —
Southern Part of Quebec — Townships — Lower Shores cf the St
Lawrence — Gaspe — General Summary.

It has not been usual, in the volumes of i,:ie Edinburgh
Cabinet Library, to enter into min.fl^ topographical
details of the various countries described. A general
survey is all that is required in most instances ; but
in regard to British America, and particularly to Ca-
nada, a different course appears to be expedient. These
provinces are chiefly inhabited by a British popula-
tion, and a continued stream of inr igration has been, and
still is J directed towards them, iiic adventurer who is
to remove his abode to the new world, and choose thert^
a situation for life, is deeply interested in knowing the
advantages an*' 'disadvantages of each particular district.
The numerous individuals, too, in this country, who
have now friends settled in that remote regi n cannot
but feel curious as to the locality in which the objects
of their affection are established. We propose there^ ve
to give in this chapter a somewhat minute descriptivjn

VOL. I. P

i yi

242

TOPOGRAPHY OF LOWER CANADA.

■ i

ifi:

5! Mi

i:i

of Lowt J' Canada, and, in the next, a similar account of
the Upi'cr Provmce.

The former has for its eastern and northern bound-
aries the Gulf of St Lawrence, Labrador, and the high
ridge which separates the tributavio^ of th'^i St Lawrence
from the rivers f&llmg into Hiiibou's Bay. The north-
em limit terminates about 80° west longitude, ^vhere a
liae drawn due south to I ake TrmiscaTtiiBfr, on il* ■ Ot-
tawa, separates the two (anadiaii provinces. TJiO river
just named forms thf westein boui) Jary, till it approaches
Montreal, whence n ilne drawn from it due south, passes
Uirougli Ivake St Francis, and extends for omt. space
southward of the St Iaw.rcn<:o. The soutLein frontier
la parallel to the whole couise of that .; eat river, at a
dis-.tance of from fifteen if) a hundnul and thirty miles,
\ii(l 13 formed on the south by Chaleur Bay, New Bruns-
wick, and the States of Maine, New Hampshire, Ver-
nnont , and New York. The pi-ecise limits, however, stOl
remain dependent on the imj)oi'tant territorial question
now agitated between Great, Britain and the United
States.

This extensive province lies between 46° and 62®
north latitude, and between 67'' 50' and 80° 6' of west
longitude, m iking thus about 960 miles in length, and
490 in breadth. The entire area is estimated by the
best authorities at 206,863 square miles, of which not less
tlian 3200 are supposed to consist of lakes and rivers.*

The northern part of this region consists throughout
of a bold, rugged, and i-ocky territory, watered by
almost innumerable streams and torrents, and diversi-
fied by many chains of small lakes. The soil is generally
unproductive, and no settlements have been attempted
in any part of it ; yet recent surveys have discovered
various detached spots embosomed among the hills,
or on the banks of the riven, that appear susceptible
of high cultivation. Tliis d - iption of country conies
down and borders upon t^ -^^fc Lawrence, along its

Boudiette,

i>p. 173, 182.

TOPOGRAPHY OP LOWER CANADA.

243

account of

m bound-
l the high
, Lawrence
rive north-
ie, \i'here a
on lb -; Ot-

'].M.e river
approaches
)uth, passes
rjmt. space
!tn frontier

river, at a
liirty miles,
New Bruns-
pshire, Ver-
)wever, still
'ial question
the United

6" and 62°
P 6' of west
length, and
ated by the
hich not less
nd rivers.*
throughout
watered by
and diversi-
jfi generally
n attempted
re discovered
g the hills,
r susceptible
mntry conies
je, along its

lower course, as high as Cape Tourment, only thirty miles
below Quebec. It then recedes, and leaves, between
itself and the courses of the St Lawrence and Ottawa,
an extensive and generally fruitful plain, varying fwm
fifteen to forty miles in breadth. Detached eminences
and branches from the northern mountains serve only
to variegate the surface, and give to it a more picturesque
appearance.* On the south of the St Lawrence there is
a similar plain, not quite so spacious, but somewhat
more fertile and beautiful. The high lands cover
only a small portion of its surface, except in the
most eastern district of Gaspe, which presents through-
out a rugged surface, similar to that of the opposite
sliore, though including a much larger proportion of
good soil.t

Lower Canada is divided into three principal districts,
Quebec, Trois Rivieres, and Montreal, and two small ones,
Gaspe and St Francis. This last, however, is so dimi-
nutive, and its townships so enclosed by those of Mon-
treal and Trois Rivieres, that its subdivisions have been
included within their counties. Quebec is divided into
thirteen counties, — Beauce, Bellechasse, Dorchester, Ka-
mouraska, L*Islet, Lotbiniere, Megantic, Montmorenci,
Orleans, Portneuf, Quebec, Rimouski, and Saguenay,
These are subdivided into seventy-nine seigniories,
twelve fiefs, and thirty-eight townships. Montreal
comprehends nineteen counties, — Acadie, Beauharnois,
Berthier, Chambly, Lachenaye, La Prairie,L' Assomption,
Missisqui, Montreal, Ottawa, Richelieu, Rouville, St
Hyacinthe, ShefFord, Stanstead (this county includes
five townships of St Francis), Terrebonne, Two Moun-
tains, Vaudreuil, and Vercheres. These are subdivided into
sixty-three seigniories, eight fiefs, and forty-five town-

** I.ieutenant-colonel Bouchette considers this plain as terminal^
inj^, Ol, iccordinff to his order, commencim]^ with the Grenville Hills
on the Ottawa ; bit as the upper banks of that river are still more
level than those or che St Lawrence, that cluster seemingly can only
be considered a branch from the great northern range.

+ Bouchette, vol. i. pp. 185, 2«l-290, 2y8-304, 324.

244

TOPOGRAPHY OF LOWER CANADA.

b^'!

sliips, besides fourteen others newly formed beyond the
limits of the counties. Trois Rivieres includes six
counties, — Champlain, Dnimmond, Nicolet, St Maurice,
Shorbrooke, and Yamaska ; subdivided into twenty-five
seigniories, nine fiefs, and fifty-three townships. Drum-
mond is partly, and Sherbrooke almost wholly, composed
of townships belonging to St Francis. Gaspe contains
only two counties, — Bona venture and Gaspe, comprising
one seigniory, six fiefs, and ten townships. It may be
observed, that large portions of the three principal dis-
tricts, and, indeed, the most valuable part of Trois
Rivieres, are situated on the south side of the river.*

The subdivisions above stated, founded upon the
feudal system, according to which the French settlers
were established, is important to them as connected
with various judicial and political arrangements, but
have little interest for British readers, or even residents.
We shall therefore, after the example of Colonel Bou-
chette, pay more regard to the natural divisions, at least
to the extent of considering under separate heads the
territories, as situated respectively on the northern and
on the southern bank of the St Lawrence. We pur-
pose, not, however, like him, wholly to disregard pro-
vincial marches, but will consider successively the
districts of Quebec, Trois Rivieres, and Montreal, begin-
ning with those on the northern side of the great river
boundary.

The district of Quebec occupies the whole coast
watered by the gulf and river of St Lawrence, from
the eastern limit of the colony to the mouth of the
river St Anne, about thirty miles below Trois Rivieres,
and thence in a direct line to the northern boundary.
The greater part of this extensive section belongs to the
uncultivated portion of the country, and presents a
chaos of mountains, lakes, and torrents, tenanted only
by wild beasts and a few wandering Indians. At Cape
Tourment, however, it begins to give place to a tract

* Bouchette, vol. i. p. r.u- 181.

TOPOGRAPHY OF LOWER CANADA.

245

?reat river

of a much more pleasing cliaracter ; and though still
traversed by rugged eminences, it contains much fertile
land, which is described as being at once romantic and
beautiful. On the northern side of the St Lawrence it
is divided into the counties of Quebec, Montmorenci,
Orleans, and Port Neuf, and comprised, in 1831, a popu-
lation of 56,615.

In the midst of this fine landscape stands Q,ue^ec, the
capital of British America. It is seated on a promon-
tory stretehing out into the river, which, bv means of it
and Point Levi on the opposite side, is narrowed to abo^^t
three quarters of a mile, though immediately below it
spreads out into a wide basin. Cape Diamond, the most
elevated point of the city, is reckoned by an eminent
traveller 1000 feet high ; a proof of the fallacious nature
of such estimates, since the more accurate observation of
Bouchette fixes it at 345. Above a hundred feet lower is
an elevated plain, on which are built the castle and the
whole of what is termed the upper town. Thence a
perpendicular steep of above 200 feet descends to the
banks of the St Lawrence ; and in the narrow interval
between this precipice and the river is the lower town,
tlie crowded seat of business and shipping.

The scenery of Quebec and the surrounding i antry
is described by all travellers as rivalling in picturesque
beauty the most favoured parts of the earth. The
navigator who ascends the St Lawrence, after he has
passed the Isle of Orleans and entered the broad basin
already mentioned, where he first comes in sight of
tliis capital, is struck with intense admiration. He
sees its citadel crowning a lofty cliff, its castle and
batteries overhanging a range of forii ; -)l.]e steeps,
the river crowded with numerous vessels of every
form and size, from the huge timber-raft to the bark
canoe. The fall of Montmorenci appears dashing its white
foam almost to the clouds ; and on each side is a long
range of fertile and beautiful shore. On ascending
Cape Diamond a still grander and more extensive pano-
rama bursts upon his view, combiumg all the boldness

246

TOPOGilAPHY OP LOWER CANADA.

of nide with the richness of cultivated nature. Up and
down the magnificent stream of the St Lawrence is a
reach of more than forty miles, on which sails almost
innumerable are in ceaseless movement. Below is the
bta u 1 le of Orleans; whih the opposite coast is
diTnrsiHc 1 by a great variety of natural and cultivated
scenery. To the north appears the river St Charles
winding amid fertile valleys and hills, with sillages
hanging on their sides ; while the prospect is closed by
a bold screen of mountains. Mr Weld prefers the views
from the uppoi luwh, whei'^, though fewer objects are
seen, they appear more distinct and brilliant. This
traveller, after visiting a great part of Europe and
America, gives to them a preference over every thing
that he had observed on either contir nt. Mr M'Gregor
considers them similar, but much superior to those from
the castles of Edinburgh and Stirling.

Quebec, from its situation and the care with whicii
it has been fortified, is a very strong town, and con-
sidered the chief bulwark of British America. On the
summit of the lofty headland just 1 icribed, staulp the
citadel. The rock consists of gray granite mixed ^* 'th
quartz crystals, and a species of dark coloured sla d.
About forty acres are here covered with works, carried
to the edge of the precipice, and connected by massive
walls aid batteries with the other defeiices of the place,
Tliu main body of the fortress, however, consists of the
(ipper lown, ^^ ' )se fortiiications enclose a circuit of about
two miles and t hree quarters. The face of the hill towards
the nver is so extremely precipitous, that it requires
only a commoi.. wall to protect it, though the gate lead-
ing from the lower town is defended by heavy cannon,
and the ste<>p tt^ I'oach by Mountain Street is enfiladed
and flan]' by many guns of large calibre. As the
declivity t . ./arus the interior and the plains of Abraham
does not present the same abrupt face, but descends by
^juccessive ridges, it has been strengthened by a series of
regular works, including ditch, covered way, and glacis,
with some exterior defences to obstruct the approach of

TOPOGIIAPIIY OF LOWER CANADA.

247

. Up and
rrcncc is a
lils almost
3I0W is the
ite coast is
cultivated
St Charles
th villages
s closed by
9 the views
objects are
ant. This
Europe and
svery thing
r M'Gregor
1 those from

with whicn
n, and con-
pa. On the
, stall dp the
mixed ^' "*h
oured slu e.
rks, carried

by massiv€
of the place.
ttsists of the
cuit of about

hill towards
b it requires
le gate lead-
iavy cannon,
; is enfiladed
)re. As the

of Abraham
; descends by
by a series of
y, and glacis,
3 approach of

an enemy. It ems probable, therefore, that the place
would hol<] '>\if against any attack, till the approach of
the rigorous winter should compel the assailants to raise
the siege.

The upper town, which these fortifications enclose,
forms the chief part of Quebec, and the residence of all
the principal inhabitants not engaged in trade. It is a
tolerably handsome old-looking town ; the houses being
mostly of stone, partly roofed with tin. The streets are
well paved, nnd in some instances macadamized, but they
are much too narrow, as the broadest does not exceed
thirty-two feet. St Louis Street, the almost exclusive
residence of the fashionable circle, has been lately
adorned with several elegant mansions. The public
buildings are connnodious and substantial, without
much pretension to architectural ornament. The castle
of St Louis, a large plain baronial-looking edifice,
forms the dwelling of the governor. It comprises
a space of four acres, once fortified ; but the great
extension of the works has rendered its walls su-
perfluous, and they are allowed to go to decay.
The apartments are large and commodious, and the
veranda commands a magnificent vista up the river. Ad-
joining is a spacious structure, once occupied by go-
vernment offices, now chiefly employed for public en-
tertainments. The enclosure contains two excellent
and well-cultivated gardens.

Of religious edifices the chief is the Roman Catholic
cathedral, being 216 feet long by 180 in breadth, and
capable of containing a congregation of 4000. The in-
terior has a lofty and solemn as]>ect, but the outside is
heavy and not in very good tfjste. There are several
other Catholic churches. The English cathedral, though
smaller, being only 136 feet long by 76 broad, and in a
simple style, is considered extremely neat. Tlie Scotch
church is much inferior. The monastic establish-
ments are spacious. The Hotel-Dieu, founded in 1637
by the Duchess d'Aiguillon, includes a convent, church,
and courtyard, besides cemetery and gardens. The range

248

TOPOGRAPHY OF LOWER r'Ai-JADA.

t -

\V>

t.t, '

of buildings is extensive, but withoi t -m) ornament ;
and its chief use is as an hospital, in v/hich respect it
uffords the greatest benefit to the colony. A prioress and
tliirty-two nuns are continually employed in ministering
to the sick, with a groat degree of attention and skill :
hence government have been induced to make occa-
sional grants in addition to the considerable revenues
attached to the establishment. The Ursuline convent
is a neat building in tjie heart of the city, surrounded
by fine gardens. It was founded in 1639 by Madame de
la Peltrie, chiefly for the purposes of education. The
inmates, forty-six in number, observe a somewhat rigid
seclusion, but they instruct, in reading, writing, and
needlework, a certain number of girls, comprehending
even Protestants. They are very assiduous in embroi-
dery and other ornamental works, especially for eccle-
siastical vestments ; and the fruits of their industry are
often sold at high prices, which are thrown into the com-
mon stock. The spacious monastery of the Jesuits, 224
feet by 200, surrounded by noble gardens, was forfeited
on the suppression of that order, and at the conquest was
regarded as crown property. It was then converted
into a place of exercise for the troops, and to the regret
of many its fine trees were cut down ; but the legisla-
ture of the province have lately petitioned for its being
restored to its original purpose of education. The large
edifice called the Seminary, with an extensive domain
attached to it, was founded in 1663 by M. de Petre, with
a view to the instruction of the Catholic clergy. It is now
open to all students of that persuasion, who are initiat-
ed in the different branches of knowledge upon paying
the trifling sum of 6s. annually to defray incidental ex-
penses. Pupils, indeed , may be boarded as well as taught
far £12, 10s. a-year.

The buildings employed for public purposes are ample
and commodious, though mostly reared for different ob-
jects. The bishop's palace formed an extremely elegant
residence, with a chapel and many conveniences ; but, in
return for an annuity, it was relinquished, and now ac-

ti ;.*.

TOPOGRAPHY OP LOWER CANADA.

249

commodates the two branches of the lep^ishiturc. A.bout
the year 1803 a very handsome lioiisc was erected by n
joint-stock company in the best situation the town afford-
ed, with the view of being employed tis a hotel. Thia
plan, however, being abandoned, it was sold to the chief-
justice, and is now leased at £600 a-year by govern-
ment, who give it up to the use of their chief civil de-
partments. It contains also the Museum of the Literary
and Historical Society founded in 1824, and which in
1829 was united to that for the promotion of arts ami
sciences. The collection is said to be valuable in regard
to mineralogy and botany. There is a library also,
tliough only in its infancy. The Artillery Barracks form
a long range of building, somewhat roughly constructed,
but substantial and convenient. The Armoury con-
tains equipments for 20,000 men, and, being extremely
well arranged, excites the admiration of strangers.

The market is held in an open space 260 feet long,
with a breadth in some places of about 165. A largo
building with stalls has been reared in the centre, though
tlie chief business is still transacted on the open ground.
It is held every day, but Saturday is the busiest. The
crowds of carters with their wives and families, bringing
in the productions of the surrounding country, their
brawlings and vociferations in bad French and broken
English, form a scene of noise and confusion, amid whit
appear a few Indian squaws, and the gentlemen of t^ ^^
city and garrison going round to make purchases. E\ • ,
kind of provision is abundant and cheap except i '\
which is less plentiful than might be expected from tli©
situation. Among public places may also be mentioned
the Grand Parade in front of the castle, surrounded by
tlie most distinguished edifices ; and also the Esplanade,
a large level space along the interior wall, which is the
ohief theatre for military exercises.

The lower town is a narrow crowded range of build-
ings, extending along the base of the precipice. The
spot on which it stands is entirely the creation of human
industry ; for originally the waves at high water beat the

'!' 1

250

TOPOGRAPnY OF LOWER CANADA.

Tery foot of the rock. Wharfs, however, have been found-
ed and can'ied out into the river, though nowhere farther
tlian 240 yarus ; and on these streets have been erected.
So limited, indeed, is the space that the quarter beyond
Cape Diamond communicates with the rest only by a path
cut in many places through the solid rock. This part
of Quebec is compared to the most irregular and con-
fused districts of Edinburgh. It is connected with the
upper town by what is called Mountain Street, which
fonnerly was not passable for carriages without extreme
difficulty, but has of late been much improved. The
Break-neck Stairs, as they are denominated, are more
commodious for foot passengers. Besides extensive
wharfr, the lower town contains the Quebec Bank,
which, in addition to apartments for its appropriate
purpose, has others for a fire assurance company and a
subscription library, the most extensive and valuable in
Canada. The government warehouses are also spacious,
and the custom-house having been found inconvenient,
the foundation-stone of a new one was laid in 1831.
Amid wharfs lately formed on the flat beach of the St
Charles, has been erected the exchange building, an ele-
gant structure, containing a spacious reading-room and
several others devoted to commercial purposes. Projects
are in contemplation for erecting a pier, which would
also serve as a bridge across the estuary ; an improve-
ment which, while it would affbrd anx^jle space for the
extension of the lower town, would enable the largest
vessels and rafts to lie in security, instead of resorting,
as at present, to coves in the neighbourhood.

On the inland side of the fortress, stretching more
than a milo into the interior, are the large suburbs of
St Roch and St John. They are built regularly, but
chiefly of wood, and with accommodations suited only
to the lower ranks ; though of late, indeed, they have
been adorned with many stone houses of a superior class.
There is also a smaller suburb named St Louis.

Quebec maintains a constant communication with
Point Levi on the opposite shore, whence it derives a

TOPOGRAPHY OF LOWER CANADA.

251

great part of its provisions. A steam ferry-boat plies
every half-hour, making the trip in about ten or iif-
teen minutes. The navigation also being very properly
left free, the river is constantly covered with numerous
canoes generally hollowed out from the trunks of trees.
The boatmen brave the most tempestuous weather, and
though often driven several leagues out of their course,
are scarcely ever wrecked. Even in winter, when they
must encounter blocks of ice with which the channel is
encumbered, they contrive with ropes and iron-pointed
poles to raise their vessels upon tlie surface of the musses,
and drag them along till they find open water on which
to launch it. When this channel is frozen entirely over,
the communication becomes still more easy. A line is
marked with beacons placed by the Grand Voyer, over
which hay, firewood, with other bulky articles, are trans-
ported abundantly and at reduced prices. This advan-
tage occurs only occasionally ; but every year the chan-
nel between the Isle of Orleans and the northern coast is
frozen over, when the produce of that fertile spot, re-
served for the occasion, finds a ready conveyance. For-
merly milk and vegetables were brought in a frozen
state from distant quarters ; but now these commodities
are procured in aDundance from the neighbourhood.

The society of Quebec is more gay and polished than
is usual in colonial cities, Avhere the pursuit of wealth
forms too often the sole object of the inhabitants. Hero,
besides merchants, there are a number of British civil
and military officers, and a body of French noblesse,
living on their domains. These different classes do not,
it is said, always thoroughly amalgamate. The French,
though often superior in manners and habits, are in
some degree disdained by the ruling people, which they
do not well brook. Among the English themselves,
the chief '\?st of rank is an introduction at the castle,
without which strangers will find themselves placed
below those whom they would have been classed above
in the mother country. The hotels are good, and,
after the fashion of the United States, the inmates com-

III

.«|MIIINMItM

252

ToroGRAPny of lower Canada.

■ I

I:!

monly dine at a table d*h6te, which often affords to the
visiter the opportunity of meeting with interesting
characters. He can, however, if he wishes, have private
apartments.*

The cultivated country northward of Quebec does
not extend far, being closely hemmed in by the range
of mountains, and settlement being obstructed through
tlie very imperfect titles by which alone the land can be
conveyed. Immediately westward, in front of the forti-
fications, are the Plains of Abraham, memorable as the
scene whereon Quebec was gained by the gallant Wolfe,
and whence only it can be successfully assailed. The
summit, indeed, is 830 feet high, which does all but
cor^mand that loftiest pinnacle on which Fort Diamond
stands. As some security against this danger, four
martello towers have been so placed as to range over
tlie whole plain. Immediately to the north a road
leads along the heights to the village of St Foix, and to
the beautifully secluded dingle of Sillery, about four
leagues in lengtli and one in breadth, formerly the seat
of a missionary settlement, which we shall have occasion
again to mention. In the same direction from the suburb
of StRoch is the Huron village of Lorette, near the banks
of the river St Charles, which, in this neighboi'fhood,
forms a beautiful cascade. Onward still, twelve miles
from Quebec, is the lako o^* the same name, about four
miles long and one broad, it is divided into two parts by
projecting ledges, and the upper one especially is finely
diversified by rocks, woods, bays, hills, and lofty moun-
tains in the distance.

Crossing the St Charles, and going eastward through
the agreeable village of Beauport, we reach the Falls of
Montmorenci, one of the most picturesque objects in all
America. They do not indeed pour down that im-
mense flood of water which renders Niagara so won-
derful ; but the height is greater, being 240 feet, and

• Bouchette, vol. i, p. 241-276. M'Gregor, vol. ii. p. 474-485,
Weld, p. 201-202.

TOPOGRAPHY OF LOWER CANADA.

253

[•ds to the
nteresting
,ve private

lebec does
the range
jd through
and can be
>f the forti-
ible as the
lant Wolfe,
liled. The
oes all but
d Diamond
mger, four
range over
ii-th a road
j'oix, and to
about four
irly the seat
ave occasion
1 the suburb
ar the banks
>-hboi'fhood,
welve miles
;, about four
two parts by
illy is finely
lofty moun-

mrd through
the Falls of
objects in all
►vn that im-
!:ara so won-
240 feet, and

the stream descends the whole of this vast steep in one
white sheet of foam. It is received into a vast basin,
whence arise clouds of vapour that display the most
brilliant tints of the rainbow. M. Bouchette imagines
that even Switzerland, though it contains much loftier
falls, has none which descend in so unbroken a mass.
He overlooks, we think, the Staubbach, whose stream,
however, is less copious than that of MontmorencL
In winter, when the falling waters congeal into icicles,
these accumulate above each other, till they on some
occasions swell to an amazing magnitude, and present
a most curious spectacle. About fifty years ago General
Haldimand, then governor of Canada, built a house close
to the fall, and commanding a most advantageous view
of it. This was afterwards occupied by the Duke of
Kent, and is now the residence of Mr Paterson, who
has erected upon the river an extensive range of saw-
mills.*

Beyond Montmc jenci, the country, though somewhat
rugged, continues to be cultivated and even traversed
by commodious roads. Here occur the villages of
Chateau Richer and St Anne. Immediately after, it
is necessary to cross the precipitous mountain forming
Cape Tourment, about 1890 feet high, and the com-
mencement of a long series of similar heights, called
" the Capes," which render this part of the St Lawrence
grand but desolate. The road over them is extremely
steep, and till lately by no means commodious ; but
measures have now been taken to improve it. In St
Paul's Bay, beneath the shelter of a circuit of hills, a
considerable settlement has been formed ; while in the
neighbouring one of La Petite Riviere, the exposure
is so excellent, that fruit is produced of quality equal
to that of Montreal or Niagara. The road then leads o '^er
bleak heights, through the village of Eboulemens to
Mai Bay, where the land communication and all regular

111
in

. ii. p. 474-485,

• Bouchette, vol. i. p. 266-280. M'Gregor, vol. ii. pp. 492, id'i.
Weld, p. 205.

fnfmmmmm

254

TOPOGRAPHY OP LOWER CANADA.

!«;♦;

t ;,

i fi-

I * ' Ik

f ,^il

iriicreoiirac nro found to terminate. A Scottish od'icer
received this seigniory for his services in the American
war, and lias so much in>2)roved it, tlwit it now contains
ol)out 400 inhahitants.

Before proceeding farther, we must notice the island
of Orleans, about iivc miles below lOAiebec, already
mentioned in connexion with the fine c\])anse of tlio
river. It is not less than twenty miles b)ng' and four
or iivc broad, dividhig the stream into two nearly equal
channels. Some parts are considerably elevated, and
crowned with forests ; but the larger proportion is
under very high cultivation. Below are two smaller
islands, called (lOose and Crane, witli rich juistures and
numerous inhabitants.*

The coast below Mai l^ay becomes altogether wild ond
desolate, wiiile a facing of sjindhills towards the water
renders its asj)ect still more dreary. This contimu'S to
the mouth of the river Saguenay, one of the boldest
features in this remarkable country. It has been traced
U]>wards only to Ijnke St John, about 140 miles from
it;!^ mouth. That ex})anse, estimated at 100 miles in
circumference, was found by M. Bouchettc receiving
large rivers from various quartei-s ; but am to their sourc^is
and r<^lative magnitude nothing certain is yet known.
In the districts adjoining to this lake, while there is much
mountainous and barren land, considerable tracts, com-
prising in all about ^40,000 acres, were considered
quite iit f(>r cultivation. About midway down, the
.Saguenay is joined from the south by the Chi(!ou-
timi, on the bank,;} of which extends a tract called
tlie Peniiidnla, believed to contain nearly 400,000 acres
of fine arable soil. At some distance below, sixty miles
from the mouth, the Bay des lias presents a magnifi-
cent harbour, capable of receiving the largest ships, and
surrounded by vast tracts of fertile territory. The Sa-
guenay is navigable for vessels of great bulk two leagues

• Boiichette, vol. . pp. 105, 21W), 281. M'Grearor, vol. ii. p.
470-472.

TOPO(JIlAlMIY OP LOWKll CANADA.

255

irtU olVicor
Aiuevuail
V coutaiiia

tho island
c, alrcjuly
use ot* tlio
g jviul four
iavly <'qu»il
vatcd, and
►portion is
wo smaller
•astures and

ev wild and
3 the water
;ontinuc9 to
the boldest
J been traced
) miles from
00 miles in
•te receiving
their sources
yet known,
ihere is much

tracts, com-

;e considered

y down, the

the Chicou-

tract called
400,000 acres
y, sixty miles
tts a magnifi-
rest ships, and
)vy. The Sa-
le two leagues

regor, vol. ii- P*

abovo Chicoutimi. About five miU's farther down, tho
level character of its banks ceases, and, to the jmint
whero it falls into the St Lawrence, they are bold,
steep, and rocky, shootinpf up sometimes into precipi-
tous cliffs 2000 feet high, thinly clad with fir, birch,
and other trees of u iiortherh climate. 'J'he breadth,
unless when it sj)reads into sn all lakes, seldom ex-
ceeds half a nnle ; but the depth i, very extraordinary,
varying from (500 to 000 feet. Upou joining i\w great
river now mentioned, here eighteen miles broad, it
changes I'or sonu^ sj)ace the direction of tho strciam ; and
presents the remarkable circumstance^ that while tho
St Lawrence at this i>hice is only 240 feet deep, tho
Saguenay, abovti the junction, ap])roaches to a thousand.
A ledge of rocks, through which there is a profound
though rather narrow channel, checks, in some degree,
the discharge of its copious waters.

The whole of this tract, as well above as b(dow Ta-
doussac, is occupied by a body called the King's Posts'
Compiuiy, who early obtained a leiuse </f it from tho
French government, under the title of " the Domainc,'*
with the exclusive right of trading, hunting, and fishing,
both along the coast and in the interior. Tiiis privilege,
which they still preserve, nnist have materially contri-
buted to keep these tracts in their unimproved state ;
for the Comi)any maintain only a few small stations,
mattered over the desert, with tho view of collecting
furs. The principal is Tadoussjic, for some time the
capital of the French settlements, but now reduced to
a paltry village. Tho harbour is spacious, and secure
from almost every wind, though the entrance to vessels
descending tho St Lawrence is somewhat intricate. The
Company have also stations at Chicoutimi, and at tho
mouth of one of tho rivers falling into the St John. It
is remarkable that on both these remote spots there are
remains of settlements early formed by the Jesuits.

Below the Siiguenay there is still a coast pertaining
to Canada 0G5 miles in length, but of a very unin-
viting description. Tho land gradually loses its lofty

.J6il

.nfmf

ii>'. :^

&i ^,

It'

H !i

! I- i

i I

256

TOPOGRAPHY OF LOWER CANADA.

character, and at Portnouf, forty miles farther down, it
presents only eminences of moderate elevation. Beyond
the immediate border it is a deep swamp covered
with moss ; while the interior, according to the report
of the Indians and Esquimaux, by whom alone it is
traversed, is composed of rocky cliffs, and low hills scat-
tered over barren plains, diversified with thick forests of
stunted pines, and chequered with small lakes. There
seems reason to suspect, that the hopes once entertained
of finding here tracts of cultivable land, will never be
fulfilled ; but ideas are still cherished that the district
may contain valuable minerals. Portneuf itself consists
only of three or four houses, a chapel, and several stores ;
yet, after passing such vast ranges of dreary coast, the
eye is agreeably relieved by the view of this picturesque
and solitary little settlement. It is succeeded at long
intervals by the posts of Les Isles, Jeremie, the Seven
Islands, and Mingan. On Mount Pelee, called also
Pointe des Monts, a lighthouse has been recently erected.
Here, in mid-channel, is the large island of Anticosti,
125 miles long and 30 in its greatest breadth. The
soil has been found unfavourable, and all attempts to
(jolonize it have been relinquished. It attracts attention
chiefly by the dangers which its shores present to the
mariner ; and. In 1809, an effort was made to obviate
them, by forming two government stations, where the
means of supply and relief might be deposited. The
agents, however, have in many instances been careless ;
and the coast, accordingly, has been the scene of most
calamitous shipwrecks. It is now in contemplation to
erect a lighthouse at each end ; an improvement certainly
much to be desii-cd.*

Returning to Quebec, and surveying the part of the
province above that capital, we discover an entirely
different scene. The bold range of tlie northern moun-
tains gradually disappeai-s, and the country, first diversi-

• Bouchette, vol. i. pp. 1<>8, Ifiy, 283-294. M'Greffor, vol. ii.
p. 407-470.

TOPOGRAPHY OF LOWER CAXADA.

257

fied by varied eminences, afterwards sinks into a level
plain. The road, which formerly passed close to the
river, is now not unfrequcntly carried through the in-
terior, with the view of being rendered at once more
direct and level ; but though kept in good repair, it is in
a great measure superseded by the extreme facilities
for steam navigation. This territory is traversed by
considerable rivers, fed by the mountains and lakes of
the upper country, and flowing with a full and rapid
current. These are chiefly the Portneuf, the Jacques
Cartier, and the St Anne, of which the last is the
largest, and at its mouth the boundary of the province
begins. Considerable rafts of timber are floated down
these streams to the different saw-mills. The Jacques
Cartier rolls a complete torrent ; and its wild rocky
scenery, and rude bridges, present quite a Norwegian
aspect. Generally, however, the region has a smiling
appearance, comprising the concessions, or fiefs and
Boigniories held by the French Canadians, under regu-
lar though not very full cultivation ; a considerable
space being usually left in the rear, for the mere
purpose of supplying timber and fuel. Closely follow-
ing each other, they form almost one continued vil-
lage, with neat churches at short distances ; a pleasing
though not varied scene. There are no places which
can claim the appellation of towns. New Liverpool,
several miles above Quebec, has some wharfs and
mooring stages, at which a few vessels usually unload.
St Anne, situated near the extremity of the province,
is the chief station on the road to Trois Rivieres, and
has two or three good inns.*

The district of Trois Rivieres, extending from the
mouth of the St Anne to the upper part of Lake St
Peter, is less important and populous than the tv^o others ;
yet it embraces a great extent of fertile land, though
chiefly on the southern side of the St Lawrence. The
iiorthern part, which in 1831 contameJ a population of

• Bouchette, vol i. p. 237-239. M'Gregor, vol. ii. p. 495.
VOL. I. it

258

TOPOGRAPHY OF LOWER CANADA.

'iOki

i ll

23,900, is divided into the counties of Champlain and St
Maurice. The principal town, boaring the appellation of
the district, lies at the mouth of the St Maurice, a large
tributary stream, which, being divided by islands into
three branches at first supposed to be distinct, has given
this name to the place. It was founded in 1618, in contem-
plation of its becoming the main emporium of the fur-
trade ; but since that traffic has been extended into the
more remote regions of America, Montreal was found a
much more convenient station, and has absorbed it almost
entirely. The town now chiefly depends upon the li-
mited quantity collected in the wild country towards the
north, and has derived also no small benefit from the
excellent iron produced at the forges on the St Maurice,
These, however, with some exports of grain and timber,
have not been sufficient to elevate it above the rank of
a large village, which, in 1825, contained 2463 inhabi-
tants, and was supposed, in 1831, to have increased to
about 4000. It has a good wharfage, admitting ships of
large burden close to it, though the ground in the im-
mediate vicinity is poor and sandy. The principal edifice
is the Ursuline convent, founded in 1677, and contain-
ing a superior and twenty-four nuns. It was burned
down in 1806, but has since been rebuilt.

The rural districts of Trois Rivieres, so far as they lie
noithward of the St Lawrence, form a continuation of
the same kind of territory, already described as stretch-
ing from Quebec, and in general flatter, and capable
of more uniform cultivation. To the westward, espe-
cially in ascending the river, it presents a succession of
flourishing settlements, and gay villages, occurring every
eight or nine miles. These extend particularly along the
Lake of St Peter, — a wide expansion of the St Lawrence,
about twenty-five miles long and from five to ten broad,
but its depth in many places does not exceed twelve feet.
Hence the intricate channel, through which aione large
vessels can be navigated, must be marked by poles or other
beacons. The shores are extremely flat ; but numerous
verdant islands enliven the western extremity, which

lain and St
pellation of
ice, a large
slands into
;, has given
, in contem-
of the fur-
ed into the
vas found a
led it almost
upon the li-
to wards the
it from the
St Maurice,
and timber,
the rank of
2463 inhabi-
increascd to
ting ships of
in the im-
icipal edifice
and contain-
was burned

ar as they lie
itinuation of
3d as stretch-

and capable
stward, espe-
succession of
curring every
irly along the
St Lawrence,

to ten broad,
d twelve feet.
!h aione large
poles or other
3ut numerous
smity, which

TOPOGRAPHY OP LOWER CANADA;

259

also mark the boundary of the province. Near the
eastern frontier, the Batiscan, with a village of the
same name at its mouth, falls into the great river.*

The distri(;t of Montreal, if not the most extensive in
Lower C ..<da, is at least that which contains the great-
est proportion of valuable land. Commencing at the
western boundary of Trois Rivieres, it extends along
ihe St Lawrence, but in that direction terminates where
Upper Canada begins, not far above the capital. It
shoots, however, a long branch up the Ottawa, em-
bracing all the northern b.mk of that river, till it is
bounded, along with the lower province, by Lake Temis-
caming. This district, on the north of the St Lawrence,
tjniprehends the counties of Montreal, Berthier, La-
chenaye, L'Assomption, Terrebonne, Two Mountains,
Vaudreuil, and Ottawa, containing a population of 1 47,649.
Another portion, nearly equally valuable, lies on the
south side, and will be afterwards described.

Montreal, the chief town in this district, though not
ranking as a capital, is equal to Quebec in magnitude,
and superior in commercial importance. Its oreatness
is likely to increase from its favourable situation, and
the growing prosperity of Upper Canada, of which, as
being the highest point of the St Lawrence to wh'cli
vessels of the first class < t ^ ascend, it must always con-
tinue the emporium.

The site of this town does not present those bold and
grand features w^hich distinguish the Canadian metro-
polis, though its beauty can scarcely be surpassed. The
river, in this finest part of its course, divides itself into two
channels, enclosing an isJand thirty-two miles long and
ten and a half broad, -vbich forms one of the most
favoured spots on earth. The soil, every where luxu-
riant, is cultivated like one great garden, to supply the

• Bouchette, vol. i. p. 209. Evans, Treatise on the Theorj' and
Practice of Agriculture in Canada (Supplement, 1H36), p. 62. Re-
ports of Canada Commissioners (Febniary 1837)) Appendix to
General, p, d.

260

TOPOGRAPUY OF LOWER CANADA.

I !.(

1. :

inhfihitants with vegetables and fruits. These last
ik^c of the finest quality, and the aj^jles espeeially are
Hoid to display that 8U})eri()rit , which so remarkably
distinguishes them in tbe New V/orld. Although the
island possesses in general tluit level surface which iits
it for a tliorough cultivation, yet about a mile and a
half north-east rises a hill 6.50 feet higb, connnanding
a noble view over the fertile country, which is watered
by the several branches and tributaries of the St Law-
rence. Its face in covered with agreeal)le villas, and its
wooded heights form a frequent resort to pleasure parties
from the city ; but the intention now understood to be
entertiiined of erecting fortifications on its sunnnit, will,
if put into execution, banish in a great measure its rural
cliaracter.

The city, built on the southern 1)order of this fine
island, is not crowded like Quebec into a limited space,
which can alone be covered with streets and habi-
tations. It has a wide level surface to extend over ;
so that even the older streets are of tolerable breadth,
and several of them occupy its entire length. The prin-
cipal one. Rue Notre Dame, considerably exceeds half a
mile in extent, and conbiins many of the chief public
buildings. There is an upper and a lower town, though
tlie difference of elevation is very slight ; but the former
is much the more handsome of the two. The seven
suburbs are not, as in the older capital, detached and
extraneous, but on the same level, and immediately
adjacent. Their streets, contiimed in the direction of
tliose in the body of the place, are regular, and display
many handsome houses. The vicinity is adorned with
beautiful villas.

Of the public edifices, the new Catholic cathedral,
completed in 1829, is undoubtedly the most splendid,
and is, in fact, superior to any other in British America.
Its style is a species of Gothic ; it is 255 feet 6 inches
in length, and 134 feet 6 inches in breadth. The flanks
rise sixty-one fe^l above the terrace ; and there are six
towers, of which the three belongmg to the main front

TOPOORAPHY OP LOWER CA: ADA.

261

arc 220 foot liiic^h. It is faced with excellent stone,
and roofed with tin. The principal window is sixty-
four feet in heij^lit, and tliirty-two l)roa(i. On the roof
hjiH lu'cn formed a pronicnadt; seventy-six feet1)y twenty,
elevated 120 feet, and coniniainHnj,' a most delightful
view. The interior contains 1 244 pews, equal to the
acconnnodation of at leas* 1 0,000 persons. There are five
public and three private ntrancs to the first floor, and
four to the galleries, o d '"^^ that this vast congregation
can easily assemble and <1 • m a few minutes. The

building comprises i-
front entrance, and nhi' -
bears a resemblance to tli

pe' all visible from the
us aisles. The high altar
St Peter's at Rome, the

pulpit to that of the catiicdral at Strasburg. The large
window is painted, but not in a good style ; it is intended
tliat it shall be filled hereafter with stained glass. The
other Catholic edifices belong mostly to the order of St
Sulpice, by whoso members, as fonnerly mentioned,
Montreal was chiefly founded, and who hold the supe-
riority of the whole island upon which it stands. Their
seminary, which is a large and commodious building ad-
joining the cathedral, occupies three sides of a square 132
feet long by 90 deep, and is surrounded by spacious gardens.
To extend its benefits, the Order have lately, at an ex-
pense of X'10,000, erected a handsome additional building,
210 feet by 45. In these establishments, the numerous
students, attending all the branches of learning and
philosophy, arc taught at very moderate charges. There
are two large nunneries ; — the principal one, called
the Congregation of Notre Dame, contains a superior
and sixty sisters, who receive boarders at a low rate,
and send teachers to different parts of the district. The
Soem's gris (Grey Sisters) consist of asuperior and twenty-
four nuns, who admit into their spacious apartments
the infirm poor, and are said to treat them with
great humanity. The Hotel Dieu is a large conventual
structure, occupied by a superior and thirty-six nuns,
and is also appropriated to the reception of the sick and
indigent. Its utility is lunited by the smallness of its

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^62

TOPOGRAPHY OF LOWER CANADA.

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funds, notwithstanding occasional grants from the legis-
lature. The monastery of the RecoUets, wliich occupied
extensive grounds at the end of Notre Dame Street, is
now demolished, though its church is still used for public
worship.

The English establishments, both for religion and
education, are also very respectable. The Episcopal
church in the street just named, is a very handsome
specimen of modem architecture, and is surmounted
by a lofty spire. The Scotch church is plain, but at-
tended by a highly respectable congregation. In 1814,
a most important donation was made by a wealthy in-
dividual, — the Hon. James M*Gill, — to found a college
for the principal branches of education. The endow-
ments consist of a valuable estate at the Mountain, with
£10,000 in money. It has not, however, yet come into
operation, in consequence of a lawsuit, which did not
terminate till 1835, when the available funds in the
hands of the institution amounted to £22,000. It
is to be conducted on the most liberal system,- -indi-
viduals of every religious persuasion being admitted as
students, and even as teachers. There is a Natural His-
tory Society and a Mechanics' Institution, whose labours
have been meritorious. The private establishments for
education are also respectable. The limited means of the
Hotel Dieu are amply compensated by the more ample
income of the Montreal General Hospital, which was
built in 1821-2 by voluntary subscription, at an expense
of nearly £6000. It is said to be one of the best regu-
lated institutions of the kind in America.*

The harboui' of Montreal does not seem to have re-
ceived all the attention which its importance merits.
It is somewhat confined, and has no wharfage, though,
close to the bank in front of the town, is a depth of
fifteen feet, sufficient for the largest vessels which as-
cend to this point. Its chief disadvantage consists in

• Bouchette, vol. i. p. 212-232. M'Gregor, vol. ii. p. 507-611.
raas^ pp. 63, 23. Reports of Commissioners, I. Appendix, p. 36.

Evans

TOPOGRAPHY OP LOWER CANADA.

263

two shoals, and in the rapid of St Mary's, about a mile
below, which vessels often find it difficult to stem. Im-
portant improvements are now contemplated, and a grant
for the purpose has even been voted by the legislature.
The communication with the opposite sides of the river
is carried on by means of ten ferries, on several of which
ply a number of steam- vessels. A wooden bridge was
once constructed from Repentigny on the northern
shore, but in the spring after its completion it was carried
down by the masses of ice. It is still thought that one
of larger span might be constructed, free from that danger.
In considering the rural districts of Montreal, so far as
they extend northward of the St Lawrence, we shall begin
with the tract reaching down to the province of Trois
Rivieres. It presents an aspect similar to that of the
whole coast from Quebec, but still more level, and also
more fertile and populous. It forms one uninterrupted
succession of flourishing settlements, with villages, on a
larger scale than in the lower districts. Berthier, with
850 inhabitants, on a branch of the St Lawrence called
the North Channel, is a great thoroughfare, being mid-
way between Trois Rivieres and Montreal, and supplying
a variety of goods to the neighbouring seigniories. St
Eustache, on the channel called Jesus or St Jean, which
seems to be a joint branch of the St Lawrence and Otta-
wa, commands the route to the territories on the latter
river, and, before the recent insurrection, had a consider-
able traffic, and a population of fully a thousand. The
Isle Jesus, separated from the mainland by this channel,
extends parallel to that of Montreal for the space of
twenty-one miles, and is six at its greatest breadth. It
is throughout level, fertile, and highly cultivated ; the
original forest being almost entirely extirpated, except
for ornament and fuel. In this quarter, on the small lake
of the Two Mountains, are a couple of villages belonging
to the Algonquins and Iroquois, containing together about
two hundred houses.*

' Couchette, vol. i. pp. 209-211, 232, 233.

264

TOPOGRAPHY OF LOWER CANADA.

■1 '

!'h

TJie portion of Montreal district on the St Lawrence
extends to Pointe au Baudet, fifty-five miles above
the capital, where it meets the boundary of Upper
Canada. This tract, between the St Lawrence and the
Ottawa, forms the county of Vaudreuil ; it is level,
diversified only by a few gentle hills, and is also very
fruitful. Vaudreuil and Rigaud are only villages ; the
chief importance being attached to the places which lie
on the river. La Chine is about eight miles above
Montreal, where the navigation is interrupted by the
fall of St Louis, to obviate which, the fine canal bearing
its name has been erected, at an expense of £137,000.
This village, which originally received its appellation
from the chimerical idea that it would afford a route to
China, still forms an important point in the navigation
both of the St Lawrence and the Ottawa, near whose
junction it is situated. About twelve miles farther up,
at the village of Pointe des Cascades, commences a series
of formidable cataracts, which, with little interruption,
extend about nine miles. There is nowhere any high
fall ; but the stream, filled with hidden rocks and covered
with breakers, dashes like the waves of a tempestuous
ocean. Yet the rafts, the Durham boats, and batteaux
constructed for the purpose, can, under skilful ^;uidance,
be safely piloted through these dangerous rapids. The
crews, however, are often obliged to unload tb ost
bulky part of their cargo, and have it conveyed by iand.
Steam navigation, which ceases at one end of this obstruc-
tion, is resumed at the other ; and the village of the Cedars,
situated opposite to the rapids of the same name, is the
chief depot for the land-passage. It commands a mag-
nificent view of the foaming billows, and of the barks
which steer through them their pex^ilous course.*

The Ottawa province, extending about 350 miles along
the northern bank of that great river, forms as it were
a very extensive wing, detached from the district and
from Lower Canada, while the upper province extends

Boucbette, vol. i. pp. 234, 235.

TOPOGRAPHY OF LOWER CANADA.

265

►vince extends

opposite to it along tlie southern bank. Thus the bound-
ary between these two territories, which at first runs due
north, as soon as it strikes the Ottawa, stretches first
north-west, and then almost due west. This extensive
tract is as yet by no means occupied or improved in pro-
portion to its natural capabilities. The numerous ob-
stacles to the navigation, though now in part removed,
have doubtless greatly retarded its settlement.

The upper part of the river beyond the falls and Portage
des Allumettes, is used by the fur-traders, who have
a post also on Lake Temiscaming, more than 350 miles
above the junction of the Ottawa with the St Lawrence ;
but this tract has never been surveyed, nor even accu-
rately described. Up to the portage, it is regularly fre-
quented by the lumberers, who find valuable supplies of
pine and oak, which they contrive to float down in rafts
through all obstructions. At the Allumettes the stream
separates into two channels, enclosing an island fifteen
miles long, and forming three small lakes called the
Allumettes, the Mud, and the Musk Rat. On the latter
is one solitary farm, said to be in a prosperous condition.
Eight miles below the junction of these channels is Fort
Coulange, where the Hudson's Bay Company have a
post, near which is one well-cultivated settlement. Four
or five miles down, another division of the stream forms
an island about twenty miles long ; but the two channels
are much impeded by falls and rapids. The northern,
which is the more practicable, has four portages within a
few miles of the point of junction ; and there is another
five miles below it. The falls are not above eight or ten
feet high ; but they are much broken by masses of rock,
and have a very wild appearance.

For ten miles downwards, the stream is beautifully
diversified by wooded islands, through which it rushes
with various degrees of violence. The banks, great part
of the way, consist of white marble, somewhat soft and
coarse ; but farther inland, it is believed, a superior de-
scription would be found. At the end of this tract, Bis-
set's chantier, a solitary log-house, with a few cleared

266

TOPOGRAPHY OP LOWER CANADA.

I Mr

•i'

acres, relieves the eye after the monotony of these vast
solitudes ; it affords also a welcome asylum to the fur and
timber traders. Soon after, the view opens upon the
magnificent expanse of the Lake des Chats, about fifteen
miles long, studded with richly wooded islets. On the
south are one or two scattered mansions, and particu-
larly Kinnell Lodge, the residence of the Highland chief-
tain M*Nab. The northern side appears uninhabited ; yet
at a little distance from the beach is the settlement of
Clarendon, formed in 1829, and in 1831 containing 257
inhabitants. The township of Bristol, in 1828, presented
only a few poor hovels, and thirty-one settlers, which
number had, in 1831, increased to ninety-six, and in
1836 to not less than 445. At length the lake suddenly
contracts, and the rapids of the Chats for three miles
dash in violent eddies, amid a labyrinth of islands. They
terminate in the Falls des Chats, fifteen or sixteen in
number, extending in a curved line across the river, and
divided by wooded islands ; but only from sixteen to
twenty feet high. The northern coast, having a rocky
and uneven surface, forms the township of Onslow,
which in 1836 had 150 settlers.

About six miles below this point commences Lake
Chaudiere, an expanse eighteen miles long, and, like the
former, terminating in rapids, succeeded by falls. These
last, called the Great and Little Chaudiere (Kettle),
are on a larger scale, 60 feet high, and 212 broad. The
descending torrent, striking on a great circular rock, is
thrown up in clouds of spray, which conceal the bottom of
the fall, and often rise in revolving columns high above its
summit. A great portion of the water being unaccount-
ed for, is beUeved to escape by subterraneous channels.
Immediately below, where the stream still rolls in rapid
eddies, a bridge has been thrown across. The difficulties
of the undertaking were overcome by dividing the struc-
ture into four parts consisting of different materials. The
broadest span is stretched by means of a hempen fabric,
composed of three-inch cables, forming an inverted seg-
ment of a circle, the lowest point of which is only seven

TOPOGRAPHY OF LOWER CANADA.

267

feet above the torrent. But at no time can it be passed
without a feeling of peril.

The township of Onslow is followed by that of Eardley,
extending along Lake Chaudiere, and having much excel-
lent land, which is very imperfectly occupied by 200 per-
sons. Below is Hull, the most flourishing of all the upper
settlements on the Ottawa. Its front towards the river
is level, or gently undulating, but it rises behind into
hills, some 900 feet high, yet finely wooded, or afford-
ing good pasturage. It is watered by the large river
Gatineau,and contains valuable minesof iron and quarries
of marble. This township \vds surveyed by Philemon
Wright, an American loyalist, who in 1806 obtained
a grant of 12,000 acres of it for himself and his asso-
ciates. Having, by his pecuniary advances, secured the
exclusive property of the greater portion, as well as of
large tracts in neighbouring townships, he has become a
most extensive landowner. By great exertions he has
rendered it extremely flourishing, and has led the way in
all the measures now taking for the improvement of this
fine district. The town of Wright, situated immediately
opposite to the great Rideau Canal, must rapidly grow
in importance. Its population is already considerable,
and it contains a neat church and comfortable hotel.
The Chaudiere Falls, and the bridge, immediately ad-
join it.

From this point to Grenville, sixty miles distant, the
Ottawa affbrds an uninterrupted navigation for steam
vessels. The township of Hull is succeeded by those of
Templeton, Buckingham, and Lochaber. Large tracts
were here granted to different proprietors, who unfortu-
nately have not taken due pains to increase their value ;
and the space for new settlers has been further narrowed
by the crown and clergy reserves. Steps, however,
are taking to induce the owners either to improve or
renounce their possessions, and to arrange the reserves on
such a principle, that they may not interrupt the conti-
nuity of settlement. The population of all three, which
in 1828 little exceeded 300, has since been greatly aug-

jj, ir' ,

268

TOPOGRAPHY OP LOWER CANADA.

mcnted. Buckingham, in 1831, contained 570 ; Lochaber,
236 ; Tcmpleton, in 1836, supposed 390. La Petite Nation,
a seigniory early formed, but as yet only partially
settled, acquired a considerable accession of Irish emi-
grants, through the exertionc of Mr Papineau, the
seignior, who erected extensive saw-mills on its eastern
border. It has now 826 settlers.

The township of Grenville, which next follows, may
be considered as commencing the densely-peopled portion
of Lower Canada. This is not owing to its fertility, which
is much impeded by the interruption of hilly ground, con-
nected with the lofty range which traverses the interior.
A branch from these gives rise to the rugged cataract
named the Long Sault, which can be passed only by the
most akilfulvoyageurs; and obstructions continue to occur
as far as Point Fortune, where the river, opening into the
Lake of the Two Mountains, becomes united with the St
Lawrence. To remedy tliis evil, a fine canal, called the
Grenville, which will be more fully described after-
wards, has been formed. Numerous individuals em-
ployed on this work have settled and taken farms in
the township, which by these means had acquired, in
1 836, a population estimated at 1450. Below is Chatham,
which, through exertions commenced in 1806 by Colonel
Robertson, Dr Fraser, and others, has become one of the
most flourishing settlements. Though traversed by some
naked hills, it has extensive level tracts ; and the pub-
lic road is every where bordered by thrivmg farms and
handsome dwelling-houses built of brick. The popula-
tion in 1831 was 2604. Chatham Gore, a rising town-
ship, has already 473, all Irish Protestants. Here the
Ottawa country terminates, Chatham being bounded by
Argenteuil, the first of that range of old French settle-
ments which extend along the river as far as Quebec*

It now only remains to describe the part of Canada

■■]'

• Bouchette, vol. i. p.
don, 1HH2), p. 9H.105.
General, pp. 9, 10.

187-200. Picken on the Canadas (Lon-
Cummissioners* Reports, Appendix to

TOPOGRAPHY OF LOWER CANADA.

269

I its eastern

southward of the St Lawrence. Though politically con-
nected with the northern portion, it is so completely
separated by the broad expanse of the river, and bears
80 distinct a character, that we follow M. Bouchette's
example in treating it separately. Though less exten-
sive, and containing no large towns, it is in many districts
equally fertile and well cultivated, and the cities are
dependent on it for a large proportion of their supplies.

The most valuable part of this tract is that attached
to the district of Montreal, consisting of the counties of
La Prairie, Beauhamois, L'Acadic, Riclielieu, ShefFord,
Stanstead, llouville, Missisqui, Chambly, Vercheres, and
St Hyacinthe, containing, in 1831, a population of
14:6,892. It consists chiefly of a very extended plain,
almost completely flat, except that some detached hills,
shooting up to a considerable height, divereify the
surface. Of these. Mounts Rouville, Chambly, Johur
son, and Boucherville, are the most remarkable. The
Richelieu, the chief river, called also Sorel or Cham-
bly, flows out of Lake Champlain, and is navigable
more than half way up for steam-vessels not drawing
more than four feet water. It cannot be compared with
the St Lawrence in grandeur ; but in picturesque beauty
few tracts can surpass this lovely plain, covered with
fruitful fields, luxuriant meadows, smiling villages, and
variegated by towering peaks. The summit of Rouville,
1100 feet high, affords one of the finest views in the
province. The soil throughout is generally of such exu-
berant fertility, that it bears the appellation of the
granary of Lower Canada.

The population of this territory, though consider-
able, is chiefly dispersed in small villages and farms.
The only places of any consequence are those whose
situation is fitted for trade. Such is Sorel, called now
William-Henry, from his late majesty, placed at the
junction of the Richelieu with the St Lawrence. It
has only wooden houses, but they are regularly built, and
two churches, with about 1500 inhabitants. La Prairie,
on the bank of the river opposite to Montreal, is a place

270

TOPOGRAPHY OF LOWER CANADA.

!?: i

■A '■

a (\

of superior importance, being the channel by which that
city communicates with the United States. It is also
handsomer, having houses of two stories, and roofed with
tin. Chambly, St John, and BlairAndie, being placed
on this line of road, have risen to consequence; and
St Charles and St Denis, on the Richelieu, are villages of
some magnitude.

The portion of this southern district which belongs to
Trois Rivieres contains the counties of Sherbrooke, Ya-
maska, Nicolet, and Drummond, and comprised, in 1831,
a population of 32,670. Proceeding eastward, it becomes
more elevated ; yet the portion which has been cleared
amply rewards the toil of the cultivator. It is watered
by fine rivers. The St Francis, from a lake of the same
name, flows due north, and, after traversing many fruitful
districts, falls into Lake St Peter. Though broken by
cataracts and rapids, it is navigated by canoes with occa-
sional portages. The Nicolet is passable some distance
up for batteaux, then only partially for small boats.
Falling into the St Lawrence, a short distance above Trois
Rivieres, it supplies the means of a great intercourse
with that place. The Be9ancour is a longer and very
fine river, but its channel is exposed to similar inter-
ruptions. It has falls, said to be nearly equal in beauty
to those most admu-ed in Lower Canada. Though this
district is almost entirely rural, there are villages near
the mouths of the rivers ; none, however, of much con-
sequence. At Nicolet is a college, lately rebuilt on an
enlarged scale.* St Hyacinthe, on the Yamaska, is a
considerable hamlet.

The whole tract along the St Lawrence and the
Richelieu, extending inward from the bank eight or ten
miles, has, as already noticed, been granted in seigniories,
formed into concessions, and cultivated to a considerable
extent, though many tracts in the rear still remain
covered by the original forests. But a large territory

* Bouchette, vol. i. pp. 299-306, 350.
ports, Appendix to Geneial, pp. 1, 2.

Commissioners^ Re-

missioners

TOPOGRAPHY OP LOWER CANADA. 271

in the interior, reaching to the American frontier, and
situated along the smallt-r rivers, had totally escaped
the attention of these original colonists ; though, not-
withstanding occasional swamps, it forms perhaps the
finest portion of Lower Canada. Instead of the flat plain
which borders the great rivers, it presents an undulat-
ing surface, finely wooded and diversified by numerous
streamlets, which render it particularly well adapted to
pasturage. That branch of industry is here carried on
more successfully than in any other part of the province ;
and its breeds of cattle redeem in some measure the
reproach of inferiority, which rests generally on the
country. There is also abundance of ground fitted for
wheat ; but being sown in spring, it is not equal to that of
Upper Canada. Oats and Indian com are good ; and the
potatoes are at once excellent and very plentiful. Cattle,
however, not grain, has hitherto formed the staple pro-
duce, and almost the only material of exportation. The
rivers, obstructed by falls and rapids, afford excellent
situations for mills, but are of no use in the carriage of
goods ; and the roads, by which produce must be con-
veyed to the somewhat distant markets of Montreal and
Quebec, have hitherto been extremely bad, though
great exertions are now making for their improve-
ment. The climate is somewhat milder than in the
vicinity of Montreal, while it has the advantage of being
healthy, and altogether free from the ague which afflicts
various parts of the upper province. This salubrity was
farther proved by its happy exemption fr oni the cholera,
which committed such ravages on the banks of the St
Lawrence.

As soon as the British government obtained possession
of Canada, they turned their attention to this valuable
district, and gradually laid it out in ranges of townships,
which amount now to ninety-eight, with ten more pro-
jected. In this quarter were located some military colo-
nies, of which that formed at Drummondville by Colonel
Herriot at the end of the last war was the most con-
siderable. Some private adventurers, from time to time.

<mt

! I!

'i I

r,'

I'i

272 TOPOGRAPHY OP LOWER CANADA.

followed the example ; but the greater number of set-
tlers were from the United Suites who passed into Stnn-
steud, and otlur distrietH on the southern frontier. 'I'hese
they rendered very flourishuig, and introdueed a better
system of management than generally pn^vails in Ca-
nada. Finally, when the great tide of immigration
began to flow into that country, the southern townships,
though for some time almost unnoticed, became an ob-
ject of inquiry ; and they were found to possess advan-
tages which might fairly enable them to come into com-
petition with the upper province. Since 1833 settlers
have resorted thither in considerable numbers ; and the
British American Land Company have purchased from
government a block of 6y0,0()() acres, called the St Francis
Territory, which, with other ac((ui8itions, raise their
property to 1 ,21 9,000 acres. For this they paid X'l 02,047
sterling, of which £60,000 is returned to them to be
spent in improvements upon the country. They have
erected a harbour at Port St Francis on Lake St Peter,
above the place where shallows begin and obstruct the
passage. They are also engaged in iniproving the road
thence to Sherbrooke, and from that town to their more
distant territory, ond have their lands now open for the
occupation of settlere.*

In the district of Montreal, county of Acadie, we
find Sherrington, with a great proportion of good land,
and a population of 3126. In lieauharnois county is
Godmanchester with 1413, Hemmingford with 980,
and Hinchinbrooke with 1214. These extend along the
southern border, westward from the Richelieu, and are
watered by its tributaries, as also by those of the St
Lawrence. A large part consists of high land with thin
soil, but covered with excellent timber, a great portion of
which has been lately cut down. There are fine meadows

• Bouchette, vol. i. p. 307-311.
Emigrants (London, 18.34), p. 67-72.
gration(183H), p. 24-30. " "
American Land Company.

Gould's Practical Advice to

Biiclian^s Remarks on Emi-

M^. Communications from the British

TOPOORAPUY or LOWKR CANADA,

273

along the rivors, with mucli good umhlc hmd ; and tho
townHhipH generally have heen greatly improved umlor a
jiidiciouH plan of government location. Dunham, Stand-
bridge, and Sutton, in the county of MiHsisqui, lie also on
the Houthern border ; but to the eastward of the Riche-
lieu and Lake Champlain there w u conuiderable variety
of soil, most of which is well fitted for grain, flax, and
hemp. Tho first contains 2121 settlers, the second 18(X),
the third 825.

The counties of Shcfford and Stanstcad, composing
tho south-eastern part of Montreal district, have been
entirely laid out in townships, and possess very impor-
tant settlements. Shetford, watered by tho lower
branches of tho Yamaska, is partly mountainous and
rocky, partly swampy ; but there is a lair proportion
of good and even fine soil. The township itself, though
in some parts rather steril, has in general exceedingly
rich land, with 1470 settlers,and contains a village named
Frosto with 120 souls. Brome, rather rugged, is so well
settled as to have 1548 ; Famham good, though partly
swampy, 1642 ; Stukeley, rather broken, only 485 ;
Granby, generally good, 991 ; Milton, 190 ; Ely, 131 ;
Roxton, 50, These three last are somewliat wet and
marshy.

Stanstead forms the south-easterly angle of Montreal
district, and is one of its most valuable portions. It is
well diversified with hill and dale, and has in its centre
the pleasing lake called Memphramagog. On its east-
em side are the townships of Stanstead, Barnston, and
Hatley. The two first are extremely fine and well
settled, having respectively a population of 4226 and
2221. It contains the villages of Stanstead and George-
ville, — the first of which is the largest as well as the neat-
est and best built place in all the townships. According
to the report of the British American Land Company,
there are upwai'ds of two hundred houses, three churches,
and two prmting offices, at one of which a weekly news-
paper is published. The high road from Quebec passes,
through it, Hatley is much more chequered, pos-

VOL. I.

■ • ■i i tii

274

TOPOGRAPHY OP LOWER CANADA.

'^. ^

I :<

(i f

•Ifc li i

sessing some very fine land, with a few hilly and poor
districts. The village of Charlestown has fifty houses and
two churches. Bolton and Polton, on the west side of
the lake, though somewhat rugged and uneven, are well
watered and have several tracts of good land. Popula-
tion of Hatley, 1600, Bolton, 1170, Polton, 1006. To
the eastward of Stanstead are Barnston and Barford,
both favourably described, so that, notwithstanding their
remoteness from water, the first has 2221 settlers, though
the second, as yet, has only 84.

We now proceed to the county of Sherbrooke, embrac-
ing the greater part of the district of St Francis, imme-
diately south of Trois Rivieres, to which it is often con-
sidered as attached. Being quite beyond the range of
the seigniories, it has been divided into 29 townships,
which include much valuable land. It presents in ge-
neral a broken and varied surface, sometimes rising into
mountains clothed with fine timber, is well watered,
yet not so encumbered with swamps as the more western
districts. The only part hitherto settled is that adjoin-
ing to Stanstead in Montreal ; but the British Ameri-
can Land Company expect soon to diffuse culture over
the whole. Orford, indeed, the first on tliis side, is so
mountainous as to be almost unfit for improvement, and
contains only 320 inhabitants. But the next. Ascot,
with 1800, Compton, to the south, with 2020, and Eaton,
to the east, with 1500, are in general very fine, with
an undulating surface, and commodiously watered by
streams well adapted for mills. The first contains Sher-
brooke, the county town, where the commerce of the
neighbouring settlements chiefly centres. It contains
about 350 inhabitants, with three places of worship and
a woollen manufactory ; and the Land Company have
lately made it the centre of their operations. They
have undertaken a new road to Port St Francis, where-
by the distance will be reduced to seventy miles, and
have likewise established a stage conveyance between
the two places, by which the journey is performed in
one day. They have also improved the roads to Quebec

ifiiA^it'iam^f It' ?/rr^in:p^ >

oke, embrac-
■ancis, imme-
is often con-
the range of
9 townships,
esents in ge-
les rising into
yell watered,
more western
is that adjoin-
Iritish Ameri-
i culture over
;liis side, is so
•ovement, and
next, Ascot,
20, and Eaton,
3ry fine, with
y watered by
contains Sher-
imerce of the
It contains
f worship and
ompany have
ations. They
rancis, where-
ity miles, and
ance between
performed in
ads to Quebec

I'fj

( ;<i|

pnHMaiiMi nr nuviut uniirn. iohmiiuiuiu.

I'U

TOPOGRAPHY OF LOWER CANADA.

275

and Montreal, from each of whicli us about 100 miles
distant. In Eaton and Compt^t^. are rising villages
bearing the same names. South from £aton, Clifton and
Newport, though hilly, contain much good land ; yet
in 1831 their united population was only 188.

The north-western part of the county includes Mel-
bourne, with 1280 settlers, and Shipton, on the Ni-
colet, with 1900. These two are considered the finest
of all the St Francis townships, and their population
is rapidly increasing. Shipton contains Richmond, a
village of some consequence, and another is rapidly ris-
ing in Melbourne. Windsor and Stoke are represented
as possessing almost equal advantages ; yet they have
drawn little attention, the former counting only 220
settlers, the latter scarcely any. Brompton, west from
these, though uneven and rocky, has some good tracts,
which have drawn 350 inhabitants ; while Dudswell,
east of Windsor, which has also a variegated surface, can
boast of three hundred and forty-two.

The whole south-eastern part of this large county,
containing the townships of Garthby, Strafford, Whit-
ton, Adstock, Marston, Chesham, Emberton, Hampden,
and Bury, with certain portions of Weedon, Lingwick,
Ditton, Auckland, and Hereford,compose8 the great block
purchased by the Land Company. It had not been pre-
viously surveyed, and was occupied only by detached
individuals, who had availed themselves of its neglected
situation to squat upon it. Its surface is very varied.
The central part, according to a recent report, appears too
mountainous to invite settlement ; but from this height
it slopes down in various directions to the St Francis,
to its tributary the Salmon, and to Lake Megantic.
These lower declivities are richly wooded and well fit-
ted for a mixed system of com and pasture farming.
The Salmon river, which traverses in a northerly direc-
tion nearly the whole district, has beautiful and fertile
banks, one part of which, about ten miles long, from its
luxuriant verdure is called " the Meadows." This

river, as well as numerous little streams which flow

'■ >

276

TOPOOUAPIIY OP LOWER CANADA.

into it, 18 ra])i<l and broken by IiiIIh, unfit for navigation,
but very convenient for mills. Here the Company have
determined to begin their settlement ; and about half a
mile from the principal fall they have founded a village
named Victoria. During the sunnner of 1036 several
hundred labourers were cmj)loyed by them in fonning a
road between it and Sherbrooke.

In the district of Three liivei's, the county of Drum-
mond has been laid out into nineteen townships. These
have the advantage of being nearer to a shipping port
on the St Lawrence ; yet, in point of soil, they do not
seem equal to those farther south, a great portion
of it being rendered unproductive by swamps. They
have accordingly obtained a much smaller number of
settlers, and those chiefly on the lower course of the St
Francis. On the western bank are Durham, with 1000,
Wickham, 450, and Grantham, with 050. The first and
lost are described as generally good, containing tracts of
fine natural grass ; but the other is only partially fer-
tile, owing to the encroachment of marshes. In Grant-
ham is the village of Drummondvillc, which* ranks as
the capital of this new county. Adjoining this township
are Acton and Upton, small and rather wet, yet the
latter has obtained 400 settlers. On the eastern bank are
Kingscy, Simpson, and Wendover, which have gene-
rally good land in the front, with morasses in the rear.
Kingscy has above 1100 settlers, but Simpson only 60,
and Wendover 00. The more eastern townships,
though situated on the fine streams of the Be^ancour
and Nicolet, and not without natural advantages, are
scarcely at all occupied. On the latter river are Artha-
basca, of mixed (juality ; Chester, good, with twelve set-
tlers ; Horton, small, and only one settler ; Warwick,
poor and stcril ; Wolfstown, a mixture of bad and mo-
derately good land, with twelve colonists. On the Be^an-
cour are Aston, a picturesque tract, with generally good
land, though yet only a few settlers ; Bulstrode, south-
east of this river, low, but not without good land, has
230 settlers ; and Stanfold, which is very swampy. Be-

TOPOGRAPHY OP LOWER CANADA.

277

sides these are Tingwick, between Chester and Kingsi^y,
and Wotton, wi^st of Wolfstown, mostly belonging to
the Land Company. Ham, ejist of Tingwick, lias a pro-
portion of land fit for cultivation.

Besides these counties entirely laid out in townships,
that of Nicolet in the rear of its seigniories, contains those
of Blandford and Maddington, with a soil generally good,
well watered, but as yet scarcely at all occupied.*

The tracts on this side of the river belonging to the dis-
trict of Quebec embrace a great extent of coast ; but the
settlements do not extend far into the interior. The pos-
session of a portion, too, amounting to 0,400,000 acres, is
still under discussion with the United States. This divi-
sion consists of the counties of Beauce, Bellechasse, Dor-
chester, Kamouraska, L' Islet, Lotbiniere, Megantic, and
Rimouski, which contain a population of 87,700. The
aspect of the territory, as compared with the western,
is decidedly bold and hilly, though not mountainous, as
on the opposite shore. The land generally stretches in
in'egular ridges, which, at from ten to twenty miles
inland, swell into a broad table land, that slopes down
to the river St John. Between these ridges, however,
intervene valleys, and even extensive plains, many of
which, from the encouragement afforded by the markets
of the capital, have been brought into very tolerable cul-
tivation. The territory is watered by numerous rivers,
full and rapid, though, from being closely hemmed in
by high land on the south, they have not so long a
tjourse as those farther west. The principal are the
Chaudiere, Du Sud, St Anne, Quelle, Green River,
Rimouski, Great Mitis, and Matane. In ascending the St
Lawrence, the views along the valleys marked out by
these streams and the heights by which they are bound-
ed^ are singularly grand and picturesque.

The tract watered by the Cliaudiere, the largest of
these rivers, and comprising the county of Beauce, is

* Bouchette, as above. Picken, pp. 63-68, 82-94. Commissioners'
Reports, Appendix to General, p. lU-13. British American Land
Company Reports and Private Communications.

278

TOPOGRAPHY OP LOWER CANADA.

r 'IJili I

r! I i • I

fi* ill

hilly and broken, the soil light, and in some places
stony, yet on the whole fertile ; and the vicinity of the
capital has led to its careful cultivation. It derives very
great advantages also from the Kennebeck road lead-
ing from Quebec to Boston, and completed in 1830, by
which its agricultural produce is conveyed to a good
market, and large supplies of live stock transported.
The fall on the Chaudiere forms one of the most pic-
turesque objects in America. If it does not equal the
grandeur of Niagara and Montmorenci, it possesses fea-
tures more interesting than either. The river is here
narrowed to the breadth of between 300 and 400 feet, and
the height does not exceed 130. It descends, too, not in
one continuous sheet, but is broken by projecting rocks
into three channels, which however unite before reach-
ing the basin below. Nothing, therefore, is on the same
great scale as in its two rivals ; yet it surpasses both in
the magnificent forests by which it is overhung, whose
dark foliage, varied and contrasted by the white foam of
the cataracts, produces the most striking effects. These
are heightened by the deep and hollow sound of the
waters, and the clouds of spray, which, when illumined
by the sun, exhibit the most brilliant variety of prismatic
colours. A succession of rapids for some space upwards
displays a continuation of the same bold and beautiful
scenery.

Although the whole front of this territory towards
the St Lawrence is laid out in seigniories, yet some
tracts in the remoter parts of Beauce and Bellechasse,
with the whole of Megantic, have been divided into
townships, for the reception of British settlers. The
surface, though in general high, becoming even moun-
tainous when it reaches the upland country which sepa-
rates the basin of the St Lawrence from that of the St
John, contains, nevertheless, many valuable districts.
On the western side of the Chaudiere, in Megantic, are
Inverness, with 960 settlers ; Ireland, 500 ; Leeds, 740 ;
Broughton, 75. These are described as possessing much
good and some very superior land, interrupted, however,

TOPOGRAPHY OP LOWER CANADA.

279

by a considerable extent of hill and swamp. The other
townships on this side, scarcely at all settled, are
Somerset and Nelson, low land, but tolerably good ;
Halifax, good, with 160 settlers ; Thetford, Tring with
thirty-eight, Winslow, mixture of good and bad ; Dor-
set, extensive and rocky, but with fine rises of rich
soil, particularly fitted for hemp and flax ; and Gay-
hurst, of which little is yet known. Eastward of the
Chaudiere, in Beauce, is Frampton, the most flourishing
of all. Its surface is varied ; and the uplands are best
fitted for culture, the valleys being somewhat wet ; yet
these last yield excellent pasture, and the butter pro-
duced from them enjoys a high reputation at Quebec.
It has sixty houses and 263 inhabitants. The adjoining
ones of Cranboume and Buckland, though inferior, pos-
sess considerable advantages, but hitherto have attracted
few settlers. Ware and Watford still remain unsurveyed.
Risborough, Spalding, Marlow, Ditchfield, and Clinton,
are far south, and little known.^

For a considerable space below the Chaudiere, the
shores of the St Lawrence continue fine and well culti-
vated. The river Du Sud, in particular, about thirty-
five miles from Quebec, traverses a plain so level and
fruitful, as almost to dispute with the Richelieu the fame
of being the granary of Lower Canada. The scenery also
is soft and beautiful in the extreme, especially at the
village of St Thomas, near its mouth. The soil too
continues good, though on the river St Anne it is singu-
larly broken by insulated granite clifi^ rearing their
steep sides to a considerable height. These, however,
overlook a fine country, and render it more picturesque.
The village of St Anne, agreeably stationed on an emi-
nence, has recently had a college founded, the building
for which is handsome, and placed in a healthy situa-
tion ; affording a great accommodation to this populous
part of Lower Canada. Lower down, at River Quelle,

* Bouchette, vol. i. p. 299-314. Picken, p. 53-60. Commissioners*
Report, Appendix to General, p. 13.

ii a.-^

280

TOPOGRAPHy OP LOWER CANADA*

there is a considerable porpoise fishery. In the rear of
this district is the township of Ixworth ; which, so far
as it has been surveyed, is found to contain excellent
land. About ninety Iniles below Quebec, Kamouraska,
the most frequented watering-place in Canada, has risen
to great importance. Visiters are attracted by the salu-
brity of the air and the fine scenery, — much height-
ened by islands in front, which are also the seat of a
considerable herring-fishery.

Below Kamouraska, the country is diversified by
more abrupt eminences, while population and culture
become more limited. After the village of St Andrew,
occurs the portage of Temiscouata, leading to the lake
of that name on the main road to New Brunswick
and Nova Scotia. On the Riviere du Loup is an exten-
sive saw-mill ; but there, and in the succeeding dis-
tricts of Cacona, Isle Verte, and Trois PistoUes, coloni-
zation scarcely extends beyond the range in front of the
river. The Rimouski district is still more gloomy,
covered with dark hills, enclosing a narrow valley.
At Bic, especially, the mountains become bold and
precipitous ; yet the eye is still occasionally cheered by
smiling settlements. Four leagues lower, at Anse au Coq,
the road ceases, and the trackless desert is interrupted
by single habitations only, on the banks of the rivers
Gi'and Mitis and Little Matane. On the first are large
saw-mills, and on the second a fishery for the supply of
the Quebec market ; but its success is said to be doubt-
ful. At Matane only about 600 acres are cleared,
and occupied by 300 families. The uninhabited coast,
extending thirty miles from Mitis to this place, is con-
sidered by Bouchette as highly propitious for settle-
ment; and it certainly possesses many advantages in
point of situation. From Matane to the boundary of the
province, there are only a few scattered dwellings.

Behind the stations now described, adjoining Lake
Temiscouata, Colonel Fraser, since 1823, has given im-
portance to the settlements of Kent and Strathem. The
landscape here is bold aiid romantic, and the rocks

TOPOGRAPHY OP LOWER CANADA.

281

afford a large supply ut excellent limestone. The road
by the portage to New Brunswick is very beneficial to
his establishment ; and more southerly, at the junction
of the Madawaska and St John, another has been formed.
The whole upper line of the latter river, extending 132
miles in length, might, it is supposed, afford an exceilent
base for a range of townships, but it constitutes part of
the disputed territory, and is still entirely neglected.

The least improved portion of this section of Lower
Canada is the district of Gaspe. It forms an extensive
peninsula, having on the north the river and on the east
the gulf of St Lawrence : on the south, the Bay of
Chaleur, penetrating deeply into the land, separates it
from New Brunswick. Gaspe, having thus a circuit of
about 360 miles of coast, enjoys a favourable posi-
tion for fishery, which has hitherto been the chief em-
ployment of its inhabitants. The principal settlements
are on Chaleur Bay, particularly along a space of fifty
miles from Port Daniel to Maria. The cold is not much
more rigorous than on the St Lawrence, while it is free
from those dreary fogs which encumber the neighbour-
ing coasts, but are here merely seen rolling in dense
volumes along the entrance of the bay. The fishery is
cliiefly of cod, carried on by open boats, with the aid of
a few larger vessels. It employs about 1800 indivi-
duals, of whom 600 come from Quebec during the season.
The produce is about 50,000 quintals of dried and
10,000 green fish, and 27,000 gallons of cod oil. The
whale fishery employs five or six large schooners and
200 men ; it yields from 18,000 to 20,000 gallons of oil.
About 4000 barrels of herrings and 2000 of salmon are
also cured. Of late, the attention of the colonists has
been attracted to agriculture ; the soil having been
found of a friable clay, thickly coated with vegetable
mould, and yielding good crops of grain, flax, and hemp.
The whole line of coast has been laid out, and even
double ranges begun, though the roads are yet very im-
perfect. Since 1815, the timber trade has become an
important resource. In each of the years 1826 and 182€i

282

TOPOGRAPHY OF LOWER CANADA.

ii'

■((

. I

• 'f\

sixty vessels were employed, exporting about 760,000
feet of pine. In 1881 the whole population was calcu-
lated at 13,312, including the settlements on the river
Ristigouche, and others from Cape Daniel to Gaspe
Bay on the eastern coast. The northern boundary,
stretching thence along the St Lawrence, presents still an
aspect of the most dreary desolation. Three small stations
have been formed, but are scarcely at all occupied, unless
during the Ashing season. Yet there seems nothing in
the soil or climate to prevent settlement, which would
be of great use in affording protection against the ship-
wrecks which too often occur at this dangerous entrance
of the St Lawrence. For this purpose, £5000 has been
appropriated by the legislature.*

The following tabular vie\7, as it respects the different
districts, will be found to comprise much interesting in-
formation. The St Francis territory, we believe, is com-
prehended under those of Montreal and Trois Rivieres.

Area in square mHes.

Population in 1831

Possessors of real property

Families employed in agriculture..

Families employed in trade

Acres of improved land

Acres occupied, but unimproved. .
Wheat .produce inminotsd^bushel)

Oats, minots

Potatoes, do

Homed cattle

Horses

Sheep

Hogs

Grist mills

Quebec.

126,717
151,985
17,215
12,467
764
562,778*
1,685,817
911,8873
798,133^
1,695,853^
104,794
26,213
152,38k
74,515
94

Montreal.

Troit
Rivieres.

15,811

Ga>p«.

49,769

7,389

29<),()50

56,570

13,312

31,747

7,653

1,276

28,229

9,662

466

1,240

489

1,231,3001 253,447i

18,687

2,529,859i 629,902i 136,2141

2,098,982i 383,544:1 10,342|

1,911,861 426,760i

5,520

4,221 ,802i910,295i

529,465

229,747

48,752

5,411

76,057

13,739

677

310,523

71,458

8,98<1

174,447

39,766

6,409

235

The progress of Lower Canada, though not quite
equal to that of some modern colonies, has yet been
extremely rapid. It was, indeed, long depressed by the
weakness of the government and Indian warfare ; so
that, in 1676, it appears not to have contained above WIS
inhabitants. In 1700, however, the estimate was 16,000,
and in 1714 it had risen to 26,^04. At the conquest in

♦ Bouchette, vol. i. p. 315-330. McGregor, vol. ii. p. 452.45(>,
Evans, Supplement, p. 63.

■ '. tl ii

TOPOGRAPHY OP LOWER CANADA.

283

it 760,000
was calcu-
i the river
to Gaspe
boundary,
snts still an
lall stations
)ied, unless
nothing in
lich would
it the ship-
US entrance
K) has been

he different
eresting in-
eve, is com-
s Rivieres.

Troi»
Livierec.

Oaip«.

15,811

56,670

7,653

9,662

489

53,4474

;29,902i

S3,644i

,26,760*

110,295*

48,762

13,739

71,458

39,766
60

7,389

13,312

1,276

466

18,687

136,214

10,342

5,520

529,465

5,411

677

8,980

6,409

ti not quite
as yet been
essed by the
warfare ; so
i above 81415
was 16,000,
J conquest in

il. p. 452^50.

1769 the number was believed to be 66,000. In 1784,
a census, ordered by General Haldimand, gave 113,000.
A similar one, taken in 1826 under the authority of the
House of Assembly, sliowed 423,630 ; another in 1831
611,917. There can be no doubt that this last, as
well as all the preceding enumerations, was extremely
defective. Mr Chapman, after a careful consideration
of all circumstances, considers himself rather under
the truth, in fixing the real number at 682,000 ; and he
supposes that, by the combined effect of immigration and
natural increase, it must have now risen to fully 660,000.
Of the number returned by the census of 1831, it was
stated that 67,891 were possessed of real property. The
number of families employed in agriculture was 60,824,
while 7602 persons acted as farm servants, and not more
than 2603 families were engaged in commerce or trade.
The lands under cultivation amounted to 2,066,913 acres,
while 3,981,713 were occupied, but in an unimproved state.
There were, moreover, 4,336,494 acres still in the hands
of the government, besides vast tracts yet unsurveyed.
The inhabitants were possessed of 389,706 horned cattle,
1 16,686 horses, 643,343 sheep, and 296,137 hogs. They
had 396 grist, and 737 saw mills ; 90 for carding, 97 for
fulling, and 3 for paper ; 70 distilleries ; 489 manufac-
tories for pot and pearl ash, and 64 for other articles. In
1836 Mr Evans estimated the cultivated lands as having
increased to 2,486,000. An official report states the acres
of surveyed lands belonging to the crown at 999,976

To the clergy, 668,099

Total surveyed, .... 1,668,076

Unsurveyed, though formed into townships, 668,099

2,136,174

Besides those now described, there are vast tracts yet
undivided on the Saguenay, on the southern frontier, and
in the disputed territory.*

* Bouchette, vol. i. p. 347. Tables for Colonies, 1832, pp. 1, 2,
6, 7* Chapman's Statistics of the Population of the British
Colonies (Montreal, 1834 j, p. 6-12.

284

TOPOGRAPHY OP UPPER CANADA,

CHAPTER VI.

Topography of Upper Canada*

Boundariefr—Surface and Extent — Progress of Settlement and
Cultivation— Climate and Soil — Divisions — Eastern Division —
Eastern District — Johnstown — Bathurst; Perth and By town _i
Central Division— Midland District — Town of'King.ston — New-
castle District ; Cobury; and Port Hope ; Peterborou|rh — Home
District — City of Toronto — Settlements on Lake Simcoe —West-
ern Section — Its early Settlement — Gore District — Canada
Coraiiany — Guelph — Gait — NiagaraDistrict — Town— Queenston
— Falls— London District; Colonel Talbot ; Town of London —
Huron Tract; Goderich — Western District ; Amherstburg and
Sandwich — General Summary.

Upper Canada comprehends an extensive range of
territory, considered till lately a men^ appendage to
the lower province, but now fast rivalling it in wealth
and population. Its eastern boundary, as defined by
the proclamation of 1791, has been already stated to be
a line drawn from the St Lawrence, a little above Mon-
treal, due north to the Ottawa, and then along that
river to Lake '^ omiscaming. Thence it again stretches
due north to the mountainous border of the Hudson's
Bay territory, which forms the northern limit. On
the south it has the winding shores of Lakes Ontario,
Erie, Huron, and Superior, with the channels connect-
ing them, and generally ranked as portions of the great
stream of the Si, ^ iwrence. On the other side of this
water-boundary is ». p tRtritory of the United States.
The western Uniil h;, aich i ore ^'^ague, being by the
proclamation just irieJiiiozied merely stated to be that
of " the country comit only called or known by the

TOPOORAPIIY OP UI'I'ER CANADA.

285

name of fanndn." M. Bouchottc seems to aH^^cre most
closely to eaUiMished ulcas, when he fixes it at the head
of the streams wliich fall into Lake Superior, and tlius
extends it to about 117° west longitude.

Tlus extensive province consists almost throughout
of one uniform plain. In all the settled ana surveyed
portion, at least, there is scarcely an eminence deserv-
ing the name even of a hill ; though it is traversed by
two ridges of considerable extent, which decidedly mark
the different levels uf the country. The principal one
passes through i;.vu ' , i^ whole length from south-east
to north- we«t, s( paruting the waters which fall into the St
Lawrence ind thi l.>kes from those which are tributary
to the (Htiwa. The highest point is supposed to bo
the great (St elevation of the Rideau Canal, about forty
miles north of Kingston. It is 290 feet above the
Ottawa at By town, but only 160 higher than the level
of Lake Ontario. Towards these opposite limits the
surface descends at the rate of only about four feet in
the mile, exhibiting to the eye no sensible departure
from a complete plain. The high ground, however, after
passing the limits of settlement, about eighteen miles
northward of Lake Balsam becomes connected with
a somewhat loftier range, which continues in nearly
the same direction beyond Lakes Huron and Superior,
till it joins the mountainous frontier of the Hudson's
Bay territory. The other ridge begins near the eastern
extremity of Ontario, to which it runs nearly parallel, and
proceeds in the same direction to a point about twenty-
four miles north-west from Toronto, where it separates
the tributariei^ of that lake trom those of Huron. It
now tn^"^ to th^ south-east, and, running between On-
tario and Erie, crosses the Niagara, forming its stu-
pendous falls, and terminating on the Genessee, in the
United States territory. Although no part of it can
aspire to the appellation of mountain, it has a more
sensible elevation than the former ridge, and even rises
into some bold heights.
The whole of this territory is estimated to contain

286

TOPOGRAPHY OF UPPER CANADA.

about 141,000 square miles, or nearly three times the
extent of England. The only portion, however, that is
yet surveyed, or at all settled, is that bounded by the
eastern coast of Lake Huron, and a line drawn thence
to the Ottawa. This is estimated by M. Bouchette to
contain about 33,000 square miles, or 21,000,000 acres.*

Upper Canada, down to the period when it was con-
quered by Britain, was in a very wild and unreclaimed
condition. With the exception of the small location
on the banks of the Detroit, it contained only detached
posts at great distances, formed for military defence and
the prosecution of the fur-trade. After the peace of
1763, when the possession of it was confirmed to this
country, a proclamatica was issued, fixing allotments
of land to reduced officers and discharged soldiers. These
grants, however, appear to have been sought chiefly
in the vicinity of the capitals and cultivated districts,
and to have scarcely at all extended into the great
forest domain.

The real settlement of Upper Canada took place in
1783, at the close of the first American war. At that
time not only a large body of troops were disbanded, but
many inhabitants of the United States, who had adhered
to Britain during this unfortunate contest, sought refuge
within her colonies ; and as these last were generally in a
state of great destitution, the government felt disposed
to treat them liberally, and afford the utmost possible
compensation for their losses and sufferings. With this
view, the whole land along the St Lawrence above the
French settlements, and also on Lake Ontario, to and
around the Bay of Quinte, for the space of 150 miles,
was formed into townships, originally entitled First,
Second, Third, but to which regular names were after-
wards attached. These settlers were termed the United
Empire Loyalists ; and not only received an ample supply
of land, but farming utensils, building materials, and sub-
sistence for two years. A farther engagement was made,

* Bouchette, vol. i. p. 64-71.

TOPOGBilPHY OP UPPER CANADA.

287

that every member of their families, on attaining the ago
of twenty-one, should have a fresh donation of 200 acres ;
a promise which has been strictly fulfilled. Military
grants were at the same time bestowed, at rates varying
from 5000 for a field officer, to 200 for a private soldier.
These new occupants, many of whom had been accus-
tomed to agricultural labour and even to the improve-*
ment cf forest land, soon produced a wonderful change,
and converted a great extent of wilderness into fruitful
fields. On the site of Fort Frontenac was founded
Kingston, which gradually rose into a place of import-
ance. At the same time, other emigrants, in consideration
of local liabits and attachments, were settled upon the
Niagara channel, and upon that part of the Detroit not
previously occupied.

In 1791 Upper Canada had attained to such import-
ance, that when Mr Pitt determined to bestow a con-
stitution on the colony, he formed this part into a
separate government, giving to it the name of Upper,
and to the early settled districts that of Lower Canada.
The former was not supposed, after all, to contain at
that time above 10,000 inhabitants. General Simcoe,
however, in 1794, founded the town of York, which was
fixed on as the seat of government, and made the most
strenuous efforts to encourage colonists to settle in the
neighbourhood. They came in considerable numbers,
though chiefly from the United States. It was not till
1803 that, through the exertions of Colonel Talbot, emi-
gration from Britain was commenced on any large
scale. The result of these measures was, that in IQll
the country was found to contain about 9623 persons
paying taxes. By a careful examination in regard to
the most populous township, Mr Gourlay estimated the
tax-payers at one-eighth of the entire population, which,
on iJiis principle, must have amounted to about 77,000.
A vast additional impulse, however, was given at the close
of the last war, in consequence of the low rate of profit
and wages, and the difficulty of finding employment at
home. The attention, first of the labouring, then of

ilmV

'Ir 'r i

■( ^ . :'

288

TOPOGRAPHY OP UPPER CANADAi

the middling class, and finally of the government, \vaS
thus forcihiy drawn to the relief which might be ob-
tained by removal to a new country, where the means
of subsistence were abundant. These motives have
attracted a continued succession of emigrants, both in-
dividually and in bodies, by whom the population of
the province has been most rapidly augmented. In
1824 a series of returns, called for by Parliament,
showed the number to be 151,097. In 1828 a similar
census produced 185,526. At the end of 1832 the
amount had risen to 296,000, and in 1835 to 336,000.
It may be observed, too, that these returns are un-
derstood to be extremely defective, and the omissions
numerous ; probably, therefore, the actual population
of Upper Canada may not fall materially short of
400,000.

Improvement and wealth appear to have kept full pace
with the progress of population. We do not find any
statement of the number of acres under cultivation till
1828, when they were reported at 570,000. In 1835 they
had increased to 1,308,300. The assessment lists of 1810
gave 9982 horses ; in 1832 they had increased to 36,822.
The number of homed cattle was in the first period,
24,436 ; in the second, 166,499 ; in the third, 192,005. In
1810 the assessment of a penny in the pound,on all fixed
property, yielded £4133, implying a value of £992,000,
which, in 1828, was reckoned at £1,969,000. In 1835
the assessment amounted to £20,207, and consequently
was levied upon a property estimated at £4,849,000.
This being Halifax currency, was equal only to
£4,364,000 sterling. The rating, however, as usual in
such cases, appears to be very low, cultivated land being
valued only at £1 per acre, probably a good deal less than
lialf the real worth. A stone or brick house, with six
apartments, is rated only at £100. Farm stock is assessed
more nearly at its marketable price ; but the payment
is made exclusively upon lands, buildings, cattle, and car-
riages, and does not extend to furniture, clothes, produce,
trading goods, or specie. It should seem, therefore, that

TOPOGRAPHY OF UPPER CANADA.

289

1 I

tlie actual value of property cannot be much less than
double the rated amount. Should we suppose it
£8,000,000 sterling, the average share to each in-
dividual will be £20, or for a family of five, £100 ;
and this will probably purchase the means of living to
double the amount which the same sum would procure
in Britain.

Upper Canada, as formerly observed, enjoys a climate
considerably milder than that of the lower province.
The great water-communication, along which it extends,
stretches upwards from Montreal, in a south-western
direction, till it reaches nearly the latitude of New
York. M. Bouchette has given a comparative table,
from which it appears, that in the year 1820, the mean
annual heat was six and a half degrees higher than
in the other province. The extremes, also, are less
severe ; for while the mean of the four winter months
is from thirteen to seventeen degrees higher, that of
July and August is a little lower. Nor do the seasons
follow each other so abruptly as at Quebec ; and hence
a certain interval occurs between winter and summer.
In return for these advantages, the weather is observed
to be more variable, and there are only two months in
which sleighing or sledge-travelling over the hard snow
can be practised. Ague, too, more especially in the
newly-settled districts, though not fatal, is distressing
and debilitating. But the mildness of the climate affords
to the farmer the important advantage, that he can sow
wheat in autumn, which thus attains a quality superior
to that of the spring-sown grain, liitherto alone reared
in other parts of British America. The opportunity of
cultivating the finer fruits is a less momentous though
a very agreeable circumstance.

The soil of Upper Canada, at least within the present
range of settlement, bears a very superior character. Its
fertility, indeed, as will presently appear, is not so uni-
form as has sometimes been represented ; yet there is
probably no tract of equal extent in the temperate zone
with which it may not be advantageously compared.

VOL. I. - s

290

TOPOGRAPHY OF UPPER CANADA.

It is nowhere mountainous, nor, with very few excep-
tions, is it rocky. Considerable tracts are light and
sandy, but few so much so as to be absolutely barren.
The productiveness of the country appears to be chiefly
interrupted by swamps, which cover a large space, both
in the most eastern and most western districts.*

The circumstances alluded to in the beginning of the
preceding chapter, as giving a peculiar importance to
Canadian topography, apply in an especial degree to the
upper province, which has for some time been the
favourite resort of British emigrants, and its remotest lo-
calities have of late acquired a deep political importance.
The materials, indeed, are not quite so ample as could
be wished, for Messrs Bouchette and McGregor have
given only some general views on the subject. Reports,
however, have been made respecting most of the town-
ships, by deputy surveyors and inspectors, to the justices
at quarter sessions, ae well as to the provincial govern-
ment, with a view to the guidance of settlers. These have
been communicated by Mr Picken, in the work on the
Canadas, which he composed with the aid of documents
furnished by Mr Gait ; also in the volume entitled,
" The Canadas as they now are, by a late Resident."
Mr Gourlay, too, in 1817, procured a considerable num-
ber of similar returns, which still hold good, so far as
concerns the natural capabilities of the country. Sup-
plementary information has been gleaned from Shirreff^,
Ferguson, and other travellers, who have examined
different districts with a special view to emigration.
To Mr Martin we are indebted for the population of the
townships in 1833 ; and the statements brought down to
1835 are derived from the most respectable private
sources.

Upper Canada is divided into eleven districts, subdi-
vided into twenty-six counties, and six ridings, which
altogether comprise 277 townships. An official report

* Gourlay's Statistical View of Upper Canada, vol. ii. pp. 8-14,
139, 170, 2n. Bouchette, vol. i. pp. 76, 8», 89, 108-110,237.
Martin, pp. 297, 298.

few excep-
e light and
tely barren,
to be chiefly
! space, both

:tS.*

ining of the
iportance to
legree to the
le been the
; remotest lo-
. importance,
iple as could
Gregor have
5ct. Reports,
of the town-
the justices
ncial govem-
. These have
work on the
of documents
ime entitled,
ite Resident."
iderable num-
)od, so far as
►untry. Sup-
from Shirreff,
ive examined
io emigration,
mlation of the
ought down to
ctable private

istricts, subdi-
ridings, which
. official report

, vol. ii. pp. 8-14,
31), 108-110, 237.

I'l

]3ijmm^s^ -mtrn'sm^Ta.

I M

I .1

M ir t>ii

null

PDBI.niHIIU HYOIJVPJI It HOrO. KKmBCItllU.

TOPOGRAPHY OP UPPER CANADA.

291

/('.iii/.vi.v*ii«v

in 1835, relating, we presume, to the lands actually
occupied, gives the amount in all these districts at
6,700,000 acres, of which not more than 1,308,000 were
under cultivation. In entering upon the description of
this province, we shall follow the example of M. Bou-
chette, in dividing it into three great portions, the Eastern,
'the Central, and the Western. We must nevertheless dis-
sent from him so far as to attach the Midland District to
the central part, where it appears to us clearly placed by
nature. The eastern division will then contain the ter-
ritory between the St Lawrence and the Ottawa ; tlie
central will have its base on Lake Ontario, and extend
north towards the latter of these rivers, without, how-
ever, at all approaching it as to actual settlement. The
western division composes an extensive peninsula, nearly
enclosed by Ontario, Erie, St Clair, and Huron, and the
channels by which these lakes are connected.

The eastern division, then, consists of four districts :
Eastern and Johnstown on the St Lawrence, Ottawa and
Bathurst on the Ottawa. It comprised, in 1835, a po-
pulation of 87,380, to whom belonged 227,010 cultivated
acres, 1,149,866 uncultivated, 11,361 horses, and 45,041
homed cattle. It is well watered, not only by the two
great rivers, but by several important tributaries, of
which the largest fall into the Ottawa. The Petite
Nation, rising only about five miles from the St Law-
rence, near Johnstown, traverses the territory in a line
nearly due north-east. The Rideau, the Mississippi
(quite distinct from the great central river of that name),
and the Madawaska, rise in the Midland District, and
flow in an easterly direction till they reach the Ottawa.
The only important tributary to the St Lawrence is the
Gananoqui, which falls into it near Lansdown.

The soil of this part of Canada has been somewhat
variously reported, but appears on the whole not so uni-
formly good as in the more western districts. Consider-
able tracts are sandy, some are marshy, and others are
broken and rock3^ There is not wanting, however, a
very fair proportion of fine land. The climate, being

I :i

I 'i

1
}

i
i

•ti f,

1
1

.-.( if

A ■'

||l

iii

293

TOPOUIlAniY OF UlTKll CANADA.

more noriliorly than on the upper coufho oftho rivor, in
in)t HO inild, and tl»o suninicrH aro Hhortcr ; yet, v.vvn in
tlioao roHj)et't8, it luw the mlvimtugo of Lowtir Caumlii,
It huH also thu bonofit of hciiig noar Montrual, wlicro
agricultural conimoditii'S can l)o readily turned into
money ; and the jjroduce of the dairy, with ve^etahlcH,
fruitH, and other articles, which elsewhere can be raised
only for homo use, iind a value in tliat market. Thero
is an cjisy conveyance to it hy the rivers, though the
roa<ls in the inland townships are very defective. Its
jjrogress, however*, has hei^n particularly retarded hy
large and improvident grants to American loyalists,
disbanded officers and soldiers, or favourites of the rul-
ing jjowers. Many of these have altogether neglected
their lots, and few have turned them to account with
that active and improving s])irit which hius aninuited
the recent (djisses of IJritish tnnigrants. Tiie military
settlers, it is 8jvi<l, generally showed themselves incapa-
ble of the persevering labour necessary to bring wild
hmd into a j)roductive state, and took the first oppor-
tunity of selling their allotments. Hence its j)rogre88,
though great and rapid, has not e<iualled that of the
western districts, towards which the tide of innnigrution
has been chiefly directed.

The Eastern District, that nearest to Montrwil,
extends along the St Lawrence about sixty miles, with a
breadth of tibout thirty. It contained, in 1835, 70,G45f
acres cultivated,and356,07l ^uncultivated, l'3,119horncd
cattle, and 6148 horses. The population, which in 1817
Mr Gourlay estimated at 12,700, had, in 182G, risen to
17,000, in 1832 to 23,743, and in 1835 to 29,119. For
tlurty miles up, the river is navigable ; but then com-
mence those formidable rapids, which render it necesstiry
that the produce of all the districts situated along their
course should be conveyed a certain distance by land.
The main road into Upper Canada, called Dundas Street,
passes through it, and though very imperfect, like all
others in this country, is -^f considerable use. The soil
appears to possess the variable degree of fertility general

If:

TOPOOnArilY OF U1M»ER CA^^ADA.

29:1

in thiH tract, being cliicfly dctcriomti'd hy oxtenHivo
HWJUnpH. LiincHtonc, liowcvcr, aboundH, uIho p^ood stone
for l>iiil(ling, and earth fitted lor umkinj^ ])rici<H. T!i«
Qinad<i Company luive ])iire]iaHed a con8iderublc extent
of crown landH in different townHhipH.

KaHteni District in divided into tiie counties of Glen-
gary, Stormont, and Dundas.

(ilenj^ary coinpriHCH tiie townships of Ijancastcr and
Cliarlottenburi,', frontinpf tlie river, particuhirly that
liroad |)art of it calI(Ml Lake St Francis ; those of Lochiel
and Kenyon an; in tlie rear. 1'ho soil is in general good,
exce|)ting some portion of Lochiel which is low and stony,
and of Lancaster which is light and sandy. Charlottcn-
burg, which in IHHM contained 4570 settlers, is watered
by the river Aux Raisins ; Lochiel, having 2152, by the
LiGrasse ; and Lancjistcr, having 2230, by the Delisle ;
all of them small streams, but useful for turning mills,
Kenyon has 1573 inha])itimts. This district, as its name
imports, has been chiefly settled by Scottish Highlanders,
who, displaying their characteristic qualities, have par-
tijilly redeemed the soil, and brought it into tolerable
cultivation. Yet skilful farmers remark, that they
have not drawn from it all the means of comfort which
it is fitted to afford ; and hence its settlements consist
only of diminutive log-houses, with a few acres cleared
round them, exhibiting altogether a slovenly and neglect-
ed aspect. There is no place which can make any pre-
tensions to the name of a town. The Canada Company
have lands to dispose of in Lancaster and Lochiel ; but
those of the best quality are already occupied.

Stormont, the next county, consists of Cornwall and
Osnabruck in front, Roxburgh and Finch in the rear.
In 18.33, Cornwall and Roxburgh contained 4586 set-
tlers, Osnabruck 2313, Finch 413. The first has a good
soil, though in some places stony ; and being watered
by the river iV.ux Raisins, it has numerous mills. The
second enjoys a similar advantage ; but the land, which,
towards the interior is a strong clay, is in front light and
thin. Roxburgh has a black loam and argillaceous soil ;

i^ :■,!

294

XOPOORAPIIY OP UPPER CANADA.

some part is 8tony,and a large portion swampy ; yetit is ill
watered, though small branches of the Raisins and Petite
Nation pass through it. Finch is described as a very fine
district, with the exception of a sandy tract in the rear ;
but falling into the hands of proprietors who did not know
its value, it has been much neglected. The Canada Com-
pany have here purchased a large lot, and also some of
the best land in Roxburgh. Cornwall, on the St Law-
rence, has some pretensions to the character of a town,
containing 1047 inhabitants, a church, courthouse, and
other buildings. The navigation upwards to Prescott
being greatly impeded, there is much land-travelling
between ^lie two places, which affords support to both.

Dundas includes the townships of Williamsburgh,
with 1686 settlers, and Matilda, with 1448, in front ;
Mountain with 707, and Winchester with 181, in the rear.
The soil of this last is very favourably spoken of, though
rather swampy. It is well watered by the Petite Na-
tion, which serves in summer for boat conveyance, and in
winter as a road. A small canal from it to the St Law-
rence would greatly benefit the country. Williams-
burgh has very good land, well settled by American loyal-
ists, but the tract behmd is little occupied. Matilda is
a productive district, and well managed. Mountain
is also represented as possessing an excellent soil, and,
notwithstanding the obstructions from improvident
grants, a thriving settlement has been formed on the
Petite Nation. The Company have purchased a con-
siderable lot in this as well as the neighbouring town-
ship of Winchester, and hope, by arrangements in their
block, to effect speedy improvement.*

Johnstown District extends from the boundary of
the one just described, westward along the St Lawrence.
It is not quite so long as the eastern, but it stretches
more deeply into the interior, so that it may be regarded

* Gourlay, vol. ii. p. 56(>. Bouchette, vol. i. pp. 109, 75, 76.
Picken, p. 118-124. Canadasas they now are, p. 51-55. Martin,
p. 220. Ferguson's Practical Notes (Edinburgh, 1833), pp. 85, 265.

til

TOPOGRAPHY OP UPPER CANADA.

295

109, 75, 76.

as forming a square of alwut fifty miles in every direc-
tion. It has been divided into a triple range of town-
ships, the third or most inland of which is considerably
distant from the St Lawrence ; but this is amply com-
pensated by the Rideau Canal, which traverses it from
east to west. The navigation of the great river along its
front is mostly unobstructed, which gives it a ready
communication with Kingston, though the more im-
portant intercourse with Montreal is rendered imperfect
by the rapids below ; but, to balance this loss, there is
now a free, though circuitous, navigation by the Rideau
and the Ottawa. The soil is as various as that of the
Eastern ; its fertility is chiefly interrupted by rocky tracts,
which extend along the banks of the river, and give a
very unfavourable impression to the navigator ; but in
the rear it generally improves. Johnstown, in 1835,
contained 82,813 acres of cultivated and 331,134 of un-
cultivated land, 16,338 horned cattle, and 3924 horses.
The population, estimated by Mr Gourlay, in 1817, at
9200, had risen, in 1826, to 16,354, and in 1835 to 28,504.
Its augmentation, especially during the latter period,
it thus appears, has been extremely rapid.

This district is divided into two counties, Grenville
and Leeds. The former contains eight townships ; Ed-
wardsburgh, with 1584 settlers, and Augusta, with 4091,
on the river; South Gower, containing 646, Oxford, 1292,
and Wolford, 1121, in the second range ; North Gower,
having 245, Marlborough, 445, and Montague, 755, in the
tliird. Edwardsburgh possesses a good soil, and is well
settled ; but the navigation of the St Lawrence in that
quarter is encumbered by rapids. It contains Johnstown,
the nominal capital of the district, and a large village,
almost a complete counterpart to Cornwall. Augusta, the
next western township, is also favourably described. It
includes Prescott, now called Fort Wellington, advan-
tageously situated at the termination of the rapids, so
that it forms the limit of the upper steam navigation.
Travellers or goods proceeding down the river must dis-
embark, and proceed either in boats or by land. Hence

!
I

n I

! il

296

TOPOGRAPHY OP UPPER CANADA.

1*1 '1 ■'■

M. Bouchctte, though it consisted, when ho visited tlio
district, of only forty or fifty houses, anticipated a rapid
increase ; but of this Mr Ferguson, some years after, saw
no appearance, the place being far outstripped by Og-
densburg, on the opposite side of the river.

The townships of South Gower, Oxford, and Wolford,
which form the second line in this county, are described
in nearly the same favourable terms ; the soil good, and
the situation tolerable, as they have the Rideau navi-
gation on the one side, and on the other passable roads to
Prescott and Johnstown. North Gower, Marlborough,
and Montague, are represented, the two first as good, the
third inferior, but not bad. All three have the advan-
tage of being traversed by the canal, which opens a dis-
tant intercourse with Montreal, and a near one with the
most flourishing settlements on the Ottawa.

Leeds, the next county, contains in front the townships
of Elizabeth Town, with 4360 settlers ; Yonge, 2894 ;
Lansdown and Leeds, the two, 1867 : in the second line,
Kitley, 1071 ; Bastard, 1825 ; and South Crosby, 564 : in
the third, Elmsley, 1070 ; Burgess, 304 ; and North
Crosby, 1 85 . The first is one of the best tracts in this quar-
ter. The land, towards the river, is broken and rocky ; and
some parts are sandy ; but the greater portion, especially
in the rear, is extremely good. In front is Brockvillc,
named from the gallant officer who fell in the battle of
Queenston. It seems the most thriving place between
Montreal and Kingston, and, as we are informed by Mr
Evans, contains 2000 inhabitants, a neat Presbyterian
church, and numerous houses two stories in height. The
main road to Albany and other parts of New York com-
mences on the opposite side of the river. Yonge, the
next township, is described as nearly similar, and possess-
ing the same advantages. Lansdown presents a different
aspect. The ground bordering on the river is stony
and ill cultivated ; but the rear, according to Mr Smart's
report, shows a very considerable improvement, and con-
tains some excellent farms. A large portion is covered
by the lakes of Gananoqui, which present varied and

• i fi m

TOPOGRAPHY OP ri'lT.R CANADA..

207

nsited the

;cd a rtipid

after, saw

sd by Og-

IWolford,
) described
i good, and
ieau navi-
ile roads to
riborougb,
,s good, the
:he ad van-
pens a dis-
e with the

townships
ige, 2894;
econd line,
)y, 664 : in
md North
ithisquar-
rocky ; and
, especially
Brockvillc,
battle of
ce between
ned by Mr
resbyterian
ight. The
York com-
iTonge, the
ind possess-
a different
T is stony
VIr Smart's
it, and con-
is covered
varied and

beautiful scenery. TiCeds is h{ ill foss favoured by nature,
being throughout rugged an<l rocky, though including
scattered patches of good land, and in the rear some fine
^farms. Limestone and ironstone abound in both theaa
townships, particularly in Leeds ; but the latter lias not
yet been turned to any advantage.

In the second lino of this county, Kitley is reported
by the commissioners as indifferent. Mr Smart gives a
much better account, admitting, at the same time, that
tlie soil is in soiie places shallow, and poorly watered.
Bastard is said to be excellent, and South Crosby, though
rocky, contains much good land. All the three enjoy more
or less the benefit of the Rideau Canal. In the third
line, Elmsley and Burgess are described as being indif-
ferent, but the former has the benefit of the navigation.
North Crosby has a good soil, but is destitute of water-
oonveyance.*

Ottawa District extends from the frontier of Lower
Canada, along the southern bank of that river ; for the
opposite one, as already noticed, belongs to the lower pro-
vince. The land-boundary is the Eastern District, with
which its dimensions, both as to length and breadth,
nearly coincide. The situation is extremely favourable,
whether along the river, which is here navigable for
steam- vessels, or along the Rideau Canal. The soil, how-
ever, is decidedly inferior, being either light and sandy or
covered with extensive swamps ; though this last descrip-
tion is said to suit the French habitans. The population
consists of a mixture from the United States, with
English, Scotch, and French Canadians, many of whom
have made considerable efforts to render their possessions
valuable ; but improvement is much obstructed by tlve
intervention of large tracts of land, granted long ago,
and still neglected. Mr Gourlay, in 1818, did not con-
ceive the population to exceed 1500 ; in 1826, it had
risen to 3009 ; in 1832, to 6348, and in 1835, to 7044.

• Bouchette, vol. i. pp. 109, 76. Gourlay, vol. ii. p. 509-518.
Picken, pp. 144, 145. Canadas as they now are, p. 56-59. Martin,
p. 222.

sacs

298

TOPOGRAPHY OF UPPER CANADA.

i'l i

a *,

• i^

At this last period, tke cultivated acres amounted to
16,354, and the uncultivated, to 110,288 ; it containetl
3525 honied cattle, and 748 horses. The Canada Com-
pany have purchased considerable lots, and are making
exertions to improve them. It is divided into two
counties, — Prescott and Russell.

Prescott has, on the front line, four townshipSj Haw^kes-
bury East, with 833 settlers in 1833, and West with 1440 ;
the latter is sometimes called Longueuil ; Alfred has 112,
and Plantagenet 613. In regard to the soil of the two
Ilawkesburys, reports which should be authentic differ
very widely ; that to the Quarter Sessions representing it
in both as rough, stony, and gravelly ; while MrM'Dowell,
deputy-surveyor to the Canada Company, describes both
as good, though the second is in some parts swampy.
They form, the last especially, the best-settled part of
the district, held by industrious and improving colonists.
Alfred is admitted on all hands to be poor, the roads
bad, and settlements thin ; but hopes are entertained
that natives of the lower province may turn the swampy
tracts to account. Plantagenet has some good land, and
its favourable situation, with the Petite Nation flowing
tlirough it into the Ottawa, has obtained for it many
more inhabitants. Caledonia, behind West Hawkesbury,
has also some rich spots, but is in other parts very
owampy, and yet has 311 settlers. Plantagenet-rear is
still worse situated, in both respects, though a road from
Cornwall passes through it.

Russell county contains, in front, Clarence, with 125
settlers ; Cumberland, 1161 ; and Gloucester, 653 ; in
rear, Osgoode, 198 ; Russell and Cambridge, 37. The
two first are tolerably good, though interspersed with
sandy and marshy tracts. The occupants, however, are
few, and nearly confined to the bank of the river. A
gi'eat part is monopolized by old proprietors, who either
neglect their lots, or have sold them to speculators, by
whom an enormous price is demanded. Gloucester not
only contains much good land, but is very happily
situated, having the Ottawa in front, and the Rideau

TOPOGRAPHY OP UPPER CANADA.

299

on its western frontier, besides several tributary creeks.
Farther improvement may still be expected, owing to
the completion of the canal connected with the latter
river, on which the principal settlements are already
situated. The Canada Company have some valuable
lots upon the river Rideau. Cambridge is light, sandy,
and swampy, with some good land, but as yet wholly
unoccupied, and destitute of roads or other communi-
cations. Russell possesses scarcely any natural supe-
riority ; but it has been located by a party of Scottish
immigrants. Osgoode is an extensive township, with a
large proportion of rich soil, and the important ad-
vantage of the Rideau navigation on its front. Although,
therefore, it has been much neglected, there seems
every probability of its rising speedily into greater im-
portance.*

Bathurst, till 1816, had no existence as a district,
being only an uncultivated appendage to Johnstown.
At that time a body of North British settlers formed a
range of townships in rear of the latter, to which they
gave the general name of Perth, and by their industry
and perseverance have rendered it very flourishing.
Behind it, another called Lanark was occupied by troops,
chiefly from Scottish regiments disbanded at the close
of the last war. Afterwards, when the great works of
the Rideau navigation were undertaken, the township
situated at their commencement on the Ottawa, attracted
a large population. The banks of the river, upwards
from this point, and those of the great lakes Chaudiere
and Chats, being particularly romantic and agreeable,
induced a number of highly respectable individuals, par-
ticularly the Highland chieftain M*Nab, to settle on them.
This district, which in 1815 was a complete wilderness,
in 1826 contained 11,364 inhabitants, which had risen in
1832 to 22,286, and in 1835 to 22,693. In this last year

• Bouchette, vol. i. p. 109. Gourlay, vol. iL p. 1512. Tables
for Colonies, 1832, p. 9. Picken, p. 123-144. Canadas as they
now are, p. 64.

lii

»h.i

1 ^'

;

■ i (

■Mr l9'''

* !'

fUm

' )

wMii

^! 1

I"'

lU-

300

TOPOGRAPHY OF UPPER CANADA.

there were 57,197 acres cultivated, and 853,362 uncul-
tivated, 12,469 horned cattle, and 1541 horses. It ia
divided into two counties, — Lanark and Carleton.

Lanark consists of the two ranges formed chiefly by
Caledonian settlers, in rear of Johnstown. The first line
comprises Beckwith, with 2217 settlers; Drummond,
2472; Bathurst, 2019; and South Sherhrooke, 98.
These townships are represented as possessing much
good land, carefully cultivated by industrious colonists.
Perth, in the county of Drummond, and connected with
the Rideau by a small river called the Tay, has become
a village of some importance, with a population of about
400 comfortable houses, a church, and other accommo-
dations. The range behind, but still not reaching the
Ottawa, consists of Darling, Ramsay, 1776 ; Lanark,
1846 ; Dalhousie, 1019, and North Sherbrooke, 262.
These are nowhere very minutely described ; but they
appear, in territory and culture, nearly to resemble the
first range. They have the advantage of being traversed
by the Mississippi, which connects them with the Grand
River.

The county of Carleton comprehends the settlements
situated on or near the Ottawa. The principal of these
is Nepean, with 2810 settlers, and includes the point
at which that great stream is connected with the
Rideau river and canal. The large body of men em-
ployed on that vast work, the market which they
afforded, and the numerous individuals who remained
after its completion, have caused it to be well settled and
inhabited. Bytown, at the junction of the canal, is
named from Colonel By, its able engineer. In 1831 it
contained nearly 160 houses, only of wood indeed, but
built regularly, and in many instances with much neat-
ness and taste. The scenery is singularly picturesque.
The view from the colonel's mansion includes the falls of
the Chaudiere, the opposite shores, partly wild and broken,
partly adorned by the flourishing settlements of Hull, ami
tlie river itself diversified by numerous verdant islands.
A large hospital and three barracks are built of stone.

lDA.

J53,362 uncul-
horses. It ia
/arleton.
Qed chiefly hy
The first line
; Drummond,
lerbrooke, 98.
ssessiiig much
'ious colonists.
!onnected with
J, has become
lation of about
her accommo-
i reaching the
776 ; Lanark,
srbrooke, 262.
)ed ; but they
• resemble the
leing traversed
dth the Grand

>:■■'

[le settlements
icipal of these
[des the point
ted with the
y of men em-
; which they
vho remained
ell settled and
the canal, is
. In 1831 it
d indeed, but
h much neat-
'- picturesque.
les the falls of
id and broken,
s of Hull, and
rdant islands,
uilt of stone.

^MiTiimM^ lEMsmaa^^

I'../ //. ..fi

r)|

lii. ^ ■ '

» ■■■ !i

i:i

\ .fiivlr

fl'HUIillRII IIY tll.lVKH kItllVII KIIINHUIIOII.

TOPOGRAPHY OF UPPER CANADA.

301

Irnon Ptthrrn

The resort, on account of the canal and the fine scenery
which adorns the Lakes Chaudiere and Chats, has in-
duced many respectable families to colonize this dis-
trict. Some distance above Bytown is Britannia, a
valuable property with extensive mills, finely situated
near the beautiful rapid Des Chenes. The causes now
mentioned have produced in the townships of March and
Tarbolton a continuous range of settlements along the
river, containing respectively 426 and 96. Fitzroy, 327,
Huntly, 1031, and Pakenham, 408, strike obliquely into
tlie interior, and present much good land. From the
boundary of Tarbolton, an impervious wilderness ex-
tends along the rapids of the Chats and part of the lake
of that name ; but on its upp§r shore M*Nab has located
himself with a body of his clan, amounting to 318, on a
township bearing his name. By indefatigable exertions,
he has rendered his residence of Kinnell Lodge exceed-
ingly comfortable ; and the traveller in those wild regions
meets here a cordial welcome. Unluckily his example
ha,s not operated with sufficient force on his followers,
whose habits do not thoroughly fit them for the patient
toil required to bring the wilderness under cultivation ;
however, improvement is going on, though slowly.*

The central portion, which we consider as consisting
of the Midland, Newcastle, and Home districts, has its
base upon the northern shores of Lake Ontario, whence
it extends towards the Ottawa ; but long before reach-
ing that boundary, which from the direction of the
stream becomes more and more distant, every trace of
settlement disappears amidst one vast and pathless forest,
l^his forms by far the most extensive part of Upper
Canada, and from its abundance of fertile land is
extremely valuable. Till of late, however, it was
the least occupied, being nowhere cultivated, but in the
vicinity of the government stations. The eastern was
nearer to Lower Canada, while the western possessed

* Bouchelte, vol. i. pp. 109, 80.fi3. Tables, 1832, p. 9. Canadas
as they now are, p. 64-67. Martin, p. 223.

l-'f*-.

302

TOPOGRAPHY OF UPPER CANADA.

great facilities for the fur-trade, with which view
chiefly this upper quarter was in early times resorted
to. But the tide of immigration which has lately
flowed into Canada has directed itself, in a great degree,
towards this central district. It was found more fruitful
and much less occupied than the eastern, while it has
a nearer market for its agricultural produce than the
western. Its increase, accordingly, within the last
fifteen years, has been astonishing. The population in
1817 is estimated by Mr Gourlay at 27,753, in 1824 it
had risen to 53,600, in 1832 to 115,504, and in 1835
to 124,473. At the latter date its settlements possessed
461,275 acres cultivated, 1,469,493 uncultivated, 17,938
horses, and 68,634 homed cattle. It is watered by the
Moira, Trent, and other rivers of some magnitude. This
last is connected with a chain of important lakes, at the
head of which is the large one named Simcoe. These
waters affbrd considerable accommodation to the cole -
nists ; though they flow from too short a distance to
affbrd an adequate conveyance if cultivation were to
stretch much farther northward.*

The Midland District, which till lately was the
only one generally peopled, extends from the centre
of the Lake of the Thousand Islands to the western ex-
tremity of tlie Bay of Quinte ; a length of about eighty
miles. Towards the interior it is laid out in fine ranges
of townships, which reach nearly fifty miles from the
lake ; but the unoccupied portion, stretching to the Ot-
tawa, is much more extensive. The settled part in 1835
contained 187,338 cultivated and 358,214 uncultivated
acres. The population, which in 1817 was i*eckoned at
15,053, had risen in 1824 to 27,695, in 1832 to 42,294,
and in 1835 to 46,685 ; and at the latter period they
could boast of 24,535 cattle, and 8550 horses. The land,
Avith certain exceptions, is good, and in some parts ex-
cellent, particularly along Lake Ontario and the Bay of

• Bouchette, vol. i. p.
Tables, 1832, p. 9.

108. Gourlay, vol. ii. pp. 464, 4(59, 497.

TOPOGRAPHY OF UPPER CANADA.

303

Quinte ; but having now been long under cultivation,
symptoms of exhaustion are observed, which the farmers
have not yet learned to remecly by manure. This dis-
trict is divided into four counties, — Frontenac, Lennox
and Haddington, Hastings, and Prince Edward.

Frontenac contains the townships of Pittsburgh and
Kingston, situated on the lake and river. The former
contains 987 settlers, some fine land, with a large pro-
portion that is indifferent ; the second, with 3013 in-
habitants, is generally good, though in some parts rocky.
The soil is mostly clay, covered originally with a thick
stratum of vegetable mould, ; tow a good deal exhausted
by long cropping. Lime is every where plentiful, and
the sugar maple flourishes luxuriantly. These districts,
having long derived great advantages from the vicinity
of the capital, which affords an advantageous market,
were well improved while the rest of the province was
lying waste. Two adjacent islands, called Howe and
Grand Isle or Wolfe, form each a township with 611 in-
habitants. Loughborough with 1112 settlers, and Port-
land with 484, are immediately in the rear of Kingston,
but both are wet and somewhat unhealthy. Bedford
.ind Hinchinbrook, forming the third range, are described
by the surveyors as " not very good." On the fourth line,
Kennebec is reported to be positively bad ; Oso and
Olden remain undescribed. On the fifth range, com-
prising Barrie, Palmerston, and Clarendon, report is
equally silent : their remote situation indeed appears to
have prevented their settlement, and the presumption
seems to be against them. Their distance from the lake,
and the want of a navigable river, must long operate
unfavourably.

Kingston, in this county, was the original capital of
Upper Canada, and, even after the transference of the
seat of government to Toronto, continued the most
flourishing, till the agricultural colonies formed in the
west gave to the latter the pre-eminence. It is, as we
have already noticed, advantageously built on the site
of Fort Frontenac, at the junction of the St Lawrence

304

TOPOGRAPHY OF UPPER CANADA.

with Lake Ontario ; a position which has raised it to
considerable importance as the main entrepot bet^^T«n
tlie lower and upper province. Barks of from 80 to
nearly 200 tons carry on an active intercourse with To-
ronto, Niagara, and other places on the lake ; and mag-
nificent steam-vessels convey passengers to and from those
places. To accommodate this trade, wharfs and a num-
])er of spacious warehouses have been provided ; the
harbour being easily accessible to vessels not requiring
more than three fathoms water. The streets are regu-
larly arranged at right angles, but not paved ; the
houses are chiefly built of stone, and are spacious and
convenient, though without much attention to elegance.
About half a mile distant is a low peninsula ending in
Point Frederic, which, with another parallel one ter-
minating in Point Henry, encloses Navy Bay, — the
depot for the maritime armament formed during the
late war. On its western side is a dock-yard with other
accommodations ; and in this inland station were built
some of the largest ships in the British navy. Point Fre-
deric is connected with the town by a wooden bridge 600
yards long, at once solidly constructed and very orna-
mental. The town in 1833 contained 4196 inhabitants.
The county of Lennox and Haddington, contiguous
on the west to the one now described, possesses a more
favourable soil. Its front townships, — Ernest Town,
having 3763 settlers, Adolphus Town, 666, Fredericka-
burgh, 2566, and Richmond, 1367, are all reported as ge-
nerally good, and deriving great advantages from their
situation along the exterior coast of the Bay of Quint«.
The last only has bad land in the rear ; \\'liich is com-
pensated by having the river Napanee flowing through
it. Camden, which, with its 1780 settlers, occupies the
whole of the second line, is also reported to be good, and
is well watered by the same stream. Sheffield, situated
behind it, is decidedly inferior, and Kalador, in the fourth
range, still more so. The fifth consists of Anglesea, re-
flecting which no report has yet been received. Amherst
Island, in Ontario, is one of the townships of this county.

TOPOGRAPHY OF UPPER CANADA.

305

aised it to
)t bet\veen
rom 80 to
e with To-
; and mag-
from those
tnd a num-
irided ; the
t requiring
;s are regu-
)aved ; the
pacious and
to elegance.
1 ending in
el one ter-
Bay,— the
during the
L with other
1 were built
I Point Fre-
a bridge 600
very oma-
inhabitants.
contiguous
sses a more
-nest Town,
Fredericks-
orted as ge-
from their
of Q,uint«.
lich is com-
ng through
(ccupies the
e good, and
sld, situated
the fourth
glesea, re-
, Amherst
,his county.

The county of Hastings extends also along the Bay
of Quinte, and thence into the interior. It has throe
front townships, — Tyendinaga or Mohawk, with 692 set-
tlers, Thurlow, with 1 511 , and Sidnoy, with 2237. The
first has a poor soil, but is watertd by the river Salmon.
The two others are favourably reported ; the second is
traversed by the river Moira, at the mouth of which is
the flourishing village of Belleville ; and the third has the
larger stream of the Trent on its western border. The
second range consists of Hungerford, Huntingdon,
and Rawdon. The two first have an indifferent soil,
and few advantages of situation. The third possesses a
considerable extent of good land in front, and is crossed
by a tolerable road leading to the iron works at Marmora,
and also by branches of the Trent. Behind these, we
find Elzevir, bad ; Madoc, generally good ; Marmora,
not very good : this last at one time had iron works of
some importance, but they are at present suspended.
Tudor, Grimsthorpe, and Lake in the extreme rear, have
not yet been reported.

The county of Prince Edward consists of the peninsula
enclosed between Lake Ontario and the long windings
of the Bay of Quinte. It contains the townships of
Ameliasburgh, with 1722 settlers, Hillier, with 1733,
Hallo well, with 3525, Sophiasburgh, with 2137, and
Marysburgh, with 1674. The report as to these is gene-
rally favourable ; the lands are nearly all occupied ; and
the settlers derive great benefit from the vicinity of
water-carriage. In the latest returns to government, this
county is described as a separate district, containing
68,900 cultivated acres, and 12,320 inhabitants.*

The Newcastle District commences where the Mid-
land ends, at the western extremity of the Bay of
Quinte, whence it extends about sixty miles along the
coast of Ontario, when, by an arbitrary line, it is sepa-
rated from the Home district. Its northern boundary,

• Gourlay, vci. ii. p. 496. Bouchette, vol. i. pp. 108, 76-78.
Tables, 1832, p. 9. Picken, p. 146-149. Caiiadas as they now
are, p. 67-72.

VOL, I. X

306

TOPOGRAPnY OF UPPER CANADA.

i\ ■

like that of the Midhind, is nominally formed by the
Ottawa, in which direction it extends not less than 200
miles; but the actual settlements cover only a small
portion of this wide space. Notwithstanding an ex-
tensive sandy tract on Rice Lake, it contains a greater
proportion of good land than any of the districts yet
described ; and the lake, itself twenty-five miles long and
four or five broad, forms a valuable water-communica-
tion. A portage, indeed, intervenes between Balsam
and Simcoe ; but this obstacle, as well as others, are
expected to be removed by canals, and by improving the
Trent, with which it is connected. Notwithstanding its
advantages, however, this district, as it neither contained
any principal town, nor lay in the line of the fur-trade,
was long almost wholly neglected. In 1817 it was esti-
mated to contain 5000 inhabitants, and even in 1824 it
had only 9292 ; but since that time it has been a favourite
resort for immigrants, so that in 1832 it numbered 25,660,
and in 1885, 80,245 settlers. It then possessed 94,419
cultivated acres, 484,526 uncultivated, 15,867 horned
cattle, and 3889 horses. It is divided into townships,
that reach into the interior about the same distance as
those of the Midland ; but as the Ottawa boundary is
still more distant, the unoccupied tract is very extensive.
The counties are two, — Northumberland and Durham.
The first of these has, in front on the lake, four town-
ships, — Murray, 1788 settlers, Cramaghe, 1906, Hamil-
ton, 2871, and Haldimand, 1857. These ai'e not the finest
in the district, though the first is described as gene-
rally good and well watered ; but owing to the streams
flowing through a level country, there is a want of mill
power. The three others, with some good, contain a
large proportion of bad land, which, in the second and
fourth, also predominates. In Hamilton they are about
equally divided; and its situation on the shores of
Ontario is very advantageous. The port of Coburg is
the principal one in the district. In 1812 it consisted
of one house ; in 1827 it was believed to contain 850
inhabitants, with an Episcopal church and Metliodist

TOPOGRAPHY OP UPPER CANADA.

icd by the
s than 200
ly a small
ng an ex-
3 a greater
istricts yet
its long and
omniunica-
sen Balsam
others, are
iproving the
istanding its
er contained
le fur-trade,
J it was esti-
n in 1824 it
n a favourite
)ered 26,660,
essed 94,419
1,367 horned
townships,
[6 distance as
boundary is
•y extensive,
id Durliam.
I, four town-
906, Hamil-
Lot the finest
.ed as gene-
the streams
ant of mill
, contain a
second and
ey are about
lc shores of
.f Coburg is
it consisted
contain 850
Metliodist

mcoting-housc ; and since that time it has very mucli
increased. It commands tlie road to tlic country on and
beyond Rice Lake ; for the productions of whici; it is
the chief market. The vicinity exhibits a nu iiber of
farms, whoso condition and management pleased even
the eye of Mr Shirreff.

In the second range, the townships of Seymour, Percy,
and Alnwick, contain as yet very few settlers. Tiie
greater number, 377, are in Percy, which has a good soil,
and is watered by the Trent. Alnwick, on the southern
bank of Rice Lake, is poor and sandy, which quality of
land, liowever, has been thought adapted to sheep-farm-
ing, a branch of industry little practised in Canada. Immi-
grants have been chiefly attracted to the north-western
side of the lake, formed into the townships of Monaghtm
and Otanabee. These, divided by the river bearing the
latter name, are described as generally good, though in-
terspersed with steril and swampy tracts. This quar-
ter was nearly unoccupied till 1825, when Mr Robinson
conducted thithei a large colony of Irish ; and it has
since been a favourite resort, particularly for half-pay
officers. In the north-eastern angle of Monaghan has been
founded the town of Peterborough, which now contains
about 1000 inhabitants. It is somewhat rudely built of
wood, covering a great extent of ground ; and, as we
have been infonned, the stumps of trees in many places
are left standing in the streets. It has waters, however,
admirably fitted for mills, and several accordingly have
been erected. The settlers collect the productions of the
country behind, and transmit them to Coburg by the Rice
Lake, on which steam- vessels now regularly ply. There
are churches, both Roman Catholic and Episcopal ; a
school, partly supported by government ; and a com-
modious hotel. In consequence of the number of mili-
tary settlers, the society is supposed to be particularly
polished and agreeable. Asphodel, eastward, in an oblique
line, from Otanabee, is a good township, with 265 in-
habitants, and watered both by Rice Lake and the Trent.
The fourth range, consisting of Emily Gore, Smith,

308

TOPOGRAl'IIY OP UPPER CANADA.

h' .• '

I'!

Douro, Dummcr, and Belmont, Ims, in consequence of
its water communication hy the ()tanal)ee with Petcr-
l)orough and Rice Lake, been better settled than is usual
with townships so much in the interior. Emily Gore, or
Ennismore, with 254 cultivators, has an excellent soil of
loam resting upon clay ; and in 1825 it received a nume-
rous l)ody of Irish from Kerry. Smith, having 75.3 colo-
nists, is happily situated between the Otanabee and a chain
of small lakes, which form it into a peninsula, and be-
tween which there is an Indian portage. It was settled
first by a i)arty of Cumberland miners, located there by
government about the year 1818, who were afterwards
joined by parties from the north of Ireland, and by a por-
tion of those who came from the south in 1825. Douro,
with 671 inhabitants, has a calcareous soil, well watered,
hut in part swampy. It is also occupied by the emigrants
of 1825, and by disbanded militia. The Canada Company
liave lands in this and the two preceding townships.
Dummer resembles the last in the nature of its soil,
though the rear is rocky, and no settlements have yet
l)een formed on it. This is also the case with Belmont,
which is of rather an indifferent quality. The fifth
range, consisting of Methuen, Burleigh, and Harvey,
labours under considerable disadvantages both as to bar-
renness and situation, and has not yet attracted the
notice of immigrants.

Durham county contains in front the townships, —
Clarke, with 919 settlers, Hope, with 2272, and Darling-
ton, with 1098. All three are described as of good soil,
and advantageously situated on Lake Ontario ; but the
hnprovement of the first and last is much obstructed,
owing to the great quantity of land held by absentees ;
whence, perhaps, arises that bad management of which
Mr Shirreff complains. The middle one exhibits a
more improved aspect, containing Port Hope, on the
Ontario, an agreeable and thriving place, with all the
usual appendages of a country town ; and it has, besides,
a stream with a fall, well fitted for mills. On the second
range, Cavan, with a soil generally fertile, derives great

TOPOGRAPH V OP UPPER CANADA.

309

advantages from its vicinity to Otanubec and Rico Lake.
It began to be settled in 1817, and there are now 2173
inluibitants, chiefly Protestants from tht north of Ireland.
There is an Episcopal cluirch, and six schools. The
farms are in good order, thongh the dwellings are only
log-houses. To the westward, on this line, are Manvers
imd Cartwright, of much inferior (juality, though the
latter is rather the best, but neither is yet occupied. On
the fourth line, Emily, adjoining to Emily Gore in Nor-
thumberland, and possessed of nearly the same advan-
tages, has attracted 1095 Irish, of whom those from the
north are in the front, those from the south in the rear.
A road has been opened to Peterborough, whither the
jjroduce is expected to be mostly conveyed. Of the
western townships on this range, Ops luis a very fine
soil, unless in the north-eastern angle, where it is en-
cumbered by swamps ; but the want of roads and mills
has prevented its attracting more than 646 colonists.
Mariposa is described as being generally good land ;
though, from its remote situation, it is occupied only by
208 persons. In the fifth line, Eldon has now 406*.
Verulam and Fenelon are as yet scarcely known, and
lie beyond the limits of settlement *

The Home District extr i^ from the boundary of
Newcastle, — westward to the river Credit, near the ter-
mination of Lake Ontario, — northward to Lake Nipis-
sing, which flows then* «' into the Georgian Bay ; but
tliat large branch of Liike Huron covers a great pro-
portion of this district, rendering it considerably smaller
than either of the two last described. In its extent of
settlement, however, it fully equals either ; for though
Lake Simcoe occupies a considerable surface, it affords
at the same time facilities of intercourse, by means
of which culture is carried to a great distance in-
land. A road, called Yonge Street, above thirty miles
long, connects Toronto, the capital, with this lake. It

* Gourlay, vol. ii. p. 469. Bouchette, vol. i. p. 108. Picken,
p. 150-166. Canadas asthey now are, p. 72-76. Shirreff, pp. 122, 123.

¥■■'1

fcJt I

'' }

M » f

i: i'

) !

310

TOPOGRAPHY OF UPPER CANADA.

was carefully improved by the North-west Fur Company,
and having of late been partly macadamized, is one of
the best in Canada. On the borders of Lake Ontario
the soil is poor and sandy, bearing only pines ; but along
the road now mentioned, and around Lake Simcoe, it is
exceedingly fertile, excellently fitted for wheat. Accord-
ingly it has attracted an ample share of the recent im-
migrations. In 1817 we find its population estimated at
7700 ; in 1824 it reached 16,609 ; and in 1835 it had
risen to no less than 47,543. In that year the cultivated
acres amounted to 179,518, and the uncultivated to
690,753. It contained 28,732 horned cattle, and 6049
horses.

This district is divided into three counties, — York, East
dnd West Ridings, and Simcoe. The first comprises
the territory along Ontario, and thence to the southern
shore of Lake Simcoe, the East Riding including by
far the larger portion, with the capital. Its townships
are, — Whitby, population, 8212 ; Pickering, 1807 ; Scar-
borough, 1897 ; York and Peninsula, 3544 ; Etobicoke,
1290 ; Markham, 4436 ; Vaughan, 2861 ; King, 1672 ;
Wliitchurch, 2732 ; Uxbridge and Reach, uncertain ; Guil-
limbury East, 1389, and North, 467 ; Scott, uncertain ;
Greorgina, 855 ; Brock, 1032. The West Riding con-
sists only of a nan'ow stripe on the western frontier,
composed of the townships, — Toronto, 4990 ; Toronto
Gore, 483 ; Chinguacousy, 2728 ; Caledon, 1233 ; and
Albion, 1050.

The county of Simcoe consists of the townships lying
north-west of the lake of that name, and extending
tlience to the Severn, and towards the Huron. These
are, — West Guillimbury, population, 1293 ; Tecumseth,
1389 ; Adjala, 787 ; Mono, 1208 ; Amaranth, Luther,
Proton, Melancthon, Mulmur,^Tossorontio, Essa, 167 ;
Innisfil, 406 ; Thorah, 431 ; Mara, Rama, Oro, 881 ;
Vespra, 236 ; Sunnidale, Merlin, Ospry, Artemisia,
Euphrasia, Alta, Java, Flos, 90 ; Medonte, 448 ; Orillia,
Matchedash, Tiny, and Tay, 401 ; Zero. From some
unexplained cause, the official reports, in which the

TOPOGRAPHY OF UPPER CANADA.

311

company,
is one of
e Ontario
but along
ncoe, it is
,. Accord-
•ecent im-
timated at
135 it had
cultivated
tivated to
, and 6049

fork, East
comprises
e southern
iluding by
townships
B07 ; Scar-
Etobicoke,
ing, 1672 ;
tain ; Guil-
iincertain ;
iding con-
II frontier,
; Toronto
1233 ; and

ships lying
extending
m. These
?ecumseth,
h, Luther,
Essa, 167 ;
Oro, 881 ;
Artemisia,
8 ; Orillia,
Trom some
which the

detailed notice of the townships in the preceding dis-
tricts were derived, are wanting with regard to the
one now under consideration. Mr Gourlay also com-
plains of not having received a single return from any
of its districts. We must therefore be content with
giving a general view of it from the best sources which
can be procured.

York, which has now assumed the Indian name of
Toronto, is the official capital of Upper Canada, the
residence of the governor, the seat of the courts of justice,
and the place where the Parliament assembles. No town
in the province has made so rapid a progress. In 1793 M.
Bouchette saw the spot covered with dense and track-
less forests, on the border of which stood one solitary
wigwam. In 1794 the town was founded, and in a few
years attained a considerable magnitude. It remained
long inferior to Kingston, and in 1831 was supposed to
contain only 4000 inhabitants. The great improvement,
however, of the western districts, and the extensive
sales of land made there, both by government and the
Canada Company, have now rendered it every way the
more important place ; and by the last accounts its
population had risen to 9500. The streets are spacious,
and regularly disposed at right angles. Wood, the
original material, is in course of being rapidly super-
seded by brick ; and even stone begins to come into use.
The public buildings are such as might be expected at a
seat of government, and well suited to their object, but
none is mentioned as particularly striking. The new
college consists of five neat brick buildings, of which the
central one, appropriated to instruction, is about eighty
feet square, surmounted by an ornamental dome. The
residence of a number of civil and military officers gives
to the society a considerable degree of polish and elegance.
The harbour is formed by a long narrow peninsula,
enclosing a circular basin about a mile and a half in
diameter, affording spacious and secure accommodation
for shipping ; but it has the disadvantage of being very
defenceless, as was fatally experienced m 1813,

f II

'\ I!

312

TOPOGRAPHY OP UPPER CANADA.

i!i!|

The soil, for a considerable space along the margin of
the lake, is arid and sandy, covered with pine-forests ;
and the township of Whitby, on the borders of New-
castle District, has very rich loam, with a deep vegetable
mould, and contains thriving farms. The population,
however, is chiefly collected along the road called Yonge
Street already described, on each side of which flourish-
ing settlements are formed to a considerable depth, and
covered with excellent crops. Newmarket, adjoining
Lake Simcoe, appears a considerable place, to which a
stage-coach runs regularly from Toronto ; and the sur-
rounding country, which is fertile, is laid out in well-cul-
tivated farms. About four miles distant is Hope, a
village of sixty or seventy houses, inhabited by a sect
professing peculiar tenets, called the Children of Peace,
who hold their property almost in common, and are
under the entire direction of an individual named David
Willson. Near Ne^vmarket is West Guillimbury, whence
a steam-vessel makes a weekly trip round the lake,
which implies a respectable degree of settlement. Se-
veral even of the inland townships to the north and west,
notwithstanding their remote situation, have made con-
siderable progress, as will appear by the amount of their
population already given.*

The Western Section of Upper Canada, though less
extensive than those just described, possesses such ad-
vantages of soil, climate, and situation, as renders it
fully equal to them in value and importance. It con-
sists of a long irregular peninsula, enclosed by successive
portions of the great lake and river chain of Canada.
This boundary, beginning with the western shore of Lake
Ontario, is continued by the Niagara channel. Lake Erie,
the Detroit, Lake and River St Clair, and the southern
and pait of the eastern shore of Lake Huron. It ter-
minates a little beyond Goderich, whence stretching
across to Lake Ontario, it is met by the Home District

• Gonrlay, vol. ii. p. 464, Bouchette, vol. i. pp. 108, 86-90,
Picken^ 168. Canadas as they now are, p. 79. ShirrefF, p, 106-117.

'vm^m^jsif •mss'j'mma.

iMiui.ieiiiKK nv uijMtnvHiivii I'.iiiNnrioiii

11m

1 i

f ' '

., t

I f ,i

S'l >

I J 'i

TOPOGRAPHY OP UtPER CANADA.

313

and the Indian territory. Its surface is singularly level,
scarcely containing any eminence that deserves to be
called a hxii, except in the ridge already described as
running in a circuitous line from the neighbourhood of
Toronto to Niagara. Even its heights seldom exceed 100,
and never 350 feet. Besides that no part is very distant
from the grand line of water-communication, several fine
rivers traverse the interior. The most considerable is the
Thames, which, rising in the London District, and running
westward about 150 miles through a fine country, falls
into Lake St Clair. It is navigable for large vessels to
Chatham, fifteen miles up, and for boats nearly to its
source. Parallel to it on the north, though with a
shorter course of not more than 100 miles, is Big Bear
Creek, which throws itself into one of the branches of
the river St Clair. Next to the Thames in magnitude
is the Ouse, rising in the Home District, and flowing in
an opposite direction south-east, till by a very serpentine
course it reaches Lake Erie. It is navigable for schooners
about twenty-five miles above its mouth, and consider-
ably higher for boats. The Welland or Chippeway, near-
ly rarallel to it, runs into the Niagara after a course of
only fifty miles ; but this river has become important on
account of the canal cut from it to Ontario on one side
and Erie on the other, wiiich has obviated those obstruc-
tions by vhich the navigation of the Niagara chaunel
is render 3d impracticable.

The joil of this extensive tract is almost entirel/
ulluvial, consisting of a black or yellow loam, some-
times mixed with sand, and covered with a thick straturi
of vegetable mould. The forests are dense, but n< »t as m
other quarters entirely uninterrupted ; opening rather, in
some places, iuto wide prciries or expanses of natural
meadow. The country has bj? sanguine writers been
described as every where luxuriantly fertile ; anu though
niiiiiite surveys have discovered light and sandy tracts
of considerable extent, there is perhaps scarcely a spot
on the globe which it may not rival. The climate of a
country situated between the 42d and 45th parallels.

314

TOPOGRAPHY OF UPPER CANADA.

ought to be that of the south of France ; but in con-
sequence of a peculiarity in the American continent,
this does not procure an exemption from several montjis
of frost and snow. Still its winter is considerably shorter,
and its summer longer than in any other part of Upper
Canada.

Such advantages drew the attention of European set-
tlers to this quarter earlier than from its distance might
have been expected, and portions of it were brought
into cultivation, when the rest of Upper Canada was a
wilderness. The French, when forming stations for the
fur-trade at its western extremity, were tempted by the
fertile banks of the Detroit, between Lakes Erie and St
Clair, and established a number of seigniories similar to
those on the St Lawrence in Lower Canada. At the
end of the great American contest, a number of disbanded
troops or banished loyalists, who, in the course of mili-
tary operations, had become acquainted with the Niagara
district, or to whose former residence and habits it was
congenial, accepted grants in it. In 1802, Colonel Tal-
bot having formed the plan of a settlement on the most
central part of the northern coast of Lake Erie, obtained
from government a grant of 100,000 acres, on condition of
•locating a settler upon every 200 ; which condition he has
successfully fulfilled. From these causes the population
in 1817 had attained to the estimated number of 84,227,
which in 1824 had risen to 65,200, in 1832, to 101,605,
and m 1835, to 124,628. The number of cultivated
acres at this latter period was 620,022, of uncultivated,
1,760,820 ; there were of homed cattle 77,930, and of
horses, 18,430.*

This part of Canada is divided into four districts :
Gore, London, Niagara, and Western.

Gore District rests on the western shore of Lake
Ontario, whence it extends towards Lake Huron and
Lake Erie, but without reaching either. It is separated

• Bouchette, vol. i. pp. lOH, 92-96. Gourlay, vol. ii. p. 299,
357, 406, 455. Picken, p. 177.

TOPOGRAPHY OF UPPER CANADA.

315

r districts :

by a very irregular boundary from the Home District
and the Indian teiTitory on the north, the London on
the west, and Lake Ontario and the Niagara District on
the east. The reports as to its soil are not very distinct
or harmonious ; but it certainly appears to contain a
large quantity of good land mixed with sandy tracts, and
occasional swamps. Limestone rocks abound ; but of
every other description of stone there is a great want.
The Canada Company, notwithstanding, having made
this the chief seat of their operations, and founded
in it their principal town of Guelph, have raised it into
importance. In 1817 it was estimated to have 8614
inhabitants, which number rose in 1824 to 13,167, in
1832, to 31,820, and in 1835, to 40,156. It possessed then
226,42C cultivated acres, and 611,712 uncultivated ;
24,606 horned cattle, and 5287 horses. It is divided into
two counties, — Halton and Wentworth,-— of which the
former, by much the largest, occupies all the northern
and most western portion ; the latter is only a narrow
stripe on the border of Niagara District.

The front townships of this district extending along
the lake are Trafalgar, population 2730 ; Nelson, 1809 ;
and Flamborough, 1398. The soil is genei-ally clay,
v;ith a mixture of sand, and, on the whole, without be-
ing luxuriant appears to be generally good Numerous
and rapid streams, many of which are well fitted for
mills, cross it and fall into the lake. Dundas Street
runs through it ; but though the main road of the pro-
vince, it is very rude, and the provision for passing the
numerous currents extremely imperfect. Yet the terri-
tory is fast filling up, and the farms are well cultivated ;
while the dwellings of the inhabitants display much
attention to neatness and comfort. Flamborough con-
tains an extensive swamp called Coote's Paradise, from
the delight which a keen sportsman of that name found
in shooting the numerous wildfowl by which it is fre-
quented. The town of Dundas lies at the western ex-
tremity of Burlington Bay and of Lake Ontario. The
situation miLst be very advantageous ; and the harbour,

316

TOPOGRAPHY OF UPPER CANADA.

which is yet only in its infancy, may, it is said, he made
fit to receive vessels drawing twenty feet of water. The
township of Beverley, though in a line with Flamborough,
is inland, yet contains 1050 settlers.

The second range of townships bear the uncouth In-
dian names of Esquesing, with a population of 1700 ;
Nasagiweya, 484 ; and Paslinch, the inhabitants of which
are not reported. The soil presents a large proportion
of black sand, though mixed with some clay.

The third line has in its eastern quarter Eramosa, po-
pulation 421, and Erin, 611. Both are covered to a
great extent with the prevailing surface of black sand.
In population and importance they are much inferior to
those now to be noticed.

Guelph, south-west ^f Erin, and separated from Lake
Ontario by Paslinch and Flamborough, has been chosen
by the Canada Company for the site of their chief
town in the centre of a block of 40,000 acres. Respect-
ing the quality of this land, in which so many interests
are involved, and on which we should have wished to
give our readera the most precise information, we are
strangely embarrassed by conflicting statements. A43-
cording to Mr Picken, the Company consider it as ex-
cellent ; and Bouchette, speaking of it in general terms,
says that " it enjoys most of the advantages of the
Huron tract in respect of climate and fertility." Ac-
cording to Mr Ferguson also, " its situation and soil are
healthy and good." Mr ShirreflF, on the contrary, says,
** from Gait to Guelph, and in the neighbourhood of the
latter, the soil is light, composed of sand or gravel, hear"
ing inferiw crops, and, judging from the way- sides, cal-
culated to \ duce excellent pasturage." A gentleman
from Aberdeen, writing in October 1834, says, that " the
land here is both very poor and very dear." Between
s'jch opposite statements, all from quarters respectable
though perhaps a little biassed, there seems no choice
but to strike somewhat of a medium. Mr Shirreff ad-
B^its that it is well watered, and that clearing was going
Cu. to a considerable extent.

TOPOGRAPHY OF UPPER CANADA.

317

on, we are

' The town of Guelph was founded in 1827 on the
Speed, a branch of the Grand River. Great exertions
were made to raise it to importance ; and according to
M. Bouchette, in 1831, it contained 100 houses, and 700
or 800 inhabitants. He anticipates a rapid augmenta-
tion, and exhibits a regular plan, according to which its
fuiure extension is to proceed. Mr Ferguson, how-
ever, who visited it soon after, was struck with its
inactive and even desolate appearance ; and thinks it
doubtful whether it will be able to keep its ground,
and escape desertion. The cart appeaii-ed to him placed
before the horse, in making a town precede instead of
follow the rise of a cultivated neighbourhood. We do
not, indeed, see how it could be expected, that a large
town should rise in the heart of the bush without the
command of any navigation, while on Burlington Bay
there are as yet only villages. Mr Shirreff, two years
after, describes it as having about fifty houses, only one of
which was of stone. The township in 1833 contained
1068 individuals ; three places of worship were however
erecting for Christians of different denominations. There
is a good inn, and a large grist-mill.

South-west of Guelph is Waterloo, a township settled
about twenty years ago by a Dutch party, who have
greatly improved it. The soil is a good sandy loam ; and
the farms, being completely cleared of stumps, in high
order, and bearing excellent cro^ j, reminded Mr Fergu-
son of well-cultivated spots in Britain. They are from
200 to 300 acres in extent, and provided with excellent
offices. The settlers, 2320 in number, derived great
advantage from the employment afforded to them by
the Canada Company during the erection of Guelph.

Dumfries, adjoining to Waterloo, though belonging
more strictly to the second line, has the advantage of a
rich loamy soil, and consists of 96,000 acres. This town-
ship was, in 1815-16, purchased entire by Mr Dickson,
who has formed a village, to which he has given the
name of Gait, and has erected in it extensive mills. He
grants liberal credit, and by making, in some cases.

3in

TOPOGRAPnY OP UPPER CANADA.

, '

i".

advances to settlers, 1ms attracted a population of about
2930. A water communication has been opened through
tlic Gmnd River to tl\c Wei land Canal, and a great
saving is thus eftected in the expense of conveying
grain. A few miles from Gait, on the way to Ontario, is
Pai'is, so named from the adjoining quarries of gypsum.
Tliis village, lately founded by an enterprising individual,
possesses advantages which promise to raise it to some
importance. Still farther,in the same direction, is Bmndt-
ford, so called in honour of Brandt, the celebrated Mo-
hawk chief. It contains about GOO souls, and is expected
to increase, as it lies on the main road to the London and
Western Districts ; and to facilitate the communication,
a bridge is now erected over the river. The country
, round is fertile, and a considerable number of farms have
been purchased or rented from the Indians by European
settlers. Adjoining to Waterloo, in the south-west, is
Wilmot, where the Canada Company have a largo block
of land, which they have connected by roads with
Guelph and Goderich. It is very fertile, and partly
"watered by a stream well adapted for mills. The popu-
lation is 645.

A fourth line of townships consists of Garafraxa,Nichol,
and Woolwich, which last contains 439 inhabitants. The
first has not yet drawn much attention ; but Nichol,
comprising 29,000 acres, appears to be one of the finest
tracts in Canada. The soil consists of a deep, black,
sandy loam, of excellent quality, is generally level, and
well watered by numerous streams, including the Grand
River, which rises a little beyond its border. At one
place it fonns picturesque falls, named EUora, well fitted
for mill-machinery, and below which it is navigable for
boats. This township has been chosen by Mr Ferguson
as the seat of his settlement, where he has purchased an
extensive property, a large part of which he cultivates
himself, and has disposed of the rest in lots to other emi-
grants. A considerable number of Scotch farmers, espe-
cially from Aberdeenshire, have been attracted to this
township. Small villages have sprung up at Fergus

TOPOGRAPHY OP UPPER CANADA.

319

)U of about
icd through
lud a ^eat
conveying
) Ontario, is
of gypsum.
r individual,
3 it to sonic
n, is Brandt-
^bratcd Mo-
is expected
London and
munication,
L'he country
[' farms have
)y European
uth-west, is
I largo block
roads with
and partly
The popu-

axa,Nichol,
)itant8. The
but Nichol,

■ the finest
eep, black,
y level, and
g the Grand
er. At one
, well fitted
avigable for

r Ferguson
urchased an
le cultivates
3 other emi-
rmers, espe-

cted to this
at Fergus

and at the Falls of Ellora. Nichol, in 10.30, had only
134 settlers ; but the number must now bo greatly in-
creased,

Wentworth county comprises only five townships,
none of them very extensive ; but being either on or near
Burlington Bay, they possess great advantages in point
of situation. Barton, having a i)opulation of 1776, and
Saltflcet, 1709, are immediately on the bay ; Binbrook,
335, and Glanford, 053, are behind them ; Ancaster,
with 2207 inhabitants, stands to tlio west. The soil of
the two first is composed of a mixture of sand and
clay ; the former lies chiefly along the shore, the latter
on the heights, — a bold range of which forms the back-
ground of Barton, and commands a magnificent view
of Lake Ontario. This territory is represented as pecu-
liarly fitted for pasturage, though capable also, under
proper management, of yielding full com crops. The
high road from Toronto to Queenston passes through
both these townships, and is tolerably good. Hamilton,
the county town of Barton, is regularly built, with a
very handsome court-house. As to the lands in the rear
of Binbrook and Glanford, few particulars are known ;
but Mr Shirreff^, who passed through them on his way
to the Grand River, describes the soil all along as clay,
of good quality, and well settled. Ancaster, to the
west, is said to be a very fertile township, with conside-
rable tracts of cleared land, and having the road to
Brandtford and Gait passing through it. In its centre
is a straggling village of the same name, delightfully
situated.*

Niagara District, eastward of Gore, foi ms a penin-
sula enclosed by the bending course of the great water
communication. A part of the southern shore of Lake
Ontario, the river channel bearing its name, and the
northern border of Lake Erie, form its boundaries, except

• Bouchette, vol. i. pp. 108, 1 la, 119. Gourlay, vol. ii. pp. 4flfi,
382-389. Tables, 1832, p. 9-11. Plcken, p. 179-181. Cana-
das as they now are, p. 84-88. Ferguson, pp. 128-128, 279-282.
ShirreflF, p. 169-171. Counsel for Emigrants, p. 89-92.

320

TOPOGRAPHY OP UPPER CANADA.

- B

.1 f

on tho western Hide, where an nrbitrnry lino separates
it from Gore. The Grand River, in part of its eourse,
and the Welland, nearly its whole length, run through
this distriet ; and tluHO important facilities for navigation
have heen greatly improved hy the canal connecting
Lakes Erie and Ontario. The soil consists mostly of
alluvial clay, mixed often with loam, and sometimes
with sand, and is in general very well fitted either for
grain or pasturage. From the mildness of its climate,
fruits ome to higher perfection than in any other part
of Canada ; its apples and peaches are celebrated ; and
grapes are successfully cultivated. A considerable por-
tion, however, is rendered unproductive by swamps, the
draining of which does not yet enter into the scheme of
Canadian husbandry ; while, amid the great supera-
bundance of water, that article, in a state fitted either
for drinking or for mill-power, is in many places defi-
cient. Notwithstanding these drawbacks, its happy situ-
ation led to its early settlement, chiefly by American
loyalists ; and even in 1817 it was estimated to contain
12,548 inhabitants. Since that period it has more than
doubled its population, which had risen in 1824 to
17,652 ; in 1802 to 24,772 ; and in 1835 to 28,755.
At the latter period, there were 209,763 cultivated
acres, 249,212 uncifltivated, 18,499 horned cattle, and
6721 horses. The district is divided into two counties,
— Lincoln and Haldimand ; and the former, which is
much the more important, into four ridings ; but the
townships will be more advantageously considered ac-
cording to their natural division into three lines ; the
first bordering on Lake Ontario, the second on Lake Erie,
and the third being the intermediate or inland one.

The Ontario townships are, Grinisby, population 1014 ;
Clinton, 1672 ; Louth, 1157 ; Grantham, 2454 ; and
Niagara, 3123. This tract possesses all the advantages of
the territory, with few of its drawbacks. The soil is
generally clay or loam, is well cultivated, has fine farms
and rich orchards, is generally free from swamps, and
abounds in beautiful scenery. Grunsby is a little town,

TOPOGRAPHY OF UPPER CANADA.

321

agreeably situated on tlie lake, with on oniineiice beliind
it, whence a fine inill-8tream iusuos.

The prmcipal places of this township, however, belong
to Niagara. The town of that name, called also Fort-
George and Newark, is advantageously situated at the
jwint where the great river-channel opens into Lake
Ontario. By this means it has an extensive communica-
tion with Toronto and Kinj,'8ton, and lies on the chief
Ime by which travellers penetrate into the wester. i dis-
tricts. Being opposite to the territory of the United
States, it is exposed in time of war to hostile atttick ; and
in 1813, as we have seen, it was barbarously reduced to
ushes. It was, however, speedily rebuilt, and now con-
tains upwards of 1600 inhabitants. The harbour is :^ood,
and presents a gay scene from the constant arrival and
departure of sloops, barges, and steam-vessels. Two
weekly newspapers are published in it. Q,ueenston, abo ut
seven miles southward, on the border of the township,
is agreeably situated at the foot of a bold lino of hills
bearing its name, and memorable for the battle in which
General Brock fell. Being the county town, it luis a
court-house and government-stores, with between 400
and 500 inhabitants. Surrounded by a fertile and liigiily-
cultivated country, it has, in its immediate vicinity,
the falls of Niagara. St David's is a small village, lour
miles to the westward, on ono of the roads from Toronto
to Lake Erie.

The middle and inland range consists of Stamford,
population 1493 ; Thorold, 2052 ; Pelham, HOG ; Gains-
borough, 292, and Claistor, 329. All these have t]<e ad-
vanta.ge of being traversed by the Welland, or Chip ;.' . ,vay,
but in other respects they ditFer greatly. Stamford, tlie
most easterly, has a soQ of sand, loarx, or clay, the greater
poi't of which is well fitted for grain, pasture, and orchard,
and is in a high state of cultivation. It lies on tlve
Niagara, the great falls of which, already described, at-
tract during the season crowds of visiters. At the
mouth of the Cliippeway is a village bearing the sjwae
name, with about 200 inhabitants. Thorold, towards the

VOL. I. u

.122

TOPOGRAIMIY OP UPPER CANADA.

* h

■i E

west, has a soil of stroiiu: clay, generally productive and
well cultivated ; with tlie advantage of being traversed
l>y the Welland river and canal. St Catherine's is ti
rising place, situated on the highest ground hetween the
lakes, and on the main road from Grimsby to Queenston.
Pelham, the next, is likewise a good to^Mishij), though
a (;onsiderable portion is either l)roken and hilly, or light
and sandy ; it is, how ; \^er, well watered and suj)plied
with' mills. The two most westera, Gainsborough and
Claistor, are extremely wet, and in some places marshy ;
and being also ill supplied with the means of convey-
ance, the settlement upon them has been very limited.
Two small townships, southward of this line, but not
reaching Lake Erie, are Wil lough by, population 601), and
Crowland, 041. The former, though well situated on
the Niagara, has a cold soil of hard clay, and wants good
water. The second, on the Welland, has the same dis-
advantages, though not in an equal degi'ec ; Lyou's
Creek affords a good situation for a mill.

The line of townsliips on Lake Eric consists of Bertie,
]iopulation 2169 ;Huml)erstone, 1654 ; andWainfleet,042.
The first, with a soil of clay and black loam, being con-
tiguous to the Niagara and Lake Erie, and having good
roads, is well settled. At the junction of the lake and
river stands Fort Erie, on the opposite side of which arc
Black Rock and Buffalo, the latter of which has become
very flourishing, from being placed at the tennination of
the Great New York Canal, llumbcrstone is in part
similar, but has a large portion wet, swampy, and even
covered by two extensive marshes, called Crtmberry and
Tamarack. The siune description applies also to Wain-
fleet, which however has the advantage of being crossed
by the Welland Canal, The county of Haldimand
extends a great way north-west, along the lower course
of the Ouijs or Grand River. It is included in the great
Indian reserve ; 1)ut this has not prevented part of it
from being leased or purchased by Europeans. Tlie
larger portion is marshy, and neai'ly uninhabitable. It
fonns two townships, — Moulton, of wliicli tlie popula-

TOPOGRAPHY or UPPER CANADA.

32.3

tion is 62B ; and Cainl)oroiigh, the inhabittiiitB of which
have not been reported.*

London District is very extensive, resting on the shore
of Lake Erie, and stretching tlience northwards to the
Indian territory. On the east it has (iore and Niagani,
on the opposite side Lake Huron and Western District.
Besides the portion divided at an early period into
counties and districts, there has hitely been added the
large block of 1,100,000 jujres on Lake Huron, pur-
cliascMl by the Canada Company. This last tract is of
(exuberant and almost une<iualled fertility, labouring
under no disadvantage, except the great distance either
by land or water, by which its productions must be con-
veyed to market. The old portion is decidedly inferior,
and a large tract in the south-east, called the Long Point
Country, presents a simdy surface, resembling in some
places the desert of Ara])ia. It does not , however, deter
settlers, who, from its being very thinly timbered, iind
no trouble in the clearing, and succeed in raising one or
two crops of tolerably good wheat, though, as it is then
quite exhausted, they must change their position.
The other parts are much better, being interspei'sed at
1( ast with fertile tracts ; and since the formation of tlu;
Welland, Ilideau, and Erie Canals, the evils of its remot(;
situation are in a great measure obviated. From its inland
districts, roads now lead to Lake Erie, and some of them
even approjich to Lake Ontario. The settlement of this
district was commenced in 1802, along the Erie shore, by
Colonel Talbot, who made extraordinary exertions to
form roads and invite emigrants ; yet in 1817 its po})u-
lation was only estimated at 8900. But its progress in
this respect has since been rapid. In 1824 it had nearly
doubled, amounting to 17,530, which in 1832 had jui-
vanced to 38,225, and in 1836 to 41,241. There were then
144,270 cultivated acres, and 718,G0G uncultivated ;
26,400 horned cattle, and 4963 horses. The province is

* Bouchette, vol. i. p. 98-110. Gourlay, vol. ii. p. ilJ-iH^.
Picken, p. lti4-liJ7. Canadas as they now are, pp. ii'd-\iii, J)U.

324

TOPOGRAPHY OF UPPER CANADA.

I' I

divided into three counties, — Norfolk, Oxford, and Mid-
dlesex, the two first of which compose the eastern por-
tion, and the third the western.

Norfolk contains, on the borders of the lake, the
townships of Rainham, Walpole,Woodhouse, Charlotte-
ville, Walsingham, and Houghton, with the peninsular
tracts of Turkey Point and Long Point. In the rear it
has Middleton, Windham, and Townsend ; and, in gene-
ral, presents the sandy and barren aspect already describ-
ed. This, however, is less conspicuous in the immediate
vicinity of the lake, where there is a good deal of argil-
laceous soil advantageously situated ; but in the interior
portions of the district, the defect becomes more appa-
rent. Dover, in the township of Woodhouse, and Char-
lotteville, near Turkey Point, with Vittoria, five miles
north of it, on the road to Ancaster, are the only places
in this county that can rank even as villages.

Oxford, northward of the county now described, con-
sists of the townships of Burford, Oakland, Norwich,
Dereham, Oxford, Blandford, Blenheim, Nissouri, and
Zorra. It is entirely inland, but watered by the upper
paii; of the Thames, here indeed scarcely navigable;
it is traversed from east to west by Dundas Street,
tlic main road from Toronto, which opens a communi-
cation with Lake Ontario. The soil is describe "1 gene-
rally, in very favourable terms, as consisting oi Tortile
loam, intermixed with sand or clay. It has accordingly
attracted a considerable proportion of settlers, several
of whom, from Scotland, have made purchases in
Blenheim and Zorra, of wliich good accounts are trans-
mitted. Oxford, the county town, is situated on the
Tliames, near the western border.

Middlesex, the remaining county, divides itself na-
turally into two parts, the townsliips on Lake Erie, and
those on the Thames. The former are Bayham, Mala-
liide, Yarmouth, Southwold, Dunwich, and AldborougK
Tills is the settlement formed by Colonel Talbot, who,
in addition to its natural advantage of bordering on the
lake, has, as already mentioned, formed a road^ and

TOPOGRAPHY OF UPPER CANADA.

325

8 more appa-

established a numerous body of colonists. The soil is
loam and clay, and generally excellent ; an opinion
from which Mr ShirrefF somewhat dissents, in regard
at least to the small portion that came under his view.
The occupiers are described as not rich, and labouring
under great difficulties, owing to their distance from
market; but these will be much diminished by the
opening of the new canals. The colonel's residence is in
iSunwich, on an eminence above the lake, surrounded
by a garden and a considerable extent of cleared ground.
The best harbour is Port Stanley, at the mouth of Kettle
Creek, in Yarmouth district ; and a little way inland, is
St Thomas, which in three years has increased from '
thirteen to fifty houses, and contains three good inns.

The Ulterior part of this county, on the river Thames,
oQOsists of the townships of London, Dorchester, Dela-
ware, Westminster, Lobo, Caradoc, Ekfrid, and Mosa.
The surface is gently undulating, and the soil in general
fh^vourably reported ; though Mr ShirrefF considers it
decidedly inferior to the Huron tract, and also to that
on the Lower Thames in Western District. That river,
in passing through it, is navigable only for boats,
and the productions conveyed to its mouth must after-
wards be transported through the Lakes St Clair and
Erie, which forms a very circuitous outlet. A consider-
able number of settlers have, however, been attracted
thither, consisting partly of slaves and people of colour
from the United States, to whom of late many emigrants
have been added. The township of London, which in 181 7
ojintained only two families, includes now the county
town, which has even been contemplated £3 the future
capital of this part of Canada. In fact, it is rapidly
risij. into importance, having a handsome court-house,
four lar^e hotels, well-filled stores, and many houses in
progress. Delaware, farther down the river, is only a
village of seven or eight houses.

The Huron tract consists of an extensive territory on
the eastern shores of the lake of that name, and imme-
diately northward of the original part of London Dis-

320

TOPOGRAPHY OP UPPER CANADA*

■> '

111

i! i

trict. Tlic suifacc is level, and the soil is admitted
on all hands to he of almost unrivalled fertility, heing
fine clay under a covering of hlack vegetahle mould.
The tract has hcen surveyed and divided into the town-
ships of Colhorne, Hullett, M*Killop, Logan, Ellice,
North and South Easthope, Downie, Fullarton, Hib-
l>ert, Tucker- Smith, Biddulph, Stephen, Ushorne, Blan-
chard, Bosjmquct, Williams, M'Gillivray, Stanley^ Hay,
and Goderich. The last of these places, and the route
thither, fonn the only quarter in which any material
settlement has yet been effected.

The town of Goderich is situated on an eminence
above the lake, at the point where it receives a con-
siderable river named the Maitland. The Company have
planned it on a very extensive scale, as the future capi-
tal of the district, and a place of rising importance. Mr
Shirreff, however, the latest visitant, represents it as
still composed only of about forty mean wooden houses,
scattered irregularly over a considerable space. The
harbour, whi(^h had been represented as fitted for vessels
of 200 tons, would admit none, he conceived, except
those of the smallest dimensions ; and the river, where
it enters the lake, could not, in the end of August, float
a canoe. The original settlers, who were very poor, and
of indifferent character, had all been removed except one,
and tlioir place supplied by a better class of occupants.*

Western District, which concludes our description
of Upper Canada, forms a peninsula, a countei*part as it
were of that of Niagara, though on a larger scale. It is
siniDai'ly enclosed between Lake Erie, the Lake and
River St Clair, and the southern coast of Lake Huron.
Besides these extensive waters, it is traversed by the
lower course of the Thames, navigable for schooners
fifteen miles up, and by a smaller stream called
Big Bear Creek. The surface is level, and even low,
and the soil, to a great extent, of most luxuriant fer-

• Gourlay, vol. ii. p. 357. Bouchette, vol. i. pp. 108, 117. Pickon,
II. 192-lJ?t). Canadas as tlie\' now are, p. 94-99. Shirreflj pp. 172,
181, 189.

TOPOQRi^PUY OF UPPER CANADA.

327

tility. This is particularly conspicuous on the upper
part of the two streams just mentioned ; for as they
approach their estuary in Lake St Clair, their banks
become what the Americans call prairie, or moist mea-
dow-land, destitute of trees, and covered with long rich
grass, but sc^arcely fitted for grain. Cultivation might
here be greatly extended by draining, but it seems
doubtful whether the return would yet pay the ex-
pense. The fine soil and climate early attracted a party
of French habitans, who settled on the banks of the
Detroit ; and after the American war, a body of exiled
loyalists was located behmd them. This pre-occupation
of the most desirable spots, added to the inconvenience'
of distance, has prevented it from attracting recent
immigrants, and from attaining a population propor-
tioned to its natural advantages. As the early se+tlers
are little imbued with the spirit of modern enterprise,
and content with a bare subsistence, the country wears,
on the whole, an unimproved appearance. It must
soon receive an impulse, however, from the new commu-
nication by canals and steam- vessels ; and the Canada
Company have undertaken the settlement of consider-
able districts. Indeed, the progress already made
is by no means inconsiderable. In 1817 Mr Gouylry
reckoned the population at 4158 ; in 1824 it had risen to
6952 ; in 1832 to 11,788 ; and in 1835 to 14,496. At the
last date it contained 89,561 cultivated, and 281,290 un-
cultivated acres ; 8525 horned cattle, and 2459 horses.
It is divided into two counties, — Kent and Essex. As
to the townships, we possess not the minute details
afforded by the official reports on the other district; ;
but Mr Shirreff's careful survey will in a great measure
supply this want.

Kent contains fourteen townships, of which Orford,
Howard, Harwich, Raleigh, Tilbui^ Jbiast, and Romney,
are situated between Lake Erie and the Thames ; Juver,
East and West, Chatliam, Camden, and Zone lie to
the northward of that river, and along Bear Creek ;
Adelaide, Warwick, Brooke, Plymton, Inniskillen,
Moore, St Clair, Dawn, and Sombra, reach from the

;^28

TOPOmAPHY OP UPPER CANADA.

Irtter to Lake Huron. The soil on the Thames round
Cliatham is a hiavj^ loam, conipounded of strong- clay
and sand, and of the very finewt; quality. That on Bear
Creek is nearly as good ; and large tracts of the richest
land may still be purchased at a very moderate price.
The want of fall and the defective machinery in the mills,
still deteriorate the quality of the flour. To the nortb •
wards, is a large extent of crown lands, tilx lately unoccu-
pied. In 1832, when 35,000 emigrants arrived in Upper
Canada, for whom employmeiit could not be found.
Sir John Colborae laid out the townships of Adelaide
and Warwick, which were quickly colonize*' To these
have imee been added, Brooke, Iiiniskillcii,, Plymton,
and Moore. Chatham in a twelvemonth ha*! inciea^ed
from ii' .' or six to nearly twenty houses ; and tlier- is
every likelihood fjf Jts continuing to prosper, as steam-
vessels can asce!. '' to it. On the lower part of the
Thames, as it approachi.; the hike, the ground becomes
exceedingly moist,, ani* is also to a considerable extent
rather poor. South ward is a. large prairie, still imcul-
tivateci, but yielding rich pasturage on its margin ; and
the townships between the Thames and Lake Erie aro
described as generally very fertile, having a soil similar
t«o that round Cliatham. Point aux Pins, or Landg-uard,
ii) the township of Harwich, lies on a bay with good an-
chorage, and forms a centre where different roads meet.
Tb'^ oounty of Essex, the most western part of the
district, is a peninsula, enclosed between Lake St Clair,
Detroit Channel, and Lake Eric. On the margin of
tbo latter it has the townships of Mersey, Gosfield,
Colchester, Maiden ; and on St Clair are West Tilbury,
Rochester, Maidstone, Sandwich, This last and Maiden
are bcmnded on the west by the Detroit, on the banks of
which 5s the Huron reserve. The soil of the county is
variable, but includes much rich land, consisting of black
loam on a clay bottom, fitted for the cultivation of hemp
and tobacco, the growth of which last has been great ^v
extended. The original settlers, as already observ< ,.
Oil the first line along Det >it and St Clair, were ^rei ^
colonists ; behind them"!^ ; American loyalists : ; a

TOrOORAPIIY OF UPPER CANADA.

329

lames round
strong clay
'hat on Bear
F the richest
ierate price,
in the mills,
'o the north •
tely unoccii '
^ed in Upper
t he found,
of Advlaide
fl To these
n, Plymton,
lad ine leaped
and tliert. is
31", as nteain-
part of the
und hecomcs
jrahle extent
P still imciil-
nargin ; and
ike Erie are
1 soil similar
Landg-uard,
ith good an-
roads meet,
part of the
ike St Clair,
margin of
y, Gosfield,
est Tilhury,
and Maiden
bhe hanks of
he county is
ing of hlack
ion of hemp
)een great" v
y ohservr
vere ^rei ^
lists : ar , a

■ 1

considerahlc numher of negroes from the States have
more recently found refuge there. According to Mr
ShiiTeff, the townships of Tilhury and Mersey are com-
posed of alternate clay and sand, with a preponderance
of the lighter substance. Gosfield is distinguished from
all the rest by an undulating surface, and a gravelly soil,
not of the first quality. Here Messrs Calhoun and Field
liave established a rude but extensive iron- work, from <&
f i'oductive species of bog-ore. It is expected to consume
.mnually the coke from 200 acres of forest, and in re-
turn for this substance they undertake to clear any
neighbouring proprietor's ground. Colchester and Mai-
Ten are for the most part sand alternating with thin
clay ; but the soil of the latter, in approaching Am-
hei'stburg, is of very fine quality. A mile beyond that
place, the Huron reserve stretches seven miles along
the Detroit, and the same distance inland. To the ex-
tent of four miles the banks are about twenty feet
high, of rich clay, and extremely beautiful. The
Indians do not now exceed ten or twelve families,
who profess Christianity, cultivate orchards, and reat
large herds of fine cattle. The British government have
purchased some part of this reserve, and it is said they
are desirous of possessing the whole. The more nortlv-
ern portion, which sinks to the level of the river, is
swampy, and overgrown with aquatic plants. The soil
continues inferior till beyond Sandwich, when it again
becomes fertile ; and it is occupied by French settlers in
their usual style, in long narrow stripes, facing the
water, and c: mpleteiy cleared of wood. In the approach
to Lake St Clair, the ground is once more low and
swampy, but contains some tolerable soil intermixed
with prairie. M. Bouchette anticipates its speedy settle-
ment ; but this, according to Mr ShuTefF, has as yet
taken place only to p very inconsiderable extent.
Amherstburi? oar ..■»' junction of the Detroit with

Lake Erie, '-^ lie principal tovn in this part of Canada ;
and its situation is allowed to be equ 1 to any in the
world for picturesque beauty. This distinction is pro-
duced, not by the usual objects which constitute magni-

■' i

330

TOPOGRAPHY OF UPPER CANADA.

ficent scenery, but by the wide expanse of clear and
l)ellucid waters surrounding it, the rich brilliancy of
the vegetation, and the profusion of fine orchards, of
which almost every inhabitant has one. The town,
according to Bouchette, contains about 200 dwclling-s,
and 1200 inhabitants. It is said to be regularly built,
but the houses, with a few exceptions, are only of
wood, and not very handsome. The military works
and dockyard were demolished in 1813, but have been
partly restored. Fort Maiden, about half a mile dis-
tant, is of very little consequence. The trade of Am-
herstburg is not at present progressive ; but as vessels
of any magnitude can touch at its pier, it must, at no
distant period, derive benefit from the extension of set-
tlement and steam navigation. Sandwich, fourteen miles
higher up the stream, contains 140 or 160 houses, and
enjoys some importance as the county town. It consists
of an irregular street running along the beach, mostly
inhabited by French. The trade is more limited than
tiiat of Amherstburg, and equally stationary. About a
mile and a half above, however, is the feny where there
are fifteen or twenty houses, the number of which is
increasing ; and on the opposite bank, belonging to the
United States, is the town of Detroit, which is consider-
ably larger than any on the British side of the river.*

The following is a summary of the statistics of this
interesting province, brought down to 1835 : —

Dutiict&

Johnstown

Eastern..

Ottawa . .

Batliurst.

Midland .

Newcastle

Home...

Gore. . . .

Niagara

London.

Western

Total.

I'opuln-
tion.

29,119
28,504
7,044
22,693
46,685
30,245
47,643
40,156i
28,735j
41,2411
14,496

Asssssment
Aaea ciilti- Acres nnculti- of 1 il. per Hoius.
vated. I vated. { pound on I
I property. I

70.6451

355,07U

82,813

331,134

16,354;

110,288i

57,197

353,362

187,338

358,214

94,419

434,526

179,518

690,753

226,428

611,712

209,763

249,212

144,270

718,606

39,561

281,2J)0

336,461 l,308.3O7A 4,394,169

1699'10

1490'13

443-10

810-14

311.3-14

1559-17

2465'12

2407- 6

2210-16

3083-17

922-

6148
3924
748
1641
8650
3339
6049
5287
5721
4963
2459

20,207- 9 47,729

Cattle.

13,119
16,338
3,525|
12,459
24,535
15,367
28,7321
24,506
18,499
26,400
_8,525

192,005

Grist

Snwi

MillH. Mills.!

111

150

113

108

328

7a>

* Bouchette, p 105-108. Tables, 1832, p. 9-11. Gourlay, vol. ii.
p. 299. Shirreff, p. 192-216.

of clear and
brilliancy of
orchards, of

The town,
K) dwelling's,
:ularly built,
are only of
iitary works
t have been
■ a mile dis-
rade of Am-
>ut as vessels

must, at no
nsion of set-
)urteen miles
) houses, and
I. It consists
each, mostly
limited than
•y. About a

where there

of which is
nging to the
1 is consider-
the river.*
sties of this

AGRICULTURE OF CANADA.

331

1 ! '

Horned 1 Grist Haw j

Cattle. ;Milltt.

MiU8.1

13,119 19

16,338! 30

3,525| 6

12,459 26

24,535

111

16,367

28,732

150

24,5()6

113

18.499

26,4()0

108

8,526

92,(K)5 328

78;»

iourlay, vol. ii.

CHAPTER VII.

Agriculture of Canada,

Local Peculiarities — The Climate — The unbroken Forest — Mode
oi Clearing — Ashes — Soil indicated by the Timber — First Crops
— Wheat — Other Grains — Grasses, Flax, Hemp, Tobacco — Live
Stock, Quality and Treatment— Horticulture — Floriculture —
Maple Sugar — Agricultural Processes — Hunting and Shooting
— Fishery.

In Canada, as in all other new countries, especially when
blessed with a fertile soil, agriculture is the most im-
portant branch of human labour. Here the industry of
man, seconded by the powers of nature, produces, with
much less of exertion and of costly machinery, a far
higher amount of desirable and useful commodities, than
w^hen, as in the department of the mechanical arts, he
works alone. Even the United States, though they have
made greater progress in wealth and population than
the British colonies, have in vain attempted, by the most
impolitic prohibitions, to become a manufacturing nation,
and to render themselves independent of foreign supply.
Though we do not, in this work, undertake to instruct
the emigrant in the general principles of agriculture, we
may nevertheless confer a favour upon him, by pointing
out cei-tain peculiarities connected with the practice of it
in the Canadian provinces.

The climate is one particular by which its operatiops
must be greatly modified. It differs, as formerly ob-
served, in having much longer and severer winters, and
on the other hand, much hotter summers, than are known
in Britain or France. The extraordinary warmth of the
latter season, no*^ ^thstanding its short duration, is suf-
ficient to riper> most valuable grains, including even

np.^g^

332

AGRICULTURE OF CANADA.

f»

Indian corn and other species wliicli cannot bo brought
to maturity in England. On the other hand, the groat
length of the winter involves the fanner in much in-
convenience. He is obliged to crowd into the space of
sis, or at most seven months, flll the operations which,
with us, can be continue 1 i; ii^ i /ithout interruption
throughout the year. ^Alil j lur is condemned, during
one season, to unwelcome indolence, in the next his viv-
rious labours follow each other with harassing rapidity.
He must employ a greater number of servants ; and it is
a serious disadvantage that the cattle errifl'^^'^ed on the
fann must be provided with good housing, and a large
stock of food daring the long winter. These are difficult
tirrangemeiiif! for new settlers ; and if, as too often hap-
pens, they hit not duly attended to, the animals either
l)erish, oi are reduced to a very weak condition.

Another weighty obstacle to be encountered by the
colonist in this territory arises from the vast forest
with which almoF+ the whole of it is covered . On taking
possession, he does not find a spot on which a crop of
any description can be raised, or where even a sheep
could feed. To level with the ground, and root out
myriads of trees that have stood for ages, seems a task
beyond human power ; and no instrument or process
has yet been found efficacious, except the axe applied
successively to each. At first, attempts were made to
grub up the trees, and clear the surface at once. This
labour, however, was found very great, and utterly
useless, even breaking up the soil in an injurious
manner. The established plan, therefore, now is, after
removing the brushwood, U) cut round the trunk, at a
few feet from the giound, till it shakes and falls with a
tremendous crash. When this takes pla?;o, the axeman
must make his escape with the tmo . agility, other-
wise he may sustain a serious accM t ; p nd many settlers,
in their first operations, have met with such. When
the iree is thus brought to the ground, the branches
must be separated from it, and the trunk cut into logs of
teii or twelve feet iii length ; and after the wood of two

AGRICULTURE OF CANADA.

333

or three acres has been reduced this Htato, a day U
fixod for consuming it, when the )le being drawn by
oxen into huge piles, is soon ledu cd to ashes by the
application of lire. Tlie neighl)()urs, when called upon,
usually assist on this occasion, which is called " a logging
bee."

Tlie visiter from England, who has been accustome*!
to regard ro\,'8 or clumps of trees as both agreeable luid
highly ornamental, sees with surprise how completely
they have been swept away from the inhabited spots in
Canada. The French on their grounds have not left one ;
and though the English immigrants tind difficulty in
clearing as much as they could wisli,all the land near their
houses is completely denuded. The axe of the chopper
levels all before him. " Man appears to contend with
the trees of the forest as though they were his most
obnoxious enemies, for he spares neither the young sap-
ling in its greenness nor the ancient trunk in its lofty
l)ride ; he ^\ ages war against the forest with fire and
steel." Besides the settler's aversion to objects tliat so
much obstruct his operations, there are serious objections
to allowing them to remain smgly or in rows. The
: "ees st^md u thick together, that neither their roots nor
L/anches luve had room to spread. They accordingly
ehov/t up to a great height, with little hold in the earth,
and with scarcely any foliage, so that \vhen left single
they are n< her beautiful, nor able to withstand the vio-
lent gusts < wmd to which the country is subject ; henct'
their sudden fall might be attended with much mjury.
As, however, a considerable quantity of timber must
be preserved for fuel and other purposes, attention m'f'ht
})e paid to dispose it in groves or little clumps iri !i,
picturesque and agreeable manner. The trees which
should be preserved are maple for making sugar ; beech
and white ash for firewood ; oak, cedar, and hemlock
spruce for fences ; and other hard kinds for ashes, from
^vhich soap may be made.*

* Evans' Emigrant's Guide (12mo, Dublin, 1»33), pp. 88, U2, l«.

■

n.?4

AGHICULTUllE OF CANADA.

|J .

A lighter mode of clearing, strongly recommended
by Mr Pickering, especittlly where tlie trees stand nt
some distance from each other, is giitlling. According
to this method, rings are cut round the trunk, completely
through the bark, so as to prevent the rising of the sap,
in consequence of which they gradually wither. In a
few years they begin to fall, and after six or seven can
be easily removed. Meantime the under brushwood
may be cut or burnt, and crops raised between the trees.
A great deal of lal)our is thus saved at the beginning ;
yet the practice is not generally approved, at least where
the forest is at all dense. Light and air are thus in-
tercepted ; the falling trees are found to injure both
animals and fences, and the final clearing is rendered
more tedious.

Several writers recommend the manufacture of ashes
from the burnt wood as an important article of com-
merce. The hard species are the most productive. Beech
is reckoned the best, and hickory, elm, oak, and maple,
stand next in the scale of value. The ashes must be
kept under cover and dry till they can be sent to the
manufactory ; for the settler, amid his numerous avoca-
tions, could scarcely undertake to work them up him-
self. Mr Gould reckons that an acre should yield on
the average 10 cwt. worth from 12s. Cd. to 15s. thecwt.
Could this be depended upon, clearing, instead of being
a heavy burden, would be a most profitable occupation ;
but the estimate, which we suspect to have been from
the first too flattering, is admitted to be no longer ap-
plicable. It is now found that soda and other salts can
by chemical improvements be made to answer the pur-
poses of wood-ashes in bleaching, glass-making, and other
processes ; and as these can be produced at a low rate,
the latter, in oi-der to find a market, must accommodate
itself to the diminished value. Mr Magrath states the
price at from fourpence to sixpence the bushel, and was

Backwoods of Canada (lOmo. London, 183fi), pp. 192,292. Ma-
g^ratli's Letters, p. 1.')7-HjO. Gould's Practical Advice to Emiifranls
(l^ndon, 1834}, p. HI.

AGRICULTURE OP CANADA.

333

informed that the average produce ought to he about
sixty hushels. This conclusion, lie adds, w<w not con-
jftnncd by his own experience, hut he imputes the failure
to his land being lightly timbered. As however, not-
witlistanding the vast clearing wliich has recently taken
place in Upper Canada, there has been no incretise in
the exportation of tliis article, it would appear that the
ashcries have not extended themselves to the new dis-
tricts. As a j)roof of this, we do not generally find
them considered as a resource for tlie new colonist, or
capable of being turned to any account but for making
soap, or being used as manure. It seems advisable for
the settler, however, to make inquiry into this subject ;
for such a manufacture, it is obvious, would raise the
value of well- wooded land.

Where a property, in course of being cleared, can com-
municate by water-carriage with any town or large vil-
lage, the timber fit for building, or even for fuel, acquires
a considerable value. Even in the bush, if there be u
saw-mill in the neighbourhood, logs are taken in ex-
change for planks, which are necessary for the construc-
tion of comfortable houses.*

Canadian writers generally consider that the quality
of the soil is made known by the trees which grow upon
it ; and the best indication is said to be afforded by the
species which go under the general appellation of hard-
wood, or those which shed their leaves during the
winter. We find enumerated, maple, basswood, elm,
black walnut, hickory, butternut, iron-wood, hemlock,
with a large species of nettle. A mixture of beech is
considered good ; but the land on which it is the sole
tree is generally light. Oak is the most uncertain,
being found on a good bottom, as well as on that of a sandy
description. On the other hand, soft wood, bearing
evergreen leaves, and consisting chiefly of fir and other
pine species, is said to give decided intimation of a very

• Pickeilng's Guide to Emigrants, p. 159. Majcrath, pp. 163,
164. Gould, p. ()2.t)4. Backwoods, p. 2!J2. Sliirrefl; p. 37U.

1 1 i^ili* f **H

^'Si'l

336

AGRICULTURE OP CANADA.

light soil. The larch or tamarack, on wide flat plains,
indicates sand upon a substratum of marly clay, which,
when drained, is extremely good ; but this operation is
in general too laborious for the immigrant. Thf? French
Canadians, we are informed, hoJ*^! this species of land as
one of the best. Mr Evans considers a surface where all
these trees are mingled together as very valuable, and
likely to be fitted for every kind of produce. Yet these
inferences, which seem to be founded on just observa-
tion, are disputed by Mr Shirreff, who denies that any
indication whatever can be drawn from the qualities of
the timber. As, however, he stands completely alone, and
was not long resident in the country, we incline to think
he must be mistaken ; but, on a point so very momentous,
we concur with him m advisins? the purchaser to super-
add a diligent examination with the spade, both of the
8oil and subsoil.

After the trees, with the exception of the stumps,
liave been cleared from the ground, no farther prepara-
tion is necessary for putting in a crop. The seed requires
only to be scattered on the surface, and a harrow drawn
over it ; and wheat is the grain most usually committed
to such virgin soiL Very flattering reports have been
made as to the produce which may be expected in such
circumstances, and which has been estimated at forty or
fifty bushels, or even more. This however is now ge-
nerally admitted to be an exaggeration. Considering
that nearly one-fourth of the land is still occupied by
stumps, that the growing corn does not enjoy the full
benefit of light and air, and is often liable to smut,
Mr Shirreff conceives that it will not exceed eighteen
bushels an acre. The reports also of the soil c mtinuing
to bear the most valuable crops for a series >f yeai's
without intermission, appear to be realized only under
very peculiar circumstances. According to Mr Talbot,
a. good second crop, though not equal to the first, may be
obtained with the aid merelv of the harrow ; but after
this, corn is not in general raised without the use of the
ploiigh. As, however, the stumps cannot be removed

Ar.RirULTURE OF CANADA.

337

flat plains,
ay, which,
peration is
?bp French
of land as
e where all
Luable, and
Yet these
ist observa-
33 that any
qualities of
y alone, and
ine to think
momentous,
er to super-
both of the

the stumps,
ler prepara-
eed requires
iTOW drawn
\f committed
have been
cted in such
1 at forty or
p is now ge-
Considering
)ccupied by
oy the full
lie to smut,
:d eighteen
t >ntinuing
les *f yeai-s
onl/ under
Mr Talbot,
irst, may be
; but after
le use of the
je removed

for seven or eight years, the prevailing practice in Upper
Canada, tUl that process has been accomplished, is to lay
the field down in grass ; and this plan is recommended
by good authorities. It may even be necessary for the
settler, who can command only his own personal labour,
and has still large portions to clear : but, in the case
of one who can afford to hire servants, it appears an un-
profitable system ; for it confines him to the rearing of
sheep and cattle, the least advantageous branch of Cana-
dian husbandry. Several writers, indeed, represent it
as impossible to carry on any other, Mdiile such obstruc-
tions remain ; but others, better and longer acquainted
with tlie country, assure us, that these oppose no very
serious obstacles to culture, tlie plough being able with
little difficulty to pass between them, as they are usu-
ally at least twenty feet distant from each other. Tliis
plan has also the advantage, that by the loose state In
which it keeps the ground, the stumps may be rooted
out sooner than from the more compacit surface of a
grass field. When their removal is efitcted, the plough
can move, though not without some attention, over the
whole, and the ground is then considered in a state of
regular cultivation.*

The ground having been thus cleared of timber, the
question arises, what crops can be most advantageously
raised upon it. Soil and climate are the two particulars
which nature places in the hand of the agriculturist, and
&.(" ording to which his operations must be modified. The
soil of the upper, and of all the settled part of the lower
province, may rank with the most favoured on the globe.
The absence of mountain and rock, on such a scnle as to
interfere with cultivation, scarcelv exists elsewhere over
a similar extent of country. Light and stindy soils or
swamps almost alone interrupt the general fertility ; and
these, from the detailed local survey already taken, will
appear not to be very extensive, and perhaps in few

* Evans, pp. 7*3, ^h. Mafrrath, pp. 88, ^\). Backwoods, pp. 194,
10". Shiireff, p. ajO, Talbot's Five Years Hesichnice in the Cuna-
das (2 vols 8vo, London, 1824), vol. ii. p. 200-202.

VOL. I. JC

338

AGRICULTURE OF CANADA.

I III

? ' 'I I t

cases wholly irreclaimable. It is calculated that there
is a greater proportion of wheat soil in the Canadas than
in England ; and that, if this valuable grain were culti-
vated in the latter country in the same defective manner
as in these provinces, it could not be of much value.

Climate, which forms the other important particular,
wears at first view a less favourable aspect. A region
which, for several months, and in some districts for more
than half the year, remains buried in frost and snow,
may well be supposed unfriendly to vegetation. As al-
ready observed, however, the strong steady heat of sum-
mer counteracts almost completely this chilling influence,
and matures with surprising rapidity the most valuable
plants. Mr Evans has had wheat in ear nine weeks
after it was sown. Even the violent altei-nations of frost
and thaw, of snow and rain, instead of injuring vegetation,
are found to pulverize and soften the soil, and thus render
it more fertile with less culture. The great steadiness
of the summer weather exempts plants from sundry
vicissitudes which they undergo in a more changeable
climate. From these causes, the annuals suited to a
temperate region grow in Canada to full perfection ; and
as these include the grains fitted for bread, the food most
essential to man, she has little cause to envy any other
country.

In regard to wheat, indeed, the cbief of those vegeta-
bles, this observation must be somewhat restricted. Its
j)lants are so far biennial, that to acquire the very first
quality they must be sown during the preceding autumn.
Yet this course has not been found safe in Lower Canada,
where wheat must be treated as an annual, sown in spring,
and reaped before the end of the year. The defect is
owing, not to the rigour of the winter, still less to the
depth of snow, which, on the contrary, is found to pro-
tect and cherish vegetable growth, but is ascribed to
severe frosts, violent and chilling rains, occurring after
the snow has left the ground, and the plants have made
some progress. An opinion is entertained, that with good
management, hitherto much wanting, autumn wheat

AGRICULTURE OF CANADA.

339

might be raised with success. The British American
Land Company have decidedly adopted this idea, and
some successful experiments have been made. Mr Evans,
however, is of opinion that from the above causes, unless
in some favoured situations, it must always be an un-
safe crop, and peculiarly liable to disease. He had once
autumn and spring wheats growing on the same field,
when although the first was completely ruined by rust
and mildew, the other proved excellent. He seems to
apprehend, therefore, that Lower Canada must be content
with her good spring growth. It is said, however, to
require a soil more minutely pulverized ; while the grain
produced contains a greater proportion of gluten, and is
thus harder and more difficult to grind. In Upper
Canada, autumn wheat is raised without difficulty.

Barley is well suited to the climate, r.nd on well-
prepared soils the produce is found very little inferior to
that in England. The square or four-rowed species is
generally cultivated, as the most productive, and not
objected to by the brewer, though the two-rowed or long-
eared brings a higher price, and has been partially intro-
duced. Oats have not hitherto been prosperous in either
of the Canadas, as the intense heat of summer is apt to
diy the panicles, which then do not convey sufficient
nourishment to the ears. It is alleged, however, that by
early sowing and other precautions the evil might be
obviated. This grain in fact has been much neglected
and underrated. Rye, so much a favourite in the north
of Europe, is cultivated here, but only for the distilleries.
Maize or Indian corn, the only important farinaceous
plant peculiar to the new world, is the tallest, and yields
the largest bulk of all this description of plants. The
grain, though very productive, affording from 30 to 70
bushels an acre, is too soft and deficient in gluten to make
good bread without a large admixture of wheat. It is
relished, however, in various forms of puddmg or pot-
tage ; and for feeding cattle and poultry seems superior to
any other corn. Its range in America is very extensive,
shice, being an annual, it is unaffected by the cold of

340

AGRICULTURE OF CANADA.

1,^^

I ;■■!

'I|

winter. Yet n, strong heat of considerable duration is
required, the absence of which in a great part of Canada
renders this crop very precarious. If cold or wet weather
occur soon after sowing, the seed is liable to rot ; while,
as the harvesting does not take place till the end cf Sep-
tember, the crop suflFers often from premature frosts.
Mr Evans considers it as unsafe beyond lat. 45° N., which
excludes most of Lower Canada ; while Mr Shirreff re-
stricts it within lat, 41^°, scarcely allowing it to go north
of Lake Ontario. At Peterborough it iiad failed for
several consecutive years. Where successful, it is con-
sidered excellently fitted for new lands, and also as a
preparation for wheat. It is planted in rows to admit
of horse-hoeing, and in Upper Canada pumpkins are
advantageously raised in the intervals.

Of leguminous plants, pease are perhaps the most
valuable, and are well suited to the climate of Canada,
where they form generally a secure crop. Wet weather
during harvest, which is peculiarly unfavourable to
them, seldom occurs there. The flesh of hogs is delicate
and of better flavour when fed upon pease than upon any
Ocher giain ; and from their use the pork of these pro-
vinces is considered superior to that of the United States.
Tares are cultivated as an excellent food for horses and
cattle ; and their extension is recommended. Beans are
not grown ; but for this omicsion no sufficient reason
has been assigned,

Among roots, the potato takes the precedence, and
its value is too well known to require comment. Though
a native of America, it v/as for a long time not very
extensively cultivated, at least in Upper Canada ; but
its importance has now been appreciated b}- European
settlers. Besides its value for human use, this vegetable
affords in the same bulk more food for cattle, and is
more easil}' guaiiled against the cold of winter, than most
others, which, generally requu'e a root-house or cellar to
preserve them ; while potatoes may be kept in a pit five
feet deep, dug hi dry earth. They should be planted by
the end of May, b^/ as to attain some strength before the

AGHICULTUBE OF CANADA.

341

le duration is
>art of Canada
r wet weather
to rot ; while,
he end cf Sep-
mature frosts.
46° N., which
^Ir Shirreff re-
r it to go noi*th
had failed for
sful, it is con-
, and also as a
rows to avimit
pumpkins are

laps the most
ate of Canada,
Wet weather
mfavourahle to
liogs is delicate
than upon any
i. of these pro-
United States,
for horses and
3d. Beans are
ifficient reason

[•ecedence, and
neiit. Though
time not very
' Canada ; but
by European
this vegetable
cattle, and is
ter, than most
se or cellar to
spt in a pit five
be planted by
Lgth before the

intense summer heats, and r,o be ripe before the setting
in of the autumnal frosts. Turnips, which require a
cool, moist, and temperate climate, have not been found
well suited to Canada. Carrots are beginning to be intro-
duced, and are strongly recommended as hardy, nutri-
tive, and not very liable to suffer from cold.

Grass, both natural and artificial, forms a most im-
portant article of farming produce. Canada has nt t
the fine natural pastures of Ireland, England, Holland,
and other countries enjoying a cool, moist, and equable
climate. The settlers, too, in general, as soon as they
have cleared away the wood, are eager to break up
the ground and raise a crop. It is alleged, however,
that this system has been carried too far, there being
many meadows, uplands, and other well- watered tracts,
which might very advantageously be appropriated to
pasturage. Artificial grasses, now a most valuable
branch of British husbandry, are peculiarly important
in Canada, where so large a quantity of hay should be
stored for \, Inter use. Tliey are also most useful
in preparing the soil for grain crops, but have the disad-
vantage of requiring to stand the severe winter, so trying
to all except annual plant ^. Clover, which is supposed
to yield three times the produce of natuial grass, grows
luxuriantly ; but in the second year its roots are often
found to have been destroyed by frost. For this reason
it is necessary to have recourse to the species named
timothy, which is extremely hardy, and will set at defi-
ance even a Canadian winter. The course recommended
is to plant it in spring along with clover, which last may
he expected to yield a good crop the first year ; and if it
faibi in the second, the other will supply its place.*

Among miscellaneous articles, flax is well fitted to
the climate, and a small quantity is grown upon almost
every farm for domestic use ; but it has not yet become

* Evans (William), Treatise on Agriculture (8vo, Montreal,
1835) pp. 3;J-94, 175, 222. i albot, vol. i. p. VM. Pickering-, p.
m-iii). Gould, p. G7. Sliirrcff, p. 308. Backwoods, pp. 188, 189.

342

AGRICULTURE OF CANADA.

an article of exportation. It is dark coloured, and rather
liable to break. Mr Talbot imputes these faults to the
small quantity of seed, being only two bushels per acre,
while double that amount is used in Ireland, Hemp
has been sown with advantage, particularly in the
heavy soil of the Western District ; but, though consi-
derable expectations have been foimed, it has not as yet
any where risen to much importance. It seems admit-
ted, that considerable loans from government are neces-
sary to provide the machinery indispensable to its suc-
cess ; and moreover that, without a protecting duty, the
farmer could not compete with the importations fix»m
Russia. Tobacco is planted in the same district, and
has uIfo been made the object of flattering hopes. In
quality it is inferior to that of the southern states of
le Union, — a circumstance which some ascribe to im-
jl-erfect culture, but others think a warmer climate ne-
cefisa;; for raising it in perfection. The produce, never-
theless, has of late years been considerably augmented.
The rearing of live stock, an important branch of rural
economy, is still in a backward state in Canada. The
length and severity of winter produce a necessity for dry
food and shelter during that season ; but the providing
of this, in the actual circumstances of the colonists, is
attended with difficulties, which they by no means mfike
sufficient exertions to overcome. The horses are small,
not standing above twelve hands high, and are at the same
time clumsy and thick shouldered. Yet they possess good
qualities, are active, fleet, and sure-footed, and in these
respects have been compared to the Scottish galloway,
though they are not equally fit for heavy and continued
labour. Proposals have been made to introduce improved
breeds, but this would probably avail little, till accom-
panied by a more careful management. The cows arc
also about a third smaller than the English. They are
i:till worse treated, having scarcely any shelter and very
little food during tiie winter, at the end of which they
are in a miscirJ)Ie state, and many perish. A complaint
called the hollow-horn, arising from the juices of tliat

AGRICULTURE OF CANADA.

343

substance heing congealed by the excessive cold, proves
generally fatal ; yet those which survive, on coming to
grass, quickly recover, and give abundance of milk. The
labouring oxen are for the most part procured from
the United States. The sheep are extremely small,
weighing, it is said, not more than fifty pounds, and their
fleece about two and a half. They suffer, not only
from the rigour of winter, but from the violence of the
heat in summer, and are also exposed to the ravages of
wild beasts. The wool, however, is rather fine, owing
perhaps to the cold, from which nature iisually protects
animals by a richer covering. Some of the hilly tracts
in the Western District, where the climate is milder,
have been pointed out as well fitted for supporting an
improved breed of this animal. The hog alone does
something to compensate the general deficiency of the
animal creation, for though not large, its flesh is excel-
lent, and forms the staple dish at every Canadian table.
It finds nourishment amid the woods and pastures,
filways in summer, and often during winter ; though
some grain ought to be given in the latter season, as
well as when it is to be fattened. Since the great
depression in the price of wheat, salted pork has been
considered the most profitable article which a farmer
can raise. It may be observed, that the Eastern Town-
ships, notwithstanding their severer climate, possess
decidedly superior breeds of cattle. This seems partly
owing to the variety of surface, and the numerous
streams with which this region is watered ; and partly, it
must be owned, to the character of the settlers, who
have come chiefly from the neighbouring territory of
the United States, and have introduced a more active
and efficient mode of managing this branch of hus-
bandry. The recent cattle shows at Sherbrooke, and
other places in the same district, arc said to have dis-
played specimens that would do hono\ir to similar
exliilntions in EngLvad.

It may be proper here to forewarn the settler with re-
gard to an inconvenience that attends the keeping of live

'S*!

344

AGRICULTURE OF CANADA.

stock in the ruder districts. As the fences are often slight,
hastily put up, and meant to enclose a great extent of
ground, spirited animals find little difficulty in clear-
ing such barriers, and plunge into the woods, where
all traces of them disappear. Without great care, the
farmer will find a good deal of his time lost in this ha-
rassing pursuit. Mention is made of a female cultivator,
who almost every week mounted her pony, and sallied
into the bush in search of stray cattle ; and sometimes
a day or two elapsed before she and they returned.
The author of the " Backwoods" notices a remarkable
case of two newly purchased oxen which were missing
for some time, and considered finally lost, when it was
found that they had made their way, across twenty
miles of trackless forest, to their former quarters. Mr
Ferguson mentions a Higliland settler in Nichol, who
said to him, — " I went out one evening to fetch in the
cows, and it was two days before I could find my own
way back." Breachy cattle, or those inclined to such
excursions, often involve the proprietor in much
trouble, when they break into and injure the neigh-
bouring plantations, causing complaints and claims for
damages. The best remedy is said to be a daily
distribution of salt, which promotes their thriving, and
is so grateful to them that they seldom fail to repair to
the spot where it is usually given.*

Horticulture is an elegant art, for which the Cana-
dians have not yet found leisure. It has been observed,
that farmers are usually bad gardeners ; and in that new
country, where, during the season, so much work ur-
gently presses, they can scarcely find time for ornamen-
tal objects. The only garden which has attracted any
notice in Upper Canada is Colonel Talbot's ; and Mr Shir-
refF did not consider that, tried by an English standard,
it would rank high, though containing some fine and
well-managed trees. It appears, however, that when the

• Talbot, pp. ;t04 -310, 17^-178. SliirrefF, p. 309. Backwoods, pp.
134, 194, J9u. Magrutli, p. 142. Ferguson's SecondJourney, p. l7.

AGRICULTURE OF CANADA.

345

Canadians shall apply to this hranch of husbandry, they
will find excellent materials. Fruits, in particular, arc
observed to thrive, and the extremes of temperature ex-
tejid the choice to those of different climates. The apple
raised in the vicinity of Montreal now rivals that of New
York. In the western districts, melons of large size and
exquisite flavour, pome^ nates, gourds, and cucumbers,
ai'e produced abundantly at the expense of very little
labour. Strawberries of different species, raspbemes,
gooseberries, currants, cherries, and even giapes, grow
wild, and are found on the road-side or in sheltered fields.
An author already quoted mentions two islands in an
adjoining lake, one of which was called Strawberry, the
other Raspberry. Cranberries are collected in large quan-
tities by the Indian women, and sold iu baskets to tbe
settlers, who muke use of them for pies and preserves.
Culinary ' getables seem also to thrive extremely
well ; and, notwithstanding the late season of sowing,
the summer 'eat brings them rapidly to maturity.
Among the best are said to be pease, especially the
marrowfats ; and different species of lettuce, radishes,
carrots, parsnips, and other roots, grow to an astonishing
size. Vegetables are preserved through the winter in
cellars, or more successfully in houses built close, with
double log- walls, and the roof well secured. Cabbages,
according to Mr Talbot, cannot be advantafreously grown,
oji account of the ravages committed on ih^m. by insects.
The raising of garden-stuffs is found very profitable in
the neighbourhood of Montreal, where, for reasons not
fully explained, they are always exceedingly dear.*

Floriculture, a still more elegant but less necessary
pursuit, attracts no attention, though nature in this
department has been equally profuse in its materials.
Meadows and tlie banks of rivers and lakes present, in
many peaces, flower-beds rivalling the finest that art can

* Shirreff, pp VVA, 140. Talbot vol. ii. Stntistical Sketches by a
Backwoodsman (London, h)'63), p. ;7. Backwoods, pp. 14J, 144,

ST,

■■ ' :l

346

AGRICULTURE OP CANADA.

produce. The violet, the lily, the orchidea, and others
which adorn our meads and gardens, apjx'ar under many
elegant varir ties, accompanied with several Hj)ecies never
ff^^n in this country. It is to be regretted, however,
iiiat, amid such a vast assemblage of flowers, there ^tj
few that eiriL any fragrance. The violet itself delf; if j
tlie eye only. It has even been said of Canada, in gene-
ral terms, that its flowers arc without scent, and its birds
without song. But a lady, who viewed this subject with
tlie eye of an amateur, discovered several agreeable ex-
ceptions ; among which she mentions the wild rose, the
lily of the valley, as well as the water lily ; a peculiar
species called the milk- weed ; the purple monarda, which
is fragrance all over, and retains H even after months of
exposure to the wintry atmosphere. All the mints
are strongly scented ; and some of the trees, particularly
the swamp cedar and the balsam poplar, give a delight-
ful odour.

That singular species of maple which is filled with
A saccharine juice is not to be overlooked by the Ca-
nadian cultivator. Where his property contains any
trees of this description, a large group at least should be
preserved, for il;t jx rposc of supplying sugar. The best
season for obt's'iii'"/ it is about the beginning of April,
when the spring is iar advanced, yet the cold still severe ;
and the most favourable day is one of bright sunshine,
following a frosty night. The tree continues to run for
about a month. It is commonly opened by a simple
cut with an axe ; but a hole bored with an auger is
said to be still more efficacious. The liquor, which
immediately flows out, is conveyed by a hollow tube
or spout to long troughs, and sometimes into large
buckets or tubs, placed beneath. The sap taken
off during the daj'^ is boiled in the evening. The
first boiling converts the juice into molasses ; and then
a more careful one fellows, by which it is made into
sugar. During this last process, the scum that rises
to the top must be carefully removed, otherwise
it will materially injure the flavour. The substance

AfJRTCULTTIUE OP CANADA.

347

red. otlierwise

then consolidates into hard cakes, which, when hroken,
resembki sujrar-candy. Mr Kvans rcconnncnds not to
boil it so hard, but to allow the moistrirc to pass off
by holes made in the h.irrel ; and another writer ad-
vises to j)urity it before boilinj;, by straining' through
flannel, after the manner of a jelly-bag. It is nearly In
tlic state of West Indian muscovado, to whic' is by
some thought little inferior, and by others even prcterre<l.
For sweetmeats, cakes, and sauces, it -■<iems to answc?
cxtri inely well ; andthe price is from 4(1 7,^d. a pound.
Mr Talbot reckons that 500 lbs. niu produced

with no other machinery than a mi -^ ' i o<f" thirty
gallons, costuig i!2, 10s. ; 150 troughs, mi* ner 1 00 ;

reservoirs, 4s. each ; and 4 buckets, 2s. eucl e troughs

may be made by the farmer or his servants. Theo[ter-
ation, indeed, would scarcely pay if labourers wrrc to
he hired ; but, as the season for it occurs before an^ of the
common farm- work can lio attempted, those alraady on
tlie land may be advantageously employed in producing
at least a f[uantity for domestic use. The refuse, of
sedimentary part of the sap, yields good vinegar.*

Agriculture, considered as a scientific process, is still
in a very low state throughout Canada. The French
habittnis had set a very bad example in every thing
except industry ; and the British immigrants, often un-
educated, and wholly occupied in mere manual labour,
have not advanced much beyond them. No idea is enter-
tained of a rotation of crops, whereby the land maybe kept
constantly in good condition. The same species of grain
is raised year after year from the ground as long as the
produce will pay the expense of working it ; and when
tliis ceases, it is abandoned to weeds and thistles, till, by
long rest, it becomes fit for a fresh application. On the
subject of manure, a complete infatuation appears to pre-
vail. Instead of regarding it as the most valuable means of
fertilizing a farm, they view it as a nuisance which must
be got rid of ; the old settlers, accordingly, avail them-

• Backwoods, pp. 238-253, 155-157. Evans' Guide, p. 105-108.
Talbot, vol. i. pp. 277, 290-298.

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(7U);;^a-4S03

348

AGRICULTURE OF CANADA.

selves of the leisure of winter to cart theirs to the river,
whence it is carried down by the stream. The British,
for the most part, seek only to convey it from the vicinity
of the stable, or remove the stable itself, which, being
generally of light and portable materials, is sometimes
the easier task. Better notions, however, begin to be en-
tertained. A zeal for improvement pervades many of the
more intelligent inhabitants ; and their views have been
seconded by the legislature, who have, on certain con-
ditions, appropriated small sums to defray the expense
of agricultural societies in each district. The recent
influx from this country of emigrants, possessed of
intelligence and capital, can scarcely fail to enlighten
the general body, at least as to errors so gross as those
to which they arc at present addicted.

After every improvement, however, it would appear
that the agriculture of Canada must be carried on in a
ruder manner, and by hastier and rougher processes than
are practised in Britain. Hence farmers from the United
Kingdom, being reluctant to conform to their looser
system, are apt to bestow a disproportioxiate labour and
caipital on operations which wOl not repay them. It has
even been asserted, that the emigrant thrives better who
goes out without any acquaintance with agriculture at
all. A knowledge, however, of its principles must un-
doubtedly be beneficirl to the young settler ; though,
perhaps, the circumstance of being long accustomed to
a particular mode may be a bad preparation for farming
under circumstances so very different. The mode of
reaping by cutting the grain with a species of scythe,
so as to throw it into a kind of frame, called, from its
form, a cradle, must appear to an Englishman very
slovenly. But though this does not make such good
work as the sickle, it is much more expeditious, as an
expert cradler can clear from two to three acres in a day.
The grain, when cut, is not arranged in sheaves or
stooks, but, after drying on the ground, is carried direct
into the barn, — ^a method which is probably necessary
to preserve it from the severity of the winter-frosts.

AGRICULTURE OF CANADA.

349

le river,
British,
vicinity
h, being
metimes
to be en-
ny of the
lave been
tain con-
expense
le recent
isessed of
enlighten
; as those

lid appear
ed on in a
jesses than
he United
leir looser
abour and
em. It has
jetter who
iculture at
3 must un-
: ; though,
iistomed to
for farming
e mode of
of scythe,
d, from its
iman very
such good
ious, as an
•es in a day.
sheaves or
rried direct
yT necessary
inter-frosts.

The thrashing-machine has not yet been introduced ; and
many of the old settlers, instead of the flail, employ
the rude mode of treading out the grain by oxen. It is
thus rendered so dirty, as to he unfit for any other pur-
pose than distilling ; but the emigrants from this coun-
try seldom adopt so rude and wasteful a process.*

Hunting and fishing, though they do not yet form
regular branches of national industry, are nevertheless
deserving of notice, as connected with natural produce.
Among the expectations which lure the British settler
to America, one of the most attractive appears to be
the almost unlimited scope for hunting in a country
of wild woodland — where no game-laws embaiTass the
sportsman, and whence he may expect to derive an
agreeable addition to his supply of food. Yet it is a foct
that the colonists scarcely ever take a gun into their
hands. Dr Dunlop thinks it can only ])e accounted
for by the perversity of human nature and the exclu-
sive zest of what is forbidden, that Toronto, situated
in the heart of this great forest, is worse supplied with
game than any town in England. But, after all, the
woods do not seem so productive in this respect as might
at first view be supposed. Mr Shirreff, who has made it a
particular study to dispel all illusions respecting that part
of the world, represents this deficiency as miserable,
and declares he has seen more game in half an hour in
Scotland than in all his wanderings through Canada.
This appears an exaggerated statement, though Mr
Magrath observes, that the birds called game, as they do
not find food in the forest, multiply only as the land is
cleared ; hence the old cultivated districts on the Detroit
and Niagara afford the best shooting in Upper Canada. A
particular species of pheasant, considered sometimes as
a large partridge, is the most common ; but though the
flesh is delicate, the flavour is very often injured by
feeding on the buds of spruce. The quail, considered

* Pickering^, pp. fiS, 80, 8|), m. Statistical Sketches, pp. 77,
104, 105. Ferguson's Practical Notes, p. 263. Shirreff. pp. 341,
368-370. ' u ,

350

AGRICULTURE OF CANADA.

by Dr Dunlop as a small partridge, is common in the
Home and other western districts. The woodcock and
snipe appear in great numbers in spring and autumn,
particularly the latter season. Wild ducks of various
kinds abound in marshes, and on the borders of lakes.
Geese and swans merely pass and repass between
warmer and colder climates, without making any so-
journ. The turkey, in the London and Western dis-
tricts, to which he is confined, is considered the most
important of the feathered game ; the colour is dark.
and his flesh nearly resembles that of our domestic spe-
cies. But no bird equals in number the wild pigeons
which, at particular seasons, move in vast flocks, or
rather swarms, that darken the air like locusts. A body
of thei.> once hovered three or four days over the capital,
when a continued war was carried on against them
by all who could muster fire-arms of any description.
The feathered tribes, in unfrequented places, fall easy
victims, owing to their having no fear of man. Sir George
Head has seen a whole covey drop one after anotlier
without the survivors being in the least degree intimi-
dated.

Among quadinipeds, the beaver, the chief object of chase
to the eai'ly settlers, is now nearly extirpated from all the
range of settlement. At present the dee he principal
game. The idea of Mr Shirreff^ and ot. i . writers, that
they exist only in small numbers, is refuted by the
diligent researches of Mr Magrath, a Canadian Nimrod.
These animals, long hunted by the Indians, and thus
accustomed to dread human art and power, fly even at
a distant sound, and are never seen by a noisy pursuer.
After one day's total failure from this cause, he was
told that he must walk in the quietest manner, avoid-
ing, if possible, to touch even the bough of a tree ; and by
this means he soon obtained complete success. Such a
mode of pursuit, borrow^ed seemingly from the Indians,
has in view rather the result of the chase than its sportful
vicissitudes. A similar remark applies also to the prac-
tice of deer-stalking, or watcliing in concealment and

AGRICULTURE OP CANADA.

351

L in the
ock and
lutumn,

various
>f lakes,
between

any so-
tern dis-
the most

is dark;
p^tic spe-
d pigeons
flocks, or
. A body-
lie capital,
[nst them \
escription.
5, fall easy
Sir George
er aiiotlier
ree intimi-

ect of chase
■romallthe
le principal
rriters, that
;ed by th^J
an Nimrod.
s, and thus
fly even at
isy pursuer,
ise, he was
aner, avoid-
;ree ; and by
ss. Such a
the Indians,
a. its sportful
to the prac-
jalment and

silence the approach of the animal to one of the salt-licks
or springs, which are his favourite resort. Night- shoot-
ing is another process of the same kind, in which the
hunter passes the hours of darkness, concealing his light
till it is necessary to discover the retreat of the game.
At other times, these timid creatures are driven by bands
of men and dogs into a river or lake, where canoes wait
to receive them : similar hunts, on a small scale, are
carried on by whole tribes. It has been asserted that
the Canadian deer do not afford the rich fat so much
prized by the epicure ; but this is ascribed to their being
hunted chiefly during the winter, amid deep snow, when
they are of course in meagre condition.

The bear is the most ferocious of the wild animals,
yet cannot be considered as dangerous. He acts as if
under a treaty of neutrality with man, whom he never
attacks unless in self-defence. Yet as he scruples not to
possess himself of a pig or other inmate of the farm-yard,
tlie settler, with a view to prevention, recovery, or re-
venge, often becomes the assailant. He is animated also
by the desire of possessing the skin, not a little prized ;
the flesh, considered very delicate ; and the grease, which
forms so valuable a pommade. The person, however, who
wounds this tenant of the desert, without killing or dis-
abling him, is placed in a very perilous predicament ; and
should never make the attempt without having one
or two shots in reserve. The wolf is another de-
predator, extremely dangerous to the flocks, but who
shuns the presence of man. He is not usually hunted
for amusement ; but, on account of his destructive
qualities, the legislature have set a price on his head,
which it is hoped will reduce or exterminate the race.*
Another pursuit, for which there exist ample ma-
terials, is yet scarcely in its infancy. The extensive
fisheries, which enrich the maritime provinces of British
America, have not hitherto created any interest in the

* Statistical Sketches, pp. 33, 39 ; 45-48. ShirrefF, p. 390.
IVIagrath, pp. 1M2, 2,iy-2fiH. Head's Forest Scenes and Incidents
(8vo, London, 1829), p. 233.

,'11' . !

fii m

I;
I''

352

AGRICULTURE OF CANADA.

interior. Yet its vast waters contain numerous species,
which must, as the country advances, become more and
more important. The salmon abounds in Ontario, and
is supposed hy Dr Dunlop not to visit the ocean ;
but Mr Magrath, obseiving that it never ascends above
Niagara, nor is found in any lake not communicating
with the sea, concludes that it does perform this voyage,
however long. The usual mode of taking them, learned
from the Indians, is by spearing from a canoe, particu-
larly in the night ; but there is always some risk of
this frail bark being upset. The most delicate creature
in those waters is that called white-fish, resembling the
herring, but superior. In some places it is caught by
the seine, and packed in barrels of 200 lbs., which sell at
from twenty-seven to thirty shillings. The herring
is also plentiful, but not very fine. Other common
kinds are the trout, mullet, pike, pickerel, bass — black
and white and rock — and masquinonge, a fish pecu-
liar to the country, and highly esteemed. But all of
them, it is maintained, must yield to the Mackinaw
trout, found only in Lakes Huron and Superior, which
weighs from twenty to fort}', and even ninety pounds,
and has flesh of extreme delicacy. There can be no
doubt of the ultimate success of this important branch
of industry ; though the extent of capital required, and
the distance from markets, give little encouragement to
any immediate attempt on a great scale.*

* Statistical Sketches, p. 49. Pickering. Backwoods, pp. 159, 160.

END OF VOLUME FIRST.

Printed by Oliver dr Boyd,
Tweeddale Court, High Street, Edinburgh.

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