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I;^;^-^"^ ^^^^^^'-^"-^ /^ .- ^fiJ}t//„-,S> ^ 3^'f^-.. ■':-;:^->I^oU- hidinji Lrntds as c si fz 1)1 1. sited Uauis> ttw Indiitti. liilc to which is Or incf cxtintjuislicd Ii(tiicl3 to he cslifhlwlmclcts Iiulurji Lands Ma]) showmg INDIAN RESERVATIONS ill the I'nited States W nsl ot: the 84^'^ Meridian and NUMBER ^V INDIANS belont^ing Ihfreto 1882 AV ///; ' ,i(fc uciL 's \ '/si fe. it u ndci • sp^ ijjuuuJ/iiJ. uu .UDtnuljxry (ff' tJie Jfilitc Wnnbrrof 1 1 1 tlicoi^' in Inded St - (/(} (Jo ////■/. /J/ K I >-7 ,> ■<-, } \ I if / incos ♦,-Piv. '^JieytJ>tr$'^-if7,^ ^^s^■M>c^v^A'v)^Q^^^\\^;- - //tii//ji/i ''vV>_. ■, ^"!< ^^. -'\'^-"^ X 1 ;' — ;-w>-7 -----v. ^ — >^,. -A , ^ .^..^-^- r^'- N !•: ^v H - -^- ^ ^ 5a* uOKONSA^^j-j 11,^^,01 •Milium 'jor,o JEM tl'l ->*^:: ^--^ ■*-<.. IV-' *iruin!liufa U^ v-N /'"'>/) ) -H-4 t^^^i:^ \ \ . \ \^ t^,, 1 llii: nr __.J r 1-: |3;/^INDIANRE5eRVAl!0N5 1 nditai J S 'J SidJotis iHCf'picd by /|.S!7Wxy ' -- <> /► 4 V CO II A Mrn-\ /o/; i/ccl undci' specidl uistruf'f'u)n,s oflJic //icNl OcucrffJ crry (rf' IJie MUiUny /Jtv'muiiof the Mi^samt oth' in l^niJeii Sfiifrs, f.C's Ncporfof'/fW/} /JS/Mo/ .i/i/, IhK Mo. do /?.'7.r./D k V» I \ > K (Two 'i- ** ^n '•^'*" J' \. ^ ^ / rzrr^.. ^ H: 1 ^^■ ' ; r ■\_ Jr'/r'/-//'". '-<\ ^> •A-, V, ?/ \ \ \ 9r; V/ r«Mr«««Mi ■a IND I GESTURE DESCRIPTIO MYTHS, PEAC THE INDIAN SIGN LANGUAGE, WITH BRIEF EXPLANATORY NOTES OF THE GESTURES TAUGHT DEAF-MUTES IN OUR INSTITUTIONS FOR THEIR INSTRUCTION, AND A DESCRIPTION OF SOME OF THE PECULIAR LAWS, CUSTOMS, MYTHS, SUPERSTITIONS, WAYS OF LIVING, CODE OF PEACE AND WAR SIGNALS OF OUR ABORIGINES. VV. p. CLARK, O. S. ARMY. PHILADELPHIA: L. R. HAMERSLY & CO. 1885. ) HEA Copyright, 1884. by L.R..HAMEKM.Y& CO. 55 1885 Lieut.-Gei Sir,— I 1 instruction; the territor tories and i This woi Indians thi by a caref customs. # HEADQUARTERS ARMY OF THE UNITED STATES, Washington, D.C, Julyjih, 1884. Lieut.-General p. H. Sheridan. Sir, — I have the honor to submit herewith, in compliance with your instructions, a work upon the Sign Language of the Indians living within the territory of the United States, with some account of their tribal his- tories and race peculiarities. This work is based upon my own observations, made among the Indians thtmselves during a period of more than six years, supplemented by a careful study of the principal authorities on Indian habits and customs. Very respectfully, Your obedient servant, W. P. CLARK, Captain Second Cavalry. It seer first be g sign lang of the op derstandi be added to the la; which I h During 1876, I n enlisted I Crow, an* I had, of dians, bill On the m morning, took my f served th; difficulty 1 course by immediate; guage arc good ana acquire an 'L'he ...ar remained I bringing n Pmoux, Chi festivals, a In 1878 west, and years, the intimate r Assinaboin other tribe knowledge in impart ir able interpi INTRODUCTORY. It seems proper in ':v.bmitting this work that a brief account should first be given of the manner in which I acquired a knowledge of the sign language of the Indians, and that I should at least outline some of the opportunities which have been given me for gaining an un- derstanding of race peculiarities, as I think something will thereby be added to the weight of the exj-essed opinions not only in regard to the language, but to other rrutters pertaining to our aborigines which I have touched upon. During the Sioux and Cheyenne war of 1876-7, in November of 1876, I found myself in command of some three hundred friendly enlisted Indian scouts of the Pawnee, Shoshone, Arapahoe, ('heyenne, Crow, and Sioux tribes; six tribes having six different vocal languages. I had, of course, before known of the sign language used by our In- dians, but here I was strongly impressed with its value and beauty. On the march, by their camp-fires at night, and in the early gray of morning, jiist before charging down on a hostile Indian village, I took my first lessons in this language and in Indian tactics. I ob- served that these Indians, having different vocal languages, had no difficulty in communicating with each other, and held constant inter- course by means of gestures. For the practical benefits which would immediately ensue, I devoted myself to the study of the gesture lan- 'juage and the people. I found that the Indians were wonderfully good arid patient instructors, and that the gesture speech was easy to acquire rnd '^member. '."he ...ampaign ended. I was ordered to Red Cloud Agency, and remained tliere and at Spotted Tail Agency for a year, my duties bringing me in close and constant contact and intercourse with the Sioux, Cheyennes, and Arapahoes, — in their camps, at their feasts, festivals, and funerals, and in the field with scouting-parties. In 1878-9 and 1880, my duties carried me farther to the north- vest, and though engaged mostly in field operations during these years, the character of the service was such that I was thrown into intimate relations with the Cheyennes, Sioux, Crows, Bannacks, Assinaboines, Gros Ventres of the Prairie,. Mandans, Arickarees, and other tribes in that region, and had almost constant use for my knowledge of gesture speech. I found this of great value, not only in imparting and receiving information, but as a check upon unreli- able interpreters. 5 INTRODUCTORY. In 1 88 1 I was directed by Lieutenant-General Sheridan to ^ubmit to him a work on the Indian sign language, with such remarks upon the habits, manners, and customs of the Indians as might be consid- ered necessary and proper. To complete and perfect my study of the language and people, I, under orders from him, visited several tribes in the Indian Territory, in Minnesota, Manitoba, Northwest Territory, Dakota, Montana, Nebraska, Utah, Wyoming, and Idaho. Ujjon the accompanying map are indicated the locations of the agencies and tribes where I made this special investigation. I have faithfully endeavored to ascertain the facts, and to complete my study of this language so far as I was able to do so by personal con- versation in gesture speech with the Indians of the tribes which I visited, and to learn whatever I could of its existence or non-exist- ence at present, and its status in olden times. To insure all this I prepared a list of words, phrases, idioms, etc., and on reaching the different agencies or encampments, obtained an interpreter, and secured the services of some of the Indians who were reported as the most accomplished in gesture speech. The interpreter translated the words, etc., the Indians made the signs, and I, taking the sign language as I had* learned it as a standard, noted the differences where there were any, provided always, of course, that the differences were not merely personal flourishes or careless abbreviations; i.e., in case the root of the sign was changed or did not appear, I carefully noted it. Although individuals may obscure the meaning of these gestures through carelessness, awkwardness, or efforts to secure a superabundance of graceful execution, yet one skilled in the sign language will instantly recognize them, provided that they possess the radical or essential part. This careful comparison finished, I then entered into conversation personally by signs with the Indians, and had them relate to me stories, autobiographies, etc. In this way I was of course able to discover if my method of making signs was understood, and detect any gesture that I hid not before seen. I then mixed with the Indians generally, v' sited their camps, and endeavored to ascertain the extent of the uiiderstanding of gesture speech in the tribe or band. I also interviewed some of the old Jesuit fathers, interpreters, traders, trappers, half-breeds, and others who had had a long experi- ence with these people. I discovered that to have the Indians first make the gestures was absolutely necessary, because, if one makes a sign to an Indian in a certain way, the ciiances are ten to one he will return it in the same way, even though he may never have seen it before. For instance, if a person in conversation in gestures with a Crow Indian were to use the Ute sign for pony, the Indian, should he have occasion to make the sign in return to the same per- son witliin a few minutes' time, would use the same gesture, and in this way unintentionally deceive the investigator. I have noted under Sign Language the evidence obtained from the Indians in regard to the use and extent of the language at the present time and in remote periods of their history, and have else- where tribes; statemc ever to of uttei learned all, the; on man traces o merely ( I am r work to jecture, 1 small be^ unfolded dian as li our civili, it, I feel and I iinl; of the ori I think have been American I days of C tion. Scl each susta only by t their origi One disco tribes of . dinavia, fr Strait, acr I^'olynesian thaginians tlie westep itors are st ^ease not these fanci found earn loiis." Not onl theorists, set forth, (Ired langu 'ence abou 'igo. Ano il> o INTRODUCTORY. \ It in i- of al :st lO. he ive Tiy Dn- 1 I ist- tc, I an /ere \ eter ; the nces nces ., in fully these ire a sign s the ation 3 me lie to etect che rtain be or eters, peri- first ces a )ne he seen stures •\dian, I per- nd in from at the ■e else- where given my reasons for the similarity of gestures among all the tribes; and my personal experience fully sustains Professor Whitney's statement, that "the art of talking by gesture is too natural to man ever to be lost, though put down by, on the whole, greater availab'lity of utterance as proved by experience, and if two men, who Iiave not learned each other's tongue, meet and desire to exchange thoughts at all, they will resort to gesture and arrive at a mutual understanding on many points, whether they liave a common origin and certain traces of hereditary (rather traditional^ habits, or whether they have merely the accordant endowments of a common humanity." ORIGIN OF THE AMERICAN INDIANS. I am not prepared to discuss the origin of man, and I wish in this work to enter as little as possible the fields of s|)eculation and con- jecture, but " human science shows that the world has unfolded from small beginnings, and it is reasonable to suppose that so the race has unfolded," and having thought much, and observed closely tlie In- dian as he is found at j^resent, botli in his debased condition near our civilization, and in his wild state before coming in contact with it, I feel that I should at least place some of my views on record, and I unhesitatingly pronounce in favor of the Autochthonic theory of tlie origin of our aborigines. I think Mr. H. H. Bancroft happily summarizes the views that have been advanced in regard to this subject wiien he says, "The American Indians, their origin and consanguinity, have from tiie days of Columbus to the present time proved no less a knotty ques- tion. Schoolmen and scientists count their theories by hundreds, eacli sustaining some pet conjecture with a logical clearness equalled only by the facility with which he demolishes all the rest. One proves their origin by Holy Writ, anotiier by the sage sayings of the fathers. One discovers in them Pheenician merchants, another the ten lost tribes of Israel. Tliey are tracked witli e(iual certainty from Scan- dinavia, from Ireland, from Iceland, from Greenland, across Behring Strait, across the Northern Pacific, the Southern Pacific, from the Polynesian Islands, from Australia, from Africa. Venturesome Car- thaginians were thrown upon the eastern shore, Japanese junks on the westepi. The breezes that wafted hither America's primogen- itors are still blowing, and the ocean currents by wiiich they came cease not yet to flow. The finely-spun webs of logic by which these fancies are maintained would prove amusing did not the pro- found earnestness of their respective advocates render them ridicu- lous." Not only has the origin of the race been settled by these visionary theorists, but the origin and migrations of separate tribes carefully set forth, one writer claiming that those speaking the Sioux and kin- dred langu ;es landed on this continent near the Gulf of St. Law- rence aboui the same time, jirobably at least three thousand years ago. Another insists that in the Mandans he discovered a lost 8 INTRODUCTORY. Welsh colony, and proves his statement by a description of some of their physical peculiarities, such as light hair and blue eyes, and more startling and conclusive still, discovered through a Welshman he had with iiim that they spoke the Welsh language. It is hardly necessary now to say that the Welshman wantonly imposed upon the searcher after savage lore, and the light hair and blue eyes have since been accounted for. Believing, then, that the American man "is as indigenous as the fauna a.r\d flora, ^^ it does not matter, and at this late day it certainly cannot be determined, whether the tribes found on this continent at the time of its discovery were unfolded from several groups of sav- ages occupying widely separated geographical areas, or were slowly evolved from one. The erosion of time has worn away all records, ui:*^ it seems proper to briefly outline the reasons for this belief. There was certainly nothing in the languages of the different tribes which justified a belief in this early migration ; no trace of ancient arts and inscriptions, or of monumental data, has been discovered among them, and certainly it is only reasonable to suppose that a people sufficiently advanced to conquer the obstacles of such a migra- tion would have been developed intellectually and physically to a degree beyond that required for preserving some evidence of such a wonderful event in their lives ; but from the fretted shores of the Atlantic to the fair waters of the Pacific nothing of this kind has ever been found, and there is no evidence of a foreign origin in their traditions or myths, although these go back in the eternity of the past to the time of their creation, — to the flood, — to the period in their develoi)ment when they first used the bow and arrow. The mere fact that they had certain customs, habits, manners, and religious rites common 'to humanity in some other parts of the world, only shows that man in the same plane, stage, or period of savagery, barbarism, or civilization, possesses many similar traits, mentally, morally, and physically. I cannot point to amore striking illustration of this than to call attention to the astronomical discoveries, and to the wonderful in- ventions which have simultaneously sprung into existence; in short, to the results which have been achieved by the scientific minds of different nations of the world, working out their problems at widely separated geographical points, the one entirely ignorant o( the exist- ence of the other, and though their minds were subjected to different surroundings and influence, still becoming pregnant with the same ideas at the same time. These things are more strange and peculiar to me than that in the lower stages of human evolution the sun should have been regarded with superstitious awe, or that certain rude social customs of the Indians should have been similar to those of the peo- ples of some other country. It would, indeed, be rash to make any positive assertions as to race origin. One must not attempt, as Professor Whitney tersely says, "to carry too definite a light too far back into the obscure past." It is safe to say, however, that all writers agree in giving to the na- tions of physical humanit' in format fords no even mor tory most writing, each figur band or tr of sma]]p( jacent trib years. Picture- common t, only ones The trai left by n v as the task lis into tlie this late da and the poi may yet tra man on thi savagery an stage of bar O In regard ;ind use of ^ scientific inl more expre' the dog witll joy, sorrow, is not at all I'loyed by atj fc'uage. TocI a degree of a| or emotionalf of intelJigen| advanced in K^ant held, of developmj tions has dis. three-years-ol and carry on] which would Broadly, t INTRODUCTORY. 9 tions of America a remote antiquity. Traditions, ruins, moral and physical peculiarities, all denote that, several thousand years ago, humanity existed on this continent. Of what type history gives no information, science can throw no definite light, and conjecture af- fords no satisfciction. The data in regard to the Plains Indians are even more unsatisfactory than with other native nations. Their his- tory mostly hangs on the slender threads of oral tradition and picture- writing. The latter is a sort of hieroglyphical chart upon which each figure represents the most important event that happened to the band or tribe during the year, — the death of a noted chief, the scourge of smallpox or measles, tiie capture of a woolly pony from some ad- jacent tribe, — and these charts rarely go back more than one hundred years. Picture-writings which represent the histories of individuals are so common that many writers have wrongly asserted that these were the only ones kept. The trail of tlieir migration on the vast prairies is like tlie track left by a vessel on the troubled waters of the ocean. But hopeless as the task at first glance appears, poor as tlie guides are which lead us into the chaos of the past, yet scientific investigation has even at this late day done much to crystallize the unknown into the known, and the power and force of civilization, guided by the hand of genius, may yet trace the lines which mark much of the growth of primitive mati on this continent, througli a part of the long dark period of savagery and the gray light which dawned upon him in his early stage of barbarism. lie na- ORIGIN OF INDIAN SIGN LANGUAGE. In regard to the degree of intelligence necessary for the invention and use of gesture speech there is a great variety of opinion among scientific investigators. Says one, " What gesture language can be more expressive than that employed by the horse with its ears, and the dog with its tail, wherein are manifestations of every shade of joy, sorrow, courage, shame, and anger?" Another claims that "it is not at all probable that a system of gesture language was ever em- ]>loyed by any primitive people i)rior or in preference to vocal lan- guage. To communicate by signs requires no little skill, and imjjlies a degree of artifice and forethought far beyond that required in vocal or emotional language. Long before a child arrives at the point of intelligence necessary tor conveying thoughts by signs it is well advanced in a vocal language of its own." Kant held the opinion that the mind of a deaf-mute was incapable of development ; but the wonderful success of our modern institu- tions has dissipated forever that idea ; and I have seen the little three-years-old child of a deaf-mute Indian hold up its tiny hands and carry on a conversation (without any attempt at vocal speech) which would have done credit to any child of that age. Broadly, the term language may be applied to whatever means 10 INTRODUCTORY. social beings employ to communicate passion or sentiment, or to influence one another ; whatever is made a vehicle of intelligence, idiogra|)hic or phonetic, is language, and the object of language is to arrive by skilful combinations of known signs at the expression of something unknc .vn to one of the parties; i.e., the idea to be con- veyed. At a very early period of the savage state the necessity for com- munication developed certain signs, visible and vocal, which met the wants of the necessity felt at the time. In all probability vocal signs were not at first as rapidly developed as gestures, but though of slower growth, they finally crowded out, and in a measure took the place of facial expression and bodily movements, so that by the time when the later stage or period of savagery, or perhaps barbarism, was reaciied, each group in tliis unfolding process, which might be called a family, band, or tribe, had retained only a few of their original gestures, and had for the communication of conceptions and the operations of thought a rude and imperfect articulate language. Extreme poverty in such language would undoubtedly require gesture to confirm and elucidate the meaning intended to be conveyed, and in the beginning, whatever other uncertainties may thickly cluster about and obscure the subject, no one, I think, will question the poverty of their articulate speech. The myths of nearly every tribe oi Indians seem to evidence the fact that there was a time in their development when they did not have the bow and arrow. This is interesting and important only as showing the growth of their inventive and imitative faculties, essen- tial qualities in language-making. Whether, as I have before stated, the North American Indians are the result of the growth or unfolding of one or several groups of savages, the great number of distinct vocal languages, about seventy- six, and the great variety of .ialects of the same language, need not be to the philological student so much a matter of surprise, for through natural causes, such as internal trouble, wars with other tribes, in short, the segregation which takes i)lace when humanity is in the hunter state, the savages would necessarily have crystallized into separate families or bands, and in these bands, after rf long period of time, an articulate speech would have been developed, perfected, and marked by the influence of their surroundings, such as food, climate, occupation, etc. After such development of utter- ance these bands may, in the course of time, have been broken by causes similar to those which brought about the original segregation, and the fragments may have drifted to widely-separated geographical areas, and the philologist now finding them, discovers that their vocal languages belong to what he terms a "common stock." Laying aside all conjectures as to race origin, and simply taking the savages as they were found in recent times, we find that after each group or tribe had developed a distinct set of vocal signs, forming a I marked and peculiar articulate speech which was useful as a means of communicating ideas only to the members of the group, the tribes I again m necessit) vocal spi describee prairies c language, veliicle fc on this c( Before status of : times, so That W( ture speec by the foil Clarke in winter of m their vil ent site o Clieyennes that gesture tribes as it f^ict, and n waters of tl I'i these exj: the Indians i do not ti liave, undei I liave ca tures anionj graphical ar reason for tl Mr. Banc tlian I have most fertile q'Jin, was th I'lymouth. Des Moines land of the t'le southerr exclusively, 'ongitude an The six n Morgan, wei conversation "ow spoken close reseml while the On t^ut are also - I differences." -mjf /NTRODUCrORY. II to iCe, e is lof :on- ;om- t the iigns h of : the time , was lalled ginal d the ;uage. ssture 1, and ;Uister )n the ! ans are lups of venty- ed not se, for other anity is tallized a: long eloped, s, such f utter- )ken by gation, aphical at their tock." ving the ter each rming ai a means | Rie tril again met as is ilhistrated by our Plains Indians. Here again the necessity for intercommunication between tribes having different vocal speech developed gesture speech, the sign language I have described, so that the many-tongued hordes of the vast sea-like prairies can at least be credited with perfecting and beautifying the language, which in all probability, with vocal imitations, formed the vehicle for the expression of the building thouglits of i)rimitive man on this continent. Before considering this special growth. I will briefly touch on the status of some of the Eastern tribes and their languages in former times, so far as history sheds any light on the subject. That we find no positive evidence of the existence and use of ges- ture speech does not necessarily show that there was none, as is shown by the following notable examples. Circumstances forced Lewis and Clarke in their exploration of the then unknown West to spend the winter of 1804-5 with the Mandans, Gros Ventres, and Arickarees in their village on the Missouri, only a short distance below the pres- ent site of their camp at Fort Berthold. During the winter the Cheyennes and Sioux visited this village, and there can be no doubt that gesture speech was daily and hourly used by the members of these tribes as it is to-day when they meet, but no mention is made of the fact, and not until these explorers met the Shoshones near the head- waters of the Missouri do we find any note made of signs being used. If these explorers who entered so minutely into the characteristics of the Indians in their writmgs failed to make a record of this language, 1 do not think it very surprising that earlier investigators should have, under less favorable auspices, also neglected it. I have called attention to the lack of any systematic code of ges- tures among the Algonquins, and given some idea of the great geo- graphical area covered by their language, and I believe this to be tlie reason for the non-culture and lack of general use of signs. Mr. Bancroft makes the vocal language even more comprehensive than I have claimed, for he says, "The most widely diffused and the most fertile in dialects of all North American languages, the Algon- quin, was the mother-tongue of those who welcomed the Pilgrims to Plymouth. It was heard from the Bay of Gaspe to the valley of the Des Moines, from Cape Fear, and it may be from Savannah, to the land of the Eskimos, from the Cumberland River of Kentucky to the southern bank of the Mississippi. It was spoken, though not exclusively, in a territory that extended through sixty degrees of longitude and more than twenty degrees of latitude." The six nations forming the Iroquois League, according to Mr. Morgan, were all able to understand each other with readiness in conversation, though he says, "Of the six dialects in which it is now spoken (Iroquois language), the Mohawk and Oneida have a close resemblance to each other, the Cayuga and Seneca the same, while the Onondaga and Tuscarora are not only unlike each other, hut are also distinguished from the other four by strong dialectical differences." 12 IN-^RODUCTORY. The Iroquois League at the time spoken of by Mr. Morgan did not need gestures to communicate with each other, but it must be remem- bered that prior to the greatness, power, and advanced stage of bar- barism which this confederacy achieved, many of them 'vvv^re living in amity with the Algonquins, and at this time, probably, gestures were used. Of this period Mr. Morgan says, "Their remote origin and their history anterior to the discovery are both enshrouded with ob- scurity. Tradition interposes its feeble light to extricate from the confusion which time has wrought some of the leading events which preceded and marked their political organization. It informs us that prior to their occupation of New York they resided in the vicinity of Montreal, upon the northern bank of the St. Lawrence, where they lived in subjection to the Adirondac':s, a branch of the Algonquin race then in possession of the whole country north of that river. At that time the Iroquois were but one ni. \\ and few in num- ber. From the Adirondacks they learned the art of husbandry, and while associated with them became inured to the hardships of the war-path and of the chase. After they had multiplied in numbers and improved by experience, they made an attempt to ■secure the in- dependent possession of the country they occupied, but having been in the struggle overpowered and vanquished by the Adirondacks, they were compelled to retire from the country to escape extermina- tion." As I have stated, there is scarcely anything in written history to guide one, and I doubt the reliability of any of the traditions which can now be gathered from the wretched remnants of these once pow- erful tribes. It required long and patient study and investigation to obtain reliable data from the Plains Indians in regard to the growth of the language with them. It was easy and safe, and disposed of the matter at once to say, it was a gift from God, and many of them answered my inquiries as did "Iron Hawk," the Sioux chief, when he said, "The whites have had the power given them by the Great Spirit to read and write, and convey information in this way. He gave us the power to talk with our hands and arms, and send infor- mation with the mirror, blanket, and pony far away, and when we meet with Indians who have a different spoken language from ours, we can talk to them in signs." Schoolcraft gives something, but the little that is noted relates rather more to signals than signs. Wampum seems to have been given rather than tobacco to indicate a friendly feeling. A sapling cut to within two or three feet of the gicund, its bark carefully peeled off, so as to be conspicuous^ and a stone placed on the stump, indicated that the Oneidas were in the vicinity, and a signal-fire lighted near the Oneida stone warned them for ms ny miles east, west, north, and south. Existence of war was indicated by a tomahawk painted red, ornamented with red feathers, and with black wampum struck in the war-post in each village of the league. At their night encampments they cut upon the trees certain de- vices to indicate their numbers and destination. On their return they did number si The CO favorable North, foi various ti Trumbull " The Chickasas, and Hitch Georgia, l iana, east westward, small tribt Tennessee "TheC same langi Creeks, Se speak diale The nec( vocal langi that gestun After so reliable dat that we cor evidence of in my mine of rapidly < within the say that an others. Al of inventiv( and very sic It will re great plains transporting in place of signs much i from year's ( some superic bring them i Linguistic, hundred or o if not of ori speech, may First. The or other caus ing in Westei and customs. INTRODUCTORY. n bark :ed on land a miles by a black Lin de- return they did the same, showing also the number of captives and the mmiber slain. The condition of affairs in the South was, however, much more favorable to the growth or perfection of gesture speech than in the North, for there were many different vocal languages spoken by the various tribes in that section. In regard to this Dr. j. Hammond Trumbull says, — "The Chahta Muskokis family, comprising the Choctaws and Chickasas, Muskokis or Creeks, Seminoles, Coussattis, Alabamas, and Hitchitis, occupied the territory now constituting the States of Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, and Florida, with a portion of Louis- iana, east of the Mississippri, except the shore of the Gulf of Mobile westward, and the banks of the Mississippi inhabited by various small tribts, and a tract in Northern Alabama, on both sides of the Tennessee River, which belonged to the Cherokees. " The Choctaws and Chickasas speak nearly related dialects of the same language, to which probably the Hitchiti also belongs. The Creeks, Seminoles, and small tribes of Coussattis and Alabamas, speak dialects of another language of the same stock." The necessity for intercommunication between tribes existed, the vocal languages were different, and it is only reasonable to suppose that gestures were used. After so much uncertainty in the East, and such great poverty of reliable data in the extreme West, it is with comfort and satisfaction that we contemplate the present status, and examine the traditional evidence of the growth of the language with our Plains Indians, and in my mind there is no doubt that this language, viewed in the light of rapidly communicating ideas, has been greatly enriched by them within the last two hundred years. I consider it at least unwise to say that any one particular tribe invented it and taught it to the others. All languages have of course needed the healthy stimulus of inventive and imitative faculties, but they, like humanity, grow, and very slowly, into beauty and usefulness. It will readily be seen that the predatory hordes occupying the great plains, and having but recently come into a better means of transporting their possessions over long distances, viz., by the pony in place of the dog, would naturally and necessarily need and use signs much more than mountain tribes, whose habitat did not change from year's end to year's end, unless they were compelled to move by some superior force, and whose surroundings and occupation did not bring them in contact with strange tongues. Linguistically considered, the tribes which during the last one hundred or one bundled and fifty years have had determined centres, if not of origin, certainly of perfection and propagation of gesture speech, may be divided into five groups, as follows: First. The Cheyennes and Arapahoes, who, for mutual protection or other causes, had been together for a long time, — since their meet- ing in Western Minnesota. They were alike in many of their manners and customs, but each had a vocal language totally different from the 14 INTRODUCTORY. Other, and both were difficult to acquire; the Arapahoe tongue being almost imjjossible to master. These two tribes were at this time a powerful nation, numbering probably not less than four thousand lodges, and perhaps five, the present Northern and Southern bands being united. (See Chey- enne.) Not only were their vocal languages different from each other, but they were also totally unlike that of any of the tribes which surrounded them ; and in their prairie driftings, in their search for game, in their relations both of peace and war with these tribes, there was constantly with them the necessity for gesture speech, and in its growth and perfection I consider that these two tribes exercised a greater influence than any of the rest. Second. The Mandans, Gros Ventres, and Arickarees, with whom similar conditions obtained as with the Arapahoes and Cheyennes ; the Mandan language ranking in difficulty of acquirement about with the Arapahoe. They were also numerous and powerful, but main- tained almost constant warfare with the surrounding tribes, and this, taken in connection with their permanent villages, limited their influence. lliird. The Crows. These Indians were literally surrounded by tribes, with whom they cam'' constantly in contact, who spoke (with the exception of their kin, the Gros Ventres) languages different from their own, and their relations with these tribes seemed to vi- brate between peace and war. In later years the Nez Perces, Ban- nacks. Snakes, and Crows confederated in their annual buffalo-hunt to protect themselves from the Blackfeet, Sioux, Cheyennes, and Arapahoes, and not many years ago the Crows formed an alliance with the Blackfeet and Gros Ventres of the prairie, when the Cheyennes, Sioux, and-Arapahoes drove them northwest out of their country. Fourth. The Blackfeet. These had been joined by the Gros Ventres of the prairie soon after the Cheyennes and Arapahoes crossed the Missouri River, and they lived in harmony together until within a few years. Their vocal languages were totally different, and they had constant intercourse with other tribes. A few years since the Gros Ventres of the prairie joined the Assinaboines, with whom they are now living. Fifth. The Kiowas and Apaches. The time when these tribes first joined their forces is beyond the reach of tradition. When the Cheyennes crossed the Missouri they were living together west of the Black Hills of Dakota, and were forced south by the Cheyennes and Arapahoes on the north, the Utes on the west, and the Pawnees, Omahas, and others to the east, until they found refuge and protec- tion with the powerful Comanche nation. Here again vocal languages were different, and daily conmiunica- tion with each other and with surrounding tribes was necessary, so that in all probability when they joined the Comanches they were much more proficient in the use of gesture speech than were the members of that tribe, and as a consequence some writers, basing their bel the Kiow The cc Comanch took plac have exe gestures a Other ( but I hav( It shou intercours maintenan course the language r in the cast speaks the fcw of the tongue. £ Arapahoe, Kven in have obser' Before t coffee was i the process coffee-mill as though t is to-day i tribes. The origi say, coincid for commur perfection £ tion betweei different voc Could thi: to the facili extremely d hands in spa would, by fo this part of time and t descriptions signs will be those conver scriptions hi elements. In my des mine their ^ common use* INTRODUCTORY. »5 tribes lien the ; of the kes and Iwnees, Iprotec- their belief on the evidence of Southern Indians, liave stated that the Kiowas "invented the sign hmguage." The confederation of the Ciieyennes, Sioux, Arapahoes, Kiowas, Comanches, Apaches, and some other tribes, against tiie Utes, which took place about fifty years ago, though of short duration, still must have exercised a marked influence in weeding out undesirable gestures and establishing better ones. Other centres of influence, growth, or perfection could be cited, but I have instanced the most pronounced. It should be clearly borne in mind that the stimulus of outside intercourse is necessary to keep alive the interest required for tiie maintenance and development of the language. Without this inter- course the weaker tribe is absorbed in the stronger, and the vocal language most easily acquired prevails. This is strikingly illustrated in the case of the Bannacks and Shoshones. Nearly every Bannack speaks the Shoshone language fluently and well, but there are very few of the Shoshones who have any knowledge of the Bannack tongue. Some claim that it is even more difficult to master than Arapahoe, while the Shoshone is easily acquired. Even in my comparatively short experience with the Indians, I have observed the birth, growth, and death of many gestures. Before the introduction of the coffee-mill among the Indians, coffee was represented as s. grain, or more elaborately by describing the process of preparing and drinking the beverage. The little coffee-mill killed off these gestures at once, and the motion made as though turning the crank of the mill to grind the parched berry is today understood as meaning coffee by nearly all the Plains tribes. The origin of the Indian sign language is, then, I think it safe to say, coincident with his primitive condition, with his first necessity for communication with his fellow-man ; and its development and perfection are also the result of the necessity of intercommunica- tion between tribes, who, long ages after its first use, had developed different vocal languages. Could this work have been illustrated, it would have added greatly to the facility of understanding and making the gestures, for it is extremely difficult to describe the most simple movements of the hands in space, so that a person who had never seen the movements would, by following the descriptions, make the correct motions. To this part of the work I have given great care, have devoted much time and thought, and if the directions contained in the brief descriptions are carried out, I am confident that the most of the signs will be made in such a manner as to be readily recognized by those conversant with the language. In fact, nearly all of the de- scriptions have been tested and found to contain these essential elements. In my description of the different parts of the hands, to deter- mine their positions and movements, I have adopted the terms in common use, rather than the precise anatomical nomenclature. The i6 INTRODUCTORY. joints arc numbered from tlie extremities of tlie fingers. The radial side or edge of the hand is called tiie upper edge, and the ulnar side or edge tiie lower edge; the palmar surface, /(;//« of hand, and dorsal surface, back of hand. The thumb and index finger extended and abducted are termed spread thtunb and index. The term com- pressed hand is used to mean the position or arrangement of the hand in which the fingers are extended, but the tips of index and little fingers are brought as near each other as possible, under and pressing against second and third fingers, and the palmar surface of extended thumb, from tip to first articulation, presses against palmar surface of second and third fingers behind their second articulation. The word outwards is used as synonymous \\\\.\\ front ; i.e., neither to the riglit nor left of the median line of tiie body. In speaking of horizontal and vertical curves, of course the |)lanes of these curves are intended to be represented as horizontal or vertical. To reduce verbiage, the designation Southern Indians is used to include the southern bands of Clieyennes and .^rajjahoes, the Kiowas, Apaches, Caddos, Comanclies, Wicliitas, and generally the tribes in the Indian Territory; Berthold Indians for tlie Hidatsas or Gros Ventres, Mandans, and Arickarees; Belknap Indians for the Gros Ventres of the Prairie and .Assinahoines ; Blackfeet Indians for the Bloods, Blackfeet, and Piegans ; Afissoula Indians for the Nez Perces, Flatheads, Pend d'Oreilles, and Koutenays. In addition to the practical value of communicating directly with the Indians, — i.e., w'thout the aid of an interpreter, — f 3sture speech discloses much of th sociological status of our aborigines, and dis- covers the meaning of iny words in their different languages which would otherwise remain ' "ure if not iniknown. It also leads in some cases directly to corre^ 'nformation in regard to the segrega- tion of the tribe into bands, an^ Mie origin of the causes which pro- duced it, so that a thorough knowledge of signs must necessarily be of great assistance in anthropological studies. For instance, the tribal sign for the Sioux or Dakota Indians reveals the custom, which they in olden times practised, of cutting off the heads of their slain enemies ; and the :>i rns for the Ogalalla, Minnecoujon, and Unca- papa bands furnish a clue to the correct interpretation of these words, and the traditional account of the origin of the bands, which the etymology of tre words does not. The Pacific slope Indians, even including the Utes and Nez Perces, have a general sign for the Prairie tribes, viz., Dog-Eaters, — and I believe these tribes mark the western limit where the dog is considered a luxury as food. The tribal signs for the Mandans and Wicliitas discover the now discarded practice of tattooing, the former the cheeks and the latter the breasts of the women. I have heard Indians declare that they had always located the Great Spirit in the heavens, and yet in gestures they would indicate that this was the location of the white man's God, and for their Great M location. The sip gard to tl being the by tliose ' Tlie ni) traditions shades of memories To com sign langu arities (an So import lie claims, no more r one must V acciistomei years." I have c Indians frc that a kno still I cons Indians an comparisoi must know quickly. ' mind to thi this languaj art and scie of nature. estness, anc from long j in this Ian speech, whi would exhit language. a pantomin imitations t The phra; grammar of give a clear portant that to make a ti Black Hills, pity me, I a eat. The s; God sees me In signs this INTRODUCTORY. »7 s in ega- pro- y be the hich slain Jnca- these which ians, or the rkthe The arded )reasts :d the dicate their Great Mystery would point to the north, south, or cast fur its location. The sign for the Milky-Way led me to make special iiKiiiiry in re- gard to this starry pathway, and I was rewarded with the story of its being the direct and easy trail to the Happy Hunting-Ground, made by tliose who had been killed in battle. Tiie mysteries of their m\ ihs are illuminated by this language, and traditions, which otherwise would have long since passed into the j^hades of forgetfulness and oblivion, are kept alive and green in the memories of the present generation. To comi)rehend the conceptions and attain proficiency in the Indian sign language one should have some knowledge of their race jieculi- arities (and I have brietly described such as seemed most necessary). So important was this knowledge considered by a recent writer that he claims, " To learn it sufficiently well for ordinary intercourse is no more difficult than to learn any foreign language; to master it, one must iiave been born in a lodge of I'lains Indians, and have been accustomed to its daily and hourly use from his earliest to mature vears." I have conversed in gestures with nearly every tribe of the Plains Indians from the liritish to the Mexican line, and though I admit that a knowledge of their wa\s is necessary to secure proficiency, still I consider the above expression too strong. Educated as the Indians are by nature, and drawing many of their metaphors and comparisons from her abundant reservoirs, it is no wonder that one must know something of their lives to talk fluently and understand quickly. To become, in short, accomplished, one must train the mind to think like the Indians. It can be readily understood that this language would seem meaningless and contemptible in a land of art and science, but beautiful, graceful, rich, and useful in the realm of nature. Vividness of description is secured by exactness, earn- estness, and vigor of gesture ; a graceful execution can only result from long practice. Rapid and vehement signs have the same force in this language that such a manner of utterance would give in speech, while a languid and slovenly method of making gestures would exhibit weakness and worthlessness, just as it would in a vocal language. It must be borne in mind that this is in a great measure a pantomimic language, and the air-pictures must at least be fair imitations to be worthy of recognition. The phrases and proper names given in the Appendix outline the grammar of the language, but the following imaginary speech may give a clearer idea of its construction, its syntax, and it is very im- portant that this should be well understood k " I arrived here to-day to make a treaty, — my one hundred lodges are camped beyond the Black Hills, near the Yellowstone River. You are a great chief, — pity me, I am poor, my five children are sick and have nothing to eat. The snow is deep and the weather intensely cold. Perhaps God sees me. I am going. In one month I shall reach my camp." In signs this literally translated would read, I — arrive here — to-day i8 JNTRODUCTORY. — to make — treaty. My — Ininclrcd — lodge — camp — beyond — Hills — Black — near — river — called — \\W — yoti — chief — great — i)ity me — I — poor — IMy — five — child — sick — footl — all gone (or wiped out) — Snow — deep — cold — brave or strong. Perhaps — chief great (or Great Mystery) — above — see — me — I — go. Moon — die — I — arrive there— my — camp. It will be observed that the articles, conjunctions, and preposi- tions are omitted, and adjectives follow the nouns. Verbs are used in the present tense, nouns and verbs are used in the singular number, the idea of plurality being exjiressed in some other way. Abbrevia- tion is constantly practised. An Indian in closing or terminating a talk or speech wishing to say, I have finished my speech or conver- sation, or, I have nothing more to say, simply makes the sign for Done or Finished. r In addition to the description of peculiar customs which seemed necessary for an understanding of their gesture speech, 1 have touched upon such subjects as have, in many instances, been glaringly dis- torted and misrej)resented, such as the underlying motives of the Indians in their practice of the Sun-Dance ; the origin of the custom of, and reasons for, scalping ; their ideas of God, and many other subjects. Nearly all the habits, religious beliefs, customs, traditional his- tories, mythological stories, about which I have written, aie such as have come under my jiersonal observation, or have been secured directly from the Indians, without having been filtered through and fancifully colored by an inter|)reter, thus eliminating some of the elements of intentional and unintentional deception. I liave in several jilaces attributed good traits of character to In- dians, and they jjossess many, notwithstanding the fact that some good people of our race seem to think them only worthy of extermi- nation. Mr. Bancroft presents this matter in a happy light when he says, — "It is common foi those unaccustomed to lock below the surface of things to regard Indians as scarcely within the category of hu- manity. Especially is this the case when we, maddened by some treacherous outrage, some diabolical act of cruelty, iiastily pronounce them incorrigibly wicked, inhumanly malignant, a nest of vipers, the extermination of which is a righteous act, all of which may be true; but judged by this standard, has not every nation on earth incurred the death-penalty ?" The Indians were not favored at the first discovery of this co'.n- try with inquisitive, learned, and disinterested historians, and it is a difficult task now to correctly represent them, on account of ' .e great changes that have taken place. If the Indians form th. ii ideas of us from the traders, land speculators, and common white people with whom alone they associate, tiiey v.'ill not commit a greater error than Europeans do when they form their ideas of the character of the Indians from those who hang about the ^ .itlements pi: If INTRODUCTORY. 19 and traffic with the frontier inhabitants. Sickly phihinthropy is too weak-eyed to see the vices which inherently belong to their stage of the (levelojiment of man, and the bitter sentiments entertained by those who have suffered cruel outrages at the hands of these barbn- rians make them blind to any good that they may possess. I have not, I repeat, tried to draw a veil over evils to soften the cruelties which these i)eoi)le are capable of, or excuse their barbarism and excesses, but it is not a difficult matter, I think, to show how the fires of hell have been kindled in their savage breasts. Tiie frontier sentiment in regaril to our Indians is not as well known as the kindly feeling entertained by t'.iose who have formed their ideas from the l>leasant descriptions of Eastern writers. The following concise state- ment made by Mr. James W. Steele correctly represents this senti- ment : "The most extraordinary of all the efforts of American romance are those which, without any foundation in truth, have cre- ated the widely-accepted picture of the American Indian. When confronted with the actual hero, the beautiful characters of Cooper cease to attract, and, indeed, become in a sense ridiculous. Lordly, reticent, content, eloquent, brave, faithful, magnanimous, and truth- ful he made those sons of the forest seem, whose scattered descend- ants now linger upon coveted reservations, and, in happy squalor, seem patiently, if not lazily, to await final oblivion. Filthy, brutal, cunning, and very treacherous and thievish are their descendants and relatives who still wander in a condition of marauding independence west of us. Every tradition repeating the story of Indian bravery, generosity, and hospitality fades like mist l.iefore the actual man. The quality of moral degradation, inborn and unmitigated, runs through the whole kindred, from King Philip and Red Jacket down to San-tan-te, Sitting Bull, Kicking Bird, and Spotted Tail. The common instincts of savagery, as illustrated in all the tribes and kin- dreds of the world, are intensified in these. Brave only in sui)erior numbers or in ambush, honest only in being a consunnnate hypocrite, merry only at the sight of suft'c'ring inflicted by his own hand, friendly oidy through cunning, and hospitable never, and, above all, sublimely n'endacious and a liar alway^;, the 'ndian. as lie ically is to those who uiifoilunately knew him, seems poor material out of which to manu- lacture a liero or frame a romance. All missionary and philanthropic efforts made in his behalf have thus far failec' to auieuil his litv' or change his morals. Always prominent in the history of the country, ever to the fore in philanthropic literature ar.d high-plane oratory, always the impetiiment to be removed, andi afterv.ard the dependant to be supported, mollified by semi-annual gifts, an, :.) i.ps, as well as some mostly, it would seem, to the fleetness of their ponies, and thro.. 5 the body from side to side. Tliey, however, attribute their good luck entirely to the i)ower and efficacy of their "medicin_." The sign is also used in such sentence as, lie rode alone in the thickest of danger. In fact, the gesture is common, and used about as we use the word. Deaf-mutes use the same sign. Amatory. Make sign for Fond or Love and indicate opposite sex. Deaf-mutes use the same. Ambitious. Conception: Must rise above others; must be superior. Make sign for the person, then sign for Push or Must, then bring both hands, jjahns outwards, in front of body, index fingers extended, pointing upwvards, and placed side by side, touching, other fingers and thumbs closed, left hand little higher than right, so that tip of right index shall be at about second joint of left, raise the right hand till tip of right index j)asses beyond tip of left, keeping sides of index fingers pressed together. This is used rather more in the bcnse of one rising in rank, power, influence, ability, or bravery above another; and to denote rising above several, or a number, the fi.igers of left hand are all extended, and the right index placed against left palm and then raised. Deaf-mutes simply say a pushing man, and their sign iox push or must is the same as the Indian gesture; sometimes they only push the right hand u nance. American. the colonies Knives," to Deaf-mute people with pinching tlic right hand closed, and t AmoDg^. thumb and fi slightly com) thumb closed left hand by Deaf-mute.- Ancestors. specify the ki Deaf-mute^ and make a l^ack over tii shoulder niCc they place th them to from family pride think it is mil Angry. Cc back to right, ing against se against forel^ and simultan< left. Accord and cause cei and, as a cor the operation expresses wha they are angr sign for hear closed right 1 the hand bein have describe( Deaf-mutes assume an an^ Annihilate. Annoy. C( Make sign fo separate and action twist a turning the he AMERICAN— ANNO Y. 31 right hand iipwanls, and add force by the expression of the counte- nanre. American. Many of the Northern Indians called the people of the colonies, after the establishment of their independence, *' Long Knives," to distingiiisli them from the British. Deaf-mutes call the Americans proper, i.r. the Indians, "the ])eopie with rings in nose and ears," and denote them in signs by pinching the cartilage of the nose with tips of thumb and index of right hand, also the lobe of the right ear; the other fingers are closed, and the inilex and thumb form a circle. Among. Bring left hand in front of body about height of neck, thimib and fingers extended, separated and pointing upwards, hand slightly compressed; bring extended right index, other fingers and thumb closed, index pointing upwards, and mix it in with fingers of left hand by moving about among them. Deaf-mutes use the same. Ancestors. Indians usually simply make sign for old people ; some specify the kinshij) by api)r()|)riate signs. Deaf-mutes extend the index fingers of both hands, others closed, and make a rotary motion, one about the other, as they are carrittl l^ack over the right shoulder. Right hand thrown over the right shoulder means ancient. To express coming douject is drawn near the heart. Some- times the right h; nd is placed over the heart and the hand fixed as in look or see, — the heart is looking or searching. Deaf-mutes bring the hands in front of face, light near it, back up, left some inches outwards and little higher, back down, fingers par- tially separated, and then an upward iook with the eyes, with an intense or expectant expression of countenance. Apache i the left brei and thumb extended, o ing on back and outward Iiand rubbin distinct con the sign can horn, which forwards wit gave me the Apaches nnu with the Ki are several ( called by thi tain and Ho( are made for Kiowa Ai)acl to me of hin of age and w. Hills. Hec nor forr.ierly from the Ki( into Mexico. the Kiowas, \ no. have an have theirs, and some of and chanting lirst time afte Comanches, ; scalp-lock, bu cropped arou other in a twi cloth. They many other ti priz'id, and tli The Apaches a {q\i )ears, cruelty, and The country i dian warfare, report for i8. Indians in N Mohave C'liimciiuc APACHE. II up, jar- an Apache (Indians). Hold tlie left hand, ba( k '.ip, in front of the left breast, index finger extended and pointi;ig to front, others and tiiunib closed ; Lrin^ the right hand back outward.;, index finger extended, others and thumb closed near left, side of right index rest- ing on back of left near secoml joint; move the i ght hand inwards and outwards, mostly by wrist .iction, side of the index finger of right hand rubbing against back of left ; repeat motion. .'. have heard two distinct conceptions for this gesture: the Cheyennes claiming that the sign came from a ]ieculiar musical instrument nude from an elk- horn, which produced weird-like sounds by rubbing it backwards and forwards with a stick, and the second (I do not remember what tribe gave me the conception) from a sjiecially good whetstone which the Apaches made and used. This gesture refers to tlie Apaches living with the Kiowas at the Wichita Agency, Indian Territory. There are several other bands in Southwestern New Aiexico and Arizona called by the Indians Wood or Timber, Poor, Long Arrow, Moun- tain and Hooked or Curved Toe Apaches, and corresponding signs are made for each. Those at Wichita Agency are frecpiently called Kiowa Apaches. One of the old men of the latter band, in speaking to me of himse'f" and lii*^ fribe, said that he was about seventy vears of age and was born near the Missouri River, northeast of the Black Hills. He claimed that the Apaches of tiie extreme Southwest did nor formerly understand the sign language, but that t'ley learned it from the Kiowas, who went down there and joined them in raids into Mexico. This bantl in customs and habits are very much like the Kiowas, with wliom they have lived for so many years. They do no. have an annual Medicine-Dance, but join the Kiowas when they have theirs. They bury their dead in the ground, and also in ( aves ; and some of the band;; have a s])ecial mourning custom of wailing and chanting, just as the sun disappears in the western horizon, for the first time after the death of the ])erson mourned for. The Kiowas, Comanches, and Apaches at the Wichita Agency, as a rule, wear the scalp-lock, but the rest of the hair is often worn loose, and frecpiently cropped around the neck. Some cut off only one side, and wear the Uher in a twist or braided, and wra])ped with a string of red or blue cloth. They do not, as a rule, use (Jtter-skin for this purpose, as do many other tribes. Ear ornaments and the pipe-clay breastplates are l)riz','d, and the use of ])aint is the same as "vith the Northern Indians. The Apaches of the Southwest, though poorly armed until within a few years, have gaineil by their shrewdi, s, cunning, treachery, cruelty, and active hostility a notoriety se.ond to no other tribe. The country in which they have operated .- :.i)ecially adapted to In- dian warfare. The Commissioner of In.'ian Affairs, in his annual report for 1881, gives the following as the numerical strength of Indians in N:w Mexico and Arizona ; ARIZONA. COLORADO RIVKR ACKNCY. Mohave . L'liimeliuevis 802 210 34 APACHE. MOQUIS I'L'Ki;!.!' AGi'NCY. Moquis Pueblo ....... PIMA MARICOTA AND I'AI'AGO AGENCY. Pima ......... Maricopa ........ Papagf) • . SAN CARMiS AGF.NCY. White Mountain Apache ...... San Carlos Apaclie ....... Warm Sjirin^' Apaclie ...... Coyotero Apache ....... Tonto Apaclie ........ Mixed Ajmche ....... Southern Apaclie ....... Chiricahua Apache Apache Vunia . Apache Moha-.e ....... INDI.\NS IN ARIZONA NOT UNDKR AN AGENT.* Hiialapai ........ Yuma . . Mohave ......... Suppai Total poinilation ...... Jicarilla Apache Mescalero Apache . Navajo . Puf-blo . NEW MEXICO, JICARIl.IA SUli-AGE.\CY. MKSCAI KRO AGENCY. NAVAJO AGENCY. PUEBLO AGENCY. 2,IOO 4,500 500 6,000 795 27s 819 586 119 171 246 309 662 620 930 700 75 !I,OI5 705 906 16,000 9,060 Total population 26,665 Although the area covered by Mr. Bancroft as "Apache coun- try" contains several tribes marked by entirely different languages and many different ways of living, habits, and religious beliefs, still the following extract from his work contains much that is jiertinent, accurate, instructive, and interesting in regard to these Indians: "The Ai)ache country is probably the most desert of all, alter- nating between sterile jAains and wooded mountains, interspersed with comparatively few rich valleys. The rivers do little to fertilize the soil except in spots; the little moisture that appears is quickly absorbed by the cloudless air and arid plains which stretch out, some- times a hmidred miles in length and breadth, like lakes of sand. In botn mountain and desert the fierce, rapacious Apache, inured from childhood to hunger and thirst, and heat and cold, finds safe retreat. • Taken from report of 1880. It is here, ing as a pr savagism a labor lie en as some of like the Pi or Comanc Apache; b subject in have any ]> with barbar Leaving oti of the rivet inaeh'te, poi retreats acr( Mexican qz other almos "All the manner, cut Mojave niti lowed to li; many of tht Central Cal Paint is frei nating, but colors. I5re men, while t the Mojaves skill shirt, sk the latter, br up on the let a common p^ with mud, w tion from tl Mojaves sho' laces and bi strung togeti in vogue. I^ainting and hoofs, shells, with which til "The food tensions to ag dom do any c tion, and the) pifion-nut, an fruits, which 1 Mojaves, and culture, and u A r ACHE. 03 It is here, among our western nations, that we first encounter thiev- ing as a profession. No savage is fond of work ; indeed, labor and savagism are directlv antagonistic;, for if the savage continues to hibor he can but become civiUzed. Now, the Apache is not as lazy as some of his Northern brothers, yet he will not work, or if he iloes, like the Pueblos, who are nothing but partially reclaimed Apaches or Comanches, he forthwith elevates himself, and is no longer an Apache; but being somewhat free from the vice of laziness, though subject in an eminent degree to all the vices of which mankind have any knowledge, he presents the anomaly of uniting activity with barbarism, and for this he must thank his thievish propensities, l^eaving others to do the work, he cares not whom, the agriculturists of the river-bottoms or the towns-peojile of the North, he turns Ish- maelite, pounces upon those near and more remote, and if pursued, retreats across the jornaiias drl muertc, or journeys of death, as the Mexican calls them, and finds refuge in tiie gorges, canons, and other almost impregnable natural fortresses of the mountains. " All the natives of this region wear the hair much in the same manner, cut square across the forehead and flowing behind. The Mojave men usually twist or i)lait it, while with tlie women it is al- lowed to hang loose. Tattooing is common, but not universal ; many of the Mojave women tattoo the chiu in vertical lines like the ('entral Californians, except that the lines are closer together. Paint is freely used among tiic Mojaves, black and red predomi- nating, but the Ap.u hes, Yumas, and others use a greater variety of colors. Ikeech-clolh and moccasins are tlie ordinary dress of the men, while the women have a short petticoat of bark. The dress of the Mojaves and Apaches is often more pretentious, being a buck- skin shirt, skull-cap or helmet, and moccasins of the same material ; the latter, broad at the toes, slightly tniied up, and reaching high up on the leg, serve as a protection ag.. ;ist cacti and thorns. It is a common prac-tice among these tribes Icj |>laster the head and body with mud, whicii acts as a preventive against vermin and a protec- tion from the sun's rays. In their selection of ornaments the Mojaves show a preference for white, intermixed with blue ; net k- laces and bracelets made from beads and small shells, usually strung together, but sometimes sewed on to leather bancls, arc much in vogue. The Apache nation adopt a more fantastic stvie of painting and in their head-dress; for ornament they emplo\ deer- lioofs, shells, fish-bones, beads, and occasionally porcupine-iiuills, with which the women embroider their short deerskin petticoats. "The food of all is s.milar. Most of them make more or less pre- tensions to agriculture, and are habituated to a vegetable diet, bu! -i I- dom do any of them raise a sufficient supply for the year's consump- tion, and they are therefore forced to rely on the mescpiit bean, the piRon-nut, and the maguey plant, Ai:;ovc Me.xicana, and other wild fruits, which thty collect in considerable (piantilies. The Navajos, Mojaves, and Yumas have long been acquainted with the art of agri- culture, and grow corn, beans, pumpkins, melons, and other vegeta- 36 APACHE. bles, and also some wheat. Some attempt a system of irrigation, and others select for their crops that portion of land wiiich has been overflowed by the river. '* Maize soaked in water is ground to a paste between two stones. From this paste tortillas, or thin cakes, are made, which are baked on a hot stone. To cook the maguey, a hole is made in the ground, in which a fire is kindled; after it has burned some time the ma- guey bulb is buried in the hot ashes and roasted. Some concoct a gypsy sort of dish, or ollapodrida ; game, and such roots and herbs as they can collect, being put in an earther pot with water and boiled. As before mentioned, the roving Apaches obtain most of their food by hunting and plunder. They eat more meat and less vegetable diet than the other Arizona tribes. Wiien food is plenty they eat ravenously ; when scarce, they fast long and stoically. Most of them hate bear-meat and pork. So Jew-like is the Navajo in this particular that he will not touch pork though starving. "Their fighting has more the character of assassination and mur- der than warfare. They only attack when they consider success a foregone conclusion, and rather than incur the risk of losing a war- rior will for days lie in ambush till a fair opportunity for surprising the foe presents itself. The ingenuity of tlie Apache in preparing an ambush or a surprise is described by Colonel Cremony as follows : * He has as perfect a knowledge of the assimilation of colors as the most exj^erienced Paris modiste. By means of his acumen in this respect, he can conceal his swart body amidst the green grass, behind brown shrubs or gray rocks, with so much address and judgment that any but the experienced would pass him by without detection at the distance of three or four yards. Sometimes they will envelop them- selves in a gray blanket, and by an artistic sprinkling of earth will so resemble a granite boulder as to be passed within near range with- out suspicion. At others, they will cover their persons with freshly- gathered grass, and, lying prostrate, appear as a natural portion of the field. Again, they will plant themselves among the yuccas, and so closely imitate the appearance of that tree as to pass for one of its species.' " Household utensils are made generally of wicker-work or straw, which, to render them water-tight, are coated with some resinous substance. The Mojaves and a few of the Apaclie tribes have also burnt-clay vessels, sm h as water-jars and dishes. For grinding maize, as before stated, a kind of metate is used, which with them is nothing more than a convex and a concave stone. Of agricultural implements they know nothing. A pointed stick, crooked at one end, which they call kishishai, does service as a corn-planter in spring, and during the later season answers also fcr plucking fruit from trees, and again, in times of scarcity, to drive rats and prairie- dogs from their subterranean retreats. "Although not essentially a fish-eating people, the Mojaves and Axuas display considerable ingenuity in the manufacture of fishing- nets, which are noted for their strength and beauty. Plaited grass or the fib made. "Thes and diffusi guage con " Ances councils ; talion in \\ and indivii with death interpositi( patient mi council of assistance prits. AH blood for I "All the tlieni kind women. (. the most p a slow fire, the crime o children frc ural traffic i "They ai amusements masqiieradii dances to cc attain the ai noted warri( in which bo by a single accompanim are incomph but agreeab wooden drur stantly varyi stakinsf their their backs. "They m Americana, t liquors. ''\v\ thecl a marked cor lazy like all s industries bei mothers, and and cruelty." Apparel. APPAREL. 37 or the fibry bark of the willow are the materials of which they are made. "The system of enumeration of the Apaches exiiibits a regularity and diffusiveness seldom met with among wild tribes, and their lan- guage contains all the terms for counting up to ten thousand. "Ancestral customs and traditions govern the decisions of the councils; brute force, or right of the strongest, with the law of talion in its widest acceptance, direct the mutual relations of tribes and individuals. Murder, adultery, theft, and sedition are i)unished with death or public exposure, or settled by private agreement or the interposition of elderly warriors. The doctor failing to cure his patient must be punished by death. The court of justice is the council of the tribe, i)resided over by the chiefs, the latter, with the assistance of sub-chiefs, rigidly executing judgment upon tlie cul- prits. All crimes may be pardoned but murder, which must pay blood for blood if the avenger overtakes his victim. " All the natives of this family hold captives as slaves ; some treat them kindly, employing the men as herders, and marrying the women. OtluTs half starve and scourge them, and inflict on them the most painful labors. Nothing short of crucifixion, roasting by a slow fire, or some other most excruciating form of death can atone the crime of attempted escape from l)ondage. They not only steal children from other tribes and sell them, but carry on a most unnat- ural traffic in their own offspring. "They are immoderately fond of smoking, drinking, feasting, and amusements, which fill up the many hours of idleness. Dancing and masquerading are the most favorite pastimes. They have feasts with dances to celebrate victories, feasts given at marriage, and when girls attain the age of puberty ; a ( eremonial is observed at the burial of noted warriors, and on other various occasions of private family life, in which both men and women take part. The dance is performed by a single actor, or by a number of persons of both sexes, to the accompaniment of instruments or their own voices. All festivities are incomplete without impromptu songs, the music being anything but agreeable, and thi' accompaniment cornstalk or cane flutes, wooden drums, or calabashes filled with stone and shaken to a con- stantly varying time. Thev also spend much time in gambling, often staking their whole property on a throw, including everything upon tl-cir backs. "They make their own spirits out of corn and out of A\:;ai'e Americana, the pulque ami mescal, both very strong and intoxicating liquors. "In the character of the several nations of this division there is a marked contrast. The Apaches, as I have said, though naturally lazy like all savages, are in their industries extremely active, — their industries being theft and murder, to which tlieyare trained by their mothers, and in which they display consummate cunning, treachery, and cruelty." Apparel. Pass the palmar surface of spread thumbs and index 38 A PPEA R—A KA PA HO E. fingers over and near tlie surface of the body, or such portion as may be necessary to exphiin the particular clothing wliich it is de- sired to describe. Deaf-mutes pass the extended liands, pahiis near surface of body. Appear. Indicate by signs whatever it was, and in what way. A man appearing or coming into viev/, the extended left hand, back out, fingers i)0!nting to rigiit, is held in front of body at about lieight of neck; the right hand, back out, index alone extended and point- ing upwards, is jiassed under left hand and beyond, ar.d ])ushed up till the index rises into view. Deaf-mutes raise the extended right on a curve slightly towards body. Apple. Clasp the nearly-closed and compressed right hand with left in front of l)ody, then make sign for Tree, and then hold the compressed and partially-closed right hand, back up, well out and in front of and above right shoulder ; drop the hand slightly, raise it, and let it drop again in a little different place, to represent the apples on the trees. To make it mort definite, make sign for Eat and Good. Peaches and pears are represented in the same way, and the same principle obtains with any fruit growing on trees. These fruits being mostly new to tiie Indians, there are no well- known and definitely established signs in general use, and to distin- guish different kinds, some particular quality of the fruit, manner of its growth, season when ripe, or sjK'cial use made of it must be noted. Dried apples are represented by first making sign for Apple, and then CirrnNc I'P over left palm, then touch the ear to indicate the shape of the dried fruit. Deaf-mutes indicate the size and shape by clasping closed and compressed right with left hand, and then hold closetl left hand at mouth, as though eating an entire apple in that way. Approach. Indicate by proper gesture the object and manner; for instance, a person, the elevated index of right hand is brought in towartls the body. Deaf-mutes use the same signs. Arapahoe. The three bands have totally distinct signs. It is claimed by the Northern Arapahoes, those now at the Shoshone Agency, near Fort Washakie, Wyoming, that the sign for their band is ///'• tribal sign, and tiiat it was derive*! from their being the mother of all other tribes; while other tribes, who do r.ot admit tliis claim as valid, say they got the sign from a famous chief of their band hn.ving had the smallpox, his chest being greatly disfigured by the disease. (Tl is conception would seem to be the correct one, as the Prairie Gros Ventres freipiently make the gesture o|)posite the face.) For this band, bring the right hand, back outwards, in front of centre of breast, few inches from it, compress the hand and jiariially curve the fingers, so that tips of fingers and tip of the tinnnb shall be near together, tap or strike gently the breast with the ti])s of the thundi and fingers, repeating motion. For the Southern Arapahoes, those located at the Cheyenne and ARAPAHOE. 39 Arapahoe Agency, near Fort Reno, Indian Territory, bring the ex- tended index finger of right liaiul back to rear, alongside of and touching nose, index pointing n])\vards, others and thnml) closed ; rair.e a'.tl lower the hand two or three times ; frequently index is held near, but does not touch, tlie nose. The tiiird band, located with the Assinaboines, at Fort Belknap, on Milk River, about twenty-eight miles from Fort Assinaboine, are known as Gros Ventres of the Prairie, and the sign for CiRtts Ven- tres is made to designate them. I have seen the sign for blue cloud made to denote the Arapahoes, and this is a correct translation of the Sioux word for this tribe, thougii perhaps a clear sky would be better ; and I once saw an Indian rub his forehead with tip of right index as a sign for the Arapahoes; why, I cotdd not learn. Very reliable tradition locates this tribe in Western Minnesota several hundred years ago, meeting the Cheyennes as they (^the C^hey- ennes) came out on the prairie, and for many years moving and camj)- ing with or near them, so that for all practical purjioses they were one people, and the history of one relates very closelv to the history of the other. (See Cheyennes ') In their migration they separated from the Cheyennes after passing the Black Hills vth(nigh they fre- quently came together after this), and pressed on to the head-waters of the Missouri, anu .hen were driven out of that country by the Black- feet and other tribes, and s'cirted along and wandered in the moun- tains and plains to the south as far as the head-waters of the Arkansas. They have been greatly reduced in ntmibers by disease and wars with other tribes, and, like all broken Indian nations, the tVagmcnis have not prospered. What is known as the " Chivington Massacre," near old Fort L\()n, Colorado (the Indian camp was on Sand Creek), was a cold-blooded, dastardly murder of a number of Arapahoes and Cheyennes by the Third Colorado Volunteers. Black Kettle and White Antelope were the chiefs of the Cheyennes, and Left Hand of the Arapahoes, and they, with the greater part of the men, had been lured away from their camp by deception. It was :ji indis- criminate slaughter of mostly women and chiklren, followed by a horrible mutilation of the dead, the troops showing a ferocity and brutality which the savages themselves have never exceeded. The Arapahoe men are intelligent and brave, not differing mate- rially (phvsically or mentally) from the rheyennes and Sioux, but the standard of virtue for the women i-: wot nearly as high as with either of these tribes. Their vocal language is entirely different from any other I have ever heard, and it is almost an impossibility for a wliite man to learn to sjjeak it. They are known as amoii:', the best in gesture sprjch, and used it to such an extent that, until recently, it was supposed their voc.d langu^^e was so poor as to make it neces- sary ; in fact, some people had lated that to such a degree were they de]H'ndent on signs that they could not carry on a conversation in the dark. Th.eir vocal linguige, however, has a ri( h vocabulary. At neither of the three agencies during the past season was mere an aa: wmmmm 40 ARAPAHOE. interpreter, \vhi I0 dress the remains in the best clothing, — war-bonnet, best robe or ulanket, never putting weapons with remains, — nothing but good clothing, and painted the face with red paint. Before we crossed the Missouri River we used to plant and raise corn. The Arickarees stole the corn and the art of raising it t'rom us. Before we went hunting so much we lived on what we raised from the ground." I vl. ited the camj) of the Northern band, taking with me some flour, sugar, coffee, tobacco, etc., and had a feast made for the old men. 'i'hey gathered in the sub-chief's lodge, decrepit with age and blighted wi suit probab ing no intt stTond chiei and in this their custoii and finding probably soc inclined to ( and, moreov to the land ( way, endeav grations as degradativ.n, stress upon peritv. Wolf Moc evidently the council. H( remember wt were living ii the Arapahoe River, about little time, — on the Platte when they fir the hand ove great confide saluting. T| k long time peace with tl litved that af land was far near the ocea over this long fortably by th killed in batti !;ud them aw.i never put tht pony killed fi Sim. Those v stated that th land, and the) There were sc Medicine Rat band. Crazy b War-parties in the hollow rising to the st ARAPAHOE. 41 bliglited with disease, some six of the oldest being blind, the re- sult probably of hereditary or acquired scrofula or syphilis. Hav- ing no interpreter, and these men being blind, "Sharp Nose," second chief of this band, gave me their stories in the sign language, and in this way I received the following traditions and account of their customs. This band was sent to their present agency in 1S78, and fniding here evidence of their occupying this country long ago, jjrobably soon after their separation from the Cheyennes, they were inclineil to think this was the exact spot where they were created, and, moreover, as this would, in their minds, give them a i)rior claim to the land over the Shoshones, they, in their shrewd and cunning way, endeavored to press this i)oint with me, and gave all their mi- grations as roamings from this place. Now in their poverty and degradatik.n, needing the help and charity of others, they lay great stress upon their own generosity in the palmy days of their pros- perity. Wolf Moccasin, tnough blind and seventy-four years of age, was evidently the brightest and best preserved mentally of any in the council. He stated that when he was a small boy, old enough to remember well the event, however, the Gros Ventres of the Prairie were living in the f^ir north ; subsequently they came over and joined the Arapahoes, when they were camped on the head-waters of Powder River, about fifty-five years ago, and remained with them for some little time, — a few years. They left when the .Arapahoes were camiied on the Platte River. Their tradition dii! not go back to the time when they first got ponies. In shaking hands they rub the palm of the hand over the arm and body immediately afterwards, if they liave great confidence in and respect for the ])ersGn whom they were saluting. Their custom was to embrace before meeting the whites. -A long time ago they fought the Sioux, but they very soon made peace with them, — a ])eace which has been always kept. They be- lieved that after death they went to the land of the rising sun ; this land was far away beyond and below all mountains, a level country near the ocean. An Arapahoe killed in battle did rot have to travel over this long trail by land, but went though the air easily and com • fortably by the dead man's road, or rather, the road of the warriors killed in battle (Milky-Way). They buried th.eir dead in the ground, laid them away on the breast of their mother, and with the remains never put the weapons, but best blankets, pipe of deceased, and a pony killed for the spirit to ride to the country beyond the rising sun. Those who had died for a time (fainted) had, on their return, stated that they had seen the lodges of their people in that far-off lantl, and they had plenty of buffalo, antelope, and all kinds of game. There were seven bands of soldiers: Young Men or Boy.-»' band, Medicine Rattle band, Image band. Medicine Lance band, Dog hand. Crazy band, and Old P)ull band. War-parties hrd a partisan who went in advance, and carried a pipe in the hollow o( left arm. This chief tlid not eat or drink from the rising to the setting of the sun, but soon after the shadows of dark- 42 ARAPAHOE. ness had covered the earth some of the yoiintj warriors of the party brought liim water and food. He tlianked them, and drank and ate. They liad a Sun-Dance like the Sioux, but much more severe, the participants not eating or drinking for four days anrl nights. To the muscles of the back tiiey usually hung shields insteacl of buffalo- heads, and these shields afterwards po.ssessed the power of protect- ing them from harm in battle. They also cut off a piece (jf flesh from the arm and gave it to the God in the sun, jjraying as they did so that they might live long on the earth, and be spared from sick- ness and disease. In regard to their dances, Sharp Nose (he had visited Washington) saiii they had as many as the wliite people in the East. Their dances were named after tiieir soldier bands, and in all of them they imitated the motions of tiie animals after which they were named. Tiiey never, like the Clheyennes, had the Medicine- Dance. In the Crazy-Dance they all sang a few words in a low tone and then suddenly broke out into a loud and fierce shout. In former times the moccasin was made witii a long anklet, wliich near the top was turned down, making a (lap. Porcupine-quill work in circular shape was put on the top with the surr(nniiling tribes — to (according to the report of the agent for 1881) oidy six himdred and seventy-eight. Mr. F. F. (lirard joined the .\rickarees (ustially called Rees) in 1849, '" t'^'-' interest of a trading company. He subsequently mar- ried into the tribe and learned the language. When lie found th.eiii they were with the .Mandans. located at old Fort Clarke, the Gros Ventres then having their village at the site of the present agency. The Rees then called the .Mandans Connif, from Conniche, ine.iwiiig stone people, jjcople who live on the stony liill-,; and the Gi -^ V li- tres We-tutz-ce-liaHy from man and river-people, living on or iiear the river; and they tjien claimed that they first met them on Knife River near its mouth. He thought there were two thousand five hundred Arickarees at this time, and their social anil military organi- zation consisted not of a division into gens, but into bands, as follows; I, Young Hoys' or Fox band ; 2, Young Dog b.md ; 3, Big Young Dog blind ; 4, Strong Heart band ; 3, Hull band ; 6, Crow band. The latter composed of all the old men who have passed through all the bands, anil are entitled to a seat in any of the others. For police purposes there was a band of soldiers, or black-mouths. These were appointed for this special purpose, and taken from tho above-named bands. They blackened the lower part of their faces as a badge of their authority. These several bands were, it wouKl seem, organized mainly for social jileasure. such as dancing, et<'., and the members passed through the grades by jjurchase. .\s a rule, each member had to pass regularly tlirough each band, but if am- bitious for sudden promotion, say from the />'/;,'• Youtig Dog to the Strong Heart \rA\\(\, it could be accomplished by i)urchase and tem- porarily giving his wife to the embraces of the chief of the band, should the young man have one. The young man was then con- sidered as a son, and could, if he went to war, take one of the .4 k'/SE—A KR.t iXGE. 45 names of his new lather. Jf not married at the time of adoption, he (ouUl not marry into the family of his adopted fatiier. Tlieir dances were, more than witli otlier Indians, of the mas- querading, pantt)miniic order, »lifferent animals heini; represented, ( losely imilatinj; them in clress and movt-ment. Among other dances they haiit\ which was for the |>iirpose of asserting the virtne of the t'emak-s, either married or nn- ni.uried. If slanderons tongues had falsely accused a wite oi; (laughter, the injured one went to her father or husband, asked him to give a feast and make a dance. '.Vhen everything was in readiness she took an arrow, and, touching a i)ainted bulT.do ^ were alwa\s friendly with each other. Boine in Ojibway is tlie deii- iiit on for a Sioux Indian. Assin or Ahsin is a stone, so that I should suppose Ahsinal)oine or Assinaboine meant 'Stone Sioux,' perhaps ' Rock Mountain Sioux.' Ah-sine-wah-ziew or Assinewah- ziew : 'Rocky Mountains.' Hoine, in Chippewa, means, so I was ASSINABOINE. told by one of these Indians, simply enemy, and would /// this way only be, as Mr. Beaulieu says, a definition for tlie Sioux. " The Assinaboines separated from tiie Sioux on account of trouble which grew out of the actions of a faithless wife ; the tradition, however, is vague and unsatisfactory. I have heard the Sioux call the Assinaboines Ho-he, but I always supposed that this referred only to a particular band tailed the 'Stonies,' and I still think this is the case; but the following appears in ' Snelling's Tales of the Northwest' ; The Ho-he (Ho-hay) are the .Assinaboines, or 'Stone- roasters.' Their home is the region of the Assinaboine River, in British America. They speak in Dakota tongue, and originally were a band of that nation. 'IVadition says a Dakota ' Helen' was the cause of the sejjaration and a bloody feud, that lasted for many years. The H6-hes ' v called ' Stone-roasters' because, until recently at least, they t:--:.i ' wa-ta-pe' kettles and vessels made of birch-bark, in which they cooked their fooil. They boiled water in these vessels by heating stones and putting them in the water. The ' wa-ta-i)e' kettle is made of the fibrous roots of the white cetlar, iiuerlaced and tightly woven. When the vessel is soaked it be. omes water-tight." In the " History of Manitoba," by the Honorable Donalil Gunn, I find the following: " De Grosselier and Kaddison turned their attention to the Northwest, and in about 1666 pushed through Lake Superior, ascended the Kaministgoia River, and fell on the waters tiiat tlow northwest through Lake L;i I'lui to the Lake of the Wooiis, and thence passed through the \\'iiini|)eg River into the lake of tiiat name, and finally passed by the river Nelson into Hudson's Bay. These gentlemen were conducted by the Assinaboines to Hud- son's Bay, prol)d)ly by the Nelson or Hay's Rivers, and after having discovered that great inland sea, they retraced their steps, being still j:uided and protected by their friends, the Assinaboines, as far as Lake Superior, whence they proceeded to the settlements on the Lower St. Lawrence." We are informed by history that the enterjjrising Du Lutii, during the summer of 1679, visited some encampments of the Dakoias, where no Frenchman had ever been. After his return we find him meeting the Assinaboines and other nations at the head of Lake Siijjerior, for the piir|)ose of settling their difficulties with the Dako- tas, and was successful. The Crees, who visited the trading-posts on the shores of Hudson's Bay, and the Assinaboines, who tradetl in 1678 with Du Liith.at the west end of Lake Superior, were about the same time put in |)ossession of fire-arms, and within a few years thereafter they seem to have matle a sinmltaneous movement, — the ibrmer pressing on to the southwest, the latter pursuing their course to the northwest, until they met m the region west 01 Lake Winnipeg, and on the plains of Red and Assinaboine Rivers. Indian tradition inlbrms us that during the first half of the last century the Mamlans o(( upied the country to the southwest of Lake Winnipeg, and that they had been forced by the united efforts of their invaders to leave their hunting-grounds and retire to the Upper Missouri. But how 53 ASSINAROINE. long it took these tribes to drive out those whom they found in |)os- session of the country, and wliat wars they carried on to accomplish that object, are lost in the mist oi years. However, we have had the evidence of a living witness to the fact that the Crees and the Assinaboines lived on the plains southwest of Lake Winnipeg for some years previous to the year 1780, and that they made a jjrecon- certed attack that year on the trading-posts on the Assinaboine. These small houses were at Portage la Prairie, and represented three different associations, and iiad but few men at each. The Indians had kept their intentions so iiid from the whites that the latter were altogetlier unprepared to resist the onslatight made by their painicd and featiiercd assailants, who made tlieniselves masters of two of iIk houses, massacred those who defended them, and carried away the booty. Intoxicated by their success, and confiding in their prowess, they rushed on to attack the third iiouse, which was defended by a Mr. Bruce, at the head of a few men. Mr. Hruce was known among the savages by the formidable name of Ketelie Mink-man ; i.e., Ihg Knife. He was evidently known among the Indian Iribes for his bravery and determined courage, and tliey learned by sad experience on the jiresent occasion that his fame for valor had not been overrated, for he not only defended his post, but slew a number of those by whom he had been attackeii, thereby admonishing tiie survivors to beat a timely retreat, leaving the resolute and formidable '.huce in posse^ision of the slain and of the field of battle. Mow far the savages intended to carry their hostility towards the traders we have not been able tc learn, but we may presume that their defeat before Mr. Kruce's little post at Portage la Prairie cooled their military ardor, and the foUowin.f year smallpox of a most virulent type attacked the tribes in the vicinity of Red River, and spread over all the Indian territories, even 'o the shores of Hudson's 15av. As late as the year 1815 the bleached bones of those who had become the victims of the plague were to be seen in great quantities at several points on the shores of the bay. The Assinaboines were encamped at several points near the Ret! River when the disease appeared among them, and was attended by the most fatal effects, so much so that ten years after, when the Red T,ake Ojibways came for the first time to Pend)ina to trade, they found the .\ssinaboines, or rather, a small remnant of that once numerous tribe, in that vicinity. .'M'ter some days had been devoted to feasting and the mutual interchange of presents, the Assinaboine orators patlietically dejjlored the miserable condition of their people, stating that wherever they went they saw nothing' but the bleached bones of their kindred ; that their former allies, tin' Crees, had always been treacherous, and that on the appearance dI the tlisease they went before it to the west. " We are no longer able to resist our enemies, the Sioux. C^ome, then, and live with us. Let us have one fire and one dish. The country is large and full ol' all kinds of wild animals. You need not fear want." After spend- ing some time with their new-made friends, the Ojibways went ba< k to Red Lake for their families, and returned the following year to ASSINABOINE. 53 join their allies. Their descx'ndants still ocxupy the banks of the Lower Red River and the shores of Lakes ^L^^itoha and Winnipeg. The Hudson's Bay Company's servants made tlieir appearance for the first time in Red River in the year 1793. They met tlie Assinahoines in small groups at different points along the Lower Red River and along the Assinaboine River, as far west as the mouth of the Little Sonris, where the English company erected tiieir first trading estab- iisi.ment, to the southwest of Lake Winnipeg. The stories of their migrations are also meagre and indefinite. They say, however, that they came from the far east and north, and they still preserve memories of the birch-bark canoes, and the use of this bark for other vessels, such as are now used by the Chippewas. Their wars with their own kinsfolk, the Sioux, seem to have been luore bitter and unrelenting thai, with any other tribe. I foinid it difficult, in fact impossible, to follow the migrations of tiiese people by the same plan as that pursued with success with other tribes and bands. I met at Fort Belknap two old men, eighty years of age (" Tile Pheasant" and "Many-Shells"). Tiie former said he was horn on tlie Missouri River, not far from the confluence of the Yel- lowstone, the latter six liundred miles north of the British line, on Big 'I'imlK'r River, north of Saskatchewan. One of these old men said to me, '* We came from near the Red River of the North. The country was large, and we got separated. Our forefathers lought the rest of the Sioux. The olcl people told my ancestors that a voice from above told them that this world was marie for them ; that there was anotlier world across the gre.it water for the whites, and between these two there was a land where only the dead went after deatli, — a land to the far east and north, a fair and good country. This voice told them many things of the rain and winds, anil what these things would di) for them." So tar as any information can now l)e secured, it would seem that the Assinaboine country in former times was north of the British line, and as far east as Lake Superior. They drifted to the west, and some bands to the south as fiir as the Missouri, but it was not until about icSyo that they got as far west on our side of the line as thtir i)resent agencies at Wolf Point and Fort Belknap, Montana. \\\ iign for same, after the sign for yellow leaves ; late, by all the leaves having fallen. In northern latitudes tiie sign for a little snow would he added for very late fall or early winter. Deaf-mutes, same. Avoid. Hold the hands in front of shoidders, index fingers ex- tended and pointing upwards, others and thumb closed, l)ack of right hand to right, left to left, hands at same iieight ; move the hands towards each other, and when near carry the left outwards, and right nearer body as the hands pass. (Inilicates an effort made to go around or pass by. ) Deaf-mutes simply bring the hands, holding them well in front of body, backs uj), and right more in advance than left. Awe. Uring the palm of either hand over the mouth and slightly draw back the head ; sometimes the sign for Heart, and then bring right hand, fingers and thumb extended and partially separatetl, in 56 A IVL—AXE. front of and close to breast, thumb nearest body, fingers pointing upwards; raise the hand several inches with a tremulous motion. (The heart is first still, and then flutters into the throat witli surprise and astonishment.) This gesture is used at the uncxpec tetl meeting of old friends; at hearing the recital of womlerful deeds of valor, etc. ; or suddenly and unexpectedly meeting a great chief. Deaf-mutes sim])ly raise the hand and denote the awe by the ex- pression of countenance. Awl. Conception : From the manner of using same in sewing with sinew. Bring the left hand, back to left, in front of body, hand partially closed and thumb pressed against index, as though holding a piece of leather or buckskin ; make a thrusting motion over and near left thumb and index, at same time turning hand by wrist action. Deaf-mutes make a boring motion with tip of right index, other fingers and thumbs closed, against left palm. Axe. Hold left hand, back to left, arm nearly extended and about horizontal, in front of left shoulder, fingers extended touching, and wrist bent down, so that fingers ])oint as nearly downwards as possible ; carry right under left forearm, and grasp it near elbow with sj)read index and thumb, other fingers dosed. The sign for Chop is sometimes added, and is also fre([uently used by itself. Be- fore the advent of the white race axes were made mostly from the shoulder-blades of large animals, those of the buffalo being specially prized. Deaf-mutes make the sign for chopping, usually first making their sign for wood. JSAB Y—IiACllEI. OK. 57 B. Baby. See PAiTrRinoN or Child aiui Wkai'. Deaf-mutes liold nearly extended left hand, ba( k down, in front of l)i)(iy, l> rearm about horizontal and jiointing to riyht and front; then lay the back of partially compressed right hand on left forearm near wrist. Baby-Holder. Make siijn for Parturition, for Wrat; tlu-nrarry both hands alongside and rather close to rear \my ow of head, jialms towards it, index fingers and thumbs spread, index fingers pointing upwards and about parallel to sides of head, other fmgers closet! (sometimes the slightly c urved hands are used to denote the hood instead of the spread thumbs and index fingers); bring tlie hands sinuiltaneously to front, keeping hands about same distance from head, terminating movement wlien hands have ])assed in front of face few inches; then bring extended left hand well in trout of body, back outwards, fingers pointing upwards, hand about height efface; place the back of extended right hand, fingers jiointing ujjwards, against left palm. The Indian cradle when tied uji is a little (offin -shaped sac k with a hood-like ])rojection about the head. It is made of cloth or skins of perhaps several thicknesses; always two at the back, and to this a board or stiff j)iece of rawhide is securely fastc rd to keep the child's back "as straight as an arrow." Instead of a board cover- ing the entire back, the Cheyeniie> use two flat pieces of wood about three inches wide and one-half inch thic k. The outer cloth or skin in front and on the hood is usually heavily beatled or garnished with poicu|)ine-quills, and sometimes very handsomely worked. Stout strings are used to tie the baby firmly in the cradle, and one fastened to the back piece to hang the cradle up by. I have seen a baby not two days old snugly tied up in one t)f these little s.icks ; the rope tied to the pommel of the saddle, the sack hanging down alongside of the pony, and mother and c^hild comfortably jogging along, making a good day's march in bitter cold winter weather, easily kee})ing up with a column of < avalry which was after hostile Indians. After being carefully and firmly tied in the little - could not make out what this meant ) ; 5th, Wah-wee-otz-so, or Pi-Utes, in Nevada. 'I'his chief also saiil that all their customs, dances, religi(jus cere- monies, implements, ways of living, lodges, laws, puidshments, etc., were like tne Shoshones. In regard to the creation, he said his grindfather toUl him that they had a father who made them. In w'nat shape this fatlvr is at present they do not know, — •' perhaj^s a cloud, the sun, or a storm, but at first it was the Big (Iray Wolf." He wos the father of the IJannacks, and the Coyote was the father of the Shoshones. Hc saitl, "'I'he (Iray Wolf was a (lod, our (lod ; and '"hen the Bannacks tlied they went to where he was. Thi. wolf formeny lived in a roi k near Winne nuuca, — a huge hollow rock. Thic trail made by this wolf in going in and out is si ill visible ; the footprints in the solid rock can be seen to-day. A spring of pure water is U'-nr the base. At this place the Bannacks were made. The big Wolf and the Little Wolf were brotiiers. They bolh lived there, and hence the Shoshones came from the same |)ku;e. Because maile bv these dods we are poor; have to live on game and roots; cannot learn to read .md write ; never had tiiese things given to us. This wolf made everything on earth. He showed us how to live ; gave us the bow and ilint-headed arrow ; this long before there were aiiv whites. .Ml the birds of the air were once human beings, (hanged by the Wolf into birds to give room for us. My grandfather said that orce the earth was covered with water, except the highest |ieak-, r.:v.! tl'.e wind blew so hard that the water washed out the deep ravine- which are now .seen. This was before any |)eople were made, in olden times we were at war with the Utes, but we made peace before the whites came, and have kept it siiu e. The Washakie .Shoshones oidy made peace recently. Many years ago we were at war with the BA RRA CKS— BASHFUL. 6i N'ez Perces. Tlic Blackfect used to live here fFort Hall, Idaho): tlie river and hutte were nameil after tlieiii. We drove them out of tliis < ouiitry when I was a young man. My t'atlier was a Uannack, and my mother a Shoshone. I was born near here, on Snake River, ank. Barren. Makt; sign for the person or animal, sign tor I'ariuki- TioN, an«l for Cannot or No. Deaf-mutes use the same. Bashful. Similar to .Asha.mkd, but the head is dropped a little, a.s lliough drawing blanket more over heatl. l)caf mutes put tip of index of right hand, other fingers and thumb 63 Ji.lS/N—Jil-.ADS. closed, against icctli, lower the licad slightly, and cast |)osite each otiier, arms ixi;iiil((l downwards, about the lull length, index Hngers and tiunnbs spread ami (inved, so as to form an incomplete horizontal ellipse, other fingers dosed ; move the hands towards ea( li other a fi'W inches, then, still holding left liand in its position, make uioiion witii partially cnrvi'd and slightly compressed right hand, as though pawing or scooping out dirt t'rom the spai e indicated between the spread thumbs and index fingers. To denote a buffalo-wallow, make insl sign for buffalo, aiid then the above. For a vessel or utensil, indicate the shape with the hands. Kor a vessel deaf-mntes indicate the shape. Basket. Make sign for Kei rt.E, and then interlock the fingers to denote the manner of iiiterlat ing the material. Deaf-mutes hold the left forearm horizontally in trout (;♦" body, pointing to front, then hold right iiulex against it on lower or tiixler side, at wrist, otlier fingers and ihinnb closed ; drop the hand, aii'! carry it on curve l)ackwards, bringing it up again, and pla( ing it against arm near elbow. Bat. Make sign lor Nicaii and for \\\v.u ; instead ol the lattei sign tiir extended iiands are brought side by side, at index ar ' ambs, in frt)nt of body, backs up, fingers pointing to front, and h: !.:i.nds given a wavy motion to front, right, and downwards ;-c few inches; tiu'n similar niotion is made to left, front, and downwards, indicating the zigzag way a bat (lies. JJeaf imiles use the same. Battle. Make sign-for Kniiir, and for Voi.i.kv or Hkavv KiuiNt;, Sometimes the hands are held opposite each other, as in Frc.lii', and then tliL sign for shoot made with both hands towards i*ach other. lay. (Water. ) Make sign for Watkk, then bring riglit hand well out in front of body, index finger and thumb ( tirved and s|)rea(l, forming a jjartial horizontal ellipse, other fingers closed, back of hand outwards and to right. Deaf-mutes make sign for Waii'k, Dt'sr or Dirt, and then indicate the shape by cmving left arm, and passing right hand over it. Bay. 'Color, I Make .;ign for Kf.d. Indians usually call a bay pony a leil nmiv ; sometimes it is called a "common" coK)r. I)eaf-n)utes i ike same sign. Bayonet. Make sign for ("iCN, then place th(; extended index fingets alongside one another, i)ther fingers and thundjs closed, right index projecting beyond left one-third its length. Deaf-nnHes make sign for (it'N and make thrusting motion for- ward with bolli hands, as though making a thrust with bayonet at tached to a gun. Beads. Hohl the right forearm horizontally in front of bod\, pointing to front, slightly compress the right hand, and allow it lo BEAR—BEAkD. 63 ilioi) by its own weijL^lU (held loosely at wrist), shake the luiiul slij^htly, giving it a (piivering motion to indicate the sliininiering of tlu' heads wiien stirred by the hand or when holdiiiL; a string nji by the hands, — hu( h " strings" as are sold at the Indian stores. Some- times the tips of first and second lingers are wet by pla( ing against hps, aixi tlien |)nt against let't palm, the left liand being extended, and, l)ack down, held hori/onlally in front of body ; then make a 1, lotion siinihxr to sew, to denote the stringing of the beads on ti>e sinew. These gestures indicate tlieir way of making bead-work. I'siiallv an Indian has some l)ead-work on his person, and he simply points to the beads, in f.ict, I never saw the sign I have described used in convers;'tion until 1 made special iiupiiry about it. Lewis and ( larke give an acconnt of finding beads made by the Indians of the Mandan and (»ros Ventres tribes, and descrilu- the prtxess as jxirsiied by these Indians in 1804. M-.-ads «;f Indian 111,1 nn fact lire are found in the burial mounds near Devil's Lak" and I'embina, Dakota 'I'errilorv, and from other implements found (here it would seem that tlie art was known and practised long before iSo.i, and |)roliably by the Mandans in their southern migration. Draf-imit<.'s make the sign for MiriAi,, that (an be seen through, ,iiid then indicate a string round the ne( k. Bear, ('onception: Rolling motion in running. Iking both hands, backs up, well out in front of body, some distance trom it and about six inches apart, little linger extended, others and thumbs I losed, forearms nearly horizontal and same height ; lower the IkiikIs simnltaneousl)' and raise them, mostly by wrist action. I he (.'rows and some other tribes |)arliaily close the hands and hoM them alongside of he. id, |)alms to iVont, — from the jxisition of the bear's iroiit feel at times when s< (iiitinj;, or from the ears ot ,ini- iiials. The I'embina band ol C'hippewas add to this a (Jawing motion, with hands to front upwards and then downwards. 'i'o specify tiie kind, as gray or grizzly, biack, cinnamon, etc., make sign for Bear, and then sign for Hair, and give it the proper (iilor, or denote tlu' kiml by the locality where loiind or some pe( uliarity of tiie beast. Deaf-muies, after sign for Animai, Likk, fold or ( ross the arms osir chest, hands resting on arms just above elbow, and with the fuigeis execute a clawing motion on arms. The ("rows and souie other tribes have bee 1 credited with having a pe( iiliar su|)erstition against killing bears, and also against tanning tlie skins. As nearly as 1 ( onld liiid out the first resulted from fear of personal harm from the animal, and the latter, it is claimed, makes sore the throats of the women who work over bear-skins, dressing and lamiinu them. Beard. I'lace backs of hands against cheeks, right against right, lelt against left, hands slightly c ()m])resse(l, fingers i»oiiiting down- wards. For chin-whiskers the riglit hand only is used, ba( k being pl.K ed agair.it chin. For side-whiskers the hands are plated farther l)a( k on ch« eks, at their bases. 64 nEAUTIFVI.—liEFORE. Deaf-niutt's make motion in front of chin and downwards, as thoii_L;h strokinj,^ the beard. There is no good ground for tlie belief tliat Indians would not have bt-ards if tliey did not imll the hair out. They ( hiini that a beard is no protection against cold, is disagreeable in hot weather, and is troublesome to keej) clean. Some tribes pull out the eye- brows and evelashes as well, and nearly all jjermit no iiair to grow on the body except on the heatl. Beautiful. Make sign for Handsome or PuKirv, and tor very l)eauiiful aiUl HuAVK. Deaf-mules describe a circle with tij) of right iniiex finger in front of and < lose to face, other fmgers and thumb closed, and then, hold- ing exti'iuled right hand, palm towards and near face, bring the tips of fnigers and llnunb togetlier. Beaver. Conception : 'I'ail <>f l)eaver striking mud or water. Hold extended left hand, back up, jiointing to right and front, in front of bod), left forearm horizontal; bring the extended right hand, back up, under and at right angles with left, back of right resting against palm of left hand ; lower tiie right hand by wri^t action, and raise it, back of right striking against lel't palm sharply: re|)eat motion. 1 liave seen Indians, who were not fully conversant with the sign language, make gesture for little animals working in nuul and water, gnawing down, trees, etc., to denote a beavir. Heaf-niutes make sign for animal life, and with first and second fingers denote the flat tail nioving on the water, and sign for latter. Beaver Dam. Make sign (or Hkavi;r, for VVai i;k, and for Hom), — the Inigers in latter ^.ign being freijuently separated and sometimes interloi ked, and some add sign lor Tkke. Bed. Hold lett hand, bai k down, lingers extended and touching, ami pointing to the right in trout of and close to lett breast ; briiii,' right hand, bac k down, fingers extended, touching, and pointing to left .ind slightly to front in some horizontal plane m front of and close to li'tt ; move the right hand well ou: to front, a trille to right, keei)ing in same plane. Deaf-nnUes inditate the four posts and a cf)vering for the bed, ilrawing hands back as though spreading same over a bed. Before. (Sense of time.) Hold the left hand, back up, in front of and few inring right Iiand, hack iii), index finger cxtcmlt'd, oiiicrs and tlniinl) ( loscd lew im lies in front of lett hand, knii< kles of riglit hand licight ot lips of fingers of left, index finger pointing to front slightly ii|)\vards, it being in iVoiit of ((litre of left hand. 'I"o express a great distanc ; before or in ad- vaiKe, the right hand is i)Ut farther to the front. To express higher or highest rank, say of several chiefs, make the proper sign to denote the chiefs, then jiointing to one or making sign {"or him, and then the above sign ; this would exi)ress that they were all chiefs, but Mich a one was in advan( e of them in inihieiue and power. (See also An IAD and Sui'i;riok. ) The sign is of f, juent use to express bravery. For instance, a large jiartyof J'awnees went to war; then make sign for any pa.iticu- lar one, and then the toregoing sign. This would indicate tlmt he \ ntis went in advance, rode before all others, fearless of danger, this little sign might convey a higher tribute to dauntless courage than many long eulogies; for a party might ])ass through a (ountry tlii< k with danger and death, and he who should go single-handeil in the midst of it would be worthy of the highest praise so gener- 'v given in tlieir Indian songs, and this is a reward rich in honor on ac( Drding to their views of the matter. Deaf-mutes make the sign for .\nimai,, and then separate liands as exjiLiiied in .Ahkad. Behind. ('I'ime. ; See After. l)iaf-miites make sign for Timk, and then sejjarate hands. Behind. (Animals and ( omparison.) Hold left hand, l),i< k up, well out m t'ront of centre of breast, fingers extended, touching, pointing to front and slightly ujjwards ; bring the right hand, ba( k up. in rear of left, index linger extended, pointing to front, slightly upwards, and being in rear of centre of left hand, its tip being at height of knuckles of left hand, other fingers and thuiub closed. The right hand is brought i'rom the front over the left to its po- sition. The remarks made in reference to Hkkoke ap|)ly with equal force to this gesture; and as the Indi.ms iiold bravery the greatest virtue, they necessarily consider ( owardice the greatest vice. There are no o.iths in any Indian language, but to say that one is a coward, damns the person mo^t completely. Remarks under HkiokI'. for de.if-nuites ajtply to this word. Below. I'old extended left hand, back up. fingers pointing to Iront, well in front of body at about height of breast; ( arry the ex- tended right hand under left some inches, according as is wished to express how tar under or below. Simply pointing below witit index finder denotes below. (See Infkkidr.) Deaf mutes use the same. Belt. Carry botli partially-closed hands to the waist, and a little to rear of body, right on right side, left on left ; bring the hands round in front till they meet, as thcnigh clasping a belt. Deaf-imitch use the same sign. 66 BERRY— BIG. Indian women, as a rule, wear belts; men only the one for tar- tridj^es, and tlie narrow one next tlic skin for fastening the hreech- clolli. Berry. Make the sign for KosEniru, anil then distinguish by signs for tlie color, si/e, Use when ripe, nianner of gathering, such as striking bush or tree, and catching fruit on blanket spread under same, etc., and also by some description of the l)ushes. Ik'rries are also distinguished by the animaU which are fond of them. Deaf-mutes denote size by marking off with index and thumb of left hand a small part of tip of right thumb, giving color antl size of bushes, etc. Best. See Hkiork (sense of < omparison). iKaf-mutcs use the sU])erlalive of good, — i.e. good, better, best — by twice raising iiand, as in CiooD. Bet. Conception : From collecting in a pile the articles wagered. Indicate in what \va\ or manner, as with < arils, horse-race, game of ball, etc., and then hold parti.illy-(()mi)res^ed hands, fingers pointing downwards, tlui^e of right hand slightly to left, of left slightly to right, about eigliteen inches to front, slightly to right and left of body, hands little hnver than breast ; move the hands simultaneously on curve, upwards to front, and then downwards, terminating move- ment bv bringing hands about three inches aj)art, and few inches lower than when starting, 'i'his reiiresents the two piles of !)lankets, robes, or whatevi-r may have been wagered. The passion for L;and)ling is strong in the Indian lu-art. The two most noticeable characteristics are the high stakes for whi( h they will play, and the calm, serene grace with which they will lose all they have in the world. Deat-mute-, make sign for MoNKV, and then throw both hands dfnvn wards and to front. Betray. Make signs tor Lie and (iiVE, then bring right hand, back up. in front of body, index finger extended and pointing U) front, others and thund) closed ; turn the index finger so that it points to right .md front, and thrust the hand in that direction; sometimes the sign for Tkaii, is made and this sign, — \ou ):;ai'e me lies, aihi 1 7vent i\< tray from the trail, 'i'he manner and cin timst;'nc(.^ art usuallv spec i (led. l)eaf-mii!es make sign for Uevil or Wicked. Beyond. Ib^hl extended left hand, bac k up, in front of bod\ about I'M inches, ting<'rs pointing to right ; bring extended right h.uul, back up, between left and body same height, fingers ])ointing to left ; swing the right hand u])wards, outwards, and then ilownwanN on curve, beycjnd left hand, turning right hand, back tlown, n movement. nciif-niules use the same. Big. Ihing the hands opposite with palms towards each other, well out in front of body, hands a little lower than shoulders, ai:: few iiu hes .ipart, lingers extended, touching, and pointing to front, separate h.uuls, carrying right to righi, left to left, kee[)ing them op-. posite each other. This would seem to denote big in the sense of lilG BEl I.Y—Bl.ACK. 67 l)road, wide, et<'., but I have seen it used frequently in sue li sen- tent es as the •' Big Chief," " Big Horse," etc. Deaf-mutes use tiie same. Big Belly. Bring harnls in front of and close to abdomen, fingers toiK liing and sligiuiy < urved, ])alnis of iiands towards each other, inde.x fingers horizontal, tips (;t lingers of the hands near each other, wrists well sejjarated ; bring the wrists near together, increasing the distance between tips of fingers of hand';. l""ri(|ni'i\tly this sign is made by simply indicating the ( urved surlace of a large belly with extended hands, backs of hands outward. Dcat'-mutes use the same. Bird. CoiK eption : Wings. Bring the hands, nalm outwards, fnigcrs extended and touching above, to right and left in front of shoulders, hands same height ; move them simultaneously to front and downwards, repeating motion, imitating the p.iotion of wings; tare must be taken to imitate closely. The wings of small binls nitive ra|)itll\ ; tht)^e of large ones slowly. Some peculiarity may have tt) be nt)teil, — the manner of flying t)r stiaring, its habits, antl even its tt)ne t)f voice. \ goose woultl be knt)wn by indicating the lt)ng, slow motion t)f its wings and the triangular figure taken by tlu'si* birds hi their flight to the South or tlistant North, ami perhaps intlicating the noi^e made by them. 'I"he sign for Woodi'Kckek illustrates this point. Deaf-mutes liolti right haml, back up, near mouth, thumb antl inde.x exlentletl antl tout hing at tips, other fingers closeil ; thumb antl index represent the bill of the bird. Bison. See Buffalo. Bit, ( J'or animal.) Plate palmar surface of spread intkx and thumb t)f right hanti, other fingers cltjsetl, against mouth. The HIat kfeet ami st)me other tribes form two circles with thuud)s and iuilex fingers, ami press same ag.iinsl i heck at corners of mt)Uth, to rei)resent the rings of the bit. Deaf-mutes make sign tor Ikdn, and then tiraw index fingers across the mouth, right to right antl left to left. Bite. Bring right hunti, back outwartls antl upwanls in front of body, fingers t Dmpressetl, partially t urved and touching, thumb sliglitly curveil, antl it^ tip near tips t)f fingers; snap sharply tips of first and second fingers against tij) of tluunb, re|>ealing motion. Deaf-mutts use the same. Bitter. Touch tongue with tip of index of right hantI, other fingers clo.sed, and make sign fi)r Bad. Deaf-nmtes tou( h tongue with tip o{ right intiex, antl then make wiv fat e. Bitter-Root. Intlicate the shape of rot)t with extendetl right index, Dtlur fingers < loseti, antl the junk blossom about t)ne int h in liiameter. I'lie I'latheatls and adjacent tribes are very fonil of this; the root only needs drying for use. Black. The sign for Coi.f)K with many tribes is used for Black, but the more sale way is to point to something black ii\ coltjr. 68 BI.ACKIEET. Dent'-iiuitcs touch (he eyebrow with tip of rij,'lU index. Blackfeet ilndian8\ Make sij^ns for Mihiamn and for I'.lack. The agency for the Hla( kfeet, lihxid, and Tiegan Indians is lucated on IJailger Creek, a tiibntary of Medicine Lodj^e. about eighty miles from l*"ort .Shaw, Montana. 'I'iie valley is only a small ojiening in the foot-hills of the Rocky Monntains, which are about eighteen milts distant from the agency. The buildings are constructed of sawed logs and enclosed by a stoc kaile. 'I'iie soil is fertile, anil the stream furnishes plenty of water for irrigating purposes. There are several hmidred acres of land in the valley adjacent the agent y build- ing, which might be utiiizetl for agrit ultnral purposes. Ninety-four acres are fenced in anil under cidtivation. There are a lew log houses antl cansas lodges, t)ccupie(i by Indians, scattered about the valley. The agent in his rejuut tor iSSi gives a total population of seven thousand five hundreti Imiians, antl claims that the majority of these are I'iegans. 1 was piesent at the agency on July 4, iSiSi. The Intiians hatl been inft)rmed by the agent that it was a great " Medicine"-day for the whites, antl they ct)n)mencetl tt) gather for what they called a " ht)rse-anil-tot)t" tlant :e at t)nc I'.M. Most of the lllat kfeet and Blt)otls were away hunting, or were nt)rth of the boundary-line, claiming just at that time to be lt)yal sulijects of the " Oreat Mtither," and ht)iiing to set:ure some of the mt)ney being distributeil there. Some old men wht) were to tlrum antl sing first arrivetl just tjutside the stockatle ; then t ame straggling l'rt)m all directions men, women, antl thiltlren. The braves were in I'ull tlress. — i.e., with painted faces antl bt)ilies ; full war toggery, — bonnets, shields, guns, spears; ptmies tlecorateti antl jiaintetl, — a paratle of savage si)leiuK)r. The Horse-Dante ct)nsistetl in t ircling, charging, shtniting, firing of guns, etc. A small nmnber separatetl from the main body, anil represenletl the I'iegans, wiiile the larger number re|)resenteti their enemies, whom the few, being I'iegans, easily routetl. The ("ooi- danters formetl in a semicircle, antl in their costume of paint. breech-clt)ths, heati-dresses, looking glasses, anklets of skunk-skin, etc ., pertormetl the usual Intlian dance. They had made themselves as hitiet)Us as jjossible, and in this respect hati met with perfect sm cess. The olti wt)men and chiltlren and some men were seated on the ground in line near by, and in their shrill metallic voices loudly a[)plautietl. Near the entl of the tlance, after the hartl breatl, the coffee in wash-tubs and brass kettles, and the wheelbarrow-loads ol bacon had been ilistributeil anil nearly all eaten, an olti Iiulian, bent with age, a few gray hairs for a beard, quaintly gotten up in his old finery, a pair of iron spectacles hiding his sightless eyes, was led into the t ircle of dancers, where presents were made to him. One yonii^ man gave him a little slick, representing a pony. This occasioned many shrill cheers from the outsiders and a long speech from the oUI man, who, first holding his hands high in the air with the pa'n:> toward the sun, and then placing them on the young warrior, matie his prayer, asking that the blessing of the God in the sun might rest on the yoi Ik' liid ina i-'li'., he lia saved from he finished tlie old ma lushed up ; thanking h generous vt wiiich .some child. As sky behind nn'strable tt liad their Ik i^illed many lionoreti the r had DO ■luderstainlii I'yarance tin I'he Women '"lie men usn thetn wear ii 'lie nioccasi "lide like th 'lie front t)f X 'iuee bands.- Hla. kfeet. nation, who < ''here is a ; tliree bands, 'act that the soiled their ni tliis band, wl •ire called " I'-'Uil ()(• (Ih- •^outluv.ird Ml I'iwl the coiHU tills, very war out of this c, ''lans to the 5,'ives the HIat "ext. and the 'lieir mvth >^orth n)a(le ev tain. The cl pt'ople saw, at •^forth calletl ' 'w'o huge rock- I't'i)Mes at j.res( BLACK FRET. 69 on the younjij man. He remin(le(l this God of tin- gifts and sacrirues he had made to Him, the ponies, heails, tol».i(i-o, dotii, skins, pijtes, uiiL' man miij: ht I )e etc., lie liad given Hini, and asked tluit this yo saved from harm, and meet witli suc( ess in war and in i)ea(e. As lie finished, the yotith turned and i)assed the palin^ of his li.inds over the old man, from his head down over the body, and all the dancers rushed up and did the same thing, in this way asking a blessing, ,ind thanking him for his ailvice and the good *' medicine" made for the le 01 man's gilts were wrapped up in .1 blanket, )re>ente(t linn, aiu 1 he was led I way i)V a litth generous youth. 'I'he whicli some one had | child. .\s the sun was sinking in the rose and purple light of the •,kv behind the mountains, they scattered out to the log hnts and miserable tejiees, or drifted rounlic I had no difficulty in ( onversing wi»h these Indians, though not understanding one word of their vocal language. In pi'rsonal ap- IHar.mce thev are, at piesent, inferior to the other IM.iins tribes. The women part the hair in the middle,' and usually wear it loose 'I' le men iisu illv i)art it on oiu- side, soin le few iiiaid it ; but mo^t of them wear it loose, wliilst others b.ing it in frmit like the (!rows. The moccasin fairlv distinguishes them from other tribes. It is Ml iile like that of the Prairie (^iros \'eiitres ; but the bead work at tlie front of the upper terminates in three |)rongs, to represent tiie three bands, — i.e., the Blackleef, the iSlood Mlackfeet. and the I'iegan Hhukfeet. Tradition clearlv IXIil Us to a Northern origin for \\\ IS nation, who call themselves bv a word which means " Tlie IVoph-." There is a slight dialectical difference mi the vocal language of the three bands. 'I'liey claim that the\ got the name iilackfeet from the fact that the black soil of the I'ar North, where they formerly livi-d, soiled tlieir moccasins. The Piegans were so named from a chief of this band, who wore a robe batllv dressed and spotted. Tlie Hlooils are calleil K lara. lucli means old-time people There is a sub- In tl leir migration 1 hand of the Piegans whom they call " Hlood> soiitlnvard they kept near anitations, and this belief has been a source of annoyance to the agent, in that they would not live in a house after a death had taken place there. It also accounts for the destruction of tepees, etc. They gave me two accounts of scalp- taking. Said one, " Long ago, near here, the Snakes and Piegans were a!)out to have a fight. The two tribes approached each otlier from opposite sides of a river, each reaching the bank at the same time. The stream was swollen with recent rains and the current very swift. The Snakes called out and made signs for the Piegans to select their bravest man, and they (the Snakes) would do the same. These two men would wade into the stream, and by personal combat decide the controversy. This was done, and the Piegan drowned the Snake ami .savin6) S72-4S0S %u>:^ 0-^'^^%!^ o^ 7a BLACKFEET. decorated, drag the brush with lariats to camp for the lodge, and fire at it as they drag it along. The centre-pole is hauled on a travois, and this is also fired at as they carry it to camp. The centre-pole, as they call it, which corresponds to the Sun-Dance-Pole, is selected, and an old man, who must be able to count four " coups," makes a speech at the foot of the tree before it is cut, and strikes the tree, which is then cut down. During the felling the tree is constantly fired at by the warriors. Some of the young men are selected to go out and get a fresh buffalo-skin, which two of the bravest cut up into strips and tie to the willows at the forks of the centre-pole. A hole is made near the foot of the pole for a fire, and the tail of the buffalo hangs down from tlie forks of tiie pole some feet above it. The young man who has stolen the most ponies since the last dance is allowed to put pieces of brush, one for each lot of ponies stolen, on the fire made in the hole, and should he be able with his limited number of sticks to build a fire large enough to burn the tail, he is estimated a great warrior. The medicine-man has a separate lodge for himself opposite the door and outside of the big lodge, which faces the east. He fasts and dances to the sun, blowing his whistle. He is painted in differ- ent colors, and he must have no water, and only after dark can he eat, and then only the inner bark of the cottonwood-tree. In dancing he holds up his hands and has strings, made of the uiuler- wing feathers of an eagle, tied to his fingers. A picture of the sun is painted on his forehead, the moon, Ursa Major, etc., on his body. The dance continues four days, and should this medicine-man drink, it is sure to cause rain, and if it rains, no other evidence of his weak- ness is wanted or taken. He is deposed as high-priest at once, and another is put in his little lodge as chief medicine-men. Sometimes they allow him a little food, as they say, "Two bites the first day, four the second, six the third, and eight the fourth." He is put in his little lodge with great ceremony, of which dancing and drum- ming is the principal feature. Insicle the big lodge, the young men, gaudily painted and in war costume, dance and ciiarge across towards each other, dividing themselves into two parties, recount their deeds of bravery and valor, make gifts, etc., and those who have made the " vow" dance as the Sioux do in the Sun-Dai. ce, mutilate themselves, etc. Many gifts are made to the sun j i.e., placed on the Medicine- Lodge. The feasting is principally on buffalo-tongues, of which there are as many as tlie woman who made the vow has been able to gather. The tongues contributed are all carried to her lodge whole, and are cut by her for drying anil packed away in par-fleches. At the Medicine-Lodge each woman is obliged to take a tongue, break off a small portion, give it to the sun and announce her purity. The man who cuts the holes in the breasts of the men who are to be tied to the central pole must have captured a lance from the enemy. A shield is tied to the muscles at the back of shoulder, and, as in the Sun-Dance, they have to dance until tliey tear themselves loose. Sometimes the medicine-man presses his weig t against the victim-^ BLA CKFEE T—BLANKE T. 73 len, ards Ives, ine- lich e to lole, At reak riic tied A the oosc tiiii'^ of self-torture. They have a story that a long timo ago a man wan- dering about was taken up to the sun and cared for, and to him tliey pray, dance, and make gifts. They also have a Medicine-Pipe-Dance. For this tobacco is saved up, a bundle is made, tied with strings of elk- and deer-.ikins, and when opciied, the sounds made by these animals are imitated. Tlie bundle also contains a pipe handed down from generation to generation, used only for this special smoking and several other kinds of "medicine." The practice of surgery is rare among Indians, and although tliese people do occasionally invoke its aid, they hardly seem justified by its results. In one case I learned that two holes were bored in the upper part of a man's chest, who had astiima, for the purpose of blowing out the evil spirit, who liad possession and caused the trouble. Another case was that of a woman* sick with brain fever. A hole was bored in her head to let the evil spirit out. It is hardly necessary to say that both patients died. These Indians do not keep an account of their individual ages, and, whatever they may once have been, are now inferior mentally, morally, and physically to the other Phiins tribes, and beyond any of them have suffered reduction by wars and disease, but princi- pally the latter, to an extent with wiiich {t\s of the others are com- parable. Blackfeet (Sioux Indians). Make sign for Sioux and for Black- feet. There are several stories toUl as to the manner in which tliis band of Sioux Indians, now located at Standing Rock Agency, on the Missouri River, received its name. The first one I heard was to the effect that a cliief became jealous of his wife and compelled her to keep the soles of her moccasins constantly blackened with cliar- coal, so that he could trail her wherever she might go. Tiie second was that a number of warriors started out after the Crow Indians, succeeded in capturing some ponies, but on account of subsequent carelessness allowed themselves to be surprised and some of the number killed, and lost their camp e(piii)age as well as tlie stolen ponies; returning home, the country had been burnt over, soon their moccasins were won, away, and the l)lackened stubble nnitilated and tattooed their feet. The chief, with the party and his followers, were ever after called Blackfeet. (See Sioux.) Blanch. Pass the palm of right hand over face, and make sign for Another. The face is changed, it is another face, either tlirongh fear or whatever may have been the cause. The Arapahoes, instead of saying "a person turned white," say " turned red with fear," and they make the sign for a red color shooting up into the face. I have also seen both hands held in front of face, backs out, fingers extended and separated, and a fluttering motion given to hands. Deaf-mutes make the sign for White, and then holding closed right hand near face, extend the fingers as the hand is raised, to denote tlie wliite color being thrown intc he face. Blanket. Conception : Wrapping about shoulders. Bring the closed hands, palms towards each other, opposite and near each 74 BLESS YOU— BLUE. shoulder ; move the right hand to left, left to right, terminating movement when wrists are crossed, right hand nearest body. Deaf-mutes make sign for Woollen Cloth, and then draw the hands backwards from front, as though spreading blanket over a bed. Bless You. Raise both hands, palm outwards, to front and up- wards, arms fully extended, hands raised towards person, fingers extended, touching, and pointing upwards ; lower hands several inches, at same time pushing them outwards slightly towards the person ; repet . motion. Sometimes the palms of hands are first held towards the sun, and then towards the earth, and then the above, thus asking, as they say, the blessing of the Father and Mother of all life and power to rest on one. Deaf-mutes close the right hand over the mouth ; then carry the hand outwards and downwards towards person, open the hand, turning it palm outwards. Blind. Bring both extended hands, backs outwards, in front uf and close to eyes, right hand nearest and both hands parallel to face; move right hand slightly to left, left to right. Frequently the palmar surface of ends of fingers are placed against closed eyes, this to denote the physical affliction of blindness, and the former when used in a metaphorical sense. Deaf-mutes place the palmar surface of index and second fingers over closed eyes. Blood. Bring right hand, back outwards, first and second fingers extended and separated, otliers and thumb closed, in front of mouth, tips of first and second fingers pressed against nostrils; move the hand to the right and downwards, giving it a tremulous motion. Sometimes the position of the hand is changed so tiiat the first and second finders point downwards from nose, and then the hand is moved downwards and- to front, and a tremulous motion given it. Some Indians hold the right hand in front of mouth, thumb and fingers extended and separated, pointing upwards and to front, and move the hand upwards to front and then downwards from mouth, indicating the flow of blood from the mouth and nose of a wounded buffalo. I have also seen the extended index of right hand, other fingers and thumb closed, held near leg or thigh, and the hand moved or thrust outwards with a vibratory motion to indicate the spurting of blood from a large vein or artery, and then the sign for Rkd made. Deaf-mutes indicate the red color and the flowing. Blood (Indian). Bring the right hand, back up, in front of mouth, index finger extended and pointing to left, other fingers and thumb closed ; draw the index finger horizontally to right, between or just touching lips. (See Blackfeet.) Blue. Point at or touch something of that color. Sometimes, but rarely, the sign for a clear sky is made, indicating that the clouds have all passed away. Many Indians do not note any difference be- tween blue and black, and very light blue they sometimes call green. Deaf-mutes indicate the arch of the heavens for blue. Bluff. B front of bo( for a small 1 high as one mountain. (See Mo'iNT Deaf-mute back of near Boat. Cc out in front ( rear, a littlt carried back hands to rea tions are mar ill the nature nearly to rig! side of body, birch-bark ca the curved an to denote the Deaf-mutes bring lowei ( finger<;.— a .sc boat. Boil. (Tumi right hand o sometimes ad( Boil (To), vessel, then t Bone. Mak long time; to bone in anima Deaf-mutes i Bonnet. C; "an is it, finger taneously to fr. used, other fin; Heaf-mutes ti'l's of thumbs to denote the c Born. Cone lip, in front o touching, poini ^vards and out speaking of the speaking of the parturition. Deaf-mutes c '"runt and slight BLUFF— BORN. 75 Bluff. Bring the closed right hand, back outwards, well out in front of body, forearm nearly vertical ; push the hand up slightly for a small bluff, and increase it according to height of hill; i.e., as high as one could reach in this way would be the highest bluff or mountain. For several bluffs, a hilly country, botli hands are used. (See Mo^;ntain.) Deaf-mutes indicate the surface of hills, bluffs, and mountains with back of nearly-extended hand or liands. Boat. Conception : To paddle. Bring both closed hands well out in front of body, right hand over left ; swing the hands to the rear, a little to left and slightly downwards, as the hands are carried back in front of body ; place right under left and swing the hands to rear, a little to tiie right and downwards. These mo- tions are made by elbow and shoulder action, and the hands are held in the natural position when grasping a paddle, viz., back of right nearly to right, back of left to left, .vhen making the motion on left side of body, and the reverse when making it on right side. Tiie birch-bark canoe is indicated usually by above sign, and then hold the curved and compressed right hand in front of body, back down, to denote the curved prow of same. Deaf-mutes partially curve and very slightly compress the hands, bring lovvei edges together, and join the tips of little and third finger". — a scoop-shaped position of the hands denoting shape of bo:it. Boil. (Tumor.) Press the little finger of the closed and compressed rigiit hand over and against the part supposed to be afflicted, and sometimes add sign for Sick over this part. Boil (To). Make sign for whatever fluid it may be, the sign for the vessel, then the sign for Spring (water). Bone. Make sign for the animal, for Die; lie on the ground long time; touch part of body or limb corresponding to place of bone in animal, and then point to something white. Deaf-mutes touch the teeth with index finger. Bonnet. Carry hands alongside of rear part of head, palms to- wards it, fingers extended and pointing upwards ; move hands simul- taneously to front ; sometimes spread thumbs and index fingers are used, other fingers closed. (See War-Bonnet.) Deaf-mutes indicate the string down side of cheeks either with tips of thumbs or tips of index fingers, and also pass hand over head to denote the covering of same. Born. Conception; Issuing from loins. Bring right hand, back up, in front of centre of body and close to it, fingers extended, t'>iu:iiing, pointing to front and downwards; move the hand down- wards and outwards on curve. This sign is used by parents in speaking of their children at any time of life, and is also used in speaking of the young of any animal, as well as to describe the act of parturition. Deaf-mutes cross the hands as in Bahv, and then move them to the front and slightly tlownwards. 76 BORROW— BOW. Borrow. Make sign for Give (to you or to me), Bv and Bv, and then Give. There is no such word as loan, but the Indians say, "Give it to me for a time (usually specifying duration), and I will give it back." Deaf-mutes use the same sign. Bow. Conception : Bending bow to shoot. Bring left hand, back to left, well out in front and little to left of body, left forearm nearly horizontal, hand about height of left breast; close the fingers, except index ; place the extended thumb on second finger, press the index finger around end and sides of thumb; carry the closed right hand, back nearly upwards, thurr.b extended, and pressing against second joint of index finger, so that Ixack of second joint of this finger shall rest against back of thumb of lef. hand ; then draw the right hand little to right and well to rear, very slightly upwards. Deaf-mutes, same. The material used in making bows depends on the locality. On our almost treeless prairies nearly every species of wood found is brought into service. I was once with a party of Indians, and it was desirable that we should have a bow. There seemed to be no suitable material, but one of them found an old, broken ash wagon- bow lying along side of the road. . It was taken into camp, greased, warmed by the camp-fire, trimmed with their hunting-knives, slowly, carefully, and skilfully bent into shape, and quite a shapely and ser- viceable article was the result. Among the Plains Indians, bows are made from oak, hickory, ash, elm, cedar, osage-orange, one or two varieties of willows, plum, cherry, bull-berry, and otiier bushes, and from the horns of the mountain-sheep and elk. " The bow — the weapon so long in use among the different Indian tribes of this continent, so typical of Indian life, and the mere men- tion of which always associates our ideas with the red men — is made of various kinds of wood, and its manufacture is a work of no little labor. Even at this day the bow is much used, and although an In- dian may have a gun, he is seldom seen without his long-bow, and quiver well filled with arrows. The gun may get out of order, and he cannot mend it; the ammunition may become wet, and there is an end of hunting; but the faithful bow is always in order, and its swift arrows ready to fly in wet as well as dry weather. Tlius reasons the savage, and so keeps his bow to fall back upon in case of accident. '• Until the invention of breech-loaders, it is a fact well known to frontiersmen that the bow was a far more deadly weapon at close range than the best rifle. A warrior could discharge his arrows with much greater rapidity and precision than the most expert woodsman could charge and fire a muzzle-loading rifle. . . . "The Indian boy's first lesson in life is to shoot with a bow. He I is furnished with a small bow and * beewaks,' or blunt arrows, so lie will hurt nobody, and with these he shoots at marks. By and by, when he has acquired some skill in handling his weapon, he is given j small arrow-points, and with these he shoots birds, squirrels, and small beasts. As he grows older he receives the long-bow, and at I BO IV. 77 He so he I nd l>y, given I and md at la>>t the strong-bow. Tliese strong-bows are powerful weapons, and I have seen them so stiff that a white man could not bend them scarce four inches, while an Indian would, with api)arent ease, draw thcni to the arrow's head, A shaft fired from one of these bows will go through the body of a buffalo, and arrow-heads have been found so firmly imbedded in the thigh-bones of a man that no force could c;xtract them. Tlie jjarents take great pride in teaching young In- dians to shoot, and the development of the muscles and strength of their arms is watched with much interesl. A stout arm, orna- mented witli knots of muscles, is a great lionor to an Indian, and no one but those who can handle the strong-bow are deemed fit for war. "Of all the Indians of the West, the Sioux and Crows make the bent bows. The Sioux bow is generally four feet long, one and a half inches wide, and an inch thick at the middle. It tapers from the centre or 'grasp' towards the ends, and is but iialf an inch wide, and half an inch thick at the extremities. At one end the bow- string is notched into the wood and made permanently fast, while at the other end two notches are cut in the wood, and the string at that end of the bow is made like a slip-knot or loop. When the bow is to bo used, the warrior .sets the end to which the string is made fast firmly on the ground, and then bends down the other end until the loop slips into the notch. This is called 'stringing' the bow. The bow is never kept strung except when in actual use, as it would lose its strength and elasticity by being constantly bent. Wiien unstrung, a good bow is i)erfectly straight, and, if properly made and seasoned, will always retain its elasticity. . . . " When the bow is made of cedar it need not be seasoned ; but all other woods require seasoning, and are not worked until i)erfcctly dry. Every tepee has its bovv'-wood hung up with the arrows in the smoke of the fire, but well out of reach of the flames. A warrior with a sharp knife and a sandstone or file can make a bow in three days if he works hard, but it most generally takes a week, and sometimes a month, to finish a fancy bow. When done it is worth three dollars in trade. " All the bows differ in length and strength, being gauged for the arms of those who are to use tiiem ; but a white man would, until he learned the sleight of it, find himself unable to bund even the weakest war-bow. This has given rise to the impression tliat the Indians are stronger than white men, which is an error ; for, although only a slight man myself, I learned, after some practice, to bend the strongest bow, and could send a shaft as far or as deep as any sav- age. On one occasion I shot an arrow, while running, into a buffalo so that the point came out on the opposite side; another arrow dis- j appeared in the buffalo, not even the noich being visible. The power of the bow may be bef^er understood when I tell you that the most powerful Colt's revolver will not send a ball through a buffalo. jl have seen a bow throw an arrow five hundred yards, and have my- self often discharged one entirely through a board one inch thick. 78 BOW. Once I found a man's skull transfixed to a tree by an arrow which had gone completely through the bones, and imbedded itself so deep in the wood as to sustain tlie weight of tiie head. He had probably been tied up to the tree and shot. . . . " When sinew is placed on the back of a bow the surface of the bow is made perfectly flat, then roughened with a file or stone, the sinew being (lipped in hot glue and laid on the wood. The sinew is then lapped at the entls and on the middle or grasp of the bow. The string is attached while green, twisted, and left to dry on the bow. The whole outside of the wood and sinew is now covered with a thick solution of glue, and the bow is done. Rough bows look like hickory limbs with the bark on, but some of them are beautifully painted and ornamented. I once knew a trader to glue some red velvet on a bow, and the Indian paid him an immense price for it, thinking it very wonderful. " The Crows make bows out of elk-horn. To do this they take a large horn or prong and saw a slice off each side of it ; these slices are then filed or rubbed down until the flat sides fit nicely together, when they are giued and wrapped at the ends. Four slices make a bow, it being jointed. Another piece of horn is laid on the centre of the bow at the grasp, where it is glued fast. The whole is then filed down until it is perfectly proportioned, when the white bone is or- namented, carved, and painted. Nothing can exceed the beauty of thfse bo.vs, and it takes an Indian about three months to make one. T'.iey are very expensive, and the Indians do not sell them ; but I once managed to get one from a friend for thirf;y-two dollars in gold. " In travelling, the bow is carried in a sheath attached to the arrow- quiver, and the whole is slung to the back by a belt of elk- or buck- skin, which passes diagonally across the breast, and is fastened to the ends of the cjuiver. The quiver and bow-sheath is generally made of the skin of an ox or some wild animal, and is tanned with the hair on. The quiver is ornamented with tassels, fringe of| buckskin, and the belt across the breast is painted or worked with| beads. "To shoot with the bow properly, it must be held firmly in three! fingers of the right* hand ; the arrow is fixed on the bow-string with the thumb and forefinger of the left hand, and the other three fin- gers are used to pull the string. The shaft of the arrow lays between! the thumb and forefinger of the right hand, which rests over the grasp of the bow. To shoot, the bow is turned slightly, so one endl is higher than the other, and the arrow is then launched." {Belden.} " I once saw an Indian ride alongside of a large buffalo cow going at such speed that it required the best exertions of his veryl fleet pony to overtake and keep up with her. Leaning forward onl his pony, and drawing an arrow to its head, he sent it entirehj * This description was evidently intended for a left-handed man. BO il-STKIXG—BHA VE. 79 of the ne, the : sinew e bow. on the covered h bows leni are to glue mniense :y take a lices are ix, when : a bow, re of the lien filed ne is or- beauty of lake one. ni ; but I llollars in through the buffalo just back of the foreslioulder, so that it fell on the ground on the opposite side." Bow-String. Make sign for Bow, then holding left hand in posi- tion, touch the left index finger with tip of extended right, other fingers closed, and carry right hand to shoulder, lowering the liand and then raising it, tiie index finger passing under left arm ; the left arm here rejiresents the bow, and the index traces the position of the string. Some Indians hold the closed left hand, back down and slightly to left, some eighteen inches in front of left shoulder; bring the right hand, back up, fingers extended, touching, j)ointing to front and slightly downwards, in front of right shoulder or height of waist; move the hand to front and slightly downwards ; repeat- ing motion. These gestures represent the holding of the material in the left hand, and the right twisting the green or fresli sinew. Should this gesture be made when seated, the palm of right hand presses against '■urface of thigh. Deaf-mutes make sign for Bow and indicate the string similarly to the first description. Bowl. Indicate the shape with curved hands, and denote material by proper gestures. Braid. (Hair.) Carry both hands to riglit side of head, and make motion as though grasping hair and braiding same. Brain. Touch the forehead with tips of extended first and second fingers. The brains of animals mixed with boiled liver furnish the Indians with tanning material. (See Tan.) Brand. (Upon animals.) Close fingers of right hand except in- dex, with it and thumb form a partial circle, there being a little space between tips ; carry the hand to left shoulder, and press the circle formed, as described, against it on the outer side; this shows the animal branded on shoulder ; press against hip to indicate branded there. Brave. Hold firmly closed left hand about eight inches in front of centre of body, left forearm horizontal and pointing to right and front, back of left hand vertical and on line of prolongation of forearm ; bring the firmly-closed right hand some six inches above and a little in front of left hand, back to right and front and on line of forearm ; strike downwards with right hand, mostly by elbow action, the second joints of right hand passing close to and about on a line with knuckles of left hand. Sonie Indians hold left hand as I have described, but left forearm pointing to right and slightly upwards; and the right hand is carried more round the left and then down, when opposite forearm. Mr. Girard, at Fort Lincoln, who is a fluent sign talker, held that the former was used more in the sense of strong. The distinction is a fine one, and few Indians note it, — using the same gesture exactly, as a rule, for brave and strong. The conception of the gesture comes from the signs for Hill, Break, and Sit Down. I believe there is no other gesture used by Indians who are thor- -^UMMUkU 80 BRA VADO— BREAD. oughly conversant with the sign language that is as flexible and pos- sesses as mucli strength and character as this, for when added to other signs it intensifies their descriptive powers wonderfully, adds to many the superlative, gives heroic character to bravery, arrant cowardice to timidity, makes an ordinary meal a feast, and of a fast starvation; pleasure becomes bliss, and care most bitter sorrow. Pointing to a man and making this sign would convey to an Indian's mind the idea that he was brave, fearless, and this to them is the highest, most perfect virtue, and creates not only respect, but positive rever- ence. The gesture, as a rule, is used in this sense, but at times to express opposite or antagonistic ideas. If an Indian visited another tribe, was feasted, given ponies, robes, arms, and otlier presents, he might finish the description with this sign : "He had a brave time;" and Dull Knife, the Cheyenne chief, used it when he told me of his escape from Fort Robinson, and subsequent journey of eighteen days in an arctic climate with only one blanket and a few rosebuds and snow to eat, — "brave" hardships surely. A good time becomes royal, a bad time tastes strongly of wretchedness. A boy is a swift runner, add this sign, and it intensifies the idea of his fleetness. An old man walks slowly, add this sign, and it conveys the impression that he can only drag his limbs along. This sign is used as frequently with other gestures as it is by itself; it is added to others to complete, perfect, and strengthen them. (See Phrases.) Deaf-mutes bring the closed hands sharply against breast, and then push them outwards. Bravado. Make sign for Fire, Talk, — i.e., little talk, — Straight, or True, and No. One talks jfr^, but there is no truth in it ; some- times. Fire, Talk, Brave Work, and Afraid. Talksyfri? bravely but acts the coward ; />., talking fiercely, but there is no real bravery in it. One Indian gave this to me as, "Behind in everything but lies;" trying to get to be a chief by talk alone. Bread. Make sign for Flour, then bring the nearly-extended hands, palms together, in front of body, back of left down, right up, hands at about right angles; turn tiie hands with a partial rotary and swinging motion, bringing right under left as the hands are being | turned; separate them slightly and join them with a gentle clap; repeat motions. Sometimes in speaking of loaves of bread as we make them, they add signs for size of loaf, viz., bring both extended hands, palms I towards and opposite each other, in front of body, fingers touching and pointing to front, hands about as far apart as the supposed width of the loaf (this sign is general to show the width or breadth of small objects). The Indians usually mix their flour with water into a dough, sprinkling on some yeast powder, and then fry it ; and frequently! the signs for this are made to represent bread instead of the onel| have given. Deaf-mutes indicate the working or kneading of the dough, and! BREAK— BROAD. 8l tlicn holding left hand, back to left, fingers extended and point- ing to front, in front of body; make motion of cutting off slices of bread with lower edge of extended right hand, held back to right, parallel to left, and some inches from it. Break. Conception : Breaking a stick held horizontally in the closed hands. Bring both closed hands, backs up, close together in front of body, and at some distance from it, as though holding a small stick horizontally in the closed hands; twist the right hand to right, left to left, as though breaking the stick. Deaf-mutes make the same sign. Breech-Cloth, Carry right hand, back outwards, fingers extended, toiK liing, pointing downwards and slightly to rear, below and little in front of crotch ; raise the hand, keeping it close to and about parallel to centre of belly. Bridge. Bring both hands, back down, fingers extended, touching, and pointing to front in same horizontal jjlane, in front of body, arms horizontal and nearly extended, hands few inches ajDart. Fre- quently the signs for Stream, or whatever is bridged, and Timber and Work are first made. Deaf-mutes make sign like Basket, but instead of making the loop under left arm with index, make it with first and second fingers. Bridle. Bring the spread thumb and index finger of right hand, back outwards, other fingers closed, over the mouth parallel to face; move the hand upwards, terminating motion wnen reaching a point opposite the eyes. Sometimes the sign for Bit is made, and then tlie side pieces are indicated by drawing the tips of index fingers from corners of mouth up sides of face to temples. This latter is about sign of deaf-mutes. Bring. Move the right hand briskly well in front or to right or left of body, index finger extended, others and thumb closed ; draw the hand in towards the body, at same time curving index finger. Deaf-mutes use the same sign. British. Make signs for Coat and for Red. The Northern In- dians call the Canadian or British subjects "Red-coats." Some- times this only means the soldiers or policemen, and gestures for the Queen's people are made to represent the Queen's subjects, calling her the Great Mother. Deaf-mutes cross the hands over the abdomen to indicate an Eng- lishman. British Line. (Boundary-line between United States.) The usual signs among Northern tribes are for Road and Medicine. By such as have seen or heard of the mounds that mark the boundary-line proper signs are made to indicate them. Among the Sioux, Chey- ennes, Blackfeet, Assinaboines, and some others, frequently the gestures for Trees and Bluff are made, and then the extended index of the right hand, other fingers and thumb closed, is drawn from right to left in front of body, to represent a line; they calling it the line passing through or near Woody Mountain. Broad. See Big. 8a BRO THEK—BKOrnERlN-LA W. Brother. Bring the tips of tlie extended, and touching, first and second fingers of right hand against lii)s, back of fingers npand hori- zontal, other fingers and thumb closed ; carry the hand some inches straight out from the mouth, then make sign for Male. (See Kin- ship.) Among many tribes therr are brothers by adoption, and the tie seems to be held about as sacredly as though created by nature. One cold, wintry morning in the late fall of 1876, while yet the gray shadows of darkness hovered mistily over crag and gorge, some enlisted Indian scouts and regular troops charged down upon a hos- tile Indian village sleeping in fancied security in a canon of the Big Horn Mountains. One of these scouts, Three Bears by name, rode a horse which became crazed by excitement and unmanageable, and being wonderfully fleet, dashed with him, ahead of all others, into the very centre of the hostile camp, where men, women, and children were running in wild confusion, where bullets were flying thick and fast, and where the hostiles were making a sharp resistance to pro- tect their families. Feather-on-the-Head, another scout, seeing the trouble his friend was in, dashed after him, urging his own fast pony forward with vigorous strokes of the whip, at the same time throwing himself from side to side of his pony to avoid the shots of his enemies. Thus he followed Three Bears through the bushes and across the stream, down among the tepees, and into the very centre of the vil- lage, where Three Bears' horse had fallen dead, shot through the neck. His rider had scarcely touched the ground when Feather-on- the-Head, sweeping past, took him behind himself and bore him safely away out of the valley of death. Feather-on-the-Head had saved Three Bears' life at ihe risk of his own, and thenceforward the two were much together, and became brothers by adoption. Feather-on-the-Head never seemed to think he had done anything very noble, and never boasted of it ; but keen-eyed, brave, loyal, wiry little Three Bears deeply appreciated the service he had ren- dered him, and there would have been glad sunshine in his heart if an opportunity had presented itself for him to have reciprocated the gallant action. With some tribes — particularly with the Cheyennes and Arapahoes — the brother and sister were allowed by social law to have only limited social intercourse ; were not allowed to speak to each other after reaching the age of puberty. If either wanted anything of or from the other, they would ask a third party to make their request. Deaf-mutes make sign for Male and same. Brother-in-Law. Bring the left forearm, pointing to right and slightly upwards, in front of and close to breast, hand back outwards and either extended or closed; hold the right hand, back outwards, fingers extended, touching, pointing upwards and to left, just in front of left wrist ; strike downwards and to left with right hand, terminating as the right hand passes beyond left elbow. The left forearm is usually pressed against breast instead of being held near it. (See Kinship.) B A' 00 A— BUFFALO CALF. S3 Deaf-mutes make sign for Mai.f, and then hold left hand, back to left, in front of body, fingers extended, touching, and pointing to front; bring spread thnmb and index of right hand, other fingers closed (sign for Letter L), and place them against left palm, index horizontal, resting against centre of palm and pointing to front. Tiiis is the Indian sign for With. Brook. Make sign for River and Small. Deaf-mutes make sign for Small Stream. Brul6 (band of Sioux Indians). Carry the palm of extended right liand near the right hip; move the hand in small circle parallel to surface ; frequently the palm is jjressed against surface. The Sioux, of course, do not know this French word, and call this band "Si- Chun-goo," or "Burnt-Thighs." I have heard several explanations as to how the band gained the name, one being that a chief with quite a number of followers started on the war-path. Securing some whiskey, they all got drunk, and, lying down near the camp-fire, burned their t'lirrhs. Another, that some Sioux, including a chief, were, when there v< is ice on the ground, digging artichokes; brush was spread over ti'e surface and set on fire to melt the ice and thaw the ground, so ihat they could dig the artichokes. The chief pulled one out of he giuund, which was very hot, and he thoughtlessly rubbed it against his 'hig'.i (which was exposed^, and consequently burned himself; and h and his fol- lowers .-no afterwards called "Burnt-Thighs." "he Bruie Sioux are located at Rosebud Agency and at Lower Lruli ; the latter on I. ^ Missouri River, about fourteen miles from Fort Hule, Dakota Territory. The famous Spotted Tail was the chief of those at Rose- bud. Those at Lower Brule Agency claim that tiiey separated from the others quite a long time ago, and the trouble grew out of a dispute about a woman. (See Sioux.) Buffalo. Conception: Horns of buffalo. Bring the hands, palms towards and close to sides of head, index fingers partially curved, others and thumbs closed ; raise the hands slightly and carry them a little to the front. This is the sign generally used for buffalo, regard- less of sex or age, used as we use the word. Buffalo Bull. To represent a buffalo bull, make the above de- scribed sign, then bring the right hand, back up, in front of centre of belly, close to it, index finger extended pointing to front and upwards, other fingers and thumb closed. (Sign for Male.) The sign for buffalo bull is also frequently made by bringing the com- pressed hands 'from above downwards to near basis of brain, fingers partially curved, so that tips touch tip of thumb, backs of hands mostly up ; this represents the large horns of the bull. Buffalo Cow. Make sign for Buffalo as first given, and then sign for Female. Buffalo Calf. Make sign for Buffalo, for Parturition, and hold right hand, back up, fingers extended, touching, and pointing to front, in front and to right of body at supposes height of calf; this latter is general in representing height of all animals. Some Indians repre- 84 BUFFALO CALF. sent a buffalo calf by holding hands closed, with the exception of thumbs, which are extended and pointing upwards, close to the ears, back f right hand to right, left to left ; by wrist action twist hands simultaneously so that back will be to the front ; repeat motion. In using this sign for buffalo calf, — the second described sign for buffalo bull, — the first described sign for buffalo would then represent a buffalo cow. Some Indians make sign for the horns, and indicate dark or black hair for buffalo. Deaf-mutes indicate horns as in cattle, and then partially close right hand and bring it, back out, against forehead, backs of bent fingers, between first and second joint, resting against forehead ; rub the forehead by circular movement of hand to indicate the curl of hair presumed to grow on the forehead of the animal. (As a matter of fact this hair does not curl ; I have seen it a foot in length and straight.) The great geographical area over which these animals ranged, their countless numbers, their importance and necessity to hostile Indians in the past, and their certain extermination in the near future, have all led me to make close investigation into the uses made of every part of the animal, and in condensed shape I give the result. It is no exaggeration to say that many millions of buffalo have been slaughtered by white hunters and tourists on the Plains merely for the pleasure of killing these animals to gratify that innate craving for destruction of life which all human beings seem to possess, and at times for the tongues, which are a special delicacy. This wasteful and wicked course has in many instances so irritated the Indians that they have sought revenge by outbreaks and by killing innocent settlers. Though I call the wanton killing wasteful and wicked, still, as a force for the solution of the Indian question and viewed in the accepted light of this necessity, the destruction has accomplished an excellent result. The Indians universally believe that the buffalo were made by the Creator especially for their use, and certainly when they are plentiful they can get along quite comfortably with very little else. When one considers the uses made by them of the buffalo, both at tlie present day and prior to the advent of the whites, one is not sur- prised at the claim and belief. Of the skin they make robes, ledges, lariats, ropes, trunks or par-fleche sacks, saddles, saddle-covers, shields, frames for war-bonnets, gloves, moccasins, leggings, shirts, hats, gun-covers, whips, quivers, knife-scabbards, Cradles, saddle- bags, saddle-blankets, decorations for saddles, beds, bridles, boots, a kind of sled for hauling the meat over the snow, and from the thick part of the skin of the neck a glue is made by boiling and skimming. Ropes and lariats are made from the scalp-lock, or long tuft on the forehead, and pillows from the hair. From the horns, spoons, cups, dishes, powder-horns, arrow-heads, bows, by splitting the longer horns, and the tips are fastened to slender poles which are used in certain games. BUFFALO CALF. 85 From the fascia (thin tendinous covering which supports the muscles, and by the interpreters called sinew), found under the shoulder-blades, the abdominal fascia, the two strips on each siile over the hump, and the strip on each side of back, tiiey make thread, bow-strings, rope for softening robes by rubbing, fasten feather-guides to arrows, and stiffen and make bows more elastic by placing on back. From the thick ligament of the upper portion of nape of neck is made a pipe. An instrument used to straighten arrows is fashioned from the centre bone of the hump by cutting a hole in it, and from some of the smaller bones arrow-heads are made, and an instrument for "flushing," or scraping the meat from hides. From shoulder- blades, axes, knives, arrow-points, instruments for dressing robes and smoothing down porcupine-work. The trachea is used as a sack for paints, etc. The rough papillse of the tongue for hair-brushes. The brain, liver, and fat for tanning skins. Instruments for shaping bows and small dog-sleds fiom ribs. From the paunch, water-pipes or sacks, in which meat and blood are sometimes cooked by boiling with heated stones, the latter being dropped into the sacks. From the thigh-bones, traps similar to our deadfalls. From *:he tail, knife-scabbards, handles to war-clubs, and medicine-rattles. The ydder, dried, becomes stiff and hard, and is used for dishes, tobacco- bags, medicine-rattles, etc. The pericardium for sacks. Tiie gall is sometimes used as a drink, and produces intoxication ; there is also sometimes found in the gall a hard yellow substance, and this is highly valued as a paint for the face. The amniotic fluid, in which the foetus floats, is used by them to quench thirst when water cannot be obtained, and is also generally used to cook or boil the foetus in, the latter being specially prized as a daint}' and delicate morsel of food. The marrow is eaten both raw and cooked, being roasted in the larger bones by laying theni on the coals. The teeth are used for necklaces, and are also put in medicine- rattles. They consider the contents of the pauiich an excellent remedy for skin diseases, and in case of frost-bite, if the afflictetl member is thrust into the paunch of a freshly-kille