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CANADA UPPER AND LOWER, NOVA SCOTIA, NEW BRUNSWICK, NEWFOUNDLAND, PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND, THE BERMUDAS, I AND THE FUR COUNTRIES. TO V7HIca IS ADDKD, A PULL DETAIL OF THE PRINCIPLES AND BEST MODES OF EMIGRATION. BY HUGH MURRAY, F.R.S.E. WITH ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE NATURAL HISTORY, BT JAMES WILSON, F. R. S. E. dc M.W. S. R. K. ORETILLE, LL. D. AND PROFESSOR TRAILL. SIX MAPS BY WRIGHT, AND TSN BNORA VINOS BY JACKSON. THREE VOLUMES IN ONE. / itc^ WkL EDINBURGH: OLIVER & BOYD, TWEEDDALE COURT. ENTERED IN STATIONERS* HALL. Printed by OUvV. * B(»y4i Tweeddale Court, High Street, Edinburgh. PREFACE. The Work now submitted to the Public will, it is hoped, equal in the interest of its subject any hitherto included in the Edinburgh Cabinet Library. The territories of British America, even after having lost enough to constitute one of the greatest states in the world, embrace a very large proportion of the earth's surface, and ph;- sent natural features at once extremely grand and romantic. The native inhabitants were distinguished by energy and intelligence above all the other rude tribes of the Western Continent, and displayed, perhaps beyond any similar race, the most striking peculiarities of savage life. Their long and fierce struggles, before yielding to the superior numbers and martial skill of Europeans, gave rise to scenes much more interesting than ever diversify the routine of civilized warfare. Finally, the exploits by which those regions were added to the dominion of Britain are readily acknowledged to rank among the most brilliant that adorn her annals in any age. These colonies, too, have acquired an augmented im- portance from the great changes effected in our own times. Their rich and varied products, their vast extent, and the strong direction which emigrants from Britain have taken towards their shores, encourage the expectation that they will one day become the seat of great nations, equalling or even surpassing the power of the mother-country. A deep interest is naturally felt in their future prospects^ 6 PREFACK. moro csppcially when conneotcd with tlip numhcrs, HmoiintiMgduriiij? tlio lust twenty years to nearly half a million, who have removed thither from various parts of the United Khigdom. Ilenee it luia happened that many among us, who do not oven know an individual in the adjacent county, find thematdves hound, not hy friendship only, hut hy the most intimate ties, with the dwellers in those transatlantic regions. All such persons must he de- sirous to receive information in regard to the capahilitics of the country in which their friends arc placed, and the hopes that may he entertained as to their future prospe- rity in that distinit land. It may he added, that to the merchant and manufacturer, British America affords a market already very importtmt, and susceptihle of al- most indefinite enlai-gement. The Author, thus deeply impressed with the import- ance of his task, has mixionaly sought every means of rendering its perfonnance complete and satisfactory. In tracing the condition and history of the ahoriginal trihes, as influenced hy the early settlement of Europeans, he lias had access to extensive works and collections in the French hinguage, to which fonner writers in this country appear to have heen strangers. Ho has devoted much attention to the still more important ohject of delineat- ing the statistics and present state of the colonies ; an undertaking which was attended with considerable dif- ficulty, on account of the rapid changes which have re- cently occurred, and rendered all previous information in a great measure useless. Hence, besides the works of Bouchette, McGregor, Martin, and others, it was neces- s*»Ty to examine the tables published by the Board of Trade, the voluminous reports laid before Parliament, and to compare them with the narratives of the latest travellers and residents. PRKPACK. 7 Even with all these resources, it was found impossihlc to render the information complete, without ohtuining personal communications from various quarters. It is gratifying to the Author to mention, that on the mere statement of his ohject, and of the name of tlie Work for which he was collecting materials, the most valuable intel- ligence was cheerfully conveyed to him. Particular ac- knowledgments arc due to Mr Simpson, the enlightened rcsidentgovemorof the IIudson'sBay Establishment, who fortunately happened to bo in England, An ill-founded impression, that the Company sought to shroud its trans- actions in mystery, had, it appears, deterred former in- ([uirers. The Author, however, upon making an applica- tion, was met with a liberality almost unexampled, and was furnished with a large store of original information respecting their trade, and the general state of the fur countries. A very well-informed gentleman, who long carried on mercantile transactions, and still maintah^s in exten- sive correspondence in Canada, contributed the valuable chapter on the commerce of the two provinces. An intel- ligent friend, filling an important situation at St John, Newfoundland, transmitted full and recent statistical de- tails relative to that interesting colony. Respecting Prince Edward Island, very useful materials were frankly sup- plied by Mr Stewart, a gentleman deeply concerned there both as proprietor and manager. To Mr Bruyeres and other distinguished persons connected with the Land Companies, the Author is indebted for several important communications. From other sources of high authority, which cannot here be fully particularized, valuable in- formation, otherwise inaccessible, has been obtained. The reader will appreciate one peculiar difficulty under which the Author laboured, namely, that while 8 PREFACE. he was composing the Work, and even supermtendmg its passage through the press, the subject was undergoing an incessant change ; and at length the principal provinces became the theatre of some very momentous occurrences. He has assiduously studied to trace, by means of the most authentic documents, the course of those events, and to exhibit them in a condensed and connected view. He hopes that he has thereby conveyed to the general reader a more distinct idea of their nature than could have been derived from scattered notices in the daily journals. At a crisis so important, when the two principal colonies are about to receive a new form, he has felt himself justified in submitting such reflections on the various methods proposed as a long study of the subject has suggested to him. These, however, he has anxiously sought to rest, not upon ephemeral interests, or the exclusive reasoning of any political party, but upon enlarged views of history and govenunent, which ought alone to guide legislators in so important a measure, of which the consequences will be so serious and so durable. Emigration, the most important light under which British America can be viewed, will be found to have occupied a very prominent place in the writer*s re- searches. He has endeavoured to supply the intending settler with more comprehensive and precise details than have hitherto been collected. The prospects which will open to the emigrant, the course wliich he ought to pursue, the difficulties to be encountered, and the best means of overcoming them, have been considered at full length. In subservience to this object, a very minute account has been given of the different districts, their situation, climate, and soil, in connexion with their natural and acquired aa vantages of every description. The different branches of Natural History, — Zoology, 7 H PREFACE. 9 Botany, and Geology, — have been very carefully illus- trated by Mr Wihon, Dr Greville, ard Professor Traill, — gentlemen whose names afford a sumcient guarantee for the value and accuracy of their information. These ample details, combined with f^ 'ers in a former volume of the series, will present ai;. structive view of those remarkable features which Nature displays throughout the northern part of the American Continent. To illustrate these various subjects the utmost care has been taken to prepare a series of Maps, exhlbitmg at once the general geography of British America and its most important localities. One, on a large scale, comprehends all the provinces already occupied, while four of smaller dimensions show the topography of those districts in Lower and Upper Canada which are best adapted for settlement. Various divisions and towns that have recently sprung up, and could not be in- cluded in any former map, have been carefully marked. To the Third Volume is annexed a delineation of the whole of the Northern and Western Regions which form the theatre of the fur-trade and of those recent expedi- tions which had for their object an extended knowledge of the remote shores and neighbouring seas. The most picturesque features of costume and scenery have been made the subject of wood-engravings by Mr Jackson. June 17, 1839. > CONTENTS OF VOL. I. CHAPTER L GEKERAL VIEW OF BRITISH AMERICA, AND PARTICULARLY OF CANADA. Extent and Boundaries— General Aspect— Limits of the present Work— Canada, its Boundaries and general Features — Lakes- Superior— Huron— St Clair—Erie— Niagara Channel— Lake Ontario— Islands and Rapids of the St Lawrence— The Ottawa —The St Lawrence from Montreal to Quebec— Its lower Course —This Region remarkable for its Waterfals— Niagara— Its Description— Supposed Changes in its Position — Climate — How it differs from thatof Europe— Effects on Agriculture— Boundary Question with the United States— Reference to the King of Holland— Its Issue, Page 17 CHAPTER IL THE NATIVE INDIANS INHABITING CANADA AND ITS BORDERS. Peculiar Condition of those Tribes— Their Physical Character- Form— Colour— Hair and Beard— Bodily Strength— Dress—Or- n 12 J; CONTENTS. naments—Painting and Tattooinjr of the Skin— Modes of Sub- sistence —Hunting — Cultivation — Food — Houses — Canoes — Spirit of Independence — Internal Order— Marriages— Rearing of Children— Intellectual Character — Oratory— Style of Compo- sition — Religious Ideas — Importance attached to Dreams — The Manitou — Ideas of a Future State— Reverence for the Dead — Ceremonies of Interment — Superstitious Modes of curing the Sick — Indian Wars — Their Motives — Preparations — March — Modes of attacking and surprising the Enemy — Return — Treat- ment of Prisoners ; Tortures; Adoption — Treaties — Indian Amusements— Music — Dancing — Smoking — Games — Different Tribes inhabiting Canada and its Borders, Page 44 CHAPTER III. : HISTOBT OF CANADA UNDER THE FRENCH. Earliest Discoveries of the English and French — De la Roche — Chauvin and Pontgrave — De Monts — Champlain, employed by him, ascends the St Lawrence — Founds Quebec — Dealings with a Party of Natives— Joins a v^arlike Expedition — Victory — Torture — Transactions in France— Fresh military Encounter — Foundation of Montreal — Various Transactions — Voyage up the Ottawa — Great Expedition against the Iroquois — Unsuccessful — Difficulties in France — Appomtment of De Caen — Peace among the Indian Tribes — Duke de Ventadour Viceroy — Rupture of the Treaty — Quebec taken by the English — Restored — Large Supplies sent out — Death of Champlain — Great Power of the Five Nations — Treaty with them — War renewed — Destruction of the French Indian Allies — A Remnant flee to Quebec — Iroquois Masters of Canada — Louis XIV. determines to reinforce the Colony — Expedition under De Tracy — Government of De Cour- celles — Frontenac — De la Barre^His fruitless Expedition — CONTENTS. 13 Denonville— His violent Proceedings— Critical State of the Co- lony — Second Government of Frontenac — Capture of Corlaer or Sclienectndy— The English under Phipps attack Quehec— Re. pulsed— Negotiations with the Indians— Invasion of their Ter- ritory — Death of Frontenac — De Callieres — Peace, and speedy Renewal of War — Attempts by the English to conquer Canada- Treaty of Utrecht— Charlevoix's Account of the State of the Co- lony— Its Prosperity — Administration of Du Quesnc, Page 97 CHAPTER IV. HISTORY OF CANADA UNDER THE BRITISH. War between Great Britain and France — Advantages gained by the latter — Expedition against Canada under Wolfe — His first Repulse — Lands a second Time — Victory — Death — Conquest of Canada— State of the Population — Their good Treatment — Re- fuse to join the Rebellion by the United Colonies — The latter invade Canada — Siege of Quebec — Repulse and Death of Mont- gomery — Americans driven out of Canada — A Constitution grant- ed — Division into Upper and Lower — Rise of Internal Dissen- sion — ^War with the United States — Advantages gained by Britain on the western Frontier — On the Niagara, &c. — The Ameri- cans take York (Toronto) and Fort Geoi^^e — Obliged to retreat — Their Successes in the West — Fruitless Attempt on Montreal- Events on the Niagara Frontier — Large Reinforcements from England — Failure of Sir Geoi^e Prevost — Peace — Discontents of the Assembly— Administration of the Duke of Richmond — Earl of Dalhousie — Sir James Kempt — Lord Aylmer — Increased Discontent — Commission of Inquiry — Earl of Gosford — Assem- bly stillrefuse Supplies — Resolutions of the British Parliament — Disturbances in Canada — Insurrection — Suppressed — Political Movements in Upper Canada — Sir Francis Head Governor — 14 CONTENTS. Rising and Defeat of Mackenzie — Aggressions from the United States — Conduct of their Goveminent — Mission of the Earl of Durham— Recent Events, Page 173 CHAPTER V. TOPOGRAPHY OF LOWEE CANADA. Boundaries— Surface — Divisions — District of Quebec — City (Xfthat Name — Situation; Edifices; Upper and Lower Town; Vici- nity — Fall of Montmorenci— Isle of Orleans — ^Tadoussac and the Saguenay — Lower Coast — Shores above Quebec — Trois Rivieres, Town and District— Montreal District — City — Ca- tholic Cathedral — Other Edifices — Rural Districts — Settlements on the Ottawa — Country South of the St Lawrence — Settlements on the Richelieu — Southern Part of Trois Rivieres District — Eastern Townships — American Land Company's Territory — Southern Part of Quebec— Townships — Lower Shores of the St Lawrence — Gaspe — General Summary...... 241 CHAPTER VI. TOPOGRAPHY OF UPPER CANADA. Boundaries — Surface and Extent — Progress ot' Settlement and Cultivation— Climate and Soil — Divisions — Eastern Division — Eastern District — Johnstown — Bathurst; Perth and Bytown — Central Division— Midland District — ^Town of Kingston — New- castle District ; Coburg and Port Hope ; Peterborough — Home District — City of Toronto — Settlements on Lake Simcoe — West- ern Section — Its early Settlement — Gore District — Canada Company — Giielph — Gait — NiagaraDistrict — Town — Queenston CONTENTS. 16 —Falls —London District; Colonel Talbot ; Town of London- Huron Tract; Coder .< -Western District ; Amherstburg and Sandwich—General Summary, Page 284 CHAPTER VIL AGRICULTURE Or CANADA. Local Peculiarities — The Climate — The unbroken Forest— Mode of Clearing— Ashes— Soil indicated by the Timber— First Crops — Wheat — Other Grains — Grasses, Flax, Hemp, Tobacco — Live Stock, Quality and Treatment— Horticulture — Floriculture— Mf^le Sugar — Agricultural Processes — Hunting and Shooting —Fishery, 331 II l> ENGRAVINGS IN VOL. I. Map of British America, To face the Vignette. Vignette— Falls of Niagara. Native Indian Costumes, Page 50 Tattooed Indian, 53 Infant in a Frame, 66 Indian Warrior, 84 Map of Eastern Tonvnships, Tofacepage 274 Map of Eastern Districts, Tofacepage 291 Map of Central Districts, Tofacepage 301 Map of Western Districts, .To face page 312 CONTENTS OF VOL. II. CHAPTER I. COMMERCE OF THE CANADAS. Export Trade— Productive Industry— Export Trade— Wheat — Ashes— Fish — Furs — Tobacco — Timber — Miscellaneous — Manufactures — Household Stuffs — Iron Wares — Import Trade— Import Trade and Consumption — Spirits and Wines — West India Produce — British Manufactures — Miscellaneous — Trade with the United States — Exchanges, &c Ex. change — Weights and Measures — Banks — Inland Communica- tion, ,.., Page 13 CHAPTER II. SOCIAL STATE OF CANADA. Different Classes of People — French Habitans— Their Tenures- Outward Appearance — Mode of living — Religious and moral 6 CONTENTS. I 1 ! !li I Character — Manners in Upper Canada — Mode oF living — NatiTc Indians — Their Numher — Catholic Indians — Hurons of Loretto — Different Tribes — Effects of Protestant Conversion — Govern- ment Expenditure on them — Present Dress and Mode of living — Religious Instruction in Lower and Upper Canadb — Educa- tion, Page A3 CHAPTER III. POLITICAL STATE OF CANADA. Government under the French — British Arrangements— Constitu- tion granted to the Canadaa — Division into Upper and Lower — Revenue — Military Force— Justice — Reflections on the pro- posed new Constitution — Enmity of Races — Best Modes of appeasing it — Executive Government — Its Collision with the Assembly — Origin of the late Disturbances — Remedies suggested — Views of Sir Francis Head — Distinction between F<»-< ign and Internal Affairs — Executive Council — Representative Assembly — Its Defects— Best Mode of raising its Character — Legislative Council — Proposed Union of the Provinces — Its Advantages- Dangers to be guarded against — Municipal Institutions, 77 CHAPTER IV. OEKERAL VIEW OF THE MARITIME PROVINCES. Situation and Extent — Chkn. 'er of the Coast — Fisheries — Forests — Early Voyages— Sir Hm; , ; vr/ Gilbert— His Equipment — CONTENTS, Adventures on the Voyage — Transactions in Newfoundland — LoN8ot'his lar^^est Vessel — Final Catastrophe — French Voya^rcn —Nova Scotia, Pa^r,- 10*2 CHAPTER V. OEKERAL DESCRIPT)Oy AND HISTORY OF NOVA SCOTIA. Extent and Liinlf^^ — INfountaias — Streams— Soil — Climate — First Settleroevi' !\y De ivionts — Captured by the English — Colony under Sir tV^illiam Alexander — Ceded to France — Contests aiuong the Proprietors — Conquered by the New Englanders — Wars with the Indians — Cape Breton captured — Restored — Set- tlement of Halifax — Disputes with France — War — Expulsion of the Acndians — Capture of Louisbourg — Return of the Acadians — Representative Assembly — Peace with the Indians — Nova Scotia during the American Contest — Increased by numerous Re- fugees —Subsequent Events, 114 CHAPTER VI. TOPOGRAPHICAL DESCRIPTION' Or NOVA SCOTIA. General Divisions— Country on the Ailantic—District of Halifax— oity— Dell tmouth— Northern Part of Halifax District— South- western— Lunenburg— La Have —Queen's County— Liverpool— Shelburne— Argyle and Yarmouth— Territory on the Bay of Fundy— Annapolis County— The Acadians— Digby— Annapo- lis Township— Bridgetown— Basin of Minas— King's County— ■ I [ 8 CONTENTS. Hants— Windsor—District of Colchester— Truro— Bay of Chij;:- necto — Minudie — Country on Northumberland Strait and the Gut of Canseau — Cumberland County — Township of Wallace — Pictou District — Town — County of Sydney — Dorchester — Guys- borough — Cafe Breton — Extent and Situation — Appearance of the Country — Climate— Population — Coal District — Town of Sydney — Island of Scatari — Ruins of Louisbourg — Arichat — Port Hood— Cheticamp — Island of St Paul— Bay of St Anne- Bras d'Or — Settlements on its Coasts, Page 152 CHAPTER VII. INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE OF NOVA SCOTIA. Agriculture — Different Soils — Chief Products — Mode of Culture — Minerals — Coal — Gypsum — Sandstone — Metals — Fisheries — Timber — Commerce — Various Articles of Export and Im- port, .1»9 CHAPTER VIII. SOCIAL AND POLITICAL STATE OF NOVA SCOTIA. Population — Anglo-Americans — Scots in Pictou — Acadians — Negroes — Indians — Religious Professions — Education — Poli- tical Constitution — Judicial Establishment — Revenue — Mili- tary Defence, 20!l CONTENTS. 9 CHAPTER IX. HISTORY AND DESCRIPTION OF NEW BRUNSWICK. Extent and Boundaries— Surface — Settlement and Progress Statistical Tables— St John County and City— King's and Queen's Counties — Sunbury — York — Fredericton — Carleton County— Falls of* the St John— Charlotte County— Town ofSt An- drew — Westmoreland — Northumberland — Kent — Gloucester — Ristigouche, Page 224 CHAPTER X. INDUSTRY, COMMERCE, SOCIAL AND POLITICAL STATE OF NEW BRUNSWICK. Agriculture — Productions — Timber-trade — Mode of collecting the Timber — Saw-mills — Ship-building — Fishery — Exports and Im- ports — Recent Improvements — Population — Constitution— Re- venue— Military Defence, 242 CHAPTER XL PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND. Situation and Extent— Surface— Climate— Soil— Discovery— Early Settlement— Capture by Britain— Plans to colonize it — Name changed to Prince Edward— Various Governors— Local Divi- sions — Charlottetown — Ring's County — Prince's County — VOL. II. a 2 10 CONTENTS. a Agriculture — Timber-trade — Fishing — Commerce — Imports and Exports — Population — Constitution — Revenue — Edu- cation, Page 257 CHAPTER XII. NEWFOUNDLAND. General Description — Abundance of Fish — The Great Bank.>-Dis- covery — Early Fisheries — First Attempts at Settlement — Colo- nies by Lord Baltimore and others — Persecution against the resident Fishermen — Contests with France — Extension of the Fishery — Effects of the American War — Continued Progress — Flourishing State during the last War — Subsequent Events — General StatisticalTable— St John, the Capital — Eastern Coast, Ferryland, &c. — Conception and Trinity Bays, Harbour Grace, &c. — Placentia, St Mary, Sec. — French Coast — St Pierre and Miquelon — Labrador, its Stations — Descriptions by Cartwright and Curtis — Settlements by the Moravian Missionaries — The Cod-fishery — Modes of conducting it — Produce — The Seal- fishery — Salmon, &c. — Agriculture — Commerce — Tables — French and American Fisheries — Population, Society, Govern- ment, &c. — Native Indians — Esquimaux, 275 CHAPTER XIIL BERMUDAS. Situation — Climate — First Discovery — Shipwreck and Deliverance of May— Of Gates and Summers — First Settiement — Company formed — Its Constitution— Administrations of Moore, Tucker, CONTENTS. 11 and Butler— Improved State — Queries by the Royal Society — Subsequent Neglect — Becomes important as a Naval Station — Agriculture, Fishing, and Commerce — Naval and Military Esta- blishments — Population and State of Society — Local Divl. sions, Page 329 I / I 1 '"I i i' i ENGRAVINGS IN VOL. II. ViGNETTE_St John, Newfoundland. Dance of Habitans, Pane 66 Domiciliated Indians, 72 Province Building and St Matthew's Kirk, HoUis Street, Halifax, 150 CONTENTS OF VOL. III. CHAPTER I. HUDSON'S BAY TERRITORY: EARLY DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT. Outline and Boundaries— Mountain Ranges— Rivers and Lakes — Discovery by Cabot and Hudson — Button— Byiot — Fox— James ■^Hudson's Bay Company — Their Settlements — Contests with France — Voyages by Knight— Middleton — Moor and Smith — North-west Company — Harmon's Account of their Trade and Settlements, Page 13 CHAPTER II. HUDSON'S BAY TERRITORY: RECENT DISCOVERY AND PRESENT STATE. Hearne and Mackenzie— Parry, Franklin, and Richardson — Cap- tain Back sent in search of Captain Ross — Aided by the Hudson's fiayCompany — Reaches Great Slave Lake — Discovers the Thlew- ee-choh — Winters on the Lake — Voyage down the River — Arrested by Ice— His Return— Successful Voyage by Messrs Dease and Simpson — The North-west incorporated with the Hudson's Bay Company — Privileges of that Body — Its Consti- tution and Management — Indian Tribes within its Jurisdiction — Valuable furred Animals, Beaver, Martin, Fox, Otter, &c. — Modes of catching them — Principal Stations — ^York Fort- Moose — Montreal — Fort Vancouver — Claims of the Americans — VOL. III. a 2 !• : I 10 CONTENTS. Settlement on the Red River — Import of Furs — General Course of the Trade, Page 54 !!^ ■] \ r CHAPTER III. ON EMIGRATION TO THE BRITISH NORTH AMERICAN COLONIES. Advantages of Emigration — Classes of Emigrants — Prospects of a Settler in the middling Rank — Choice of Land — Situations best suited for him — Estimates of Expenses and Profits — Modes of obtaining Credit — Terms of Government and the Companies — Emigration of Half-pay Officers — Of distressed Farmers — Of Persons of Capital — Of labouring Settlers — Advantages of their Situation — Their means of purchasing and clearing Land — Pauper Emigrants — Parties sent out by Government — Military and Naval Pensioners — Plan formed by Mr BuUer — Obser- vations — Conveyance of the Emigrant — Modes and Expenses of Passage — Outfit requi' ed — Of Journey into the Interior from Quebec — From New York — The Canada and British American Land Companies — Comparison between Canada and the United States — Observations on Lord Durham's Statements — Numbers of Emigrants for the last Seventeen Years — Quarters to which they went — Emigration to Nova Scotia— New Brunswick — Prince Edward Island — Newfoundland and Hudson's Bay, ...98 CHAPTER IV. GENERAL SUMMARY. General Retrospect — Extent of British America — Proportion cul- tivated — Produce — Exports of Timber — Fishery — Agricultural Products — Imports — Shipping — Interior Communications — Those proposed by Mr Buller — Others suggested — Welland and St Lawrence Canals — Population — Different Classes.— Church CONTENTS. 11 eral Course ....Page 64 XRICAK Establishment— Political Constitution — Proposed Union of the Colonies — Other Su^estions — Proceedings on the Boundary Question — A ward accepted by Britain — Rejected by the American Senate — Various Negotiations — Encroachments by American States and consequent Dissensions — Violent Proceedings of Maine — Threatened Hostilities— Temporary Adjustment,... Page 183 aspects of a lations best — Modes of ompanies — armers — Of ges of their ng Land — t — Military ler — Obser- l Expenses iterior from 1 American le United —Numbers rs to which runswick— Bay, ...98 CHAPTER V. NOTICES REGARDING THE PRIKCIFAL ZOOLOGICAL PRO- DUCTIONS OF BRITISH AMERICA. The Quadrupeds— The Birds— The Reptiles— The Fishes— The Insects, 221 CHAPTER VI. SO»IE ACCOUNT OF THE MOST INTERESTING PLANTS BELONGING TO BRITISH AMERICA. Plants deserving particular Notice in the natural Orders — Ranun- culacese — Podophylleae— NymphaeaceaB — Magnoliaceae — Umbel- liferae — Araliacese — Grossulaceae — Vitaceae — Sarraceniaceae — Comaceas Aceraceae Rosacese — Leguminosae— Betulaceae — Juglandaceae — Platanaceae— Ericaceae— Vacciniaceae— Composi- tae— Coniferse — Orchidaceae, 304 CHAPTER VII. ortion cul- gricultural ications — Hand and —Church GEOLOGICAL SKETCH. General Geological Sketch of British North America — Lakes- Rivers — Barrow's Strait — Melville Island — Prince Regent's Inlet — Melville Peninsula — Upper and Lower Canada — New Brunswick— Nova Scotia — Cape Breton— Prince Edward Island —Newfoundland, 331 fM Ih Jl .' if! t'r ;; > ^ 12 CONTENTS. APPENDIX. Narrative of the Expedition of Messrs Dease and Simpson alony^ the North Coast of America, under the Employment of the Hud. son's Bay Company, Page 355 Copy of Letter from Governor Simpson to Messrs C. W. Dease and Thomas Simpson, 356 To the Governor and Council of the Northern Department, Ru- pert's Land, 35!* ExpediUonofl838 372 Index, 377 ENGRAVINGS IN VOL. III. Map of Northern Coasts of America, To face the Vignette. Vi£tN£TT£ — Cascades on Hoar-frost River. Hi II' i I; ..'I *^ HISTORICAL AND DESCRIPTIVE ACCOUNT OF BRITISH AMERICA. CHAPTER I. General View of British America^ and particularly of Canada. Extent and Boundaries —General Aspect —Limits of the present Work — Canada, its Boundaries and {^neral Features — Lakes — Superior — Huron — St Clair — Erie — Niagara Channel — Lake Ontario— Islands and Rapids of the St Lawrence — The Ottawa — The St Lawrence from JMontreal to Quebec — Its lower Course — This Region remarkable for its Waterfals — Niagara — Its Description — Supposed Changes in its Position — Climate — How it difiFers from that of Europe — Eflectson Agriculture — Boundary Question with the United States — Retereuce to the King of Holland — Its Issue. That portion of North America claimed by Britain, and which is generally recognised by the civilized world as belonging to her, forms a region of immense extent, embracing considerably more than a third part of the entire continent. On the north its boundary is the coast of the Arctic Ocean, westward as ftir as the 141st degree of longitude. The region beyond, by a treaty concluded in 1825, was assigned to Russia, though the survey of its shores, still very incomplete, has been VOL. I. A li'i ( t / f'l III I i 1 i^' 'W ! I Jjii 18 GENERAL VIEW OP chiefly cffbctcd by British navigators. The lino of the northern shore runs nearly along the 70th parallel of latitude, though at different points it slightly deviates from it. All the large islands in the Aretic Sea belong also, by right of discovery, to England ; though their value, unconnected with the several fisheries, is by no means considerable. The eastern limit, coinciding also with that of the continent, is formed by the Atlantic and its bays, from the Strait of the Fury and Hecla, in about lat. 70° N., to the mouth of the St Croix, the southern boundary of New Brunswick, in lat. 45° 6' N. Along this coast, too, Britain has several large islands ; on the north. Cock- burn and Cumberland ; farther south, Newfoundland, with the exception of a small portion occupied by France ; and those of Cape Breton and Prince Edward in the Gulf of St Lawrence. From the St Croix, the southern boundary extends in a long ir.egular line across the continent. After in- cluding r>ew Bmnswick and a large part of Canada, it strikes the St Lawrence at St Regis, in long. 74° 45' W. about sixty miles above Montreal. From that point the river, with its grand chain of connected lakes, divicVs the British territory from the United States. Commencuig again at the head of Superior, the frontier stretches to the north-western angle of the Lake of the Woods, in lat. 49° 20' N. ; and following this parallel it runs across the continent to the Rocky Mountains, beyond which considerable uncertainty prevails. By a con- vention signed at London in October 1818, all questions connected with this remote region were left open for ten years ; but that period was allowed to elapse without any decision being formed on the subject. The United States, Britain, and Russia, advance respectively cer- tain pretensions which do not well harmonize, but these our present object does not lead us to examine minutely. Farther north, however, the boundary of the provinces claimed by the court of St Petersburg!! has been fixed in a direct line along the 141st degree of BRITISH AMERICA. 19 ?eb the 9 west lonp;itu(lc, extending from Mount St Elias to the Arctic Ocean.* The British dominions in America arc understood to he situated l)etween the parallels of 41° 47' and 7B° north latitude, and between 62° and 141° of west lon!»;itudc. It may be o))served, however, that the eastern and northern boundaries are both insular, and comprehend vast tracts of ocean. If we assume limits on the mainland, we must take, on the cast, Cape Charles in Labrador, in about lon^. 5.5° .SO' W. ; and on the north, Cai)e Clarence in Boothia, in about lat. 74° N. ; though indeed on the latter side no considerable mass of the continent extends be- yond 70°. Thus the whole area amounts to nearly 4,000,000 square miles. Of this vast space the greater portion wears an aspect peculiarly dreary, being buried the greater part of the year in snow, and pr(jducing nothing valuable except the skins and furs of the wild animals that roam over its surface. Yet there seems reason to think that, as cultivation advances and the means of intercourse are improved, very extensive tracts may be found fitted for all the productions of the tem- perate zone. The tenure by which Britain holds the larger share of these wild domains is of a peculiar and somewhat equi- vocal nature. Her claim, which is not admitted by the original owners, is allowed only by other ])owers equally destitute with herself of any natural right ; and yet, when we consider that though she dispossesses a few naked savages, she plants numerous colonies consisting of a civilized and industrious population, there will ap- pear little reason to condemn her conduct. If provision be duly made for the subsistence and wellbeing of the natives, it will be acknowledged that the benefits of European occupation are so great as fully to compensate for any defect in the title. It is not, however, our intention to take a minute * Bouchette, British Dominions in North America (2 vols 4to, London, 1831), vol. i. pp. 10, 13.18. l ,1 ^ ! 'i 4 li 20 OENEUAL VIEW OP HUivry of thoHo (tutcr triuts, many of which aiv un- known to Hiitiiin luTsi'lf, and wIukso inhahitants huvo lU'viT heard hor nanu-. 'rhcse have hvvu the ohjtrt of rooi'nt «HHC'(»Vfrv, the ivsults of which luivo hern siitis- factoriiv stated in ii fonner vtdunuof tlie JvlinhuryhCa- ])inet liihrary.'' The |)i'est>ijt W(»rk will relate to the Hmaller, hut more important part, which has heen re^ai- larly repulous than all the maritime j)rovinces united ; and hesides, it is the prin- cipal resort of emigrants from the motlu^r-country. To its history and description we shall therefore devote the first i)ortion of this work. Canada is hounded on the north hv a ranae of hills soparatinLr it from the territory of the Hudson's Bay Company ; on the east, hy Lahrador, the CJulf of St Lawrence, and New Brunswick ; and on the south, hy the United States. The western limit is very vatrue ; but \\si\'j;e does not seem to extend it farther than Lake Su[)erior. (Canada may therefore he , 2»3.2y4, 297, 2U3. ••i 122 GENERAL VIEW OP u <: :.*' I S'l I'll''' ( i ■■ \ i I 'i pests like the ocean, and on its surface war was recently waged in ships of the first magnitude. Lake Superior is the largest of these inland seas, and indeed the most extensive body of fresh water in the world. Its form is an irregular crescent, having the convex side towards Canada ; it is very broad in the centre ; but the south-eastern and south-western extre- mities terminate almost in points. Its length, following the line of the curve, is estimated by Captain Bayfield at 360 geographical miles, the greatest breadth at 140, and tlie circumference about 1500. Its surface appears to be 627 feet above the level of the Atlantic, and the shores afford indications of its having once been 40 or 50 feet higher. The soundings have been given variously from 480 to 900 feet ; and the greatest depth is believed to be about 1200. The transparency of the water is completely crystalline, rendering rocks, even at extraordinary depths, distinctly visible. The bottom consists chiefly of a very adhesive clay, which speedily indurates on exposure to the atmosphere. In violent gales, the waves rise nearly as high as those on the ocean ; and though there are of course no tides, the wind, "when it blows strongly from any one point, throws the water with considerable force on the opposite shore. In spring, too, it is sometunes greatly swelled by the melting of the snows. This lake, as formerly observed, is bordered by hills, which in some places rise precipitously from the shore, and m others leave intervals of various breadth, amounting occasionally to fifty or seventy miles. It is remarkable, that while every other large lake is fed by rivers of the first order, this, the most capacious on the surface of the globe, does not receive a third or even fourth rate stream ; the St Louis, the most considerable, not having a course of more than 150 miles. But whatever deficiency there may be in point of magnitude, it is compensated by the vast number which pour in their copious floods from the surrounding heights. The dense covering of wood, and the long continuance of frost, must also in ■i '■'ii BRITISH AMERICA. 23 this region greatly diminish the quantity drawn off by evaporation.* The surplus waters of Lake Superior enter near its south-eastern extremity into St Mary's Channel, by which they are transmitted into Lake Huron, nearly forty miles distant. About midway are St Mary's Falls, scarcely entitled to this appellation, being merely a con- tinued cataract, in which the current forces its way through broken rocks with tremendous noise, and amid clouds of foam. These rapids cannot be ascended ; but canoes, though with great danger, sometimes shoot down- wards. The more prudent avoid them by a portage of two miles. The Huron, into which this channel expands, is the second in succession as well as in magnitude of this great chain. Its outline is very irregular, but may, in a gene- ral view, be said to have three sides, two facing the north and east, and belonging to Canada ; while the third looks to the south-west, and forms part of the United States. Its extreme length, from the entry to the outlet, is about 240 miles ; its breadth is not less than 220 ; and the cir- cumference is supposed to be nearly 1000. Its surface is only thirty-two feet lower than that of Superior ; and it is equally distinguished by its extraordinary depth, esti- mated at 900 or 1000 feet, and by the brilliant transpa- rency of its waters. A range of islands runs parallel to its northern shore, and, with the peninsula of Cabot, separates almost completely the upper part from the main body, so that it was considered by the earliest discoverers as a distinct basin. Among these islands the cliief is the Great Manitoulin, seventy-five miles long, viewed by the Indians with superstitious awe as the chosen abode of their Great Spirit. At the outlet of the St Mary the two islets of St Joseph and Drum- mond are fortified as frontier-stations, the foiTner by Britain and the latter by the United States. The coast is * Bouchette, vol. i. pp. 127, 128. Darby's View of the United States (18rao, Philadelphia, lt52b), p. 200. 24 GENERAL VIEW OP 1 i ! '1 'I f ■ Im I t > i generally rugged, broken into heights of from 30 to 100 feet, formed of clay, rolled stones, precipitous rocks, and woody steeps. Towards the north the bold ridge of the Cloche Mountains exhibits several lofty summits ; but the eastern territory is wholly dissimilar, and forms one of the finest portions of the great plain of Upper Canada. This lake receives the Maitland, Severn, Moon, and French rivers, — broad streams, though not of long course, ' — but its chief supply is from the St Mary. Near its north- western point a narrow strait connects it with the lake of Michigan, entirely included within the boundary of the United States, It is equally deep and clear with Huron, and, though nearly on a level with that lake, is not completely so, as a constant current sets from the former into the latter. The Huron pours out the surplus of its waters at its southern extremity, thus carrying in that direction the great chain of communication. A channel called the River St Clair, after a course of about thirty miles, ex- pands into the comparatively small lake of the same name. Thence issues the Detroit, a spacious stream cele- brated for the beauty and fertility of the adjacent country. Both it and the lake, however, are so shallow, as not to admit vessels which draw more than seven or eight feet of water.* After running twenty-nine miles, the Detroit opens into the grand expanse of Lake Erie, about 265 miles long, and at its centre sixty-three broad, the circumfer- ence being estimated at somewhat less than 658. The surface is calculated to be 565 feet above the level of the ocean ; making it thirty feet lower than Huron, and sixty-two than Superior. The depth seldom amounts to 270 feet ; and the difficulties of the navigator are in- creased by the want of harbours and anchorage, as well as by the projecting promontories, which render a fre- quent change of course necessary. The direction of the great water-communication, which, from the head of * Bouchette, vol. i. pp. 133, 1S4. Darby, p. 203-206. I ni i nv BRITISH AMERICA. 25 Lake Huron, has been nearly due south, changes here to the north-east, till it opens into the Gulf of St Law- rence. The coasts, almost equally ivided between the Britisli and Americans, are generally very fertile. Lake Erie has acquired a peculiar importance, from having be- come the main centre of inland navigation. The two great canals reaching from it to the Hudson on one side, and the Ohio on the other, render it a medium of communication between the Atlantic, the Mississippi, and the Gulf of Mexico. The Welland canal and river, joining it to the Ontario, form a channel by which it is expected that a great part even of the produce of the United States will be henceforth transmitted.* The outlet of Lake Erie, at its north-eastern point, is the Niagara Channel, which, after pursuing its course thirty-three miles and a half, opens into Lake Ontario. In its progress it forms those stupendous falls which have no equal in the world, and will be afterwards described ; but as they interrupt the navigation, a canal has been formed on a nearly parallel line, to unite the two lakes for commercial purposes. The waters, in passing to Ontario, are calculated to fall 334 feet ; this lake being so much lower than Erie, and consequently only 231 feet above the level of the Atlantic. Ontario, the smallest of the great lakes, extends almost due east, with some inclination northwards; it is 172 miles long, 69 J- broad, and about 467 in circumference. The deptli of water varies from 15 to 300 feet ; and in the middle, a Hno of 300 fathoms has been let down without reaching the bottom. The banks are generally level, though a ridge of moderate height rises at some distance from its western and north-western shores. They are for the most part covered with wood, though now variegated with partial and increasing cultivation. Toronto and Kingston on the British, and Sackett's Harbour on the American side, are excellent stations, in which fleets have • Bouchette, vol. i. p. 184-137. Darby, p. 206-208. Gourlay, Statistical Account of Upper Canada (2 vols. 8vo, London, 18221, vol. ii. p. 53. ^^ ^ > > jy i-.« 26 GENERAL VIEW OF I' Mi i .'• been constructed, including ships of the largest size. Tliere are several small islands at the eastern extremity, of which the principal is named Grand Isle. The long and winding bay of Quinte, to the west of Kingston, encloses a very beautiful and fertile peninsula.* From the eastern extremity of Lake Ontario issues the stream which bears now, for the first time, the name of St Lawrence, though it has also been called Iroquois and Cataraqui. Its channel is here so spacious that it is called the Lake of the Thousand Islands. The vast number implied in this name was considered a vague exaggeration, till the commissioners employed in fixing the boundary with the United States actually counted them, and found that they amounted to 1692. They are of every imaginable size, shape, and appearance ; some barely visible, others covering fifteen acres ; but in general their broken outline presents the most pic- turesque combinations of wood and rock. The navigator in steering through them sees an ever-changing scene, which reminded an elegant writer of the Happy Islands in the Vision of Mirza. Sometimes he is enclosed in a narrow channel ; then he discovers before him twelve openings, like so many noble rivers ; and soon after a spacious lake seems to surround him on every side.t At the end of this reach the St Lawrence is obstructed by an island in the centre, producing what is termed the Long Sault. The stream, rushing through a narrow passage on each side, hurries on the bark with danger- ous velocity ; and the two currents, meeting at the lower end, dash against each other, forming what is called the Big ^itch. The river then, expanding to the breadth of more than five miles, is named the Lake of St Francis. At its termination begins a succession of very formidable rapids, named the Coteau du Lac, the Cedars, the Split Rock, and the Cascades, which, continuing about nine * Bouchette, vol. i p. 151. M'Greffor, British America (2 vols 8vo, Edinburgh, 1«32), vol. ii. p. 533-630. t Howison^ Sketches of Upper Canada (8vo, second edition, Edin- burgh, 1822), p. 46. Bouchette, vol. i, p. 15G. BRITISH AMERICA. 27 miles, complotoly interrupt thejiavigation for vessels of even moderate dimensions. The hardy Canadian boat- men mdeed contrive, with poles ten feet in length, to force through certain flat-bottomed barks of from six to twenty tons. Huge rafts of timber are also seen descend- ing the current ; but passengers by steam leave the vessel at one end of the declivity and re-embark at the other. Great operations, however, are now in progress to overcome these obstacles, and to secure a safe navi- gation to the inland seas. Below these rapids the river spreads out into Lake St Louis, near which there is a beautiful fall bearing the same name. This impediment to navigation has been recently overcome by a canal called La Chine. The St Lawrence now receives an important accession by the influx of the great stream of the Ottawa from the north- west, after a course of about 450 miles,* through an ex- tensive plain, generally very fertile, and covered with magnificent forests. These rivers at their junction form several large islands, on the principal of which is built the city of Montreal.t Below that place the St Lawrence presents a magni- ficent expanse, navigable for vessels of 600 tons, thus giving to the town just named all the advantages of a sea- port. About forty -five miles farther down, indeed, where it widens into the Lake of St Peter, it becomes somewhat shallow, and allows only a narrow passage to large ships. Again, about ninety miles nearer the ocean, the rocks forming the Richelieu rapids so contract the channel as to render it unsafe unless at particular periods of the tide. At Quebec, it narrows to 1314 yards ; yet the navigation is completely unobstructed, while there is formed near • Bouchette, vol. i. p. 187. Accordinj^ to Mr M'Gregor, Brit. Amer. vol. ii. p. 6'25, this river " is said to have its source near the Rocky Mountains, and to traverse in its windings a distance of 2500 miles." He adds, that it certainly flows ten or twelve hundred miles before joining the St Lawrence. We have no hesitation, however, in preferring the sober statement of Bouchette to these extravagant estimates. t Bouchette, vol. i. pp. 156, 162-211. , especially its extremes and sudden changes, would have been peculiarly trying to the human constitution. Experience, on the contrary, has esta- blished its decided salubrity. The countries, too, in which the cold is most severe, and the contrasts greatest, are found the healthiest. Hence Lower is more salubri- ous than Upper Canada, and the latter than the United States. It is true, at the same time, that diseases origi- nating in cold, such as rheumatism and pulmonary con- sumption, are the most common ; and it is remarkable that overall America the teeth are subject to early decay. The upper province suffers from intermittent fever, though not so severely as the countries farther south ; it is distressing and v/eakening, but seldom fatal.t The action of the climate upon agricultural produc- • Bouchette, vol. i. pp. 343, 344, 409. Howison, p. 243. Back- woods of Canada (lOmo, London, 1836), p. 206. t Bouchette vol. i. p. 344. M'Gregor, vol. i. p. 136-139* 40 GENERAL VIEW OP ■• *l ' I tions is more favoumblo in these countries than in others wliich have the winie mviin temperature. The intense lieat even of the short summer rij)ens corn and fruits which will not thrive in regions where the stiine warmth is more eiiually distributed throughout the year. 'IMius Q,uebec agrees in mean annual temperature with Chris- tionia ; yet wheat, scarcely ever attempted in Norway, is the staple of Lower Canada. The upjier province nearly coincides with the north of England; yet the grape, the peach, i...d the melon come to as much per- fection as in their native soil. Even rice is found growing wild. In this res})ect British America seems not to fall much short of European countries under the same lati- tude. Its Avinter-cold at the same time enables it to combine the products of the northern with those of the southern temperate climates. By the side of the fruits above mentioned flourish the strawberry, the cranberry, juid the raspberry ;* while the evergreen pines are co- ]>iously intermingled with the oak, the elm, and others of ampler foliage. The woods are filled with the rich fur-bearing animals that belong to an arctic climate, llie only difliculty is found with such agricultural pro- ductions as, under milder skies, are improved by win- tering in the soil. Autumn wheat, for example, has not vet succeeded in Lower Canada ; and several of the more delicate artificial grasses have failed. The farmer like- wise suffers inconvenience from the short interval in which all his operations of sowing, reaping, and harvesting must be completed, while he is left without occupation during the long remainder of the year. Before closing tliis general view of Canada, ft may be necessary to introduce some notice of the question which has arisen between Britain and the United States, re- specting their common boundaries. The vague terms often used in treaties have given rise to disputes and difficulties ; but it is seldom, as in the present instance, tliat they apply to a territory of 10,000 square miles, or (),400,000 acres. Though this tract is at present only • Bouchette, vol. i. p. 336. Backwoods, pp. 143, 144. i .1 ' ■ URITISII AMERICA. 41 an unbroken forest, yet, ay it consiHts in penenil of fertile land, the j)roceH8 of colonization, now rapidly approaching it, will, at no very distant period, render it of ^reat value. Uoth nations maintain their claim in u very j)eremptory manner ; and Li)i;chette, with other respectable writers on our side, re])els with the utmost indignation the idea of yielding; a shigle inch.* We respect the i)atriotic zeal of these authors ; yet, when sucli feelings carry a people to unreasonable demands, and prevent them from listening to argument, it may lead to calamitous consc- (juenees. We shall therefore endeavour to aj)proach the subject impartially, and view it as if totally abstractcil from either British or American interests. The terms of the treaty on which the dispute hinges are, that the boundary shall be drawn " alo7ig the high- laudii whichdivide those rivers that empty themselves into the rivei' St Lawrence from those which fall into the Atlantic Ocean," These words were penned in complete ignorance resi)ectirig the country of which they were intended to dispose. Instead of one highland tract, whose opposite waters fall into the specified recttptaeles, there are two ridges, considerably distant, and enclosing between them the wide expanse of the disputed territory. Throughout its centre, from west to east, flows the St John, receiving nearly all the waters from the north side of the one range and the south side of the other. The British, as their boundary, claim the most southerly, the Americans the most northerly of these two lines. Let us see how these claims w^ill agree with the terms of the treaty. The British boundary clearly fulfils one condition ; all the rivers on its southern side fall into the Atlantic. But on the northern it entirely fails, for there they all flow into the St John, and not one drop reaches the St Law- rence. Here, then, we cannot but own a want of coin- cidence with the literal tenns of *he convention. Bou- cliette does not deny this, and allows "that the letter of the treaty of ] 783 has described a boundary which the physical and hydrographical divisions of the country to * Bouchette, vol. i. pp. 10, 26. M*Gregor, vol. i. p. 140. ' ii Hi !, '» JM ■ I .i 42 GENERAL VIEW OF be divided rendered it utterly impossible substantially to establish." He contends, however, that its professed de- sign of contemplating " reciprocal advantages and mutual convenience," and of proceeding upon " i)rinciples of liberal equity and reciprocity," clearly decides the point in favour of Britain. These, however, are very vague grounds on which to determine a matter of fact ; and, besides, we do not very distinctly sec their bearing in our favour. No doubt it would be advantageous and convenient for Britain to get the whole of this territory ; but we cannot expect that the Americans will see the reciprocal benefit of their losing the whole. They, on the contrary, maintain that their boundary is strictly and literally conformable to the terms of the treaty. The rivers on one side of it undoubtedly flow into the St Lawrence, while on the other they reach the St John ; which last falls into the Bay of Fundy, and that bay communicates with the Atlantic* This, they pretend, is equivalent to the original rivers falling directly into the Atlantic Ocean. But such an interpretation appears to us wholly inconsistent with the precision which ever ought to be observed in the terms of a positive treaty. Tlie obvious meaning was that the rivers descending from the ridge in question were such as fall into the open Atlantic, and not merely connected with it in this indirect manner. It cannot for a moment be doubted, that the first was the meaning of the negotiators ; that they had in view the Penobscot, the Kennebeck, and other streams flowing from the north into the ocean. We do not therefore think, that the Americans stand on better ground than ourselves as to the literal terms of the treaty. Nay, we are convinced that these terms are wholly incapable of being executed, as they were obviously framed by persons entirely ignorant of the territory in question. In order to adjust this diffbrence, it was agreed by the two contracting powers, on the 12th January 1829, to • Some of them fall into the Ristig;ouche, and thence into tlie Bay of Chaleur, which is also connected with the Atlantic ; the ar- gument with regard to these is exactly the same. 1: !' BRITISH AMERICA. 43 refer it to the arbitration of the King of Holland. Ac- cordingly, on the 10th January IStSl nis majesty de- livered his award, in which he concluded, that neither of the proposed boundaries could be held as at all con- formable to the terms of the treaty, and proposed there- fore in their stead the river St John, which, as already stated, flows through the middle of the disputed dis- trict.* Tliis decision was rejected })y both parties, who represented that the office intrusted to the friendly monarch was to interpret the treaty in reference to the original terms, not to throw it aside and substitute an entirely new boundary of liis own contrivance. He had produced, they said, not an interpretation, but a com- promise. This is no doubt true ; yet, agreeing with his majesty, that the treaty cannot be intelligibly interpreted, or possibly acted upon, and that the affair can be adjusted only by mutual concession, we cannot help thinking that the expedient proposed was deserving of a favoumble consideration. The St John divides the territory in dispute into two not very unequal portions ; the posses- sion of the northern bank would secure to Britain the communication between New Brunswick and Canada, and prevent the frontier of the United States from en- croaching too close on the St Lawrence. A water bound- ary, where it can be procured, is usually preferred as the most precise and defensible ; and it is very proba])l(^ that in this case it would bjivc been adopted by th .ego- tiators, had they not been who^l - ignorant of its existence. At all events, it is extremely desirable that some adjust- ment should take place as speedily as possible, before the increasing importance of the land shall render it a sub- ject of serious dissension between two great nations.t • His majesty proposes that the line, after fbllowint^ for a con- siderable space upwards the course of the St John, should take that of its small tributary the St Francis, and by it reach and follow the American land-boundary. We do not perceive the motive or ad- vantage of this deviation ; our reasoning proceeds upon the St John bein^ made the boundary throughout, tin it strikes the American frontier. t Bouchettc, vol. i. p. 18-22, 489-498. M'Gregor, vol. i. j). 140. 44 THE NATIVE INDIANS INHABITING CHAPTER II. The Native Indians inhabiting Canada and its Borders. Si ; r •-. Peculiar Condition of those Tribes — Their Physical Character Form — Colour— Hair and Beard— Bodily Strength — Dress— Or- naments— Painting and Tattooing of the Skin— 31odes of Sub- sistence — Hunting — Cultivatic.^i — Food — Hoo&uS — Canoes — Spirit of Independence — Internal Order — Marriages — Rearing' of Children — Intellectual Character — Oratory — Style of Compo- sition — Religious Ideas — Importance attached to Dreams — The Manitou — Ideas of a Future State — Reverence for the Dead — Ceremonies of Interment — Superstitious Modes of curing the Sick — Indian Wars — Their Motives — Preparations — March — Modes of attacking and surprising the Enemy — Return — Treat- ment of Prisoners; Tortures; Adoption — Treaties — Indian Amusements — Music — Dancing — Smoking — Games — Different Tribes inhabituig Canada and its Borders. Among the intellectual advantages de/ived from the dis- covery of America, perhaps the most important was the opening of a new page in the history of man ; for he Wi\B there presented under an aspect never before viewed by the sages either of the ancient or modem world. The rudest form under which they had observed the hu- man being was * ^j called barbarous ; and among the Greeks and Romans the Scythians were received as representing the man of nature. But though compara- tively rude, that people had already made a considerable pro,T:ess in the arts. They had reached the pastoral sti possessed numerous herds and flocks, and were d in large bodies under hereditary chiefs. The mo- ^lox. aropeans, again, have records of a time when they ■r CANArA AND ITS BORDERS. 45 themselves were little removed from a similar condition, of which examples still exist in the outer borders of the continent ; but they have never beheld nations con- sisting only of liandfuls of men, roaming through an unbounded and continuous forest, having scarcely any animals tamed for service or food, and supporting them- selves solely on the precarious product of the chase. On the first intimation of the existence of such tribes, they were in this part of the world supposed to be a mere assemblage of meagre and shivering ^vretches, whose constant exertions must be employed in at- tempting to escape the famine with which they were perpetually threatened. The firet discoverers, accord- ingly, were surprised to find among them warriors, statesmen, and orators ; a proud race, of dignified port, terrible in war, mild in peace, maintaining order with- out the restraint of law, and uniting by the closest ties the members of the same community. Such, though with some remarkable exceptions, was the picture ex- hibited by the savages of the New World, particularly in its northern regions ; and those nations who dwelt on the rivers and lakes of Canada presented it in the most decided features, least modified by the restraints and refinements of civilized life. The English and French, who, during nearly three centuries, have been engaged with them in the relations either of close alliance or of deadly war, have learned to appreciate all that is bright as well as all that is dark and terrible in the character of this extraordinary race. From this intercourse we are furnished with ample means of estimating a state of society so peculiar, and so remote from that civilisation to which Europe has attained. In their physical character, the Americans are con- sidered by Blumenbach as forming a particular variety of the human species, differing, though not very widely, from the Mongolian. Believing, as we do, that the New World was peopled from the Old, and considering that the Mongol race was situated nearest to the point where Asia and America come almost into contact, we incline 46 THE NATIVE INDIANS INIIABITINO I to ascribe these variations merely to a change of oiitward circuinHtances. The face is broad und iiat, with liigh cheek-bones, more rounded and arched, however, than in tlie allied type, without having the visage expanded to tlie same breadth. The forehead is generally low, the eyes deep, small, and black ; the nose rather diminutive but prominent, with wide nostrils ; and the mouth large, with somewhat thick lips. The stature, which varies remark- ably throughout the continent, is, in the quarter of which we treat, generally above tixe middle size. This property, however, is ccmfined to the men, the females behig usually below that standard, — a fact which may be confidently ascribed to the oppressive drudgery they are compelled to undergo. The limbs, in both sexes, are well proportioned ; and few instances of dcfonnity ever occur.* The colour of the skin in the American is generally described as red or copper-coloured ; or, according to Mr Lawrence's more precise definition, it is " an obscure orange or rusty iron colour, not unlike the bark of the cinnamon-tree." Although we believe that climate is tlie chief cause of the diversities in human colour, yet it is certain that all savages are dark-tinted. This pecu- liarity may be accounted for by their constant exposure to the inclemency of the seasons, to sun, air, and tem- pests ; and the same cause in civilized countries pro- duces a similar effect on sailors, as well as on those who work constantly in the fields. In the Old World, the intermediate tints between white and black are gene- rally varieties of brown and yellow. The red tint is considered characteristic of the New World. We must however observe, that the traveller Adair, who lived upwards of thirty years among the Indians, positively asserts that it is artificially produced ; that in the oil, • Lawrence's Lectures on Physiology, Zoology, and the Na- tural History of Man (12mo, London, 1834), p. 365. Adair's His- tory oF tlie American Indians (4to, London, 1/75), pp^ 5, 6. Weld's Travels in North America and Canada (4to, London, VJ^^\ p. 375^77. CANADA AND ITS UORDEllS. 47 grcjiso, and other unctuous 8u})8tances with whi«jh they keep their skin couHtuntly smeared, there is dissolved the juice of a root which gradually tinges it of this colour. He states, that a white man, who spent some years with the natives, and adorned himself in their nmn- ncr, completely acquired it. Charlevoix seems also to Iwui to the same opinion. Wehl, though rather inclined to dissent from it, admits that such a notion was adopted by missionaries and others who had resided long in the country. It is certain that the inha))itants glory in this colour, and regard Europeans who have it not as non- descript beings, not fully entitled to the name of men. It may be noticed also, that this tint is by no means so universal as is commonly supposed. HumholiU de- clares that the idea of its general prevalence could never have arisen in equinoctial America, or been sug- gested by the view of the natives in that region ; yet these provinces include by far the larger part of the aboriginal population. The people of Nootka Sound and other districts of the north-western coast are nearly as white as Europeans ; which may be ascribed, we think, to their ample clothing and spacious habitations. Thus the red nations appear limited to the eastern tribes of North America, among whom generally prevails tlie custom of painting or smearing the skin with that favourite colour. We are not prepared to express a decided opinion on this subject ; but it obviously re- quires a closer investigation than it has yet received.* The hair is another particular in which the races of mankind remarkably differ. The ruder classes are g( le- rally defective, either in the abundance or quality of that graceful appendage ; and the hair of the Americans, like that of their allied type the Mongols, is coarse, black, thin, but strong, and growing to a great length. * Lawrence, p. 365. Humboldt's Personal Narrative of Tra- vels to the Equinoctial Reunions of the New Continent (9 vols Mvo, London, 1818), vol. iii. p. 223. Adair, p. 3. Weld, p. 375. Char- levoix's Journal of a Voyage to North America (2 vols Bvo, Lon- don, 1761), vol. ii. p. 90. ;fi^ nil. 48 THE NATIVE INDIANS INHAniTINO Like the latter, also, ])y u eurious ooincidonce, most of them remove it from every part of the head, with the exception of a tuft on the crown, whieh tliey elierish with much care. The eirciimst4mee, however, whieh has excited the greatest attention, is the ahsenco of beard, apparently entire, amonp^ all the people of the New World. The early travcllei-s viewed it as a natural deficiency ; whence RohertHon and other eminent writ- ers have ven inferred the existence of somethinj^ pecu- liarly fee])le in tlieir whole fnune. But the assertion, with all tht> inferences founded upon it, so far as relates to the North American tribes, has been completely refuted by recent observation. The original growth has been found nearly, if not wholly, as ample as that of Euro- ])eans ; but the moment it apj)ear8, every trace is stu- diously obliterated. This is etfeeted by the aged fe- males, originally with a species of clam-shell, but now by means of spiral pieces of brass-wire supplied by the traders. With these an old squaw will in a few minutes reduce the chin to a state of complete smoothness ; and slight applications during the year clear away such strag- gling hairs as may happen to sprout. It is only among old men, who become careless of their a])pearance, that the beard begins to be perceptible, A late English travel- ler strongly recommends to his countrymen a practice which, though scarcely accordant with our ideas of manly dignity, would, at the expense of a few minutes' pain, save them much daily trouble. The Indians have pro- bably adopted this usage as it removes an obstacle to the fantastic painthig of the face, which they value so highly. A full beard, at all events, when it was first seen on their French visiters, is said to have been viewed with peculiar antipathy, and to have greatly enhanced the pleasure with which they killed these foreigners.* The comparative physical strength of savage and • Weld, pp. 377j ^JO" Adair, p. 6. Relation de ce que s'est passe de plus remarquable aux Missions des P.P. de la Corapagnie de Jesus, en la Nouvelie France (32 tomes 8vo, Paris, l()85-lo7l) an 1607, p. 104. 2 CANADA AND ITS liORDIilllS. 49 civilized nut ions has been ft subject of controverHy. A penenil iminesHion hjis obUiined that the fomuT, inured to simple and active habitH, ae of the hunters, who are ranged in two r')W8, armed with bows or muskets. One of them advances, and wounds him, and, on being furiously pursued, he retreats between the files, fol- lowed in the same lino by the animal, which is then overwhelmed by their united on ^et. In ^ Uling these quadrupeds, the natives seem to feel a sort of kindness and sympathy for their victim. On vanquishing a be. v/er or a bear, they celebrate irs praises in a song, rocountirg those good qualities which it will never more l>o. able U.) display, yet consoling themselves wit?i the ustjiul pur- poses to wiiioh its flesh and its skin will be applied.* Of the animals usually t^xmf d and rendo able tt) iiiul pur- )lied.* bserviont dog, that 1 hunting IS ; but is f supplied sided in a jeen ren- they laid warmth ; eir snouts laten, and tU solemn h on such lysterious ase, other and sub- however, aker sex. omestics, does not vols 8vo, looffh the J. 287-290. conceive that any other purposes of tlieir existence are recognised, except those of bearing children and per- forming hard work. They till the ground, carry wood and water, build huts, make canoes, and fish ; in which latter processes, however, and in reaping the harvest, Mieir lords deign to give occasional aid. So habituated are Ihey to such occupations, that when one of them saw a party of English soldiers collecting wood, she ex- claiins. t' , that it was a shame to see men doing women's v/ork, ;; ad began herself to carry a load.* Through the services of this enslaved portion of the tribe, those savages are enabled to combine in a certain degree ^lie agricultural with the hunting state, without any mixture of the pastoral, usually considered as inter- mcdiafce. Cultivation, however, is limited to small spots in the immediate vicinity of the villages, and these being usually at the distance of sixteen or seventeen miles from each other, it scarcely makes any impression on the im- mense expanse of forest. The women, in the beginning of summer, after having burned the stubble of the preced- ing crop, rudely stir the ground with a long crooked piece of wood ; they then throw in the grain, which is chiefly the coarse but productive species of maize pecu- liar to the continent. The nations in the south have a considerable variety of fruits ; whereas those of Canada appear to have raised only turnsoles, water-melons, and pompions. Tobacco used to be grown largely ; but that imported by Europeans is now universally preferred, and has become a regular object of trade. The grain, after harvest (which is celebrated by a festival), is lodged in large subterraneous stores lined with bark, where it keeps extremely well. Previous to being placed in these, it is Sometimes thrashed, on other occasions merely the ears are cut off, and thrown in. When first discovered by settlers from Europe, the degrees of culture were found to vary in difl^erent trib'. -. Th'-^ Alj.-, jnquins, who were the ruling people pre^'-sius to the arrVal of tiie French, " Colden's History c; the Five Nations (2 vols 12mo London, 1755), vol. i. pp. 7j 14. Creuxius, p. o"}. Long, pp. l.'»/, 138. -^.-f*, m 1 :i rf .hi 'f'\ ! Ul i!'' ii ; i '1 J J i i ii I' * I' I 58 THE NATIVE INDIANS INIIAlJITINa wholly despised it, and branded as plebeian their neigh- bours, by whom it was practised. In general, the north- ern clans, and those near the mouth of the St Lawrence, depended almost solely on hunting and fishing; and when these failed they were reduced to dreadful extre- mities, being often obliged to depend on the miserable resource of that species of lichen called tripe de roche. The maize, when thrashed, is occasionally toasted on the coals, and sometimes made into a coarse kind of unlea- vened cake. But the most favourite preparation is that called sagamUy, a species of pap formed after it has been roasted, bruised, and separated from the husk. It is in- sipid by itself ; yet when thrown into the pot, along with the produce of the chase, it enriches the soup or stew, one of the principal dishes at their feasts. They never eat victuals raw, but rather overboiled ; nor have they yet been brought to endure French ragouts, salt, pepper, or indeed any species of condiment. A chief, admitted to the governor's table, seeing the general use of mustard, was led by curiosity to take a spoonful and put it into his mouth. On feeling its violent effects, he made incredible efforts to conceal them, and escape the ridicule of tlie company ; but severe sneezings, and the tears starting from his eyes, soon betrayed him, and raised a general laugh. He was then shown the manner in which it should be used ; but nothing could ever induce him to allow the " boiling yellow," as he termed it, to enter his lips. The Indians are capable of extraordinary abstinence from food, in which they can persevere for successive days without complaint or apparent suffering. They even take a pride in long fasts, by which they usually prepare themselves for any great undertaking. Yet when once set down to a feast, their gluttony is described as enormous, and the capacity of their stomachs almost incredible. They will go from feast to feast, doing ho- nour to each in succession. The chief giving the entertain- ment does not partake, but with his own hands distributes portions among the guests. On solemn occasions, it is CANADA AND ITS BORDERS. 69 a rule that every thing shall be eaten ; nor does this obli- gation seem to be felt as either burdensome or unplea- sant. In their native state, they were not aequainted with any species of intoxicating liquors ; their love of ardent spirits, attended with so many ruinous effects, having been entirely consequent on their intercourse with Europeans.* The habitations of the Indians receive much less of their attention than the attire or at least embellishment of their persons. Our countrymen, by common consent, give to them no better appellation than cabins. The bark of trees is their chief material both for houses and boats ; they peel it off with considerable skill, sometimes strip- ping a Avhole tree in one piece. This coating, spread not unskilfully over a framework of poles, and fastened to them by strips of tough rind, fonns their dwellings. The shape, according to the owner's fancy, resembles a tub, a cone, or a cart-shed, the mixture of which gives to the village a confused and chaotic appearance. Liglit and heat are admitted only by an aperture at the top, through which also the smoke escapes, after filling all the upper part of the mansion. Little inconvenience is felt from this by the natives, who, within doors, nev.jr think of any position except sitting or lying ; but to Europeans, who must occasionally stand or walk, the; abode is thereby rendered almost intolerable ; and mat- ters become much worse when rain or snow makes it ne- cessary to close the roof. These structures are sometimes upwards of a hundred feet long ; but they are then the residence of two or three separate families. Four of them occasionally compose a quadrangle, each open on the inside, and having a common fire in the centre. Formerly the Iroquois had houses somewhat superior, adorned even with some rude carving ; but these were burnt down by the French in successive expeditions, and have never been rebuilt in the same style. The * Charlevoix, vol. ii. p. 121 ' Adair, p. 409-412. Creuxins, p. (i6. Missions en la Nouvelle 1 iue, ans 1657, 1658, pp. 1U6, lOy. ')»i'..A>V t:ii W i, 111 1! I ■I i .11' I t , I !■ \ • ! ■ ! * f : ft if il fl ! 60 THE NATIVE INDIANS INnABITINO Canadians in this respect seem to be surpjissed by the Choktaws, Chikasaws, and other tribes in the south, and even by the Saukies in the west, whose mansions Carver describes as constructed of •well-hewn planks, neatly jointed, and each capable of containing several families. In their expeditions, wbeUK"' ''<»• war or hunting, which often lead them thiough desolate forests, several hundred miles from home, the Indians have the art of rearing, with great expedition, temporary abodes. On arriving at their ev<'iung station, a few polc-v ■^.. "ting at top in the form of a cone, are in half uu liour covered with bark, and having spread a few pino-branches within by way '^^ mattress, they sleep as soundly as on beds of down. Li\ ' the Esquimaux, they also understand how to convert 8 icw into a material for building ; and find it in the depth of winter the warmest and most comfortable, A few twigs platted together secure the roof. Our own countrymen, in their several campaigns, have, in cases of necessity, used with advantage this species of bivouac. The furniture in these native huts is exceedingly sim- ple. The chief articles are two or three pots or kettles for boiling their food, with a few wooden plates and spoons. The fonner, in the absence of metal, with which the inhabitants were unacquainted, were made of coarse earthenware that resisted the fire ; and sometimes of a species of soft stone, which could be excavated with their rude hatchets. Nay, in som^ cases, ' icir kitchen utensils were of wood, and the water made to boil by throwing in heated stones. Si'ice their acquaintance with Europeans, the superiorit}'^ of iron vessels has been found so decided, that they are now universally pre- ferred. The great kettle or cauldron, em' »loy . only on high festivals associated with religion, ' itin-r, or war, attracts even a kind of veneration ; tiiiu potent chiefs have assumed its name as their title of honour. Canoes^ another fabric which the Indians construct very rudely, are yet adapted with considerable skill to CANADA AND ITS BORDERS. 61 their purpose. These are usually framed of i i . hark of a single tree, strenfj^lu ned at the centn> wiili rihs of tough wood. The ends are of hark only, but being curved upwards, arc always above water, and thus remain perfectly tight. Our sailors can scarcely believe such nut-shells safe even on the smoothest waters, and see with surprise the natives guiding them amid stormy waves, where their very lightness and buoyancy pre- serve them from sinking. They have another quality of great advantage in the devious pursuits of the own- ers ; being so extremely light, that tliey can be easily conveyed on the shoulder from one river or branch of a lake to mother. One man, it is said, can carry on his hack a canoe in which twelve persons may navigate with safety.* Having taken this minute survey of the physical con- dition of the Indians, we shall proceed to an examination of their social condition. The fundamental principle of their polity is the complete independence of every indivi- dual, his right to do whatever he pleases, be it good or bad, nay, i^v^n though i riniinal and destructive. When any one ann<«"nces an intention which is disagreeable to his neighbouiv^ they daie not attempt to check him by reproach or coitc -on ; these would only rivet his deter- mination more htro.igly. Their only resource is to sooth him, like a spoiled cliil ', by kind words, and especially by gifts. If, notwithst. ulin;.', he proceeds to wound or murder any one, the public look on without -oncem, though revenge is eagerly sought by the kindred of the injured person, NotwithsUmding this impunity, which, on our side of the Atlantic, would be followed by the most dreadful consequences, it is somewhat mortifying to the pride of European civilisation to learn, that there reigns a degreo of tranquillity greater than the strictest police can pre- serve with us. The Indians are divided into a number of little nations or tribes, fiercely hostile to each other, * Charlevoix, vol. ii. p. 127-130. Weld, p. 383-38,). Creuxius, p. 68. Carver, pp. 4^5, 231-233. Adair, p. 413-420. h ■»: ^. J r li ! I ' t '! ' > I i i ! II i i f 1 ■11 'i; f (52 Tin: NATIVE INDIANS INIlAlUTINa but whose members are bound amon^ thcinselvcH by the strictest union. The honour and welfare of tlie chui sup- ply their ruling? principle, and are cherished with an ar- dour not surpassed in the most brilliant eras of (1 reek and Roman ])atriotism. This national attachment forms a so- cial tie, linkinj,' the members to each other, and renderine^ exceedingly rare, n(»t only deeds of violence, but even personal quarrels, and banishinu: entirely that coarse and abusive language which is so pu'valent among the vulgar in more enlightened comnumities. This feeling, added to the sentiment of dig/' ty and self-connnand considered suitable to the character of a warrior, rendei's their de- portment » :ceedingly pleasing. Tlu»y are com})letely free from tliat false shanu^ which is termed mauvaise, hortte. When seated at table with Kun)i)eans of the liighest rank, they retain the most thorough self-jjosses- sion ; and at the same time, by carefully observing the proceedings of the other guests, they avoid all awkward- ness in their manners. Their generosity, too, in relieving each other's necessities scarcely knows any bounds, and only stops short of an absolute community of goods. No member of a tribe can be in the least danger of starving, if the rest have wherewith to supply him. Children rendered orphans by the cjisualties to which savage life is subject, are immediately taken in charge by the nearest relative, and supplied with every thing needful, as abundantly as if they were his own. Nothing gives them a more unfavourable opinion of the French and English, than to see one portion revelling in abund- ance, while the other suffei-s the extremities of want ; but when they are told that, for want of these accom- modations, men are seized by their fellow-creatures and immured in dungeons, such a degree of barbarism appears to them almost incredible. Whole tribes, when obliged by the vicissitudes of war to seek refuge among their neighbours, are received with unbounded hospitality ; habitations and lands are assigned to them, and they are treated by their new friends in every respect as a part of themselves. It may, however, be CANADA AM) ITH HORDKHS. c<\ s by the Ian HU])- I) un ur- iTck ami ms a so- 'luloring Imt even larMc and ic vulf^ar itr, adcUd jnHidtTcd their de- nipk'tely mauvime 18 of the •lt-])OSSl'S- rving the iwkward- i relieving u observed, thata» such an accesHJonof nnnd)ersaugnientM the military strength of the tribe, tliere may be a mix- ture of j)()liey in tiiis cordial reception,* In consecjuence of this spirit of order and ijiternal union, the unbounded ])ers()nal freedom which n)ari' :( 1 i H U- I i\ P^ ■ til . } 'f ( f! i ll ll ! and three times twitches her nose. If she be inclined to listen to his suit, slie rises ; otherwise he must depart. Though this visit be so very unseasonable, it is said to be rarely accompanied with any impropriety ; the mis- sionaries, however, did not think it right to sanction such freedoms in their converts. The preliminary step is, in this manner, taken with the lady, but the decision still rests with the father, to whom the suitor now applies. Long has given no unpleasing specimen of the address : " Father, I love your daughter — will you give her to me, that the small roots of her heart may entangle with mine, so that the strongest wind that blows may never separate them ?" He offers at the same time a handsome present, the acceptance of which is considered as sealing the union. Considerable discrepancy prevails in the de- scriptions, and apparently in the ^u ctice, as applied to different tribes ; yet, on the whole, great reserve and propriety seem to mark this intercourse. The young men of the Five Nations valued themselves highly for their correct conduct towards the other sex. Of nume- rous female captives who fell into their hands during a long series of wars, though some were possessed of great personal beauty, no one had to complain that her honour was exposed to the slightest danger. The girls themselves are not always quite so exemplary ; but their failures are viewed with indulgence, and form no obstacle to mari'iage. Once united by that tie, how- ever, a strict fidelity is expected and commonly observed. The husband, generally speaking, is not jealous, unless when intoxicated ; but when his suspicions are really excited regarding the conduct of his partner, he is very indignant, beats her, bites off her nose, and dis- misses her in disgrace. There are occasional instances of a divorce being uiflicted without £»ny assigned rea- son ; but such arbitrary proceeding is b^ no means fre- (juent. As the wife performs the whoi:^ Ir.boiir, and furnishes a great part of the subsistence, sue is usually considered too valuable a possession to be rashly parted with. In some cases these domestic drudges become CANADA AND ITS BORDERS. 65 even an object of dispute and competition. A mission- ary mentions a woman, who, during the absence of her husband, formed a new connexion. Her first partner having returned, without being agitated by any delicate sensibilities, demanded her back. The question was referred to a chief, who could contrive no better scheme than that of placing her at a certain distance from both, and decreeing that he who should first reach her should have her ; " thus," says he, " the wife fell to him who had the best legs." With regard to polygamy, the usual liberty is claimed, and by the chiefs in the west and the south it is indulged to a considerable extent ; but among the tribes on the lakes the practice is rare and lunited. When it does occur, the man very com- monly marries his wife's sister, and even her whole family, on the presumption, we may suppose, that the household will be thereby rendered more harmonious. The Indian is said never to betray the slightest symp- tom of tenderness towards his wife or children. If he meets them on his return from a distant expedition, lie proceeds without taking the slightest notice, and seats himself in his cabin as if he had not been a day absent. Yet his exertions for their welfare, and the eagerness with which he avenges their wrongs, testify that this apparent apathy springs only from pride and a fancied sense of decorum. It is equally displayed with regard to his own most urgent wants. Though iie may have been without food during several days, and enters a neighbour's house, nothing can make him stoop to ask for a morsel.* The rearing (for it cannot be called the education) of the children is chiefly arranged so that it may cost the parents the least possible trouble in addition to the labour of procuring their subsistence. The father is either engrossed by war and hunting, or resigned to total indolence ; while the mother, oppressed by various toils, • La Potherie, Bacqueville de, Histoire de TAuerique Septen- trionale (4 tomes 12mo, Paris 1674), vol. ii. pp. 21<,3I. Lontr, pp. 93, 136. Carver, pp. 230-241, 367-376, 410. VOL. I. "D '•; I 66 THE NATIVE INDIANS INHABITING \, r-,->-^. t - . J ! ■r '! Infant in a Frame. cannot devote much time to the cares of nurture. The infant, therefore, being fastened with pieces of skin to a hoard spread with soft moss, is laid on the ground or suspended to the branch of a tree, where it swings as in a cradle, — an expedient which is so carefully adopted as scarcely ever to be attended with accident. Af: soon as the creatures are able to crawl on hands and feet, they are allowed to move about every part of the house and vicinity, like a cat or dog. Their fa- vourite resort is the border of the river or lake to which an Indian village is usually adjacent, and where in summer they are seen all day long, sporting like fishes. As reason dawns, they enjoy in the most ample degree that independence which is held the birthright of their tribe ; for, whatever extravagances they may indulge in, the parents never take any steps to restrain or chastise them. The mother only ventures to give her daughter some delicate reproach, or throws water in her face, which is said to produce a powerful effect. The youths, however, without any express instructions, soon imbibe the spirit of their forefathers. Every thing they see, the tales which they hear, inspire them with the ardent desire to become great hunters and warriors. Their first study, their favourite sport, is to bend the bow, to wield the hatchet, and practise all those exercises CANADA AND ITS BORDERS. 67 wliich arc to be their glory in after-life. As manhood upj)roaehe8, they spontaneously assume that serious cha- racter, that studied and stately gravity, of which the example has been set by their elders.* Tlic intellectual character of the American savage presents some very striking peculiarities. Considering his unfavourable condition, he of all other human beings might seem doomed to make the nearest approach to the brute ; while, in point of fact, without any aid from let- ters or study, many of the higher faculties of his mind are developed in a very remarkable degree. He displays a decided superiority over the uninstructed labourer in a civilized community, whose mental energies are be- numbed amid the daily round of mechanical occupation. The former spends a great part of his life in arduous enterprises, where much contrivance is requisite ; and whence he must often extricate himself by presence of mind and ingenuity. His senses, particularly those of seeing and smelling, have acquired by practice an almost preternatural acuteness. He can trace an animal or a foe by indications wliich to a European eye would be wholly imperceptible ; and in his wanderings he gathers a minute acquaintance with the geography of the coun- tries which he traverses. He can even draw a rude out- line of them by applying a mixture of charcoal and grease to prepared skins, and on seeing a regular map he soon itnderstands its construction, and readily finds out places. His facility in discovering the most direct way to spots situated at the distance of hundreds of miles, and known perhaps only by the report of his countrymen, is truly astonishing. It has been ascribed by some to a mysterious and supernatural instmct, but it appears to bo achieved by merely observing the dif- ferent aspect of the trees or shrubs when exposed to the north or the south, as also the position of the sun, which ho can point out, although hidden by clouds. Even where there is a beaten track, if at all circuitous. I 61 e exercises Chateaubriand, vol. i. pp. 129, 213. Weld, pp. 387, 3B8. 68 THE NATIVE INDIANS INHABITING 1 I ^^ I ! f ■■! U r ! t u he strikes directly through the woods, and reaches his destination by the straightest possible line.* Other faculties of a higher order are developed by the scenes amid \thich the life of savages is spent. They are divided into a number of little communities, be- tween which are actively carried on all the relations of war, negotiation, treaty, and alliance. As mighoy revolutions, observes an eloquent writer, take place in these kingdoms of wood and cities of bark, as in the most powerful civilized states. To increase the in- fluence, and extend the possessions of their own tribe, to humble and if possible destroy those hostile to them, are the constant aims of every member of those little com- monwealths. For these ends, not only deeds of daring valour are achieved, but schemes are deeply laid, ana pursued with the most accurate calculation. There is scarcely a refinement in European diplomacy to which they are strangers. The French once made an attempt to cinish the confederacy of the Five Nations, by at- tacking each in suc(?ession ; but as they were on their march against the first tribe, they were met by the deputies of the others, who offered their mediation, mtimating, that if it were rejected, they would make comn. on cr.use with the one threatened. That associa- tion also showed that they completely understood how to employ the hostility which prevailed between their enemy and the English for promoting their own aggran- dizement. Embassies, announced by the calumet of peace, are constantly passing from one tribe to another. Tb e same political circumstances develop in an extra- ordinary degree the powers of oratory ; for nothing of any importance is transacted without a speech. On every emergency a council of the tribe is called, when the aged and wise hold long deliberations for tJie public weal. The Ijest speakers are despatched to conduct their ne- gotiations, the object of which is unfolded in studied harangues. I'he functions of orator, among the Five • Weld, p. 391-394. Long, p. ll'd. Carver, pp. 241, 242. CANADA AND ITS BORDERS. 69 Nations, had even become a separate profession, held in c(iual or higher honour th in that of vhe warrior ; and each clan appointed the most eloquent of their number to speak for them in the public coimcil. Nay, there was a general orator for the whole confederacy, who could say to the French governor, " Ononthio, lend thine ear ; I am the mouth of all the country ; you hear all the Iroquois in hearing my word." Decanesora, their speaker at a later period, was greatly admired by ih?. English, and his bust was thought to resemble that of Cicero. In their diplomatic discourses, each proposi- tion is prefaced by the delivery of a belt of wampum, of which what follows is understood to be the explanation, and which is to be preserved as a record of the conference. The orator does not express his proposals in words only, but gives to every sentence its appropriate action. If he threatens war, he wildly brandishes the tomahawk ; if he solicits alliance, he twines his arms closely with those of the chief whom he addresses ; and if he invites friendly intercourse, he assumes all the attitudes of one who is forming a i oad in the Indian manner, by cutting down the trees, cleaning them away, and carefully remov- ing the leaves and branches. To a French writer, who witnessed the delivery of a solemn embassy, it suggested the idea of a company of actors performing on a stage. So expressive are their gestures, thaii negotiations have been conducted and alliances concluded between petty states and communities who undc^rstood nothing of one another's language.* The composition of the Indian orators is studied and elaborate. The language of the Iroquois is even held to be susceptible of an Attic elegance, which few can attain so fully as to escape all criticism. It is figurative in the highest degree, ever}'' notion being expressed by images addressed to the senses. Thus, to throw up the hatchet, or to put on the great cauldron, is to begin a war ; to throw the hatchet to i sky, wage open * Missions en la Nouvelle France, an 1644, p. 87-93. Carver, p. 200. Golden, vol. i. p. 169, et scq. Adair, p. 79' I : 111 I i I "•Br !l» .) (I \ I I i iU 70 THE NATIVE INDIANS INHABITING and terrible war ; to take off the cauldron, or to bury the hatchet, is to make peace ; to plant the tree of peace on the highest mountain of the earth, is to make a general pacification. To throw a prisoner into the cauldron is to devote him to torture and death ; to take him out, is to pardon and receive him as a member of the community. Ambassadors coming to propose a full and general treaty say, " We rend the clouds asunder, and drive away all darkness from the heavens, that the sun of peace may shine with brightness over us all." On another occasion, referring to their own violent conduct, they said, " We are glad that Assarigoa will bury in the pit what is past ; let the earth be trodden hard ovci- it, or rather let a strong stream run under the pit to wash away the evil." They afterwards added, " We U()^v plant a tree, whose top will reach the sun, ar> its branches spread far abroad, and we shall shelter Hi .Ives under it, and live in peace." To send the collar u .^rground, is to carry on a secret negotiation ; but when expressing a desire that there might be no duplicity or concealment between them and the French, they said, that " they v/ished to fix the sun in the top of the Iieaven, immediately above that pole, that it might beat directly down, and leave nothing in obscurity." In pledging themselves to a firm and steady peace, they declared that they would not only throw down the great war-cauldron, and cause all the water to flow out, but would break it in pieces. This disposition to represent every thing by a sensible object extends to matters the most important. One powerful people assumed the ap- pellation of Foxes, wlille another gloried in that of Cats. Even when the entire nation bore a different ap- pellation, separate fraternities distinguished themselves as the tribe of the Bear, the Tortoise, and the Wolf. They dil not disdain a reference even to inanimate things. The Black Cauldron was at one time the chief warrior of the F'ive Nations ; and lied Shoes was a person of distinction, well known to Long the traveller. When the chiefs concluded treaties with Europeans, their ;; ■ M }■'■ III pI CANADA AND ITS BORDERS. 71 signature consisted in a picture, often tolerably well executed, of the beast or object after which they chose to be named.* The absence among these tribes of any written or even pictorial mode of recording events was supplied by the memories of their old men, which were so retentive that a cei-tain writer calls them living books. Their only remembrancer consisted in the wampum belts ; of which one was appropriated to each division of a speech or treaty, and had seemingly a powerful eflect in calling it to recollection. On the close of the transaction, these were deposited as public documents, to be drawn forth on great occasions, when the orators, and even the old women, could repeat verbatim the passage to which each referred. Europeans were thus enabled to collect in- forniation concerning the revolutions of different tribes, for several ages preceding their own arrival.t The earliest visiters of the New World, on seeing among the Indians neither priests, temples, idols, nor sa- crifices, represented them as a people wholly destitute of religious opinions. Closer inquiry, however, showed that a belief In the spiritual world, however unperfect, had a commanding influence over almost all theiractions. Their creed includes even some lofty and pure conceptions. Un- der the title of the Great Spirit, the Master of Life, the maker of heaven and earth, they distinctly recognise a supreme ruler of the universe, and an arbiter of their destiny. A party of them, when informed by the mis- sionaries of the existence of a being of infinite power, who had created the heavens and the earth, with one consent exclaimed, " Atahocan ! Atahocan /" — that be- ing the name of their principal deity. According to Long, the Indians among whom he resided ascribe every e^'^ent, propitious or unfortunate, to the mvour or • La Potherie, preface to tome iii. Colden, vol. i. pp. IS, 49, 175. Missions en la Nouvelle France, ans 1055, 1d56, p. 21. Weld, p. 395. t Missions en la Nouvelle France, ans 1659, 1660, p. 28. Weld, pp. 389, 390. I! I M 72 THE NATIVE INDIANS INHABITING '1 f :! ;h 1 ■ 1 ;( anger of the Master of Life. They address him for their daily subsistence ; they helieve him to convey to them presence of mind in battle ; and amid tortures they thank him for inspiring them with courage. Yet though this one elevated and just conception is deeply graven on their minds, it is combined with others which show all the imperfection of unassisted reason in attempting to think rightly on this great subject. It may even be observed, that the term, rendered into our language " great spirit," does not really convey the idea of an immaterial nature. It imports with them merely some being possessed of lofty and mysterious powers, and in this sense is applied to men, and even to animals. The brute creation, which occupies a prominent place in all their ideas, is often viewed by them as invested, to a great extent, with supernatural powers, — an extreme absurdity, which, however, they share with the civilized creeds of Egypt and India. When the missionaries, on their first arrival, at- tempted to form an idea of the Indian mythology, it ap- peared to them extremely complicated, more especially l>ecause those who attempted to explain it had no fixed opinions. Each man differed from his neighbour, and at another time from himself, and when the discre- pancies were pointed out no attempt was made to re- concile them. The southern tri])es, who had a more settled faith, are described by Adair as intoxicated with spmtual pride, and denouncing even their European allies as " the accursed people." The native Canadian, on the contrary, is said to have been so little tenacious, that he would at any time renounce all his theological errors for a pipe of tobacco, though, as soon as it was smoked, he immediately relapsed. An idea was found prevalent respecting a certain mystical animal, called Mesou or Messessagen, who, when the earth was buried in water, had drawn it up find restored it. Others spoke of a contest between the hare, the fox, the beaver, and the seal, for the empire of the world. Among the prin- cipal nations of Canada the hare is thought to have at- :,■» CANADA AND ITS BORDERS. 73 lim for [ivcy to •es they though graven h show smpting )ven he mguage a of an ly some , and in 8. The ;e in all 3d, to a 3xtreme civilized val, at- Y, it ap- pccially 10 fixed lur, and taincd a decided pre- eminence; and hence the Great Spirit and the Great Hare are sometimes used as synonymous terms. What should Iiave raised this creature to such distinction seems rather unaccountahle ; unless it were that its extreme swiftness miglit appear something super- natural. Among the Ottawas alone th heavenly liodics become an ohject of veneration ; the sun aj)pears to rank as their supreme deity.* To dive into the abyss of futurity has always been a favourite object of superstition. It has been attempted by various means ; but the Indian seeks it chiefly through his dreams, which always bear with him a sacred character. Before engaging in any high under- tiiking, especially in hunting or war, the dreams of the principal chiefs are carefully witched and studiously ex- amined ; and according to he interpretation their cok- duct is guided. A whole nawion has ])een set in motion by the sleeping fancies of a single man. Sometimes a person imagines in his sleep that he nas been presented with an article of value by another, wlio then cannot without impropriety leave the omen unfulfilled. When Sir William Jolmson, during the American war, was nego- tiating an alliance with a friendly tribe, the chief con- fidentially disclosed that during his slumbers he had been favoured with a vision of Sir William bestowing upon him tlie rich laced coat which formed his full dress The fulfilment of this revelation was very inconvenient ; yet on being assured that it positively occurred, the English commander found it advisable to resign his uni- form. Soon after, however, he unfolded to the Indian a dream with which he had himself been favoured, and in wliich the former was seen presenting him with a large tract of fertile land most commodiously situated. The native ruler admitted that since the vision had been vouchsafed it must be realized, yet earnestly proposed to cease this mui,ual dreaming, which he found had turned much to his own disadvantage.t * Adair, p. 32. La Potherie, tome ii. pp. 3-!», 11, 12. Lonj^, p. 139. Creuxius, p. 84. f Charlevoix, vol. ii. p. 156-150. Creuxius, p. 84. Long', p. 89. 'SX 74 THE NATIVE INDIANS INHABITING ,' k' ,i!;ll a I .,> The maniiou is an ol)jeot of peculiar veneration ; and the fixinjj; upon this ji^uavdian power is not only the most important event in the history of a youth, l)ut even con- stitutes ^I. Initiation into acti • life. As a preliminary, his face is painted black, and lie undergoes a severe fast, which is, if possible, prolonged for eight days. This is preparatory to the dream in which he is to behold the idol destined ever after to afford him aid and protection. In this state of excited expectation, and while every noc- turnal vision is carefully watched, there seldom fails to occur to his mind something which, as it makes a deep impression, is pronounced liis?manitou. Most commonly it is a trifling and even fantastic article ; the head, beak, or claw of a bird, the hoof of a cow, or tven a piece of wood. However, having undergone a thorough perspira- tion in one of their vapour-baths, he is laid on his back, and a picture of it is drawn upon his breast by needles of fish-bone dipt in vermilion. A good spechnen of the original being procured, it is carefully treasured up ; and to it he applies in every emergency, hoping that it will inspire his dreams and secure to him every kind of good fortune. When, howeve i', notwithstanding every means of projjitiating its favour, misfortunes befall him, the manitou is considered ;<• ! irdng exposed itself to just and serious reproach. i\v. begins with remonstrances, representing all that has been done for it, the disgrace it incurs by not protecting its votary, and, finally, the danger that, in case of repeated neglect, it may be dis- carded for another. Nor is this considered merely as an empty threat ; for if the manitou is judged incorrigible it is thrown away ; and by means of a fresh course of fasting, dreaming, sweating, and painting, another is installed, from whom better success may be hoped.* The absence of temples, worship, sacrifices, and all the observances to which super? cition prompts the un- tutored mind, is a remarkable circumstance, and, as we have already remarked, led the early visiters to believe that the Indians were strangers to all religious ideas. Yet * Charlevoix, vol. ii. pp. 145, 146. La Potherie, vol. ii. p. 11, &c. CANADA AND ITS BORDERS. 75 the missi' > rrics found room to suspect, tliat some of their grt .o feasts, in whicii every thin<^ presented must l)e eaten, l)ore an idohitrous character, and were held in lionour of the Great llare. The Ottauas, whose mytholo- gical system seems to have ]>een the most complicated, were wont to keep a regular festival to celehrate the hene- iicence of the sun ; on which occjision the luminary was told that this service was in return for the good hunting he had procured for his people, and as an eiie( urii '•fo- ment to persevere in his friendly cares. They W' re. observed to erect an idol in the middle of their t<»w and sacrifice to it : hut such ceremonies were means general. On first witnessing Christian worb.uj the only idea suggested by it was that of their asking som temporal good, which was cither granted or refused.* The missionaries mention two Ilurons, who arrived from the woods soon after the congregation had assem])led. Standing without, they began to speculate vvhat it was the white men were asking, and then whether they were getting it. As the service continued beyond expectation, it was concluded they were not getting it ; and as the devotional duties still proceeded, they admired the per- severance with which this rejected suit was urged. At length, when the vesper hymn began, one of the savages observed to the other : — " Listen to them now in despair, crying with all their might."t The grand doctrine of a life beyond the grave was, among all the tribes of America, most deeply cherished, and most sincerely believed.;}; They had even formed a distinct idea of the region whither the}'- hoped to be transported, and of the new and happier mode of exist- ence, free from those wars, tortures, and cnielties, which throw so dark a shade over their lot upon earth. Yet their conceptions on this subject were by no means either exalted or spiritualized. They expected sunply a pro- * Missions en la Nouvelle France, an 1635, p. 72. + La Potherie, vol. ii. p, 12. Missions en la Nouvelle France, an 1667, p. 53-55 ; an 1635, p. 72. X Aniinorum immortalitatein persuasissimara quidem omnes lia- bent. Creuxius, p. 87. '^Si^. ^. &. IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) // 1.0 !f "^ I I.I 2.5 2.2 ill 1-8 1.25 1.4 III ''^ ^ 6" - ► ^ <9^ ^ %. /:. ■V > y^ ''W Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 'VEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 872-4503 ! I '! ! il ! (I, Ilii ! 'I w ill !■ '- f-i 4\ ' ., . 'I I I .1 I , 1 !i: !i i li ill \ I'l f ■•; t 76 THE NATIVii INDIANS INHABITING longation of their present life and enjoyments, under more favourable circumstances, and with the same objects furnished in greater choice and abundance. In that brighter land the sun ever shines unclouded, the forests abound with deer, the lakes and rivers with fish ; bene- fits which are farther enhanced in their imagination by a faithful wife and dutiful children. They do not reach it, however, till after a journey of several months, and encountering various obstacles, — a broad river, a chain of lofty mountains, and the attack of a furious dog. This favoured country lies far in the west, at the remotest boundary of the earth, which is supposed to terminate in a steep precipice, with the ocean rolling beneath. Some- times in the too eager pursuit of game the spirits fall over, and are converted into fishes. The local position of their paradise appears connected with certain obscure intima- tions received from their wandering neighbours of the Mississippi, the Rocky Mountains, and the distant shores of the Pacific. This system of belief labours under a great defect, inasmuch as it scarcely connects felicity in the future world with virtuous conduct in the present. The one is held to be simply a continuation of the other ; and under this impression, the arms, omaments,and every thing that had contributed to the welfare of the deceased, are interred along with him. This supposed assurance of a future life, so conformable to their gross habits and conceptions, was found by the missionaries a serious ob- stacle, when they attempted to allure them by the hope of a destiny, purer and higher indeed, but less accordant with their untutored conceptions. Upon being told that in the promised world they would neither hunt, eat, drink, nor marry a wife, many of them declared that, far from endeavouring to reach such an abode, they would consider their amval there as the greatest calamity. Mention is made of a Huron girl whom one of the Chris- tian ministers was endeavouring to instruct, and whose first question was, what she would find to eat \ The an- swer being " Nothing," she then asked what she would see ; and being informed that she would see the Maker of heaven and earth, she expressed herself much at a CANADA AND ITS BORDERS. 77 loss what she could have to say to him. Many not only rejected this destiny for themselves, hut were in- dignant at the efforts made to decoy their children after death into so dreary and comfortless a region.* Another sentiment, congenial with that now described, is most deeply rooted in the mind of the Indians. This is reverence for the dead, with which Chateaubriand, though perhaps somewhat hastily, considers them more deeply imbued than any other people.t During life they are by no means lavish in their expressions of ten- derness ; but on the approach of the hour of final sepa- ration it is displayed with extraordinary force. When any member of a family becomes seriously ill, all the resources of magic and medicine are exhausted in order to procure his recovery. When the fatal moment arrives, all the kindred burst into loud lamentations, which con- tinue till some person possessing the requisite authority desh'es them to cease. These expressions of grief, how- ever, are renewed for a considerable time, at sunrise and sunset. After three days the funeral takes place, when all the provisions which the family can procure are ex- pended in a feast, to which the neighbours are generally invited, and, although on all solemn occasions it is re- quired that every thing should be eaten, the relations do not paiiake. These last cut off their hair, cover their heads, paint their faces of a black colour, and con- tinue long to deny themselves every species of amuse- ment.;}; The deceased is then interred with his arms and ornaments, his face painted, and his person attired in the richest robes which they can furnish. It was the opi- nion of one of the early missionaries, that the chief ob- ject of the Hurons in their traffic with the French was to procure materials for honouring their dead ; and as a proof of this, many of them have been seen shivering half-naked in the cold, while their hut contained rich robes to be wrapped round them after their decease. * Missions en la Nouvelle France an 1637, pp 121, 170; an 1635, p. 41. Creuxius, p. 87. Charlevoix, vol. li. pp. 154, 155. •\- Cura ingens mortuorura. Creuxius, p, 91. X Charlevoix, vol. ii. p. 191. H\ \ ti • 'i i it iJ fe' 1 1 78 THE NATIVE INDIANS INHABITING The body is placed in the tomb in an upright posture, and skins are carefully spread round it, so that no part may touch the earth. This, however, is by no means the final ceremony, being followed by another far more solemn and singular. Every eighth, tenth, or twelfth year, according to the custom of the different nations, is celebrated the festival of the dead ; and till then the souls are supposed to hover round their former tene- ment, and not to depart for their final abode in the west. On this occasion the people march in procession to the places of interment, open the tombs, and, on behold- ing the mortal remains of their friends, continue some time fixed in mournful silence. The women then break out into loud cries, and the party begin to col- lect the bones, removing every remnant of flesh. The remains are then wrapped in fresh and valuable robes, and conveyed emid continued lamentation to the family- cabin. A feast is then given, followed during several days by dances, games, and prize-combats, to which strangers often repair from a great distance. This mode of celebration certainly accords very ill with the sad occasion ; yet the Greek and Roman obsequies were solemnized in a similar manner ; nay, in many parts of Scotland, till very recently, they were accompan )y festival, and often by revelry. The relics are theu car- ried to the council-house of the nation, where they are hung for exhibition along the walls, with fresh presents destined to be interred along with them. Sometimes they are even displayed from village to village. At length, being deposited in a pit previously dug in the earth, and lined with the richest furs, they are finally entombed. Tears and lamentations are again lavished ; and during a few days food is brought to the place. The bones of tlieir fathers are considered by the Indians the strongest ties to their native soil ; and when calamity forces them to quit it, these mouldering fragments are, if possible, conveyed along with them.* Under the head of religious rites we may include * Chateaubriand, vol. i. p. 215. Creuxiiis, p. 91. Charlevoix, vol. ILpp. 186, 187; 193-195. CANADA AND ITS BORDERS. 79 medicine, which is almost entirely within the domain of superstition. The great warmth of affection which, amid their apparent apathy, the natives cherish for each other, urges them, when their friends are seri- ously ill, to seek with the utmost eagerness for a re- medy. An order of men has thus arisen entirely dif- ferent from the rest of the society, uniting the characters of priests, physicians, sorcerers, and sages. Nor are they quite strangers to some hranches of the healing art. In external hurts or wounds, the cause of which is ob- vious, they apply various simples of considerable power, chiefly drawn from the vegetable world. Chateaubriand enumerates the ginseng of the Chinese, the sassafras, the three-leaved hedisaron,anda tall shrub called I. ellis ; with decoctions from which they cure wounds and ulcers in a surprising manner. With sharp-pointed bones they sca- rify inflamed or rheumatic parts ; and shells of gourds, filled with combustible matters, serve instead of cupping- glasses. They learned the art of bleeding from the French, but employed it sometimes rashly and fatally, by opening the vein in the forehead : they now understand it better, but their favourite specific in all internal complaints is the vapour-bath. To procure this, a small hut or shed is framed of bark or branches of trees, covered with skins, and made completely tight on every side, leaving only a small hole, through which the patient is admitted. By throwing red-hot stones into a pot of water, it is made to boil, and thus emit a warm steam, which, filling the hut, throws the patient into a most profuse perspiration. When he is completely bathed in it, he rushes out, even should it be in the depth of winter, and throws himself into the nearest pond or river ; and this exercise, which we should be apt to think sufficient to produce death, is proved, by their example as well as that of the Russians, to be safe and salutary. As a very large proportion of their maladies arise from cold and obstructed pei*spiration, this remedy is by no means ill chosen. They attach to it, however, a supernatural influence, calling it the sorcerer's bath, and employ it 2 '\ h ^li 80 THE NATIVE INDIANS TNHABITING [.: !R ,> not only in the cure of diseases, but in opening theiv minds whenever they are to hold a council on great affairs, or to engage in any important undertaking.* All cases of internal malady or of obscure origin are ascribed without hesitation to the secret agency of ma- lignant powers or spirits. The physician, therefore, must then invest himself with his mystic character, and direct all his efforts against these invisible enemies. His pro- ceedings are various, and prompted seemingly by a mix- ture of delusion and imposture. On his first arrival, he begins to sing and dance round tlie patient, invoking his god with loud cries. Then, pretending to search out the seat of the enchantment, he feels his body all over, till cries seem to indicate the bewitched spot. He then rushes upon it like a madman or an enraged dog, tears it with his teeth, and often pretends to show a small bone or other object which he has extracted, and in which the evil power had been lodged. His disciples next day renew the j^rocess, and the whole family join in the chorus, so that, setting aside the disease, a frame of iron would appear necessary to withstand the remedies. Another contrivance is, to surround the cabin with men of straw and wooden masks of the most frightful shapes, in hopes of scaring away the mysterious tor- mentor. Sometimes a painted image is formed, which the doctor pierces with an arrow, pretending that he has thereby vanquished the evil spirit. On other occasions he professes to discover a mysterious desire, which exists in the patient unknown to himself, for some particular object ; and this, however distant or difficult of attain- ment, the poor family strain all their efforts to procure. It is alleged, that when the malady appears hopeless, he fixes upon something completely beyond reach, the want of which is then represented as the cause of death. The deep faith reposed in these preposterous remedies caused to the missionaries much difficulty even with their most intelligent converts. When a mother found • Chateaubriand, vol. i. p. 247-249. Creuxius, pp. 58, 51). Carver, pp. 390, 391. Long, pp. 46, 100. CANADA AND ITS BORDERS, 81 ling their on great king.* origin arc cy of ma- fore, must and direct His pro- by a mix- arrival, he voking his ch out the T all over. He then og, tears it small bone i in which IS next day join in the ime of iron remedies, sabin with st frightful erious tor- led, which ;hat he has r occasions hich exists particular of attain- procure, lopeless, he reach, the se of death. IS remedies even with >ther found pp. 58, 59. one of her children dangerously ill, her pagan neighbours came round and assured her, that if she would allow it to bo blown upon, and danced and howled round in the genuine Indian manner, there would be no doubt of a speedy recovery. They exhorted her to take it into the woods, where the black-robes, as they called the Chris- tian priests, would not be able to find her. The latter could not fully undeceive their disciples, because in that less enlightened age they themselves were impressed with the notion that the magicians communicated with and derived aid from the Prince of Darkness. All they could do, therefore, was to exhort them resolutely to sacrifice any benefit that might be derived from so un- holy a source. This, however, was a hard duty ; and they record with pride the example of a Huron wife, who, though much attached to her husband, and appa- rently convinced that he could be cured by this impious process, chose rather to lose him. In other respects the missionaries suffered from the superstitious creed of the natives, who, even when unconverted, believed them to possess supernatural powers, which, it was suspected, they sometimes employed to introduce the epidemic diseases with which the country was from time to time afflicted. They exclaimed, it was not the demons that made so many die, — it was prayer, images, and baptism ; and when a severe pestilential disorder followed the murder of a Frenchman who fell by their hands, they imagined that the priests were thus avenging the death of their countryman.* We have still to describe the most prominent object of the Indian's passions and pursuits, — his warfare. It is that which presents him under the darkest aspect, effacing almost all his fine qualities, and assimilating his nature to that of fiends. While the most cordial union • Missions en laNouvelle France, an 1685, partiii. pp. 166, 217; ans 1642, 1643, p. 49; an 1637, partiii. pp. 216, 5l7; \^\i ii. p. 238, &c. La Potlierie, vol. ii. p. 36-40. Charlevoix, vol. ii. p. 176-180. VOL. I. E 82 THE NATIVE INDIANS INHABITING I. ■! ' i! l9 '1 reigns between the members of each tribe, they have neighbours whom they regard with the deepest enmity, and for whose exiermination they continually thirst. The intense excitement which war affords, and the glory which rewards its achievements, probably give the pri- mary impulse ; but after hostilities have begun, the feeling which keeps them alive is revenge. Every In- dian who falls into the power of an enemy, and suffers the dreadful fate to which the vanquished are doomed, must have his ghost appeased by a victim from that hostile race. Thus every contest generates another and a more deeply embittered one. Nor are they strangers to those more refined motives which urge civilized na- tions to take arms — the extension of their boundaries, an object pursued with ardent zeal, and the power of their tribe, which last they seek to promote by incorpo- rating in its ranks the defeated bands of their antago- nists. Personal dislike and the love of distinction often impel individuals to make inroads into a hostile territory even contrary to the general wish ; but when war is to be waged by the whole nation, more enlarged views, con- nected with its interest and aggrandizement, guide the decision. To most savages, however, long-continued peace becomes irksome and unpopular; and the pru- dence of the aged can with difficulty restrain the fire of the young, who thirst for adventure. As soon as the determination has been formed, the war-chief, to whom the voice of the nation assigns the supremacy, enters on a course of solemn preparation. This consists not, however, in providing arms or supplies for the campaign, for these are comprised in the personal resources of each individual. He devotes himself to ob- servances which are meant to propitiate or learn the will of the Great Spirit, who, when considered as pre- siding over the destinies of war, is named Areskoui. He begins by marching three times round his winter- house, spreading the great bloody flag, variegated with deep tints of black. As soon as the young warriors see this signal of death, they crowd around, listening to the CANADA AND ITS BORDERS. 83 they have st enmity, illy thirst. I the glory {c the pri- begun, the Every In- and suffers re doomed, from that nother and f strangers vilized na- joundaries, J power of )y incorpo- eir antago- iction often le territory 1 war is to views, con- guide the continued the pru- . the fire of )rmed, the assigns the reparation, or supplies le personal iself to ob- leam the red as pre- Areskoui. his winter- igated with mrriors see ling to the oration by which he summons them to the field : " Com- rades," he exclaims, " the blood of our countrymen is yet unavenged ; their bones lie uncovered ; their spirits cry to us from the tomb. Youths, arise ! anoint your hair, paint your faces, let your songs resound through the forest, and console the dead with the assurance that they shall be avenged. Youths ! follow me, while I march through the war-path to surprise our enemies, to eat their flesh, drink their blood, and tear them limb from limb ! We shall return triumphant, or should we fall, this belt will record our valour." The wampum, that grand symbol of Indian policy, is then thrown on the ground. Many desire to lift it ; but this privilege is reserved for some chief of high reputation, judged worthy to fill the post of second in command. The leader now com- mences his series of mystic observances. He is painted all over black, and enters on a strict fast, never eat- ing, nor even sitting down, till after sunset. From time to time he drinks a decoction of consecrated herbs, with the view of giving vivacity to his dreams, which are carefully noted, and submitted to the deliberation of the sages and old men. When a warlike spirit is in the ascendant, it is understood that either their tenor or their interpretation betokens success. The powerful in- fluence of the vapour-bath is also employed. After these solemn preliminaries, a copious application of warm water removes the deep black coating, and he is painted afresh in bright and varied colours, among which red predominates. A huge fire is kindled, whereon is placed the great war-cauldron, into which every one present throws something ; and if any allies, invited by a belt of wampum and bloody hatchet to devour the flesh and drink the blood of the enemy, have accepted the sum- mons, they send some ingredients to be also cast in. The chief then announces the enterprise by singing a war- song, never sounded but on such occasions, and his example is followed by all the warriors, who join in the military dance ; recounting their former exploits, and dilating on those which they hope to achieve. They I 84 THE NATIVE INDIANS INHABITING .; :' I >>^-'> I .* i .! l! Indian Warrior. now proceed to arm, suspending the bow and quiver, or more frequently the musket, from the shoulder, the hatchet or tomahawk from the hand, while the scalp - ing-knife is stuck in the girdle. A portion of parched corn or sagamity, prepared for the purpose, is received from the women, who frequently bear it to a considerable distance. But the most important operation is the col- lection of the manitous or guprdian spirits, to be placed in a common box, which, like the Hebrew ark, is looked to as a protecting power. The females during these pre- parations have been busily negotiating for a supply of captives on whom to wreak their vengeance and appease the shades of their fallen kindred ; sometimes also with the more merciful view of supplying their place. Ten- derer feelings arise as the moment a|.proaches when the 7 \ CANADA AND ITS BORDERS. 85 warriors must depart, perhaps to return no more, and it may he to endure the wime dreadful fate whicli they are imprecating on others. The leader, having made a short harangue, commences the march, singing his war-song, while the others follow at intervals sounding the war- whoop. The women accompany them some distance, and when they must separate, they exchange endearing names, and express the most ardent wishes for a tri- umphant return ; while each party receives and gives some ohject which has hcen long worn by the other, as a memorial of this tender parting. As long as the warriors continue in their own country, they straggle in small parties for the convenience of hunting, still holding communication by shouts, in which they imitate the cries of certain birds and beasts. When arrived at the frontier, they all unite and hold another great festival, followed by solemn dreaming, the tenor of which is carefully examined. If found inauspicious, room is still left to return ; and those whose courage shrinks are on such occasions supplied with an apology for re- linquishing the undertaking ; but such an issue is rare. On entering the hostile territory deep silence is en- joined ; the chase is discontinued ; they crawl on all fours ; step on the trunks of fallen trees, or through swamps. Sometimes they fasten on their feet the hoof of the buffalo or the paw of the bear, and run in an in*egular track like those animals. Equally earnest and skilful are they in tracing through the woods the haunts of the enemy. The slightest indications, such as would wholly escape the notice of a European, enable them to thread their course through the vast depths of the western forests. They boast of being able to discern the impression of steps even on the yielding grass, and of knowing by inspection the nation or tribe by whom it has been made. Various and ingenious artifices are em- ployed to entrap their foe. From the recesses of the wood, they send forth the cries of the animals which are most eagerlj'^ sought by the rival hunters. Their grand object, however, is to surprise a village, and if I ■ 80 THE NATIVE INDIANS iNnABITINO possible tho principal one belonging to the hated tribe. Thither all their steps tend, as they steal like silent ghosts through the lonely forest. On opprooching it, they cost hasty glances from the tops of trees or of hillocks, and then retreat into the thickest covert ; but in total disre- gard of the most disastrous experience, the obvious pre- caution of placing nightly sentinels has never been adopted. Even when aware of danger, they content themselves with exploring the vicinity two or three miles around, when, if nothing is discovered, they go to sleep without dread. This supineness is much fostered by a delusive confidence in the manitous enclosed in the holy ark. If during the day the assailants have reached unperceived a covert spot in the neighbour- hood of the devoted village, they expect the satisfaction of finding its inhabitants buried in the deepest slumber in the course of the ensuing night. They keep close watch till immediately before daybreak, when silence and security are usually the most complete. Then, flat on their faces, and carefully suppressing the slightest sound, they creep slowly towards the scene of action. Having reached it undiscovered, the chief, by a shrill cry, gives the signal, which is instantly followed by a discliarge of arrows or musketry ; after which they rush in with the war-club and the tomahawk. The air echoes with the sound of the death- whoop and of arms. The savage aspect of the combatants ; their faces painted black and red, and soon streaming with blood ; their frightful yells, make them appear like demons risen from the world beneath. The victims, too late aroused, spring from their fatal slumber, and foreseeing the dreadful fate which awaits them if taken prisoners, make almost superhuman struggles for deliverance. The contest rages with all the fury of revenge and despair, but it is usually short. The unhappy wretches, surprised and bewildered, can seldom rally or resist ; they seek safety by fleeing into the depth of forests or marshes, whither they are hotly pursued. The main study of the victo- rious party is to take the fugitives alive, in order to CANADA AND ITS nORDERS. 87 subject them to the hurrihle piiniuhmrnts which will be presently described. Should this Im; impnicticAble, the tomahawk or the hatchet deHpatches them on the spot ; and the scalp is then carried off as a trophy. Placing a foot on the neck of his fallen enemy, and twisting a hand in the hair, the warrior draws out a long sliarp-pointed knife, specially formed for this operation ; then cutting a circle round the crown of the head, by a few skilful scoops he detaches the hair and skin, lodges the whole in his bag, and returns in triumph.* At the close of the expedition, the warriors repair to their village, and, even in approaching, announce its result by various signals well understood among their families. According to the most approved custom, the evil tidings are first communicated. A herald ad- vances before the troop, and for every kinsman who has fallen sounds the death- whoop, — a shrill lengthened note ending in an elevated key. An interval is then allowed, during which the burst of grief excited by these tidings may be in some degree exhausted. Then rises the loud inspiring sound of the war-whoop, which, by its successive repetitions, expresses the number of captives brought home as the fruits of victory. The barbarous joy thus kindled banishes for the moment all trace of lamentation. The women and children form two rows, through which the prisoner is led, having his face painted, and crowned with flowers as for a festival. Then begins the darkest of all the scenes by which savage life is de- formed, A series of studied and elaborate torture com- mences, in which ingenuity is tasked to the utmost to inflict the intensest agony that can be endured with- out actually extinguishing life. The first caress, as the French call it, is to tear the nails from the fingers ; the flesh is then pierced to the bone, and fire in various forms applied to the extremities. Blows are also given to the |; ^1 il • Charlevoix, vol. i. pp. 317, '^27, 330, 338, 339, 359-361 . Adair, p. 3H0-3H8. Rogers' Concise Account of North America ( London, 1765), p. 222. 88 THE NATIVE INDIANS INHABITING i. ; I 1 I last degree that nature can sustain ; and sometimes an amusement is found in tossing, for a long time, the victim like a ball from one to another. Other contrivances, peculiar to infuriated savages, are sometimes resorted to. One missionary, for example, being made to lie on his back, had his stomach covered with sagamity, on which hungry dogs were set to feed, which tore his flesh with their teeth. The unhappy wretch is occasionally paraded from village to village, kept for weeks in this state of suffering, fed on the coarsest refuse, and allowed only a neglected corner of the cabin to sleep in. At length a grand council is held, to decide his fate ; or, in other words, to determine whether all the furies of vengeance shall be let loose upon him, and his life be taken away amid the most frightful tortures, or whether he shall be saluted as one of themselves, and treated as a brother. The decision is influenced by various consider- ations. If he be a youth, or new to the field, a lenient course may probably be adopted ; but a veteran warrior who has been the terror of the nation, and on whose skin is painted a record of triumplis, has to dread a sterner sentence. The women have much influence, according as they either demand revenge for the loss of a husband or brother, or solicit that the captive may sup- ply the vacancy. The Iroquois, though the fiercest of these barbarians, being the deepest politicians, were always anxious to augment their numbers ; hence, though they prolonged and heightened the preliminary torture, they usually ended it by adoption. This was carried so lar that they are described as having at length become less a single nation than an aggregate of all the surround- ing tribes. The stranger being received into one of the families as a husband, brother, or son, is treated with the utmost tenderness ; and she, who perhaps immedi- ately before exliausted her ingenuity in tormenting him, now nurses the wounds she has made, and loads him with caresses. He becomes completely one of the clan, and goes with them to war, even agamst his former country- men, and so far is the point of honour carried, that to ! CANADA AND ITS BORDERS. 39 r, in other retura into their mnks would he hranded as an act of baseness.* There are however many occasions in which the more inhuman resolution is taken, and a fearful display is then made of the darkest passions that can agitate the human breast. The captive is infonned of his fate ])y being invested with mocassins of black bear's skin, and having placed over his head a flammg torch, — the sure indica- tions of his doom. Before the fatal scene begins, how- ever, he is allowed a short interval to sing his death- song, which he performs in a triumphant tone. He proelauns the joy with which he goes to the land of souls, where he will meet his brave ancestors, who taught him the great lesson to fight and to suffer. He recounts his warlike exploits, parfie'ilarly those per- formed against the kindred of his torme.:Lors ; and if then- was any one of them whom he vanquished and caused Ut expire amid tortures, he loudly proclaims it. He de- clares his inextinguishable desire to eat their Hesh, and to drink their blood to the last drop. This scene is con- sidered, even when compared to the field of battle, as the gi*eat theatre of Indian glory. When two prisoners were about to be tortured by the French at Quebec, a charitable hand privately supplied a weapon with which one of them killed himself ; but the other derided his effeminacy, and proudly prepared himself for his fiery trial. In this direful work the women take the lead, and seem transformed into raging furies. She, to glut whose vengeance the doom has been specially pro- nounced, invokes the spirit of her husband, her bro- ther, or her son, who has fallen in battle or died amid torture, bidding him come now and be appeased. A feast is prepared for him ; a warrior is to be thrown into the great cauldron ; his blood will be poured out ; his flesh torn from the bones ; let the injured spirit then cease to 1 * Charlevoix, vol. i. p. 1^68-373. Missions on la Nouvelle France, ans 1H42, lt)43, p. 257, &c.; ans 1643, 1644, p. 162-168. Adair, p. 389. ] 90 THE NATIVE INDIANS INHABITING complain. A game begins between the torturers and the tortured, one to inflict the most intense suffering, the other to bear it with proud insensibility. That there may be some appearance of open contest, he is not chained, but merely tied to a post, and a certain range allowed, within which, while the brand, the hatchet, and every engine of torture are applied, he can do some- what to repel his assailants, and even attack in his turn. He struggles fiercely in the unequal strife, and while his frame is consuming in agony, still defies his tor- mentors, and outbraves death itself. Some even deride the feeble efforts of their executioners, boastinghowmuch more effectively they themselves had applied torture to individuals of their tribe. Yet there are instances, when the murderers at last triumph ; the sufferer exclaims, " Fire is strong, and too powerful ;" he even uttei"s loud shrieks, which are responded to by exulting shouts of savage laughter. Some few have been known, by almost incredible efforts, to break loose, and by rapid flight ef- fect their escape. The general result, however, is death, after protracted suffering ; when the scalp, if still entire, is taken off and deposited among the military trophies.* It has been made a question whether the Indians can be justly charged with cannibalism. It is certain that all the terms by which they designate their inhuman mode of putting a prisoner to death bear reference to this horrid practice. The expressions are to throw him into the cauldron, to devour him, to eat soup made of his flesh. It has hence been plausibly inferred that this enormity really prevailed in early times, but was changed, we can scarcely say mitigated, into the present system of torture. Yet, as every action is described by them in terms highly figurative, those now quoted may have been used as expressing most fully the complete gratification of their revenge. Of this charge they can- not now be either condemned or wholly acquitted. In * Charlevoix, vol. i. p. 37^. Adair, pp. 390, 3D1. Golden, vol. i. pp. 144, 145. CANADA AND ITS BORDERS. 91 the excited fury of their \j :: i)ns, portions of the flesh are often seized, roasted, and eaten, and draughts taken of the blood. To eat an enemy's heart is considered a peculiar enjoyment. Long mentions a gentleman who came upon a party who were busy broiling a human heart, when he with difficulty prevailed on them to desist. There is little hesitation amongst them, in periods of scarcity, to relieve hunger with the flesh of their captives ; and during one war, this fate is said to have befallen many French soldiers who fell into the hands of the Five Na- tions. Colonel Schuyler told Golden, that having entered the cabin of a chief who had some rich soup before him, he was invited to partake. Being hungry and tired, he readily agreed, till the ladle being put into the great cauldron, brought up a human hand, the sight of which put an immediate end to his appetite and meal.* Although war may be considered as the ordinary state of those tribes, yet, after having for a considerable time experienced its destructive eflfects, there usually arises a desire for an interval of tranquillity. To pro- cure this, a regular form is observed. The nation which resolves to make the overture despatches several in- dividuals, usually of some note, as ambassadors, with at least one orator. They bear before them the ca- lumet of peace, which renders their character sacred, and secures them from violence. They carry also a certain number of belts of wampum, with which are respectively connected the several motives and terms of the proposed treaty. The orato^ having obtained an audience of the chiefs on the other side, expounds the belts, dancing and singing in unison, and by actions expressing the peaceful purpose of his mission. If the opposite party be favourably inclined, they accept the offered symbols, and next day present others of a si- milar import. He then smokes in the calumet, and the contract is sealed by burying a hatchet ; if there • Charlevoix, vol. i. p. 318. Adair, p. 199. Lonjj, pp. 77, 78. Coldeo, vol. i. p. 156. 3 i I 'i : i t f I I 'li:: It ' ! 1'^ > i •ill J! f ^ 92 THE NATIVE INDIANS INnABITING he any allies, one is deposited for each. This agreement is often accompanied with professions, at the moment perhaps sincere, of maintaining the sun always in the heavens, and never again digging up the hatchet ; but the turbulence of individuals, and the satiety of long peace, to which the whole nation is subject, usually rekindle hostilities at no distant period.* Some notice may finally be expected of Indian amusements ; the most favourite of which are smoking, music, and dancing. These, however, are viewed in a much higher light than mere pastime ; being ranked among the most serious occupations, and esteemed quite indispensable in the conduct of every important affair. Without them a council cannot be held, a negotiation carried on, peace or war proclaimed, nor any public or private contract entered into ; for not one of these trans- actions is accounted valid, till it has been smoked over and sung and danced to. The calumet is the grand instru- ment of their policy. No important affair can be taken into consideration without the pipe in their mouths ; and hence, to call an assembly of the chiefs is said to be lighting the council-fire. This tube accompanies and is the guardian of every embassy, and to smoke together is the chief cement of national union. Music and dancing accompanying each other are equally indispensable to every solemn celebration. Yet the instruments and performance are alike simple and rude ; for their song, though often continued for a long period, consists merely in the perpetual iteration of a few wild melancholy notes. The words are usually of the minstrel's own composition, and record his exploits in war or hunting, and sometimes the praises of the animals w^hich he has killed in the chase. The song is accompanied by perfoiinance on the drum, and on the chichikoue, or pipe. The former is merely a hollowed piece of wood, covered with skin ; the latter is formed of a thick cane, upwards of two feet in length, with eight • Charlevoix, vol. i. p. 321. CANADA AND ITS BORDERS. 93 or nine holes ; and a mouthpiece not unlike that of a common whistle. Those who know how to stop the holes and bring out a sound consider themselves per- formers ; yet they cannot play upon it even those simple airs which they execute with the voice, though they will often continue for hours drawing out wild irregular notes. The dances of the Indians, even those at common fes- tivals, are on an extensive scale ; requiring to a complete performance forty or fifty persons, who execute their evolutions by following each other round a great hie kin- dled in the centre. Their movements, monotonous but violent, consist in stamping furiously on the ground, and often brandishing their arms in a manner compared by an able writer to a baker converting flour into dough. They keep good time ; but the music is so exceedingly simple that this implies little merit. They conclude with a loud shout or howl, which echoes frightfully through the woods. The dances in celebration of parti- cular events are of a more varied character, and often form a very expressive pantomime. The war-dance is the most favourite and frequent. In this extraordinary performance, a complete image is given of the terrible reality ; the war-whoop is sounded with the most frightful yells ; the tomahawk is wildly brandished ; and the enemy are surprised, seized, and scalped, or carried off for torture. The calumet-dance, which celebrates peace between na- tions, and the marriage-dance, which represents domestic life, are much more pleasing. Some mention is made of a mystic dance, carried on by the jugglers or doctors, with strange superstitious ceremonies, and in which a supernatural personage, termed by some the devil, rises and performs ; but it does not seem to have been wit- nessed by any European, and is said to be now in a great measure disused.* I I * Missions en la Nouvelle France, ans I64r), 1646, pp. 20, 21. Weld, p. 412-417. Creuxiiis, p. 67. Chateaubriand, vol. i. p. 205. Charlevoix, vol. ii. p. 7^. Carver, pp. 270, 2/1. 94 THE NATIVE INDIANS INHABITING \H m M There are, moreover, games to which the Indians are fondly attached, which, though they be only ranked under the head of amusement, are yet conducted in the same serious manner as their other transactions. Their great parties are said to be collected by supernatural authority, communicated by the jugglers; and they are preceded, like their wars and hunts, by a course of fasting, dreaming, and other means of propitiat- ing fortune. The favourite game is that of the bone, in which small pieces of that substance, resembling dice, and painted of different colours, are thrown in the air, and according to the manner in which they fall, the game is decided. Only two persons can play ; but a numerous pai'ty, and sometimes whole villages, embrace one side or the other, and look on with intense inte- rest. At each throw, especially if it be decisive, tre- mendous shouts are raised ; the players and spectators equally resemble persons possessed ; the air rings with invocations to the bones, and to the manitous. Their eagerness sometimes leads *o quarrelling and even fighting, which on no other occasion ever disturb the interior of these societies. To such a pitch are they occasionally worked up, that they stake successively all they possess, and even their personal liberty ; but this description must apply only to the more southern nations, as slavery was unknown among the Canadian Indians, A temporary interval of wild license, of emancipation from all the restraints of dignity and decorum, seems to afford an enjoyment highly prized in all rude societies. Corresponding with the saturnalia and bacchanals of an- tiquity, the Americans have their festival of dreams, which, during fifteen days, enlivens the inaction of the coldest season. Laying aside all their usual order and gravity, they run about, frightfully disguised, and committing every imaginable extravagance. He who meets another demands an explanation of his visions, and if not satisfied, imposes some fantastic penalty. He throws upon him cold water, hot ashes, or filth ; CANADA AND ITS BORDERS. 95 lans axe ranked iin the Their natural d they course ropitiat- bone, in ng dice, the air, •all, the ; but a embrace ise inte- ive, tre- )ectator8 igs with . Their id even iurb the ire they jessively ty ; but southern ianadian cipation seems to societies. s of an- dreams, a of the rder and and who ed. He visions, ppiialty. sometimes rushing into his cabin he breaks and destroys the furniture. Although every tiling appears wild and unpremeditated, it is alleged that opportunities are often taken to give vent to old and secret resent- ments. The period having elapsed, a feast is given, order is restored, and the damages done are carefully repaired.* On the first settlement of Europeans in Canada, that territory was chiefly divided between three great na- tions, — the Algonquins, the Hurons, and the Iroquois or Five Nations. The first held an extensive domain along the northern bank of the St Lawrence, about a hundred leagues above Trois Rivieres. Shortly before, they had been the most powerful of all these tribes, and consi- dered even in some degree as masters over this part of America. They are described also as having the mildest aspect and most polished manners of any. They sub- sisted entirely by hunting, and looked with proud dis- dain on their neighbours, who consented to bestow on the soil even the smallest cultivation.t The Hurons were a numerous people, whose very extensive territory reached from the Algonquin frontier to the borders of the great lake bearing their name. They were also more industri- ous, and derived an abundant subsistence from the fine territory of Upper Canada. But they were at the same time more effeminate and voluptuous, and had less of the proud independence of savage life, having chiefs hereditary in the female line, to whom they paid con- siderable deference. The Iroquois, destined to act the most conspicuous part among all the native tribes, occupied a long range of territory on the southern border of the St Lawrence, from Lake Champlain to the western extremity of Lake On- tario. They were thus beyond the limits of what is now considered Canada ; yet, as all their transactions were )r filth •Charlevoix, vol. ii, _p. 13-15, 159 164, &c. Chateaubriand, vol. i. p. 238-242. La Potherie, vol. ii. pp. 126, 127. I t La Potiierie, vol. i. p. 232-289. 96 THE NATIVE INDIANS INHABITING completely connected with the interests of that country, we cannot at present avoid considering them as be- longing to it. This people were divided into five cantons, each of which was considered as an independent nation. They were united, however, by the closest alliance ; are never found waging war with each other ; nor did they often fail to combine their forces when attacked by neigh- bouring tribes.* The following are the names given to them by English and French authors : — English. French. Mohawks. Agniers. Oneidas. Onreyouths. Onondagoes. Onontagues. Cayugas. Anniegue. Senekas. v Tsonnonthouans. La Potherie, vol. i. p. 232-289. Rogers, p. 237. Colden, pp. 3, 4. 'iv*1 country, 1 as be- IIISTORY OP JANADA UNDER THE FRENCH. 97 , each of 1. They are never tiey often )y neigh- j given to )uans. den, pp. 3, 4. CHAPTER III. History of Canada under tlie French. Earliest Discoveries of the English and French — De la Roche — Chauvin and Pontgrave — De Monts — Champlain, employed by him, ascends the St Lawrence — Founds Quebec — Dealings with a Party of Natives — Joins a warlike Expedition — Victory — Torture — Transactions in France— Fresh military Encounter — Foundation of Montreal — Various Transactions — Voyage up the Ottawa — Great Expedition against the Iroquois — Unsuccessful — Difficulties in France — Appointment of De Caen — Peace among the Indian Tribes — Duke de Ventadour Viceroy — Rupture of the Treaty — Quebec taken by the English — Restored — Lai^e Supplies sent out — Death of Champlain — Great Power of the Five Nations — Treaty with them — War renewed — Destruction of the French Indian Allies — A Remnant flee to Quebec — Iroquois Masters of Canada — Louis XIV. determines to reinforce the Colony — Expedition under De Tracy — Government of De Cour- ceiles — Frontenac — De la Barre — His fruitless Expedition— Denonville — His violent Proceedings — Critical State of the Co- lony — Second Government of Frontenac — Capture of Corlaer or Schenectady— The English under Pliipps attack Quebec — Re- pulsed — Negotiations with the Indians — Invasion of their Ter- ritory — Death of Frontenac — De Callieres — Peace, and speedy Renewal of War — Attempts by the English to conquer Canada Treaty of Utrecht — Charlevoix's Account of the State of the Colo- ny — Its Prosperity — Administration of Du Quesne. The English took decidedly the most prominent part in the d^covery of North America. In 1497, John Cahot, under a commission from Henry VII., landed on its shores, four years only after Columhus had reachcl the West Indies, and nearly twelve months before that celebrated navigator had touched at any part of the con- VOL. I. F I : t 1 th (If t I'l I I , 1 i;i ih m'' 96 HISTORY OP CANADA tinent. In the following year, Sebastian, son to the first discoverer, performed a most extensive exploratory voyage along the greater part of the eastern coast, to lat. 56° or 68° N., and south as far as Florida. The same eminent seaman took part in another expedition undertaken in 1517, for the discovery of a nor*h-wcst passage. The squadron appears to have penetrated into Hudson's Bay, but through the pusillanimity of Sir Thomas Pert, the commander, returned without com- pleting the object in view. These interesting voyages, however, have been illustrated with such diligent and acute research by Mr Tytler, that to our readers an- other detailed narrative of them would be very super- fluous.* Various circumstances combined to withdraw the suc- cessors of Henry from this brilliant career. They were succeeded in it by France ; and it is singular that the settlement of by far the greater part of what is now British America was effected by that power. When, too, England had wrested these possessions from her rival, she retained them after most of her own colonies had established their independence ; for which reason we find it necessary to enter at considerable length into the proceedings of those Gallic adventurers who laid the foundations of civilisation in the Canadian provinces. In 1524, Francis I. commissioned Giovamii Verazzano, a skilful Florentine navigator, who appears to have sailed along the whole coast from Carolina to the northern extremity of Nova Scotia. It was then appropriated in the name of his Most Christian Majesty, under the mag- nificent title of New France. His second expedition was disastrous ; but in 1534, Jacques Cartier, a bold and able mariner of St Malo, was sent out with a similar view. This discoverer made two voyages, in the second of which he penetrated up the St Lawrence as high as the position now occupied by Montreal, and brought home • Progress of Discovery on the more Northern Coasts of Ame- rica, from the Earliest Period to the Present Time (Edinburgh Cabinet Library, No. IX.), pp. 19-28, 39-41. 1 1. UNDER THE FRENCH. 99 son to the exploratory rn coast, to )rida. The expedition , nor*h-west ctrated into nity of Sir ithout com- np; voyages, liligent and readers an- very super- raw the suc- They were lar that the ivhat is now When, too, m her rival, colonies had li reason wc igth into the vho laid the provinces, li Verazzano, ears to have the northern appropriated iderthemaj?- cpedition was bold and able similar view, he second of is high as the )rought homo Coasts of Ame- me (Edinburgh with him Donnaconna, a native king. He was employed a third time in 1540, though in a subordinate rank, under the Sieur de Roberval, an opulent nobleman of Picardy, who, liaving agreed to defray the expense of the exp<"- dition, was created Lieutenant-general and Viceroy. The enterprise was begun with spirit ; and a fort named Charlesbourg was erected near the site now occupied by Quebec. The natives, however, showed a ho.stile spirit ; the two leaders quarrelled ; and Roberval abandoned tlu^ undertaking. He renewed it in 1649, but with an issue singularly unfortunate, neither he nor his brother, who accompanied him, being ever again heard of. For the details of these voyages also we refer to the work above mentioned, where they will be found naiTated in a very satisfactory manner.""' These failures, and still more perhaps the distracted state of France during many years, occasioned by reli- gious wars, withdrew the attention of the government from schemes of transatlantic colonization. The mer- oliants, however, of the great commercial towns, parti- cularly Dieppe, Rouen, St Malo, and Rochelle, had opened communications, and even established posts for the prosecution of the fur-trade. That of Canada was earned on chiefly at Tadoussac, near the mouth of the river Saguenay. Tranquillity being restored by the union of parties under the sway of Henry IV., the public attention was again directed towards New France. The Marquis de la Roche, a nobleman of Brittany, undertook to equi]> an expedition on a large scale, and form a settlement on that remote shore. The encouragements to such enter- prises were always liberal ; and Henry in this respect seems to have surpassed all other monarchs. The marquis was authorized not only to levy troops, make war, build forts and cities, and enact laws, but even to create lords, counts, barons, and similar dignities. Hv accordingly equipped several vessels, with a considerabh^ * Pages 53-67. \ ' ill i \ F>; If \ II I ! M ' 'I ,.l Wt |i m\ 100 niSTORY OP CANADA number of settlers, wlioin, how(!ver, he was oblip;cd tn • .''.s strongly advised to proceed farther up the river, to one which was reported to be much more advantageous. Dis- regarwiii-; this suggestion, he built a house twenty-four feet long, v -'hfrsn broad, and eight high, surrounded it • Histolre 'jt Cf vi.ic des Voyages (19 vols 4to, Paris, 1746- 1770), ton>» xir. p. afi9-69!. <;?;3mplain, Voyages du Sieur de (2 vols Cvo, Paris, 1830), tome i. p. 41-43. UNDER THE FRENCH. JOl J oblipfcd to lilcd under hut of the [1 left forty ;r the cooHt ij^ thwarted of chup;rin. Hoon expe- ; criminals ing with a , erected a which they ts with the f were left Champlaiii to see what J survivors, iblc aspect, ►on Henry, i handsome )lonization. !;!hauvin of )k to settle jesty to aid pade on the disposed to t, his chief iive traffic, some show, issac. ii'u !me, T xi '•"•^ iver, to one jeous. Di»- wenty-four rrounded it Paris, 1746- du Sicur de with a ditch, and lodfjftd there sixteen -'ttlerH for the winter. Tiiey had, liowever, a very .slendiT stock of provisions, and on the scttini; in of tho col ., '^ere reduo'd to the laht extremity, and tiniilly ohlii^fl to throw them- selves on the mercy of the natives, i'l-.in that .simplr people they exp(;rienced a ^'reat de;;ree of kiri(hi('HS, hut, nevertheless, suffered such iiardsliips, that man)' <>f tliem perished hef«)re tlie arrival of vessids from France. Chau- vin performed im »lur voyage, which was as fruitless as the first; \vi<\ in the course of a third he was taken ill and died, • Fnsh ;, b , i^turors were never wanting in this hazard- ous i.iterprisv?. The next was the Comnumdeur de Cii;i;.(,i), governor of Dieppe, who, though already gray with years, engaged in it, and prevailed upon some con- siderable merciumts to second him. He made a nu)st important acquisition in Samuel Champlain, the destined founder of the French settlements in Canada, who had just arrived from the East Indies. He and Pontgrave were sent out to Tadoussac, with instructions to ascend the St Lawrence, and examine the country on its upper borders. They penetrated as far as the Sault St Ltmis, a little above Montreal ; but finding it impossible to pass that cataract, they with some difficulty reached the height above it, where they made the best observations they could on the river and country. Champlain, on his arrival in France, was dismayed to find De Chaste dead, and the whole undertaking deranged. He proceeded, how- ever, to Paris, and showed to the king a chart and de- sc^ription of the region hi had surveyed, with which his majesty ap|)eared highly pleased.t •Suarcely an interval elapsed, when the same enter- prise was taken up by De Monts, a gentleman of opu- lence and distinction, and a special favourite of Henry. He obtained the highest privileges that had been granted to any of his predecessors, and having prepared an expe- dition on a more exteni*ivc scale than any former one, f I ti ' ti 1 ■ Champlain, tome i. p. 44-43. t ^^^^ tome i. p. 49-53. i I iri 102 HISTORY OF CANADA h 1 \ ■\'u IS he put to sea ; but as he had accompanied Chauvin to Tadoussac, and viewed that bleak shore, he felt very averse to enter the St Lawrence. It appeared to him that the seacoast, being in a more southern latitude, was likely to enjoy a milder climate ; an idea plausible, though erroneous. He directed his chief efforts, there- fore, to the country now named Nova Scotia ; and though his operations there were disastrous to his companions, and ultimately to liimself, they were the means of found- ing the important colony of Acadia. Our narrative of these adventurers, however, is reserved till we come to treat of that province.* Champlain whose services he had secured, then remon- strated with him on the error of preferring an iron-bound coast to the beautiful and fertile banks of the upper St Lawrence. De Monts listened to the suggestion, and, undeterred by previous losses, applied to the king for a commission. He obtained it without difficilty, asso- ciated, as before, with the grant of a monopoly of the fur-trade on the river. He fitted out two vessels, but not finding it convenient to command in person, placed them under Champlain, who, accompanied by Pont- grave, was authorized to act as his lieutenant.t The expedition sailed from Honfleur on the 13th April 1608, and on the 8d June reached Tadoussac. The Saguenay, hitherto the chief seat of the traffic in furs, was described as flowing from a considerably distant source in the north. Forty or fifty leagues up, its cur- rent was broken by a succession of falls, beyond which was a lake (St John) which it required three days to cross. On the other side were wandering tribes, from whom the skins were chiefly procured, and who rc- ])orted, that in their roamings they came in view of the Northern Sea. Champlain had sufficient informa- tion to know that this could only be a large gulf ; though he had no knowledge of Hudson's Bay, which had not yet been entered by the great navigator whose name it Champlain, tome i. p. 54-56. t Ibid. pp. 160, 151. UNDER THE FRENCH. 103 bears. The small port of Tadoussac was tolerably safe ; ))ut the shore consisted only of dreary rocks and sands, scantily clothed with larch and pine. He could find no- thing to catch except a few small birds, which visited the spot only in summer. The natives who traded with the French sailed in canoes of birch-bark, so light that a man could easily carry them from one river or lake to another. The navigator continued to ascend the stream, though the banks were still naked and unpromising, till he reached the Isle of Orleans, which formed the com- mencement of the most valuable part of the river, being adorned with fine woods and meadows.* After passing this island, he immediately sought a commodious place of settlement, and soon fixed on a hill richly clothed with vines and walnut-trees, called by the natives Quebeio or Quebec. Having begun to clear and build, he formed an acquaintance with a number of the natives busily employed in the fishery of eels. They showed a considerable disposition to adopt Euro- pean culture and other improvements, the introduction of which he was led to hope might issue in their con- version.t The Frenchman spent the winter here, and sowed some grain, for which he found the soil well adapted. The inhabitants, who, unlike those higher up the river, did not practise agriculture in any degree, were often reduced to the most dreadful extremes of famine. Of this the settlers witnessed a painful example in Fe- bruary 1609, when a party of the savages, seeing them from the opposite bank, and hoping to obtain relief, re- solved to cross, without regard to the floating ice. The French considered the attempt quite desperate ; and, ac- cordingly, in mid-channel, the canoes were dashed to pieces, and the poor creatures leaped on a mass of ice, whence they raised the most doleful cries. By peculiarly good fortune, a larger piece struck that on which they ■I * Champlain, tome i. liv. iii. ch. 3, 4. -f Ibid. liv. iv. ch. 5. :• ■) • I'; r III H • it' ■( i 104 HISTORY OF CANADA stood, and caused it to drift ashore. They landed with joy, but in a state of such ravening hunger, that had the ; \t\ »n 114 HI.STOUY or CANADA shorcH, and had there witncHscd the wreck of an Enp^lisli vessel. The crew, eit^'^hty in nuniher, had reaelied tlio land, vvliere they had all hceii killed and scalped hy the inhabitants, except one hoy, whom they would have been haj)py to present to him, alonji^ with the trophies of their victory. Wishinj,' to assure himself as to this story, the navigator caused the man to sign his declara- tion before two notaries, warning him, if it were false, that he was putting a rope round his own neck. Find- ing the fellow persevere, and learning that some Eng- lish vessels had really been wrecked in 1012 on the coast of Labrador, his doubts were removed, and he deter- mined to devote a season to the j)rosecution of this grand object. With this view he did not stop at Quebec, but setting sail on the IStli May, arrived on the 21st at the fall of St Louis. Here, with only two canoes, containing four of his countrymen and one native, he began his voyage up the river. The hardships and difficulties were very severe. He encountered a succession of cataracts and rapids, which it was necessary to avoid by carrying the skiffs and stores overland. Sometimes, the woods being too dense to admit of this, it became requisite to drag them through the foaming current, not without danger of being themselves ingulfed. If they had lost their boats, they could neither have proceeded back nor for- ward, unless by the mere accident of meeting with friend- ly Indians. There was reason, besides, to dread an attack from some w^andering bands of Iroquois, who, if victo- rious, would have doubtless treated the French as they treated theu* Algonquin captives. As the difficulties of navigation increased, they were obliged to leave their corn behind, and trust entirely to the produce of their guns and nets, which affijrded a precarious and some- times very scanty supply. Nicolas, to our author's sur- prise, was forward in recommending parts of the river which the natives declared to be highly dangerous. At length the party reached the abode of Tessouat, a friendly chief^ whose country was only eight days' sail from that .M,:;:' Lv r^u TJNDKii Tin: riiKNcir. Hj of tho Nobiceriru (Ni|)issinjifH), on whoso l)or(lorstli(» ship- wivck WHS Hiiid to Imvo (HTiurrd. Tl»e jh-ojiK' nrt'ivnl our jul venturer L'<;urleousIy, ii»i«l a<;rec«l to his recjuost ot* ndniissiou to a soK'iriu couiuil. It was proceclcd hy an ontcrtainment of boiled maize, with meat and hsii ; after whieh the youjij; men went out, and the (dd took their pipes and smoked for half an hour in silence, Champlain being then asked his object in s(dieiting tin* interview, after many courteous professions re((uested four canoes to escort him into the country of the Nipis- sings, which he earnestly desired to visit. To this the Indians demurred, stating that the route was very difli- cult, and that they were l)ad men and sorcerers, who had caused the death of many of their tribe ; nevertheless, upon liis earnest entreaty, they at length consented. After tho meeting had broken up, however, the French chief learned that there was a great indisj)osition to fulfil the engagement, and that no one could be found who was willing to accompany him. He therefore again called them together ; reproached them with their me- ditated breach of faith ; and in refutation of their asser- tions of danger as arishig from the people, referred to the fact of Nicolas having s])ent some time among them with- out any annoyance. Hereupon De Vignau was called on to say if he had ever made such a journey ; and when, after long hesitation, he answered in the affinna- tive, they raised loud and fierce cries, declaring that he was speaking falsely, having never passed beyond their country, where he had gone to bed with them every evening and risen every morning ; and that he ought to be tortured to death for having so grossly deceived his chief. Champlain, seeing his follower a good deal con- fused, took him aside, and adjured him to state the truth. The fellow, however, having recovered his confidence, renewed his former averments, and gave the fullest assurance, that if canoes could be procured they would erelong reach the spot. The commander, unable to believe that any individual could persevere in such audacious falsehoods, went back to the savages, re- f!! 116 HISTORY OF CANADA ¥ I iv ■U' , i !; ! if I I; I ferred to the interior sea, the English shipwreck, the eighty scalps, and the young boy in possession of the natives. Hereupon they shouted louder than ever, proclaiming his deceit to be now quite palpable. They began to put close interrogatories, to which he return- ed only unsatisfactory replies. Champlain, extremely perplexed, called him again to a private interview, and told him that every thing already past should be forgiven ; but that if, by persisting in false assertions, he should induce the expedition to go a step fjarther, he would most assuredly be hanged. The man then, after remaining silent for some time, fell on his knees and confessed that all he had said, and which had induced his master to undertake so long and painful a journey, was a complete untruth. The motives of this crime had lieen the eclat derived from the supposed discovery, and the being brought out to New France in a conspicuous situation. He had trusted that the obstacles would be such as, at some earlier point, to lead his superior to re- nounce the attempt ; and with this view, in passing the falls he had urged him to prefer the most dangerous channels. Champlain was obliged to inform the Indians that they were right, and himself egregiously deceived. They earnestly entreated him to place the liar in their hands, who they would take eifectual care should never again deceive him. But, though much and justly en- raged, he resolved honourably to redeem his pledge. He had the vexation, however, to reflect, that not only had he encountered in vain a long series of labours and fatigues, but that the whole season had been spent without any effort to promote other objects which he had much at heart. He had now no alternative but to commence his voyage down the Ottawa, and on his way he was joined by a considerable number of s go in person, he sent BouUe, his ])rother-in-law, and afterwards one of his people, named Emery, to impress these views upon the savage assembly. They were both well received, and their advice approved by the great body of the nation ; but the lawless system wliich still prevailed in the tribe made it impossible to prevent nine or ten hot-headed youths from making an unauthorized inroad into the Iroquois territory. This band having reached Lake Champlain, surprised a canoe with three individuals, two of whom they seized and brought home in triumph. The preparations for the work of torture were already going on, when Emery hastened to convey the intelligence to Champlain, who immediately re- paired to the spot. The sight of the captives, fine young men, and of i.he tortures preparing for them, quickened his ardour in the cause of peace and huma- nity. He strongly urged that, instead of such barba- rous treatment, they should be sent home unhurt, with presents to compensate for this wanton attack. After due deliberation, this advice was so far adopted that one individual was sent back, with two allies, one of them a chief, and Magnan, a Frenchman. This ex- pedition, sent with so laudable an intention, had the most tragical issue. An Algonquin who wished to foment war, contrived to rouse the jealousy of the Iroquois, by persuading them that this mission, though professing friendship, was devised with the most treacherous intent. Misled by these views, the latter prepared to take coo) and deliberate revenge. When the strangers arrived, they found the fire kindled, the cauldron boiling, and being courteously received, were invited to sit down. The Iroquois then asked the chief if, after so long a journey, he did not feel hungry. As he replied in the affirmative they rushed upon him, and began to cut slices from his I ^f> n ■ i ' i i f [ 1 128 HISTORY OF CANADA anuH, and throw tlicm into the j)ot ; soon after, thry presented tliein to him halt" eooked. Tliey then ent pieces from other parts of liis l)o«iy, ar.d continued their torture till he died in lin^'crinj; af^onies. The Frenchman was tonnented to death in the usual numner. Another Indian, more fortunate, while attemj)ting to escape, wa« shot dead on tlu? Hj)ot ; a fourth was made prisoner. When news reached the allies of this dreadful tragedy, the war-cry was immediately wounded, and the remain- ing captive was put to death with every refinement of cruelty.* Chani])lain himself, though deeply afflicted by the intelligence, saw no longer any i)ossihility of avert- ing liostilities ; he felt that, as a countryman had been deprived of life, the power of the nation would be held in contempt if no resentment were shown at so dreadful an outrage. Indeed he experienced no little trouble, even among the friendly tribes, who immediately sur- rounded him. In scvci'al cases, Euroi)eans were mur- dered in an atrocious manner, and under circumstances which rendered it impossi])le to accept as an explana- tion the assurance that parties of Iroquois had pene- trated to the spot. After overlooking these as much as possible, a fresh instance having occurred, he demanded that an individual, to whom strong suspicion attached, should be put into his hands. lie detained him fourteen months ; but being unable to procure positive evidence, and pressed by other circumstances now to be related, he set him at liberty. The dignity of the French required that vigoro>\is measures should have been taken to avenge so great a wrong ; but their attention was soon called to other quarters. Hostilities having broken out with England, two of their subjects, David and Louis Kertk, Calvinist refugees, entered the service of that country, where they were known unde: the name of Kirk. They equi})- ped a^ squadron, which sailed to the mouth of the St Lawrence, captured several vessels, and intercepted the • Champlain, tome ii. pp. 14f>, 211-214. 5 UNDER Tin: FRENCH. 129 coromimication between the mother-country and the colony. Tlie aettU'rn, who hud not yet sufficiently ex- tended cultivation towupply theniHelves with provv'ions, were thus reduced to the greatest distress. At IcngLli, in July 1({21), Sir Duvid Kirk sununoned Quebec. As, in addition to famine, the ammunition was nearly ex- hausted, the governor considered himselt* as havmg no choice but to surrender. The invader, who still retainotl many of the feelings of his birth, promised honourable conditions) and every species of good treatment to his countrymen. They were allowed to depart with their arms, clothes, and baggage. The rec^uest of a ship to con- vey them directly home could not be complied with ; but they were promised a commodious passage by way of England. Champlain was desirous to take with him two little native girls, whom he had carefully educated, and although at first objected to, this was granted on a fuller explanation. The place being surrendered, ICirk and the English showed to the garrison every species of courtesy ; though Baillif, a renegade Erenchman, to whom he intrusted the keys of the magazine, seized a great quantity of furs, besides various articles of church property, and subjected his countrymen to all the ill treatment in his power. Champlain, who arrived at Dover c a the 27th Oc- tober, proceeded thence to London, For the purpose of conferrmg with the French ambassador. The differences between the two nations were now in a train of adjust- ment ; but a large party in tho Gallic cabinet set too little value on the settlement to think its restoration worth insisting upon. Champlain strongly deprecated this view of the subject ; his counsels at length pre- vailed at the court of Louis XIII. ; and when the English found the matter seriously pressed, they con- sented without much difficulty. The final treaty, however, was not signed till the 29th March 1632. The indifference with which both countries viewed this colony, though bearing the pompous title of New France, was not Ul justified by its actual condition. A fort VOL. I. II J 30 HISTORY OP CANADA ' 'I [)' I with some houses and bftrracks at Quebec ; a few huts for fishing and trade at Tadoussac, Trois Rivieres, and Montreal, formed nearly all that answered to that im- posing name.* But even prior to its late disaster, arrangements had been made witli a view to rescue it from this depressed state. Under the direction of Cardinal Richelieu, whose administration was marked by a bold and enterprising character, an association was fonned of a hundred distinguished individuals, who undertook that, by the year 1643, they would raise the population to 6000. They engaged to maintain the emi- grants for three years, bestowing upon them lands and seed-corn. Thev were also to send a suitable number of clergymen, subsisting them for fifteen years, and at the end of that period to assign them glebes sufficient for their support.t Their operations were suspended by tlie disiistrous events just narrated ; but when the above treaty restored Canada to the French, their rights were fully confirmed, and they made no hesitation in rein- vesting Champlain with his former jurisdiction. The year 1633 had arrived, however, before an expedition was ready to sail, which carried with it more property than was supposed at the time to exist in the colony. The governor found most of those whom he had left ; but their prosperity must have been greatly cheeked })y the bigoted spirit which induced the court to prohibit altogether the exercise of the reformed religion, by whose professors chiefly the settlement had been su])- ported. Some small compensation was afforded, by the institution of religious establishments embracing- objects of general education and instruction. A son of the Marquis de Gamache, whose fervour had hnpel- led him to join the order of Jesuits, conceived the ambition of founding a college at Quebec, and was ena- bled by his friends to offer 6000 gold crowns for this purpose. His proposal was readily accepted, and, though • Heriot, History of Canada, 8vo, London, 1804 (translated from Charlevoix, Histoire de la Nouvelle France), p. 4'J. -|- Charlevoix in Heriot, pp. lijj 38. '/*u UNDER THE FRENCH. 131 delayed hy the misfortunes of the colony, was carried Jnto effect in 1(535. Four years later, under the auspices of the Duchess d'Aiguillon, a party of Ursuline nuns were sent out, nnd a seminary estahlishcd by tliem at Q,ue])ec. But the religious foundation from which tlu^ greatest advantages were derived was that projected by the Abbe Olivier, who had originated the order of St Sul- piee, and ])roposed that a seminary, bearing its name and composed of its members, should be formed in New France. Tl king listened favourably to this sugges- tion, and, wi I the view of realizing it, made a grant of the whole island of Montreal. A party was formed, the Sieur Maisonneuve was placed at its head, and invested with the government. That important place, where hi- tlicrto there had been only a few detached huts, assumed now the aspect of a regular settlement, and rose, by gra- dual steps, until it attained a great degree of j)rosperity.* But, in the mean time, the rising colony was destineremacy of power. They had completely humbled the Algonquins, who formerly held the fore- P li • Charlevoix in Heriot, p. 49-55. 132 HISTORY OF CANADA 'i'.' I \ w\ ^H most place in the savage world ; they closely pressed tJie Hurons, scarcely allowing their canoes to pajss up and down the river ; and they now threatened in great force the settlement of Trois Rivieres. In this exigency, Montmagny's resources enabled him only to carry on a defensive warfare, which he appears to have done with vigour, erecting a fort at the mouth of the river Sorel, by which the Iroquois chiefly made their de- scents. That fierce people, whether tired of so long a contest or awed by the renewed power displayed by the French, began to make proposals for a solid peace ; and though the governor had good reason to doubt their since- rity and dread some sinister object, his situation left no choice but to receive them with apparent cordiality. He therefore repaired to Trois Rivieres to meet their de- puties, while the chiefs of the tribes in alliance with him came also to the interview. The envoys of the Five Nations then produced seventeen belts, which they had arranged along a cord fastened between two stakes. Their orator came forward and addressed the governor- general by the title of Ononthio, which, in their language, signifies Great Mountain ; and though it was in refer- ence to his name of Montmagny, they continued ever after to apply this term to the French viceroy. They often added the respectful appellation of father. The speaker declared the sincerity of their intentions, and their wish *' to forget their songs of war, and to resume the voice of cheerfulness." He then proceeded to the exposition of the belts, which occupied three hours, each explana- tion being accompanied with appropriate gestures, which alone would have been almost sufficient to unfold his meaning. Thus, having occasion to refer to the diffi- culties of canoe-navigation, he performed all the move- ments necessary in guiding one through the rapids, and, representing himself as striking against a rock, used signs expressive of the pain caused by such an acci- dent. These belts variously expressed the calming of the spirit of war, the opening of the paths, the mutual visits to be paid, the feasts to be given, the restitution UNDER THE FRENCH. 133 of the captives, and other friendly proceedings. The governor, in conformity to Indian etiquette, delayed his answer for two days, when, at another general meeting, he bestowed as many presents as he had received belts, and through an ir.terpreter expressed the most pacific sentiments. Piskaret, a great Algonquin chief, then said, — " Behold a stone, which I place on the sepulchre of those who were killed in the war, that no one may attempt to remove their bones, and that every desire of avenging their death may be laid aside." Three dis- charges of cannon were considered as sealing the treaty. It was for some time faithfully observed, and unwonted tranquillity reigned throughout this savage region. The Iroquois, the Algonquins, and Hurons forgot their deadly feuds, and mingled in the chase as if they had been one nation.* ' M. de Montmagny, like his predecessor, appears to have commanded the ^'^'^^'^ral respect of the native inha- bitants. Unluckily, ii • i • jquence of an attempt by De Poinci, who command .^^ iii the West Indies, to render himself independent, the court adopted the jealous po- licy of continuing no governor in power longer than three years. This system was peculiarly ill suited to a settlement like that of Canada, where intimate local knowledge, and a peculiar mixture of firmness and ad- dress, were necessary to deal with tumultuary tribes whom they had not strength to subdue. Montmagny was replaced by Ailleboust, said to have been a man of probity, but scarcely possessing the energy required in so difficult a situation. During his government the Iro- quois formed the resolution of renewing the war in all its fury. No ground is stated ; but the Europeans and their allies in consequence of it became exposed to a series of dreadful calamities. The missionaries had not merely formed establish- ments at Quebec and Montreal, but had also penetrated into the territory of the savages. In this task they cer- Charlevoix in Heriot, p. 51-63. 134 HISTORY OF CANADA f! ;) k'."!. i\i^ ^ tainly gave full proof of sincerity, renouncing all the comforts of civilized life, and exposing themseb'^es to every species of hardship and danger. They have been accused of unduly combining political with religious ob- jects. They did certainly employ their influence for the furtherance of French power ; since they induced a number even of the Iroc, ;, ois not only to quit the country to which fhey were so strongly attached and settle within the limits of the colony, but even to fight against their own relations. But, at tlie same time, they undoubtedly reclaimed their votaries from many savage habits, and trained them to some degree of order and industry. The Hurons were found the most docile and susceptible of improvement, and their great numbers afforded a wide field of exertion. Upwards of three thousand of them are recorded to have been baptized at one time ; and though it was easier to make converts than to retain them, yet a considerable change is said to have appeared in the aspect of this wild region, and very favourable prospects to have been opened.* The main object was to unite them in villages, of which the chief was Sillery, or St Joseph and St Mary, with several smaller de- pendent ones. In 1648 the Iroquois, as already stated, determined to renew the war; a resolution adopted by them, if we may believe the annals of the colony, without any ground, or even pretext. The settlement, how- ever, was now destined to experience the terrible effects of their rapid movements; that they could advance like foxes, and attack like lions ; and that their arrival and triumphant return were usually an- nounced at the same moment.t In the village of Sillery, where four hundred families were settled in the most profound peace, and the missionary was celebrating the most solemn ordinances of religion, the cry was suddenly raised, " We are murdered !" An indiscriminate mas- ; : * Missions en la Notivelle France, ans 1642, 1643, p. 32 ; 1H47, p. 19 ; ans 164U, 16A(), p. 92. •f- Missions, ans Hiiti), 1660, p. 17. an ) I UNDER THE FRENCU. 135 sacre had begun, without distinction of sex or age. In vain did women flee into the depth of the forest with infants in their arms, wliose feeble cries betrayed themselves and their mothers. Finally, the assailants fell upon the priest, and, after each successively had struck a blow, threw him into the flames.* Notwithstanding this dreadful example, the Iroquois having disappeared for six months, the villages relapsed into their former security. This tranquillity, however, was again disturbed in 1649 by a party of the same people, amounting to a thousand, who made an attack upon the mission of St Ignace. Some resistance was offered, and ten assailants fell ; but ultimately all the inhabitants, except three, were killed or carried off; St Louis was next attacked, and made a brave defence, which, though it was finally stormed, enabled many of the women and children to escape. The missionaries could have saved themselves ; but, like others of their brethren, attaching a high importance to the administration of the sacrament to the dying, they sacrificed their lives to the performance of this sacred rite. They were not killed on the spot, but " reserved for greater crowns," having to pass through a dreadful series of torture and mutila- tion.t Deep and universal dismay now spread amongthe Huron people. Their country, lately so peaceable and flour- ishing, was become a land of iiorror and of blood, a sepul- chre of the dead, and no hope appeared to the survivors. The whole nation, with one consent, broke up and fled for refuge in every direction. A few reluctantly offered to unite with their conquerors, who, according to their usual policy, readily accepted them. The greater num- ber sought an asylum among the natiors of the Cat, tlie Ottawa, and others still more remote. The missionaries were greatly at a loss how to proceed with the remnant of their converts, now nearly reduced to the single vil- * Mission-., ans 1648, 1649, pp. 12, 13. + Missions en la Nouvelie France, ans 164% 1649. pp. 12, 34-39, c. iv. i: ■' I'l! 136 HISTORY OF CANADA ;!!: M ]a;>e of St Mary. The island of Manitoulin, in Lake Huron, was proposed ; but though they wanted the means or courage to defend their country, they felt a deep reluctance to remove to such a distance from it. Tliey preferred the insular situation of St Joseph, in Lake Ontario, which, it was hoped, would secure them against this dreaded foe. They enjoyed for some tune an unwonted tranquillity, but were obliged, by the dif- ficulty of subsistence, to form stations on the opposite coast, at the distance of six or eight leagues. It was hoped, that on any alarm the inhabitants might thence flee to the island for safety ; but the Iroquois, on learn- ing the existence of these posts, came upon them suc- cessively, with such suddenness and fatal precision, that it seemed as if a destroying angel had guided their steps. One after the other was surprised and destroyed, till of many hundreds only a single individual escaped. The unhappy remnant of the Huron nation, now re- duced to 300, renounced every hope of remaining in their native seats. One of their chiefs addressed the mission- ary, representing the extremity to which they were re- duced, being ghosts rather than men, and hoping to pre- serve their wretched existence only by fleeing into the depth of the forests, or to some distant country. If he chose to remain where he was, he could only have trees and rocks to instruct. This was the preface to a solicita- tion that he should convey them to Quebec, and place them under the immediate protection of the French set- tlement. After serious consideration, this was deemed the most eligible course, and arrangements were imme- diately made for its execution. They were then led through the wide regions lately peopled by their coun- trymen, to the number of ten or twelve thousand, but which now presented a scene of unbroken ' silence and desolation. The sombre aspect of the vast forest was only interrupted by the traces of havock and slaughter at every spot formerly inhabited, attesting the general destruction of the Huron name. Overwhelmed with distress, they reached Quebec, where they experienced m UNDER THE FRENCH. 137 a mortifying contrast to the reception which they would have found among any neighbouring tribe of savages. There they would have had every want supplied, and been welcomed as countrymen and equals. Here they were viewed only as objects of charity ; and though in this light considerable exertions were made, the reli- gious houses finding room for a hundred of the most destitute, yet the remainder were in danger of perishing from cold and hunger, till a station could be formed for them, which, from their fornier chief settlement, was named Sillery.* As the Iroquois now lorded it completely over Ca- nada, the French wore virtually blockaded in the three forts of Quebec, Trois Rivieres, and Montreal, from un- der the very cannoxi of which they and their allies were 8i»metimes carried off ; and, almost every autumn, bands of hostile invaders swept away the limited harvests raised in the immediate vicinity of these places. Yet in 1653 this fierce nation began, of their own accord, to make overtures of peace ; and it was found with surprise that the missionaries had powerfully contributed to this reso- lution. Thev had been regarded at first with extreme antipathy, being probably considered as enemies of their race, seeking to subvert the native deities and customs. In the course ^f the late inroads, however, a considerable number had been canied off, and after sul fering protracted torture and partial inutilation, had been spared and adopted. Then their meek deportment, their solemn ceremonies, and the fervour with which " they raised to God hands without fingers," made a strong im- pression on the savage breast. Hence, at different times, deputies from the ruling horde said in their figurative language that they came to wipe away the blood which had reddened the mountains, the lakes, and the rivers, to bring back the sun, which Imd liid his face during the late dreadful scenes of war- fare. They solicited, at the same time, " black-robes," Missions en la Nouvelle i ranee, ans 1649, 1650, pp. 83-88, 100. 138 HISTORY OF CANADA n 1 If! -!Mi i: t as they termed the missionaries, to teach them the Christian doctrine. This invitation to go into the midst of ferocious enemies, into a land yet smoking with European blood, would have shaken the nerves of most men. Yet individuals were found who, with a generous self-devotion, did not shrink from the undertaking ; nor does it appear that the implied pledge of safety was vio- lated even during war.* The Onondagoes, in 1656, went so far as to solicit that a settlement connected with a mission should be formed in their territory ; and Lauson, then governor, having acceded to this proposal, sent the Sieur Dupuys, with fifty of his countrymen, who built a church in the bosom of that savage region. This establish- ment, however, was generally dis'^.pproved by th. other tribes; and after it had subsisted two years, formi- dable assemblages took place, which Dupuys could not doubt were intended to attack him. He therefore con- sidered himself fortunate in being able, while their at- tention was attracted to a great feast given for that purpose by a friendly Indian, to embark his troops, and convey them to Montreal.f The French felt themselves too weak to reject proposals for peace, though often made with mortifying haughti- ness. The Viscount d'Argenson, who went out in 1658, considered it necessary to accept their terms, especially as the utmost cruelties were otherwise threatened to the captives. Yet even by these means his countrymen scarcely cLtained any degree of the expected repose. This disappointnient arose either from deliberate treachery, or the impossibility of confining in one course the va- rious unruly elements " which the confederacy con- sisted. The most amicable professions hardly procured a respite from hostility ; for while one party treated, another attacked : " Peace, it is said, is proclaimed at Montreal while war rages at Trois Rivieres ; we are daO y a: iked and murdered by those who call them- * ..-- .u la Nouvelle France, ans 1655, IGSfi, p. 18-20; ans }()«0, luul, p. 33-40. . -|- Charlevoix m Heriot, pp. 74, 81-86. UNDER THE FRENCH. 139 selves our friends.'* At length, in 1663, it was an- nounced that a grand deputation was coming from all the cantons, with the professed intention to unite the whole earth, and to bury the hatchet so deep, that it might never again 1)0 dug up ; and they brought with them a hundred colUrs of wampum. Unhappily a party of Algonquins, stung by accumulated wrongs, deter- mmed to violate even the sacred character of such a mission ; and having formed an ambuscade, they sur- prised and killed the greater part of them. All prospects of peace were thus blasted, and war raged with greater fury than ever.* The Iroquois, during this period, continually extend- ed their dominion. Having seen the powerful effect of firearms, they procured them from the Dutch at Maii- hatti, and thus acquired an additional superiority over the neighbouring tribes. They attacked the Ottawas, on account of the shelter afforded to their fugitive enemies. That people did not make even an attempt at resistance, but sought refuge amid marshes or in the islands on Lake Huron, while others penetrated far south-west into the valley of the Mississippi, where they formed a junc- tion with the Sioux. On the same ground the Iroquois commenced a desperate vjar with the nation of the Eriez, — a name in their language signifying Cats. After a somewhat hard struggle, they completely succeeded ; seven hundred of them stormed the mair fortress of the enemy, though defended by 2000 men ; and the survivors were either incorporated with the victors, (vr fied into remoter regions. This once powerful nation has left no memorial of its existence except the great lake which bears its name. It is reckoned that the con- querors held undisputed sway over a country five hun- dred miles in circuit. The very sight of one of them .struck terror into the neighbouring tribes ; and on the side of New England, the cry of " A Mohawk I" echoed • Missions en la Nouvelle France, ans IGJiO, lf)6I, p. 12-2G ans l(jt)3, 1604, p. 160, &c. Heriot, pp. 87, 94, 95. !( 140 niSTOllY OF CANADA I . 'I from Iiill to hill, cauHing gonenil conHirrnation and flight.* Amid this Hori(«s of (lisaHtrous events, fhc I<'ronch go- roniors, whether from weakness or juisiliaiiiinity, heheld tlio destruetion of their alili'S and tlie eoinplete Jiseend- oiicy of tliisliostile power, witiiont any attempt to prevent either. They did not even goto war, hut thought it enough to kee]) the eidonists shut u|) in fortified posts, whieh tJio enemy had not skill to i)esiege : >'iu\ notiiingelse pre- vented them from speedily destroying tiu'se settlenu'iits, tlieenvironsofwhieh they ilaily insulted. They even made adeseeiit upon the isle of Orleans, where they surprisid A party of ninety llunms ; and having killed six, Ixmnd tlic rest, and made them sing in front of C|uehee, thus oi>cnly defying the governor. M. Maisonneuve, appre- luMisive for Montreal, and unahle otherwise to procure aid, repaired to J^'ranee, where, hy earnest solicitation, he. ohtained a reinforcement of a hundred men. The Ilurona, under Kuro])can i)rotection, in a moment of despondency, had made an offer of uniting themselves to tlie Iroquois, which, as usual, was readily accejjted ; hut tlio fomner soon repented. That ])roud nation then sent tljirty dt>i)uties to remonstrate, not only with them, hut with the governor-general, M. de Lauson. To him they said, " Lift up thy arm, Ononthio, and allow thy chil- dren, whom thou holdest pressed to thy hosom, to de- part ; for if they are guilty of any imprudence, thou hast reason to fear, lest in coming to chastise them, my lilows fall on thy head." They even demanded canoes to convey these reluctant associates. Lauson, insten/l of resenting this haughty address, caused them to he itifomied, that if the Hurons were inclined to go, h(^ would not oppose their departure ; that he had no cjianoes, but they might construct as many as they wanted. After this, considering that no option was left them, except to which of the live nations they • Heriot, p. 7:^-77. Missions, ans 1659, 1660, p. 33-35. Colden's History of the Five Nations, vol. i. pp. 3, 4, rNDKIl Tin: FUICiNCIf, 141 nation and U36. Colden's hIiouM unite tluMnsolvos, the? ^ontor part in coUMO«|uen«j li'ft tlu' islimil.^ A mill tiu'Hc (ixtcrnal cvIIh, the colony w«w fartlmr visitt'd l>y u tiirrihlo convulHion of imtiiro. A HucccHHion ofciirtluiuakcH, which commenced on the r>t!i Fehnmry KKIM, were felt for half u year with little inttfrnuHnion throughout all (.'anjwla, recurring two or three tinws every day, agitating hoth the earth and the watenn, and spreading universal alarm ; yet, as tluy did not iniliit any pennanent injury, nor caust; the Iosh of a single life, the accountb given of them are probably much exaggerated.t Meantime! the most urgent representations wcire nuido to iiouis XIV. that his government was tot^illy neglect- ing one of tlu! finest countries in the world, and exp<)»- int' the b'rench nanu! to contempt, by allowing it to Ihj truir)pled u[>on by a handful of savages. 'J'hat j»rince, who ii.id recently assumed the reins of power, being eager- ly bent u[)on every means of aggrandizement, wjw not likely to overlook one so considerable, lie was seconded by Ids minister Colbert, who had speciiilly devoted hiw thoughts to the extension of commerce ; and it was there- fore immediately resolvtul to take sttsps for raising Canada to her due importance. Four hundred troops were ordered thither ; and M. de Monts wjis appointed commissioner to examine into and regulate the different branches of ad- ministration. The governor had hitherto exercised in person, and without control, all its functions ; but there was now united with him u council of royal appoint- ment, and an intendant, to whom were intrusted the weighty concerns of justice, police, finance, and marine. This new system did not at first work altogether smoothly, nor did the independent materials of which it was composed well harmonize. M. do Mesy, the gover- nor, after having sent back to France two of the prhici- pul members of council, was himself recalled. Tlve • Heriot, pp. 7.i, 75, 7H-H2. t Ibid. pp. yy.102. Missions, an 1603, pp. 17, 10. i^ 't V ID ' , I '' 1 w i '1 jl , 1 if % i .tent'it m m m ]42 HISTORY OF CANADA court, however, pci-scvcred in its detorminfttion to raise the new colony to a j)roi)or rnnk. Tlie UHHociates who had HO kmg negk'cted it, and were unwilling- to involve theniwelves in a largo outlay with uncertain returns, re- signed their privileges into the hands of the crown ; and government, according to the unvarying system of that age, placed it in the hands of the West India Company, though it retauied for some time the admmistration of itvS affairs.* In pursuance of these views, the Marquis de Tracy was sent out in 1(505 under the joint character of vice- roy and lieutenant-general, and thus invested with un- controlled power. Along with hun, in addition to the former detachment, was despatched the entire regiment of Carignan-Salieres, for some time employed in Hun- gary against the Turks, where it had acquired a high reputation. A considcrahle numher of settlers, including artisans, with horses and cattle, fonned an accession to the colony exceeding the amount of its actual memhers. The new viceroy lost no time in taking measures for checking the insolence of the Iroquois, and estahlishing a supremacy over these proud savages. He began by erecting three forts on the river Richelieu, in a situa- tion fitted to cover the French territory from their in- cursions. Overawed by these movements, and by the report of his large force, three of the cantons sent depu- ties with ample professions of friendship, proposing an exchange of all the prisoners taken on both sides since the last treaty. The viceroy was pleased with their de- portment, and agreed to the terms. The fierce Oneydas and Mohawks, however, still kept aloof ; and a party of the latter even killed three officers, one of whom, De Chasy, was nephew to the viceroy. But as two corps were advancing into their territory, an envoy from each nation soon appeared at Quebec, professing to negotiate for peace. They were well received, and invited to the governor's table, when the conversation happening to • Charlevoix in Heriot, pp. 97, 103-112. UNDER THE FRENCH. 143 rown ; and full on Do Chft«y's doatli, tlu* Moluvwk, in n pjiroxvHin (>f wivage pride, lifted his unn, Maying, " With this liiind tlmt y<)»ni^' otticer was slain." 'IVaey, in a trans- port of raj»;e, t(d«l him he Hlu)nld never live to kill another Frenchman, and ordered him to he iininen his arrival in 1689, endeavoured »: i HI ^Rii v': '. ' III 1 ' : Rii ^H In ' 'i'p ' 1 HH i ' ii ^^^KHff i '. ■ H^ * ^H • ! .. 1 : '^ ; * ' 1 B i) H ** n "' 1'^ 1 : 11 1 1 ^1 '. ,!■ . \ 1 'i !'■ ; II' '■! P'!i 1 :^i ll 1, , 1 |:j ':|l ^ Iw '■'' ' 1 ■ ; ;■' ' 'W' '■ H W' ill ll 1 If SB H is i •»» ' S fflii; '; |ii| 11 § ■ ■ ! i* 2 ' ' H'' ff' ' \ "t' h„ 1 ': % v H ■• ■ ! i "^ t . j k ' \r !! 1: .! ■ ! ■f i » 1 ■1 ■! f l! > . ^ jl? : - 4. ■1 M. 152 HISTORY OF CANADA to open a negotiation with the Iroquois, whom he entertained sanguine hopes of conciliating. By the advice of Oureouhare, he sent a deputy of that nation whom he found at Montreal, with four of his captive countrymen, to announce to the cantons his return, and his wish to resume amicable relations. The friendly chief transmitted a message, requesting them to send an embassy to their ancient father, from whom they would experience much tenderness and esteem, and whom he would not quit till the affair was satisfactorily adjusted. The council of the Iroquois, after some deliberation, sent back the same deputies with six belts, intimating their resolution. It was expressed in lofty and even embittered terms. Choosing to consider Ononthio as always one and the same, they complained that his rods of correction had been too sharp and cutting. The roots of the tree of peace which he had planter!, at Fort Frontenac had been withered by blood ; the ground had been polluted with treachery and falsehood. They de- manded atonement for these injuries, and that Oureou- hare, with his captive companions, should be sent back, previous to the liberation of the French prisoners. Ononthio would then be at liberty to plant again the ** tree of peace, but not on the same spot." This answer was regarded by Frontenac as very unsatisfactory ; yet anxious to keep open the negotiation, he sent an ojfficer with eight belts from Oureouhare, importing that they should detach themselves from the English and Dutch, and unite in close alliance with France. Till then that chief declined returning to his canton.* Two circumstances emboldened the Iroquois to assume this high tone. In consequence of the revolution of 1688, when the cause of James II. was embraced by the French monarch, the two kingdoms were now at open war ; and the Five Nations could depend upon the cor^- dial co-operation both of the English and the Dutch. At the same time, they were engaged in a treaty with the • Heriot, p. 220-236. TTNDER THE FRENCH. J53 Ottawas and other tribes, who, besides being anxious to have a better market for their furs, complained that the alliance of the French was only a burden to them, as they found it necessary to protect them instead of enjoying their protection. In this crisis, the count feeling a strong inducement to do something to retrieve the repu- tation of hiscountry, resolved to strike the first blow against the English, on whose support the enemy so strongly relied. An expedition was fitted out at Quebec in 1690 against Corlaer or Schenectady, the frontier town of New York, and from which the Indians gave name to the go- vernor. This party, composed of 110 French and a num- ber of savages, succeeded completely in surprising the place. They found the gates open, and encountered re- sistance only at one point, where it was soon overcome. The fort and every house were pillaged and burnt. The English accounts add, that all the horrors of Indian warfare were let loose on the defenceless inhabitants ; that sixty-three men, women, and children were mas- sacred in cold blood, and a small remnant carried away as prisoners. The victors, on their return, suffered severely from want of food, being obliged to kill almost all their horses. The Iroquois were not intimidated nor estranged from the English by this catastrophe ; on the contrary, they sent to the survivors a number of belts, importing that they felt and would avenge the wrong, as if done to themselves. Not a man in Canada should dare to go out to cut a stick. " We are," said they, " of the race of the bear, and a bear you know never yields while a drop of his blood is left." One belt, importing eye- water to make their sight sharp, delicately intimated the necessity of greater precaution in future. Others were to wipe away their tears, and assure them that " the sun, which had been cloudy, and sent this disaster, would shine again with his pleasant beams."* Meantime, a smaller expedition from Trois Rivieres succeeded in surprising and dc*?' roying an English village • Herict, •. 237-242. Colden, vol. i. p. 120-125. i iii mim ■ Mitfti 154 HISTORY OP CANADA I f named Sementcls. The count also sent M. dc Louvigny, with a large detachment, to strengthen the remote post of Michillimakinae, which had been maintained with great difficulty. This service was effected, and a party of the enemy, who attempted to surprise them, were cx)mplctcl}' defeated. NotwithstandirT this success, the Iroquois maintained the same acUvi loviaty; but a favourable influence was prodiiod en the old allies of the French, who seeing them resume their former energy, determined to prefer their support to that of new and suspicious friends. The Ottawas owned that they had made some progress in a negotiatiop hvi. i.^ soon as they heard of the return of their ancient father, had determined to break it off. The Hurons, who had not taken such open .tops, denied having ever entered into any treaty.* Meantime, a storm was ready to burst, which threat- ened the very exibtence of French power in America. The English determined to strike a blow, which might at once deprive the enemy i^-^ all his possessions. Two expeditions were prepared, one by sea from Boston, against Quebec, the other by land from New York, against Montreal. The first was commanded by Sir William Phipps, a native of New England, of humble birth, who had raised himself by his talents to a high station. Having sailed with thirty-four vessels of dif- ferent ^sizes, and a large body of troops, he proceeded with such activity that he had captured all tiie posts in Acadia and Newfoundland, with several on the St Law- pence, and was within a few days' sail of Quebec, before tlie alarm spread thither. Frontenac, who was at Mon- treal, hastened dovm to strengthen the defences, which at that time consisted in a great measure of rude in- trenchments of timber and earth. On the mornir-'/ of the 16th October 1690, the fleet appeared ii^ viev and an officer came with a summons, which was j < mp ' orily rejected. Sir William took no active measure till mid- • Heriot, pp. 243-248, 249, 250. \i il UNDER THE FRENCH. 155 em, were day on the 18th, — n rcmissncsa which was much ])l.nned. Hr, then landed 1500 men on the hanks of tht^ ver St Charles. The French could muster only -"^OO re- gulars ; but these, posting themselves among rocics and i)ushcs, witli which tlie marshy ground was covered, kept up a constant fire, that caused great loss to their enemy. Before night, however, they retreated into the town, leaving the assailants masters of the field. In the evening, the large vessels anchored in front of the city, and opened a hrisk fire ; but heing directed against the upper part, it produced little effect. It was renewed on the following day, and continued till noon, but wa» equally fruitless, wliile the ships sustained considerahle damage. Tho squadron was then moved up the river, beyond Cape Diamond. On the stune day, the troops 'ontinued to advance, though slowly, and harassed by constant attacks. Phipps, whose only hope was now fi-om land-batteries, sent on shore six pieces of ordnance, and next day endeavoured again to push forward with his men. The militia, however, with increased numbers and activity, harassed them, and at length, covered by some pali Nirles, kept u]) so brisk a fire as to arrest their progress. The English commander at this stage considering the > terprise 1 .opeless, embarked his soldiers on the 22d, submitting at the same time to the mortify- ing necessity of li.t^'ing his cannon and ammunition. Golden considers it cei-tain, that had he at once made a vigorous attack on the bo; \ of the place, he would have easUy carried it. The French, he says, returned fervent thanks to Providence for having, by a special interposi- tion, deprived their enemies of common sense.* The expedition against Montreal did not take place at the appointed time, owing to a want of concert between the parties. Next year, however (1691 ), after some desul- tory ravages by the Iroquois, news arrived that they, with their English and native allies, were advancing along the river Sorel. The command at Montreal was then held i< ii * Heriot, p. 255-262. Colden, vol. i. pp. 137, 138. Mat- 11 : 156 HISTORY OP CANADA I, )| [N hi ' ^4* ^}^ il. •'. by Do Cnlliercs, a very a})lc officer, who Imd pained the respect and nttjichment of his wivapc n('igh!)our8. It is said, that on this and other hiph occasions, he danced with them the war-dance, brand isiiinf^ the hatchet, slioutinp and hallooing in their national manner. In addition to his countrymen, he had assembled al)out 800 Indians at the Prairie de hi Magdeleine, near the town. Still the Iroquois, by their rapid movements and skill in ambuscade, succeeded in surprising several of the ad- vanced posts, and carrying off a considerable number of prisoners. But when the force on both sides was fully mustered, the assailants, tliough after a very hard con- test, were o])liged to retreat. After these successes, the governor felt himself in a very commanding position, and no longer entertained any fear for the safety of the colony. Yet the Iroquoia, under a favourite chief named the Black Cauldron, con- tinued to make sudden inroads in every direction, render- ing seedtime and harvest alike precarious, and exposing every one who stirred out of the forts to the hazard of losing his life. It was their boast, that their enemies should have no rest except in the grave. In this de- sultory contest, the advantage was usually on their side ; and though a French detachment penetrated into the canton of the Mohawks, they were obliged to return without gaining any decisive advantage.* The Iroquois, however, in the beginning of 1694, began to show a disposition towards peace. Two Onon- dadoes came to Montreal, and asked De Callieres if certain deputies, who were on their way, would be re- ceived. They were answered in the affirmative ; yet two months elapsed before they availed themselves of this concession. In March there came only an apology from the chief, who was to have been at the head of the em- bassy, and who threw the blame of the delay upon the English. A dark suspicion was now entertained, that these missions were contrived with a most treacherous • Heriot, p. 265-278. Colden, vol. i. p. 139-142. UNDIiR THE FRENCH. 157 doiji^, — to Rtab the governor nnd M. de Callieres in ;f.»b!ic council, while u large boily concealed in ambuBli should take advantage of the confusion. Nothing ever (Xicurred that could seem to justify this horrid appre- hension, so little consistent with the cold and tardy man- ner in which the proposals were made. The truth appears to be, that two parties divided the councils of the savages. One, supported by our countrymen, and relying on their promises, eagerly urged the prosecu- tion of the war. But the other, seconded by the " pray- ing Indians," or the converts made by the missionaries, represented that the nation was wasting itself in a fruit- less warfare ; that the British made large promises, and |)ut them on bold enterprises, but did nothing to sup- port them ; that, in short, they were lavish of American blood, but sparing of their own, A vacillating policy resulted from this conflict. However, in May, the chief arrived with eight deputies, and was well received by the governor, notwithstanding his want of confidence. This was the season of sowing, during the continuance of which a truce was extremely convenient. They expressed the most friendly disposition, and even solicited the resto- ration of the fort of Cataraqui, — ^a request which Fron- tenac little expected, but was quite disposed to grant. Oureouhare went with these deputies, and returned in the company of others, bringing also thirteen French- men, several of whom were persons of distinction, who had been long held in captivity. They came, however, only from two cantons, and though the first belt, relating to the prisoners, was conceived in friendly terms, the ex- position of the others was obscure and unsatisfactory ; and all attempt to obtain a properexplanation proved fruitless. It transpired, however, that the English interest was powerfully exerted against peace ; and all that was at present contemplated was " to suspend the hatchet." The count, though courteously, rejected all the belts except the first, declaring, that he wished to chastise them only as a father does his children ; but that, unlets »&»^ rf j 158 HISTORY OF CANADA !f-! r fi more friendly sentiments were entertained, he could not long withhold the intended hlow.* Affairs continued for some time in this uncertain state, the enemy making repeated proposals, to which little credit was atUiched ; while the governor, not having yet sufficient force to open the campaign in an imposing manner, against a people who could muster 3000 warriors, was not unwilling to have a pretext for delay. Instead, however, of showing 'a more friendly temper, the deputies began to assume a loftier tone, demanding that he should send envoys to their villages, and should cease at once all hostilities against them and the English. It was also understood that various attempts were made on their part to detach the allies, not without some prospect of success. The count, therefore, considered it indispensable to proceed to some measure which might impress the savages with an ade- quate idea of his power. The prevailing opinion was, that he ought at once to march his whole force into the heart of their territory ; but he preferred sending, in the first instance, an expedition to re-establish the foii of Cataraqui. This service was effected with prompti- tude, and almost without opposition. It did not, however, stop the tendency/ to defection among his confederates, who loudly complained of the disadvan- tageous terms on which the French traders dealt with them, when compared with those obtained from the British through the Five Nations. The lead was taken by a Huron chief, named the Baron, who concluded a treaty, not only comprehending his own adherents, but even embracing the Ottawas ; all of whom promised to desert the French, and unite with their mortvil enemies. Yet La Motte Cadillac, commander at Michill'makinac, by impressing on them with great address a dread of his sovereign's power, contrived to change the resolution of these fickle tribes. They were even guilty of a counter- treachery, attacking a party of the Iroquois, who had f! f Heriot, p. 282-288. I ^^ '• K ^ UNDER THE FRENCH. 159 joined them, and defeating them with great loss.* These proceedings, however, were felt by the governor as strongly calling for some vigorous steps to restore the reputation of his arms ; and this could only be effected by carrying war on a great scale into the ene- my's country. As this resolution, however, was formed in the autumn its execution was delaye4 till the fol- lowing summer, De Callieres being convinced that the anny could not, without much suffering, march amid frost and snow into those desolate regions. He listened to a plan for sending a detachment during the winter into the canton of the Mohawks ; but it was soon understood that, through the aid of the English, they had placed themselves beyond the hazard of being overwhelmed by any sudden attack. An attempt to surprise hunting- parties, who crossed the St Lawrence in spring, w^as attended with only partial success. It was not till the month of June 1696 that operations could be regularly commenced. At that period all the forces which could be mustered, regulars, militia, and Indians, were marched upon Cataraqui, and thence into the canton of Onondago. Great difficulty was found in conveying the army and baggage in batteaux along rapid streams ; and on one occasion the greater part had nearly been carried down an impetuous waterfal. On entering a lake, they discovered, suspended to a tree, two bundles of rushes, which intimated that 1434 warriors were'wait- ing to engage them. They therefore sailed across, and formed themselves in regular order of battle. A fort- was constracted to serve as a magazine and place of re- treat, and the troops then cautiously began their march into the heart of those savage regions. De Callieres com- manded the left wing ; the Chevalier de Vaudreuil the right ; while the count, then seventy-six years of age, was carried in the centre in an elbow-chaM*. The host of the Five Nations, however, did not appear ; and, on reaching theu* principal fortress, it was found reduced to UA • Ileriot, pp. 21!'», 291-298, 305-308. 160 HISTORY OF CANADA ' If ashes, while two Frenchmen, long detamed there, had been recently massacred. This excited surprise, as the fort had been carefully constructed by the English, in a regular fonn, with a double palisade, and strengthened by bastions and redoubts. It soon, however, became evident that the cantons had determined to adopt the same policy as on former occasions, of allowing the enemy to march unresisted through their territory, sa- tisfied that they would never be able to form any per- manent establishment. Several prisoners escaped ; but the invaders could only overtake one Indian, nearly a hundred years old, who was barbarously given up to the allied savages to be tortured. It was a dreadful spec- tacle to see more than four hundred men venting their I'age on this venerable and infirm w^-^rior, who endured all they could inflict upon him with unshaken fortitude, deriding his adversaries as slaves to a contemptible race of foreigners.* After tlii} Onondago canton had been thus overrun, the Oneidas sent deputies ; but Frontenac, under present circumstances, would accept nothing short of uncondi- tional submission. De Vaudreuil marched into their territory, and laid it waste. It had been determined in council to advance, and treat the Cayugas in a similar manner ; but the count, influenced probably by the ex- hausted state of his armament, resolved upon returning to Montreal. This conduct is much censured by the French writers, who consider that operations might have been carried further with great advantage. English authors, on the contrary, consider the whole expedition as an act of heroic folly, by which nothing was effected, except the destniction of some grain and wooden cabins. The Iroquois presently rallied, and harassed the invaders severely in their retreat ; nor did they afterwards cease their incursions into the settlement till they found the frontier so strongly guarded, that they could not carry off^ any important plunder, t * Heriot, p. 3UJU321. La Potherie, vol. iii. pp. 207, 208. t Ibid. p. ^22-327. Colden, vol. i. pp 197, ^02. UiVDER THE FRENCH. 161 IS overrun- The governor, meanwhile, had a difficult negotiation with his own court, who had heen pei-suadcd that tlie advanced posts maintained in the upper parts of tlie colony were of very little advantage, while they chiefly caused the desolating wars in which it had been involved. The traffic thither, in fact, was carried on very irregu- larly by an adventurous but desperate race, called the coureurs du hois. It was, besides, a strict monopoly, being only allowed under licenses granted to old offi- cers or favourites, who sold them for about 600 crowns each to the merchants. The purchasers fitted out the coureurs with canoes and merchandise, reaping profits so ample, that the value of 8000 crowns was procured for French goods worth only a thousand. The savages, by their intercourse with the English, learning the extent to which they were cheated, made incessant complaints ; and it was therefore proposed to allow them to bring their own furs and dispose of them at Montreal, while the colonists should devote all their attention to the cultivation of the soil. But the governor and other mem- bers of the administration argued that this step would throw the Indian allies entirely into the hands of the Five Nations and the British ; adding that, while the fur-trade would be entirely lost, a general confede- racy of the tribes against France might be also dreaded. They were probably influenced by the fear of sacrificing their own power and patronage ; and they contrived so to modify the injunctions from court, that they pro- duced little practical effect.* The Iroquois continued the war with vigour, but both they and the English met with repeated disasters, which made them wish for peace. The Black Cauldron himself, in a hunting expedition, was surprised and killed by a party of Algonqums. Negotiations were cpened through Oureouhare, whose sudden death again retarded them ; but their success was secured by tidings that peace had iDcen concluded in Europe between France 1 Heriot, pp. 200, 201, 334-336. VOL. I. K 162 HISTORY OP CANADA il^' i 1' Itei I and Britain. The colonists of the latter power, who first received the intelligence, sent a deputation to Quebec, to propose an exchange of prisoners, both as respected themselves and their allies. The count, however, pre- ferred to negotiate separately with the cantons, and he soon had the satisfaction to discover that, notwithstanding the alliance which had so long united them to the English, a deep jealousy was now felt lest that people, when no longer obliged to court their aid, should endeavour to enforce certain claims of sovereignty. He studiously cherished this impression, hoping to improve it into a friendship with his own countrymen. But in the midst df these transactions he died, on the 29th November 1698, leaving a high reputation for the energetic measures by which, with little aid from the mother-country, he had retrieved the affairs of the settlement, and raised it into a powerful and flourishing state. He was disinterested, but ambitious, haughty, and jealous of his authority ; qualities which created him many enemies, and consi- derably obstructed his designs.* De CalMeres^ who had already distinguished himself by important services, was appointed his successor, and ad- ministered affairs in a manner which gave entire satisfac- tion. With more steadiness and prudence than the count, he possessed nearly equal vigour and address. Much time and many difficulties, however, still intervened before all natters oould be finally adjusted with the Iroquois, and between them and the allies ; but at length, in 1700, a pacification was effected, and the numerous prisoners on both 3ides were allowed to return. On this occasion, tliere was witnessed a surprising and somewhat morti- fying occurrence ; for, wliile the natives eagerly sought their homes, the greater part of the French captives were found to have contracted such an attachment to tlie wild freedom of the woods, that neither the com- mands of the king, nor the tears and entreaties of their friends, could induce them to quit the savage associates with whom they had Uu ed. •Heriot, p. W;345] UNDER THE FRENCH. 163 >r, who first to Quebec, IS respected wever, pre- jns, and he withstanding the English, le, when no adeavoiir to 5 studiously ve it into a in the midst ember 1698, neasures by itry, he had aised it into lisinterested, I authority ; , and consi- d himself by isor, and ad- itire satisfac- m the count, Much time led before all Toquois, and in 1700, a prisoners on hm occasion, iwhat niorti- erly sought nch captives tachment to er the com- ities of their ^e associates After peace had been thus established with their encrmies, the French were involved in a contest with their allies. Bourgmont, governor of Detroit, had endea- voured to unite the Ottawas with the Miamis in an expedition into the interior of the continent ; but ani- iDosities had been for some time fermenting between theae tribes, aggravated by some imprudent and violent actions on his part. At length the former, instigated by a leading chief named " the Heavy," commenced an attack upon the latter, whom they pursued under the cannon of the fort. The guns being opened upon them, a contest ensued, in wliich two Frenchmen, one of whom was a priest, were killed. The assailants then retired, and an old chief came to the governor to make the most humble apologies for this outrage, describing it as a mo- mertary ebullition, for which they could not themselves account. The European leader promised pardon, pro- vided the savage, who had instigated them to this vio- lence, were delivered up, To tliis step they showed the most extreme reluctance, even pretending that it was out of their power ; but as the condition was held indis- pensable, they at length produced the offender, though with the most earnest entreaties for his pardon. This was granted, though rather imprudently ; for the Mia- mis, who had considered themselves fully entitled to his head, raised a violent commotion, which it required some force to put down.* Scarcely had peace been thus concluded among the savage tribes, with some hope of duration, when it was broken by their civilized neighbours. The succession of Philip of Anjou to the throne of Spain gave rise to a long and eventful contest between France and England. It was begun by Louis XIV. in the height of his power, and with every prospect of giving law to all Europe ; instead of which, tlie exploits of Marlborough and Eiigene, the fields of Blenheim and Ramillies, reduced him to the lowest condition, and at one time even • Heriot, pp. 34(1, 362, 3/4-377, 380-384. 164 HISTORY OP CANADA •fS '^^ seemed to place his crown in peril. In these disastrous circumstances, the mother-country was obliged to leave her colonies to their own resources ; while England, elated "with repeated triumphs, conceived the bold design of em- bracing within her territory the whole north of America. Tlie situation of Canada was rendered still more critical by the death of De Callieres, her able governor, which took place in May 1703, though he was succeeded by the Count de Vaudreuil, who proved himself by no means destitute of the qualities requisite for his high office. The English now called upon their allies of the Five Nations to renew hostilities against their old enemies ; but these tribes were exceedingly unwilling to inter- rupt their repose. They alleged that, when they con- cluded treaty, they did so with an intention to keep it ; wii • the Europeans seemed to enter into such en- gagements sol iy with the view of immediately breaking them. One cnief, with the rude freedom of his nation, intimated his suspicion that the nations were both drunk. They did little, therefore, of themselves, or by their own impulse ; and when called upon to join an expedition, came slowly and reluctantly forward. De Vaudreuil, in contemplation of a formidable at- tack, sought to dissipate it by an offensive movement. He sent out a detachment 200 strong, which, after a long march, succeeded in storming and destroying a frontier village named Hewreuil ; though while returning they fell into an ambuscade. Thirty of their number were killed ; but, having beaten off their assailants, the remainder reached Montreal in safety.* In May 1709, an individual named Vetch, who had become intimately acquainted with the navigation of the S*^ liawrence, laid before the cabinet of Queen Anne a plan for the conquest of Canada. It being approved, he was sent to New York, then called Manhattan, with authority and resources supposed sufficient for its ac- comnlishment. De Vaudreuil soon learned that 2000 I'^i r- • Heriot, pp. 3G3, 3f)4, 38H, 397. UNDER THE FRENCn. 165 English had issued from the place just mentioned, and that these were to be joined by an equal number of sa- vages. Having mustered his troops, he at first thought of carrying war again into the enemy's country ; but after the march had begun, his allies objected, and he adopted the more prudent course of merely protecting his frontier. The British, after forming a chain of posts from New York, had occupied in great force Lakes Goorge and Champlain, and were erecting forts, with a view to cover their descent upon Canada. Tlie Iroquois had joined them according to promise ; but it appears that a general council of the cantons was held at Onon- dago, when one of their chief orators remarked, that their independence was only maintained by the mutual joalousy of the two European nations, each of whom, if they could, would lord it completely over them, and that it was therefore highly imprudent to permit the English to conquer New France. These views were considered accordant with the policy which had always governed the cantons, and were immediately acted upon, though the manner in which this was accomplished does not very exactly appear. Our countryinen, however, in consequence of this want of co-operation, and of a pestilential disorder which broke out among their own troops, abandoned the enterprise, burning their canoes, and reducing their forts to ashes.* Canada now enjoyed an interval of repose, though it was understood that the enemy were making active preparations for a fresh expedition, and sparing no pains to secure the co-operation of the Five Nations. All means of conciliation were therefore studiously employed, and wore so far successful as to obtain friendly profes- siaiis from the Senekas and the Onondagoes, but from them alone. At this time, however, the French were involved in a desperate struggle in the upper territory, , ,, ,1 * A report has generally prevailed that the Ironuois caused this malady by throwing the skins of wild beasts into the stream out of which the English drank ; but we cannot think tlxis a very probable story. I 166 HISTORY OF CANADA ? 'I ii with a nation hitherto unheard of, called the Outagamia or Foxes. This they ascribe to the machinations of their old antagonists, who yet do not appear to have taken any share in the contest. By the aid of a large body of Indian allies, these people were reduced to the necessity of humbly soliciting terms of peace. But the subjects of Louis were persuaded by their savage auxiliaries to push matters to the last extremity ; and after a fresh and dreadful struggle, this unfortunate tribe was nearly ex- terminated. The victors, notwithstanding, had reason to repent of their barbarous conduct, as the remnant of the defeated nation carried on against them a ceaseless and harassing warfare, and rendered insecure their commu- nication with the settlements on the Mississippi.* The English in 1710 prepared a new and greater armament. General Nicholson arrived at Boston with a considerable squadron ; and fresh forces were ex- pected, which, with those already in the colony, were to be employed in two joint expeditions, by sea against Quebec and by land against Montreal. Not- withstanding every possible preparation, these tidings excited deep apprehension, which continued unabated till a report arrived, and proved ultimately correct, that the invading squadron had been wrecked at the Seven Islands, near the mouth of the St Lawrence. Several barks having sailed thither, found the remains of eight vessels, which having struck upon the rocks, had been abandoned, after being stripped of their cannon and stores. A number of dead bodies scattered along the shore attested this calamitous event. The commander, impatient to proceed, and disregarding the warning of an experienced pilot, had involved his armament in this disaster. General Nicholson had already taken the field, but learning the loss of the fleet, and foreseeing that the whole force of the enemy would now be turned against him, he fell back upon New York.t Though Canada had thus been twice delivered, in- telligence was received that fresh preparations were Heriot, p. 397-416, t Ibid. p. 399-404. UNDER THE FRENCH. 1G7 Outagamis ions of their have taken ,vge hody of le necessity ! subjects of ries to push fresh and ) nearly ex- ad reason to inant of the Baseless and cir commu- ppi.* md greater Boston with 8 were ex- )lony, were Qs, by sea real. Not- iiese tidings id unabated iorrect, that t the Seven le. Several ins of eight s, had been 3annon and 1 along the joinmander, warning of Qent in this en the field, sseeing that ' be turned livered, in- ttions were p. 399-404. making, and there was reason to fear that, if left without aid, she would at length be overwhelmed by superior forces. The governor, however, was relieved by the in- telligence that, in consequence of a complete change of ministry, the English cabinet had deteiTidned to se- parate from its allies, and had opened a negotiation at Utrecht. Instructions were sent to the colonial councils to suspend hostilities. Both the European powers being favourably inclined, the negotiations pro- ceeded smoothly, and on the 30th March 1713 this memorable treaty was signed. France retained Canada, though obliged, by the urgency of her circumstances, to cede Acadia and Newfoundland. She made over likewise all her claims to the sovereignty of the Fi.e Nations ; a very empty coii icssion, by which she gave that which she had never possessed, and England re- ceived a nominal right which she could not enforce.* After this treaty, Canada ..ijoycd a long period of uninterrupted tranc^uillity. The observations of Charle- voix, who visited the principal settlements during the years 1720 and 1721, give a pretty good idea of their condition at that period. Quebec was estimated to contain about 7000 inhabitants ; both the lower and upper town were partially built, but none of the extcr.sive suburbs appear to have then existed. The view from the summit of the rock appeared to him extremely striking, and anticipating the change, since partly fulfilled, when the surrounding shores and islands, then covered with al- most unbroken forests, should display cultivated fields, meadows, and villages, with numberless barks studding the broad expanse of the St Lawrence, he expects it te fonn a prospect which nothing could equal. The society, composed in a great measure of military officers and noblesse, was extremely agreeable ; and nowhere was the French language spoken in greater purity. Under this gay exterior, however, was concealed a very general po- verty. The settlers, while tney admitted that their Eng- lish neighbours knew better how to accumulate wealth, "^'^ ' » Heriot, pp. 418, 419. " (I I I y 168 HISTORY OF CANADA J-' \i ! !■■: ■ E i' \ \ I ( were consoled by reflecting that they were quite ignorant how to enjoy it. They themselves, on the contrary, under- stood thoror'^ \y the most elegant • t ■ * Charlevoix*s Journal, vol. i. pp. 104, 111-114, 121-125, 145, 263-265. UNDER THE FRF.Nrn. 169 hftd alreat' been in a great measure transferred to Montreal, and the iron-mines had not yet begun to bo worked. P'rom Trois Rivieres he proceeded through the Lake of St Peter, and, coasting along its southern sliore, made particular observations on the river and district of St Francis. From its excellent soil, covered with timber, it appeared to him well fitted for cultivation : but the farmers were few, and had made such suia' progress, that, but for the opportunities of trade, they would have been extremely poor. A more chec '' '^ scene presented itself at the island and city of Montrw-i, the beauties of which he describes in terms similar to those of all subsequent visiters. He does not make any e4?timate of the population ; but it must have been con- siderable, as both the upper and lower towns were al- i-eady built, and a suburb had been commenced. The place was then enjoying a respite from the alarms and calamiti^ of war ; and the two neighbouring villages of Sault St Louis and Montgomery, inhabited by friendly Indians, served as barriers against their more savage countrjrmen.* Above Montreal, uiv traveller appears to have found nothing but detached stations for defence and trade. He made his way through the rapids to Lake Ontario, in In- dian canoes formed of birch-bark. We find no mention of any thing French till he comes to Fort Cataraqui or Frontenac, at the entrance of the lake ; but in his short description there is no appearance as if the neighbour- hood contained either cultivation or settlement. He had then a tedious voyage to perform along the southern shore in slender canoes, in which he was obliged to follow every winding of the coast, and often to sail two hundred leagues in order to shun a direct passage of twenty. He was liable also to be detained for an indefinite period by violent or adverse winds. At length he entered the rivei of Niagara, and came to a cottage which had been dig- nified to him with the name of fortress, and was occu- pied by the Sieur de Joncaire. There were two or three • Charlevoix, Journal, vol. i. pp. 172-178, 190, 213-218. IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) m % ^/,. /A '/ 1.0 I.I If 1^ H^ '~ '^ 1 2.2 i lis 1110 1.8 1.25 1.4 1.6 Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 872-4503 S 170 HISTORY OF CANADA f officers of rank, and, we presume, a few troops, but apparently no trace of cultivation.* After having surveyed the falls, he ascended the channel of Niagara, and having entered upon Lake Erie, proceeded along its northern shore. The voyage appeared to him delightful, in a charming climate, on waters clear as the purest fountain, and landing every night on the most desirable spots. He found always abundance of game, and a beautiful landscape, bounded by the noblejt forests in the world. He fancied himself, like the ancient patriarchs, wandering through wide un- appropriated tracts, where he could pitch his tent in the most pleasant scenes. The oaks of Mamre and the foun- tain of Jacob seemed realized to him in the wilderness. Five days' sail along these beautiful shores brought him to the channel of Detroit, at the other end of which, near Lake St Clair, he found the fort bearing that name. He inclined to the opinion of those who regarded this as the most beautiful and fruitfiil part of all Cana^. A French settlement had been begun there fifteen years before, but various untoward circumstances had reduced it almost to nothing. He proceeded thence to Michilli- makinac, near the adjoining extremities of the great lakes Huron, Superior, and Michigan. Like the others, it was a mere fort surrounded by an Indian village. Ota the whole, it appears that, above Montreal, there was nothing at this time which could be called a colony.t The repose procured for Canada by the treaty of Utrecht was followed by a long continuance of pros- pei-ity. Vaudreuil, till his death in 1726, administered her aflFairs with judgment and activity ; and under him cultivation was greatly extended. To remedy the want of hands, he proposed sending out annually 160 con- victs, of the class usually condemned to the galleys. , This governor was succeeded by the Chevalier de Beauhamois, who continued in power twenty years. This long period seems to have been diligently em- ployed in promoting the interests of the colony, and was •Charlevoix,Journal,vol.i.pp. 293-297, 312-316, 341. t Ibid. vol. ii. p. 3-7* UNDER THE FRENCH. 171 productive of a remarkable improvement. The range of cultivated farms was extended along the whole shore from Quebec to Montreal, and even several of the tri- butary streams. As the French Canadians studiously sought a river-frontage, they were content with lots in- cluding only a small portion of this, with extensive back- ground. The proportion, in some degree fixed by sta- tute, was an acre and a half in front, with an extent of forty behind. In the course of this period, too, the "settlement at Detroit, which Charlevoix had found in such a languishing state, was raised to some consequence. The French, likewise, during this interval, appear to have entirely overcome that rooted enmity so long cherished by the great Indian tribes. Their pliant and courteous manners, their frequent intermarriages, and in some instances an actual adoption of the habits of savage life, rendered them better fitted than the English to secure the confidence of this savage race. Instead of having to dread them as allies of Britain, they could usually, when occasion required, employ them as foiv midable, or, at least, harassing enemies to her. By their aid, and by the erection in commanding positions of the forts of Crown Point andTiconderago, they kept the rival colonies in perpetual alarm. The struggles, however, carried on during almost the first half of the eighteenth century were chiefly confined to Nova Scotia, under which head they wUl be narrated. Canada enjoyed a happy exemption from thope eventful vicissitudes which form the materials of history. An equally favourable change took place in respect to the fur-trade, which had shown so great a preference of the English market. A more liberal and equitable system appears to have been adopted ; and a large an- nual fair, opened at Montreal under judicious regula- tions, became the general centre of this traffic. Even the Indians in the back settlements of New York brought their furs thither, rather than to the capital of that state.* - ■ -AA- .■..._,.- ■■ ■■ - • M 'Gregorys British America, vol. ii. p. 374. Burke's Account of the European Settlements in America (2 vols 8vo, London, 1808), vol. a. pp. 42,43. 1 i I '■h 1 '?* 1i 4^ if'- ^^ ■I il.! ■■■r- ! 1^ ir ■ 172 HISTORY OP CANADA UNDER THE FRENCH. M. de Beauhamois was followed in office by a rapid succession of governors, each holding sway for an ex- tremely short period incompatible with any steady system of administration. The Count de la Galissoniere, though a nobleman of great acquirements, ruled only a year, being superseded in 1746 by M. de la Jonquiere, who took Ml active part in the war for the reduction of Nova Scotia. After a temporary occupation of power by the Baron de Longueuil, the Marquis du Quesne, in 1752, went out as governor-general. This officer appears to have carried on more openly than ever the system of en- croaching upon the British colonies ; and ilic fort bear- ing his name was erected within the confines of Virginia. So great an alarm indeed spread through our settle- ments, that a general convention was held at Albany, when a plan of common defence, proposed by the celebrated Dr Franklin, was approved, but, from dif- ferent causes, never carried into effect. A census taken of the colony in 1753, is said by Raynal to have shown a population of 91,000 ; but, from the number afterwards found by the English, this appears to be somewhat ex- aggerated. The finances were, however, involved in consi- derable disorder. The expenditure, which in 1729 did not exceed 400,000 francs, had risen in 1750 to 2,100,000 livres ; in 1758 it was 27,900,0^^0 ; but this last, we may dbserve, was a period of ger war, of which North America became one of the ).irincipal theatres. The conduct of Bigot the intendant was loudly complained o^ and proved indeed to have been most fraudulent, his defalcations amourting to i^400,000 sterling. In 1755, Du Quesne was succeeded by De Vaudreuil Cavagnal.* • M^Jregor, vol- ii. p. 375-381. Raynal, Histoire Philosophique et Politique des Etablissements et du Commerce des Europeens dans less deux Indes (4 vols 4to, Geneva, 1780), vol. iv. pp. 125, 137. Hawkins' Picture of Quebec (18mo, Quebec 1834), pp. 316, 317. HISTORY OP CANADA UNDER THE BRITISH. 173 CHAPTER IV. History qf' Canada under the British, War between Great Britain and France — Advantages gained by the latter — Expedition against Canada under Wolfe— His first Repulse— Lands a second Time — Victory — Death — Conquest of Canada — State of the Population — ^Their good Treatment — Re. fuse to join the Rebellion by the United Colonies^The latter invade Canada — Siege of Quebec — Repulse and Death of Mont- gomery — Americans driven out of Canada — A Constitution grant- ed—Division into Upper and Lower — Rise of Internal Dissen- sion—War with the United States— Advantages gained by Britain on the western Frontier — On the Niagara, &c. — The Ameri> cans take York (Toronto) and Fort George — Obliged to retreat — Their Successes in the West— Fruitless Attempt on Montreal- Events on the Niagara Frontier — Large Reinforcements from England — Failure of Sir George Prevost — Peace — Discontents of the Assembly — Administration of tlie Duke of Richmond-^ Earl of Dalhousic — Sir James Kempt — Lord Aylmer — Increased Discontent — Commission of Inquiry — Earl of (iosford — Assem- bly still refuse Supplies — Resolutions of the British Parliament- Disturbances in Canada — Insurrection — Suppressed — Political Movements in Upper Canada — Sir Francb Head Governor- Rising and Defeat of Mackenzie — Aggressions from the United States— Conduct of their Government — Mission of the Earl of Durham— Recent Events. We now approach the most memorable period in the his- tory of Canada, when its dominion was finally transferred from France to a rival power. As the events of this contest, however, though extremely memorable, form a portion of general history, and are familiar to many readers, we shall here content ourselves with a rapid summary of them. The great war which broke out in 1765 opened in a manner most unfavourable to the British arms. Gene- i 174 HISTORY OP CANADA V ral Braddock, who marched from New York against Canada, having neglected the precautions necessary in such a country, was completely surprised by a com- bined force of French and Indians. He himself being killed, only part of the army was saved by the skill and intrepidity of Colonel (afterwards General) Wash- ington, who on that occasion distinguished himself for tile first time. His troops being afterwards joined to the provincial force under Generals Shirley and Johnson, repulsed near Lake George an attack made by a large body of the enemy under Baron Dieskau. Johnson having acquitted himself with great ability, and received several wounds, was rewarded with the honour of knighthood, and was long much esteemed in Ameji- warfare.* But in the two following years the can enemy, headed by the gallant Marquis de Montcalm, obtained a series of successes, terminating in the reduc- tion of the important forts called Oswego and William Henry. This last triumph was stained with the barbar- ous murder, by the Indians, of fifteen hundred English prisoners ; which Montcalm, though it should seem un- justly, was accused of sanctioning. These disasters, joined to the failure of Byng at Minorca, and other abor- tive expeditions, deeply depressed the spirit of the nation, and seemed to sink their reputation in arms lower than at any former period. Yet tlie courage of the British lion was soon afterwards roused : the public voice called to the helm of affairs William Pitt, the greatest statesman then living, and who was destined to raise her name to a pitch of glory before unrivalled. It was one of the main objects of Pitt's policy to obtain possession of the French territories in America, and to form them, together with the British colonies, into one va&t range of dominion. He chose as his chief instrument Wolfe, a young man without family or par- liamentary interest, or even any established character as a commander. He had served only in subordinate situa- * Hawkins, pp. 3li), 319. Bouchette, vol. i. p> 440. r ; r a com- VNDER THE BRITISH. 175 tions ; yet the minister, with intuitive sagacity, saw in him the man hest fitted to lead British troops to victory,* In the expedition against Louisburg, in 1768, the most active though not the highest post was assigned to him, and, through his exertions chiefly, that main bulwark of French America fell. After the great name thus earned, there could no longer be any objection to in- vesting him with the chief command. In 1759 preparations were made on a great scale for the conquest of Canada ; comprising twenty sail of the line, with smaller vessels and transports, having on board 8000 veteran troops. These were placed under the direction of Wolfe, who was allowed the choice of all his officers. After a prosperous voyage the armament, on the 26th June, arrived off the Isle of Orleans. Quebec was defended by the Marquis de Montcalm, having under his command 1 3,000 men, of whom indeed only 2000 were regular troops, the rest being Canadian militia, with a few Indians. The attack having been long foreseen, full time was given him to entrench and strengthen his posi- tion. An attempt was first made to destroy the British fleet by fi -e-ships ; but these were caught with grap- pling ironS; towed aside, and allowed to bum out without doing any injury. Brigadier-general Monckton then oc- cupied Point Levi, opposite to the capital, which was thence bombarded with vigour ; but, though a number of houses were destroyed, the defences remained almost uninjured. The place therefore could only be carried by storming the entrenchments which the French had thrown up in front of it. This bold measure Wolfe re- solved to adopt, and on the 31 st July he effected a land- ing. The boats, however, had met with an accidental delay ; the grenadiers, it is said, rushed forward with too blind and impetuous a valour ; Montcalm, strongly posted between Quebec and Montmorenci, poured in upon them a destructive fire ; the Indian rifle told with fatal effect ; and the assailants were finally repulsed with the loss of 182 killed and 650 wounded. * Entick's History of the late War,* vol. iv. p. 91. , t 176 HISTORY OP CANADA Wolfe felt this disappointment so deeply that his delicate frame was thrown into a violent fever ; and in a despatch to Mr Pitt he afterwards expressed the ap- prehensions under which he laboured. The fleet, his strongest arm, could not act against the wall of rock on which Quebec is seated ; and with his weakened force he had to storm fortified positions defended by- troops more numerous than his own. As soon, how- ever, as his health permitted, he called a council of war, desired the general officers to consult together ; and, it is said, proposed to them a second attack on the French lines, avoiding the errors which had led to the failure of the first. They were decidedly of opinion that this was inexpedient; but on the suggestion, as is now believed, of Brigadier-general Townsend the second in command, they proposed to attempt a point on the other side of Quebec, where the enemy were yet unprepared, and whence they might gain the Heights of Abraham which overlooked the city. Wolfe assent- ed, and applied all his powers to the accomplishment of this plan. Such active demonstrations were made against Montcalm's original position, that he believed it 6till the main object ; and though he observed detach- ments moving up the river, merely sent De Bougainville with 2000 men to Cape Rouge, a position too distant, being nine miles above Quebec. On the night of the 12th September, in deep silence, the troops were embarked and conveyed in two divisions to the place now named Wolfe's Cove. The precipice here was so steep, that even the general for a moment doubted the possibility of scaling it ; but Eraser's Highlanders, grasping the bushes which grew on its face, soon reached the summit, and in a short time he had his whole army drawn up in regular order on the plains above. Mont- calm, struck by this unexpected intelligence, at once concluded that, unless the English could be driven from this position, Quebec was lost ; and, hoping pro-* bably that only a detachment had yet reached it, pushed forward at once to the attack. About 1500 light 2 UNDER THE BRITISH. 177 infa:itry and Indiana arrived first, and began a desultory fire from among the bushes ; but the British reserved their shot for the main body, which was seen advancing behind. They came forward in good order, and com- menced a brisk attack ; yet no general fire was opened in return till they were within forty yards, when it could be followed up by the bayonet. The fii-st volley was decisive ; Wolfe and Montcalm both fell almost at the same moment ; the French instantly gave way in every quarter ; and repeated charges, in which the Highland broadsword was powerfully wielded, soon completed the victory. As soon as Wolfe received his mortal wound, he said, " Support me ! let not my bravf soldiers see me drop." He was carried to some distance in the rear, — and hearing the cry " They run !" he asked " Who run V* Being told " The enemy," he gave some short directions, and then said : " Now, God be praised, I die happy !" We cannot forbear quoting the simple and feeling observations of General Townsend respect- ing his heroic friend, whose fate threw so affecting j; lustre on this memorable victory : " I am not ashamed to own to you, that my heart does n':t exult in the midst of this success. I have lost but a^friend in Gene- ral Wolfe ; our country has lost a sure support and a per- petual honour. If the world were sensible at how dear a price we have purchased Quebec in his death, it would damp the public joy. Our best (consolation is, that Providence seemed not to promise ui U he should remain long among us. He was himself sensible of the weakness of his constitution, and determined to crowd into a few years actions that would have adorned length of life." The battle had scarcely closed when De Bougainville appeared in the rear, but on seeing the fortune of the day, immediately retreated. On the I7th a flag of truce came out, and on the 18th a capitulation was concluded on honourable terms to the French, who were not made prisoners, but conveyed home to their native country.* • Entick's History of the late War, vol. iv. p. 05-1 IfJ. kins' Picture of Quebec, pp. 331, 359, 373, 374. VOL. I. L Haw- i m n ■ II 178 HISTORY OF CANADA Canada was not yet conquered. General Amherst, indeed, marching from New York with a large force, had reduced the strong posts of Ticonderago and Crown Point ; while Greneral Prideaux, aided hy Sir William Johnson with a body of Indians, had taken Nia- gara. But the winter arrested their farther advance ; and General de Levi, who had assembled at Montreal upwards of 10,000 men, conceived the design of recap- turing Quebec in the spring, before it could obtain suc- cours, either by sea or land. Being baffled in his projects to carry it by a coup de main, he landed his army on the 27th April 1760, advanced to the heights of Abra- ham, and prepared to carry on a regular siege. General Murray had been left *vith a garrison of 6000 men ; but a severe attack of scurvy had reduced to half that num- ber those who were capable of bearing arms. This offi- cer, dreading that the place was unfit to stand a siege, and hoping much from the bravery of his troops, attacked the enemy on the 28th April at Sillery ; but, being overpowered by superior numbers, he was defeated with great loss. If guilty here of any rashness, he atoned for it by the activity with which he placed Quebec in a state of defence, and held out the town till the 15th May, when a fleet, under Admiral Swanton, arrived and raised the siege. The French army then concentrated itself in Montreal, where the Marquis de Vaudreuil made an at- tempt to maintain his ground ; but being enclosed by the forces under General Amherst, and by those from Que- bec and Niagara, he found himself obliged, on the 8th September 1760, to sign a capitulation, by which that city and the whole of Canada were transferred to British dominion. He obtained liberal stipulations for the good treatment of the inhabitants, and particularly the free exercise of the Catholic faith, and the preservation of the property belonging to the religious communities. He even demanded that the bishop should continue to be ap- pointed by the French monarch, but this was of course I'efused.* Th e possession of Canada, as well as of all * Hawkins, p. 410.413. Entick, vol. iv. pp. 473, 474. UNDER THE BRITISH. 179 Amherst, irge force, md Crown r William iken Nia- r advance ; Montreal I of recap- )btain sue- lis projects s army on s of Abra- !. General men ; but that num- This offi. id a siege, s, attacked but, being •eated with atoned for c in a state May,when raised the itself in lade an at- )sed by the from Que- n the 8th ih that city to British »r the good T the free irvation of nities. He e to be ap- of course 1 as of all M74. the adjoining countries, was confirmed to Britain by the peace of Paris, signed on the 10th February 1763. The population at the time of the conquest was stated by Governor Murray to amount to 69,276, consisting mostly of cultivators, a frugal, industrious, and moral race ; with a noblesse, also very poor, but much re- spected among them. The Indians converted to Catho- licism were estimated at 7400,* The inhabitants were involved in great calamity by the refusal of the French government to pay the bills drawn and the paper currency issued by M. Bigot, the late intcnd- ant, already mentioned as having been guilty of most extensive peculation. The gross sum is stated by Raynal at 80,000,000 of livres (£3,333,000 sterling) ; but, con- sidering the small number and poverty of the people, we cannot help suspecting it to be much exaggerated. It is said that the claims were, on grounds of equity, reduced to 38,000,000 ; though, according to M*Gregor, no more was received in return for them than £250,000 in money, and £126,000 in bonds, which never became efFective.t The terms in favour of the French residents were faithfully, and even liberally, fulfilled by our govern- ment. All offices, however, were conferred on British subjects, who then consisted only of military men, with not quite 500 petty traders, many of whom were ill fitted for so important a situation. They showed a bigoted spirit, and an offensive contempt of the old inhabitants, including even their class of nobles. General Murray, notwithstanding, strenuously protected the latter, with- out regard to repeated complaints made against him to the ministry at home ; and by this hnpartial conduct he gained their confidence in a degree which became conspicuous on occasion of the great revolt of the United Colonies. During that momentous period, though pressingly invited to assist the latter, the Canadians never swerved from their allegiance. With • M'Uregor, vol. ii. p. 382i •)• Raynal, vol. v. p. 2dO. McGregor, vol. ii, p, 381. i 180 HISTORY OP CANADA HI A a view to conciliate them, the " Quebec Act," passed in 1774, changed the English civil law, which had been at first introduced, for the ancient system culled the cou- tume de Paris. The French language was also directed to be employed in the law-courts, and other changes made with the view of gratifying that nation. These concessions did not, however, give universal satisfaction, especially as they were not ottended with any grant of a national representation. The Americans, finding all their proposals rejected, determined to view Canada as a hostile country. They observed that the Biitish, almost entirely occupied in the attempt to put down the insurrection, had left this country very slightly defended. In September 1776 two expeditions were fitted out, which were distin- guished by tragical events, as well as by the brilliant and romantic valour of their chiefs. While the main body, under Montgomery, marched by Lake Champlain upon Montreal, Arnold, with 1100 men, sailed up the Kennebeck, and proceeded through the vast forest that stretches between it and the St Lawrence, hoping to sur- prise Quebec. The sufferings of the party were extreme, being obliged to eat dogs' flesh and the leather of their cartouch-boxes. Yet they arrived, on the 9th Novem- ber, at Point Levi, without any alarm having reached the capital ; but all the shipping had fortunately been removed from that side. Arnold was thus unable to cross, and in twenty-four hours the inhabitants were apprized of the danger. On the 14th that active officer contrived to pass the river and occupy the heights of Abraham, though his force was too small for active movements,, till joined by Montgomery. This com- mander sent forward a reconnoitring party under Colonel Ethan Allen, who made a brave but rash at- tempt on Montreal, in which he was taken with his party, and afterwards sent in irons to England. Mont- gomery, however, having reduced the posts of St John and Chambly and made prisoners of their garrisons, which included a large proportion of the reg-ular force f' tJNDKU TIIK nUITISII. IBl passed in had been d the eoU' 9 directed r changes n. These ttisfaction, y grant of 9 rejected, ry. They 3cnpied in A left this iber 1776 sre distin- e brilliant the main Dhamplain lied up the forest that ing to sur- e extreme, sr of their th Novem- ig reached ately been unable to m\ts were tive officer heights of for active This com- rty under lit rash at- with his id. Mont- 3f St John garrisons, gular force in Canada, that city was quite unable to resist ; and General Corleton, the governor, with difficulty es- caped in a boat witli muffled paddles. The Ameri- can leader then advanced upon Quebec, and took the command of the united force. Carleton had under anns only 1800 men, of whom not more than seventy were regulars ; 230 of Fraser's Highlanders, who had settled in the country, were re-embodied under Colonel M'Lean ; the rest wcra British and Canadian militia, seamen, and others. The summons to surrender, how- ever, was at once rejected ; and Montgomery, after pushing the siege during the month of December without any prospect of success, determined to carry the place by a night-assault. On the 31st, two storm- ing parties were formed, — one under himself and the other under Arnold. They were to advance from op- posite sides, and meet at the foot of Mountain Street, then force Prescott Gate, and reach the upper town. The first battery encountered by Montgomery was de- fended chiefly by a party of Canadian militia, with nine British seamen to work the guns. Having re- ceived some previous notice, they were on the watch ; and, about daybreak, saw amid the snow a body of troops in full march from Wolfe's Cove. Orders were given to make no movement ; and the enemy having halted at the distance of fifty yards, sent forward an officer to reconnoitre, who found every thing perfectly still. On his return the Americann rushed forward in double quick time to the attack. When they were close to the spot, Captain Bamsfare, at the critical mo- ment, gave the signal for a general discharge of guns and musketry. It told with unexpected and fatal effect ; for, among many others, Montgomery himself, the gal- lant chief^ fell, to rise no more. The troops, on wit- nessing this disaster, made a precipitate retreat.* * This event has heen very variously related. Hinton (History and Topography of the United States, 2 vols 4to, London, 1834, vol. i 33ti) even represents it as a men? casual fire by which Montgomery was killed; hut we have followed Hawkins, w hove narrative appears to be the result of very careful research. y I :i 11 182 HISTORY OF CANADA Meantime Arnold, from the opposite side, pushed on his attack with desperate resohition. In assaulting the first harrier, he received a severe wound in the leg, which ohliged him to quit the field. But his party, led on hy Captain Morgan, carried the post, and pushed on to a second. Here, however, their eflForts were vain ; and General Carleton having sent a detachment upon their rear, they were surrounded, and finally, to the number of 426, obliged to surrender. Neither of the parties thus reached the main point of attack at Prescott Gate, where the governor w^as stationed, with the deter- mination to maintain it to the last extremity. The British were not yet aware of all the results of the contest. As soon as the retreat of the first party was ascertained, they went out and collected, from under the snow which had already covered them, thirteen bodies. The surmise soon arose that one of them was that of the commander ; yet some hours elapsed before an officer of Arnold's division identi- fied him, with the deepest expressions of admiration and regret. Montgomery, a gentleman of good family in the north of Ireland, had served under Wolfe, but having afterwards formed a matrimonial connexion in America, he had adopted with enthusiasm the cause of the United States as that of liberty. His military character, joined to his private virtues, inspired general esteem, and has secured to him a place on the roll of noble and gallant chiefs who fell beneath the walls of Quebec. Arnold succeeded to the command, and attempted still to maintain his ground ; but the dispirited state of his men, still more than his actual loss, rendered him unable to keep up more than an imperfect blockade, at the distance of three miles. In April 1 776, his place was taken by General Wooster, who brought a reinforcement, and made some fresh attempts, but without success. Early in May several vessels arrived from England with troops and supplies, on which the enemy raised the siege, and fell back upon Montreal. Thence they were driven UNDER THE BRITISH. 183 , pushed on 1 assaulting J in the leg, is party, led and pushed were vain ; ment upon illy, to the ther of the at Prescott 1 the deter- r • t results of first party !cted, from 5red them, hat one of ome hours iion identi- admiration ood family kVolfe, but nnexion in the cause 5 military ed general the roll of e walls of attempted ed state of lered him ockade, at 5 place was brcement, t success, ^land with the siege, ere driven from post to post, till, on 18th June, they finally eva- cuated the province, on which they never made any farther attempt.* This long war terminated, in 1783, by the indepen- dence of all the colonies which had united against Britain. The issue, unfavourable or at least mortify- ing to the mother country, was attended with consider- able advantages to Canada ; for a large body of loyalists, expatriated on account of their political principles, sought refuge in her territory. They received liberal grants of land, and laid the foundation of that pros- perity which has since so eminently distinguished the upper province. The country continued for some years in a state of pro- gressive advancement, being only agitated by the desire, sometimes strongly expressed, of obtaining a representa- tive government. In 1790 Mr Pitt determined to grant this boon oii a basis as nearly as possible resembling that of the British Constitution. As a preliminary, it was resolved to divide Canada into two governments. Upper and Lower : and it is somewhat remarkable that this arrangement, so much deprecated by the present loyalist party, originated with the minister, who carried it through in the face of strong opposi- tion from Fox and other Whig members. He con- sidered that the attempt to unite tM'^o classes of population, so different in origin, language, and man- ners, would inevitably lead to disunion and dissension ; while they argued, that this union would afford the best means of harmonizing them into one social system. Another question arose with regard to the constitution of the legislative council. Mr Pitt proposed to form it of an hereditary noblesse, to be created for the purpose, and to include the more respectable among the French seigneurs. Mr Fox recommended a representative council, or, in default of this, one composed of members chosen by the king for life. This last suggestion, though * Hawkins' Picture of Quebec, pp. 424-434, 43B. Hinton, voi. L p. 344. 184 HISTORY OF CANADA m i I- not at firat well received by the premier, Avas the plan ultimately adopted. Thefir^tHouseof Assembly, consisting of fiftymembers, was openedinl792by Lieutenant-govemorClarke. Thoir proceedings were for some time of no great importance. In 1797 Lord Dorchester, who had been governor since ] 786, was succeeded by General Prescott. Loud com- plaints were soon afterwardsmade respecting the granting of lands, the Board for that purpose having appropriated large districts to themselves, and thereby obstructed the general settlement of the country. In 1800 Sir Robert S. Milnes was appointed lieutenant-governor. In 1803 a decision of the Chief Justice of Montreal declared slavery inconsistent with the laws of the country, and the few individuals in that condition received a grant of freedom. In 1807, apprehensions being felt of war with America, Sir James Graig, an officer of distinction, was sent out to superintend the affairs of the colony. About this time beg.m those internal dissensions which have since so generally agitated the colony. The House of Assembly, though meeting regularly, do not seem previously to have aimed at tlie exercise of any high powers, or to have obstructed the governor in the discretionary exercise of his authority. But at this epoch they appear to have formed the design of render- ing themselves independent, and even of controlling the executive. With the former view they demanded that the judges should be expelled from their body, as being dependent upon and removable by government. To gain the latter object, they offered to defray from the funds of the colony the whole expense of the civil administration. Although this was a boon, and unasked for, yet on ac- count of its apprehended purpose it was repelled with indignation, and the Assembly soon afterwards dissolved. The novel exercise of a free press by a newspaper called " the Canadian," in attacking the measures of govern- ment, was severely checked ; the printer was sent to prison, and all his materials destroyed. Six individuals were also taken into custody, though never brought to UNDER THE BRITISH. 185 ,s the plan |r members, rke. Their mportance, ernor since Loud com- le granting ►propriated iructed the Sir Robert In 1803 il declared untry, and I a grant of f war with iction, was ny. dissensions le colony, nlarly, do jxercise of governor in But at this of render- rolling the anded that y, as being it. To gain he funds of inistration. yet on ac- >elled with 3 dissolved, iper called of govern- '■as sent to individuals brought to trial. These proceedings gave to this period the appella- 'on of the " Reign of Terror." * In 1811 a new Assembly was called, which did not show itself more compliant. In the autumn of that year, how- ever, Sir George Prevost, a more popular governor, as- sumed the reins of administration ; and circumstances soon after occurred which induced the Canadians to sus- pend their complaints, and to make displays of loyalty as ardent as if they had never been dissatisfied. The war commenced by the United States against Britain in 1812 produced a formidable crisis in the history of Canada, especially of the upper province. It is not proposed to enter into any discussion of the grounds or merits of the hostile resolution adopted by Congress. Doubtless, however, as Britain then stood, with her whole disposable force engaged against Na- poleon, they calculated with full confidence on obtain- ing possession of the Canad&s, and, indeed, of all Bri- tish America. Dr Eustis, secretary at war, said in Con- gress, " We can take the Canadas without soldiers : we have only to send officers into the provinces ; and the people, disaflFected towards their own government, will rally round our standard." Mr Clay added, " It is absurd to suppose we shall not succeed in our enter- prise against the enemy's provinces. We have the Canadas as much under our command as Great Britain has the ocean. — We must take the continent from them. I wish never to see a peace till we do."t A simi- lar impression prevailed in the colony itself, defended then by only 4500 troops, of whom not more than 1450 were in the upper province, though the most exposed, and pre- senting the most extended frontier. Not a few were in- clined on the first alarm to pack up and quit the coun- try ; but Sir George Prevost, seconded by the majority • Bouchette, vol i. pp. 443, 445. M'Gref^or, vol. ii. p. 391. Roebuck on Existing' Difficulties in the Administration of the Canadas ( London, U{>S6), [>. ii. t James' Military Occurrences of the late War (2 vols 8vo, London, 1818), vol. i. p. 77. f 11 186 HISTORY OF CANADA i m :yi of the inhabitants, adopted a more spirited resolution. The militia were called out ; Quebec was garrisoned by the citizens ; and the frontier placed in a state of de- fence.'* The States, though they had plunged into hostilities so eagerly and with such sanguine anticipations, were by no means in a forward state of preparation. Few of the officers who had distinguished themselves in the war of independence survived the lapse of nearly thirty years.t General Hull, however, one of these reterans, was sent with a force of 2600 men to open the campaign on the western frontier of Upper Canada. On the 6th of July ] 812 he arrived at Detroit, and on the 12th crossed the river and took possession of Sandwich, whence he issued a proclamation inviting the colonists to join him, or at least to remain neutral. He an- nounced that no quarter would be given to a white man fighting by the side o'f an Indian, though this is said never to have been acted upon. Having no cannon mounted, he did not think it practicable to attack Fort Maiden, which covered Amherstburg, where Lieute- nant-colonel St George with his small force was posted. Hull, however, pushed forward detachments into the country, which gained some advantages and induced a few of the inhabitants to join them. But his prospects were soon clouded. Captain Roberts, with a small de- tachment, had early reduced the Fort of Michillimaki- nac, which " opened upon him the northern hive of Indians." Almost the whole of that race, indignant at the encroachments of the Americans upon their territory, eagerly espoused the British cause, and poured in from every quarter to support it. Meantime General Brock, having embarked all the troops that could be spared from the Niagara frontier, arrived on the 12th August at Amherstburg, where he mustered about 330 regulars, • Montgomery Martin's History of the British Colonies (5 ▼ols 8vo, London, 1834), vol. iii. p. 1} 8. •f* Carey and Lea, Geography, &c. of America (8vo. London, 1823), p. 69. ifc ' UNDER THE BRITISH. 187 400 militia, and 600 Indians. Hull, whose force, weak- ened by sickness and by sending away two detachments, is said not to have exceeded 800 effective men, retreated across the river, withdrawing the cannon prepared for the siege of Amherstbiirg, and shut himself up in Detroit. Genenil Brock instantly crossed, advanced upon the fort, and prepared for an immediate assault ; but a white flag then appeared from the walls, and a capitulation was quickly signed, by which the whole American force, including the detachments, were sur- rendered prisoners of ^^ar. The Canadian citizens, who had despondingly anticipated speedy conquest, were not a little surprised to see in less than three months the whole army destined for that object marched in as cap- tives. Loud complaints were made by the Americans against the conduct of Hull, who was afterwards tried and condemned to be shot, though spared on account of his age and former services.* The Americans made great efforts to obtain a more fortunate result on the Niagara frontier. Though the New England States, disapproving of the war, withheld their militia, yet early in September more than 6000 men were brought to the banks of the river, with the view of crossing it and penetrating into Canada. They were encouraged by the exploit of two row-boats, which captured the same number of British gun-brigs with valu- able cargoes as they were passing Fort Erie. The troops are represented as filled with enthusiastic confidence, urging and almost compelling General Van Rensselaer, tlieir commander, to commence active operations. Ac- cordingly, after one abortive attempt he succeeded, on the morning of 13th October, in pushing across to Queen- ston a detachment which, being well reinforced, gained possession of the heights. General Brock having come up, resolved to check their progress, but making his ad- vance with too small a force he was repulsed and killed, • James, vol. i. pp. 6fi.fi8, 374:^76, 72, 73. Martin, vol. iii. p. IflJ). Brackenridge's History of the late War(12mo, 6th edition, Piiiladelphia, lUbO), p. 32.41. 188 HISTORY OP CANADA i!- m closing his brilliant career by a glorious death. Van Rensselaer, however, complains that when he returned to the other side, the heroes, who tlie day before had boasted so loudly, having now witnessed an actual en- gagement, though a successful one, were seized with such a panic that neither commands nor threats could induce one of them to enter the boats. Meantime General SheaflFe, having brought up the main force of the British from Fort George, and being joined by a body of In- dians, with a detachment from Chippeway, attacked the enemy ; and, after a sharp contest of half an hour, compelled the whole, amountmg to above 900, to sur- render at discretion.* The Americans made yet another attempt to retrieve this unfortunate campaign. Greneral Smyth, who suc- ceeded Van Rensselaer, had assembled on the 27th November 4500 men in the vicinity of Black Rock. Early on the following morning, two detachments suc- ceeded in crossing, and after a long and confused iight in the dark, drove in with loss the British outposts ; but when day broke, and Lieutenant-colonel Bisshopp had collected about 600 regulare and militia, they hastily re- tired to the other side, leaving a party of thirty to fall into the hands of the Englislu Another division began to cross ; but some rounds. of musketry and artillery in- duced them to return. In the course of the day, after a vain summons to surrender Fort Erie, nearly half the force was embarked ; though in the afternoon the post- ponement of the enterprise was announced. After several days of uncertain councils, it was finally decided that the expedition should be abandoned for the season. The troops are said to have displayed the fiercest indignation, threatening even the person of their commander, whom they named General Van Bladder ; but whether their courage would have been equally conspicuous in the hour of trial their former conduct leaves some room to question.t • James, vol. i. pp. «1, 37. 108-112. IS, obey ; upon which discontent and a want of confidence in the commander-in-chief became general, and had a most injurious effect on the subsequent operations.* Fortune, so favourable to the Americans at the open- ing of the campaign, did not continue so throughout. Extraordinary exertions were made in the western states, particularly Kentucky. Two corps were formed, and despatched under Generals Winchester and Harrison to march in different lines through Michigan ; then to unite and co-operate in recovering Detroit, and invading the adjoining districts. Winchester, suspected of a desire to achieve something before yielding the command to his coadjutor, advanced with about 1000 men to French- town, withm twenty-six miles of Detroit. Colonel Proc- tor, justly appreciating the importance of attacking him before the junction, hastily collected all the force within his reach, amounting to about 500 whites and 450 In- dians. With these, on the 22d January 1813, he succeeded in bringing the enemy to action. They made an obsti- nate resistance, and being posted in houses and enclo- sures, caused considerable loss to the assailants ; but tliey were ultimately overpowered, and nearly all made prisoners. The general himself was among the number, having fallen into the hands of a Wyandot Indian, who stripped off his uniform, adorned his own person with it, and could not without great difficulty be induced to make restitution.t General Harrison, on receiving intelligence of this disaster, took up a position near the rapids of the Miami to await reinforcements. Colonel Proctor felt equally the importance of attacking him before their arrival. Having assembled about 1000 regulars and militia and 1200 Indians, he embarked them at Am- herstburg on the 23d April, then sailed across Lake Erie, and up the Miami. Many delays, however, occur- red, by which the enemy was enabled so to strengthen his position, that the attack made on the 1st May had • James, vol. i. pp. 163-176, 413-416. t Ibid. pp. 184.1^ 418-425. Brackenridge, pp. 88, 89. 192 HISTORY OP CANADA rn very little effect. The Americans were then encour- aged to assume the offensive, which they did with large bodies of troops, partly landed from the river, partly sallying from the fort. At first they gained possession of the British batteries ; but they were then attack- ed at different points with such decisive success, that upwards of a thousand were killed or taken, and the rest with difficulty found refuge within the intrenchments. These Proctor found himself still unable to storm ; but he had so weakened the enemy's force as to remove all immediate danger of invasion.* Let us now return to the main theatre of operations on the Niagara frontier, where we have seen the British driven before the enemy to Burlington Heights. Dear- born immediately sent forward Generals Chandler and Winder, with 4000 men, to destroy if possible this shattered remnant ; a success which would have been followed by the conquest of all the western provinces. On the 6th June they took post at Stoney Creek, to prepare for operations on the following day. In this critical situation. Lieutenant-colonel Harvey, having carefully reconnoitred the enemy's position, suggested a night-attack, to which General Vincent readily assented. It was made with 700 chosen troops, and being favoured by deep darkness, was completely successful ; the Ame- ricans fled in every direction, and the two commanders, with seven officers and 116 men, were made prisoners. The British at daylight withdrew their small force ; and the Americans boast, that but for the unaccount- able capture of the two generals, the advantage was all on their side. Their loss, indeed, had not been great ; yet such was the panic inspired by the events of this night, that before eleven next morning they had abandoned their camp, and commenced a retreat to Forty-mile Creek, eleven miles distant. Here they re- ceived a reinforcement ; but being threatened by Sir James Yeo, who had come with a squadron and a small • James, vol. i. pp. 194-201, 426-428. Brackenridge, p. 96-98. 5 iU¥ A I I. UNDER TIIK URITISII. 1C3 len enrour- with large ver, partly [ possession len attack- access, that ind the rest enchments. jtonn ; but remove all ' operations the British lits. Dear- andler and 3ssible this have been provinces. y Creek, to y. In this ey, having suggested a ly assented, ig favoured ; the Ame- mmanders, e prisoners, nail force ; unaccount- antage w^as not been the events g they had retreat to !re they re- led by Sir md a small ;e, p. 96-98. J)ody of troops to Hupi)ort General Vincent, they deter- mined on rctreuthig to Niagara. Nor did their disgrace st^p here. Intelligence being received that the English had a snuiU advanced post at Beaver-dam, Lieutenant-co- lonel Boerstler, with about 700 men, was sent to attack it. That dticer, however, being unexpectedly assiiiled, first by a party of Indiiuis, and soon afterwards by a small body of regulars, conceived himself to be sur- rounded, and on being summoned by Lieutenant Fitz- gibbon, surrendered his whole corps prisoners of war. The Americans now held nothing on the right bank of the river beyond Fort George. The British even made incursions on the opposite shore, in one of which Colonel Bisshopp gained j)osse8sion of Black Rock, where he destroyed or carried off the arms and stores ; but ])eing unfortunately attacked while re-embarking by a superior force, his party suffered some loss, and he himself received three wounds, which proved mortal.* Our countrymen at this time gained some advantages on Lfike Champlain, taking several vessels, and destroy- ing the enemy's magazines at Plattsburg and Swanton. They were now, however, destined to experience some severe reverses, and that too on the theatre of their most brilliant triumphs. The Americans made extraordinary exertioifc to re- trieve their affairs on the western frontier ; volunteers crowded from Kentucky, a territory of fierce and war- like habits, — and by September they had succeeded in augmenting General Harrison's army to upwards of 6000 men. They had formed another fortified station on San- dusky river, which Major-general Proctor, without suc- cess, attempted to reduce. A squadron of nine vessels, mounting fifty-six guns, had been equipped by them on Lake Erie, and it was with great difficulty that one at all able to contend with it could be fitted out by the British, under Captain Barclay. An engagement took place, which was maintained with the utmost obsti- ' ■■■"■"■ ' — ■■- ■ ' ' - — - — — ^ — — m • — • ' ■ .■■.■■■ — • James, vol. i. pp. 205-229, 431-442. Brackenridge, p. 114-119. VOL. I. M 194 UISTORY OF CANADA hi. nacy, and the American commodore's ship had even struck her flag; but fortune afterwards turned, and tlie conflict ended in the defeat and entire surrender of the English squadron.* This event reduced General Proctor to extreme distress, depriving him of access to supplies and reinforcements, while his stock of pro- visions had become quite hiadequate for his own troops and the numerous Indians who had joined his standard. On the arrival, therefore, in the end of September, of General Harrison at Detroit, he did not attempt to maintain his position at Amherstburg, but retre"** I up the river Thames. The other pursued him « 'oicl y Avith 3600 troops, while Proctor was deserted by p^os* of his Indians, of whom he had now only about f>< MV, withbt*!) whites. At the Moravian town, on the Atl\ v( October, he took up a strong position flankcrt by the river on one side and a wood on the other where he hoped to render unavailing the superior numbers of the enemy, Harrison, however, had with him a body of combatants yet unknown in warfare, the Kentucky mounted rifle- men, accustomed to ride through the woods, using their weapon with almost preternatural skill. Their very novelty, li« justly hoped, would make a strong im- pression. Following his instructions, they received the Are of their opponents, then galloped forward, and in a few minutes completely broke the British ranks, spreading among them a general confusion. The severest conflict was with the Indians, who lost their chief Te- cumseh, one of the bravest of the brave, stamped a hero by the hand of nature, and equally distinguished by policy and eloquence. The main object of his life had been to unite his followers in agrar 1 voruRdoracy against Ameri- can encroii; hment. In enrvlty ! ^: om he '^ warmly attached himself to the »..i . or tiie British, and aided them in successive victories. He was shot through the head by Colonel Jolmson, a member of Congress. Ge- neral Proctor retreated to Ancaster, where he could rally * James, vol. i. p. 263-274. Carey and Lea, p. 62. 6 \ i ti.*.^-- UNDER THE BRITISH. 105 hip had even 9 turned, and ire surrender luced General ^im of access stock of pro- is own troops 1 his standard. September, of it attempt to but retre9^< 'I I him <'oteiy ed by p^OBt of (i(MV,withbtW» !x ri October, the river on he lioped to f the enemy. )f combatants lounted rifle- 8, using their Their very strong im- received the ward, and in ritish ranks. The severest lir chief Te- mped a hero led by policy I had been to ainst Ameri- • ^ warmly h, and aided through the tigress. Ge- e could rally * $ t 1, p. 62. only 200 men, with whom he joined the Niagara army. Harrison, also, having thus recovered Michigan, and conquered the western districts, marched to rcini'urce hiM countrymr ■ in that quarter.* The AmericnnH now formed a plan of 0|>cration8 on a gran.li^r scale, directed against Montreal, the suc- cess of which would have ^loffd in their iiands the whole of Upper Canada. In this entc rprise, two armies were destined to co-operate ; one consisting of nearly COCO under Major-general lIainj)ton, from Lake Cham- plain ; the other amounting to BOOO under Major-general Wilkinson, from Grenadier Island, near Stickett's Har- bour on Lake Ontario, As the city was defended by a very small proportion of the regular soldiers, who were chiefly employed in the upper province, Hampton hope I, by pushing vigorously forward, to capture the place with little difficulty. But having passed the frontier in the end of October, he found on the 1 inks of the river Chateauguay the advanced corps ol 800 British with 172 Indians, commanded by Lieutenant-colonels De Solaberry and M'Donnell. These offi ers posted their troops so judiciously amid woods, and b< ) skilfully con- cealed the smallness of their number, that the enemy^ though they mode several brisk attacks, were always repulsed ; and Hampton, believing himself opposed by a large force, determined to retreat. Meantime the larger expedition under General Wil- kinson having crossed Lake Ontario, entered the river St Lawrence. At Williamsburg, two considerable de- tachments were landed in order at once to ck ar the banks and to lighten the boats while descending the rapids. On the 11th November, one of these, unler Major- general Boyd, encountered Lieutenant-colont 1 Morrison with an inferior British force. A very obstinate con- flict ensued, in which both parties claimed the vic- tory. The English seem to have gained the chief honour ; but their success was not so decisive as to pre- . w ■— ■ -^- »-• * tf -■ ' ■— - * James, vol. i. pp. 276-298, 451-458. Brackenridge,^. 146-156. 196 HISTORY OF CANADA r vent the enemy from continuing to descend the river towards Montreal. Near Cornwall the commander re- ceived despatches from General Hampton, intimating that he declined the expected co-operation, and intended to fall back upou Tuake Champlain. Wilkinson then conceived it necessary to give up for this season any attempt upon Montreal, especially as he found the po- pulation altogether hostile to the States, and attached to the British government. He therefore placed his army in winter quarters near French -mills on the Salmon river, where he fonned a plan for attacking Prescott and Kingston ; but finding himself much straitened for pro- visions, was induced to fall back upon Plattsburg.* Meantime the employment of the main army of the Americans in this abortive expedition, enabled their op- ponents to resume the offensive on the Niagara frontier. On the first intelligence of the disasters sustained in the west. General Vincent had been ordered to fall back upon Kingston ; but he considered that circumstances now jus- tified him in maintaining his position. The enemy's force in this quarter was not only reduced, but was under the command of Major-general M'Clure, an officer of little spirit or enterprise. On the advance of a strong detachment under Colonel Murray, he first fell back upon Fort George, then abandoned that post, previous to which he barbarously reduced the adjoining town of Newark to ashes. Murray was not content with driving him beyond the river : he crossed it, surprised arid stormed Fort Niagara, taking above 400 prisoners, 'vith a large quantity of arms and stores. The English after- wards surprised and plundered the villages of Lewis- ton, Black Rock, and Buffalo, where they retaliated not very considerately the outrages of M*Clure at Fort George.t Operations vv-ere recommenced early in the spring of 1814. Lieutenant-colonel Williams, with 1500 British, • James, pp. 301-333, 347-350, 467-475. Brackenridge, p. 168-167. t James, vol. ii. pp. 4, 8-22, 396403. Brackenridge, p. 169-171. UNDER THE BRITISH. 197 [d the river imander re- intimating nd intended iinson then season any md the po- attached to ed his army he Salmon i*rescott and aed for pro- ;burg.* irmy of the ed their op- jra frontier, lined in the 1 back upon eesnowjus- lemy's force was under officer of of a strong t fell back previous to town of ith driving prised arid loners, 'vith glish after- of Lewis- retaliated ire at Fort le spring of OO British, :kenridge, p. p. 169-171. n having taken post at La Colle on the river Richelieu, Wilkinson, who had upwards of 4000 men at Platts- burg, determined to attack them. On the 30th March he completely invested a large mill, which the British had converted into a fortress. All his attempts to carry it were, however, fruitless. Major Handcock even made two attacks on the artillery posted in a wood, though without success. The American general finally gave up the undertaking, and fell back upon Platts- burg. In the beginning of May our countrymen gained another advantage, carrying, though with some loss, the fort of Oswego, where they captured a considerable quantity of ammunition and stores.* The main efibrt of the enemy during this campaign was made on the Niagara frontier, where about 5000 men were placed under Major-general Brown, an officer who had distinguished himself on several occasions. On the 8d July he crossed and summoned Fort Erie, which, with its garrison of 170, immediately surrendered. He then mai'ched towards Chippeway, and beat at Street's Creek the advanced-guard of Major-general Riall, which had endeavoured to stop his progress. The English general was then obliged to retreat to Fort George, and thence in the direction of Burlington Heights. Brown here- upon laid siege to the fort, but finding it stronger than he expected, and being disappointed of assistance from Sackett's Harbour, he fell back upon Chippeway. General Riall, on his part, having received some rein- forcements, advanced ; the armies came close to each other, and on the 25th the republicans commenced the attack. The battle of Lundy's Lane was fought long, obstinately, and with various fortune, a great part of it amid thick darkness, which caused several strange mis- takes. The American general and his second in com- mand were wounded, and Riall, on the other side, was taken prisoner. By a singular accident, in the midst of the conflict, Lieutenant-general Drummond arrived with * James, vol. i. pp. 83-90, 421-427. Brackenridije, p. 190-193. ! I\ 198 HISTORY OP CANADA ifl • l! !!- Hi i;i ■ '■ 'I ! a reinforcement from York, which restored the battle. Both sides claim a dearly bought victory ; but the real issue seems clearly indicated by the retreat of the enemy to Fort Erie. On the night of the 1 4th of August, Drum- mond made an attack on the place in two divisions ; but his men, in both cases, were repulsed with very severe loss.* Meantime another part of Canada became the theatre of important operations. After the successes of the allied powers in Europe, the capture of Paris, and the abdication of Napoleon, Britain was enabled to turn her whole strength against the United States, over whom a full triumph was then anticipated. A strong detachment from the south of France arrived in Canada, and enabled Sir George Prevost to place himself at the head of 11,000 men, with whom he undertook to carry the war into the enemy's country. He proceeded to the attack of Plattsburg on Lake Champlain, defended only by 1500 troops, the rest having been sent to the upper province. Macomb, the American commander, on being pressed by this superior force, fell back on his main position, which he strongly fortified. Sir George on the 11th September arrived in front of it ; but a flotilla imder Captain Downie, destined to co-operate with him, was attacked by the enemy, and under his very eye completely defeated and captured. Conceiving, after this disaster, that any success in storming the enemy's position would be fruitless as to ulterior objects, and a useless sacrifice of men, he immediately withdrew his army. This course was not approved by all ; and the general result, so contrary to expectation, gave rise to much discontent and recrimination.t The Americans were still strong in Upper Canada. On the l7th General Brown sallied from Fort Erie, and, though driven back, caused a severe loss to the British, who soon after raised the siege. Being pressed by a large additional force under Izard, General Drummond *' " !■ ...I I ...III. ■ - V- ' ' " James, voJ. ii. pp. 143-147, 436-452. Brackenridge, p. 219-23«. t James, vol. ii. pp. 213-217, 4(l2.4t)8. Brackenridge, p. 266-271 . UNDER THE BRITISH. 199 ed the battle, but the real , of the enemy .ugnst, Drum- wo divisions ; ed with very (le the theatre cesses of the Paris, and the ibled to turn States, over id. A strong red in Canada, limself at the •took to carry iceeded to the lefended only to the upper ider, on being on his main ir George on but a flotilla ate with him, his very eye eeiving, after the enemy's Dbjects, and a withdrew his all ; and the , gave rise to pper Canada, ort Erie, and, the British, pressed by a 1 Drummond ise, p. 219-23«. Ige, p. 266-271. retreated to the old position at Burlington Heights ; but receiving a reinforcement, consisting of a detach- ment of the troops newly arrived from Europe, he again advanced. Izard, who did not dare to face him, evacuated Fort Erie, and took up winter quarters on the opposite side of the river. During this autumn the republicans gained some advantages on Lake Erie, but were re- pulsed with considerable loss in an attempt to recover Fort Michillimakinac.* The war meantime in other parts of America was productive of important events. The British obtained possession of Washington, where they destroyed the public edifices and property ; but they were defeated in their attacks upon Baltimore and New Orleans. Thus, wliile one party felt itself engaged in an unequal contest, the other had not reaped the expected advantages from its superior means. Both became inclined for peace, which was concluded at Ghent on the 24th December 1814 upon terms which, after this long and chequered contest, brought back the two powers to exactly the same position as when they had commenced. Sir George Prevost was succeeded in April 1816 by Sir George Gordon Drummond, under whom some dis- contents began again to appear. These referred chiefly to the conduct of the judges, whom the Assembly viewed with such jealousy that they had impeached at one time tlie heads of the court both at Quebec and Montreal. In 1816, Sir John Coape Sherbrooke went out as governor- general ; and under his administration, at once vigorous and conciliatory, harmony was little interrupted. In 1818, he was instructed by Earl Bathurst to accept the offer formerly made to pay the whole civil list out of the funds oC the province ; and he applied, not for a permanent settlement, but merely for the sum necessary to meet the current expenses. This was readily granted, and in order to raise it new taxes were imposed, of which, however, the Assembly reserved to themselves the appropriation. * James, vol. ii. pp. 230-240, 470. Brackenridge, p. 241. (I 'I ;:|i'l ■h ) ' wr ^li ii ■ ll 200 HISTORY OP CANADA Sir John being obliged by severe illness to return to England, was succeeded in 1818 by the Duke of Richmond. This amiable nobleman, though personally popular, introduced an innovation, which led to the long and serious conflict between the Crown and the Assembly. Instead of submitting, like his predeces- sor, a detailed estimate of every object of expendi- ture, he divided the whole into chapters, each compre- hending a head or branch, the entire amount of wliich was alone specified. The Assembly refused to sanction such a change, and passed a vote according to the estimate of the former governor, stating each payment in detail. The legislative council, however, withheld their con- currence from this resolution ; and the duke, express- ing his displeasure with the lower house, had recourse to the irregular measure of drawing upon the receiver- general for the sum which he had demanded. In September 1819, his Grace's life and government were suddenly terminated by an attack of hydrophobia. After short intervals under the Hon. James Monk and Sir Peregrine Maitland, the Earl of Dalhousie, in 1820, was removed from Nova Scotia to Canada. This noble- man, possessing a high military reputation and an amiable disposition, had been very popular in his former station ; yet, sharing with his advisers, it is probable, those ex- treme monarchical ideas which had hitherto prevailed in tlie colonies, he was ill fitted to meet the new crisis that had arisen. Having estimated £22,000 as the amount necessary for the public service, in addition to the revenues vested in the Crown, he solicited this sum as a permanent grant. But the Assembly refused to pass more than an annual bill of supply, in which they spe- cified every item. The council again rejected their vote, with the entire concurrence of the governor, who hesi- tated not to draw upon the treasurer for even a larger amount than had been asked from the Assembly. Earl Bathurst, on receiving notice of these proceed- ings, did not disapprove of Lord Dalhousie's conduct, but strongly recommended economy. He directed also, UNDER THE BRITISU. 201 88 to return he Duke of h personally led to the wn and the is predeees- of expendi- ach compre- mt of which I to sanction the estimate 'nt in detail. I their con- ke, express- [ad recourse ;he recciver- 1. government lydrophobia. ! Monk and sie, in 1820, This noble- i an amiable iier station ; , those ex- ;o prevailed e new crisis 000 as the addition to id this sum used to pass h they spe- i their vote, who hesi- '^en a larger iibly. se proceed- 's conduct, rected also, that two estimates should be presented, one embracing the government expenses, to be defrayed by funds of which the Crown claimed the entire disposal ; the other to be employed on popular objects, in regard to which the members might be left uncontrolled. At the same time, it was enjoined that both of these should l)e given in full detail. This arrangement was well received, the required sum was voted, and the session terminated amid mutual courtesies. In the year 1823, the popular cause was strengthened by the insolvency of the receiver-general. Sir John Cald- well ; an inquiry into whose accounts had been vainly demanded by the Assembly, and who proved to, be in- debted to the public nearly L.l 00,000. When, in the following year, the governor i)resented his estimates, the representatives assumed a high tone ; dis])uting the right of the Crown to select the olyects on which to employ its revenue ; condemning the unlawful appropriation of public money, and materially reducing the amount of the sum demanded. These proceedings drew fortli a strong expression of displeasure from Lord Dalhousie. In 1825, the government, during his lordship's tem-» porary absence, was administered by Sir Francis Burton, This officer, anxious to conciliate the lower house, yielded nearly all the points in dispute. He sanctioned a bill of supply, in which no distinction wiis made between the government and the popular expenditure ; an annual grant being made, with considerable reductions, so that a virtual control over the whole revenue was thereby con- ceded to the members. Accordingly, they now openly claimed the right to appro})riato all that was raised within the province, denying the privilege, hitherto ex- ercised by government, of the uncontrolled disposal of certain branches. These were the produce of duties on imports, imposed by act of Parliament in 1774, and yielding annually about L.JU,000, with some of smaller amount arising from the sale of land, timber, and other casual sources. Earl Bathurst strongly disapproved of the concessions made by Burton ; and Lord Dalhousie, 202 HISTORY OP CANADA ^;:'i !*■ I r i '^ : having resumed office in 1826, disallowed a bill in which the above claim was incorporated. Lord Goderich, who in 1827 received the seals of the Colonial Office, though he maintained the right of go- vernment to dispose of the disputed revenue, yet directed that an offer should be made of resigning it to the Assem- hly on their granting an annual civil list of L.36,000. On the meeting of that body, however, M. Papineau wafi elected speaker ; an appointment which, on account of his violent opposition to the measures of administration, Lord Dalhousie refused to sanction. The consequence was, that no session of either house was held in tlie winter of 1827-1828.* Discontent had now risen to an alarming height ; and in the latter year, a petition was presented to the king, signed by 87,000 inhabitants, complaining of the conduct of successive governors, particularly of the Elarl of Dal- housie, and urging a compliance with the demands of the Assembly. Mr Huskisson, who had become colonial minister, moved that this petition should be referred to a committee of the House of Commons. One was accord- ingly named, composed in a great degree of members attached to liberal principles, who, after a very elaborate investigation, gave in a report, in which they strongly condemned the practice of appropriating large sums taken from the public revenue without the sanction of the representatives of the people. With regard to the main portion of the disputed income, being that produced by the duties of 1774, its disposal appeared, from the report of his majesty's law officers, to be vested in the Crown ; yet the committee judged, that the real interests of the province would be best promoted by placing tho whole under the control of the Assembly. At the samo time they distinctly expressed their opinion that the governor, the judges, and the executive council, should be made independent of the annual votes of that body. • Despatches from the Earl of Aberdeen to Earl Amherst (ordered U\ be printed 22d March 1838), pp. 10, 11. M'Gregor, vol. ii. p. UNDER THE BRITISH. 203 They recommended that a more liberal character should be conferred on the legislative and executive councils ; and that the public lands should be assigned in a more beneficial manner. Generally admitting that the griev- ances complained of were more or less well founded, they advised a thorough and effectual redress. This report appears to have given very decided satis- faction in the colony, and the Assembly ordered it to be printed, and 400 copies distributed.* In a series of resolutions passed on the 19th March 1830, they seem to limit their demands to the complete fulfilment of its provisions.t Sir James Kempt, who was sent out in 1828,had been furnished with instructions to carry the re- commendations of the committee into effect with as little delay as possible, and generally to follow a conciliatory system. He appears to have proceeded with zeal and dficiency in the prescribed course. Three new mem- bers were added to the legislative council, who are said to have been agreeable to the popular party. The judges, with the exception of the Chief Justice, whose advice on legal questions was considered desirable, were requested with some earnestness to resign their places in tliat body. They declined compliance, but agreed to take no share in its deliberations, and did not after- wards attend its sittings. New members were also added to the executive council, in which seats were even of- fered to Neilson and Papineau, the leaders of the oppo- sition. The act transferring to the Assembly the revenue in dispute could not be obtained immediately, but it was promised on the first meeting of Parliament. The Assembly, however, in voting the supplies of 1829, had proceeded on the supposition of having the whole at their disposal, and cut off several thousand pounds from the governor's estimates ; but as the vote did not appear to involve any absolute recognition of their claim, and as it seemed inexpedient to dispute a point virtually given up, ll • Minutes of the Evidence taken before the Select Committee appointed in 1834 on the Aifairs of Lower Canada, t Ibid. p. 8. f ! 204 HISTORY OF CANADA !M f' ill. i', /] Sir James yielded his assent. This step, though not ap- proved by Sir George Murray, was not, under the peculiar circumstances of the case, positively disallowed. The governor is said to have treated the ruling party in the Assembly with a courtesy of manners to which they had not been accustomed ; and on his departure in 1830, addresses were presented to him by the most respectable inhabitants of Quebec and Montreal, which were signed by Papineau and other popular leaders.* Lord Aylmer immediately succeeded to ,the govern- ment. His communications with the Assembly were of the most friendly description ; and though circum- stances consequent on the death of George IV. had still prevented the passing of the proposed act, it was promised with all practicable speed. Lord Godericli, who now presided in the Colonial Office, directed that the items, which had been again rejected in 1880, and amount- ed now to £7500, should not be longer pressed, but a compensation be requested for several individuals who had been thereby deprived of their income. On the 24tli December, his lordship sent two despatches, inti- mating his intention to bring in a bill which should em- power his majesty to place the proceeds of the duties in question at the disposal of the Assembly. In return, that body was expected to make a permanent provision for the judges, as well as for the principal officers of go- vernment. The demand was fixed, according to a very moderate estimate, at £19,100, which, by a grant of £5000, made in 1795 for the support of the civil govern- ment, would be reduced to £14,100. It was intimated, however, that the casual and territorial revenues, arising from the sale of land, the cutting of timber, and other sources, were still to be considered as belonging to the king. Theyhadamountedinthepreviousyearto £11,231 ; but were reduced, by expenses of collection and other deductions, to about £7500. This sum it was proposed • Evidence before Committee of 1834, pp. 4, 5, 8, 87, 91-93. Existing Difficulties in the Government of the Canadas, by J. A. Roebuck, M. P. (London, 1836), p. 16. UNDER THE BRITISH. 20o to employ chiefly in paying the stipends of the clergy of the Established Church, hitherto drawn, not very ap- propriately, out of the anny extraord* ries. It was urged, that these funds belonged legally and constitu- tionally to his majesty, whose employment of them upon objects, not of mere patronage, but closely connected with the interests of the province, could not be reason- ably olvjected to. Lord Aylmer was well aware that this last reserva- tion would be deemed very unsatisfactory ; but he con- sidered it most prudent to lay before the Assembly a full and frank statement of the views of government. That body, after inquiring into the mode of collection and amount of these revenues, passed a resolution, that " under no circumstances, and upon no consideration whatever, they would abandon or compromise their claim to control over the whole public revenue." Parti- cular objection was also intimated to the support of ex- clusive religious establishments ; doubtless more strongly felt from the circumstance that the church to be endowed was different from that of the ruling party. They deter- mined, therefore, for the present, not to grant any per- manent supply ; and on the 8th March 1831, drew up, on the motion of Mr Neilson, a pretty long list of griev- ances, which was presented to the governor. He ex- pressed in return an earnest wish to know if these com- prised the whole of their complaints ; giving them to understand that silence would be construed mto an ad- mission of their being so. They were accordingly silent ; l)assed a bill of annual supply ; and showed on the whole a more favourable tone and temper.* His lordship transmitted the list of complaints, with an admission that many of them were well founded, at the same time strongly eulogizing the loyal disposition of the people of Canada. Lord Goderich, in a long reply, dated July 7, 1831, declared, that there was scarcely a poin which government were not ready to concede, and * Evidence before Committee of 1834, pp. 9-13, 19-25, 31-40. 206 HISTORY OF CANADA /; "! expressed his satisfaction at the prospect thus afforded of a termination to this long and harassing contest. This despatch was laid hefore the House, who, in a series of resolutions, declared their gratitude for the expressions of his majesty's paternal regard, the proofs of a just and liberal policy, and the feelings of kindness and good-will manifested in it. The different points to which it re- lated were referred to separate committees.* Soon after, a despatch from the colonial secretary made known thaL the act for transferring the funds in dispute had passed the houses of Parliament and re- ceived the royal assent. Whether from extreme libera- lity or total inadvertence, it was so worded as to preclude the unperial treasury from ever exercnsing any control over them, leaving thus no room for negotiation with the Assembly. Lord Aylmer was ii\Htructed, however, to demand, in return, a grant of pennanent salaries to the judges, who were also, according to the Assembly's desire, to be made independent of the crown ; and a si- milar provision was asked for the governor and a few of the chief executive officers. This matter being referred to the Assembly, they be'j;an,on the 20th January 1832, with the first particular. On providing that the judges should be independent of the crown, and, with the excep- tion of the Chief Justice, should not sit in the executive or legislative councils, it was determined that permanent salaries should be paid to them. But, at the same time, a motion of Mr Neilson was carried by a large majority, that these should be drawn in the first instance from the casual and territorial revenues, which Lord Goderich had expressly reserved to the Crown. Lord Aylmer considered it therefore necessary to send home the bill, yet with an advice to accept the terms, as the best there was any likelihood of obtaining. It was rejected, however, on two grounds ; — ^first,that it did not render the judges really independent of the Assembly, but left an annual vote still necessary. We cannot help suspecting • Evidence, 1834, p. 37-47. ir ',' UNDER TIIE BRITISH. 307 IS afforded ;est. This a series of ixpressions a just and i good-will 'hich it re- secretary le funds in nt and re- eme libera- te preclude my control iation with i, however, salaries to Assembly's ; and a si- nd a few of ing referred luary 1832, ; the judges I the excep- e executive ; permanent same time, re majority, ice from the •d Goderich )rd Aylmer me the bill, as the best ras rejected, >t render the but left an p suspecthig that there was here an unhappy miscuiu'optioi Tlic terms of the bill are, " that the salaries shall bi; se- cured to them in a fixed and permanent manner ;" and " shall be taken and paid out of the proceeds of tht* casual and territorial revenue, and the revenue now ap- propriated by acts of the provincial Parliament, for defraying the charges of the administration of justice, and the support of the civil government, and out of any other public revenue of the province which may be, or come into the hands of the receiver-general." It would appear that, according to the plain meaning of lan- guage, these terms involved a full warrant for pay- ment. Probably Lord Goderich had legal advice, and some technical terms usual in British acts might be wanting ; but a provincial legislature could scarcely be expected to be fully aware of these niceties. The legisla- tive body, the governor, and we doubt not also the As- sembly, had considered this as a permanent settlement ; the latter, had it been so acted on, probably would not, and certainly could not reasonably have objected. Tlie other ground was the encroachment upon the casual and territorial revenue, which, made in this indirect manner, was considered peculiarly offensive, though Lord Goderich had been fully apprized of their determination against any agreement in which this article was not included.* The next question which came before the Assembly was, the demand of a permanent provision for the go- vernor and a certain number of the leading executive officers. After a long debate, however, it was carried by a large majority in the negative. This decision placed the Assembly completely at issue with the Crown, and lias been represented as a breach of faith on tlieir part. They had not, it is true, come under any formal engagement ; yet the report of the committee of 1828, which decidedly connected this arrangement with the ces- sion of the disputed revenues, had always been referred to by them as embracing almost every thing desired ; • Evidence, 1834, p. 56-65. 208 HISTORY OP CANADA •I i t !il U!' f..i !i and to this part of it they had never liinted any objection. On the (Jth December lOHO, they had iMissed resolutions, insistini? indeed on tlie control of the entire revenue, but expressing an intention, were tliis gained, to grant the permanent provision now demanded. That ])reliminary cUiim certainly embraced also the casual and territorial branches still withheld ; yet these were not of great amount ; and the present bill, like that relating to the judges, might have been so framed as to be inoperative without these funds being embraced by it. No reason was assigned ; but the view of the As- sembly is stated to have been, that the executive not being dependent on them for a naval and military esta- blishment, would, in case of such a permanent settle- ment, have been entirely free from that control which they sought to exercise over it. They passed, however, a vote of annual supply, which Lord Goderich, though much dissjitisiied with the tenor of their proceedings, thought it expedient to sanction.* Next year (1833) the Assembly still gi'anted only an annual bill, in which, according to a requisition of Lord Goderich, they stated the purposes to which each par- ticular sum was to be applied. They added, without its being asked or wished, the individuals to whom it was to be paid ; and appended a number of conditions, chiefly bearing, that such persons should not hold any other situa- tion, and should not be members of the executive or legislative councils. This was considered objectionable, because public officers were thus suddenly deprived of situations which they had long held, without any con- sideration of their claims to compensation ; also because those regulations ought not to have been tacked to a money bill, but made the subject of a separate enactment. On these grounds this bill was negatived by the legis- lative council, and Lord Stanley, who had been placed at the head of the Colonial Office, intimated, that had it reached him, he could not have advised his majesty to r * Evidence, 1834, p. 68-63. Ml i i UNDER THE nitlTISII. 209 am'^nt to it. In the siuno Hcssion, a mcnsurc wft8 intro- duced for sccurinp^ indojH'ndviicc an■■( t; I ! speaker of the House of Assembly, strenuously urged this measure, and the calling of a body of delegates to arrange the conditions. The leading ones proposed were, a qualification in the electors of £10 in the country and of .£20 in towns, a certain income to qualify the councillor, and the duration of his functions for six years. Lord Stanley in reply said this was an object to which, deeming it altogether inconsistent with the v^ry existence of mo- narchical institutions, he could never advise his majesty to consent ; and he particularly objected to the proposed mode of effecting it, by what he termed "a national convention.'* A counter address, however, by the legislative council, was censured as intemperate in its language, and ap- pearing to ascribe generally to his majesty's subjects of one origin views inconsistent with their allegiance. In conclusion, he alluded to " the possibility that events might unhappily force upon Parliament the exercise of its supreme authority to compose the internal dissensions of the colonies, and which might lead to a modification of the charter of the Canadas."* This despatch was submitted to the Assembly, and its entire tenor, particularly the implied threat at the close, excited the highest indignation in tliat body. They declined this year (1834) to pass any bill of supply whatever, and employed the session in prepar- ing another long list of grievances. They complained, that while those formerly urged were still unredressed, there had been added the partial payment of the civil officers without their consent. They made a peremptory demand of the elective legislative council, without which nothing would be accepted as satisfactory. Lord Aylmer's conduct was reprobated as violent, unconstitu- tional, and contemptuous, and his recall urgently de- manded. The published correspondence assuredly doe& not bear out this charge. His addresses to the As- sembly are particularly courteous ; and he recommends generally to the government at home concessions so ex- ♦ Evidence, 1034, pp. 78, ll'3-2C0. Roebuck, p. 17. i^ii if UNDER THE BRITISH. 211 jusly urged ielegates to osed were, a intry and of e councillor, ears. Lord ch, deeming bence of mo- is majesty to oposedmode 3onvention.'* Ave council, ige, and ap- s subjects of egiance. In ' that events e exercise of al dissensions , modification gsembly, and threat at the 1 tliat body. i any bill of an in prepar- er complained, unredressed, t of the civil a peremptory ncil, without actory. Lord it, unconstitu- urgently de- assuredly doe& js to the As- e recommends cessions so ex- uckyp. n. tensive, that Lord Goderich, himself considered liberal towards the colonies, refused to accede to them. The petition, however, was presented to Parliament, and a committee appointed for its consideration. Meantime Lord Stanley retired from power, and was succeeded in the colonial department by Mr Spring Rice. This gentleman renounced the design entertain- ed by his predecessor of recalling the revenues yielded to the Assembly, and gave intimation, it is said, that he would follow a more conciliatory course. He only asked a little time till he could make himself master of the sub- ject ; and thus the popular leaders were induced to delay taking any strong measures. They bitterly complained, however, that the administration was carried on as before. Lord Aylmer was continued in the government, and though the Canadian funds were not entrenched upon, a sum of £31,000 was advanced from the military chest for payment of the civil servants, by which their re- sponsibility to the Assembly was equally evaded. Before Mr Rice had matured his plan, he was removed from office by the accession of Sir Robert Peel to power. He stated that he had it completed, and was ready to submit it to the cabinet on the very day^when this change occurred ; an assertion which Mr Roebuck treats with evident scepticism, though seemingly without any adequate ground. Sir Robert, on assuming the reins of office, early di- rected his attention to the disturbed state of Canada. After some deliberation, he determined to send out a commissioner, with power to examine on the spot, and redress without delay, every real grievance which should be proved to exist. Even the casual and territorial re- venues were to be surrendered, on condition of the set- tlement of a civil list for at least seven years. The elective legislative council, however, and the entire management of the public lands could not be conced- ed.* Viscount Canterbury, the late speaker, was first * Despatch from the Earl of Aberdeen to Earl Amherst, p. 3-^ iiteSlii aw a 212 HISTORY OF CANADA t '*■ } ' {1 1 i! r i . ' I invited to fill this important appointment, and, on his declining, it was conferred on Earl Amhei*st. This ar- rangement, however, was nullified by the vote which led to the resignation of Sir Robert, and the return of Lord Melbourne to power. The restored ministry followed up, with certain modi- fications, the plan of their predecessors. A commission was sent out, for inquiry only and without the power of decision, composed of the following individuals, — the Earl of Gosford, Sir Charles Edward Grey, and Sir George Gipps. The first, an Irish nobleman, professing prin- ciples decidedly liberal, succeeded Lord Aylmer as go- vernor. Lord Glenelg, now the colonial secretary, drew up for their guidance a series of instructions, in which he considered the claim to the disposal of the entire revenue somewhat exorbitant, and not warranted by British example, yet was willing, for the sake of peace, to consent to it, on certain conditions. These were, an independent provision for the judges, and sala- ries for the civil officers, fixed for a certain number of years, ten being mentioned as particularly suitable. With regard to the uncleared lands, the whole proceeds arising from their sale were to be placed at the disposal of the Assembly ; but government could not consent to part with the management of them, or annul the con- tract made with the Land Company, though they would be ready to guard against all abuses, and even to receive any suggestions on the subject. The exist- ing pensions were also to be retained, but the future power of granting them would be surrendered. In re- gard to the critical question of the elective legislative council, it was said, — " The king is most unwilling to admit, as open to debate, the question, whether one of the vital principles of the provincial government shall undergo alteration." The right of petition, however, was fully recognised, and his majesty would not " ab- solutely close the avenue to inquiry," even where, " for the present, he saw no reasonable ground of doubt."* * Copy of the Instructions to the Earl of Gosford, &c. p. S-IJ). UNDER THE BRITISH. 213 and, on his )t. This ar- vote which he return of certain modi- L commission the power of lis, — the Earl I Sir George »fessing prin- ylmer as go- al secretary, instructions, sposal of the Lot warranted • the sake of ions. These ges, and sala- n number of arly suitable, rhole proceeds it the disposal not consent tt> mnul the con- though they ises, and even t. The exist- )ut the future iered. In re- bive legislative t unwilling to whether one of remment shall tion, however, ould not " ab- en where, " for 1 of doubt."* )rcl, &c. p. 5-Vd. The Earl of Gosford having arrived in Canada, lost no time in calHng a meeting of the legislature, who were convoked on the 27th October 1835 ; and in his opening speeches, he professed the most conciHatory views, par- ticularly towards the French or popular party. He avowed the opinion, that " to be acceptable to the great body of the people, is one of the most essential elements of fitness for public station." He intimated his readiness to place the whole revenue at the disposal of the Assem- bly on the conditions formerly stated. All the other grievances were to be carefully examined and redressed ; and allusion was made to " still graver matters," respect- ing which the commissioners " were not precluded from entering into an inquiry." The legislative council returned an answer which, in all respects, was extremely moderate. They generally concurred in the sentiments of the speech, deprecated the idea tiiat difference of origin should affect political rights, wliich ought to be equal to all his majesty's subjects. But the House of Assembly, while holding conciUatory language, advanced much more lofty pretensions. The cliange in the legislative council was repeatedly pressed, as absolutely essential to the tranquillity and content- ment of the province. The entire control of the pv bile revenue was referred to, not as a boon, but an incontest- able and essential right ; and while they stated their readiness to consider attentively any measure tending to facilitate the exercise of this right, they avoided all mention of conditions to be performed in return. Not- withstanding the high ground thus taken, the inter- ooui'se between the popular leaders and the governor was extremely friendly. He admitted them to his table and his intimacy, and treated them on every occasion with much kindness. They were understood to represent the great body of the people, whom he had expressed his desire to conciliate ; and he professed liberal views to those who would understand that term in its widest sense. So decided was the impression produced, that the opposite party loaded liim with the bitterest invec- 214 HISTORY OF CANADA Mi i .' y I f i I tives, and even threw out menaces of insurrection ; while the leaders of the Assembly went so far as to intimate, that they would relieve the immediate financial em- barrassments by granting the three years' arrears, and a half-year in advance. They attached to the grant some- what hard conditions, which, however, were not rejected ; and on the remark being made, that these would ensure its rejection by the legislative council, an intimation is said to have been given, that it would be accepted di- rectly by address, without being liable to the veto of that body.* This good understanding was suddenly interrupted. The governor's language above cited, in regard to the elec- tive council, had been very different from that of his in- structions, not pledging him indeed to the measure, yet such as, combined with his other conduct, conveyed to both parties the idea that it was determined upon. This course is defended as the only one by which the supplies so urgently wanted could be obtained ; and it was hoped, that by a continued conciliatory coui"se, the Assembly might, when the real intention of the cabinet could no longer be concealed, be induced to wave their demand. Any degree of duplicity in a government, however, must, when discovered, lower its dignity, UTitate the deceived parties, and, at the same time, give them an impression of their strength, which had driven those in authority to such an expedient. Unhappily all those effects followed, before any of the expected fruits had been reaped. Sir Francis Bond Head had at the same time been sent out to Upper Canada, and being a very straightforward person, and seemingly unapprized of Lord Gosford's intentions, had made public a part of the instructions, including that momentous passage already quoted, relative to the le- gislative council. It was such as, though not wholly precluding discussion on the object, left to the popular 4 -•! " Papers relating to Lower Canada (20th February 1837), p. 4-12. AnU-Gallic Letters, by Camillus (Montreal, 1836), p. 35-41. Cor- respoodeoce od Canada Affairs (Bri^^hton, 1836), p. 3-6, &c. UNDER THE BUITISH. 215 Bction ; while J to intimate, financial em- irrears, and a e grant some- ! not rejected ; would ensure intimation is accepted di- > the veto of interrupted, rd to the elec- thatof hisin- measure, yet , conveyed to d upon. This 1 the supplies . it was hoped, the Assembly >inet could no demand. Any ir, must, when ;eived parties, jssion of their rity to such an llowed, before . Sir Francis b out to Upper i person, and itentions, had ncluding that ive to the le- h not wholly X) the popular leaders scarcely a hope of its attainment. Their rage knew no bounds ; they complained not only of disap- pointment in their favourite olject, but of a deception by which they had been nearly misled. It was now determined not to grant the tiiree years' arrears, but merely a supply for the current half-year, allowing only that short period to comply with their demands. This slender boon, too, Wiis clogged with conditions which, as had been foreseen, induced the upper house to reject it, so that the session, in all respects very stormy, passed over without any provision whatever being made - for the public service. The legislative council felt na- turally indignant at the violent attempts meditated for its overthrow, and instead of studying to show these to be unmerited, the members vented their resentment by rejecting almost every bill sent up from the Assembly. Among these was the vote continuing the funds for national education, which were thus entirely withdrawn. All the political elements were disturbed, and in violent collision with each other.* The commissioners, in March 18.%, viewing this state of things, and seeing no prospect oi obtaining money to carry on the government, without immediately yielding to every demand of the lower house, considered it indis- pensable to obtain it without their consent. This, they thought, would be best accomplished by Parliament repealing the act passed on the motion of Lord Goderich, by which funds to the amount of £38s,000 had been made over to the Assembly. This would indeed excite bitter resentment ; but with the other reserved reve- nues, it would at least enable the government to proceed without any grants from tliat body. Lord Glenelg was not forwai*d to act on this recommendation. He wrote to the Earl of Gosfoi*d, expressmg a hope, on grounds which do not very distinctly appear, that the violent resolution complained of had been induced by the partial ry 1837), p. 4-12. , p. 35-41. Cor- I. 3*6, &c. • Roebuck, p. 39. Tlie late Ses&ioa of the ProTiDcial Parlia" meat (Montreal, 1836), p. l3.->9. r,iiiiiii'vii"TTT- akMH 216 HISTORY OP CANADA I 'I! I ■■ i' I fill' I h i< i I ! '■ •■{ and imperfect knowledge of tlic Instructions, and that a communication of the whole might lead to more favour- able views. He expressed a wish, tlierefore, that the provincial Parliament should be again called, and an opportunity aftbrded for retracting, before recourse was had to extreme measures. The meeting was accordingly held on the 22d of September 1836 ; but the majority soon presented an address to the governor, denying that, according to the apprehension expressed in his speech, they laboured under any kind of misconception ; they saw nothing to make them change their views, or pre- vent them from insisting on the same demands, parti- cularly that of the elective council. They adverted in an indignant manner to certain pretended authorities, as they termed the commission, and maintained that they themselves were the legitimate and authorized organ of all classes of inhabitants ; that they had used their power in such a manner as ought to have secured confidence ; and to them, not to a few strangers, ought to have been committed the fate of the country. They declared it their imperative duty to adhere to the contents of their last address ; " and to them do we adhere." Thev finally expressed a resolution not only to do nothing more in regard to supply, but to adjourn their delibera- tions altogether, unless government should commence the great work of justice and reform, particularly in regard to the second branch of the legislature.* Matters had now reached an extremity which seemed to render it no longer possible to delay an interposition. The stoppage wf the supplies, like the granting of them, was no doubt a right inherent in a representative assem- bly. Yet it is one, the exercise of which is attended with such formidable evils, that the Commons of Eng- land, during more than a century, had merely kept it in the background as a last resort, and never brought it into actual operation. The constitutional character • Second Report of Canada Commissioners, p. 93-95; &c. Pipers relating to Lower Canada, p. 31-41. UNDER THE BRITISH. 217 -95, &c. Pi'pers of the measure became still more questionable, when employed, not to control the abuses of the executive, but to overthrow a separate and co-ordinate branch of the legislature, deriving its existence from the same source with the Assembly itself. This was a mighty change, amounting to a kind of revolution, and to be effected only with the utmost deliberation. The stop- ping the whole machine of government, and not allow- ing even an intei^val of time to eifect it, was a measure of extreme violence. Had the popular leaders listened to the dictates of prudence and moderation, they might, availir^' themselves of the conciliatory disposition shown by the new governor, have obtained all their substantial objects. They would have gained the chief control in the executive, after which the legislative council, whom they continually reproached with subserviency to the latter branch, were not likely to persevere in unavailing opposition. , Ministers now determined no longer to delay mea- sures for counteracting the proceedings of the violent party, and placing the executive government in a state of regular action. Parliament having assembled, and the reports of the commissioners being laid on the table. Lord John Russell, on the 6th March 1837, moved a series of resolutions on which acts were to be founded. After a statement of the actual posture of affairs, it was proposed that the sum of ^£142,000 should be taken out of the provincial funds locked up by the Assembly, and applied to the payment of the judges and other civil officers, down to the 10th April. It was afterwards agreed, not, as the commissioners had recommended, to resume any part of the ceded monies, but by a strict economy to carry on the government from that date with the casual and territorial revenues, which circumstances had now raised to about £28,000. The elective legislative council, and the direct responsibility of the executive one to the Assembly, were both declared inexpedient ; though it was stated as desirable that considerable im- provements should be made in the composition of both. '] m 218 HISTORY OF CANADA I I ;i ' Ml These suggestions gave occasion to very warm debates. The Tories, while they supported the proposals of go- vernment, accused them of an imprudent indulgence and want of energy, which had emboldened the factious party to proceed to extremities. On the other hand, a small but active section of the popular leaders jus- tified all the claims and proceedings of the Canadian Assembly, denounced the Resolutions as unconstitutional and tyrannical, and predicted as their result civil war and the loss of the colonies. The motion of Mr Leader, however, in favour of an elective council, was negatived by 818 to 56, and the cabinet measures were carried by overwhelming majorities ; but the death of William IV. intervened before they could be embodied in acts of Parliament. The necessity of a dissolution, and the unwillingness to begin the government of a young and popular queen by a scheme of coercion, induced ministers to substitute the expedient of advancing the amount by way of loan from the British revenue, in the pros- pect of being ultimately reimbursed from the provincial funds. As an interval was to elapse between the passing of the Resolutions and their being acted on, Lord Gosford was instructed to make a last trial of the Assembly, in hopes that, seeing such a vast majority in Parliament against them, they might be induced of themselves to vote the money, and thus save the necessity of any un- wonted interference. Already, however, several violent demonstrations had taken place. Meetings were held in the counties of Montreal and Richelieu, in which it was affirmed, that the votes of the commons had put an end to all hopes of justice ; and that no further attempts should be made to obtain redress from the Imperial Parliament. They considered the government as now only one of force, to be submitted to from necessity during their present weakness ; and in order to re- duce as far as possible its power, they declared that all consumption of British manufactures and of articles pay- ing taxes, ought to .be discontinued ; and finally, that a u t UNDER THE BRITISH. 219 general convention should be held, to consider what farther measures were advisable. Lord Glenelg, in consequence of this state of things in Canada, had solved to send out two additional regi- ments ; but afterwards, finding this to be inconveni- ent, he gave authority to apply to Sir Colin Camp- bell for such force as could be spared from Nova Scotia and New Brunswick. On the 6th May the governor replied, that he had not the least expectation of any thing serious, though in case of a dissolution he ad- mitted that " there might be some broken heads." On the 10th June, however, upon learning that a system of organization was carrying on under the influence of Papineau, he applied to Sir Colin for a regiment, which arrived early in July. He had already issued a procla- mation, warning the people against all attempts to se- duce them from their allegiance. Meetings, numerously attended, were held in Montreal and Quebec, condemn- ing the violent conduct of the House of Assembly, de- claring attachment to British connexion, and deprecat- ing any breach of the public peace.* On the 18th August Lord Gosfprd again called the provincial Parliament. The Resolutions were laid before the Assembly, with the expression of a hope that its pro- ceedings would supersede the necessity of their being acted on. The changes in the constitution of the councils had been unfortunately delayed by difficulties as to cer- tain appointments ; but these improvements were solemn- ly promised. Warm debates ensued. Mr Andrew Stuart, one of the members for Quebec, proposed a compliance with the request of government, which was negatived by 63 to 13. An address was then moved by M. Taschereau, a representative of the county of Beauce, expressing a willingness to give a trial to the means proposed for amending the legislative councU, but declining any grant till they were brought into operation. Another address. * (Copies, &c/ of Correspondence relative to Lower Canada (23d December 1837), pp. «-13, 20-33. M ^iaM 220 ITISTOnY OP CANADA .il I' ii pi i •{ breathing the most dctcrinmed hostility, wns then moved, and carried by 40 to 31. It denouneed the step now tJiken as an absolute dcstinietion of the representative fiovernmcnt in the provinee, — a total refusid of all tlic reforms and improvements demanded. If these lie- solutions were carried into effect, the colony, it was said, would no longer be attached to the mother country by feelings of duty, of affection, and mutual interest, but solely by physical force, in this conjuncture they could see no motive for the slightest de})arture from their intention to withhold the supplies ; and they adhered in every respect to their resolutions of OOtli September 1830. Lord Gosford, in re])ly, gave utterance to his deep regret at measures which he considered a virtual annihilation of the constitution, and immediately 2)rorogued the Assembly.* The popular leaders seem now to have formed tlic resolution of having recourse to arms. They, as well as their organs in this country, had often asserted,t and seem at length to have believed, that only an effort was required to sever the colonies from the mother country. This was a most hasty and inconsiderate conclusion. The example of the American colonies was referred to ; but they were much stronger than the Canadians .are now, while the power of Britain, on the other hand, was considerably smaller. Yet it was only after a long and calamitous contest of eight years, that they establishe power to prevent the part taken by their subjects, showed a good disposition by giving the first intimation of what was going on to Mr Fox, the British ambassador at Washington. The tidings were soon confirmed from other quarters ; and Sir John Col- borne lost no time in putting the province in a state of defence, and procuring an additional force from Nova Scotia.* On the night of the 3d November, a concerted rising took place in all the southern counties of Montreal District ; but owing to some failure of arrangement, the stations along the Richelieu were not found supplied with arms according to appointment, so that most of the inhabitants there dispersed and returned to their homes. The chief seat of insurrection was now farther west, between that river and the St Lawrence. There three arch-rebels, Dr Robert Nelson, Cote, and Gagnon, had collected about 4000 men, and established their head- quarters at Napier ville. Their first object was to open a communication with their friends in the States, for which purpose 400 men were detached to the frontier. There a body of British volunteers, as brave as loyal, had stationed themselves, by whom the rebels were attacked * Correspondence, pp. 106, 125, 174-180, 222, 246. ! I'l 240 HISTORY OF CANADA ■■ ii ia. and obliged to retreat with great loss. To retrieve this disaster, Dr Nelson, with upwards of 900 men, marched against the loyalists. The latter, only 200 strong, took post in Odelltown chapel, on which the enemy com- menced a brisk attack, but, after two hours and a half, were obliged to retreat, with the loss of one hundred killed and wounded. The defenders had an officer and five men killed, and nine wounded.* Meantime Major-general Sir James M*Donnell, under orders from the governor, with seven regiments of the line, crossed the St Lawrence, and marched upon Napierville. The rebels, discouraged by former losses, after a vain attempt to unite their forces, dispersed in every direction without firing a shot. They still retained a post at Beauhamois ; but Colonel Carmichael, with a detach- ment of regulars and 1000 Glengarry militia, drove them out, though with the loss of two men killed and the same number wounded. Mr Ellice and a party of friends, who had been made prisoners by them at the outset, were allowed to return to Montreal. On the 11th, a week only after the first movement, McDonnell could announce that the insurrection war. completely at an end, without the rebels having been able to open any communication with their supporters beyond the frontier.t We must now turn to Upper Canada, where, even be- fore the former outbreak, Sir Francis Head had resigned. The immediate cause was the disapprobation expressed by Lord Glenelg for his removing Judge Ridout on account of his democratical principles, and his refusing to obey an order to raise to the bench Mr Bidwell, late spenker of the Assembly, and an opposition leader, iio at the same time, in no measured tenns, condemned the system of conciliation hitherto pursued in the Colo- nial Office, whose members he even branded as republi- cans ; insisting that a stern uncompromising maintenance of the monarchical principle, and the exclusion from * Correspondence, pp. 248, 261, 262. t Ibid. p. 260-263. 2 UNDER THE BRITISH. * 241 lieve this marched ong, took my com- id a half, hundred officer and ell, under rf the line, apierville. ter a vain y direction a post at a detach- Irove them ;d and the ^ of friends, the outset, 1th, a week d announce id, without munication re, even he- ad resigned, xpressed hy on account g to ohey an ate sppnker ler. lie at condemned in the Colo- i as republi- maintenance [jlusion from office of all opposed to it, was the only basis on which Canada could be governed. Ministers unwillingly ac- cepted liis resignation ; while the loyal inhabitants, among whom he had rendered himself highly popular, expressed on the occasion deep regret and disgust. Colonel Sir George Arthur, who had previously held a similar situa- tion in Van Diemen's Land, was named his successor.* The new governor soon found himself involved in difficult circumstances ; for early in June, bands to the number of 1000 or 1200 Americans crossed the Niagara channel, and endeavoured to excite the people to insur- rection. They attacked a party of fourteen lancers posted in an inn, and, by setting it on fire, obliged them to surrender. But no sooner did they learn that Sir George had arrived at Niagara, and that the country was rising against them, than they hastily recrossed the fron- tier, leaving about forty prisoners, among whom were Morrow and Waite, the first and second in command. In the end of June, a smaller party passed the St Clair, and invaded the Western District ; but finding themselves unsupported, and the militia advancing, they returned, a few falling into the hands of the pursuers. The summer now passed in comparative quietness, though the great movement at the beginning of Novem- ber continued to be deeply felt along the upper frontier. Almost simultaneously with the rising in Montreal Dis- trict, a body of about 400 sailed from the vicinity of Sackett's Harbour and landed at Prescott. On the 13th, Colonel Young with what force he could muster, and aided by Captain Sandom with an armed steamer, compelled a large proportion of them to disperse, while the rest took refuge in a windmill and an adjacent house built of stone, whence they could not be dislodged. Eighteen British were here killed and wounded. In the course of the day. Colonel Dundas arrived with four companies from Kingston, but considered the buildings, the walls of which were three or four feet thick, too strong to be redi.ced without cannon. A few guns and * Narrative by 1: ir Francis B. Head, Bart. (8vo, London, 1839, 2(1 edition), p. 218-344. VOL. I. *o 242* HISTORY OP CANADA UNDER THE BRITISH. I ! I f m some additional troops being brought up, an attack was commenced on the 16th, when the party within the stone building, after some stand, sought to escape among the brushwood, but were all captured ; upon which those iu the mill displayed a white flag, and surrendered at discretion. The whole number of prisoners was 159. The militia, suspected of some lukewaminess, showed the utmost zeal, and mustered to the extent of 6000. The Niagara frontier was found by the enemy so wall guarded that no attempt was made there. But early in the morning of the 4th December, about 360, organized at Detroit, landed near Sandwich, set fire to a steamer and to the barracks, and killed several individuals in cold blood. Being as cowardly as cruel, when attacked by a party of militia, they fled either to the woods or to the American shore, leaving 26 killed and 25 prisoners. The captives on the former occasion had been treated with extraordinary lenity ; but this forbearance not having produced its due effect, and being loudly com- plained of by the inhabitants, it was judged necessary to exercise greater rigour on the present occasion. A consi- derable number of the ringleaders were put to death, and the rest condemned to severe orignominiouspunishments. During the rest of the winter and succeeding summer, the Canadas remained in tolerable tranquillity. A deep interest was excited by the proposal of a union of the two provinces, strongly recommended by Lord Durham, and a proposition to that eflfect was announced by the British minister in the session of 1839. The House of Assem- bly in the upper province declared themselves favour- able to it under certain conditions ; but objections were raised by the legislative council, which, with other obstacles, induced the government to postpone the mea- sure till a future session. A bill was passed to continue and somewhat augment the extraordinary powers under which Sir John Colborne administered the affairs of Lower Canada ; and in the autumn of the same year, Mr Poulett Thompson, formerly President of the Board of Trade, was nominated to the important office of Go- vernor-general. TOPOGRAPHY OP LOWER CANADA. 241 CHAPTER V. Topography of Lower Canada, Boundaries— Surface— Divisions— District of Quebec— City of tha Name— Situation ; Edifices; Upper and Lower Town; Vici- nity — Fall of Montmorenci — Isle of Orleans — Tadoussac and tlie Sa^uenay— Lower Coast — Shores above Quebec — Trois Rivieres, Town and District— Montreal District— City—Ca- tholic Cathedral— Other Edifices— Rural Districts— Settlements on the Ottawa— Country South of the St Lawrence— Settlements on the Richelieu — Southern Part of Trois Rivieres District — Eastern Townships — American Land Company's Territory — Southern Part of Quebec — Townships — Lower Shores cf the St Lawrence — Gaspe — General Summary. It has not been usual, in the volumes of i,:ie Edinburgh Cabinet Library, to enter into min.fl^ topographical details of the various countries described. A general survey is all that is required in most instances ; but in regard to British America, and particularly to Ca- nada, a different course appears to be expedient. These provinces are chiefly inhabited by a British popula- tion, and a continued stream of inr igration has been, and still is J directed towards them, iiic adventurer who is to remove his abode to the new world, and choose thert^ a situation for life, is deeply interested in knowing the advantages an*' 'disadvantages of each particular district. The numerous individuals, too, in this country, who have now friends settled in that remote regi n cannot but feel curious as to the locality in which the objects of their affection are established. We propose there^ ve to give in this chapter a somewhat minute descriptivjn VOL. I. P i yi 242 TOPOGRAPHY OF LOWER CANADA. ■ i ifi: 5! Mi i:i of Lowt J' Canada, and, in the next, a similar account of the Upi'cr Provmce. The former has for its eastern and northern bound- aries the Gulf of St Lawrence, Labrador, and the high ridge which separates the tributavio^ of th'^i St Lawrence from the rivers f&llmg into Hiiibou's Bay. The north- em limit terminates about 80° west longitude, ^vhere a liae drawn due south to I ake TrmiscaTtiiBfr, on il* ■ Ot- tawa, separates the two (anadiaii provinces. TJiO river just named forms thf westein boui) Jary, till it approaches Montreal, whence n ilne drawn from it due south, passes Uirougli Ivake St Francis, and extends for omt. space southward of the St Iaw.rcn<:o. The soutLein frontier la parallel to the whole couise of that .; eat river, at a dis-.tance of from fifteen if) a hundnul and thirty miles, \ii(l 13 formed on the south by Chaleur Bay, New Bruns- wick, and the States of Maine, New Hampshire, Ver- nnont , and New York. The pi-ecise limits, however, stOl remain dependent on the imj)oi'tant territorial question now agitated between Great, Britain and the United States. This extensive province lies between 46° and 62® north latitude, and between 67'' 50' and 80° 6' of west longitude, m iking thus about 960 miles in length, and 490 in breadth. The entire area is estimated by the best authorities at 206,863 square miles, of which not less tlian 3200 are supposed to consist of lakes and rivers.* The northern part of this region consists throughout of a bold, rugged, and i-ocky territory, watered by almost innumerable streams and torrents, and diversi- fied by many chains of small lakes. The soil is generally unproductive, and no settlements have been attempted in any part of it ; yet recent surveys have discovered various detached spots embosomed among the hills, or on the banks of the riven, that appear susceptible of high cultivation. Tliis d - iption of country conies down and borders upon t^ -^^fc Lawrence, along its Boudiette, i>p. 173, 182. H TOPOGRAPHY OP LOWER CANADA. 243 account of m bound- l the high , Lawrence rive north- ie, \i'here a on lb -; Ot- '].M.e river approaches )uth, passes rjmt. space !tn frontier river, at a liirty miles, New Bruns- pshire, Ver- )wever, still 'ial question the United 6" and 62° P 6' of west length, and ated by the hich not less nd rivers.* throughout watered by and diversi- jfi generally n attempted re discovered g the hills, r susceptible mntry conies je, along its lower course, as high as Cape Tourment, only thirty miles below Quebec. It then recedes, and leaves, between itself and the courses of the St Lawrence and Ottawa, an extensive and generally fruitful plain, varying fwm fifteen to forty miles in breadth. Detached eminences and branches from the northern mountains serve only to variegate the surface, and give to it a more picturesque appearance.* On the south of the St Lawrence there is a similar plain, not quite so spacious, but somewhat more fertile and beautiful. The high lands cover only a small portion of its surface, except in the most eastern district of Gaspe, which presents through- out a rugged surface, similar to that of the opposite sliore, though including a much larger proportion of good soil.t Lower Canada is divided into three principal districts, Quebec, Trois Rivieres, and Montreal, and two small ones, Gaspe and St Francis. This last, however, is so dimi- nutive, and its townships so enclosed by those of Mon- treal and Trois Rivieres, that its subdivisions have been included within their counties. Quebec is divided into thirteen counties, — Beauce, Bellechasse, Dorchester, Ka- mouraska, L*Islet, Lotbiniere, Megantic, Montmorenci, Orleans, Portneuf, Quebec, Rimouski, and Saguenay, These are subdivided into seventy-nine seigniories, twelve fiefs, and thirty-eight townships. Montreal comprehends nineteen counties, — Acadie, Beauharnois, Berthier, Chambly, Lachenaye, La Prairie,L' Assomption, Missisqui, Montreal, Ottawa, Richelieu, Rouville, St Hyacinthe, ShefFord, Stanstead (this county includes five townships of St Francis), Terrebonne, Two Moun- tains, Vaudreuil, and Vercheres. These are subdivided into sixty-three seigniories, eight fiefs, and forty-five town- ** I.ieutenant-colonel Bouchette considers this plain as terminal^ inj^, Ol, iccordinff to his order, commencim]^ with the Grenville Hills on the Ottawa ; bit as the upper banks of that river are still more level than those or che St Lawrence, that cluster seemingly can only be considered a branch from the great northern range. + Bouchette, vol. i. pp. 185, 2«l-290, 2y8-304, 324. 244 TOPOGRAPHY OF LOWER CANADA. b^'! sliips, besides fourteen others newly formed beyond the limits of the counties. Trois Rivieres includes six counties, — Champlain, Dnimmond, Nicolet, St Maurice, Shorbrooke, and Yamaska ; subdivided into twenty-five seigniories, nine fiefs, and fifty-three townships. Drum- mond is partly, and Sherbrooke almost wholly, composed of townships belonging to St Francis. Gaspe contains only two counties, — Bona venture and Gaspe, comprising one seigniory, six fiefs, and ten townships. It may be observed, that large portions of the three principal dis- tricts, and, indeed, the most valuable part of Trois Rivieres, are situated on the south side of the river.* The subdivisions above stated, founded upon the feudal system, according to which the French settlers were established, is important to them as connected with various judicial and political arrangements, but have little interest for British readers, or even residents. We shall therefore, after the example of Colonel Bou- chette, pay more regard to the natural divisions, at least to the extent of considering under separate heads the territories, as situated respectively on the northern and on the southern bank of the St Lawrence. We pur- pose, not, however, like him, wholly to disregard pro- vincial marches, but will consider successively the districts of Quebec, Trois Rivieres, and Montreal, begin- ning with those on the northern side of the great river boundary. The district of Quebec occupies the whole coast watered by the gulf and river of St Lawrence, from the eastern limit of the colony to the mouth of the river St Anne, about thirty miles below Trois Rivieres, and thence in a direct line to the northern boundary. The greater part of this extensive section belongs to the uncultivated portion of the country, and presents a chaos of mountains, lakes, and torrents, tenanted only by wild beasts and a few wandering Indians. At Cape Tourment, however, it begins to give place to a tract * Bouchette, vol. i. p. r.u- 181. TOPOGRAPHY OF LOWER CANADA. 245 ?reat river of a much more pleasing cliaracter ; and though still traversed by rugged eminences, it contains much fertile land, which is described as being at once romantic and beautiful. On the northern side of the St Lawrence it is divided into the counties of Quebec, Montmorenci, Orleans, and Port Neuf, and comprised, in 1831, a popu- lation of 56,615. In the midst of this fine landscape stands Q,ue^ec, the capital of British America. It is seated on a promon- tory stretehing out into the river, which, bv means of it and Point Levi on the opposite side, is narrowed to abo^^t three quarters of a mile, though immediately below it spreads out into a wide basin. Cape Diamond, the most elevated point of the city, is reckoned by an eminent traveller 1000 feet high ; a proof of the fallacious nature of such estimates, since the more accurate observation of Bouchette fixes it at 345. Above a hundred feet lower is an elevated plain, on which are built the castle and the whole of what is termed the upper town. Thence a perpendicular steep of above 200 feet descends to the banks of the St Lawrence ; and in the narrow interval between this precipice and the river is the lower town, tlie crowded seat of business and shipping. The scenery of Quebec and the surrounding i antry is described by all travellers as rivalling in picturesque beauty the most favoured parts of the earth. The navigator who ascends the St Lawrence, after he has passed the Isle of Orleans and entered the broad basin already mentioned, where he first comes in sight of tliis capital, is struck with intense admiration. He sees its citadel crowning a lofty cliff, its castle and batteries overhanging a range of forii ; -)l.]e steeps, the river crowded with numerous vessels of every form and size, from the huge timber-raft to the bark canoe. The fall of Montmorenci appears dashing its white foam almost to the clouds ; and on each side is a long range of fertile and beautiful shore. On ascending Cape Diamond a still grander and more extensive pano- rama bursts upon his view, combiumg all the boldness 246 TOPOGilAPHY OP LOWER CANADA. of nide with the richness of cultivated nature. Up and down the magnificent stream of the St Lawrence is a reach of more than forty miles, on which sails almost innumerable are in ceaseless movement. Below is the bta u 1 le of Orleans; whih the opposite coast is diTnrsiHc 1 by a great variety of natural and cultivated scenery. To the north appears the river St Charles winding amid fertile valleys and hills, with sillages hanging on their sides ; while the prospect is closed by a bold screen of mountains. Mr Weld prefers the views from the uppoi luwh, whei'^, though fewer objects are seen, they appear more distinct and brilliant. This traveller, after visiting a great part of Europe and America, gives to them a preference over every thing that he had observed on either contir nt. Mr M'Gregor considers them similar, but much superior to those from the castles of Edinburgh and Stirling. Quebec, from its situation and the care with whicii it has been fortified, is a very strong town, and con- sidered the chief bulwark of British America. On the summit of the lofty headland just 1 icribed, staulp the citadel. The rock consists of gray granite mixed ^* 'th quartz crystals, and a species of dark coloured sla d. About forty acres are here covered with works, carried to the edge of the precipice, and connected by massive walls aid batteries with the other defeiices of the place, Tliu main body of the fortress, however, consists of the (ipper lown, ^^ ' )se fortiiications enclose a circuit of about two miles and t hree quarters. The face of the hill towards the nver is so extremely precipitous, that it requires only a commoi.. wall to protect it, though the gate lead- ing from the lower town is defended by heavy cannon, and the ste<>p tt^ I'oach by Mountain Street is enfiladed and flan]' by many guns of large calibre. As the declivity t . ./arus the interior and the plains of Abraham does not present the same abrupt face, but descends by ^juccessive ridges, it has been strengthened by a series of regular works, including ditch, covered way, and glacis, with some exterior defences to obstruct the approach of TOPOGIIAPIIY OF LOWER CANADA. 247 . Up and rrcncc is a lils almost 3I0W is the ite coast is cultivated St Charles th villages s closed by 9 the views objects are ant. This Europe and svery thing r M'Gregor 1 those from with whicn n, and con- pa. On the , stall dp the mixed ^' "*h oured slu e. rks, carried by massiv€ of the place. ttsists of the cuit of about hill towards b it requires le gate lead- iavy cannon, ; is enfiladed )re. As the of Abraham ; descends by by a series of y, and glacis, 3 approach of fi an enemy. It ems probable, therefore, that the place would hol<] '>\if against any attack, till the approach of the rigorous winter should compel the assailants to raise the siege. The upper town, which these fortifications enclose, forms the chief part of Quebec, and the residence of all the principal inhabitants not engaged in trade. It is a tolerably handsome old-looking town ; the houses being mostly of stone, partly roofed with tin. The streets are well paved, nnd in some instances macadamized, but they are much too narrow, as the broadest does not exceed thirty-two feet. St Louis Street, the almost exclusive residence of the fashionable circle, has been lately adorned with several elegant mansions. The public buildings are connnodious and substantial, without much pretension to architectural ornament. The castle of St Louis, a large plain baronial-looking edifice, forms the dwelling of the governor. It comprises a space of four acres, once fortified ; but the great extension of the works has rendered its walls su- perfluous, and they are allowed to go to decay. The apartments are large and commodious, and the veranda commands a magnificent vista up the river. Ad- joining is a spacious structure, once occupied by go- vernment offices, now chiefly employed for public en- tertainments. The enclosure contains two excellent and well-cultivated gardens. Of religious edifices the chief is the Roman Catholic cathedral, being 216 feet long by 180 in breadth, and capable of containing a congregation of 4000. The in- terior has a lofty and solemn as]>ect, but the outside is heavy and not in very good tfjste. There are several other Catholic churches. The English cathedral, though smaller, being only 136 feet long by 76 broad, and in a simple style, is considered extremely neat. Tlie Scotch church is much inferior. The monastic establish- ments are spacious. The Hotel-Dieu, founded in 1637 by the Duchess d'Aiguillon, includes a convent, church, and courtyard, besides cemetery and gardens. The range I 248 TOPOGRAPHY OF LOWER r'Ai-JADA. t - \V> t.t, ' of buildings is extensive, but withoi t -m) ornament ; and its chief use is as an hospital, in v/hich respect it uffords the greatest benefit to the colony. A prioress and tliirty-two nuns are continually employed in ministering to the sick, with a groat degree of attention and skill : hence government have been induced to make occa- sional grants in addition to the considerable revenues attached to the establishment. The Ursuline convent is a neat building in tjie heart of the city, surrounded by fine gardens. It was founded in 1639 by Madame de la Peltrie, chiefly for the purposes of education. The inmates, forty-six in number, observe a somewhat rigid seclusion, but they instruct, in reading, writing, and needlework, a certain number of girls, comprehending even Protestants. They are very assiduous in embroi- dery and other ornamental works, especially for eccle- siastical vestments ; and the fruits of their industry are often sold at high prices, which are thrown into the com- mon stock. The spacious monastery of the Jesuits, 224 feet by 200, surrounded by noble gardens, was forfeited on the suppression of that order, and at the conquest was regarded as crown property. It was then converted into a place of exercise for the troops, and to the regret of many its fine trees were cut down ; but the legisla- ture of the province have lately petitioned for its being restored to its original purpose of education. The large edifice called the Seminary, with an extensive domain attached to it, was founded in 1663 by M. de Petre, with a view to the instruction of the Catholic clergy. It is now open to all students of that persuasion, who are initiat- ed in the different branches of knowledge upon paying the trifling sum of 6s. annually to defray incidental ex- penses. Pupils, indeed , may be boarded as well as taught far £12, 10s. a-year. The buildings employed for public purposes are ample and commodious, though mostly reared for different ob- jects. The bishop's palace formed an extremely elegant residence, with a chapel and many conveniences ; but, in return for an annuity, it was relinquished, and now ac- ti ;.*. TOPOGRAPHY OP LOWER CANADA. 249 I' commodates the two branches of the lep^ishiturc. A.bout the year 1803 a very handsome lioiisc was erected by n joint-stock company in the best situation the town afford- ed, with the view of being employed tis a hotel. Thia plan, however, being abandoned, it was sold to the chief- justice, and is now leased at £600 a-year by govern- ment, who give it up to the use of their chief civil de- partments. It contains also the Museum of the Literary and Historical Society founded in 1824, and which in 1829 was united to that for the promotion of arts ami sciences. The collection is said to be valuable in regard to mineralogy and botany. There is a library also, tliough only in its infancy. The Artillery Barracks form a long range of building, somewhat roughly constructed, but substantial and convenient. The Armoury con- tains equipments for 20,000 men, and, being extremely well arranged, excites the admiration of strangers. The market is held in an open space 260 feet long, with a breadth in some places of about 165. A largo building with stalls has been reared in the centre, though tlie chief business is still transacted on the open ground. It is held every day, but Saturday is the busiest. The crowds of carters with their wives and families, bringing in the productions of the surrounding country, their brawlings and vociferations in bad French and broken English, form a scene of noise and confusion, amid whit appear a few Indian squaws, and the gentlemen of t^ ^^ city and garrison going round to make purchases. E\ • , kind of provision is abundant and cheap except i '\ which is less plentiful than might be expected from tli© situation. Among public places may also be mentioned the Grand Parade in front of the castle, surrounded by tlie most distinguished edifices ; and also the Esplanade, a large level space along the interior wall, which is the ohief theatre for military exercises. The lower town is a narrow crowded range of build- ings, extending along the base of the precipice. The spot on which it stands is entirely the creation of human industry ; for originally the waves at high water beat the '!' 1 250 TOPOGRAPnY OF LOWER CANADA. Tery foot of the rock. Wharfs, however, have been found- ed and can'ied out into the river, though nowhere farther tlian 240 yarus ; and on these streets have been erected. So limited, indeed, is the space that the quarter beyond Cape Diamond communicates with the rest only by a path cut in many places through the solid rock. This part of Quebec is compared to the most irregular and con- fused districts of Edinburgh. It is connected with the upper town by what is called Mountain Street, which fonnerly was not passable for carriages without extreme difficulty, but has of late been much improved. The Break-neck Stairs, as they are denominated, are more commodious for foot passengers. Besides extensive wharfr, the lower town contains the Quebec Bank, which, in addition to apartments for its appropriate purpose, has others for a fire assurance company and a subscription library, the most extensive and valuable in Canada. The government warehouses are also spacious, and the custom-house having been found inconvenient, the foundation-stone of a new one was laid in 1831. Amid wharfs lately formed on the flat beach of the St Charles, has been erected the exchange building, an ele- gant structure, containing a spacious reading-room and several others devoted to commercial purposes. Projects are in contemplation for erecting a pier, which would also serve as a bridge across the estuary ; an improve- ment which, while it would affbrd anx^jle space for the extension of the lower town, would enable the largest vessels and rafts to lie in security, instead of resorting, as at present, to coves in the neighbourhood. On the inland side of the fortress, stretching more than a milo into the interior, are the large suburbs of St Roch and St John. They are built regularly, but chiefly of wood, and with accommodations suited only to the lower ranks ; though of late, indeed, they have been adorned with many stone houses of a superior class. There is also a smaller suburb named St Louis. Quebec maintains a constant communication with Point Levi on the opposite shore, whence it derives a TOPOGRAPHY OF LOWER CANADA. 251 great part of its provisions. A steam ferry-boat plies every half-hour, making the trip in about ten or iif- teen minutes. The navigation also being very properly left free, the river is constantly covered with numerous canoes generally hollowed out from the trunks of trees. The boatmen brave the most tempestuous weather, and though often driven several leagues out of their course, are scarcely ever wrecked. Even in winter, when they must encounter blocks of ice with which the channel is encumbered, they contrive with ropes and iron-pointed poles to raise their vessels upon tlie surface of the musses, and drag them along till they find open water on which to launch it. When this channel is frozen entirely over, the communication becomes still more easy. A line is marked with beacons placed by the Grand Voyer, over which hay, firewood, with other bulky articles, are trans- ported abundantly and at reduced prices. This advan- tage occurs only occasionally ; but every year the chan- nel between the Isle of Orleans and the northern coast is frozen over, when the produce of that fertile spot, re- served for the occasion, finds a ready conveyance. For- merly milk and vegetables were brought in a frozen state from distant quarters ; but now these commodities are procured in aDundance from the neighbourhood. The society of Quebec is more gay and polished than is usual in colonial cities, Avhere the pursuit of wealth forms too often the sole object of the inhabitants. Hero, besides merchants, there are a number of British civil and military officers, and a body of French noblesse, living on their domains. These different classes do not, it is said, always thoroughly amalgamate. The French, though often superior in manners and habits, are in some degree disdained by the ruling people, which they do not well brook. Among the English themselves, the chief '\?st of rank is an introduction at the castle, without which strangers will find themselves placed below those whom they would have been classed above in the mother country. The hotels are good, and, after the fashion of the United States, the inmates com- If I" III .«|MIIINMItM 1 252 ToroGRAPny of lower Canada. ■ I I:! monly dine at a table d*h6te, which often affords to the visiter the opportunity of meeting with interesting characters. He can, however, if he wishes, have private apartments.* The cultivated country northward of Quebec does not extend far, being closely hemmed in by the range of mountains, and settlement being obstructed through tlie very imperfect titles by which alone the land can be conveyed. Immediately westward, in front of the forti- fications, are the Plains of Abraham, memorable as the scene whereon Quebec was gained by the gallant Wolfe, and whence only it can be successfully assailed. The summit, indeed, is 830 feet high, which does all but cor^mand that loftiest pinnacle on which Fort Diamond stands. As some security against this danger, four martello towers have been so placed as to range over tlie whole plain. Immediately to the north a road leads along the heights to the village of St Foix, and to the beautifully secluded dingle of Sillery, about four leagues in lengtli and one in breadth, formerly the seat of a missionary settlement, which we shall have occasion again to mention. In the same direction from the suburb of StRoch is the Huron village of Lorette, near the banks of the river St Charles, which, in this neighboi'fhood, forms a beautiful cascade. Onward still, twelve miles from Quebec, is the lako o^* the same name, about four miles long and one broad, it is divided into two parts by projecting ledges, and the upper one especially is finely diversified by rocks, woods, bays, hills, and lofty moun- tains in the distance. Crossing the St Charles, and going eastward through the agreeable village of Beauport, we reach the Falls of Montmorenci, one of the most picturesque objects in all America. They do not indeed pour down that im- mense flood of water which renders Niagara so won- derful ; but the height is greater, being 240 feet, and • Bouchette, vol. i, p. 241-276. M'Gregor, vol. ii. p. 474-485, Weld, p. 201-202. TOPOGRAPHY OF LOWER CANADA. 253 [•ds to the nteresting ,ve private lebec does the range jd through and can be >f the forti- ible as the lant Wolfe, liled. The oes all but d Diamond mger, four range over ii-th a road j'oix, and to about four irly the seat ave occasion 1 the suburb ar the banks >-hboi'fhood, welve miles ;, about four two parts by illy is finely lofty moun- mrd through the Falls of objects in all ►vn that im- !:ara so won- 240 feet, and the stream descends the whole of this vast steep in one white sheet of foam. It is received into a vast basin, whence arise clouds of vapour that display the most brilliant tints of the rainbow. M. Bouchette imagines that even Switzerland, though it contains much loftier falls, has none which descend in so unbroken a mass. He overlooks, we think, the Staubbach, whose stream, however, is less copious than that of MontmorencL In winter, when the falling waters congeal into icicles, these accumulate above each other, till they on some occasions swell to an amazing magnitude, and present a most curious spectacle. About fifty years ago General Haldimand, then governor of Canada, built a house close to the fall, and commanding a most advantageous view of it. This was afterwards occupied by the Duke of Kent, and is now the residence of Mr Paterson, who has erected upon the river an extensive range of saw- mills.* Beyond Montmc jenci, the country, though somewhat rugged, continues to be cultivated and even traversed by commodious roads. Here occur the villages of Chateau Richer and St Anne. Immediately after, it is necessary to cross the precipitous mountain forming Cape Tourment, about 1890 feet high, and the com- mencement of a long series of similar heights, called " the Capes," which render this part of the St Lawrence grand but desolate. The road over them is extremely steep, and till lately by no means commodious ; but measures have now been taken to improve it. In St Paul's Bay, beneath the shelter of a circuit of hills, a considerable settlement has been formed ; while in the neighbouring one of La Petite Riviere, the exposure is so excellent, that fruit is produced of quality equal to that of Montreal or Niagara. The road then leads o '^er bleak heights, through the village of Eboulemens to Mai Bay, where the land communication and all regular 111 in . ii. p. 474-485, • Bouchette, vol. i. p. 266-280. M'Gregor, vol. ii. pp. 492, id'i. Weld, p. 205. fnfmmmmm 254 TOPOGRAPHY OP LOWER CANADA. !«;♦; t ;, i fi- I * ' Ik f ,^il iriicreoiirac nro found to terminate. A Scottish od'icer received this seigniory for his services in the American war, and lias so much in>2)roved it, tlwit it now contains ol)out 400 inhahitants. Before proceeding farther, we must notice the island of Orleans, about iivc miles below lOAiebec, already mentioned in connexion with the fine c\])anse of tlio river. It is not less than twenty miles b)ng' and four or iivc broad, dividhig the stream into two nearly equal channels. Some parts are considerably elevated, and crowned with forests ; but the larger proportion is under very high cultivation. Below are two smaller islands, called (lOose and Crane, witli rich juistures and numerous inhabitants.* The coast below Mai l^ay becomes altogether wild ond desolate, wiiile a facing of sjindhills towards the water renders its asj)ect still more dreary. This contimu'S to the mouth of the river Saguenay, one of the boldest features in this remarkable country. It has been traced U]>wards only to Ijnke St John, about 140 miles from it;!^ mouth. That ex})anse, estimated at 100 miles in circumference, was found by M. Bouchettc receiving large rivers from various quartei-s ; but am to their sourc^is and r<^lative magnitude nothing certain is yet known. In the districts adjoining to this lake, while there is much mountainous and barren land, considerable tracts, com- prising in all about ^40,000 acres, were considered quite iit f(>r cultivation. About midway down, the .Saguenay is joined from the south by the Chi(!ou- timi, on the bank,;} of which extends a tract called tlie Peniiidnla, believed to contain nearly 400,000 acres of fine arable soil. At some distance below, sixty miles from the mouth, the Bay des lias presents a magnifi- cent harbour, capable of receiving the largest ships, and surrounded by vast tracts of fertile territory. The Sa- guenay is navigable for vessels of great bulk two leagues • Boiichette, vol. . pp. 105, 21W), 281. M'Grearor, vol. ii. p. 470-472. TOPO(JIlAlMIY OP LOWKll CANADA. 255 irtU olVicor Aiuevuail V coutaiiia tho island c, alrcjuly use ot* tlio g jviul four iavly <'qu»il vatcd, and ►portion is wo smaller •astures and ev wild and 3 the water ;ontinuc9 to the boldest J been traced ) miles from 00 miles in •te receiving their sources yet known, ihere is much tracts, com- ;e considered y down, the the Chicou- tract called 400,000 acres y, sixty miles tts a magnifi- rest ships, and )vy. The Sa- le two leagues regor, vol. ii- P* abovo Chicoutimi. About five miU's farther down, tho level character of its banks ceases, and, to the jmint whero it falls into the St Lawrence, they are bold, steep, and rocky, shootinpf up sometimes into precipi- tous cliffs 2000 feet high, thinly clad with fir, birch, and other trees of u iiortherh climate. 'J'he breadth, unless when it sj)reads into sn all lakes, seldom ex- ceeds half a nnle ; but the depth i, very extraordinary, varying from (500 to 000 feet. Upou joining i\w great river now mentioned, here eighteen miles broad, it changes I'or sonu^ sj)ace the direction of tho strciam ; and presents the remarkable circumstance^ that while tho St Lawrence at this i>hice is only 240 feet deep, tho Saguenay, abovti the junction, ap])roaches to a thousand. A ledge of rocks, through which there is a profound though rather narrow channel, checks, in some degree, the discharge of its copious waters. The whole of this tract, as well above as b(dow Ta- doussac, is occupied by a body called the King's Posts' Compiuiy, who early obtained a leiuse '. :^ &i ^, It' H !i ! I- i i I 256 TOPOGRAPHY OF LOWER CANADA. character, and at Portnouf, forty miles farther down, it presents only eminences of moderate elevation. Beyond the immediate border it is a deep swamp covered with moss ; while the interior, according to the report of the Indians and Esquimaux, by whom alone it is traversed, is composed of rocky cliffs, and low hills scat- tered over barren plains, diversified with thick forests of stunted pines, and chequered with small lakes. There seems reason to suspect, that the hopes once entertained of finding here tracts of cultivable land, will never be fulfilled ; but ideas are still cherished that the district may contain valuable minerals. Portneuf itself consists only of three or four houses, a chapel, and several stores ; yet, after passing such vast ranges of dreary coast, the eye is agreeably relieved by the view of this picturesque and solitary little settlement. It is succeeded at long intervals by the posts of Les Isles, Jeremie, the Seven Islands, and Mingan. On Mount Pelee, called also Pointe des Monts, a lighthouse has been recently erected. Here, in mid-channel, is the large island of Anticosti, 125 miles long and 30 in its greatest breadth. The soil has been found unfavourable, and all attempts to (jolonize it have been relinquished. It attracts attention chiefly by the dangers which its shores present to the mariner ; and. In 1809, an effort was made to obviate them, by forming two government stations, where the means of supply and relief might be deposited. The agents, however, have in many instances been careless ; and the coast, accordingly, has been the scene of most calamitous shipwrecks. It is now in contemplation to erect a lighthouse at each end ; an improvement certainly much to be desii-cd.* Returning to Quebec, and surveying the part of the province above that capital, we discover an entirely different scene. The bold range of tlie northern moun- tains gradually disappeai-s, and the country, first diversi- • Bouchette, vol. i. pp. 1<>8, Ifiy, 283-294. M'Greffor, vol. ii. p. 407-470. TOPOGRAPHY OF LOWER CAXADA. 257 fied by varied eminences, afterwards sinks into a level plain. The road, which formerly passed close to the river, is now not unfrequcntly carried through the in- terior, with the view of being rendered at once more direct and level ; but though kept in good repair, it is in a great measure superseded by the extreme facilities for steam navigation. This territory is traversed by considerable rivers, fed by the mountains and lakes of the upper country, and flowing with a full and rapid current. These are chiefly the Portneuf, the Jacques Cartier, and the St Anne, of which the last is the largest, and at its mouth the boundary of the province begins. Considerable rafts of timber are floated down these streams to the different saw-mills. The Jacques Cartier rolls a complete torrent ; and its wild rocky scenery, and rude bridges, present quite a Norwegian aspect. Generally, however, the region has a smiling appearance, comprising the concessions, or fiefs and Boigniories held by the French Canadians, under regu- lar though not very full cultivation ; a considerable space being usually left in the rear, for the mere purpose of supplying timber and fuel. Closely follow- ing each other, they form almost one continued vil- lage, with neat churches at short distances ; a pleasing though not varied scene. There are no places which can claim the appellation of towns. New Liverpool, several miles above Quebec, has some wharfs and mooring stages, at which a few vessels usually unload. St Anne, situated near the extremity of the province, is the chief station on the road to Trois Rivieres, and has two or three good inns.* The district of Trois Rivieres, extending from the mouth of the St Anne to the upper part of Lake St Peter, is less important and populous than the tv^o others ; yet it embraces a great extent of fertile land, though chiefly on the southern side of the St Lawrence. The iiorthern part, which in 1831 contameJ a population of • Bouchette, vol i. p. 237-239. M'Gregor, vol. ii. p. 495. VOL. I. it 258 TOPOGRAPHY OF LOWER CANADA. yi 'iOki w i ll 23,900, is divided into the counties of Champlain and St Maurice. The principal town, boaring the appellation of the district, lies at the mouth of the St Maurice, a large tributary stream, which, being divided by islands into three branches at first supposed to be distinct, has given this name to the place. It was founded in 1618, in contem- plation of its becoming the main emporium of the fur- trade ; but since that traffic has been extended into the more remote regions of America, Montreal was found a much more convenient station, and has absorbed it almost entirely. The town now chiefly depends upon the li- mited quantity collected in the wild country towards the north, and has derived also no small benefit from the excellent iron produced at the forges on the St Maurice, These, however, with some exports of grain and timber, have not been sufficient to elevate it above the rank of a large village, which, in 1825, contained 2463 inhabi- tants, and was supposed, in 1831, to have increased to about 4000. It has a good wharfage, admitting ships of large burden close to it, though the ground in the im- mediate vicinity is poor and sandy. The principal edifice is the Ursuline convent, founded in 1677, and contain- ing a superior and twenty-four nuns. It was burned down in 1806, but has since been rebuilt. The rural districts of Trois Rivieres, so far as they lie noithward of the St Lawrence, form a continuation of the same kind of territory, already described as stretch- ing from Quebec, and in general flatter, and capable of more uniform cultivation. To the westward, espe- cially in ascending the river, it presents a succession of flourishing settlements, and gay villages, occurring every eight or nine miles. These extend particularly along the Lake of St Peter, — a wide expansion of the St Lawrence, about twenty-five miles long and from five to ten broad, but its depth in many places does not exceed twelve feet. Hence the intricate channel, through which aione large vessels can be navigated, must be marked by poles or other beacons. The shores are extremely flat ; but numerous verdant islands enliven the western extremity, which lain and St pellation of ice, a large slands into ;, has given , in contem- of the fur- ed into the vas found a led it almost upon the li- to wards the it from the St Maurice, and timber, the rank of 2463 inhabi- increascd to ting ships of in the im- icipal edifice and contain- was burned ar as they lie itinuation of 3d as stretch- and capable stward, espe- succession of curring every irly along the St Lawrence, to ten broad, d twelve feet. !h aione large poles or other 3ut numerous smity, which TOPOGRAPHY OP LOWER CANADA; 259 also mark the boundary of the province. Near the eastern frontier, the Batiscan, with a village of the same name at its mouth, falls into the great river.* The distri(;t of Montreal, if not the most extensive in Lower C .. /^ '^W# ? Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER NY. 14580 (716) 872-4303 t ^62 TOPOGRAPHY OF LOWER CANADA. I'm if I H V 11. - : ; funds, notwithstanding occasional grants from the legis- lature. The monastery of the RecoUets, wliich occupied extensive grounds at the end of Notre Dame Street, is now demolished, though its church is still used for public worship. The English establishments, both for religion and education, are also very respectable. The Episcopal church in the street just named, is a very handsome specimen of modem architecture, and is surmounted by a lofty spire. The Scotch church is plain, but at- tended by a highly respectable congregation. In 1814, a most important donation was made by a wealthy in- dividual, — the Hon. James M*Gill, — to found a college for the principal branches of education. The endow- ments consist of a valuable estate at the Mountain, with £10,000 in money. It has not, however, yet come into operation, in consequence of a lawsuit, which did not terminate till 1835, when the available funds in the hands of the institution amounted to £22,000. It is to be conducted on the most liberal system,- -indi- viduals of every religious persuasion being admitted as students, and even as teachers. There is a Natural His- tory Society and a Mechanics' Institution, whose labours have been meritorious. The private establishments for education are also respectable. The limited means of the Hotel Dieu are amply compensated by the more ample income of the Montreal General Hospital, which was built in 1821-2 by voluntary subscription, at an expense of nearly £6000. It is said to be one of the best regu- lated institutions of the kind in America.* The harboui' of Montreal does not seem to have re- ceived all the attention which its importance merits. It is somewhat confined, and has no wharfage, though, close to the bank in front of the town, is a depth of fifteen feet, sufficient for the largest vessels which as- cend to this point. Its chief disadvantage consists in • Bouchette, vol. i. p. 212-232. M'Gregor, vol. ii. p. 507-611. raas^ pp. 63, 23. Reports of Commissioners, I. Appendix, p. 36. Evans TOPOGRAPHY OP LOWER CANADA. 263 two shoals, and in the rapid of St Mary's, about a mile below, which vessels often find it difficult to stem. Im- portant improvements are now contemplated, and a grant for the purpose has even been voted by the legislature. The communication with the opposite sides of the river is carried on by means of ten ferries, on several of which ply a number of steam- vessels. A wooden bridge was once constructed from Repentigny on the northern shore, but in the spring after its completion it was carried down by the masses of ice. It is still thought that one of larger span might be constructed, free from that danger. In considering the rural districts of Montreal, so far as they extend northward of the St Lawrence, we shall begin with the tract reaching down to the province of Trois Rivieres. It presents an aspect similar to that of the whole coast from Quebec, but still more level, and also more fertile and populous. It forms one uninterrupted succession of flourishing settlements, with villages, on a larger scale than in the lower districts. Berthier, with 850 inhabitants, on a branch of the St Lawrence called the North Channel, is a great thoroughfare, being mid- way between Trois Rivieres and Montreal, and supplying a variety of goods to the neighbouring seigniories. St Eustache, on the channel called Jesus or St Jean, which seems to be a joint branch of the St Lawrence and Otta- wa, commands the route to the territories on the latter river, and, before the recent insurrection, had a consider- able traffic, and a population of fully a thousand. The Isle Jesus, separated from the mainland by this channel, extends parallel to that of Montreal for the space of twenty-one miles, and is six at its greatest breadth. It is throughout level, fertile, and highly cultivated ; the original forest being almost entirely extirpated, except for ornament and fuel. In this quarter, on the small lake of the Two Mountains, are a couple of villages belonging to the Algonquins and Iroquois, containing together about two hundred houses.* ' Couchette, vol. i. pp. 209-211, 232, 233. 264 TOPOGRAPHY OF LOWER CANADA. ■1 ' !'h TJie portion of Montreal district on the St Lawrence extends to Pointe au Baudet, fifty-five miles above the capital, where it meets the boundary of Upper Canada. This tract, between the St Lawrence and the Ottawa, forms the county of Vaudreuil ; it is level, diversified only by a few gentle hills, and is also very fruitful. Vaudreuil and Rigaud are only villages ; the chief importance being attached to the places which lie on the river. La Chine is about eight miles above Montreal, where the navigation is interrupted by the fall of St Louis, to obviate which, the fine canal bearing its name has been erected, at an expense of £137,000. This village, which originally received its appellation from the chimerical idea that it would afford a route to China, still forms an important point in the navigation both of the St Lawrence and the Ottawa, near whose junction it is situated. About twelve miles farther up, at the village of Pointe des Cascades, commences a series of formidable cataracts, which, with little interruption, extend about nine miles. There is nowhere any high fall ; but the stream, filled with hidden rocks and covered with breakers, dashes like the waves of a tempestuous ocean. Yet the rafts, the Durham boats, and batteaux constructed for the purpose, can, under skilful ^;uidance, be safely piloted through these dangerous rapids. The crews, however, are often obliged to unload tb ost bulky part of their cargo, and have it conveyed by iand. Steam navigation, which ceases at one end of this obstruc- tion, is resumed at the other ; and the village of the Cedars, situated opposite to the rapids of the same name, is the chief depot for the land-passage. It commands a mag- nificent view of the foaming billows, and of the barks which steer through them their pex^ilous course.* The Ottawa province, extending about 350 miles along the northern bank of that great river, forms as it were a very extensive wing, detached from the district and from Lower Canada, while the upper province extends Boucbette, vol. i. pp. 234, 235. TOPOGRAPHY OF LOWER CANADA. 265 ►vince extends opposite to it along tlie southern bank. Thus the bound- ary between these two territories, which at first runs due north, as soon as it strikes the Ottawa, stretches first north-west, and then almost due west. This extensive tract is as yet by no means occupied or improved in pro- portion to its natural capabilities. The numerous ob- stacles to the navigation, though now in part removed, have doubtless greatly retarded its settlement. The upper part of the river beyond the falls and Portage des Allumettes, is used by the fur-traders, who have a post also on Lake Temiscaming, more than 350 miles above the junction of the Ottawa with the St Lawrence ; but this tract has never been surveyed, nor even accu- rately described. Up to the portage, it is regularly fre- quented by the lumberers, who find valuable supplies of pine and oak, which they contrive to float down in rafts through all obstructions. At the Allumettes the stream separates into two channels, enclosing an island fifteen miles long, and forming three small lakes called the Allumettes, the Mud, and the Musk Rat. On the latter is one solitary farm, said to be in a prosperous condition. Eight miles below the junction of these channels is Fort Coulange, where the Hudson's Bay Company have a post, near which is one well-cultivated settlement. Four or five miles down, another division of the stream forms an island about twenty miles long ; but the two channels are much impeded by falls and rapids. The northern, which is the more practicable, has four portages within a few miles of the point of junction ; and there is another five miles below it. The falls are not above eight or ten feet high ; but they are much broken by masses of rock, and have a very wild appearance. For ten miles downwards, the stream is beautifully diversified by wooded islands, through which it rushes with various degrees of violence. The banks, great part of the way, consist of white marble, somewhat soft and coarse ; but farther inland, it is believed, a superior de- scription would be found. At the end of this tract, Bis- set's chantier, a solitary log-house, with a few cleared 266 TOPOGRAPHY OP LOWER CANADA. I Mr •i' acres, relieves the eye after the monotony of these vast solitudes ; it affords also a welcome asylum to the fur and timber traders. Soon after, the view opens upon the magnificent expanse of the Lake des Chats, about fifteen miles long, studded with richly wooded islets. On the south are one or two scattered mansions, and particu- larly Kinnell Lodge, the residence of the Highland chief- tain M*Nab. The northern side appears uninhabited ; yet at a little distance from the beach is the settlement of Clarendon, formed in 1829, and in 1831 containing 257 inhabitants. The township of Bristol, in 1828, presented only a few poor hovels, and thirty-one settlers, which number had, in 1831, increased to ninety-six, and in 1836 to not less than 445. At length the lake suddenly contracts, and the rapids of the Chats for three miles dash in violent eddies, amid a labyrinth of islands. They terminate in the Falls des Chats, fifteen or sixteen in number, extending in a curved line across the river, and divided by wooded islands ; but only from sixteen to twenty feet high. The northern coast, having a rocky and uneven surface, forms the township of Onslow, which in 1836 had 150 settlers. About six miles below this point commences Lake Chaudiere, an expanse eighteen miles long, and, like the former, terminating in rapids, succeeded by falls. These last, called the Great and Little Chaudiere (Kettle), are on a larger scale, 60 feet high, and 212 broad. The descending torrent, striking on a great circular rock, is thrown up in clouds of spray, which conceal the bottom of the fall, and often rise in revolving columns high above its summit. A great portion of the water being unaccount- ed for, is beUeved to escape by subterraneous channels. Immediately below, where the stream still rolls in rapid eddies, a bridge has been thrown across. The difficulties of the undertaking were overcome by dividing the struc- ture into four parts consisting of different materials. The broadest span is stretched by means of a hempen fabric, composed of three-inch cables, forming an inverted seg- ment of a circle, the lowest point of which is only seven TOPOGRAPHY OF LOWER CANADA. 267 feet above the torrent. But at no time can it be passed without a feeling of peril. The township of Onslow is followed by that of Eardley, extending along Lake Chaudiere, and having much excel- lent land, which is very imperfectly occupied by 200 per- sons. Below is Hull, the most flourishing of all the upper settlements on the Ottawa. Its front towards the river is level, or gently undulating, but it rises behind into hills, some 900 feet high, yet finely wooded, or afford- ing good pasturage. It is watered by the large river Gatineau,and contains valuable minesof iron and quarries of marble. This township \vds surveyed by Philemon Wright, an American loyalist, who in 1806 obtained a grant of 12,000 acres of it for himself and his asso- ciates. Having, by his pecuniary advances, secured the exclusive property of the greater portion, as well as of large tracts in neighbouring townships, he has become a most extensive landowner. By great exertions he has rendered it extremely flourishing, and has led the way in all the measures now taking for the improvement of this fine district. The town of Wright, situated immediately opposite to the great Rideau Canal, must rapidly grow in importance. Its population is already considerable, and it contains a neat church and comfortable hotel. The Chaudiere Falls, and the bridge, immediately ad- join it. From this point to Grenville, sixty miles distant, the Ottawa affbrds an uninterrupted navigation for steam vessels. The township of Hull is succeeded by those of Templeton, Buckingham, and Lochaber. Large tracts were here granted to different proprietors, who unfortu- nately have not taken due pains to increase their value ; and the space for new settlers has been further narrowed by the crown and clergy reserves. Steps, however, are taking to induce the owners either to improve or renounce their possessions, and to arrange the reserves on such a principle, that they may not interrupt the conti- nuity of settlement. The population of all three, which in 1828 little exceeded 300, has since been greatly aug- jj, ir' , 268 TOPOGRAPHY OP LOWER CANADA. |! w mcnted. Buckingham, in 1831, contained 570 ; Lochaber, 236 ; Tcmpleton, in 1836, supposed 390. La Petite Nation, a seigniory early formed, but as yet only partially settled, acquired a considerable accession of Irish emi- grants, through the exertionc of Mr Papineau, the seignior, who erected extensive saw-mills on its eastern border. It has now 826 settlers. The township of Grenville, which next follows, may be considered as commencing the densely-peopled portion of Lower Canada. This is not owing to its fertility, which is much impeded by the interruption of hilly ground, con- nected with the lofty range which traverses the interior. A branch from these gives rise to the rugged cataract named the Long Sault, which can be passed only by the most akilfulvoyageurs; and obstructions continue to occur as far as Point Fortune, where the river, opening into the Lake of the Two Mountains, becomes united with the St Lawrence. To remedy tliis evil, a fine canal, called the Grenville, which will be more fully described after- wards, has been formed. Numerous individuals em- ployed on this work have settled and taken farms in the township, which by these means had acquired, in 1 836, a population estimated at 1450. Below is Chatham, which, through exertions commenced in 1806 by Colonel Robertson, Dr Fraser, and others, has become one of the most flourishing settlements. Though traversed by some naked hills, it has extensive level tracts ; and the pub- lic road is every where bordered by thrivmg farms and handsome dwelling-houses built of brick. The popula- tion in 1831 was 2604. Chatham Gore, a rising town- ship, has already 473, all Irish Protestants. Here the Ottawa country terminates, Chatham being bounded by Argenteuil, the first of that range of old French settle- ments which extend along the river as far as Quebec* It now only remains to describe the part of Canada ■■]' • Bouchette, vol. i. p. don, 1HH2), p. 9H.105. General, pp. 9, 10. 187-200. Picken on the Canadas (Lon- Cummissioners* Reports, Appendix to TOPOGRAPHY OF LOWER CANADA. 269 I its eastern southward of the St Lawrence. Though politically con- nected with the northern portion, it is so completely separated by the broad expanse of the river, and bears 80 distinct a character, that we follow M. Bouchette's example in treating it separately. Though less exten- sive, and containing no large towns, it is in many districts equally fertile and well cultivated, and the cities are dependent on it for a large proportion of their supplies. The most valuable part of this tract is that attached to the district of Montreal, consisting of the counties of La Prairie, Beauhamois, L'Acadic, Riclielieu, ShefFord, Stanstead, llouville, Missisqui, Chambly, Vercheres, and St Hyacinthe, containing, in 1831, a population of 14:6,892. It consists chiefly of a very extended plain, almost completely flat, except that some detached hills, shooting up to a considerable height, divereify the surface. Of these. Mounts Rouville, Chambly, Johur son, and Boucherville, are the most remarkable. The Richelieu, the chief river, called also Sorel or Cham- bly, flows out of Lake Champlain, and is navigable more than half way up for steam-vessels not drawing more than four feet water. It cannot be compared with the St Lawrence in grandeur ; but in picturesque beauty few tracts can surpass this lovely plain, covered with fruitful fields, luxuriant meadows, smiling villages, and variegated by towering peaks. The summit of Rouville, 1100 feet high, affords one of the finest views in the province. The soil throughout is generally of such exu- berant fertility, that it bears the appellation of the granary of Lower Canada. The population of this territory, though consider- able, is chiefly dispersed in small villages and farms. The only places of any consequence are those whose situation is fitted for trade. Such is Sorel, called now William-Henry, from his late majesty, placed at the junction of the Richelieu with the St Lawrence. It has only wooden houses, but they are regularly built, and two churches, with about 1500 inhabitants. La Prairie, on the bank of the river opposite to Montreal, is a place 270 TOPOGRAPHY OF LOWER CANADA. !?: i ■A '■ a (\ of superior importance, being the channel by which that city communicates with the United States. It is also handsomer, having houses of two stories, and roofed with tin. Chambly, St John, and BlairAndie, being placed on this line of road, have risen to consequence; and St Charles and St Denis, on the Richelieu, are villages of some magnitude. The portion of this southern district which belongs to Trois Rivieres contains the counties of Sherbrooke, Ya- maska, Nicolet, and Drummond, and comprised, in 1831, a population of 32,670. Proceeding eastward, it becomes more elevated ; yet the portion which has been cleared amply rewards the toil of the cultivator. It is watered by fine rivers. The St Francis, from a lake of the same name, flows due north, and, after traversing many fruitful districts, falls into Lake St Peter. Though broken by cataracts and rapids, it is navigated by canoes with occa- sional portages. The Nicolet is passable some distance up for batteaux, then only partially for small boats. Falling into the St Lawrence, a short distance above Trois Rivieres, it supplies the means of a great intercourse with that place. The Be9ancour is a longer and very fine river, but its channel is exposed to similar inter- ruptions. It has falls, said to be nearly equal in beauty to those most admu-ed in Lower Canada. Though this district is almost entirely rural, there are villages near the mouths of the rivers ; none, however, of much con- sequence. At Nicolet is a college, lately rebuilt on an enlarged scale.* St Hyacinthe, on the Yamaska, is a considerable hamlet. The whole tract along the St Lawrence and the Richelieu, extending inward from the bank eight or ten miles, has, as already noticed, been granted in seigniories, formed into concessions, and cultivated to a considerable extent, though many tracts in the rear still remain covered by the original forests. But a large territory * Bouchette, vol. i. pp. 299-306, 350. ports, Appendix to Geneial, pp. 1, 2. Commissioners^ Re- missioners TOPOGRAPHY OP LOWER CANADA. 271 in the interior, reaching to the American frontier, and situated along the smallt-r rivers, had totally escaped the attention of these original colonists ; though, not- withstanding occasional swamps, it forms perhaps the finest portion of Lower Canada. Instead of the flat plain which borders the great rivers, it presents an undulat- ing surface, finely wooded and diversified by numerous streamlets, which render it particularly well adapted to pasturage. That branch of industry is here carried on more successfully than in any other part of the province ; and its breeds of cattle redeem in some measure the reproach of inferiority, which rests generally on the country. There is also abundance of ground fitted for wheat ; but being sown in spring, it is not equal to that of Upper Canada. Oats and Indian com are good ; and the potatoes are at once excellent and very plentiful. Cattle, however, not grain, has hitherto formed the staple pro- duce, and almost the only material of exportation. The rivers, obstructed by falls and rapids, afford excellent situations for mills, but are of no use in the carriage of goods ; and the roads, by which produce must be con- veyed to the somewhat distant markets of Montreal and Quebec, have hitherto been extremely bad, though great exertions are now making for their improve- ment. The climate is somewhat milder than in the vicinity of Montreal, while it has the advantage of being healthy, and altogether free from the ague which afflicts various parts of the upper province. This salubrity was farther proved by its happy exemption fr oni the cholera, which committed such ravages on the banks of the St Lawrence. As soon as the British government obtained possession of Canada, they turned their attention to this valuable district, and gradually laid it out in ranges of townships, which amount now to ninety-eight, with ten more pro- jected. In this quarter were located some military colo- nies, of which that formed at Drummondville by Colonel Herriot at the end of the last war was the most con- siderable. Some private adventurers, from time to time. i" oke, embrac- ■ancis, imme- is often con- the range of 9 townships, esents in ge- les rising into yell watered, more western is that adjoin- Iritish Ameri- i culture over ;liis side, is so •ovement, and next, Ascot, 20, and Eaton, 3ry fine, with y watered by contains Sher- imerce of the It contains f worship and ompany have ations. They rancis, where- ity miles, and ance between performed in ads to Quebec t I'fj ( ; 276 TOPOOUAPIIY OP LOWER CANADA. into it, 18 ra])ip«. 49,769 7,389 29<),()50 56,570 13,312 31,747 7,653 1,276 28,229 9,662 466 1,240 489 IC 1,231,3001 253,447i 18,687 2,529,859i 629,902i 136,2141 2,098,982i 383,544:1 10,342| 1,911,861 426,760i 5,520 4,221 ,802i910,295i 529,465 229,747 48,752 5,411 76,057 13,739 677 310,523 71,458 8,98<1 174,447 39,766 6,409 235 60 6 The progress of Lower Canada, though not quite equal to that of some modern colonies, has yet been extremely rapid. It was, indeed, long depressed by the weakness of the government and Indian warfare ; so that, in 1676, it appears not to have contained above WIS inhabitants. In 1700, however, the estimate was 16,000, and in 1714 it had risen to 26,^04. At the conquest in ♦ Bouchette, vol. i. p. 315-330. McGregor, vol. ii. p. 452.45(>, Evans, Supplement, p. 63. ■ '. tl ii TOPOGRAPHY OP LOWER CANADA. 283 it 760,000 was calcu- i the river to Gaspe boundary, snts still an lall stations )ied, unless nothing in lich would it the ship- US entrance K) has been he different eresting in- eve, is com- s Rivieres. Troi» Livierec. Oaip«. 15,811 56,670 7,653 9,662 489 53,4474 ;29,902i S3,644i ,26,760* 110,295* 48,762 13,739 71,458 39,766 60 7,389 13,312 1,276 466 10 18,687 136,214 10,342 5,520 529,465 5,411 677 8,980 6,409 6 ti not quite as yet been essed by the warfare ; so i above 81415 was 16,000, J conquest in il. p. 452^50. 1769 the number was believed to be 66,000. In 1784, a census, ordered by General Haldimand, gave 113,000. A similar one, taken in 1826 under the authority of the House of Assembly, sliowed 423,630 ; another in 1831 611,917. There can be no doubt that this last, as well as all the preceding enumerations, was extremely defective. Mr Chapman, after a careful consideration of all circumstances, considers himself rather under the truth, in fixing the real number at 682,000 ; and he supposes that, by the combined effect of immigration and natural increase, it must have now risen to fully 660,000. Of the number returned by the census of 1831, it was stated that 67,891 were possessed of real property. The number of families employed in agriculture was 60,824, while 7602 persons acted as farm servants, and not more than 2603 families were engaged in commerce or trade. The lands under cultivation amounted to 2,066,913 acres, while 3,981,713 were occupied, but in an unimproved state. There were, moreover, 4,336,494 acres still in the hands of the government, besides vast tracts yet unsurveyed. The inhabitants were possessed of 389,706 horned cattle, 1 16,686 horses, 643,343 sheep, and 296,137 hogs. They had 396 grist, and 737 saw mills ; 90 for carding, 97 for fulling, and 3 for paper ; 70 distilleries ; 489 manufac- tories for pot and pearl ash, and 64 for other articles. In 1836 Mr Evans estimated the cultivated lands as having increased to 2,486,000. An official report states the acres of surveyed lands belonging to the crown at 999,976 To the clergy, 668,099 Total surveyed, .... 1,668,076 Unsurveyed, though formed into townships, 668,099 2,136,174 Besides those now described, there are vast tracts yet undivided on the Saguenay, on the southern frontier, and in the disputed territory.* * Bouchette, vol. i. p. 347. Tables for Colonies, 1832, pp. 1, 2, 6, 7* Chapman's Statistics of the Population of the British Colonies (Montreal, 1834 j, p. 6-12. 284 TOPOGRAPHY OP UPPER CANADA, CHAPTER VI. Topography of Upper Canada* Boundariefr—Surface and Extent — Progress of Settlement and Cultivation— Climate and Soil — Divisions — Eastern Division — Eastern District — Johnstown — Bathurst; Perth and By town _i Central Division— Midland District — Town of'King.ston — New- castle District ; Cobury; and Port Hope ; Peterborou|rh — Home District — City of Toronto — Settlements on Lake Simcoe —West- ern Section — Its early Settlement — Gore District — Canada Coraiiany — Guelph — Gait — NiagaraDistrict — Town— Queenston — Falls— London District; Colonel Talbot ; Town of London — Huron Tract; Goderich — Western District ; Amherstburg and Sandwich — General Summary. Upper Canada comprehends an extensive range of territory, considered till lately a men^ appendage to the lower province, but now fast rivalling it in wealth and population. Its eastern boundary, as defined by the proclamation of 1791, has been already stated to be a line drawn from the St Lawrence, a little above Mon- treal, due north to the Ottawa, and then along that river to Lake '^ omiscaming. Thence it again stretches due north to the mountainous border of the Hudson's Bay territory, which forms the northern limit. On the south it has the winding shores of Lakes Ontario, Erie, Huron, and Superior, with the channels connect- ing them, and generally ranked as portions of the great stream of the Si, ^ iwrence. On the other side of this water-boundary is ». p tRtritory of the United States. The western Uniil h;, aich i ore ^'^ague, being by the proclamation just irieJiiiozied merely stated to be that of " the country comit only called or known by the II TOPOORAPIIY OP UI'I'ER CANADA. 285 name of fanndn." M. Bouchottc seems to aH^^cre most closely to eaUiMished ulcas, when he fixes it at the head of the streams wliich fall into Lake Superior, and tlius extends it to about 117° west longitude. Tlus extensive province consists almost throughout of one uniform plain. In all the settled ana surveyed portion, at least, there is scarcely an eminence deserv- ing the name even of a hill ; though it is traversed by two ridges of considerable extent, which decidedly mark the different levels uf the country. The principal one passes through i;.vu ' , i^ whole length from south-east to north- we«t, s( paruting the waters which fall into the St Lawrence ind thi l.>kes from those which are tributary to the (Htiwa. The highest point is supposed to bo the great (St elevation of the Rideau Canal, about forty miles north of Kingston. It is 290 feet above the Ottawa at By town, but only 160 higher than the level of Lake Ontario. Towards these opposite limits the surface descends at the rate of only about four feet in the mile, exhibiting to the eye no sensible departure from a complete plain. The high ground, however, after passing the limits of settlement, about eighteen miles northward of Lake Balsam becomes connected with a somewhat loftier range, which continues in nearly the same direction beyond Lakes Huron and Superior, till it joins the mountainous frontier of the Hudson's Bay territory. The other ridge begins near the eastern extremity of Ontario, to which it runs nearly parallel, and proceeds in the same direction to a point about twenty- four miles north-west from Toronto, where it separates the tributariei^ of that lake trom those of Huron. It now tn^"^ to th^ south-east, and, running between On- tario and Erie, crosses the Niagara, forming its stu- pendous falls, and terminating on the Genessee, in the United States territory. Although no part of it can aspire to the appellation of mountain, it has a more sensible elevation than the former ridge, and even rises into some bold heights. The whole of this territory is estimated to contain 286 TOPOGRAPHY OF UPPER CANADA. about 141,000 square miles, or nearly three times the extent of England. The only portion, however, that is yet surveyed, or at all settled, is that bounded by the eastern coast of Lake Huron, and a line drawn thence to the Ottawa. This is estimated by M. Bouchette to contain about 33,000 square miles, or 21,000,000 acres.* Upper Canada, down to the period when it was con- quered by Britain, was in a very wild and unreclaimed condition. With the exception of the small location on the banks of the Detroit, it contained only detached posts at great distances, formed for military defence and the prosecution of the fur-trade. After the peace of 1763, when the possession of it was confirmed to this country, a proclamatica was issued, fixing allotments of land to reduced officers and discharged soldiers. These grants, however, appear to have been sought chiefly in the vicinity of the capitals and cultivated districts, and to have scarcely at all extended into the great forest domain. The real settlement of Upper Canada took place in 1783, at the close of the first American war. At that time not only a large body of troops were disbanded, but many inhabitants of the United States, who had adhered to Britain during this unfortunate contest, sought refuge within her colonies ; and as these last were generally in a state of great destitution, the government felt disposed to treat them liberally, and afford the utmost possible compensation for their losses and sufferings. With this view, the whole land along the St Lawrence above the French settlements, and also on Lake Ontario, to and around the Bay of Quinte, for the space of 150 miles, was formed into townships, originally entitled First, Second, Third, but to which regular names were after- wards attached. These settlers were termed the United Empire Loyalists ; and not only received an ample supply of land, but farming utensils, building materials, and sub- sistence for two years. A farther engagement was made, * Bouchette, vol. i. p. 64-71. TOPOGBilPHY OP UPPER CANADA. 287 that every member of their families, on attaining the ago of twenty-one, should have a fresh donation of 200 acres ; a promise which has been strictly fulfilled. Military grants were at the same time bestowed, at rates varying from 5000 for a field officer, to 200 for a private soldier. These new occupants, many of whom had been accus- tomed to agricultural labour and even to the improve-* ment cf forest land, soon produced a wonderful change, and converted a great extent of wilderness into fruitful fields. On the site of Fort Frontenac was founded Kingston, which gradually rose into a place of import- ance. At the same time, other emigrants, in consideration of local liabits and attachments, were settled upon the Niagara channel, and upon that part of the Detroit not previously occupied. In 1791 Upper Canada had attained to such import- ance, that when Mr Pitt determined to bestow a con- stitution on the colony, he formed this part into a separate government, giving to it the name of Upper, and to the early settled districts that of Lower Canada. The former was not supposed, after all, to contain at that time above 10,000 inhabitants. General Simcoe, however, in 1794, founded the town of York, which was fixed on as the seat of government, and made the most strenuous efforts to encourage colonists to settle in the neighbourhood. They came in considerable numbers, though chiefly from the United States. It was not till 1803 that, through the exertions of Colonel Talbot, emi- gration from Britain was commenced on any large scale. The result of these measures was, that in IQll the country was found to contain about 9623 persons paying taxes. By a careful examination in regard to the most populous township, Mr Gourlay estimated the tax-payers at one-eighth of the entire population, which, on iJiis principle, must have amounted to about 77,000. A vast additional impulse, however, was given at the close of the last war, in consequence of the low rate of profit and wages, and the difficulty of finding employment at home. The attention, first of the labouring, then of I ilmV 'Ir 'r i fi ■( ^ . :' ii 288 TOPOGRAPHY OP UPPER CANADAi the middling class, and finally of the government, \vaS thus forcihiy drawn to the relief which might be ob- tained by removal to a new country, where the means of subsistence were abundant. These motives have attracted a continued succession of emigrants, both in- dividually and in bodies, by whom the population of the province has been most rapidly augmented. In 1824 a series of returns, called for by Parliament, showed the number to be 151,097. In 1828 a similar census produced 185,526. At the end of 1832 the amount had risen to 296,000, and in 1835 to 336,000. It may be observed, too, that these returns are un- derstood to be extremely defective, and the omissions numerous ; probably, therefore, the actual population of Upper Canada may not fall materially short of 400,000. Improvement and wealth appear to have kept full pace with the progress of population. We do not find any statement of the number of acres under cultivation till 1828, when they were reported at 570,000. In 1835 they had increased to 1,308,300. The assessment lists of 1810 gave 9982 horses ; in 1832 they had increased to 36,822. The number of homed cattle was in the first period, 24,436 ; in the second, 166,499 ; in the third, 192,005. In 1810 the assessment of a penny in the pound,on all fixed property, yielded £4133, implying a value of £992,000, which, in 1828, was reckoned at £1,969,000. In 1835 the assessment amounted to £20,207, and consequently was levied upon a property estimated at £4,849,000. This being Halifax currency, was equal only to £4,364,000 sterling. The rating, however, as usual in such cases, appears to be very low, cultivated land being valued only at £1 per acre, probably a good deal less than lialf the real worth. A stone or brick house, with six apartments, is rated only at £100. Farm stock is assessed more nearly at its marketable price ; but the payment is made exclusively upon lands, buildings, cattle, and car- riages, and does not extend to furniture, clothes, produce, trading goods, or specie. It should seem, therefore, that TOPOGRAPHY OF UPPER CANADA. 289 1 I tlie actual value of property cannot be much less than double the rated amount. Should we suppose it £8,000,000 sterling, the average share to each in- dividual will be £20, or for a family of five, £100 ; and this will probably purchase the means of living to double the amount which the same sum would procure in Britain. Upper Canada, as formerly observed, enjoys a climate considerably milder than that of the lower province. The great water-communication, along which it extends, stretches upwards from Montreal, in a south-western direction, till it reaches nearly the latitude of New York. M. Bouchette has given a comparative table, from which it appears, that in the year 1820, the mean annual heat was six and a half degrees higher than in the other province. The extremes, also, are less severe ; for while the mean of the four winter months is from thirteen to seventeen degrees higher, that of July and August is a little lower. Nor do the seasons follow each other so abruptly as at Quebec ; and hence a certain interval occurs between winter and summer. In return for these advantages, the weather is observed to be more variable, and there are only two months in which sleighing or sledge-travelling over the hard snow can be practised. Ague, too, more especially in the newly-settled districts, though not fatal, is distressing and debilitating. But the mildness of the climate affords to the farmer the important advantage, that he can sow wheat in autumn, which thus attains a quality superior to that of the spring-sown grain, liitherto alone reared in other parts of British America. The opportunity of cultivating the finer fruits is a less momentous though a very agreeable circumstance. The soil of Upper Canada, at least within the present range of settlement, bears a very superior character. Its fertility, indeed, as will presently appear, is not so uni- form as has sometimes been represented ; yet there is probably no tract of equal extent in the temperate zone with which it may not be advantageously compared. VOL. I. - s 290 TOPOGRAPHY OF UPPER CANADA. f: It is nowhere mountainous, nor, with very few excep- tions, is it rocky. Considerable tracts are light and sandy, but few so much so as to be absolutely barren. The productiveness of the country appears to be chiefly interrupted by swamps, which cover a large space, both in the most eastern and most western districts.* The circumstances alluded to in the beginning of the preceding chapter, as giving a peculiar importance to Canadian topography, apply in an especial degree to the upper province, which has for some time been the favourite resort of British emigrants, and its remotest lo- calities have of late acquired a deep political importance. The materials, indeed, are not quite so ample as could be wished, for Messrs Bouchette and McGregor have given only some general views on the subject. Reports, however, have been made respecting most of the town- ships, by deputy surveyors and inspectors, to the justices at quarter sessions, ae well as to the provincial govern- ment, with a view to the guidance of settlers. These have been communicated by Mr Picken, in the work on the Canadas, which he composed with the aid of documents furnished by Mr Gait ; also in the volume entitled, " The Canadas as they now are, by a late Resident." Mr Gourlay, too, in 1817, procured a considerable num- ber of similar returns, which still hold good, so far as concerns the natural capabilities of the country. Sup- plementary information has been gleaned from Shirreff^, Ferguson, and other travellers, who have examined different districts with a special view to emigration. To Mr Martin we are indebted for the population of the townships in 1833 ; and the statements brought down to 1835 are derived from the most respectable private sources. Upper Canada is divided into eleven districts, subdi- vided into twenty-six counties, and six ridings, which altogether comprise 277 townships. An official report * Gourlay's Statistical View of Upper Canada, vol. ii. pp. 8-14, 139, 170, 2n. Bouchette, vol. i. pp. 76, 8», 89, 108-110,237. Martin, pp. 297, 298. few excep- e light and tely barren, to be chiefly ! space, both :tS.* ining of the iportance to legree to the le been the ; remotest lo- . importance, iple as could Gregor have 5ct. Reports, of the town- the justices ncial govem- . These have work on the of documents ime entitled, ite Resident." iderable num- )od, so far as ►untry. Sup- from Shirreff, ive examined io emigration, mlation of the ought down to ctable private istricts, subdi- ridings, which . official report , vol. ii. pp. 8-14, 31), 108-110, 237. I'l ]3ijmm^s^ -mtrn'sm^Ta. I M I .1 M ir t>ii null PDBI.niHIIU HYOIJVPJI It HOrO. KKmBCItllU. TOPOGRAPHY OP UPPER CANADA. 291 /('.iii/.vi.v*ii«v in 1835, relating, we presume, to the lands actually occupied, gives the amount in all these districts at 6,700,000 acres, of which not more than 1,308,000 were under cultivation. In entering upon the description of this province, we shall follow the example of M. Bou- chette, in dividing it into three great portions, the Eastern, 'the Central, and the Western. We must nevertheless dis- sent from him so far as to attach the Midland District to the central part, where it appears to us clearly placed by nature. The eastern division will then contain the ter- ritory between the St Lawrence and the Ottawa ; tlie central will have its base on Lake Ontario, and extend north towards the latter of these rivers, without, how- ever, at all approaching it as to actual settlement. The western division composes an extensive peninsula, nearly enclosed by Ontario, Erie, St Clair, and Huron, and the channels by which these lakes are connected. The eastern division, then, consists of four districts : Eastern and Johnstown on the St Lawrence, Ottawa and Bathurst on the Ottawa. It comprised, in 1835, a po- pulation of 87,380, to whom belonged 227,010 cultivated acres, 1,149,866 uncultivated, 11,361 horses, and 45,041 homed cattle. It is well watered, not only by the two great rivers, but by several important tributaries, of which the largest fall into the Ottawa. The Petite Nation, rising only about five miles from the St Law- rence, near Johnstown, traverses the territory in a line nearly due north-east. The Rideau, the Mississippi (quite distinct from the great central river of that name), and the Madawaska, rise in the Midland District, and flow in an easterly direction till they reach the Ottawa. The only important tributary to the St Lawrence is the Gananoqui, which falls into it near Lansdown. The soil of this part of Canada has been somewhat variously reported, but appears on the whole not so uni- formly good as in the more western districts. Consider- able tracts are sandy, some are marshy, and others are broken and rock3^ There is not wanting, however, a very fair proportion of fine land. The climate, being I :i I 'i 1 } i i ^f i 1 •ti f, 1 1 1 ^K i' I ff .-.( if 1 A ■' F 1 ||l iii 293 TOPOUIlAniY OF UlTKll CANADA. more noriliorly than on the upper coufho oftho rivor, in in)t HO inild, and tl»o suninicrH aro Hhortcr ; yet, v.vvn in tlioao roHj)et't8, it luw the mlvimtugo of Lowtir Caumlii, It huH also thu bonofit of hciiig noar Montrual, wlicro agricultural conimoditii'S can l)o readily turned into money ; and the jjroduce of the dairy, with ve^etahlcH, fruitH, and other articles, which elsewhere can be raised only for homo use, iind a value in tliat market. Thero is an cjisy conveyance to it hy the rivers, though the roaiiil(ling, and earth fitted lor umkinj^ ])rici. Bouchette, vol. i. pp. 109, 75, 76. Picken, p. 118-124. Canadasas they now are, p. 51-55. Martin, p. 220. Ferguson's Practical Notes (Edinburgh, 1833), pp. 85, 265. til TOPOGRAPHY OP UPPER CANADA. 295 109, 75, 76. as forming a square of alwut fifty miles in every direc- tion. It has been divided into a triple range of town- ships, the third or most inland of which is considerably distant from the St Lawrence ; but this is amply com- pensated by the Rideau Canal, which traverses it from east to west. The navigation of the great river along its front is mostly unobstructed, which gives it a ready communication with Kingston, though the more im- portant intercourse with Montreal is rendered imperfect by the rapids below ; but, to balance this loss, there is now a free, though circuitous, navigation by the Rideau and the Ottawa. The soil is as various as that of the Eastern ; its fertility is chiefly interrupted by rocky tracts, which extend along the banks of the river, and give a very unfavourable impression to the navigator ; but in the rear it generally improves. Johnstown, in 1835, contained 82,813 acres of cultivated and 331,134 of un- cultivated land, 16,338 horned cattle, and 3924 horses. The population, estimated by Mr Gourlay, in 1817, at 9200, had risen, in 1826, to 16,354, and in 1835 to 28,504. Its augmentation, especially during the latter period, it thus appears, has been extremely rapid. This district is divided into two counties, Grenville and Leeds. The former contains eight townships ; Ed- wardsburgh, with 1584 settlers, and Augusta, with 4091, on the river; South Gower, containing 646, Oxford, 1292, and Wolford, 1121, in the second range ; North Gower, having 245, Marlborough, 445, and Montague, 755, in the tliird. Edwardsburgh possesses a good soil, and is well settled ; but the navigation of the St Lawrence in that quarter is encumbered by rapids. It contains Johnstown, the nominal capital of the district, and a large village, almost a complete counterpart to Cornwall. Augusta, the next western township, is also favourably described. It includes Prescott, now called Fort Wellington, advan- tageously situated at the termination of the rapids, so that it forms the limit of the upper steam navigation. Travellers or goods proceeding down the river must dis- embark, and proceed either in boats or by land. Hence : I ! I n I ! il 296 TOPOGRAPHY OP UPPER CANADA. 1*1 '1 ■'■ M. Bouchctte, though it consisted, when ho visited tlio district, of only forty or fifty houses, anticipated a rapid increase ; but of this Mr Ferguson, some years after, saw no appearance, the place being far outstripped by Og- densburg, on the opposite side of the river. The townships of South Gower, Oxford, and Wolford, which form the second line in this county, are described in nearly the same favourable terms ; the soil good, and the situation tolerable, as they have the Rideau navi- gation on the one side, and on the other passable roads to Prescott and Johnstown. North Gower, Marlborough, and Montague, are represented, the two first as good, the third inferior, but not bad. All three have the advan- tage of being traversed by the canal, which opens a dis- tant intercourse with Montreal, and a near one with the most flourishing settlements on the Ottawa. Leeds, the next county, contains in front the townships of Elizabeth Town, with 4360 settlers ; Yonge, 2894 ; Lansdown and Leeds, the two, 1867 : in the second line, Kitley, 1071 ; Bastard, 1825 ; and South Crosby, 564 : in the third, Elmsley, 1070 ; Burgess, 304 ; and North Crosby, 1 85 . The first is one of the best tracts in this quar- ter. The land, towards the river, is broken and rocky ; and some parts are sandy ; but the greater portion, especially in the rear, is extremely good. In front is Brockvillc, named from the gallant officer who fell in the battle of Queenston. It seems the most thriving place between Montreal and Kingston, and, as we are informed by Mr Evans, contains 2000 inhabitants, a neat Presbyterian church, and numerous houses two stories in height. The main road to Albany and other parts of New York com- mences on the opposite side of the river. Yonge, the next township, is described as nearly similar, and possess- ing the same advantages. Lansdown presents a different aspect. The ground bordering on the river is stony and ill cultivated ; but the rear, according to Mr Smart's report, shows a very considerable improvement, and con- tains some excellent farms. A large portion is covered by the lakes of Gananoqui, which present varied and • i fi m TOPOGRAPHY OP ri'lT.R CANADA.. 207 nsited the ;cd a rtipid after, saw sd by Og- IWolford, ) described i good, and ieau navi- ile roads to riborougb, ,s good, the :he ad van- pens a dis- e with the townships ige, 2894; econd line, )y, 664 : in md North ithisquar- rocky ; and , especially Brockvillc, battle of ce between ned by Mr resbyterian ight. The York com- iTonge, the ind possess- a different T is stony VIr Smart's it, and con- is covered varied and beautiful scenery. TiCeds is h{ ill foss favoured by nature, being throughout rugged an:■■' [le settlements icipal of these [des the point ted with the y of men em- ; which they vho remained ell settled and the canal, is . In 1831 it d indeed, but h much neat- '- picturesque. les the falls of id and broken, s of Hull, and rdant islands, uilt of stone. t ^MiTiimM^ lEMsmaa^^ I'../ //. ..fi r)| lii. ^ ■ ' » ■■■ !i i:i M \ .fiivlr fl'HUIillRII IIY tll.lVKH kItllVII KIIINHUIIOII. TOPOGRAPHY OF UPPER CANADA. 301 Irnon Ptthrrn The resort, on account of the canal and the fine scenery which adorns the Lakes Chaudiere and Chats, has in- duced many respectable families to colonize this dis- trict. Some distance above Bytown is Britannia, a valuable property with extensive mills, finely situated near the beautiful rapid Des Chenes. The causes now mentioned have produced in the townships of March and Tarbolton a continuous range of settlements along the river, containing respectively 426 and 96. Fitzroy, 327, Huntly, 1031, and Pakenham, 408, strike obliquely into tlie interior, and present much good land. From the boundary of Tarbolton, an impervious wilderness ex- tends along the rapids of the Chats and part of the lake of that name ; but on its upp§r shore M*Nab has located himself with a body of his clan, amounting to 318, on a township bearing his name. By indefatigable exertions, he has rendered his residence of Kinnell Lodge exceed- ingly comfortable ; and the traveller in those wild regions meets here a cordial welcome. Unluckily his example ha,s not operated with sufficient force on his followers, whose habits do not thoroughly fit them for the patient toil required to bring the wilderness under cultivation ; however, improvement is going on, though slowly.* The central portion, which we consider as consisting of the Midland, Newcastle, and Home districts, has its base upon the northern shores of Lake Ontario, whence it extends towards the Ottawa ; but long before reach- ing that boundary, which from the direction of the stream becomes more and more distant, every trace of settlement disappears amidst one vast and pathless forest, l^his forms by far the most extensive part of Upper Canada, and from its abundance of fertile land is extremely valuable. Till of late, however, it was the least occupied, being nowhere cultivated, but in the vicinity of the government stations. The eastern was nearer to Lower Canada, while the western possessed * Bouchelte, vol. i. pp. 109, 80.fi3. Tables, 1832, p. 9. Canadas as they now are, p. 64-67. Martin, p. 223. j l-'f*-. I 302 TOPOGRAPHY OF UPPER CANADA. great facilities for the fur-trade, with which view chiefly this upper quarter was in early times resorted to. But the tide of immigration which has lately flowed into Canada has directed itself, in a great degree, towards this central district. It was found more fruitful and much less occupied than the eastern, while it has a nearer market for its agricultural produce than the western. Its increase, accordingly, within the last fifteen years, has been astonishing. The population in 1817 is estimated by Mr Gourlay at 27,753, in 1824 it had risen to 53,600, in 1832 to 115,504, and in 1835 to 124,473. At the latter date its settlements possessed 461,275 acres cultivated, 1,469,493 uncultivated, 17,938 horses, and 68,634 homed cattle. It is watered by the Moira, Trent, and other rivers of some magnitude. This last is connected with a chain of important lakes, at the head of which is the large one named Simcoe. These waters affbrd considerable accommodation to the cole - nists ; though they flow from too short a distance to affbrd an adequate conveyance if cultivation were to stretch much farther northward.* The Midland District, which till lately was the only one generally peopled, extends from the centre of the Lake of the Thousand Islands to the western ex- tremity of tlie Bay of Quinte ; a length of about eighty miles. Towards the interior it is laid out in fine ranges of townships, which reach nearly fifty miles from the lake ; but the unoccupied portion, stretching to the Ot- tawa, is much more extensive. The settled part in 1835 contained 187,338 cultivated and 358,214 uncultivated acres. The population, which in 1817 was i*eckoned at 15,053, had risen in 1824 to 27,695, in 1832 to 42,294, and in 1835 to 46,685 ; and at the latter period they could boast of 24,535 cattle, and 8550 horses. The land, Avith certain exceptions, is good, and in some parts ex- cellent, particularly along Lake Ontario and the Bay of • Bouchette, vol. i. p. Tables, 1832, p. 9. 108. Gourlay, vol. ii. pp. 464, 4(59, 497. TOPOGRAPHY OF UPPER CANADA. 303 Quinte ; but having now been long under cultivation, symptoms of exhaustion are observed, which the farmers have not yet learned to remecly by manure. This dis- trict is divided into four counties, — Frontenac, Lennox and Haddington, Hastings, and Prince Edward. Frontenac contains the townships of Pittsburgh and Kingston, situated on the lake and river. The former contains 987 settlers, some fine land, with a large pro- portion that is indifferent ; the second, with 3013 in- habitants, is generally good, though in some parts rocky. The soil is mostly clay, covered originally with a thick stratum of vegetable mould, ; tow a good deal exhausted by long cropping. Lime is every where plentiful, and the sugar maple flourishes luxuriantly. These districts, having long derived great advantages from the vicinity of the capital, which affords an advantageous market, were well improved while the rest of the province was lying waste. Two adjacent islands, called Howe and Grand Isle or Wolfe, form each a township with 611 in- habitants. Loughborough with 1112 settlers, and Port- land with 484, are immediately in the rear of Kingston, but both are wet and somewhat unhealthy. Bedford .ind Hinchinbrook, forming the third range, are described by the surveyors as " not very good." On the fourth line, Kennebec is reported to be positively bad ; Oso and Olden remain undescribed. On the fifth range, com- prising Barrie, Palmerston, and Clarendon, report is equally silent : their remote situation indeed appears to have prevented their settlement, and the presumption seems to be against them. Their distance from the lake, and the want of a navigable river, must long operate unfavourably. Kingston, in this county, was the original capital of Upper Canada, and, even after the transference of the seat of government to Toronto, continued the most flourishing, till the agricultural colonies formed in the west gave to the latter the pre-eminence. It is, as we have already noticed, advantageously built on the site of Fort Frontenac, at the junction of the St Lawrence 304 TOPOGRAPHY OF UPPER CANADA. with Lake Ontario ; a position which has raised it to considerable importance as the main entrepot bet^^T«n tlie lower and upper province. Barks of from 80 to nearly 200 tons carry on an active intercourse with To- ronto, Niagara, and other places on the lake ; and mag- nificent steam-vessels convey passengers to and from those places. To accommodate this trade, wharfs and a num- ])er of spacious warehouses have been provided ; the harbour being easily accessible to vessels not requiring more than three fathoms water. The streets are regu- larly arranged at right angles, but not paved ; the houses are chiefly built of stone, and are spacious and convenient, though without much attention to elegance. About half a mile distant is a low peninsula ending in Point Frederic, which, with another parallel one ter- minating in Point Henry, encloses Navy Bay, — the depot for the maritime armament formed during the late war. On its western side is a dock-yard with other accommodations ; and in this inland station were built some of the largest ships in the British navy. Point Fre- deric is connected with the town by a wooden bridge 600 yards long, at once solidly constructed and very orna- mental. The town in 1833 contained 4196 inhabitants. The county of Lennox and Haddington, contiguous on the west to the one now described, possesses a more favourable soil. Its front townships, — Ernest Town, having 3763 settlers, Adolphus Town, 666, Fredericka- burgh, 2566, and Richmond, 1367, are all reported as ge- nerally good, and deriving great advantages from their situation along the exterior coast of the Bay of Quint«. The last only has bad land in the rear ; \\'liich is com- pensated by having the river Napanee flowing through it. Camden, which, with its 1780 settlers, occupies the whole of the second line, is also reported to be good, and is well watered by the same stream. Sheffield, situated behind it, is decidedly inferior, and Kalador, in the fourth range, still more so. The fifth consists of Anglesea, re- flecting which no report has yet been received. Amherst Island, in Ontario, is one of the townships of this county. TOPOGRAPHY OF UPPER CANADA. 305 aised it to )t bet\veen rom 80 to e with To- ; and mag- from those tnd a num- irided ; the t requiring ;s are regu- )aved ; the pacious and to elegance. 1 ending in el one ter- Bay,— the during the L with other 1 were built I Point Fre- a bridge 600 very oma- inhabitants. contiguous sses a more -nest Town, Fredericks- orted as ge- from their of Q,uint«. lich is com- ng through (ccupies the e good, and sld, situated the fourth glesea, re- , Amherst ,his county. The county of Hastings extends also along the Bay of Quinte, and thence into the interior. It has throe front townships, — Tyendinaga or Mohawk, with 692 set- tlers, Thurlow, with 1 511 , and Sidnoy, with 2237. The first has a poor soil, but is watertd by the river Salmon. The two others are favourably reported ; the second is traversed by the river Moira, at the mouth of which is the flourishing village of Belleville ; and the third has the larger stream of the Trent on its western border. The second range consists of Hungerford, Huntingdon, and Rawdon. The two first have an indifferent soil, and few advantages of situation. The third possesses a considerable extent of good land in front, and is crossed by a tolerable road leading to the iron works at Marmora, and also by branches of the Trent. Behind these, we find Elzevir, bad ; Madoc, generally good ; Marmora, not very good : this last at one time had iron works of some importance, but they are at present suspended. Tudor, Grimsthorpe, and Lake in the extreme rear, have not yet been reported. The county of Prince Edward consists of the peninsula enclosed between Lake Ontario and the long windings of the Bay of Quinte. It contains the townships of Ameliasburgh, with 1722 settlers, Hillier, with 1733, Hallo well, with 3525, Sophiasburgh, with 2137, and Marysburgh, with 1674. The report as to these is gene- rally favourable ; the lands are nearly all occupied ; and the settlers derive great benefit from the vicinity of water-carriage. In the latest returns to government, this county is described as a separate district, containing 68,900 cultivated acres, and 12,320 inhabitants.* The Newcastle District commences where the Mid- land ends, at the western extremity of the Bay of Quinte, whence it extends about sixty miles along the coast of Ontario, when, by an arbitrary line, it is sepa- rated from the Home district. Its northern boundary, • Gourlay, vci. ii. p. 496. Bouchette, vol. i. pp. 108, 76-78. Tables, 1832, p. 9. Picken, p. 146-149. Caiiadas as they now are, p. 67-72. VOL, I. X 306 TOPOGRAPnY OF UPPER CANADA. ;i i\ ■ % like that of the Midhind, is nominally formed by the Ottawa, in which direction it extends not less than 200 miles; but the actual settlements cover only a small portion of this wide space. Notwithstanding an ex- tensive sandy tract on Rice Lake, it contains a greater proportion of good land than any of the districts yet described ; and the lake, itself twenty-five miles long and four or five broad, forms a valuable water-communica- tion. A portage, indeed, intervenes between Balsam and Simcoe ; but this obstacle, as well as others, are expected to be removed by canals, and by improving the Trent, with which it is connected. Notwithstanding its advantages, however, this district, as it neither contained any principal town, nor lay in the line of the fur-trade, was long almost wholly neglected. In 1817 it was esti- mated to contain 5000 inhabitants, and even in 1824 it had only 9292 ; but since that time it has been a favourite resort for immigrants, so that in 1832 it numbered 25,660, and in 1885, 80,245 settlers. It then possessed 94,419 cultivated acres, 484,526 uncultivated, 15,867 horned cattle, and 3889 horses. It is divided into townships, that reach into the interior about the same distance as those of the Midland ; but as the Ottawa boundary is still more distant, the unoccupied tract is very extensive. The counties are two, — Northumberland and Durham. The first of these has, in front on the lake, four town- ships, — Murray, 1788 settlers, Cramaghe, 1906, Hamil- ton, 2871, and Haldimand, 1857. These ai'e not the finest in the district, though the first is described as gene- rally good and well watered ; but owing to the streams flowing through a level country, there is a want of mill power. The three others, with some good, contain a large proportion of bad land, which, in the second and fourth, also predominates. In Hamilton they are about equally divided; and its situation on the shores of Ontario is very advantageous. The port of Coburg is the principal one in the district. In 1812 it consisted of one house ; in 1827 it was believed to contain 850 inhabitants, with an Episcopal church and Metliodist TOPOGRAPHY OP UPPER CANADA. 07 icd by the s than 200 ly a small ng an ex- 3 a greater istricts yet its long and omniunica- sen Balsam others, are iproving the istanding its er contained le fur-trade, J it was esti- n in 1824 it n a favourite )ered 26,660, essed 94,419 1,367 horned townships, [6 distance as boundary is •y extensive, id Durliam. I, four town- 906, Hamil- Lot the finest .ed as gene- the streams ant of mill , contain a second and ey are about lc shores of .f Coburg is it consisted contain 850 Metliodist mcoting-housc ; and since that time it has very mucli increased. It commands tlie road to tlic country on and beyond Rice Lake ; for the productions of whici; it is the chief market. The vicinity exhibits a nu iiber of farms, whoso condition and management pleased even the eye of Mr Shirreff. In the second range, the townships of Seymour, Percy, and Alnwick, contain as yet very few settlers. Tiie greater number, 377, are in Percy, which has a good soil, and is watered by the Trent. Alnwick, on the southern bank of Rice Lake, is poor and sandy, which quality of land, liowever, has been thought adapted to sheep-farm- ing, a branch of industry little practised in Canada. Immi- grants have been chiefly attracted to the north-western side of the lake, formed into the townships of Monaghtm and Otanabee. These, divided by the river bearing the latter name, are described as generally good, though in- terspersed with steril and swampy tracts. This quar- ter was nearly unoccupied till 1825, when Mr Robinson conducted thithei a large colony of Irish ; and it has since been a favourite resort, particularly for half-pay officers. In the north-eastern angle of Monaghan has been founded the town of Peterborough, which now contains about 1000 inhabitants. It is somewhat rudely built of wood, covering a great extent of ground ; and, as we have been infonned, the stumps of trees in many places are left standing in the streets. It has waters, however, admirably fitted for mills, and several accordingly have been erected. The settlers collect the productions of the country behind, and transmit them to Coburg by the Rice Lake, on which steam- vessels now regularly ply. There are churches, both Roman Catholic and Episcopal ; a school, partly supported by government ; and a com- modious hotel. In consequence of the number of mili- tary settlers, the society is supposed to be particularly polished and agreeable. Asphodel, eastward, in an oblique line, from Otanabee, is a good township, with 265 in- habitants, and watered both by Rice Lake and the Trent. The fourth range, consisting of Emily Gore, Smith, 308 TOPOGRAl'IIY OP UPPER CANADA. h' .• ' I'! Douro, Dummcr, and Belmont, Ims, in consequence of its water communication hy the ()tanal)ee with Petcr- l)orough and Rice Lake, been better settled than is usual with townships so much in the interior. Emily Gore, or Ennismore, with 254 cultivators, has an excellent soil of loam resting upon clay ; and in 1825 it received a nume- rous l)ody of Irish from Kerry. Smith, having 75.3 colo- nists, is happily situated between the Otanabee and a chain of small lakes, which form it into a peninsula, and be- tween which there is an Indian portage. It was settled first by a i)arty of Cumberland miners, located there by government about the year 1818, who were afterwards joined by parties from the north of Ireland, and by a por- tion of those who came from the south in 1825. Douro, with 671 inhabitants, has a calcareous soil, well watered, hut in part swampy. It is also occupied by the emigrants of 1825, and by disbanded militia. The Canada Company liave lands in this and the two preceding townships. Dummer resembles the last in the nature of its soil, though the rear is rocky, and no settlements have yet l)een formed on it. This is also the case with Belmont, which is of rather an indifferent quality. The fifth range, consisting of Methuen, Burleigh, and Harvey, labours under considerable disadvantages both as to bar- renness and situation, and has not yet attracted the notice of immigrants. Durham county contains in front the townships, — Clarke, with 919 settlers, Hope, with 2272, and Darling- ton, with 1098. All three are described as of good soil, and advantageously situated on Lake Ontario ; but the hnprovement of the first and last is much obstructed, owing to the great quantity of land held by absentees ; whence, perhaps, arises that bad management of which Mr Shirreff complains. The middle one exhibits a more improved aspect, containing Port Hope, on the Ontario, an agreeable and thriving place, with all the usual appendages of a country town ; and it has, besides, a stream with a fall, well fitted for mills. On the second range, Cavan, with a soil generally fertile, derives great ** TOPOGRAPH V OP UPPER CANADA. 309 advantages from its vicinity to Otanubec and Rico Lake. It began to be settled in 1817, and there are now 2173 inluibitants, chiefly Protestants from tht north of Ireland. There is an Episcopal cluirch, and six schools. The farms are in good order, thongh the dwellings are only log-houses. To the westward, on this line, are Manvers imd Cartwright, of much inferior (juality, though the latter is rather the best, but neither is yet occupied. On the fourth line, Emily, adjoining to Emily Gore in Nor- thumberland, and possessed of nearly the same advan- tages, has attracted 1095 Irish, of whom those from the north are in the front, those from the south in the rear. A road has been opened to Peterborough, whither the jjroduce is expected to be mostly conveyed. Of the western townships on this range, Ops luis a very fine soil, unless in the north-eastern angle, where it is en- cumbered by swamps ; but the want of roads and mills has prevented its attracting more than 646 colonists. Mariposa is described as being generally good land ; though, from its remote situation, it is occupied only by 208 persons. In the fifth line, Eldon has now 406*. Verulam and Fenelon are as yet scarcely known, and lie beyond the limits of settlement * The Home District extr i^ from the boundary of Newcastle, — westward to the river Credit, near the ter- mination of Lake Ontario, — northward to Lake Nipis- sing, which flows then* «' into the Georgian Bay ; but tliat large branch of Liike Huron covers a great pro- portion of this district, rendering it considerably smaller than either of the two last described. In its extent of settlement, however, it fully equals either ; for though Lake Simcoe occupies a considerable surface, it affords at the same time facilities of intercourse, by means of which culture is carried to a great distance in- land. A road, called Yonge Street, above thirty miles long, connects Toronto, the capital, with this lake. It * Gourlay, vol. ii. p. 469. Bouchette, vol. i. p. 108. Picken, p. 150-166. Canadas asthey now are, p. 72-76. Shirreff, pp. 122, 123. I ¥■■'1 fcJt I '' } M » f i: i' ) ! 310 TOPOGRAPHY OF UPPER CANADA. was carefully improved by the North-west Fur Company, and having of late been partly macadamized, is one of the best in Canada. On the borders of Lake Ontario the soil is poor and sandy, bearing only pines ; but along the road now mentioned, and around Lake Simcoe, it is exceedingly fertile, excellently fitted for wheat. Accord- ingly it has attracted an ample share of the recent im- migrations. In 1817 we find its population estimated at 7700 ; in 1824 it reached 16,609 ; and in 1835 it had risen to no less than 47,543. In that year the cultivated acres amounted to 179,518, and the uncultivated to 690,753. It contained 28,732 horned cattle, and 6049 horses. This district is divided into three counties, — York, East dnd West Ridings, and Simcoe. The first comprises the territory along Ontario, and thence to the southern shore of Lake Simcoe, the East Riding including by far the larger portion, with the capital. Its townships are, — Whitby, population, 8212 ; Pickering, 1807 ; Scar- borough, 1897 ; York and Peninsula, 3544 ; Etobicoke, 1290 ; Markham, 4436 ; Vaughan, 2861 ; King, 1672 ; Wliitchurch, 2732 ; Uxbridge and Reach, uncertain ; Guil- limbury East, 1389, and North, 467 ; Scott, uncertain ; Greorgina, 855 ; Brock, 1032. The West Riding con- sists only of a nan'ow stripe on the western frontier, composed of the townships, — Toronto, 4990 ; Toronto Gore, 483 ; Chinguacousy, 2728 ; Caledon, 1233 ; and Albion, 1050. The county of Simcoe consists of the townships lying north-west of the lake of that name, and extending tlience to the Severn, and towards the Huron. These are, — West Guillimbury, population, 1293 ; Tecumseth, 1389 ; Adjala, 787 ; Mono, 1208 ; Amaranth, Luther, Proton, Melancthon, Mulmur,^Tossorontio, Essa, 167 ; Innisfil, 406 ; Thorah, 431 ; Mara, Rama, Oro, 881 ; Vespra, 236 ; Sunnidale, Merlin, Ospry, Artemisia, Euphrasia, Alta, Java, Flos, 90 ; Medonte, 448 ; Orillia, Matchedash, Tiny, and Tay, 401 ; Zero. From some unexplained cause, the official reports, in which the TOPOGRAPHY OF UPPER CANADA. 311 company, is one of e Ontario but along ncoe, it is ,. Accord- •ecent im- timated at 135 it had cultivated tivated to , and 6049 fork, East comprises e southern iluding by townships B07 ; Scar- Etobicoke, ing, 1672 ; tain ; Guil- iincertain ; iding con- II frontier, ; Toronto 1233 ; and ships lying extending m. These ?ecumseth, h, Luther, Essa, 167 ; Oro, 881 ; Artemisia, 8 ; Orillia, Trom some which the detailed notice of the townships in the preceding dis- tricts were derived, are wanting with regard to the one now under consideration. Mr Gourlay also com- plains of not having received a single return from any of its districts. We must therefore be content with giving a general view of it from the best sources which can be procured. York, which has now assumed the Indian name of Toronto, is the official capital of Upper Canada, the residence of the governor, the seat of the courts of justice, and the place where the Parliament assembles. No town in the province has made so rapid a progress. In 1793 M. Bouchette saw the spot covered with dense and track- less forests, on the border of which stood one solitary wigwam. In 1794 the town was founded, and in a few years attained a considerable magnitude. It remained long inferior to Kingston, and in 1831 was supposed to contain only 4000 inhabitants. The great improvement, however, of the western districts, and the extensive sales of land made there, both by government and the Canada Company, have now rendered it every way the more important place ; and by the last accounts its population had risen to 9500. The streets are spacious, and regularly disposed at right angles. Wood, the original material, is in course of being rapidly super- seded by brick ; and even stone begins to come into use. The public buildings are such as might be expected at a seat of government, and well suited to their object, but none is mentioned as particularly striking. The new college consists of five neat brick buildings, of which the central one, appropriated to instruction, is about eighty feet square, surmounted by an ornamental dome. The residence of a number of civil and military officers gives to the society a considerable degree of polish and elegance. The harbour is formed by a long narrow peninsula, enclosing a circular basin about a mile and a half in diameter, affording spacious and secure accommodation for shipping ; but it has the disadvantage of being very defenceless, as was fatally experienced m 1813, f II '\ I! 312 TOPOGRAPHY OP UPPER CANADA. i!i!| The soil, for a considerable space along the margin of the lake, is arid and sandy, covered with pine-forests ; and the township of Whitby, on the borders of New- castle District, has very rich loam, with a deep vegetable mould, and contains thriving farms. The population, however, is chiefly collected along the road called Yonge Street already described, on each side of which flourish- ing settlements are formed to a considerable depth, and covered with excellent crops. Newmarket, adjoining Lake Simcoe, appears a considerable place, to which a stage-coach runs regularly from Toronto ; and the sur- rounding country, which is fertile, is laid out in well-cul- tivated farms. About four miles distant is Hope, a village of sixty or seventy houses, inhabited by a sect professing peculiar tenets, called the Children of Peace, who hold their property almost in common, and are under the entire direction of an individual named David Willson. Near Ne^vmarket is West Guillimbury, whence a steam-vessel makes a weekly trip round the lake, which implies a respectable degree of settlement. Se- veral even of the inland townships to the north and west, notwithstanding their remote situation, have made con- siderable progress, as will appear by the amount of their population already given.* The Western Section of Upper Canada, though less extensive than those just described, possesses such ad- vantages of soil, climate, and situation, as renders it fully equal to them in value and importance. It con- sists of a long irregular peninsula, enclosed by successive portions of the great lake and river chain of Canada. This boundary, beginning with the western shore of Lake Ontario, is continued by the Niagara channel. Lake Erie, the Detroit, Lake and River St Clair, and the southern and pait of the eastern shore of Lake Huron. It ter- minates a little beyond Goderich, whence stretching across to Lake Ontario, it is met by the Home District • Gonrlay, vol. ii. p. 464, Bouchette, vol. i. pp. 108, 86-90, Picken^ 168. Canadas as they now are, p. 79. ShirrefF, p, 106-117. mU 'vm^m^jsif •mss'j'mma. iMiui.ieiiiKK nv uijMtnvHiivii I'.iiiNnrioiii \y 11m 1 i f ' ' II ., t 11 li I f ,i S'l > I J 'i w TOPOGRAPHY OP UtPER CANADA. 313 and the Indian territory. Its surface is singularly level, scarcely containing any eminence that deserves to be called a hxii, except in the ridge already described as running in a circuitous line from the neighbourhood of Toronto to Niagara. Even its heights seldom exceed 100, and never 350 feet. Besides that no part is very distant from the grand line of water-communication, several fine rivers traverse the interior. The most considerable is the Thames, which, rising in the London District, and running westward about 150 miles through a fine country, falls into Lake St Clair. It is navigable for large vessels to Chatham, fifteen miles up, and for boats nearly to its source. Parallel to it on the north, though with a shorter course of not more than 100 miles, is Big Bear Creek, which throws itself into one of the branches of the river St Clair. Next to the Thames in magnitude is the Ouse, rising in the Home District, and flowing in an opposite direction south-east, till by a very serpentine course it reaches Lake Erie. It is navigable for schooners about twenty-five miles above its mouth, and consider- ably higher for boats. The Welland or Chippeway, near- ly rarallel to it, runs into the Niagara after a course of only fifty miles ; but this river has become important on account of the canal cut from it to Ontario on one side and Erie on the other, wiiich has obviated those obstruc- tions by vhich the navigation of the Niagara chaunel is render 3d impracticable. The joil of this extensive tract is almost entirel/ ulluvial, consisting of a black or yellow loam, some- times mixed with sand, and covered with a thick straturi of vegetable mould. The forests are dense, but n< »t as m other quarters entirely uninterrupted ; opening rather, in some places, iuto wide prciries or expanses of natural meadow. The country has bj? sanguine writers been described as every where luxuriantly fertile ; anu though niiiiiite surveys have discovered light and sandy tracts of considerable extent, there is perhaps scarcely a spot on the globe which it may not rival. The climate of a country situated between the 42d and 45th parallels. 314 TOPOGRAPHY OF UPPER CANADA. ought to be that of the south of France ; but in con- sequence of a peculiarity in the American continent, this does not procure an exemption from several montjis of frost and snow. Still its winter is considerably shorter, and its summer longer than in any other part of Upper Canada. Such advantages drew the attention of European set- tlers to this quarter earlier than from its distance might have been expected, and portions of it were brought into cultivation, when the rest of Upper Canada was a wilderness. The French, when forming stations for the fur-trade at its western extremity, were tempted by the fertile banks of the Detroit, between Lakes Erie and St Clair, and established a number of seigniories similar to those on the St Lawrence in Lower Canada. At the end of the great American contest, a number of disbanded troops or banished loyalists, who, in the course of mili- tary operations, had become acquainted with the Niagara district, or to whose former residence and habits it was congenial, accepted grants in it. In 1802, Colonel Tal- bot having formed the plan of a settlement on the most central part of the northern coast of Lake Erie, obtained from government a grant of 100,000 acres, on condition of •locating a settler upon every 200 ; which condition he has successfully fulfilled. From these causes the population in 1817 had attained to the estimated number of 84,227, which in 1824 had risen to 65,200, in 1832, to 101,605, and m 1835, to 124,628. The number of cultivated acres at this latter period was 620,022, of uncultivated, 1,760,820 ; there were of homed cattle 77,930, and of horses, 18,430.* This part of Canada is divided into four districts : Gore, London, Niagara, and Western. Gore District rests on the western shore of Lake Ontario, whence it extends towards Lake Huron and Lake Erie, but without reaching either. It is separated • Bouchette, vol. i. pp. lOH, 92-96. Gourlay, vol. ii. p. 299, 357, 406, 455. Picken, p. 177. TOPOGRAPHY OF UPPER CANADA. 315 r districts : by a very irregular boundary from the Home District and the Indian teiTitory on the north, the London on the west, and Lake Ontario and the Niagara District on the east. The reports as to its soil are not very distinct or harmonious ; but it certainly appears to contain a large quantity of good land mixed with sandy tracts, and occasional swamps. Limestone rocks abound ; but of every other description of stone there is a great want. The Canada Company, notwithstanding, having made this the chief seat of their operations, and founded in it their principal town of Guelph, have raised it into importance. In 1817 it was estimated to have 8614 inhabitants, which number rose in 1824 to 13,167, in 1832, to 31,820, and in 1835, to 40,156. It possessed then 226,42C cultivated acres, and 611,712 uncultivated ; 24,606 horned cattle, and 5287 horses. It is divided into two counties, — Halton and Wentworth,-— of which the former, by much the largest, occupies all the northern and most western portion ; the latter is only a narrow stripe on the border of Niagara District. The front townships of this district extending along the lake are Trafalgar, population 2730 ; Nelson, 1809 ; and Flamborough, 1398. The soil is genei-ally clay, v;ith a mixture of sand, and, on the whole, without be- ing luxuriant appears to be generally good Numerous and rapid streams, many of which are well fitted for mills, cross it and fall into the lake. Dundas Street runs through it ; but though the main road of the pro- vince, it is very rude, and the provision for passing the numerous currents extremely imperfect. Yet the terri- tory is fast filling up, and the farms are well cultivated ; while the dwellings of the inhabitants display much attention to neatness and comfort. Flamborough con- tains an extensive swamp called Coote's Paradise, from the delight which a keen sportsman of that name found in shooting the numerous wildfowl by which it is fre- quented. The town of Dundas lies at the western ex- tremity of Burlington Bay and of Lake Ontario. The situation miLst be very advantageous ; and the harbour, 316 TOPOGRAPHY OF UPPER CANADA. which is yet only in its infancy, may, it is said, he made fit to receive vessels drawing twenty feet of water. The township of Beverley, though in a line with Flamborough, is inland, yet contains 1050 settlers. The second range of townships bear the uncouth In- dian names of Esquesing, with a population of 1700 ; Nasagiweya, 484 ; and Paslinch, the inhabitants of which are not reported. The soil presents a large proportion of black sand, though mixed with some clay. The third line has in its eastern quarter Eramosa, po- pulation 421, and Erin, 611. Both are covered to a great extent with the prevailing surface of black sand. In population and importance they are much inferior to those now to be noticed. Guelph, south-west ^f Erin, and separated from Lake Ontario by Paslinch and Flamborough, has been chosen by the Canada Company for the site of their chief town in the centre of a block of 40,000 acres. Respect- ing the quality of this land, in which so many interests are involved, and on which we should have wished to give our readera the most precise information, we are strangely embarrassed by conflicting statements. A43- cording to Mr Picken, the Company consider it as ex- cellent ; and Bouchette, speaking of it in general terms, says that " it enjoys most of the advantages of the Huron tract in respect of climate and fertility." Ac- cording to Mr Ferguson also, " its situation and soil are healthy and good." Mr ShirreflF, on the contrary, says, ** from Gait to Guelph, and in the neighbourhood of the latter, the soil is light, composed of sand or gravel, hear" ing inferiw crops, and, judging from the way- sides, cal- culated to \ duce excellent pasturage." A gentleman from Aberdeen, writing in October 1834, says, that " the land here is both very poor and very dear." Between s'jch opposite statements, all from quarters respectable though perhaps a little biassed, there seems no choice but to strike somewhat of a medium. Mr Shirreff ad- B^its that it is well watered, and that clearing was going Cu. to a considerable extent. TOPOGRAPHY OF UPPER CANADA. 317 on, we are ' The town of Guelph was founded in 1827 on the Speed, a branch of the Grand River. Great exertions were made to raise it to importance ; and according to M. Bouchette, in 1831, it contained 100 houses, and 700 or 800 inhabitants. He anticipates a rapid augmenta- tion, and exhibits a regular plan, according to which its fuiure extension is to proceed. Mr Ferguson, how- ever, who visited it soon after, was struck with its inactive and even desolate appearance ; and thinks it doubtful whether it will be able to keep its ground, and escape desertion. The cart appeaii-ed to him placed before the horse, in making a town precede instead of follow the rise of a cultivated neighbourhood. We do not, indeed, see how it could be expected, that a large town should rise in the heart of the bush without the command of any navigation, while on Burlington Bay there are as yet only villages. Mr Shirreff, two years after, describes it as having about fifty houses, only one of which was of stone. The township in 1833 contained 1068 individuals ; three places of worship were however erecting for Christians of different denominations. There is a good inn, and a large grist-mill. South-west of Guelph is Waterloo, a township settled about twenty years ago by a Dutch party, who have greatly improved it. The soil is a good sandy loam ; and the farms, being completely cleared of stumps, in high order, and bearing excellent cro^ j, reminded Mr Fergu- son of well-cultivated spots in Britain. They are from 200 to 300 acres in extent, and provided with excellent offices. The settlers, 2320 in number, derived great advantage from the employment afforded to them by the Canada Company during the erection of Guelph. Dumfries, adjoining to Waterloo, though belonging more strictly to the second line, has the advantage of a rich loamy soil, and consists of 96,000 acres. This town- ship was, in 1815-16, purchased entire by Mr Dickson, who has formed a village, to which he has given the name of Gait, and has erected in it extensive mills. He grants liberal credit, and by making, in some cases. 3in TOPOGRAPnY OP UPPER CANADA. , ' i". m advances to settlers, 1ms attracted a population of about 2930. A water communication has been opened through tlic Gmnd River to tl\c Wei land Canal, and a great saving is thus eftected in the expense of conveying grain. A few miles from Gait, on the way to Ontario, is Pai'is, so named from the adjoining quarries of gypsum. Tliis village, lately founded by an enterprising individual, possesses advantages which promise to raise it to some importance. Still farther,in the same direction, is Bmndt- ford, so called in honour of Brandt, the celebrated Mo- hawk chief. It contains about GOO souls, and is expected to increase, as it lies on the main road to the London and Western Districts ; and to facilitate the communication, a bridge is now erected over the river. The country , round is fertile, and a considerable number of farms have been purchased or rented from the Indians by European settlers. Adjoining to Waterloo, in the south-west, is Wilmot, where the Canada Company have a largo block of land, which they have connected by roads with Guelph and Goderich. It is very fertile, and partly "watered by a stream well adapted for mills. The popu- lation is 645. A fourth line of townships consists of Garafraxa,Nichol, and Woolwich, which last contains 439 inhabitants. The first has not yet drawn much attention ; but Nichol, comprising 29,000 acres, appears to be one of the finest tracts in Canada. The soil consists of a deep, black, sandy loam, of excellent quality, is generally level, and well watered by numerous streams, including the Grand River, which rises a little beyond its border. At one place it fonns picturesque falls, named EUora, well fitted for mill-machinery, and below which it is navigable for boats. This township has been chosen by Mr Ferguson as the seat of his settlement, where he has purchased an extensive property, a large part of which he cultivates himself, and has disposed of the rest in lots to other emi- grants. A considerable number of Scotch farmers, espe- cially from Aberdeenshire, have been attracted to this township. Small villages have sprung up at Fergus TOPOGRAPHY OP UPPER CANADA. 319 )U of about icd through lud a ^eat conveying ) Ontario, is of gypsum. r individual, 3 it to sonic n, is Brandt- ^bratcd Mo- is expected London and munication, L'he country [' farms have )y European uth-west, is I largo block roads with and partly The popu- axa,Nichol, )itant8. The but Nichol, ■ the finest eep, black, y level, and g the Grand er. At one , well fitted avigable for r Ferguson urchased an le cultivates 3 other emi- rmers, espe- cted to this at Fergus and at the Falls of Ellora. Nichol, in 10.30, had only 134 settlers ; but the number must now bo greatly in- creased, Wentworth county comprises only five townships, none of them very extensive ; but being either on or near Burlington Bay, they possess great advantages in point of situation. Barton, having a i)opulation of 1776, and Saltflcet, 1709, are immediately on the bay ; Binbrook, 335, and Glanford, 053, are behind them ; Ancaster, with 2207 inhabitants, stands to tlio west. The soil of the two first is composed of a mixture of sand and clay ; the former lies chiefly along the shore, the latter on the heights, — a bold range of which forms the back- ground of Barton, and commands a magnificent view of Lake Ontario. This territory is represented as pecu- liarly fitted for pasturage, though capable also, under proper management, of yielding full com crops. The high road from Toronto to Queenston passes through both these townships, and is tolerably good. Hamilton, the county town of Barton, is regularly built, with a very handsome court-house. As to the lands in the rear of Binbrook and Glanford, few particulars are known ; but Mr Shirreff^, who passed through them on his way to the Grand River, describes the soil all along as clay, of good quality, and well settled. Ancaster, to the west, is said to be a very fertile township, with conside- rable tracts of cleared land, and having the road to Brandtford and Gait passing through it. In its centre is a straggling village of the same name, delightfully situated.* Niagara District, eastward of Gore, foi ms a penin- sula enclosed by the bending course of the great water communication. A part of the southern shore of Lake Ontario, the river channel bearing its name, and the northern border of Lake Erie, form its boundaries, except • Bouchette, vol. i. pp. 108, 1 la, 119. Gourlay, vol. ii. pp. 4flfi, 382-389. Tables, 1832, p. 9-11. Plcken, p. 179-181. Cana- das as they now are, p. 84-88. Ferguson, pp. 128-128, 279-282. ShirreflF, p. 169-171. Counsel for Emigrants, p. 89-92. 320 TOPOGRAPHY OP UPPER CANADA. - B .1 f iM on tho western Hide, where an nrbitrnry lino separates it from Gore. The Grand River, in part of its eourse, and the Welland, nearly its whole length, run through this distriet ; and tluHO important facilities for navigation have heen greatly improved hy the canal connecting Lakes Erie and Ontario. The soil consists mostly of alluvial clay, mixed often with loam, and sometimes with sand, and is in general very well fitted either for grain or pasturage. From the mildness of its climate, fruits ome to higher perfection than in any other part of Canada ; its apples and peaches are celebrated ; and grapes are successfully cultivated. A considerable por- tion, however, is rendered unproductive by swamps, the draining of which does not yet enter into the scheme of Canadian husbandry ; while, amid the great supera- bundance of water, that article, in a state fitted either for drinking or for mill-power, is in many places defi- cient. Notwithstanding these drawbacks, its happy situ- ation led to its early settlement, chiefly by American loyalists ; and even in 1817 it was estimated to contain 12,548 inhabitants. Since that period it has more than doubled its population, which had risen in 1824 to 17,652 ; in 1802 to 24,772 ; and in 1835 to 28,755. At the latter period, there were 209,763 cultivated acres, 249,212 uncifltivated, 18,499 horned cattle, and 6721 horses. The district is divided into two counties, — Lincoln and Haldimand ; and the former, which is much the more important, into four ridings ; but the townships will be more advantageously considered ac- cording to their natural division into three lines ; the first bordering on Lake Ontario, the second on Lake Erie, and the third being the intermediate or inland one. The Ontario townships are, Grinisby, population 1014 ; Clinton, 1672 ; Louth, 1157 ; Grantham, 2454 ; and Niagara, 3123. This tract possesses all the advantages of the territory, with few of its drawbacks. The soil is generally clay or loam, is well cultivated, has fine farms and rich orchards, is generally free from swamps, and abounds in beautiful scenery. Grunsby is a little town, 6 TOPOGRAPHY OF UPPER CANADA. 321 agreeably situated on tlie lake, with on oniineiice beliind it, whence a fine inill-8tream iusuos. The prmcipal places of this township, however, belong to Niagara. The town of that name, called also Fort- George and Newark, is advantageously situated at the jwint where the great river-channel opens into Lake Ontario. By this means it has an extensive communica- tion with Toronto and Kinj,'8ton, and lies on the chief Ime by which travellers penetrate into the wester. i dis- tricts. Being opposite to the territory of the United States, it is exposed in time of war to hostile atttick ; and in 1813, as we have seen, it was barbarously reduced to ushes. It was, however, speedily rebuilt, and now con- tains upwards of 1600 inhabitants. The harbour is :^ood, and presents a gay scene from the constant arrival and departure of sloops, barges, and steam-vessels. Two weekly newspapers are published in it. Q,ueenston, abo ut seven miles southward, on the border of the township, is agreeably situated at the foot of a bold lino of hills bearing its name, and memorable for the battle in which General Brock fell. Being the county town, it luis a court-house and government-stores, with between 400 and 500 inhabitants. Surrounded by a fertile and liigiily- cultivated country, it has, in its immediate vicinity, the falls of Niagara. St David's is a small village, lour miles to the westward, on ono of the roads from Toronto to Lake Erie. The middle and inland range consists of Stamford, population 1493 ; Thorold, 2052 ; Pelham, HOG ; Gains- borough, 292, and Claistor, 329. All these have t]y the Welland river and canal. St Catherine's is ti rising place, situated on the highest ground hetween the lakes, and on the main road from Grimsby to Queenston. Pelham, the next, is likewise a good to^Mishij), though a (;onsiderable portion is either l)roken and hilly, or light and sandy ; it is, how ; \^er, well watered and suj)plied with' mills. The two most westera, Gainsborough and Claistor, are extremely wet, and in some places marshy ; and being also ill supplied with the means of convey- ance, the settlement upon them has been very limited. Two small townships, southward of this line, but not reaching Lake Erie, are Wil lough by, population 601), and Crowland, 041. The former, though well situated on the Niagara, has a cold soil of hard clay, and wants good water. The second, on the Welland, has the same dis- advantages, though not in an equal degi'ec ; Lyou's Creek affords a good situation for a mill. The line of townsliips on Lake Eric consists of Bertie, ]iopulation 2169 ;Huml)erstone, 1654 ; andWainfleet,042. The first, with a soil of clay and black loam, being con- tiguous to the Niagara and Lake Erie, and having good roads, is well settled. At the junction of the lake and river stands Fort Erie, on the opposite side of which arc Black Rock and Buffalo, the latter of which has become very flourishing, from being placed at the tennination of the Great New York Canal, llumbcrstone is in part similar, but has a large portion wet, swampy, and even covered by two extensive marshes, called Crtmberry and Tamarack. The siune description applies also to Wain- fleet, which however has the advantage of being crossed by the Welland Canal, The county of Haldimand extends a great way north-west, along the lower course of the Ouijs or Grand River. It is included in the great Indian reserve ; 1)ut this has not prevented part of it from being leased or purchased by Europeans. Tlie larger portion is marshy, and neai'ly uninhabitable. It fonns two townships, — Moulton, of wliicli tlie popula- TOPOGRAPHY or UPPER CANADA. 32.3 tion is 62B ; and Cainl)oroiigh, the inhabittiiitB of which have not been reported.* London District is very extensive, resting on the shore of Lake Erie, and stretching tlience northwards to the Indian territory. On the east it has (iore and Niagani, on the opposite side Lake Huron and Western District. Besides the portion divided at an early period into counties and districts, there has hitely been added the large block of 1,100,000 jujres on Lake Huron, pur- cliascMl by the Canada Company. This last tract is of (exuberant and almost une ' 111 i! i trict. Tlic suifacc is level, and the soil is admitted on all hands to he of almost unrivalled fertility, heing fine clay under a covering of hlack vegetahle mould. The tract has hcen surveyed and divided into the town- ships of Colhorne, Hullett, M*Killop, Logan, Ellice, North and South Easthope, Downie, Fullarton, Hib- l>ert, Tucker- Smith, Biddulph, Stephen, Ushorne, Blan- chard, Bosjmquct, Williams, M'Gillivray, Stanley^ Hay, and Goderich. The last of these places, and the route thither, fonn the only quarter in which any material settlement has yet been effected. The town of Goderich is situated on an eminence above the lake, at the point where it receives a con- siderable river named the Maitland. The Company have planned it on a very extensive scale, as the future capi- tal of the district, and a place of rising importance. Mr Shirreff, however, the latest visitant, represents it as still composed only of about forty mean wooden houses, scattered irregularly over a considerable space. The harbour, whi(^h had been represented as fitted for vessels of 200 tons, would admit none, he conceived, except those of the smallest dimensions ; and the river, where it enters the lake, could not, in the end of August, float a canoe. The original settlers, who were very poor, and of indifferent character, had all been removed except one, and tlioir place supplied by a better class of occupants.* Western District, which concludes our description of Upper Canada, forms a peninsula, a countei*part as it were of that of Niagara, though on a larger scale. It is siniDai'ly enclosed between Lake Erie, the Lake and River St Clair, and the southern coast of Lake Huron. Besides these extensive waters, it is traversed by the lower course of the Thames, navigable for schooners fifteen miles up, and by a smaller stream called Big Bear Creek. The surface is level, and even low, and the soil, to a great extent, of most luxuriant fer- • Gourlay, vol. ii. p. 357. Bouchette, vol. i. pp. 108, 117. Pickon, II. 192-lJ?t). Canadas as tlie\' now are, p. 94-99. Shirreflj pp. 172, 181, 189. TOPOQRi^PUY OF UPPER CANADA. 327 tility. This is particularly conspicuous on the upper part of the two streams just mentioned ; for as they approach their estuary in Lake St Clair, their banks become what the Americans call prairie, or moist mea- dow-land, destitute of trees, and covered with long rich grass, but sc^arcely fitted for grain. Cultivation might here be greatly extended by draining, but it seems doubtful whether the return would yet pay the ex- pense. The fine soil and climate early attracted a party of French habitans, who settled on the banks of the Detroit ; and after the American war, a body of exiled loyalists was located behmd them. This pre-occupation of the most desirable spots, added to the inconvenience' of distance, has prevented it from attracting recent immigrants, and from attaining a population propor- tioned to its natural advantages. As the early se+tlers are little imbued with the spirit of modern enterprise, and content with a bare subsistence, the country wears, on the whole, an unimproved appearance. It must soon receive an impulse, however, from the new commu- nication by canals and steam- vessels ; and the Canada Company have undertaken the settlement of consider- able districts. Indeed, the progress already made is by no means inconsiderable. In 1817 Mr Gouylry reckoned the population at 4158 ; in 1824 it had risen to 6952 ; in 1832 to 11,788 ; and in 1835 to 14,496. At the last date it contained 89,561 cultivated, and 281,290 un- cultivated acres ; 8525 horned cattle, and 2459 horses. It is divided into two counties, — Kent and Essex. As to the townships, we possess not the minute details afforded by the official reports on the other district; ; but Mr Shirreff's careful survey will in a great measure supply this want. Kent contains fourteen townships, of which Orford, Howard, Harwich, Raleigh, Tilbui^ Jbiast, and Romney, are situated between Lake Erie and the Thames ; Juver, East and West, Chatliam, Camden, and Zone lie to the northward of that river, and along Bear Creek ; Adelaide, Warwick, Brooke, Plymton, Inniskillen, Moore, St Clair, Dawn, and Sombra, reach from the ;^28 TOPOmAPHY OP UPPER CANADA. i Irtter to Lake Huron. The soil on the Thames round Cliatham is a hiavj^ loam, conipounded of strong- clay and sand, and of the very finewt; quality. That on Bear Creek is nearly as good ; and large tracts of the richest land may still be purchased at a very moderate price. The want of fall and the defective machinery in the mills, still deteriorate the quality of the flour. To the nortb • wards, is a large extent of crown lands, tilx lately unoccu- pied. In 1832, when 35,000 emigrants arrived in Upper Canada, for whom employmeiit could not be found. Sir John Colborae laid out the townships of Adelaide and Warwick, which were quickly colonize*' To these have imee been added, Brooke, Iiiniskillcii,, Plymton, and Moore. Chatham in a twelvemonth ha*! inciea^ed from ii' .' or six to nearly twenty houses ; and tlier- is every likelihood fjf Jts continuing to prosper, as steam- vessels can asce!. '' to it. On the lower part of the Thames, as it approachi.; the hike, the ground becomes exceedingly moist,, ani* is also to a considerable extent rather poor. South ward is a. large prairie, still imcul- tivateci, but yielding rich pasturage on its margin ; and the townships between the Thames and Lake Erie aro described as generally very fertile, having a soil similar t«o that round Cliatham. Point aux Pins, or Landg-uard, ii) the township of Harwich, lies on a bay with good an- chorage, and forms a centre where different roads meet. Tb'^ oounty of Essex, the most western part of the district, is a peninsula, enclosed between Lake St Clair, Detroit Channel, and Lake Eric. On the margin of tbo latter it has the townships of Mersey, Gosfield, Colchester, Maiden ; and on St Clair are West Tilbury, Rochester, Maidstone, Sandwich, This last and Maiden are bcmnded on the west by the Detroit, on the banks of which 5s the Huron reserve. The soil of the county is variable, but includes much rich land, consisting of black loam on a clay bottom, fitted for the cultivation of hemp and tobacco, the growth of which last has been great ^v extended. The original settlers, as already observ< ,. Oil the first line along Det >it and St Clair, were ^rei ^ colonists ; behind them"!^ ; American loyalists : ; a I. TOrOORAPIIY OF UPPER CANADA. 329 lames round strong clay 'hat on Bear F the richest ierate price, in the mills, 'o the north • tely unoccii ' ^ed in Upper t he found, of Advlaide fl To these n, Plymton, lad ine leaped and tliert. is 31", as nteain- part of the und hecomcs jrahle extent P still imciil- nargin ; and ike Erie are 1 soil similar Landg-uard, ith good an- roads meet, part of the ike St Clair, margin of y, Gosfield, est Tilhury, and Maiden bhe hanks of he county is ing of hlack ion of hemp )een great" v y ohservr vere ^rei ^ lists : ar , a ■ 1 m. considerahlc numher of negroes from the States have more recently found refuge there. According to Mr ShiiTeff, the townships of Tilhury and Mersey are com- posed of alternate clay and sand, with a preponderance of the lighter substance. Gosfield is distinguished from all the rest by an undulating surface, and a gravelly soil, not of the first quality. Here Messrs Calhoun and Field liave established a rude but extensive iron- work, from <& f i'oductive species of bog-ore. It is expected to consume .mnually the coke from 200 acres of forest, and in re- turn for this substance they undertake to clear any neighbouring proprietor's ground. Colchester and Mai- Ten are for the most part sand alternating with thin clay ; but the soil of the latter, in approaching Am- hei'stburg, is of very fine quality. A mile beyond that place, the Huron reserve stretches seven miles along the Detroit, and the same distance inland. To the ex- tent of four miles the banks are about twenty feet high, of rich clay, and extremely beautiful. The Indians do not now exceed ten or twelve families, who profess Christianity, cultivate orchards, and reat large herds of fine cattle. The British government have purchased some part of this reserve, and it is said they are desirous of possessing the whole. The more nortlv- ern portion, which sinks to the level of the river, is swampy, and overgrown with aquatic plants. The soil continues inferior till beyond Sandwich, when it again becomes fertile ; and it is occupied by French settlers in their usual style, in long narrow stripes, facing the water, and c: mpleteiy cleared of wood. In the approach to Lake St Clair, the ground is once more low and swampy, but contains some tolerable soil intermixed with prairie. M. Bouchette anticipates its speedy settle- ment ; but this, according to Mr ShuTefF, has as yet taken place only to p very inconsiderable extent. Amherstburi? oar ..■»' junction of the Detroit with Lake Erie, '-^ lie principal tovn in this part of Canada ; and its situation is allowed to be equ 1 to any in the world for picturesque beauty. This distinction is pro- duced, not by the usual objects which constitute magni- ■' i '5 330 TOPOGRAPHY OF UPPER CANADA. ficent scenery, but by the wide expanse of clear and l)ellucid waters surrounding it, the rich brilliancy of the vegetation, and the profusion of fine orchards, of which almost every inhabitant has one. The town, according to Bouchette, contains about 200 dwclling-s, and 1200 inhabitants. It is said to be regularly built, but the houses, with a few exceptions, are only of wood, and not very handsome. The military works and dockyard were demolished in 1813, but have been partly restored. Fort Maiden, about half a mile dis- tant, is of very little consequence. The trade of Am- herstburg is not at present progressive ; but as vessels of any magnitude can touch at its pier, it must, at no distant period, derive benefit from the extension of set- tlement and steam navigation. Sandwich, fourteen miles higher up the stream, contains 140 or 160 houses, and enjoys some importance as the county town. It consists of an irregular street running along the beach, mostly inhabited by French. The trade is more limited than tiiat of Amherstburg, and equally stationary. About a mile and a half above, however, is the feny where there are fifteen or twenty houses, the number of which is increasing ; and on the opposite bank, belonging to the United States, is the town of Detroit, which is consider- ably larger than any on the British side of the river.* The following is a summary of the statistics of this interesting province, brought down to 1835 : — Dutiict& Johnstown Eastern.. Ottawa . . Batliurst. Midland . Newcastle Home... Gore. . . . Niagara London. Western Total. I'opuln- tion. 29,119 28,504 7,044 22,693 46,685 30,245 47,643 40,156i 28,735j 41,2411 14,496 Asssssment Aaea ciilti- Acres nnculti- of 1 il. per Hoius. vated. I vated. { pound on I I property. I 70.6451 355,07U 82,813 331,134 16,354; 110,288i 57,197 353,362 187,338 358,214 94,419 434,526 179,518 690,753 226,428 611,712 209,763 249,212 144,270 718,606 39,561 281,2J)0 336,461 l,308.3O7A 4,394,169 1699'10 1490'13 443-10 810-14 311.3-14 1559-17 2465'12 2407- 6 2210-16 3083-17 922- 6148 3924 748 1641 8650 3339 6049 5287 5721 4963 2459 20,207- 9 47,729 1 Cattle. 13,119 16,338 3,525| 12,459 24,535 15,367 28,7321 24,506 18,499 26,400 _8,525 192,005 Grist Snwi MillH. Mills.! 19 36 30 46 6 16 26 28 47 111 26 76 51 150 35 113 30 93 45 108 13 12 328 7a> * Bouchette, p 105-108. Tables, 1832, p. 9-11. Gourlay, vol. ii. p. 299. Shirreff, p. 192-216. A. of clear and brilliancy of orchards, of The town, K) dwelling's, :ularly built, are only of iitary works t have been ■ a mile dis- rade of Am- >ut as vessels must, at no nsion of set- )urteen miles ) houses, and I. It consists each, mostly limited than •y. About a where there of which is nging to the 1 is consider- the river.* sties of this AGRICULTURE OF CANADA. 331 1 ! ' Horned 1 Grist Haw j Cattle. ;Milltt. MiU8.1 13,119 19 36 16,338! 30 46 3,525| 6 16 12,459 26 28 24,535 47 111 16,367 26 76 28,732 61 150 24,5()6 35 113 18.499 30 93 26,4()0 45 108 8,526 13 12 92,(K)5 328 78;» iourlay, vol. ii. CHAPTER VII. Agriculture of Canada, Local Peculiarities — The Climate — The unbroken Forest — Mode oi Clearing — Ashes — Soil indicated by the Timber — First Crops — Wheat — Other Grains — Grasses, Flax, Hemp, Tobacco — Live Stock, Quality and Treatment— Horticulture — Floriculture — Maple Sugar — Agricultural Processes — Hunting and Shooting — Fishery. In Canada, as in all other new countries, especially when blessed with a fertile soil, agriculture is the most im- portant branch of human labour. Here the industry of man, seconded by the powers of nature, produces, with much less of exertion and of costly machinery, a far higher amount of desirable and useful commodities, than w^hen, as in the department of the mechanical arts, he works alone. Even the United States, though they have made greater progress in wealth and population than the British colonies, have in vain attempted, by the most impolitic prohibitions, to become a manufacturing nation, and to render themselves independent of foreign supply. Though we do not, in this work, undertake to instruct the emigrant in the general principles of agriculture, we may nevertheless confer a favour upon him, by pointing out cei-tain peculiarities connected with the practice of it in the Canadian provinces. The climate is one particular by which its operatiops must be greatly modified. It differs, as formerly ob- served, in having much longer and severer winters, and on the other hand, much hotter summers, than are known in Britain or France. The extraordinary warmth of the latter season, no*^ ^thstanding its short duration, is suf- ficient to riper> most valuable grains, including even np.^g^ 332 AGRICULTURE OF CANADA. f» Indian corn and other species wliicli cannot bo brought to maturity in England. On the other hand, the groat length of the winter involves the fanner in much in- convenience. He is obliged to crowd into the space of sis, or at most seven months, flll the operations which, with us, can be continue 1 i; ii^ i /ithout interruption throughout the year. ^Alil j lur is condemned, during one season, to unwelcome indolence, in the next his viv- rious labours follow each other with harassing rapidity. He must employ a greater number of servants ; and it is a serious disadvantage that the cattle errifl'^^'^ed on the fann must be provided with good housing, and a large stock of food daring the long winter. These are difficult tirrangemeiiif! for new settlers ; and if, as too often hap- pens, they hit not duly attended to, the animals either l)erish, oi are reduced to a very weak condition. Another weighty obstacle to be encountered by the colonist in this territory arises from the vast forest with which almoF+ the whole of it is covered . On taking possession, he does not find a spot on which a crop of any description can be raised, or where even a sheep could feed. To level with the ground, and root out myriads of trees that have stood for ages, seems a task beyond human power ; and no instrument or process has yet been found efficacious, except the axe applied successively to each. At first, attempts were made to grub up the trees, and clear the surface at once. This labour, however, was found very great, and utterly useless, even breaking up the soil in an injurious manner. The established plan, therefore, now is, after removing the brushwood, U) cut round the trunk, at a few feet from the giound, till it shakes and falls with a tremendous crash. When this takes pla?;o, the axeman must make his escape with the tmo . agility, other- wise he may sustain a serious accM t ; p nd many settlers, in their first operations, have met with such. When the iree is thus brought to the ground, the branches must be separated from it, and the trunk cut into logs of teii or twelve feet iii length ; and after the wood of two AGRICULTURE OF CANADA. 333 or three acres has been reduced this Htato, a day U fixod for consuming it, when the )le being drawn by oxen into huge piles, is soon ledu cd to ashes by the application of lire. Tlie neighl)()urs, when called upon, usually assist on this occasion, which is called " a logging bee." Tlie visiter from England, who has been accustome*! to regard ro\,'8 or clumps of trees as both agreeable luid highly ornamental, sees with surprise how completely they have been swept away from the inhabited spots in Canada. The French on their grounds have not left one ; and though the English immigrants tind difficulty in clearing as much as they could wisli,all the land near their houses is completely denuded. The axe of the chopper levels all before him. " Man appears to contend with the trees of the forest as though they were his most obnoxious enemies, for he spares neither the young sap- ling in its greenness nor the ancient trunk in its lofty l)ride ; he ^\ ages war against the forest with fire and steel." Besides the settler's aversion to objects tliat so much obstruct his operations, there are serious objections to allowing them to remain smgly or in rows. The : "ees st^md u thick together, that neither their roots nor L/anches luve had room to spread. They accordingly ehov/t up to a great height, with little hold in the earth, and with scarcely any foliage, so that \vhen left single they are n< her beautiful, nor able to withstand the vio- lent gusts < wmd to which the country is subject ; henct' their sudden fall might be attended with much mjury. As, however, a considerable quantity of timber must be preserved for fuel and other purposes, attention m'f'ht })e paid to dispose it in groves or little clumps iri !i, picturesque and agreeable manner. The trees which should be preserved are maple for making sugar ; beech and white ash for firewood ; oak, cedar, and hemlock spruce for fences ; and other hard kinds for ashes, from ^vhich soap may be made.* * Evans' Emigrant's Guide (12mo, Dublin, 1»33), pp. 88, U2, l«. f ■ n.?4 AGHICULTUllE OF CANADA. |J . A lighter mode of clearing, strongly recommended by Mr Pickering, especittlly where tlie trees stand nt some distance from each other, is giitlling. According to this method, rings are cut round the trunk, completely through the bark, so as to prevent the rising of the sap, in consequence of which they gradually wither. In a few years they begin to fall, and after six or seven can be easily removed. Meantime the under brushwood may be cut or burnt, and crops raised between the trees. A great deal of lal)our is thus saved at the beginning ; yet the practice is not generally approved, at least where the forest is at all dense. Light and air are thus in- tercepted ; the falling trees are found to injure both animals and fences, and the final clearing is rendered more tedious. Several writers recommend the manufacture of ashes from the burnt wood as an important article of com- merce. The hard species are the most productive. Beech is reckoned the best, and hickory, elm, oak, and maple, stand next in the scale of value. The ashes must be kept under cover and dry till they can be sent to the manufactory ; for the settler, amid his numerous avoca- tions, could scarcely undertake to work them up him- self. Mr Gould reckons that an acre should yield on the average 10 cwt. worth from 12s. Cd. to 15s. thecwt. Could this be depended upon, clearing, instead of being a heavy burden, would be a most profitable occupation ; but the estimate, which we suspect to have been from the first too flattering, is admitted to be no longer ap- plicable. It is now found that soda and other salts can by chemical improvements be made to answer the pur- poses of wood-ashes in bleaching, glass-making, and other processes ; and as these can be produced at a low rate, the latter, in oi-der to find a market, must accommodate itself to the diminished value. Mr Magrath states the price at from fourpence to sixpence the bushel, and was Backwoods of Canada (lOmo. London, 183fi), pp. 192,292. Ma- g^ratli's Letters, p. 1.')7-HjO. Gould's Practical Advice to Emiifranls (l^ndon, 1834}, p. HI. AGRICULTURE OP CANADA. 333 informed that the average produce ought to he about sixty hushels. This conclusion, lie adds, wf yeai's without intermission, appear to be realized only under very peculiar circumstances. According to Mr Talbot, a. good second crop, though not equal to the first, may be obtained with the aid merelv of the harrow ; but after this, corn is not in general raised without the use of the ploiigh. As, however, the stumps cannot be removed Ar.RirULTURE OF CANADA. 337 flat plains, ay, which, peration is ?bp French of land as e where all Luable, and Yet these ist observa- 33 that any qualities of y alone, and ine to think momentous, er to super- both of the the stumps, ler prepara- eed requires iTOW drawn \f committed have been cted in such 1 at forty or p is now ge- Considering )ccupied by oy the full lie to smut, :d eighteen t >ntinuing les *f yeai-s onl/ under Mr Talbot, irst, may be ; but after le use of the je removed for seven or eight years, the prevailing practice in Upper Canada, tUl that process has been accomplished, is to lay the field down in grass ; and this plan is recommended by good authorities. It may even be necessary for the settler, who can command only his own personal labour, and has still large portions to clear : but, in the case of one who can afford to hire servants, it appears an un- profitable system ; for it confines him to the rearing of sheep and cattle, the least advantageous branch of Cana- dian husbandry. Several writers, indeed, represent it as impossible to carry on any other, Mdiile such obstruc- tions remain ; but others, better and longer acquainted with tlie country, assure us, that these oppose no very serious obstacles to culture, tlie plough being able with little difficulty to pass between them, as they are usu- ally at least twenty feet distant from each other. Tliis plan has also the advantage, that by the loose state In which it keeps the ground, the stumps may be rooted out sooner than from the more compacit surface of a grass field. When their removal is efitcted, the plough can move, though not without some attention, over the whole, and the ground is then considered in a state of regular cultivation.* The ground having been thus cleared of timber, the question arises, what crops can be most advantageously raised upon it. Soil and climate are the two particulars which nature places in the hand of the agriculturist, and &.(" ording to which his operations must be modified. The soil of the upper, and of all the settled part of the lower province, may rank with the most favoured on the globe. The absence of mountain and rock, on such a scnle as to interfere with cultivation, scarcelv exists elsewhere over a similar extent of country. Light and stindy soils or swamps almost alone interrupt the general fertility ; and these, from the detailed local survey already taken, will appear not to be very extensive, and perhaps in few * Evans, pp. 7*3, ^h. Mafrrath, pp. 88, ^\). Backwoods, pp. 194, 10". Shiireff, p. ajO, Talbot's Five Years Hesichnice in the Cuna- das (2 vols 8vo, London, 1824), vol. ii. p. 200-202. VOL. I. JC 338 AGRICULTURE OF CANADA. I III ? ' 'I I t cases wholly irreclaimable. It is calculated that there is a greater proportion of wheat soil in the Canadas than in England ; and that, if this valuable grain were culti- vated in the latter country in the same defective manner as in these provinces, it could not be of much value. Climate, which forms the other important particular, wears at first view a less favourable aspect. A region which, for several months, and in some districts for more than half the year, remains buried in frost and snow, may well be supposed unfriendly to vegetation. As al- ready observed, however, the strong steady heat of sum- mer counteracts almost completely this chilling influence, and matures with surprising rapidity the most valuable plants. Mr Evans has had wheat in ear nine weeks after it was sown. Even the violent altei-nations of frost and thaw, of snow and rain, instead of injuring vegetation, are found to pulverize and soften the soil, and thus render it more fertile with less culture. The great steadiness of the summer weather exempts plants from sundry vicissitudes which they undergo in a more changeable climate. From these causes, the annuals suited to a temperate region grow in Canada to full perfection ; and as these include the grains fitted for bread, the food most essential to man, she has little cause to envy any other country. In regard to wheat, indeed, the cbief of those vegeta- bles, this observation must be somewhat restricted. Its j)lants are so far biennial, that to acquire the very first quality they must be sown during the preceding autumn. Yet this course has not been found safe in Lower Canada, where wheat must be treated as an annual, sown in spring, and reaped before the end of the year. The defect is owing, not to the rigour of the winter, still less to the depth of snow, which, on the contrary, is found to pro- tect and cherish vegetable growth, but is ascribed to severe frosts, violent and chilling rains, occurring after the snow has left the ground, and the plants have made some progress. An opinion is entertained, that with good management, hitherto much wanting, autumn wheat 2 AGRICULTURE OF CANADA. 339 might be raised with success. The British American Land Company have decidedly adopted this idea, and some successful experiments have been made. Mr Evans, however, is of opinion that from the above causes, unless in some favoured situations, it must always be an un- safe crop, and peculiarly liable to disease. He had once autumn and spring wheats growing on the same field, when although the first was completely ruined by rust and mildew, the other proved excellent. He seems to apprehend, therefore, that Lower Canada must be content with her good spring growth. It is said, however, to require a soil more minutely pulverized ; while the grain produced contains a greater proportion of gluten, and is thus harder and more difficult to grind. In Upper Canada, autumn wheat is raised without difficulty. Barley is well suited to the climate, r.nd on well- prepared soils the produce is found very little inferior to that in England. The square or four-rowed species is generally cultivated, as the most productive, and not objected to by the brewer, though the two-rowed or long- eared brings a higher price, and has been partially intro- duced. Oats have not hitherto been prosperous in either of the Canadas, as the intense heat of summer is apt to diy the panicles, which then do not convey sufficient nourishment to the ears. It is alleged, however, that by early sowing and other precautions the evil might be obviated. This grain in fact has been much neglected and underrated. Rye, so much a favourite in the north of Europe, is cultivated here, but only for the distilleries. Maize or Indian corn, the only important farinaceous plant peculiar to the new world, is the tallest, and yields the largest bulk of all this description of plants. The grain, though very productive, affording from 30 to 70 bushels an acre, is too soft and deficient in gluten to make good bread without a large admixture of wheat. It is relished, however, in various forms of puddmg or pot- tage ; and for feeding cattle and poultry seems superior to any other corn. Its range in America is very extensive, shice, being an annual, it is unaffected by the cold of 340 AGRICULTURE OF CANADA. 1,^^ I ;■■! 'I| mk h winter. Yet n, strong heat of considerable duration is required, the absence of which in a great part of Canada renders this crop very precarious. If cold or wet weather occur soon after sowing, the seed is liable to rot ; while, as the harvesting does not take place till the end cf Sep- tember, the crop suflFers often from premature frosts. Mr Evans considers it as unsafe beyond lat. 45° N., which excludes most of Lower Canada ; while Mr Shirreff re- stricts it within lat, 41^°, scarcely allowing it to go north of Lake Ontario. At Peterborough it iiad failed for several consecutive years. Where successful, it is con- sidered excellently fitted for new lands, and also as a preparation for wheat. It is planted in rows to admit of horse-hoeing, and in Upper Canada pumpkins are advantageously raised in the intervals. Of leguminous plants, pease are perhaps the most valuable, and are well suited to the climate of Canada, where they form generally a secure crop. Wet weather during harvest, which is peculiarly unfavourable to them, seldom occurs there. The flesh of hogs is delicate and of better flavour when fed upon pease than upon any Ocher giain ; and from their use the pork of these pro- vinces is considered superior to that of the United States. Tares are cultivated as an excellent food for horses and cattle ; and their extension is recommended. Beans are not grown ; but for this omicsion no sufficient reason has been assigned, Among roots, the potato takes the precedence, and its value is too well known to require comment. Though a native of America, it v/as for a long time not very extensively cultivated, at least in Upper Canada ; but its importance has now been appreciated b}- European settlers. Besides its value for human use, this vegetable affords in the same bulk more food for cattle, and is more easil}' guaiiled against the cold of winter, than most others, which, generally requu'e a root-house or cellar to preserve them ; while potatoes may be kept in a pit five feet deep, dug hi dry earth. They should be planted by the end of May, b^/ as to attain some strength before the AGHICULTUBE OF CANADA. 341 le duration is >art of Canada r wet weather to rot ; while, he end cf Sep- mature frosts. 46° N., which ^Ir Shirreff re- r it to go noi*th had failed for sful, it is con- , and also as a rows to avimit pumpkins are laps the most ate of Canada, Wet weather mfavourahle to liogs is delicate than upon any i. of these pro- United States, for horses and 3d. Beans are ifficient reason [•ecedence, and neiit. Though time not very ' Canada ; but by European this vegetable cattle, and is ter, than most se or cellar to spt in a pit five be planted by Lgth before the intense summer heats, and r,o be ripe before the setting in of the autumnal frosts. Turnips, which require a cool, moist, and temperate climate, have not been found well suited to Canada. Carrots are beginning to be intro- duced, and are strongly recommended as hardy, nutri- tive, and not very liable to suffer from cold. Grass, both natural and artificial, forms a most im- portant article of farming produce. Canada has nt t the fine natural pastures of Ireland, England, Holland, and other countries enjoying a cool, moist, and equable climate. The settlers, too, in general, as soon as they have cleared away the wood, are eager to break up the ground and raise a crop. It is alleged, however, that this system has been carried too far, there being many meadows, uplands, and other well- watered tracts, which might very advantageously be appropriated to pasturage. Artificial grasses, now a most valuable branch of British husbandry, are peculiarly important in Canada, where so large a quantity of hay should be stored for \, Inter use. Tliey are also most useful in preparing the soil for grain crops, but have the disad- vantage of requiring to stand the severe winter, so trying to all except annual plant ^. Clover, which is supposed to yield three times the produce of natuial grass, grows luxuriantly ; but in the second year its roots are often found to have been destroyed by frost. For this reason it is necessary to have recourse to the species named timothy, which is extremely hardy, and will set at defi- ance even a Canadian winter. The course recommended is to plant it in spring along with clover, which last may he expected to yield a good crop the first year ; and if it faibi in the second, the other will supply its place.* Among miscellaneous articles, flax is well fitted to the climate, and a small quantity is grown upon almost every farm for domestic use ; but it has not yet become * Evans (William), Treatise on Agriculture (8vo, Montreal, 1835) pp. 3;J-94, 175, 222. i albot, vol. i. p. VM. Pickering-, p. m-iii). Gould, p. G7. Sliirrcff, p. 308. Backwoods, pp. 188, 189. 342 AGRICULTURE OF CANADA. an article of exportation. It is dark coloured, and rather liable to break. Mr Talbot imputes these faults to the small quantity of seed, being only two bushels per acre, while double that amount is used in Ireland, Hemp has been sown with advantage, particularly in the heavy soil of the Western District ; but, though consi- derable expectations have been foimed, it has not as yet any where risen to much importance. It seems admit- ted, that considerable loans from government are neces- sary to provide the machinery indispensable to its suc- cess ; and moreover that, without a protecting duty, the farmer could not compete with the importations fix»m Russia. Tobacco is planted in the same district, and has uIfo been made the object of flattering hopes. In quality it is inferior to that of the southern states of le Union, — a circumstance which some ascribe to im- jl-erfect culture, but others think a warmer climate ne- cefisa;; for raising it in perfection. The produce, never- theless, has of late years been considerably augmented. The rearing of live stock, an important branch of rural economy, is still in a backward state in Canada. The length and severity of winter produce a necessity for dry food and shelter during that season ; but the providing of this, in the actual circumstances of the colonists, is attended with difficulties, which they by no means mfike sufficient exertions to overcome. The horses are small, not standing above twelve hands high, and are at the same time clumsy and thick shouldered. Yet they possess good qualities, are active, fleet, and sure-footed, and in these respects have been compared to the Scottish galloway, though they are not equally fit for heavy and continued labour. Proposals have been made to introduce improved breeds, but this would probably avail little, till accom- panied by a more careful management. The cows arc also about a third smaller than the English. They are i:till worse treated, having scarcely any shelter and very little food during tiie winter, at the end of which they are in a miscirJ)Ie state, and many perish. A complaint called the hollow-horn, arising from the juices of tliat AGRICULTURE OF CANADA. 343 substance heing congealed by the excessive cold, proves generally fatal ; yet those which survive, on coming to grass, quickly recover, and give abundance of milk. The labouring oxen are for the most part procured from the United States. The sheep are extremely small, weighing, it is said, not more than fifty pounds, and their fleece about two and a half. They suffer, not only from the rigour of winter, but from the violence of the heat in summer, and are also exposed to the ravages of wild beasts. The wool, however, is rather fine, owing perhaps to the cold, from which nature iisually protects animals by a richer covering. Some of the hilly tracts in the Western District, where the climate is milder, have been pointed out as well fitted for supporting an improved breed of this animal. The hog alone does something to compensate the general deficiency of the animal creation, for though not large, its flesh is excel- lent, and forms the staple dish at every Canadian table. It finds nourishment amid the woods and pastures, filways in summer, and often during winter ; though some grain ought to be given in the latter season, as well as when it is to be fattened. Since the great depression in the price of wheat, salted pork has been considered the most profitable article which a farmer can raise. It may be observed, that the Eastern Town- ships, notwithstanding their severer climate, possess decidedly superior breeds of cattle. This seems partly owing to the variety of surface, and the numerous streams with which this region is watered ; and partly, it must be owned, to the character of the settlers, who have come chiefly from the neighbouring territory of the United States, and have introduced a more active and efficient mode of managing this branch of hus- bandry. The recent cattle shows at Sherbrooke, and other places in the same district, arc said to have dis- played specimens that would do hono\ir to similar exliilntions in EngLvad. It may be proper here to forewarn the settler with re- gard to an inconvenience that attends the keeping of live 'S*! 344 AGRICULTURE OF CANADA. stock in the ruder districts. As the fences are often slight, hastily put up, and meant to enclose a great extent of ground, spirited animals find little difficulty in clear- ing such barriers, and plunge into the woods, where all traces of them disappear. Without great care, the farmer will find a good deal of his time lost in this ha- rassing pursuit. Mention is made of a female cultivator, who almost every week mounted her pony, and sallied into the bush in search of stray cattle ; and sometimes a day or two elapsed before she and they returned. The author of the " Backwoods" notices a remarkable case of two newly purchased oxen which were missing for some time, and considered finally lost, when it was found that they had made their way, across twenty miles of trackless forest, to their former quarters. Mr Ferguson mentions a Higliland settler in Nichol, who said to him, — " I went out one evening to fetch in the cows, and it was two days before I could find my own way back." Breachy cattle, or those inclined to such excursions, often involve the proprietor in much trouble, when they break into and injure the neigh- bouring plantations, causing complaints and claims for damages. The best remedy is said to be a daily distribution of salt, which promotes their thriving, and is so grateful to them that they seldom fail to repair to the spot where it is usually given.* Horticulture is an elegant art, for which the Cana- dians have not yet found leisure. It has been observed, that farmers are usually bad gardeners ; and in that new country, where, during the season, so much work ur- gently presses, they can scarcely find time for ornamen- tal objects. The only garden which has attracted any notice in Upper Canada is Colonel Talbot's ; and Mr Shir- refF did not consider that, tried by an English standard, it would rank high, though containing some fine and well-managed trees. It appears, however, that when the • Talbot, pp. ;t04 -310, 17^-178. SliirrefF, p. 309. Backwoods, pp. 134, 194, J9u. Magrutli, p. 142. Ferguson's SecondJourney, p. l7. AGRICULTURE OF CANADA. 345 Canadians shall apply to this hranch of husbandry, they will find excellent materials. Fruits, in particular, arc observed to thrive, and the extremes of temperature ex- tejid the choice to those of different climates. The apple raised in the vicinity of Montreal now rivals that of New York. In the western districts, melons of large size and exquisite flavour, pome^ nates, gourds, and cucumbers, ai'e produced abundantly at the expense of very little labour. Strawberries of different species, raspbemes, gooseberries, currants, cherries, and even giapes, grow wild, and are found on the road-side or in sheltered fields. An author already quoted mentions two islands in an adjoining lake, one of which was called Strawberry, the other Raspberry. Cranberries are collected in large quan- tities by the Indian women, and sold iu baskets to tbe settlers, who muke use of them for pies and preserves. Culinary ' getables seem also to thrive extremely well ; and, notwithstanding the late season of sowing, the summer 'eat brings them rapidly to maturity. Among the best are said to be pease, especially the marrowfats ; and different species of lettuce, radishes, carrots, parsnips, and other roots, grow to an astonishing size. Vegetables are preserved through the winter in cellars, or more successfully in houses built close, with double log- walls, and the roof well secured. Cabbages, according to Mr Talbot, cannot be advantafreously grown, oji account of the ravages committed on ih^m. by insects. The raising of garden-stuffs is found very profitable in the neighbourhood of Montreal, where, for reasons not fully explained, they are always exceedingly dear.* Floriculture, a still more elegant but less necessary pursuit, attracts no attention, though nature in this department has been equally profuse in its materials. Meadows and tlie banks of rivers and lakes present, in many peaces, flower-beds rivalling the finest that art can * Shirreff, pp VVA, 140. Talbot vol. ii. Stntistical Sketches by a Backwoodsman (London, h)'63), p. ;7. Backwoods, pp. 14J, 144, ST, ■■ ' :l 346 AGRICULTURE OP CANADA. produce. The violet, the lily, the orchidea, and others which adorn our meads and gardens, apjx'ar under many elegant varir ties, accompanied with several Hj)ecies never ff^^n in this country. It is to be regretted, however, iiiat, amid such a vast assemblage of flowers, there ^tj few that eiriL any fragrance. The violet itself delf; if j tlie eye only. It has even been said of Canada, in gene- ral terms, that its flowers arc without scent, and its birds without song. But a lady, who viewed this subject with tlie eye of an amateur, discovered several agreeable ex- ceptions ; among which she mentions the wild rose, the lily of the valley, as well as the water lily ; a peculiar species called the milk- weed ; the purple monarda, which is fragrance all over, and retains H even after months of exposure to the wintry atmosphere. All the mints are strongly scented ; and some of the trees, particularly the swamp cedar and the balsam poplar, give a delight- ful odour. That singular species of maple which is filled with A saccharine juice is not to be overlooked by the Ca- nadian cultivator. Where his property contains any trees of this description, a large group at least should be preserved, for il;t jx rposc of supplying sugar. The best season for obt's'iii'"/ it is about the beginning of April, when the spring is iar advanced, yet the cold still severe ; and the most favourable day is one of bright sunshine, following a frosty night. The tree continues to run for about a month. It is commonly opened by a simple cut with an axe ; but a hole bored with an auger is said to be still more efficacious. The liquor, which immediately flows out, is conveyed by a hollow tube or spout to long troughs, and sometimes into large buckets or tubs, placed beneath. The sap taken off during the daj'^ is boiled in the evening. The first boiling converts the juice into molasses ; and then a more careful one fellows, by which it is made into sugar. During this last process, the scum that rises to the top must be carefully removed, otherwise it will materially injure the flavour. The substance AfJRTCULTTIUE OP CANADA. 347 red. otlierwise then consolidates into hard cakes, which, when hroken, resembki sujrar-candy. Mr Kvans rcconnncnds not to boil it so hard, but to allow the moistrirc to pass off by holes made in the h.irrel ; and another writer ad- vises to j)urity it before boilinj;, by straining' through flannel, after the manner of a jelly-bag. It is nearly In tlic state of West Indian muscovado, to whic' is by some thought little inferior, and by others even prcterre once hovered three or four days over the capital, when a continued war was carried on against them by all who could muster fire-arms of any description. The feathered tribes, in unfrequented places, fall easy victims, owing to their having no fear of man. Sir George Head has seen a whole covey drop one after anotlier without the survivors being in the least degree intimi- dated. Among quadinipeds, the beaver, the chief object of chase to the eai'ly settlers, is now nearly extirpated from all the range of settlement. At present the dee he principal game. The idea of Mr Shirreff^ and ot. i . writers, that they exist only in small numbers, is refuted by the diligent researches of Mr Magrath, a Canadian Nimrod. These animals, long hunted by the Indians, and thus accustomed to dread human art and power, fly even at a distant sound, and are never seen by a noisy pursuer. After one day's total failure from this cause, he was told that he must walk in the quietest manner, avoid- ing, if possible, to touch even the bough of a tree ; and by this means he soon obtained complete success. Such a mode of pursuit, borrow^ed seemingly from the Indians, has in view rather the result of the chase than its sportful vicissitudes. A similar remark applies also to the prac- tice of deer-stalking, or watcliing in concealment and AGRICULTURE OP CANADA. 351 L in the ock and lutumn, various >f lakes, between any so- tern dis- the most is dark; p^tic spe- d pigeons flocks, or . A body- lie capital, [nst them \ escription. 5, fall easy Sir George er aiiotlier ree intimi- ect of chase ■romallthe le principal rriters, that ;ed by th^J an Nimrod. s, and thus fly even at isy pursuer, ise, he was aner, avoid- ;ree ; and by ss. Such a the Indians, a. its sportful to the prac- jalment and silence the approach of the animal to one of the salt-licks or springs, which are his favourite resort. Night- shoot- ing is another process of the same kind, in which the hunter passes the hours of darkness, concealing his light till it is necessary to discover the retreat of the game. At other times, these timid creatures are driven by bands of men and dogs into a river or lake, where canoes wait to receive them : similar hunts, on a small scale, are carried on by whole tribes. It has been asserted that the Canadian deer do not afford the rich fat so much prized by the epicure ; but this is ascribed to their being hunted chiefly during the winter, amid deep snow, when they are of course in meagre condition. The bear is the most ferocious of the wild animals, yet cannot be considered as dangerous. He acts as if under a treaty of neutrality with man, whom he never attacks unless in self-defence. Yet as he scruples not to possess himself of a pig or other inmate of the farm-yard, tlie settler, with a view to prevention, recovery, or re- venge, often becomes the assailant. He is animated also by the desire of possessing the skin, not a little prized ; the flesh, considered very delicate ; and the grease, which forms so valuable a pommade. The person, however, who wounds this tenant of the desert, without killing or dis- abling him, is placed in a very perilous predicament ; and should never make the attempt without having one or two shots in reserve. The wolf is another de- predator, extremely dangerous to the flocks, but who shuns the presence of man. He is not usually hunted for amusement ; but, on account of his destructive qualities, the legislature have set a price on his head, which it is hoped will reduce or exterminate the race.* Another pursuit, for which there exist ample ma- terials, is yet scarcely in its infancy. The extensive fisheries, which enrich the maritime provinces of British America, have not hitherto created any interest in the * Statistical Sketches, pp. 33, 39 ; 45-48. ShirrefF, p. 390. IVIagrath, pp. 1M2, 2,iy-2fiH. Head's Forest Scenes and Incidents (8vo, London, 1829), p. 233. ,'11' . ! fii m I; I'' m 352 I AGRICULTURE OF CANADA. interior. Yet its vast waters contain numerous species, which must, as the country advances, become more and more important. The salmon abounds in Ontario, and is supposed hy Dr Dunlop not to visit the ocean ; but Mr Magrath, obseiving that it never ascends above Niagara, nor is found in any lake not communicating with the sea, concludes that it does perform this voyage, however long. The usual mode of taking them, learned from the Indians, is by spearing from a canoe, particu- larly in the night ; but there is always some risk of this frail bark being upset. The most delicate creature in those waters is that called white-fish, resembling the herring, but superior. In some places it is caught by the seine, and packed in barrels of 200 lbs., which sell at from twenty-seven to thirty shillings. The herring is also plentiful, but not very fine. Other common kinds are the trout, mullet, pike, pickerel, bass — black and white and rock — and masquinonge, a fish pecu- liar to the country, and highly esteemed. But all of them, it is maintained, must yield to the Mackinaw trout, found only in Lakes Huron and Superior, which weighs from twenty to fort}', and even ninety pounds, and has flesh of extreme delicacy. There can be no doubt of the ultimate success of this important branch of industry ; though the extent of capital required, and the distance from markets, give little encouragement to any immediate attempt on a great scale.* * Statistical Sketches, p. 49. Pickering. Backwoods, pp. 159, 160. END OF VOLUME FIRST. Printed by Oliver dr Boyd, Tweeddale Court, High Street, Edinburgh. cies, and and ean; bove iting ^age, rned ticu- ;k of iture g the It by lell at rring imon black pecu- all of iinaw v^hich )unds, be no ►ranch d, and icnt to 59, 160.