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IND

GESTURE

DESCRIPTIO
MYTHS,
PEAC

THE

INDIAN SIGN LANGUAGE,

WITH BRIEF

EXPLANATORY NOTES

OF THE

GESTURES TAUGHT DEAF-MUTES IN OUR INSTITUTIONS
FOR THEIR INSTRUCTION,

AND A

DESCRIPTION OF SOME OF THE PECULIAR LAWS, CUSTOMS,

MYTHS, SUPERSTITIONS, WAYS OF LIVING, CODE OF

PEACE AND WAR SIGNALS OF OUR ABORIGINES.

VV. p. CLARK,

O. S. ARMY.

PHILADELPHIA:

L. R. HAMERSLY & CO.
1885.

)

HEA

1885

Lieut.-Gei
Sir,— I 1
instruction;
the territor
tories and i
This woi
Indians thi
by a caref
customs.

HEADQUARTERS ARMY OF THE UNITED STATES,

Washington, D.C, Julyjih, 1884.
Lieut.-General p. H. Sheridan.

Sir, — I have the honor to submit herewith, in compliance with your
instructions, a work upon the Sign Language of the Indians living within
the territory of the United States, with some account of their tribal his-
tories and race peculiarities.

This work is based upon my own observations, made among the
Indians thtmselves during a period of more than six years, supplemented
by a careful study of the principal authorities on Indian habits and
customs.

Very respectfully,

Your obedient servant,

W. P. CLARK,
Captain Second Cavalry.

It seer

first be g

sign lang

of the op

derstandi

be added

to the la;

which I h

During

1876, I n

enlisted I

Crow, an*

I had, of

dians, bill

On the m

morning,

took my f

served th;

difficulty 1

course by

immediate;

guage arc

good ana

acquire an

'L'he ...ar

remained I

bringing n

Pmoux, Chi

festivals, a

In 1878

west, and

years, the

intimate r

Assinaboin

other tribe

knowledge

in impart ir

able interpi

INTRODUCTORY.

It seems proper in ':v.bmitting this work that a brief account should
first be given of the manner in which I acquired a knowledge of the
sign language of the Indians, and that I should at least outline some
of the opportunities which have been given me for gaining an un-
derstanding of race peculiarities, as I think something will thereby
be added to the weight of the exj-essed opinions not only in regard
to the language, but to other rrutters pertaining to our aborigines
which I have touched upon.

During the Sioux and Cheyenne war of 1876-7, in November of
1876, I found myself in command of some three hundred friendly
enlisted Indian scouts of the Pawnee, Shoshone, Arapahoe, ('heyenne,
Crow, and Sioux tribes; six tribes having six different vocal languages.
I had, of course, before known of the sign language used by our In-
dians, but here I was strongly impressed with its value and beauty.
On the march, by their camp-fires at night, and in the early gray of
morning, jiist before charging down on a hostile Indian village, I
took my first lessons in this language and in Indian tactics. I ob-
served that these Indians, having different vocal languages, had no
difficulty in communicating with each other, and held constant inter-
course by means of gestures. For the practical benefits which would
immediately ensue, I devoted myself to the study of the gesture lan-
'juage and the people. I found that the Indians were wonderfully
good arid patient instructors, and that the gesture speech was easy to
acquire rnd '^member.

'."he ...ampaign ended. I was ordered to Red Cloud Agency, and
remained tliere and at Spotted Tail Agency for a year, my duties
bringing me in close and constant contact and intercourse with the
Sioux, Cheyennes, and Arapahoes, — in their camps, at their feasts,
festivals, and funerals, and in the field with scouting-parties.

In 1878-9 and 1880, my duties carried me farther to the north-
vest, and though engaged mostly in field operations during these
years, the character of the service was such that I was thrown into
intimate relations with the Cheyennes, Sioux, Crows, Bannacks,
Assinaboines, Gros Ventres of the Prairie,. Mandans, Arickarees, and
other tribes in that region, and had almost constant use for my
knowledge of gesture speech. I found this of great value, not only
in imparting and receiving information, but as a check upon unreli-
able interpreters.

INTRODUCTORY.

In 1 88 1 I was directed by Lieutenant-General Sheridan to ^ubmit
to him a work on the Indian sign language, with such remarks upon
the habits, manners, and customs of the Indians as might be consid-
ered necessary and proper. To complete and perfect my study of
the language and people, I, under orders from him, visited several
tribes in the Indian Territory, in Minnesota, Manitoba, Northwest
Territory, Dakota, Montana, Nebraska, Utah, Wyoming, and Idaho.

Ujjon the accompanying map are indicated the locations of the
agencies and tribes where I made this special investigation. I have
faithfully endeavored to ascertain the facts, and to complete my
study of this language so far as I was able to do so by personal con-
versation in gesture speech with the Indians of the tribes which I
visited, and to learn whatever I could of its existence or non-exist-
ence at present, and its status in olden times.

To insure all this I prepared a list of words, phrases, idioms, etc.,
and on reaching the different agencies or encampments, obtained an
interpreter, and secured the services of some of the Indians who were
reported as the most accomplished in gesture speech. The interpreter
translated the words, etc., the Indians made the signs, and I, taking the
sign language as I had* learned it as a standard, noted the differences
where there were any, provided always, of course, that the differences
were not merely personal flourishes or careless abbreviations; i.e., in
case the root of the sign was changed or did not appear, I carefully
noted it. Although individuals may obscure the meaning of these
gestures through carelessness, awkwardness, or efforts to secure a
superabundance of graceful execution, yet one skilled in the sign
language will instantly recognize them, provided that they possess the
radical or essential part.

This careful comparison finished, I then entered into conversation
personally by signs with the Indians, and had them relate to me
stories, autobiographies, etc. In this way I was of course able to
discover if my method of making signs was understood, and detect
any gesture that I hid not before seen. I then mixed with the
Indians generally, v' sited their camps, and endeavored to ascertain
the extent of the uiiderstanding of gesture speech in the tribe or
band. I also interviewed some of the old Jesuit fathers, interpreters,
traders, trappers, half-breeds, and others who had had a long experi-
ence with these people. I discovered that to have the Indians first
make the gestures was absolutely necessary, because, if one makes a
sign to an Indian in a certain way, the ciiances are ten to one he
will return it in the same way, even though he may never have seen
it before. For instance, if a person in conversation in gestures
with a Crow Indian were to use the Ute sign for pony, the Indian,
should he have occasion to make the sign in return to the same per-
son witliin a few minutes' time, would use the same gesture, and in
this way unintentionally deceive the investigator.

I have noted under Sign Language the evidence obtained from
the Indians in regard to the use and extent of the language at the
present time and in remote periods of their history, and have else-

where

tribes;

statemc

ever to

of uttei

learned

all, the;

on man

traces o

merely (

I am r
work to
jecture, 1
small be^
unfolded
dian as li
our civili,
it, I feel
and I iinl;
of the ori
I think
have been
American I
days of C
tion. Scl
each susta
only by t
their origi
One disco
tribes of .
dinavia, fr
Strait, acr
I^'olynesian
thaginians
tlie westep
itors are st
^ease not
these fanci
found earn
loiis."

Not onl
theorists,
set forth,
(Ired langu
'ence abou
'igo. Ano

il>

INTRODUCTORY.

It
in
i-
of
al
:st

lO.

he
ive
Tiy
Dn-
1 I
ist-

tc,
I an

/ere \
eter
; the
nces
nces
., in
fully
these
ire a
sign
s the

ation
3 me
lie to
etect
che
rtain
be or
eters,
peri-
first
ces a
)ne he
seen
stures
•\dian,
I per-
nd in

from
at the
■e else-

where given my reasons for the similarity of gestures among all the
tribes; and my personal experience fully sustains Professor Whitney's
statement, that "the art of talking by gesture is too natural to man
ever to be lost, though put down by, on the whole, greater availab'lity
of utterance as proved by experience, and if two men, who Iiave not
learned each other's tongue, meet and desire to exchange thoughts at
all, they will resort to gesture and arrive at a mutual understanding
on many points, whether they liave a common origin and certain
traces of hereditary (rather traditional^ habits, or whether they have
merely the accordant endowments of a common humanity."

ORIGIN OF THE AMERICAN INDIANS.

I am not prepared to discuss the origin of man, and I wish in this
work to enter as little as possible the fields of s|)eculation and con-
jecture, but " human science shows that the world has unfolded from
small beginnings, and it is reasonable to suppose that so the race has
unfolded," and having thought much, and observed closely tlie In-
dian as he is found at j^resent, botli in his debased condition near
our civilization, and in his wild state before coming in contact with
it, I feel that I should at least place some of my views on record,
and I unhesitatingly pronounce in favor of the Autochthonic theory
of tlie origin of our aborigines.

I think Mr. H. H. Bancroft happily summarizes the views that
have been advanced in regard to this subject wiien he says, "The
American Indians, their origin and consanguinity, have from tiie
days of Columbus to the present time proved no less a knotty ques-
tion. Schoolmen and scientists count their theories by hundreds,
eacli sustaining some pet conjecture with a logical clearness equalled
only by the facility with which he demolishes all the rest. One proves
their origin by Holy Writ, anotiier by the sage sayings of the fathers.
One discovers in them Pheenician merchants, another the ten lost
tribes of Israel. Tliey are tracked witli e(iual certainty from Scan-
dinavia, from Ireland, from Iceland, from Greenland, across Behring
Strait, across the Northern Pacific, the Southern Pacific, from the
Polynesian Islands, from Australia, from Africa. Venturesome Car-
thaginians were thrown upon the eastern shore, Japanese junks on
the westepi. The breezes that wafted hither America's primogen-
itors are still blowing, and the ocean currents by wiiich they came
cease not yet to flow. The finely-spun webs of logic by which
these fancies are maintained would prove amusing did not the pro-
found earnestness of their respective advocates render them ridicu-
lous."

Not only has the origin of the race been settled by these visionary
theorists, but the origin and migrations of separate tribes carefully
set forth, one writer claiming that those speaking the Sioux and kin-
dred langu ;es landed on this continent near the Gulf of St. Law-
rence aboui the same time, jirobably at least three thousand years
ago. Another insists that in the Mandans he discovered a lost

INTRODUCTORY.

Welsh colony, and proves his statement by a description of some of
their physical peculiarities, such as light hair and blue eyes, and more
startling and conclusive still, discovered through a Welshman he had
with iiim that they spoke the Welsh language. It is hardly necessary
now to say that the Welshman wantonly imposed upon the searcher
after savage lore, and the light hair and blue eyes have since been
accounted for.

Believing, then, that the American man "is as indigenous as the
fauna a.r\d flora, ^^ it does not matter, and at this late day it certainly
cannot be determined, whether the tribes found on this continent at
the time of its discovery were unfolded from several groups of sav-
ages occupying widely separated geographical areas, or were slowly
evolved from one. The erosion of time has worn away all records,
ui:*^ it seems proper to briefly outline the reasons for this belief.
There was certainly nothing in the languages of the different tribes
which justified a belief in this early migration ; no trace of ancient
arts and inscriptions, or of monumental data, has been discovered
among them, and certainly it is only reasonable to suppose that a
people sufficiently advanced to conquer the obstacles of such a migra-
tion would have been developed intellectually and physically to a
degree beyond that required for preserving some evidence of such a
wonderful event in their lives ; but from the fretted shores of the
Atlantic to the fair waters of the Pacific nothing of this kind has
ever been found, and there is no evidence of a foreign origin in their
traditions or myths, although these go back in the eternity of the
past to the time of their creation, — to the flood, — to the period in
their develoi)ment when they first used the bow and arrow.

The mere fact that they had certain customs, habits, manners, and
religious rites common 'to humanity in some other parts of the world,
only shows that man in the same plane, stage, or period of savagery,
barbarism, or civilization, possesses many similar traits, mentally,
morally, and physically.

I cannot point to amore striking illustration of this than to call
attention to the astronomical discoveries, and to the wonderful in-
ventions which have simultaneously sprung into existence; in short,
to the results which have been achieved by the scientific minds of
different nations of the world, working out their problems at widely
separated geographical points, the one entirely ignorant o( the exist-
ence of the other, and though their minds were subjected to different
surroundings and influence, still becoming pregnant with the same
ideas at the same time. These things are more strange and peculiar
to me than that in the lower stages of human evolution the sun should
have been regarded with superstitious awe, or that certain rude social
customs of the Indians should have been similar to those of the peo-
ples of some other country.

It would, indeed, be rash to make any positive assertions as to race
origin. One must not attempt, as Professor Whitney tersely says,
"to carry too definite a light too far back into the obscure past."
It is safe to say, however, that all writers agree in giving to the na-

tions of

physical

humanit'

in format

fords no

even mor

tory most

writing,

each figur

band or tr

of sma]]p(

jacent trib
years.

Picture-
common t,
only ones

The trai

left by n v

as the task

lis into tlie

this late da

and the poi

may yet tra

man on thi

savagery an

stage of bar

In regard
;ind use of ^
scientific inl
more expre'
the dog witll
joy, sorrow,
is not at all
I'loyed by atj
fc'uage. TocI
a degree of a|
or emotionalf
of intelJigen|
advanced in

K^ant held,
of developmj
tions has dis.
three-years-ol
and carry on]
which would
Broadly, t

INTRODUCTORY.

tions of America a remote antiquity. Traditions, ruins, moral and
physical peculiarities, all denote that, several thousand years ago,
humanity existed on this continent. Of what type history gives no
information, science can throw no definite light, and conjecture af-
fords no satisfciction. The data in regard to the Plains Indians are
even more unsatisfactory than with other native nations. Their his-
tory mostly hangs on the slender threads of oral tradition and picture-
writing. The latter is a sort of hieroglyphical chart upon which
each figure represents the most important event that happened to the
band or tribe during the year, — the death of a noted chief, the scourge
of smallpox or measles, tiie capture of a woolly pony from some ad-
jacent tribe, — and these charts rarely go back more than one hundred
years.

Picture-writings which represent the histories of individuals are so
common that many writers have wrongly asserted that these were the
only ones kept.

The trail of tlieir migration on the vast prairies is like tlie track
left by a vessel on the troubled waters of the ocean. But hopeless
as the task at first glance appears, poor as tlie guides are which lead
us into the chaos of the past, yet scientific investigation has even at
this late day done much to crystallize the unknown into the known,
and the power and force of civilization, guided by the hand of genius,
may yet trace the lines which mark much of the growth of primitive
mati on this continent, througli a part of the long dark period of
savagery and the gray light which dawned upon him in his early
stage of barbarism.

lie na-

ORIGIN OF INDIAN SIGN LANGUAGE.

In regard to the degree of intelligence necessary for the invention
and use of gesture speech there is a great variety of opinion among
scientific investigators. Says one, " What gesture language can be
more expressive than that employed by the horse with its ears, and
the dog with its tail, wherein are manifestations of every shade of
joy, sorrow, courage, shame, and anger?" Another claims that "it
is not at all probable that a system of gesture language was ever em-
]>loyed by any primitive people i)rior or in preference to vocal lan-
guage. To communicate by signs requires no little skill, and imjjlies
a degree of artifice and forethought far beyond that required in vocal
or emotional language. Long before a child arrives at the point
of intelligence necessary tor conveying thoughts by signs it is well
advanced in a vocal language of its own."

Kant held the opinion that the mind of a deaf-mute was incapable
of development ; but the wonderful success of our modern institu-
tions has dissipated forever that idea ; and I have seen the little
three-years-old child of a deaf-mute Indian hold up its tiny hands
and carry on a conversation (without any attempt at vocal speech)
which would have done credit to any child of that age.

Broadly, the term language may be applied to whatever means

INTRODUCTORY.

social beings employ to communicate passion or sentiment, or to
influence one another ; whatever is made a vehicle of intelligence,
idiogra|)hic or phonetic, is language, and the object of language is
to arrive by skilful combinations of known signs at the expression of
something unknc .vn to one of the parties; i.e., the idea to be con-
veyed.

At a very early period of the savage state the necessity for com-
munication developed certain signs, visible and vocal, which met the
wants of the necessity felt at the time. In all probability vocal signs
were not at first as rapidly developed as gestures, but though of
slower growth, they finally crowded out, and in a measure took the
place of facial expression and bodily movements, so that by the time
when the later stage or period of savagery, or perhaps barbarism, was
reaciied, each group in tliis unfolding process, which might be called
a family, band, or tribe, had retained only a few of their original
gestures, and had for the communication of conceptions and the
operations of thought a rude and imperfect articulate language.
Extreme poverty in such language would undoubtedly require gesture
to confirm and elucidate the meaning intended to be conveyed, and
in the beginning, whatever other uncertainties may thickly cluster
about and obscure the subject, no one, I think, will question the
poverty of their articulate speech.

The myths of nearly every tribe oi Indians seem to evidence the
fact that there was a time in their development when they did not
have the bow and arrow. This is interesting and important only as
showing the growth of their inventive and imitative faculties, essen-
tial qualities in language-making.

Whether, as I have before stated, the North American Indians are
the result of the growth or unfolding of one or several groups of
savages, the great number of distinct vocal languages, about seventy-
six, and the great variety of .ialects of the same language, need not
be to the philological student so much a matter of surprise, for
through natural causes, such as internal trouble, wars with other
tribes, in short, the segregation which takes i)lace when humanity is
in the hunter state, the savages would necessarily have crystallized
into separate families or bands, and in these bands, after rf long
period of time, an articulate speech would have been developed,
perfected, and marked by the influence of their surroundings, such
as food, climate, occupation, etc. After such development of utter-
ance these bands may, in the course of time, have been broken by
causes similar to those which brought about the original segregation,
and the fragments may have drifted to widely-separated geographical
areas, and the philologist now finding them, discovers that their
vocal languages belong to what he terms a "common stock."
Laying aside all conjectures as to race origin, and simply taking the
savages as they were found in recent times, we find that after each
group or tribe had developed a distinct set of vocal signs, forming a I
marked and peculiar articulate speech which was useful as a means
of communicating ideas only to the members of the group, the tribes I

again m
necessit)
vocal spi
describee
prairies c
language,
veliicle fc
on this c(
Before
status of :
times, so
That W(
ture speec
by the foil
Clarke in
winter of
m their vil
ent site o
Clieyennes
that gesture
tribes as it
f^ict, and n
waters of tl
I'i these exj:
the Indians
i do not ti
liave, undei
I liave ca
tures anionj
graphical ar
reason for tl
Mr. Banc
tlian I have
most fertile
q'Jin, was th
I'lymouth.
Des Moines
land of the
t'le southerr
exclusively,
'ongitude an
The six n
Morgan, wei
conversation
"ow spoken
close reseml
while the On
t^ut are also -
I differences."

-mjf

/NTRODUCrORY.

to
iCe,
e is
lof
:on-

;om-
t the
iigns
h of
: the
time
, was
lalled
ginal
d the
;uage.
ssture
1, and
;Uister
)n the

ans are

lups of

venty-

ed not

se, for

other
anity is
tallized
a: long
eloped,
s, such
f utter-
)ken by
gation,
aphical
at their

tock."
ving the
ter each
rming ai
a means |
Rie tril

again met as is ilhistrated by our Plains Indians. Here again the
necessity for intercommunication between tribes having different
vocal speech developed gesture speech, the sign language I have
described, so that the many-tongued hordes of the vast sea-like
prairies can at least be credited with perfecting and beautifying the
language, which in all probability, with vocal imitations, formed the
vehicle for the expression of the building thouglits of i)rimitive man
on this continent.

Before considering this special growth. I will briefly touch on the
status of some of the Eastern tribes and their languages in former
times, so far as history sheds any light on the subject.

That we find no positive evidence of the existence and use of ges-
ture speech does not necessarily show that there was none, as is shown
by the following notable examples. Circumstances forced Lewis and
Clarke in their exploration of the then unknown West to spend the
winter of 1804-5 with the Mandans, Gros Ventres, and Arickarees
in their village on the Missouri, only a short distance below the pres-
ent site of their camp at Fort Berthold. During the winter the
Cheyennes and Sioux visited this village, and there can be no doubt
that gesture speech was daily and hourly used by the members of these
tribes as it is to-day when they meet, but no mention is made of the
fact, and not until these explorers met the Shoshones near the head-
waters of the Missouri do we find any note made of signs being used.
If these explorers who entered so minutely into the characteristics of
the Indians in their writmgs failed to make a record of this language,
1 do not think it very surprising that earlier investigators should
have, under less favorable auspices, also neglected it.

I have called attention to the lack of any systematic code of ges-
tures among the Algonquins, and given some idea of the great geo-
graphical area covered by their language, and I believe this to be tlie
reason for the non-culture and lack of general use of signs.

Mr. Bancroft makes the vocal language even more comprehensive
than I have claimed, for he says, "The most widely diffused and the
most fertile in dialects of all North American languages, the Algon-
quin, was the mother-tongue of those who welcomed the Pilgrims to
Plymouth. It was heard from the Bay of Gaspe to the valley of the
Des Moines, from Cape Fear, and it may be from Savannah, to the
land of the Eskimos, from the Cumberland River of Kentucky to
the southern bank of the Mississippi. It was spoken, though not
exclusively, in a territory that extended through sixty degrees of
longitude and more than twenty degrees of latitude."

The six nations forming the Iroquois League, according to Mr.
Morgan, were all able to understand each other with readiness in
conversation, though he says, "Of the six dialects in which it is
now spoken (Iroquois language), the Mohawk and Oneida have a
close resemblance to each other, the Cayuga and Seneca the same,
while the Onondaga and Tuscarora are not only unlike each other,
hut are also distinguished from the other four by strong dialectical
differences."

IN-^RODUCTORY.

The Iroquois League at the time spoken of by Mr. Morgan did not
need gestures to communicate with each other, but it must be remem-
bered that prior to the greatness, power, and advanced stage of bar-
barism which this confederacy achieved, many of them 'vvv^re living
in amity with the Algonquins, and at this time, probably, gestures were
used. Of this period Mr. Morgan says, "Their remote origin and
their history anterior to the discovery are both enshrouded with ob-
scurity. Tradition interposes its feeble light to extricate from the
confusion which time has wrought some of the leading events which
preceded and marked their political organization. It informs us
that prior to their occupation of New York they resided in the
vicinity of Montreal, upon the northern bank of the St. Lawrence,
where they lived in subjection to the Adirondac':s, a branch of the
Algonquin race then in possession of the whole country north of that
river. At that time the Iroquois were but one ni. \\ and few in num-
ber. From the Adirondacks they learned the art of husbandry, and
while associated with them became inured to the hardships of the
war-path and of the chase. After they had multiplied in numbers
and improved by experience, they made an attempt to ■secure the in-
dependent possession of the country they occupied, but having been
in the struggle overpowered and vanquished by the Adirondacks,
they were compelled to retire from the country to escape extermina-
tion."

As I have stated, there is scarcely anything in written history to
guide one, and I doubt the reliability of any of the traditions which
can now be gathered from the wretched remnants of these once pow-
erful tribes. It required long and patient study and investigation to
obtain reliable data from the Plains Indians in regard to the growth
of the language with them. It was easy and safe, and disposed of
the matter at once to say, it was a gift from God, and many of them
answered my inquiries as did "Iron Hawk," the Sioux chief, when
he said, "The whites have had the power given them by the Great
Spirit to read and write, and convey information in this way. He
gave us the power to talk with our hands and arms, and send infor-
mation with the mirror, blanket, and pony far away, and when we
meet with Indians who have a different spoken language from ours,
we can talk to them in signs."

Schoolcraft gives something, but the little that is noted relates
rather more to signals than signs. Wampum seems to have been
given rather than tobacco to indicate a friendly feeling.

A sapling cut to within two or three feet of the gicund, its bark
carefully peeled off, so as to be conspicuous^ and a stone placed on
the stump, indicated that the Oneidas were in the vicinity, and a
signal-fire lighted near the Oneida stone warned them for ms ny miles
east, west, north, and south. Existence of war was indicated by a
tomahawk painted red, ornamented with red feathers, and with black
wampum struck in the war-post in each village of the league.

At their night encampments they cut upon the trees certain de-
vices to indicate their numbers and destination. On their return

they did

number si

The CO

favorable

North, foi

various ti

Trumbull

" The

Chickasas,

and Hitch

Georgia, l

iana, east

westward,

small tribt

Tennessee

"TheC

same langi

Creeks, Se

speak diale

The nec(

vocal langi

that gestun

After so

reliable dat

that we cor

evidence of

in my mine

of rapidly <

within the

say that an

others. Al

of inventiv(

and very sic

It will re

great plains

transporting

in place of

signs much i

from year's (

some superic

bring them i

Linguistic,

hundred or o

if not of ori

speech, may

First. The

or other caus

ing in Westei

and customs.

INTRODUCTORY.

bark
:ed on
land a

miles
by a

black

Lin de-
return

they did the same, showing also the number of captives and the
mmiber slain.

The condition of affairs in the South was, however, much more
favorable to the growth or perfection of gesture speech than in the
North, for there were many different vocal languages spoken by the
various tribes in that section. In regard to this Dr. j. Hammond
Trumbull says, —

"The Chahta Muskokis family, comprising the Choctaws and
Chickasas, Muskokis or Creeks, Seminoles, Coussattis, Alabamas,
and Hitchitis, occupied the territory now constituting the States of
Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, and Florida, with a portion of Louis-
iana, east of the Mississippri, except the shore of the Gulf of Mobile
westward, and the banks of the Mississippi inhabited by various
small tribts, and a tract in Northern Alabama, on both sides of the
Tennessee River, which belonged to the Cherokees.

" The Choctaws and Chickasas speak nearly related dialects of the
same language, to which probably the Hitchiti also belongs. The
Creeks, Seminoles, and small tribes of Coussattis and Alabamas,
speak dialects of another language of the same stock."

The necessity for intercommunication between tribes existed, the
vocal languages were different, and it is only reasonable to suppose
that gestures were used.

After so much uncertainty in the East, and such great poverty of
reliable data in the extreme West, it is with comfort and satisfaction
that we contemplate the present status, and examine the traditional
evidence of the growth of the language with our Plains Indians, and
in my mind there is no doubt that this language, viewed in the light
of rapidly communicating ideas, has been greatly enriched by them
within the last two hundred years. I consider it at least unwise to
say that any one particular tribe invented it and taught it to the
others. All languages have of course needed the healthy stimulus
of inventive and imitative faculties, but they, like humanity, grow,
and very slowly, into beauty and usefulness.

It will readily be seen that the predatory hordes occupying the
great plains, and having but recently come into a better means of
transporting their possessions over long distances, viz., by the pony
in place of the dog, would naturally and necessarily need and use
signs much more than mountain tribes, whose habitat did not change
from year's end to year's end, unless they were compelled to move by
some superior force, and whose surroundings and occupation did not
bring them in contact with strange tongues.

Linguistically considered, the tribes which during the last one
hundred or one bundled and fifty years have had determined centres,
if not of origin, certainly of perfection and propagation of gesture
speech, may be divided into five groups, as follows:

First. The Cheyennes and Arapahoes, who, for mutual protection
or other causes, had been together for a long time, — since their meet-
ing in Western Minnesota. They were alike in many of their manners
and customs, but each had a vocal language totally different from the

INTRODUCTORY.

Other, and both were difficult to acquire; the Arapahoe tongue being
almost imjjossible to master.

These two tribes were at this time a powerful nation, numbering
probably not less than four thousand lodges, and perhaps five, the
present Northern and Southern bands being united. (See Chey-
enne.) Not only were their vocal languages different from each
other, but they were also totally unlike that of any of the tribes
which surrounded them ; and in their prairie driftings, in their search
for game, in their relations both of peace and war with these tribes,
there was constantly with them the necessity for gesture speech, and
in its growth and perfection I consider that these two tribes exercised
a greater influence than any of the rest.

Second. The Mandans, Gros Ventres, and Arickarees, with whom
similar conditions obtained as with the Arapahoes and Cheyennes ;
the Mandan language ranking in difficulty of acquirement about with
the Arapahoe. They were also numerous and powerful, but main-
tained almost constant warfare with the surrounding tribes, and this,
taken in connection with their permanent villages, limited their
influence.

lliird. The Crows. These Indians were literally surrounded by
tribes, with whom they cam'' constantly in contact, who spoke (with
the exception of their kin, the Gros Ventres) languages different
from their own, and their relations with these tribes seemed to vi-
brate between peace and war. In later years the Nez Perces, Ban-
nacks. Snakes, and Crows confederated in their annual buffalo-hunt
to protect themselves from the Blackfeet, Sioux, Cheyennes, and
Arapahoes, and not many years ago the Crows formed an alliance
with the Blackfeet and Gros Ventres of the prairie, when the
Cheyennes, Sioux, and-Arapahoes drove them northwest out of their
country.

Fourth. The Blackfeet. These had been joined by the Gros
Ventres of the prairie soon after the Cheyennes and Arapahoes crossed
the Missouri River, and they lived in harmony together until within
a few years. Their vocal languages were totally different, and they
had constant intercourse with other tribes. A few years since the
Gros Ventres of the prairie joined the Assinaboines, with whom they
are now living.

Fifth. The Kiowas and Apaches. The time when these tribes
first joined their forces is beyond the reach of tradition. When the
Cheyennes crossed the Missouri they were living together west of the
Black Hills of Dakota, and were forced south by the Cheyennes and
Arapahoes on the north, the Utes on the west, and the Pawnees,
Omahas, and others to the east, until they found refuge and protec-
tion with the powerful Comanche nation.

Here again vocal languages were different, and daily conmiunica-
tion with each other and with surrounding tribes was necessary, so
that in all probability when they joined the Comanches they were
much more proficient in the use of gesture speech than were the
members of that tribe, and as a consequence some writers, basing

their bel

the Kiow

The cc

Comanch

took plac

have exe

gestures a

Other (

but I hav(

It shou

intercours

maintenan

course the

language r

in the cast

speaks the

fcw of the

tongue. £

Arapahoe,

Kven in

have obser'

Before t

coffee was i

the process

coffee-mill

as though t

is to-day i

tribes.

The origi
say, coincid
for commur
perfection £
tion betweei
different voc
Could thi:
to the facili
extremely d
hands in spa
would, by fo
this part of
time and t
descriptions
signs will be
those conver
scriptions hi
elements.

In my des
mine their ^
common use*

INTRODUCTORY.

»5

tribes
lien the

; of the
kes and
Iwnees,
Iprotec-

their belief on the evidence of Southern Indians, liave stated that
the Kiowas "invented the sign hmguage."

The confederation of the Ciieyennes, Sioux, Arapahoes, Kiowas,
Comanches, Apaches, and some other tribes, against tiie Utes, which
took place about fifty years ago, though of short duration, still must
have exercised a marked influence in weeding out undesirable
gestures and establishing better ones.

Other centres of influence, growth, or perfection could be cited,
but I have instanced the most pronounced.

It should be clearly borne in mind that the stimulus of outside
intercourse is necessary to keep alive the interest required for tiie
maintenance and development of the language. Without this inter-
course the weaker tribe is absorbed in the stronger, and the vocal
language most easily acquired prevails. This is strikingly illustrated
in the case of the Bannacks and Shoshones. Nearly every Bannack
speaks the Shoshone language fluently and well, but there are very
few of the Shoshones who have any knowledge of the Bannack
tongue. Some claim that it is even more difficult to master than
Arapahoe, while the Shoshone is easily acquired.

Even in my comparatively short experience with the Indians, I
have observed the birth, growth, and death of many gestures.

Before the introduction of the coffee-mill among the Indians,
coffee was represented as s. grain, or more elaborately by describing
the process of preparing and drinking the beverage. The little
coffee-mill killed off these gestures at once, and the motion made
as though turning the crank of the mill to grind the parched berry
is today understood as meaning coffee by nearly all the Plains
tribes.

The origin of the Indian sign language is, then, I think it safe to
say, coincident with his primitive condition, with his first necessity
for communication with his fellow-man ; and its development and
perfection are also the result of the necessity of intercommunica-
tion between tribes, who, long ages after its first use, had developed
different vocal languages.

Could this work have been illustrated, it would have added greatly
to the facility of understanding and making the gestures, for it is
extremely difficult to describe the most simple movements of the
hands in space, so that a person who had never seen the movements
would, by following the descriptions, make the correct motions. To
this part of the work I have given great care, have devoted much
time and thought, and if the directions contained in the brief
descriptions are carried out, I am confident that the most of the
signs will be made in such a manner as to be readily recognized by
those conversant with the language. In fact, nearly all of the de-
scriptions have been tested and found to contain these essential
elements.

In my description of the different parts of the hands, to deter-
mine their positions and movements, I have adopted the terms in
common use, rather than the precise anatomical nomenclature. The

INTRODUCTORY.

joints arc numbered from tlie extremities of tlie fingers. The radial
side or edge of the hand is called tiie upper edge, and the ulnar side
or edge tiie lower edge; the palmar surface, /(;//« of hand, and
dorsal surface, back of hand. The thumb and index finger extended
and abducted are termed spread thtunb and index. The term com-
pressed hand is used to mean the position or arrangement of the
hand in which the fingers are extended, but the tips of index and
little fingers are brought as near each other as possible, under and
pressing against second and third fingers, and the palmar surface of
extended thumb, from tip to first articulation, presses against palmar
surface of second and third fingers behind their second articulation.
The word outwards is used as synonymous \\\\.\\ front ; i.e., neither to
the riglit nor left of the median line of tiie body. In speaking of
horizontal and vertical curves, of course the |)lanes of these curves
are intended to be represented as horizontal or vertical.

To reduce verbiage, the designation Southern Indians is used to
include the southern bands of Clieyennes and .^rajjahoes, the Kiowas,
Apaches, Caddos, Comanclies, Wicliitas, and generally the tribes in
the Indian Territory; Berthold Indians for tlie Hidatsas or Gros
Ventres, Mandans, and Arickarees; Belknap Indians for the Gros
Ventres of the Prairie and .Assinahoines ; Blackfeet Indians for the
Bloods, Blackfeet, and Piegans ; Afissoula Indians for the Nez Perces,
Flatheads, Pend d'Oreilles, and Koutenays.

In addition to the practical value of communicating directly with
the Indians, — i.e., w'thout the aid of an interpreter, — f 3sture speech
discloses much of th sociological status of our aborigines, and dis-
covers the meaning of iny words in their different languages which
would otherwise remain ' "ure if not iniknown. It also leads in
some cases directly to corre^ 'nformation in regard to the segrega-
tion of the tribe into bands, an^ Mie origin of the causes which pro-
duced it, so that a thorough knowledge of signs must necessarily be
of great assistance in anthropological studies. For instance, the
tribal sign for the Sioux or Dakota Indians reveals the custom, which
they in olden times practised, of cutting off the heads of their slain
enemies ; and the :>i rns for the Ogalalla, Minnecoujon, and Unca-
papa bands furnish a clue to the correct interpretation of these
words, and the traditional account of the origin of the bands, which
the etymology of tre words does not. The Pacific slope Indians,
even including the Utes and Nez Perces, have a general sign for the
Prairie tribes, viz., Dog-Eaters, — and I believe these tribes mark the
western limit where the dog is considered a luxury as food. The
tribal signs for the Mandans and Wicliitas discover the now discarded
practice of tattooing, the former the cheeks and the latter the breasts
of the women.

I have heard Indians declare that they had always located the
Great Spirit in the heavens, and yet in gestures they would indicate
that this was the location of the white man's God, and for their

Great M

location.

The sip

gard to tl

being the

by tliose '

Tlie ni)

traditions

shades of

memories

To com

sign langu

arities (an

So import

lie claims,

no more r

one must V

acciistomei

years."

I have c

Indians frc

that a kno

still I cons

Indians an

comparisoi

must know

quickly. '

mind to thi

this languaj

art and scie

of nature.

estness, anc

from long j

in this Ian

speech, whi

would exhit

language.

a pantomin

imitations t

The phra;

grammar of

give a clear

portant that

to make a ti

Black Hills,

pity me, I a

eat. The s;

God sees me

In signs this

INTRODUCTORY.

»7

s in

ega-

pro-

y be

the

hich

slain

Jnca-

these

which

ians,

or the

rkthe

The

arded

)reasts

:d the
dicate
their

Great Mystery would point to the north, south, or cast fur its
location.

The sign for the Milky-Way led me to make special iiKiiiiry in re-
gard to this starry pathway, and I was rewarded with the story of its
being the direct and easy trail to the Happy Hunting-Ground, made
by tliose who had been killed in battle.

Tiie mysteries of their m\ ihs are illuminated by this language, and
traditions, which otherwise would have long since passed into the
j^hades of forgetfulness and oblivion, are kept alive and green in the
memories of the present generation.

To comi)rehend the conceptions and attain proficiency in the Indian
sign language one should have some knowledge of their race jieculi-
arities (and I have brietly described such as seemed most necessary).
So important was this knowledge considered by a recent writer that
he claims, " To learn it sufficiently well for ordinary intercourse is
no more difficult than to learn any foreign language; to master it,
one must iiave been born in a lodge of I'lains Indians, and have been
accustomed to its daily and hourly use from his earliest to mature

vears."

I have conversed in gestures with nearly every tribe of the Plains
Indians from the liritish to the Mexican line, and though I admit
that a knowledge of their wa\s is necessary to secure proficiency,
still I consider the above expression too strong. Educated as the
Indians are by nature, and drawing many of their metaphors and
comparisons from her abundant reservoirs, it is no wonder that one
must know something of their lives to talk fluently and understand
quickly. To become, in short, accomplished, one must train the
mind to think like the Indians. It can be readily understood that
this language would seem meaningless and contemptible in a land of
art and science, but beautiful, graceful, rich, and useful in the realm
of nature. Vividness of description is secured by exactness, earn-
estness, and vigor of gesture ; a graceful execution can only result
from long practice. Rapid and vehement signs have the same force
in this language that such a manner of utterance would give in
speech, while a languid and slovenly method of making gestures
would exhibit weakness and worthlessness, just as it would in a vocal
language. It must be borne in mind that this is in a great measure
a pantomimic language, and the air-pictures must at least be fair
imitations to be worthy of recognition.

The phrases and proper names given in the Appendix outline the
grammar of the language, but the following imaginary speech may
give a clearer idea of its construction, its syntax, and it is very im-
portant that this should be well understood k " I arrived here to-day
to make a treaty, — my one hundred lodges are camped beyond the
Black Hills, near the Yellowstone River. You are a great chief, —
pity me, I am poor, my five children are sick and have nothing to
eat. The snow is deep and the weather intensely cold. Perhaps
God sees me. I am going. In one month I shall reach my camp."
In signs this literally translated would read, I — arrive here — to-day

JNTRODUCTORY.

— to make — treaty. My — Ininclrcd — lodge — camp — beyond — Hills
— Black — near — river — called — \\W — yoti — chief — great — i)ity me —
I — poor — IMy — five — child — sick — footl — all gone (or wiped out) —
Snow — deep — cold — brave or strong. Perhaps — chief great (or
Great Mystery) — above — see — me — I — go. Moon — die — I — arrive
there— my — camp.

It will be observed that the articles, conjunctions, and preposi-
tions are omitted, and adjectives follow the nouns. Verbs are used
in the present tense, nouns and verbs are used in the singular number,
the idea of plurality being exjiressed in some other way. Abbrevia-
tion is constantly practised. An Indian in closing or terminating
a talk or speech wishing to say, I have finished my speech or conver-
sation, or, I have nothing more to say, simply makes the sign for
Done or Finished.

In addition to the description of peculiar customs which seemed
necessary for an understanding of their gesture speech, 1 have touched
upon such subjects as have, in many instances, been glaringly dis-
torted and misrej)resented, such as the underlying motives of the
Indians in their practice of the Sun-Dance ; the origin of the custom
of, and reasons for, scalping ; their ideas of God, and many other
subjects.

Nearly all the habits, religious beliefs, customs, traditional his-
tories, mythological stories, about which I have written, aie such as
have come under my jiersonal observation, or have been secured
directly from the Indians, without having been filtered through and
fancifully colored by an inter|)reter, thus eliminating some of the
elements of intentional and unintentional deception.

I liave in several jilaces attributed good traits of character to In-
dians, and they jjossess many, notwithstanding the fact that some
good people of our race seem to think them only worthy of extermi-
nation. Mr. Bancroft presents this matter in a happy light when
he says, —

"It is common foi those unaccustomed to lock below the surface
of things to regard Indians as scarcely within the category of hu-
manity. Especially is this the case when we, maddened by some
treacherous outrage, some diabolical act of cruelty, iiastily pronounce
them incorrigibly wicked, inhumanly malignant, a nest of vipers,
the extermination of which is a righteous act, all of which may be
true; but judged by this standard, has not every nation on earth
incurred the death-penalty ?"

The Indians were not favored at the first discovery of this co'.n-
try with inquisitive, learned, and disinterested historians, and it is
a difficult task now to correctly represent them, on account of ' .e
great changes that have taken place. If the Indians form th. ii
ideas of us from the traders, land speculators, and common white
people with whom alone they associate, tiiey v.'ill not commit a
greater error than Europeans do when they form their ideas of the
character of the Indians from those who hang about the ^ .itlements

pi:
If

INTRODUCTORY.

and traffic with the frontier inhabitants. Sickly phihinthropy is too
weak-eyed to see the vices which inherently belong to their stage of
the (levelojiment of man, and the bitter sentiments entertained by
those who have suffered cruel outrages at the hands of these barbn-
rians make them blind to any good that they may possess.

I have not, I repeat, tried to draw a veil over evils to soften the
cruelties which these i)eoi)le are capable of, or excuse their barbarism
and excesses, but it is not a difficult matter, I think, to show how the
fires of hell have been kindled in their savage breasts. Tiie frontier
sentiment in regaril to our Indians is not as well known as the kindly
feeling entertained by t'.iose who have formed their ideas from the
l>leasant descriptions of Eastern writers. The following concise state-
ment made by Mr. James W. Steele correctly represents this senti-
ment : "The most extraordinary of all the efforts of American
romance are those which, without any foundation in truth, have cre-
ated the widely-accepted picture of the American Indian. When
confronted with the actual hero, the beautiful characters of Cooper
cease to attract, and, indeed, become in a sense ridiculous. Lordly,
reticent, content, eloquent, brave, faithful, magnanimous, and truth-
ful he made those sons of the forest seem, whose scattered descend-
ants now linger upon coveted reservations, and, in happy squalor,
seem patiently, if not lazily, to await final oblivion. Filthy, brutal,
cunning, and very treacherous and thievish are their descendants and
relatives who still wander in a condition of marauding independence
west of us. Every tradition repeating the story of Indian bravery,
generosity, and hospitality fades like mist l.iefore the actual man.
The quality of moral degradation, inborn and unmitigated, runs
through the whole kindred, from King Philip and Red Jacket down
to San-tan-te, Sitting Bull, Kicking Bird, and Spotted Tail. The
common instincts of savagery, as illustrated in all the tribes and kin-
dreds of the world, are intensified in these. Brave only in sui)erior
numbers or in ambush, honest only in being a consunnnate hypocrite,
merry only at the sight of suft'c'ring inflicted by his own hand, friendly
oidy through cunning, and hospitable never, and, above all, sublimely
n'endacious and a liar alway^;, the 'ndian. as lie ically is to those who
uiifoilunately knew him, seems poor material out of which to manu-
lacture a liero or frame a romance. All missionary and philanthropic
efforts made in his behalf have thus far failec' to auieuil his litv' or
change his morals. Always prominent in the history of the country,
ever to the fore in philanthropic literature ar.d high-plane oratory,
always the impetiiment to be removed, andi afterv.ard the dependant
to be supported, mollified by semi-annual gifts, an<l oiled and i)aci-
fied by periodical talks about the (keat Father and blarney about
'brothers,' through campaigns, councils, treaties, and tribal rela-
tions, he has finally come to almost the last years of his career, with
only the one redeeming fact upon his reconl, that he has never been
lamed and never been a servant. Neither has the hyena."

This is a terribly severe arraignment, and yet it is true of a class, —
those who have been debaitched and demoralized by our civilization,

INTRODUCTORY.

and our system of dealing with them, and it also accurately portrays
the status of a few others ; but it would be no more fair to judge the
Indian from this description than it would to rate our civilization as
on a level with the crime and border-ruffianism that are seen on the
crest of the advance wave of our Western emigration. The charac-
teristics I have described are such as the most of our wild Indians
possess, or at least such as they seemed to me to possess.

In the Api)endix will be found a description of such signals made
with the pony, smoke, mirror, and blanket as are in most common
use. Writers have generally given the Indians credit for a much
more extensive code, but I l)elieve I have done full justice to their
system ; though it is possible that the code of smoke signals of the
Apaches may be more extensive and perfect than that of other tribes.
I have also noted some of the metaphors and idioms which are in
constant use, and these metaphoric idioms, if I may so call them, are
very important. I might say a knowledge of tlunn is absolutely
essential to a correct understanding of (he lanf;u j^'^. ' have* also
given some of the Indian names for a few of the \,x--vcu- ■ ' rivers
and mountains which have not been preserved on c.>, :.) i.ps, as well
as some <r'i the i)ersonal names which are difficult to express by means
of gestures.

The descr ption of the gestures made by our instructed deaf-mutes
is brief, but it is believed is sufficiently accurate for comparison with
the Indian i^iign language.

I am indebted to Dr. Philip Gillett for assistance in this part of
the work, and under great obligation to Mr. Ezia G. Valentine of
this city, who for some seven years was an instructor in the Deaf-
Mute College at Jacksonville, Illinois, and who with patience,
courtesy, and kindness went over my entire vocabulary and made for
me the gesture for each word. Rlr. Valentine agreed with me in
considering many of the Indian gestures superior to those made by
instructed deaf-mutes, while of course some of those in our sysi iii
are better than tliose made by the Indians. Many are exactly a', e.
I am indebted to General Robert Williams, U. S. Army, for .u v-'
and suggestions, and to Lieutenant-Colonel James l'" G ".%'
A.D.C., for much healthy criticism and material assistance ru:iiii;' '
through the preparation of the entire work.

•»

THE

Abandoi

hands, bac
each other
hands, at s;
o|X'n the ii;
sign, like r
stood, but i
When an Ii
he has good
"simply ab
her parents
the Indians
away," the
Red Don
time an ab
the Ogalal
cnce becan
became inct
"You have
added, "Y
I liad not o.
but iiad also
Deaf mut
nove them
tent re of |)n

Aboard.
veyance or v
some ten ii,
and front, le
that little fi
light hand t
Deaf-mute
exiciuli'd an

Abortion.

for Kill (th
PartukitionI

THE INDIAN SIGN LANGUAGE.

mil

Abandoned. Conception : Thrown away. Bring both closed
hands, backs up, in front of and Hltle to left of body, hands near
each other, rigiit in front of and little higher inan left ; lower the
hands, at same time carry them to left and rear, and simultaneously
o])en the hands with a snap to the fingers in extending them. This
sign, like many others, can be made with one iiand and be under-
stood, but in all these cases, where practicable, it is better to use both.
When an Indian l)ecomes sick or tired of his wife, or if in his mind
lie has good reason for whut we would call a divorce, he, as tiiey say,
"simply abandons her," " throws her away," and she goes back to
her ])arents or other kinsfolk. If on account of age or other reason
the Indians displace the chief of a band or tribe, he is "thrown
away," the above sign being used to ex|)ress the change.

Red Dog, an Uncapapa Sioux at Red Cloud Agency, was at one
time an able orator ami a man of some considerable induence with
the Ogalallas. Age only having brought him boastfulness, his influ-
ence became entirely a thing of the past ; and as I ignoretl him he
became incensed, and asked for a transfer from the agency, saying,
"You have thrown me away;" and, to make it still more emphatic,
added, "Yes, you have thrown a blanket over me !" — meaning that
I had not only deposed and su]ipressed him as a chief or headman,
but had also placed him out of the sight of his people.

Deaf-mutes, to express the same idea, open the hands similarly, but
iiove them to the front and downward, holding them in front of
tcntre of body, drawing the hands back after the movement.

Aboard. Conception : Sitting down on. Make the sign for con-
veyance or vehicle, then bring left hand back down in front of body
some ten inches, fingers extended, touching and pointing to right
and front, left forearm horizontal. Bring the closed right hand so
that little finger and lower edge shall rest on palm of left, back of
right hand to right and front, right forearm about lu^rizontal.

Deaf-mutes hold right hand on back of lefi, and usually hands are
extended and palm of right resting on back of left.

Abortion. Make sign for Fkmalk, for Ckos Vkntke (Bk; Bki.ly),
for Kill (this latter gesture made towards abdomen), and sign for
I'ARTUKITION. A simple miscarriage would be expressed by saying

ABOVE— ABUSE.

that the young (of creature spoken of) was dead before birth. The
Crow Indians are. so far as I know, the only tribe who openly justify
abortion. They claim that tliey were authorized to commit it by the
God wlio created them. (See €ro\v.) " Whirlwind," of the South-
ern Cheyennes, in the Indian Territory, said to me " that they did
not like to talk of such matters, — it was not a fit subject for chiefs
to discuss;" but, after an elaborate explanation on my part, said
"he had heard of l)i:t one tribe who practised abortion ;" and when
asked what tribe this was, replied, "the whites." The Arapahoes
cannot be said to sanction the action of their women in committing
abortion, but they look at the offence with indifference. Indian
women sometimes throw themselves violently across a log or stone,
or lean suddenly and heavily forward on the high pommels of their
saddles. Some of the Southern tribes are said to produce abortion
hy the most violent measures. A pregnant woman will lie on the
d and permit anoliier woman to strike her with a club several
blows upon the abdomen, or to lay thereon hot flat stones. It
is li; . ;lly necessary to add that these violent and extreme means fre-
quently kill the woman as well as the foetus. Some tribes, it is
claimed, make decoctions from roots or plants, whicli, when taken
internally, produce abortion without pain or injury ; but this I have
been unable to authenticate. It is safe to say, in conclusion, that
the crime of producing abortion in any manner is of very infrequent
perpetration.

Deaf mutes sometimes indicate this by revolving the hands in front
of Ijdy, which denotes failure; but a more complete way would be
to make signs for baby, kill, and parturition.

Above. In the sense of one thing above another, bring the left
hand, back up, fingers extended and touching in front of and a
little to left of body; left forearm horizontal, fingers pointing to
right and front; bring right hand, back up, some inches over left
(according as it is desired to rei)resent a great or small distance^,
fingers extended and touching, and pointing in a direction |)erpen-
dicular to the direction of fingers of left hand.

Above, in the sense of above the earth, in the heavens above the
clouds, is indicated by simply pointing towards the zenith with
index finger of right liand, others and thumb closed.

In the sense of one above another in authority, social position,
favor, or esteem, also one above many, or above the people gener-
ally, the vertical motion of fingers is used as explained uniler
Superior.

Deaf-mutes make very nearly the same gesture.

Absent. Make sign for Sit and No. This is used in such
expressions as " He is not here," etc.

Deaf-mutes simply wave the right hand outwards from the body.

Abuse. Conception: Throwing lies or mistakes against one.
When speaking of abusing, scolding, defaming some other person,
bring the right hand back outwards some eight inches in front of
body, first and second fingers extended and separated, others and

thumb clc

body; m

person in

hand and

To indi

merits, bri

front of r

rated, oth(

tended fin

sharply, m

leturn ban

The Flath(

talk, while

bad. Som

joking, foe

Deaf-mu

centre of 1

fingers and

index grazi

Accident

Indians, a?

manner (w

the circum

accidentall

tiiere was r

responsible

frequently

other tribe;

Deaf-mul

from it and

alone exten

front; by v

other.

Accompa

Accost,

forearm ne;

point right

slightly to r

Ache. C

or the darti

the latter,

and thumb

part ; move

finger in sev

l)arallel to ti

is first made

conversant \

then breatlu

Deaf-mut(

A CCIDEN r—A CHE.

dy.

one.

Tson,

ont of

s and

thumb closed, index finger and forearm horizontal, nearly parallel to
l)ody; move the hand rather sharply outwards, or towards tlie
person indicated, mostly by wrist action, several inches; return
hand and repeat motion several times.

To indicate that others scold or defame, or detract from your
merits, bring the right hand, back, to right, some eight inches in
front of right breast, first and second fingers extended and sepa-
rated, others and thumb closed, index and forearm horizontal, ex-
tended fingers pointing to left and front ; move the hand rather
sharply, mostly by wrist action, several inches towards left breast;
leturn hand to first position and repeat motion two or three times.
The Flatheads and many other tribes make the sign for bad after
talk, while others simply touch the mouth and then make sign for
bad. Some tribes use the gesture I have described in the sense of
joking, fooling, etc.

Deaf-mutes bring the closed left hand, back to left, in front of
centre of body, and thrust the right index about horizontally, other
fingers and thumb closed ; from rear to front over left hand, right
index grazing left hand at tiiumb and index as it passes.

Accident. This requires the meta])horic icliom used by the
Indians, as noted under "By Itself." F.x])lain how or in what
manner (which would, as a rule, be known from the conversation or
the circumstances), and then make sign for "By Itself." I was
accidentally shot, would be in sign, I shot '^ by itself,'" meaning
there was no reason or cause for the shoiJting ; no one to blame or
responsible for it. This peculiar metajjhoric idiom is much more
frequently used by the Cheyennes, Arapahoes, and Sioux than by
other tribes.

Deaf-mutes bring the hands well in front of body, equidistant
from it and opposite each other, some six inches apart, index fingers
alone extended and held about horizontally, and pointing about to
front; by wrist action suddenly turn the hamls, backs towards each
other.

Accompany. See Wiih.

Accost. See Question. Deaf-mutes strike the horizontal left
tbrearm near wrist, with palmar surface of finger of right hand ;
point right index at person, and then crook same, drawing hand
slightly to rear.

Ache. Conception : From the throbbing ])ulsation of the blood,
or the darting sensations of pain. In the former case, see .Sick. In
the latter, bring the extended index finger of right hand, others
and t'lumb closed, over and parallel to the surfiice of the afflicted
part ; move the hand sharply a few inches, so as to thrust index
finger in several different directions, keeping it so far as practicable
parallel to the surface. For a headache, frequently the sign for sick
is first made near head, and then the above sign. Indians not fully
conversant with the sign language make signs for lying down, and
then breathe in a distressed manner.

Deaf-mutes hold the extended index finger, others and thumb

A CR OSS— AD VANCE.

closed, over and parallel to surface, and then make thrusting motion
to indicate the darting pain, sometimes first making the sign for sick.

Across. The left hand is usually used to denote the object crossed,
the sign for which would be made, and then holding extended left
hand in front of body, back up, fingers pointing to rigiit ; pass
the partially compressed and slightly curbed right hand, back to
right, over left on a curve upwards to front and then downwards.
Across, in the sense of, on the other side, the right hand, after
passing beyond left, is held with back nearly to front, fingers point-
ing about to left (this position taken by wrist action just as right hand
passes left), as though something was laid on the other side; and in
case of some one waiting on the other side, the right liand would be
closed as it is moved over left, and after passing beyond, the sign
for Sir made; literally, sitting on the otiier side.

The deaf-mute gesture is tlie same.

Add. This is expressed by the sign for With. In the sense of
putting one thing on another, indicate the piling up by natural
gesture.

Deaf-mutes bring the tips of fingers and thumb together, then
holding left hand, ba( k down, in front of body bring the tips of
right against left, right hand back up and held o\cr left.

Adultery. Make proper sign for person, then the sign for An-
other ; sign for Copulate, and sign for Private. The sign is
rarely used, except to relate to the woman. .Some tribes make sign
for cutting off the nose. In former times many tribes i)unished the
woman by cutting off the cartilaginous portion of the nose, and tlie
Blackfeet included the lower part of tlie ears; the man was some-
times whipped, and usually had to pay roundly for the crime in
ponies or wliatever other property he might possess. If the wife of
a ciiief disiiuuored him, she as well as her paramour would some-
times be killed by the enraged husband. I heard the story of an old
Comanche chief whose young wife had run away with a robust war-
rior of the tribe. Tlie husband pursuing tliem for three months from
camp to camp and over desolate prairies, finally overtook them,
killed the young man, and, taking away the wife's moccasins, with
his knife cut long gashes in the soles of her feet and left her dis-
mounted on the prairie, hundreds of miles away from any camp.
The Bannocks claim that tbrmerly they did not punisli the woman,
but took proi)erty from the man, and sometimes killed him.

Deaf-mutes make the sign (ox ashamed and copulate, — a shameful
connection.

Advance. Bring the right hand, back up, fingers extended, touch-
ing, pointing to front and slightly upwards, in front of body, and
about ten inches distant; bring the left hand in a similar position,
but between right and body j move the hands simultaneously to the
front by gentle je'ks. To indicate that a village was moving, extend
the index fingers u^each hand, others and thumbs closed ; bring the
hands near each other, crossing the index fingers at first joints, right
above the left, palms of hands towards each other; move the hands

in this po!

direction o

wards tiie ^

any advant

relates to a

poles. As

was moving

white trooj:

body, left :

then the hai

of tlie So

slightly cor

wrists cross(

k\v inches ;

rigiit to left

jerks. The

f'n'ng in tlie

Deaf-mut

or back to :

little lower.

Advance

and touch ir

pointing to

ger extendec

inches, iiule

of centre o

advance of

extend seco

separated, a

times from

express the

course tiie fi

Tlieir advan

Afraid.

from. Brin

fwell out), b

fingers exten

closed, hanc

equally ; brii

ment, a par

The hands si

or tiling whii

this gesture.

virtue ; phys

education an

a condition

contempt am

The sign fi

still hekl in

ADVANCE-GUARD— AFRAID.

in this position to front, to tlie right, left, or rear, to indicate tlie
direction of movement or advancement, keeping; backs of iiands to-
wards the direction indicated. This is frequently used to indicate
any advance or movement of men or animals, though, strictly, it
relates to a village, and the crossetl index fingers represent the te])ee-
poles. As a rule, however, it would be necessary to explain what
was moving, and hold the hands correspondingly ; if a column of
white troops, the hands nearly closed, backs up, are held in front of
body, left several inches in front of right and a trifle higher, and
then the hands moved simultaneously to front by gentle jerks. Many
of the Southern tribes — Comanches, Kiowas, and others — hold
slightly compressed and nearly extended hands in front of body,
wrists crossed, left in front of right, backs of hands outwards, liands
few inches apart, fingers of left pointing to right and ujnvards, of the
right to left and upwards; move the hands in this position by gentle
jerks. They claim the conception of the sign is from car-ying some-
f'ling in the arms, or something laid in hollow of left arm or elbow.
Deaf-mutes simply move the extended ri-ght hand, either back up
or back to right, to front, from near body about opposite, though a
little lower, than right shoulder.

Advance Guard. Bring the left hand, back up, fingers extended
and touching, some ten inches in front of centre of body, fingers
IS pointing to front anil slightly upwards; bring right hand, index fin-

ger extended, others and tliumb closed, in front of left hand a few
niches, index finger jioiuting to front and upsvards, it being in front
of centre of left hand (this indicates the person in front or in
advance of the rest); then, still holding hands in siime ]))sition,
extend second finger of right hand, kee[)ing first and second well
separated, and by wrist action move tliis hanil horizontally several
times from right to left (indicates k)()king about). If desiring to
ex])ress the idea of the advance-guard looking for trail, etc., of
course the fingers would in the movement point towards the ground.
Their advance-guard and flankers are called Scours.

Afraid. Conception : Cannot stand up before ; shrinks back
from. Bring both hands well out in front of body, or to either side
fwell out), backs of hands u]), hands about height of breast, index
fingers extended, pointing upwards and to front, others and thumbs
closed, hands about eight inches apart at same height and advanced
equally; bring the liantls back a few inches with a downward move-
ment, a partial jerk, antl simultaneously curve the intlex fingers.
The hands should be put out towards and drawn back from the person

)uch- or thing which causes fear. Usually only one hand is used in making

and this gesture. Indians consider bravery the highest, most [)erfect

tion, virtue; physical cowardice the meanest, most abject vice. Their

the education and training from infancy create in their minds and hearts

;tend a condition of affiirs which elicits spontaneous reverence for the one,

the contempt and scorn, beyond words, for the other.

right The sign for Heart is made by some, and then the right hand,

ands still held in this position over the heart, is lifted up a few inches

AFRAID OF NO ONE— AG F.

qiii( kly two or three times, to indicate the throbbing action of the
heart under the influence of fear; others hold tlie iiand as in Heart,
and tiien raise the hand as higli as and close to the neck, to indi-
cate the heart rising in the throat.

Deaf-mutes hold the hands in front, and then shrink backwards
and downwards with the body, at same time withdraw the hands and
indicate tlieir fear by the expression of the eyes and face.

Afraid of No One. Point with index finger of right hand in
several directions, and sweep the flat hanil circularly in front of
body, then make sign for Afraid, and sign for No.

Deaf-mutes make the sign for afraid, then resuming first position
and determined exi)ression of countenance, make circular sweep of
hand, and shake the head.

After. Conception : Falling behind. Bring left hand, back up,
well out in front of body, about opposite left breast, index finger
extended, pointing to left front and slightly upwards, others and
thumb closed ; bring right hand similarly fixetl in rear, little to right,
trifle lower than left, so that index finger of right hand shall be
parallel to left index, tip of right index just over knuckles of left
index; draw the right hand to riglit and rear, keeping index finger
pointing in same direction. This refers specially to time; and to
convey tiie idea of a short time after, the right hand would be
moved a very little. Long time, longer distance, and for very long
time, the right hanu is drawn as far as possible to rear, and the left
l)ushed well to the front. Some Indians make simply sign for Wait.
The description of, and remarks made in regard to. Behind, apply
to after.

Deaf-mutes bring the hands closed, with the exception of the
thumbs, which are extended and vertical, in front of body, back of
left to left, right to right, and the right hand some inches in rear of
left ; tiie left hand precedes the right in taking its position, and the
right is brought from the front to the rear of left.

Afternoon. Indicate the jwsition of the sun westward from the
zenith with the incomplete circle of thumb and index of right hand,
other fingers closed, hand held to the right and above head, and
following the path of the sun in the heavens.

Deaf-mutes hold right forearm vertically in front of body, place
palm of left hand at right elbow, and then bend the right forearm
down to left and front, terminating movement when forearm is about
horizontal, right hand extended, back uj).

Age. Indicated by denoting the number of winters. There are
few tribes, aside from the Cheyennes, Sioux, and Arapahoes, who
pretend to keep any account of their individual ages, claiming that
"when young they don't care to know, and when old they don't
want to." One accustomed to judge can pretty accurately deter-
mine the age of Indians from the appearance of the eyes and teeth,
as, after middle age, a whitish, filmy ring appears on the iris, and in
most cases the teeth become very much worn.

Deaf-mutes denote extreme age by placing side of curved right in-

dex, othei
the head

Agency

Make sigi

Blanket,

sense of di

is always u

any means

are of cou

very well

cf supplie;

jieople wh

notony of

issue, if th

tain zest t(

Issue days

at the Sho;

scene that

there. I v

dians at th

ing around

of the wine

everything

and black

fields stretc

icately-tinti

The men 1

talking abc

gather in s

and young,

flimily ratic

about tied ;

other breec

few wagons

their loads.

can unders

and waiting

first served

ticket calls

or tied up i

carried bytl

getting up o

corral when

the offal was

hoof," the

Texas steer:-

dered at the

what infatui

manner of h

AGENCY.

the

(lex, other fingers and thumb closed, against the dun and lowering
the head with a tremulous motion.

Agency. Conception: Distributing house tor food and clothing.
Make sign for HorsE, for By Itself, for Distrii!UTK or (liVE, for
Blanket, for Food. The sign ior gi7'itig is here used entirely in the
sense of distributing ; though the gesture (or M' i/sr/fm rarely used : it
is always understood. The Indians do not consider the goods a gift by
any means, but as a payment for the lands taken from them. Agencies
are of course of comparatively recent date, and these signs illustrate
very well how gestures are coined to meet emergencies. 'I'he issue
cf supplies of any kind is an important event to the Indians; to a
people who have nothing to do, it breaks pleasantly ui)on the mo-
notony of every-day life, and, as is usually the case at the time of an
issue, if they have been fasting for a day or more, it must add a cer-
tain zest to the interest on the occasion of securing something to eat.
Issue days are about alike at all agencies, and a description of one
at the Shoshone Agency, Wyoming, perhaps will give an idea of the
scene that is presented once in seven days at other places as well as
there. I was present on October i, 1881, the issue day for the In-
dians at that agency for rations. Tlie clouds which had been hover-
ing around us for the few days before had drifted away on the wings
of the wind, and the bright, warm siuishine gladdened and beautified
everything in that little valley. It was a perfect fall day, — the russet
and black of the distant hills, the gray sage-brush, and the brown
fields stretched away to the hazy-blue horizon in the east to the del-
icately-tinted bluffs and sombre-colored mountains in the west.
The men lounge lazily around the office and store, smoking, and
talking about the latest news; the young bucks, gauildy dressed,
gather in small groui)s, mounted and dismounted ; the women, old
and young, at first collect at the window of the office and have the
flimily ration ticket examined and corrected; ponies are standing
about tied and untied ; many dogs, sorry-iooking curs, of Indian and
other breeds, are following closely at the heels of the women. A
few wagons, with dejected-looking pinies attached, are w '.iting for
their loads. The door of the storehouse is opened, ami now one
can understand why the women have been crowding in so closely,
and waiting so patiently. The issue is then made, — " first come,
first served." Flour, sugar, coffee, hacon, tobacco, — whatever the
ticket calls for, — is handed out, and is quickly put in the dirty bags,
or tied up in the pieces of cloth brought for tht purpose. These are
carried by the squaws to their ponies, or wagons, packed with skill, and,
getting upon top of the load, they jog back to their tepees or over to the
corral where the beef is issued. Ht;re this was done at the block, but
theoffi\l was just as eagerly sought after as ever. When issued " on the
hoof," the young men have quite a good buffalo-hunt running the
Texas steers. After witnessing one issue of beef, I have never won-
dered at the disillusioning of the young officer who had become some-
what infatuated with an Indian girl. One look at their business-like
manner of handling the intestines of a freshly-killed beef would have

AGENT— ALIKE.

a tendency to disenchant any one not an Indian. On issue days of
warmth or sunshine, and with a ilry track, tiie men, young and old,
gather at a short distance from the agency and race their ponies from
about noon till dark. Most of the races are for sliort dist^^nces over
a straight course, only a few being for a mile or more. (See Race.)
Gambling is freely indulged in on any race. A rainy-day issue
beggars description. The old squaws gather in a sombre and droop-
ing way, like a lot of wet ravens, hurriedly chitcli in their bony old
hands whatever is given them, and, pulling their wet blankets over
their heads, vanish in the storm.

Agent. Indian. Make signs for White Man, tor Chief, for
DisTKUiUiE, for Food or Eat, for Blanket, for Bv Iiself. The
Indians frequently call the agent " father," and make sign iox father
who distributes. Some Indians make signs for ivhite man and mine,
others simply headman.

Agitate. Sec Excite.

Agony. Pliysical suffering is expressed by passing the hands over
the surface of tlie afflicted part, making sign for Sick, or darting i)ain,
and then sign for Brave. Mental agony would be expressed in some
natural way after giving the exciting cause.

Deaf-mutes indicate this by physical contortion.

Ahead. See Before.

Dcat-mutes iiulicate this bv closed hands, thumbs extended as in
after.

Aid. Combine signs for Work and With. 1 want you to assist
Die would be, I want you to work with me. Sometimt-s they will say,
/ 7cuint you to make a road or trail for me. S/unv me the road or trail ;
but this refers more to counsel or advice in regard to a plan of
action.

Deaf-mutes hold the' left forearm horizontally in tVont of body,
place the palmar surface of fingers of extended right hand against it
on under side near wrist, and lift the left forearm upwards some
inches.

Aim, To. Conception : From manner of using weapon. If with
bow and arrow, bring hands up in front of face as though drawing
arrow to its head ; i' with a gun, place hands in position of holding
a gun when about to discharge same at an object.

Deaf-nnites make same gestures.

Alight, To. Indicate from what, and then bring the extended
and separated index and second fingers of right haml, others and
thumb closed, from above downwards, towards the ground, pointing
towards same and about vertical.

Deaf-mutes place the tips of index and second fingers on left palm,
latter held horizontally in front of body, other fingers and thumb
closed, and this is sometimes also used by the Indians.

Alike. If to express the idea ti.at two people look alike, pass the
hand over the face and then make sign for Even or Same.

Same with deaf-mutes ; but their sign for even or same, it must be
remembered, is like the Indian sign for marry, and this caution ap-

plies with e
of deaf- ai

Alive.
front of be
upwards, o
right and
left, and fr
right and h
for little ai
tlie sign for
tion, such a
ROGATION o
sign I have
The deaf
sign for anii
ing between
hold the ex
to the surfa
arms nearly
by wrist a('i
motion, to
breathing ;
sickness, an.
sation. Thi
place palm c
of chest or J
would, I th
word alive, :
hold the han
gers slightly
against bod\
blood throuj^
All. Mov
iiig, in a hor
posite right
point. Som
both hands a
times; this
a camp mov;
that all the ]
Deaf-mute
head, and b
each descrif
hands meet,
All Gone.
held rather \
of body, rigl
wards a few
hand is mo\

ALHE—ALL GONE.

plies with equal ,'orce to all my remarks in regard to the natural signs
of deaf- -utcs.

Alive. Conception : Walking about. Uring the right hand in
front of body at about height of breast, index extended and pointnig
ujiwards, other fingers and thumb closed ; move the hancl to the
right and left few inches, and at same time turn it from right to
left, and from left to right, by wrist action, as the hand passes to
right and left. To say that a person was very ill, just alive, the sign
for little and then this sign, moving the hand but slightly; or use
the sign for Recover after jxirtial sign for Die. In asking a ques-
tion, such as, " is such a person alive?" would be in gesture Inter-
rogation or Question. Name the jerson by gesture, and then the
sign I have dcscribetl.

The deaf-mute natural sign for animal life, and from tiiis tiieir
sign for animals generally, presents tiie most radical difference exist'
ing between the Indian sign language and their gesture speecli. They
hold the extended hanils, backs outwards near the chest and ])arallel
to the surface, hands at same height, index fingers horizontal, fore-
arms nearly so, and tips of fingers near each other; then, mostly
by wrist action, move the hands outwards a few inches, repeating
motion, to indicate the swelling and contraction of the chest in
breathing ; and this satiie sign is used by the Indian to represent
sickness, an.i to denote the throbbing sensation of an unhealthy pul-
sation. The deaf-mute sign for sick is to lean tiie head forward,
place palm of left hand on forehead, and palm of riglit at upper part
of chest or against the heart. In case of a brute, the Indian sign
would, I think, be the best. A more correct description of the
word alive, as made by the deaf-mute for a human being, would be to
hold the hands as above described, but against abdomen, and the fin-
gers slightly separated, the hands then raised (keeping ])almar surface
against body) with a tremulous motion ; this denotes the flow of
blood through the system.

All. Move the right hand, bat k up, fingers extended and touch-
ing, in a horizontal circle from right to left, starting from about op-
posite right shoulder, carrying the hand well out to front from that
point. Sometimes, after the circular movement of the right hand,
both hands are brought together, gently clapping palms two or three
times; this particularly when using it in sense of "all the {)eople of
a camp moving," — it then slides to and fro in the way of indicating
that all the jieople are gathered together for a move.

Deaf-mutes hold both hands near each other, little 'higher than
head, and bring them together again at about the he ■' i of waist,
each describing a vertical circle as it is brought down, and when
hands meet, put back of right on left palm.

All Oone. The Southern Indians usually bring the extended hands,
held rather loosely at the joints and wrists, backs outwards, in front
of body, right near it, fingers pointing to left ; left opposite and out-
wards a few inches from right, fingers ])ointing to right; the right
hand is moved outwards, the left towards the body, back of right

ALL I A NCE—AMIi 11 10 US.

hand striking left palm, an<l fingers bending as hands pass; then the
motion of hands is reversed, back of left hand striking right palm.
The most common sign in tiie North is to bring the extended hands
in t'ront of body, back of left down, right np, and pass tlie right
outwards over the left, palms touching. (See WirKU Out or P'.xtkr-
MINATE. )

Deaf-mutes draw the ])artially compressed right hand from above
downwards through the left hand, pressing it in a clas]) with thumb
and fingers as it passes, after making sign for Al.i-,

Alliance. Make sign for I'F.Acr-; ; and if for war purposes, add
signs for (Joing to War and TofjKriiKK or With.

Deaf-mutes form two circles with thumbs and index fingers, and
link them together, other fingers ( Icjsed.

Alone. Bring the extended index finger of right hand, others and
thumb closed, in front of body, at about heigiit of neck, and pointing
U])war(ls. To indicate a movement, carry the hand from right to
left, at same time turn the hanil slightly by wrist, so as to give a
swinging movement to index finger; the hand is not turned as much
as in Ai.iVE. in an Indian fight nearly always some of the men
mo nit their ponie-, and ride out in front of their lines up and down
between the two forces, sometimes to draw the fire of the enemy, to
try and get him to waste his ammunition ; at* others, an exhibition of
dauntless courage, bravado, or triumph. If any are hit and killed
they are sung about, and their bravery extolled long afterwards. I
have seen them make a dash along the line within easy range, where
hundreds of bullets were sent after the daring individu md at in-
tervals rei)eat tiieo|)eration for iiours witiiout getting ii > mostly,
it would seem, to the fleetness of their ponies, and thro.. 5 the body
from side to side. Tliey, however, attribute their good luck entirely
to the i)ower and efficacy of their "medicin_." The sign is also
used in such sentence as, lie rode alone in the thickest of danger.
In fact, the gesture is common, and used about as we use the word.

Deaf-mutes use the same sign.

Amatory. Make sign for Fond or Love and indicate opposite sex.

Deaf-mutes use the same.

Ambitious. Conception: Must rise above others; must be superior.
Make sign for the person, then sign for Push or Must, then bring
both hands, jjahns outwards, in front of body, index fingers extended,
pointing upwvards, and placed side by side, touching, other fingers and
thumbs closed, left hand little higher than right, so that tip of right
index shall be at about second joint of left, raise the right hand till
tip of right index j)asses beyond tip of left, keeping sides of index
fingers pressed together. This is used rather more in the bcnse of
one rising in rank, power, influence, ability, or bravery above another;
and to denote rising above several, or a number, the fi.igers of left
hand are all extended, and the right index placed against left palm
and then raised.

Deaf-mutes simply say a pushing man, and their sign iox push or
must is the same as the Indian gesture; sometimes they only push the

right hand u
nance.

American.
the colonies
Knives," to

Deaf-mute
people with
pinching tlic
right hand
closed, and t

AmoDg^.
thumb and fi
slightly com)
thumb closed
left hand by

Deaf-mute.-

Ancestors.
specify the ki

Deaf-mute^
and make a
l^ack over tii
shoulder niCc
they place th
them to from
family pride
think it is mil

Angry. Cc
back to right,
ing against se
against forel^
and simultan<
left. Accord
and cause cei
and, as a cor
the operation
expresses wha
they are angr
sign for hear
closed right 1
the hand bein
have describe(

Deaf-mutes
assume an an^

Annihilate.
Annoy. C(
Make sign fo
separate and
action twist a
turning the he

AMERICAN— ANNO Y.

right hand iipwanls, and add force by the expression of the counte-
nanre.

American. Many of the Northern Indians called the people of
the colonies, after the establishment of their independence, *' Long
Knives," to distingiiisli them from the British.

Deaf-mutes call the Americans proper, i.r. the Indians, "the
])eopie with rings in nose and ears," and denote them in signs by
pinching the cartilage of the nose with tips of thumb and index of
right hand, also the lobe of the right ear; the other fingers are
closed, and the inilex and thumb form a circle.

Among. Bring left hand in front of body about height of neck,
thimib and fingers extended, separated and pointing upwards, hand
slightly compressed; bring extended right index, other fingers and
thumb closed, index pointing upwards, and mix it in with fingers of
left hand by moving about among them.

Deaf-mutes use the same.

Ancestors. Indians usually simply make sign for old people ; some
specify the kinshij) by api)r()|)riate signs.

Deaf-mutes extend the index fingers of both hands, others closed,
and make a rotary motion, one about the other, as they are carrittl
l^ack over the right shoulder. Right hand thrown over the right
shoulder means ancient. To express coming dou<n from ancestors,
they place the hands well back over right shoulder and then revolve
them to front and downwards. I should 1 ive stated, perhaps, that
family pride of Indians is fully as great as with any i)eople ; in fact, I
think it is much stronger than with the white race.

Angry. Conception: Mind twisted. Bring the closed right hand,
back to right, against or close to and opposite forehead, thumb press-
ing against second joint of index finger, and back of lliumb resting
against forehead ; move the hand slightly outwards a little to left,
and simultaneously twist the hand, by wrist action, from right to
left. According to Indian belief, all emotions arise in the iieart,
and cause certain actions. In this instance the heart is irritated,
and, as a consequence, the mind is twisteti or wrenched. Reverse
the operation of the sentence, and it is readily seen that the sign
expresses what the Indians invariably say in vocal language when
they are angry, viz., "heart is bad;" in fact, many of them make
sign for hearty and then sign for bad, while others hold partially-
closed right hand over heart, hand resting against surface of body,
the hand being turned and twisted, as in Annoy. The first gesture I
have described is frequently accompanied by a gruff and fierce grunt.

Deaf-mutes clutch the hands in front of and near body, and
assume an angry expression of countenance.

Annihilate. See Exterminate.

Annoy. Conception : The heart is disturbed and in a flutter.
Make sign for Heart, and then, with right hand ui this position,
separate and nearly extend the thumb and fingers, and by wrist
action twist and turn the hand as it rests against left breast, then
turning the hand so that fingers point upwards, raise it with a tremu-

J NA'UI 1 lES—A NX 10 US.

lous motion. These gestures nviicate a serious annoyance or
trouble.

Deaf-mutes rub the breast with a circular motion of right hand,
and perha,is strike the head ; much depends on the expression of
the countenance.

Annuities. Make sit,qis for Blanket, for Fnoh, and for Dis-
tribute. Sometimes the sign for Bv Itself is made; this should
proi)erly always be added, but as a fact it seldom is.

Another. Ihing the right hand, back up, in front of body, about
height of breast and near it, fingers extended, touching, pointing to
left, hand very slightly com[)resscd, thumb resting on palm ; sweep
the hand ui)wards, outwards, to right, and then downwards or curve,
turning hand during movement back down, stopping hand when it
is lowered to about waist. This gesture is very much like the one
for the oihff side, or beyond, but the hand is moved more to the
right. Frequently the leit hand is also held in front of body, the
right held just over it ; the above-described gesture made, and then
returning hand to first position, carry it to left and front similarly.
This; gesture is not common, it is very difficult to describe, and by
no means easy to execute.

Deaf-mutes bring the right har.d, back to right, fingers closed,
thumb extended and pointing upwards in front of body, then move
the hand On small vertical curve upwards to right, and then down-
wards, terminating movement when the hand is at same lieight as
when starting.

Antelope. Conception : Pronged horns of animal. Bring the
hands, ])alms toward and alongside of the head near base of the
ears, index fingers and thumbs extended and spread, other fingers
closed, index fingers ;^ointing about upwards; move the hands by
wrist action parallel to head from rear to front, repeating motion.
Some tribes do not move hands. Sometimes signs for white Jiatiks
are also made. The coarse, brittle hair of the antelope is used for
pillows, the tanned skin for the uppers of moccasins, and the shin-
bone is made into a pipe. The meat at certain seasons is liighly
prized, and the liver sprinkled wiui a little gall is eaten hot; /.<?.,
before the animal heat has been dissipated after the killing. The
brains are usually cooked by rcisting the entire head, the horns
being broken off before the liead is placed on the coals.

Anxious. Make sign for Now, and then bring right hand back to
right, fingers curved and touching, thumb resting on index, about
one foot in front of body, hand about height of shoulder; draw the
hand inwards and downwards and towards the heart, not bending
the wri:;t The subject or ol>ject is drawn near the heart. Some-
times the right h; nd is placed over the heart and the hand fixed as
in look or see, — the heart is looking or searching.

Deaf-mutes bring the hands in front of face, light near it, back up,
left some inches outwards and little higher, back down, fingers par-
tially separated, and then an upward iook with the eyes, with an
intense or expectant expression of countenance.

Apache i

the left brei
and thumb
extended, o
ing on back
and outward
Iiand rubbin
distinct con
the sign can
horn, which
forwards wit
gave me the
Apaches nnu
with the Ki
are several (
called by thi
tain and Ho(
are made for
Kiowa Ai)acl
to me of hin
of age and w.
Hills. Hec
nor forr.ierly
from the Ki(
into Mexico.
the Kiowas, \
no. have an
have theirs,
and some of
and chanting
lirst time afte
Comanches, ;
scalp-lock, bu
cropped arou
other in a twi
cloth. They
many other ti
priz'id, and tli
The Apaches
a {q\i )ears,
cruelty, and
The country i
dian warfare,
report for i8.
Indians in N

Mohave
C'liimciiuc

APACHE.

up,

jar-

Apache (Indians). Hold tlie left hand, ba( k '.ip, in front of
the left breast, index finger extended and pointi;ig to front, others
and tiiunib closed ; Lrin^ the right hand back outward.;, index finger
extended, others and thumb closed near left, side of right index rest-
ing on back of left near secoml joint; move the i ght hand inwards
and outwards, mostly by wrist .iction, side of the index finger of right
hand rubbing against back of left ; repeat motion. .'. have heard two
distinct conceptions for this gesture: the Cheyennes claiming that
the sign came from a ]ieculiar musical instrument nude from an elk-
horn, which produced weird-like sounds by rubbing it backwards and
forwards with a stick, and the second (I do not remember what tribe
gave me the conception) from a sjiecially good whetstone which the
Apaches made and used. This gesture refers to tlie Apaches living
with the Kiowas at the Wichita Agency, Indian Territory. There
are several other bands in Southwestern New Aiexico and Arizona
called by the Indians Wood or Timber, Poor, Long Arrow, Moun-
tain and Hooked or Curved Toe Apaches, and corresponding signs
are made for each. Those at Wichita Agency are frecpiently called
Kiowa Apaches. One of the old men of the latter band, in speaking
to me of himse'f" and lii*^ fribe, said that he was about seventy vears
of age and was born near the Missouri River, northeast of the Black
Hills. He claimed that the Apaches of tiie extreme Southwest did
nor formerly understand the sign language, but that t'ley learned it
from the Kiowas, who went down there and joined them in raids
into Mexico. This bantl in customs and habits are very much like
the Kiowas, with wliom they have lived for so many years. They do
no. have an annual Medicine-Dance, but join the Kiowas when they
have theirs. They bury their dead in the ground, and also in ( aves ;
and some of the band;; have a s])ecial mourning custom of wailing
and chanting, just as the sun disappears in the western horizon, for the
first time after the death of the ])erson mourned for. The Kiowas,
Comanches, and Apaches at the Wichita Agency, as a rule, wear the
scalp-lock, but the rest of the hair is often worn loose, and frecpiently
cropped around the neck. Some cut off only one side, and wear the
Uher in a twist or braided, and wra])ped with a string of red or blue
cloth. They do not, as a rule, use (Jtter-skin for this purpose, as do
many other tribes. Ear ornaments and the pipe-clay breastplates are
l)riz','d, and the use of ])aint is the same as "vith the Northern Indians.
The Apaches of the Southwest, though poorly armed until within
a few years, have gaineil by their shrewdi, s, cunning, treachery,
cruelty, and active hostility a notoriety se.ond to no other tribe.
The country in which they have operated .- :.i)ecially adapted to In-
dian warfare. The Commissioner of In.'ian Affairs, in his annual
report for 1881, gives the following as the numerical strength of
Indians in N:w Mexico and Arizona ;

ARIZONA.

COLORADO RIVKR ACKNCY.

Mohave .
L'liimeliuevis

802
210

APACHE.

MOQUIS I'L'Ki;!.!' AGi'NCY.

Moquis Pueblo .......

PIMA MARICOTA AND I'AI'AGO AGENCY.

Pima .........

Maricopa ........

Papagf) • .

SAN CARMiS AGF.NCY.

White Mountain Apache ......

San Carlos Apaclie .......

Warm Sjirin^' Apaclie ......

Coyotero Apache .......

Tonto Apaclie ........

Mixed Ajmche .......

Southern Apaclie .......

Chiricahua Apache

Apache Vunia .

Apache Moha-.e .......

INDI.\NS IN ARIZONA NOT UNDKR AN AGENT.*

Hiialapai ........

Yuma . .

Mohave .........

Suppai

Total poinilation ......

Jicarilla Apache
Mescalero Apache .
Navajo .
Puf-blo .

NEW MEXICO,

JICARIl.IA SUli-AGE.\CY.

MKSCAI KRO AGENCY.

NAVAJO AGENCY.

PUEBLO AGENCY.

2,IOO

4,500

500

6,000

795
27s
819
586
119
171
246

309
662

620

930
700

!I,OI5

705

906

16,000

9,060

Total population 26,665

Although the area covered by Mr. Bancroft as "Apache coun-
try" contains several tribes marked by entirely different languages
and many different ways of living, habits, and religious beliefs, still
the following extract from his work contains much that is jiertinent,
accurate, instructive, and interesting in regard to these Indians:

"The Ai)ache country is probably the most desert of all, alter-
nating between sterile jAains and wooded mountains, interspersed
with comparatively few rich valleys. The rivers do little to fertilize
the soil except in spots; the little moisture that appears is quickly
absorbed by the cloudless air and arid plains which stretch out, some-
times a hmidred miles in length and breadth, like lakes of sand. In
botn mountain and desert the fierce, rapacious Apache, inured from
childhood to hunger and thirst, and heat and cold, finds safe retreat.

• Taken from report of 1880.

It is here,

ing as a pr

savagism a

labor lie en

as some of

like the Pi

or Comanc

Apache; b

subject in

have any ]>

with barbar

Leaving oti

of the rivet

inaeh'te, poi

retreats acr(

Mexican qz

other almos

"All the

manner, cut

Mojave niti

lowed to li;

many of tht

Central Cal

Paint is frei

nating, but

colors. I5re

men, while t

the Mojaves

skill shirt, sk

the latter, br

up on the let

a common p^

with mud, w

tion from tl

Mojaves sho'

laces and bi

strung togeti

in vogue.

I^ainting and

hoofs, shells,

with which til

"The food

tensions to ag

dom do any c

tion, and the)

pifion-nut, an

fruits, which 1

Mojaves, and

culture, and u

A r ACHE.

It is here, among our western nations, that we first encounter thiev-
ing as a profession. No savage is fond of work ; indeed, labor and
savagism are directlv antagonistic;, for if the savage continues to
hibor he can but become civiUzed. Now, the Apache is not as lazy
as some of his Northern brothers, yet he will not work, or if he iloes,
like the Pueblos, who are nothing but partially reclaimed Apaches
or Comanches, he forthwith elevates himself, and is no longer an
Apache; but being somewhat free from the vice of laziness, though
subject in an eminent degree to all the vices of which mankind
have any knowledge, he presents the anomaly of uniting activity
with barbarism, and for this he must thank his thievish propensities,
l^eaving others to do the work, he cares not whom, the agriculturists
of the river-bottoms or the towns-peojile of the North, he turns Ish-
maelite, pounces upon those near and more remote, and if pursued,
retreats across the jornaiias drl muertc, or journeys of death, as the
Mexican calls them, and finds refuge in tiie gorges, canons, and
other almost impregnable natural fortresses of the mountains.

" All the natives of this region wear the hair much in the same
manner, cut square across the forehead and flowing behind. The
Mojave men usually twist or i)lait it, while with tlie women it is al-
lowed to hang loose. Tattooing is common, but not universal ;
many of the Mojave women tattoo the chiu in vertical lines like the
('entral Californians, except that the lines are closer together.
Paint is freely used among tiic Mojaves, black and red predomi-
nating, but the Ap.u hes, Yumas, and others use a greater variety of
colors. Ikeech-clolh and moccasins are tlie ordinary dress of the
men, while the women have a short petticoat of bark. The dress of
the Mojaves and Apaches is often more pretentious, being a buck-
skin shirt, skull-cap or helmet, and moccasins of the same material ;
the latter, broad at the toes, slightly tniied up, and reaching high
up on the leg, serve as a protection ag.. ;ist cacti and thorns. It is
a common prac-tice among these tribes Icj |>laster the head and body
with mud, whicii acts as a preventive against vermin and a protec-
tion from the sun's rays. In their selection of ornaments the
Mojaves show a preference for white, intermixed with blue ; net k-
laces and bracelets made from beads and small shells, usually
strung together, but sometimes sewed on to leather bancls, arc much
in vogue. The Apache nation adopt a more fantastic stvie of
painting and in their head-dress; for ornament they emplo\ deer-
lioofs, shells, fish-bones, beads, and occasionally porcupine-iiuills,
with which the women embroider their short deerskin petticoats.

"The food of all is s.milar. Most of them make more or less pre-
tensions to agriculture, and are habituated to a vegetable diet, bu! -i I-
dom do any of them raise a sufficient supply for the year's consump-
tion, and they are therefore forced to rely on the mescpiit bean, the
piRon-nut, and the maguey plant, Ai:;ovc Me.xicana, and other wild
fruits, which thty collect in considerable (piantilies. The Navajos,
Mojaves, and Yumas have long been acquainted with the art of agri-
culture, and grow corn, beans, pumpkins, melons, and other vegeta-

APACHE.

bles, and also some wheat. Some attempt a system of irrigation,
and others select for their crops that portion of land wiiich has been
overflowed by the river.

'* Maize soaked in water is ground to a paste between two stones.
From this paste tortillas, or thin cakes, are made, which are baked
on a hot stone. To cook the maguey, a hole is made in the ground,
in which a fire is kindled; after it has burned some time the ma-
guey bulb is buried in the hot ashes and roasted. Some concoct a
gypsy sort of dish, or ollapodrida ; game, and such roots and herbs
as they can collect, being put in an earther pot with water and
boiled. As before mentioned, the roving Apaches obtain most of
their food by hunting and plunder. They eat more meat and less
vegetable diet than the other Arizona tribes. Wiien food is plenty
they eat ravenously ; when scarce, they fast long and stoically.
Most of them hate bear-meat and pork. So Jew-like is the Navajo
in this particular that he will not touch pork though starving.

"Their fighting has more the character of assassination and mur-
der than warfare. They only attack when they consider success a
foregone conclusion, and rather than incur the risk of losing a war-
rior will for days lie in ambush till a fair opportunity for surprising
the foe presents itself. The ingenuity of tlie Apache in preparing
an ambush or a surprise is described by Colonel Cremony as follows :
* He has as perfect a knowledge of the assimilation of colors as the
most exj^erienced Paris modiste. By means of his acumen in this
respect, he can conceal his swart body amidst the green grass, behind
brown shrubs or gray rocks, with so much address and judgment that
any but the experienced would pass him by without detection at the
distance of three or four yards. Sometimes they will envelop them-
selves in a gray blanket, and by an artistic sprinkling of earth will
so resemble a granite boulder as to be passed within near range with-
out suspicion. At others, they will cover their persons with freshly-
gathered grass, and, lying prostrate, appear as a natural portion of
the field. Again, they will plant themselves among the yuccas, and
so closely imitate the appearance of that tree as to pass for one of its
species.'

" Household utensils are made generally of wicker-work or straw,
which, to render them water-tight, are coated with some resinous
substance. The Mojaves and a few of the Apaclie tribes have also
burnt-clay vessels, sm h as water-jars and dishes. For grinding
maize, as before stated, a kind of metate is used, which with them is
nothing more than a convex and a concave stone. Of agricultural
implements they know nothing. A pointed stick, crooked at one
end, which they call kishishai, does service as a corn-planter in
spring, and during the later season answers also fcr plucking fruit
from trees, and again, in times of scarcity, to drive rats and prairie-
dogs from their subterranean retreats.

"Although not essentially a fish-eating people, the Mojaves and
Axuas display considerable ingenuity in the manufacture of fishing-
nets, which are noted for their strength and beauty. Plaited grass

or the fib
made.

"Thes

and diffusi

guage con

" Ances

councils ;

talion in \\

and indivii

with death

interpositi(

patient mi

council of

assistance

prits. AH

blood for I

"All the

tlieni kind

women. (.

the most p

a slow fire,

the crime o

children frc

ural traffic i

"They ai

amusements

masqiieradii

dances to cc

attain the ai

noted warri(

in which bo

by a single

accompanim

are incomph

but agreeab

wooden drur

stantly varyi

stakinsf their

their backs.

"They m
Americana, t
liquors.

''\v\ thecl
a marked cor
lazy like all s
industries bei
mothers, and
and cruelty."
Apparel.

APPAREL.

or the fibry bark of the willow are the materials of which they are
made.

"The system of enumeration of the Apaches exiiibits a regularity
and diffusiveness seldom met with among wild tribes, and their lan-
guage contains all the terms for counting up to ten thousand.

"Ancestral customs and traditions govern the decisions of the
councils; brute force, or right of the strongest, with the law of
talion in its widest acceptance, direct the mutual relations of tribes
and individuals. Murder, adultery, theft, and sedition are i)unished
with death or public exposure, or settled by private agreement or the
interposition of elderly warriors. The doctor failing to cure his
patient must be punished by death. The court of justice is the
council of the tribe, i)resided over by the chiefs, the latter, with the
assistance of sub-chiefs, rigidly executing judgment upon tlie cul-
prits. All crimes may be pardoned but murder, which must pay
blood for blood if the avenger overtakes his victim.

" All the natives of this family hold captives as slaves ; some treat
them kindly, employing the men as herders, and marrying the
women. OtluTs half starve and scourge them, and inflict on them
the most painful labors. Nothing short of crucifixion, roasting by
a slow fire, or some other most excruciating form of death can atone
the crime of attempted escape from l)ondage. They not only steal
children from other tribes and sell them, but carry on a most unnat-
ural traffic in their own offspring.

"They are immoderately fond of smoking, drinking, feasting, and
amusements, which fill up the many hours of idleness. Dancing and
masquerading are the most favorite pastimes. They have feasts with
dances to celebrate victories, feasts given at marriage, and when girls
attain the age of puberty ; a ( eremonial is observed at the burial of
noted warriors, and on other various occasions of private family life,
in which both men and women take part. The dance is performed
by a single actor, or by a number of persons of both sexes, to the
accompaniment of instruments or their own voices. All festivities
are incomplete without impromptu songs, the music being anything
but agreeable, and thi' accompaniment cornstalk or cane flutes,
wooden drums, or calabashes filled with stone and shaken to a con-
stantly varying time. Thev also spend much time in gambling, often
staking their whole property on a throw, including everything upon
tl-cir backs.

"They make their own spirits out of corn and out of A\:;ai'e
Americana, the pulque ami mescal, both very strong and intoxicating
liquors.

"In the character of the several nations of this division there is
a marked contrast. The Apaches, as I have said, though naturally
lazy like all savages, are in their industries extremely active, — their
industries being theft and murder, to which tlieyare trained by their
mothers, and in which they display consummate cunning, treachery,
and cruelty."

Apparel. Pass the palmar surface of spread thumbs and index

A PPEA R—A KA PA HO E.

fingers over and near tlie surface of the body, or such portion as
may be necessary to exphiin the particular clothing wliich it is de-
sired to describe.

Deaf-mutes pass the extended liands, pahiis near surface of body.

Appear. Indicate by signs whatever it was, and in what way. A
man appearing or coming into viev/, the extended left hand, back
out, fingers i)0!nting to rigiit, is held in front of body at about lieight
of neck; the right hand, back out, index alone extended and point-
ing upwards, is jiassed under left hand and beyond, ar.d ])ushed up
till the index rises into view.

Deaf-mutes raise the extended right on a curve slightly towards
body.

Apple. Clasp the nearly-closed and compressed right hand with
left in front of l)ody, then make sign for Tree, and then hold the
compressed and partially-closed right hand, back up, well out and
in front of and above right shoulder ; drop the hand slightly, raise
it, and let it drop again in a little different place, to represent the
apples on the trees. To make it mort definite, make sign for Eat
and Good. Peaches and pears are represented in the same way,
and the same principle obtains with any fruit growing on trees.
These fruits being mostly new to tiie Indians, there are no well-
known and definitely established signs in general use, and to distin-
guish different kinds, some particular quality of the fruit, manner of
its growth, season when ripe, or sjK'cial use made of it must be
noted. Dried apples are represented by first making sign for Apple,
and then CirrnNc I'P over left palm, then touch the ear to indicate
the shape of the dried fruit.

Deaf-mutes indicate the size and shape by clasping closed and
compressed right with left hand, and then hold closetl left hand at
mouth, as though eating an entire apple in that way.

Approach. Indicate by proper gesture the object and manner;
for instance, a person, the elevated index of right hand is brought
in towartls the body.

Deaf-mutes use the same signs.

Arapahoe. The three bands have totally distinct signs. It is
claimed by the Northern Arapahoes, those now at the Shoshone
Agency, near Fort Washakie, Wyoming, that the sign for their band
is ///'• tribal sign, and tiiat it was derive*! from their being the mother
of all other tribes; while other tribes, who do r.ot admit tliis claim
as valid, say they got the sign from a famous chief of their band
hn.ving had the smallpox, his chest being greatly disfigured by the
disease. (Tl is conception would seem to be the correct one, as the
Prairie Gros Ventres freipiently make the gesture o|)posite the face.)
For this band, bring the right hand, back outwards, in front of
centre of breast, few inches from it, compress the hand and jiariially
curve the fingers, so that tips of fingers and tip of the tinnnb shall
be near together, tap or strike gently the breast with the ti])s of the
thundi and fingers, repeating motion.

For the Southern Arapahoes, those located at the Cheyenne and

ARAPAHOE.

Arapahoe Agency, near Fort Reno, Indian Territory, bring the ex-
tended index finger of right liaiul back to rear, alongside of and
touching nose, index pointing n])\vards, others and thnml) closed ;
rair.e a'.tl lower the hand two or three times ; frequently index is held
near, but does not touch, tlie nose.

The tiiird band, located with the Assinaboines, at Fort Belknap,
on Milk River, about twenty-eight miles from Fort Assinaboine, are
known as Gros Ventres of the Prairie, and the sign for CiRtts Ven-
tres is made to designate them.

I have seen the sign for blue cloud made to denote the Arapahoes,
and this is a correct translation of the Sioux word for this tribe,
thougii perhaps a clear sky would be better ; and I once saw an
Indian rub his forehead with tip of right index as a sign for the
Arapahoes; why, I cotdd not learn.

Very reliable tradition locates this tribe in Western Minnesota
several hundred years ago, meeting the Cheyennes as they (^the C^hey-
ennes) came out on the prairie, and for many years moving and camj)-
ing with or near them, so that for all practical purjioses they were
one people, and the history of one relates very closelv to the history
of the other. (See Cheyennes ') In their migration they separated
from the Cheyennes after passing the Black Hills vth(nigh they fre-
quently came together after this), and pressed on to the head-waters of
the Missouri, anu .hen were driven out of that country by the Black-
feet and other tribes, and s'cirted along and wandered in the moun-
tains and plains to the south as far as the head-waters of the Arkansas.
They have been greatly reduced in ntmibers by disease and wars with
other tribes, and, like all broken Indian nations, the tVagmcnis have
not prospered. What is known as the " Chivington Massacre," near
old Fort L\()n, Colorado (the Indian camp was on Sand Creek), was
a cold-blooded, dastardly murder of a number of Arapahoes and
Cheyennes by the Third Colorado Volunteers. Black Kettle and
White Antelope were the chiefs of the Cheyennes, and Left Hand
of the Arapahoes, and they, with the greater part of the men, had
been lured away from their camp by deception. It was :ji indis-
criminate slaughter of mostly women and chiklren, followed by a
horrible mutilation of the dead, the troops showing a ferocity and
brutality which the savages themselves have never exceeded.

The Arapahoe men are intelligent and brave, not differing mate-
rially (phvsically or mentally) from the rheyennes and Sioux, but
the standard of virtue for the women i-: wot nearly as high as with
either of these tribes. Their vocal language is entirely different from
any other I have ever heard, and it is almost an impossibility for a
wliite man to learn to sjjeak it. They are known as amoii:', the best
in gesture sprjch, and used it to such an extent that, until recently,
it was supposed their voc.d langu^^e was so poor as to make it neces-
sary ; in fact, some people had lated that to such a degree were they
de]H'ndent on signs that they could not carry on a conversation in
the dark. Th.eir vocal linguige, however, has a ri( h vocabulary.
At neither of the three agencies during the past season was mere an

aa:

wmmmm

ARAPAHOE.

interpreter, \vhi<li, considering the laxity of their morals, struck me
as being very singular indeed, and I made special inquiry as to
whether ' hite half-breed babies were killed by the mothers, as is
done by some tribes, but could find no evidence that such was the
case.

Only a few of the young men took part in the Sioux and Chey-
enne war of 1876 and 1877, and then only in the Custer affair on the
Little Big Horn River, after which many of them enlisted as scouts
and rendered most excellent service.

The traditions and myths of the Northern band were elicited by
myself, mostly by means of the sign language, and my notes of the
Southern band were secured in the same way, Mr. IJen Clarke acting
as interpreter. The little that I liave in regard to the Gros Ventres
of the Prairie I have given under Gros Ventres. Little Raven, the
former war-chief of the Southern band, claimed that the war with
the whites in 1868 determined the separation from the Northern
band. They were then camped on the Arkansas River, and the
Northern band would not join in the war. In regard to older his-
tory, Little Raven said, "When we were all together, we roamed
from the head-waters of the Platte to the Arkansas, and long ago,
farther north, went over the mountains at head of North Platte
River. We got tired of war with the Utes, and came out on the
Plains. When my father was a child we were at war with the
Sioux, — twenty-nine years since he died, and he had seen sixty
winters at his death. We afterwards made peace with the Sioux, and
sometimes lived with them. The Cheyennes made peace first. The
Sioux first saw white men, then the Cheyennes, and I was about
twenty when I went with some Cheyennes to the Missouri River, and
saw the first white man. About one hundred years ago we were
ranging over as far as' the Big Horn River. The Great Spirit had
taken pity on us a long time before and given us buffalo. A raiding-
party from our camj) was out, the young men came on the Shoshone
Indians, saw ponies, ran off some; these were the first we had ever
seen. We used to think there was a force, an unknown power
(Great Spirit) in the earth, and we used to pray to it ; finally it gave
us all the earth could give, — stone implements, corn, etc. ; then this
force went above. This same power is in the sun and at the four
corners of the earth, — everywhere. All of our customs, marriages,
dances, etc., are like the Cheyennes, except in burying our dead,
O'lr peo])le always buried in the ground. The Arapahoe custom wa,>
I0 dress the remains in the best clothing, — war-bonnet, best robe or
ulanket, never putting weapons with remains, — nothing but good
clothing, and painted the face with red paint. Before we crossed
the Missouri River we used to plant and raise corn. The Arickarees
stole the corn and the art of raising it t'rom us. Before we went
hunting so much we lived on what we raised from the ground."

I vl. ited the camj) of the Northern band, taking with me some
flour, sugar, coffee, tobacco, etc., and had a feast made for the old
men. 'i'hey gathered in the sub-chief's lodge, decrepit with age and

blighted wi
suit probab
ing no intt
stTond chiei
and in this
their custoii
and finding
probably soc
inclined to (
and, moreov
to the land (
way, endeav
grations as
degradativ.n,
stress upon
peritv.

Wolf Moc

evidently the

council. H(

remember wt

were living ii

the Arapahoe

River, about

little time, —

on the Platte

when they fir

the hand ove

great confide

saluting. T|

k long time

peace with tl

litved that af

land was far

near the ocea

over this long

fortably by th

killed in batti

!;ud them aw.i

never put tht

pony killed fi

Sim. Those v

stated that th

land, and the)

There were sc

Medicine Rat

band. Crazy b

War-parties

in the hollow

rising to the st

ARAPAHOE.

bliglited with disease, some six of the oldest being blind, the re-
sult probably of hereditary or acquired scrofula or syphilis. Hav-
ing no interpreter, and these men being blind, "Sharp Nose,"
second chief of this band, gave me their stories in the sign language,
and in this way I received the following traditions and account of
their customs. This band was sent to their present agency in 1S78,
and fniding here evidence of their occupying this country long ago,
jjrobably soon after their separation from the Cheyennes, they were
inclineil to think this was the exact spot where they were created,
and, moreover, as this would, in their minds, give them a i)rior claim
to the land over the Shoshones, they, in their shrewd and cunning
way, endeavored to press this i)oint with me, and gave all their mi-
grations as roamings from this place. Now in their poverty and
degradatik.n, needing the help and charity of others, they lay great
stress upon their own generosity in the palmy days of their pros-
perity.

Wolf Moccasin, tnough blind and seventy-four years of age, was
evidently the brightest and best preserved mentally of any in the
council. He stated that when he was a small boy, old enough to
remember well the event, however, the Gros Ventres of the Prairie
were living in the f^ir north ; subsequently they came over and joined
the Arapahoes, when they were camped on the head-waters of Powder
River, about fifty-five years ago, and remained with them for some
little time, — a few years. They left when the .Arapahoes were camiied
on the Platte River. Their tradition dii! not go back to the time
when they first got ponies. In shaking hands they rub the palm of
the hand over the arm and body immediately afterwards, if they liave
great confidence in and respect for the ])ersGn whom they were
saluting. Their custom was to embrace before meeting the whites.
-A long time ago they fought the Sioux, but they very soon made
peace with them, — a ])eace which has been always kept. They be-
lieved that after death they went to the land of the rising sun ; this
land was far away beyond and below all mountains, a level country
near the ocean. An Arapahoe killed in battle did rot have to travel
over this long trail by land, but went though the air easily and com •
fortably by the dead man's road, or rather, the road of the warriors
killed in battle (Milky-Way). They buried th.eir dead in the ground,
laid them away on the breast of their mother, and with the remains
never put the weapons, but best blankets, pipe of deceased, and a
pony killed for the spirit to ride to the country beyond the rising
sun. Those who had died for a time (fainted) had, on their return,
stated that they had seen the lodges of their people in that far-off
lantl, and they had plenty of buffalo, antelope, and all kinds of game.
There were seven bands of soldiers: Young Men or Boy.-»' band,
Medicine Rattle band, Image band. Medicine Lance band, Dog
hand. Crazy band, and Old P)ull band.

War-parties hrd a partisan who went in advance, and carried a pipe
in the hollow o( left arm. This chief tlid not eat or drink from the
rising to the setting of the sun, but soon after the shadows of dark-

ARAPAHOE.

ness had covered the earth some of the yoiintj warriors of the party
brought liim water and food. He tlianked them, and drank and ate.
They liad a Sun-Dance like the Sioux, but much more severe, the
participants not eating or drinking for four days anrl nights. To the
muscles of the back tiiey usually hung shields insteacl of buffalo-
heads, and these shields afterwards po.ssessed the power of protect-
ing them from harm in battle. They also cut off a piece (jf flesh
from the arm and gave it to the God in the sun, jjraying as they did
so that they might live long on the earth, and be spared from sick-
ness and disease. In regard to their dances, Sharp Nose (he had
visited Washington) saiii they had as many as the wliite people in
the East. Their dances were named after tiieir soldier bands, and
in all of them they imitated the motions of tiie animals after which
they were named. Tiiey never, like the Clheyennes, had the Medicine-
Dance. In the Crazy-Dance they all sang a few words in a low tone
and then suddenly broke out into a loud and fierce shout. In former
times the moccasin was made witii a long anklet, wliich near the top
was turned down, making a (lap. Porcupine-quill work in circular
shape was put on the top <jf foot near instep, and several rows of the
same kind of work ran round the leggings at bottom, tiie sides of
which were heavily t'ringed, as were tlie sleeves of the shirt. 'I'he
girls and women wore the protective.string at night, a practice which,
judging from appearances in thet' later times, doe- not seem to have
accomplished in any great degree the object of its institution.

They could not explain why it was that there were no half-breed
whites and Arapahoes, and insisted that they did not kill the young.
At this point tliey sent out for one, and a little tangle-liaired ragged
boy of about eight years came into the lodge. He could not speak
English, and was looked upon as a curiosity. He had Ute blood,
however, in his veins, as Sharp Nose said, "One-third Arapahoe,
one-third white, one-third Ute!"

Tlie (iod of their forefathers gave them paint. It protected them
from the heat of summer and the cold of winter, and also gave them
good luck. Jilack paint was used after returning from war, indicating
joy, rejoicing; red paint was used in profusion when under the press-
ure of any excitement, either in war or love, — put on fiice^ hair, anil
body.

Some of their medicine-men had the power to produce rain or
wind to assist them, and had exercised this power. They could also
cause the snow to vanish and rain to come; in fact, could control all
these elements through means which they tried to explain, but I c:ouM
only make out that it was a kind of jugglery. They did not have
any ceremony when a girl had her first menses. 'I'he white buffalo
was sacred, — it was created first, and in olden times it was impos-
sible to kill it.

In regard to the creation, they said that long ago, before there
were any animals on the earth, it was covered with water, with the
excejjtion of one mountain, and seated on this mountain was an
Arapahoe, crying and poor and in distress. The gods looked at

him and pitj
him. The S
find some dir
long time, li
longer time,
tried it, he w
IkuI hecome
(lead, when h(
Suddenly the
the sole posse:
could not be ;
tlie earth, and
rivers and the
createtl a Sjja
people of the
there were tlie
Then he crea:
animals that i
in the streams
planting seeds
This .Arai^ah
people. He s
make a fire by
fact, how to liv
the other peop
Araj)ahoes, an(
came there poc
g0(jds, gave tl
a' I came. The
ponies were "i
the ponies the
tlieir hearts g(
Arajjahoes.

I have been
"Arapahoes."
able to find a si
ing tribes. Tlu
"hich they clai
claim the word
Formerly the
grand council ;
s;iid, "The mai
Ijrave things, wr
headmen of tlu
chief, who, as a
eloquence.

Arickareedn

Itft hand, back t
oil index finger

ARICKAREE.

him and jMtied liim, and they rreate<l tlircc ducks and sent them \.o
Iiini. The Arapahoe told tlie (huks.to dive down in the waters and
find some dirt. One went down in the deep waters, and was gone a
long time, but faileti. The second went down, was gone a still
longer time, and he also came up, having Ciiled. The third then
tried it, he was gone a long time ; the waters where he went down
had become still and quiet, and the Arapahoe believed him to be
(lead, when he arose to the surfa( e and had a little dirt in his mouth.
Suddeidy the waters sul)sided, disappeared, and left the Arapahoe
the sole possessor of all the land. The water liad gone so far that it
could not be seen from the highest mountain, but it still surrounded
the earth, and does so to this day. Then the Arapahoe made the
rivers and the wood, placing a great deal near the streams ; he then
created a Spaniard and a beaver, and tVom their union came all the
people of the earth. The whites were made beyond the o( can ;
there were tlien all the different people the same as at the |»resent day.
Then he created buffalo, elk, deer, anteloi)e, wolves, to.xes, — all the
animals that are on the earth, all the birds of the air, all the fishes
ill the streams, the grasses, fruit-trees, bushes, all tiuit is grown by
planting seeds in the ground.

This Arapahoe was a (}od. He had a i^ipe, and he gave it to the
jjcople. He showed them how to make bows and arrows, how to
make a fire by rubbing two sticks, how \o talk with their hands ; in
fact, how to live. His head and his heart were good, and he told all
the other people, all the surrounding tribes, to live at i)eace with the
Arapahoes, and these tribes came to this central one (^Arapahoe), —
tame there poor and on foot, and the .Arapahoes gave them of their
gocds, gave them jjonies. The Sioux, the Cheyennes, the Snakes,
aU came. The Cheyennes came first, and were given ponies; these
ponies were ^^ Prairie Gifts.'' The Snakes had no loilges, and with
the ponies they gave them skin tepees. The Arapahoes never let
their hearts get tired with giving; then all the tribes loved the
•Arapahoes.

I have been unable to ascertain wiiy these Indians are called
"Arapahoes." They can give no reason for it, and I have not been
able to find a similar word in anv of the languages of the surround-
ing tribes. The Northern Arapalioes call tiiemselves by a vocal word,
wiiich ihey claim means good or strong heart. The Southern band
claim the word simply means men, peo/'/e, or the »un, iJir f^eople.

Formerly the head chief of the Arapahoe nation was elected by a
grand council ; this was, however, a mere matter of form, for, as they
s;iid, "The man who had led the soldiers to war, had done many
brave things, was sure of the election." They also had sub-chiefs,
I headmen of the solilier bands, and frequently a ( ouncil or peace
chief, who, as a rule, held his position by the power of his persuasive
[eloquence.

Arickaree (Indian). Conception: Cornshellers. Bring the closed
left hand, back to left, in front of body, thumb extended and resting
on index finger; bring right hand, back to right, fingers closed.

ARICKAREE.

tlniinb partially extended alongside of left, placing the ball of thumb
of right hand at back of It-ft thumb near its base ; twist the right
hand by wrist action to tiie right and downwards, keeping the right
thumb pressed against base of left until in its movement it sli|)s off
with rather of a snap against the index finger of right liand. Repeat
motion. Many Indians make the sign for Jirt houses for these
peoi)Ie.

'riu'se Indians are clearly an off-.hoot from the Pawnees (see
Pawnei/j, froni whom tliey first separated longer ago than tradition
gives any account of. During the past two hunilred years they have
made ])ea( e and been at war witli tiie Mandans and (Iros Ventres
.several times, but since about 183.S, when they all suffered so ter-
ribly from smallpox, the necessity for the alliance to protect them-
selves from the surrounding hostile tribes has ke|it them together as
friends. Though sjx'aking different languages, from intermarriage
and long intercourse they have many habits and customs in com-
mon. From a powert'ul banil, numbering several thousaml, thev have
been reduced by various causes — smallpox, cholera, chickenpi \, and
other diseases new to them, and war.-> with the surr(nniiling tribes —
to (according to the report of the agent for 1881) oidy six himdred
and seventy-eight.

Mr. F. F. (lirard joined the .\rickarees (ustially called Rees) in
1849, '" t'^'-' interest of a trading company. He subsequently mar-
ried into the tribe and learned the language. When lie found th.eiii
they were with the .Mandans. located at old Fort Clarke, the Gros
Ventres then having their village at the site of the present agency.
The Rees then called the .Mandans Connif, from Conniche, ine.iwiiig
stone people, jjcople who live on the stony liill-,; and the Gi -^ V li-
tres We-tutz-ce-liaHy from man and river-people, living on or iiear
the river; and they tjien claimed that they first met them on Knife
River near its mouth. He thought there were two thousand five
hundred Arickarees at this time, and their social anil military organi-
zation consisted not of a division into gens, but into bands, as follows;
I, Young Hoys' or Fox band ; 2, Young Dog b.md ; 3, Big Young
Dog blind ; 4, Strong Heart band ; 3, Hull band ; 6, Crow band.
The latter composed of all the old men who have passed through
all the bands, anil are entitled to a seat in any of the others. For
police purposes there was a band of soldiers, or black-mouths.
These were appointed for this special purpose, and taken from tho
above-named bands. They blackened the lower part of their faces
as a badge of their authority. These several bands were, it wouKl
seem, organized mainly for social jileasure. such as dancing, et<'.,
and the members passed through the grades by jjurchase. .\s a rule,
each member had to pass regularly tlirough each band, but if am-
bitious for sudden promotion, say from the />'/;,'• Youtig Dog to the
Strong Heart \rA\\(\, it could be accomplished by i)urchase and tem-
porarily giving his wife to the embraces of the chief of the band,
should the young man have one. The young man was then con-
sidered as a son, and could, if he went to war, take one of the

.4 k'/SE—A KR.t iXGE.

names of his new lather. Jf not married at the time of adoption,
he (ouUl not marry into the family of his adopted fatiier.

Tlieir dances were, more than witli otlier Indians, of the mas-
querading, pantt)miniic order, »lifferent animals heini; represented,
( losely imilatinj; them in clress and movt-ment. Among other
dances they ha<l what was called a Tcsfl\i>iit\ which was for the
|>iirpose of asserting the virtne of the t'emak-s, either married or nn-
ni.uried. If slanderons tongues had falsely accused a wite oi;
(laughter, the injured one went to her father or husband, asked him
to give a feast and make a dance. '.Vhen everything was in readiness
she took an arrow, and, touching a i)ainted bulT.do ^<kull, made a
solemn oath of chastity. 'Ihese dances were to test the virtue (jf
fiiiialcN, and those who coidd not (kiss through the ordeal were for
the time abandoned to the hisis of whoever might desire them.

'I'iiey also had a ceremony of giving away one's wife for cause.
If ihe wife of a chief had dishonored him, sometimes the wliole
cainii would be gathered together, and in their presence the wife
would be given to her lover with a present of some kind.

Tradition and remnants of their dirt-houses give evidence <jnly of
tiuir living on and near the Missouri River, and from their present
loiation as far down as Fort Randall, Dakota.

These three tribes have had I heir personal ajjpearance, habits,
n^mners, <ustoms, and religious beliets cjuite accurately and exten-
sively described by Lewis and Clarke, Catlin and Mathews.

Arise. Hold tlie right hand, back down, well in front and little
to rigiu of right breast, index finger exiendeii, and pointing to
front, other fingers and thnmb closed, forearm about horizontal ;
mosily l)y wrist action, bring the back of hand outwards and index
]H)inting upwards. This would represent one person as arising ; re-
ic.iting motions would indicate several. This gesture can jierhajjs
illustrate the importance of making signs so as to convey a clear
idea of the .surrounding circumstances ; for instance, in such a sen-
tence as An old man arose s/o'c/y, the sign for an old man would be
made, and then the index finger would very slowlv be brought to a
vertical position ; but to express the idea of a sudden arising, as,
I beard a shot and jumped np, the projK'r gestnre for I heard a shot
or discharge of a gun would be made, and then the index finger
would be brought into a VLVtical position with a jerk, and the manner
of doing this — exjiression of face and attitude of body — would deter-
mine the ilegree of alarm and activity of the startled person. It is
a panioniimic language, and animation gives emphasis.

Deaf-mutes carry the right hand well out to front and downwards,
extending and sejiarating index and second fingers, back of hand
clown, iiuiex finger pointing to left ; then, being extended, lett hand,
ba( k down, fingers pointing to front, in front of body, and raising
right hand from its i)osition, place the tips of index and second on
left ])alni, these fingers vertical.

Arrange. Usually comprises signs for Work and Fix, frequently
signs for Work or Make and Road.

ARKESl—^tK/iOlV.

Deaf-mutes hold extended liands in front of and equidistant from
body, opposite eacli other, same height, few inches ajxirt, fingers
pointing to front, pahiis towards each otiier ; keejiing hands in this
position, move them on curve upwards to riglu, and then downwards
to same height as when starting a second motion the same as this,
still more to right.

Arrest. Conception: To seize hold of and tie at wrists. Make a
grasping motion with both hands in front of body as though seizing
liold o'" a |)erson, and then cross the wrists, hands closed ; sometimes
the closed le<'t hand, back to left, is held well out in front of and
little higher than i.-^ft shoulder, left forearm nearly vertical ; grasp
left wrist with right han({ and pull it a little distance to right.

Deaf-mutes simply make a grasping movement with hands to front
of body, as though seizing hold of a person.

Arrive Here. Hold the extended left hand, back outwards, in
front of breast and close to it, fingers pointing to right ; carry right
hand, back to front, well out in front of body, index finger extended
and pointing upwards, others and thumb ( losed ; bring the right
hand briskly against back of left, second jcjints of closed fingers of
right hand about on a line with index finger o'i left hand.

Deaf-mutes use the same.

Arrive There. Hold left hand, back to front, well out in front of
body, about height of neck, fingers extended touching and pointing
to right. ; bring right iiand, i)alm outwards, in front of and close to
neck, index finger extended and pointing upwards, others and thumb
closed ; carry the right hand out sharply and strike palm of left,
second joints of the fingers of right about on line with index of left
hand. The left hand is used in this — in the sign fo arrive here — and
generally to indicate the point or ])lace ; and often the liands are so
changed in position ys ti) indicate the direction where one came
from or was going to, thus making the gesture more graphic and
more easily understocjd in conversation.

Deaf-mutes use the same.

Arrow. Concei)tif)n : Drawing arrow from left hand. When
hinUing or fighting and ready for action, one or two extra arrows
were carried in the left hand, and usually one in the mouth. Ikins;
left hand, back down, and inclined a little to left and front — i.e.,
little finger a trifie lower than index — well out in front of left
breast, fingers touching and ])artially curved, thumb curved, form-
ing with index finger nearly a complete circle, space of about an
inch between ti]) of index and thumb, left forearm pointing to right
and front ; place the extended index finger of right hand, b.ack out-
waids, and to right, in the centre of the circle formed by thumb and
index, other fingers and thumb closetl ; the index of right hand held
parallel to palm of left hand, draw the right hand to right and rear,
keeping index luiger on line of prolongation of its first position.
Some tribes make the sign for Bow, and snap the index fingers to
denote the arrow.

De.if-mutes make motion as though drawing arrow from quiver,

and then tl:
The Sioux
the Gteat S
war, which
I hey met tl
piupose till"
])Owder and
tlien |)laced
was such a (
uig a person
bidians nev
feathers as
smaller bird:-
There is st
three feather
"The Tont(
while some o
giiishing ma
tiieir arrows.

"Much

The shafts wt

of a year's g

rods v/ere rnl:

in one hand, i

made of lioo|

lound in posi

•iiruisheil wit

ciiid sinew, an^

< hiM l-like inst

the shaft betw

|ilete. Varioi

claimed that ii

others that it

The mapufact

process. Thn

I'ven after the

they in makir

trihes readily i

their own arrc

•<aiue band. I

of buffalo, as t^

arrow still rem,

drawing it out

two kinds of ai

latter the head

draw the shaft

ill the body of

once he had po

the Pawnee was

AK/^OVK

ami then thrust ilic index finger forward to indicate tlij^ht of arrow.
I'lie Sioux claim tliat *he Cheyennes first had arrows given tl^em by
the Great Spirit, — two fo" huntin;^, wliich were black, a;ul tv.o for
war, which were re<i. Tiie Shoshones achuittetl to me tliat before
they met the whites they used poisoned arrow-heads, and for tliis
])i;rpose tliey were dipjied in .t conii)onnd made (jf ■ints ])oundfd to a
powder and mi.xed w.tii the spleen of an an'nial. The mixture was
tlien placed in the sun and allowed to partially decay. The result
was such a deadly ])oisop. that if the arrow broke the skin in touch-
ing a person it was sure to produce death. They also said the I'lains
bidians never usetl them. The Hlackfeet use goose- and eagle-
feathers as arrow-guides, while most tribes prefer the feathers of
smaller birds.

There is some difiTereiu e in the feathering, some nations emjiloying
three feathers tied round the shaft at equal di.,tances with fine tendons.
" The Tonto-Apa( bes iiave their arrows winged with tour featliers,
while some of the Comaiu hes used only two. All have somt distin-
guishing mark in their manner of winging, painting, or carving on
iiiei r arrows. ' ' — Jnincro/L

••Much labor was alsc) expended in the construction of arrows.
The shafts were made from sprouts of dogwootl {Cotni/s .iolonifera)
of a year's growth. At"ter t:utting the bark was removed, and the
rods Vt'ere rubbed belvveen two grooved stones, held firmly together
in one hand, till reduced to a proper size and smoothnv The head,
made of hooj) iron, was then inserted in one end of the shaft and
bound in position with sinew. The bac k end of the shaft was now
I'lirnisheii with a triple row of feathers, attached by means of glue
and sinew, and the end notched to fit the bow--tring. With a small
(liiscl-like instrument three slight grooves or ( hannds were (lit along
the shaft between the head and the feathers, and the arrow was com-
plete. Various re.isons were assigned for this rhannelling. Some
claimed that it caused the arrow to adhere more firmly in the wound;
others that it was simply ilesi^ned to fat ilita'e the flow of blood.
The manufacture of arrows, as of bows, was a slow and irksome
process. Three or four were i)robal)ly the limit of a day's work,
even after the rough material was already at hand. So exact were
they in making them that not only were the arrows of different
tribes readily distinguishable, but even individuals could re( (agnize
their own arrows when thrown together with those of others of the
^ame band. Disputes sometinies arose, after the slaughter of a herd
of buffalo, as to whose some particular carcass rightfully was. If the
arrow still remained in the body, the question was easily deciiled by
drawing it out and examining the make of it. S(jme Indians made
two kiiids of arrows, one for hunting and another for war. In the
latter the head was so fastenetl that when an attempt was made to
draw the shaft from the wound the head was detached and remained
ill the body of the victim. The I'awnees never used such. When
unre he had possessed himself of a good bow and a supply of arrctws,
the Pawnee was as solicitous in the care of them as a hunter would

AKROIV.

be of a choice rifle. 'Ilie bow, if not in actual service, was kept
close in its case, and the arrows in the quiver. Great pains were
taken that they should not become by any < hance wet, and much
time was spent in handling tiiem that the bow should not lose its
spring and the arrows should not warp. The avera,i;e length of the
former was four feet, of the latter twenty-six inches."

Mr. Helden, in writing of this, says, " Let me teai ii you how to
make a good bow and arrow. And first, we will begin with the
arrow. The shoots or roils nuist be cut in the arrow season, tiiat is,
when the summer's growth is ended. They nnist not have any
branches or limbs on them, but be straight and smooth. Tiie
Indians cut their arrows late in the fall, wiien the timber is iiarden-
ing, to withstand the blasts of winter. 'I'iie sticks are not quite sv,
thick as one's little finger, and they are sorted and tied in bundles
of twenty and twenty-five. 'I'hese bundles are two or two and one-
half feet in length, and wrapped tightly from end to end with strips
of rawhide or elk-skin. The sticks are then hung up over fire in
the tepee to be smoked and dried, anxi the wraiii)ing keeps them
from warping or bending. When they are seasoned, which takes
several weeks, the bimdles are taken down, the covering removed,
and the bark scraped oil". The wood is very tough then, and of a
yellowish color. The next proce.ss is to cut the arrow-shafts exactly
one length, and in this gieat care must be used, for arrows of differ-
ent lengths lly differently, and, uidess they are alike, the hunter's aim
is destroyed. Another reason for measuring the length of arrows is
to identify them, for no two warriors shoot arrows of jirecisely the
same length. Each warrior carries a measuring or pattern stick, aivl
it is only necessary to com|)are an arrow witli the stick to find out to
whom it belongs. But should the arrows by chance be of one
length, then there are other means of identilying them, for every
hunter has his own private mark in tiie shaft, the head, or the
feather. Of many thousands I have examiried, 1 never found two
arrows exactly alike when they were made by different warriors.

"The shafts being made even, the next work is to foim l!ie notch
for the bowstring. This is done with a sharp knife, and, when made
])roperly, the bottom of the noich will be precisely in the centre oi
the shaft. 'IMie arrow is then scraped and tajjered toward the notch,
leaving a round head an inch long near the notch to prevent the
string from splitting tiie shat't.and to make a firm hold for the tiiumb
and forefinger in drawuig the bow.

"All the arrows are peeled, siraped, and notciied, and then the
warrior creases tiiem. To do this he takes an arrow-head and scores
the shaft in zigzag lines from eiul to entl. These treases, or fluteil
gutters in the shaft, are to let the blood run out when an animal is
struck. The blood flows along the little gutters in the wood ami
runs off the end of the arrow. The arrow-head is made of steel m
stone. It is shaped like a heart or dart, and has a stem about an
inch long. The sides of the stem are nicked or filed out like saw-
teeth. Nearly all the wild Indians now use steel arrow heads, they

AKROW- 1 IE A D—AR TIL LER YMA A'.

being a great article of trade among the savages. Tliere are firms
in tlie East who manufacture many lumdreds of thousands every year
and send them out to the traders, who sell them to the Indians for
furs.

" When the shaft is ready for the head, the warrior saws a slit with
a nicked knife in the end opposite the notch, and inserts the stem of
the arrow-head. The slit must be exactly in the centre of the shaft,
and as deep as the stem is long. Wher; i)roperIy adjusted, the teeth
(){ the stem show themselves on each siile of the slit. Buffalo, deer,
or elk sinew is then softened in water, and the wood is wrapped
firmly to the arrow-lieail, taking care to fit th** sinew in the teeth of
the stem, which will prevent the head from pulling out.

"The next jjrocess is to put on the feathers. To do this properly
great care must betaken. Turkey- or eagle-quills are soaked in warn»
water to make them split easily and uniformly. The feather is
then stripped from the rpiill and put on tlie shaft of the arrow.
Three feathers are jjlaced on each shaft, and they are laid ecpiidis-
tant along the stem. The big end of the feather is fixstened near the
notch of the shaft and laid six or eight inches straight along the
wood. The feathers are glued to the shaft, and wrapped at each end
with fine sinew. The arrow is next painted, marketl, dried, and is
nadv for use. It takes a warrior a whole day to make an arrow, for
which the trader allows hiih ten oents. . . .

"To make war-arrows, the Indians manufacture the shafts the same
as for game-arrows. The head is then fastened loosely in tlie wood,
and when it is fired into the body it cannot be got out. If you pull
at the shaft the barbs catch and the shaft pulls off, leaving the arrow-
head in the wound. .Some war-arrows have but one barb, and when
this arrow is fired into the l)ody, if the shaft be pulled, the barb
catches in the flesh and the steel turns crosswise in the wound, ren-
dering it impossible to extract it. Fortunately, but few Indian tribes
now use the poisonefl arrow.

Arrow-Head. Make sign for Arrow, and then bring left hand,
hack to left, iri front of left breast, index finger extemled and point-
ing upwards, others and thumb closed; place the tij) of tlie extended
and horizontal index finger of right hand against index of left at
second joint, oilier fingers and thumb of right hand closed, back of
hand up; press the tip of right against side of index of left ; raise
right hand slightly, moving the right index with snap as it leaves the
index finger of left hand. To indicate that it was iron, jioint to
something made of this metal. There is no sign for iron, but of late
Mars, however, an Indian has been rarely seen without something
about him made of this me'r.l. The length and shape of the arrow-
iiead usually discovers the tribe. (See Arrow.)

Artilleryman. Make signs for White Man, for Soldier, for
Wj rH, and Cannon.

Deaf-mutes make signs for f/ian and cannon.

Indians, who have seen regular artillery soldiers, add signs to
denote the red stripe down the leg of trousers. 1 have given some

ASCEND— ASiUXABOnVE.

of these signs to show the easy and natural manner in which gestures
are coined, and to iUustrate the easiness of construction of the lan-
guage, as well as the necessity for its constant growth.

Ascend. Indicate in what way, and what was ascended ; for in
stance, a bluff; make the sign for this with left hand, and. still hold-
ing it in position, bring extended right index, other fingers and
thumb closed, near wrist, and pressing inner surface of index against
surface of left hand ; raise the right hand slowly till tip of index is
higher than left hand.

Deaf-mutes indicate the surface of bluff or hill with back of ex-
tended, left hand. 'I'heir general sign for (/jV(f«^ is a simple move-
ment of the right Ijand upwards.

Ashamed. Concei)tion : Drawing blanket over face. Bring both
hands, backs outwards, fingers extended, touching and ])ointing u|)-
wards, in front of the face, few inches from it, right opposite right,
and left opposite left c' lek ; move the right hand to left, left hand
to right, mostly by wrist action, keeping hands nearly parallel to
face, and right nearest to it, terminating movement when wrists are
crossed.

Deaf-mutes bring the back of the fingers against right cheek,
fingers pointing downwards, and wiih a circular movement of hands
rub the cheeks, to denote the blush c^r color.

Ashes. Concei)tion : Wood reduced by fire to powder. Make
signs for Timbek, for Fire, then bring rigiit hand in front of body,
bai-k upwards, hand compressed, fingers partially curved ; rub the
tips of fingers with tij) of tiiumb several times. Usually in conver-
sation this last is the only gesture used, and such abbreviations are
frecpient in the sign language.

Deaf-mutes make same, their sign for 7i.iooti and fire being dif-
ferent.

Assinaboine (Indian). The general sign is the same as Sioux, but
usually add the sign to denote the band, as the Boat or Canoe band
at Wolf Point, Montana, Rocky band in tiie north, etc. The Arick-
arees call the Assinaboines the people of the North, or cold people.
The Crows call them Yellow Legs. Of course corresponding sigin
are made, 'i'his branch of the Sio'.ix family take their name from i
Chippewa word.

Mr. Beaulieu, writing to me of them, says, " I made inquiry of
some Indians here (White Earth Agency, Minnesota) whether, by
tradition, they knew of the Assinaboines, and am iiUormed that as
far back as they have any account of them these Indians inhabiteil
the country adjoining that of the Crees, which latter tribe, ' Kin-
isten-eaux,* thcv claim as a part of their own (Ojibway), and that
thev, the Assinaboines, Rees, Crows, Pottowattomies, and Ojibway>
were alwa\s friendly with each other. Boine in Ojibway is tlie deii-
iiit on for a Sioux Indian. Assin or Ahsin is a stone, so that I
should suppose Ahsinal)oine or Assinaboine meant 'Stone Sioux,'
perhaps ' Rock Mountain Sioux.' Ah-sine-wah-ziew or Assinewah-
ziew : 'Rocky Mountains.' Hoine, in Chippewa, means, so I was

ASSINABOINE.

told by one of these Indians, simply enemy, and would /// this way
only be, as Mr. Beaulieu says, a definition for tlie Sioux.

" The Assinaboines separated from tiie Sioux on account of trouble
which grew out of the actions of a faithless wife ; the tradition,
however, is vague and unsatisfactory. I have heard the Sioux call
the Assinaboines Ho-he, but I always supposed that this referred
only to a particular band tailed the 'Stonies,' and I still think this
is the case; but the following appears in ' Snelling's Tales of the
Northwest' ; The Ho-he (Ho-hay) are the .Assinaboines, or 'Stone-
roasters.' Their home is the region of the Assinaboine River, in
British America. They speak in Dakota tongue, and originally were
a band of that nation. 'IVadition says a Dakota ' Helen' was the
cause of the sejjaration and a bloody feud, that lasted for many years.
The H6-hes ' v called ' Stone-roasters' because, until recently at
least, they t:--:.i ' wa-ta-pe' kettles and vessels made of birch-bark,
in which they cooked their fooil. They boiled water in these vessels
by heating stones and putting them in the water. The ' wa-ta-i)e'
kettle is made of the fibrous roots of the white cetlar, iiuerlaced and
tightly woven. When the vessel is soaked it be. omes water-tight."

In the " History of Manitoba," by the Honorable Donalil Gunn, I
find the following: " De Grosselier and Kaddison turned their
attention to the Northwest, and in about 1666 pushed through Lake
Superior, ascended the Kaministgoia River, and fell on the waters
tiiat tlow northwest through Lake L;i I'lui to the Lake of the Wooiis,
and thence passed through the \\'iiini|)eg River into the lake of
tiiat name, and finally passed by the river Nelson into Hudson's
Bay. These gentlemen were conducted by the Assinaboines to Hud-
son's Bay, prol)d)ly by the Nelson or Hay's Rivers, and after having
discovered that great inland sea, they retraced their steps, being still
j:uided and protected by their friends, the Assinaboines, as far as
Lake Superior, whence they proceeded to the settlements on the
Lower St. Lawrence."

We are informed by history that the enterjjrising Du Lutii, during
the summer of 1679, visited some encampments of the Dakoias,
where no Frenchman had ever been. After his return we find him
meeting the Assinaboines and other nations at the head of Lake
Siijjerior, for the piir|)ose of settling their difficulties with the Dako-
tas, and was successful. The Crees, who visited the trading-posts
on the shores of Hudson's Bay, and the Assinaboines, who tradetl
in 1678 with Du Liith.at the west end of Lake Superior, were about
the same time put in |)ossession of fire-arms, and within a few years
thereafter they seem to have matle a sinmltaneous movement, — the
ibrmer pressing on to the southwest, the latter pursuing their course
to the northwest, until they met m the region west 01 Lake Winnipeg,
and on the plains of Red and Assinaboine Rivers. Indian tradition
inlbrms us that during the first half of the last century the Mamlans
o(( upied the country to the southwest of Lake Winnipeg, and that
they had been forced by the united efforts of their invaders to leave
their hunting-grounds and retire to the Upper Missouri. But how

ASSINAROINE.

long it took these tribes to drive out those whom they found in |)os-
session of the country, and wliat wars they carried on to accomplish
that object, are lost in the mist oi years. However, we have had
the evidence of a living witness to the fact that the Crees and the
Assinaboines lived on the plains southwest of Lake Winnipeg for
some years previous to the year 1780, and that they made a jjrecon-
certed attack that year on the trading-posts on the Assinaboine.
These small houses were at Portage la Prairie, and represented three
different associations, and iiad but few men at each. The Indians
had kept their intentions so iiid from the whites that the latter were
altogetlier unprepared to resist the onslatight made by their painicd
and featiiercd assailants, who made tlieniselves masters of two of iIk
houses, massacred those who defended them, and carried away the
booty. Intoxicated by their success, and confiding in their prowess,
they rushed on to attack the third iiouse, which was defended by a
Mr. Bruce, at the head of a few men. Mr. Hruce was known among the
savages by the formidable name of Ketelie Mink-man ; i.e., Ihg Knife.
He was evidently known among the Indian Iribes for his bravery and
determined courage, and tliey learned by sad experience on the
jiresent occasion that his fame for valor had not been overrated,
for he not only defended his post, but slew a number of those by
whom he had been attackeii, thereby admonishing tiie survivors
to beat a timely retreat, leaving the resolute and formidable '.huce
in posse^ision of the slain and of the field of battle. Mow far the
savages intended to carry their hostility towards the traders we have
not been able tc learn, but we may presume that their defeat before
Mr. Kruce's little post at Portage la Prairie cooled their military ardor,
and the foUowin.f year smallpox of a most virulent type attacked the
tribes in the vicinity of Red River, and spread over all the Indian
territories, even 'o the shores of Hudson's 15av. As late as the year
1815 the bleached bones of those who had become the victims of
the plague were to be seen in great quantities at several points on
the shores of the bay. The Assinaboines were encamped at several
points near the Ret! River when the disease appeared among them,
and was attended by the most fatal effects, so much so that ten years
after, when the Red T,ake Ojibways came for the first time to Pend)ina
to trade, they found the .\ssinaboines, or rather, a small remnant of
that once numerous tribe, in that vicinity. .'M'ter some days had
been devoted to feasting and the mutual interchange of presents, the
Assinaboine orators patlietically dejjlored the miserable condition
of their people, stating that wherever they went they saw nothing'
but the bleached bones of their kindred ; that their former allies, tin'
Crees, had always been treacherous, and that on the appearance dI
the tlisease they went before it to the west. " We are no longer able
to resist our enemies, the Sioux. C^ome, then, and live with us.
Let us have one fire and one dish. The country is large and full ol'
all kinds of wild animals. You need not fear want." After spend-
ing some time with their new-made friends, the Ojibways went ba< k
to Red Lake for their families, and returned the following year to

ASSINABOINE.

join their allies. Their descx'ndants still ocxupy the banks of the
Lower Red River and the shores of Lakes ^L^^itoha and Winnipeg.
The Hudson's Bay Company's servants made tlieir appearance for the
first time in Red River in the year 1793. They met tlie Assinahoines
in small groups at different points along the Lower Red River and
along the Assinaboine River, as far west as the mouth of the Little
Sonris, where the English company erected tiieir first trading estab-
iisi.ment, to the southwest of Lake Winnipeg.

The stories of their migrations are also meagre and indefinite.
They say, however, that they came from the far east and north, and
they still preserve memories of the birch-bark canoes, and the use of
this bark for other vessels, such as are now used by the Chippewas.
Their wars with their own kinsfolk, the Sioux, seem to have been
luore bitter and unrelenting thai, with any other tribe. I foinid it
difficult, in fact impossible, to follow the migrations of tiiese people
by the same plan as that pursued with success with other tribes and
bands. I met at Fort Belknap two old men, eighty years of age
(" Tile Pheasant" and "Many-Shells"). Tiie former said he was
horn on tlie Missouri River, not far from the confluence of the Yel-
lowstone, the latter six liundred miles north of the British line, on
Big 'I'imlK'r River, north of Saskatchewan. One of these old men
said to me, '* We came from near the Red River of the North.
The country was large, and we got separated. Our forefathers
lought the rest of the Sioux. The olcl people told my ancestors that
a voice from above told them that this world was marie for them ;
that there was anotlier world across the gre.it water for the whites,
and between these two there was a land where only the dead went
after deatli, — a land to the far east and north, a fair and good
country. This voice told them many things of the rain and winds,
anil what these things would di) for them."

So tar as any information can now l)e secured, it would seem that
the Assinaboine country in former times was north of the British
line, and as far east as Lake Superior. They drifted to the west,
and some bands to the south as fiir as the Missouri, but it was not
until about icSyo that they got as far west on our side of the line as
thtir i)resent agencies at Wolf Point and Fort Belknap, Montana.
\\\ i<S28 some bands of them were camiied near oKl Fort Union, at the
mouth of Yellowstone River. Their westward and southern migra-
tions were undoubtedly due to the encroachments on their hunting-
grounds of the Chippewas from the east, and Crees from the north,
anil the bitter hostility of the Sioux. It would seem that they
vihraLc'd between peace and war with tiie Mandans, .Arii karees, and
Gros ^'entres. They were checked in this westward movement by
the Blackfeet, Bloods, I'iegans, and Prairie C.ros Ventres ; it being
only a few years since tiiey made peace with these tribes. They
were also at war with the Crows, Shoshones, Nez Perces, and Flat-
heads, which stayed farther movement to the South. Present tradi-
tion < laiuis that tiiey were always tViendly with tiie Crees, but this
goes no farther back than the time when they lived in the Red River

ASTONISH— ASTRA Y.

country. Tlie Pheasant told me that his fatlier informed him that
he could remember when they made knives, and pointed their
arrows with the bones taken from the hump of ihe buffalo.

They are divided into several bands; the principal one at Wolf
Point being called tlie Canoe band, and at Belknap the Whirlwind
band. There are also at these two agencies, the Girl, the C.inoe tied
to the Shore, and the Leggings bands; and north of the line there
are also several others. The agent's report for iS8i gives the
following as the numerical strength of this tribe :

Wolf Point (Fort Peck Ajjency, Montana)
Fort Belknap Agency, Montana .

Total population ....

1413
900

2313

The Assinaboine men are inferior in intellect and physique to the
Sioux proper, and the women rank about with the Arapahoes in
chastity. They trim their shirts and leggings with rough fringe like
the Crows, and wear the hair in all kinds of ways, though they claim
that in olden times they all wore a scalp-loc:k and banged the hair
over the foreheail. similar to the present fashion of the Crows. Like
the Indians at Ik-rthold, they seem to have adopted some of the styles
of dress from all the tribes with whom they have come in contact.
'I'hey believe that thunder and lightning is a kind of bird something
like an eagle, — the noise is the cry of the bird, the lightning the fire
flashing from eyes and mouth in its flight. Their language is a poor
dialect of the Sioux, and in their customs they are also like them,
but it seemed to me of a lower order. They are lazy and without
enterprise even in the ordinary occupations of savages. As a conse-
quence they are poorly armed, are not well provided with ])onies,
and still use the dog for transportation ; have small lodges and little
personal property. They bury on scaffolds and in trees, and claim
that not very long ago, when a man died, his dogs were killed to
accompany him to the spirit-land. They told me that in olden
tiuH's they had an image carved out of wood re])resenting the Great
Unknown, which they worshipped. They gathered round this an-
nually, and with nnirh ceremony made i)resents and offerings to it.
They said that this image represented the Great Spirit, but imiue-
diiitely added, "This same white man's God gave us the bow and
arrow, and told us to kill game with it."

Astonish. Bring the palm of left hand over mouth, and draw the
body backwards; the manner anil expression denote the degree.
This gesture is also used to denote great surprise, mingled with great
pleasure or intense ilisappointment.

Deaf-mutes use the same.

Astray. The sign for Lost is the usual sign ; but to be led astray,
for instance, in such a sentence as "You led me astray," would be
in sign, you, iies, gave me road; and then holding extended left
hand, back up, fingers pointing to front, well in front of body, bring
right hand, back up, alongside of left, index finger alone extended

ASTRIDE— A WE.

and pointing to front; turn the liand b' 'rist action, so that index
points to right and front, and tlirust indt. in that direction.

Deaf-mutes make sign for mistake, and then thrust index to front
and right as above.

Astride. See, first, description given of Ponv or Hokse.

I)e;'^-inutes make the same sign.

Attack. Make sign for CHAk(;E, sometimes add sign tor Heavy
Firing. Indian strategy and tactics are based on secrecy of mtjve-
nient and surprise, and so universal is this that the above are the
only gestures I have ever seen. (See War.)

Attempt. Make signs for Work and Push.

Deaf-mutes make sign for push.

Attention. See Question.

Aunt. Indicate the possessive ; make signs for Father and
Sisi'KK. (See KiNSHii'.)

Deaf-mutes make arbitrary sign for letter a, and tlien make gesture
for li'oman.

Aurora Bcrealis. Hold both hands, back down, well out in front
of body at height of wrist, hands partially closed, ball of thumb
pressed against nails of fingers ; raise the hands, at same time extend
and separate fingers and thumb with a partial snap, to indicate the
flashes of liglit in the northern sky ; and, unless in conversation
where the sign is readily underatood, it is better to face towards the
north.

Deaf-mutes use the same. .Some Indians make also the sign for
meJiciiw, calling it the mysterious light or fire of the north ; otiiers
call it the light of the northern danc ers ; while still others call it
the " wiiile man's fire," or " sacred cloud."

Autumn. Make sign for Tkek with both hands, for Leaf, and
while the hands are in this position let the right i)ass slightly to right
and downwards, with a tremulous, wavy uiotion. In the sign for
leaf the right hand is held near left finger-tijjs, and in dropping, it
falls as a leaf falls to the ground. Juv/y autumn is rejjresented by
some of the leaves, one here and tlu-re turning yellow ; the middle by
>ign for same, after the sign for yellow leaves ; late, by all the leaves
having fallen. In northern latitudes tiie sign for a little snow would
he added for very late fall or early winter.

Deaf-mutes, same.

Avoid. Hold the hands in front of shoidders, index fingers ex-
tended and pointing upwards, others and thumb closed, l)ack of
right hand to right, left to left, hands at same iieight ; move the
hands towards each other, and when near carry the left outwards,
and right nearer body as the hands pass. (Inilicates an effort made
to go around or pass by. )

Deaf-mutes simply bring the hands, holding them well in front of
body, backs uj), and right more in advance than left.

Awe. Uring the palm of either hand over the mouth and slightly
draw back the head ; sometimes the sign for Heart, and then bring
right hand, fingers and thumb extended and partially separatetl, in

A IVL—AXE.

front of and close to breast, thumb nearest body, fingers pointing
upwards; raise the hand several inches with a tremulous motion.
(The heart is first still, and then flutters into the throat witli surprise
and astonishment.) This gesture is used at the uncxpec tetl meeting
of old friends; at hearing the recital of womlerful deeds of valor,
etc. ; or suddenly and unexpectedly meeting a great chief.

Deaf-mutes sim])ly raise the hand and denote the awe by the ex-
pression of countenance.

Awl. Conception : From the manner of using same in sewing
with sinew. Bring the left hand, back to left, in front of body, hand
partially closed and thumb pressed against index, as though holding
a piece of leather or buckskin ; make a thrusting motion over and
near left thumb and index, at same time turning hand by wrist
action.

Deaf-mutes make a boring motion with tip of right index, other
fingers and thumbs closed, against left palm.

Axe. Hold left hand, back to left, arm nearly extended and about
horizontal, in front of left shoulder, fingers extended touching, and
wrist bent down, so that fingers ])oint as nearly downwards as
possible ; carry right under left forearm, and grasp it near elbow
with sj)read index and thumb, other fingers dosed. The sign for
Chop is sometimes added, and is also fre([uently used by itself. Be-
fore the advent of the white race axes were made mostly from the
shoulder-blades of large animals, those of the buffalo being specially
prized.

Deaf-mutes make the sign for chopping, usually first making their
sign for wood.

JSAB Y—IiACllEI. OK.

Baby. See PAiTrRinoN or Child aiui Wkai'.

Deaf-mutes liold nearly extended left hand, ba( k down, in front of
l)i)(iy, l> rearm about horizontal and jiointing to riyht and front;
then lay the back of partially compressed right hand on left forearm
near wrist.

Baby-Holder. Make siijn for Parturition, for Wrat; tlu-nrarry
both hands alongside and rather close to rear \my ow of head, jialms
towards it, index fingers and thumbs spread, index fingers pointing
upwards and about parallel to sides of head, other fmgers closet!
(sometimes the slightly c urved hands are used to denote the hood
instead of the spread thumbs and index fingers); bring tlie hands
sinuiltaneously to front, keeping hands about same distance from
head, terminating movement wlien hands have ])assed in front of
face few inches; then bring extended left hand well in trout of
body, back outwards, fingers pointing upwards, hand about height
efface; place the back of extended right hand, fingers jiointing
ujjwards, against left palm.

The Indian cradle when tied uji is a little (offin -shaped sac k with
a hood-like ])rojection about the head. It is made of cloth or skins
of perhaps several thicknesses; always two at the back, and to this
a board or stiff j)iece of rawhide is securely fastc rd to keep the
child's back "as straight as an arrow." Instead of a board cover-
ing the entire back, the Cheyeniie> use two flat pieces of wood about
three inches wide and one-half inch thic k. The outer cloth or skin
in front and on the hood is usually heavily beatled or garnished
with poicu|)ine-quills, and sometimes very handsomely worked.
Stout strings are used to tie the baby firmly in the cradle, and one
fastened to the back piece to hang the cradle up by. I have seen a
baby not two days old snugly tied up in one t)f these little s.icks ;
the rope tied to the pommel of the saddle, the sack hanging down
alongside of the pony, and mother and c^hild comfortably jogging
along, making a good day's march in bitter cold winter weather,
easily kee})ing up with a column of < avalry which was after hostile
Indians. After being carefully and firmly tied in the little <raille,
the child, as a rule, is only taken out to be cleaned in' the morning,
and again in the evening just before the inmates of a lodge go to
sleep ; sometimes also in the middle of the day, but on the march
only morning and evening.

Bachelor. Signs for Man or Mali., Marrv, and No are made.
This, of course, simi)ly means an unmarried man. The rather com-
mon acceptation, viz., a man who has j)assed the average age at which
men marry, would hardly apply to Indians, as the men all marry.
There is no such thing, I believe, as an *' old bachelor ;" of course

BACON— RAD LANDS.

there may be rases, and probably are, where men, beraiise of some
physical deformity or injury, have not niarrieil ; \ have never, how-
ever, known of" such.

Deaf-mutes, same ; i.e., man not married. Their sign for not is
different from no ; the latter Ix-ing a shake of the head, while for the
former, carry tiie extended ri;:ht hand from near the body well out
to front and right about horizontally, very similar to the Indian sign
for ^ood, only hand is carried more to right, and with some is lowered
a little in being'carried to right ami front.

Bacon. Hold the extended left hand, back to left and front, in
front of body, fingers jjointing to right and front ; bring the right
hand, back down, and ( iasp the base of tlie little finger bfiiween
thmnb and fingers, using only palmar surfa( e of thumb and fingers
to first joints ; rub the sides of the lower edge of left hand several
times bac kwards and forwards. This sign really means anything fat
or greasy, and is very much like thick, and there is but little difference
between ////VX' and //////. Like all signs of such very recent origin,
where there is no striking pecuii.irity different gestures are made.
Sometimes the size of the si<les of bac(jn as issue*! to Indians is made,
an<l also the sign for ,at ; and some flbes make the sign for //Ci,"-.
Ail this, of course, depends on what n.^me they have given the sub-
stance. The gesture for rooting is common. In some cases it is
" white man's bear ;" others, " white man's dog," etc.

Deat-niutes iiokl the extendetl and compressed right hand under
the chin, jjointing to front <lownwards and slightly to left.

Northern Indians an- fond of bacon, and eat it, with their lean
drieil meat or bread, raw, or ratlier, in its |)artially cured state as
shipped to them. When they cook it, they generally jnit it with
otiier meat or material of some kind.

Bad. Conception :. ^S'//rA/<7//i' thrown away. Hold both closed
hands, back iij), in front of body, hands at same height and equi-
distant from body ; move the hands outwards, downwards, and sim-
ultaneously open them with a partial snap, terminating the movement
witli the fingers extended and separated. This sign is frequently
made witli one hand.

The ilifference between this and ahandoned, both having the same
conception, viz., thrown away, not worth holding, is that in aban-
doned the hands are carried to left and rear before being ojjened,
indicating retention or ])ossession for a time ; while in the sign for
had w is instantly thrown away, the movement being similar to what
would naturally follow if one were to i)ick up what was supi)osed to
be a rope and it should prove to be a snake.

Deaf-mutes make sign for good, and then turn the hand, back
down, as it is thrown «lown to left.

Bad Lands. Hring both closed hands, backs outwards, in front of
Ixjily, hands about height of shoulders and about six inches apart,
forearms nearly vertical; raise and lower the han<ls alternately several
times (this represents the broken <ountry, the blufifs or hills) ; then
hold left hand, back outwards, about twelve inches in front of body,

HA D GK h'—IlA ATNA CK.

fingers extended, toudiing, and pointing to riglit ; carry right wrist
over left hand few indies above it, right forearm nearly liori/.ontal ;
hend right hand down from wrist so that back shall be nearly out-
wards, index finger of right hand extended, pointing ilownwards and
to left, others and thumb closed ; move the hand from left to right
several times, commencing with index finger, jjassing near back of
left hand, the ti|) of this finger starting near and opp(jsite upper i)art
of left wrist; this tip in l)eing movetl to right jiasscs down a little
below left hand, and after pas^ing by the hanil rising, sei ond time
start little farther out, r'Uil again farther out at third movement, and
so on (this represents t'le cut banks and ravines). Some Indians
nurclv point to )r tone i the earth and make sign for ''.A.').

Badger. C(jncepti-)i, : Digging and striped face. Hold right
hand, back up, fingers extended, touching, and pointing to front, in
front and to right of body at siip|)osed height of badger ' this is the
manner of representing height of animals generally, height of human
luings being represented by the extended right hand held vertically,
fingers i)ointing upwards i; then draw the palmar surfa( c- of extended
and separated index and second fingers, other fingers and tluind)
closed, trom nose upwards over top of head ; then bring hands in
front of body, fingers partially curved and touching, hands slightly
compressed, lelt hand little nearer body than right and iiltle lower,
luiiuis a few inches apart, back of left hand nearly to front, back of
right nearly upwanls, the curved fingers i)ointing towards ground.
Execute with both hands a i)awing motion, moving hands to right
downwards, to left and rear on curve, repeating motion.

Bag. Hold left hand, back to left and front, in front of left
breast, fingers touching and partially curved, thumb also slightly
curved, forming with left index an inconijjlete horizontal elli|)se,
left fi)rearm horizontal ; bring (om pressed right hand from right
and above downwards, fingers t)f right hand pointing downwards as
right hand i)asses through the partial elli])se, as though latter rep-
re^( iited opening of bag; then hold both arms exteiuled horizon-
tallv from shoulders, hanils ! nt at wrists and knuckles so that
fiMgers, which are extended, touching, anil pointing upwards, shall be
at about right angles with arms.

Bald. Make sign for Hair, tout h top of head with palmar surface
01 right hand, and make sign lor Ai,i, Gonk or Wii'Ku Our.
bidians when old have thin, short h.air, but I have never seen a
bald-headed one (prior to s(ali/ing). They ( laim they never had
any, and say the first one they ever saw was a white man, who ( re-
ated great astonishment and surprise among them. 'I'hey attribute
the loss of hair to the wearing of hats or caps.

Deaf-mutes make the same sign.

Band. Make sign for Chief, for Tkpke. Indicate the number
and add sign for Possession. If to denote a soldier band, indicate
chief, name of band, and men belonging to same, (See Soi-DiEK.)

Bannack. Make sign ior Shoshone. I'he Crows call these
Indians " the peoi)le of bad lodges," anil make signs for Bad Lodge

BANNACK.

to denote tlicm ; but the vocal word Hannack, ])ronomice(l quite
plainly, usually acrcomparies any gesture made for tliis tribe. Tribes
liavinj; the same sign can, of course, only be distinguished by some-
thing from the conversation i:i \vhi( h tlie gesture is used, or by some
further description, as the country inhabited by them, or some
peculiarity of custom or dress.

I have never been able to discover any satisfactory evidence of the
time when the li.unuu ks and Siioshones first met. Tiiey have lived
with and near e;;cli other longer than any tradition gives account of,
ami have intermarried to such an exten : that, so far as the Indians
Pt Fort Hall are concerneil, it would be difiicult t;i find a pured)looded
Bannack. 'I'iieir vocal language is totally different tVoin that of the
Shoshones, and fully as difficult to a< (juire as tlie Arap.ihoe. They
nearly all, however, speak the Shoshone language, many of iliem as
fluently as tiieir own.

Tihee. t!;*; chief of the Hannacks at the l''ori Hall .\gency, told
me that there were five bands, or sub-tribes, wiio spoke the bannack
language. As given to me by him they are, ist. Toohe-re-ah-ka,
or j^lack-tailed Deer-Iv.ters, in Nevada; 2d, Sho-he-ahgyot-ti-ka,
or Salmo:?-Katers ; 3d, Tah-gand-da-ca, Root-lviters ; 4rh, Wah-ra-
ree-ca (the inierprete>- could not make out what this meant ) ; 5th,
Wah-wee-otz-so, or Pi-Utes, in Nevada.

'I'his chief also saiil that all their customs, dances, religi(jus cere-
monies, implements, ways of living, lodges, laws, puidshments, etc.,
were like tne Shoshones. In regard to the creation, he said his
grindfather toUl him that they had a father who made them. In
w'nat shape this fatlvr is at present they do not know, — •' perhaj^s a
cloud, the sun, or a storm, but at first it was the Big (Iray Wolf."
He wos the father of the IJannacks, and the Coyote was the father
of the Shoshones. Hc saitl, "'I'he (Iray Wolf was a (lod, our (lod ;
and '"hen the Bannacks tlied they went to where he was. Thi. wolf
formeny lived in a roi k near Winne nuuca, — a huge hollow rock.
Thic trail made by this wolf in going in and out is si ill visible ; the
footprints in the solid rock can be seen to-day. A spring of pure
water is U'-nr the base. At this place the Bannacks were made. The
big Wolf and the Little Wolf were brotiiers. They bolh lived there,
and hence the Shoshones came from the same |)ku;e. Because maile
bv these dods we are poor; have to live on game and roots; cannot
learn to read .md write ; never had tiiese things given to us. This
wolf made everything on earth. He showed us how to live ; gave
us the bow and ilint-headed arrow ; this long before there were aiiv
whites. .Ml the birds of the air were once human beings, (hanged
by the Wolf into birds to give room for us. My grandfather said
that orce the earth was covered with water, except the highest |ieak-,
r.:v.! tl'.e wind blew so hard that the water washed out the deep ravine-
which are now .seen. This was before any |)eople were made, in
olden times we were at war with the Utes, but we made peace before
the whites came, and have kept it siiu e. The Washakie .Shoshones
oidy made peace recently. Many years ago we were at war with the

BA RRA CKS— BASHFUL.

N'ez Perces. Tlic Blackfect used to live here fFort Hall, Idaho):
tlie river and hutte were nameil after tlieiii. We drove them out of
tliis < ouiitry when I was a young man. My t'atlier was a Uannack,
and my mother a Shoshone. I was born near here, on Snake River,
an<l wlien a boy went to tlie Neises Indians, beyond Hoise."

Tiie Bannacks do not keep an accotmt ot' their individual ages,
Tliev claim that the word Hannatk canie from Panah-ki, a name
given tiiem by the Shosliones, and tliat the Utes, or Utahs, as they
(ailed th.em, speak an entirely <!i(Ten'nt language from either Ran-
iKK ks or Shoshones, but that nearly all the surrounding tribes knew
a liule of the latter.

Tihee stated that they learneil what they knew of the sign lan-
guage from the Crows and .\ez Penes; that from Fort Had to the
nnrth and cast the sign languagf was well understood, to the west
and south it was not. They nevi-r ate dogs, but are specially fond
ot roots and seeds; sunHowiT-seeds are prized. They bury their
(lead in the ground, and kill ponies at the death of noti'd men.
The gun placed wiih remains is usually broken, 'i'hey lo< ;:te heaven
as bevouil the sitting sun. ("hildri'ii are not named until the\ reach
the age of ten ax twelve years. Sometimes an old man gives his
name to a young one, but as a rule the father and mother name the
children. They do not often, like the Plains Indians, name tliein
alter a ilog, wolf, coyote, or fo.\. Many of the female children are
nauud alter ilifferent kinds of frog-^. Only a few vears sine e they
nia'nly used sage-brush and grass with which lo luuld their lodges.
They claim they did not kill one chilil of a woman who had twins.
They call the whites " trade jji'ople," — "Soyape." The tlrst they
saw were emigrants, w)-,o constantly wanted to trade, hence the
name. Tendoy, the chief at I.apwai, is half I'annack and half
Snake ; many <f his band are " Sheep-Katers."

The Pannack women are more plumj), shorter, ai^d better-looking
than the Plains Indians, but very f'lthy. They wear the hair loo.se,
parted in the middle, and falling down over the face a half-bang
and very low ':\\ the forelu'ad. The men and women use a pro-
fusion of veil pM'Ut, and this is about the only kind they do use.
The women a; well as the men are greatly addicted to gambling.
They i" uuifacture very good matting trom rushes, and from rushes
and grass make v.'ssels and dishes. 'I'he men are fond of white
blankets with rainbow-hued stripes. Tlu- women wear very short
li'ggings, and their dresses aboiU the same length as the Crows.
P(ir( upine-work is not used, and beads not so much as with other
irilies. (See Siiosiionk. )

Barracks. Make sign for \Viiiii.s, for Soldi i:k, and for iloi >k.

Barren. Makt; sign for the person or animal, sign tor I'ariuki-
TioN, an«l for Cannot or No.

Deaf-mutes use the same.

Bashful. Similar to .Asha.mkd, but the head is dropped a little, a.s
lliough drawing blanket more over heatl.

l)caf mutes put tip of index of right hand, other fingers and thumb

Ji.lS/N—Jil-.ADS.

closed, against icctli, lower the licad slightly, and cast <li)\vn the
eyes.

Basin. ( ne|)ressi()n in tiic ground.) Hring the hands, backs
nearly up, ahout eigiit inches in front of body, same distance a|)art,
same iu-ight. ;iiid o|>|)osite each otiier, arms ixi;iiil((l downwards,
about the lull length, index Hngers and tiunnbs spread ami (inved,
so as to form an incomplete horizontal ellipse, other fingers dosed ;
move the hands towards ea( li other a fi'W inches, then, still holding
left liand in its position, make uioiion witii partially cnrvi'd and
slightly compressed right hand, as though pawing or scooping out
dirt t'rom the spai e indicated between the spread thumbs and index
fingers. To denote a buffalo-wallow, make insl sign for buffalo, aiid
then the above. For a vessel or utensil, indicate the shape with the
hands.

Kor a vessel deaf-mntes indicate the shape.

Basket. Make sign for Kei rt.E, and then interlock the fingers to
denote the manner of iiiterlat ing the material.

Deaf-mutes hold the left forearm horizontally in trout (;♦" body,
pointing to front, then hold right iiulex against it on lower or tiixler
side, at wrist, otlier fingers and ihinnb closed ; drop the hand, aii'!
carry it on curve l)ackwards, bringing it up again, and pla( ing it
against arm near elbow.

Bat. Make sign lor Nicaii and for \\\v.u ; instead ol the lattei
sign tiir extended iiands are brought side by side, at index ar ' ambs,
in frt)nt of body, backs up, fingers pointing to front, and h: !.:i.nds
given a wavy motion to front, right, and downwards ;-c few inches;
tiu'n similar niotion is made to left, front, and downwards, indicating
the zigzag way a bat (lies.

JJeaf imiles use the same.

Battle. Make sign-for Kniiir, and for Voi.i.kv or Hkavv KiuiNt;,
Sometimes the hands are held opposite each other, as in Frc.lii', and
then tliL sign for shoot made with both hands towards i*ach other.

lay. (Water. ) Make sign for Watkk, then bring riglit hand well
out in front of body, index finger and thumb ( tirved and s|)rea(l,
forming a jjartial horizontal ellipse, other fingers closed, back of
hand outwards and to right.

Deaf-mutes make sign for Waii'k, Dt'sr or Dirt, and then indicate
the shape by cmving left arm, and passing right hand over it.

Bay. 'Color, I Make .;ign for Kf.d. Indians usually call a bay
pony a leil nmiv ; sometimes it is called a "common" coK)r.

I)eaf-n)utes i ike same sign.

Bayonet. Make sign for ("iCN, then place th(; extended index
fingets alongside one another, i)ther fingers and thundjs closed, right
index projecting beyond left one-third its length.

Deaf-nnHes make sign for (it'N and make thrusting motion for-
ward with bolli hands, as though making a thrust with bayonet at
tached to a gun.

Beads. Hohl the right forearm horizontally in front of bod\,
pointing to front, slightly compress the right hand, and allow it lo

BEAR—BEAkD. 63

ilioi) by its own weijL^lU (held loosely at wrist), shake the luiiul
slij^htly, giving it a (piivering motion to indicate the sliininiering of
tlu' heads wiien stirred by the hand or when holdiiiL; a string nji by
the hands, — hu( h " strings" as are sold at the Indian stores. Some-
times the tips of first and second lingers are wet by pla( ing against
hps, aixi tlien |)nt against let't palm, the left liand being extended,
and, l)ack down, held hori/onlally in front of body ; then make a
1, lotion siinihxr to sew, to denote the stringing of the beads on ti>e
sinew. These gestures indicate tlieir way of making bead-work.
I'siiallv an Indian has some l)ead-work on his person, and he simply
points to the beads, in f.ict, I never saw the sign I have described
used in convers;'tion until 1 made special iiupiiry about it.

Lewis and ( larke give an acconnt of finding beads made by the
Indians of the Mandan and (»ros Ventres tribes, and descrilu- the
prtxess as jxirsiied by these Indians in 1804. M-.-ads «;f Indian
111,1 nn fact lire are found in the burial mounds near Devil's Lak" and
I'embina, Dakota 'I'errilorv, and from other implements found (here
it would seem that tlie art was known and practised long before
iSo.i, and |)roliably by the Mandans in their southern migration.

Draf-imit<.'s make the sign for MiriAi,, that (an be seen through,
,iiid then indicate a string round the ne( k.

Bear, ('onception: Rolling motion in running. Iking both
hands, backs up, well out in front of body, some distance trom it
and about six inches apart, little linger extended, others and thumbs
I losed, forearms nearly horizontal and same height ; lower the
IkiikIs simnltaneousl)' and raise them, mostly by wrist action.

I he (.'rows and some other tribes |)arliaily close the hands and
hoM them alongside of he. id, |)alms to iVont, — from the jxisition of
the bear's iroiit feel at times when s< (iiitinj;, or from the ears ot ,ini-
iiials. The I'embina band ol C'hippewas add to this a (Jawing
motion, with hands to front upwards and then downwards.

'i'o specify tiie kind, as gray or grizzly, biack, cinnamon, etc.,
make sign for Bear, and then sign for Hair, and give it the proper
(iilor, or denote tlu' kiml by the locality where loiind or some
pe( uliarity of tiie beast.

Deaf-muies, after sign for Animai, Likk, fold or ( ross the arms
osir chest, hands resting on arms just above elbow, and with the
fuigeis execute a clawing motion on arms.

The ("rows and souie other tribes have bee 1 credited with having
a pe( iiliar su|)erstition against killing bears, and also against tanning
tlie skins. As nearly as 1 ( onld liiid out the first resulted from fear
of personal harm from the animal, and the latter, it is claimed, makes
sore the throats of the women who work over bear-skins, dressing and
lamiinu them.

Beard. I'lace backs of hands against cheeks, right against right,
lelt against left, hands slightly c ()m])resse(l, fingers i»oiiiting down-
wards. For chin-whiskers the riglit hand only is used, ba( k being
pl.K ed agair.it chin. For side-whiskers the hands are plated farther
l)a( k on ch« eks, at their bases.

nEAUTIFVI.—liEFORE.

Deaf-niutt's make motion in front of chin and downwards, as
thoii_L;h strokinj,^ the beard.

There is no good ground for tlie belief tliat Indians would not
have bt-ards if tliey did not imll the hair out. They ( hiini that a
beard is no protection against cold, is disagreeable in hot weather,
and is troublesome to keej) clean. Some tribes pull out the eye-
brows and evelashes as well, and nearly all jjermit no iiair to grow
on the body except on the heatl.

Beautiful. Make sign for Handsome or PuKirv, and tor very
l)eauiiful aiUl HuAVK.

Deaf-mules describe a circle with tij) of right iniiex finger in front
of and < lose to face, other fmgers and thumb closed, and then, hold-
ing exti'iuled right hand, palm towards and near face, bring the tips
of fnigers and llnunb togetlier.

Beaver. Conception : 'I'ail <>f l)eaver striking mud or water.
Hold extended left hand, back up, jiointing to right and front, in
front of bod), left forearm horizontal; bring the extended right
hand, back up, under and at right angles with left, back of right
resting against palm of left hand ; lower tiie right hand by wri^t
action, and raise it, back of right striking against lel't palm sharply:
re|)eat motion. 1 liave seen Indians, who were not fully conversant
with the sign language, make gesture for little animals working in
nuul and water, gnawing down, trees, etc., to denote a beavir.

Heaf-niutes make sign for animal life, and with first and second
fingers denote the flat tail nioving on the water, and sign for latter.

Beaver Dam. Make sign (or Hkavi;r, for VVai i;k, and for Hom),
— the Inigers in latter ^.ign being freijuently separated and sometimes
interloi ked, and some add sign lor Tkke.

Bed. Hold lett hand, bai k down, lingers extended and touching,
ami pointing to the right in trout of and close to lett breast ; briiii,'
right hand, bac k down, fingers extended, touching, and pointing to
left .ind slightly to front in some horizontal plane m front of and
close to li'tt ; move the right hand well ou: to front, a trille to right,
keei)ing in same plane.

Deaf-nnUes inditate the four posts and a cf)vering for the bed,
ilrawing hands back as though spreading same over a bed.

Before. (Sense of time.) Hold the left hand, back up, in front
of and few in<hes from centre of breast, index finger extended
pointing to frcmt and slightly upwards, others and tlunnb closed;
l)ring tiie right hand similarly fixed to the Iront of the left haml,
passing close bv and over, and stopping a few inches in front of it.
knuckles t)f right h.nul same height as li|) of left index linger, right
index in front of and pointing in same direction as left.

Deaf-mutes make the sign fiir Timk, being a lapjiiug of tip oi'
right index against back of left hand near wrist, other fingers and
thumb of right hand closed, and then hold hands as in Aheaii or
Advance.

Before. (Animals and comparison.) Hring the left hand, Ikh k |
lip, lingers extended and touching in front of centre of breast, finger-

HEniXD—ni'lL 7.

jiciintins,' to front niul slij^litly iii)war(is ; i>ring right Iiand, hack iii),
index finger cxtcmlt'd, oiiicrs and tlniinl) ( loscd lew im lies in front
of lett hand, knii< kles of riglit hand licight ot lips of fingers of left,
index finger pointing to front slightly ii|)\vards, it being in iVoiit of
((litre of left hand. 'I"o express a great distanc ; before or in ad-
vaiKe, the right hand is i)Ut farther to the front. To express higher
or highest rank, say of several chiefs, make the proper sign to denote
the chiefs, then jiointing to one or making sign {"or him, and then
the above sign ; this would exi)ress that they were all chiefs, but
Mich a one was in advan( e of them in inihieiue and power. (See also
An IAD and Sui'i;riok. )

The sign is of f, juent use to express bravery. For instance, a
large jiartyof J'awnees went to war; then make sign for any pa.iticu-
lar one, and then the toregoing sign. This would indicate tlmt he

\ ntis

went in advance, rode before all others, fearless of danger,
this little sign might convey a higher tribute to dauntless courage
than many long eulogies; for a party might ])ass through a (ountry
tlii< k with danger and death, and he who should go single-handeil
in the midst of it would be worthy of the highest praise so gener-
'v given in tlieir Indian songs, and this is a reward rich in honor

ac( Drding to their views of the matter.

Deaf-mutes make the sign for .\nimai,, and then separate liands as
exjiLiiied in .Ahkad.

Behind. ('I'ime. ; See After.

l)iaf-miites make sign for Timk, and then sejjarate hands.

Behind. (Animals and ( omparison.) Hold left hand, l),i< k up,
well out m t'ront of centre of breast, fingers extended, touching,
pointing to front and slightly ujjwards ; bring the right hand, ba( k
up. in rear of left, index linger extended, pointing to front, slightly
upwards, and being in rear of centre of left hand, its tip being at
height of knuckles of left hand, other fingers and thuiub closed.
The right hand is brought i'rom the front over the left to its po-
sition.

The remarks made in reference to Hkkoke ap|)ly with equal force
to this gesture; and as the Indi.ms iiold bravery the greatest virtue,
they necessarily consider ( owardice the greatest vice. There are no
o.iths in any Indian language, but to say that one is a coward, damns
the person mo^t completely.

Remarks under HkiokI'. for de.if-nuites ajtply to this word.

Below. I'old extended left hand, back up. fingers pointing to
Iront, well in front of body at about height of breast; ( arry the ex-
tended right hand under left some inches, according as is wished to
express how tar under or below. Simply pointing below witit index
finder denotes below. (See Infkkidr.)

Deaf mutes use the same.

Belt. Carry botli partially-closed hands to the waist, and a little
to rear of body, right on right side, left on left ; bring the hands
round in front till they meet, as thcnigh clasping a belt.

Deaf-imitch use the same sign.

BERRY— BIG.

Indian women, as a rule, wear belts; men only the one for tar-
tridj^es, and tlie narrow one next tlic skin for fastening the hreech-
clolli.

Berry. Make the sign for KosEniru, anil then distinguish by signs
for tlie color, si/e, Use when ripe, nianner of gathering, such as
striking bush or tree, and catching fruit on blanket spread under
same, etc., and also by some description of the l)ushes. Ik'rries are
also distinguished by the animaU which are fond of them.

Deaf-mutes denote size by marking off with index and thumb of
left hand a small part of tip of right thumb, giving color antl size of
bushes, etc.

Best. See Hkiork (sense of < omparison).

iKaf-mutcs use the sU])erlalive of good, — i.e. good, better, best —
by twice raising iiand, as in CiooD.

Bet. Conception : From collecting in a pile the articles wagered.
Indicate in what \va\ or manner, as with < arils, horse-race, game of
ball, etc., and then hold parti.illy-(()mi)res^ed hands, fingers pointing
downwards, tlui^e of right hand slightly to left, of left slightly to
right, about eigliteen inches to front, slightly to right and left of
body, hands little hnver than breast ; move the hands simultaneously
on curve, upwards to front, and then downwards, terminating move-
ment bv bringing hands about three inches aj)art, and few inches
lower than when starting, 'i'his reiiresents the two piles of !)lankets,
robes, or whatevi-r may have been wagered. The passion for L;and)ling
is strong in the Indian lu-art. The two most noticeable characteristics
are the high stakes for whi( h they will play, and the calm, serene
grace with which they will lose all they have in the world.

Deat-mute-, make sign for MoNKV, and then throw both hands
dfnvn wards and to front.

Betray. Make signs tor Lie and (iiVE, then bring right hand,
back up. in front of body, index finger extended and pointing U)
front, others and thund) closed ; turn the index finger so that it
points to right .md front, and thrust the hand in that direction;
sometimes the sign for Tkaii, is made and this sign, — \ou ):;ai'e me lies,
aihi 1 7vent i\< tray from the trail, 'i'he manner and cin timst;'nc(.^
art usuallv spec i (led.

l)eaf-mii!es make sign for Uevil or Wicked.

Beyond. Ib^hl extended left hand, bac k up, in front of bod\
about I'M inches, ting<'rs pointing to right ; bring extended right
h.uul, back up, between left and body same height, fingers ])ointing to
left ; swing the right hand u])wards, outwards, and then ilownwanN
on curve, beycjnd left hand, turning right hand, back tlown, n
movement.

nciif-niules use the same.

Big. Ihing the hands opposite with palms towards each other,
well out in front of body, hands a little lower than shoulders, ai::
few iiu hes .ipart, lingers extended, touching, and pointing to front,
separate h.uuls, carrying right to righi, left to left, kee[)ing them op-.
posite each other. This would seem to denote big in the sense of

lilG BEl I.Y—Bl.ACK.

l)road, wide, et<'., but I have seen it used frequently in sue li sen-
tent es as the •' Big Chief," " Big Horse," etc.

Deaf-mutes use tiie same.

Big Belly. Bring harnls in front of and close to abdomen, fingers
toiK liing and sligiuiy < urved, ])alnis of iiands towards each other,
inde.x fingers horizontal, tips (;t lingers of the hands near each other,
wrists well sejjarated ; bring the wrists near together, increasing the
distance between tips of fingers of hand';. l""ri(|ni'i\tly this sign is
made by simply indicating the ( urved surlace of a large belly with
extended hands, backs of hands outward.

Dcat'-mutes use the same.

Bird. CoiK eption : Wings. Bring the hands, nalm outwards,
fnigcrs extended and touching above, to right and left in front of
shoulders, hands same height ; move them simultaneously to front
and downwards, repeating motion, imitating the p.iotion of wings;
tare must be taken to imitate closely. The wings of small binls
nitive ra|)itll\ ; tht)^e of large ones slowly. Some peculiarity may
have tt) be nt)teil, — the manner of flying t)r stiaring, its habits, antl
even its tt)ne t)f voice. \ goose woultl be knt)wn by indicating the
lt)ng, slow motion t)f its wings and the triangular figure taken by
tlu'si* birds hi their flight to the South or tlistant North, ami perhaps
intlicating the noi^e made by them. 'I"he sign for Woodi'Kckek
illustrates this point.

Deaf-mutes liolti right haml, back up, near mouth, thumb antl
inde.x exlentletl antl tout hing at tips, other fingers closeil ; thumb
antl index represent the bill of the bird.

Bison. See Buffalo.

Bit, ( J'or animal.) Plate palmar surface of spread intkx and
thumb t)f right hanti, other fingers cltjsetl, against mouth. The
HIat kfeet ami st)me other tribes form two circles with thuud)s and
iuilex fingers, ami press same ag.iinsl i heck at corners of mt)Uth, to
rei)resent the rings of the bit.

Deaf-mutes make sign tor Ikdn, and then tiraw index fingers across
the mouth, right to right antl left to left.

Bite. Bring right hunti, back outwartls antl upwanls in front of
body, fingers t Dmpressetl, partially t urved and touching, thumb
sliglitly curveil, antl it^ tip near tips t)f fingers; snap sharply tips of
first and second fingers against tij) of tluunb, re|>ealing motion.

Deaf-mutts use the same.

Bitter. Touch tongue with tip of index of right hantI, other
fingers clo.sed, and make sign fi)r Bad.

Deaf-nmtes tou( h tongue with tip o{ right intiex, antl then make
wiv fat e.

Bitter-Root. Intlicate the shape of rot)t with extendetl right index,
Dtlur fingers < loseti, antl the junk blossom about t)ne int h in liiameter.
I'lie I'latheatls and adjacent tribes are very fonil of this; the root
only needs drying for use.

Black. The sign for Coi.f)K with many tribes is used for Black,
but the more sale way is to point to something black ii\ coltjr.

BI.ACKIEET.

Dent'-iiuitcs touch (he eyebrow with tip of rij,'lU index.

Blackfeet ilndian8\ Make sij^ns for Mihiamn and for I'.lack.
The agency for the Hla( kfeet, lihxid, and Tiegan Indians is lucated
on IJailger Creek, a tiibntary of Medicine Lodj^e. about eighty miles
from l*"ort .Shaw, Montana. 'I'iie valley is only a small ojiening in
the foot-hills of the Rocky Monntains, which are about eighteen
milts distant from the agency. The buildings are constructed of
sawed logs and enclosed by a stoc kaile. 'I'iie soil is fertile, anil the
stream furnishes plenty of water for irrigating purposes. There are
several hmidred acres of land in the valley adjacent the agent y build-
ing, which might be utiiizetl for agrit ultnral purposes. Ninety-four
acres are fenced in anil under cidtivation. There are a lew log
houses antl cansas lodges, t)ccupie(i by Indians, scattered about the
valley. The agent in his rejuut tor iSSi gives a total population of
seven thousand five hundreti Imiians, antl claims that the majority of
these are I'iegans.

1 was piesent at the agency on July 4, iSiSi. The Intiians hatl
been inft)rmed by the agent that it was a great " Medicine"-day for
the whites, antl they ct)n)mencetl tt) gather for what they called a
" ht)rse-anil-tot)t" tlant :e at t)nc I'.M. Most of the lllat kfeet and
Blt)otls were away hunting, or were nt)rth of the boundary-line,
claiming just at that time to be lt)yal sulijects of the " Oreat
Mtither," and ht)iiing to set:ure some of the mt)ney being distributeil
there. Some old men wht) were to tlrum antl sing first arrivetl just
tjutside the stockatle ; then t ame straggling l'rt)m all directions men,
women, antl thiltlren. The braves were in I'ull tlress. — i.e., with
painted faces antl bt)ilies ; full war toggery, — bonnets, shields, guns,
spears; ptmies tlecorateti antl jiaintetl, — a paratle of savage si)leiuK)r.
The Horse-Dante ct)nsistetl in t ircling, charging, shtniting, firing
of guns, etc. A small nmnber separatetl from the main body, anil
represenletl the I'iegans, wiiile the larger number re|)resenteti their
enemies, whom the few, being I'iegans, easily routetl. The ("ooi-
danters formetl in a semicircle, antl in their costume of paint.
breech-clt)ths, heati-dresses, looking glasses, anklets of skunk-skin,
etc ., pertormetl the usual Intlian dance. They had made themselves
as hitiet)Us as jjossible, and in this respect hati met with perfect sm
cess. The olti wt)men and chiltlren and some men were seated on
the ground in line near by, and in their shrill metallic voices loudly
a[)plautietl. Near the entl of the tlance, after the hartl breatl, the
coffee in wash-tubs and brass kettles, and the wheelbarrow-loads ol
bacon had been ilistributeil anil nearly all eaten, an olti Iiulian, bent
with age, a few gray hairs for a beard, quaintly gotten up in his old
finery, a pair of iron spectacles hiding his sightless eyes, was led into
the t ircle of dancers, where presents were made to him. One yonii^
man gave him a little slick, representing a pony. This occasioned
many shrill cheers from the outsiders and a long speech from the oUI
man, who, first holding his hands high in the air with the pa'n:>
toward the sun, and then placing them on the young warrior, matie
his prayer, asking that the blessing of the God in the sun might rest

on the yoi

Ik' liid ina
i-'li'., he lia
saved from
he finished
tlie old ma
lushed up ;
thanking h
generous vt
wiiich .some
child. As
sky behind
nn'strable tt
liad their Ik
i^illed many
lionoreti the
r had DO
■luderstainlii
I'yarance tin
I'he Women
'"lie men usn
thetn wear ii
'lie nioccasi
"lide like th
'lie front t)f X
'iuee bands.-
Hla. kfeet.
nation, who <
''here is a ;
tliree bands,
'act that the
soiled their ni
tliis band, wl
•ire called "
I'-'Uil ()(• (Ih-
•^outluv.ird Ml
I'iwl the coiHU
tills, very war
out of this c,
''lans to the
5,'ives the HIat
"ext. and the
'lieir mvth
>^orth n)a(le ev
tain. The cl
pt'ople saw, at
•^forth calletl '
'w'o huge rock-
I't'i)Mes at j.res(

BLACK FRET.

on the younjij man. He remin(le(l this God of tin- gifts and sacrirues
he had made to Him, the ponies, heails, tol».i(i-o, dotii, skins, pijtes,

uiiL' man miij:

ht I

etc., lie liad given Hini, and asked tluit this yo
saved from harm, and meet witli suc( ess in war and in i)ea(e. As
lie finished, the yotith turned and i)assed the palin^ of his li.inds over
the old man, from his head down over the body, and all the dancers
rushed up and did the same thing, in this way asking a blessing, ,ind
thanking him for his ailvice and the good *' medicine" made for the

le 01

man's gilts were wrapped up in .1 blanket,

)re>ente(t linn, aiu

1 he

was

led

I way i)V a

litth

generous youth. 'I'he
whicli some one had |
child. .\s the sun was sinking in the rose and purple light of the
•,kv behind the mountains, they scattered out to the log hnts and
miserable tejiees, or drifted roun<l the agenc v building. Thev had
had their howl, their dance, ami their feast, ami in imagination had
killed many of their enemies, and in their estimation had especially
iionored the glorious natal d.iy of the Kepul>lic

I had no difficulty in ( onversing wi»h these Indians, though not
understanding one word of their vocal language. In pi'rsonal ap-
IHar.mce thev are, at piesent, inferior to the other IM.iins tribes.
The women part the hair in the middle,' and usually wear it loose

'I'

le men iisu illv i)art it on oiu- side, soin

le few iiiaid it ; but mo^t of

them wear it loose, wliilst others b.ing it in frmit like the (!rows.
The moccasin fairlv distinguishes them from other tribes. It is
Ml iile like that of the Prairie (^iros \'eiitres ; but the bead work at
tlie front of the upper terminates in three |)rongs, to represent tiie
three bands, — i.e., the Blackleef, the iSlood Mlackfeet. and the I'iegan
Hhukfeet. Tradition clearlv

IXIil

Us to a Northern origin for \\\

nation, who call themselves bv a word which means " Tlie IVoph-."
There is a slight dialectical difference mi the vocal language of the
three bands. 'I'liey claim that the\ got the name iilackfeet from the
fact that the black soil of the I'ar North, where they formerly livi-d,
soiled tlieir moccasins. The Piegans were so named from a chief of
this band, who wore a robe batllv dressed and spotted. Tlie Hlooils

are calleil

lara.

lucli means old-time people

There is a sub-

In tl

leir migration
1

hand of the Piegans whom they call " Hlood>

soiitlnvard they kept near an<l parallel to the main ilivide, and occii
[lied the country as far south as .Salt Like. Thi-y were very nimier-
oiis, verv warlike, and were not onlv able to drive the Snake Indians

out ol

thi

s countrv

but 1

lold their own against the

ountain In-

dians to the west and tlie Plains Indians to the east. Tr.idition
i;ives the Hlackfeet jiroper the most northern location, the I'loods
next, and the Piegans next to the south.

Their myth of creation is that .m Old Man who lived in the f.ir
North made everything, prairie and mountain, and .ill that they con-

tain.

The chief said to me

rile Old Man of the North our

people saw, and we have seen his works. Tiiere is a river in the
•N'lrth called 'The River,' wliere the Old Man pla.yed. There are
two huge rocks there, which he used to play with as boys play with
pebbles at present. 'These rocks have worn a deep trail in the solid

BI.ACKFF.F.T.

rock where they have been rolled about." They claim that the
(iros Ventres of the Prairie lived with them in i)eace until 1862, at
whi< h time a war-party of Snakes went to a Gros Ventres ramp,
which was near Hear-1'aw Mountain, where they met two Gros
Ventres, whom they killed, and got from them a white pony, which,
as they returned, they gave to some I'iegaus whom they met and
made j)eace witii. Afterwards, the Gros Ventres, seeing the horse,
said the Piegaiis had committed the murder, and this led to the sub-
sequent war with that tribe and their separation. They have a i)lu-
rality of wives, and marrying an elder sister gives them certain
claims on younger sisters, whom they call wives even before marriage.

The Sarcees, a Northern band or tribe of Indians, are mixed uj)
with the Bloods and Blackfeet, and these three bands are friendly
with the (-rees. The Piegans, however, do not like the latter, and
call them thieves and liars.

In about 1841 they contracted the smallpox from tiie white jieople
at Henton. They admit that word was sent them not to ( ome there,
but they had no other place to tr.ide, and went, and as a result the
Piegans, who formerly numbered fourteen bands, eac h as large as
their entire number now, were swept away. Some bands came out
of this awful onli-al with oidy one or two families. Their treatment
for this, as well as chickenpox and measles, is almost certain death,
vi/., hot -steam baths, followed by plunges or being thrown into
cold water. These, with such accessories as dirt and constant ex-
posure, leave little ground for wonder that they were so nearly wij)ed
out. They again suffered severely froiu smallpox in 1868-69.

The belief entertained by these Indians of their ghostly future
state, wandering a!)out in the dreary land of sand-hills north of
Cypress Mounlains, is worthy of special notice, as, with the excep-
tion of the Ciros Ventres of the Prairie (who, without doubt, derived
the belief from them), I kn.)w of no other tribes that have similar
religious views. The tangible evidence, to them, of tiiis country
being inhabited by departed spirits is seen in the little circles of
small stones which, they clai'n, fasten down the invisible tepees. In
the centre of these circles .•»re small piles of stones, where the fires
are built, and they have he ird the talking and singing of the ghostly
inhabitants. They also lielieve that after a time the spirits come
back to their former hal>itations, and this belief has been a source of
annoyance to the agent, in that they would not live in a house after
a death had taken place there. It also accounts for the destruction
of tepees, etc. They gave me two accounts of scalp- taking. Said
one, " Long ago, near here, the Snakes and Piegans were a!)out to
have a fight. The two tribes approached each otlier from opposite
sides of a river, each reaching the bank at the same time. The
stream was swollen with recent rains and the current very swift. The
Snakes called out and made signs for the Piegans to select their
bravest man, and they (the Snakes) would do the same. These two
men would wade into the stream, and by personal combat decide the
controversy. This was done, and the Piegan drowned the Snake ami

.savin<r buffalo-

BLACKFI'.ET.

7«

'.wam asliore. As tlie body of the Snake was tloatin^ ilowii the
stream, some Piegans ran along tlie shore, f,'ras|te(l tlie body by tlie
li:iir, and rut off the scalp as a trophy, — an evidence of the great
fii,'lit in the river, and the grand bravery and strenglii of the I'iegans."
'1 he Indian who told me this, however, did not seem to have |)erfect
confidence in it, for he adiied, " We take the scalps to make the war
stroni,' ; and when the women and children see the scalps of their
enemies their hearts will be glad." The second account, and the
one to which they ascribe a sacred character, was j,'iven me as fol-
lows: " 'I'he Old Man who made us. and who created ail things,
played — i.e., gambled — with a similar Old Man, who made the i)eople
on the other side of the mountains. We have seen the huge boulders
which they used for this purpose. Tlie ()lil Man from l»eyond the
mountains won all the mountain-sheep and elk, and left only the
buffalo and antelope. .After all the game had been lost, our Old Man
wagered his head against that of the other (Jld Man and won, but in
consideration of a return of part of tlie game, he only took his scalp,
and when he di<l this, said, 'When anv of your young men kill any
of mine they shall take their scalps, and when any of mine kill yours
they shall do the same, and this will make them chiefs.' "

They, however, in <(jmmon with all other Indians, believe that
one killed in battle and s( alped goes to the hereal'ter willi all the
pomp and glory of a successful war-party returning with the scalps
of their enemies, whilst one who dies from old age or sickness goes
in a much more inglcjrious fashion. The Medicine-l^odge-Dance of
the Rlackfeet takes the place (jf the .Sini-Dance with other Plains
tribes, but the details are sufficiently differi-nt to justify a description.
A woman who has kin at the point of death, or for otiier reasons
similar to those which prompt the men to make the vow in the Sun-
Dance, makes a |)romise to the God in the sun, just at sunrise or sun-
setting. The vow is made in the winter or early spring, though the
(lance tloes not take place until the berries are ripe, about August.
Tiie men, when surrounded by danger, can and do promise that tliey
will iiave some of their women kinsfolk make llie Medicine-Lodge-
Dance. After the woman has made the promise, and commenced
saving buffalo-tongues, her clothes and her travois must be painted
red, and her lodge in camj) must have fresh green brush put around
it at each camp they make. In addition to the original vow, there
must be a daily one of purity.

Sweat-Houses are made prior to the Medicine-Lodge, three before
locating the camp for tlie dance, and the la-,t one locates the
Medicine-Lodge. The soldier band cuts the willows for what might
be properly called the Medicine-Lodge Sweat-Mouse, which is made
uf one hundred willows. These young men go out for the willows
on horseback, and circle about the camp as they return. Any one
wiio may be away from camp, coming across one of these Sweat-
Houses, knows at once where and when the Medicine-Lodge-Dance
will take place. The Sweat-Houses are made the last four days prior
to the building of the Medicine-Lodge. The young men, gaudily

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23 WI;'iT MAIN STREET

Ml RSTER, N Y. 14SS0

(7>6) S72-4S0S

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0-^'^^%!^

BLACKFEET.

decorated, drag the brush with lariats to camp for the lodge, and fire
at it as they drag it along. The centre-pole is hauled on a travois,
and this is also fired at as they carry it to camp. The centre-pole,
as they call it, which corresponds to the Sun-Dance-Pole, is selected,
and an old man, who must be able to count four " coups," makes a
speech at the foot of the tree before it is cut, and strikes the tree,
which is then cut down. During the felling the tree is constantly
fired at by the warriors. Some of the young men are selected to go
out and get a fresh buffalo-skin, which two of the bravest cut up into
strips and tie to the willows at the forks of the centre-pole. A hole
is made near the foot of the pole for a fire, and the tail of the buffalo
hangs down from tlie forks of tiie pole some feet above it. The
young man who has stolen the most ponies since the last dance is
allowed to put pieces of brush, one for each lot of ponies stolen, on
the fire made in the hole, and should he be able with his limited
number of sticks to build a fire large enough to burn the tail, he is
estimated a great warrior.

The medicine-man has a separate lodge for himself opposite the
door and outside of the big lodge, which faces the east. He fasts
and dances to the sun, blowing his whistle. He is painted in differ-
ent colors, and he must have no water, and only after dark can
he eat, and then only the inner bark of the cottonwood-tree. In
dancing he holds up his hands and has strings, made of the uiuler-
wing feathers of an eagle, tied to his fingers. A picture of the sun
is painted on his forehead, the moon, Ursa Major, etc., on his body.
The dance continues four days, and should this medicine-man drink,
it is sure to cause rain, and if it rains, no other evidence of his weak-
ness is wanted or taken. He is deposed as high-priest at once, and
another is put in his little lodge as chief medicine-men. Sometimes
they allow him a little food, as they say, "Two bites the first day,
four the second, six the third, and eight the fourth." He is put in
his little lodge with great ceremony, of which dancing and drum-
ming is the principal feature. Insicle the big lodge, the young men,
gaudily painted and in war costume, dance and ciiarge across towards
each other, dividing themselves into two parties, recount their deeds
of bravery and valor, make gifts, etc., and those who have made the
" vow" dance as the Sioux do in the Sun-Dai. ce, mutilate themselves,
etc. Many gifts are made to the sun j i.e., placed on the Medicine-
Lodge. The feasting is principally on buffalo-tongues, of which
there are as many as tlie woman who made the vow has been able to
gather. The tongues contributed are all carried to her lodge whole,
and are cut by her for drying anil packed away in par-fleches. At
the Medicine-Lodge each woman is obliged to take a tongue, break
off a small portion, give it to the sun and announce her purity. The
man who cuts the holes in the breasts of the men who are to be tied
to the central pole must have captured a lance from the enemy. A
shield is tied to the muscles at the back of shoulder, and, as in the
Sun-Dance, they have to dance until tliey tear themselves loose.
Sometimes the medicine-man presses his weig t against the victim-^

BLA CKFEE T—BLANKE T.

len,
ards

Ives,
ine-
lich
e to
lole,
At
reak
riic
tied
A
the
oosc
tiiii'^

of self-torture. They have a story that a long timo ago a man wan-
dering about was taken up to the sun and cared for, and to him tliey
pray, dance, and make gifts. They also have a Medicine-Pipe-Dance.
For this tobacco is saved up, a bundle is made, tied with strings of
elk- and deer-.ikins, and when opciied, the sounds made by these
animals are imitated. Tlie bundle also contains a pipe handed down
from generation to generation, used only for this special smoking
and several other kinds of "medicine."

The practice of surgery is rare among Indians, and although tliese
people do occasionally invoke its aid, they hardly seem justified by
its results. In one case I learned that two holes were bored in the
upper part of a man's chest, who had astiima, for the purpose of
blowing out the evil spirit, who liad possession and caused the
trouble. Another case was that of a woman* sick with brain fever.
A hole was bored in her head to let the evil spirit out. It is hardly
necessary to say that both patients died.

These Indians do not keep an account of their individual ages,
and, whatever they may once have been, are now inferior mentally,
morally, and physically to the other Phiins tribes, and beyond any
of them have suffered reduction by wars and disease, but princi-
pally the latter, to an extent with wiiich {t\s of the others are com-
parable.

Blackfeet (Sioux Indians). Make sign for Sioux and for Black-
feet. There are several stories toUl as to the manner in which tliis
band of Sioux Indians, now located at Standing Rock Agency, on
the Missouri River, received its name. The first one I heard was to
the effect that a cliief became jealous of his wife and compelled her
to keep the soles of her moccasins constantly blackened with cliar-
coal, so that he could trail her wherever she might go. Tiie second
was that a number of warriors started out after the Crow Indians,
succeeded in capturing some ponies, but on account of subsequent
carelessness allowed themselves to be surprised and some of the
number killed, and lost their camp e(piii)age as well as tlie stolen
ponies; returning home, the country had been burnt over, soon their
moccasins were won, away, and the l)lackened stubble nnitilated and
tattooed their feet. The chief, with the party and his followers, were
ever after called Blackfeet. (See Sioux.)

Blanch. Pass the palm of right hand over face, and make sign for
Another. The face is changed, it is another face, either tlirongh
fear or whatever may have been the cause. The Arapahoes, instead
of saying "a person turned white," say " turned red with fear," and
they make the sign for a red color shooting up into the face. I have
also seen both hands held in front of face, backs out, fingers extended
and separated, and a fluttering motion given to hands.

Deaf-mutes make the sign for White, and then holding closed right
hand near face, extend the fingers as the hand is raised, to denote tlie
wliite color being thrown intc he face.

Blanket. Conception : Wrapping about shoulders. Bring the
closed hands, palms towards each other, opposite and near each

BLESS YOU— BLUE.

shoulder ; move the right hand to left, left to right, terminating
movement when wrists are crossed, right hand nearest body.

Deaf-mutes make sign for Woollen Cloth, and then draw the
hands backwards from front, as though spreading blanket over a bed.

Bless You. Raise both hands, palm outwards, to front and up-
wards, arms fully extended, hands raised towards person, fingers
extended, touching, and pointing upwards ; lower hands several
inches, at same time pushing them outwards slightly towards the
person ; repet . motion. Sometimes the palms of hands are first held
towards the sun, and then towards the earth, and then the above,
thus asking, as they say, the blessing of the Father and Mother of all
life and power to rest on one.

Deaf-mutes close the right hand over the mouth ; then carry the
hand outwards and downwards towards person, open the hand,
turning it palm outwards.

Blind. Bring both extended hands, backs outwards, in front uf
and close to eyes, right hand nearest and both hands parallel to
face; move right hand slightly to left, left to right. Frequently the
palmar surface of ends of fingers are placed against closed eyes, this
to denote the physical affliction of blindness, and the former when
used in a metaphorical sense.

Deaf-mutes place the palmar surface of index and second fingers
over closed eyes.

Blood. Bring right hand, back outwards, first and second fingers
extended and separated, otliers and thumb closed, in front of mouth,
tips of first and second fingers pressed against nostrils; move the
hand to the right and downwards, giving it a tremulous motion.
Sometimes the position of the hand is changed so tiiat the first and
second finders point downwards from nose, and then the hand is
moved downwards and- to front, and a tremulous motion given it.
Some Indians hold the right hand in front of mouth, thumb and
fingers extended and separated, pointing upwards and to front, and
move the hand upwards to front and then downwards from mouth,
indicating the flow of blood from the mouth and nose of a wounded
buffalo. I have also seen the extended index of right hand, other
fingers and thumb closed, held near leg or thigh, and the hand
moved or thrust outwards with a vibratory motion to indicate the
spurting of blood from a large vein or artery, and then the sign for
Rkd made.

Deaf-mutes indicate the red color and the flowing.

Blood (Indian). Bring the right hand, back up, in front of
mouth, index finger extended and pointing to left, other fingers and
thumb closed ; draw the index finger horizontally to right, between
or just touching lips. (See Blackfeet.)

Blue. Point at or touch something of that color. Sometimes,
but rarely, the sign for a clear sky is made, indicating that the clouds
have all passed away. Many Indians do not note any difference be-
tween blue and black, and very light blue they sometimes call green.

Deaf-mutes indicate the arch of the heavens for blue.

Bluff. B

front of bo(

for a small 1

high as one

mountain.

(See Mo'iNT

Deaf-mute

back of near

Boat. Cc

out in front (

rear, a littlt

carried back

hands to rea

tions are mar

ill the nature

nearly to rig!

side of body,

birch-bark ca

the curved an

to denote the

Deaf-mutes

bring lowei (

finger<;.— a .sc

boat.

Boil. (Tumi
right hand o
sometimes ad(

Boil (To),
vessel, then t

Bone. Mak

long time; to

bone in anima

Deaf-mutes i

Bonnet. C;

"an is it, finger

taneously to fr.

used, other fin;

Heaf-mutes

ti'l's of thumbs

to denote the c

Born. Cone

lip, in front o

touching, poini

^vards and out

speaking of the

parturition.

Deaf-mutes c
'"runt and slight

BLUFF— BORN.

Bluff. Bring the closed right hand, back outwards, well out in
front of body, forearm nearly vertical ; push the hand up slightly
for a small bluff, and increase it according to height of hill; i.e., as
high as one could reach in this way would be the highest bluff or
mountain. For several bluffs, a hilly country, botli hands are used.
(See Mo^;ntain.)

Deaf-mutes indicate the surface of hills, bluffs, and mountains with
back of nearly-extended hand or liands.

Boat. Conception : To paddle. Bring both closed hands well
out in front of body, right hand over left ; swing the hands to the
rear, a little to left and slightly downwards, as the hands are
carried back in front of body ; place right under left and swing the
hands to rear, a little to tiie right and downwards. These mo-
tions are made by elbow and shoulder action, and the hands are held
in the natural position when grasping a paddle, viz., back of right
nearly to right, back of left to left, .vhen making the motion on left
side of body, and the reverse when making it on right side. Tiie
birch-bark canoe is indicated usually by above sign, and then hold
the curved and compressed right hand in front of body, back down,
to denote the curved prow of same.

Deaf-mutes partially curve and very slightly compress the hands,
bring lovvei edges together, and join the tips of little and third
finger". — a scoop-shaped position of the hands denoting shape of
bo:it.

Boil. (Tumor.) Press the little finger of the closed and compressed
rigiit hand over and against the part supposed to be afflicted, and
sometimes add sign for Sick over this part.

Boil (To). Make sign for whatever fluid it may be, the sign for the
vessel, then the sign for Spring (water).

Bone. Make sign for the animal, for Die; lie on the ground
long time; touch part of body or limb corresponding to place of
bone in animal, and then point to something white.

Deaf-mutes touch the teeth with index finger.

Bonnet. Carry hands alongside of rear part of head, palms to-
wards it, fingers extended and pointing upwards ; move hands simul-
taneously to front ; sometimes spread thumbs and index fingers are
used, other fingers closed. (See War-Bonnet.)

Deaf-mutes indicate the string down side of cheeks either with
tips of thumbs or tips of index fingers, and also pass hand over head
to denote the covering of same.

Born. Conception; Issuing from loins. Bring right hand, back
up, in front of centre of body and close to it, fingers extended,
t'>iu:iiing, pointing to front and downwards; move the hand down-
wards and outwards on curve. This sign is used by parents in
speaking of their children at any time of life, and is also used in
speaking of the young of any animal, as well as to describe the act of
parturition.

Deaf-mutes cross the hands as in Bahv, and then move them to the
front and slightly tlownwards.

BORROW— BOW.

Borrow. Make sign for Give (to you or to me), Bv and Bv,
and then Give. There is no such word as loan, but the Indians
say, "Give it to me for a time (usually specifying duration), and I
will give it back."

Deaf-mutes use the same sign.

Bow. Conception : Bending bow to shoot. Bring left hand,
back to left, well out in front and little to left of body, left forearm
nearly horizontal, hand about height of left breast; close the fingers,
except index ; place the extended thumb on second finger, press the
index finger around end and sides of thumb; carry the closed right
hand, back nearly upwards, thurr.b extended, and pressing against
second joint of index finger, so that Ixack of second joint of this
finger shall rest against back of thumb of lef. hand ; then draw the
right hand little to right and well to rear, very slightly upwards.

Deaf-mutes, same.

The material used in making bows depends on the locality. On
our almost treeless prairies nearly every species of wood found is
brought into service. I was once with a party of Indians, and it
was desirable that we should have a bow. There seemed to be no
suitable material, but one of them found an old, broken ash wagon-
bow lying along side of the road. . It was taken into camp, greased,
warmed by the camp-fire, trimmed with their hunting-knives, slowly,
carefully, and skilfully bent into shape, and quite a shapely and ser-
viceable article was the result. Among the Plains Indians, bows are
made from oak, hickory, ash, elm, cedar, osage-orange, one or two
varieties of willows, plum, cherry, bull-berry, and otiier bushes, and
from the horns of the mountain-sheep and elk.

" The bow — the weapon so long in use among the different Indian
tribes of this continent, so typical of Indian life, and the mere men-
tion of which always associates our ideas with the red men — is made
of various kinds of wood, and its manufacture is a work of no little
labor. Even at this day the bow is much used, and although an In-
dian may have a gun, he is seldom seen without his long-bow, and
quiver well filled with arrows. The gun may get out of order, and
he cannot mend it; the ammunition may become wet, and there is
an end of hunting; but the faithful bow is always in order, and its
swift arrows ready to fly in wet as well as dry weather. Tlius reasons
the savage, and so keeps his bow to fall back upon in case of accident.

'• Until the invention of breech-loaders, it is a fact well known to
frontiersmen that the bow was a far more deadly weapon at close
range than the best rifle. A warrior could discharge his arrows with
much greater rapidity and precision than the most expert woodsman
could charge and fire a muzzle-loading rifle. . . .

"The Indian boy's first lesson in life is to shoot with a bow. He I
is furnished with a small bow and * beewaks,' or blunt arrows, so lie
will hurt nobody, and with these he shoots at marks. By and by,
when he has acquired some skill in handling his weapon, he is given j
small arrow-points, and with these he shoots birds, squirrels, and
small beasts. As he grows older he receives the long-bow, and at I

BO IV.

He
so he I
nd l>y,
given I

and
md at

la>>t the strong-bow. Tliese strong-bows are powerful weapons, and
I have seen them so stiff that a white man could not bend them
scarce four inches, while an Indian would, with api)arent ease, draw
thcni to the arrow's head, A shaft fired from one of these bows will
go through the body of a buffalo, and arrow-heads have been found
so firmly imbedded in the thigh-bones of a man that no force could
c;xtract them. Tlie jjarents take great pride in teaching young In-
dians to shoot, and the development of the muscles and strength
of their arms is watched with much interesl. A stout arm, orna-
mented witli knots of muscles, is a great lionor to an Indian, and
no one but those who can handle the strong-bow are deemed fit for
war.

"Of all the Indians of the West, the Sioux and Crows make the
bent bows. The Sioux bow is generally four feet long, one and a
half inches wide, and an inch thick at the middle. It tapers from
the centre or 'grasp' towards the ends, and is but iialf an inch wide,
and half an inch thick at the extremities. At one end the bow-
string is notched into the wood and made permanently fast, while at
the other end two notches are cut in the wood, and the string at that
end of the bow is made like a slip-knot or loop. When the bow is
to bo used, the warrior .sets the end to which the string is made fast
firmly on the ground, and then bends down the other end until the
loop slips into the notch. This is called 'stringing' the bow. The
bow is never kept strung except when in actual use, as it would lose
its strength and elasticity by being constantly bent. Wiien unstrung,
a good bow is i)erfectly straight, and, if properly made and seasoned,
will always retain its elasticity. . . .

" When the bow is made of cedar it need not be seasoned ; but all
other woods require seasoning, and are not worked until i)erfcctly dry.
Every tepee has its bovv'-wood hung up with the arrows in the smoke
of the fire, but well out of reach of the flames. A warrior with a
sharp knife and a sandstone or file can make a bow in three days if
he works hard, but it most generally takes a week, and sometimes a
month, to finish a fancy bow. When done it is worth three dollars
in trade.

" All the bows differ in length and strength, being gauged for the
arms of those who are to use tiiem ; but a white man would, until
he learned the sleight of it, find himself unable to bund even the
weakest war-bow. This has given rise to the impression tliat the
Indians are stronger than white men, which is an error ; for, although
only a slight man myself, I learned, after some practice, to bend the
strongest bow, and could send a shaft as far or as deep as any sav-
age. On one occasion I shot an arrow, while running, into a buffalo
so that the point came out on the opposite side; another arrow dis-
j appeared in the buffalo, not even the noich being visible. The
power of the bow may be bef^er understood when I tell you that the
most powerful Colt's revolver will not send a ball through a buffalo.
jl have seen a bow throw an arrow five hundred yards, and have my-
self often discharged one entirely through a board one inch thick.

BOW.

Once I found a man's skull transfixed to a tree by an arrow which
had gone completely through the bones, and imbedded itself so
deep in the wood as to sustain tlie weight of tiie head. He had
probably been tied up to the tree and shot. . . .

" When sinew is placed on the back of a bow the surface of the
bow is made perfectly flat, then roughened with a file or stone, the
sinew being (lipped in hot glue and laid on the wood. The sinew
is then lapped at the entls and on the middle or grasp of the bow.
The string is attached while green, twisted, and left to dry on the
bow. The whole outside of the wood and sinew is now covered
with a thick solution of glue, and the bow is done. Rough bows
look like hickory limbs with the bark on, but some of them are
beautifully painted and ornamented. I once knew a trader to glue
some red velvet on a bow, and the Indian paid him an immense
price for it, thinking it very wonderful.

" The Crows make bows out of elk-horn. To do this they take a
large horn or prong and saw a slice off each side of it ; these slices are
then filed or rubbed down until the flat sides fit nicely together, when
they are giued and wrapped at the ends. Four slices make a bow,
it being jointed. Another piece of horn is laid on the centre of the
bow at the grasp, where it is glued fast. The whole is then filed
down until it is perfectly proportioned, when the white bone is or-
namented, carved, and painted. Nothing can exceed the beauty of
thfse bo.vs, and it takes an Indian about three months to make one.
T'.iey are very expensive, and the Indians do not sell them ; but I
once managed to get one from a friend for thirf;y-two dollars in
gold.

" In travelling, the bow is carried in a sheath attached to the arrow-
quiver, and the whole is slung to the back by a belt of elk- or buck-
skin, which passes diagonally across the breast, and is fastened to
the ends of the cjuiver. The quiver and bow-sheath is generally
made of the skin of an ox or some wild animal, and is tanned
with the hair on. The quiver is ornamented with tassels, fringe of|
buckskin, and the belt across the breast is painted or worked with|
beads.

"To shoot with the bow properly, it must be held firmly in three!
fingers of the right* hand ; the arrow is fixed on the bow-string with
the thumb and forefinger of the left hand, and the other three fin-
gers are used to pull the string. The shaft of the arrow lays between!
the thumb and forefinger of the right hand, which rests over the
grasp of the bow. To shoot, the bow is turned slightly, so one endl
is higher than the other, and the arrow is then launched." {Belden.}

" I once saw an Indian ride alongside of a large buffalo cow
going at such speed that it required the best exertions of his veryl
fleet pony to overtake and keep up with her. Leaning forward onl
his pony, and drawing an arrow to its head, he sent it entirehj

* This description was evidently intended for a left-handed man.

BO il-STKIXG—BHA VE.

of the
ne, the
: sinew
e bow.
on the
covered
h bows
leni are
to glue
mniense

:y take a
lices are
ix, when
: a bow,
re of the
lien filed
ne is or-
beauty of
lake one.
ni ; but I
llollars in

through the buffalo just back of the foreslioulder, so that it fell on
the ground on the opposite side."

Bow-String. Make sign for Bow, then holding left hand in posi-
tion, touch the left index finger with tip of extended right, other
fingers closed, and carry right hand to shoulder, lowering the liand
and then raising it, tiie index finger passing under left arm ; the
left arm here rejiresents the bow, and the index traces the position
of the string. Some Indians hold the closed left hand, back down
and slightly to left, some eighteen inches in front of left shoulder;
bring the right hand, back up, fingers extended, touching, j)ointing
to front and slightly downwards, in front of right shoulder or height
of waist; move the hand to front and slightly downwards ; repeat-
ing motion. These gestures represent the holding of the material
in the left hand, and the right twisting the green or fresli sinew.
Should this gesture be made when seated, the palm of right hand
presses against '■urface of thigh.

Deaf-mutes make sign for Bow and indicate the string similarly to
the first description.

Bowl. Indicate the shape with curved hands, and denote material
by proper gestures.

Braid. (Hair.) Carry both hands to riglit side of head, and
make motion as though grasping hair and braiding same.

Brain. Touch the forehead with tips of extended first and second
fingers. The brains of animals mixed with boiled liver furnish the
Indians with tanning material. (See Tan.)

Brand. (Upon animals.) Close fingers of right hand except in-
dex, with it and thumb form a partial circle, there being a little
space between tips ; carry the hand to left shoulder, and press the
circle formed, as described, against it on the outer side; this
shows the animal branded on shoulder ; press against hip to indicate
branded there.

Brave. Hold firmly closed left hand about eight inches in front of
centre of body, left forearm horizontal and pointing to right and front,
back of left hand vertical and on line of prolongation of forearm ; bring
the firmly-closed right hand some six inches above and a little in front
of left hand, back to right and front and on line of forearm ; strike
downwards with right hand, mostly by elbow action, the second
joints of right hand passing close to and about on a line with knuckles
of left hand.

Sonie Indians hold left hand as I have described, but left forearm
pointing to right and slightly upwards; and the right hand is carried
more round the left and then down, when opposite forearm. Mr.
Girard, at Fort Lincoln, who is a fluent sign talker, held that the
former was used more in the sense of strong. The distinction is a
fine one, and few Indians note it, — using the same gesture exactly, as
a rule, for brave and strong.

The conception of the gesture comes from the signs for Hill,
Break, and Sit Down.

I believe there is no other gesture used by Indians who are thor-

-^UMMUkU

BRA VADO— BREAD.

oughly conversant with the sign language that is as flexible and pos-
sesses as mucli strength and character as this, for when added to other
signs it intensifies their descriptive powers wonderfully, adds to many
the superlative, gives heroic character to bravery, arrant cowardice
to timidity, makes an ordinary meal a feast, and of a fast starvation;
pleasure becomes bliss, and care most bitter sorrow. Pointing to a
man and making this sign would convey to an Indian's mind the
idea that he was brave, fearless, and this to them is the highest,
most perfect virtue, and creates not only respect, but positive rever-
ence. The gesture, as a rule, is used in this sense, but at times to
express opposite or antagonistic ideas. If an Indian visited another
tribe, was feasted, given ponies, robes, arms, and otlier presents, he
might finish the description with this sign : "He had a brave time;"
and Dull Knife, the Cheyenne chief, used it when he told me of his
escape from Fort Robinson, and subsequent journey of eighteen days
in an arctic climate with only one blanket and a few rosebuds and
snow to eat, — "brave" hardships surely. A good time becomes
royal, a bad time tastes strongly of wretchedness.

A boy is a swift runner, add this sign, and it intensifies the idea
of his fleetness. An old man walks slowly, add this sign, and it
conveys the impression that he can only drag his limbs along. This
sign is used as frequently with other gestures as it is by itself; it is
added to others to complete, perfect, and strengthen them. (See
Phrases.)

Deaf-mutes bring the closed hands sharply against breast, and then
push them outwards.

Bravado. Make sign for Fire, Talk, — i.e., little talk, — Straight,
or True, and No. One talks jfr^, but there is no truth in it ; some-
times. Fire, Talk, Brave Work, and Afraid. Talksyfri? bravely but
acts the coward ; />., talking fiercely, but there is no real bravery in it.
One Indian gave this to me as, "Behind in everything but lies;"
trying to get to be a chief by talk alone.

Bread. Make sign for Flour, then bring the nearly-extended
hands, palms together, in front of body, back of left down, right up,
hands at about right angles; turn tiie hands with a partial rotary and
swinging motion, bringing right under left as the hands are being |
turned; separate them slightly and join them with a gentle clap;
repeat motions.

Sometimes in speaking of loaves of bread as we make them, they
add signs for size of loaf, viz., bring both extended hands, palms I
towards and opposite each other, in front of body, fingers touching
and pointing to front, hands about as far apart as the supposed width
of the loaf (this sign is general to show the width or breadth of small
objects).

The Indians usually mix their flour with water into a dough,
sprinkling on some yeast powder, and then fry it ; and frequently!
the signs for this are made to represent bread instead of the onel|
have given.

Deaf-mutes indicate the working or kneading of the dough, and!

BREAK— BROAD.

tlicn holding left hand, back to left, fingers extended and point-
ing to front, in front of body; make motion of cutting off slices of
bread with lower edge of extended right hand, held back to right,
parallel to left, and some inches from it.

Break. Conception : Breaking a stick held horizontally in the
closed hands. Bring both closed hands, backs up, close together in
front of body, and at some distance from it, as though holding a small
stick horizontally in the closed hands; twist the right hand to right,
left to left, as though breaking the stick.

Deaf-mutes make the same sign.

Breech-Cloth, Carry right hand, back outwards, fingers extended,
toiK liing, pointing downwards and slightly to rear, below and little in
front of crotch ; raise the hand, keeping it close to and about parallel
to centre of belly.

Bridge. Bring both hands, back down, fingers extended, touching,
and pointing to front in same horizontal jjlane, in front of body,
arms horizontal and nearly extended, hands few inches ajDart. Fre-
quently the signs for Stream, or whatever is bridged, and Timber and
Work are first made.

Deaf-mutes make sign like Basket, but instead of making the loop
under left arm with index, make it with first and second fingers.

Bridle. Bring the spread thumb and index finger of right hand,
back outwards, other fingers closed, over the mouth parallel to face;
move the hand upwards, terminating motion wnen reaching a point
opposite the eyes. Sometimes the sign for Bit is made, and then
tlie side pieces are indicated by drawing the tips of index fingers
from corners of mouth up sides of face to temples. This latter is
about sign of deaf-mutes.

Bring. Move the right hand briskly well in front or to right or
left of body, index finger extended, others and thumb closed ; draw
the hand in towards the body, at same time curving index finger.

Deaf-mutes use the same sign.

British. Make signs for Coat and for Red. The Northern In-
dians call the Canadian or British subjects "Red-coats." Some-
times this only means the soldiers or policemen, and gestures for the
Queen's people are made to represent the Queen's subjects, calling
her the Great Mother.

Deaf-mutes cross the hands over the abdomen to indicate an Eng-
lishman.

British Line. (Boundary-line between United States.) The usual
signs among Northern tribes are for Road and Medicine. By such
as have seen or heard of the mounds that mark the boundary-line
proper signs are made to indicate them. Among the Sioux, Chey-
ennes, Blackfeet, Assinaboines, and some others, frequently the
gestures for Trees and Bluff are made, and then the extended index
of the right hand, other fingers and thumb closed, is drawn from
right to left in front of body, to represent a line; they calling it the
line passing through or near Woody Mountain.

Broad. See Big.

BRO THEK—BKOrnERlN-LA W.

Brother. Bring the tips of tlie extended, and touching, first and
second fingers of right hand against lii)s, back of fingers npand hori-
zontal, other fingers and thumb closed ; carry the hand some inches
straight out from the mouth, then make sign for Male. (See Kin-
ship.)

Among many tribes therr are brothers by adoption, and the tie
seems to be held about as sacredly as though created by nature.
One cold, wintry morning in the late fall of 1876, while yet the
gray shadows of darkness hovered mistily over crag and gorge, some
enlisted Indian scouts and regular troops charged down upon a hos-
tile Indian village sleeping in fancied security in a canon of the Big
Horn Mountains. One of these scouts, Three Bears by name, rode
a horse which became crazed by excitement and unmanageable, and
being wonderfully fleet, dashed with him, ahead of all others, into the
very centre of the hostile camp, where men, women, and children
were running in wild confusion, where bullets were flying thick and
fast, and where the hostiles were making a sharp resistance to pro-
tect their families. Feather-on-the-Head, another scout, seeing the
trouble his friend was in, dashed after him, urging his own fast pony
forward with vigorous strokes of the whip, at the same time throwing
himself from side to side of his pony to avoid the shots of his enemies.
Thus he followed Three Bears through the bushes and across the
stream, down among the tepees, and into the very centre of the vil-
lage, where Three Bears' horse had fallen dead, shot through the
neck. His rider had scarcely touched the ground when Feather-on-
the-Head, sweeping past, took him behind himself and bore him
safely away out of the valley of death. Feather-on-the-Head had
saved Three Bears' life at ihe risk of his own, and thenceforward
the two were much together, and became brothers by adoption.
Feather-on-the-Head never seemed to think he had done anything
very noble, and never boasted of it ; but keen-eyed, brave, loyal,
wiry little Three Bears deeply appreciated the service he had ren-
dered him, and there would have been glad sunshine in his heart if
an opportunity had presented itself for him to have reciprocated the
gallant action.

With some tribes — particularly with the Cheyennes and Arapahoes
— the brother and sister were allowed by social law to have only
limited social intercourse ; were not allowed to speak to each other
after reaching the age of puberty. If either wanted anything of or
from the other, they would ask a third party to make their request.

Deaf-mutes make sign for Male and same.

Brother-in-Law. Bring the left forearm, pointing to right and
slightly upwards, in front of and close to breast, hand back outwards
and either extended or closed; hold the right hand, back outwards,
fingers extended, touching, pointing upwards and to left, just in
front of left wrist ; strike downwards and to left with right hand,
terminating as the right hand passes beyond left elbow. The left
forearm is usually pressed against breast instead of being held near
it. (See Kinship.)

B A' 00 A— BUFFALO CALF.

Deaf-mutes make sign for Mai.f, and then hold left hand, back to
left, in front of body, fingers extended, touching, and pointing to
front; bring spread thnmb and index of right hand, other fingers
closed (sign for Letter L), and place them against left palm, index
horizontal, resting against centre of palm and pointing to front.
Tiiis is the Indian sign for With.

Brook. Make sign for River and Small.

Deaf-mutes make sign for Small Stream.

Brul6 (band of Sioux Indians). Carry the palm of extended right
liand near the right hip; move the hand in small circle parallel to
surface ; frequently the palm is jjressed against surface. The Sioux,
of course, do not know this French word, and call this band "Si-
Chun-goo," or "Burnt-Thighs."

I have heard several explanations as to how the band gained the
name, one being that a chief with quite a number of followers
started on the war-path. Securing some whiskey, they all got drunk,
and, lying down near the camp-fire, burned their t'lirrhs. Another,
that some Sioux, including a chief, were, when there v< is ice on the
ground, digging artichokes; brush was spread over ti'e surface and
set on fire to melt the ice and thaw the ground, so ihat they could
dig the artichokes. The chief pulled one out of he giuund, which
was very hot, and he thoughtlessly rubbed it against his 'hig'.i (which
was exposed^, and consequently burned himself; and h and his fol-
lowers .-no afterwards called "Burnt-Thighs." "he Bruie Sioux
are located at Rosebud Agency and at Lower Lruli ; the latter on
I. ^ Missouri River, about fourteen miles from Fort Hule, Dakota
Territory. The famous Spotted Tail was the chief of those at Rose-
bud. Those at Lower Brule Agency claim that tiiey separated from
the others quite a long time ago, and the trouble grew out of a
dispute about a woman. (See Sioux.)

Buffalo. Conception: Horns of buffalo. Bring the hands, palms
towards and close to sides of head, index fingers partially curved,
others and thumbs closed ; raise the hands slightly and carry them a
little to the front. This is the sign generally used for buffalo, regard-
less of sex or age, used as we use the word.

Buffalo Bull. To represent a buffalo bull, make the above de-
scribed sign, then bring the right hand, back up, in front of centre
of belly, close to it, index finger extended pointing to front and
upwards, other fingers and thumb closed. (Sign for Male.) The
sign for buffalo bull is also frequently made by bringing the com-
pressed hands 'from above downwards to near basis of brain, fingers
partially curved, so that tips touch tip of thumb, backs of hands
mostly up ; this represents the large horns of the bull.

Buffalo Cow. Make sign for Buffalo as first given, and then sign
for Female.

Buffalo Calf. Make sign for Buffalo, for Parturition, and hold
right hand, back up, fingers extended, touching, and pointing to front,
in front and to right of body at supposes height of calf; this latter
is general in representing height of all animals. Some Indians repre-

BUFFALO CALF.

sent a buffalo calf by holding hands closed, with the exception of
thumbs, which are extended and pointing upwards, close to the ears,
back f right hand to right, left to left ; by wrist action twist hands
simultaneously so that back will be to the front ; repeat motion. In
using this sign for buffalo calf, — the second described sign for buffalo
bull, — the first described sign for buffalo would then represent a buffalo
cow.

Some Indians make sign for the horns, and indicate dark or black
hair for buffalo.

Deaf-mutes indicate horns as in cattle, and then partially close
right hand and bring it, back out, against forehead, backs of bent
fingers, between first and second joint, resting against forehead ; rub
the forehead by circular movement of hand to indicate the curl of
hair presumed to grow on the forehead of the animal. (As a matter
of fact this hair does not curl ; I have seen it a foot in length and
straight.)

The great geographical area over which these animals ranged, their
countless numbers, their importance and necessity to hostile Indians
in the past, and their certain extermination in the near future, have
all led me to make close investigation into the uses made of every
part of the animal, and in condensed shape I give the result.

It is no exaggeration to say that many millions of buffalo have
been slaughtered by white hunters and tourists on the Plains merely
for the pleasure of killing these animals to gratify that innate craving
for destruction of life which all human beings seem to possess, and
at times for the tongues, which are a special delicacy. This wasteful
and wicked course has in many instances so irritated the Indians
that they have sought revenge by outbreaks and by killing innocent
settlers. Though I call the wanton killing wasteful and wicked, still,
as a force for the solution of the Indian question and viewed in the
accepted light of this necessity, the destruction has accomplished an
excellent result.

The Indians universally believe that the buffalo were made by the
Creator especially for their use, and certainly when they are plentiful
they can get along quite comfortably with very little else. When
one considers the uses made by them of the buffalo, both at tlie
present day and prior to the advent of the whites, one is not sur-
prised at the claim and belief. Of the skin they make robes, ledges,
lariats, ropes, trunks or par-fleche sacks, saddles, saddle-covers,
shields, frames for war-bonnets, gloves, moccasins, leggings, shirts,
hats, gun-covers, whips, quivers, knife-scabbards, Cradles, saddle-
bags, saddle-blankets, decorations for saddles, beds, bridles, boots, a
kind of sled for hauling the meat over the snow, and from the thick
part of the skin of the neck a glue is made by boiling and skimming.

Ropes and lariats are made from the scalp-lock, or long tuft on the
forehead, and pillows from the hair. From the horns, spoons, cups,
dishes, powder-horns, arrow-heads, bows, by splitting the longer horns,
and the tips are fastened to slender poles which are used in certain
games.

BUFFALO CALF.

From the fascia (thin tendinous covering which supports the
muscles, and by the interpreters called sinew), found under the
shoulder-blades, the abdominal fascia, the two strips on each siile
over the hump, and the strip on each side of back, tiiey make thread,
bow-strings, rope for softening robes by rubbing, fasten feather-guides
to arrows, and stiffen and make bows more elastic by placing on back.
From the thick ligament of the upper portion of nape of neck is made
a pipe. An instrument used to straighten arrows is fashioned from
the centre bone of the hump by cutting a hole in it, and from some
of the smaller bones arrow-heads are made, and an instrument for
"flushing," or scraping the meat from hides. From shoulder-
blades, axes, knives, arrow-points, instruments for dressing robes
and smoothing down porcupine-work.

The trachea is used as a sack for paints, etc. The rough papillse
of the tongue for hair-brushes. The brain, liver, and fat for tanning
skins. Instruments for shaping bows and small dog-sleds fiom ribs.
From the paunch, water-pipes or sacks, in which meat and blood are
sometimes cooked by boiling with heated stones, the latter being
dropped into the sacks.

From the thigh-bones, traps similar to our deadfalls. From *:he
tail, knife-scabbards, handles to war-clubs, and medicine-rattles. The
ydder, dried, becomes stiff and hard, and is used for dishes, tobacco-
bags, medicine-rattles, etc. The pericardium for sacks. Tiie gall is
sometimes used as a drink, and produces intoxication ; there is also
sometimes found in the gall a hard yellow substance, and this is
highly valued as a paint for the face.

The amniotic fluid, in which the foetus floats, is used by them to
quench thirst when water cannot be obtained, and is also generally
used to cook or boil the foetus in, the latter being specially prized
as a daint}' and delicate morsel of food. The marrow is eaten both
raw and cooked, being roasted in the larger bones by laying theni
on the coals.

The teeth are used for necklaces, and are also put in medicine-
rattles.

They consider the contents of the pauiich an excellent remedy for
skin diseases, and in case of frost-bite, if the afflictetl member is
thrust into the paunch of a freshly-kille<l buffalo, relief obtains with-
out evil after-effects. A very little buffalo fat is sometimes mixed
with the tobacco and red-willow bark for smoking. The liver is
oflen eaten raw, and while still warm with animal heat, the gall-juice
being sprinkled over it as a sauce. The kidneys are eaten both raw
and cooked. The meat, fat, and most of the intestines are staple
articles of food, and are kept for montiis by being simply dried in
the sun ; thi:. hump is considered particularly fine for drying. The
contents of !he paunch furnish food for ponies, and the liquid in
same, cleared by the gall, is prized for drinking, is cool and tasteless ;
i.e., devoid of any unpleasant taste.

The "buffalo-chips" are used for fuel, and before the days of flint
and steel and matches, were particularly good when dry for making

BUFFALO CALF.

a fire by the friction of wood. These "chips," pounded fine and
kept dry, are used to keep the small children warm, they being par-
tially buried in the powdered material. The value of these chips
can scarcely be appreciated by those who have not suffered for the
want of fuel on our treeless prairies.

The tanned buffalo-skin without the hair furnishes the best material
for tepees.

The only systematic effort ever made that I know of to specially
utilize the hair of the buffalo, as wool, is described by Mr. Donald
Gunn in his " History of Manitoba" :

" A new project was set on foot this year (1822), which, to some
extent, affected the interest of the infant colony. The plan formed
by the projectors was a joint-stock company bearing the novel title
of 'The Buffalo Wool Company,' consisting of one hundred shares
of twenty pounds each, with provision for increasing their stock at
any time. Mr. John Pritchard was placed at the head of the new
company. His calculations seem to have been based on the suppo-
sition that the requisite articles — wool and hides — could be had for
the trouble of picking them up.

" The express objects of the company were as follows :

" ist. To provide a substitute for wool, as it was supposed, from
the numbers and destructive habits of the wolves, that sheep could
not be raised nor preserved in Red River, at least to any extent.

" 2d. The substitute contemplated was the wool of the wild buf-
falo, which was to be collected on the Plains and manufactured both
for the use of the colonists and for export.

"3rd. To establish a tannery for manufacturing the buffalo-hides
for domestic use.

"It was the chairman's belief, to quote his own words, that 'to
accomplish these important ends neither much capital nor much
skill was required ;' biit others thought differently of the project,
and were assured that much would depend on economy and proper
management. Nevertheless, the capital, amounting to two thousand
pounds, was no sooner placed to the credit of the new company in
the Hudson's Bay Company's books than operations were com-
menced with great activity and confidence. All the buffalo-hunters
were enlisted in the enterprise ; the men were exhorted to strain
every nerve to preserve hides, and the women were encouraged to
gather all the wool they could find by the promise of a liberal price
for all they would bring to the manufixctory. An establishment
worthy of the Buffalo Wool Company was erected in the heart of the
settlement, and the possession of a certain quantity of the requisite
materials was judged to be all that would be necessary to insure the
success of the enterprise. At the time of whicli we are writing the
buffalo were in great numbers a few miles south of Pembina, and a
multitude of people, composed of the various races in the land, had
congregated to hunt these animals during the winter months; and
in the spring, when the hunters returned to the settlement, a trifle
of wool and a considerable number of hides were delivered at the

BUFFALO CALF.

factory. But it was now found out that wool and hides were not to
be had for the picking of them up, for the wool cost something, and
the price of a hide ranged from eight to ten shillings sterling, and
before the hide could be freed from the wool it had to undergo the
different operations of soaking, heating, and pulling. All the avail-
able hands in the place, male and female, were called into operation.
The men and lads manipulated the hides, and it is well known that
an expert hand at ])ulling the wool could gain from six to ten
shillings per day. Even boys thought themselves ill compensated
for their labor at anything less than four or five shillings per
diem. Female labor was neither overlooked nor undervalued, as all
who could spin were invited to the factory to receive wool to make
into yarn, lor which labor they were paid at the rate of one shilling
per pound. Thus we find that the industry of the colony had not
only been stimulated, but also turned into a new channel, in which
it found money or credit in the Hudson's Bay Com[)any's books,
neither of which they could have realized from the produce of their
farms. This affair enabled the settlers to obtain a little money at
the right time. A small herd of domestic cattle was brought in this
summer on speculation, and, arriving at this juncture, were eagerly
competed for by the few who had money or credit, and sold at
highly-remunerating prices ; good milch-cows sold as high as thirty
pounds each, and oxen trained to work sold for eighteen pounds
each.

" It may be interesting to observe here that these were the first
cattle ever brought from the United States to this settlement, and
the first the colonists owned since they left their native hills. Here
we must inform the reader that operatives were introduced from
England, consisting of wool -dressers, furriers, curriers, saddlers, and
harness-makers; likewise an outfit of goods was procured, and a
store opened in the establishment for the convenience of those
carrying on the work. Some leather and cloth had been manufac-
tured, but they could not compete favorably with similar articles
brought from Europe, and, unfortunately, rum formed a considerable
portion of the outfit, and it was well known that drunkenness and
disorder prevailed in the establishment to a fearful extent. Hides
were allowed to rot, the wool spoiled, the tannery proved a failure,
and, although the concern dragged on until 1825, it was apparent to
the most cursory observer that its progress was from bad to worse,
and when its affairs were finally wound up, it was found that they
had not only expended their original stock of two thousand pounds,
but were indebted in the amount of five hundred pounds to their
bankers (the Hudson's Bay Company). This heavy loss Iiung for
some years over the heads of the stockholders, until the Honorable
Hudson's Bay Company lelieved them from their responsibilities by
cancelling the debt."

There are many stories told in regard to the buffalo, and promi-
nent among them, from its wide circulation in the North and the
general confidence in it, is that of a buTalo cow killed near Slim

BUFFALO, WHITE.

Buttes, Dakota, some twenty-five years since. On cutting iier open
to taite out the foetus, an old woman, wrinkled and gray, was found.
All the bands of Sioux, and some of the adjacent tribes, were called
to the sjjot to see the phenomenon. I was told that Lean Dog, now
at Standing Rock Agency, was the Indian who killed this cow. Very
reliable Indians have told me this story, and insisted that they saw
the monstrosity. The Arapahoes also insisted that a few years ago
they killed a buffalo, about two years old, near the Big Horn Moun-
tains, which had only one eye and that in the centre of its forehead.
Among some tribes the first buffalo killed by a young man was the
occasion for a special religious ceremony and feast. Mr. Dunbar
thus describes this among the Pawnees:

" The entire animal was carried to the lodge of some prominent
person, who thereby became master of the feast. He invited in a
dozen or more old men to feast with him and assist in the observance
of the occasion, and other special guests ; they began at sunset ; the
meat was cut in small pieces and set over the fire to boil, except tiie
heart and tongue, which were carried without the lodge and burned
as a sacrifice. While the meat was boiling and the sacrifice was
burning, the medicine-bundle was taken from its place, opened, its
contents inspected and placed out in due order, various ceremonies
were performed over them, puffing smoke over them, stroking them
with the hand, talking or i)raying to them, etc., by members of the
company ; speeches were then made by certain of the old men, the
burden of whose remarks was laudation of the slayer of the buffixlo,
the master of the feast, etc., and finally a prayer was offered. The
meat having thoroughly cooked meanwhile, was apportioned among
all present, each of whom had opportunity to gorge himself to the
utmost. After the eating, the sacred things were gathered together,
replaced in the bundle, a:id suspended again in place."

Before the introduction of guns many devices for killing buffalo
were resorted to. They were lured over precipices by a decoy ; i.e.,
an Indian disguised as a buffalo, who, when the herd was stampeded,
would run towards a precipice, the herd following. Natural en-
closures were strengthened by fallen timber, and the animals driven
into them.

I have seen Indians send arrows entirely through a buffalo, the
arrows passing through tiie body, just back of the foreshoulders, and
falling to the ground from the side opposite its entrance. I have
been told that Indians have been known to kill from a herd three
buffalo in quick succession with but one small-headed arrow. The
Indian would ride alongside the buffalo, and, leaning forward from
his pony, drive the arrow to the heart of the animal, pull it out, and
on to the next. Such a feat, as iny be imagined, required nerve,
strength, and activity, as well as a very fleet pony.

Buffalo, White. This animal has furnished dreamers or medi-
cine-men of the different tribes with the material for many of their
mythical stories, and, though wonderfully rare, it yet does exist,
and is like any other buffalo, except that the hair is of a brownish-

BUFFALO, WHITE.

white color. I secured the skin of one in 1879, near Fort Keogh,
Montana. In nearly all of their myths in regard to it, the animal
is given the power of transforming itself into some other shape, — a
white iiawk, a gray fox, or, more commonly, a beautiful woman pos-
sessed of supernatural powers. The most interesting of these myths
to me, perhaps because I knew the Indian who they claimed held the
gift of the goddess, was related to me first by a Cheyenne, and after-
wards by the Sioux chief at the agency where the sacred pipe pos-
sessing the mysterious power was kept.

"Long ago, many years before the Sioux had ponies, many gen-
erations before the whites crossed the wide waters, two young men
were sent out from the Sioux camp in search of buffalo. In their
wanderings they espied a beautiful young woman, who was more fair to
look upon than any of the Sioux maidens. One of these young men
was wise and good, his heart was brave and strong ; the other was
foolish. The Intter said, ' Here is a beautiful young girl on the
prairie alone ; let us overpower and enjoy her.' Tiie young man of
sense said, ' No, that would be wrong ; this is a holy woman.' They
were as yet some little distance from her, and she had attracted their
attention by singing. After making signs to her she approached, and
Icnowing the conversation which had passed between the young men,
she said, ' I am alone and in your power.' In spite of the protests
of his companion the foolish young man, crazed by his passion,
forced her to the ground, when a great mist or fog suddenly arose,
enveloped them, and spread over the prairie, and the air was filled
witli terrible and hissing sounds. As suddenly as it came tlie fog
lifted, and it seemed to take with it numberless rattlesnakes. Then
the wise young man saw the woman standing near him, and between
her and himself the ghastly bones of his comrade, from which the
flesh had been entirely consumed by the rattlesnakes. Tlie woman
then said to the surviving young man, 'You are wise, brave, and
good; I have taken pity on you and your people. This young man
was wicked, and he has suffered the fruit of his own misdeeds. Go
and tell your people that I know that they are poor, and that I will
take pity on them.' The young man returned to Cc.mp and told
what he had seen and heard. A large lodge was pitched in tiie
centre of the camp. The beautiful woman had followed the young
man, and as she approached the village she was met by the medicine-
men and carried on a blanket. It was noticed that when she was
first seen, and while being carried on the blanket, she held a pipe high
in the air and pointed towards the sun. A large fire was built in tlie
tf.,v-« . circle after circle of men, women, and children formed out-
side, and a great circle of fires was also made round the lodge. All
eyes were on the beautiful woman. She said, '1 have taken pity on
you; have brought you four things which will be good f(jr you, viz.,
tobacco, red robe, white shield, and war-bonnet of eagle's feathers ;
and I have also brought you this sacred pipe, which will tell you by
its increased weight when buffalo are near and plenty.' She then
presented the pipe to the chief medicine-man of the Sioux, accom-

BUFFALO-ROBE— BUR Y.

panied with much good advice, and at once, from the very midst of
the fires and the people, mysteriously vanished from sight.

" This holy pipe, which has been handed down from father to son
for so many generations, is now in charge of Elk-Head, a Sans Arcs
chief, living at Standing Rock Agency, on the Missouri River. It is
kept carefully wrapped up, and few people are allowed to see it.

" The beautiful woman was a white buffalo, who took that shape to
give them this pipe. The pipe had, and still possesses, wonderful
power to assist in getting buffalo. The first use that the Sioux
made of it was to move in a large circle. No animal could cross
the magic line thus made, and seven Crow Indians, happening to
be within the circle, were killed with the rest of the game; an ear
from one of these enemies was cut off and glued on to the stem of
the i)ipe, where it still remains.

" VVhen game is scarce, the ceremony of the white buffalo is even
now practised. It is a rude imitation of the original as traced in
this story."

Buffalo-Kobe. Make sign for Buffalo and for Blanket ; some-
times sign for Hair is made before sign for Blanket.

Deaf-mutes make sign for Buffalo, for Skin, and sometimes indi-
cate wrapping about shoulders.

Bull-Berry. Make sign for Berry, for Tree, and then strike with
lower edge of extended right hand towards the tree, as though
knocking off the fruit.

Burn. Make sign for Fire, then represent whatever was destroyed
or injured by the fire, and the manner and extent will usually suggest
itself. If one wishes to say that he was burned by the fire, say liis
clothes and flesh, make sign for Do to Me and Bad ; then carry ex-
tended hand, fingers separated and pointing in the direction which
the flames took, in a wavy, tremulous motion, over the surface of
parts where the flames went ; and if very badly burned add sign for
Brave. Sometimes the signs for Fire and Kill are made when a
person has received bodily injury from a fire; the sign for Kill
being made, of course, towards the part burned.

Deaf-mutes make sign for Fire and explain.

Bury. Make sign for Wrap, then make sign for Dig, and droj)
the compressed right hand, back down, into the imaginary hole; or
hold the extended and separated first and second fingers of each
hand opposite each other and about rix inches apart, in front of
body, palms towards each other, tips of extended fingers slightly
higiier than shoulder ; then place the tips of first and second fingers
of right against tips of first and second of left hand, holding them
horizontally, backs up, keeping left hand in its original position ; draw
these fingers horizontally to right some inches; then turn the com-
pressed right hand, back down, and lay it on the horizontal lines drawn
by first and second fingers of this hand (from finger-tips of first and
second fingers of left hand).

Deaf-mutes indicate being laid away and covered over.

In olden times, and to some extent at the present day, four or five I

BURY.

skins, robes, or blankets were spread out and the corpse laid on them ;
if r. cliild, its childish possessions, toys, and little things were placed by
its side ; if a man, his bow and arrows, shield, war-bonnet, rifle, am-
munition, paint, some tobacco and pipe, his weapons for the chase and
war, and his instruments for peace were carefully wra])ped up with the
remains, and round the whole stout cords were tied.

Sometimes, if a chief, his favorite war-pony would be led to his
tepee just as he was breathing his last, and as the spirit took its flight
the pony would be shot, that he might ride to the spirit land. At
other times one or more ponies would be led to the grave, and after
the remains had been securely fastened to the limbs of some tree, to
poles placed in the ground or hidden away in the rocks, according
to i.ie manner of burial, the ponies would be killed. As a rule the
older men and women of the camp prepare the remains for burial.

The Mandans bury with the head towards the east, and do not
kill ponies. The River Gros Ventres bury in the ground, or on
poles, according to wishes expressed just before death. They do
not take food to the grave.

The Assinaboines usually buried on scaffolds or on trees ; some-
times in a lodge, if a chief. Before possessing ponies they killed
dogs at death of prominent persons : frequently all the dogs that
belonged to a chief.

The Comanches prepare the remains carefully for burial, and then
the funeral cortege must move directly east or west from the camp to
the burial-place, which may be a gulch, cave, or a hole dug in the
ground. Bow and arrows, knife and whetstone, pipe, tobacco, flint
and steel, and a goodly quantity of personal property are buried with
the male corpse. With the women are buried their implements for
dressing robes, etc. The lodge is burned to destroy the memory of
the grief at their loss.

Mr. Clarke, the interpreter at the Wichita Agency, told me that a
Comanche chief, called Be-a-repepsa, had, at the time of his death,
which occurred in 1865, near North Fork of Red River, an immense
herd of ponies, and two hundred and eighty-five white ones were
killed for him to journey to the land of the Setting Sun ; and an-
other, called Prairie Fire, who died in 1875, '^^*^' "^'^^ hu'^ired and
fifty killed for his spiritual herd.

The Caddos bury in the ground, and keep a fire burning at the

I grave for six days and nights after burial. They carry water and

food in small vessels and place them near the grave. They claim

that it takes six days for the spirit to get home. They do not kill

[ponies at the death of chiefs or other persons.

The Apaches also bury in the ground in very deep graves, and in
leaves, and with the deceased bury some of his personal i)roperty.
[The saddle is excepted, and the remainder of his effects are burned.

Relatives cut off hair and fold it with the corpse.

The Kiowas are not particular about the direction of grave from
Icamp, but they dig it twelve or thirteen feet deep. When a Kiowa
lis killed while out on the war-path, he is not burie*' in the ground,

BUY— BY nSELF.

but is wrapped up and left on the prairie, or, if near timber, is fast-
ened among the branches of a tree. Sometimes, if no near kin hap.
pens to be with war-party, and through neglect the remains were not
buried, they are afterwards sought out, and, even if nothing but tiie
bones remain, they are wrapped up and placed among the brandies
of a tree or up on poles. Very rarely, however, the remains are
brought to camj) and there buried in the ground. 'I'hese Indians
believe that the spirits of tlieir strongest medicine-men return to
their camps even years after death, and communicate with the living
through their friends. Sometimes tiie spirit returns as an owl, and
imparts information as to the location and intentions of their enemies,
gives warning of danger, etc.

The Sacs ind Foxes bury in the ground, and in former times used
to place the corpse in a sitting posture. They made only a slight
excavation, and then built heaps of earth, sods, or stones over it.
They admit that very many years ago they often buried in trees.
Sometimes a pony, fully caparisoned, was led to near a dying chief's
lodge, and the lariat put in his hand. At the death the pony was
shot, and the equipments afterwards, taken away. They never burned
or destroyed personal effects.

The Poncas bury above-ground, and distribute personal property
to kinsfolk.

The Nez Perces buried in the ground, in rocks, etc., and some-
times, in travelling, threw the remains in tiie water.

Among the Blackfeet the remains are buried very soon after death,
Those effects which the deceased was fond of are i)ut with the corpse;
whatever is left is seized upon, so "that the kin are only left with
their grief."

Buy. Make sign for Money and Exchange.

Deaf-mules make sign for Money, for Giving, and for Receiving.

By and By. Same as, Behind (sense of time). Some Indians
make sign for Wait.

Deaf-mutes bring extended right hand, back to right, in front of I
and close to right shoulder, fingers pointing to front; move the |
hand to the front on slight curve.

By Itself. Hold the extended right hand, back down, well in I
front of right breast, fingers pointing to front ; mostly by wrist action
move the hand few inches to left, rather sharply, as though cutting
with edge of hand, hand returning to position with life, and repeating]
motion two or three times.

This is a metaphoric idiom of the language, used in connection I
with other gestures. A gift with this sign becomes a free gift ; no
return gift expected ; sometimes called a "prairie gift." A killing
with this sign becomes a murder; no excuse for the killing. Death
becomes fainting, etc. The gesture means also aione, solitary, an
action uninfluenced by any other action.

CACHE— CADDO.

Cache. The usual sign is simply to indicate a hiding away, by
carrying right hand under left, as in Hide; but the Mandans and
otlier tribes, who store away the fruit of their agricultural labor in
small jug-shaped holes in the ground, carefully concealed and covered
over, make in addition the sign for digging a hole, putting something
in it and covering it up.

Deaf-mutes make the same sign ; their sign for Hide or Conceal
being only slightly different.

Caddo. Same as Nez Perce.

The agent in his report for 1881, dated at Anadarko (named after
a former band of Caddos), Indian Territory, gives the number of
these people at five hundred and fifty-two.

From personal investigation among these Indians, I learned that
the known migrations of their tribe only show that about the year
1819 they were living in Lauisiana, near Natchitoches, on the Red
River. From there they rioved to Texas, near the Clear Fork of
Brazos River, and from there to their present location on the Washita
River in 1859. Mr. Du ibar says of them, "At the date of the
Louisiana purchase the Caddos were living about forty miles north-
west of where Shreveport now stands. Five years earlier their resi-
dence was upon Clear Lake, in what is now Caddo Parish. This
spot they claimed was the place of their nativity, and their residence
from time immemorial. There they had long been known to the
French traders, who had a factory among them. Soon after the an-
nexation of Texas they settled upon a reserve provided for them by
the government on the Brazos River, just below Fort Belknap. It
would seem that their migration from Louisiana, for whatever cause
undertaken, must have been slowly accomplished, for they are re-
ported to have tarried upon one of the tributaries of the Sabine
River sufficiently long to leave it the name of Caddo Fork. They
have a tradition that they are the parent stock, from which all the
Southern branches have sprung, and to some extent this claim has
been recognized."

They are very dark-colored, and rather below medium height.
Formerly wore the scalp-lock, and a large ring in the nose, from
which they gained the tribal sign. The Wacos, numbering about
two hundred and six ; the Keechies, seventy-seven ; and Towa-
conies, one hundred and fifty-one, have for many years lived near
the Caddos ; in fact, present tradition claims that they originally
came from the same country. They, however, speak different
languages, or at least different dialects. They all use the same
conical-shaped grass-lodge as the Wichitas. In regard to their crea-
tion, they at present claim to have come out of the ground near

CALL— CAMAS.

Caddo Peak, Indian Territory. As one of the chiefs said to me,
"There was an opening in the ground, and as each one came out
a handful of dirt was picked up and placed at this point, and the
mountain was made." They believe that after death they return to
near the peak, and again go inside the earth : but they travel to this
place by a trail high in the air. Some of them bclif ve that the jour-
ney takes six days, and during this time a fire must be kept burning
at the grave (remains are placed in the ground), and some food and
water must be left in vessels near it. "Big Man," chief of the
Caddos at the agency, a bright, intelligent, and prosperous Indian,
who dresses in citizen's clothes, has cultivated fields, and a good log
house, told me that, when they lived in the East, they did not under-
stand the sign language, but they learned to talk in this way from
the Prairie Indians. Said he, " When we first met the Keechies, we
talked partly by signs and partly by vocal language. They knew
gesture speech first. As we adopted the signs, of course they are
like the rest ; i.e., like tliose used by other tribes."

Call. Bring back of index finger of right hand, others closed,
against or near the mouth, back of hand to right and rear, index
finger curved, its tip pressed against thumb, which is nearly ex-
tended ; raise the hand upwards a«d outwards, at same time extend-
ing index finger with a snap. This sign is used in giving the name
of an object called so and so, or to ask the name of an object. For
the latter, first make the sign for Interrogate or Question. The
conception arises from the custom of calling out names in an Indian
village. Each camp or band has a crier, who, whenever there is to
be a council, walks about, throws his head back, and calls out very
loudly the names of those who are requested to assemble; or of any
one man or chief who is wanted ; or when any special information, or-
ders, etc., are to be communicated, it is done in the same way. The
words are thrown outwards and upwards over the camp.

Deaf-mutes cross the index fingers in <"ront of body, others and
thumbs closed (like the Indian sign for Trade), and then move their
hands, held in this position, to front on slight curve. The first is the
sign for Name, and the movement of hands denotes the action.

Camas. Conception : Curved stick used in digging the root.
Partially curve the index finger of right hand, others and thumb
closed, and make motion downwards, as though thrusting stick in
the ground. Sometimes signs for Eat, Good, and perhaps signs to I
denote the blue flower, are made.

This root has been one of the staple articles of food for the She-
shones, Bannacks, Flatheads, and adjacent tribes. The high moist |
mesas of the Rocky Mountains furnish large tracts of camas prairies,
where these Indians annually congregate, dig, and prepare the root for I
use. Excavations are made in the ground, a fire is built in the hole,
and flat rocks are heated and put on the bottom and sides. A thin
layer of leaves and grass is put on the rocks, and the hole filled with
camas-roots, which are then covered with grass, leaves, bark, and
stones, and usually a fire is built on the top of the pile. It requires

6V/ MP— CANNON.

about three days to properly cook tlie roots in this way. The an-
nual gathering of camas occurs in June and July, when it may be
considered as ripe. Late in the fall the roots are at times prepared
by boiling. This tuber is very nutritious.

Camp. Make sign for Tepee or Lodge; then bring both hands
about fourteen inches in front of centre of body, hands opposite,
and palms towards each other, fingers and thumbs partially curved,
fingers separated slightly, forearms nearly horizontal, wrists a little
higher than elbows, about two inches space between tips of thund)S
and tips of *ingers of right and left hand, thumbs and index fingers
forming an incom])lete horizontal circle ; lower the hands simul-
taneously and briskly some inches, mostly by elbow action.

To indicate the size of the camp, give the number of lodges, or
make sign for Tepees; sign for Small, if there are few lodges, and
Many, if a large camp. If an unusually large village, add sign for
Trees; the idea being that the tips of the tepee-poles look like a
forest.

To express the idea of going into camp, the sign for Tepee
in the first instance is not made, and sometimes only the sign for
Sleep is made. The description I have here given refers to tepees,
lodges, tents, or people in camp or bivouac ; and the same sign is
used to denote a village or city of white people, the sign for House
being made instead of tepee.

Candid. Make signs for True, for Day, and Good, conveying the
idea of openness and clearness like the day; truth and goodness.

Deaf-mutes use the same signs.

Candle. Hold left hand, back to left, well out in front of left
shoulder, index finger extended and pointing upwards, others and
thumb closed ; make sign for Fire (at the tip of left index); then
mark off with lower edge of right hand or with extended right index
on left forearm the length of a candle, measuring from the tip of
left index.

Deaf-mutes make a similar sign, sometimes also holding the tip of
left vertical index near mouth and blowing at it, as though extin-
guishing the flame of a candle in that way.

Candy. Make sign for Sweet or Sugar ; then hold left index
vertically in front of body, other fingers and thumb closed, and
with the tip of right index indicate on left the stripes of different
colors..

Deaf-mutes make the same signs.

Cane. Conception : Old man walking with stick. Bring the
right hand fixed as, and in the position of. Old ; then move the
hand slightly to front, also raising it a little; then lower it to about
same height as when starting ; repeat motion.

Deaf-mutes make the same sign.

Cannon. Conception : Large gun. Make sign for Gun, and for
Large.

Sometimes the signs for Distant and Discharge are also made ;
a second shooting or explosion ; this latter rather indicates a large

CANNOT— CARDS.

gun firing shells. Some Indians make an incomplete vertical circle
with thumbs and index fingers to denote the bore of the cannon.

Deaf-mutes hold left hand, back to left, in front of body, index
finger alone extended and pointing to front; the right hand, index
alone extended, is brought over left, right index vertical and tip
resting at ))ase of left index ; move right hand sharply to front,
right index tip pressing against side of left index finger. The signs
for size of gun and for iron are sometimes also made.

Cannot. Make signs for Worh and for No. The following is a
better sign used, not generally, perhaps, but by those who are thor-
oughly conversant with gesture speech, viz. : hold the left hand, back
to left, fingers extended, touching, and pointing to front, well out in
front of left breast, left forearm about horizontal ; bring tip of ex-
tended index finger of right hand, back up, against centre of left
palm, this finger perpendicular to its surface, other fingers and
thumb closed; then move right hand to right some inches, as though
rebounding after tip strikes left palm, keeping index finger about
horizontal and in line of its prolongation from first i)osition. This
sign is used in the sense oi impossible, and its conception seems to he,
will not go through. Some Indians make sign for Behind (sense of
time), drawing hands well apart,, and dropping them, as in Tired
or Age.

Deaf-mutes hold extended left index horizontally in front of
body, pointing to front, other fingers closed, and drop right hand
from above down on to it, and as left index is uck it bends and
allows right to pass ; sometimes only right inde Irops on left.

Canoe. Make sign for Boat, and then ho i compressed and
curved right hand, back down, outwards in front of body, to denote
the curved prow.

Deaf-mutes make sign for Boat and then signs for paddling same.

Canon. Conception : High bluffs or mountains on either side.
Bring both closed hands, palms towards and opposite each other, in
front of body, and little higher than shoulders, forearms nearly
vertical, hands about six inches apart. Sometimes signs to denote
Cut or precipitous banks are also made.

Deaf-mutes use the same signs. A winding cut through mountains I
is sometimes indicated by holding extended hands in front of body]
and opposite, about four inches apart and palms towards each other,
fingers pointing to front; move the hancls, keeping them at samel
distance apart, simultaneously to front.

Cards. Hold nearly-closed left hand in front of body; carry
right hand near to it, and make motions with right hand as though
dealing out the cards to several persons. The king is distinguished
from the jack by coloring the head-dress of the former yellow, the
latter red.

Indians are passionately fond of gambling and have adopted some I
of our games with cards, which they play with modifications, thel
result being that it is generally a mere question of luck, and not of I
skill.

CAR 'I RIDGE— CHARGE.

Deaf-mutes hold left hand in front of body, as thougli liolding a
"hand of cards," and then, with right near left, make motion of
arranging same; sometim s also making motions of throwing down
cards taken from left thumb.

Cartridge. Hold rigiu hand, back nearly up, in front of body,
index fmger extended liorizontal and pointing to front, other fin-
gers closed ; thumb pressing against side of index, with tip just back
of second joint, represents metallic cartridge now in use. Some-
times signs for Gun and .Shoot are also made.

Cartridge-Beit. Make sign for Belt, ami then, fixing right hand
as in Cartridge, carry the index finger to right side, and make mo-
tion as though putting it in the loops of belt.

Cat. Cone :ei)tion : Flattened or turned-up nose, Ering closed
right iiand, back to right, in front of face, thumb resting on second
joint of index finger, nose touching; tip of thumb and second joint
of index ; twist the hand upwards anil very slightly outwards, mostly
by wrist action, nose still touching thumb and index. Frequently
the size of the animal is added.

Deaf-mutes indicate the moustache, stroking an imaginary one
with tips of fingers and thumbs right and left on upper lip.

Cattle. Conception : Spotted buffalo. Make sign for Buffalo
and Spotted. Some Indians only indicate straighter horns by not
curving the index fingers as much as in buffalo ; and some make sign
for tame buffalo ; i.e., buffalo working side by side under a yoke.

Cavalryman. Make sign for White Man, for Soldier, and for
RiDK. Frequently the signs for the yellow stripe on trousers are
made.

Deaf-mutes make signs for Soldier and Ride.

Cent) . Bring hands in front of body and make a horizontal
circle with thumbs and index fingers, other fingers closed ; then,
still holding left hand in this position, bring right hand from above,
and place thi; tip of extended right index, other fingers and thumb
closed, in centre of the horizontal circle first formed ; the right index
is held vertically and points downwards. (See also Middle.)

Deaf-mutes make the same signs.

Certain. Make signs for I, Know, and Good, A quick, vigorous,
and decisive manner of making the gesture is also necessary.

The sign for True is also made. The latter is tie gesture used by
deaf-mutes.

Charge. To charge against others. Hold the closed hands,
backs up, near the right shoulder ; move the hands briskly to front,
slightly to left and trifle downwards, at same time opening hands, ex-
tending and separating fingers.

Charge. Sense of others charging against or towards one. Hold
the nearly-closed hands, backs down, a few inches apart, in front
and little to left of centre of body, hands about height of shoulders ;
move the hands briskly, mostly by wrist anti elbow action, in towards
the body, turning backs upwards and to front by bending wrists
towards forearms, at the same time extending and separating the

CHE A T—CHE YENNE.

fingers, having them point at about lower portion of face, tips being
a few inches from it at termination of movement. The conception
seems to come from gathering together, making a rush, and scattering
out. The sign is used to designate troops, Indians, l)uffalo, or any-
thingthat could make a charge, and frequently metaphorically; as, the
wind or the water came charging against us. (See Attack and
War.)

Deaf-mutes make a similar motion, but do not close the hands j i.e
start with fii.gers extended and separated.

Cheat. Ex])lain in what way, and then make signs for Kill, Lit.
and Steal. To cheat is to 7vin by lying and stealing.

Deaf-mutes niake sign similar to Southern Indians' sign for Trade,
only the right hand jjasses outside of left and then under it, — "an
underhanded exchange. ' '

Cherries. Conception: The 'fruit hanging on the tree. Make
sign for Tree, then iiold tlie right hand, back up, well out in front
of and little higher than right shoulder, fingers and thumb separated,
hand allowed to drop down by its own weight, held loo'sely at wrist ;
shake the hand a little to right and left, giving it the naturally trem-
ulous motion when shaken in that way and held thus loosely. Witl'
most signs for Fruit the gestures for Good and Eat are added.
The signs for fruit are at times difficult to understand and frequently
require explanation.

Deaf-mutes make sign for Tree, color and size of fruit.

Cheyenne. There are two distinct conceptions for the sign for
this tribe, and each is supported by evidence. The first conception,
and I think the best, or rather the more correct one, is from the ens-
tom which formerly obtained, and still exists to some extent, of cnt-
ting or slashing the wrists and arms. The second one is from the
peculiar manner of striping their arrows.

Hold the left hand, back upwards and slightly to left, in front of
left breast, index finger extended horizontal and pointing to the
front, others and thumb closed ; bring the right hand, back outwards,
opposite and little above left, index finger extended horizontally and
pointing to left, others and thumb closed, right index pointing to
left and upwards, its second joint above left index : lower right hand
so that right index rests on left, and then draw the right hand briskly
to right and downwards ; repeat motion two or three times, some-
times moving right hand after each movement towards body, as
though slashing wrist and arm.

Pictographically, the Cheyennes are represented like the Sioux and
Arapahoes ; i.e., with the hair combed down sides of face, braided
and wrapped with otter-skin or otlier material, and long scalp-lock
hanging down behind.

The tribe of Indians known by the name Cheyenne speak an en-i
tirely different vocal language from any of the nations surrounding]
them. The word evidently came from the Sioux Sha-ey-la, or Sha-
en-na, and, according to the Indian explanation, was given them l)y|
the Sioux because they first met a Cheyenne who wore a robe painted

CHE YENNE.

red and had his body painted the same color; ska being tlie fjioux
wort! for red, and la simply a diminutive, sometimes used, it would
seem, only for euphony. I made a very careful inquiry in regard
to the derivation of the word, and obtained only this explanation
from the best informed of the Cheyennes and Sioux. In conversa-
tion, however, with the Reverend A. S. Riggs recently on this sub-
ject, he informed me that the Sicux called any language they under-
stoo'l a white, and any they did not understand a red, language, in
a letter received recently from him he says, "In regard to the red
language or red-talkers, I would write Shaw -ee-a- yah, Sha-ee-a-la,
Sha-ee-a-na. The third syllable is surely there, tiiough in rapid utter-
ance it may not be plain. Written in Dakota it is

I \ a sufifix of not well-determined meaning, j-a being

TSantee: la, Teton : fia, Yankton,
na 3 ' ' ' '

rSa; I.e.,
- Red-talk;

(.
'1 his view of the case would seem to derive support from the name

given the Crees, though the Teton-Sioux pronounce the word for
these Indians Sha-eya, as nearly as I can ".rite it phonetically. The
usual explanation, and the only one 1 ever heard of prior to my
investigation, viz., that it came from the French word Chien, and on
account of the Cheyenne soldier being called dog-soldier, is not, I
think, correct. I made a special study of the organization of the
soldier bands of tlie different tribes, and found that these Indians
gave no greater prominence to this band than do other tribes. (See
Soldier.) They call themselves Sa-Sis-e-tas, and one Cheyenne
claimed that this word meant " the cut or slashed arms;" but I could
not confirm this, and was unable to secure any satisfactory explana-
tion of the meaning of the word. It would seem to mean, like most
words for tribal names, simply people or the people. Some of their
traditions and myths would seem in a very faint way to point to their
location as far east o.s Niagara Falls, but there is no evidence of migra-
tions westward from any place beyond the head-waters of the Missis-
sippi in Minnesota, near the ])resent site of St. Paul, and nothing
ill their vocal Jar.guage or customs whicii would justify any assertion
of a more easttin origin. I was at first inclined to think that the
great prominence given to their myths and stories in regard to the
first buffalo, some of them commencing with " before we had buffalo,"
etc., indicated that it must have been at a comparatively recent date
that they reached the buffalo country ; but as the same stories are told
with more exactness, even in regard to the bow and arrow, I was
compelled to give up any theory or views I held on the subject and
accept as a fact th'^ answer made by a very old man and former chief
(he was seventy-nine) to my cjuestion as to where they were before
they lived in Minnesota: "The Great Spirit made us riglit there!"
Occupying then the country at the head-waters of the Mississippi
several hundred years ago, they were slowly forced westward by the
Sioux, perhaps southward by the Mandans, the latter being driven
from the north by the same power which pressed upon the Sioux, viz.,
the great Algonquin family, assisted in later years by French arms.

lOO

CUE YENNE.

It is more than probable that this migration was due in a measui-e to
and determined by their search for game, as traditional evidence in
regard to their relations with the Sioux and Mandans is not clear and
conchisive. (Lieutenant Bailey, Fifth Infantry, obtained, from what
is considered a reliable source, information which went to show that
the Sioux and Cheyennes were never regularly at war, but had fre-
quent misunderstandings and difficulties with each other, and that the
Cheyennes met the Mandans two hundred and two years ago, as they
— the Cheyennes — crossed the Missouri River. For several years
they were at war with the Mandans, after this made peace, and have
maintained peaceable relations ever since. Before the whites com-
menced making war against these tribes they frequently camped
together, and many Cheyennes and Mandans intermarried.)

At any rate, they left the wooded country and drifted into the
plains, where they were joined by the Arapahoes, and, about two hun-
dred or two hundred and fifty years ago, reached the Missouri, and
crossed near the mouth of the Cheyenne or Good River, as they call
it. A i)ortion of the Arapahoes, now called Gros Ventres of the
Prairie, refused to cross, and going to the northwest joined the
Blackfeet. Before commencing this movement it would appear that
they lived in permanent villages, contiguous to their cultivated
fields, and went out for their annual hunts like the Pawnees, Man-
dans, and other tribes who live in dirt-lodges. It is impossible to
locate the time when they first saw a white man, but I give their tra-
dition for what it is worth. They never had many ponies until after
they reached about the present site of Fort Meade, near the Black
Hills. The Crows then roamed near the head of the Little Missouri
River, and the Powder and Tongue River country. The Kiowas
and Apaches were southwest of and near the Black Hills, while the
Pawnees occupied the Lower Platte valley. Some claim that the
Arapahoes first secured a pony; others, that a Mexican gave one to
one of their chiefs. Be that as it may, the Cheyennes, soon after
their arrival near the Black Hills, heard of the tribes who had ponies.
and of the wild horses on the plains to the south. They gave up
farming and apparently 'vent into the business of driving the Crows,
Kiowas, and Apaches out of the country, catching wild ponies, and
stealing them from the tribes to the south and west who had tliem.
They claim at this time to have had anywhere from three to five
thousand lodges. I was informed by an interpreter, who went to the
Cheyenne camp some thirty years ago as a trader, that at that time
they had about fifteen hundred lodges. Keeping in a northwesterly
direction, they drove the Crows before them, took possession of the
country, and roamed about near the head-waters of Little Missouri,
Powder, Tongue, and Rosebud Rivers, going at times to the mouth
of the Rosebud, but not crossing the Yellowstone, except above the|
mouth of Tongue River. They did not neglect the Kiowas ar
Apaches, but forced them south, between the Pawnees and numeroiij|
other tribes to the east, and the Utes to the west, until they joined
the powerful nation of Comanches in the far south. In the mean|

Cheyennes (th
apart. We ui
people. We v
and they won
time. We wc
language and
Four chiefs I
for their bravei
A grand coun
sometimes niak
Four sticks wc
i»g the four he,
ivho at differen
to go and brin|
"■ere not alrea(
ground near tl
men, and held
"■liile the pipes
of the four be
•^e, as they say,
only one was It
"i;i<ie. An ele
elect one or tv
of" minor impor

CHE YENNE.

lOX

after
)onies,
e up I
rows,
and I
tlu'iii.
live I
to the
It time
esterly
of the I
ssouri,
mouth I
ve the
and
iierous|
joined
mean I

time the Arapahoes had separated from them (thougli always re-
maining friendly and frequently joining them in offensive and de-
fensive warfare), and had gone farther into the mountains. Peace
hail been made and broken numerous times with the Sioux, but about
eighty years ago a permanent and lasting one was effected. As a
Cheyenne said to me, " For many years we were at war with tha
Sioux, particularly the Wychayelas (this includes all the bands of the
^/and n dialect of Sioux). Peace would be made ; they would hold
out the pipe to us, and smilingly, and apparently with sincere in-
tentions, say, 'Let us be good friends;' but they time and again
treacherously broke their ])romises. We made a peace, which was
unbroken except by one battle about the time we first got guns."

About fifty years since a partial separation of the tril)e took place
on a tributary of Tongue River, due to a desire of a portion of the
tribe to go with a trader who was with them, and also to increase
their supply of ponies by trade and theft from the tribes to the south ;
a permanent separation was not made until some twenty years later.
Speaking of their migrations from tiie Black Hills to tl-.e Big Horn
^Iountains, and from there to the Platte and Arkansas Rivers, Whirl-
wind, of the Southern Cheyennes, said to me, " We roamed around
that country, moving down to the White Earth and Platte Rivers.
The time of the great gathering on Horse Creek (near Fort Laramie,
Wyoming Territory), when all the tribes got together, — Crows,
Snakes, Arapahoes, Sioux, — all up there, — and goods were distributed
to us, may be taken as the time when we separated from the Northern
Cheyennes (this was between thirty and forty years ago). We drifted
apart. We used to come together at times, but not just like one
people. We would go north and live with the Northern Cheyennes,
and they would come and live vvith us ; but this was only for a short
time. We were like two different tribes, only we spoke the same
language and had the same habits and customs."

Four chiefs formerly ruled the Cheyenne camp. They were selected
for their bravery, wisdom, good judgment, and generosity to the poor.
A grand council was called, and a large tent pitched to hold it in ;
sometimes making this council-lodge out of several common tepees.
Four sticks were driven in the ground, inside the lodge, represent-
ing the four headmen of the tribe. Four very old men, usually those
who at different times had held the position of chief, were selected
to go and bring in the four men who were to be made chiefs, if they
were not already present. Four pipes were filled and placed on the
ground near the sticks ; these were taken up and lighted by the old
men, and held to the newly-made headmen, who took a few puffs
while the pipes were still in the hands of the old men. Should one
of the four be killed, die of disease, or, through public sentiment,
be, as they say, thrown away, the other three acted, and so on until
only one was left, when a council was called, and four others were
made. An election ^ this can so be named, was never called to
elect one or two, bu. always four. These four decided all matters
of minor importance, and they usually selected one of their number

I02

CHE YENNE.

to act as head-chief. Any questior; of vital imi)ortance, such as de-
claring war or making peace, was decided on in a general council.
At the election only a few prominent men from each of the soldier
bands were present ; they had five such bands, viz. : Strong Heart
(sometimes called Crazy Dog and Bow String), Dog Fox, Smooth
Elkhorn, and Swift's Tail.

Black Pipe, who was bent and withered with the wear and exposure
of seventy-nine winters, and who trembled like some leafless tree
shaken by the wind, but of sound mind and memory, related to me
the following story; "Long ago the old men had a tradition that
some disease or disaster killed off nearly all the Cheyennes. Whore
this happened our tradition does not say ; but only a few lodges, some
three or four, were left. Our oldest stories located the Cheyennes on
a large lake, and a stream running from this fell to a great depth.
This waterf'.il made constantly a loud noise. The stream ran to the
east, and 'vas beyond the Big River." (I have some doubt as to
whether he meant the Missouri or Mississippi, but am inclined to
locate the place as Minnehaha Falls, Minnesota.) " Before falling it
v^as narrow, then suddenly was wide. A great mist rose to the sky,
and a loud, rumbling noise was constantly made. One day, when
encamped near the lake, two of our young men, handsomely painted
and gaudily dressed in skins and furs, approached the camp and said
that they had something of importance to communicate, and asked
that the camp move to the falls, and put up near the falls a large
council-lodge. An unseen force, a mysterious influence, seemed to
hang over the camp. The women took down the tepees nervously ;
the men were restless and impatient; even the dogs were agitated,
and gave more trouble in packing than usual. After making the
request the two young men disappeared, and were not seen till the
camp, laid out in a great circle near the falls, was made. A huge
council-lodge was pitched near the falls, and then the two young
men, more peculiarly and brilliantly dressed and painted, reappeared.
They went to the water's edge, plunged in, and disappeared under
the falls, — seemed to go into the solid rock as they vanished from
sight, — and the mist rose higher and the noise was louder than before.
After some little time of anxious suspense the young men reappeared.
They rose up out of the mist and water, and on reaching the shore
it was observed that they held their hands closed, and one of the
young men had something red in one hand. They repaired to
the council-lodge, where, in obedience to the calls of the criers, all
the men, women, and children had congregated. The young men
asked for large plates (only those made of stone were used at that
time), which were brought. One of the young men opened his right
hand over the plate, and it was immediately piled high with dried
buff"alo-meat. The plate was passed round, emptied, and refilled
in this way, until all had eaten enough. He then opened his left
hand and supplied them with tobacco. The other young man
opened his hands. In one was a pipe, in the other seeds of corn,
tobacco, melons, etc. After the feast and smoke the young men

CHE YENNE.

103

sail! that these things had been given to them by an old woman in a
cave under the falls, who told them the Great Spirit had left these
things with her for their use, and that when they smoked tlie tobacco
they must hold the pipe towards the Great Spirit, who gave it to
them, and towards the earth, that supplies the nourishment for the
plant."

Running through all the stories, legends, and myths of the Chey-
ennes, the number four seems to possess a magical influence for good
luck. Four halts are made before they charge in the preliminary march
of tlie Sun-Dance, four times is the covering to the medicine sweat-
house raised, and four winters they starved, according to the following
story, which was often repeated as a warning against quarrelling :
"Long, long ago an old man and a young man got into a dispute
over a buffalo-skin, and the old man knocked the younger one sense-
less with the leg of the buffalo. Near by was a fire, upon which an
old woman had placed a large clay kettle filled with water and buffalo-
meat, around which a large number had gathered. When the young
man fell the kettle was upset, the water ran out over the fire, creating
a great deal of smoke, steam, and dust. During the disturbance the
young man disappeared ; was not seen again for four winters. At
the end of that time he appeared on an eminence near camp, having
a i)uffalo's lower jaw fastened to each heel, and holding a peculiar
lance in his hand. As soon as he was discovered he again disap-
peared behind the hill. In a very short time he appeared on the hill
again with a different kind of lance, and a bunch of hair tied to each
leg (the long hair that grows on a buffalo). He disappeared a second
time, and again reappeared with a small, round war-bonnet, one with
no trail, and with a painted stripe across his body, which was naked.
He again disappeared, and again reappeared with a different lance in
his hand, a buffalo's head for a head-dress, and some of the skin
hanging down from this on each side. He then disappeared, and
was not seen for four winters. In the mean time gaunt, fierce-eyed,
wretclied, and cruel starvation seized the Cheyenne camp ; all game
disappeared ; roots and berries did not grow. Some were so hungry
that they ate dirt.

" One day in the early spring some little boys were out hunting
with hungry eyes, digging with wasted hands for sometliing to eat,
and finding some mushrooms, devoured them. Whilst tiiey were
eating these the young man appeared to the boys, having in his hand
four arrows, and told them that as they were hungry he would give
them something to eat. Taking some dried buffalo-chips, he pounded
them uj) and handed the mass to the boys. It was dried meat pounded
fine. He then told the boys to go to the camp and tell their people
to pitch a big lodge with the door towards the rising sun, and that
when this lodge was pitched he would show himself to them; he
would go into the lodge and sing to them, and would again bring
game into the country about them. The lodge was pitched, the
young man appeared, the boys recognized him and cried out, * There
comes the man!' He came towards the lodge, around which the

I04

CHE YENNE.

people of the camp crowded, crying and holding their hands up
towards the Great Spirit. He walked round the people to the left,
and entering the lodge at the door, remained within for four days
and nights singing ; at the end of the fourth night he unrolled tlie
arrows which he had in a bundle, and immediately after the buffalo
swarmed about camp, 'ellowing and pawing the earth, some even
went into the big lodge, and were there killed. The young man then
said that he was going away, but that before he went he wanted a very
beautiful young woman who was in the camp. The woman was given
to him, and he went away, and has never been seen since. Our people
thought he got these sacred arrows from Bear Butte, and that he went
back there. Game was plenty, and roots and berries grew in abun-
dance, and many kinds of fruit that before this time we had known
nothing about.

*' Before going away the young man told us many things, explained
to us how to live, and said that, instead of being one of our people,
he was a God, and was one of those who had gone into the cave to get
the meat, corn, and tobacco. He said that there were people in a far-
off country, where the sun rises; that he made those people, and that
they were his; that after a time we would see and meet with them;
that they would come to our country ; that there were a great many
of them, and they would overpower us, would kill our game, eat and
destroy our fruit, and finally they would g^t so numerous that we
would find them on every stream. He toici us that the big gaiae
would come from the north, where it was cold, and ponies fiom the
south, where it was warm. He told us to eat wild fruits and wild
game, and in that way we would be healthy and happy. He told us
that the people who came from the rising sun would have a different
kind of food, and said that this would not be as good for us as what
we would find on the prairie."

White Bull, one of the Indians present when the story was told
me, here said that it made his heart 'leavy and sad to think of these
things, — the spoliation of his country, the driving away of all the
game, and the crowding out of existence of his people. Once they
were happy, had a country of their own, game and all that they
wanted to make them happy ; now they were poor and broken and
separated, and some of their people had been sent away to die in a
strange land.

The story of the first white man seen by the Cheyennes, though
possessing no special merit, still throws some light upon Indian
thought, and gives their version of the treatment the whites received
at their hands. "Long ago," said Black Pipe, "the Cheyennes
were camped near some lakes beyond the Missouri River ; they made
fire with two sticks, which was hard work. The women used porcu-
pine-quills for needles in sewing. We had stone vessels to cook in,
stone knives and stone points to our spears and arrows. The Great
Spirit had given us the bow and arrow to kill game with. One
morning a Cheyenne and his wife, awakening from their sleep, saw
a strange creature in their tepee. The woman was frightened, and

CHE YENNE.

I OS

was about to cry out, but was quieted by her husband, whilst the
strange being slowlv and feebly arose to a sitting posture. He was
so thin that he had scarcely any flesh on his bones, and for clothing
had only some moss and grass. He was very near death. This
creature looked something like a Cheyenne, but he had a white skin
and a strange language. The Cheyenne gave him something to eat,
but at first he was so weak and exhausted that his stomach would not
hold it, yet after a little while he got stronger. The Cheyenne told
his wife to keep the matter a profound secret, as some of the others
might kill this strange being, believing he would bring them bad
luck; but, as the camp was moving one day, the others discovered
him, and there were a great many talking at once about him and of
him. The Cheyenne in whose lodge the man had been found said
that he had taken him for a brother, and if any one harmed him he
would punish them ; and that he believed the Great Si)irit had sent
this man to them to do them good. Well ! The Cheyenne clothed
him, fed him, and so led him back to life. After a time the man
learned to talk our language a little, and to make signs so that he
could be understood ; and then he told his story. He said he came
from the land of the rising sun, and that his people were powerful and
numerous, and had many good things which the Cheyennes did not
have ; that he, with four others, had started out to trap the beaver,
and when on the lake in a boat the wind came up suddenly, over-
turned the boat, and drowned the others; and that he had wan-
dered about, living on beaver, until all his clothes had been worn
and scratched off, when, in a blind and dazed condition, nearly dead
with hunger, he had wandered into their camp and fallen into this
lodge. He said his people were fond of beaver fur, and that if we
would get some, a number of dog-loads, and give to him, he would
go to his people and give them the fur, and get in return needles for
the women to sew with, knives to cut with, guns to kill game with,
and steel to make a fire with. The furs were gfven him, and he,
with his dog-train, departed, and was gone nearly a year, when one
bright, sunshiny day a loud noise, like thunder, was heard near the
camp, and on a bluff near the village the white man was seen. He
distributed the things he had brought, — knives, needles, steel, and
showed us how to use them ; as well as the black powder and hollow
iron with which he had made the noise that sounded like thunder.
This man wore at the time a red cap and red coat."

At the present time the three bands of Cheyennes are widely sep-
arated. There are now about five hundred held as prisoners of war,
at or near Fort Keogh, Montana. Some of them are the ones who
surrendered there, after the Sioux and Cheyenne war of 1876, and
the rest are a part of the band which broke away from their agency
ill the Indian Territory in the fall of 1878, and were captured in
Montana in 1879. These are self-supporting. At Pine Ridge
Agency there are about two hundred and fifty, who were recently
sent there from the Indian Territory, and at the Cheyenne and Arap-
ahoe Agency the agent reports four thousand nine hundred and

io6

CHE YENNE.

four for 1 88 1. As a tribe they have been broken and scattered, but
in their wild and savage way they fought well for their country, and
their history during the past few years has been written in blood.
Innocent settlers have suffered cruel outrages at their hands ; women
and children have gone down to horrible deaths through their re-
vengeful rage, and burning houses have lighted their pathways of
devastation. They in their turn have been hunted like wolves, and
shot down like mad dogs, until they are now only a wreck of their
former greatness. Perhaps these savage and cruel wars, witii tlieir
attending horrors, were but the legitimate fruit of bad policy and
mismanagement of Indian affairs, or wilful indifference to or mis-
understandings of the conditions and circumstances of the Indians,
and their relations to the Government, which in times past has too
often permitted dishonest agents to be the intermediaries between
the Government and them, and through weakness or cowardice has
at times paid more heed to the clamors of rapacious i lers and set-
tlers of the white race than to treaty obligations and plighted faith
with Indians. At any rate, it seems certain that the Cheyennes were
at first friendly to the whites, and that they subsequently became one
of the greatest terrors of the frontier. The men of the Cheyenne
Indians rank as high in the scale of. bravery, energy, and tenacity of
purpose as those of any tribe I have ever met, and in physique and
intellect they are superior to those of most tribes and the equal of
any. Under the most demoralizing and trying circumstances they
have preserved in a remarkable degree that part cf their moral code
which relates to chastity, and public sentiment has been so strong
with them in regard to this matter tiiat they have been, and are still,
noted among all the tribes which surround them for the virtue of
their women.

In dress a.id general appearance they differ but little from tlie
Arapahoes and Sioux. Their vocal language is difficult to acquire,
and is noticeable for the rapidity with which orators can articulate in
making their speeches and harangues. It literally flows forth a con-
stant and swift stream. I have heard no Indian tongue that com-
pares to it in this respect, except perhaps the Nez Perce. In the deg-
radation of their barbarism, in many of their revolting customs, and
in their faith we can find much to condemn, but a close study of
their character, at peace and at war, will reveal much to admire. It
has often been asserted that the fiendish cruelties and terrible tortures
whicli have at times been inflicted by Indians upon theit unfortunate
and helpless captives has been, and is, the practice of all Indians.
The Cheyennes make war as terrible as possible to their eiicini^.s, and
when influenced with the passion of revenge, tender infants and
pleading women go down before the same war-club that crushed the
skulls of dead fathers and husbands ; but there is no good evidence
that captives have been burned at the stake, flayed alivv^, or any other
excruciating torture inflicted on prisoners captured by these fierce,
war-loving, and enterprising barbarians. Sickening mutilations of
the dead have characterized all our Indian wars, and this tribe has,

CniCKEiX— CHIEF.

107

ill common with all others, in this Wviy vented their savage and
impotent rage.

Chicken. (Domestic.) Make sign for Bird, sign for Red, and
l)ass the extended right hand over the top of the head, to indicate
the comb. The signs for Egg, Eat, and Good are also sometimes
made,

I liave given only a few words of this character, as it will readily
he seen that the sign must necessarily be of quite recent origin.
Some seem necessary to show how, as well as the ease with which
signs are coined and understood.

Deaf-mutes make sign for Bird, and then scratch left palm with
tips of fingers or nails of right hand, — a scratching bird.

Chief. Conception : Elevated ; rising above others and looking
clown at them. Hold right hand back to right, index finger ex-
tended and pointing upwards, others and thuml) closed, in front of,
higher than, and little to right of right shoulder (hand about on line
with front of face) ; raise the hand some little distance higher than
head, and as hand is being raised, carry it over in front of face;
when hand reaches highest point, turn index finger so as to bring it
vertical, pointing downwards. The index finger is raised, turned
and lowered about as an arrow fired straight up in the air would go.
The Blackfeet, Flatheads, Crows, and some others raise the index
vertically, pointing upwards after the above sign. This movement
properly means the head-chief of a tribe. I have seen the signs made
for tlie man who wears the medal to denote the chief, but this only
by Indians who were not conversant with gesture speech. Any
officer, civil or military, is called a chief; non-commissioned officers
are represented as small chiefs, or by marking lines on arm to denote
chevrons. Some Indians claim the conception of this sign to be,
"Rising above all others and standing solidly on the ground."

Deaf-mutes swing extended right hand, back up, in horizontal
circle in front of body, little higher than shoulder. This means a
commander or ruler.

The position of ciiief was not hereditary, but all other things being
equal, the son of a chief secured the position made vacant by the
death or age of his father. They elected no one to absolute com-
mand, but the general direction was left open to the strongest will
and most persuasive voice. Running through every organization
was a public sentiment which gave its own tendency to affairs. The
government rested upon the popular will, and not upon the arbitrary
sway of the chiefs; but with the Indians as with the Romans, the
two professions, " oratory and arms," established men in the highest
degree of personal consideration. The form of government. neces-
sarily incident to the nomadic and hunter state is that of chief and
follower, and formerly the powers of the chief were much greater than
at the present day, because they had better opportunities to display
the qualities which secured them the position, viz., bravery at war,
skill in hunting, and generosity at home ; so that from the position
of a leader of braves on the war-path, whose authority extended but

io8

CHIEF.

little further than to be " foremost in danger, most ctnining in
strategy, and bravest in battle," they, at times, became despotic
rulers of their tribes or bands ; but, even then, excessive indulgence
in arbitrary power was sure to be followed by a destructive tide of
public opinion, which swept into obscurity or killed the offender.
After contact with the whites the tribes frequently had several chiefs
for each tribe or band, viz., war chief, trading chief, and council
chief; the war chief being considered as the head-chief. Frequently
at the agencies a man is put forward to do the business for the band
who really has little influence, and is given the place by the Indians
tlirough some real or fancied ability on his part to deal with the
agent. I found among all tribes about the same answer to my ques-
tion as to how one of their number could become a chief, which
was, that the greatest warrior, the one who went constantly to war,
stole ponies from all the adjacent tribes, got guns and weapons,
brought home the trophies of war, was generous, big-hearted, and
brave, they would stand in awe of such a person, his word would be
law, and all would accord him the i)osition of chief.

Mr. Dunbar says of the Pawnees, that " the government of each band
was vested nominally in its chiefs, these ranking as head-chief, second
chief, and so on. In ordinary matters the head-chie'' consulted his
own pleasure in directing the affairs of the band. ' At other times
he was assisted by a council called for special deliberation. In the
exercise of this authority they were generally mild, but when occasion
required, if persons of energy, they could be rigorously severe. In-
stances have been known where life has been taken to secure obe-
dience. A person persisting in wilful insubordination was pretty
sure of at least a sound beating. Many of the chiefs used their in-
fluence steadfastly for promoting the welfare of their people, often
making great personal sacrifice to that end, and proving themselves
in reality the fathers of their people: Such chiefs exerted great
power over their bands. On the other hand a chief was sometimes
only such in name, being surpassed in actual influence by those
of no recognized rank. The office itself was hereditary, but au-
thority could be gained only by acknowledged personal accomplish-
ments. Chiefs, when able, gave presents to their people freely,
but were not accustomed to receive any in return. They were
also, so far as possible, expected to jTrovide food for the destitute in
their bands. Hence a chief frequently had about him a considerable
number of persons whom he fed, and in compensation used very
nearly as servants. These parasites were usually among the most
worthless of the tribe. While under the chief's eye they were toler-
able, but in his absence their true nature instantly reappeared. Any
stranger who had occasion to visit the tribe was sure on his departure
to be waylaid by them, and, if not too strongly guarded, to be, under
some specious pl6a, subjected to heavy tribute ; and, in case of re-
fusal, grossly insulted, and perhaps injured. In such doings their
dependence on the chief was used by them as a cloak for most arrant
villainies. It is, no doubt, to this class of persons almost entirely

CHIL D—CmPPE VVA.

109

due that the Pawnees have acquired so generally among the whites
wliohave been in casual contact with them an unenviable notoriety
as a tribe of vagrants and thieves.

"Besides their usual functions, chiefs were often called upon to
arbitrate in personal differences between members of their respective
bands. Their decision in such cases was accepted as final. The
government of the tribe was exercised by the concerted action of tlie
chiefs alone, or assisted by tribal council. Until recently the Xau'-i
have held the precedence, their head-chief outranking those of the
other bands."

Child. Conception : Parturition and height. Bring the right
hand, back outwards, in front of centre of body, and close to it,
fingers extended, touching, pointing outwards and downwards ; move
the hands on a curve downwards and outwards ; then carry tlie right
hand, back outwards, well out to front and right of body, fingers
extended and pointing upwards, hand resting at supposed lieight of
child ; the hand is swept into last position at the comjjletion of first
gesture. In speaking of children generally, and, in fact, unless it is
desired to indicate height or age of the child, the first sign is all that
is used or is necessary. This sign also means the young of any
animal. In speaking of children generally, sometimes the signs for
different heights are only made.

Deaf-mutes make the combined sign for male and female, and then
denote the height with right hand held horizontally.

Indians are very fond of their children, and treat them, as soon as
they are able to understand anything, with the greatest respect and
consideration. They very rarely whij) them, and no children, I
firmly believe, are happier than these little dirty, half-clad specimens
of humanity.

Indian mothers nurse their children about as long as the child
wants or desires this method of nourishment, sometimes until it is
four or five years of age, and in the mean time another child may
have sprung into existence. This practice accounts, in a measure,
for the small number of children usually born to Indian women.
Their babies do not cry as much as white babies, as they do not get
what they want by simply crying for it. As a rule, they are
healthier.

Some tribes have regular story-tellers, men who have devoted a
great deal of time to learning the myths and stories of their people,
and who possess, in addition to a good memory, a vivid imagination.
The mother sends for one of these, and, having prepared a feast for
him, she and her little " brood," who are curled up near her, await
the fairy stories of the dreamer, who, after his feast and smoke, en-
tertains them for hours. Many of these fanciful sketches or visions
are interesting and beautiful in their rich imagery, and have been at
times given erroneous positions in ethnological data.

Chippewa. There is no well-known generally-used tribal sign for
the Chippewas, but I have seen several different ones employed by
different tribes to denote them.

CHIPPEWA.

The Assinaboiiies call them the Bad Talkers, and sometimes the
same as the Crees, — " Rabbit People."

The Sisseton Sioux call them " the peo|)le by the fast-running'
water," or, "people who live near the falls," and, as a tribal siyn,
simply make a wavy, tremulous motion with right hand.

The Uncapapa Sioux call them Sore Faces, and I think the Chey-
ennes call them " the people who have long hair, and who live in
the woods by the lakes."

Appro])riate signs for each of these names are made, and the loca-
tion of the tribe usually added.

Mr. Charles H. Hcaulieu informs me that the Chippewas, or, more
properly, the Ojibways, received their name " from the peculiar
style of moccasins once worn by them, and which were gathered or
laced in folds on the face of the moccasin."

The country bordering on the St. Lawrence at the time of Chani-
plain's arrival at Quebec (1607) was occupied by bands of Algon-
quins, who were engaged in a bitter war witii the Iroquois Confed-
eracy. An alliance was made with the French, and by this means
the extension of the Iroquois Confederacy to the north was checked.
In their emigration westward from La Pointe, on Lake Superior, the
Pillager band seems to have been in advance, and they reached
Leech Lake, Minnesota, about one hundred and fifty years ago.
The name of this band, like most of the others of the Chippewas, is
of modern origin ; it means "taking openly," and came from rob-
bing a trader of his goods. Tlie other bands, known as White
Earth, Red Lake, Pembina, etc., have received their names from the
French, or from the lands occupied by them when treaties have been
made.

In their migration westward the Chippewas not only had to con-
tend with the Sioux, but with their re'itives, the Sacs and Foxes,
who joined the Sioux against them.

"The war between the two tribes' was b. dy in the extreme, and
carried on with all the cruelty of savage w "'•e. Captives were
taken and burnt by fire. This custom originau ' in the following
manner : A noted warrior of the Ojibways was onv. ^ taken captive
by his own nephew, son to his sister, who had been captured and
married among the Foxes. The nephew, to show his people his ut-
ter disregard to any tie of relationship with the Ojibways, planted
two stakes in the ground, and taking his captive by the arm, tied his
feet and hands to the stakes, remarkin.; ' that he wished to warm his
uncle by a good fire.' He then buili up a large fire, and after
roasting one side of his victim, he '.urned the other to the blaze ;
when the naked body had been burnt to a blister, he untied him,
and letting him loose, told him ' to go home, and tell the Ojibways
how the Foxes treated their uncles.'

"The uncle recovered from his fire-wounds, and in a future excur-
sion succeeded in capturing his nephew. He took him to the village
of the Ojibways, where he tied him to a stake, and taking a fresh
elk-skin, on which a layer of fat had purposely been left, he placed

CHIPl'EWA.

Ill

it over a fire until it I)ecame one immense blaze, and then throwing
it over the naked shoulders of his nci)lie\v, remarked, * Nephew, when
I was in your village you warmed me before a good fire ; now I, in
return, ^":;ive you a mantle to warm your back.' The elk-skin, <overed
with fat, burnt furiously, and crisping, lightetl around the body of
his nephew a dreadful mantle tiiat soon consumed him. This act was
au'aiii retaliated by the Foxes, and death by fire soon became custom-
ary with both tribes." (^Warren.)

Their traditions wouUl seem to indicate tliat at first they were at
peace with the Sioux, but, as they say, " trouble commenced al)out
a woman." One was killed, — they cannot say whether by the Chip-
pewas or Sioux, — but it led to a war which was prosecuted with an
intense bitterness, even for savages, with scarcely a respite until (a
few years since) the Government authorities interfered. As one of the
chiefs said to me, "The Great Father finally took notice of our wars,
and called a council, not only of the Sioux and my people, but of the
Winnebagoes, Sacs and Foxes, and Menomonees, and said we must
stop. He set apart our country. Since then there have been wars,
hut we iiave gained no benefit. Before this forced peace we secured
the country. We have had no wars for about ten years, througii the
President giving ns agricultural implements. He said, ' Lay aside
M al|iing-knives and guns, and take ploughs and hoes and till the soil !'
We are pleased with the new life; we are at peace, and visit one
another ' as brothers' !"

Their agency in Minnesota is located at White Earth, though there
are sub-agencies and schools at the reservations of Leech Lake and
Red Lake. The Pembina band drifted into the prairie country some
years since, and adopted many of the ways of the Plains Indians.
They are located at present on nnceded lands, near Turtle Moun-
lin, and receive, I believe, no assistance from the Government.

The agent in 1880 reported three thousand five hundred acres of
land under cultivation, but this, of course, includes land cultivated
hy the French half-breeds, or mixed bloods, who are very numerous.
He gives a total population of six thousand one hundred and twenty-
six in his report for 1881.

This reservation possesses greater possibilities in an agricultural
way than any I have ever seen.

At Mackenzie, Michigan, the agent reports a total population of
nine thousand seven hundred and ninety-five. The Menomonees, at
Green Bay, and Chippewas, at La Pointe, Wisconsin, are given at
six thousand six hundred and nine.

Colonel C. H. Beaulieu, at present a trader at the White Earth
Agency, who was born of Indian and French parentage at Lake De
Flambeau, Wisconsin, in 1811, and has spent his life among these
people as an employ^ of the American Fur Company, and in other
capacities, informed me that the Ojibway language was spoken from
Montreal to the Rocky Mountains, and, spreading north, found a
kindred tongue among the Esquimaux. This seems, however, to be
a matter of some doubt, as will be seen from the following extract

112

CHIPPEWA.

of a letter from a son of Colonel Beaulieu, to whom I sent a partial
vocabulary of the Esquimaux language:

" I see no similarity in the words or between the languages of the
Esquimaux and the Ojibway Indians, judging from the slip you e)i-
closed, and which I return, excepting in the endings of words, nr
nouns, in nah, uk, ok, tug, ick, and ock, and in this list of Esquimaux
words those expressing the meaning of an object in one language is
entirely different in the other, both in endings and otherwise. The
captain of the Red Lake United States Indian Police called on nie
to-day. He is an Indian who has travelled extensively among the
Northwestern Indian tribes. I questioned him as to the various bits
of information you were seeking, but have obtained nothing new.
He has been to York Factory, on the Hudson's liay, and has seen
Indians there speaking the Ojibway tongue, but so corruptly as to he
barely understood by liim. He says that the York Factory Indians
do not understand the Esquimaux. It may be possible that the In-
dian language used at the Factory may be a connecting-link between
the Ojibwny and Esquimaux language.

"There is a branch of the Ojibways living north of the Lake ot
the Woods, called by these Ojibways '0-mush-ke-go,' or ' inhabitants
of the swamp,' though at no very great distance from these Indians
their language, in accent, and in some words, is different. The
* Boisforls,' residing in this State (northeast), are also Ojibways;
still their accent is different. As I have remarked before, the endings
of some words in Esquimaux are much like others in Ojibway, and it
may be possible that Roman Catholic missionaries at York Factory
may discover something resembling both the Ojibway and Esquimaux
in the language of the Indians among whom they are stationed."

Colonel Beaulieu claimed that they had only used ponies for about
twenty-five years. The camp br^ggage was formerly moved by the
women, and when it was impossible to use canoes for this purpose,
only six or seven miles would be made in a day. As few moves were
made as possible ; but the seasons demanded certain changes of tlieir
camps, — in the spring, to the maple groves, where the sugar was
made ; after this to tlie lakes and streams, for fishing ; and in the
fall they scattered out to the hunting- ?nd trapping-grounds. Some
fishing was, of course, done in winter; but an attempt was alway:
made to provide in advance a winter's supply of food.

Tiiese Indians were not only numerous, but were, from training
and inherited qualities, good at fighting in a wooded country, and
being allies and employes of the French, they had fire-arms long
before the Sioux. They admitted the superiority of the latter on
the prairie, but claimed an equal, if not greater, advantage and
skill on the lakes and rivers in tlieir canoes. As the Ojibways mo.'ed
westward in search of game and peltries, assisted by the current of
French enterprise, antl pressed by the Iroquois, they never mixed
much with other tribes, but they received a strong infusion of Frencli
and English blood, and their present advanced state in agriculture
is no doubt in a great measure due to this. They use quite extensively

CHIPPEWA.

reed matting for the sides of the summer lodge, and birch bark for
tilt roof. The ma.tting can be easily transported, and it is claimed
that mosquitoes do not infest these lodges as much as other dwelling-
plares of either skin, canvas, or wood. Even those who have com-
fortable frame and log buildings use these lodges in summer, not
onlv as a protection from the flies and mosquitoes, but to force the
vermin by starvation from their houses.

The striking characteristics of this tribe seem to be that they
make sugar ; are particularly fond of dogs, both as beasts of burden
and as meat ; do not pass the pipe when smoking ; possess wonderful
skill in the use of birch bark ; have no Sun-Dance ; never kill ponies
at the death of an individual, and do not put gun or pipe with the
remains; are especially fond of camping near lakes and streams
where they can get fish ; are very skilfi:! in the manufacture and
management of canoes ; and are very rich in mythological lore,
there being scarcely an object in the animal or vegetable world
possessing a marked peculiarity which has not some elaborate expla-
nation.

The following story told of the "diver duck" illustrates this:
Nanaboojou, who was conceived by his mother exposing her person
to the north wind, was a God (and, of course, in the form of an
Ojibway), and could converse with all animate and inanimate ob-
jects, and though, according to their belief, he did not exactly
create, yet could effect change of forms. Nanaboojou was living
with his grandmother, and hav^'iig only a bow and arrow, was forced
to devise many cunning ways to secure game; so he made a kettle-
drum similar to the one now used by the Ojibways, and knowing the
birds could not resist its music, commenced beating it. All the
water-fowl heard it and flew down into the lodge througn tiie smoke-
hole in the top, and seated themselves in a circle round the fire, like
so many Ojibways, — geese, ducks, swans, all kinds, — on each side of
Nanaboojou and his grandmother. Then Nanaboojou told them that
they must dance, — round and round as the Ojibways do now, — but
they must keep their eyes closed imder penalty of having them forever
red. The birds commenced dancing as instructed, and as they passed
by Xanaboojou's grandmother sh^; picked out thi fattest and best,
quickly wrung their necks, and threw them behind her. The little
"diver" opened his eyes, saw wliat was being done, and give the
alarm, when they all flew for the apeaure in the top of the lodge.
\w the rush the little" diver" was knocked down, and attempted to
run out at the door of the lodge, when Nanaboojou quickly put his
foot on his back, and cursed him for g'ving the alarm, saying, " For
your treachery and disobedience, you and all after you shall have
broken backs and red eyes." This God could talk to all tilings, and
they could ialk to him, — the bright little flowers softly and sweetly
with perfumed whispers, the nodding grasses, the soughing trees, —
either gloomiiy '^~ happily, as the clouds of sadness drearily oppressed,
or the glad sui..;.ine brightened and made their hearts happy. The
little birds sang to him, and he understood the sentiment of their

114

CHIPPEWA.

beautiful songs ; the butterfly's gay summer whisper, the fierce scream
of the eagle, and the terrible roar of the Thunder-bird, — these were
not merely sounds to him, but language which he clearly and fullyun-
derstood. The bark of the red willow was colored by his blood ; in
fact, all that is peculiar in nature was made so by him, — changed
through his pleasure or anger.

There are, I think, few well-authenticated cases of cannibalism on
the part of our Indians, but the two following cases of the Ojibways,
given by Mr. H. R. Schoolcraft, are worthy of notice: "In 1S51
a party of Chippewas returned to their camp near the Winnebago
agency, bringing with them five Sioux scalps. The Indians being now
assembled, they proceeded with their dance; the scalps were hung
up on sticks set in the ground, and men, women, and children danced
around them ; occasionally the women and children would take a
scalp and carry it round the ring. 'I'his dance was continued for
hours with great excitement. One of the Chippewas killed his man
with a spear ; finding it difficult to extricate his weajion on account of
the barb, he cut out a ])iece of flesh with his knife and brought it
home, still adhering to the spear ; this flesh was cut in pieces and
given to the boys, who ate it raw.".

Still more revolting and horrible is the story told of the practice
in very old times. The account says, " Poisoning in those days was
a common mode of revenging an injury. These Indians, on a small
scale, have had their ages of Medicis, Borgias, and poisons, as well as
the whites, and it is told thai it required but the slightest cause for a
person to draw upon himself the displeasure of a medicine-man and
die of Ids poison. Instances occurred where the poisoners are known
to have dug up their victims and invite the relatives to a feast on the
body. This horrid ceremony was got up in utter darkness, and not
till the friends of the deceased had received their share of the feast
'A'ere torches suddenly lighted and they became aware of the natnrc
of the banquet. Fear of the poisoner's power and vengeance would
constrain them to eat what was placed before them. This was a
usual sacrificial feast to the spirit of the poison."

I have heard of cases in recent years where starvation led some
tribes in the North to feed upon their fellows, but I have never been
able to find any evidence which would justify the assertion that it
was practised at any other times.

These Indians use some few signals, but have no special system
or code, antl their knowledge of gesture speech is limited.

Deaf-mutes are rare, but witli these they claimed that the imme-
diate kinsfolk invented a system of signs, and they also stated that
in some instances the deaf-mutes had learned to read their own lan-
guage from the lips of those who talked to them. Though it cannot
be said that there is any jierfected gesture speech among them, still
many of their signs are so natural that no tlifliculty is experienced in
making ortlinary wants known in this way. The peculiar nature of
their relations with the Plains Indians, and tiie ^''eat geographical
area covered by their own vocal language, has prevented the neccs-

CHOP— CITIZEN.

\\-

sity of perfecting or learning the sign language, etc. Some few
bands, like the Pembinas, who have been thrown more with other
tribes, are foirly good sign-talkers. The great advantage Indians
have in pantomime language is their close observation and excellent
memories. As they have no good means of recording events, they
cultivate and develop these qualities. As White Cloud, their head-
chief, said to me, '* We only use a few signs, bi.t have no particular
trouble," and illustrated his meaning in this way : "Suppose two
Indians of different tribes were seated on the ground and a white man
approached them, he would see no difference; but if an Indian ap-
proached, he would detect at a glance the difference, and probably
know to what tribes they each belonged."

The manufacture of maple sugar seems to be the women's work,
and is about the only article which these Indians produce for sale and
barter. I saw and tasted some that had been made and put uj) in their
queer-shaped bark vessels, and found it very good indeed. They tap
the tree with an axe, use a chip for a spout, and catch the sap in a
rectangular-shaped vessel made of birch, bark, fastened at the bent-
up ends with basswood-bark strings. The water is evaporated from
l''o -.Tp by boiling in kettles, and the sugar is both grained and
cy . ' Formerly the eva|)oration was effected by drop[)ing heated
.to stone and bark vessels. As I have stated, birch bark
. ii; tiiese Indians takes the place of buffalo-skin, par-fleche, vsed
by tne Plains tribes in the manufacture of boxes and vessels of all
kinds.

Chop. Bring right hand back to right, and downwards, well out
in front of right breast, fingers extended, touching, and pointing to
front ; strike with the lower edge of the liand, mostly by elbow
action, downwards and to left; then carry the haml in front of left
breast, ])alm downwards and to left, fingers extended and ])ointing
to front ; strike with lower edge to right and downwards. The liand
is held in these motions at about the angle an axe is held when chop-
ping. Sometimes the sign for Tree 's made, the left forearm held
in a vertical position to represent it, and the right hand is moved
towards the lef; eibow, as though about to cut or ciiop it with lower

cage. India'

hands.
The lat' *r ^•
Cigar. Vtai

fingers alongsi

closed, backs of

frequently represent the chopping with both

\w deaf-mute sign.
' jjn for Tobacco; then bring extended index
of t 'h other in front of body, others and thumb
1 . . -js about outwards, index fingers horizontal ; by
rotary motion move the index fingers one about the other. Some-
times the sign for Smoke is added, and the sign for Small to denote
a cigarette.

Deaf-mutes place the tip of extended right index in moutii and
imitate tiie smoking of a cigar.

Citizen. Make sign for Whites. I have also seen the sign for
By Itsei.'" made after white, seeming to convey the idea of a white
man goir.^ •. iiere he pleased, — nothing to interfere with or obstruct his

ii6

CL EA N- HA NDED— CO A T.

movements ; this by Indians who knew soldiers had to go where
they were ordered.

Clean-Handed. Conception : Great Spirit has no blood on
hands. Bring extended hands, palms up, high above head, abonl
over shoulders; make sign for Blood and sign for No. This move-
ment properly means, clear of tiie crime of taking human life in
violation of their laws.

Close. Conception: Drawn near. Bring right hand, back to
right, fingers curved and touching, thumb resting on index finger,
well out in front of body, hand about height of shoulder; draw the
hand in towards the body and sligiitly downwards.

Vety close, the hand is drawn near the body. Close in the sense
of close together, near to one another, crowded together, would be
represented by sign for Small.

Deaf-mutes hold expended left hand in front of body, back out,
holding right, back out, beyond left ; bring it near it.

Cloud. Bring the extended hands, held horizontally, backs up,
well in front an., somewhat higher than the head, sides of index
fingers touching ; . right hand to right and downwards on a

curve, left to left a». ;wnwards on curve, so that hands will in
this movement be pu...:lel to vault of the heavens; terminating
movement when hands are little lower than shoulders. Frequently
only one hand is used.

Deaf-mutes indicate the arch of the heavens, and then rotate the
hands one about the otiier, holding them above head to denote the
clouds.

The keen eyes of an Indian can detect by a little scrutiny whether
the clouds are rising or falling; if falling, they reason that they will
be pressed together, and it will rain ; if rising, they will scatter, and
the sunshine will break through. Clouds are frequently used meta-
phorically to represent anxiety or trouble. The clouds press down,
the gloom of danger, of trouble, or of loss is near ; they rise, fears
vanish.

I once heard an Indian say, in regard to a treaty which gave away
some of his country, " The clouds pressed down close above me, and
the earth seemed to tremble when the first paper was signed."

Coal. Make sign for Hakd or Rock, for Fire, and for Good.

Deaf-mutes make signs for Black Metal and Fire.

Coat. Bring the hands in front of and a little over right and
left breasts, palms towards body, index fingers and thumbs well
spread, other fingers closed, index fingers nearly horizontal, close to
and parallel to breasts ; carry hands downwards simultaneously, the
inner surface of spread thumbs and index fingers near to body,
keeping irtlex fingers nearly horizontal in this movement, and ter-
minating it when at about lower part of waist. This is the general
way of representing any wearing apparel ; i.e., the spread thumb and
index passed over and near surface of body where clothing is worn.
Sometimes the other fingers are not closed, and this is the way deaf-
mutes represent wearing apparel. In the case of a coat, they also

COFFEE— COLOR.

117

note with index fingers the outline of the garment. The sign I have
given also represents a shirt ; usually, however, the color or material
istiiven to determine whether shirt or coat.

Coffee. Conception: Grinding coffee in mill. Hokl the extended
left hand, back down, in front of body; bring the closed right hand
a few inches over left palm, little finger nearest and parallel to it ;
move the rigiit hand in small horizontal circle, representing the turn-
ing of the crank, which causes the grinding of the coffee.

Some years since, before the general introduction of coffee-mills,
the usual sign was to hold rigiit hand, back nearly to right, thumb
pressing against first joint of nearly-extended and about horizontal
index fingers, others closed, so that thumb-nail will leave little more
than tip of index visible. This is the sign for Little, and is used
for a grain of any kind also.

I have sometimes, but very rarely, seen the signs for Kettle, for
putting water in it, for fire under it, for drink and good, added.
This would hardly be necessary, and I mention it merely to show the
ease with which signs can be so elaborated upon as to clearly show
their meaning. I have also seen the signs for Drink, Water, and
Black, made. Indians are very fond of coffee. The berry is browned,
usually in a frying-pan, then pounded up or ground in a mill if they
have one, put in the kettle to boil, and sufficient sugar put in to
sweeten it. As a rule tiiey do not drink it very strong.

Deaf-mutes make the same signs.

Cold. Bring closed hands in front of and close to body, height
of siioulder, and a few inches apart, body slightly bent and shoulders
drawn in; give a tremulous motion to hands and arms, as though
shivering from the effects of the cold.

Deaf-mutes make the same signs.

Collect. This is used usually in the sense of gathering togetiier
ponies, cattle, supplies of meat, robes, etc., which we would call col-
lecting. The Indians would express it differently, as they do not
have much of a leaning towards collecting or accumulating. In
regard to buffalo-meat, they would say they made a surround, cut up
the meat, packed it into camp, dried it, piled it up in packages (they
use folded raw-hide sacks, called par-fleches, to put in or store many
articles as well as dried meat), and any other collecting would be
exi)tained in some similar way.

Deaf-mutes indicate the gathering together by both hands.

Color. Hold the extended left hand, back up, in front of body,
fingers pointing to front ; bring the extended right hand, back up,
and rub with inner surface of fingers up to first joints the back of
left hand, fingers of right hand pointing to left. This sign is some-
times used for Black, but, as a rule, it means simply some color. It
is customary to rub the cheek to indicate a red color with nearly all
tri!)es, and for all other colors to point to or touch something the
color desired to be represented. Blue is sometimes rejjresented by
pointing to clear sky. Gray is denoted by making sign for Black
and White, and then usually adding sign for Mixed.

xi8

COL UMA— COMANCHE.

Deaf-mutes indicate black by touching the eyebrow ; red, touch the
lips ; wliite, the shirt-bosom ;'and for the rest, indicate in the same way
as with Indians; i.e., point to or touch something possessing the
color. •

Column, (Troops.) Make signs for Whites, for Soldier, then
bring hands, backs up, in front of body, fingers touching and par-
tially curved, second joints about on line with back of hand, right
hand near the body, left in front of right and a trifle higher, hands
about six inches apart and edges pointing to the front and slirhtly
upwards ; move the hands to front with gentle jerks. Indians, as a
rule, never march in column or in any set or special formation, unless
the custom of single or Indian file can be so called.

Though the above sign is used to denote the approach of soldiers,
yet generally, in saying the enemy's soldiers are approaching, turn
the back of hands outwards, hold the hands farther from body,
and bring them in towards it. The hands are here fixed as in
Kill.

The coming up of a thunder-storm, the looming up of the dark
clouds, is represented in the same way.

Some Indians hold hands, extended fingers pointing to front, back
of left to left, right to right, right hand few inches to right and rear
of left, and then move the hands to denote a column moving.

Comanche. Conception : Snake. Hold the right hand, back up,
well to front of body opposite right shoulder and height of waist,
index finger extended pointing to front, others and thumb closed ;
draw the hand to rear, and by wrist action give a vibratory or sinuous
motion to index finger. The Southern Indians draw the hand to the
rear, while in the North they push it to front to denote a Snake, or
Comanche.

Mr. Healy, of Montana, a gentleman who has had much practical
experience with Indians, claims that for the Comanches the above
sign is made, but on its completion'the hand is turned over and the
same gesture repeated, ^d convey the idea of another Snake.

Vocally, these people call themselves by a word which signifies
''People," or "The People," and claim that the name Comanche
was given them by the Mexicans. They are divided into five bands,
viz. :

1. Pene-teth-kas, Honey- or sugar-eaters.

2. Cas-cho-teth-kas, Buffalo-eaters.

3. No-co-nys, Moving in a circle.

4. Yap-pa-reth-kas, Root-eaters.

5. Qua-ha-das, Antelope band.

Mr. E. L. Clarke, the interpreter at their agency, furnished me
the following information: "The Yap-pa-reth-kas band of Coman-
ches came from the Rocky Mountains, north of the head-waters of
the Arkansas River, about one hundred and fifty or two hundred
years ago, which country they inhabited with the Shoshones. They
are without doubt of the same origin as the latter tribe. I have not
been able to determine from the information thus far obtained the

COMANCHE.

119

exact area of country these Indians occupied at so remote a time.
They are indefinitely located in traditions as north of the head-
waters of the Arkansas River.

"There are a few Snake Indians with the Yap-pa-reth-kas ; and
one, a very old man, with the Qua-ha-das band.

"Straight Feather, who is about seventy years old, says his father
was a Snake Indian, and his mother one-half Pawnee and one-half
Pen-a-teth-kas. He was born a short distance south of the Colorado
River, in Texas, and is considered as belonging to the Pen-a-teth-kas.
At what period of time the Pen-a-teth-kas band of Comanches sepa-
rated themselves from the main body is not definitely known, but
evidently long anterior to the migration of the main body southward,
as there is a well-authenticated tradition that the Pen-a-teth-kas had
wandered off a great distance and were entirely lost to the other
bands, and that long afterwards they were discovered by the Yai)-pa-
reth-kas and Qua-had-da warriors, who went to Mexico on raiding
expeditions, at which time the Pen-a-teth-kas and No-co-nies bands
were togeth. , occupying the same region of country. They were,
however, distinct bands, and both were large and formidable.

"The Qua-ha-das occupied a region south of the Yap-pa-reth-kas,
but still in the Rocky Mountain country.

"The original name of that band was ' Qua-he-huk-e,' meaning
'Back shade,' because they inliabited the plains, or a country with-
out timber or trees, where no shade could be had, and during hot
weather they shaded their faces by turning their backs to the sun.

" A small band of Comanches, called ' Ya-nim-ma,' or Liver, sup-
posed to have derived their name from their fondness for liver, were
also with the Pen-a-teth-kas and No-co-nies in Mexico, and no
doubt separated from the main body about the same time with the
Pen-a-teth-kas, and were also a separate and distinct band. But few
of these are now left, and they are merged with the other bands.

"It is a generally-accepted idea with all or most of the Com-
anches that they came from the Northwest, and it is highly probable
that if the fact could be ascertained, which I have no doubt a
thorough research would establish, it would be shown that the Sho-
shones, Comanches, and Utes were formerly one and the same
people, — a conclusion based upon the similarity of their language,
habits, style of dress, and physical characteristics, — and upon the
undisputed knowledge that these tribes, at no very remote ])eriod of
time, occupied the same region of country in the Rocky Mountain

range.

The Comanches call the Snake Indians ' Ah,' meaning Hour.

"There was another band of the Comanches, * Tit-cha-ken-ah,' —
which means Sew, as with a needle. This band was originally with
the Shoshones, but are now with and form a portion of the Yiip-pa-
reth-kas.

" Ta-ba-nau-a-ca and his brothers are descendants of this band,
but are known now altogether as Yiip-pa-reth-kas.

"A longtime ago the Utes captured a number of women be-

120

COMANCHE.

longing to the Tit-cha-ken-ah band, who afterwards became the
wives of their captors, and from whom sprang a band of Utes called
'Yap-pi Utes.' This band is not as large as the ' Sau-nah' Utes,
known as the Rosin or Gum Utes.

" I have not had opportunity to make sufficient inquiry to arrive
at any satisfactory conclusion as to the time when these women were
captured, nor how long the Comanches have been at war witii the
Utes, but from such as I have been able to make I am led to believe
that the capture was long anterior to the migration of the Coman-
ches southward, and that feuds and wars have been of long standing
between them and the Utes.

"The Kiowas say that they have been at. war with the Utes from
time immemorial, and never have had enough intercourse with them
to learn anything of their language, and cannot communicate with
them excepting by signs and through the medium of the Comanche
tongue.

" One of the Comanches, a brother of Ta-ba-nau-a-ca, says he
once met a Ute on the prairie, who spoke to him in Comanche, and
asked him to make friends, but while they were having this friendly
talk the hostile bands of the Utes and Comanches, to which each re-
spectively belonged, came in sight and commenced firing, which put
an 'end to their conversation. This Ute spoke good Comanche,
This is not, however, an uncommon or remarkable circumstance,
considering the fact that the Comanche language is more or less
spoken and understood by other Northern tribes."

The Shoshones or Snakes in the North claim that the Comanches
left them and went South in search of g -^""e and ponies, but they can
give no idea of the time of tlie separation, while the Comanches
claim that the Snakes are an offshoot from their tribe ; but when or
where they left tiiey do not know. I do not think the Utes can be
classed linguistically with the Comanches.

The Pen-e-teth-kas and affiliated 'bands first had a reservation in
Texas, ntar the present site of Fort Griffin, on the Clear Fork of
the Bra/ s River. The main body of the Comanches roamed at
large, going as far north with their villages as the Arkansas River.
They frequently came near Camp Cooper, where they stole stock,
killed white people, etc. The Texans charged these depredations to
the Indians on tiie reservation, and the feeling against them became
so strong and bitter that, in 1859, they were moved out of Texas
under a military escort and brought to the present site of the
Wichita Agency, where they were turned over to what was known
as the superintendencyof Arkansas. Mr. Horace P. Jones, Govern-
ment interpreter at Fort Sill, Indian Territory, was then a guide
with the troops commanded by the late General George H. Thomas,
and he informed me that the Caddos, Tonkaways, Wacos, Keechies,
a few Delawares, and some Shawnees* started from their agency at
mouth of Clear Fork of the Brazos River at about the same time,
and joined the Comanches on Red River, some fifty miles below the
present site of Fort Sill, and went to Wichita Agency. It was not

COMANCHE,

121

until 1874 that the last of the roving bands of Comanches were
finally subdued and placed on a reservation, where many have begun
farmini,'.

Mr. Bancroft, in his valuable work, associates the Comanches
with the Ai)aches. In many customs, manners, habits, and in lan-
guage they are entirely different. I found no evidence that the
Comanches ever tattooed the face and breast. They have for
many years used the ordinary conical skin lodge ; in fact, have
done so since a period antedating all their traditions. The system of
enumeration is much the same as with other tribes. In knowledge
of the stars and constellations they are about equal to other Indians.
Tlieir division of time corresponds to that of the nations sur-
rounding them, but, like all the Shoshone family, they keep no
account of individual ages.

Their form of government is about like that of all the Plains Indians.
There is no special form of election to the position of chief; public
opinion, the sentiment of the camp, elevates those specially distin-
guished in war to the highest position of power. No council is
called for this election other than that held on the battle-field.
Their councils are held, as with other tribes, to discuss and decide
matters of importance. No special laws are made, and no special
dignity is attached to the office of the camp-crier, who promulgates
the decision of the council, or the orders of the chief, or imparts
general information. Their sweat-lodges are made as I have de-
scribed them. In former times all the Comanches wore the scalp-
lock, and considered it necessary as a mark of manhood. Now it is
by no means a universal custom. Some of them only tie up one
side of the hair, and in battle they frequently allow both sides to
drop loosely. They call the sun " The Great Father," and the earth
Mother, and consider the former as the source of all power. They
do not have an annual Sun-Dance but do have religious dances to
propitiate the Great Spirit in the sun. Mutilation is not practised
in these dances. They do not eat dogs. The language is easy to
acquire, and may be considered the court language of the Southwest.
The Comanches are considered superior to the other Indians that
range over the same areas as themselves, and, though they are proud
and intractable in many ways, yet the agent informed me that they
were much more reasonable and easy to get along with than the
Kiowas and Apaches. They have long been noted for their great
skill in riding; and their war-parties, in former times, scoured the
country from the Black Hills, Dakota, to the interior of Mexico.
They are a little taller, and have better physiques than their kinsfolk,
the Shoshones.

In a conversation we had concerning their beliefs in a future state

of existence, one of their chiefs said to me, "The way we know

I there is a future state is that sometimes a man dies for two days and

I goes to the land of the setting sun. There he finds a cut bank, and

far beyond and below sees the white lodges of a Comanche village.

The denizens of the village meet him at the cut bank, and tell him

132

COMB— COME INTO VIEW.

he is not really dead, and on this account cannot enter, but must
return ; and they point out where his kinsfolk are camped. He
comes back to life and tells where he has been, and what he has seen.
Sometimes as the sun is sinking in the west tlie sky is filled with a
beautiful red light. We look at it, and our hearts are made glarl,
for we know that this is caused by the dust raised by the dead and
gone Comanches, who are having a great dance."

The Comanches were once a very powerful nation, numbering,
probably, ten thousand souls; but through wars, smallpox, cholera,
and other diseases, they have been reduced in such degree that the
agent, in his report for 1881, gives a total population of only one
thousand five hundred and one.

With the Cheyennes, Kiowas, and Kiowa Apaches they have been
generally at peace during the last seventy-five years, and during that
time have made and broken peace several times with the Sioux,

Their most bitter wars have been with the Utes, Pawnees, Sacs,
and Foxes, and the whites (including Mexicans). In these wars
they have practised the cruelties and hellish barbarities of savages,
and yet it is said of them that *' tiiough formal and suspicious to
strangers, they are hospitable and social to those whom they consider
their friends." Among Indian tribes they have tiie reputation of
being brave warriors.

Comb. Bring the right hand, back to right, near upper part and
side of head, fingers partially curved and close to hair; bring the
hand down as though combing hair over side of head. The Sioux,
Cheyennes, and other Indians used porcupine-tails for combs. It is
claimed that tlie Crows do not use combs, and it is on this account
that they are more lousy than other Indians.

Deaf-mutes make the same sign.

Come. Carry right hand, back out, index finger extended and
pointing upwards, others and thumb closed, well out in front of
body (or towards person you wish to cause to approach, and this
should be observed, as a rule, in regard to the imaginary positions
of absent persons or objects in all conversations in gesture speech);
draw the hand rather sharply in towards the body, lowering it
slightly. The index finger is usually kept elevated, though it is
sometimes curved as the hand is brought in towards body.

The sign is used in the sense of " come here ;" " you go and tell
him to come here," and emphasis is added by bringing right hand
against back of left as in Arrive Here.

Deaf-mutes strjke left wrist to call attention, and then make
similar motions.

Come Between. The left hand represents the remote object and is
held well out ; the right hand passes between left and body. The
subject under consideration will naturally suggest the proper signs.

Deaf-mutes indicate similarly. Their sign for Between, however,
is to lay the lower edge of right hand on curved surface between
spread thumb and index of left hand.

Come into View. Ind icate by gesture whatever may have appeared,

COMMENCE—COPULA TE.

xa3

and then hold left hand, back out, ingers extended, touching, and
pointing to right, about eight inches in front of lower part of face,
left forearm about horizontal ; carry the right hand under and in
front of left, back outwards d downwards, index finger extended,
others and thumb closed, index pointing u|)wards, and by raising
right hand place its palm against back of left, the right index ap-
pealing above left hand. To say "a man appeared behind a bluff,
looked at me, and then disappeared," make sign for Bluff, then the
above sign (still holding left hand as in bluff), then the sign for
Look ; this sign made with right in position outwards from left, first
and second fingers pointing towards face ; then suddenly drop the
right hand. Here the part of right hand seen above left represents
the i)roportion of body exposed, all that can be seen from the
position of the observer.

Deaf-mutes make similar sign.

Commence. Make sign for Push. This is used in the sense of
"commence work," "make an effort," etc., and is used more in the
imperative sense than any other sign. As I have stated, the usual
way would be to say, " I think it good that you should do so," etc.

Deaf-mutes make a similar sign.

Conceal. See Hide.

Congress. Make sign for President's House, sign for White
Chief, repeating this several times, sign for Bring, from several
different directions, and then sign "or Sittinc; in Council.

Most Indians now understand something of our form of govern-
ment ; but, as a rule, they consider that the President calls the chiefs,
the headmen of the nation, together, as their chiefs call a council in
their own camp.

Deaf-mutes make sign for United States and Law Persons.

Cook. Make sign for Work, for Kettle, for Fire, for Eat ; sign
for Afterwards or By and By sometimes made before Eat, and at
times sign for Woman is first made.

Indians, as a rule, are more careful in regard to the cleanliness of
[their cooking utensils than their usually dirty and sometimes filthy
personal condition would indicate. In former years stone, clay, and
other kinds of vessels were used, many of which would not withstand
the action of fire. With these, heated stones were put in the liquid
contained in the vessel, and in this way articles were cooked.

Indians now use the large iron camp-kettles issued by the agent
[and sold by traders, and nearly every article of food is cooked by
Iboiling. Meat is seldom fried. Should they desire a change, or
when away from their camps, hunting, etc., the meat is roasted by
jhanging on a stick near the fire. In this way it retains its juices, and
lis wonderfully good. Bread is usually cooked by frying in grease.
JAs Indians can get along very well, when in a wild state, on meat
Idried in the sun, and such berries and roots as they can find, it is
leasy to comprehend how the Plains Indians can subsist quite com-
|fortably on the treeless prairies.

Copulate. Hold left hand, back nearly downwards, in front of

124

CORN— CORPORAL.

body, fingers extended, touching, and pointing to right and front,
thumb extended and pointing upwards ; bring the right IkuuI, imlex
finger extended, others and tiiunib closed, l)ack of hand t(j 'ight front
and a trifle downwards, and thrust index finger between thumb ami
index of left hand, side of index touching the hollow between thumb
and left index, backs of closed fingers of right hand striking briskly
against left palm ; repeat motion two or three times. This is the
sign used in describing the act with all animals. There are several
others, all suggestive, but this is the most common. Indian uieii
and women talk freely together on all such subjects.

Deaf-mutes place the palm of extended right on back of extended
left, or place the palmar surface of right index on that of left, right
index back up, left back down.

Corn. Conception : Shelling the corn. Bring the closed left
hand, back to left, in front of body, thumb extended and resting
on index finger ; bring right haiid, back to right, fingers closed,
thumb partially elevated, alongside of left hand, |)lacing the bail of
the thumb of right hand on back of left thumb near its base; twist
the right hand, by wrist action, to the right and downwards, keeping
the ball of right, thumb pressed against buck of left until in its move-
ment it slips off with rather of a snap against the index finger of
right hand ; repeat motion. Sometimes signs for Work, for " ilrop-
ping corn in the ground as in planting," for Grow (making this
higher), and then hold compressed right hand alongside of and
touching elevated left forearm, in one or two positions, to represent
ears of rum on the stalk. Ordinarily the first is sufficient, and this
used to denote any grain fed to animals.

Mr. Dunbar says of the Pawnees that dried corn was boiled alone,
or with beans, forming a sort of succotash ; when thus prepared,
buffalo-tallow was put in freely to season it. Matured corn was I
sometimes 1-oiled as hominy, but more frequently was ground inj|
mortar and boiled as mush or made into cakes, and baked in the
ashes or on hot stones. The corn was sometimes parched before]
triturating, and by this means the flavor of the food was much im-
Tioved. Beans and pumpkins, green or dry, were prepared by
simple boiling. Nearly all tribes seem to consider corn as one o:|
the articles directly given them by their God. The Arapahoes claim [
that their God gave them one ear before he went to the " land ofl
the rising sun," The Mandans, Gros Ventres, and Arickarees ciaimf
that certain parts of one ear were given to each tribe, but with theiii|
all it possesses a sacred character.

Deaf-mutes close the extended index of left hand, other fingers I
closed, with right hand, and turn latter as though twisting off the I
grains of corn from the cob.

Corporal. Indians who have on the frontier mixed with thel
troops represent non-commissioned ofificers by the chevrons on thel
arms, making signs for Whites and Soldier, and then with index!
and second finger of right hand mark the position and shape of thel
stripe on the left arm.

CORPSE— CC UNCIL.

125

Corpse. Make sign for Person, for Die, then sign for Lie Down,
— the person is tlead and is lying down ; not yet been buried.

piaf-mutcs simjjly make sign for Dead Pekson.

Corral. Conception : A circular space enclosed by interlaced
trees. Make sign for Tkke, then bring the hands, backs outwards,
well out in frort '-f body; lock the fingers; i.e., place fingers of
riuht hand between those of left, ])ressing them together, index
fingers and forearms about horizontal ; loosen the fingers and bring
the wrists 'owards each other, throwing the hands, by wrist action,
to right and left slightly, at same time slightly curving them so as to
make a circular enclosure. To indicate that animals were in the
corral, make sign for same, hold left hand in the position above de-
scribed, and bring partially-compressed riglit hand and droj) it into
the imaginary corral, fingers downwards, back of hand to front and
upwards.

Deaf-mutes make horizontal curve of the arms and lock the
fingers.

Council. Conception : Sitting in a circle and talking. Bring the
closed iiands, backs outwards, well out in front of body, a little lower
than shoulders, lower edges of hands touching ; move the hands
simultaneously on a curve towards the body, having them meet close
to it, hands forming in movement as nearly as possible a horizontal
circle ; turn the hands as they are brought on circle towards body,
so that when they meet the backs will be towards the body (the hands
can also start in the last position describing a horizontal circl' and
meet well out in front of body in position first taken above) ; then
' 'Id both hands, backs down, fingers extended, touching, and point-
to front in same horizontal plane, well out in front of body,
s about six inches apart and about height of breast ; move the
Hands, mostly by wrist action, simultaneously a few inches to left,
then return to original position, and then move them {<i\\ inches to
right; carry them backwards and forwards in this way two or three
times ; this represents the handing of the words from one to another.

The necessity for sitting in a circle is apparent in a tepee, and the
custom seems universal outside of it. When any number of Indians
congregate, either to decide on a plan of action, to smoke, to talk
matters over, to gather round a fire, to receive or impart informa-
tion, in fact, for any purpose whatever, they seem to crystallize in-
stantly into a circle seated on the ground ; the blanket drops down.
the overlapping sides are given a roll over the diawn-up knees, which
fastens it, and they are quite comfortable.

Every talk of any importance 's called a council. If the catnp is
going to move, if a surround of buffalo is to l)e made, if they are
going to war, or are considering propositions of peace, in fact, any
question which affects their welfare, has to be talked over in this way;
and when the matter is one of importance and the camp is large,
two or three tepees are pitched, opening into each other for this
[purpose. An essential and necessary part of a council is the feast
(see Feast) and the smoke. (See Smoke.) The talk usually comes

126

COUNCIL.

after; only the chiefs aVid headmen sit in council, men of years and
experience.

With some bands, boys who have "killed their inan," or distin-
guished themselves by some special act ot bravery, are entitled to
sit in council and have a right to express tiieir views, though they
rarely exercise it. Thougn none are excluded, ])o[ndar opinion inan
Indian camp is not an ambiguous or hidden force, and it is, as a
rule, well understood who are expected to sit in council. Frequently
the camp-crier calls out the names of those wb.o are expected to meet
and discuss matters of importance pertaining to the camp.

Some commence their si)eech with "My friends!" . . . otiiers,
" My soldiers !" ... or, if a chief has made the feast, then he is
addressed personally.

In every large camp and in many small ones there is a council- or
soldier-lodge set apart and used only for tliis puri)ose, and kept well
supplied with food by voluntary contributions from the people of the
village. A large village, when making a long march, appoint a
number of the headmen from each band to take charge of the move-
ment, determir.e the length of the marches to be made each day,
select the camps, send out scouting-parties, and, if going out for a
buffalo surround, take such precaution as may be necessary to prevent
the buffalo from being stampeded. Sometimes as many as twenty
are selected for this purpose. 'I'iiey march in line in front of the
camp, usually on foot, each armed with a pipe, and frequent halts are
made and ceremonial smokes taken. No member of the village is
allowed in advance of these men, and the chief has no more to say
in regard to the movement than any one else. These governors of I
the march meet each night at the soldier's lodge, receive the reports
of the scouts (who have been sent on in advance, if the camping-
j)lav,cs are not thoroughly well known, or if there is any prospet t ol'
danger), eat a great ileal, smoke a gret-t deal, and talk a great deal.

The soldier-lodge is a perfect bonanza for the lazy vagabonds oi
the camp, who hang round it to pick iq) something to eat.

Mr. Dunbar says of the Pawnees that councils of a band or tribe I
could be called by the head-chief on his own motion, or at thej
prompting of another. If the matter to be brought under delibera-
tion was of great consequence, or involved anything of secrecy, the
council wa; ai)pointed in a lodge, or at a place removed from imme-
diate observation, and no one not personally tmiitled was admitted.
In other cases any convenient place, in-doors or out, that might bel
named, and those not strictly privileged to sit in the council could,
if disposed, attend as spectators. The right to participate in tribal I
or band councils was a much-coveted dignity. The call and tinieui
assembling were duly publislied by the herald or crier of the chiei. |
This functionary wp.;, one of the most conspicuous in a village.
Quite often his voice was heard fist in the morning proclaim ng the!
order of the day. If, during the day, the chief wished to omnm-i
nicate to the band any important news or special order, it was made
known through this dignitary, who for hours perhaps would pronicf

COUNSEL— CO UA7.

127

n.idc the village, or stand upon the top of some convenient lodge,
announcing in set tone and i)hrase the intelligence. While making
a proclamation he frequently took occi'sion to intersperse or append
numerous advices and monitory appeals of his own, some of which
he addressed to the young men, others to ihe old men, etc. He
naturally, therefore, came to be regarded as a sort of preceptor in
general duties. Each chief had his own herald. The council on
assembling, after the usual preliminary of smoking, was opened l)v
tlv: head-chief, or by some one designated by him. After his will
had thus been made known, the discussion was thrown open to all
present as members ; but great scrupulousness was observed that
there should be no infraction of their rules of precedence aod
decorum. Rank, seniority, and personal ])restige were all cnrefuHy
considered in determining the order in which each one should speak.
The speaker addressed the council as a-ti'-us (fathers), tlie word
being repeated at the beginning of nearly every sentence. The
members of the audience, on the other hand, felt perfectly free to
accompany any speaker's remarks with expressions of approval, lau !
or dissent, ugh I though the latter was more U' ; ally indicated by
silence. After the discussion of the matter in question uas closed,
the opinion of the council was gathered, not by any formal vote,
but from the general tenor of the addresses Tnat had been delivered
in the course of the debate. The result was then made public through
the herald.

Counsel. Make signs for Talk, for Make, for Road. The meta-
phor of a trail, or road, is a frequent one in regard to the course, or
plan of action, to be, or which was, pursued. Men of age, wisdom,
and experience are constantly giving advice to the younger and less
experienced, and great deference and respect extended, as well as
presents made for it.

Count. The system of tens is universally osed by our Indians in
entuueration. In counting from one to ten, the usual way is to hold
the closed right hand in front, and back towards and about height
of shoulder, edges of hand pointing up; for one, the little finger is
extended; two, the third; three, second; four, index; five, thumb,
keejiing fingers extended, separated, and pointing upwartls ; six,
bring tiie closed l.ift hand at same height, equally advanced, and
near right, and extend the thumb; seven, extend left index; eight,
second finger; nine, third finger; ten, little finger.

For twenty, the closed hands are brought in above-described po-
sition and the fingers and thumbs extended and separated twice : for
twenty-five, the above for twenty, and tiien the left hand is dropped
ami the right curved little moie to centre of body, and the f 4;ers
and -thumb extended and separated ; for thirty, the hands are o'lilly
opened three times; hut above this nmnber an arbitrary s,gn is
usually made by the best-informed sign-talkers, viz., the right hand
is brought in front of tight shoulder, fingers extended, separated, and
pouiting upwards, thumb closed, palm of hand outwards, still keep-
ing fingers ex'.ended and palm to front ; the hand is moved to the

128

COUNT-COUP.

left and downwards, tips of fingers describing a vertical curve. (See
Hundred.)

Some tribes indicate a number of tens by making sign for ten, tlien
bold extended left hand horizontally in front of body, fingers sepa-
rated and pointing to front and slightly to right, and draw the tip
of extended right index from base over the back of each finger to its
tip, each motion of this kind representing ten, t'^en holding right
hand similarly fixed to left, mark the backs of its thumb and fingers
with tip of left index.

In numeration, — i.e., numbering or counting in a limited way,—
where there is doubt, such as the number of camps made on a jour-
ney, number of people killetl in a fight, the left hand is held back
down, fingers extended and pointing to front, in front of body ; tlien,
witli the tip of extended right index, other fingers and thumb closed,
back of right hand up, the little finger of left is pressed back or
closed, and fre(iuently held down during the discussion, then the
third finger, and so on. After five, the right hand is held back
down, with the little finger closed, with index or thumb ot left hand
for six, and so on, the final result being ustially announced in the first-
described way for counting. 'l"he majority of Indians have no clear
conception of any number beyond a thousand, and many not beyond
two or three huntlred. The uict that in so many instances remote
and seemingly unrelated nations have adopted ten as their basic num-
ber, together with the fact that in the remaining instances the basic
number is either five (the fingers of one hand) or twenty (the fingers
and toes), almost of themselves show that the fingers were the origi-
nal units of enumeration. The still surviving use of the word digit
a.- the general name for a figure in arithmetic is significant, and it is
even said tiiat our word ten (Saxon, fyn ; Dutch, tien ; German, zehm
means, in its primitive, expanded form, fhe hands ; so that, origi-
nally, to say there were ten things was to say there were two hands
of them.

Deaf-mutes naturally use both hands, but the French method as
taught uses a system of fives, and the counting is done entirely with
the right hand. The closed right hand, back outward^, is held in
front of right shoulder, edges pointing upwards ; for one, index finger
extended ; two, second ; three, the thumb ; four, thumb closed and
fingers extended ; five, thumb extended, fingers and thumb extended,
separated, and pointing upwards; six, press tip of ball of thumb
against tip of little finger, others extended ; seven, tip or ball of
thumb against third, others extended ; eight, against second, others
extended ; nine, against index, others extended ; ten, close the fin-
gers, extend the thumb, and by wrist action give it a jerk to the right;
for twenty, the index and thumb are extended, ancl a sharp motini,
by wrist action, mnde to rigiit, and so on; for one hundred, the
arbitrary sign for the letter C is made.

Count-Coup. Conception : Striking an enemy. Hold left hand,
back to left and oi.twards, in front of body, index finger extended!
and pointing to front and right, others and thumb closed; bring

CO UN TRV—COUR TSUI P.

129

right hand, back to right and front, just in rear of left and little
io'vcr, index finger extended, ])ointing downwards and to left, right
index under left, other fingers and thumb closed ; raise right hand,
and turn it by wrist action so that end of right index strikes sharply
against side of left as it passes.

The matter of counting coups — i.e., relating the stories of their
deeds of valor in striking the bodies, either dead or alive, of their
enemies in battle — is the pride and pleasure of every Indian warrior.
With most tribes, an Indian who first strikes or even touches the
bofiv of an enemy in a fight, even after he has been killed, is creil-
ited with the killing. The bravest coup is to strike the enemy before
killing him, and this, in the days of bows and arrows, was frequently
done. They sometimes carry a long, slender stick or pole for this
purpose, called a "coup-stick," and in charging a village, if one
strikes a tepee he counts coup on it, and the lodge and all in it be-
longs to him ; and the same rule is observed witii the women, ponies,
etc., captured. The striking must be done in the fight, in the heat
of battle, so to speak. As a wounded Indian settles to his deadliest
aim, and mortal wounds only intensify the desire to kill, it will
readily be seen that, in man/ instances, he who counts coup ru)is the
greatest risk ; and the law naturally urges on those who are ambitious.
The blow can be struck with a whip, or any kind of a club or stick.

Tiie Cheyennes claim that the old woman in the cave told some
of their medicine-men in the "long ago" how to make a medicine
co'ip-stick, and by carrying it, v/hen going to war, the enemy could
not hit them. The stick was inherited from father to son, and some
few are still in existence. liy riding close up to an enemy, shaking
this stick and making a peculiar noise, the enemy became ])aralyzed
with fear through the mysterious power of the stick, and was, of
course, at their mercy.

Country. ♦The Indians use this word to designate the territory
which they hold by physical force, or which they have hel' \\ that
way for any length of time. In signs, point to the ground, ami ex-
plain the extent by gesture for the streams or other natural bounda-
ries.

Deaf-mutes use the word as used by use for our country ; they make
sign for United States, which is by interlocking the fingers, hold arms
curved in front horizontal, and move the hands and arms to right
and left horizontally.

Courtship. Make sign for Female, then hold left hand, back out-
wards, well out in front of and about height of left shoulder, index
finger extended and pointing upwards, other fingers and thumb
dosed, this represents the girl standing ; then make sign for Male,
and hold right hand fixed like left, but with back to right and in
front of right shoulder, this represents the male standing ; move the
hands by gentle jerks towards each other, and when near make sign
ilor Little Talk, towards tip of left index; then make with the
j right hand a grasping motion towards left index. Some Indians
[make a grasping motion with both hands in front of body as though

1 30

COUSIN.

seizing a person, and then motion of throwing blanket round same,
while still others hold hands over face as though hiding same, and
by looking over or between them indicate the watching, and then
throw out arms as though making an embrace; perhaps adding sign
for Hide, meaning that the talking, grasping, etc., were done slyly,
secretly.

The young men of the Plains Indians do the most of their court-
ing in a standing position. An Indian lover will stand and wait
near the lodge where abides the object of his admiration until she
appears, when he walks up alongside of her and throws his blanket
round her. If she reciprocates the tender sentiment, they will Muis
stand for hours, his blanket covering both their heads and closely
wrapped round both their bodies. I have seen as many as half a dozen
young men waiting by the path which led down to the water near a
camp, antl one after another throw his blanket around a girl as she
was going down to fill the water-vessel. While so waiting or stand-
ing outside a lodge they usually have the head entirely covered with
their blanket, excepting only a little hole for one eye. By not
wearing the blanket usually worn it is, of course, improbable that any
one will recognize them. If the girl likes to be held, she makes some
reply to the first tender greeting ; if she expresses dislike to his ad-
vances, the man, by the law of courtship, must at once desist. The
embrace under the blanket excites no comment or annoyance from
mischievous boys or garrulous old men, and the young man can hug
the object of his affection to his heart's content unmolested.

In 1877 it became necessary for the military authorities to know-
something of the movements and plans of the great war chief of
the Sioux, Crazy Horse, and to discover these one of the enlisted
scouts suddenly became smitten with the charms of a dusky maiden
who lived in the tepee adjoining that of the chief, and as she recip-
rocated the tender feeling, the scout would stand just outside 01
Crazy Horse's lodge, holding the girl in a fond embrace, while his
quick ears took in every word that was uttered in the lodge. He
<liscovered a conspiracy, which, if it had not been for his cunning
shrewdness and promjjt and loyal action to the whites, would in all
probability have terminated in the murder of a general officer, but
which eventually led to the necessary killing of the chief himself

I was told at White Earth Agency, Minnesota, that the Chippewas
jMactised " bundling," but I am not able to assert this positively
It is undoubtedly a fact that some tribes do allow the young men to
go in the lodge where the young girls are sleeping and lie alongside
of them outside the blankets. This, in former times, was the last
chapter in the story of the courtship with the Flatheads, as they
said, " The young man courting a girl would go to her lodge and |
sleep near her. The family would see him in the morning, and tha*
determined the trade, which was made at once." Before the priests 1
came to these Indians, the custom of claiming younger sisters after]
marrying the eldest was practised, as it is with the Plains Indians.

Cousin. Make sign for Brother or Sister, and for Neak,-|

sign for \\

body, as in

men imprei

is claimed ;

silly it won

their social

tain order c

the greatest

possible los!

and orphan

siiperstitionj

of warfare, ;

for us to cor

but certain 1

stances beco'

cowardice is

Coyote. (

Small.

Cradle. S
t)eaf-mute5
Crazy. C(

back to right
"•■irds in fron
"■n'st action,
^'razy and fc
gesture is the
'I'lie size of
foolishncs or
beaf-i lutes
"'•■''"■ forehead
Cree (Indit
for these peop
fur themselves
f^erthold Jnd
The Assinaboi
'Jhe Frenc
but they are
'•^tenos, or Kn
"■'■"■ which th^
i-* <lerivc(i fro
I i<ill. The pec
giiage of whir
'"['^'ction than
riiey were
j messed many of

COWARD—CREE.

i3«

nearly a brother or sister. As a rule, the sign for cousin is the same
as for brother or sister. (See Kinship.)

Deaf-mutes maks sign for either sex, and then link index fingers.
Coward. Point to or make sign for the person, and then make
sign for Afraid. Sometimes a trembling motion is given hands and
body, as in Winter, — the person shakes with fear. Tiie rather com-
mon impression that Indians are cowards is, I think, erroneous. It
is claimed that they will not make a " square, stand-up fight." How
silly it would be for them to do so! Their education and training,
their social laws and conditions of physical existence, demand a cer-
tain order of strategy; and the great vital principle of this is to do
the greatest possible amount of damage to the enemy with the least
possible loss. There is no pension-list with them, and the widows
and orphans are thrown upon the charity of their people. The
superstitions which govern their movements, their peculiar method
of warfare, and their susceptibility to stampedes, render it difficult
for us to correctly judge them in regard to courage or the lack of it,
but certainly after middle age their natural caution in many in-
stances becomes rank timidity. As courage is the highest virtue, so
cowardice is the lowest vice, taking their standard, of course.

Coyote. Conception : Small wolf. Make sign for Wolf and for
Small.
Cradle. See Baby-Holder.

Deaf-mutes make sign for Baby, and indicate the rocking.
Crazy. Conception : Brain in a whirl. Bring the right hand,
back to right and rear, hand slightly compressed and pointing up-
wards in front of and close to forehead ; turn the hand, mostly by
wrist action, so that tips of fingers describe a small horizontal circle.
Crazy and foolish are synonymous words with Indians, and this
gesture is therefore very frequently used.

Tiie size of the circular movement of hand determines degree of
foolishness or insanity.

Leaf-Mutes use both hands, rotary motion, one above the other,
mar foreiiead, — mixed brain.

Cree (Indian). There seems to be no tribal sign in general use
for these people. They are poor sign-talkers, and say they have none
for themselves. The Blackfeet make signs for Sioux and Lie. The
Berthold Indians make signs for Blackened Faces to denote them.
Tiie Assinaboines make siv,."i for Rabbit.

The French gave this name to this branch of the Algonquins,
but they are called by themselves and other Indian tribes Ken-
istenos, or Knis-ten-eaux, because of the sanguinary character of the
war which they waged northwest of Lake Superior. "Tiiis word
is derived from the animate (transition?) Chippewa verb nisau, to
kill. The people are an offshoot of the Algonquin family, the lan-
guage of which they speak, but with less purity and richness of
intlection than the Chippewas." {Schoolcraft.')

I'hey were formerly numerous and powerful, and may have pos-
sessed many of the superior qualities which some writers claim for

132

CROSS— CKO^.

them, but those whom I have seen were wretchedly poor, and men-
tally and physically inferior to the Plains Indians. For many years
they occupied the country lying between Lake Superior and Hudson's
Bay, and many of the servants of the Hudson's Bay and Northwest
Fur Companies married into the tribe. They also ranged west from
Winnipeg, on the Assinaboine, Mouse, and Saskatchewan Rivers, to
the Rocky Mountains, sometimes crossing the British line in search
of buffalo, as they have been doing in the vicinity of the Milk River
country during the past three years. Many of them still use dogs as
a means of transportation, but those who can afford it have " Red
River carts."

An annual dog feast, conducted with great ceremony and much
" making medicine," seems to take the place of the Sun-Dance.
They have mixed with and adopted the manners of so many tribes
that they have nearly lost their identity, so far as dress is concerned.
I have perhaps only seen the poorer, more nomadic class. They
seem to have been at war with most of the tribes on our side of the
line, except the Assinaboines and some of the Blackfeet. They are
credited with being one of the forces which drove the Mandans out
of the country near Lake Winnipeg.

Cross. (Sulky.) Licline the head slightly forward and rest fore-
head on left hand, left forearm close to body. This is used more in
the sense of moody, a melancholy frame of mind. Some Indians
make signs for Heart and Bad, others for Heart, for Near, and
Bad, others, again, for Heart turning and twisting, indicated by
right hand placed over heart and turned and twisted.

Deaf-mutes assume a scowling expression, and make a clawing
motion with hands in frc.it of face.

Cross. (Decoration.) Bring both hands in front of body; form
a cross with extended index fingers, others and thumbs closed ; press
the cross thus formed against breast.

Deaf-mutes indicate the shape of a cross on breast with index of
right hand.

Cross. (To cross a stream.) Hold slightly compressed left hand,
fingers extended, touching, and pointing to right, about ten inches
in front of body; bring right hand, back to right, fingers extended,
touching, and pointing to front and slightly upwards between left hand
and body ; move right hand on curve to front slightly upwards, and
then downwards, terminating movement when right hand has passed
beyond left ; the fingers of right hand here front to front and sligiitly
downwards.

To cross a stream, mountain range, prairie, first make proper ges-
ture to represent the object ; then the left hand represents that object,
and is crossed over.

Deaf-mutes make the same sign.

Crow (Indian). Bring extended hands, backs nearly up, in front,
a little higher than, and slightly to right and left of, shoulders ; move
the hands simultaneously a little downwards, slightly outwards and a
trifle to right and left, indicating motion of wings.

CROIV.

When the Cheyennes crossed the Missouri River in their westward
migration, about two hundred years ago, the Crow Indians occupied
the country west of the Black Hills. The Government has since set
a])art as a reservation for them all the country extending from the
107th meridian to near the iiith on the west, and including all that
poiticMi of Montana lying between the Yellowstone River and the
\V\oining line. In 1880 the Indians ceded to the Government, by
treaty, some two millions of acres of the mineral lands of the
southern and western portion of the reservation, still retaining some
sixty thousand acres of mountain, prairie, and valley lands. It cer-
tainly speaks well for the cunning strategy and bravery of these
people that, surrounded as they were by such powerful enemies, they
should have been able to have secured or retained possession of such
a valuable tract of land, for some parts are rich in mineral deposits,
others particularly fine for grazing, and still others seem well
adapted to agriculture. The agent, in his report for 1881, gives the
number of Indians as three thousand five hundred, and he also re-
ports fourteen thousand head of horses. This, of course, includes
the ponies and mules.

The agency is locaterl on a clear, cold mountain stream, a small
tributary of the Sweetwater River, some twenty miles from the
Yellowstone.

Though admitting that they sepa'-^ted from the Berthold Gros
Ventres, many generations ago, over a dispute in regard to the
division of the "manifold" (first stomach of Luffalo), and giving
the location of this separation as on the Missouri River, at the
mouth of Heart River, they still claim to have been created in the
couiury they now hold as a reservation. They call themselves Ab-
saraka, and could give me no definition of its meaning other than it
meant people, — the Crow people. The surrounding tribes and the
whites call them Crows. I have heard three explanations of this.
k Cheyenne Indian told me that when they first met this tribe they
had a pet "medicine" crow, and on account of the attention and
devotion paid to it, they called them Crow people. It is also
claimed by so ne of the Gros Ventres that soon after their separation
from the Crow^: they had a fight with their enemies, the Sioux, and
some of the Crows being present, sat on the hills near by and would
not come down. A warrior called out to them, and asked, " VVhy
they sat up there like a lot of crows?" and ever afterwards they were
called Crows. Running Antelope, a chief of the Uncapapa baud of
Sioux, and one of the cleverest Indians I have ever met, saui to me
that the Crows got their name from a corruption of the name for
the "manifold," over which they disputed when they separated from
the Gros Ventres.

In personal appearance the Crow Indian men arc Pne-looking,
tall, ami-well formed. The women are small and inft> 'or in appear-
ance, and are not as virtuous as other Plains In(li,ir . They might,
however, be considered on a level with the Arapihoes in this respect.
Their vocal language is coarse and harsh, and does not seem to have

„ywiyi^ww|^^ ii»-yyi<

134

CA'OPV.

a rich vocabulary. They keep no account of their ages, and are pooi
in tradition. The men cut the hair squarely off round the forehead,
leaving this bang from four to six inches in length, which, when they
are in full dress, is made to s' and upright by dressing it with clay, wiiich
is sometimes made more adhesive by admixture with a sticky substance
obtained by boiling certain gummy weeds and bushes. From this
custom they are indebted for the pictographical designation, viz.,
" Hair-straight-upon-forehead." The side hair is at times braided,
and the hair on the back of the head separated into several "strips,"
which are held in place by glue placed af regular intervals. To give
them the appearance of having very long hair, hair that has been cut
off in mourning, or that taken from their ponies' tails and manes, is
glued on to lengthen it out. This, I presume, was what Mr. Catlin
saw, and supposed to be their natural hair, when he said, "their iiair
trails on tlie ground." They do not pull out eyebrows or lashes.
In dress, the men wear the hooded coat made of a blanket, and
white blankets striped with black and red are preferred. At the
shoulder, wrist of the coat, and down the leggings a coarse fringe is
fastened. The women wear the dresses much shorter than do tlie
Sioux and Cheyennes. The Crows have an excellent reputation
among other tribes for their cunning, crafty skill, and bravery in
war. They have been almost constantly at war 'with the Cheyennes,
Arapahoes, and Sioux since the latter crossed the Missouri River,
though they have made peace dozens of times, and have confederated
with them against other tribes and the whites. With us, however,
as a rule, they have been friendly, and since 1876 have rendered
valuable service as enlisted scouts. At present they are better armed
and better mounted than any other tribe of Indians. The Chey-
ennes and Arapahoes forced them out of the Little Missouri, Powder,
Tongue, and Little Horn River countries, and, in fact, carried on
the war so vigorously that a portion weni; north of the Missouri, and,
joining the Gros Ventres of the Prairie, remained there for some
years, and became known as the River Crows. Their status of
peace and war with the Sioux, Cheyennes, and Arapahoes represents
fairly their relations with the Snakes, Blackfeet, Nez Perces, Flat-
heacls, Assinaboines, and others, though with the Nez Perces, Ban-
nacks, and Snakes they kept to their treaties in a moderately honest
way, because it was necessary in order to repel the invasion from the
east.

Their low standard of chastity is illustrated by their prevalent
custom of rounding out hospitality to a stranger by according him
for his night's entertainment the company of some one of the host's
female relatives, >..id wife, sister, or daughter were presented accord-
ing to the demands of circumstances. A wife's honor was also fre-
quently bartered for a blanket, but it is only fair to say that of late
years these customs have become much more infrequent than they
formerly were.

From Iron Bull, who as an agency chief and orator, has obtained
some renown, a id is probably better known to the whites generally

CROW.

»35

tli.m any other chief of the Crow Nation, I obtained some informa-
tion in regard to the sign language and the peculiar customs of his
peojile. At the time of the occupation of old Fort C. F. Smith this
Indian was of service to the Government troops stationed there, and
many of the officers who were so unfortunate as to be present at that
time clit'rish a very kindly feeling for him. ' He has a rather fine,
round, smiling, benevolent face ; his manners are ])leasant and affable,
and his fund of information large. He has visited Washington, and
for some years was recognized by the Government as head-chief of the
Crow Nation. From him -and others I find that the Crows do have
a Sun-Dance, but it differs essentially from that of the Sioux and
otluT tribes. The dance originates in a spirit of revenge, and through
it they seek to secure the assistance of the Supreme Being in carrying
out tlieir plans for vengeance, and in prosecuting their wars and horse-
stealing expeditions. In olden times the dance prevailed to a much
greater extent than at the present day. It could be held at any time
from the first budding of the leaves in the spring to their fall in the
autumn. The instigator or prime mover of the dance, the man, in
fict, who gave or got up the entertainment, was he who had suffered
the loss of kin or friend at the hands of their enemies. This man
looked up a camp near a buffalo herd, and a grand hunt and gather-
ing of buffalo-tongues was first made. These tongues were used both
for feasting and also as a badge, so to speak, of virtue and bravery.
The details and minor ceremonies differed somewhat, according to
the power of the imagination of the medicine-men. The poles for
the medicine-lodge, in which the dance was to take place, were cut
according to some peculiar rule, and from start to finish the ceremony
was more or less complicated. Some woman in camp, who had been
true to her vows of matrimony, held a buffalo-tongue in her hand,
and the men standing near fired arrows or bullets through it. Many
of the ceremonies connected with the dance were for the purpose of
testing the virtue of the women, the bravery of the men, and their
power to endure physical pain. It also gave them opportunities to
tell their war stories, give an account of their heroic deeds of valor,
and "count their coups." Instead of having one central Sun-Dance
pole, to which the victims were fastened, they had several.

The camping-ground was selected by the man who inaugurated
the (lance. The poles for the medicine-lodge were cut by the
women, and hauled by the men riding their ])onies to this ground.
The camp ^iben moved, all the tepees were pitched in a circle, with
an open spac^ to the east. Two men, selected in recognition of their
skill as hunters, were detailed to go out and get two fresh buffalo-
skins from animals which, for this purpose, must be slain with a sin-
gle bullet, or, in former years, by a single arrow. Each pole for the
medicine-lodge is named after the braves in the camp, about twenty-
one being used. The lodge was first pitched with only five or seven
poles, which were covered with brush. The pole representing the
bravest Indian in camp was cut down by an hermaphrodite (if there
were one in camp, and I believe they are more common with this

136

Ck'OW.

tribe than with any other), and as it fell the young men fired at it
with pistols, guns, et';. The preliminary lodge was then taken down
and tlie final one niacie. First, three poles were tied together as is
usual in putting up any lodge, but near the top of the poles the skin
of the freshly-killeil buffalo was fastened, and as the poles were raised
the man who gave the dance took his seat on it and was raised with
the poles. He had eagle's wings fastened to his arms, and repre-
sented the eagle as rising in the air. The three poles were then
fastened, the man came down, and the lodge was completed, the
names of the poles being called out as they were put in place. The
wood to be used for cooking and for fires was then gathered. Such
women as had been loyal and true to their marital relations and
some virgins were put up behind the braves, and rode out on their
ponies to cut the wood and bring it in. Then some men of similar
character were selected to go and get some white clay of which to
make a bed or pedestal for the man who gave the dance, and upon
this dais he takes his place and sings, whistles, and dances for sev-
eral, sometimes as many as seven, days. Poles with a fork some
eight or ten feet from the ground were then cut and planted round
the lodge on the outside, for the dancers who are to establish their
bravery, and produce good luck by mutilating themselves after the
fashion done in the Sioux Sun-Dance, by fastening themselves to
these poles. Several of these ])oleswere sometimes used, and several
persons tied to each. They were cut by the kin of the dancers, who
were provided with the whistle as in the Sioux Sun Dance. Some
of the young men had buffalo-heads tied to the muscles of the back,
and danced through and about the camp at this time.

The following is their story of the creation as related by the old
chief:

" Long ago there was a great flood and only one man was left,
whom we call ' the Old Man,' becajjse it happened so long ago, and
because we have talked about him so much. This God saw a duck,
and said to him, ' Come here, my brother. Go down and get some
dirt and I will see what I can do with it.' The duck dove j was gone
a long time. Coming to the surface, he had a small bit of mud.
The God said he would make something with it, and added, ' We
are here by ourselves, it is bad !' Holding the mud in his hand till
it dried, then blowing it in different directions, there was dry land
all about. The duck and the God and the ground were all that ex-
isted. He then made the creeks and mountains, and after that they
asked each other to do certain things. The duck asked the God
to make certain things, among the rest, Indians on the prairie. The
God took some dirt in his hand, blew it out, and there stood a man
and a woman. A great many crows sprang up at once from this
dirt, but they were blind. The first man created pulled open one
eye and saw the streams and the mountains, and then the other,
and cried cut that the country was fine. The first woman created
did the same, and they told the rest to do the same, and to this day
the peculiar marks about the eyes show the manner of opening them.

CROW.

•37

Tlie first two then asked the God for something to hide their naked-
ness. The God told the woman and exphiined to the man how to
propagate their species.

" Tiie God was on a little hill. He called the one who first pulled
o|)on his eyes, and said, ' Look ! Here are antelf)pe, deer, elk,
buffalo. 1 give you these to eat.' Tlie God killed one buff;;lo for
tlum. Then he took up a rock, threw it down, broke it, and with
one of the pieces cut up the buffalo. He showed the man how
to make a bow and arrow, explained the parts of the buffalo, the
lo( ation of tlie sinew and its use, the use of the skin for a robe ; in
fact, all that was necessary. Then he commenced dividing up the
peoi)le, Piegans, Sioux, Cheyennes, and the rest, and gave them the
country to live in. The i)eople asked him if they wore to eat the
meat raw. Tlie God then took two sticks and rubbed them with a
little sand, and said, 'There, my children, is a small fire for you.
Get some wood and keep it burning always.' But the first man said,
'Father. No. We want to move around. We cannot pack fire
with us. Make it so we can get fire ;' and it was done. Then the
first man asked for vessels in which to cook and to carry water, and
the God showed him how to dig out the black rocks for those pur-
poses. The God then told them how to tan the skins of animals by
means of the brain and liver, and how to grain it with the bone of
the fore leg of animals. He showed them how to prepare the skins
for a lodge, etc., how to take the hair off, how to make the poles,
and marked out on the ground the shape to make the lodge. The
God then said, * Name yourselves, children ;' and the first man said,
'Wcwill call ourselves after the black bird, — Crows.' Then the
God said, ' As I made you, I am going to tell you what to do. Cry ;
and as the tears drop on the ground, you will know what it is.'
Then the first man said, ' That is not much to do, — to cry; tell us
something else.' The God then said, ' I have made the high moun-
tains for you. Go up there. Cut a piece of flesh out of your arms
and give to me. Fast, and you will have visions, which will tell
you what to do.' The God explained in regard to the sweat-houses.
If this did not cure them when sick they would carry them to some
other good hunting-grounds. He then said, ' I have showed you
how to make all these things; how to live. Among all the buffalo
I have made a few white ones. When you kill one of these sing
three songs, place the skin on a hill, give the skin to me. I like
them.' He also said, 'I like the black-tail deer-skin and the hawks
with white tails. Give me, once in a while, some of these.' The
God then told them how to get horses. He told them to go over
the hill and not look back. They started. One man was behind
the rest. The horses came up behind, whinnying and prancing.
The man behind could not resist ; he looked back, and the horses
vanished. If it had not been for this we would have had many
horses. They then went to the Yellowstone River. The God
said, 'This is your country; the water is pure and cold ; the grass
is good. It is a fine country, and it is yours.' He then said, 'I

138

CROW— CUTTING UP.

made all this country round you. I have put you in the centre. I
have put these people round you as your enemies. They will fight
you, and keep fighting you, until you are greatly reduced in numbers,
and then I will conie and help you.' He said, ' Kill your enemies ;
tike their scalps ; blacken your faces with fire-coals; and when any
of your ])eople are killed, let your tears fall to tiie ground, and cry
out in your distress mourning.' He also said that he would not help
foolish people, but would assist those who were good. He said, ' I
have put red i)aint in places in your country. Get this and make
your faces and bodies red.' He also said, ' These women may breed
too fast ; you will have to destroy some of the young before they are
born.' After this he went to a tree, struck it, and the whites came
out like mice out of a hole. He said, ' I have sent these whites to
show you how to make iron. Do not fight them ; shake hands with
them. At eighty years you will all be pretty old, and at one hun-
dred you will be of no account ; your skin will peel off. From the
time you are born till you are fifty you will be strong and well ; from
sixty you will feel the weight of many winters ; will be crippled
and go down hill.' He then said, 'I have given you all these
things; sometimes give me what I have told you to; and when
you make these offerings call on me. I will hear and help you.'
He then took them all over the country, and 'at Powder River dis-
appeared."

Crow. Make sign for Bird and for Black.

Cry. Conception : Tears. Bring both hands, backs outwards,
index fingers extended and pointing upwards, other fingers and
thumbs closed, in front of and about six inches from face, tips of
index fingers about height of eyes; lower the hands, at same time
bend index towards face, repeating motion, tracing the course o!
tears flowing down face.

Deaf-mutes use the same sign. •

Cunning. Make sign for Woi.f. Sometimes the sign for Fox i?
made ; a cunning person acts the part of a wolf or fox.

Cutting Up. Hold left hand, back upwards, in front of kfl
breast, fingers extended, touching, pointing to front, upwards, and
slightly to right; bring right hand, back down, fingers extended,
touching, pointing to front, upwards, and sligiuly to left, about six
inches to right, and little lower than left hand ; move the right hand
on a curve outwards, downwards and to left, as though cutting with
its lower edge parallel to left hand ; repeat motion. This sign is
used not only to express the idea of cutting up game so that it
can be i)acked into camp, but the cutting of meat into thin strips,
which after being so cut is placed on horizontal poles 'and dried in
the sun. Three days of pleasant weather are sufficient to cure it so
that it will keep for years, provided it remains dry. Where there
are heavy dews, or when it rains during the process of drying and
curing, the meat must be taken into the lodge. When cured it i^f
packed away in the par-fleche sacks, and is ready for use. It is gen-
erally eaten without any further preparation or cooking. Sometimes

CUTTING UP.

139

it is roasted a little and pounded up with dry fat ; and at other times
a kind of stew is made of it.

Deaf-mutes hold extended left hand, back up, fingers pointing to
right, in front of body; bring extended riglit hand back to right,
fingers pointing to front and downwards, and place lower edge just at
left finger-tips; move right hand to front and downwards as though
slicing off finger-tips of left hand. This is the sign used by the
Indians for cutting tobacco.

140

DAKOTA— DA ::CF..

Dakota. Sec Stoux.

Dam. C'oiu'option : IloUliiig the currcMil. Make sign for Strkam
Of RiVKR. and for Hoi.D.

DL-al-imUfs make signs for lUii.i), fur Waikk, and indicate its
rising from the efTect of the ohstniction.

Dance. Coiu-i-ption : Hoppi ,g at lit)n. l?ring the hands in front
ot' liody about heigiu of breast, with lower edges horizontal and
pointing to front, painis towards eacli other, about six mciies apart,
rigiu iiand sUglitlv liigiu-r than iel'l, h)wer edge of same about ou a
line with centre of lett [)alm, fingers slightly ciirved and little sepa-
rated, thumbs extended and pointing about upwards ; move the hands
brisk! V upwards and downwards few inches several times, mostly hy
elbow action. Sometimes the hands are held with fingers, pointing
upwards.

It is extremely difliciilt, almost imijossible, to describe an Indian
dance so that a person who has never seen one can forni any correct
idea of it. To better understand the matter, lu)wever, it is necessary
to clear one's mind of the tliouiilits of the sensuous pleasures of our
modern <laiu-e, an<l try to contemphite the subject as it is handed
down to us through the history of the.mcient Spartans, who, it seems,
bke our Indians, made the act of dancing an expression of their
emotions, relating mostly to religion and wai.

The violent physical exertion anil mental excitement, with such
accessi)ries, in the scalp- and other dances, as blackened faces, painted
bodies. t"ull war costumes, weird singing, hideous " tum tums" of the
drums, gory scalp-locks held high' in the air on slender poles, the
wind playing with the straight black locks or lighter-colored tresses,
pirhaps.it night, their wild faces and bodilv contortions thrown into
a buld and horrible relief by the tlickering light of the tongues of
flame from a huge fire, all combine to throw the dancers into a state
of excitement bordering on frenzy.

There is a gr-at similarity among all the tribes in their dancing,
and their motives and objects are also about the same. The Sun-
Dance aci.l Medicine-Dance partake the most strongly of a religious
ciiaracter, ami of them 1 have given a brief ilescription separately.
(See Sun-Dance, Medicine-Danck.)

Generally they form in a circle. The music consists of drums and
rattles, and from two "j tour singing-girls, who are located just out-
side the group, and keep time to the drums in a shrill, nasal, metallic
chant. The licels of tlie dancers are raiseil from the ground, the
weight of the body resting on the balls of the feet. The body is
raised, lowered, contorted, sometimes resting on one foot only, and
every motion keeping time to the infernal " tum tum" and mondt-
onous singing. Gaudily decked out, half naked, and gorgeously

DANCE,

141

painted, thoy niak<.' ;i fantastic picnirc. In most of their darues tlicy
first sit down in a circle, and j,a't \\\\ at sliOrt intervals to particii)atc
in liie dancing. In some dances, as in the Scalj)-I)ance, they move
round and round in a circ le by short sideway liops. In the Grass-
or Omaha-Dance, fhey form in two lines, move forward towards, pass
each other, tiirn, repass, and so on. Some of t'iese dan< es lliey can
have at any time, others only after certiin intervals and u])on speci-
fied occasions. There are dances for the old men, dances for the
oil! women, for motiiers whose sons have ^'one to war and have met
with success, dance; for the yonng men before going to war and
after returning, •0(\\\ some which seem to soften down to an aisthelic
social characte: , i)erniitting the youiij.; men and women to dan( e to-
geliier, and allowing little tendernesses in the v/ay of kissing the
girls. Whether this is of late origin, and due to tlic civilization of
the white race, I am unable to say.

Some of the different dances arc distinguished by the songs for
cadi, some by the dress, and a few of them by the steji. i'easting
and smoking, but especially the smoking, either before or after, and
sometimes during t!^e dance, is an essential part of all their cere-
monies. As a rule, the different dances take their names from the
names of the different soldier bands. The Comanchcs have the
Raven, Uutfalo Bull, liwitt Fox, — all war-dances, — and Dance of
Fear, with shiekis and lances, when they ex])ect an attack ; Turkey-
Dance, imitating n.otions of turkeys. The Deer-Dance might l^e
cailefl the jiiggler's-dance, as the dancers i)reteml to swalk"*' red
heans and then draw them oit through the breast.

The Caddos had a Corn Dance, held when the corn was ripe
enough to eat, and, until this dance took place, no one was allowed
to |)ick any of the corn. They also had a Beaver-Dance, in winch
the niediciiie-men swallowed large shells.

The Berthold Indians have a special dance for the women, called
a Wliite-Buffalo-Dance. They also have the Strong-Heart-, Bull-,
Wolf-, and Young-Dog-Dances. They use masks of buffalo-heads
for the Bull-Dance, and wolf-skins for the Wolf-Dance.

The C'heyennes have a special war-dance when all the soldiers are
wanted tor war purposes. A large fire is made in the centre of the
i;.m|), where the warriors assemble, mounted and dismounted, but
wearing all their war-toggery, weapons, etc. Men, women, and chil-
dren join in the dance, and when the excitement has Ijecomc in-
tense, has reached its greatest height, the headmen go amoi.g the
liancers and pick out twelve of the best and bravest soldiers, and
place two lines of six each on oi)posite sides of the fire. Then the
'j1(1 men and headmen give them advice, telling them that they must
lie vigilant and brave, and must never run Irom their enemies, and
that their people will, after their return, sing of their brave deeds, but
should they be killed on the battlefield, than which there is no more
glorious death, they will be great chiefs in the hereafter. Gener-
ally speaking, the Plains Indians have the Omaha- or Grass-Dane e,
hy men, old and young, at any time : this is also a begging dance ;

Rl!

142

DANGEROUS— DA Y.

Fox-Dance, by young men, at any time; Wolf-Dance, by those
going to war, just before their going; Horse-Dance, once in two
years ; a large lodge is pitched in the centre of camp ; the men are
in war costumes, and their ponies painted ; they then circle, charge,
discharge guns, etc. ; Scalp-Dance, by men and women, after the
scalps have been brought home ; those who have been on the war-
path have their faces blackened ; Chief- or Short-hair-Dance, mostly
by old men, at any time ; Night-Dance, young men and girls, at any
time; Strong-Heart-Dance, young men, at any time; Spirit-Dance,
young men, at any time ; Otter-Dance, young men, using poles with
otter-skins, at any time, and is a medicine dance ; Kill-Dance, by
mothers whose sons have been to war and met with success. These
do not exhaust the list of dances, but are the principal ones.

Deaf-mutes hold extended left hand, back down, fingers pointing
to front, in front of body, and place tips of extended and separated
index and second fingers on left palm, these fingers vertical, others
and thumb closed ; twist and turn the right hand ; the fingers rep-
resent person standing, and the movement the gyration of the
modern dance.

Dangerous. This word when used in respect to a person would
be c'xi)ressed by saying that he is angry, heart .is bad, and sign for
Brave and perhaps Kill. If of a place, specify in what way or by
whom made dangerous.

Deaf-mutes make the sign for letter D alongside of head for a
dangerous person.

Dark. Bring the hands, back outwards, in front of face, about
parallel to it, fingers extended and touching^ right hand nearest
face, palm of left about two inches from back of right, hands crossed
so that lower edge of right hand is about on a line with centre of
left palm and nearly at right angles with lower edge of left hand,
tips of index fingers about opposite centre of forehead ; bring tlie
hands very slightly towards face. Some Indians make sign for
Night and Same, or hold extended hands in front of and close to
eyes.

To travel in an unknown country — i.e., a country where the toix)g-
raphy is unknown — would be exjjressed by saying " one travelled in
the dark."

Deaf-nuites use the same sign.

Daughter. Make signs for Parturition and for Female.

Deai-nuues make their signs for Female and Child.

Day. Hold the extended hands in same horizontal plane, Ixuks
U]), in front of body, fingers pointing to front, about four inches
apart, equidistant from body and at height of breast ; sweep the
hands upwards and to right and left, and then downwards on curve
simultaneously, turning the palms up; terminating the movemeiU
when hands are about opposite shoulders and in same horizontal
plane as when starting. For To-day the sign for Now is first made.

To Indians darkness seems a tangible body. It covers the earth
at night like a huge blanket, and in the above-described sign a part

DA YBREAK—DEAF.

of the gesture for Nkiht is used, — the darkness is folded away, laid
aside, opened out for the sunshine. The time of day is expressed
bv noting the position of the sun in the heavens, and a /eference
to the sun being at any point above the tiorizon is sometimes used
to express day instead of the sign I have described.

Deaf-mutes indicate the " path of the sun in the heavens" with
extended index of right hand.

Daybreak. Mold both extended hands, backs out, in same ver-
tical plane, little finger of right hand resting on left horizontal index ;
raise the right haiul vertically a few inches. The darkness is lifted
up a little, leaving a bright space, but no sun as yet is visible. Some
bidians bring the right liand, back to right, towards the eastern hor-
izon, arm n";^'ly extended, thumb and index finger curved into an
incomplete cucle, space of about an inch between tips, other fingers
closed ; raise the hand slightly, then make sign for Little. Others
add to this by holding extended left hand, back out, over right wrist,
and then, by bending up right hand, show the incomplete circle
formed with index and thumb a little above the horizontal left index.

To-day or this day is expressed by making sign for Now after
gesture for Day.

Deaf-mutes make about the same signs.

Dead. Make sign for Die and Sleep.

The deaf-mute sign for Die is the Indian sign for Knocked Over
or Laid Down.

Dead-Shot. Make sign for Shoot, then hold the left hand, back
outwards, well in front of body, index finger extended and pointing
tiltwards, others and thumb closed ; bring the right hand, back up,
I lose to breast, index finger extended and pointing to front, towarils
left index, other fingers and thumb closed, right hand at height of
left ; move the right hand out, and strike (X'ntre of left index with
tip of right. To emphasize, sometimes after sign for Shoot add
the sign for Brave or Strong, ami then the foregoing sign ; then
move the right hand twice out, thrusting right index to right and
left of left vertical index, and then make sign for No. It goes to
tlie (entre; neither to the right nor left.

Deaf-mutes make about saiue signs.

Though Indians are not, as a rule, fine shots at a target, yet they
are all gooil field marksmen. They are accustomed to shoot from
tlieir ])anies at moving objects, are excellent judges of distances, and
larefiiUy estimate the effect of the wind.

I'ribes like the Ncz Perces, who partially sid>sist themselves on
MiuiU game, are of course better shots than the Plains Indians, who
li.ive dependetl mainly upon the buffalo.

Deaf. Press the palm of extended right haiul slightly against right
ear, and move the hand in small circle parallel to and close to the
ear. Frequently both hands are used, left being ])ressed against left
ear, of course, antl the sign for Bad also made, or the head shaken
to indicate that one cannot hear. (See Deak-Mute.)

Deaf mutes simply touch right ear with tip of right index.

144

DKAI'-MinE.

Deaf-JK'itc, Make sign for the Person, for Parturition, for Deaf,
and for Dumis,

I liave never seen but one ileaf-nnite Indian, and he was a most
accomplished sign-talker. Deaf persons who have lost the sense of
hearing hyiiiseaseor age are more common, though not as prevalent
as with the while race. The Indian I refer to as being deaf and dumb
is a Crow, and is at present at their agency. Ignorant of all written
and spoken languages, nature found a means of educating him
through gesture specvh. Though his ears are locked against all
sound, an<l his tongue paralyzed, yet through this gift life is made to
him not intolerable. He is keen, shrewd, and intelligent, and when
' knew him was richer in stock-horses and cattle than any other
Indian of the Crow tribe. (Ordinarily he talked rapidly in clean-( nt
signs, using either hand with graceful ease, but when excited his
hands seemed to jUisli forth his pent-up emotions ; his air-pictures
were strikingly perfe<t, and true to the subject under consitleration.

As I have for comparison with the iui an gesttn-es given a brief
description of the nattnal signs made by deaf-mutes, it appe.rs
proper to note something of the present status of the efforts made I'v
the civili/ed world to rescue these people from the bondage, burden,
and darkness under which they, until a comparatively recent date.
suffered, as well as note something of the growth of these efforts.

" For educational ])urposes, those jtersons who become deaf at so
early an age that tiiey have not learned articulate language, or
speedily lose ail impress of it upon the mind, share the mental char-
acteristics of .he CO .genitally deaf, and are classed with them as
true deaf-mutes. Those who retain some knowledge of articuL'tc
language acquiretl through the ear are called semi-mutes. Deaf-
mutes are more prevalent than is generally supposed, the proportion
in the United States and Great Ihitain being probably one in two
thousand ol the entire population. France was the last of the lead-
ing European nations to engage in this work. As late as the com-
mencement of the seventeenth century a Pere Damoulin denied its
possibility.

" Very little use had been made of the gestures by which the un-
educated deaf naturally e.xpress their desires and feelings. Diderot's
** Lettre sur les sourds et muets" ( 1751) indeetl ei.',logi?,ed pantomime
as a means of connnunication, but to test its capabilities fully and
practically was reserved for the Al)be de I'Kpee.

" De rKjiee at first followed Vanin in teaching by means of pic-
tures, but soon found that tiiey produced e.xtremely incorrect im-
pressions. He next tried articulation, but was disheartened by the
slow and unsatisfactory progress made. Suddenly bethinking him-
self that the connection between "''eas and spoken words was purely
arbitrary, he surmiseil diat an association could be equally well estab-
lisheil between ideas and 7vritten words. He observed also that the
deaf possessed already a means of communication in gestures, and
considered that to teach them one of our conventional languages
would be merely a process of translation from this natural language,

DEAF-MUTE.

when it had been philosophically improved and expanded with an
exact correspondence with the others. Upon these principles he pro-
ceeded, and successfully.

" De rKpee died in 1789, and was succeeded by the Abbe Sicard.
Sicard, while preserving in the main the system of De I'l^^pee, im-
proved it in many important resjiects. In nearly all the American
institutions an improved French or manual system is employed.
Most give more or less instruction in articulation, a special teacher
being employed in some.

In writing the history of the art. the terms German, French, and
early English are applied to the systems. liut geographical bound-
aries have long ceased to divide them ; all three are now to be found
side by side in almost every country.

"The language of signs is based upon the gestures devised by un-
edtirated deaf-mutes, which havi. 'cn found strikingly similar to those
employed l)y various savage trilies. They are, pointing to objects,
expressions of real or simulated emotions, imitations of actions, and
rejiresentation with the hands of the shape or use of articles."
[Avterican Cyclopedia. )

From a "Tabular Statement of the Institutions for the Deaf and
Diiml) of the World, reprinted from the American Annals of the
Deaf and Dumb, January, 1882," I make the following extract :

"One of the most interesting items of information is that relating
to the methods of instruction now prevailing. There is so much
variety among these, however, that it is not easy to present them
accurately in the narrow limits of a statistical table. The best we are
able to do is to group them into four classes, — manual, oral, combined,
and transition.

" Hy the manual \\\c\\\qA is meant the course of instruction which
employs the sign language, the manual alphabet, and writing as the
chief means in the education of the deaf, and has facility in the
conijjrehension and use of written language as its principal object.
The degree of relative importance given to these three means varies
in different schools ; but it is a difference only of degree, and the end
aimed at is the same in all. If the pupils have some power of
speecii before coming to school, or if they possess a considerable
degree of hearing, their teachers usually try to improve their utterance
by practice ; but no special teachers are employed for this purpose,
and ( omi)arativcly little attention is given to articulation.

" By the oral \XiQ\.\\oA is meant that in which signs are used as little
as jiossible, — the manual alphabet is generally discarded altogether, —
and articulation and lip-reading, together with writing, are made the
chief means as well as the end of instruction. Here, too, there is a
difference in different schools in the extent to which the use of sign?
I is allowed in the early part of the course ; but it is a difference only
of tlegree, and the end aimed at is the same in all.

" The combined method is not so easy to define, as the term is em-
ployed with reference to several distinct methods, such as (1) the free
use of both signs and articulation, with the same pupils and by the

■WW • II "ili

DEAF-MUTE.

same teachers, throughout the course of instruction ; (2) the general
instruction of all the pupils by means of the manual method, with
the special training of a part of them in articulation and lip-reading
as an accomplishment ; (3) the instruction of some pupils by the
manual method and oHiers by the oral method in the same institu-
tion ; (4) — though this is rather a combined system — the employment
of the manual method and the oral method in separate schools under
the same general management, the pupils being sent to one establish-
ment or the other as seems best with regard to each individual case.
In this Tabular Statement it is impracticable to distinguish between
the first three sub-classes of the combined method : where the fourth
prevails the two establishments are designated separately.

" Some institutions which formerly followed the manual or the
combined method have decided within the last two years to adopt the
oral. In accordance with the recommendation of the Milan Con-
vention, however, the old course of instruction is continued with the
pupils whose education was begun before the change was decided
upon, while the oral system is pursued with the new pupils. The
method of such institutions is designated in the Tabular Statement
as transi/ion."

Location.

No. OF Pupils,

Australia

Austria- Hungary

Deigium ,

lirazil I

Canada j

Denmarlc i

France |

Germany*

Great Itritain and Ireland..!
Itaiy

10]

601
9°i

ii'

tpan

etlierlands...

Ni)rway

Portugal

Russia

Spain

Sweden

Switzerland....
United Slates.,

Tout..

35'

31
5i
I

3 •

7,
'71
II

045'

48a I

«5o

1,656

1,04a

1.33'

8t5

356
155

S
o

■g

H
o
d

Methods op Instruction.

Man-
ual.

Oral.

Com- ' 'I'ran- Not re-
bincd. sition. ported.

a.
a

iz;

1.2

4 ll -

13.

446
38a
I

176;

13011
9081

to90[

676.

9 •••

60...

'33
1,128

864

32] 3

810; 75

326 41' i' 14a

a,957 240 5 348

5,608 580

a,42l 15a

1,491 237

65 7

465 40

^83 34

8 i:

7| 582
al 65!

1,128
285

:l.

o
d

2; 4,

3 '33

5 SaS

I 171 4 6ai

a: 150,.,

7| 330 7 41a

90 ,608

7 266 13 1256

34 '.405' I 86

' 34
q 864 32 1 103

4I.

"5
385
1 8a

4.034

97'
2651
198

2985!

222 16 ...

650 74 a
380 39 ...

7,019 444 10 41a

118: aj 347
70 a| 154

3 '«5

107

364 il,8ao 9347; 34,863 3053,38

«S74

3 68! 7

II 380 5
la 527 32

aaa'

293
5971 I 109

191 10,506789887115

I I

"79 5«

i8>

171*

* I'he reporti from the Prussian Inititutions do not indicate the sex of the pupili.

DEAF-MUTE.

3 '33

I 3'

I 54
33 I 103

"3 "16s

181

,5q'>7''

The above brief resumi seems properly to terminate with the fol-
lowing extract from the ''American Cydopaidia," though the men
referred to, from the nobility of their efforts and the splendid fruit
achieved, are worthy of a stronger eulogy :

" In America, as early as 1793, appeared an essay 'On Teaching
the Deaf to Speak,' by Dr. W. Thornton, of Philadelphia. In 181 1
one of Braidwood's grandsons attempted to establish a school, first
at New York and tlhen in Virginia, but he was unsuccessful. Finally
an inquiry into the number of the deaf and dumb in Connecticut was
made by Dr. M. F. Cogswell, of Hartford, whose daughter, having
become aeaf, he was hesitating whether to send her abroad. Dis-
covering ai' unexpectedly large number, he enlisted the co-operation
of several other gentlemen of Hartford in the project of establishing
a s( hool there. One of these, the Rev. T. H. Gallaudet, seemed
pointed out for the active initiation of the work by his rare talent,
fon e of character, tact and amiability, and deep religious feeling.
Accepting the duty, he embarked on May 25, 1815, for England, to
vuquire the art of instruction. Both at London and at Kilinburgh
the exorbitant terms imposed by the Braidwood-Watson family
repelled him, and having met Sicard and his pupils in London, he
finally accepted their invitation to Paris. Here he received every
facility and assistance, and on his return, in August, 1816, he pre-
vailed upon Laurent Clerc, one of Sicard's most distinguished i)upils
and most valued associates, to accompany him. On April 15, 1817,
the Connecticut Asylum was opened at Hartford with seven ]nipils,
and within a year had thirty-three. Congress soon made it a donation
of a township of wild land, the proceeds of which now form a fund of
three hundred and thirty-nine thousand dollars. In acknowledgment
the name of the school was changed to the American .Asylum, it
being expected that it would suffice for the whole country for a long
period. But other schools were soon called for, and the asylum has
long been practically limited to the New England States. Gallaudet
remained at its head for many years, and when he was compelled by
ill health to retire his warm interest and influence were felt until his
death, in 1851. A monument was erected to his memory by con-
tributions of the deaf and dumb throughout the country, and from
designs by the deaf-mute artists Newsam and Carlin. Two of his
sons have devoted themselves to the same work, the Rev. T. Gal-
laudet, D.D., of New York, and E. M. Gallaudet, LL.D., of Wash-
ington. The New York institution was chartered on the very day
the Hartford asylum was opened. At first Watson's book was taken
as the guide, and articulation was taught, but with such unsatisfactory
results that in 1830 a thorough reorganization was effected, and two
teachers were obtained from Paris and Hartford to introduce the
French system. The French teacher, M. L6on Vaisse, after four
years, returned to Paris; the other, Harvey P. Peet, LL.D., served
as principal from 1831 to 1867, and built up the institution info the
largest and one of the most efficient in the world. His name is
worthily borne by his son and successor, Isaac Lewis Peet, LL.D.

- inikAII, . »l,l I'll i-mw"^

148

DECEIVE— DEER.

This institution has had among its professors many men since eminent
in other walks of life."

Deceive. Make sign for Give, for Lie, or Mistake, then bring
right hand, back up, in front of breast, index finger extended ami
pointing to front, others and thumb closed ; thrust the index finger
to front and right; return hand, and thrust it to front and lett
(through the lies and mistakes given, any way but the straight way
is taken).

There are, of course, other ways of noting a deception, such as
making a trail in a certain direction, then scatter and go in the
opposite direction ; and this would be used, metaphorically, to mis-
lead either mentally or physically. They also frequently express the
idea of deceiving one by saying that they had made a fool of the
person spoken of.

To deceive in war and take advantage of the deception is not only
practised by the Indians, but is considered about as high an order of
merit as bravery in battle, for often the fruit of such action is much
greater. It might be said that their lives, in the hunter state, are
filled with the study and practice of deception, and yet I have found,
as a rule, that an Indian's word or promise would be kept. Unfor-
tunately for the race, our opinions of them in miny cases are based
upon the observation of the vicious habits of those who hang about
the immediate presence of portions of our Western civilization,
which has, by its rough and rank dissipation, demoralized the barba-
rian, who usually absorbs the bad and eschews the good, quickly
becoming diseased mentally, morally, and physically, and in this
debased condition there are few vices or crimes of which they are
not capable.

Deaf-mutes make a sign very similar to the Indian sign for Trade,
only carrying the right hand well under the left ; an underhanded
changing.

Decrepit. Conception : Bent with disease or age. Hold right
hand, back to right, in front of and higher than right shoulder,
index extended and pointing upwards, other fingers and thumb
closed ; lower the hand several inches, at same time bend index.
This is not used very extensively, and usually in connection with
Old.

Deep. To indicate depth of river or of water, generally a corre-
sponding distance is measured off on the legs or body in front with
spread thumbs and index fingers, others closed, palms towards body,
index fingers horizontal ; and as the hands reach about the neck,
raise hands above the head. To emphasize, add sign for Bravk.
To represent depth of water at a ford, the height to which the water
would reach on a pony is noted by marking on arms with spread
index and thumb.

Deaf-mutes simply point downwards with right index.

Deer (White-tailed). Conception: Movement of tail and manner
of jumping. Bring right hand, back nearly to right, in front of
body, index finger extended pointing to front and upwards, others

DEER— DEPOSE.

149

and thumb closed ; carry hand from right to left several timps, hand
lii'ld a little loosely at wrist, so as to give a swinging mot. , to in-
dex finger, imitating as nearly as possible the movement of the
(kcr's tail ; then bring nearly-com|)ressed right hand in front of and
little lower than right shoulder ; carry the hand upwards and out-
wards on a curve, bringing it down to same height as when starting.
I'lefiiiently the first sign, representing the movement of the tail, is
made with the extended hand instead of index finger, and sometimes
something white is touched or pointed at. In giving the gesture for
jumping it is desirable to bear in mind the way in which the different
animals jump, so as to determine the nature or radius of the curve.
The white-tailed deer jumps high and a goodly distance, the moun-
tain lion not so high, but longer distance ; the size of the animal has
something to do with it, as with a rabbit, where the hand indicates
very short jumps. There is one exception to this latter rule, viz.,
the frog, whose jump is rej)resented as quite long.

Deer (Black-tailed), Conception : Movement of tail and black
tij). Make, first, sign for movement of tail as above described for
white-tailed deer ; then hold left hand, back nearly to left, in front
of body, index finger extended, pointing about upwards, others and
thumb closed ; bring right hand, similarly fixed, back up, index
about horizontal, and place its tip against first joint of left index ;
move right hand slightly upwards, tip of right index pressing against
surface of left, rather snapping as it leaves it, and becoming partially
elevated ; then make sign for Black.

Deer (Red). Conception: Horns and timber. Make sign for
AxTKLOPE (sometimes the second finger is also extended) and sign
for Tree. The sign for the horns is frequently made prior to
making either the sign for white- or black-tailed deer.

Deaf-mutes indicate the horns, but like all their signs for animals
it IS faulty, being the Indian sign for Elk.

Defame. See Abuse.

Defy. Close the right hand, placing thumb between the index
and second finger, and push it out sharply towards a person, fre-
quently accompanied by a sharp, short, gruff grunt. As the inter-
preter said, an Indian is "fighting mad" when he makes this sign.
It seems to concentrate and combine the elements of hatred, detes-
tation, abhorrence, and defiance, as much as to say, "You excre-
ment-eating dog ! Do your worst !"

Deaf-mutes simply shake the closed right hand at person.

Delight. The Crows, Flatheads, Blackfeet, and some others make
sign for Excite; the heart is lifted up or disturbed, though from a
different cause.

Deaf-mutes combine signs for Pleased and Happy.

Depart. See Go.

Deaf-mutes nearly use the same, but hand is held, back outwards,
and more of a swinging motion given to it.

Depose. See Abandoned.

Deaf-mutes knock down extended left index with right hand.

ISO

DESTROY— DIRT.

Destroy. See Exierminate.

Deaf-mutes use the same sign.

Dew. Make signs for Night, for Grass, and then separating and
partially extending fingers and thumb of right hand, pass this hand
with a tremulous motion over, just above the position of the hands
when making sign for Grass, at the same time the sign for Water
is also made.

Deaf-mutes make their arbitrary sign for letter W near mouth for
Water, and then indicate this over the grass.

Die. Conception: Going under. Hold the left hand, back out,
well in front of body, fingers extended, touching, and pointing to
right ; bring right hand, back out, between left and body, and at
same height, index finger extended, pointing to others and thumb
closed ; move right hand downwards and outwards, back of index
grazing lower edge of left hand as the right passes index ; frequently
the slightly-compressed hand is passed under left instead of having
index finger only extended, as I have explained. 1 have also seen
the right hand alone used, passed downwards and outwards, as
above, and also swept outwards to front and right, turning palm up
in the movement; this latter in the sense more frequently of being
knocked over, such as the sudden falling of an' animal on being
shot, etc.

This latter is the deaf-mute sign.

There is no fixed rule or law regulating property inheritance at
death, other than that it goes to the kinsfolk, generally distributed,
unless there may have been a will made, — i.e., a verbal request, —
and the provisions of this are usually sacredly carried out.

The Gros Ventres of the Prairie usually give a dying person a
drink of water just before decease, for what reason I was unable to
ascertain. (See Bury.)

Faith in a happy hereafter for all is universal, and, in consequence,
Indians are not agonized with fear and doubt at the approach of
death. Nature has given them, in common with all other animals,
an innate desire for life, and this in connection with their social
laws, which forbid self-destruction, keep them from committing
suicide, so that this crime (if it can be so called) is rare.

Mr. Dunbar says of the Pawnees, that if a man died leaving a wife
and no children, or only small children, his relatives stepped imme-
diately in and took possession of all his property. The destitute
widow returned to her father's lodge, to be sold away anew. If too
old, she was sometimes cared for, but too often was left to struggle
through the remainder of life as best she might. If there were man-
grown sons, they took the property, and the mother with them, who,
if not sold away again, remained as in her own lodge.

Dig. Make first part of sign for Badger, and similar motion on
left side of body.

Deaf-mutes make motions as though digging with a shovel or
spade.

Dirt. Point to the ground with extended right index, or rub tips

DISA RM—DIS TRIBUTE.

151

of fingers and thumb as in Ashes. This latter is the sign used by
deaf-mutes.

Disarm. Make sign for Weapon, then of Taken from some one
ki.mE, not Yourself or your people. Move the right hand, back
to right, well out to front of body, index finger extended, others and
tlimnb closed ; draw the hand in towards body, at same time curve
index finger: the wea])ons are taken away; and tlie hand is moved
out to right and front and left and front, as though taking away
from people in circle.

To be taken from you or your people, hold the right hand in near
the body, and move it outwards with index finger curved, others and
thumb closed : pulled or taken from you.

Deaf-mutes make a gras])ing motion as though seizing weapons.

Disgust. Make sign for Heart and Tired. The head is some-
times turned to one side, and the idea conveyed by the expression
of the countenance.

Dismount. Make sign for Pony, then raise right hand, carry it
to right and lower it, index and second finger extended, separated,
and pointing downwards; repeat the motion to indicate niore than
one dismounting.

Deaf-mutes use the same sign.

Dispatch. Make sign for Write, and then elucidate how it is to
come, or has come, how it is to go, or has gone; i.e., by wire or
courier, etc.

Distance. Distance, by nearly all Indians, is measured by so
many marches, or so many days' riding (the latter being represented
by so many nights). If the pony is fresh, strong, and fleet, a great
distance is covered ; if tired, weak, and slow, a small distance, of
course. For people who are so nomadic, so constantly wandering
from place to place, and frequently going over the same ground, it
is astonishing what poor ideas they have of distance, or any standard
for its measurement. Of course they at times correctly compare
distances ; but, as a rule, not accurately. To do this, they mention
some well-known distance, and any portion of this by the time re-
quired to cover it, mentioning at what gait, or if moving with
lodges, etc. To do this in gesture speech, extend left index and
forearm, held horizontally, mark off the entire distance with right
index, and then indicate the fraction desired to be represented.

Distant. Bring right hand, back to right, in front of right breast,
and little lower than shoulder, fingers curved and touching, ball of
thumb resting on side of index, hand close to body ; push the
hand to front, raising it slightly. Very distant indeed would be
represented by extending arm to full length.

Distribute. Bring the right hand, back to right, well in front
and little to right of body, fingers extended, touching, and pointing
to front ; move the hand upwards to front, and then downwards ;
return hand to first position and make similar motion a little more
to left, as though giving to several persons in a circle in front of one.
(See Give.)

»5«

DIVE— DO.

Deaf-mutes use the same sign.

Dive. Hold left hand, back outwards, well in front of body,
fingers extended, touching, and pointing to right ; bring right hand,
back out, some inches in rear of and higher than left hand ; fingers
extended, touching, pointing downwards and slightly to front ;
move the right hand sharply downwards and outwards, back of hand
grazing lower edge of left hand, fingers pointing a little more to
front after passing index of left hand ; terminate movement wlien
wrist is under left hand.

To express coming up, the right hand is turned to point upwards
and to front after passing under left hand, and movement continued
until tips of fingers are little higher than left index, accomplislicd
by bending right wrist. The signs for River or Water are fre-
quently first made.

Deaf-mutes bend forward, place the hands above and near head,
as is usually tlone in diving in the water.

Divorce. See Abandoneu.

Deaf-mutes make sign for Marry, and then indicate a tearing
apart.

Mr. Dunbar says of the Pawnees, that the separation of man and
wife did not often occur. Infidelity on the part of the atter was
almost the only cause that produced final divorcement. Usually,
through i)rinciple or fear, wives were faithful. If a case of unfaith-
fulness was discovered, the punishment remained in the hands of the
husband. The most common penalty was that the offending wife
should be unmercifully beaten, and relegated back to her father's
family. I never knew of a guilty woman being mutilated or killed,
as is frequent among some of the Southern tribes. The husband
might retain the children or not, as he saw fit. Between him and
the offeniling man, unless through the mediation of friends the
ofi'ence was condoned, a life-long feud generally ensued. Sometimes
a man, without assigning any specific reason, cast off a wife, hut
such conduct was not ordinarily sanctioned. On the other hand, it
sometimes happened that a wife left her husband. In most of this
kind of instances, if she had not eloped with another man, an un-
derstanding was before long effected, and they again lived together.
The whole matter of the relation of sexes must be judged with large
allowances, for certain ways of thinking, to which they were edu-
cated, tended directly to cut away all idea of mutual obligation
in it.

Do. To express the idea of one working or doing for another
person, or another person working or doing. (See Work.) For
another person working against you, doing evil to you, etc., bring
hands, palms towards each other, well out in front of body, hands
opposite and about six inches apart, held little lower than breast, fin-
gers extended, touching, and pointing to front ; turn the hands by
wrist action, thumbs inwards so that backs of hands shall be towards
each other; then, mostly by wrist action, move the hands on a
curve downwards, keeping backs at about same distance as wlien

DO NOT— DOG.

153

starting, and at same time bring the hands in towards body, raising
tlicin when approaching close to it; then sweep them upwards and
to front.

To sligiitly iliiip.rate, take the sentence, •' I think you did me an
injury" (mentioning it). Make signs for I, for Think, point to
person, make the above sign, then sign for Bad. In a similar way
expri'ss a good service done. In .s'.irh sentences as " you made me
poor," they express the idea by s.-ying that " you gave me poverty,"
anil poverty is expressed by the sign tor Poor.

Doaf-mutes indicate action by horizontal motion of hands to
front.

Dc Nit. Make signs for Do and No.

Do I'Ot, in the sense of some of our peculiar expressions, such as
Hold on a moment. Do not go. Wait a moment, Keep cool,
Keep quiet, etc., is expressed by bringing right hand, back up,
fingers extended, touching, and pointing to front and upwards, in
front of body, or towards person, hantl a little higher than shoulder
and held well out ; lower the hand slightly by wrist action, repeating
motion.

Deaf-mutes indicate the action, and make their sign for Not.

Doctor. Make the sign for the person, if an Indian, his name or
tril)e, or locate him in some way, and then make sign for Medicine.
If a white man, make sign fur Whites, for Chief, and then sign for
Meuicine. (See Medicine.)

The Mandans, Gros Ventres, Arickarees, Flatheads, Blackfeet,
and some others, simply make sign for Work, and for Brave or
Strong; a mighty worker.

Deaf-mutes feel the pulse in the left wrist with right hand.

Dog. Conception: Wolf drawing travois-poles. Bring right
tiaiul, back up, in front of and little lower than left breast, first and
second fingers extended, separated, and pointing to left ; draw hand
to right several inclies, keei)ing index about parallel to front of
body.

Some Indians only indicate the height of the ar ' nal, and make a
barking sound ; others sign for Wolf and Spotted, and also denote
the travois-pole; and I have seen the size noted and motion made
of packing, on left index, held horizontal and extended.

The Arapahoes claim that the Indian dog was bred originally from
the big gray wolf, the coyote, and the fox. They do not know
whether this was the result of a purpose or an accident. Indian dogs
certainly seem to possess, in some degree, the characteristics of all
three, though now in every Indian camp the strains of our breeds
of dogs are plainly apparent. With many of the Plains Indians the
dog was used as a beast of burden, as a companion, and for food,
and from the importance and value accorded to the animal, I was
led to believe that they did not use the expression, "You dog!"
etc., which is often, but not commonly, used as an epithet and
term of reproach; but a closer investigation discovered the fact that
they did so use it. Nearly every tribe has a band of Dog-Soldiers,

154

DOLLAR— DKEAM.

and a dance named after the band ; and the name so used is in a
sense the reverse of dercigntory.

Comi)aratively speaking, it is only a few years since the Northern
Indians used dogs as a means of transportation (see P(inv), and 'Iiev
are now used (isiite extensively, jjarticuhirly north of the British Uiu',
In the summer of 1879 I saw dogs belonging to Crees, Clu|)pe\vas,
and Half-breeds witli small jjoles attached to their necks, one on each
side, comfortablv trotting along with about forty pounds weight las -
ened on the poles, and the Assinaboines, at VVolf Point, Montain,
use dogs almost exclusively to haul the water needed at their cair.p,
located at some little (listan<e from the river. The Rocky Moui.tain
range seems »o form the western geographical limit of the tribes who
eat dogs. The lilackfeet. Crows, l-'lat heads, Nez Perces, Shoshoncs,
Bannacks, and iJtes do not eat dogs, but the Sioux, Cheyeniics,
Arai)alioes, Kiowas, Aj)aches, and otliers prize them highly, and for
a s|)ccial feast r/c,i,'' is considered better than anything else. The u'.cat
combines the llavorsof bear and pork, and is wonderfully nutritions;
one can undergo a great deal of hard work, espe( ially hard riding,
after a hearty meal of dog, without inc onvenience, and I verily be-
lieve could go longer without special desire or need for food than
after a meal of almost any other subst mce.

Mr. Dind)ar says of the Pawnees tliat a fatted dog constituted ;i
most delicious repast. Formerly, a Dog-Dance, accompanied by a
dog feast, was a fretjuent occurrence ; now it is become rare, and is
observed (juietly, ajjparentlv tliat il may not attract the attention of
the whites. Till recently, since the (/overnment has undertaken to
subsist the tribe, ihey were very rigid in refusing to touch pork in
anv form ; but this scrui)le has now entirely disappeared.

Di-af-mutes slap the right thit,h with right hand, and snappini;
motion with thumb .\\\C. fingers.

Dollar. Make sign ior ^IoNEV, and hold up index finger to denote
one.

Deaf-mutes use the same sign.

Door. Make sign for Tki'EE or for House ; then hold left hand,
back outwards, well in front of breast, fingers extended, touching
and pointing to right ; bring palmar surface of extended and tone h-
ing fingers of right hand against left i)alm, fingers pointing upwanls;
turn tlv hand, by wrist action, to the right, as though tinning a door,
with little finger as a hitch, till back of right rests against left palm.

The skin or cloth covering the orifice in a lodge for ingress ami
egress is cidled a door. The cloth or skin is simply fastened to rvo
crossed sticks.

Deaf-mutes make the outline with hands.

Doubt. See Pekh.m's.

Deaf-;.ii.;;-s make the. r signs for Think and Perh.M's.

Dream. Make signs for Sleep, for See, for Good, and Know;
sometimes for Nit;iir, Si.kk.p, Work.

Indians place great confiilence in their dreams or visions, and this
is shadowed forth in the gesture. They do not think, but they sc

sable; the forn

DREAMER— DRESS.

155

and know. Not only are the dreams of a natural and healthy sleep
[irizc'd, but artificial means are constantly resorted to to secure these
visions, — the sweat-bath, solitude and prolonged fasting, mutilation,
etc. Some Indians have only their dreams for their " medicine"
or charm to pnjtect them from evil, as is the case with Little Wolf,
a chief of the Norlliern Cheyennes. 'I'he Sioux chief Crazy Horse
had a most remarkable dream some ten days before he was killed.
While walking on the prairie near his camp one day he came across
a dead eagle. He went to his tepee and gloomily sat there tor
niaiiv hours afterwards. Being asked by some of his peo])le as to
wb.at was the matte , he said " that he had fotmd his dead body on
the i)rairie near by," and a night or two after this he dreamt that
he was on an elevated plateau ricUng a white pony. He was sur-
rounded by his enemies and i)ig guns (cannon), and 'le was killed,
but not with a bullet. He had always claimed i.'..'^ he bore a
(harmed life, and could not be killed by a biUlet. li; putting him
in the guard-house he attempted, with his knife, to cut his way to
liberty though surrounded by about twenty soldiers, and was bay-
oneted in the attempt. A white pony was held by one of his
l:i>.n(ls just outside the circle of soldiers, and some howitzers were
standing a few yards in front of the guard-house.

Dreamer. See Medici nf.-Man.

Dress. Pass the spread tlunnb and index finger over the part of
body which it is desired to represent as covered. As a rule, the dress
(if an Indian discloses his tribe. Mr. Dunbar says of the Pawnees
that boys were allowed to go without any dress, other than such bits
of clothing as they might pick up, till al.'out six years (dd. Girls,
after three years, were covered with a skirt. The dress of both sexes
was (juite simple. That of the men consisted of a girdle about the
loins, to which was attached the b-eech -cloth, and from which de-
]ien(iod ^he buckskin leggings cove.ing the thighs and legs. On the
feet were moccasins. In winter the body was wrap|)ed in a bulfalo-
riibe or blanket ; in summer a light blanket or a thiniy-dressed skin
was worn. But in warm weatiier ihev often went without either of
these. Moccasins and breech-rloJi alone were considered indispen-
sable ; the former, because without them travelling on the prairie was
impossible, tiie latter fror» consideratiiMis of modesty. The dress
of the women consisted of moccasins, leggings, tightly laced above
the knee and reaching to the ankles, a skirt covering from the waist
to IkIow the knee, and a loose waist or jackd sus])enileil from the
slioulders by straps. The arms were bare, excejjt when covered by
tlie robe or blanket. The garments of the women, other than the
modasins, wi're made, if the wearer could afford ii, of cloth, other-
wise of some kind of skin dressed thin and soft. The making and
keejiing in re|)air of moccasins was a ceaseless task. Tlie last thing
ea h (lay for the women was to look over the moccasins and see that
eai b member of the family was supplied for the ensuing day.

The full-dress toilet of a young brave was a matter of serious and
protracted study. Hn habiliments might be few, but the decoration

^56

DRIED MEAT— DRUM.

of his person was a slow and apparently not unpleasing process.
With his paints mixed in a dish before him, and the fragment of a
mirror in his left hand, he would sit for hours trying the effect of
various shadings and combinations on his face and person, wiping
off and reaj^jjlying the pigment with seemingly inexhaustible paticiue
when the effect was not satisfactory. No devotee of fasliion ever
labored more assiduously to produce striking results in dress than
some of tliese Pawnee braves. Quite a common recreation, after a
self-satisfying adornment had once been secured, was to ride leisunlv
about the village or camp and complacently permit those of the com-
mon tlirong to lose themselves in admiration.

Deaf-mutes pass extended hands over the part of body which it is
desired to represent as covered.

Dried Meat. Indicate what kind it is by i)ro])cr signs for aniin;> ,
and then make sign for CuttiN(; Ur, ami then denote the putting
or spreading same on tlie poles to dry.

It seems a little strange, but the Indians have no sign for the word
MKAr.

Deaf-mutes pinch the muscular tissue between tlie thumb and index
of left hand between the ball of tiunnb and index of right to denote
meat.

Drink. Conception: Drinking from the curved right palm. Com-
press and curve the right hand as though holding water in its palm;
then cany to the mouth from slightly above, downwards, as though
in the act of drinking water in that way ; continue movement till
hand has passed below <:h.in. Sometimes motion is made as though
dipping the haml in water, and then above gesture.

Deaf-mutes make motion with closed right hand, as though drinking
out of a bottle.

Drive. (Sense of driving a hefd, or running of a herd.) lirin;;
hands, palms towards each other, in front o*" breast, index fnifjers
and thumbs s; ;ead, curved ami horizontal, others closed, h.nuN
opposite each other a,;d same height, about an inch between tipsoi'
thumbs, light index j)ointii)g to front and left, left index to front and
right ; move the hands simultaneously to right and left, or front.
keeping hands in same relative position. The hand.; are, of course,
moved in the direction in which the herd is supposed to be driven.
(See To Hkud.)

Deaf-nuitcs simply indicate the driving of a team by imitatiiij.; the
holding of the reins.

Drouth. Make sign for LoN Time, for Rain, and sign for N'k
Sometimes add signs for Grass, for Wiped Out, for Same, and lor

FlKE.

Deaf-nnites indicate rain not, ground dry.

Drown. Make sign for Water, and express its status, whcihcr
river, lake, etc., and usually the way the person or animal went into
it, and then make sign for Die.

Dram. Mohl the hands as in first motion for Kettle ; then, siiil
hokling left hand in its position, strike downwards several times wit

DR UNKA RD—D UMB.

157

r.rin-

finders

!iaiiil>

tips 01

iiii. anil

Iris Til.

nearly-closed right hand, back up, hand held over ihe imaginary
(Inini, and imitating their way of beating it. Usually this last part
is all the sign that is made for drum, either to denote the instrument
or the action.
Deaf-mutes imitate the civilized way of beating a dnmi.
Drunkard. Point to or make sign for the person, make the sign for
WmsKKY, sign for Drink, repealing this several times, and frequently
using both hands, and sign for Much. Sometimes they seem to com-
bine the sign for Want with the sign for Dkink, by fixing both hands
as in Want, and then bring the hands, by rotary motion, round ea( h
other, close to mouth.

Dry, To express that a stream is dry, make sign for Stream, for
Waikr, and All Gone.

Ueaf-mut(.3 indicate that a person is dry by holding crooked index
across mouth.

Duck. The usual sif,ns are for Bird and Water. Sometimes the
gestures for flat bill, the color of legs, shape of feet, manner of flying
are niadr, and the oup-ck ! (juack ! sounds imitated. Portions of the
>kin of the head an<l neck are used to decorate the medicine-pipes of
the Indians, not only on account of the beauty of the feathers, but
also from the imi)ortant and sacred part assigned this bird in many
of their myths of creation.

Dc^f-mutes make their sign for Biko, and imitate with both hands
the w ' ''ig motion of the bird in walking.

Dui ! .old lel't hand, back down, in front of left breast, fingers ex-
tended, touching, and pointing to right and front ; bring lower edge
of rit^lit liand into pain of left, fingers of right hand extended,
touching and pointing to left and front ; move the right hand back-
wards and forwards several times, as though trying to cut or .saw with
its luwcr edge. Sometimes the sign for Bad is added.

Dumb. Press the ])alm of right hand over the mouth, or make sign
fo' Little Talk and for No.

This first gesture is also used to express the idea of keeping silent,
taking no part in the conversation, etc. t^See Deak-Mute.)
Deaf-mutes simply touch lips with right index.

nu the

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IvS

EA GL E—EA R-RING.

Eagle. Conception: Wings and black ti])s of tail-feathers. Makci
sij,Mi tor Uiuu; then hold extended left hand horizontally, back ii|.l
in front of left breast, fingers pointing to front and right ; lay the!
lower edge of extended and vertical rigiit hand, back to right anii|
outwards, fingers pointing to left and tVont, on back of left, about
knuckles; niove the rigiit hand outwards and to right, then niakrl
sign for Hi.ack ; this represents the black ends of the tail-feather;
and sometimes the sign for Taii, is made before this sign.

The bald-headed eagle is representeil by signs for 15iri) and UauI
Hkad. 'i'he Herthold Indians sometimes add signs for Crooke:|
BiM-; and the iJhu kfeet for Soarinc; Hi(;ii in Air.

The tail-feathers from the "chief of all birds," as they call ttel
golden eagle, are highly prized, and are the chief and talisinanil
decoration of war-bonnets. These feathers are fastened in tiJ
hair, and also in the manes of their war-|)onies. Some tribes onhl
allow a man who has killed some one in a fight to wear a feather
this kind on the head ; i.e.., stuck in the scalp-lo< k. Should t«|
or three be worn there, they indicate the niimi)er of peo|)le kilbl
by the wearer. Some Indians claim that this bird was created ar.cl
given them by God Ibr its beauty, for decorating themselves, a!.:|
as a special charm in battle. The Indians, as did the ancient-'
regard the golden eagle as an emblem of strength and courage,
extraordinary powers of vision, the great height to which it soad
in the sky, the wdd grandeur of the scenery amidst which it cliicr.!
loves to make its abode, ami its longevity, have concurred to recm j
mend it to their poetic regard, inspired them with hope and coi:]
dence of success and victory.'' (See War-Honnet. )

The wings of the bald-headed eagle are prized for fans, and ti|
large bones of eagles' and hawks' wings are use(i for whistles.
Whistles.)

Deaf-imites make their sign for Hird, aiul then iiulicate a crooks
bill, or beak.

Early. If early in the morning is meant, make signs for 1)at|
ureak. and Lini.K ; if early in the evening, make signs for Sun I'a-:
ING uKi.ow Western Horizon and lor Little.

Deaf-mutes indicate the first by holding right forearm under iel
wrist, back t)f hand down, and bending it up, so that it will ■^'\m
a little above left hand ; for early evening, the right wrist is put dvq
left and the hand bent down; the left forearm is lield horizont;ilh ;
front of left breast in both cases.

Ear-ring. Conception : L(jng narrow pen<lant. Hold the eii
tended index fingers, pointing tiownwards, others and thumbs close<

LARTH—EAT.

'59

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aldiigside of ears, backs of hands towards head ; shake the hands
blightly so as to give a tremulous motion to index fingers.

I liave seen ear-rings worn by Indian women a toot long and
about an inch wide, made of little shells alxnit an inch in length.
Strips of bright-colored shells are much sought after for this purpose.
Sometimes a large ring is fastened to tlie ear, and pendent from
thf ling there will be rectangular-shaped decorations.

The oars of male and female children are cut usually by the medi-
ciiif-Mian of the camp at some religious festival. They are not
pierced, but slit ; sometimes three or four holes are made, and a fringe
of ]jendants hung from them.

Deaf-mutes form a circle with the iiid x and thumb of right hand,
other fingers closed ; pinch the lobe of right ear between tips of
tluunb and index, and then lower the hand slightly, with tremulous
motion to indicate the pendant.

Earth. Point with llie right intlex finger to the ground.

Most of tlie tribes call tiie earth Mother or Grandmother. A
I Sioux chief said to nie, " The earth is God's wite. She was created,
and had inside of her all that was necessary for our existence, and we
to-day <all her mother because we get from her all that we want, as
an infant is nourished from its mother's breast. Tiie Great Spirit
1 went to the sky as the Great Father. He told us to pray to him,
and said ids soldiers should be the Thunder-Bird and Rivers.
These soldiers would give to his oliedient children the rain and the
iiioisture, and would punish the wicked by drowning and by the
li;;htning-stroke. Man learned from the Thunder-Bird to make
hows and arrows. The Great Spirit is now called Grandfather, and
Itiie earth Grandmother."

Eat. Bring the tips of the fingers of nearly-compressed right
lliand, in front of, close to, and little over mouth, l)a( k of hand to
lleft and front, fingers i)ointing towards face and a little downwards;
|liy wrist action move the hand downwards, tips passing a little below
and (lose to nioulh. To represent eating rapidly, or eating a great
Ideal, as at feasts, or many people eating, both hands are used, left
liciiiL; fixed sindlarly to right, hands passing round each other by
rotary uiotion.

liie Jesuit j)ricsts have certainly obtained a great influence over

le Flatheads, Nez Perces, Kootenays, I'end d'Oreilles, and other

lulians, who jiartially subsist themselves on fish, berries, roots, etc.,

iiile they have not over the Plains Indians.

It has been su])posed that the meat dii't of the latter makes them
more hardy, energetic, and warlike, more restive against restraint of
Iny kiixl, than are those who subsist only on fish and vegetables, and

have thought that the peculiar nature and many of the ciiaracter-

Bti(s i)f the Ute Indians were due to their meat diet. Deer, elk,
tti . have been and are still very plentifiil in their country, and arc
Ju:r inincijial subsistence; but after reasoning all this out to my
|nti:f s.itisfaction, I came across an article on Hindu Households,
t>v W illiam Knighton, in the Fortnightly Review for June, i88i,

i6o

EAT.

which somewhat qualifies my opinion. He says, "Among the
higher castes the food consists chiefly of wheat and maize, flour,
grain, pulse, clarified butter or ghee, milk and sweets; fish and meats,
j)articularly mutton and fowls, are not objected to by the lower castes
if they can jjrocure them, but beef is an abomination as coming from
a sacred animal, and pork is abhorred as vile and as containing the
germs of disease, — only outcast Hindus partake of these last.

" Like the Buddhists, the higher castes of Hindus reverence the
sanctity of life. They are warned by their religious writings against
shedding blood, against the infliction of pain, against the taking of
life. They hold every living animal as sacred as a human being. In
Bengal, however, fish is very generally used a.s an article of diet l)y
all classes, in contradiction to their religious tenets. Nor does this
abstinence from animal food im|)air the physical strength or warlike
vigor of the best classes of Upper India. The Mahratta cavalry
have been ])raised for endurance and courage by all out writers, and
the Gurkas and Telingas are admitted to make first-rate soldiers,—
wiry, obedient to discipline, ready to endure fatigue and hardsiiip,
and by no means deficient in energy or courage."

Mr. Dunbar claims the Pawnees have a saying that "even the
dogs, it is well (fur them) to eat in peace," which sertms to indicate
that to the Pawnee eating was an act which claimed something of
deferential respect. Without inquiring whether the apparent spirit
of this maxim was always observed, it may at least be truly said tliat
the question of what he sliould eat \va.N perhaps as i)Otent as any otiier
that influenced him timing life. It demanded ever his serious thought,
provoked his ingenuity, taxed his energy, and largely controlled his
movements during the entire year. VVhen travelling tliey had hut
one meal a day, at the close of the day's march, but when at homo
they cooketl and ate as often as hunger prompted. The ability and
reailiness to eat whenever occasion offered was in their estimation an
exponent of health, and if an invalid failed to take food at all,
hope <if recovery was immediately relinquished.

Their food was in the main coarse, but wholesome. The staple
articles of daily fare were buffalo-meat and corn. The flesh o{ smaller
game, and when on the hunting-grounds that of the buffalo also, wi^
eaten fresh, but for the greater part of the year they had only tec
dried flesh of the latter. Dried meat was frequently eaten raw, a
mouthful of lean and ot fat alternately, to facilitate mastication ami
deglutition, and in case of exigency fresh meat was so taken, but
usually both were cooked. The more common way of preparin;^
was by boiling ; hence one of the most important articles of house-
hold furniture was a large vessel for this purpose. Prior to coming
in contact with the whites they used rude pottery of their own man-
ufacture. Such ware was in use in cooking with the poorer portion
of the tribe till quite recently. Their favorite method was to boil
the meat alone, or with corn and beans, tdl the whole wa^ reduced
to a pulpy mass, and eat it as a thi( k soup with spoons. If time or
appetite did not i«rmit this, it was simply boiled. Fresh meat, and

EATEN ENOrCIf—EGG.

i6l

sometimes dried meat if sufficient fat adhered, was also broiled by
bciiii; lield in suitable pieces over coals. Another usual way of pre-
paring the former was to cover large pieces in a bed of coals till suf-
ficiently cooked. This method was in high rei)ute, as it preserved
most of the native juices in the meat and rendered it especially
pahitable.

There were a number of wild plants, the root or fruits of which
afforded a partial subsistence at certain seasons. The poorer people
were sometimes obliged to live almost entirely upon food of this
kiiitl. Among the edible roots were tlie wild jiotato (If^oimva pan-
(liini(u), wild turnip {Arisacma triphyllum), pomme blanche (Psora-
Im nciilenta), ground-bean (Apios tuberosa), cuciimber-root i Medeola
Vir^iiiica), a sort of artichoke ( He/ian/hus liorflnicoUes), and some
other-, that I was never able to determine. A species of mushroom
f,'ro\\ing freely in some localities on the prairies was sometimes gath-
ereii in considerable quantities. The umbels of the large milkweed
• Axclipias cornuti) were cut when in bloom, with the tender extremi-
ties of the stalks, and boiled as a relish. When travelling in the
suiinner they often picked and ate, as a preventive against thirst, the
fruit of the groiuid-plum {Astrai!;alus caryocarpttss. Various wild
fruits, as strawberries, plums, cherries (esjjecially the san<l-cherry ),
ami grajjcs were gathered in their season and eaten fresh, or dried
for preservation, in the latter state they were much used in flavor-
ing other dishes.

lireakfast is the only regular meal with Indians ; or rather, the
only meal taken at a regular hour each day. Meals are prei)ared at
other times whenever they are hungry, and whoever may be present
when it is ready is asked to partake.

Deaf-mutes use same signs for Eating.

Eaten Enough. Conception : Filled to throat. Make sign for
Mai; then bring spread thumb and index finger of rigiu hand in
front of and close to breast, index and thumb horizontal, other fingers
(loMil, back of hand to loft and front; move the hand upwards till
ahout height of chin. To emphasize, "making a royal meal," add
sij;n for Brave.

Heaf-mine^ make same sign, not using 1?r.\ve, of t ourse ; some-
tiuKs kiioiking the back of extended right hand against under side
v)t' I hin.

Effort Conception : Making a push. Hold both dosed hands
ill ln>nt of and close to lueast, left hand nearest body, ba( k nearly
to tront, back of right hand nearly to right, hands same height,
right few inches in advance and aliout ten inches to right of left
h.uitl ; jjush the hands firmly and determinedly to front.

This sign is used in many ways, and might, perhaps, more properly
li.iv- been described imder Mi'ST or Push.

Egg. Make signs for liiRD, ami such additional gestures as will
i'ieiuify it, for Parturition, and represent the size of the egg by
clasping with left hand the compressed and partially-closed right, in
front of body.

l63

ELK— ENTER.

Deaf-mutes hold the hands, with index and second fingers ex-
tended and touching, other fingers and thumbs closed ; cross these
fingers as in the Indian sign for Trade, and then from this position
turn the hands, by wrist action, so that these fingers point down-
wards.

Elk. Conception : Horns. Bring the hands alongside of head,
palms towards it, fingers and thumbs extended, separated, and
pointing upwards; move the hands by wrist action to front and
rear two or three times, keeping tiiem about parallel to sides ot
head.

Deaf-mutes make signs for Laroe Deer.

Elope. To induce a woman to elojje is to Steal her, and tiie
proper signs for this are made, (See Courtship.)

Encamp. Make sign for Camp without making sign for Tepee.
This is the general sign for going into camp or bivouac.

End. Conception : Cut ofT. Hold left hand, back to left and
front, in front of left breast, fingers extended, touching, pointing to
front and right ; bring right hand, back to right and front over and
in front of left, fingers extended, touching, and pointing to left and
front; strike downwards with lower edge of right hand; th" right
hand is held so that palm will just graze finger-tips of left hand as it
is moved downwards. The sign for Finished is also used.

Deaf-mutes make the same sign, frequently holding the left fore-
arm horizontal and moving right hand over it, lower edge resting on
it, and then as it reaches the finger-tips, is dropped down sharply.

Enemy. One's enemy or enemies would be expressed by the sign
for People or Men against whom one went to war, or people one
did not shake hands with ; signs for Friend and No.

The Mandans, Gros Ventres, and Arickarees simply make sign
for Sioux.

I have also seen signs for want to fight or go to war against them
made for Enemy, and rarely gestures for a person of another kind,
or on the otlier side.

Deaf-mutes hold the hands as in their sign for Friend, and then
suddenly draw the hands apart several inches, carrying right to rigiit,
left to left, and extending index fingers, others and thumbs closed,
right index pointing to left, left to right.

Energetic. To say a man is energetic would be exjjressed by say-
ing he is a pushing man ; and to em])hasize it, add sign for Brave,—
oravely energetic, strong in his efi'orts.

Enlist. Make sign for Work or Make, and sign for Soldier.

This is used only, I believe, where enlisted scouts have been em-
ployed.

Enough. There is no general sign for this. I never saw it used,
excei)t in the sense of eaten enough, and this is very rare. The
sign for Full is sometimes made, but hardly in this sense.

Enter. (To enter a lodge or house.) Conception: Stooping po-
sition in entering a lodge. Make sign for Lodge or House; then
hold partially-compressed and slightly-curved left hand well out to

EQUAL— EXCHANGE,

163

the front and centre of body, back of hand upwards and slightly to
front, fingers pointing to right; bring the partially-compressed right
lianfl a little higher and nearer the body than left hand, back of
hand up, fingers pointing to front and downwards; move the right
hand downwards and outwards, back touching left i)alm and lower
edge as it ])asses under. To express the idea of some one's entering
a lodge in which yon were, or of some one coming into your lodge,
hold left hand in above-described position, but nearer the boily ;
tarry partially-compressed right hand in front of and little lower
than left, back of hand nearly outwards, fingers pointing upwards
and towards body ; move the hand in towards body, slightly upwards,
<■(■) that back shall graze lower edge, and slightly touch left palm as
it passes. Continue movement till right hand passes above left,
between it and body.

The opening to a lodge being a small triangular-shaped hole, ajiex
above it, it is necessary to stoop to enter, hence the sign. The
gestures for entering and making one's exit from a lodge are about
the same ; but, as a rule, the right hand turns up more in the latter
sign after passing under left.

Deaf-mutes make the same sign.

Equal. Conception; Even race. Bring hands in front of breast,
backs up, index fingers extended, pointing to front, other fingers
and thumbs closed, index fingers about two inches apart, and in
same horizontal plane; move the hands simultaneously to front,
keeping index fingers in same relative position, tips opposite. This
is part of the sign for Race, and represents the two horses or men
as "coming out exactly alike," "just even."

1 have also seen the hands moved upwards and to front, and place
the index fingers side by side, 'i'his more particularly in regard to
the influence and power of two chiefs, and similar expressions.

Deaf-mutes bring index fingers together, as in Indian sign tor
Marry.

Escape. Cross the wrists, hands closed, separate them sharply by
swinging right to right and upwards, left to left and u])wards ; then
make sign for Go. Sometimes the sign for Lost is made before Go,
and then the latter made beyond left hand, combining signs for Lost
and Go.

Deaf-mutes wrench hands apart, and then make their sign for Go.

Evening, Make gesture for sun sinking in western horizon, signs
for Night and for Little, — the beginning of night.

See PEARLY for deaf-mute gesture.

Every Day. Make sign for Day, and repeat it several times.
Tins is difficult to express accurately by gesture. I have also seen
signs for Day and Often made.

Deat-mutes hold the closed right hand, back to right, thumb ex-
tended and pointing upwards, in front of right shoulder (sign for
Day) ; then move hand to front by gentle jerks (day after day).

Exchange. The usual sign in the North is to bring the hands in
front of body, index fingers extended, others and thumbs closed.

■"^•'w -mnfaiit ri

164

EXCITE— EXTERMINATE.

back of right hand to right and front, back of left to left and front,
right hand sonic inches higher than left, right index over left ; Iowlt
the right liand, crossing index fingers at right angles between first
and second joints, side of rigiit index resting on left.

In the Soutii the more comniuii gesture is to hold hands in front
of shoulder, bac k of right to right, left to left, index fingers ex-
tended and pointing to front and upwards, other fingers and tluinib
closed; move the right hand to left and downwards on curve, left to
right and downwards on curve, right hand passing above but close
to left ; terminate movement when wrists are crossed.

The above signs are used for Tradk, Buy, Sell; in fact, any ex-
change ; and 1 have seen both used in the North as well as the
South, but the first is the more common one in the North, and the
latter in the South. I at first thought that the Southern sign was
useil more in the sense of an uncompleted act of exchange, buyiiiL;,
etc., but this distinctioii, though sometimes made, is not usually
observed.

Deaf-mutes make signs to denote Giving and Receiving, holding
closed right hand near breast and reaching well out with left with a
grasping motion ; the left hand is then brought in towards body,
right carried out over left, and when well out, opened.

Excite. Conception: Heart flutters. Make sign for Hkakt;
then turn the hand, by wrist action, so that back shall be to right
and front, fingers extended, slightly separated and pointing upwards;
raise the hand, giving the fingers a tremulous, wavy motion ; one is
alarmed, excited, or frightened, his heart flutters up in his thrcjal,
and joy sometimes produces the same action.

I have also seen both hands used, as though the whole body was
in a tremor. Sometimes sign for Heart is made, and then a vibra-
tory motion given with right hand, to indicate throbbing; then a
motion with both hands, to denote a lifting up of the heart, and an
excited respiration indulged in.

Deaf-mutes indicate an increased flow of blood, or a palpitating
action of the heart, by holding extended left land some inches in
front of heart, placing extended right between it and body, and
striking left palm with back of right.

Exterminate. Conception : Wiped out. Hold left hand in front
of body, palm up, fingers extentled, touching, pointing to front and
right ; bring palm of extended right hand just over left wrist, finders
extended, touching, and pointing to left and front ; move the right
hand outwards and to right, pressing palms together ; terminate
motion after right hand passes some inches beyond left. This is as
though '* wiped out with one blow, one effort," etc.

Frequently to indicate a more complete action, to emphasize, the
palms are pressed together, and a circular motion given to each.
This gesture is much used. If a village is surrounded and destroyed,
if disease kills a portion, if there is no grass, no wood, no water,
the same sign is used. (See All Gone.)

Deaf-mutes make similar sign.

FAINT— FALL.

165

Faint. Make sign for Die and for Recover. Sometimes the
sign for By Itself is made before recover.

It is difficult to see tlie fore e of tlie metaphoric idiom used in this
fonnection, hut it seems to indicate a peculiar manner of dying;
deatii aU)ne, not the final departure of the spirit and decay of the
l)0(ly, hut death disassociated from any and all of these influences.
I have seen other signs made, such as Sn K, I.yin(; Down, and
Recover, and others indicating an excessive trembling.

Deafmutes indicate the white color coming into face, and lie
over, as though sleeping.

Fainting is universally, I believe, looked upon as death, and whilst
in this condition the belief prevails that the soul visits the abode of
dejurted spirits. The following story told me by the Sioux orator
and chief Running Antelope is typical of all such accounts:

"A young man, an orphan, called Little Fox, died, and went to
the Happy Hunting-Ground in the South, where he found all his
kinsfolk. When he returned to life, he said that he had only come
bark for a time; that he was going to return — i.e., go back to the
land of the dead — the following winter. He said the people in the
spirit-land were the same as when living here. Those who had
killed enemies had their faces blackened and the featl^-rs on the
head to show it. They told him that there was no use in his staying
here, where there was only a remnant of his people, but to come
there. A cousin of this young man had been killed in battle with
a war-bonnet on, and he was scalped, but the young man saw him,
dressed just as he was when killed, and an old man was singing his
l)raises. This old man told Little Fox that he ought to have come
in the way that his cousin did, as a chief, because he had been killed
in battle like a brave man."

Rmining Antelope said he got this account from Little Fox in
person, and that the young man was dead for twenty-four hours,
and the following winter died for good and all ; just as he had said
he would.

Fall. (Season.) Indicated by leaves falling from trees. (See
Season.)

Deaf-mutes use the same sign.

Fall. (Water.) Make proper signs for Stream, and then hold left
hand, back out, in front of body, fingers extended, touching, and
pointing to right; bring right hand, ])alm down, fingers extended,
slightly separated, and pointing to front, in rear of and little higher
tlian left hand ; move the right hand to front, and as fingers pass
over left index turn them down and give them a tremulous, wavy
motion ; terminate movement when riglit hand has passed left. This

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FALL— FAST.

gesture is very suggestive, — the left hand represents the wall of rock
or o' ler material; the right, the water moving, breaking at the fall,
and the quivering motion as it goes down.

Deaf-mutes indicate the fall of the water with rotary motion of
hands.

Fall (To ;. Hold right hand, back up, in front of centre of body,
several inches from it, fingers extended, touching, pointing to left
and front ; sweep the hand on a curve upwards, outwards, and to
right, and then downwards, at same time turning hand palm up,
terminating motion when arm is pretty well extended and a little
lower than when starting. This is used in such expressions as " shoot-
ing a person and have him fall off his pony;" or "striking him and
have him fall off;" "riding against anything and falling off;"
"shooting anything and have it fall over," etc.

Deaf-mutes hold the tips of the extended and separated index and
second fingers of right hand perpendicularly on left palm, other
fingers and thumb closed, and then, by wrist action, turn the hand
and lay these fingers down on left palm.

Fame. An Indian glories in his war achieven>ents, which bring
him about all the glory he knows of or cares for. Therefore, to ex-
press fame, or the idea that a man was famous, you would say he was
a Chief, Brave. His tribe knew it, and the adjacent tribes knew it,
and perhaps add that they were Afraid of him. Wise in council!
Brave in war ! These are their highest eulogies.

Deat"mutes make their sign for Talk with both hands, moving the
hands well out to right and left, — one's words spread out over the
country.

Farm. Make signs for Corn and for Work. This is the general
sign. To particularize, state what was planted. Some tribes hold
hands as in Road, and then to front as though scooping up some-
thing, and add signs for Planting, and sometimes the growing ot*
whatever is planted is indicated.

Deaf-mutes make their sign for Ploughing.

There can be no question, I think, but that the Indians farmed
much more extensively before the advent of the white race than tiiey
ever have since. Improved weapons and ponies for transportation
have caused them to abandon agricultural pursuits and become
nomadic. The history of the Mound-Builders, so far as is known,
illustrates this point forcibly.

Farther. In speaking of two places, and to- express the idea of
one being farther away than the other, mention the nearest place and
make sign for Close ; then the other place, and make sign for
Distant.

Deaf-mutes use the same signs.

Fast. Conception : Pass by. Hold left hand, back to left, in
front of body, fingers extended, touching, and pointing to front ;
bring right hand back to right, several inches in rear of and slightly
to right of left, fingers extended, touching, pointing ^o front and down-
wards ; carry right hand swiftly past left and close to i^ and as it

FAT—FEAS'l.

167

passes, by wrist action raise the hand so that fingers will point up-
wards and to front.

Deaf-mutes make about the same gesture.

Fat (Animal's). For a human being, say the person has a Big
Belly. For the brutes, bring the closed hands well out in front of
breast, edges pointing to front, backs about upwards, knuckles of
index fingers touching, knuckles of little fingers somewhat higher
than those of index (this represents tiie back of the animal) ; then
separate the hands, moving them on slight curves, right upwards to
right and downwards, left upwards to left and downwards. To ex-
press the idea that they were getting in good condition, growing
fat, move the hands rather slowly and with sliglit jerks (growing
round). (For Fat, Greasy, see Bacon.)

Deaf-mutes hold hands as in Indian sign for Bacon, and then
drop the right, repeating motion, to denote the dripping.

Father. Bring the compressed right liand, back nearly outwards,
in front of right or left breast, tips of fingers few inches from it ;
move the hand, mostly by wrist action, and gently tap the breast
with tips of fingers two or three times ; then make sign for Male.
Some Indians tap right breast for father and left for mother.

Deaf-mutes make sign for Male, and then holding hands fixed as
in tiieir sign for Baby, but a little higher, move the hands to front
and upwards.

Father-in-Law. Make sign for wife's or husbana's Father.

Deaf-mutes make sign for Fathek and for " L."

Feast. Make signs for Work, for two or three Kettles in a row,
for Bring (from several directions), first part of sign for Council,
and for Eat (this latter several times or with both hands).

Deaf-mutes simply make sign for Rating with both hands.

Feasts are of daily occurrence in a large camp and form an essen-
tial part of every ceremony, either of business or pleasure. The ma-
terials for the feast are prepared by the women, and are left in the
lodge in the several kettles, etc. The men gather, usually bringing
their dishes, and one or two of the young warriors serve the food.
As a rule, the women are not allowed in the lodge during any cere-
monial or important feast. Something in the manner of grace is
said by each man before and after eating, such as "I am a soldier !
I Axw a chief! all the strong hearts join." Seated in a circle, broken
at the entrance to the lodge, the man at one end begins with one of
the above remarks, and each one in succession repeats it after him
around to the other end. If any one is not able to eat all that is
placed before him, and no one alongside will " help out," a present
must be made, either to the giver of the feast or to some of the poor
of the camp. Among the Cheyennes, after everything is ready and
hetore commencing to eat, the oldest man in the party solemnly fills
a i)ipe, and holding it towards the heavens, says, "You gave me thi?
pipe to smoke, now I will fill it and give you the first puff of smoke
from it. 1 want you to help me, and ht ^ars are open to hear you."
Then a small portion is taken from eacii dish of the different kinds

i68

FEASr.

of food. At least six pieces are selected and given, one to each of
the four winds, one to their Grandmother the earth, and one to tlieir
Grandfather the God above; whilst holding the latter up the old
man says, " I offer this to you : I am going to eat to-day, and I
give you first a portion of it. I hope that what I eat may not hurt
me but do me good, and that what I give you may do you good.
I ask you to give health to me and to my children, that my cliil-
dren may all grow up to be men and women. Give us plenty of
buffalo to kill and plei .y of grass on the earth for all animals to
eat."

Sometimes a man makes the feast in order to gain popularity, or
sometiiing may be, as their phrase is, " troubling him," and he says
to the Great Spirit, "I will make a feast for my people, and you,
and they, and myself will eat it."

At some feasts guests are permitted to take home some small por-
tions for their children as sacred food, especially good for them be-
cause it came from a feast.

Among the Cheyennes and some other tribes a murderer is not
allowed to attend any of the ceremonial feasts.

Mr. Dunbar says of the Pawnees, that during their stay in the vil-
lages or encampments, if food was plenty, much of the time of the
men was spent in feasting. Any one was at liberty to make a feast
as he had the means. Tliese entertainments were usually had in the
early part of the day ; still, they might occur at any hour. It was
not infrequent that guests were called from sleep in the dead of
night to attend a feast, and seemed to participate with unimpaired
zest. When a man had resolved to give a feast, he ordered his wife
to hang the kettle over the fire, and fill it with corn and beans, or
meat, and water suffic' mU for boiling. Tin's was done in the evening.
If several courses were to be served,- the viands were all set to cook
in different kettles. Early the following morning he called in two
acquaintances, who were to serve on the occasion. After smoking
with them, he bade one to go and invite the first chief of the band,
or, in his absence, the second. The chief was expected to bring his
pipe and a supply of tobacco. After all had smoked, the host toin-
municatcd his intention to the chief, who thereupon directed the two
apparitors to go about the village and invite such jjersons as he
named. The kettle (or kettles) was now taken from the fire and
placed in readiness near the entrance of the lodge. All women aiul
children were dismissed, not to return till the guests were all de-
parted. When the a[)paritors returned, after smoking together again,
they were sent out to borrow dishes, if the host had not sufficient
of his own. These dishes were usually calabashes made from large
gourds, and each containing a gallon cr more. As the guests arrived
each remained standing just inside the entrance till his place was as-
signed by the chief, who acted as master of the feast. If numerous,
they were seated in two circles, one immediately about the fire, and
the other nearer the wall of the lodge. Sometimes if those invited
already proved not enough, more were called in. After these pre-

liminaries,

a number

quently ti

with tlie u

One of th

entertainei

ness to be

views cone

and after

After the

man made

then count

he divided

kettle equ;

present to

fore tiie i

drained it,

hution. \

hand, revei

to the opp(

contents in

the other t'

falo, the SI

far the pip(

The dishes

guests, one

The conte:

till the coui

the apparit

owners. 1

tainer and

more feasts

directly to

on at the Sc

It was a

he fore him

Pawnee's d

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kindly devc

leave uneat(

a guest mig

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Such was

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Ijiit the gen

FEAST.

169

liininaries, the master designated those who should make speeches,
a mimber of wliich were expected on every such occasion. Fre-
quently two or three old men were allowed to be present,
with the understanding that they sliould do most of the haranguing.
One of them began by making a speech in commendation of the
entertainer, the chief, and other guests, and if there was any busi-
ness to be transacted, he closed by stating it, and expressing his
views concerning it. He was followed by the master of the feast,
and after him by any distinguished person who chose to speak.
After the laudation was finished and the business dismissed, an old
man made a prayer, and the talking was ended. The company was
then counted, to determine into how many jwrtions the food should
be divided, and some one aj)pointed to distribute the contents of the
kettle equally in the dishes. One dish filled was dispatched as a
present to some one of the medicine-men. Anotlier was placed be-
fore the master of the feast, who, carefully raising a s[)oonful,
drained it, and returned the spoon to the person making the distri-
bution. He refilled the spoon from the kettle, covered it with one
hand, reverentially raised it toward the entrance or east, stepped across
to the opposite side, directly in front of the master, and poured the
contents in two places en the ground, in one place three-fourths, in
the other the remainder; the larger portion an offering to the buf-
falo, the smalle:" to Ti-ra-eva. From the time of assembling, thus
far the pipe and tobacco of the master were kept busily circulating.
The dishes, all filled from the kettle, were now distributed to the
guests, one to each, or one to every two, as jiroved most convenient.
The contents were soon devoured, and the distribution repeated
till the courses were all served. The dishes were then collected by
the apparitors, and such as were borrowed returned at once to their
owners. The company expressed their compliments to the enter-
tainer and withdrew. Not infrequently it was arranged that two or
more feasts should succeed each other, the guests passing from one
directly to another. Several series of such feasts might also be going
on at the same time under the conduct of different chiefs.

It was a usage that a guest should eat or carry away all that was set
before him. The latter alternative, however, rarely occurred, as a
Pawnee's digestive capacity was quite equal to any such requirement,
or an accommodating friend seated near, of greater ])owers, would
kindly devour whatever a guest might for any reason be compelled to
leave uneaten. Once in a while, when going through a series of feasts,
a guest might be seen sedulously endeavoring to settle the contents of
his already overloaded stomach by placing his clinched left hand closely
against the lower part of the breast, and striking heavily upon it with
the right, shifting the position of the left hand during the process from
side to side across the gastric region. By means of this pounding it
was imagined that room might be secured for further inilulgence.
Such was an ordinary social feast. The routine could be varied
somewhat, according to circumstances or the choice of the master,
but the general features remained identical. The religious and cere-

170

FEAST.

monial feasts had each a character peculiarly its own. One or two
may be sketched briefly as illustrations.

One of the most important and generally-observed feasts was held
annually immediately after returning to the villages from the winter
hunt. The aim of it was to secure a healthful season, good crops,
and success in all enterprises. Both old and young men participated
in this feast, and its celebration was usually observed in several lodges
in each village at the same time. From ten to thirty men were assem-
bled in each lodge early in the day. Several of them were sent
through tlie village by the master of the feast to collect dried buffiilo
hearts and tongues, and from thirty to sixty of ^ach were brought in.
The sacred bundle was taken down, its contents inspected, and
placed out in order. In its proper place with them was s-.'t the skull
of an old buffalo bull. Some red paint was prepared in a dish with
tallow by some one appointed for the purpose, and handed to the
master, who proceeded to paint his face, breast, arms, and legs. He
then divided the paint in two dishes, passing one to his neighbor on
the right, the other to the neighbor on the left. They decorated
themselves in like manner, and passed the paint ^o those next, and
so on till all were ]minted. Some one was then designated to paint
the bull's skull. The person named to this office took his place be-
hind the skull, passed his hand, s-meared with the pigment, three
times from its nose back over the central part of the forehead. One
hand was then passed on either side from the corner of the mouth
back to tile base of the horn, and thence, to its tip. Five rods about
a yard long were now whittled out and painted. To the end of
each was attached a fragment of the scalp of an enemy as large as a
twenty-five-cent-picce. Four of the rods were taken out and set
in the ground outside of the lodge, one toward each cardinal point
of the compass, with the bit of scajp at the top. The fifth was set
up inside, directly in front of the painted skull. Next came the
ceremony of smoking the sacred [)ipe. The smoke from it was
puffed up toward the skv, down toward the earth, to the four points
of the compass, upon the sacred things, upon the bull's pate, etc.,
by the master and all others present consecutively. Two persons
were then named to offer a sacrifice. One of them took up a bu(Ti\lo
tongui and heart and passed out, bearing also the sacred pipe ; the
other followed with a bundle of fagots. They went to one of the
rods before set up, arranged the fagots in a pile before it, and, after
placing upon them the heart and tongue, set the pile on fire. The
same rite was repeated at each other rod. The man bearing the
pipe then returned to the interior, while the other continued without
till the piles were entirely consumed. During these services several
speeches were delivered by different persons within, and a prayer
offered. The proceedings thus far would occupy till noon. To
preserve interest meantime, the contents of two large kettles of
boiled corn, or corn and meat, were at convenient stages distributed
among the guests. A portion was also each time set before the bull's
skull. When the corn was at last all eaten, the hearts and tongues

FEA THER— FEMALE.

171

were cut up, boiled, and dealt out, being about as much to each as a
man should eat in two days. After feasting thus gluttonously, the
sacred things were packed up and put in place, and the company
dispersed. The proceedings lasted commonly till late in tiie after-
noon.

Feather. Conception : Feather in wings. Bring right hand,
back to front, and upwards, fingers extended, sliglitly separated, and
pointing to left shoulder; sweep the hand to left downwards and
outwards over left arm. For a feather in the head, or one feather
worn as a decoration, make signs for Bird, for Tail, and hold ex-
tended index finger of right hand, pointing upwards, at back of
head, base of index finger resting on crown of head.

Deaf-mutes make motion of picking a feather from left arm with
index and thumb of right hand, and then bring hand in front of
mouth and blow it away.

Female. Conception : Hair falling loose on each side of head.
Bring both hands, palms towards, close to, and parallel to sides of
head, fingers extended, touching, and pointing upwards, tips about
on a line with top of head ; lower the hands, at same time cuiving
fingers as though combing with them the hair down over the ears and
cheeks. This is the sign for Woman, and also the female of any
animal. Sometimes the signs for Copulate are made to denote the
feminine gender.

Deaf-mutes indicate the bonnet-strings with right index or thumb,
other fingers closed.

" Reared as these people are, surrounded by so much that to then.
is incomprehensible, is it strange that the seeds of blind faith should
find in their untutored mindj a fertile soil wherein to germinate,
burst, bud, blossom, and yield a fruitful harvest of superstitious
fancies? The squaws were cooking at most of the camp-fires, around
whicli, lounging in indolence or seated cross-legged on the ground,
the older braves were smoking their pipes and discussing in low,
guttural tones the events of the day, whilst the young men wooed
their sweethearts in the shadows of the lodges, or strolled and stalked
through the village in quest of such entertainment as the occasion
afforded. Everywhere the observer was struck with the servitude to
which the female was subjected, and could not fail to draw the par-
allel between her status in the two conditions of barbarism and civ-
ilization. In the social world of the former she is a veritable hewer
of wood and drawer of water, and in her subdued looks, shrinking
mien, and poor apparel is read the story of toil, drudgery, and deg-
radation. Neither in feature nor person can she compare favorably
with her lord and master, for she is a striking example in her savage
state of that law of nature by which, of every created species, wliether
the human race or the fish of the sea, the male is made the model of
beauty for its kind. Female beauty ii undoubtedly the product of
civilization, and the estimation in which woman is held is and will
always be the best proof of its quality and the excellence of its in-
stitutions. Man has taken from her hands the rougher implements

172

FEW— FIG m\

of labor, has clothed her in fine raiment, and bedecked her witli
jewels; has lavished upon her kindness and affection. She, all the
while, like some wild flower that, transjjlanted to a more generous
soil and softer atmosphere, grows each succeeding year in fragrant e,
delicacy of texture, and richness of tint, has gone on increasing in
loveliness of feature and graces of person till, long since ceasing to
be but the mother of his children, she has become the ornament of
hi; home and the object of his respectful adoration.

" What a contrast is presented by the old, withered hag before the
fire ! As slie kneels, supporting the uj'per part of her body on her
left hand, and clutching with tlie long, bony, talon-like fingers of the
right a stick, at the end of which is cooking a piece of meat for the
lazy vagabond behind her, there i;-; much in lier attitude, the hanging
breasts, the expression of the eye, and the beak-like shape of the
nose to fix one's faith in Darwinism. Can it be possible that the
common ancestors of us all moved upon all-fours, and that from such
a root was evolved the beautiful flower of womaniiood ?" {Payne.)

"Eevf. Conception: Compressed ; occupying a small space. Hold
the partially-closed hands, palms towards each othe-r, in front of body,
lower edges pointing to front, hands opimsite, but lower edge of right
hand height of index of left, hands about eight inches apart; move
the right hand to left, left to right, terminating movement when
right is nearly over left. This is also used for Close, Crowded,
Near, etc.

Deaf-mutes hold closed right hand, back down, in front of body,
extending fingers one after the other, commencing with index.

Fight. Bring partially-closed hands, j^alms towards each other,
well out in front of body, thumbs towards body, hands about height
of shoulders and about three inches apart ; bring right hand in to-
wards body few inches, at same time move left out about same dis-
tance ; then carry right out, and bring left in, rejieating these motions
two or three times, making them by wrist and elbow action.

The hands are fixed as in sign for Kill, and seem to indicate a kill-
ing by rubbing together. I have seen the fingers extended and sep-
arated, and then close the hands, and represent shooting right to-
wards left hand, left towards right.

Deaf-mutes hold the hands, backs up, same height, in front of
body, fingers extended, separated, right fing^ers pointing to left, left
to riglit, hands few inches a|)art ; move the hands horizontally to
right aiid left simultaneously.

In olden times the individual combat of two Indians frequently
determined the success or defeat of large jiarties. It was told hy
Berthold Indians that what is now known as Skull Butte, about forty
miles below Fort Stevenson, took its name from a famous fight l)e-
tween the Mandans and Sioux. " The Sioux came in large nunihers,
and we went out to meet them ; but they were too strong for us, and
drove us back towards our village, when one of our young men dashed
out from our side, rode straight for the Sioux medicine-man, grasfted
the reins of his pony, struck the man twice with his coup-stick, and

%*^

UNI SHED— I'lSH.

173

tlicn killed him. This filled the hearts of all our men with confi-
(knce and courage, and our enemies with fear and distrust. Our
people made a grand rush, charged, and drove tlie Sioux back, kill-
ing; over one hundred of them. We afterwards put the skulls in a
large circle, and in smaller circles inside the large one, which was as
large as this lodge." (About fifty feet in diameter.)

Finished. Iking the closed hands in front of body, thumbs up,
bai ks of hands nearly outwards, second joints of fingers touching ;
separate hands several inches, moving right to rigiit, left to left. The
sign for End is also made, though this is more common in the North
for both words.

Deaf-mutes only make the sign for End.

Fire. Conception : Blaze. Carry the right hand, back down, in
front of body, and well down, arm nearly extended, fingers partially
closed, palmar surface of thumb resting on nails of first three fingers;
raise the hand slightly, ^ id snap the fingers upwards, separating
them, repeating motion.

Deaf-mutes hold the hand in same position, but fingers about ex-
tended and separated ; the hand is raised, giving a wavy motion to
fingers.

In olden times fire was • lade by the friction of two sticks, one
held vertically and given a rapid rotary motion by means of a string
and bow (similar to some of the hand-drills now used). The end of
the vertical stick was placed on a dry piece of wood, sometimes a
little sand sprinkled on it, and rotten wood or pounded buffalo-chips
placed at the foot.

When they met the whites, they learned " to knock it out of cer-
tain stones," as they express it, and now they have matches, though
there are few camps of Plains Indians without a flint and steel.

In olden times a fire once started was seldom allowed to die out,
they carrying the burning brands with them on all their shorter
marches. It must be remembered that before they had ponies their
marches were, as a rule, very short, and their villages much more
[)ermanent than after their acquisition.

Fire. (Discharge of weapon.) See Shoot.

Fire Volleys. (Heavy firing.) Bring the extended hands, palms
towards each other, in front of body, hands at about right angles;
clap them together sharply several times. This is used to express
heavy firing in a fight; volleys fired in battle; and has come into
the since the introduction of gunpowder. A single loud clap is
made to denote the sound of the discharge of a cannon.

Firm. This would usually be expressed by sign for Brave, with
such modificati6ns as would be necessary to express the nature,
cliaracter, or necessity for the firmness. Some Indians make sign
for Hkart and Hard to denote firmness.

Fish. Make sign for Water ; then hold right hand, back to right,
in front of right shoulder, about height of waist, fingers extended,
touching, and pointing to front ; move the hand to the front
sinuously.

174

FIX—FLA THE AD.

Deaf-mutes same, with the exception of usually marking length of
fish on right forearm with left hand, as the hand is moved to front.

Fix. Hold left hand, back to 4eft, outwards and slightly upwards,
several inches in front of left breast, fingers extended, touching, and
jjointing to right and front ; bring right hand, back to right and
front, fingers extended, touching, and pointing to left and front, and
place little finger on back of left hand near base of thumb; move
the right hand outwards and to left and little downwards, as though
cutting left hand with lower edge of right, at same time turn left
hand slightly, by wrist action, so as to bring back up. This sign is
frequently used with sign for Work. I will fix it for you ; I will ar-
range matters; being, I will work and fix or arrange it for you.

Flag. Hold right hand, back to right, in front of and little
higher than right shoulder, arm pretty well extended, forearm hori-
zontal, fingers extended, touching, and pointing to front ; place palmar
surface of extended, touching, and vertical fingers of left hand on
right wrist, tips on line with upper surface of wrist ; move right hand
by wrist action to right and left several times, representing waving
motion of a flag when exposed to the breeze. Frequently the left
hand is not placed against right wrist.

Deaf-mutes make same sign.

Nearly all the tribes understand the white flag to be a flag of truce,
and if they have not been deceived, and do not fear treachery, will
respect it. The Cheyennes say that they learned from the Mexi-
cans to put up a cross for the same purpose.

Flathead (Indian). Press the upper part of forehead and head
with palms of hands, fingers extended and touching, tips of fingers
touching above head.

The Fort Belknap Indians touch the head and then make sign for
Few or Small. The Flatheads and contiguous tribes usually only
touch right side of head or hat with right hand, palm towards head,
hand extended.

The agency for the Flatheads, Pend d'Oreilles, and Kootenays is
located on a small tributary of the Jocko River, about twenty-eight
miles from Fort Missoula, Montana, at the base of the "backbone"
of the world, as Chief Michelle called the range of mountains which
rise abruptly in sombre grandeur about one mile in rear of the agency
buildings. The latter are frame cottages, painted white, and many
of the yards have fine growths of flowers, strawberries, and garden
vegetables.

Mr. Peter Ronan, the agent, gives the following description of the
adjacent country in his report for 1878: "The mountains are cov-
ered with a dense forest of fir, pine, and tamarack, which grows very
large and furnishes excellent lumber. In the lofty range, and in close
proximity to the agency, are several clear mountain lakes abounding
in speckled trout, and from one of these lakes a waterfall, or cataract,
over one thousand feet high, of great beauty and grandeur, falls into
the valley, about eight miles northwest of the agency, forming one of
the tributaries of the Jocko. The valley is formed in a sort of triangular

FLA THE AD.

175

square, about five miles in breadth and twelve in length. Along the
river and tributaries there are someexc:ellent farming lands, cultivated
mostly by Flatheads and half-breeds, but a large portion of it is rocky
and gravelly. Following down the Pend d'Oreille River the valley
closes, and for a few miles the Jocko rushes through a narrow gorge,
but before joining its waters with the Pend d'Oreille the valley again
opens into a rich and fertile i)lain, where a large number of Indian
farms are located. Good log houses and well-fenced farms, with
waving fields of grain, give evidence of husbandry and thrift.
Leaving the Jocko Valley to the left, and passing through a narrow
canon over a low divide, devoid of hills, which forms the north side
of this valley, the road leads to Saint Ignatius' Mission, seventeen
miles from the agency, where the Indian school is located, and is
taught by Sisters of Charity. The Missoula Valley is a broad and
fertile plain, well watered by the streams wiiich flow from the ranges
of mountains that rise on both sides of the valley, and from the Mis-
soula to the Flathead Lake — a distance of some thirty miles — are
scattered Indian farms and habitations.

'■'^ Flathead Lake. — This beautiful sheet of water is forty-eight
miles in length, and has an average width often miles. Around the
foot of the lake, and amid the most delightful scenes that the mind
can well picture, is grouped another Indian settlement, where houses
and crops give evidence of thrift. Crossing the lake by canoe or
boat, and following a northeasterly direction to Dayton Cre^ k, you
will find the homes of the Kootenays, living mostly in lodges, but
this spring they have commenced the erection of a few houses. The
Kootenays live mostly by hunting and fishing. A large prairie in the
vicinity ^f their village furnishes them with camas and bitter-root,
which thty dig and dry in the spring for winter's use. In brief, it is
hardly possible in any country to surpass the natural resources of the
Jocko Reservation as to agriculture, grazing, timber, and water-power.
The fishing is excellent in all the rivers, lakes, and mountain streams,
and the hunting is good in the surrounding country."

The mission is in charge of Father Van Gorp, of the Society of
Jesus, one of " those soldiers of the cross who shrink from no diffi-
culty, are appalled by no dangers, and are as much at home in the
wild wilderness, amid the painted heathen, as they are in the halls of
the Escurial or the sacred precincts of the Vatican. There is some-
thing absolutely fascinating, soul-compelling, about this celebrated
mysterious order, which the kings of the earth, including even the
royal Pope himself, have at times persecuted and expelled. Bigotry,
prejudice, what may be called the fanatical superstition of a ])rede-
teruiined unbelief, have all aided to invest the Society or Order of
Jesus with attributes that partake of the lights and shades of romance
in its grandest and gloomiest forms. The poet, the painter, the
moralist, the orator, all have at times lent their genius and their
renown to portraying the Jesuits in heavenly or demoniacal shapes,
as power or education or belief might prompt them. Having about
equally the praise or blame of mankind, and alike indifferent to

176

FLA THE AD.

botli, the great order has held, in spite of all oi)|)osition, from the
powerful Pope to the l)igmy preacher, its own in Christendom as in
heathendom, and has planted the cross in the desert before which
the pagan has knelt in worshi|>, and beheld himself transfigured in
the splendor of salvation." \w addition to this mission, started by
Father De Smet in 1854, the society has St. Josepli's, at Yakema and
I.apwai ; De Smet, at Coeur d'Alene ; St. Francis Regis', at Colle-
ville ; St. Mary's, at Hitter Root; St. Peter's, at Blackfoot Agenc v ;
while the spiritual welfare of the Crows is attended to from Helena.
Father De Smet first started St. Mary's in 1841.

1 found here (at St. Ignatius') two boartling-schools. The hovs
are taught by the Fathers, and the girls by the Sisters, industrial arts
being included in the instruction given tiiem. They utterly (on-
demn the day-school system. This mission is supported by the
])roducts of the soil and an annual allowance of four thousand dol-
lars made by the Government for the education of tiie children.
This, of course, has to pay for their clotiiing, food, purchase of
books, etc., and is supposed to be one hundred dollars for each
child, but they have some sixty children at the schools. The cluirth
was nuich like all Catholic churches, but the long, low building
adjacent, called the " Sisters' building," or Convent, built of lous,
clapboarded, and ])ainted white, contained, in addition to the Sis-
ters, some twenty young girls. I was much impressed with this
school. The dresses of the girls, the floors, tables, everything, was
the perfection of neatness. The Sisters in their black and white
caps and plain, coarse dresses, with the narrow band of white crepe
across the forehead, the beads hanging at their sides, the resigned
and placid expression of their faces when in repose, the look of
thorough renunciation of all worldly pleasure which veiled their
eyes, the sweetness and gentleness and purity of their lives, cannot
help exercising a great influence for good on these minds emerging
from barbarism. One of the Sisf^n, had just died after seventeen
years of patient toil at this mission. The yard in rear was enclosed
by a board fence, and in it was a luxuriant garden of bright, beunti-
ful flowers, which perfumed the afternoon air. Pinks, sweet-williams,
mignonette, pansies, and roses looked up to the apple- and plum-
trees loaded with fruit. Some of the Indian girls had been at
the school eleven years, and the chirography of several of them was
excellent.

I have given some of the peculiar customs of these people under
Pend d'Oreille, a band of the Flatheads, but the following inter-
view with Father Antoine Ravalli, whom I visited at Stevensonville,
shadows forth some of the habits, beliefs, and laws of this nation.
(He has since died.)

I found the father lying on his bed, partially paralyzed from the
hips down. His mind, however, was still bright and his memory
good. Speaking of Indian languages, he considered them similar in
construction ; a word sometimes expressing an idea and conveying as
much as a sentence in English. Some thirty-five or forty years since

FLA THEAD.

177

he ])repare(l a work on the sign langnage, but the means for having the
same printed were not at hand. Some of this manuscript was left at his
former station on the Columbia River; a part lie ha<l had here, but
all had been lost. This mission was called St. Mary, and was estab-
lished in 1842 by Father De Smet, and in 1844, Father Ravalli came
here. He says that Lewis and Clarke, in 1804-5, found probably
jiear here a band of Chenook Indians, who tied their young to a
board and fastened to this board a second one to compress the frontal
bone of the infant, which by constant pressure flattened the skull.
The Fiatheads, so called, never had this custom.

The Nez Perces used to wear a bone in the cartilage of the nose;
the i'end d'Oreilles, a large ring in the ear, hence the names.
The Fiatheads, the Pend d'Oreilles, Spokanes, Cceur d'Alenes, Colle-
ville, and several other small sub-tribes of this nation speak nearly
the same language. These people are called Shellis, those near
Colleville are called Kalisi)el.

Father Ravalli said, "I do not believe there exists at present a
pure-blooded Flathead. Their mixture with other tribes, — u,(.-;e
tribes coming into and living in this particular locality, — has led 10
their all being called Fiatheads. Even before the coming of he
priests, and subsequently the whites, there were some Iroquois , nong
these people who gave them the idea of the Great Spirit. These
Iroquois were brought as servants of the Hudson's Bay Company.
and afterwards locat .' . nong the Fiatheads. They, the Flathe -Is.
seemed to have an idea in old times that some spirit inhabit'^u the
highest moun. • n. Their medicine-man sometimes took an animal
—a beaver, a prairie-chicken — to represent the spirit, which they
would worship as their personal guardian spirit. Tliis came to them
as a vision, when they, after climbing to a high mountain and fast-
ing, were addressed by this spirit, and sometimes the animal was
wrapped up and carried by them as their medicine, — a sort of guaran-
tee of good luck, and a safeguard against evil. The most of my time
has been spent with these people. I came into the country via the
Cape and Vancouver. I was born in Italy in 181 2.

"The Chenook language is a very difficult one ; I think something
like the Nez Perce. It is a rich language, and has a profuse vocabu-
lary. The Chenook jargon is very easily acquired, and though it
contains only a very limited number of words, one has no trouble
in expressing by means of it any ordinary ideas. It is a mixture of
French, English, and Chenook.

"The sign language was much used by the Fiatheads and kindred
tribes when meeting others who did not use the same vocal lan-
guage, or when too tired or indolent to talk with the tongue. It is
a conventional language, the same among all tribes, with perhaps
some slight differences ; in general it must be the same. When we
first came, the Indians practised polygamy, but they were well dis-
posed, and gave up this custom readily. The Blackfeet have not
been so tractable.

"They had two kinds of dances, one to move the spirit to stir the

178

FLATHEAD.

people up to war. In this dance they were naked to the waist,
painted, beating a small tambour, only warriors ])articipating. Then
after the war or .pedition, another dance, in which both sexes par-
ticipated. This was usually a Scalp-Dance, celebrating their victory.
They had one particular gathering or dance annually, like the Black-
feet and some other nations. They had a general idea of a here-
after, a happiness agreeing with, their material ideas of the present.
They had a large number of ponies when I first came, but now are
comparatively poor. Their riches consisted in horses. The rich
went naked like the poor, but their ponies represented their wealth.
Their agency was at this place, established about 1852 or '53, and
only remained here three or four years. In 1849 the Blackfeet
made an attack, and attempted to kill me. My house was where the
old fort is now. A small boy who was serving me was killed. One
man and some twenty old women were there at the tim.e. The
Blackfeet also killed a white man wlio was with me on Snake River,
I once made two gallons of splendid alcohol from about three
bushels of camas by fermenting, and with the aid of a zigzag worm
of tin for a still. I took great care that the Indians should not know
of this, so as to learn the art. There are many eatable roots in this
country. There is a root called slocum, having a taste like hazel-
nut, and when cooked a taste of chestnut, rather aromatic. The
second bark of the poplar-tree is sweet and good. In fact, they
find many things on which they thrive and do well where a wliite
man would starve. Some of the things are not very palatable, hut
they sustain life. I have had to live on these things. There is a
water-plant which furnishes a kind of potato, and is very nutritious,
The Flatheads never had the custom of cutting the nose for adultery.
They never ate dogs.

" Surgery was mostly limited to the fixing of broken limbs, binding
up wounds, etc. They had some very good roots which they used
for medicine, and did not rely altogether on jugglery and super-
stition for cures.

" They always used skin lodges here, but farther down the river they
used bark and certain reeds. When I first came they arranged them-
selves in rows. They had a few shot-guns, which they fired, and
shook my hand so cordially, and seemed so heartily glad to see me,
that I was moved to tears.

" Many reminiscences of ancient times come to me now and tiien,
but they quickly vanish. 1 'vas in constant danger from the hostility
of the Blackfeet. Lewis and Clarke were the first white men these
people saw, and afier them (^lolonel Bonneville."

The evidence of Father Ravalli, and of Chief Michelle, of the
Pend d'Oreilies, would seem to support the assertion that the Fl?t-
heads, so called, never practised flattening the skulls, but that tiiis,
to us repulsive custom, was limited to tiie Chenooks and kindred
tribes. It is a well-known fact, however, that the custom of flattening
the foreheads was common to many Indian tribes. It was at a remote
period of time the usage of the Clioctaws, and Du Pratz says it was

and then b

fingers poi

liand on ba

tally to rig

Deaf-mut

Flood.

for it; them

little to rig

of waist ; r

the hands, c

If from clo

0'" hands to

Deaf-mut

Flour

tips of finge

make sign k

Deaf-mutf

FLINT— FLOUR.

179

t\ous.
terv.

er they
them-
and
me,

of the
Fl?t-
at this,
11(1 red

telling
remote
it was

the practice of niany other tribes in the South. Dr. Foster states
in his valuable work, "The Prehistoric Races of the United States,"
th;it he has but one skull showing signs of artificial comi)ression, and
that was found in Indiana. He claims in this book to have discov-
ered a special type of crania, which he calls the skull of the Mound-
Builders, "a type so distinct that it must have belonged to a wholly
distinct race, a type so degraded that it must have belonged to a very
early stage in the development of man." This is a matter of im-
portance worthy of extensive and searching investigation, as it will
readily be seen that once established it must tend to dispose of the
many fanciful theories concerning the origin of the American Indians.

One-half the energy and learning which have been expended in
searching for proof of a foreign origin of these people would probably
have established beyond question that they are indigenous to this con-
tinent, and this " type of skull, so degraded that it must have be-
longed to a very early stage in the development of man," may prove
a key to what writers have insisted on making a great mystery. Ac-
cepting the theory of evolution, I never could understand why the
evolvement could not have taken place here as well as elsewhere.

Flint. Conception : Striking with steel. Hold left hand, back
up, in front of left breast, close fingers except index, the ball of ex-
tended thumb resting on. side of second finger; press index finger
round end and sides of thumb, latter pointing to right and front;
hring right hand, back nearly up, some inches above and to right
of left hanci, fingers closed except index, which is curved, thumb
pressing against its first joint; strike down with right hand, tip of
thumb and back of curve(l index grazing side of left index and back
of thumb. These gestures represent left hand as holding Flint, and
the right striking down with a steel held between forefinger and
thumb..

Deaf-mutes make about the same gestures.

Float. Indicate the water, river, lake, etc., by proper gestures,
and then bring extended left hand, back uj), in front of left breast,
fingers pointing to front ; place palmar surface of extended right
hand on back of left ; move the hands with a wavy motion horizon-
tallv to right.

Deaf-mutes use the same sign.

Flood. Conception: Rising and charging. If a river, make sign
for it; then hold the extended hands, backs up, near each other and
little to right of body, hands in same horizontal plane, and height
of waist; raise the hands till little higher than shoulders, then close
the hands, carry them over right shoulder, and make sign for Charge.
If from cloud, frost, or ither cause, make .signs and proper jjosition
of hands to indicate the rushing waters.

Deaf-mutes simply indicate the rising waters.

Flour. Hold right hand, back to right, in front of body, and rub
tips of fingers with tip of thumb, then point to something white and
make sign for Bread.

Deaf-mutes make their sign for White, and then rub the palms of

I So

FLOWER— FOOD.

hands together, like the Indian sign for Exterminate, to denote the
grinding.

Flower. Make sign for Grass, hokling hands a little higher ; then
hold left hand, back to left and front, in front of centre of breast,
index finger and thumb curved forming a partial ellipse, space of
about an inch between tip of thumb and index, other fingers closed ;
bring right hand similarly fixed to right of left index, and thumb
little more spread, so as to clasp with palmar surface of tips of thumb
and index the outer surface of thumb and index of left hand at first
joints, the right thumb in this position pointing to left and down-
wards ; turn the hands, by wrist action, bringing thumbs to point
nearly upwards, and the little fingers close together. (This rejjre-
sents the opening out or unfolding of the flower from the bud.) The
bud is sometimes first represented — i.e., after sign for Grass — by the
compressed and partially-closed right hand being placed back down,
at height of the supposed stalk.

Deaf-mutes make their sign for Growing, indicate the stalk with
extended left index, and place the right hand near nostrils, as though
inhaling tlie perfume.

Fly. Make signs for Wings, as in Bird, for Little, and then de-
scribe the kind by some peculiar property or habit, as seen in bee,
mosquito, etc.

Deaf-mutes swing the right hand sharply over left horizontal fore-
arm, closing hand in movement as though catching a fly.

Fly (To). Make sign for Wings, as in Bird.

Deaf-mutes use the same sign.

Fog. Make sign for Water ; then hold hands, backs out, well in
front of and little higher than face, fingers extended and separated,
right hand little nearer face than leftj fingers crossed ; bring hands
towards face and sligiitly downwards, so that spread fingers shall be
rather close to and in front of eyes (one can see through, but not far
and clearly; called by some, as these signs would indicate, "smoky
water," " rain"). Sometimes prior to bringing hands down in front
of eyes, make motion of mixing hands and sign for not seeing well
or far.

The Cheyenne Indians have a metaphoric idiom for fog, both in
their vocal and gesture speech. They call it a tortoise, and make
sign for it; meaning one in a fog cannot see farther than a tortoise.

Deaf-mutes make sign for Fine or Powdered Rain, and sometimes
add a similar sign to the one here first described.

Fond. Conception : Pressed to the heart. Cross wrists little in
front and above the heart, right nearest body, few inches from it,
hands closed and backs out ; press right forearm against body, and
left wrist against right. This expresses regard, liking, fondness,
affection, love, etc.

Food. Make sign for Eat.

Deaf-mutes have a gesture for things, which is a sinuous motion
of right hand nearly extended, held to right of body, and move to
left. They make this sign and then sign for Eat.

FOOL—FORE VER.

i8l

)th in
make

rtoise.
times

lotion
ove to

Fool. Make sign for Crazy. For unwise, indiscreet, foolish, etc.,
add sign for Little.

Idiots are rarely met with ; in fact, they claim they have none, and
state that it is due to their strict laws forbidding marriage of near
relations. I have seen many thousand Indians, and never saw an
idiot among them.

Deaf-mutes bring riglit hand near right side of forehead, index
finger and thumb extended and pointing upwards, other fingers
dosed, and move the hand to left, just in front of forehead.

Footprints. Make signs for Walk, for See, fingers pointing
towards ground.

Deaf-mutes simply make sign for Walk.

Foot-race. Make signs for Run, and for Equal or Even ; or, if
you desire to say one came out ahead, move one hand to the front
faster than the other, indicating by proper gestures that the finger
going to front represents the winner.

Deaf-mutes make sign like the Indian one for Fast after their sign
for Race or Struggle, which is, bring closed hands in front of body,
equally advanced, back of right to right, left to left, hands height
of breast and few inches apart ; bring right hand towards body and
carry left out; then carry right out and bring left in, making mo-
tions firmly and sharply, as though with great effort and determina-
tion.

Forage. Make sign for Corn, proper gesture for the animal, and
sign for Eat. Hay is represented as cut grass.

Ford. Make proper signs for Stream, and indicate the nature of
the bottom by spreading the hands out horizontally in front of body;
then make sign for Hard or Soft, and indicate depth of water ; if it
is to be waded on foot, as in Deep ; and if on horseback, mark on left
arm the depth of water with extended right hand, back up, index
finger resting on the arm; the left arm represents the legs of the
horse or pony.

Deaf-mutes indicate simply a walking through the water.

Forelock. Curve the fingers of riglit hand from second joints,
backs of fingers from second joints on line with back of hand, and
place back of wrist against centre of forehead, edges of hand point-
ing upwards.

This sign is used to describe the manner in which the Crows,
Gros Ventres, Nez Perces, and some others wear their hair. Jt is
sometimes used in connection with the sign for the tribe, and is used
pictorially to represent them.

The hair is " banged" and kept standing straight up by means of
a sticky clay.

Deaf-mutes grasp a lock of the huir over forehead.

Forest, Make sign for Tree ; then draw left hand to rear some
in( hes, and carry right to right and front, extending right arm to
full length (trees stretching out a long distance).

Deaf-mutes simply indicate many trees by repeati'g sign for Tree.

Forever. There is no well-defined and well-known gesture for

- ji'jT'?^?.'^*;-^^ - ^ ' ■ ■

182

FORGE T—FRA GRANT.

this, and a very long time in the future is the nearest approach to it.
Make signs for My or Mine, Child ; repeat same several times, and
then make sign for Beyond, meaning beyond my children's children,
etc. I have seen metaphors used, such as "while grass grows,"
"while the mountains stand," etc. Some simply point with ex-
tended right index to front and upwards, extending arm to full
length.

Deaf-mutes describe a vertical circle in front of body with tij) of
right index, other fingers and thumb closed.

Forget. Make signs for Heart, for No. Frequently the sign for
Keep is made, and after holding left index for an instant, let left
hand drop (can't hold on to it).

Deaf-mutes hold extended right hand, palm against forehead,
fingers pointing to left ; swing the hand to right, outwards and
downwards.

Forks. (Of river or trail.) Make sign for River, Road, or Trail ;
then hold the left hand, back up, in front of body, index finger ex-
tended and pointing to front and slightly to right, other fingers and
thumb closed ; bring right hand, similarly fixed, and place tip of
index of right against side of left index finger, fingers making such
an angle as the streams or trails make. This is used to represent
one stream emptying into another, the right index usually representing
the smaller stream.

The forks of a trail or stream are also represented by bringing the
hands, backs up, in front of body, and placing them side by side,
touching at knuckles of index fingers, index fingers extended and
horizontal, others and thumbs closed, right index pointing to right
and front, left index to left and front. Sometimes the left hand,
back up, is held in front of body, anri the forks represented by ex-
tended and separated index and second finger, other fingers and
thumb closed.

Deaf-mutes indicate the current flowing with both hands, and then
separate the hands, denoting a separating of currents.

Fort. Conception: White soldiers' house. Make sign for Whites,
for Soldier, and House.

Deaf-mutes indicate an embankment or enclosure, and cannon.

Found. This is represented by I Saw It, Picked It Up, or
Caught It.

Deaf-mutes use the same signs.

Fox. Indicate size of animal, and the long, large tail with white
tip ; also color of hair, and the jumping-sideways motion in running.

Fragrant. Conception: Smells good. Bring right hand, hack
nearly up, in front of lower part of face, first and second fingers ex-
tended, separated, nearly horizontal, and pointing towards face, tips
close to chin ; move the hands upwards by wrist action, no.se passing
between tips of fingers ; then make sign for Good.

Deaf-mutes pass the open right hand from below up past nostrils,
palm towards face.

Indians are not only fond of, but apparently think there is some

FREEZE—FRIEND.

«83

charm in many of the sweet smelling roots, herbs, and grasses, and
frequently have tiny sacks filled with something of the kind tied to
the hair or fastened to a string round the neck. It is simply won-
derful how many sweet-smelling grasses they will find in a country
where a white man would fail to find any. Being thus fond of sweet
smells, it is strange how indifferent they are to many foul ones.
Most Indians have a personal exhalation, a sort of characteristic halo
or atmosphere, entirely unlike that which marks a negro, but in its
way just as strong, though less offensive, and which a Government
mule will tremblingly detect at a great distance. It is a i)ungent,
musty odor, something like that of combined smoke and grease.

Freeze. Make sign for Cold, and then add explanatory signs :
if of water, that ice is forming ; if of body, that the cold kills the
part.

Deaf-mutes make their sign for Water, and then hold hands, backs
up, in front of shoulders, fingers extended, separated ; curve the
fingers slightly.

Freeze Over. Conception : Ice closing over a stream. Make sign
for Cold, for Water or Stream; then hold the extended hands,
backs up, in the same horizontal plane, in front of and little lower
than shoulders, fingers pointing to front ; move the hands towards
each other, index fingers meeting and sides touching in front of
body. This represents the ice formed on the surface of the water.

Deaf-mutes make their sign for Water, Freeze, Strong, and
Walk Over.

Friend. Conception: Brother, and growing uj) united, together.
The most common sign in the North is to hold the right hand in
front of and back towards neck, index and second fingers extended,
touching, pointing upwards and slightly to front, others and thumb
closed ; raise the hand, moving it slightly to front at same time
until tips of fingers are about as high as the top of head. (Some-
times the index finger of each hand is used, and the hands raised
similarly.) The hand is fixed as in Brother, and raised rs in
Grow.

The Southern Indians frequently link index fingers in front of
body by bringing left hand, back out, well in front of breast, index
finger extended and pointing to right, other fingers and thumb
closed; bring right hand, back to rear and right, index finger ex-
tended and pointing upwards, other fingers and thumb closed, and
place palm irface of right against left index, curving and linking
them firmly. This evidently comes from clasping hands, and some
tribes make this sign for friend.

The Berthold Indians make sign for Brother. The Flatheads
Use both index fingers as I have explained, whilst the Apaches,
Kiowas, and Comanches link the index fingers.

Deaf-mutes link index fingers twice, first holding left hand back
down and then turning it back up.

The men of some tribes have friends or *' partners" in their own
tribe, or sometimes in other tribes with which they may be thrown,

Ttmrn^mw^tim^m

184

FRlCnTEN— FUTURE.

or among the whites. This characteristic is specially seen among
the Arapahoes. They really seem to " fall in love" with men, and
1 have known this affectionate interest to live for years, surviving
lapse of time and separation. The adoption is about the same as
explained under Brother.

Frighten. See Excite.

Deaf-mutes throw up the hands and draw back the body, as though
cowering before danger.

Frog. Make sign for Water ; then compress the right hand, hold
it back to right, in front of and little lower tiian shoulder ; move it
to front on a curve upwards to front and downwards, imitating
motion of frog jumping.

Deaf-mutes indicate the jump with right hand, but extend first
and second fingers, others closed.

Frost. Make sign for Cold. Sometimes add signs for Grass
and Kill.

Fruit. It is necessary to specify the kind j no general sign.

Funeral. Make sign for Bury.

Future. It is necessary usually to specify time'. The hands are
drawn apart frequently as in By and By, to denote an indefinite
future time.

Deaf-mutes make their sign for Time, and thenfpush right hand,
index finger alone extended, well to front.

GALL— GENEROUS.

185

Gall. Hold compressed right hand against surface of body over
location of gall ; then rub the tips of fingers against left palm, ex-
tended left hand held horizontally, back down, in front of body j
then point to something yellow.

Frequently l.ie signs for Lose and Bad are also made, to indicate
tlie bitter taste of the liquid. I have referred to the hard yellow
substance sometimes found in the gall-bladder, and highly prized
for medicine-paint, under Buffalo, and also the uses made of the
liquid.

Gallop. Make sign for Ride ; then bring the hands in front of
centre of body, back of right to right, left to left, fingers extended,
touching, and pointing to front ; left hand near the body, right in
front of and little to right of left, tips of fingers of left hand op-
posite right wrist ; move the hands simultaneously up and down
several times by wrist action, the tips of the fingers describing verti-
cal curves. To indicate galloping a long distance rapidly, the hands
are from above-described position moved to the front, after making
the gesture with a wavy, tremulous motion, introducing the idea of
going like the wind. Sometimes the hands are held as Ride, and
then the left hand moved as above described.
"I'liis latter is the deaf-mute sign.
Game. Specify whatever kind it may be.

Gap. (Mountain pass, or depression in bluffs.) Hold the left
hand, back out, in front of breast, index and thumb spread, others
closed, thumb pointing upwards and to left ; pass the extended right
hand, palm towards lett thumb, lower edge resting on left hand be-
tween the spread thumb and index. (This indicates going through,
or the possibility of going through the pass.)

It would perhaps be well to first make sign for Mountains or
Hills.
Deaf-mutes indicate a mountain-pass.
Gender. See signs for Male and Female.
Generous. Make signs for Heart, and for Big or Good.
Deaf-mutes make their sign for Good with both hands.
There are few people so generous as the Indians, in fact, liberality
is so largely developed that it crowds out gratitude, as we know and
understand the word. Generosity is one of the essential steps to
chieftainship, as I have statecl, and stingy Indians are rare. They
are nearly always held in great disfavor, and are thoroughly con-
demned by public opinion for their meanness.

In their religious and war ceremonies, at t'v:ir feasts, festivals, and
funerals, the widows and orphans, the poor and needy, are always
thought of; not only thought of, — for this is done by the kneeling

1 86

GHOST.

crowds in our gilded palaces, rich in ornament, called churches,
where the softened and beautified light, coming through stained glass,
falls like a true halo from heaven, crowning each bowed head with
tints of rose and violet, — but their poverty and necessities are re-
lieved. The hearts of our outcasts and poor are not, commonly,
very much gladdened or their burdens lightened by hearing that we
are to have a great supper or a grand ball, or some impressive relig-
ious ceremony. But with these wild and barbarous people, in torrid
and arctic climates, these gatherings mean also gifts for the needy
and suffering. These gifts arc made with as much ostentation as
possible, and are called " prairie gifts," or a gift " by itself," mean-
ing that nothing is seen but the gift ; no reward or return is in sight
or is expected ; and for days after the camp-crier and the women of
the camp sing their i)raises of the donor, — his feats in war, his big-
hearted ness in peace.

I have seen white men reduced to the last "hard tack," with only
tobacco enough for two smokes, and with no immediate prospect of
anything better than horse-meat "straight." A portion of the hard
bread was hidden away, and the smokes were taken in secret. An
Indian, undemoralized by contact with the whites, under similar cir-
cumstances, would divide down to the last morsel. This character-
istic may be accounted for both by his nature and his training. He
finds a thousand ways to support life where a white man would
starve; and a firm confidence in himself stifles fears for the future,
assuages the pangs of hunger, and begets a lively faith that Nature
will furnish him with food. The " taking no thought for the mor-
row," generosity, liberality, and hospitality have all been obstacles
to their advancement in civilization, and will continue so to be until
they can learn and practice something of the thrifty economy of our
friends, the Jews and Chinamen.

Ohost. Expressed by the gesture for one who dies and walks about
at night; adding also signs for seeing him, and his looking like
something white.

Frequently the index fingers and thumbs are curved into a circle.
other fingers closed, and their circles placed over eyes, to denote the
big eyes which ghosts are supposed to possess.

Deaf-mutes make signs for White, for Wrapping Up, and for
Spirit.

Indians say that they sometimes hear and frequently see ghosts;
and physical afflictions are often attributed to their malign influence.
Wonderful and thrilling stories are told of men who have been
killed while out from camp with a war-party, and long before the
party returned, or any news was heurd of it, the family lodge would
be entered by the spirit of the deceased.

The belief that the spirits of deceased persons who die away from
home return to their village before starting for the Happy Hunting-
Ground, and by ghostly footsteps and weird, windy whisperings give
information of their own deaths to their kinsfolk, seems to be quite
common.

GIRL— GLOOMY.

187

Girl. Make sign for Female, and hold right hand, back out, in
front of and to right of body, index finger extended and pointing
upwards, others and thumb closed, holding hand at supposed height
of girl. Sometimes signs to indicate *' not married" are made.

Deaf-mutes make their sign for Female, and indicate height.

Give. Hold right hand, back to right, fingers extended, touch-
ing, pointing to front and upwards, in front of body at about height
of shoulder ; move the hand outwards and downwards. If giving
to more than one, make the motions as though persons were in your
front in a circle. Some Indians use both hands.

For a free gift, when nothing is exjjected in return, make, first,
tlie sign for Bv Itself. Sometimes this is called a prairie gift, —
nothing in sight but the gift ; and this expression is always used in
reference to gifts made to the poor.

Deaf-mutes hold closed right hand near body ; move it outwards
and open it.

Give Me. Bring the right hand well out in front of body, about
height of neck, back of hand nearly to left, lower edge nearest to
body, fingers extended, touching, and pointing upwards; draw the
hand in towards the body, at same lime lowering it slightly. In
bringing hand in towards body keep it as nearly as possible in same
vertical plane.

Deaf-mutes hold the open hand well out in front of body, close it,
and bring it in close to body.

Give Name To. Make signs for Call and for Give.

A young man, after making his maiden effort on the war-path, if
he lias met with success, "sheds" his boyish name, and is given fre-
quently the name by which some of the old men in his tribe have
always been known. (See Name.)

Glad. Conception : Daylight or sunshine in the heart. Make
sign for Heart, and then carry left hand out to position for Day ;
carry right hand simultaneously out from position over heart, sweep-
ing it to right, and moving palms up as explained in Day. Carrying
hands into positions on curves thus, gives grace and beauty to move-
ments. Some Indians make sign for Heart, and then make sign
for Light; and others indicate the heart as fluttering, as in Excite,
while others simply make signs for Heart, Good, and Big or
Brave.

Deaf-mutes hold palm of extended right hand against surface of
body over heart, patting same for pleasure, and moved circularly for
happy, pleased, etc., meaning ^/W.

Gloomy. Conception : Clouds are close. Make sign for Clouds,
and with the hands in this position lower them to near head. (The
clouds press down upon one.) This is a very common metaphor.
The clouds are close, the world is dark and gloomy. (See also
Cross, Sullen.)

Deaf-mutes hold extended right hand, back out, in front of face,
fingers pointing upwards, hand few inches from face; lower the head
and hand at same time.

i88

GLOVE— GOAT.

Olove. Pass the spread thumb and index of right over left hand.
This, of course, would mean any covering for the hands.

Deaf-mutes use the same sign.

Olue. ("onception : Fastening feather-guides to arrow. Make sij,'ii
for Arrow, and then hold left hand, back to left, in front of body,
index finger extended and pointing upwards, other fingers and thuinb
closed ; carry the extende(l index of right hand to front antl down-
wards, other fingers and thumb closed, as though dropping or dipping
it into some vessel ; tlien bring right hand up, and rub side of left
index with palmar surface of right index near end. Indians made
and still make a very good glue from the thick muscles and muscular
tissue found on ernch side of the neck of a buffalo bull or bull elk.
This is boiled in water for two or three days, and when of a thick,
sticky consistency, or, as they say, "when it gets right," a small
stick with notches on the end is twisted and turned in the contents
of the vessel, until a large amount adheres to it ; this hardens on
cooling and exposure to the air, and the glue is kept in this way for
long periods of time. Sometimes the scrapings of an elk-horn are
boiled with the muscular tissue, but it is not necessary. When used,
a small jjortion is chipped off and gently heated in water ; the amount
of the latter being regulated, of course, by the amount of glue
needed. It is used for fastening the feather-guides to arrows, fasten-
ing sinew on the back of bows, fastening the hair on the feathers of
a war-bonnet, etc. ; in fact, used when glue or cement would be
necessary or desirable, and possesses the qualities of both, though in
an inferior degree. It is whitish in color, unless stained or colored,
as is sometimes done, with ochre.

Go. Hold right hand in front of body, back to right, fingers ex-
tended, touching, pointing to front and downwards; move the hand
to front, at same time, by wrist action, raise the fingers, so as to point
to front and upwards. The hand can, of course, be held to right
or left of body, making the motion to indicate the direction, and
is usually so made. " I am going," make sign for I and above sign.
" Going to and reaching a place," is expressed by the signs for
Arrive There.

Deaf-mutes wave the right hand outw.^rds from body, back out-
wards and upwards.

Go Away. If speaking to a person with you, simply make sign
for Go; but if to tell people who are approaching to "go away,"
the right hand, palm out, is waved from the body outwards and to
right.

Go Near. To illustrate, take the sentence, "I am going near the
Sioux camp," make signs for I, for Go; then sign for Arrive
There; but right hand stopping little short of left hand for Sioux,
and for Camp.

In sentences of similar construction, the signs for Go and Arrive
There are frequently combined. This sign for Go being indefinite,
needs other gestures to fully establish its meaning.

Goat. Conception : Horns, and long hair under chin. Bring the

GOD.

189

hands alongside of head, index fingers extended and pointing up-
wards, other fingers closed, hands lielil just over ears; then place
the back of right wrist against under side of chin, hand partially
compressed, fingers extended, slightly separated, and pointing down-
wanls. Some Indians add also the signs for White Hair.

Deaf-mutes use same sign,

God. Make sign for Medicine and point to zenith, or add
sign for Great and point to the zenith with extended index of right
hand ; frequently the signs for Whites and for Chief are made. The
Flatheads and Crows make the sign for the Old Man in the East,
but tlie more common name is, as I have given it, the Great Mystery,
or Medicine Chief, or Great White Medicine Chief above.

Deaf-mutes raise the right hand, to full extent of the arm, in front
of body, index finger alone extended and pointing to zenith ; then
lower the hand, at same time extending the fingers and thumb.

I once asked a very intelligent Indian, one wiio keenly and bit-
terly felt the loss of his country and the fall of his people, why it was
he made the sign for a white God in the heavens? why not a Chey-
enne, Crow, Sioux, or Pawnee God? To which he replied, "Long
ago my people had two Gods above to whom we prayed, — one
was in the North, who was the God of the snow and col;i winds, as well
as of the large game; the other, the God of the warm sunshine and
1,'iowing grass, was in the South, where all the birds go in winter.
The white people came among us, scatteringly at first, and then
like a flood ; they drove away our game in the name of (jod, who
was above ; lied to us in His name, robbed us of our country in His
name, and, I think, He must be a white God !"

Keokuk, chief of the Sacs and Foxes in the Indian Territory, said
to me in answer to my questions in regard to the story of the creation
of his tribe, " God made the Indians — the Sac of yellow, the Fox
of red, clay. He then made woman out of man's rib. The beaver
wanted it always night, God's son always day ; so God made it half
tia\ light and half darkness." This, he insisted, was the Sac and
Fox account long before they met the whites.

Questioning the Assinaboines at Fort Belknap, I found that they
formerly had an image cut from wood, which represented the Un-
known above. To this they made presents and offerings, and at
stated intervals all gathered round it. They also said, "The same
white man's God, which this image represented, gave us the bow
and arrow and showed us how to kill game. Afterwards the white
man showed us how to use the medicine iron."

It will thus be seen how difficult it is to get any correct idea of
the original beliefs of our aborigines about what the interpreters call
the "Great Spirit." There is nothing in the vocal word, but the
gesture does give a clue. It is the ivhite man' s God, and a close
investigation into such religious ceremonies as have been preserved
from the corroding influences of time and the alterations of our
own beliefs, leads me to assert that the Indians were limited pan-
theists, — if I may use such expression as meaning that they did not

190

GOD.

believe that the tiniversc, taken as a whole, was God, but that everv-
thing in the world had 'ts " spiritual essence" made manifest in the
forces and laws of nature. They were also limited polytheists, in
that they deified the oldest people of their tribe whom tradition gave
any account of. These two were united, in most cases, by the
shadow, hardly the substance, of fetichism ; somclhing akin to the
sui)erstitious feeling which many of our own race still have in regard
to the influence exercised on our fortunes by a horse-shoe nailed
over the door or fastened to the wall ; though the Manflans, in their
worship and sacrifice to the spirit of wood, pass beyond the shadow
and reach the substance.

One who knew nothing of our religious views might be led into
error by seeing a Catiiolic solemnly counting his beads, and rev-
erently bending the knees and bowing in worship before a cross.
And so the sight of a savage piously whispering his prayer to a
painted stone, or devoutly pointing his pipe and humbly making his
petition to the white skull of a buffalo, might lead one to form
erroneous opinions.

'I'he belief of the Indians, though something like that of the ancient
Greeks, had not crystallized into such shape tbat names were given
for a definite number of superior, and an indefinite number of in-
ferior, gods, but the forces of nature worked for them good or evil ;
i.e., good luck or bad luck.

It is as difficult to obtain a definite and clear understanding of the
Indian's view of the "spiritual essence" propitiated by their sacri-
ficial worship as it is to define our own ideas of God ; an' m this
connection the following extract from an address recentlj ade by
an eminent divine, Professor David Swing, may be appropriate:

" What a calamity to the religious nature of man were we all com-
pelled to find only one import to words, and to live and die with
one interpretation I The Creator. of man having made him to be of
broad and varying taste, did not forget to make equally the realm
where he must pass his life. An unlimited mind demands an un-
limited objective and subjective world. The wings of an eagle bt
speak for it the open air. It, therefore, comes to pass that all can
not and need not think of the very foundation of religion, the Deity,
with the same thoughts. He may appear before one in the likeness
of man. His raiment glistening in excessive light, His hair white as
wool, with the wisdom and dignity of eternal years. To another
He may seem as broad as all space, as omnipresent as the sweet
ether, as invisible as music. To another He may seem within al!
life, the soul of all that lives, while others may say in humility, 'who
by searching can find out God 1' "

The Indians are essentially a religious people, or more correctly, a
superstitious peoi)le, and as bats thrive best in darkness, so do super-
stitions in barbarism. Therefore it seems natural that they should
believe in the direct agency of superior powers, and consequently their
sacrificial system is the natural result of their belief; and their vision-
seeking, through steam-baths, fasting, and self-mutilation, the only

GOLD—GRANDFA THER.

IQt

means of ascertaining the will and wishes of these mysterious powers,
as well as to gain their assistance.

Morality has no jjlace in superstitious worship, and hence wc find
that the morals of the Indians are not sensibly controlled or regu-
lated by any religions views they may have. Crime is not a violation
of the laws of any of their mysteries or Gods, but an infraction of the
material laws which they find necessary to their physical existence as
a people or tribe. The sweet promises of future rewards, or the dine
thteats of future i)unishments, are totally and entirely eliminated, ex-
cept so far as virtue in bravery is concerned. Those killed in battle go
to the hereafter by the starry trail in the heavens (Milky-Way), and
are met in that " far-off land" with songs and feasts and made chiefs.

In addition to the general mysteries which all Indians hold in com-
mon superstitious awe, individuals frequently have a personal mystery,
which exercises a direct influence ui)on all the more important events
ot their every-day life, and from wiiom information is received by
means of visions or inspirations, in the sha[)e of warnings of danger
or advice, which will secure success. This personal God may always
apjjear in the same form, and directly foreshadow coming events, or
may cause the Thunder-Bird to flash forth an omen, an owl in tlie
stilly darkness of the night to solemnly lioot an admonition, the
toes of moccasins tiirown in the air to fall pointing in a certain
direction, so that the flight of a bird or the direction of the wind
has determined the course and result of many war expeditions.

Gold. Make sign for Money, then point to sometiiing yellow in
color.

Deaf-mutes hold right hand as in their sign for little Y; give it a
treinl)ling motion, and then make their sign for Metal.

Good. Concepti in: Level with the heart. Hold the extended
right hand, back up, in front of and close to left breast, fingers ex-
tended, touching, and pointing to left (index finger usually rests
against breast in this position); move the hand briskly, well out to
front and right, keeping it in the same horizontal plane.

I have seen Chippewas make the sign for Good with the left hand,
and sweep it well round to the left. The Utes pointed to something
good ; and, for a person, used sign for True or Straight. The
Yankton Sioux sometimes sweep hand out from heart, turning, back
down, as in Day.

Deaf-mutes place palmar-surface ends of fingers of extended right
hand on lips, fingers pointing upwards, wave the hands outwards
little to right and downwards, turning palm uj). This is also used
for "Good -day," "Good-by," " Thank you." etc.

Goose. Make sign for Bird (remembering the long swinging mo-
tion made by the wings of a goose in flying), then make a sound as
closely as possible imitating that made by a goose. Instead of the
sound, the peculiar triangular shape taken by flocks of these birds in
their migrations, or some of the habits of the bird, are sometimes
represented.

Grandfather. Represent by proper signs the fiither of mother or

i(;2

GKANDMorHF.R GFA TITUDK.

tatlRT. Many tribes call "Ciod" ^iraiKlfallicr in tlu'ir vcical language,
instead of the "dreat Mystery," or, as it is translated, " (Init
Spirit." Many tribes also call the sini grand father.

Deaf-nnites make their sign for FatiiI':r, repealing motion of
moving crossed hands to front.

Orandmother. Repri-sent by projjer signs the mother of mother
(M- lather. 'I'he Indians call tiie earth mother or grandn\oliier, — she
provides nonrishment for her cliildren. Many Indians simply make
signs for Oi.i) Man or (^M) Woman for grandfather or grandniotner.

Deaf-mntes make sign for MoriiKu, and then move the (-rosseil
h.inds to front second time.

Holh the signs for grandfather and grandmother arc sometimes
indicated by making sign for l''AriiKR or MoriiKR, and then sign for
Hkvoni). as is tlie usual way of representing former generations.

Orass. Hold the hands, backs downwards, well down, arms ex-
tended to lull leiigtii. in front of or to U'ft or right of body, fingers
anil ihnmbs well separated, slightlv cnrved, and |)ointing upwards,
right hand close to and little in advance of left, liands about same
lieigiu, little finger of right hand near to lingers of left hand ; sepa
rate the hands some inches, moving right more than left and to from
(considering edge of lel't hand as determining this direction).

Deat'-imnes liold right hand in sign for letter G, give treml)liiiL;
motion to it, which is sign forCiKKK.N; then make their sign for Grow,
and indicate stalk with extended index finger.

Gratitude. There is no general single sign for this, but it is ex-
])ressed nsually by, "Yon Iiave taken jiity on me; I will remember
it, and take pity on yon." (^See I'hrase.)

Deaf-nuiies hold the riglit hand near heart, thumb and index
nearlv exteiuled, and palmar surface near ends pressed together,
other fingers closed ; move the hand outwards (represents drawing
siMuething from the heart, and means " thanks") ; then make their
sign tor GlvK with both liands.

There are many well-known luises oa record of Indian gratitude
surviving the lapse of years, the trials of a burdened life, and keeii-
ing pure and strong in the midst of treachery, ingratitude, and d''
ception dealt out to them ; and I have no doubt there have been
many individual Indians who have possessed a warm, friendly feeliiii:
for a benefactor ; in fact, I have seen decided exhibition of tiiis
sentiment. But a feeling of thankfulness, a keen, lively sense of
gratitude, can only live in an atmosphere of selfishness, can only be
kept alive by contrast, and illiberality is a product of civilization,
not of barbarism. I use the woni selfishness here mostly in tiie
limited sense of greed, or of a hope of gain, a desire for the ac-
cumulation of worldly goods, and gratitude mostly in the sense of
an appreciation for git'ts revXMved to relieve physical wants. An
Indian is stricken with a great grief; death takes away his wife or his
child ; all of his possessions are given away ; he and they all know-
ing that in a short time gifts will be made to him which will perhaps
more than counterbalance the goods distributed. A young and am-

GRAVE— GROS VENTRE.

J93

l)ili()ns warric. , returning from a siirressful horse-stealing foray, pre-
sents the fruit of his cfTorts to tlie poor of tlie raiup. He and they
all feel that his reward has l)een paid by the liigh estimate |)ul)li(;
oijinion places op his merits and the advantages whi( h will result
fiKMi sue h public estimation.
Grave. (Hurial-phue.) Make signs for DiK and for Bury.
Deaf-nmtes make motion as though digging with spade or shovel,
.1 ' tlien sign for Dead.

Gray. C'onrcption : White and blaek. Point to something white
in ( olor, and make sign N, or point to something black. Sometimes
sign for LlTTLE is addec' to each sign.

Deaf-mutes indicate white and black inixcd.

Grazing. Conception: ('roi)ping grass. Make sign for Animai,,
anil frequently sign for (iuAss; then hold right hand, back up,
fingers partially extended, slightly separated, pointing about down-
wards, well out in front of body; lower the hand, at same time com-
Itiess the hand, — i.e., bringing tips of thumb agai'r c tips of fingers;
raise the hand and repeat motion in different pl.u.es in front or to
riijhl or left of body.

Greasy. Make sign for Fat. Some Indians rub inner surface of
extended fingers of right hand over blanket for this word, and only
use the gesture given under Fat to indicate thick or thin, according
as the left hand drops down between thinnb aiul finger of right.

Great. Hring the extended hands, palms towards each otiier, well
in front of breast, hands opjjosite, few inches apart, and fingers point-
ing to front ; separate hands, carrying right to right, left to left.

To in(li(-ate an object as high as well as broad, tlie extended right
iiand held horizontally, back tip, is raised in front of body.
Deaf-mtites make sign for letter G, and then the above.
Green. Point to something green. Sometimes sign for Grass is
made to denote the color.

Deaf-nuites make sign foi letter G, and then give a trembling mo-
tion to hand.

Grieve. Make sign fof Ckv, and also indicate that the hair is cut
off.
Grizzly. Same as Gra^ .

Gros Ventre (Indian). The Crows make the sign for Big Belly
to denote the Gros Ventres of the Prairie, and sign same as for
Arickaree, or for Dirt Houses, to denote the Gros Ventres at Ber-
thold, while the latter frequently hold the nearly-closed right hand,
bac k to right, near mouth, back of thumb touching lips ; twist and
carry the hand to left, as though twisting something with this hand
to facilitate biting it otT, — the gesture meaning bitten or cut off.
There is also a band of Ogalalla Sioux, Little Wound being the chief,
which has the same sign ; they arc called at the agency (Pine Ridge,
Dakota) the Cut-off band. The Gros Ventres claim that this name
(Big Belly) was given them by the whites. Neither this tribe nor
the Gros Ventres of the Prairie have larger abdomens than other
hulians. The agent at Fort Berthold, Dakota, where this tribe is

»3

-.^ -T-.fr,~^. •^- "',a 1 1 r',-"

194

6^ A" 05 VENTRE.

located, gives the number as four hundred and forty-five, in his report
for 1881, so that only a remnant is left of a once-powerful nation
numbering several thousands. I visited the agency in June, 1881,
and gathered most of the following data from the chief, Poor Wolf,
whom I found to be a venerable, professor-like-looking old fellow,
dressed in an army-blue coat and trousers which, in true professor-
like style, were a little too short, a pair of old-fashioned iron specta-
cles rested uneasily on his nose, a calico shirt, a paper collar, and
black " fly" cravat, which was, of course, askew, completed his toilet.
Ke was sixty-one years of age, and was born near the mouth of Knife
River. He informed me that the Gros Ventres call themselves Hidat-
sas, which was an abbreviation of the words for Red Willow village.
They migrated towards the Missouri River from the North, and here
first met the Mandans. The Arickarees were then below Fort Pierre.

In olden times, before the Crows left, there were three chiefs who
controlled and regulated all the affairs of the camp. Crossing the
Missouri, they camped on both sides of Heart River. An arrange-
ment or agreement had been entered into in regard to the buffalo
killed on each side of this stream, Heart River; a,dispute arose over
one killed in the stream, which led to angry feeling and a separation.
They formerly had an annual Sun-Dance, which was peculiar in that
the person who made it was forced to secure a large number of but-
falo-robes, seventy or eighty, have them carefully dressed, garnished
with porcupine-work, before he notified the headmen, who then had
the crier formally announce the information to the camp. At the danc e
these robes were given away. The ceremony seems to have differed
but slightly from that observed by the Sioux, a mock battle beini;
fought over the Sun-Dance pole, and then they hauled it to camp with
their lariats. In addition to the ordinary mutilation, they frequently
cut off the little fingers in tliis dance. The old man claimed that
they had "corn, tobacco, and beans when they came out of the
ground, and since then the whites had given them potatoes, melon.s,"
etc. They bury their dead mostly above-ground, in trees and on
scaffolding, but this depends on the wishes expressed by the person
just before death. The widow inherit j the property. No food is
taken to the grave. The "Happy Hiinting-Ground" is located an
beyond the rising sun.

They did not eat dogs in olden time, and never, until recently,
wore the scalp-lock. They have a special dance when the corn has
ripened sufficiently to be eaten ; this was commanded by their God
when He first gave them the corn. The women wear their dresses
quite short, and do not use a "protection string." Poor Wolt",
though not absolutely vouching for the truth of the story, — in fact, to
do him justice, he said he did not know whether it was true or not,
but said the tradition had been handed down to him by his fore-
fathers, — gave me the old, okl story of the origin of the Hidaisas,
including, of course, the Crows. Formerly, said he, they lived in
a world under tiie earth, when one day a man, by the aid of a root
or vine, climbed above, out from that inner or lower world to thir.

GKOS VENTRE.

195

fair earth. He remained some time, and then, by this same ladder
oi destiny, returned to iiis people, told them of the better and more
beautiful country above, and they made, by means of the root or
vine, the ascent ; not all of them, however. Half of the tribe had
made good the ascent, when a fat old woman, large beyond descrip-
tion, and additionally heavy with her unborn child, started, sailor-
like, up the vine ; it broke, and the rest were doomed to remain in
their lower world. This story is carefully and definitely located at
Devil's Lake, Dakota.

The part of the tribe who had thus fortunately come upon this
beautiful earth soon suffered the inconvenience of a flood, and
many were drowned. They were still numerous and strong, were
divided into three bands, then into two, and camped separately, and
located imaginary geographical lines' of possession, so far as the
game was concerned. This led to the trouble which finally sepa-
rated them from the Crows. Their known migrations are limited
to the Missouri River Valley, and from Knife River up to their pres-
ent village, and I am quite convinced that the Mandans moved from
the North and joined them, crossing the Missouri River for that
purpose.

Mr. Morgan claims that "they carried horticulture, the timber-
framed house, and a peculiar religious system into this area, and
adds, "There is a possibility that they are the descendants of the
' Mound-Builders.' " Their permanent dwellings have always been,
so far as known, the dirt and frame lodge, as described under Tepee.
In their hunting excursions they, like other tribes, used the skin
lotlge. The time of the separation of the Crows from tiiem cannot
be definitely ascertained. As one old man said to me, "They sepa-
rated from us a long, long time ago ; my father did not know when,
his fiither did not know, but his grandfiither did know of the time.
Tlie languages are something alike. The young men get new words,
and change the pronunciation of the old ones; in this way our
languages have become separated."

I'he dirt lodges are fast giving way to log huts, covered and
chinked with mud, the roof being made similarly to the roof of the
lodge. The dirt lodges last about seven years, are dark, moist, and
perfect nests for vermin. The use of the "bull-boots" and active
cultivation of corn are marked characteristics.

In his valuable and interesting Hidatsa Grammar, Dr. Washing-
ton Matthews says of these Indians and their allietl tribes, the Man-
dans and Arickarees : "On the plain, between the cemetery and the
village, may be seen some half-dozen tall, forked logs, erected at
distances of a few hundred feet apart. They are evidently of differ-
ent ages; one looks quite fresh, as if recently taken from the woods,
some api)ear older, others are rotten at the base and ready to fall,
and a tew of the oldest are now lying on the ground. Each year
one of theie forked logs is set vp. On the day when it is deter-
mined to commence their ann.>-.l religious ceremonies the men of
the Hidatsa tribe, dressed and mounted as for a war-party, proceed

.,fiJtP,"?ll?f.W^PT^

Z96

GHOS VENTRE.

to the woods. Here they select a tall, forked cottonwood, which
they fell, trim, and bark; to this they tie their lariats, and by the
aid of their horses drag it toward the village. \v the procession, the
man who has most distinguished himself in battle, mounted on the
horse on whose back he has done tlie bravest deeds, takes the lead ;
others follow in the order of their militaiy distinction. As they
drag the log along they fire their guns at it, strike it with their
sticks, and shout and sing songs of victory. The log, they say, is
symbolical of a conquered enemy, whose body they are bringing
into the camp in triumph. When the log is set up, they again pro-
ceed to the woods to cut and bring in willows. A temporary lodge
of green willows is then built around the log, and in this lodge for
four days and four nights is performed the dah' pike, or yearly cere-
mony of the Hidatsa. The most remarkable features of the cere-
mony are the voluntary ?nd self-imposed fasts and. tortures, which
rival, and perhnn<; excPi, in their barbaric cruelties, those of the
more famous ' Okeepa' of the Mandans.

" Unlike the Hidatsa, the Mandans and the Arickarees perform
their annua! religious ceremonies in houses ereqted especially for
religious i)uri oses, and which may properly be called temples, al-
though usually designated by the whites as 'medicine-lodges.' In
front of each of the temples is an open space or plaza. The objects
of veneration in the Arickaree plaza are a painted boulder and a dead
cedar-tree. The 'medicine' of the Mandan plaza is a small circular
palisade, which is emblematic of the ark in which the Noah of Man-
dan mythology was saved from the flood. Within the temple and
around the palisade is still performed the Mandan Okeepa, which
Catlin so accurat'"'v dosciibrs in his * North American Indians.'

"Wh^t Le'- ■ and CldiKe ascended the Missouri, in 1804, they
found 1 ■> tr' . a of agricultural Indians, numerous and prosperons,
inhabiting le Upper Missouri Valley west of the Dakota nation.
They had eig'i«" permanently inhabited towns, several of which tliey
lived in temporarily, and a number more which they had abandoned
and allowed to go to ruin. They are spoken of in Lewis and
Clarke's journal as the 'Ricaras,' 'Mandans,' ' Minnetarees,' and
' Ahnahaways.' All that are left of the four tribes are now gathered
together in this one village, at Fort Berthold, which does not prob-
ably number over two thousand five hundred souls. The last-named
tribe, the Ahnahaways or Aniahauris, ceased long ago to have an
independent existence. After the smallpox epidemic of 1838, the
few that were left joined the kindred tribe of the Minnetarees, ac-
cei)ling the chief of the latter as their chief, and adopting the tra-
ditions, myths, and ceremonies of the Minnetarees as their own.
Almost the only evidence we have of their former existence is llie
mention made of them by early travellers, and the few orphan words
of their language which have been adopted into the Mi nnetaree tongue.
There are but few white men, even among those who have dwelt tor
years in the country, who know that such a people ever did live, and
the Indians of Fort Berthold are always referred to as * the three

GROS VENTRE OF THE PRAIRIE.

197

tribes.' The remains, now nearly obliterated, of their old towns
may to-day be discovered by sharp-sighted observers on almost every
prairie terrace adjacent to the Missouri, along six hundred miles of
its course from the mouth of the Lower White Earth to the Little
Missouri. To the philologist it is an interesting fact that this trio
of savage clans, although now living in the same village and having
been next-door neighbors to each other for more than a hundred
years, on term? of peace and intimacy, and to a great extent inter-
married, speak nevertheless totally distinct languages, which show no
perceptible inclination to coalesce. Tlie Mandan and Gros Ventre
(or Minnetaree) languages are somewliat alike and probably of a very
distant common origin, but no resemblance has yet been discovered
between either of these and the Arickaree (' Ricara'). Almost every
member of each tribe understands the languages of the other tribes,
yet he speaks his own most fluently, so it is not an uncommon tiling
to hear a dialogue carried on in two languages, one person, for in-
stance, questioning in Mandan, and the other answering back in
Gros Ventre, and vice versa. Many of them understand the Dakota
tongue and use it as a means of intercommunication, and all under-
stand tiie sign language. So, after all, tliey have no trouble in making
themselves understood by one anotlier. These Indians must have
excellent memories, and even 'good capacity for study,' for it is not
uncommon to find persons among them, some even under twenty
years of age, who can speak four or five different languages."

Gros Ventre of the Prairie (Indian). It is claimed that this tribe
received its name from the custom they had of running from one
lodge to another to get something to eat, — always having their bellies
full ; and so were called Big Bellies. They are called Gros Ventres
of the Prairie to distinguish them from the Gros Ventres at Yo'X
Berthold, being an entirely distinct tribe, different in language, cus-
toms, and beliefs from the latter. These Indians are clearly an off-
shoot from the Arapahoes, and, mistily and imperfectly, tradition tells
of their remaining with this tribe in their southeastward migration
until they met the Cheyennes, near the Red River Valley, then
moving with the Cheyennes and Arapahoes westward until they
reached the Missouri River, when they separated from the others
and went to the northwest, joining the Blackfeet, remaining with
them for a long number of years. LoUiS Reve, seventy-eight years
of age, whom I met at Fort Assinaboine, Montana, in June, i88i,
said that he came to Fort Marias, at the mouth of the Marias River,
Montana, in 1829. At this time the Gros Ventres were living with
the Blackfeet, and numbered some three or four hundred lodges.
There were about two thousand lodges of Blackfeet, including the
Bloods and Piegans. In 1833 or 1834 smallpox broke out in the
Gros Ventres' camp, and swept away large numbers of them. The
other Indians were farther north, and did not have the disease.
The old men of the Gros Ventres, at this time, claimed that they
came from the far North, across some wide body of water, and
moved right through the other tribes and joined the Arapahoes. In

198

GROS VENTRE OF THE PRAIRIE.

1831 the Arapahoes were on the Arkansas River, and the Cheyennes
and Sioux were together. These Gros Ventres worshipped the sun,
or the Supreme Power, which they located in the sun, and sacrificed
their bodies to this power. They believed that after death they
went to some lonesome land in the North, and claimed that when
there, they had seen spirits abo.t them. They had at this time
(1829) very few ponies. When they left the Arapahoes they fought
their way through the tribes, with the exception of the Rees and
Mandans, who were friendly to them. In this way they were
stripped of all their property, including, of course, the ponies their
kinsfolk, the Arapahoes, had given them. They were at this time
considered very brave, and fought well. This visit, which was made
about sixty years ago, and which lasted some time, has been an
obstacle in the way of gaining correct information of the migrations
of this tribe, as well as the date of the separation of the two bands.
For this visit they joined the Arapahoes near the Big Horn Moun-
tains, moved and camped with them until they reached the Platte,
or, as some claim, the Arkansas River; and undoubtedly Little
Raven, of the Southern Ara])ahoes, referred to their leaving at this
time when he said to me, " They separated from us (Northern and
Southern Arapahoes) fifty-two years ago. We had ranged together
up to this time as far south as the Arkansas. They left us when we
were camped on the river, and went north, on account of a war he-
tween the Kiowas and Comanches ; these two tribes joined together
aga'nst us. Before this we had been friendly." The agency for
tiiese Indians and some of the Assinaboines is located at what is
called Fort Belknap, near the forks of Milk River, twenty- eight
miles from Fort Assinaboine, Montana.

I visited them in June, 1881, and found that I had been able to
gain much more reliable information in regard to their migrations
from the Cheyennes and the Arapahoes than I could from them.
They do not keep an accurate account of inr'lvidual ages. Their
traditions are not reliable for more than three generations, and arc
poor at that. They could give no reason for the separation from the
Arapahoes, and were inclined to think it took place near the head-
waters of the North Platte River.

They have an original Sun-Dance, and hold the torture in high
esteem; claim that they "suffer to please the God in the sun, and
also the white man's God." Among other dances, they have the
Strong-Dance for women, — intended as a support to their chastity.
The Buffalo-Dance is also a religious ceremony to propitiate the
power, force, or God in the sun, — a prayer for the sun to take pity
on them, and give them buffalo. In this dance the participants wear
buffalo-bonnets or head-dresses. The Manhood- Dance is also an
annual dance held late in the summer, when lodges are made ; this
is for young men old enough to take on themselves the responsibility
of a family.

They bury their dead mostly in lodges, and believe that after death
they go to the Lonesome Land north of Cypress Mountain. Tliey

GROW— GUM.

199

said one died (fainted), went there, and came back and told them.
Tliey v-ere formerly at war with the Flatheads and all the tribes in
that part of the country. For many, many years they were friends
of the Blackfeet, Bloods, and Piegans. Tiieir pleasant relations
wore ruptured, they claim, by the killing of the wife of one of their
(hiefs, who went to visit a Blackfoot camp; this led to war, which
lasted for some years; only recently made peace again. They were
also formerly at war with the Assinaboines.

These Prairie Gros Ventres seem rather inferior to other Plains
Indians. In dress they resemble the Crows and Blackfeet ; are fond
of the coarse fringe at the shoulders, wrists, and down the seams of
the leggings. They have no one particular style of dressing the hair,
going through all the grades from the stiff, upright bang of the Crows
to the plain braid and scalp-lock of the Cheyennes. The women are
lighter colored than the Arapahoe women and dress like the Crows, —
short skirts and short leggings, not reaching to the knees. Their
vocal language is unmistakably Arapahoe. They have few myths,
and keep no pictorial history of the tribe. Their several Medicine-
Dances seem to look more to the sun as the seat of their God than
with the surrounding tribes, and they could, with more propriety, be
called sun-worshippers. When I was at the agency most of the lodges
were away hunting ; the poor, old, and lazy hung about the agency
bi;ildings, which are small log huts with dirt roofs, surrounded by a
stcickade.

The cultivated fields looked well, about one hundred and fifty acres
in all under cultivation; wheat, oats, corn, and garden vegetables
looked thrifty.

Grow. Hold right hand, back down, index finger extended and
pointing upwards, other fingers and thumb closed, in front of body,
hand held near the ground ; raise the hand by gentle jerks.

Deaf-mutes indicate the growing of persons similarly, but for the
vegetable world they hold the partially-closed left hand in front of
body, and force the compressed right hand from below upwards be-
tween the thumb and fingers, and as the fingers appear above the
index and thumb of left hand, the fingers are spread, opened out.

Ouide. Make signs for Go, for With, for Look, for Road or
Trail, and for Good.

Deaf-mutes make signs for Show and Lead ; for the former hold
thf extended left hand, palm out, in front of left shoulder, fingers
pointing upwards, and place tip of extended right index against left
palm, other fingers and thumb closed ; for the latter, hold extended
left hand, back to left, fingers pointing to front, in front of and close
to left side; join left finger-tips with tips of fingers and thumb of
right hand, and draw the left hand to front.

Oum. Hold the compressed left hand in front of body, back to
left, fingers pointing upwards ; bring the closed right hand near left,
and place ball of right thumb against base of thumb of left hand,
and, by wrist action, twist the right hand to right and front ; then
make a chewing motion with the jaws.

200

G UN— G UNPO WDER.

Gun. Conception : Flash and smoke. Hold the right hand, back
out, some eight inches in front of neck, hand partially closed, palmar
surface of thumb pressing against the nails of first three fingers, edge
of hand pointing upwards; elevate hand some inches, at same time
extend and separate fingers and thumb with a snap. Some Indians
hold the hands in position of aiming a gun to shoot, and this latter
is the deaf-mute sign.

Gun-Cover. Make sign for Gun ; then hold left hand, back down,
several inches in front of body, fingers touching and slightly curved,
pointing to right and upwards, thumb slightly curved and pointing
upwards ; bring compressed right hand between left hand and body
and thrust it towards left and beyond, hand passing left thumb and
index, and the lower surface and forearm touching left palm as the
movement is made ; terminate movement when elbow rests on left
palm ; represents thrusting the gun into the cover.

Gunpowder. Make sign for Gun, and then rub the tip of thu
against tips of fingers, as in Ashes or Dust. Sometimes sign lur
Black is also made.

Deaf-mutes make sign for Dust and Black, an4 then holding ex-
tended left hand, palm down, in front of body, place the nearly-
closed right on its back, and suddenly raise it, extending the fingers,
to indicate the flash or explosion on ignition.

HAIL— HALF-BREED.

201

Hail. Make signs for Rain, for Cold, and indicate size of hail-
stones with curved index and thumb of right hand.

Deaf-mutes make signs for Frozen Rain.

Hair. To denote hair of human being, touch hair of head ; for
brutes, hold left forearm horizontally in front of body ; separate and
partially curve the thumb and fingers of right hand ; carry it to and
pla( e back of fingers against left forearm, near elbow ; move the
hand from elbow to wrist, finger-tips little higher than upper surface
of left forearm.

Deaf-mutes simply touch the hair of head.

The manner of dressing or wearing the hair in former years usually
determined the tribe, the style in each being different. The practice
of pulling out the beard and hair from all parts of the body except
from the head was common to all tribes, and was only at first used
as a means of keeping the body free from vermin. It obtained the
color of sacredness only from being an old custom.

Half. Hold left hand, back to left and front, in front of breast,
fingers extended, touching, and pointing to front and right, thumb ex-
tended, pressing against side of and same height as index ; lay lower
edge of right hand on upper edge of left, resting at about knuckle of
left index, back to right and front, fingers extended, touching, and
pointing to left and front; move the right hand to right and outwards.

To illustrate: "I give half to you and half to him," make sign
for I, above sign, and sign for Give (moving hand towards you
in sign for Give) ; then bring right hand back to its position on
left, move it to left and rear, and make sign for Give (towards him).
This sign indicates cutting anything in two equal parts (in the illus-
tration, one part given to one, the other part given to the other).

Deaf-mutes hold extended left index in front of body, and lay
extended right on it at right angles, at middle point from knuckle
to tip, other fingers and thumbs closed.

Half-Breed. Conception : Half of body one kind, half of an-
other. Bring right hand, back to left and downwards, in front of
centre of breast, fingers extended, touching, pointing upwards and
towards body, little finger and lower edge of hand near breast or
resting on it ; move the hand to left until it passes beyond body,
return hand to its first position, and move it to right until it passes
body, making before the first gesture tne sign for whatever breed xt
is desired to represent one-half of, and after the motion to right, the
other breed.

To illustrate : To represent a half-breed of the white and Sioux
faces, make sign for Whites, then for the half to the left, as above
described ; then make sign for right half, and then sign for Sioux.

202

HALF-BREED.

Similarly executed for all animals. Sometimes the right hand is
held opposite the face.

Deaf-mutes make their signs for White and Mixed.

I am indebte.4 to Mr. J. J. Hargrave, of Winnipeg, Manitoba, for
the following in regard to the half-breeds of British North America;

"The half-breeds of British North America are the descendants of
the traders, who have lived in the country and formed connections
with native Indian women. Previous to 1763, when by the peace of
Paris the country was ceded by France to England, these traders
were Frenchmen, who, under licenses of trade, granted by the (tov-
ernment, pursued their calling in a desultory and adventurous man-
ner throughout the country north and west of Lake Superior. He-
tween 1763 and 1784 the trade slackened, but in the latter year the
formation of the Northwest Company of Montreal gave it renewed
impetus. The latter company was well organized, and, between the
year of its inception and that of its coalition with the Hudson's H;iy
Company in 1821, had succeeded in organizing its posts as far north
as Lake Athabasca, and as far west as the Pacific Ocean.

"In this enterprise it drew its best instrume;its from among the
half-breed race, who, having been born in the country, and familiar
from their earliest years with its hardships and its savage industries,
formed the connecting link between the Indian and the white man.

" After the coalition between the Hud )n's Bay and Nortliwest
Companies had taken place in 1821, even until the present time, the
services of the half-breeds as boatmen, hunters, and i)lain carrier^
have been held in great esteem by the former cor|)oration.

"The white servants of the Northwest Company consisted of
Scotchmen and of Frenchmen, engaged in Montreal ; while the
European servants of the Hudson's Bay Company were mainly Ork-
neymen and Scotchmen engaged in Europe, and until 1821 stationed
in the immediate neighborhood of Hudson's Bay.

"Until some years after the formation of the Canadian Confed-
eration in 1870, when emigrants began to enter the country, tiiere
was an almost total absence of white female population. For about
a century, therefore, there had been a gradual increase in the num-
ber of half-breeds, as the Europeans employed in the fur trade mar-
ried with women purely Indian during the earlier decades, and sul)se-
quently in increasing numbers with the daughters and descendants 01
their predecessors.

" From the European point of view there are two classes of half-
breeds, usually known as English and French half-breeds ; the former
being descended from an English-speaking, and the latter from French-
speaking, ancestry. There is a well-defined difference between these,
and they have not much amalgamated. They all agree in an inti-
mate speaking acquaintance with their Indian mother-tongue. The
French half-breeds, however, are a race of hunters and travellers, who
have never taken very kindly to agricultural pursuits in the various
settlements which have been established in the Indian country, while
the English half-breeds have as a class been mildly successful agri-

HALF-BREED.

203

culliirists, and in the Red River country and on tlie Saskatchewan,
have become comfortably establislied as settlers.

" The influx of population into the Northwest Territory and the
consequent disappearance of game, more especially of the l)uffalo,
have disposed the French half-breed population to retire before the
advancing wave of whites. Tiie buffalo, in fact, formed their great
staff of life. Wliile these animals still occupied the prairie country
west from Red River, spring and autumn expeditions were organ-
ized to hunt them, and the results in the shape of pemican and buf-
falo-robes furnished the hunters with the necessaries of life for the
remainder of the year.

"Those half-breeds who were too poor to purchase the necessary
outfit to enable them to hunt the buffalo, would engage as voyageurs
during the summer months, and the high wages obtainable during
the five months of open water would enable them to tide over the
winter months.

" Improvidence has been a prominent characteristic of the French
half-breeds more particularly. While plenty abounds with them they
live amid waste, but when the evil day of want arrives they sustain
privation with amazing fortitude.

" In point of religion the French half-breeds are chiefly Roman
Catholics, and the English mainly Protestants. Their imjjrovement
has been for many years one of the chief objects of the labors of mis-
sionaries of all creeds in the Indian country.

" As a class the half-breeds have no special written laws, conform-
ing themselves in this respect to the habits of the Indians while in the
Indian country, and to the laws of thewhites among whom they live on
the frontier. VVhile actually in the field chasing the buffalo, however,
they are under a very strict discipline, administered by a captain and
staff of assistants, whose office is by general election of the camps.

" From the Indian point of view the half-breed race belongs to no
special tribe or nation, members of this class being descended from
every tribe among whom whites have traded, from the Chinooks of
the prairie to the Iroquois of the Atlantic coast.

" They reside throughout the whole Northwest Territory, but there
are certain localities where settlements of more or less pretensions
have been formed, such as Red River settlement in Manitoba, and
Prince Albert on the Saskatchewan.

" The enormous increase in the value of land which has taken place
in the former locality within the last two years has enriched many
members of this class, by enabling them to exchange their lands for
money. The general result can scarcely be estimated, but it will
end in a western emigration of individuals, and the ultimate * sur-
vival of the fittest' to cope with new conditions created by the
advent of the locomotive."

What are known as the Red River half-breeds are, as I under-
stand it, mostly of white and Algonquin extraction ; i.e.., Chippewa
and Cree. I have seen them this side of the British line on their
hunts and in their winter quarters, and they are veritable gypsies.

904

HALF-BREED.

Their carts, which they use for transporting their possessions, are
known as Red River carts, and their sleds, which they use in win-
ter, are as sini[)le in construction. Mr. Hargrave, in iiis interesting,'
book on Red River, thus describes these carts:

"They are constructed entirely of wood, without any iron what-
ever, the axles and rims of the wheels forming no exception to the
rule. Altiiougli this might at first sight appear a disadvantage, as
denoting a want of strength, yet it is really the reverse, because in
the country traversed by these vehicles wood is abundant, and always
to be obtained in (juantities sufficient to mend any breakage which
might take i)lace. The only tools necessary, not only to mend but
to construct a cart, are an axe, a saw, a screw-auger, and a draw-
knife; with these the traveller is independent, so far as regards the
integrity of his conveyance. Indeed, the cart may be described as
a light box frame poised upon an axle connecting two strong wooden
wheels. The price of such an article in the settlement is about two
pounds sterling. The harness is very rude, and is made of dressed
ox-hide. Each cart is drawn by an ox, and in cases where speed is
an object a horse is substituted. Tiie horses used on the plains for
draught purjioses are usually the wiry little 'Indian ponies,' one
of wliich, with a load of four or five hundred pounds in the cart he-
hind him, will overtake from fifty to sixty miles a day in a measured,
but by no means hurried, jog trot. Htjrses are, however, generally
used only when men travel ' light,' and time is an object, in which
cases the bulk of the loads consists of the canteens, bedding, and
personal luggage of the passengers."

Of late years ponies have been used extensively on this side of the
line. In marching the carts follow each other, and in camping
they are halted as each one comes up, o as to form a circle, and the
tepees are pitched just outside and-wu n a few feet of the carts.
This forms an excellent corral for the c, '-^als, which are driven
inside for the night, or during any emergency

The men dress in civilized clothing, but all wt. • moccasins, and a
sash (usually red) around the waist for ornament a..d to sustain the
trousers. The women also wear the ordinary dress of civilization, usu-
ally made of calico. The men and boys are fine horsemen, ordinarily
using for a saddle merely a pad stuffed with hair, often handsomely
beaded. The stirrups are small, mad',.- of iron or leather, and are at-
tached to the pad with a narrow strap. The women ride in the carts.

During the winter they select some wooded and well-sheltered
place for their camps, and construe;, l.jg houses. If their fall hunt
has been successful, and they have ? liufficient supply of dried meat
and pemican, in addition to that sold for sugar, coffee, and flour,
to last them during the winter, and they can secure a few barrels of
whiskey, they se,m to be perfectly happy. Many of them are fair
musicians, and they all seem fond of such sounds as they can worry
out of their cracked and seedy violins.

Unlike the full-blood Indians, the men perform their share of
the work, and as the women do not suffer such great privations and

IIALT-IIANC.

905

of the
amping
and the
carts.

driven

inarily
somely
are at-
e carts,
leltercd
all hunt
meat
flour,
rrels of
are fair
worry

hare of
jns and

hardships, which limit the lacteal period, and ride in the carts, it is
not infrc'iuent for them to bear from eight to fourteen children.

There are several thonsaiul of these people who might very prop-
erly be classed as a band or tribe, and the Red River Half-breeds
are the only ones who, so far as I know, form a genuine tribe. Of
course at each of our agencies there are usually found mixed bloods,
and I think, projjerly speaking, as tlie gestures would indicate, In-
dians whose parents belonged to different tribes should come under
this head, but it is not customary to so class or consider them. The
(■a|iture of women and children by vvar-parties, or the meeting of
different tribes when waging war or at peace, has led to quite a number
of these Indians. As a rule, they seem to possess great linguistic
al)ility, and it is a remarkal)le fact that many of our most noted In-
dian c hiefs were of mixed Indian blood. Logan's father was a Ca-
yuga, his mother a Shawnee. Tecumseh's mother was a Creek, his
father a Sliawnee. In more recent tinies. Chief Josepii's father was
a Nez Perce, his mother a Cayuse. Washakie's father was a Sho-
shone, his mother a Flathead. Little Wolf's father was an Arapahoe,
his mother a Cheyenne.

Halt. Hold extended right hand, palm outwards and downwards,
in front of body, fingers extended, touching, and pointing upwards
and to front, hand about height of shoulder ; move the hand sharply
to front and downwards, stoppir.g it suddenly.

In a similar manner any one coming from right, left, or rear would
be halted or stopped. This gesture, repeated, means also keep quiet,
'dHiit a moment, etc., though not made so sharply or decidedly.

Deaf-mutes strike the left palm with lower edge of right hand
sliari)ly, left hand extended, back down, right hand at right angles
to left.

Handsome. Conception : Looking in mirror and good. Hold
extended right hand, back outwards, in front of and few inches from
eyes, fingers pointing to left ; drop the hand down till opposite breast,
then move it out horizontally, back up, to the front and right.

Hang. (To describe hanging a person.) Hold right hand, back
up, near right side of neck, index and thumb spread, other fingers
closed ; move the hand well upwards and little to right with a par-
tial jerk, at same time closing index and thumb.

Deaf-mutes place ball of right thumb under chin, little finger ex-
tended, others closed, making a push up against chin.

Hang (To). (As pendant.) The left index is extended and held
horizontally in front of body, other fingers closed, and the right
curved and hooked to it.

Indians have a special aversion and horror of death by hanging.
I have heard the Sioux say that a person who committed suicide in
this way had to go through the next world dragging whatever object
the rope had been attached to. Death by violence, such as shooting,
stabbing, etc., is so common that they have become accustomed to
it ; and in the songs and praises of the bravery of the deceased much
of the distressing bitterness of the affliction is forgotten ; but at the

2o6

JIAPP Y HUNTING- GR O UND.

thought that one has died like a dog, been choked to death with a
coward's rojje, barbarism is sickened into silence.

Happy Hunting-Ground. There is no general well-known sinn,
but tlic i)roper gestures are used to denote country beyond ^fiX\\ and
living; i.e., Die, point to ground Beyond, and Inhahit are usually
made. As the Comaiiches and some others tiiiiik they go to the
West, the Flatheads, Crows, and otiiers to the East, the Sioux and
others to the Soutii, the Blackfeet and Prairie Gros Ventres to the
North, and the Caddoes and others inside of the Earth, the Chiy-
ennes rather incHuing to the zenith, it will be readily seen there
could be no general sign, as with deaf-mutes, for Heaven.

It is imjiossible to learn po: itively at this late day what may have
been tlie belief of the Indians prior to our advent, but I am in-
clined to think that tiiey did in olden times as now, picture a here-
after. One reason for this belief is that our missionaries have as
earnestly sought to convince them that there is an eternal hell which
may swallow up their souls in endless torture as that there is a heaven
of endless bliss, and though they are free to admit that the whites
may and ]>robably will all go to hell, I have ye,t to see an Indian
who in his heart of hearts believed any Indians would go there.

Some years since a commission was sent by the President of the
United States to investigate a very treacherous and cowardly slaughter,
— the Chivington massacre. With the commission was a Methodist
clergyman, who at that time (and perhaps does now) believed in a
literal and physical hell of fire and brimstone, where the souls of
wicked transgressors would writhe in eternal torture. Being not
only anxious to spread the good seed, but curious as well to learn
from the lips of the wild Indians their views of the hereafter, he
asked the chief to tell him what were his beliefs in regard to the life
after deatli. The chief gave him the usual picture of the |)leasant
fields, white tepees, clear waters, and abundance of game in the
Indian's heaven and then in turn asked the minister to describe the
white man's heaven, which was done in glowing colors. The streets
of gold, the gates of pearl, were duly depicted, but not stopping there.
he went on and pictured the flames of hell, and described the Ic of
the transgressors who would surely go there. The Indian stOiped
him and asked "if it was really true that all the whites who |)layed
cards, swore, drank whiskey, lied, stole, etc., would surely go to thh
place?" When answered in the affirmative, he stopped further dis-
cussion with laughter, and by saying "that in the next world they
would not be troubled with any whites ; they would all be burnt up,
for the minister had included all those whom he had ever seen or
heard of."

It would please me if I could honestly say that each and every In-
dian I have met possessed a clear tradition of the original knowledge
or belief in one God, and that a rich heirloom of perfect faith in the
life beyond death had for ages been handed down from father to son;
but no such arch of rainbow-hued comfort can truthfully be given.
Some of the Indians claim to have seen the Happy Hunting-Groin;''

HARD.

207

during fainting fits; they calling these swoons death, and believing
tint the spirit temporarily leaves the body (see Faint), and describe
it on recovery as rich in all that barbarians could desire or hold pre-
cious : good lodges, fresh grass, cold pure water, plenty of timber,
larue quantities of game, fast ponies, etc. ; but unfortunately for a
more complete understanding and perfect knowledge, "just as they
are asked to a feast" they come to life again. Many of the Indians
trouble themselves very little about the subject, think little and care
less; but the medicine-men, the dreamers, build strange fabrics out
of their vague and misty ideas, and these pass as the current coin of
Indian beliefs. It is safe to say that they are not whipped into any
action by the bitter lash of fear of future punishment, but are held
to good deeds by the inherent attraction of the good in them, and
the social and moral laws which govern their physical existence.
They are then, so far as any faith of future life goes, firm in the con-
viction that they will all go to the happy land beyond death. No
cloud of doubt ever casts a shadow on mind or heart. They do try
to mete out punishment for crime and misdeeds here, the penalty
falling quickly on the heels of tiie offence, but the facts constituting
a crime or offence are, of course, judged according to the code of
morals found in barbarism, not by ours. The warmth of the South
is in the story told me by Ta-ba-nan-a-ca, one of the chiefs of the
Comanches; ?nd the dreary coldness of the North is felt in the story
of the desolate region of sand-hills, where roam the dead and gone
Blackfeet and Gros Ventres of the Prairie. Forming their ideas, then,
from the vagaries and visions of swooning men and dreamers, it is
not strange that they should believe in a future physical life similar
to that which they are now passing through ; and, as courage is their
greatest virtue, it is not to be wondered at that the warrior killed in
battle goes easily over the starry trail, and on reaching his destina-
tion is hailed as chief. The magical touch of fancy washes away the
blood, heals the wounds, restores the scalp and streaming war-bonnet,
and thus bravely decked out in all his savage finery, the spirit is ma-
terialized. The pictures are not all rose-colored. Among the In-
dians of the far North there are only sad beliefs of a future life too
intangible for description. The Blackfeet ajjpear to expect in the
great hereafter nothing better than .1 dreary, gho.-tly existence.

Some tribes believe that withered old age is transformed into the
flush of youth, and that the maimed and deformed are freeil from
the heavy burdens of their aflilictions, whilst others claim that the
young are young, the old are old, liie infirm are infirm, and the dis-
eased are diseased ; in fact, that the future is a perfect reproduction of
their present existence. (See God.)

Hard. Hold left hand in front of left breast, back to left and
slightly to '.ont, fingers extended, touching, i)ointing to front and
slightly to r". . ; strike with the back of fingers, from second jomts
to knuckles, of firmly-closed right hand the left jjalm two or three
times, diawing right hand back from left only few inches, back of
right hand nearly to front, and forearm about horizontal. This sign

!0S

//./ AV)- H RE AD— II A T.

is used in such scntcnrcs as a "hard man to (-ado with," "a liii;h
rocky nioiiiUain," and also soiuetinics in the sense of firm, deter-
inincti, brave, etc.

Deaf-i uitcs hohl closed left hanti, l)ack up, in front of body, and
strike knuckles of same two or three times, with short, sharp l)lo\vs,
with second joints of closed right hand.

Hard-Bread. Make sign for Hkkad, and then hold extended Kit
hand, back nearly downwards, in front of body, fingers pointing a
little to right of frt)nt ; lay the lower edge of right hand on left
wrist, fingers extended and touching, hands at right angles. Souu'-
times the sign tor Haki^ is made.

Deaf-nuites make sign for Hard, and then cut back of extended
left hand, fingers pointing to right, with lower edge of extended right
hand iuld beyond left, fingers pointing up and towards body.

Harlot. Conception : (Jrazy or foolish female. Make sign lor
Kemai.k, and Cra/y or I-'ooiasn.

Deaf-mutes make sign for Ff.mai.k and Skamk.

Among some of the tribes the women, as a ride, are virtuous,
while with other tribes the rule is re. ersed. The«e conditions obtain
with tribes that for years have had most intimate relations with ea li
other, and have nearly all tlieir customs and laws exactly alike. 'I'his
is instance<l in the case of the Clieyennes and Arapahoes, the formci
being noleil for the cliastity of its women, whilst the latter is equally
notorious for their lewdness.

In former times, among many of tiie tribes, adultery on tlie woman's
liart was punished by cutting olT the cartilaginous i)ortion of the end
of the nose. Indian women vlo not treat their sisters, who may have
yielded their virtue by reason of passion or necessity, with that line
scorn. <-ontempt, hatred, and loathing which civilized women so cheer-
fully accord under similar circiniist;inces, and social ostracism and |)un-
ishment does not necessarily follow through her entire life a woman
who may have " loved not wisely, but too well."

According to the stern laws of some tribes, if a woman cannot
pass the test of ])urity, or virginity, she is at the mercy of any or all
the men in the camp, and there have been many cases where the hor-
rible brutality of savage lust was wreaked with fiendish and hellish
delight. Hut in barbarism a woman can step at any lime from the
paths oi folly into the ways of purity, and be assisted in her elTorts
by those of her own sex.

The ceremony for testing the purity of the women usually occurred
once a year, and was accompanied by a dance or feast. If a woman
was accuseil falsely, she could have some of her kinsfolk make a least,
confront the slander with denial, ami silence unjust insinuations or
open charges with her oath of purity.

Hat. Bring right iiand, back outwards, in front, close to, and
little above head, index finger and thumb spread and nearly hori-
zontal, other fingers closed j lower the hand until thumb and index
are about opposite the eyes, spread thumb and index, passing down
close to forehead, index to left, thumb to right.

HA WK—IIEA I'EA'.

209

Dcaf-niiitos indicate shaiu', and then make motion as though ptit-
tiiii; s;uiic' on head with liglu liand.

Hawk. Make sign for Hiki» ; then hohl tlie parfially-roinpiessed
riuht hand in iVont of and little higher than right shoulder ; move
it to ("runt and downwards, finishing on a slijdit upward cnrve, \\\\\-
tating the manner in which a hawk "dives' through the air after
siii.illcr birds, swooping (U)wn after its prey.

Headache. Make sign for Sk k, holding hands near head, and
tlun iVccpieiUly add the sign to denote darting pain.

IVaf mutes make their sign for Sic k near forehead.

Heap, h'dicate the shape with both curved hands.

IKat-mntcs use the same sign.

Hear. Hold the right haml, back to right, near right cheek,
about on a line with front of face, index finger and thumi) spread,
utlior fingers closed, index pointing upwards ; move the hand back,
mostly by elbow action, so that ear will be in about centre of s',.ace
between thumb and index. Sometimes the sign for Lirri.K Talk if--
made (the index finger snapped oj)p()site right ear and close to it);
; i.n holding hand little farther out, extend index finger, point it
, ids the ear, and when tip of index approaches it, move the

. sufficiently to front to pass the face, indicating that the words
'■')t only struck the ear, but went through the heaii. This gesture
implies an earnest attention to what one has heard ; that one is in-
cliiunl to listen ; that the ears are open to receive advice or instruc-
tion ; ami that a decided impression or conviction had been the
result. The words go through the head.

Sometimes the hand in the first sign given is held in rear of the
ear and brought forward.

Deaf-mutes hold the right index horizontally opposite and point-
ing towards right ear.

Heart. IJring the compressed right hand, fingers slightly ( urved,
so lliat tij) of thumb is near tips of fingers, against left breast, index
finger ami thumb resting over heart and pointing downwards.

IKaf-mufi 'iescribe a small circle on surface over heart with tip
of exiende ri ;hf index.

Tlie he 'I .1'. "uderstood to be the seat of the emotions, the abid-
ing-pl;' \? '' i.c ,dorness and anger, love and hatred, pleastne and
pain, 01 r>) a /d .jorrow, and of courage and fear. All the inliuences
which cclor h"*: directly aflect the heart. In tlistress it is weighted
to the ground,- ,,ressed down and covered with clouds. In happi-
ness it is light, — lifted up into the sunshine. In anger the heart is
Ihiii. In love it \?,goo(i. In homesickness it looks wearily towards
the land of nativity.

Heaven. Point upward with right index. (See Happy Hunting-
Gkound.)

I have also seen gestures made to denote father, mother, and old
people ''ying, and their arrival there, to indicate the land beyond
death.

Dtiif '•;r , indicate the arch with both hands held curved, backs

2IO

HE A VY—HIDE.

up, above head, tips of fingers touching ; then move right to right
and downwards, left to left and downwards ; then holding left in first
position, make sign for Enter with right passing under left.

Heavy. Conception ; Cannot hold up. Hold hands, backs
down, in front of body, fingers extended, touching, and pointing to
front, hands same height and few inches apart \ raise the hands
slightly, and then let them drop several inches.

Deaf-mutes use the same sign.

Help. Make signs for Work and With.

Deaf-mutes hold left forearm horizontally in front of body, and
placing palmar surface of extended fingers of right hand under left
forearm, lift up slightly the left arm.

Herd (To). Conception : To hold. Hold the hands opposite
each other, at same height, in front of body, index fingers and
thumbs spread and horizontal, index fingers pointing about to front,
hands about six inches apart ; move them simultaneously to right
and left, keepii . ihem same distance apart. The signs for ponies,
cattle, or whatei* / erded, are usually first made ; and to repre-

sent the animals a.> ched together, as in a herd, partially com-
press the hands, fingc.j slightly curved and little separated; bring
the hands near together in front of body, back of right hand to
right front and upwards, left to left front and upwards, fingers point-
ing downwards and outwards, tips of thumbs and fingers near each
other, hands height of the shoulders and equally advanced ; move
the hands slightly downwards and outwards ; bring hands a little
nearer each other.

Indian ponies of a large camp, when turned out to graze, amicably
settle into small group^. Sometimes one group belongs only to one
family; at other times to several families who have lived near each
other for a long time, or are kinsfolk. An Indian boy can run out,
lasso one of the ponies, and easily drive his group through a large
herd, either to water or into the camp. I have seen this done fre-
quently where there were several thousand ponies, and the other
groups were not disturbed.

Here. Make sign for Sit.

Deaf-mutes make sign similar to Indian sign for Place or From.

Hermaphrodite. Conception : Half male, half female. Make
sign for Male, then hold lower edge of right hand against breast,
fingers extended and touching, back of hand nearly to left ; move
the hand to right, then make sign for Female, and holding hand as
above, move it to left.

The Crow tribe of Indians seem to have had several well-authen-
ticated c-^ses of hermaphrodism.

Hide (To). Hold the left hand, back to left and upwards, well out
in front of left breast, fingers extended, touching, and pointing to
front and right j bring the right hand, slightly compressed, back up,
and fingers pointing to front, several inches to right of left ; move
the right to left, and when approaching left, lower it, having it pass
under and little to left of left hand. This is also used to express

HIDE— HISTORY.

211

"secretly," "privately," "confidentially," "atalkunderablanket,"
"lost," " hidden away," etc.

Deaf-mutes close the right hand, and place back of thumb against
left, then move that hand under, the left held as I have described
in the Indian sign, the back of right thumb grazing left palm as it
passes under.

Hide. (Skin.) There is no general sign ; explanatory signs must
be made.

Deaf-mutes hold extended left hand, back up, in front of body,
and with the thumb and forefinger gather up, with a pinch, the
loose skin on the back of left hand.

High. Hold right hand, back nearly up, fingers touching, about
extended, and pointing to front, in front of right shoulder ; raise
the hand according to the height desired to be represented.

Deaf mutes hold right a little in front and to right of right shoul-
der, index only extended and pointing upwards ; raise the hand by
gentle jerks.

Hill. See Bluff.

Deaf-mutes indicate the shape of surface with extended hands,
backs up.

His or Hers. Make sign for the person, and then sign for Mv or
Mine.

Deaf-mutes push the palm of extended right hand, fingers point-
ing upwards, hand held in front of right shoulder, to left or towards
person.

History. Hold left hand, back outwards, well in front of face,
fingers extended, touching, and pointing upwards ; with partially-
extended thumb and index, other fingers closed, make motion of
sketching something on left palm. This in conversation would be
sufficient, but to further elucidate (as the same sign is used for pho-
tograph or picture and nearly the same for writing), explain that by
looking at it one would know where they were many years ago.

Deaf-mutes make the signs for Past Happenings. (For Happen-
ings, hold the hands in front of shoulders, backs up, index fingers only
extended, right pointing to left, left to right, hands same height and
opposite ; by wrist and elbow action turn the hands with a jerk, so
that backs are about towards body. For Past, hold right hand, back
to right, well in front of right shoulder and little lower, thumb ex-
tended pointing upwards, fingers closed ; move the hand directly back
by elbow action, so that thumb points over right shoulder.)

Some of the tribes (especially the Sioux in the North and Apaches
in the South) have a hieroglyphical history or chart, extending
back some hundred years or more ; a species of picture-writing on
a partially-tanned skin ; the years being represented by pictures
of the most important event? which occurred to them during the
year.

I have never seen one representing more than a hundred years,
and the only history which can now be obtained from them consists
of vague and unsatisfactory traditions, handed down from father to

212

HOBBLE— HOLD.

son. These arc in many cases unreliable, and at best reach back
only two or three hundred years.

The Santee Sioux claim that formerly their old men kept a record
of events by tying knots in a long string. By the peculiar way of
tying them, anil by other marks, they denoted the different events,
fights, etc., and even smaller matters, such as births of children, etc.
1 once saw a slender ])ole some six feet in length, the surface of
which was completely covered with small nuti:hes, and thv old In-
dian who possessed it assured me that it had been handed down from
father to son for many generations, and that these notches repre-
sented the history of his tribe for over a thousand years ; in fa< t,
went back to the time when they lived near the ocean.

Hobble. (For animals.) Bring closed hands, backs up, well out
in front of body, hands opjwsite, few inches apart, and at same
height, forearms held as nearly as possible parallel, i)ointing to front
and downwards J clasp the right wrist with thumb and index of left
hand; return left hand to position, and clasp left wrist with thumb
and index of right hand, and return to position ; other fingers in
these movements closed, and as the hands resume -position the wrists
are slightly bent downwards.

Ponies are hobbled by means of a short thong or rope tied to the
front ])asterns, fettering the legs, the length of the rope between tl
legs being usually about one foot. This prevents the animals fro i
straying too far, places an obstacle in the way of a stampede, and
causes a delay in that pleasant amusement known as "running off
the stock," which tribes at war practise on each other so constantly.

The young men of a war-party or horse-stealing expedition travel
so as to leave no trail, winding through the dry beds of streams,
ravines, and low places, thus keeping concealed day and night ; tiiey
frecpiently, and especially in the winter, going on foot, and with
wonderful craft and cunning creep up to within a short distance of
the camp or herd oi ponies iliey are after. Then watching their
opportunity, some of their number, with knives in hand, crawl
around among the animals, cut the hobbles and lariats, and then
with a shout make a dash at the herd, accomplishing the stampede.

It is rarely the case that after attaining such success the marauders
are overtaken, as from the stolen herd they can select plenty of
relays.

Hog. Indicate the height, then form a circle with thumbs and
index fingers, others closed, and hold it some inches in front of
lower part of face, to denote the snout ; and then extended and
compressed right hand, back up, against chin, fingers pointing to
front and downwards, make motion to imitate the rooting.

Some tribes call the nog the "bear-antelope," some the "white
man's bear," and many simply make sign for Fat, as in Bacon, to
denote the animal.

Deaf-mutes indicate the rooting with extended right hand under
chin.

Hold. Hold the extended handb, backs out, well in front of body,

HOLE— HORSE.

213

finpiers of left hand pointing to right, of riglit hand to left, barks of
fingers of right hand resting against inner surface of fingers of left,
index fingers horizontal, forearms nearly so ; move the iiands, held
in this position, slightly to right and left, by elbow and shoidder
action. (See Soldier.)

This sign is used to express soldiering ; i.e., holding a ramp ; to hold
or detain a person as prisoner; to keej), hold, or detain anytliing.

Deaf-mntes clasp extended left index pointing upwards, oilier
finders and thumb closed, with right hand.

Hole. Form a circle with the thumbs and index fingers of both
hands, others closed, and.stiil holding left hand in position, pass the
compressed right through the imaginary hole.

Di.'af-mutes form a circle with left index and thimib.

Homely. Pass the palmar surface of extended right hand over
flue, and make sign for Bad.

l)caf-r '.ites make a jerking motion of closed right hand in front
of face.

Homesickness. Make sign for Hf.art and for Look, the right
hand in Look heU close to heart, and fingers pointing in direction
of iiome. Sometimes simply sign for Sick over the heart is made.
1 have also seen the signs for Many Nights Looking Towards
('ami> or Country and Hkart Sad made, and also signs for Heart
TiRKD after the sign for Look and Country. The iieart looks or
longs for this country, and becomes tired or worn out with the weary
watching and waiting; hope has died out in the heart.

Deaf-mutes make signs for Wish and Home ; one wishes for home
(for Wish they hold the hands well out in front of body, backs down,
fingers partially separated and slightly curved ; the hands are drawn
in shghtly towards the body, motion repeated ; for Home make si^n
for House, Eat, and Sleep or Bed).

Honest. (See True.) Some Indians make signs similar to Day,
and add Good, — a person is open, clear, and good.

Deaf-mutes make their signs for True and Right.

Honey. Make sign for Fly; indicate, by pinching the skin on back
of left hand, the fly that bites, and then make sign for defecate.
Sometimes the sign for Sw^eet is also made. Honey is usually called
bee-excrement.

I have also seen signs made to denote a large tree with a hole in it,
the bees going in and out. The wasp and bee are frequently called
the " cliiefs of fly-biters," and at other times the " fly with one arrow
in his quiver."

Deaf-mutes make signs for Bee and Sweet.

Horse. The most common sign, and one used almost entirely in the
North, is to hold the left hand, back to left, in front of left breast,
fingers extended, touching, and pointing to front ; bring the right
hand, back about outwards, and place first and second fingers astride
the left index. This represents one of their horses or ponies.

To represent what they call an "American horse," make sign also
for Whites. The conception of this is, of course, from riding.

214

nORSEBA CK—IIO USE.

The Southern Indians frequently use what they call "the Caddo
sign," which is to hold the right liand, back nearly outwards, well
in front of left breast, fingers extended, touching, and pointing to left,
hand a trifle bent at knuckles; move the hand horizontally to right
and a little to front, terminating movement when hand is about
opposite right shoulder. Tlie concejjtion for this is from the curved
neck of the animal in grazing (see Wild) and its height.

The Utes hold right hand, back up, well out in front and little to
right of right shoulder, index and little fingers extended and pointing
upwards and little to front, other fingers and thumb closed. They
claim the conception of this from the horse's ears.

I have also seen the sign for Medicine-Dog made, as it corresponds
to tiie vocal name applied to the animal by some tribes. (See Pony.)

It will readily be seen that in conversation some other sign tlian
the one for riding is desirable, as the two would frequently fall to-
gether in gestures, and might be confusing.

Deaf-mutes hold the hands alongside of head, near and just above
ears, backs of hands to rear, index and second fingers extended,
touching, and pointing upwards, otiier fingers and thumbs closed ; by
wrist action move the fingers to front ; repeat motion.

Horseback. See Ride.

Horse-Race. Make sign for Horse, for Race.

Deaf-mutes make their sign for HoRse, and denote the Struggle,
as in race.

Hospital. Make sign for House nnd Medicine, — a mysterious
or sacred house.

Deaf-mutes indicate friends visiting in hospital.

Hostage. This would have to be explained. One could say,
we will hold one of the number, or, i)utting it stronger, imprison
the person ; then, if certain things are done, he will be set at
liberty, etc.

Ho Conception: Rays of sun pressing down. Hold the hands,
backs nearly up, above and in front of head, fingers nearly extended
and slightly separated, tips of fingers of right near left, fingers of
right ])ointing about to left, left about to right, hands few inches
apart ; bring the hands down and slightly in towards head. (The
heat presses down from the sun.) I have also seen sign^ made for
the Sun Rising, Above, for Fire, and Same.

The heat from a fire is expressed by making sign for Fire, and tiien
qualifying it by proper gesture. That anything was hot, the natural
g'istures will suggest themselves.

Deaf-mutes indicate the heat of day from the sun by drawing
crooked right index across forehead from left to right ; that any-
thing was hot, or a hot fire, by holding nearly-closed right hand,
back out, at mouth ; suddenly throw the hand out, and extending
the fingers, at same time make motion with mouth as though the luuid
was blown on by the breath.

House. Conception : Corners of the log huts and houses. Bring
the hands in front of body, and interlock the fingers near tips, fingers

no W— HUNDRED.

215

at nearly right angles and horizontal. Some tribes do not link
fingers, but bring hands in same position, as though about to do so,
and'tlicn throw or move the hands by wrist action to right and left
a few inches, bringing wrists near together. This gesture indicates
the shape of the house.

Deaf-mutes indicate the usual shape of the roof by joining the
tips of extended fingers, hands held in front of body.

How. Make sign for Yks, usually moving hand downwards and
toleft, giving in this way emphasis, a pronounced or decided j«.

The Indians have learned this word from us, using it as a saluta-
tion, and also as an expression of consent and api)roval. They iiave
no such expression as " Good-morning," " Good-evening," or any-
thing very similar, out instead they usually say, " Fill up the pipe;
let us smoke," wbioh supplies the want and redeems their meetings,
on entering each other's lodges, from an appearance of su'kiness or
gruffness.

After a long absence, or a special favor given and received, Indians
frequently embrace. In parting with their husbands, brothers,
fatliers, and sweethearts, the women usually i)ass the palms of the
hands down from the neck over the breast of the man, and accom-
pany this pathetic blessing with sobs and tears and piteous wailings.
The man stands apparently unmoved during this affectionate demon-
stration, and particularly is this the case if other people witness the
separation.

How Many. Hold the left hand, back down, edges pointing a
little to right of front, in front of left breast, fingers partially sepa-
rated and slightly curved ; hold right hand, back nearly outwards, to
right and slightly in front of left hand, index finger extended and
pointing to left and front ; move the right hand, mostly by wrist
action, briskly towards the borly, repeating motion, end of index
striking first little finger, and then the others in succession, and as
these fingers are struck or bent back, they remain more curved,
nearly closed.

Deaf-mutes assume a questioning look, and hold closed right hand
in front of body, opening fingers, one after the other, commencing
with index.

How Much. Usually expressed by How Many. How much
money? would be how many dollars, etc., and could only be done
by comparison, interrogating as to whether little or a great deal.

Hump. Make sign for Buffalo; then partially compress right
hand and pass it over right shoulder, and hold it as nearly as possible
between shoulder-blades.

Hundred. Expressed as ten tens by many tribes, but the Arap-
ahoes, Cheyennes, Teton Sioux, and some others usually bring the
hands, palms out, in front of right shoulder, fingers and thumbs ex-
tended, separated, and pointing upwards, hands in same vertical
plane, tips of thumbs touching; move the hands well out to left and
downwards on vertical curve, keeping in same vertical plane.

Deaf-rnutes hold up index finger and make sign for letter C.

2l6

HUNGR Y—IWNT.

Hungry. Conception : Cuts one in two. The Southern Indians
bring the lower edge of extended right hand, bacic down, against
the epigastrium, fingers pointing to left, pressing edge of iftind
against body; move it to right and left, as though cutting or sawing
with edge.

I never saw this sign used in the North, the usual way being to say
that "one wants something to eat," by the signs for Eat, No;
touch abdomen, and then sign for Poor.

Deaf-mutes partially close the right hand, and make a clawing,
scratching motion on front of body.

Indians can certainly go longer without food than white men, and
suffer less from the fast, but the ordinary cases, where comparison is
possible, are hardly fair tests, as they find many things, such as roots,
berries, etc., to eat where a white man finds nothing. There can
be no question, however, that their powers of endurance in the de-
privation of food are far exceeded by their enormous capacity for
gorging themselves when they are plentifully supplied. There have
been many occasions when scouts have consumed their several days'
rations in asinglenight, spending the entire night iit cooking, singing,
beating on their drums, and eating.

Hunt. Make sign for Search, or Scout, or Look For, and specify
what for.

Deaf-mutes partially close right hand, and hold it well out to
front and right of body, back to riglit, and move it to the left, about
horizontally, as though ready to grasp something.

Mr. Dunbar says that the Pawnees made yearly a summer and
winter hunt ; the former from tlie last of June till the first of Sep-
tember, the latter from the last of October till early in April. The
general direction of the hunting expeditions was to the southwest,
into Western Kansas, but sometimes- the summer hunt was confined
to Western Nebraska. The entire distance travelled on an expedi-
tion varied greatly (from four hundred to nine hundred miles), ac-
cording as the game proved plenty or scarce. The exact time of
departure from home was generally fixed by a tribal council. Prior
to starting, all goods that they did not choose to take along were
carefully cached, and every man and beast called in. When the day
for setting out arrived, all articles not previously disposed of were
packed upon horses, each family, as it was ready, fell into line, and
the bustling villages were left utterly desolate. They travelled in
Indian file, and of necessity the line was often several miles in
length. The men rode in advance and upon the flanks, keeping a
diligent lookout over the country through which they were passing.
The women and children walked in the trail, each leading one or
more pack-animals. Children too small to walk wer^ carried by
their mothers, or bestowed upon some convenient horse. It occa-
sionally happened that an animal became frightened cr restive, broke
away from its leader, kicked about till it had freed itself completely
from its load, and galloped away at full speed. The unfortunate
woman who had it in charge must then follow it till caught, bring it

HUNT.

217

back, gather together the scattered load, replace it upon the horse,
and regain her place in tb' dne, if indeed it was not already in camp.
All the reconi])ense she nad for the fatiguing exertion was, quite
pnibahly, a severe chiding from her husband, who, pcrbai)s, had
, itnessed the whole occurrence and made sport of it.

The aged and infirm were obliged to travel with the line and worry
along as best they might. Such persons were accustomed to start
earlier than the main body, so tliat they might arrive in camp in good
season. Old age and decrei)itude witli the Indians was the dark day
of life. While at home they were tolerably cared for, but on these
hunts they endured extreme hardship and privation. Instances have
been known where persons, who felt unable to accompany their bands,
chose to remain or were left behind in the villages. A supply of
])rovisions was given tiiem, which in summer they might easily sup-
jilement by gathering wild fruit and various edible roots. Tiiose in
this condition, however, were almost sure to fall victims to prowling
Dakotas, wiio regularly, during the absence of the tribe, visited the
villages to perpetrate whatever maliciousness they could see their
way to.

In winter the daily march did not ordinarily begin early, but in
warmer weather they set out at dawn or sooner, and advanced till
from eleven to four o'clock, as ci''cumstances dictated. The distance
daily traversed was from eight to twenty miles. For two or more
hours after the advance had halted the line would continue to pour
into the camp, which was fixed where wood, water, and forage were
plenty. As soon as a family arrived the women unpacked the horses
and turned them loose to graze, while they themselves pitched the
lodge (a work in which they were so expert that but few minutes
were required for its performance), brought wood and water, and
prepared the daily meal. Sometimes they travelled all day, reaching
the place selected for camp just at nightfall. On such occasions the
scene which transpired beggars description. The horses were un-
ruly, the children hungry and petulant, the women vexed and weary,
the men ill-natured and imperious. Horses whinnied and pranced,
dogs yelped and snarled, children teased and cried, women scolded
and men threatened ; no one heeded and everything went wrong.
Tongue and ears at such a time were of little avail.

As soon as they arrived on the buffalo-grounds the greatest circum-
spection was exercised in their daily progress. Men regularly ap-
pointed, known as la-ri-puk'-us (soldiers), were kept constantly on
the watch, and when a herd was discovered all its movements were
cautiously watched. After the camp had been moved as near as
might be from the lee side without alarming the game, a council was
called to determine whether all indications were favorable to an in-
stant hunt. In these councils the ku'-ra-u (doctors or medicine-men)
played a prominent part, and sometimes postponed action for sev-
eral days with no further reason than the bare assertion that it was
not good. If, however, the result of the deliberation was favorable,
the pro9lamation of a hunt was duly made by a herald. All who

2l8

HUNT.

wished to participnte in the sport caught their fleetest horses and
equipped. A number of the soldiers were assigned, whcse business
it war., in conjunction witli the chiefs, to have charge of all the pre-
liminaries, as also of the final chase. Twoofthem, curiously painted
and wearing a variety of fantastic accoutrements, rode out, bearinj,'
the soldiers' escutcheon, and took position, with about a dozen armeil
attendants, upon some convenient eminence till the body of the
hunters had assembled. They then moved forward, and the hunters
followed. Two old men with rattles and medicine-bags ran on foot
in front, singing and shaking the rattles. A person who shouUi have
the temerity now to dash ahead of the soldiers, would scarcely es( ape
with life. He would at least secure to himself a most merciless flog-
ging, even rank not availing to avert the penalty. This regulation
was so strict that it would not screen from summary punishment a
person who should go out and kill a buffalo, and alarm the herd
before the regular hunt, were he even to i)lead in extenuation that it
was done to save his family from starving. This was a wise usage,
though it may seem uselessly severe. In this manner the troop pro-
ceeded till tlicy were come as near as possible ;\'ithout startling the
herd. Th'. hardly -repressed excitement at this moment was intense.
Halting, the hunters were quietly drawn up in line facing the game,
so that all might have an equal chance. The word was given, and
with a loud cry they speil away, each urging his trained steed to the
utmost, that he might first overtake and secure a victim. The horses
in thes • charges were guided by the knees of the rider, his hands
being busied with bow and arrows. In a few minutes each hunter
might be seen nearing the animal that he had selected. (Till the
buffaloes were two and a half years old there was little choice be-
tween the sexes. After that age the flesh of bulls became distasteful,
and was rnrely taken, miless in a time of great scarcity. It was
owing to this fact that bulls were in excess in many herds.) Just
before coming abreast of it he discharged an arrow, endeavoring to
strike it high in the flank, between the projecting hip and ribs, so
that the shaft should take a course obliquely forward toward the
vinls. A single arrow sent with skill and force in this direction,
even if not immediately fatal, caused such distress as to soon bring
the buffalo to a stand-still. If one did not suffice, others were used.
As soon as the animal ceased running the hunter passed on to an-
other, and sometimes a third, fourth, and even a fifth was brought
to by one man in the course of half an hour. The entire number
slaughtered in a single chase frequently exceeded three hundred.

The Pawnees seldom resorted to a surround, attacking from all
sides at once. This method was more tedious and dangerous, and
was regarded as less huntsmanlike. When the chase ended the hunter
returned upon his track, and dispatched the wounded buffalo that he
had left en the way, if indeed they were not already dead from loss
of blood. If still alive, they were usually found lying down, but on
being approached would instantly rise and show fight. The carcasses
were now skinned, cut up, packed on spare horses that had been

HUNT,

919

brought lip meantime by the women, and conveyed to camp. There
a scene of the greatest activity ensued. The hides were strctt hed
upon the ground witli peps to dry. The meat was carefully cut \\\
thin strips or sheets suitable for drying, and laid upon a frame-work
of poles over a slow fire. When the exposed side became dry enough
to cause the meat to begin to roll, or crumple, it was placed upon the
ground and trampled or beaten with billots of wood till completely
flattened out. The other side was then exposed, and the process re-
peated till the meat was dry. The design of the trampling or beating
was to preserve the meat in the best form for i)acking in bales for
transportation. Sometimes it was dried in the sun alone, but was not
then so good. Several days were usually required for drying the meat
of one slaughtering. No salt was used in either case, but with proper
care the meat could be preserved without apparent deterioration for
years.

The Pawnees were excellent horsemen, and in the buffalo-hunt
their consummate equestrianism was displayed to the finest advantage.
Without hesitation they would rush at full si)eed, over the roughest
ground, into the midst of masses of buffalo which were surging along
in the wildest confusion, single out and separate their victims, and
repeat the manoeuvre at pleasure. But sometimes accidents of the
most distressing nature happened. In an unguardeil moment a
hunter might be overtaken by a charging buffalo, or a horse ,!.")ing at
full gallo]) might step into the burrow of some animal, and, with its
rider, be Inirled headlong. In many places on the prairie the ground
is so cut up by the burrows of the prairie-dog (^Cynomus Liidoviciamis)
'lat a person cannot ride over it at an ordinary pace without great
Lare, while at a rapid gait necessary precaution is imjjossible. Mis-
haps from one of these sources, not infrequently resulting in death,
were almost inevitable in every chase.

The weapons employed in this hunting, as already stated, were the
bow and arrow. The facility with which they could be managed on
horseback, and their much greater efificiency in the work of destruc-
tion, were unanswerable recommendations. A buffalo wounded with
a ball in a vital part might run a great distance. On the other hand,
a single well-directed arrow, securely lodged, so sickened and dis-
tressed the animal as to bring it soon to a stand. An arrow could
be sent with such force as to pass entirely through a buffalo, in case
it (lid not encounter a bone, and stick in the ground on the other
side; but the aim was rather to lodge it firmly in the body, as its
effect was then more marked, and also the i)resence of the shaft would
serve to indicate to whom the carcass rightfully belonged.

Ii. the winter hunt they killed what meat they needed as soon as
might be after arriving on the hunting-ground, before the buffalo be-
came poor. They went into winter quarters in some place where
water, wood, and unburnt grass in abundance for the horses were to
be bad. Here they remained till forage became scarce, when an-
other place was sought. If grass could not be found in sufficient
quantity they cut cottonwood-trees, and subsisted the horses on the

TTaraanwi

220

HUNT.

b;irk and lender twigs. The return to the villages did not take plare
till young grass was started in the spring. In the summer hunt tliey
remaineil luvay no longer than was necessary to ])rocure the reciuisiie
supi)ly of nieiit. IJy the *ime this was accomi)lished their corn was
ready for drying, and required immediate attention. As their calen-
dar was not very exact, they were sometimes in doubt as to just when
was the proper Hme to return home. In such cases they were ac.ciis-
tcn.ed to examine the seed in the ])ods of the large milkweed. A
certain maturity in these was thought to mark roasting-ear time.

Thev also hunted other game, as elk, deer, and antelope. While
the buffalo was hunted mainly as an indispensable means of subsist-
ence, these smaller animals were sought rather for their skins.
Though their flesh was eaten, that of the bufftilo was preferred ; hut
for tlie nianufiu:ture of articles of clothing, as moccasins, leggings,
and shirts, buck-, elk-, or antelope-skin was far superior. They were
taken by still-hunting or stalking with bo'? or fire-arms. As they had
opportunily aiul inclination, beaver and otter were sought for their
pelts, which were used in making fancy articles of clothing. Bears,
when to be found, \,'ere eagerly hunted for their skins, flesh, and
claws. Panthers were also in constant request. A bow-case and
quiver of panther-skin was a coveted possession. Skunks were es-
teemed for their flesh and skins. The latter, after being taken off as
nearly entire as possiI)le, w.i'; buried in loose earth for two or three
days to divest it of the native odor. It was then dressed and used
as a tobacco-pouch or medicine-bag, the mouth of the animal serv-
ing as th'j opening. The boys were very expert in cai)tin-ing i)rairie-
chickens and quails. When one of these was started up on the
prairie, the exact spot of its ligluing was noted. Armed with a withe
five teet long, a boy cautiously crept up to within a few feet of the
crouching bird, and then darting forward, struck it down with a well-
directed blow as it attem|ited to rise on the wing.

Though referring especially to the Pawnees, the above description
gives a most excellent idea of the arrangements and operations of all
Intlian tribes on their hunting excursions. V/ith some of the
Eastern bands of Sioux, as well as with other tribes, a very ostenta-
tious and elaborate display and feast weie made over the first animal
killed by a Doy, and in olden times the boy frequently gave a small
pc.f'on of some particular part to his personnl God; and ever after-
wards this same part of any animal he might kill would be sacrificed,
an offering which was in fact a prayer and pledge, — a prayer for
good luck, and a pledge of future good faith on his part.

An old Cheyenne once said to me in regard to the first fnn't of a
boy's effort in hunting and the encouragement given to him in con-
sequence, that " when I was eight years of age I killed a goose with
a bow and arrow, took it to my father's lodge, leaving the arrow in it.
My father asked me if I had killed it, and I saiil yes ; my arrow i; in
it. My father examined the bird, fired off his gun, turned to an old
man who was in the lodge, presented the gun to him, and said, 'Go
and harangue the camp; inform them all what my boy has done.'

HURK Y— HUSBAND.

aax

Hit of a
in con-
osc with
i\v in it.
ow i ; ill
an olil
id, ' G.)
s done.'

When I killed my first buffiilo I was ten years old. My father was
right close, came to me and asked if I had killed it. I said I
luul. He called some old men who were near by to come over and
look at the buffalo his son had killed, gave one of them a pony, and
told him to inform the camp."

This Indian was eighty years of age when he told me the story,
and the memory of the pride and pleasure which he experienced at
this recognition of his boyish skill as a hunter was still fresh and
gratifying to him, and it nnist be remembered, to fully ap|)reciate the
coni|)liments anil recognition given him, that a gun and pony \v':.rQ
nuu 1> more valuable to the Indians seventy years ago than they ar«;
at )) resent.

Hurry. Conception : Lift up quickly. Hold nearly extended
lianil, backs down, in front of body, equally advanced, same height,
and few inches apart, fingers j)oinling about to front; move tii '
liands sharply, by wrist and elbow action, upwards a few inches,
rciHMting motion. Some Indians make signs for Work and Fast.

Deaf-mutes hold right hand, and snap thumb, as boys do in firing
marbles.

Husband. Make sign for Male and Markv.

Deaf-mutes make their signs for Man and Marry.

■mnwRisK^.-^'fY'mmM

222

I— INCREASE.

I. (Myself.) Touch the centre of breast with tip of extended
thumb of right hand, fingers closed, and back of hand to right, iiaiid
held few inches in front of centre, and moved horizontally towards
body. Some Indians touch the nose with extended index of riglit
hand. Sometimes, for emphasis, the breast is struck vigorously with
right fist.

Deaf-mutes use the first-described gesture. A thrusting of right
index finger towards centre of breast means boasting.

Ice. Make signs for Water, for Cold, and bring hands together
as in Freeze Over.

Deaf-mutes make their signs for Water and Freeze.

Icicle. Make signs for Water, for Cold, and hold right index
vertically in front of body, pointing downwards.'

Deaf-mutes make their signs for Water, Freeze, and then holding
right extended index in front of body, pointed downwards, pass left
index over it, to represent water running down its sides.

Impossible. Sec Cannot.

Deaf-mutes hold left hand in front of body, index finger extended
and pointing to front, others and thumb closed ; then bring right
hand above left, index alone extended, pointing to left j lower right
hand, rght index striking left, and knocking it down.

Imprison. Conception : Seizing hold of. Hold closed left hand,
back to left, in front of and little higher than left shoulder, forearm
about vertical; seize left wrist with -right hand, and carry or drop it
to right some inches ; then cross the wrists in front of body, hands
closed, thumbs up, right wrist above and resting on left.

Deaf-mutes indicate tiie "prison bars" by crossing the extended
and separated fingers in front of body, and then cross wrists to in-
dicate being bound.

In. In the sense of " in my house," if for person, make sign for
House and Sit; if an inanimate object, sign for Lie, in the sense
of laid down. " Going in" would be expressed by Enter.

Deaf-mutes thrust compressed right into partially-closed left 'laiid.

Incite. Expressed by saying "a fire was built among them by
talking," etc.

Deaf-mutes make gesture for to Tempt and to Rebel. For first,
touch the lips with right index, with an upward entreating ex-
pression of eyes. For latter, the right arm is raised as though to
ward off a blow, hand closed, and more of a twist or turn given to
arm, holding forearm about horizontal.

Increase. The manner or nature of the increase would naturally
suggest the sign, but the usual one is to hold the hands, palms to-
wards each other, well out in front of body, hands at same height,

INDIAN— INTERPRE TER.

333

opposite each other, a few inches apart, fingers pointing to front ;
separate the hands, moving right to right, left to left, by gentle
jerks. A vertical increase is indicated in a similar manner.

Deaf-mutes indicate the increment similarly.

Indian. Specify the tribe by giving the tribal sign.

Doaf-mntes make sign for American.

This word, growing out of a mistake, has been perpetuated
apparently by the mere force of the error, until, for us, it has be-
come a necessity in all descriptions relating to our aborigines, who
vocally, as well as by gesture, always specify the tribe.

Infantry. Make signs for Whites, Soldier, and Walk.

Inferior. (In rank or influence.) Tiie inferiority of one person
to another, as, for instance, of one chief to another of the same
tribe, is represented by the index fingers extended side by side and
pointing upwards, other fingers and thumbs closed ; one index, repre-
senting the inferior, is held a little lower than the other. If it be
wished to represent several persons as inferior to one, the right in-
dex is placed alongside and higher than the exteiided fingers of left
hand.

Sometimes the sign for Behind is made.

Deaf-mutes fix both hands as in their sign for CniEr, and then
holding them in front of body, lower the one representing the in-
ferior person.

Inhabit. Conception: Alive and moving about in a certain part
of the country.

Hold right hand very slightly compressed, fingers and thumb ex-
tended, separated, and pointing upwards, well out in front of body;
hand about height of face ; mostly by wrist action turn the hand from
right to left two or three times, rather slowly.

Deaf-mutes indicate home of person.

Injure. Conception: Doing evil to. If with reference ) another
person, make sign for Work and Bad. If with referem.c to one's
self, make sign for Do To Me and for Bad.

Interpreter. This is expressed by naming person, or saying he or
she talks whatever language it may be, and one's own ; using for talk
the sign for Little Talk. If talking or speaking of the ability of
a person to interpret, and it is desired to explain that he or she will
interpret for my people, or for us, use the sign for Talk or Si'Kak, in
the sense of handing words from one to another. (See C(iuncil.)
The lack of honest and eflficient interpreters has been one of the
great causes of all our trouble with the Indians, one of the greatest
obstacles to a thorough understanding of the Indian question, and
the greatest source of false impressions of their abilities, laws, cus-
toms, habits, moral and immoral qualities of character. It has fet-
tered civilization, retarded Christianizing influences, held the Indians
in the close embrace of barbarism, cost billions of money, made
corruption and theft not only possible but easy, stained the soil of
every State with innocent blood, and led the race to the threshold of
extermination.

224

INTERROGA TE— ITCHING.

Interrogate. Hold right hand, pahn outwards, well out in front
of body, about height of shoulder, fingers and thumb extended,
separated, and pointing upwards. If the person is close, turn the
hand slightly, by wrist action, two or three times, moving it also a
trifle to riglit and left. If the person is distant, hold the hand
higher, and move it well to right and left.

If a person be riding or walking past, and one makes to him this
sign, u asks him, •' Where are you going?" •' What are you going
for?" etc. When two persons meet, one may ask with this sign,
" What news have you?" " What do you want?" etc. It accosts,
interrogates, questions, and investigates.

Deaf-mutes hold the left forearm horizontally in front of body,
and sliarply strike upper surface near wrist with palmar surface of
fingers of ri}j;ht hand.

Iron. When I first asked about this sign, I was told that there
was none, that the only way was to point to it, and my informant
added, "You will never see an Indian without a piece of iron in
some sliape." This is generally true. He always has his knife, gun,
arrow, head-buckle, or something made of the material.

Tiie sign for Hard is, however, frequently made, and from its
connection is generally understood. It can also be expressed by
describing something made of iron or steel (which are the same to
them).

Island. Bring hands well in front of body, palms towards each
other, and form an incomplete horizontal circle with index fingers
and thumbs, space of about an inch between tips, other fingers
closed ; then bring wrists near each other, separating tips of index
fingers by wrist action, throwing right hand slightly to right, left to
left; then holding left hand in its position, make sign for Water;
then compress right hand, and move tips of fingers just above left
hand, outside the circle first formed.

Deaf-mutes indicate land surrounded by water.

Itching. Scratch left palm with nail of right index, or indicate
by scratcliing with nails of right hand the location of the sensation.

Deaf-mutes use the same signs.

■j£ALOUS—yVMP.

835

Jealous. Conception : Elbowing to one side. Hold the closed
hands near right and left breasts; move the right elbow a little to
rear and to right, then left elbow a little to rear and to left, repeating
motion ; if it is desired to express active jealousy, constant elbowing
to one side. Some Indians indicate a twisting of the heart, while
otiiers make signs for Bad and Secret, considering a jealous person
as one who works evil secretly. Some make sign for Abuse, and
the left hand is held as in Hide; and still others make signs for
Heart, Bad, and Abuse. I have also seen gestures to denote two
pepijle as " picking" at each other.

To one ignorant of the principles of gesture speech, the several
signs above given would be ample and sufficient proof to establish
the fact that there are as many different signs as vocal languages
among our aborigines, but a brief examination of the gestures shows
that they are but the lights and shades necessary to express ideas.
The first would be used in such cases as where one was envious of the
position of others and endeavored to elbow himself into a better
one. The second, the doulits which cause a young person to ques-
tion the sincerity of the object of adoration ; his jealousy twists and
turns his heart. The third indicates a person vexed at the success,
jealous of the renown of some one, and though there was evil in
him, yet it was hidden. The fourth indicates a jealous person talk-
ing badly of one "behind his back"; and the fifth, as having,
through jealousy, a wicked heart, and throwing lies or mistakes
against one or his reputation on account of this; whilst tlie sixth
iniHcates two Jealous persons picking at each other, or tearing down
each other's reputations.

Joke. Hold the right hand, back down, in front of mouth, fingers
separated and partially curved ; move the hand to front and upwards.
This sign is not common, and there is no general sign in use for the
word. I have seen al^-^ the sign for Mistake Made, and then
Little Talk, and then sign for Light (not heavy).

Deaf-mutes grasp the nose with right hand ; move the hand to
front and downwards, and at same time incline the head to the
front.

Joyous. Make signs for Heart, for Light (or Glad) ; sometimes
aihhiig sign for Sing. Many Indians make signs for Heart Flut-
icimnc;, as in Excite.

Jump. Hold nearly compressed right hand, back to right, in
front and close to right shoulder, fingers pointing to front ; move
the iumd briskly to front, upwards, and then downwards on a vertical
curve.

226

JUNIOR,

Deaf-mutes hold extended left hand, back down, in front of body;
place tips of separated and extended first and second fingers of right
hand on left palm, other fingers closed, then move the right hand
to front, upwards and then downwards.

Junior. This is usually expressed by the sign for Behind. For two
persons or officers it is frequently indicated as in Inferior ; the tip
of one index lower than the other, and the distance determines the
difference in the rank, — a very little below, about equal, etc.

KEEr—K/LL.

i9i

Keep. Hold right hand, bark to right, in front of body, fingers
extended, touching and pointing to front; carry left hand, l)a(k to
left, index finger extended, others and thumb dosed, and place index
in centre of right palm, index pointing upwards as it strikes right
palm ; close right hand, holding index firmly, and move hands
slightly to right and left.

This gesture is frequently used in the sense of having held on to
the promises made, etc. Sometimes used in sense of remember.
(See Hold.)

Deaf-mutes use their sign for Possess, and then fixing hands as in
Look, lay little finger of right on base of thuml) of left, index and
second finger of right hand pointing to left and upwards, index and
second of left pointing to right and upwards, — guarding with double
eyes.

Keep Close. Expressed by signs for Good and Near, or, perhaps,
I Hold and Good and Near, or, m '-''ng it more imperative, sign for
Must or Push and Near.
Deaf-mutes make their signs for Stay and Near.
Keep Quiet. Hold extended right hand, palm outwards and
downwards, well in front of body, fingers extended, touching, point-
ing to front and upwards, hand about height of shoulder ; move the
hand rather sharply outwards and downwards few inches, repeating
motion.

Frequently both hands are used, and after second motion the
hands gently lowered. This is also used in sense oi fear not, do not
be anxious, quiet down, etc.
Deaf-mutes ?bout same.

Kettle. .^OTva an incomplete horizontal circle in front of body
with index fingers and thumbs, other fingers closed, little fingers
down ; then, still holding left hand in its position, carry partially-
closed right hand back to right and downwards over the imaginary
kettle, as though about to lift it by the bail.

Deaf-mutes indicate shape, make their sign for the material out of
which made, — i.e., iron, tin, etc., — and then sign for Fire.

Kidney. Hold compressed hands against surface of body over the
location of kidneys.
Deaf-mutes use the same sign.

Kill. Bring right hand, back nearly up, in front c' body, about
height of shoulder, hand very nearly closed, ball o' thumb pressing
against second joint of index, second joints <A fingers nearly on
line with back of hand, back of hand making a slight angle with
wrist; i.e., knuckles higher than wrist; strike to the front, down-
wards and little to left, stopping hand suddenly, and giving it a

228

KINSHIP.

slight rebound. In descriptions of personal combats, which in for-
mer times were frequently resorted to by the medicine-men of con-
tending parties, the result determining the victory of one or the
other of the parties, I have usually seen the left palm struck with
the lower edge of extended riglit hand, though at times the ordinary
sign for Kill would be made. The first-described gesture is common,
and is used metaphorically in many ways. To win in gambling is
to /'///the person to the extent of the amount won. If any part of
the body is frozen, the cold has killed the part. A severe storm kills.
Indigestion kills. To get decidedly the worst of an argument is to
be killed. To win a girl's affection is to kill her, etc.

Deaf-mutes hold left hand, back to left, in front of body, index
finger extended and pointing to front, other fingers and thumb
closed ; bring right hand similarly fixed, fingers back to left, between
left hand and body and little higher, index finger pointing to front
and trifle downwards ; thrust the index finger of right hai.d to front,
its tip grazing side of left index, and then sweep hand into position
by their sign for Die,

Kinship. Conception: Near or distant from 'one source. Bring
the tips of extended and touching first and second fingers of right
hand against lips, back of fingers up and horizontal, other fingers
and thumb closed ; carry the hand some inches straight out from the
mouth ; then make sign for Distant or Near, according as it is
desired to represent distant or near kinship.

I liave also seen the sign for Brother-in-Law made, and the sign
for Distant or Close added over left arm.

Deaf-mutes cross the index fingers at right angles, thus denoting
halves.

The nomenclature of kinship of the Plains Indians generally is
illustrated by the saying of an In'dian to me, " Suppose the man
beside me married my daughter, his and my daughter's children
would call me grandfather; all the children would call this man's
brothers fathers, and his sisters aunts ; they would call my daughter's
sisters mothers, and her brothers uncles; they would call all this
man's brother's children brothers and sisters, all of his sister's chil-
dren cousins ; they would call all the children of my daughter's
sisters brothers and sisters, -ax^A all of her brother's children cousins.'"

Mr. L. H. Morgan asserts that the various tribes of Indians were
formerly divided into several different gens, each of which deter-
mined for its members inheritance of property and power as well as
the marriage relations. He says that in Latin, Greek, and Sanscrit,
the word gens ai ". its synonyms have alike the primary signification
of kin. A gens, therefore, is a body of consanguinity descended
from the same common ancestor, distinguished by a gentile name,
and bound together by affinities of blood.

•' Where descent is in the female line, as it was universally in the
archaic period, the gens is composed of a supposed female ancestor,
and her children, together with the children of her female descend-
ants through females in perpetuity ; and where descent is in the male

JCIOIVA.

line, into which it was changed after the appearance of property in
masses of a supposed male ancestor and his children, together with
the children of his male descendants through males in perpetuity.
The family name among ourselves is a survival of the gentile name
with descent in the male line, and passing in the same manner ; the
modern family, as expressed by its name, is an unorganized gens
with the bond of kin broken, and its members as widely dispersed
as the family name is found."

It is safe to state that among the majority of the tribes of Plains
Indians, and I think Western Indians generally, no such organizition
exists at present, and, judging from their laws of inheritance and mar-
riage customs, never did. The Mandans and Poncas, however, do
show a trace of it.

Mr. Dunbar says of the Pawnees, that " the family organization
and degrees of kinship were not so fully developed by distinct ter-
minology as in some Indian tribes. The only attempt hitherto made
to exhibit the Pawnee system of relationship is to be found in ' Mor-
gan's Systems of Consanguinity and Affinity.' " He then proceeds
to illustrate by appropriate words in the Pawnee language the status
of tlieir views in regard to kinship, and adds:

" From this exhibit it will be observed that, even in designating
the simpler degrees of relationship, the terminology becomes in cer-
tain cases undeterminate. Some of the terms given are not names
at all, but descriptive phrases, seeming to indicate that even in some
of the most usual relations there is an almost entire lack of reflective
generalization. Much more will this be the case when they attempt
to trace out the remoter degrees. The answers made by the most
intelligent Pawnees, when questioned concerning degrees, direct or
collateral, remoter than those given, are conflicting and altogether
unsatisfying. Hence it is self-evident that a considerable number of
the terms given by Morgan are of no special value."

Kiowa (Indian). Hold the right hand, back nearly down, in
front of right breast, about height of and near shoulder, fingers
touching and slightly curved, lower edge of hand pointing to left and
front ; by wrist action give a rotary motion to hand, keeping palm up,
finger-tips describing an ellipse. Some Indians hold the hand near
right cheek.

I was given two conceptions for this tribal sign, both plausible,
though not very pertinent. One Indian said they were called
"Crazy-Kn.e people," and another, " Prairie people," constantly
rising up. This latter does possess the radical parts of the gestures
sometimes made for the prairie and for arise.

Tradition locates the Kiowas near and to the southwest of the
Black Hills, Dakota, and without doubt they had previous to that
time lived near the Missouri River. The Apaches with whom they
are now associated were at this time with them. The Cheyennes
crossed the Missouri River, moved to near Bear Butte, and drove the
Kiowas and Apaches to the soutl.west. They were forced south
between the Pawnees to the east and the Utes to the west, and evi-

230

KNIFE.

4;i'

dently made no successful resistance until they reached the Comanch
country and joined this tribe. They subsequently made peace with
the Cheyennes and Arapahoes. In fact, the Comanches, Crows,
Kiowas, Apaches, Sioux, Cheyennes, and Arapahoes confederated
together against their common enemies the Utes, Pawnees, and otlier
tribes, but the confederacy was tied together by a "rope of sand,"
and in the last one hundred and fifty years they have been alter-
nating between peace and war.

Though preserving their language and some of their customs still,
from long intercourse and intermarriage these three tribes, the
Kiowas, Comanches, and Apaches, have much in common, and in
dress it would be difficult to distinguish them.

They do not have a Sun-Dance, but an annual Medicine-Dance,
which is observed with great ceremony. Their bury their dead in
the ground, in graves twelve or thirteen feet deep. Their peculiar
idol worship has been noticed (see God), as well as their organiza-
tion of ten priests or medicine-men.

Th?y have four bands, called Elk, Shield, Cut-Off, and Black.
Some claim five, the Apache Kiowa band.

The Kiowas not only eat, but are fond of dog-meat.

In 1874 some sheep were given them, purchased by the money
received from the sale of their ponies, taken from them by the
troops. These flocks have mostly disappeared, they admitting tliat
they ate some of them, but claim that " wolves, siTvation, and cold
weather killed off the majority," so that the effort to change them
from hunters to herdsmen failed.

In personal appearance, intelligence, and tenacity of purpose I
consider the Kiowas inferior to the Comanches.

In his report for 1881, the agent gives the total population of this
tribe as eleven hundred and forty-five. Wars, and new diseases
peculiar to civilization, have greatly reduced them in numbers.

Knife. Conception : Cutting a piece of meat held with left hand
and with teeth. Hold right hand in front of and close to face, back
outwards, lower edge just over mouth, fingers extended, touching,
and pointing to left and upwards ; move the hand upwards and to
left two or three times, as though trying to cut or saw with lower
edge of hand. Frequently left hand is held in front of and a little
higher than right and close to it. I have also seen length marked
on left forearm, and then motion made like Cutting Up.

Indians in eating meat usually take a piece in the left hand, and
conveying it to the mouth and grasping an end with the teeth, with
a dexterity almost alarming sever the bit to be masticated from the
chunk by means of a butcher-knife, one or more of which are always
carried by a wild Indian in a sheath attached to his belt on the left
side. These knives are only sharpened on one side, which seems to
make them better for skinning, and, for some reason not well under-
stood, to cut better and retain a fine edge longer than when sharpened
on both sides, as is our custom. I have seen them cut up a deer,
going right down through the backbone, cut or chop open the skull

KNO W—KO UTENA Y.

231

to take out the brains, and scarcely impair the edge of an ordinary
knife costing about fifty cents. This seems incredible, but is abso-
lutely true. It is possible that the metal of the blade on the surface
is better tempered, and therefore makes a better cutting edge than
the central portion.

Deaf-mutes hold first and second fingers of left hand extended
and touching, other fingers and thumb closed, in front of body, and,
with right hand similarly fixed, with side of second make motion of
"whittling" side of left index.

Know. Hold right hand, back up, close to left breast; sweep the
hand outwards and to right, turning hand by wrist action, palm
nearly up, thumb and index extended, other fingers closed, thumb
and index about horizontal, index pointing nearly to left, thumb
about to front. This seems to combine the sign for Think, drawn
from the heart, and then the thumb cuts it off.

Sometimes, for emphasis, both hands are used, the left being swept
to left as the right is to the right. Some Indians touch right ear
with right index. The Utes thrust the index towards ear, as in
Hear.

Deaf-mutes place the palmar surface of extended fingers of right
hand against forehead. They make a distinction between know and
understand ; Indians do not.

Enow Not. Make sign for Know; then from this position, only
stopping the hand for an instant, open the hand, sweep it still farther
to the right, upwards and outwards, on curve as in No.

Deaf-mutes make their sign for Know and Not, both of which are
very different from the Indian gestures.

Koutenay (Indian). There is no well-known tribal sign. Some
call them the "White-tailed deer people," making proper gestures
for this expression.

These Indians, numbering, according to the agent's report for
1881, three hundred and ninety-five, are located on the Flathead
Reservation, Montana. They migrated from north of the British
line, and made peace with the Flatheads, about eighty years since.
After this peace they annually visited this part of the country for the
fishing and hunting, and then returned north. When the treaty was
made with the Flatheads and Pend d'Oreilles they were included
with the rest, and were given the same rights and annuities as the
others. Their vocal language is totally different from the Flatheads,
and they also differ in some of their customs. In dress they are
about the same, only a more beggarly-looking lot, and seem, more
than other Indians, to be afflicted with ophthalmia.

1-,

23^

LACOIA—LASSO.

Iv.

Laoota. Sec Sioux.

Lake. Conception : Water and shape. M.ike sign for Watkk ;
tlun hriiig the luuuls in iVoiU of luuly, pahns towards eac li otlici,
and form an incomplete horizontal cinde with index fingers and
thinnbs, space of ahout an inch between ti|>s, other fingers closed ;
then bring the wrists near each other, at same time separating tipsul
index fingers.

PiMt-mnies indicate water surrounded by land.

Lame. C'on(e|)tion: Limping motion of animals. Hold dosed
right hand, back up, about twelve inches in front of right breast ;
move tlie hand slightly lo front, and at same tiuie, by wrist action,
))end tl\e hand downwartls and to left ; repeat motion.

Deaf-nuites hold inde.v fingers pointing down' in front of body,
other fingers and thumbs closeii, one hand held lower than the other,
and imitate motion of walking, with one leg being shorter than the
other.

Lance. (See Spfar.") For a " medicine lance" the sign described
for Spkak is made, and then the crooked right index is held in front
of and higher than right shoulder, other fingers and thumb closed,
back of hand to rear. This seems to indicate a lance not to be
used in war, but one made only, or used only, to bring good luck to
the possessor.

Large. Make sign for Big, and if necessary add sign for Hic.n.

Deal-mutes sjjread the thumbs and inilex fingers, bring tlie hands
in front of body near each other and same height ; separate the
liands, carrying right to right, left to left.

Lariat. Make sign for Animal; then clasp the right side of the
neck with spread thumb and index held about horizontally, and then
make sign for Rope.

Lariats are about twenty-rive feet long, and are usually made of
untanned buffalo- or elk-skin, from which the hair has been carefully
scraped. They are generally braided with three strands, and have a
small loop at one end. After braiding they are stretched taut
and pinned to the ground, and after becoming thoroughly "set" or
dried, are then greased and rubbed until soft and pliable. Made in
this way, they possess the merit of great strength and durability ;
are light and pliable in dry weather, but not so satisfactory in wet
weather ; and unless care is used in drying, are liable to become stiff
and vexatious to use.

Deafmutes make their sign for Rope, and motion to indicate
lassoing an animal.

Lasso. Make sign for Rope or Lariat, then hold right hand,
back about to right, little to right of and higher than right shoulder,

LAHT—IEGGINGS.

index aiul tliiiiul) spread, index |)()iiitiiij^ about upwards, otiicr
finj^crs closed ; iiiovo, or rather, throw, tlie liaiid well to Iroiit up-
wards and downwards; then draw the lian<l l)a(:k (piickly a short
(Hst UK e, at same time closing index and tiunnl).

'I'he lasso, with the Indians, is simply the lariat formed into a
noose at one end by passing the other end through the small loop
made in the lariat. 'I'hoiigh the Indians are not as dexterous as the
Mexicans in throwing a lasso, yet some of them exhibit great skill ;
and I have seen Indian boys run with a herd, and with a lasso catch
anv pony they wished.

Last. See Hkiiind.

Deal-mutes hold extended left index in front of body, and bring
extended right index from left forearm and place it on left itidcx,
other fmgers of hands ( lose<l.

Last Year. Make sign for Winikk and I'.kvond. This is the
general sign. (See Skasons and Timk. )

Deaf mutes niake their sign for Ykak, and then ])oint with extended
lluunb ■'" right hand, fmgers closed, over right shoulder.

Lead (To). Conception: Leading pony with lariat. Hold closed
right hand, back to right, in front, close to, and little higher tiian right
shoulder ; move the hand some little distance to front by gentle jerks.

In going to war on horseback, if they possess or can get them,
eat 'i Indian takes two ponies. The best and fleetest, or, as we have
named it, "war pony," is not ridden until an emergency arises.
Indians keenly and thoroughly appreciate the value of a fresh animal,
cither for a dash and pursuit after their enemies, should they como
suddenly 'i)on them, or as a means of escape. An Indian moimted on
an ani ual vhich he considers better than that of his enemies does not
fear to pc. el rate into their very midst, and as a scout will bea|)t to do
excellent service ; but let him once feel that his mount is less fleet, less
enduring, than are those of his enemy, and he is worthless, — will take
no risks where a white man might be jjersiiaded to at least do his
best; and this characteristic has given rise to divers opinions as to
the courage and worth of not only the Indians of different tribes,
but oftentimes of individuals. (See Scour.)

Deaf-mutes hold the extended left hand, back to left, near left
side ; grasp ends of fingers with thumb and fingers of right hand,
and draw the left to the front.

Leaf. Make sign for Tree, and then hold right hand well out in
front of body and little higher than shoulder, index and thumb
curved, space of about an inch between tips, other fingers closed,
back of hand nearly to right, lower edge pointing to front and up-
wards; give a tremulous motion to the hand to represent leaf on the
limb of a tree.

Deaf-mutes rest right wrist on tip of extended left index in front
of body and wave the extended right hand.

Leggings. Pass the hands from well down on legs up towards
hip-joints, right hand over right, left over left leg, thumb and index
spread, other fingers closed, backs of hands about outwards.

9i4

LEND— LIE DOWN.

Leg{;inp;s are universally worn, and for men are now made of both
cloth ami tanned skins, reaching from the ankle to the hip, termi-
nating there in a V-shaped i)oint. They are fastened to the belt
worn aioiuul the wai;it, the seam being down the outer side. The
cloth or skin sometimes projects beyond the seam one or two
inches, and this with some tribes, as with the Crows, is cut into a
fringe.

The leggings for the women are made close-fitting, either wrapped
or buttoped, and are usually worn only about as high as the knee.
With some iribes, as with the Utes and Apaches, the leggings are
fastened to the moccasins, forming a part of them.

Lend. See Borrow.

Liar. Make sign for the person and for Lie.

Liberate. Make sign for Hold and Go, or sign for Prisoner;
then, throwing hands well out to right and left, make sign for Go.

Deaf-mutes cross the wrists, hands closed, and then wave the
hands outwards and to right and left.

Lie. Conception : Two tongues or forked tongue. Bring right
hand, Ivack out, a little in front and to right of mouth, index ami
second fingers extended, separated, and pointing to left, other fingers
and thumb closed ; move tlie hand to left i)ast mouth, index finger
passing a little higher than mouth, after passing of which the hand
is lowered a little, index anil second fingers pointing to left anil
slightly downwards. Some Indians only j)ass extended index across
mouth, and I have seen the index and second to the front from
mouth. This is also the sign for Mistake.

Deaf-mutes pass extended index of right hand across mouth.

It is extremely difficult to get an Indian to make a positive
prouiise. He usually adds some saying clause, and as the latter is
not usually mentioned by the interpreters, they have gained the repu-
tation of being great liars. My experience does not justify any such
assertion ; in fact, I have found that as a rule they are much more
truthful than they have usually been accredited with.

': is a matter of vital importance to any one who wishes to gain
influence over them that no mistakes should be made, — no promises
made unless vith the certainty of fulfilling them. This is just as
neces-ary in bale matters as in great, for from these minor afT.iirs
they form their opinions, and confidence once destroyed is rarely or
never restored or regained. Where confidence is reposed their trust
and credulity are boundless.

In time of war, of course, deception is considered not only justifi*
able but praisewortl.y.

Lie Down. Hold extended right hand, back up, in front of body,
fingers pointing little to left of front; move the hand upwards, out-
wards, and to right, at same time turning hand, by wrist action,
palm up, when hand is little to right of body; the hand, moving on
A curve, is swept into position. Many Indians incline the head to the
right, and rest it on palm of hand or hands. Sometimes the index
finger is held vertically, and then laid over horizontally.

LIGHT— LISTEN.

235

Deaf-mutes incline head on hami, or lay extended and separated
index and second finger on palmar surface of fingers of left hand,
sometimes first holding them veitically on left palm.

Light. (Not heavy.) Hold extended hands, back down, in front
of body, hands same hciglit, equally advanced r~:nd few inches apart,
fingers pointing to front ; raise the hands briskly, mostly by wrist
action. This is also used in sense of Hurry, Hasten, etc.

Deaf-mutes use the same gesture.

Light. (Not dail:.) Make sign for Day.

Deaf-mutes hold extended hands, backs up, in front of and higher
than head, tips of fingers touching ; move the right to rigiit and
downwards on curve, left to left and downwards on curve.

Lightning. Conception : Zigzag flash. Hold the right hand
well in front of and higher than head, index finger extended, others
and thumb closed, l)ack of hand nearly up, index finger pointing to
left, front, and upwards ; move the hand to right, rear, and down-
wards, giving to index finger a wavy, tremulous motion, imitating
the zigzag flash. Sometimes the signs for Rain and Thundfr are
first made. I have also seen fingers fixed as in Medicine, and the
hand raised instead of lowered.

Mr. E. L. Clarke, the interpreter at the Wichita Agency, Indian
Territory, kindly furnishetl me the folTowing;

" I have been unable to trace the existence of any such custom
ani'.^ng the Wichitas as the Medicine-Dance to produce rain. They
say they have no dance for .ain at all ; but that individuals who claim
to understand and control (he rain carry small flint arrow-heads tied

in their scalp-locks, which they claim is a * thunder

charm.

and

who believe that one of these flints comes down with each stroke of
lightning.' "

Seme tribes claim that a certain species of sage will prevent the
lightning from doing any harm. At times individual Indians become
possessed and harassed with the belief that they are going to be
killed by the lightning, — the result of some dteam, — and they can
only dispossess tliemselves of the fear by making some special medi-
citw ; i.e., sacrificial worship.

Many claim that they were first instructed in the use of the bow
and arrow by the Thunder-Bird. (See Thunder.)

Like. (C'omparison.) Make sign for E(JUal. Sometimes the
left hand is held back to left, about eighteen inches in front c^f body,
index finger extended and pointing to front, others and thumb
closed ; bring right hand, back up, near breast, little higher and in
rear of left hand, index finger extended, pointing to front and
slightly downwards, other fingers and thumb closed ; move right
hand to front and slightly downwards, so that tip of right index
touches the back of left index as it passes over it. This is used in
siuh sentences as "one exactly like the other." It is also used for
True, Straight, Honest, etc. ; Like in the sense of pleased with.
(S'-e Fond.)

Listen. Hold right hand, back to right, near right ear, index

236

LITTLE— LONG TIME.

J',

and thnnib spread, other fingers closed, ear in space between thumb
and index, hitter pointing upwards ; tnrn the iianil slightly, bv wrist
action, from right to left, and from left to right. (See Hkau.)
The index would be thrust towards ear and past face when wishing
to say, '* I listened to what you said," or, " I will listen ;" meaning
that you not only heard but would act on what had been said ; and
I have seen the open left hand held near left ear, and then closed,
as though grasping on to what had passed through the head.

Deaf-mutes iiold extended right hand, back to rear, fingers point-
ing upwartls, just back of ear, index touching it.

Little. Hold right hand in front of body, about height of shoul-
der, back nearly to right, end of thumb pressing against inner surface
of index, so that only about the enil of index is seen beyond thumb-
nail, other fingers closed. This is used in the sense of very little of
anything. Little in the sense of Fkw or small is expressed by sign
for Few. Little in the sense of a little animal is fretpiently repre-
sented by holding partially-compressed right hand, back up, near
the ground, in front and to right of body. For a little man make
sign for Short.

The above sign is used in such expressions as " little talk,"
"heard a little news," " know but little," " know only a little part
of it," "many lies and little truth," etc.

Deaf-mutes clasp the right thumb near end with thumb and index
of left hand.

Live. See Alive, also Recover.

Liver. Place exremleil hands on surface of body over location of
liver, and then, holding them in front of body, give them a tremu-
lous motion.

Lock. Hold extended left hand, back out, in front of body ; bring
thumb and index of right against left palm, right hand closed, as
though holding a key, and turn the right hand as though turning a
key in the lock. Tnis belongs to the somewhat long list of very
recent gestures, as Indians never or very rarely, even now, use locks,
except when with white people.

To lock up a person the wrists would also be crossed.

Deaf mutes use the same gestures.

Lodge. See Tepee.

Long. Make sign for After in the sense of time. This is used
in regard to animals as well as time. For inanimate objects it is
expressed in some manner similar to Long Knife.

Deaf-mutes bold the hands fixed as in Indian sign for After, but
carry right band back over left arm.

Long Knife. Make sign for Knife, and then carry hand well up
and to left.

Long Time. Make sign for After, drawing the hands well apart.
Frequently the hands are partially closed, tips of thumb and index of
each pressed together, other fingers closed, left hand held well in front
of body, back about up, tips of right thumb and index brought near
left, and the right hand drawn to right and rear. Sometimes the

LOOK— LUNG.

237

extended riglit liand, back to riglit, is brought close to right ear,
fingers jjointing tipwards ; by wrist action move the hand to front
and rear two or three times. This seems to ex[)ress the idea of, be-
fore we had ears (long ago).

Deaf-mutes make their signs for Long and Time.

Look. Make sign for Ske.

Lost. See Hide.

Deaf-mutes place hands as in Indian sign for Hold, and then wave
liand outwards.

Louse. Scratch the head with the finger-nails of right hand, and
then (losing the nails of index and thumb as though one had seized
a louse, c.irry the hand to the mouth as though eating same.

Some icibes are very lousy, but there is a great difference in this
respect. With such as have these parasites, the heads of the children
are frequently scouted over by the mothers, who, seated on the ground
with the child's head in her lap, captures the lice and eats them ;
and I have seen stalwart lovers stretched out on the young grass in the
enervating days of early spring, their heads resting on the laps of
their sweethearts, whilst the latter cleverly and tenderly ran down
and devoured the game. 1 have also seen Crow scouts in the field
showing this little attention to each other.

Tiiis disgusting habit is more common with the Crows than with
any tribe I have been thrown in contact w.ih.

Love. Make sign for Fond.

Deaf-mutes press extended hands over left breast, right above left.

Low. Hold extended right hand, back up, in front of and to right
of body, fingers pointing to front, hand few inches from ground or
floor.

To express how low, make sign for some animal or object whose
height is well known, and then hold hand to represent that height,
then holil hand to represent height desired to be ex|)ressed ; com-
paring the objects, one lower or higher than the other.

Deaf-mutes use the same sign.

Luck. See Medicine.

Lung. Hold right hand, fingers nearly extended and separated,
over breast.

Deaf-mutes make gesture like Indian sign for Sick.

rmmaoBaujif'ji'vjjr

238

MAD-^MANDAN.

i»I_d. See Angry.

Mail-Coach. Make signs for WRirn and Wagon.

Deaf-mutes make their signs for Wagon, and indicate that it is
covered ; and then holding the head back, carry the nearly-closed
hand from mouth outwards and upwards, to indicate the horn
formerly used.

Make. Conception : Hands move to make anything. (See
Work.)

Deaf-mutes bring closed hands in front of body, right resting on
left ; by wrist action, turn the right to left slightly, and left to right
slightly, at same time separate hands a'/iijt an inch, lowering left,
raising right, bring hands rather sharply together, repeating motion
several times.

Male. Conception : Organ of generation. Hold the right hand,
back nearly up, in front of centre of body, index finger extended,
pointing to front and upwards, other fingers and thumb closed.

Deaf-mutes make motion as though grasping the viscr of cap with
riglit hand.

Man. Make sign for Male.

Deaf-mutes make amotion with right hand, as though grasping lock
of hair on forehead, and then hold right hand out to right of bcay
to denote height.

Mandan. Conception : Tattooing chin and lower sides of the
face. These Indians are usually ind.icated by the same sign as that
made for the Arickarees J but the proper tribal sign is to partially
compress the right hand, bringing tip of thumb near tips of fingers,
and tap the chin and lower part of face several times with tips of
thumb and fingers.

The Crows form two circles with thumbs and index fingers, and
hold same alongside of ears, to indicate big holes in the ears, made
for wearing ear-rings.

I was told by Mr. Girard that tattooing was practised when he first
came among these people in 1849. '^''^ women had a line on the
chin and a small spot on the forehead tattooed by the medicine-man,
whom they paid roundly for the work. The chiefs only, of the inen,
were tattooed, and on one side, or one-half of the breast, or one ^rm
and breast. This was part of the ceremony when they were electcl
or made chiefs. They call the*riselves by a word which signifies
"peoijle oi' the east," but claim that this refers only to the jjosition
they at first occupied in the village. Tradition, among these Imlians,
gives no definite account of their migrations, other than the move-
ments of their villages on the Missouri River, not, of course, con-
sidering the myth of their subterranean origin at Devil's Lake, Dakota.
The Cheyennes, who are clearer in their traditions than most tribes,

MANDAN,

239

claim that the Mandans came from the North. Mr, Donald Gunn, in
his ** History of Manitoba," says, "The Crees who visited the trad-
ing-posts on the shores of Hudson's Bay, and the Assinaboines, who
traded in 1678 with Du Luth at the west end of Lake Superior, were
about the same time put in possession of fire-arms, and within a few
years thereafter they seemed as if by mutual consent to have made
a simultaneous movement ; the former pressing on to the southwest,
the latter pursuing their course to the northwest until they met in
the region west oi Lake Winnipeg, and on the plains of Red and
Assinaboine Rivers. Lidian tradition informs us that during the
first half of the last century the Mandans occupied the country to
the southwest of Lake Winnipeg, and that they had been forced by
the united efforts of their invaders to leave their hunting grounds
and retire to the Upper Misso" But how long it took these tribes

to drive out those whom they iound in possession of the country,
and what wars they carried on to accomplish that object, are lost in
the mist of years. However, we have had the evidence of a living
witness to the fact that the Crees and the Assinaboines lived on the
plains southwest of Lake Winnipeg for some years previous to the
year 1 780, and that they made a preconcerted attack that year on
the trading-posts on the Assinaboine."

I am inclined to think that this statement is in the main correct,
but believe that the Mandans were driven out of this part of the
country (adjacent to Lake Winnipeg) at an earlier date, for we find
them located on the Missouri in 1772, with evidences of their having
been there for many years. "Information given to the late General
William Clarke in his expedition up the Missouri denotes that the
Mandans have suffered greater vicissitudes of fortune than most of
the American tribes. About a century ago they were settled on both
banks of the Missouri, some fifteen hundred miles above its mouth.
They were then living in mire villages, surrounded by circular walls
of earth without the adjunct of a ditch. The ruins of one of the
old villages, observed in 1804, covered nearly eight acres, and denoted
a comparatively large population. Two of these villages were on the
east and seven on the west side of the Missouri. They were first dis-
covered and made known to us in this position in 1772. (Mitchell's
letter herewith.) They appear to have been a hated tribe to the
Dakotas, or Sioux, and Assinaboines, who, from the earliest tradi-
tionary times, carried on fierce war against them. Finding them-
selves sorely pressed by this war, and having experienced the wasting
inroads of the smallpox, the two eastern villages united into one,
and migrated up the river to a point opposite the Arickaree, fourteen
hundred and thirty miles above the mouth. The same causes soon
pressed the other seven western villages, reducing them to five ; tliL/
also afterwards migrated in a body, and joined their tribesmen in
the Arickaree country, and concentrated and settled themselves in two
large villages. Here they dwelt for a time, but were still subject to
the fierce attacks of their enemies; and deeming the position unfav-
orable, they removed higher up the river, and took possession of a

240

At AND AN.

precipitous and tenable point of land formed by an involution of
the Missouri, where they formed one compact village in 1776. The
eastern Mandans had settled in two villages, but finding the attacks
of the Sioux hard to be resisted, united also in one village. The two
divisions of Mandan villages were still separated by the Missouri
River, but seated directly opposite each other about three miles
apart, including lowlands.

" Tiie position is estimated to be sixteen hundred miles from the
junction of the Missouri with the Mississippi. There they were
visited by Lewis and Clarke on the 27th October, 1804. This was a
memorable and an auspicious event in their history, as these intrepid
American explorers determined to pass their first winter in this
vicinity. They built Fort Mandan, a few miles distant, on a heavily-
wooded piece of bottom-land, which yielded trees of sufficient size
for erecting quarters for themselves and the men. They immediately
opened an intercourse with the Mandans and established a friendship
with them, which was strengthened by the incidents of a winter's
res i d e n c e . " {Schoolcraft. )

The following is an extract from Mr. Mitchell's' letter referred to:
" The early portion of their history I gather from the narration of
Mr. Macintosh, who, it seems, belonged to or was in some way con-
nected with the French Trading Company as far back as 1772. Ac-
cording to his narration, he set out from Montreal in the summer of
1773, crossed over the country to the Missouri River, and arrived at
one of the Mandan villages on Christmas-day.

" He gives a long and somevhat romantic description of the
manner in which he was received, and dwells at some length upon
the greatness of the Mandan population, their superior intelligence,
and prowess in war. He says at that time the Mandans occupied
nine large towns lying contiguous, and could at short notice muster
fifteen thousand mounted warriors.

" I am inclined to think that the statistics of the author whom I
have quoted are somewhat exaggerated, and at the time he visited
the Missouri the Mandans were not so numerous as he represents.
There are, however, the ruins of five villages in the neighborhood of
the present village, which were evidently at one time occupied by
the Mandans; and, judging from the space which these 'deserted
villages' cover, they must have been powerful ommunities, at least
as Hir as numbers could make them powerful."

Whatever may have been their population, there is no doubt that
the Mandans suffered more severely from the smallpox than any of the
other tribes, and were, in fact, nearly exterminated by it. Mr. Giraid
says that when he joined them in 1849 the memory of the terrible
ravages made by the ilisease was still fresh in their minds, and they
stated that only thirty-five survived the terrible ordeal. He thinks
that the disaster overtook them in 1832 or 1833, when there were
five villages of from sixty to two hundred and fifty lodges each, in
all about one thousand lodges, averaging some thirteen persons to a
lodge. I am inclined to think he is mistaken in regard to the date,

MANDAN.

241

and that they had the smallpox in 1837 instead of in 1832-33. School-
craft, speaking of this, says, "Surrounded as the Mandans were by
active enemies, and doomed, as they appear to be, to extinction,
they might have resisted this course of depopulation a long period
had it not been for the reoccurrence of smallpox among them in the
summer of 1837. liy this fatal calamity their numbers were reduced
in a few days to less than one-sixteenth of their whole number.
One of the reports of the disaster reduced the survivors to thirty-one,
another to one hundred and forty-five."

The rf-^nt, in his report for 1881, gives the total population as two
hundred and twenty-three.

They maintained their individuality as a tribe and increased their
numbers by stringent marriage laws. They did not allow their
women to marry into other bands or tribes unless the man would re-
nounce his tribal relations, join them, and agree that the children
should talk the Mandan language, and be reared in their customs
and beliefs.

Tiie physical peculiarities of many of the Mandans, viz., their
blue eyes and light hair, have led to the wildest kind of spectdation
in regard to their origin, some claiming that they were a lost Welsh
colony, and that their language supported this theory. It is hardly
necessary to say that this has no foundation in fact. Some of the
children also have gray hair, but this probably " only denotes a mor-
bid state of it, analogous to that which supervenes in albinoes." This
peculiarity is not limited to the Mandans, the Arapahoes havini:; fully
as many children who have gray hair, it being seemingly an inherited
quality in certain families. I have also seen the same thing in other
tribes. In regard to the light hair, one of the old men said to me
that when God made them. He, as a special mark of His i)leasure,
took the silky tassel of the corn with which to make their hair. As
a matter of fact this peculiarity is of recent date. Since 1804, when
Lewis and Clarke spent their winter with this tribe, their liking for
the white men of their party is a matter of record, and particularly
of one or two of the men who had red hair and blue eyes.

Tbey place calico and other cloths round the i)osts in their lodges
as gifts to the God of timber, to satisfy him for the spoliation, be-
lieving that it hurts a tree to be cut down ; i.e., gives it physical pain.
Th'i tree is alive, and its destruction is the destruction of life, but by
giving something to God, — making a s.icrifice, — it pleases Him, and
gives them good luck. This is a curious peculiarity of their religious
belief, which is shared by no other tribe that I have ever met.
Near the village and cultivated ."lelds I saw poles fifteen or twenty
ieet long planted in the ground, with bundles of female clothing
tied to these poles near the top. On inquiry, they told me that these
were gifts to the three Mandan medicine-women who kept lodges
for the sun, — one where the sun rises, one at the zenith, and one
wiiere the sun sets. These women never die, and the sun stops at
their lodges to smoke. " By watching closely," said the old man,
" you can see that the sun stops for a short lime just as he rises, the

yiin UIIIIB

242

MANY.

same at meridian, and he stays with the third at night. We were
told never to forget these women, and we make these gifts to them
so that they will say a kind word for us." Their oath is made by
the moon or sun.

After death they believe they go to the east, and claim that a man
killed in battle is better treated, better liked, in the hereafter, than
one who dies of disease. They cling tenaciously to their old beliefs,
customs, and habits, and though they have adopted some of the man-
ners of the Sioux, and their own allies, the Arickarees and Gros
Ventres, they are bitterly opposed to the ways of the whites. In
speaking of their language, Mr. Mitchell says, " I always contended
that Mr. Gallatin was in error in supposing the Mandans and Sioux
descended from the same stock. Mr. Kipp, who has be?n well
acquainted with both tribes for upwards of thirty years, and speaks
both languages with great fluency and correctness, fully conriirs
with me in opinion. There are a few words that are somewhat sim-
ilar in sound ; but this Mr. Kipp accounts for by the fact of the
Sioux and Mandans having been neighbors from time immemorial,
and, during intervals of peace, visiting and intermarrying with each
other." Many of them now speak the S.oux language, and though I
consider their vocal language as distinct and different from all others,
still, high authorities, at present, class it with the Sioux; that is,
being of the same stock.

The "bull-boat," though sometimes used by the other tribes, is
considered as specially belonging to these three allied tribes, now-
living at Fort Berthoki. The frame of this boat is made of a wicker-
work of strong willows, each about two inches in diameter, over
which the skin of freshly-killed domestic cattle or buffalo is
stretched whilst still green. The boat is circular in shape, about
five feet in diameter, deeper at the centre than at the sides or edges.
In the centre it is about two feet deep, and at the edges eighteen
inches, a cross-section of the bottom being an ellipse. One of these
little tubs is capable of carrying six persons. The women make and
navigate them, and after crossing the river, carry them to their
lodges on their backs. They are held in position by two straps, one
over the breast and one over the forehead. Nearly all the Mandans,
Arickarees, and Gros Ventres are conversant with the sign language,
and use it constantly in their daily intercourse with each other, and
with the surrounding tribes.

Many. Hold the hands well in front, and to right and left of
body, fingers slightly curved, separated, and pointing about to front,
back of right hand to right, left to left ; move the hands towards each
other on vertical curve downwards; move them slightly upwards,
as though grasping hands, terminating full movement when hands
are a few inches apart and opposite each other. This is also sign for
Much. Sometimes the hands are closed and opened several times in
succession, rapidly, indicating more tens than can be counted.

Deaf-mutes open and close the hands several times in quick suc-
cession, hands held in front of body about height of shoulder.

MANY TIMES— MARRY.

243

Many Times. Hold left forearm horizontally in front of left
breast, pointing to front and right ; touch forearm several i ; with
the side of tip of extended index of right hand, other finj^ers and
tlninil) closed, hack of hand nearly to front, commencing near left
wrist and moving hand towards elbow. This is also used in sense
of Repeat and Often.

Marry. Conception : Trade or purchase, and lying together
united. Make sign for Trade, and then bring hands, backs up, in
front of body, and join extended index fingers side by side, other
fingers and thumbs closed, index fingers pointing to front. Some-
times the signs to denote the "stealing of a female" are made.

These are the signs made by the men ; the women, I believe,
usually only use that portion relating to being united, and this is also
used for Sleep With in the sense of cohabiting.

Deaf-mutes clasp the hands in front of body, back of left down,
riglit up, edges of left pointing to front and very slightly to right,
edges of rigiu at right angles with left.

Among the Pawnees, as related by Mr. Dunbar, the children of
hotli sexes associated indiscriminately till about seven years of age.
Most of their time was spent in various childish sports; the girls
nia<le dolls, the boys rode sticks; both amused themselves fashioning
all sorts of objects from mud, and aping the different phases of
niaturer years. After that age their occupations diverged. The
boys began watching horses, learning to use the bow, hunting the
smaller kinds of game, etc. At the age of sixteen or eighteen they
aspired to appear as m.en, and as soon thereafter as their means w.ir-
ranted married. The girls were also busily engaged, under the tute-
lage of their mothers, learniijg the manifold details of their future
life of drudgery. They rarely appeared abroad unless under her
immediate care, or with some elderly female in charge of them.
Tiiey attained puberty at about thirteen, and were usually married
soon after. The qualities most desired in a young woman by a suitor
were that she should be of good family, and that she should be well
versed in household oflUces, and in the manifold other duties of
woman's life. Personal beauty, though it had its place and value,
was of less consequence. Thp considerations most dwelt upon by
the woman were the personal prowess, rising influence, skill in hunt-
ing, and fine form of her lover.

When a young brave had decided to enter the married state, he
put on his robe with the hair side out, drew it over his head so as to
almost entirely conceal his visage, and in this guise walked to the
lodge of the intended fair one, entered and sat down. No one ad-
dressed him, nor did he utter a word ; but his object was sufficiently
understood by all concerned. Having sat thus in silence awhile, he
arose and passed out. After the lapse of a few days he ventured to
repeat his visit, wearing his robe as before. If on entering the bear-
skin or other seat of honor was made ready for his reception, he
was at liberty to disclose his face and be seated, for such a welcome
indicated that his addresses were not unacceptable ; but if he met

244

ylA/A'A'i:

with no such pit |iarations he niiglit retire, as his attentions were not
rc^artled I'avorahly. It' lie was received, the young woman soon .i|)-
peared and took her seat beside him. Her t'ather also made il loii-
venient to l)e at lionie. Hetween him and the snitor a conversaiimi
ensued, in the eourse of wlui ii the latter found o* c asion to ask his
mind in regard to the ])roposed (onneetion. The latlier replied
giiardedly that neither he nor his family had any ohjet tion to iiis
l)e( oming a son-in-law. He, moreover, advised the yoinig man to ^o
home, jiiake a least, invite in all his relatives, and lonsiilt them ( on-
rerning the desirableness of the projiosetl alliance, adding that he
wouM call in and deliberate in like manner with his daughter's kin-
dred. It sometimes hapi)ened that the young woman was her.M.ir
(lisiiu lined to the matt h, eitlier because of' a previous attachment, or
from i)ersonal aversion to the wooer. If he was a man acceptable to
her relatives, thev usually made endeavor to overt ome her repiii;-
nance by persuasion, in some cases even rest)rting to violence, ( ni-
elly beating her with their fists or sticks till consent was extorud.
On the other hand, opposition might originate with the kin on either
side. The personal and famih history of each was sought out and
fullv canvassed by the relatives of the other. Those of the siiiti>r
might fail to find her family of suftit ient position, or ct)in:lude iicr
ipialillcations interior; while her relatives were equally free to de( iile
that he was not of desirable family, that he was not wealthy, or that
some |)ersonal stigma was attai hed to him. In either case tlie matter
was drojjped, or further proceedings suspended till the objection was
oliviated. Sometimes, in such cases, if the two young people were
really lovers, they ventured to take" matters into their own hands
and eloped, going to another band, or to some friend, with wliom
their stay h.id l)een before arranged, and there remaining till a letou-
ciiiation was efTected. If, however, after due inquiry, no cause of ob-
jection was raised on either side, the two families then proceeded to
settle upon the price that the young man should pay. Tliis custom of
paying is alnn)st universal among Indian tribes. The question li.is
been raised as to whether the property that passes from the wooer to
the father of the woman is really a price paid, or rather of the nature
of a free gift. I wish I might assert the latter. But so far as I have
been able to learn, the f;icts all mark the transfer as purely commer-
cial. The transaction is spoken of among the Indians themselves as
buying, and the amount of property is always carefully determined
beforehand, — from one to six horses. The union then followed
without further ceremony, other than a final feast given by the wife's
father. The husband went to the lodge of the father-in-law, and
lived there with his wife. A particular part of the lodge was allotted
to him, and henceforth he was a member of that family. Such w.is
the case with the eldest daughter. The others were given by the
father to the son-in-law as they became marriageable, the father re-
ceiving a horse or two in return for each successive one. Hence tiie
son-in-law usually spoke of his wife's sisters as wives, though tlifry
might yet be small children. The eldest sister was the principal

MARRY.

245

will', and nik'd the younger, who secmt-d to he little better than <lo-
iiuslii: slavi's, as it was a general niU* anionj^ the I'awnccs tliat, rank
Iciiifj ffpiil, the younger should obey tlic elder. A younger wife,
luiwever, if a favorite with the husband, es(:a[)ed most annoyaiu e
fidin this source.

SiK h was tlie ordinary course ; but a man need not necessarily
confine himself t(i one family in faking wives. If his wife had no
voMiiger sisters, or from choice, he n ighl look elsewhere. The oidy
piisitive restriction as to where a man liould marry was kinsliip.
Tlie rule was that reiativ*^ by bloo«i could not marry; still, lies of
(oiisanguinity were so intricate and confuse<l oftentimes that tlie
refill. It ion became practically ino|)erative. In rase a man did lake
an additional wife from a new family, the wooing was conducted the
same as in the first instance, and at its consinnmation she went l(»
her husband's home. Marriages of this kind, however, wenr not so
f.i\()ral)ly regarded, and, in fact, did not usually conduce to domestic
(juiet. Discord and (juarrels between wives were fre(|uent enough
iiiiiler tlie best circumstan* es, and experience seemed to indicate that
sisters were more likely to live pea< eably together than strangers.
When (juarrels did occur between wives, they might cn<l with mere
wrangling, or proceed to blows and tearing hair, unless the hu>l)and
was disposed to interfere and restore (piiet. A man rarely had four
wives; three were not uncommon; many had two, but by far the
larger number had oidy one. I-'nig mentions one Pawnee witli
eleven wives, and a friend of mine knew a Ski'-di with eight ; but such
cases were exceedingly rare. From the fad that they were obtained
by purchase, the number of a man's wives was, in a certain sense,
ail index of his wealth, — i.e., of the nund)er of horses he owned, —
and with some men this was a provocative to take a new wife as often
as opportunity presented. Still, there were frequent exceptions;
men of rank and in good circumstances who seemed to be living
perfectly contented with only one wife. In such instances husbands
have been known to evince a real affection for their wives, not deem-
ing it too much to be found assisting them in their various labors ;
and this for an Indian is a great deal.

From personal observation, I am of the opinion that there are
more female than male children born to Indian mothers; but be this
as it may, for of course it is a mere matter of opinion, polygamy
was a necessity to the Indians. In their tribal wars many of the
men were killed, and from their manner of living the lives of the
males were often jeopardized, and, as a necessary consequence, the
number of females greatly exceeded the number of males.

Through the efforts of the Jesuit Fathers, the Flatheads, Pend
d'Oreilles, Koutenays, Nez Perces, and some other tribes near them
have abandoned polygamy, and are regularly married by the priests.

The marriage customs of the Indians have, I think, harclly had
justice done them by different writers. The women have been repre-
sented as so much merchantable property, as much so as a dog or a
horse. I imagine, in some instances, this partial mistake grew out

246

MAKh' y.

of the questions of the observers, who would say to the interpreter,
" I want to know about the marriage customs ; suppose, now, I
should want to marry a squaw, how would it be done?" etc. When
white men marry Indian women it is a genuine sale, growing out of
greed of gain or some benefit, real or imaginary, whicli will accrue
personally to the interested parties ; and the (hisky, dirty maiden
may go to the nujjtial couch with tears and protestations of a most
violent nature, afterwards becoming a faithful slave.

Tiiough in Indian marriages the affair savors strongly of a com-
mercial transaction, and a wife is usually spoken of as being secured
through |)urchase or theft, still, as a rule, there is quite an expendi-
ture of sentiment and affection i)rior to the business part of it. 'I'lie
social laws which regulate this vary somewhat in the different tribes,
but whatever the form in olden times, as well as at the jiresent day,
men wishing to marry laid siege to the affections of the girl ; ancl
very rarely, if they did not meet with success, made another effort
to secure her. But if they could "kill" all opposition on her part,
— and this was comparatively easy if one had gained renown as a
warrior, — a friend took ponies, blankets, etc., in number and value
according to the wealth of the would-be bridegroom and the social
standing of the girl, and sent them to some of the kin cf the girl,
usually to the father.

The animals were tied near the lodge, and the friend informed the
kinsfolk of their presence and meaning. A family council was held.
calling in perhaps friends and headmen to take part. If the girl
was willing and other things satisfactory, the presents were accepted ;
if not, the ponies were turned loose. In the former case the ^irl
went to the man's lodge; and were she the daughter of a wealthy
or renowned c;hief, she was sometimes carried on a blanket, and a
greater number of ponies and rich(?r gifts were sent with her as a
dower. Sometimes the young man was poor and proud, and not
having the requisite or conventional number of ponies, would not
ask his father for them ; in this case, had he met with suciess i 1
winning the girl's affection, he, as they expressed it, "stole" the
girl ; arranging, in fact, an elopement. This sometimes turned out
pleasantly, for tlie father of the young man would, perhaps, send the
presents, and the girl's father would send the dowry ; but unfortu-
nately, or fortunately, in many cases the parents objected, and the
girl's mother took her by force, if necessary, back to her lodge.

Marriage is prohibited between blood relations. The tracing of
this is kept by oral tradition. There seems to be no special distin-
guishing mark or name which would materially assist in the matter;
even admitting that some of the tribes have been divided into gens,
and still preserve the laws in regard to prohibition of marriage in
the same gens, as claimed by Mr. Morgan (see Kinship), I do
not see that this would be of any special value after several genera-
tions.

The peculiar custom, mentioned by Mr. Dunbar, of the proprie-
tary interest secured in younger sisters by marrying the eldest of

MARVELL OUS— MEDICINE.

247

several daughters, is common to many tribes, but it is not common
for the man to go to the lodge of his father-in-law ; the Pawnees
hfing an exception to the general rule in regard to the law prohibit-
ing social intercourse with the mother-in-law.

Marvellous. See Medicine.

l)c;if-unites hold extended left hand in front of body, bark out,
fingers pointing to right hand about height of shoulders ; bring the
extended rigiU from below upwards and near left quickly, back out,
fingers pointii g upwards ; right hand passes between left and body,
back nearly touching left palm, and passes few inches higher.

Match (Lucifer). Fix the right hand as though holding a match
l)e'.\V(.'';n thumb and index, and rub with quick motion the tips
of thumb and index against left forearm, as though scratching a
match.

Deaf-mutes use the same sign.

Mean. Conception : Compressed heart. Make signs for Heart,
for Small. This expresses a compressed, contracted heart, narrowed
by selfishness or avarice, etc.

Deaf-mutes indicate a pulling in, or grasping after, money ; sharp
dealing.

Measles. (See Smallpox.) All eruptions of the skin have about
the same sign, adding some descriptive gesture to denote the mild-
ness or violence of the disease.

Meat. Strange as it may appear, yet it is none the less true, that
among the Indians who have so greatly perfected gesture speech, and
who lived mainly on animal food, yet they have no generally well-
known and commonly used sign for meat in the abstract. The ges-
ture for the animal must be made, and appropriate signs for the part
and its condition.

Deaf-mutes clasp with the ball of right thumb and index finger
the flesh between the spread thumb and index linger of the left
hand.

Medal. Form an incomplete circle with thumb and index of right
band, space of about an inch between tips, other fingers closed, and
place little finger on centre of breast. To such - extent were medals
])rized, and so great was the authority conferred by them, that some
tribes, like the Ojibways, use this sign for chief.

Deaf-mutes clap right palm against left, and with right index indi-
cate size of medal worn on breast.

Medicine. Hold right hand in front of and close to forehead,
palm outwards, index and second finger extended, separated, and
pointing upwards, others and thumb closed ;* move the hand upwards,
at same time, by wrist action, turn the hand from right to left, so that
tips of extended fingers will describe a spiral curve. I have also seen
signs made to denote beating on a drum, shaking a rattle, and
Working made; and sometimes the sign for Brave finished the
description.

Some claim that the first-described sign came from the use of the
rattle, others from the lightning.

248

MEDICIXE DA NCE.

Deaf-nnites hold the extended :iglit index near forehead, others
and 'ihiinu> dosed, and move tiie hand to right, upwards and front ;
by wrist action turning hand so tliat tip of index describes a spiral
curve.

Tht Indians use this word to indicate tlie mysterious and unknown.
God is tlie Great Mystery rather than tlie Great Spirit, as it is usually
translated. We liave no one word wliich can convey the meaning of
" Medicine" as used by the Indians. Sometimes it shadcjws fort!.
hoHness, mystery, sjjirits, hick, visions, dreams, prophecies, at othen
the concealed and obscure forces of nature, which work (or us good
or evil.

When ;hey firsf saw a pony, some tribes called it a " medicine-
cog ;" a gun, -'medicine-iron."

1 iiey attempt the cure of disease in many cases mainly by an
apical to »he "unknown," and try to projiitiate this power, as in
the Sun-Dance. They have "medicinemen" who claim to have
visions,, to prophesy, to cure the sick by remedies known only to
themselves, and wiiich, they insist, were learned from the whisi)erings
of some animal to them while they were asleep. If success crowns
their efforts their medicine was gooii ; and defeat, suffering, death,
are all 'he U-gitimate fruits of bad medicine. They live close to
nature, and are impressed and awed by lu,r wonders and mysteries;
and anything which is beyond their comprehension they call "medi-
cine." Their faith in their medicine to secure their personal pro-
tection from physical harm, as well as to promote their general
happiness, is simply marvellous. (See War-Bonnkt. ) Wliirlwiiui's
belief in the efficacy of good medicine is by no means exceptional,
but he will illustrate his taith in his s'.ory of the great fight which
took p'ace twenty-four winters ago between the confederatetl Kiowas,
Comaiuhes, Snakes, Arapahoes, Cheyennes, and Sioux, and the Sacs
and Foxes, where his i'.llies '.vitnesseU the storm of bullets whi( h
swept away the feather;^ of his war-bonnet. The manner of the old
man was impressive .xs he said, " I was not wounded in the fight ;
I never was hit. j had such ' medicine' made for me that it was
impossible for my enemies to hii me, and this was a little hawk
hoUling my medicine, which I wore on my war-bonnet. When all
the leathers were shot away the hawk was not hit : bails went to the
right and left, above and below me. I wiis mounted, and the Sacs
and Fox .s were dismounted in a hollow like a buffalo-wallow. Il
was tin* Great Spirit and the hawk which jjrotccted me."

This personal medicine may be a tiny sack worn on a string around
the nee';, c piece of shell tied in the scalp-lock, and I have seen a
Crow I.uli in who, in batlh; or under any trying circumstances, wore
a roll strapped to his back about five feet long and six inches in
diameter, which he said their medicIne-ma.. had given him. This
was kept carefully "'r.tnntd in blue cloth, and I could not learn what
it contained.

Medicine*Dance. Make signs tor Medicine and for Dance.

The following dance i)artakes strongly of a religious character,

MEDICINE-MAN.

149

and is dcsimicd to perpetuate game. Thoiigli some otlier tribes
l)r.i( tise it, it i:; particularly a Cheyenne dance.

Two large lodges are pitched near together, and from the sides of
the oi)en space between them two wings are made ot" brush and trees,
extending some distance out. The old men gather in the lodge,
where they feast ih'.'mselves, smoke and sing, whilst ne.irly all liie
rest of the camp perform a huge i)antomime, representing the birds
of the air and the beasts of the fiL-ld. Mere a herd of buffalo are
quietly grazing, there a band of elk or deer, and prowling about
are the wolves and foxes, — t!>e men re|)resenting the males and the
Wdinen the females, whilst the children take the part of the young.

Tlie hunters go out, fire, shout, and stampede the herds; they
rrcep up at another point, fire, and the animals drop, imitating the
(Icith-agonies of the slaughtered.

They do all this that game may be preserved f;; their use. A
riule, wild, savage form of worship, and a strange way of [)etitioning
IJir fori es or Clods of nature.

Medicine-Man. Make signs for Man and for Mkuickn'e.

The medicineman is a self-constituted physician and jjrophet.
\() man gave him his authority, and no man can fake it away. His
right is his own, and his influence depends upon himself.

As a rule, there is no limit to the number, but the Kiowas claimed
that they had only ten of these priestly doctors, and each had a
sured sack (given the Kiowas by the (Ireat Spirit), handed down
fruMi OIK generation to another, but never opened. Should this
sacrilegious thing be done, a flood or some disaster would be sure to
overtake them.

I liave been told by Indians that they did not practise ami)Utation
because they had so little knowledge of surgery. As a rule, there is
a strong prejudice against it, death being usually preferred.

Mr. Dunbar says of the Pawnees that all knowledge of the art of
healing was believed to be vesteil in the guild of Doctors (Ku'-ra-u-
nik :u'-u), a secret order. T'o become a recognize ' member of the
fnuernity a certain period of probation was recpiired. A perst)n
mij;ht assume the dignity of d*^'' "^or without submitting to the pre-
si liiied routine, biU uidess he coul . achieve some remarkable success,
lie was generally regarded as a pretender and discountenanced, T'he
(liiiation of the pupilage \ \ried according to the candidate's ai)titude
in mastering the mysteries of the craft. A considerable initiatory fee
wMs dcmantled, aiul an additional fee at certain stages of the course.
The convocations of the fraternity, or members of it, were shrouded
in the most impressive secrecy, and so strictly was this secrecy main-
t lined that I never knew of one not a member being admitted. T'he
principal business of these conclaves seemed to be the concocting of
ilrugs, comparing and discussing certair. curatives, interspersed with
sundry ceremonial performances. Their great ordinance was the Med-
icine-Dance, celebrated with the utmost formality at certain seasons,
.uid eoiuinuing from one to four days. So far as may be jiidged by
appearances, tiie great object of this dance, with its numer )us ritual

250

MEDICINE-MAN.

details, was to reassure thomselves and awe the people. Candidates
who li;i(l passed the requisite preparation were formally admitted to
the body on these occasions.

'I'he distinctive mark of a doctor was the wearinjj; of the robe with
the hair side out, and the ever-present me<li<ine-l)ag, cnrioiislv
wrought and ornamented. In it were carried his nostrmns, and it
was often claimed to be i)ossessed of healinj;; |)roperties which niii^ht
be imparted by touch. Doctors were (piite numerous in the different
bands, and as a matter of course most of tliem were arrant knaves.
So tar as concerned any insij;ht into the real natinx" of disease, thev
knew nothing. The general theory was that sickness was caused by
malign si>iritual influences. Occasionally, after pretending to dis-
cover the location of the disturbing spir't in the body of the j):itient,
tiie only remedial agency employed co isisted in incantations for cv.
orcising it. The following is a coruct accotmt of the treatment
administered to a man who had been badly burned:

The siilTerer wxs brought home in the evening, and a doctor
summoned at once. P'or some reason he delayed answering the rail
till the ensuing morning, (piite possibly to add- something of im-
pressive importance to his coming. He was accompanied by another
doctor. On entering the lodge they did not deign to notice any
one, and sat down in silence, and remained motionless till a pipe
was filled and handed to them. The elder received it, held it up at
arm's length over his head for a moment, imittered some unintelli-
gible sounds, lowered it, ( arefully took from the bowl with his thumb
and forefinger a small i)ortion t)f the tobacco, and placed it on the
edge of the hearth before him. One of the family then held a braiul
from the fire to the jjipe till it was lighted. The doctor shtwly
l)uffed the smoke two or three times upward, downward, and toward
each of the canlinal points, and taking the i)ipe by the liowl, passed
it to his companion, who went through the same form, and this was
repeated till th : contenta >vere consumed. The i)ii)e was then handed
to the one who luu' lightecl it. He emptieti the ashes upon ihc
hearth, so t'.iat they should entirely cover the particles of tobato
before taken from it and deposited there. He then touched the tips
of his fingers to tlie ashes, and passed his hands in succession over
the pipe from the bowl to the end of the stem, and returned it to
the owner, who ditl the same. The doctors now proceeded to in-
spect the patient's injuries, and after the examination was completed
began their practices. One of them took a mouthfid of water from
a calabash placed beside him, i janed, beat his breast, crept buk-
ward and forward on his hands and feet, took up some dust from the
ground, rubbed it in his hands, niade various intricate gestures, and
then pretended to vomit the water, which all the while had been in
his mouth, upon the hearth. Again he filled his mouth, and after
going through an even more elaborate /vJA*, parted the hair upon the
head of the patient, blew the water in small quantities upon the
scalp, breast, and other parts of his body. This was repeated sev-
eral times. He then applied his mouth, previously filled with water,

MEDICINE-MAN.

351

to the sick man's head, and with groans seemed to be endeavoring
wiiii all his might to siu k something from it. When this liad con-
limieil some minufcs, all at once he started bac k, and approaching
tlie hearth, squirted the mouthful of water upon it, as if drawn from
the invalid's head. 'I'he same operation was repeated on several
parts of his body. lie then took tij) some of the ashes emptied
from the pipe, rubbed them in his hands, and blew tlicm upon the
jKitieiit's head, breast, and wherever tlie suction had been tried.
Alter all this operose detail, he took a minute quantity of dark
]H)\v(ler from his medicine-bag, sprinkled it 01; the burns, and de-
l)aited. During all this performance the other i'.octor was busily
shaking his rattle, parading his medicine-bag, and dancing with
great violence over the sufTerer, the occupants of the lodge looking
nil in profiund attention and awe. These absurdities were repeated
t\vi( e a day so ior.g as the unfortunate man lived. The nij^iit he
tlifd, four days after receiving the injuries, when he was actually in
aitiiulo tuortis, the (loctors were sent for, and with, redoubled finy
he^ap their elaborate parade of juggling, and by the noise and con-
libion to all appearance expedited dissolution.

This will serve as a fair specimen of their therapeutic treatment.
'I'liDugl; the jjroducing cause of the ailment was not directly recog-
nized as spiritual, the appliances were essentially tiie same. In
(a," of ordinary disease, suction, and whatever other apjilications
wei . "de, was directed to the ])art of the i)atient's body in which
the ', ' bing sjiirit was ( laimed lobe located, — usually where the
most pain was felt. The doctor would <)ften, after long su( king,
expectorate a pebble, a fragment of bone, or even an arrow-head,
whi( li he pretended to have drawn from the spot. Sometimes vio-
lent fiiction, |)ressure, or a sort of kneading of the ailing parts was
tried. At other times they attem[)ted to frighten away the disturb-
ing s]iirit by noises, as nuittering, yelling, barking, or growling, or
by strange posturing, as of a wolf, a buffalo, or bear, or by anyry
(i'jinonsirations, as brandishing a war-club or a tomahawk, and
threatening to strike the affected part.

This system of jugglery may well enough be called senseless ; but
to the mass of the Indians it was otherwise. The mere j)hysical
ellurt on the part of the doctors was often so intense as to provoke
ill themselves profuse perspiration, anil so protracted as to induce
(onipletc exhaustion. The uninitiated regarded all their ceremonies
null tiie most deferential awe, and so strong was this feeling tiiat it
Mitiliced to invest the persons of those who had performed any (pre-
tended) remarkable cure with a sort of glamour which enabled them
to assume an almost unlimited authority in the general affairs of
their bands. It was believed that some of them could, if they chose,
exercise powers of witchcraft over any who had incurred their dis-
pleasure. They could negative a contemplated war-|)arty, and when
on a hum, though thousands of buffldo might be immediately about
the ( ain|), they could delay a chase indefinitely, assigning no other
leason than that it was not good.

252

MEDICINE- MAN.

It h.is been asserted that remedies were never administered in-
ternally. It may be true to a lar^e extent, but as an absolute state-
ment it is certainly a mistake. Just what the simples were I never
learned, as the doctors were very chary of saying aught concerning
the secrets of the profession uidess they were liberally paid. Of ex-
ternal treatments other than that already described, a few means may
be specified. Cauterizing was not infrequent. It was done l)y insert-
ing a bit of the stalk of the Achillea maillcfolium, about an inch
long, in the skin, setting fire to the exjjosed end, and allowing it to
burn down into the flesh. Sometimes several pieces were inserteil
near each other at once. Blistering was produced by rubbing the
skin with the bruised leaves of an acrid plant, the name of wlii( li 1
never knew. Hlood-Ietting was accomplished by apjjlying the lips
directly and sucking the blood through the skin, or the skin was
scarified with a knife, and the blood drawn by means of a horn
prepared for that ])ur|)()se.

In treating wounds, contusions, and s|)rains, such as are of fre-
quent occurrence, some of the doctors were (piite skilful. The same
ceremonies as already described were, of course, had, but the subse-
quent treatment seemed to be more intelligent. Ain])utatiou was
unknown ; in fact, there was a deeji-seated superstitious prejudii e
against maiming of any kind. Broken bones were sometimes well
set. Probing and the extraction of foreign bodies from wounds
were not much practised. Major North, who commanded for sev-
eral years the Pawnee scouts in the service of the (iovernment, ami
is in all res|)ects well qualified to pronounce an opinion, while ex-
pressing nnboundeil contempt for their general clinical practice, slatcil
to nie that he would prefer the treatment of a ^^ood Pawnee do' tor
for a wound to the care of an ordinary surgeon. Among others ho
related the following remarkable cures effected by one of lliesc
doctors :

In July, 1867, the horse of one of his Indian scouts fell while
running a race near Fort Sedgwick, on the Upper Platte. The rider
was thrown violently, his thigh broken and hi|) dislocated. He was
at once sent to the military hospital and kept under treatment for
several weeks. The dislocation could not be restored, nor was tlio
fracture healed, and the case was given over as hopeless. The thiu;h
was then swollen to enormous size and badly iiflamed. At the in-
valid's urgent request Major North sent him by railroad home to tlie
Pawnee Reserve to die, as he supposed. But in the ensuing December
the man returned to the command and resumed his duties, with mo
mark of his injuries except a slight shortening of the leg. In June,
1869, while serving in General Carr's command, on the Republican,
the hand and forearm of another scout were badly shattered by the
accidental discharge of a carbine. The wound was cared for by a
surgeon, who advised amputation. To this the Indian would not
consent. In the hanlships of active service the hurt cbuld not he
properly treated ; in a sliort time the patient began to decline, aiul
the wound filled with maggots. This man also was sent home, in

MEDICINE-MAN.

253

an army-wagon to Fort M( Plierson, and thence by railroad, to all
a|»|ie;irancc to die. The following November, however, he had re-
covered, .vith the practical loss of tiie use of tince fingers. Both
tlitsc men were restored by Pawnee doc tors after tlie cases were pro-
noiinc ed hopeless. One further instance will illustrate the usual sur-
gi( al ijuackery jjrevalent among the doctors : In 1874, Pit'-a-le-shar-u,
lu':i(i-( hief of the tribe, was wounded in the thigli by a levolver.
riie physician at the agency did not consider the hurt dangerous,
ami under his care the chief was progressing favorably. But, unfor-
tunately, one of the do< tors advised that the treatment must be
(hanged. The chief consented, and he at once proceeded to plaster
over the affected part with a heavy coa. g of moist clay. 'I'liis, of
loiiisi', stopped suppuration and brought on a fever, from the effects
of which the chief soon died. Kxamples of such malpractice were
oiilv too common.

The materia medica of the doctors was nominally (piite extensive.
Considerable time was apparently spent in searching for and preparing
lluir drugs. Fossil bones of certain kinds were (^irefully sought and
preserved. The Artemisia Ludoviciana, Acorns calatnus, Monarda
jistutosa and punctata^ Mentha Canadensis, and many other herhs
ami roots were esteemed for their real or fane ied virtues. Some herbs
were generally known and used outsi<le of the profession as specifics.
;\rtcniisia antl monarda were in general use as ilisinfectants and cos-
iiKtics. In the latter use they were bruised or macerated, and nibbed
iiver the person. Decoctions of the artemisia were also drunk by
women at certain perioils. The sedative property of the Ari^emone
Miwicana was known, and they were al.so familiar with the cathartic
qu.;hties of some plants.

The charges made for treatment, if not previously stipulated, de-
pended somewhat U|)on the issue. If successful, and the head of the
mnvalescent's family was able, the charges were sometimes cpjite
exorbitant, amounting in the aggregate tcj several ponies. It un-
successful, they were moderate, and sometimes nothing at all was
received. Doctors occasionally became very wealthy by their prac-
tice. This fact was no doubt a provocation to some to endeavor to
enter the profession as an easy method of securing a living.

Women spareil no effort in caring for their husbands and children
liiiriiig sickness. Each morning and evening in pleasant weather
tliey would carry them out of the lodge to enjoy the sunlight, assist
them in changing positions, endeavor to gratify every momentary
'aprice, and |)repare any delicacy they ( ojIiI to tempt their aii])etite.
There is no doubt that this last olten aggravated sickness. Clnldren,
particularly when ailing, were kept alternately stuffing ami vomiting
to their manifest detriment. As long as an inv.ilid couUI eat there
was supposed to be hope, and so there was a natural tendency to
ktejt offering, and even urging, food. Women, as a rule, duJ not
when sick receive as solicitous attention, though instances were by
no means wanting of men showing tender attention to invalid wives.
It has been charged that men have been known to drag away sick

254

MEET— MENSES.

wives when helpless and leave them in out-of-the-way places to
languish unattended ; but this, if true, is only of recent occurrence.
Aside from this consideration of affection, there was some reason for
a husband receiving more care in sickness than a wife ; for to a wife
the death of her husband might entail the temporary loss of home,
while the husband might exjJC'Ct easily to replace a deceased wife.

Some of the foregoing details, as their proneness to indulgences of
the appetite, and the extreme facility with which they suffered them-
selves to be duped by the shallow trickery of the merest charlatans,
are not attractive trails in Pawnee character. Tliey are, however,
not peculiar to the Pawnees alone, but are common to all forms of
Indian life; and the only wonder is that wlien controlleil to such
extent as they were by these practices, they should have succeeded
in developing and retaining the many nobler traits that they pos-
sessed.

Meet (To). Hold the hands opposite each other, well out to right
and left of body, back of right to right, left to left, index fingers
extended and pointing u[)wards, others and thumbs ciosed ; bring
the hands towards each other, and as they appro'ach incline index
fingers, so that tips will meet and touch. 'I'liis, by itself, would
really mean two ])ersons api)roaching each other and meeting; the
hands would be held so as to rejjresent the direction each party came
from.

Deaf-mutes make same gesture, but do not incline index fingers.

Memory. Make signs for Heart and for Know.

Deaf-mutes indicate a continued knowing.

Menses. Make signs for PARTURirioN and for Blood. They are
sometimes also called woman's mystery or medicine.

During menstrual periods Indian women are considered as unclean
for several days, and are not allowed in the general lodge, a tempo-
rary one being made for them outside.

These little lodges are wretched affairs, urually not large enough
to admit of a fire, and as dreary and comfortless as it is possible to
imagine. The cruel custom has been fast dying out during the past
few yc-ars. Some tribes had a special < eremony at a girl's fir^t courses,
which was in effect an announcement to the village that the girl was
ready for marriage. Sometimes this publication was made known ! \
the criers, and a dance or feast or general gathering followed. I s.nv
the latter in the camp of the Sioux chief Crazy Horse. The daugh-
ter of a prominent man had the day or night previous her first
menstrual flow. The camp-criers announced the fact to the entire
village and requested all the people to visit the lodge. A crowd of
men, women, and children gathered, the lodge was thrown open,
and the girl, gaudily and handsomely dres.sed, was seated on a bundle
of skins and blankets back of the fire. An old man was haranguing
her and the crc^wd, and, as nearly as I could gather, was giving her
goo<l advice, i)ertinent to girls just entering upon the threshold ot
womanhood, and calling attention to the sacred and mysterious man-
ner in which nature had announced the ^act that iihe was ready to

AfE TAL—MIGRA TE.

255

eml)race matrimony. The old man liad been given a pony, and sev-
eral others were distributed whilst I was present. The prospect of a
gilt, it seemed, was tiie attraction which had drawn the crowil to the
lodge, and I was told that at times upon such occasions all a man's
worldly goods would be given away.

Metal. There is no general sign for this unless that for Hard be
roiisidcrcd one. Something made of metal must be touched or
pointed at. Sometimes the gesture for an armlet is made, or signs
to denote a vessel for culinary purposes.

Deaf-mutes hold extended left hand, back up, in front of body,
fingers pointing to front, and poimd the back of it with lower edge
of right fist, with a sliding motion to front as the right hanil strikes
ba(k of left.

Meteor. Make sign for Star, and with hand in that i)osition
make sign for FiRE, and then let it drop with a wavy, tremulous mo-
tion. Meteors and comets cause great uneasiness in Indian camps.
Guns and arrows are sometimes fired at comets, and pieces of flesh,
cut from the arm of the man who is firing, are jjlaced with the bullet,
or attached to the arrow, as gift or sacrifice to the mysterious power.
Sonic disasters having followed soon after the appearance of comets
and meteors, they look upon them in superstitious dread as the har-
binger of bad luck.

Deaf-mutes indicate a hard hot substance that comes down froiTi
the skies.

Mexican. There is no general sign. Some tribes make signs for
WiuTivs, and indicate a chin beard, and that they come from the
South.

Deaf-mutes link index fingers, others and thumbs closed in front
of and close to the neck.

Mid*day. Indicate that the sun is directly overhead, or make sign
for DAvantl Middle.

Deaf-mutes indicate position of sun.

Middle. Hcdd the left hand, back to left, well in front of left
liiv.ist, index finger extended and pointing to front, others and
thumb doseil ; hold right hand in front of right breast, r.iise and
lower it as in Chief, bringing tip of right index down over left
index and resting on its ( entre. This is used in such expressions as
mi(!«lle of sununci, middle of winter, etc. Some tribes indicate
half one way, half the other, and then lower hand at initial point
to denote the middle.

Deaf-mutes make their sign for Beiween, which is to lay the
lower edge of extended right iumd on surface between sjjread thumb
and index of lett hand, fingers of left hand extended, touching, and
|i(iintiiig to front, those of right extended, touching, and pointing to
left.

Midnight. Make signs for NuaiT and for Middle.

Midwinter. Make signs for VVinier and for Middle.

Migrate. If of birds, indicate their flying far to the south, or far
to the north. Any other migration is simply a movement.

»S6

AflLK'Y-WA Y— MISTAKE.

Milky-Way. (Oliosts' or dead men's road.) Make signs for
Die, for Road or Trail, and then sweep the right hand high above
tlie head on curve parallel to the luminous zone in the heavens,
Some tribes call it the "mysterious road," and others the " wolfs
road," and of course make signs accordingly.

Deaf-mutes indicate the multitude of stars forming a path of
light.

Some tribes believe that the Milky-Way is the trail made by those
who, killed in battle, go by this easy road through the air to the vil-
lage of the dead. The Arapahoes are strong in this belief, and yet
thev locate heaven towards the east.

Whether the Hlackfeet and others, who call this luminous zone the
"wolf's road," mean it in the sense of " God's road" or not I am
unable to say. I am inclined, however, to think that they do, for
nearly all with whom I have talked on the subject considered it sacred.

Mingle. Hold hands near each other, in front of body and height
of lower part of face, fingers and thumbs extended and pointing up-
wards, hands slightly compressed ; move hands one about the other,
surfaces touching.

Minneconjou (Sioux Indian). Conception : Farming by the
water. Make signs for Sioux, for Farm, for Close, and for Water;
this latter is usually made as river or stream. Like nearly all the
names given to tribes and bands, the origin is uncertain and obscure.
At some period in tiie history of the Sioux nation some chief and
his followers farmed (or, as they usually express it, planted corn)
near some body of water, and were, in conse(pienc:e, called Miniie-
conjous, or planters by the water. I have heard stories locating this
all the way from Lake Superior to the Missouri River. Rictographi-
cally, the land is represented by a stream of water and a few ears of
corn rudely sketched near it. (See -Sioux.)

Mirage. Hold right hand, back outwards, well in front of and
little higlier than left shoulder, fingers separated and pointing to left ;
move the hand horizontally to right, giving it a wavy, tremulous mo-
tion. This sign is not very generally understood. I have seen ges-
tures made describing different objects seen in the distance, and tlicn
for Arrive There ; then that the same objects were seen still ahead,
or had entirely vanished.

Mirror. Hold extended right hand, back outwards, fingers point-
ing upwards, a few inches in front of face.

Mislead. Make sign for Road or Trail; indicate a departure
from this, as in Deceive.

Deaf-mutes make gesture to denote a deceitful leading.

Miss (To). Make sign for Avoid.

Deaf-mutes use the same sign.

Mistake. Make sign for Lie. Sometimes signs for Work and
Astray are made.

Deaf-mutes close thumb, second and third fingers, extending index
and little fingers, and jilace back of closed fingers, from second joints
to knuckles, against under side of chin.

MIX— MOCCASIN.

257

gns for
li above
leaveiis.
" wolfs

path of

;)y those

I the vil-

and yet

zone the
lot I am
,r do, fur
t sacrei!.

d height
Uing lip-
ne other,

by the

Water;

y all the

obscure.

;hief and

icd corn)

Minne-

ting this

ographi-

ears of

it of and
Ig to left ;
lilons mo-
soon ges-
land tlien
11 ahead,

[rs point-

leparture

loRK and

■ng index
Ind joints

Mix. If it is wished to refer to animals, objects, etc., see Mingle.
To mix as by stirring, imitate the motion.

Deaf-mutes hold the hands in front of body at same height, backs
out, fingers extended and separated, right nearest body and fingers
pointing to left, fingers of left ])ointing to right ; bring left in to-
wards body and carry right ont, fingers passing between spaces of
lett and right hands; repeat motion.

Moccasin. Pass spread thumbs and index fingers over feet and
toes to ankles, right hand over right, left over left, palms of hands
towards and close to feet. This, of course, indicates a covering for
the feet, but to denote a shoe, the sign for Whites is made, and for a
boot signs are made imitating the manner of pulling them on. In
former times the moccasins of the different tribes were made so
differently that for an Indian to see the moccasin was to know the
tribe; and even now, in its shape, construction, or garnishment, it
is the strongest characteristic mark of each tribe, so far as any clothing
or covering is concerned.

The moccasin is the last thing an Indian gives up as he travels to-
wards civilization, and the first thing adopted by the whites who, as
hunters, trappers, traders, or "squaw-men," mix, mingle, and live
with the Indians. It possesses many advantages in hunting over a
boot or shoe, and in dry weather is comfortable and serviceable,
but it is utterly demoralized by moisture, so that an Indian in cross-
ing a stream, going through the dewy grass, or in the mud and
melting snow of spring, takes off his moccxsins, and goes with bare
feet.

From Mr. Clark, the interpreter, through Colonel Hunt, the
a;;ent at Wichita Agency, I received the following description of
the moccasins worn by the triltes there, and as it is more r()nii)lete
and perfect than my notes made when visiting these Indians, I give
it in Aill :

"The Comanche moccasin is composed of a sole cut (from raw-
hide) as near the shape of the bottom of the foot as practicable,
tapering rapidly from its greatest width at the little toe to a point at
the big toe.

"Ti)e upper part is made from buckskin, cut generally in one
piece, having but one seam at the heel, although sometimes each
side is cut separately, with a seam in the middle on top of the foot ;
on each side of seam is a row of beadwork, and on the outside ot
foot, near the beadwork, there is attached a row of short fringe,
composed of buckskin strings, ornamented with pieces of Cerman
silver.

" They are generally cut low at the sides, with turn-down flaps
about two inches wide, finished with beadwork around the edges;
and some of them are made with a narrow piece set in the front
part, forked at the upper end, and finished with beadwork to match
the flaps or pieces turned down at the sides. The upper ])art when
finislied is sewed fast to the raw-hide sole with sinews, and finished
with a row of beadwork around and near the seam. A bunch of

2S8

MOCCASIN.

fringe of buckskin strings, about five inches long, attached to the heel
comjjletes the moccasin.

"Tile Kiowa moccasin is made of same materials, and is cut out
very much in the same manner as the Comanche, perhaps a little
wider at the point of the large toe. The main or distinguishing
features of the Kiowa moccasin are the elaborate beadwork, generally
covering the entire front part, the flap at the side lined with red
flannel, with greater amount of beadwork on its edges, the fringe of
buckskin strings shorter and less in ({uantity.

"The Apache moccasin is in all resj)ccts the same as the Kiowa.

"The Caddo moccasin is altogether matie of buckskin, cut with
one seam up in front part of foot, and one at heel, sewed and drawn
together at the toe to fit the foot. The turn-down flap at the sides,
about two inches wide, lined with red or black cloth, and finished un
the edges with beadwork. The front part of the moccasin has a
cluster of beadwork, and near this are attached small bows of ribbon.

" 'I'hc Wichita moccasin may be described as similar to the Co-
manche, excepting there is not quite so much beadwork, and the
fringe at the heel not so long."

Tlie Otoe moccasin is sewed down in front, around right side, and
uj) heel, with anklet flap falling on sides and front. A sole is sewed
on after the bottom becomes worn, and this is usually the case with
moccasins where the moccasin is made whole, or where the bottoms
are made of the same material as the uppers.

The Kickapoos sew their moccasins down in front, have wide side
anklet flaps, and, apparently to give a better fit, sew the moccasin
around the sides for a sole, though the moccasin is made of one
piece.

The Flatheads sew their moccasins on the right side, sole and
upper of same material, and frequently use anklet flaps of brigiit-
colored fur.

The Blackfeet make their moccasins with anklets and long tonj,'iic,
the anklets being frequently of colored cloth, ar,d sometimes in front
of the tongue the partial ellipse of blue or red cloth is sewed in and
edged with beads, or horse-hair stained or colored, like the Chippe-
was and others, but three prongs from the apex run fan-shaped to
the toes, marking this tribe, and each prong represents a band,—
"Blackfeet, "Bloods," and "Piegans."

'I'he Assinaboines and Gros Ventres of the Prairie make their
uppers very much like the Blackfeet, have anklets, but usually have
a raw-hide sole sewed on.

The Bannacks and Snakes make their moccasins in one piece,
have anklets, use but little beadwork, and make the moccasins for
men and women alike ; this is unusual, the "squaw moccasin" being,
as a rule, made difierently. There isscarcely any difference between
the Sioux, Cheyenne, and Arapahoe moccasin. The uppers are
made of tanned deer, young elk, or antelope skins, the soles of
heavier material and usually untanned. The men's moccasins liave
no aukletSj while those for the women do. The little tongue to the

MONE y.

259

he heel

cut out
a little
;uishing
eiierally
Mth red
ringe of

Kiowa,
cut with
(1 drawn
he sides,
ishedoii
in has a
■ ribbon.
I the Co-
and the

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in and
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hand,—

ake their
lally have

nc piece,
casins for
" being,
between
ppers are
soles of
.sins have
me to the

Sioux moccasin is usually a separate piece sewed on, while the Chey-
ennes cut this tongue as a part of the uppers.

The Crows make their moccasins of one piece sewed at the heel,
though some have separate soles.

Mr. Peter Ronan, agent for tiie Flatheads and other tril)es at the
Jocko Agency, furnishes me the following in regard to the Indians at
this agency :

"The Flathead moccasins are made plain, there being no cloth or
ornaments upon the instep, and are made neatly to fit like a glove.

"The Pend d'Oreilles make their moccasins with black or red
cloth covering the instep.

"The Kotitenays make theirs similar to the Pend d'Oreilles, ex-
cept to decorate the instep with beads or porcii|)ine-quills.

"These Indians know a Crow at once by the handsome manner
in which their moccasins are beaded."

Mr. Charles H. Beaulieu says of the Chippewas, —

"There is no difference between the moccasins worn by the men
and women, ex* ept that, as a rule, the latter are not ornamented.
Tiie moccasin is made from a square piece of leather, wliich is gath-
ered so nicely in folds in working on the tongue that the folds are
not noticeable. The tongue is ornamented with bead-, ribbon-, or
silk-work, and porcupine-quills in all manner of designs. The more
tlie person is thought of who is to wear them the more work will be
jHit on the moccasins. The hose or anklet is made of cotton or
dressed skins, and this and the moccasin carefully fastened to the
ankle and foot with strings."

Mr. Belden states in his notes: "It is no difficult job to nuike
a moccasin, and a squaw will cut out and sew up a plain pair in
half a day. If they are beaded, however, it takes a week or more
to finish them, and those ornamented with porcupine-cjuills recpiire a
month of patient labor. In the winter season the moccasins are
made of buffalo-hide or the skins of fur-bearing animals, the hair
being turned inwards.

"The Indians never wear stockings, but the leggings are an ex-
cellent substitute when one has fur shoes to cover the feet."

He also says that each Indian tribe made their moccasins of dif-
ferent shape, so that an expert frontiersman could readily tell to
what tribe Indians belonged by seeing their tracks. This is true in
a limited sense only. The Chippewa track could be told from the
Sioux, but the latter could not be distinguished from the Cheyennes
or Arapahoes.

The dress of an Indian quickly reveals his tribe to another Indian.
The manner of cutting, making up, the bead work, etc., are so charac-
teristic as to be unmistakable.

Money. Hold right hand, back to right, in front of right breast,
index and thumb curved, forming an incomplete circle, space of
about half an inch between tips, other fingers closed. This repre-
sents money generally. Latterly, since the use of paper money,
they frequently make proper signs to denote this. The Indians say

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MONKE Y—MOON.

that they first saw silver dollars, white metal, then gold, yellow metal ;
and from the shape came the sign. For paper money I have seen
the above sign made, and the size of one of the notes marked off on
the palm of extended left hand, or motions made imitating the
counting of a number of bills.

Deaf-mutes lay the back of right sharply on left palm, left held
well in fron* of body, back down.

Monkey. Conception : Half white man, half dog. Pass the
spread thumb and index finger of each hand, other fingers closed,
over and near surface of body from waist upwards, palms towards
l)o(iy, then make sign for Whites, then pass tiie hands similarly from
waist down, and make sign for Dog; the upper portion like white
man, lower like dog.

Deaf-mutes "scratch" the ribs with finger-tips of right hand.

Month. Conception : Moon dies. Make signs for Moon and for
Die. Sometimes only the sign for Moon is made, and at other
times instead of the sign for Die the sign for Wiped Out is made.

Deaf-mutes hold left index finger in front of body, pointing to
front, back of hand to left, other fingers closed ; close fingers and
thumb of right hand, and place tip of extended right index against
side of left near tip, right hand over left, right index vertical; draw
the right hand to rear, right index finger-tip passing alongside of left
index, stopping movement when tip has reached knuckle.

Moon. Conception : Night sun. Make sign for Night, and
then partially curve the thumb and index of right hand, space of
about an inch between tips, closing other fingers; then raise the
hand in a direction a little to south of zenith, and well up, the plane
of the circle formed with index and thumb perpendicular to the line
of sight, from the eye through the incomplete circle of thumb and
index : > the position in the heavens where the moon is supposed
to be.

Some Indians, in making the circle which represents the moon, use
the index fingers and thumbs of both hands.

1 have seen a half-month represented by forming a crescent with
thumb and index, and usually the moon is represented as full, gibbous,
half, and crescent by indicating such and such a portion as dead or
wiped out.

Deaf-mutes partially curve the right hand, and place thumb ami
index round right eye.

Some tribes have twelve named moons in the year, but many tribes
have not more than six; and different bands of the same tribe, if
occupying widely-separated sections of the country, will have different
names for the same moon. Knowing well the habits of animals, and
having roamed over vast areas, they readily recognize any special
moon that may be mentioned, even though their name for it may be
different. One of the nomenclatures used by the Teton Sioux and
Cheyennes, beginning with the moon just before winter, is as
follows:

ist. The moon, " the leaves fall ofi"." . , .. •■

MO OSE—MOSQ UITO.

261

2d. The moon, "the buffalo cow's foetus is getting large."

jd. The nnooH, " the wolves run together."

4th. The moon, " the skin of the fcetus of buffalo commencing to
color."

jM. The moon, "the hair gets thick on buffalo foetus;" called
also "men's mouth," or " hard mouth."

6th. " The sore-eyed moon" (buffalo cows drop their calves).

"jth. Tiie moon, " the ducks come."

8th. The moon, " the grass commences to get green, and some
roots are fit to be eaten."

gth. The moon, " the corn is planted."

loth. The moon, "the buffalo bulls are fat."

jith. The moon, "the buffalo cows are in season."

1 2th. The moon, " that the plums get red."

Lieutenant Scott gives the following as the nomenclature used by
the Sisseton and other Eastern bands of Sioux :

January. Called "very hard to bear."

February. "The month the coons come out, or Coon's Moon."

March. " Sore-eyed month."

April. "The month the geese lay eggs."

May. " Planting month."

June. " Tlie month the strawberries ripen."

August. " Harvest moon."

September. " The wild rice becomes ripe."

October.

November. "Deer-rutting month."

December. " When deer shed their horns."

I obtained the following from the Bannacks:

1st. " Running season for game."

2d. " Big moon."

jd. " Black smoke" (cold).

4th. " Bare spots along the trail" (no snow in places).

jth. " Little grass, or grass first comes up."

They have no names for moons after the season gets warm.

Deaf-mutes have three months cold, three months green, three
months hot, and three months Tilling leaves.

Moose. Generally the sign for Elk is made, but I have seen the
sign for Elk made, and then, holding left hand still in its position,
carry right in front ot and touching it ; move right to front, and
left to rear, separating hands a few inches ; this to denote the great
width of the horns.

Mosquito. Conception : Blanket-biter, or bites through blanket.
Make sign for Blanket, touch the nose, and holding extended left
hand, back out in front of body, strike palm with tip of right index,
thumb and other fingers closed (the biting is done with the nose).

Some call mosquitoes the pointed or sharpened noses.

Many Indians make signs for little fly, and represent the sting or
bite by nipp'ig some part of the body • r hand with tips of right
thumb and index, adding, at times, a sounu to represent their singing.

262

MOTHER— MOUNTAIN LION.

Deaf-mutes indicate the bite in some way, and then sharply slap
the part with paimar surface of right hand.

Indians are not so much troubled by these pestiferous insects as
white people are. The smoky state of everything about the lodge,
and their own smoky and greasy condition, afford them a fair pro-
tection. All people cease to be irritated by them to the same de-
gree after having lived for a time, without protection of nets, etc., in
an atmosphere dense with mosquitoes.

Mother. Bring partially-curved and compressed right hand, and
strike with two or three %" itle taps right or left breast, and make sign
for Female; though in conversation the latter is -seldom necessary.

Deaf-mutes make sign for Female, and cross hands as in their
sign for Baby, and move them to front and upwards.

Mother-in-Law. Make sign for Husband or Wife, and then sign
for Mo'iHER. Sometimes the sign for Old is also added.

The Blackfeet and some others make sign for Ashamed ; this, un-
doubtedly, from custom of "never seeing her face."

The Gros Ventres make apparently half of the sign for Ashamed
for both, mother-in-law and father-in-law, viz., holding right hand
op])osite left cheek.

Deaf-mutes make sign for Mother, and place spread thumb and
index of right hand against left palm.

Tlie Arapahoes claim that formerly they held strictly to the custom
of never seeing a mother-in-law's face. They told me that the Arap-
ahoe God, their Creator, gave them this law, viz., that they nuisl
be bashful and have nothing to do with their mothers-in-law.

The majority of the tribes formerly held, and still largely hold, to
the social law of never having anything to do with their mothers-in-
law ; as they express it, "Never see her face." Should she be in
a man's lodge when he returns to it, if his approach is known, she
leaves before he enters; knowing her to be there he will not enter,
and if entering he finds her there he steps outside, draws his blanket
over his head whilst she leaves, drawing her shawl closely over her
head as she passes out of the lodge. About half of the tribes do not
have and never had the custom. The only reason I could ever get
for the origin and practice of the custom was given me by an old
Cheyenne, who said that when young people are first married they
were more or less bashful ; in addition to this, if they should address
their mother-in-law, they might be too familiar.

Mound. Slightly curve the hands, and bring them, backs up,
alongside of each other in front of body ; separate the hands on
curves, carrying right to right and downwards, left to left and
downwards.

Mountain. Push the closed hand out as in Bluff, but raise it
higher; then make sign for Hard or Rock. Use both hands to
re])resent a mountainous country.

Deaf-mutes simply indicate slope of surface with extended hands,
and then make their sign for Rocky.

Mountain Lion. Make signs for Cat, indicate a long tail, and

MOURN— MOVE,

263

sign for Jump. The Crows and some others hold hands as in Bear,
without moving them, then make signs for Mountain and Jump.

The pkin of this animal has been highly prized by all tribes to
make quivers, and the Utes are very fond of them as a sort of riding-
pad, the skin being thrown loosely on the pony's back.

Mourn. Conception : Cutting off hair and crying. With ex-
tended and separated first and second fingers of right hand, back up,
make motion of cutting off the hair round the head horizontally,
just below ears, first on right side, then on left ; then make sign for
Cry. Sometimes gestures to denote cutting and slashing of body
and limbs are also made.

The mourning customs differ somewhat among the different tribes,
but cutting off the hair seems to be a common way of marking one's
grief; this both for men and women. The women of some tribes
mutilate themselves horribly, cutting off fingers and gashing the
lower limbs. Barbarism abandoned to sorrow seems to find physical
suffering a relief from mental agony.

With the Blackfeet, and some others, as soon as it becomes known
that an Indian has died, his lodge is invaded by the relatives, and
all the effects of the deceased appropriated.

Among the Sioux, should a man lose his wife or child, he fre-
quently gives away all his possessions; but through gifts from others
he will in a short time be as rfch as ever. Saddened and angered
by sorrow, it is a common thing for the men, at loss of friend or
kin, to announce the fact that their heart is bad, and start at once
on the war-path. The howling, wailing, and chanting of the
females in an Indian village over the remains is distressingly impres-
sive, and at the death of a famous chief the whole tribe prostrate
themselves to their woe.

Mouse. Hold right hand close to ground or floor to represent
height, and with partially-compressed right hand imitate its move-
ment in running. Make sign for Night, and represent its nibbling
with thumb and index of right hand, nibbling two or three times the
leg or some other part of body.

Deaf-mutes imitate the animal's way of eating, holding right hand
near mouth and making short, quick motions of jaw.

Move. (To move camp.) Make sign for Tepee, then, with hands
in this position, lower them, at same time, by wrist action, bend right
to right, left to left, indicating taking down the lodge-poles; then
make sign for Work, for Pack, and for Advance, or Go. The
hands are sometimes held extended, fingers pointing to front, back
of right to right, left to left, right hand few inches to right and sev-
eral to rear of left, and then the hands are moved with gentle jerks
to front. This is used more in the sense of moving after liaving
started with the camp, as, "We took down our lodges, packed up
and moved off; while travelling along many ponies became exhausted
and were abandoned."

We took down our lodges, packed up and moved off, would be
expressed by signs as explained above; then the expression " while

264

MO WING- MA CHINE— MURDER.

travelling along" would be expressed by this sign, though the signs
given under Advance would do nearly as well, and are used as often
as this.

Mo wing-Machine. Make signs for Grass, for Wagon, and then
hold extended right hand, back down, in front of right shoulder and
little lower than waist j move the hand sharply to left, mostly by
wrist action, a few inches, two or three times, as though cutting with
edge.

Deaf-mutes indicate motion of the scythe with extended and sep-
arated fingers of right hand placed on back of left.

Much. Make sign for Many. I have also seen a grasping, clutch-
ing motion made with both hands to indicate MliCH.

Deaf-mutes sometimes indicate a piling up.

Mud. The usual sign is Soft. I have seen for " muddy water"
the sign made for Lifted Up, or Raised Quickly. As a necessary
consequence to sudden rising of waters they must be muddy. Some-
times indicated by signs for Stirred Up, which is similar to that for
Whirlwind.

Deaf-mutes make sign for Dirt, and drop compressed right from
above down through left.

Mule. Hold extended hands alongside of ears, palms to front,
fingers pointing upwards; by wrist action move the hands to front
and rear, representing motion of mule's ears.

Deaf-mutes use the same sign.

Murder. Make gestures to represent person, add signs for Kill
and By Itself. A murder is a "prairie killing," or "killing by
itself;" no cause or reason for the killing; nothing seen but the
killing ; alone inexcusable. This is the peculiar metaphoric idiom
spoken of under "a free gift," "fainting," "accident," etc. I
have also seen signs for Kill, Night, Man, Know, and No, — no one
knows who did the deed.

Deaf-mutes express the killing, and have to explain.

Murder is considered a grave and serious crime. The nature and
extent of the immediate punishment following the offence is deter-
mined by the friends of both parties. Should an attempt be made
to arrange matters by presents, which is frequently done when public
opinion partially justifies the killing, a large lodge is pitched, and a
feast made by the friends and kin of the person who committed the
offence. Four sticks are driven in the ground just back of the fire,
each two like the letter X, and at a distance apart equal to the length
of a pipe-stem. The medicine-pipe is filled and laid on these crossed
sticks. The friends of the deceased are brought to the lodge, fre-
quently on ponies, which are leH, and, after a talk and the distribu-
tion of many presents, the pipe is lighted and passed to the kinsfolk
and friends of the murdered man. If they are satisfied and are
willing to take no further action they take a whiff at the pipe, but if
not satisfied they have a perfect right to take vengeance into their
own hands. There is no doubt in my mind but that this custom has
been the cause of the breaking up of tribes ; murder followed by

MUSKRAT—MY OR MINE.

265

y water
necessary
^ Some-
) that for

to front,
s to front

for Kii-L
:iUing by
1 but the
ic idiom
' etc. I
— no one

assassination leading to the division of the nation and years of bitter,
unrelenting warfare.

The Bannacks claimed that they had no way of arranging matters.
A murderer must suffer the penalty of his crime, viz., " death at the
hands of some friend or kin of the murdered person."

Among some tribes, after a man has murdered one of his own
people, he is not allowed to smoke one of the large pipes, but usually
has a small one, made of bone, for his exclusive use.

Muskrat. Make signs for Water, move right hand as in Fish,
for Tail, and holding extended index of left hand in front of body,
other fingers and thumb closed, rub it with thumb and index of
right hand, to indicate the hairless tail. Frequently the sign for
Stink is added.

All fur-bearing animals are more or less known by the use which
they make of them, and the color of the hair.

Must. Make sign for Push.

My or Mine. Hold closed right hand, back to right, in front of
neck and close to it, thumb extended, ball pressing side of index at
second joint and pointing upwards ; move the hand slightly to front,
at same time, by wrist action, turn it so tliat thumb will point to
front, back of thumb up. Frequently both hands are used, left usually
being under right and fixed like it, given same movement, and often
the breast is simply touched, as in I.

Deaf-mutes press extended right hand against left breast.

266

NAME.

Name. Make sign for Call, and indicate possession by sign for
Yours, His, or Mine, as the case may be.

Deaf-mutes make a gesture like the Indian one To Trade, but
extend with index finger the second.

An old Cheyenne explained to me in regard 'to the way in which
they were named, as follows:

" When a child is first born, whether a boy or girl, it is called a
baby, — a girl baby or boy baby, — afterwards by any childish name
until, if a boy, he goes to war; then, if he 'counts a coup,' he is
named from something that has happened on the journey, from some
accident, some animal killed, or some bird that helped them to
success.

"Or, after returning, some one of the older men may give the
young man his name. When I was small I was called ' Little Bird.'
When I first went to war and returned to camp, the name of ' Long
Horn' was given me by an old man of the camp. Then the traders
gave me the name of Tall-White-Man, and now, since I have become
old, they (the Indians) call me Black Pipe. This name was given me
from a pipe I used to carry when I went to war. I used to blacken
the stem and bowl just the same as I did my face after these trips,
and was especially careful to do so when I had been successful."

In the earliest savage state, according to Spencer, "metaphorical
naming will in most cases commence afresh in each generation, —
must do so, indeed, until surnames of some kind have been estab-
lished. I say in most cases, because there will occur exceptions in
the cases of men who have distinguished themselves. If 'the Wolf,'
proving famous in fight, becomes a terror to neighboring tribes, and
a dominant man in his own, his sons, proud of their parentage, will
not let fall the fact that they are descended from 'the Wolf,' nor will
this fact be forgotten by the rest of the tribe, who held ' the Wolf
in awe and see some reason to dread his sons. In proportion to the
power and celebrity of 'the Wolf will this pride and this fear con-
spire to maintain among his grandchildren and great-grandchildren,
as well as among those over whom they dominate, the remembrance
of the fact that their ancestor was ' the Wolf ; and if, as will occa-
sionally happen, this dominative family becomes the root of a new
tribe, the members of this tribe will become known to themselves
and others as ' the Wolves.' "

This very plausible reasoning is not, I think, founded on fact to any
great extent among the American savages, so far as any testimony
can be obtained at the present time, as a chief's son does not neces-
sarily inherit the authority and power of his father. The sons must
become famous by their own deeds, their own bravery in battle, and

NAME.

267

tlieir own crafty vigilance in stealing ponies from their enemies.
Long before their father has passed away they may have made a
name for themselves about which there shines the lustre of as great
deeds performed in war as ever illuminated his; and besides the
pride in the name made famous in their own and the surrounding
tribes by their own efforts, they frequently believe there i? a special
luck or medicine in the name itself. There are some cases where
one son may be named after his father, or rather, where a father may,
as tliey say, give one of his sons his name. This was the case with
"Crazy Horse" and " Young-Man-Afraid-of-his-Horses." Both of
these names, by the by, have been improperly interpreted. The first
should be " His-Horse-is Crazy," the second, " His-Horse-is-Afraid."
(See Sioux.)

Tiie Bannacks and some other tribes do not give names after either
a dog, wolf, coyote, or fox. The fathers and mothers name the chil-
dren, as a rule, but names ar: sometimes given from some peculiarity
or some action of the child. The frogs furnish many names for the
girls.

A very peculiar custom obtains with most of the tribes in regard
to the men telling their names. When asked to do so, an Indian asked
will not tell his name, but the one alongside of or with him will do it
for him. The Arapahoes say, in explanation of this, that a long time
ago a man would not speak his name, and they were raised in this
way. The custom may possibly have grown out of modesty. Being
named for a brave deed, in speaking it he appeared to boast ; if
named because of some deformity or peculiarity, he was ashamed to
mention it.

I have sometimes thought the custom grew out of the fact that all
Indians of any importance in a camp are well known by name, and
to ask it is to question his standing. The same diffidence or reluc-
tance is seen in young men relating their experience when sent on
any important mission, — they tell their story in a low tone to some
older man, who relates it to the listener.

Mr. Dunbar says that the Pawnee children were named by their
parents soon after birth. In the selection of names they did not
seem to be particularly solicitous, usually taking such as most readily
suggested themselves, — Turtle, Fox, Beaver, etc. ; or from some
])eculiarity early noticed, — Blackey, Whitey, etc. ; or after some dis-
tinguished person. A great many names were originally mere nick-
names, suggested by some physical mark or deformity, — Big Nose,
Redhead, Humpback, etc. Many of these names were so appropri-
ate that they lasted through life, though the person might have
another name familiar to all.

After performing any special exploit, a man had a right to change
bis name, if he preferred. Names were sometimes thus changed
several times during life. The first such occasion was a great event
with a brave. The new name might be chosen as commemorative
of the exploit performed, but not necessarily. For instance, a chief
succeeded in stealing a number of horses. As it happened several

268

NARRO W—NA VA JO.

of the horses were sj)otted, accordingly he took the name Spotted
Horse. Sometimes the name was derived from an individual char-
acteristic, as Black Warrior, Angry Chief, etc. But quite usually
the new name was selected from mere caprice or with an idea of its
special |)ersonal fitness, as Shooting-Fire, Gray Eagle, Cliief-ofMcii,
etc. When the name was finally decided upon, in order to have it,
as it were, officially sanctioned, a crier was hired, by the bestowal of
a horse or other adequate compensation, to proclaim throughout the
band that the person in question (giving his old name) should hence-
forth be known as (giving the new name). Tiie formula used in
making the announcement was quite prolix, and but few of the
criers were able to go through it correctly.

Narrow. Make sign for Few.

Navajo (Indian). Make sign for Work or Make, for Blanket,
and for Striped.

In their flocks of sheep and goats, herds of ponies, cattle, and
mules, in their fruit orchards, in their manufacture of blankets and
other wearing apparel, and in their extensive cultivation of tiie soil,
they present a remarkable contrast to the surrounding tribes. They
may be said to have reached an advanced state or period of bar-
barism, and still they stubbornly insist on going their own way,
obstinately holding to their own customs, habits, and beliefs.

They number, according to the agent's report, some sixteen thou-
sand, and have ever been credited with being intelligent and warlike.
They have had so much intercourse with the Mexicans that nearly
all of them understand and speak the Mexican language.

The blankets manufactured by them are highly prized by the
Plains Indians, who have ever been ready and willing to pay a large
price for them. The country they inhabit is well adapted to a de-
fensive warfare, and their offensive operations against the Mexicans
in former years were carried on wit-li such energy and savage cruelty
that they may be said to have created a reign of terror in that
region. They also committed many depredations against the
Pueblos and New Mexican settlers.

Their myth in regard to their origin, like the Mandans, claims
that they came out of the earth. Tradition would indicate that
they migrated from the northeast. They are considered a branch
of the Apache tribe, their language being nearly like the Jicarilla
Apaches. "They do not live in houses built of stone, as has been
represented, but in caves, caverns, and fissures of the cliffs, or in the
very rudest huts, hastily constructed of branches of cedar-trees, and
sometimes of flat stones for small roofs." These huts are abandoned
as their flocks and herds change their grazing-ground, and then are
rebuilt and reoccupied by the herders of the next flock or herd
which appears.

Before New Mexico became a part of the United States little or
nothing had been done to subjugate these people. Their depreda-
tions led to an expedition against them in 1846, another in 1849,
and Colonel Sumner established a post (Fort Defiance) in the midst

NEAR—NEZ PERCE.

269

of their country in 1851, which has exercised a great influence for
peace. They will not occupy a lodge or house where a person has
died, but destroy it by fire. There are many wealthy Navajos who
have numerous servants or dependants, and they formerly h;;ld their
cai)tives as slaves.

Near. Make sign for Close, if meaning not far off, or sign for
Fkw or Small, if expressing near each other.

Deaf-mutes hold extended left hand in front of body, fingers
pointing to right. Hold extended right hand, fingers pointing to
It'ft, some inches beyond left j draw the right hand so that its palm
will be near back of left.

Needle. Make sign for Sew.

Deaf mutes use same sign. They also sometimes imitate motion
of threading same.

Negro. Conception : Black white man. Make sign for White
Man and then sign for Black. Sometimes, with tips of fingers
and thumb of right hand, motion of kinking hair by twisting is
made, usually on right side of head.

Tiiere is no prejudice against the colored race, and some tribes
are quite fond of them ; particularly is this the case with the Crows.
This feeling may date from the time when one became quite a chief
among them. Indian women seem specially fond of negroes, and
they have no trouble in getting Indian wives. They have, however,
mixed but very little with the Plains Indians.

Deaf-mutes press nose with index of right hand. (Flattened noses.)

Nephew. Make signs for brother's or sister's son.

Deaf-mutes make sign for letter N at right side of face.

New. Make sign for Close or Near.

Deaf mu es make a sign very like their sign for Wonderful, only
do not raise right hand so much.

Next Year. It is necessary to indicate the season. Suppose one
■■peaking in the winter wishes to say "next summer," make signs
lor Winter, for Finished, and for Grass, holding hands pretty
high, so as to indicate the grass as at full length or height. If one
is speaking in the summer, make signs for Autumn, Winter, and
Finished, then denote the season. (See Year.)

Deaf mutes make their sign for Year, then carry right hand over
left, and place palmar surface against back of left for Next.

Nez Perce (Indian). Hold right hand, back to riglu, in front
of right cheek and close to it, index finger extended and pointing
to left, its tip little to right of and little lower than nose, other
fingers and thumb closed ; move the hand to left, back of index
passing under and close to nose.

1 lie above is the usual gesture, and so generally used that it can
properly be called the tribal sign ; but I have also seen the cartilage
of the nose seized with the thumb and index finger of the right hand
to denote the tribe, and the Blackfeet sometimes make the sign for
Powder, on account, as they claim, of their excessive use of a
Uuish-black paint. They are also known as fish-eating people by

270

NEZ PERCE.

the Plains Indians. The Pierced-Noses, so named by the Frenrh,
on account of nasal ornaments worn by those first seen, call them-
selves Sahaptins. The custom of piercing the nose and wearing a
ring as an ornament has long since died out, and there is a great
deal of doubt whether it was ever generally practised by liiis tribe.
The Sahaptins and the confederated tribes known as Flatheads
marked, geographically, the western limit of the buffalo range in
former times, and they also might be consitlered as the advanced
guard, to the east, of the fish-eating Indians of the Pacific slope;
they subsisting themselves both by hunting and fishing.

For many years these tribes regularly crossed the mountains and
went down on the plains once or twice a year to hunt buffalo. Since
the advent of the whites their own country has not abounded in
large game, and their constant practice in hunting small aniniah
made them excellent marksmen. Roots and berries formerly formed
no inconsiderable portion of their food. The men usually did the
hunting and fishing, while the women dug the roots, picked the ber-
ries, prepared the food; in fiict, did about all the rest of the work,
The Nez Perces, with their high cheek-bones, straight black hair,
and copper-colored complexion, come much nearer the tyi)ical
Indian of America as pictured by early writers than any I have ever
met. They mark the line where Indian tribes held slaves, — none
of the Plains Indians proper, except it be the Comanches, ever prac-
tised it. They have for many years been noted, even among the
surrounding tribes, for the number and fleetness of their ponies.

" In character and in morals, as well as in physique, the inland
native is almost unanimously pronounced superior to the dweller on
the coast. The ext-itement of the chase, of war, and of athletic
sports ennobles the mind as it develops the body; and although
probably not by nature less indolent than their western neighbors,
yet are these natives of the inte-ior driven by circumstances to
habits of industry, and have mucl: less leisure-time for the cultiva-
tion of the lower forms of vice. As a race, and compared with the
average American aborigines, they are honest, intelligent, and pure
in morals. Travellers are liable to form their estimate of national
character from a view, perhaps untair and prejudiced, of the actions
of a few individuals encountered ; consequently qualities the best
and the worst have been given by some to each of the nations now
under consideration. For the best reputation the Nez Perces, Flat-
heads, and Kootenays have always been rivals. Their good qualities
have been praised by all, priest, trader, and tourist.

" Honest, just, and often charitable ; ordinarily cold and reserved,
but on occasions social and almost gay; quick-tempered and re-
vengeful under what they consider injustice, but readily appeased by
kind treatment ; cruel only to captive enemies, stoical in the en-
durance of torture, devotedly attached to home and family, these
natives probably came as near as it is permitted to flesh-and-blood
savages to the traditional noble red man of the forest sometimes met
in romance. -. > .

NIGHT— NUMBER.

271

the French,
, call them-
fl wearing a
re is a great
ly iliis tribe,
IS Flatheadi
lo range in
le advanced
icific slope;

»iintains and

'falo. Since

ihounded in

nail animals

nerly fornied

lally did tlie

:ked the her-

af the work,

black hair,

the typical

' I have ever

laves, — none

s, ever prac-

I among the

r ponies.

;, the inland

e dweller on

1 of athletic

nd although

neighbors,

instances to

the cultiva-

•ed with the

t, and pure

of national

the actions

jes the best

lations now

rerces, Flat-

|od qualities

Jid reserved,
led and re-
jippeased by

in the en-
|mily, these

-and-blood
betimes met

"It is the pride and boast of the Flathead that his tribe has
never shefl the blood of a white man. Yet none, whatever their
tri!)e, could altogether resist tlie temi)tation to steal horses from their
neighbors of a different tribe, or in former times to pilfer small arti-
cles, -wonderful to the savage eye, introduced by Europeans. Many
have been nominally converted by the zealous labors of the Jesuit
fathers or Protestant missionaries, and several nations seem to have
actually improved in material condition, if not in character, under
their change of faith." {Bancroft.^

The Nez Perces maintained peaceable relations with the whites
from their first discovery until 1S77. Lewis and Clarke were kindly
receiveil by tiiem in 1805, and Ca[)tain Bonneville was cordially wel-
comed in 1832-33. In 1835, Governor Stevens concluded a liberal
treaty with tliese i)eoj)le, giving them an immense tract of country
for a reservation ; this was confirmed by the United States Senate.
In 1863 the encroachments of the whites made it necessary to throw
Ojjcn a portion of this country to settlement. This action created
a diversion among the Indians; those who would not agree ti ."'is
new treaty were called Non-Treaty Indians, and these, led by Chief
Joseph, made an outbreak in 1877. The remnant of his followf^r. ,
tiiose left by defeat in war and disease in peace, are located i*^ what
is called a sub-agency, on Sha-kas-kia Creek, some twelve n; , from
the Ponca Agency, Indian Territory. The Indian account of this
war and its results i-- r * letic beyond description.

Night. Conception : Earth covered over. Bring extended hands,
backs up, wt': out in front of body, fingers pointing to front, right
hand very little higher than left, hands about height of breast and
several inches apart ; move the right hand to left, left to right, turn-
ing hands slightly by wrist action, so that fingers of right hand point
to left and front, left hand to right and front, terminating movement
when wrists are crossed. Darkness, as I have said, seems to be con-
sidered a material thing by Indians; it spreads over the earth like
two huge blankets. I have also seen sign made to denote sun setting
for night.

No. Hold extended right hand, back up, in front of body, fingers
pointing to left and front ; move the hand to right and front, at same
time turning hand, thumb up, so that back of hand will be to right
and downwards; the hand is swept into its position on a curve.

Deaf-mutes shake the head.

Noon. Indicate the position of the sun.

Notify. Make sign for Tell, or Talk, or Call.

Deaf-mutes swing right hand under left from mouth ; make then
sign for Attention, and also for Speak.

Now. Bring extended index finger of right hand, back to right
and pointing upwards, other fingers and thumb closed, in front of
face about eight inches, and, without stopping, carry it a little to
front; then stop with trifle of a rebound. Sometimes sign for
Hurry is made.

Number. See Count.

272

OA Til— OG ALALIA.

Oath. Pointiiig to the zenith and the earth imposes the obligation
of an oatli witli many tribes. 'I'lnis, swearing by the Great Spirit
and the earth, and even holding \\\) the right hand, is very generally
understood at the jiresent day. The latter would be tailed "the
white man's way" by the Indians.

'I'hc Coinanciie oath is by the sun and earth, and sometimes, to
make it very strong, the oath is made early as the sun is rising, am!
a knife is put in the ashes ancl drawn between the lips. If the man
is swearing falsely, there will be blood on the knife as it is drawn
through the second time.

'riie Mandans swear by the moon or stm.

Some tribes have no special way of adding sacredness to the given
word. The special ceremony gone through to receive the report of
scouts sent for game or look after the enemy partakes strongly of the
chanu'ter of an oath. (See ScouT.) Some tribes swear by the sun,
the earth, and then kiss any sharp instrument, like an arrowhead or
knife. If the truth is not told, death is inflicted with whatever is
kissed.

Deaf-mutes pass extended right iiulex from mouth to front, and
then hold extended right hand well above head, to front and right.

Obey. Make sign for Listen, usually indicating the passing of
the words " through and through." Very many Indians use a Ibrni
of expression illustrated by these sentences: " I will obey you" is
rentlered by " I will listen to your words ;''' "They refused to do as
you ordered," by ^'They would fiot listen ;^* or might sometimes say,
'''They had no ears.''

Ocean. Make signs for Water and for Wide or Broad, and
sometimes spread out the hands, as in Prairie.

Deat-mutes use about the same signs.

Officer. Make sign for Chief.

Deaf-mutes touch right shoulder with right hand for an army
officer; make sign for Ship in addition for naval officers j indicate
the badge for a police officer, etc.

Often. Hold left forearm horizontally in front of left shoidder,
height of breast and pointing to front ; touch left forearm several
times, commencing at wrists with side of extended right index, other
fingers and thumb closed, back of right hand outwards, right index
raised and lowered at about right angles to left forearm.

Ogalalla (Band of Sioux). Conception : Throwing dirt, dust, or
ashes in tiie face. Make sign for Sioux, for DusT, Dirt, or Ashes,
and then liold closed right hand, back out, well out in front of face;
move hand towards face ; at same time exteiid and separate with a

OJinWAY—OLD.

273

L-at Si)irit
giMH-rnlly
led "the

etimcs, to

ising, ami

■ the man

is drawn

tlie given
I report of
igly of the
>y the sun,
nv-liead or
'hatever is

front, and
nd right.
)assing of
luse a form
7 you" is
il to do as
ftimes say,

\okV), and

an army
|; indicate

shoulder,
Im several

lex, other
|ght index

\, dust, or
)r Ashes,

It of face ;

Ite with a

partial snap the tliunib and fingers. Very frequently the sign for
l)usT, Dirt, or Ashes is omitted.

'I'here are several stories told of the manner in which this power-
ful hianch of the Sioux family received its name. 'I'lie most rehahle
is that two chiefs disagreed on some subject under discussion, when
one told the other that if he persisted he wouhl throw some dirt or
aslies on his face. Holding to and still expressing his views, the
dirt or ashes were thrown, and his followers wx-re ever after c.dh'd
"liiosewho had dirt or ashes thrown in their faces," fretpienlly
sini|)ly " Had Faces." Tiie word means " throwing at or uito."
Nearly all of the band, several thousand in number, are at I'ine
Rid^'e Agency, Dakota. (See Sioux.)

Ojibway. See Ciiii'pf-.wa.

Old. C'onception : Walking with stick. Hold closed right hand,
b;i( k to right, about twelve inches in front of right shoulder, about
lu'iglit of breast ; move the hand a little upwards, to front, down-
wards and back into its first position on small curve, repeating mo-
tion. Sometimes the gesturer bends or stoojjs a little in making the
gesture, but not commonly. The Fiathcads and Hhickfeet make tiic
gesture witli both hands, bringing left near right, and holding hands
(luite near body in making the motion, as though both hands grasped
a cane and used it in this way. Among many tribes the old pcojjlc
are treated at times with indifference and neglect. The old women
particidarly lead a hard and cruel life, and are little, if any, better
than beasts of burden, and seem to take it as a matter of ( ourse that
lliey should laboi constantly. The hard work, constant exposure,
and reckless disregard of any precaution to protect them from the
in( leniencies of the weather cause them all to grow prematurely old
and withered, seamed, wrinkled, wretched. They usually look for-
ward to death with feelings more of pleasure than of ])ain. I iiave
heard many of the men express regret that they had not been killed
in battle while still young. A very old man of the Blackfeet nation
once said to me that he thought the Great Spirit must have forgotten
him.

As age approa(dies tliey abandon the war-path, give up borsc-
stealing, and seek what little comfort they can get in eating and
smoking. In some rare cases Indians reach a very great age, but as
a rule the average is not equal to that of the white race. I saw an
.'vrapahoe woman who was one hundred and fourteen, and a Red
River half-breed woman who was one hundred and thirteen. The
latter, when I saw her, was building a fire with which to cook her
supper, and though wrinkled and bent was yet quite active and
strong. The comforts and respect which cluster about the gray
hairs of an honorable ok;, age in civilization are rarely found paral-
leled in barbarism. Never having accumulated sufficient property
to maintain them, or having given away what they had, they be( ome
a burden upon the charity of their kinsfolk, and, as a rule, death is
a most welcome visitation, relieving them from the most wretched
condition of hunter life. Though, as I have ntated, it seems to be

™!!W"!«!»"WW"

274

OPPOSITE— TTEP.

tlie universal sentiment that it is better to be killed while young, yet
the most of them, notwithstanding this constant assertion and ap-
parent belief, take great trouble and care to reach old age ; and I
liave noticed that, as a rule, the more chances an Indian has taken
wiiere he risked his life, the more anxious he is not to take any more.
I mean by this, that though perhaps brave and rash when young, a
little age entirely corrects the evil, if it can be so called.

Opposite. Hold extended index fingers opposite each other, in
front of body, at same height, other fingers and thumbs closed;
the right index here represents one object, left anotiier ; hold the
hands so as to convey the relative position of the objects, and in all
conversations in the sign language this is a general rule which
should be carefully followed, accurately representing objects and
movements.

Deaf-mutes use the same sign.

Osage (Indian). Conception : Shaved heads. Bring backs of
extended hands, fingers pointing to rear and slightly upwaras, along-
side of head ; move hands downwards, as though cutting hair witli
lower edges of hands ; repeat motion. Frequently only right hand
is used. Tiiis is the general sign for Osages, Sacs and Foxes, and
otiier tribes who shaved off the iiair, except a toft near the crown.

Otter. Conception: Dressing or decorating hair. Hold right
hand, back about outwards, little to right of right cheek, index,
second finger, and thumb extended, thumb resting against inner sur-
face of index and second fingers, others closed; lower the hand, tips
of extended fingers describing a small spiral curve. Some Indians
add sign for Long Tail of Animal, and the Crows make a gesture
very like that for Fish. There is a general custom among nearly all
Plains Indians, and some of those who live in the mountains, like
the Utes, in regard to the use of the otter-skin. Strips are worn
round the wrists, around the body,. over the shoulder, twisted into
the hair and scalp-lock, put on quivers, and among many tribes it is
used by nearly all the men to wrap the braids of hair that fall down
on eacli side of the face. So common has this become that from it
the sign for the animal has been derived.

Sometimes so great is the attachment and so powerful the super-
stition in regard to a particular piece, that it is handed down from
father to son for many generations as a special charm.

There is an old tradition among the Arapahoes that a young man
went to the top of a high bluff, fasted for several nights and days,
and was rewarded with a vision or dream, which told him that if he
would go down to the stream which wound about the base of tlie
hill, he would find an animal whose skin, if worn, would protect the
wearer from harm. He went, found the animal, killed it, and ever
since they have worn strips of this skin, as a charm to paralyze had
and st.'^engthen good luck. Not only is the otter-skin used for its
supernatural |)ower, but because it looks well, is the fashion, is prized,
and a young man would hardly consider himself well dressed did he
not have his hair wrapped. So great is the demand for these skins

OUTSIDE— OWL.

275

for this purpose that many Indian traders have them in their regular
invoice of goods from the East.

The Comanches and Kiowas do not use the "ottor-skin twists"
so much, priding themselves more on ear-ornaments, pipe-clay,
breastplates, and the artistic use of paints.

Outside. Make proper sign for the object which is to he repre-
sented as outside of the tepee, house, camp, or whatever it may be ;
then the proper sign for either of these; and then, still holding the
left hand in position, make the sign for Sitting, Standing, or
Lying, with right hand, near left, but outside of the tepee, camp, etc.

In making the sign for an object, the object is supposed to be
where the air-picture marks it, and it is thus easy to establish the
relative position of things.

Deaf-mutes make a general outline, and then note outside of this.

Over. To cross over, see Cross. On the other side, over the
river, etc., see Across.

Deaf-mutes use about the same signs.

Overtake. Hold left band, palm outwards, well out in front of
body, fingers extended, touching, and pointing upwards and slightly
to front (represents party or object in advance); bring right hand
near body, palm outwards, index finger extended pointing upwards
and slightly to front; move the right hand out till it touches left.

Deaf-mutes make the same sign.

Owl. Conception : Big eyes. Make sign for Bird ; then bring
the curved index and thumbs of both hands over and around the
eyes, other fingers closed. Sometimes the extended index fingers
are heid up alongside of temple to denote the horns, and I have also
seen the sign for Night, and the hooting of the owl imitated.

Deaf-mutes use the same sign.

-a^w^^'wpw^w

276

PACK— PAINT.

P. .

Pack. Hold partially-compressed left hand, back to left, in front
of body, fingers pointing to front, thumb extended and side pressed
against palmar surface of index ; bring partially-compressed right
hand and place palm against left thumb, fingers pointing to front;
raise the right hand and place palm against 'upper part of back
of left, inner surface of fingers of right hand resting against back of
these of left; raise hand and carry to first position, then raise and
carry to second ; these motions are executed briskly. The left hand
here represents the animal, right the packs or bundles placed on each
side, as well as the throwing of them into i)osition. This sign is also
used to express the idea of saddling an animal.

Deaf-mutes indicate the putting of things into a trunk or bag.

Long before the Indians had ponies the women packed their dogs,
and the knack may almost be called an inherited quality. It requires
great skill to properly pack an ordinary Indian load on any pony,
and even with the greatest care sore-backed ponies are common.

Pack.ng is woman's work, and as a consequence the men are not
very proficient.

Paddle. Make sign for Boat. ^ '

Deaf-mutes use the same sign.

Paint. Rub the cheeks and front of face with palm of right hand,
fingers extended.

Deaf-mutes rub or stroke the left palm with palm and back of ex-
tended right hand, muchasa paint-brush is used in painting wood-work.

The Indians have, without mucli doubt, been called red men
on account of the universal custom of painting their faces and
bodies, and for this purpose they used fine clays containing differ-
ent oxides of iron. Since the establishment of their trading stores
they purchase these ochres to a great extent, but usually have some
of a similar character wliich they have themselves found. Some
advantages are claimed in the use of these ])aints as a protectii i;
against the rigors of climate, both the icy winters of the Nortli
and the torrid summers of the South, but it is also used because of
their superstitions in regard to it, viz., that it is conducive to good
luck, and that its original use was in obedience to the direct com-
mand of God. In applying it, an Indian puts a little ochre and
grease in the palm of the hand, and then the palms are rubbed to-
gether to thoroughly mix and obtain the proper consistency ; this is
used for the "flat tints," and the stripings and fancy touches are put
on afterwards. Some Indians take more kindly to a particular color,
imagining that it gives better luck than another. When the paint
is rubbed on the face the eyes are closed, so that the lids may have
their full share, and it may be for this reason that some tribes pull

PAINT.

277

, in front
e pressed
sed right
to front ;
of bacl;
it back of
raise and
left hand
d on each
gn is also

rbag.
heir dogs,
[t requires
any pony,
nmon.
:n are not

ght hand,

ack of ex-
ood-work,
red men
faces and
ng differ-
ing stores
ave some
Some
rotectitM;
le Norti;
because of
to good
ect com-
hre and
ubbed to-
; this is
es are put
lar color,
the paint
may have
ribes pull

3C1

out the eyelashes, as these, by holding an extra allowance, might
cause irritation of the eyes. The skin of many Indians' faces, espe-
cially that of the nose, often becomes full of little holes, caused, no
doubt, by the paints used. The squaws ordinarily use red for the
cheeks, and a bright vermilion does add to their beauty, or rither, in
a way, hides their ugliness; a perpetual atmosphere of smoke, grease,
and dirt, with such accessories as long and fatiguing rides, severe
work, and rough food, is not conducive to female beauty. War-paint,
so called, is only an excessive use of any color. After returning from
an expedition most tribes paint the fiices black of those who have
been out, that being the color for rejoicing. Frequently these
ochres are rubbed over the uppers of moccasins and on clothing,
and at their dances horseshoe-marks are painted on the body or on
the clothing, and the pony is also decorated in this way. If one has
been wounded, the place of the wound is glaringly represented by
red paint on their historical pictures.

The Cheyennes claim that they received their orders in regard to
the use of paint direct from the " old woman" in the cave, who gave
them corn, tobacco, etc. When painting for war they use many
stripes and rings of different colors, but on returning only black-
colored paint is used. For courting, they claim that they paint
themselves as handsomely as possible.

Michelle, chief of the Fend d'Oreilles, said to me, " I do not know
exactly why we use paint. Wiien I was young many kinds were used,
— black, yellow, red, etc. We know that by its use when it is hot
we do not feel the sun so severely, and when cold the winds are not
so keen and painful. The priests tried to stop its use ; I asked them
if it was any worse to paint the face than it was to paint the church,
and if the church would last longer by being painted, why would not
an Indian ? I think God made all things to be used, — the paints for
the Indians ; and this is why we use all kinds of color on face and
hair when we go to war."

The different colors are produced in different ways by different
tribes. The Sioux use bull-berries, a shrub something like sumrch ;
moss on pine-trees for yellow paint. Generally speaking, black
means joy; tohite, mourning; red, beauty; and an excessive use of
any of these or other colors, excitement.

Mr. Girard informed me that the Arickaree youngsters were not
entitled to stripe the face until after they had passed through the
initiating ceremony of the Caltnnet-Dance. Mr. Dunbar says of
the Pawner- " Paint was an important i)art of the toilet, particularly
with men. xoung women sometimes used vermilion quite freely
on the face, but with men in full costume paint was indispensable.
There was no special guide other than individual fancy in its use for
personal ornamentation. Sometimes the entire person was bedaubed,
but more usually only certain parts, especially the face and breast.
When painting the whole body, frequently the nails, or the notched
edge of a sort of scraper, were drawn over the body, producing a
l^eculiar barred appearance. Sometimes the figure of certain animals,

278

PALSY— PARTURITION.

as the totem of the family to which the person belonged, was con-
spicuously painted upon the body. In the religious and ceremonial
dances various kinds of fantastic and grotesque designs were exiiibited.
After killing an enemy the lower part of the face might be painted
black. The paints used were vermilion, or, if this was not pro-
curable, a kind of clay was burned till it assumed a bright red hue,
and then pulverized. Red ochre was also obtained in certain locali-
ties on their hunting-grounds. Sometimes a white clay was also
used. A yellow paint was gathered from the flowers of a species of
solidago. All paints, when used on the person, were prepared witli
buffalo-tallow ; when for ornamenting robes, they were mixed with
water."

Palsy, Bring hands, back up, in front of and close to bieast,
hands slightly compressed, held loosely at wrists; shake the hands
slightly, giving a quivering motion, to imitate the tremulous and
shaky condition of weakened or suspended functions.

Deaf-mutes use the same sign.

Parade. Make sign for Whites, for Soldier, and then hold the
nearly-closed hands, backs of hands nearly up, well in front of body,
hands close together, same height and equally advanced ; separate
hands, carrying right to right, left to left.

Deaf-mutes make their sign for Soldier, and then hold hands,
backs out, in front of body, fingers extended, separated, and point-
ing downwards, hands in same vertical plane ; move the right to
right, left to left, separating hands several inches.

Part. If one-half, indicate it as in sign for that word ; if less,
hold the right hand nearer end of index, according to portion de-
sired to be represented.

Deaf-mutes denote Half or less.

Partisan. Make signs for War, Go, Chief, and for Pipe, and
then lay back of right hand in the hollow of left arm.

With most of the tribes in former times the chief of a war party
carried the pipe, or, as they expressed it, "owned the pipe" ; and
with some tribes he was not allowed to eat or drink until the sun had
set, then food and drink were carried to him. With the Flatheads
this chief went far ahead of the party, and frequently his medicine
became bad, ^nd the whole party turned back. These were the
men who, by personal combat, frequently determined the result of a
battle.

Partner. Make sign for Brother. Some Indians make sign for
Friend.

Indians rarely enter into a partnership to conduct any business,
but frequently adopt a man as friend or brother, forming a partner-
ship of danger, etc. (See Brother.)

Deaf-mutes make their sign for Persons united and Business.

Parturition. Bring extended right hand in front of and close to
body, back of hand outwards, fingers pointing downwards and
slightly to front ; move the hand downwards and outwards on curve.

Many of the Indians have separate lodges for the women at child-

I'A WNEE.

279

birth, and su:h attention as they may get is extended by the old
women, though the medicine-men sometimes assist. The woman is
usually put in a kneeling posture, the umbilical cord is wrapped
around the finger of the attendant, left about six inches long, cut,
and the little coil slipped off the finger and i)laced against the abdo-
men of the child, and fastened with a bandage, which goes around
the body.

With the Shoshones and Bannacks medicine-men are not allowed
to assist, and the woman sometimes goes away to the solitude of the
brush or timber, and there alone passes through the pains of child-
birth, though it is customary for some of her women kinsfolk to go
with her. Sometimes the absence is prolonged from four to six
weeks. Frequently a little lodge is pitched adjacent the large one,
and used for this purpose. It is about as cheerless and uncomfortable
as the one used during the menstrual periods.

With tiie Cheyennes, when a woman feels the pains of ajiproaching
childbirth, an old medicine-man is sent for, and also an old woman.
The man prepares the medicine, usually a liquid decoction made
from herbs and roots, and the woman takes immediate charge of ad-
ministering it, and assists in cutting the umbilical cord. Sometimes
whcMi an unmarried woman has a child she kills it; if the child is
raised, there is no prejudice against it, and it receives the same con-
sideration as other children. The mother has a perfect right to kill
the child ; it is hers, she can throw it away if she wants to, and it is
not considered any crime or even an offence to do so.

Mr. Dunbar says of the Pawnees "that accouchment was generally
very easy. No special preparation seemed to be made, the woman
continuing about her ordinary duties till the moment actually
arrived. In travelling she simply fell out of the line, near water, if
possible, and in the course of two or three hours resumed her place,
carrying the infant on her back. If in the village, she retired to
some secluded spot near a stream alone, as before. Sometimes, at
the birth of the first child, the mother was attended by a woman
acting as midwife; but the principal part of her service consisted in
busily shaking a rattle, — a gourd containing a handful of shot. After
birth the infant was immediately washed, bandaged, and fastened to
the baby-board, where it remained most of the time for the first
twelve or fifteen months of life. As soon thereafter as they could
'begin to walk they were loosened from the board and allowed more
freedom."

I have known of cases where Indian women died in labor, and
some from the effects of parturition ; but as they are strong and
usually healthy, and having never had their bodies distorted by arti-
ficial means, it would be absurd to suppose that they suffer as much
as their white sisters.

Pawnee. Conception : Wolf, Hold right hand, palm outwards,
in front of, little higher than, and close to right shoulder, first and
second fingers extended, well separated, and pointing upwards and
slightly to front, other fingers and thumb closed ; carry hand slightly

28o

PA WNEE.

upwards and to front, and bend the hand down slightly, so that
fingers point nearly to front.

The agency for tlie Pawnees is located on Black Bear Creek, some
nine miles from its mouth. Near the Cimarron the country is
heavily timbered, then it opens out into rolling prairie-land, the
streams being fringed with timber and the higher hills covered with
scnib-oak.

Tiiese Indians came to their present location numbering any-
where from two thousand to two thousand five hundred. The agent,
in 1881, was issuing to thirteen hundred and forty* They have
thirty thousand dollars per year perpetual annuity: one-half of this
in clothing, the rest in money.

Rations were also issued them once in seven days. Very few of
the men or boys now roach the hair. Some wear citizens' dress, and
live in log houses, some in tepees, and some in sod houses. These
latter are like the dirt house described by Mr. Dunbar. They are
making haste very slowly towards civilization. They claim that the
Cheyennes gave them the name of " Wolf," and this corroborates the
story told me by the Cheyennes some years since. The Cheyennes
also told me that they called them wolves because they were such
adroit horse-thieves, disguising themselves as wolves, and it will also
be remembered that a scout or Indian going into an enemy's coun-
try is called a wolf. They told me that they were not as healthy
as when north, that they did not work with a good strong heart as
they did when in Nebraska. They have about six himdred and fifty
acres of land under cultivation, some four hundred of corn and
wheat.

Mr. John B. Dunbar, in the Magazine of American History for
April, iboo, has given such an excellent account of the Pawnee
family that I copy at length from this paper:

"The Pawnee family, though some of its branches have long been
known, is perhaps in history and language one of the least under-
stood of the important tribes of the West. In both respects it seems
to constitute a distinct group. During recent years its extreme
Northern and Southern branches have evinced a tendency to blend
with surrounding stocks, but the central branch, constituting the
Pawnee proper, maintains still, in its advanced decadence, a bold
line of demarcation between itself and all adjacent tribes.

"The members of the family are the Pawnees, the Arikaras, the'
Caddos, the Huecos or Wacos, the Keechies, the Tawaconies, and
the Pawnee Picts or Wichitas. The last five may be designated as
the Southern or Red River branches.

"The earliest ascertainable home of the Huecos seems to have
been upon the Upper Brazos River. The land just mentioned as a
reserve was part of their territory. From kinship and proximity
they were always specially intimate with the Wichitas. About 1830
a large portion of the band took up their residence with the Wichi-
tas, north of the Red River, and continued there for more than twenty
years. From this long-continued intimacy they contracted much of

FA WNEE.

28 1

the roving character of the Wichitas. Of the early history of the
Keechies and Tawaconies very little is known. The home of the
latter, prior to their settling upon the Fort Belknap Reserve, was
u;)on the Upper Leon River. The earliest known residence of the
Keechies was upon the Trinity and U|)per Sabine Rivers. So far as
I have been able to learn they were never induced to settle upon the
reserve with the forementioned bands, but preferred an irresponsible
life, and gradually wandered away across the Red River, and as
early as 1850 were living upon the Canadian River, near Choteau's
Landing.

" In 1804 the relative numbers of these bands were estimated to
be: tlie Caddos, 100 warriors; the Huecos, 80; the Keechies, 60;
the Tawaconies, 200; the Wichitas, 400. Just before that date the
Caddos, and ])robably some of the others, had suffered severely
from the smallpox. In 182G they were estimated as follows: the
Caddos, 300 warriors ; the Huecos, 300 ; the Keechies, 200 ; the
Tawaconies, 150; the Wichitas, 300. They were then living in a
sort of tribal confederacy. At the head of this confederacy were
the Caddos, whose first chief held a commission as colonel in the
Spanish army. During the continuance of this alliance, which was
probably brief, the Wichitas are said t<» have removed to the vicinity
of the Brazos River, and lived with o ' near the Huecos. It was no
doubt on the return of the Wichitas to their old home beyond the
Red River that the part of the Hueci s already mentioned withdrew
from their own band and accompanied them.

" While living upon the Brazos Reserve the Caddos, Huecos, and
Tawaconies are said to have been intelligent, peaceable, quiet, indus-
trious, and disposed to adopt many of the usages of civilized life.
Unfortunately, however, a feud was engendered between them and
certain of the more lawless white settlers of the vicinity, which re-
sulted toward the close of 1858 in the murder of several unoffending
Indians by the latter. The mutual distrust and uneasiness resulting
from this wanton act caused the Indians to begin to move in strag-
gling parties across the Red River into the Choctaw country, where
a remnant of the Caddos was already residing. The five bands are
now all gathered upon a reserve secured for them in the Indian Ter-
ritory by the Government. Their numbers by the census of 1876
were : the Caddos (including about 100 incorporated Delawares and
lowas), 580; the Huecos, 70; the Keechies, 85; the Tawaconies,
100 ; the Wichitas, 215. In many respects, in their method of build-
ing lodges, their equestrianism, and certain social and tribal usages,
they quite closely resemble the Pawnees. Their connection, how-
ever, with the Pawnee family, not till recently, if ever, mentioned,
is mainly a matter of vague conjecture. I find one record of the
Caddos early in this century speaking of the Pawnees as friends
(if indeed this does not refer to the Wichitas; i.e., Pawnee Picts),
but no allusion is made to any kinship. Gallatin, in his essay
(1835), classes them as entirely distinct. Catlin, who visited the
Wichitas in 1833, is very emphatic in denying any relationship

■■■■■•■

2S2

FA WNRE.

between them and the P.iwnees, claiming that in stock, langtiaj^e,
ami customs fliey arc altogether different, (rallatin mentions tlicm
as presumed, from similarity of name (Pawnee Picts), to be related
to the Pawnees. On tlie other hand, the Wichitas and Pawnees,
ever since the accjiiisition of their territory by the United States,
have uniformly asserted their kinship, and maintained constant in-
tercourse. Professor Turner, in volume iii. of the ' Pacific Railroacl
Explorations' (1853), gives brief vocabidaries of the Hueco and
Keechie as probably of Pawnee stock. Of the Caddo he gives only
a few words, noting some close resendilances to the Pawnee, but
expressing no o])inion as to any relationship. In the * Report of the
Commissioner of Indian Affairs' for 1876, the fact of any kinsiiip
between any of the five bands and the Pawnees is utterly ignored,
and the assertion is even hazarded that the Southern branches them-
selves belong to three distinct stocks: the Caddos speaking one
language, the Huecos, the Tawaconies, and the Wichitas another,
and the Keechies a third. Tiiis is certainly a late and unwarranted
contradiction of a fact that has been recognized for nearly a century.
*' Of the one Northern branch, the Arikaras, our information is
much more satisfying. The reason of their separation from the
Pawnees is not certainly known. There has, however, been an old
tradition among the Pawnees tiiat they drove them from the once
common settlement on the Platte River. Tlie exact date of tlie
movement of the Arikaras northward from this region is also un-
known ; but we may safely conclude it to have been quite ancient,
from the fact that their migration up the Missouri River must liave
been before the occupying of the country along that stream by the
powerful Dakota tribe, one hundred and fifty years ago. This view
is sustained by the remains of various villages built by them at
different stages of their progress. The lower of these present the
appearance of considerable antiquity. Lewis and Clarke, in 1804,
found the Arikaras about latitude 45°, above the mouth of the Chey-
enne River. Twenty years before they were reported to have been
living below the Cheyenne, on the Missouri. From this latter place
they had moved up to the Mandans, with whom for a time they
lived in alliance, but later had withdrawn to where Lewis and Clarke
found them. At that time they were very favorably disposed to-
wards the United States, and remained so for some years. In 1820
they had become bitterly hostile. This radical change has usually
been attributed to the intrigues of the Northwest Fur Company,
which, through its factors, was making strenuous effort to divert the
traffic of this region from the Missouri Fur Company. In 1823 the
Arikaras made an attack upon some boats of the latter company,
killed thirteen men and wounded others. In consequence of this
act an expedition under Colonel Leavenworth, aided by the com-
pany and by six hundred friendly Dakotas, was sent from Council
Bluffs, Iowa, against them. In August of that year, after a desultory
action at their lower village, they were induced to sue for peace.
Nine years after, Catlin, while ascending the Missouri, found them

PA WNEE.

283

living at the mouth of the Cannonball River, still so hostile that in-
divi(iual intercourse could not safely be had with them. In 1833
they made a visit in a body to the Pawnees on the IMatte, and ( on-
tinned there with the Ski'-di band two years. To all ajjpearance
their intention was to take up their permanent abode with their old-
time associates ; at least so it was generally understood. But some
of their usages and traits, especially their hostility to the whites,
proved so undesirable to their kinsmen that they were finally sent
away. On receiving this dismission they returned to their Northern
home, where they have since remained. They are now upon a
reserve with the Mandans and Minnetarees, near Fort Berthold, Da-
kota. Their present number is about seven hundred.

" Like the Pawnees, they regard the Dakotas as their natural foes,
and wars with them have been ceaseless. Scarcely any other evi-
dence can be needed of their valor than the fact of their having sus-
tained the unequal struggle for so many generations. Their visit to
the Pawnees, already noticed, is explained by some on the ground
that tiiey were dis])ossessed and expelled by the Dakotas, but this is
incorrect. The real cause of their attempted migration was in some
degree the cessation of traffic with them in consequence of repeated
aggressions by them upon the traders. But to this should be added
their alleged reason, — the partial or entire failure of their crops for
several years. To a tribe as agricultural as they seem to have always
been, this was no trifling casualty. In the late troubles with the
Dakotas they furnished the Government with a considerable number
of scouts, who are reported to have done excellent service,

"Of all the branches thus far mentioned the Arikaras most nearly
resemble the Pawnees. In personal ajjpearance, in tribal organiza-
tion and government, in many of their social usages, and in lan-
guage they are unmistakably Pawnees.

"Of the central branch, the Pawnee proper, the special subject
of this monograph, our sketch will be more extended. The name
Pawnee is most probably derived from pa'-rik-i, a horn ; and seems
to have been once used by the Pawnees themselves to designate their
peculiar scalp-lock. From the fact that this was the most noticea-
ble feature in their costume, the name came naturally to be the de-
nominative term of the tribe. The word in this use once probably
embraced the Wichitas — i.e.. Pawnee Picts — and the Arikaras. The
latter is evidenced by the name Pa-da'-ni, applied by the Dakotas to
the Arikaras. Pa-da'-ni is not a Dakota word, but simply their pro-
nunciation of Pa'-ni (it will be observed that throughout this paper
I use the common, but evidently incorrect form, Pawnee), and
would scarcely have been applied by them to the Arikaras had
not the latter, when they first met them, been known as Pa'-ni. The
name Arikara is derived, I am inclined to think, not from the Man-
dan, as is sometimes claimed, but from the Pawnee ur'-ik-i, a horn ;
with a verbal or plural suffix, being thus simply a later and exact
equivalent of Pa'-ni itself.

"The Pawnees themselves have no tradition of ever having occu-

284

PA WNEE.

pied or claimed territory north of the Niobrara, though they some-
times hunted there. Tliat region, before the westward movement of
the Dakotas, was held by the Cheyennes, Arapahoes, and Kiowas.

" The true Pawnee territory, till as kite as 1833, may be described
as extending from the Niobrara south to the Arkansas. 'I'iiey fre-
quently hunted considerably beyond the Arkansas; tradition says as
far as the Canadian, and sometimes made considerable stays in that
region. Irving (' Tour on the Prairies') mentions seeing in 1832 the
remains of a recent Pawnee village on the Cimarron. On the east
they claimed to the Missouri, though in Eastern Nebraska, by a sort
of tacit permit, the Otoes, Poncas, and Omahas along that stream
occupied lands extending as far west as the Elkhorn. In Kansas
also, east of the Big Blue, they had ceased to exercise any direct con-
trol, as several remnants of tribes, the VVyandots, Delawares, Ki< k-
apoos, and lowas, had been settled there, and were living under the
guardianship of the United States. In 1833 the Pawnees, by treaty,
finally relinquished their right to the lands thusoccui)ied. (In 1S4S
the remains of a considerable village were plainly discernible near
where Wolf River empties into the Missouri in Northeastern Kansas.
The lowas, then occupying the region, assigned these remains, no
doubt correctly, to the Pawnees. This fiict would sufficiently indi-
cate that their control of this locality was once real.) On the west
their grounds were marked by no natural boundary, but may perhai)3
be described by a line drawn from the mouth of Snake River, on the
Niobrara, southwest to the North Platte, thence south to the -^ Kan-
sas. The boundaries here named are not imaginary. In desii ting
them I have consulted Pawnee history. Messrs. Dunbar, Alli , and
Satterlee, who were laboring as missionaries with the Pawnees, accom-
panied the different bands on their several semi-annual hunts in 1835,
1836, 1837, and on those hunts the tribe roamed at will over a large
part of the territory within these limits. This territory, comi)rising
a large portion of the present States of Nebraska and Kansas, formed
a tract which for their purposes was as fine as could be found west of
the Mississippi. The region of the Platte and Upper Kansas, with
their numerous tributaries, was a favorable mean between the ex-
treme north and warmer south; the climate was healthful, the soil
of great fertility, and game, such as buffalo, elk, deer, and antelope,
in abundance to more than supply their utmost need.

" It is not to be supposed, however, that they held altogether un-
disturbed possession of this country. On the north they were inces-
santly harassed by various bands of the Dakotas, while upon tlie
south the Osages, Comanches, Cheyennes, Arapahoes, and Kiowas
(the last three originally Northern tribes) were equally relentless in
their hostility. In fact, the history of the Pawnees, as far back as
we can acquire any knowledge of it, has been a ceaseless, uncompro-
mising warfare against the several tribes that begirt them, and no
more convincing evidence of their inherent energy and indomitable
spirit could be furnished than their having up to that date (1833)
maintained their right over this garden of the hunting-grounds esseii-

PA WNEE.

28s

tially intact. Their enemies were, it is true, making constant forays
upon it, and in some instances inflicting severe loss upon them, but
in no case liad they succeeded in wresting from the Pawnees and re-
taining any portion of their territory. On the contrary, witiiin the
limits named the Pawnee remained the iiroud master of the hind. In
1S33 the Pawnees surrendered to the United States tlieir chiim upon
all the above-described territory lying south of the Phute. In 1858
all their remaining territory was ceded, except a reserve thirty miles
long and fifteen wide upon the Loup Fork of the Platte, its eastern
limit beginning at IJeaver Creek. In 1874 they sold this tract and
removed to a reserve secured for them by the Government in the
Indian Territory, between the Arkansas and Cimarron, at their
junction.

"The traditions of three of the bands, the Xau'-i, Kit'-kc-hak-i,
and Pit-a-hau' e-rat, coincide in stating that the Pawnees migrated to
the Platte River region from the South, and secured possession of it
by conquest. The period of this migration is so remote that they
have failed to retain any of its details, except in a very confii>ed form.
The language affords some evidence that their residence in the valley
of the Platte has been of some duration. O-kiif-ut and oku kat sig-
nify, strictly, above and below (of a stream) respectively. Now their
villages have usually been situated upon the banks*of the Platte, the
general course of which is from west to east. Hence each of these
words has acquired a new meaning, — i.e., west and east. So, also,
Kir'-i-ku-ruks'-tu, toward or with the Wichitas, has come to mean
south. Such developments are , erfectly natural in the history of a
language, but require time. The Wichitas, I am told, have a tradi-
tion that the primitiv ■ home of themselves and the Pawnees was upon
the Red River, beh v the mouth of the Wichita. This would place
them in close proximity with the Caddos. The Wichitas also attempt
to explain their own southern position by alleging that, having had
reason to be dissatisfied with the migration or its results, they at-
tempted to return to their old home. The Pawnees also state that
the Wichitas accompanied them on the migration, but left them long
ago, and wandered away to the south, though silent as to the reason.
This much may be safely claimed, that the separation must have
occurred long since, as is indicated particularly by the marked
divergence of the Wichita dialect. There are certain facts which
may be referred to here as affording something of vraisemblance to
the tradition of this migratory movement from the South; i. The
Pawnee has always been remarked among the Northern tribes for
his fondness for and skill in the use of horses. It was a great ambi-
tion with each of them to be the owner of a drove of them. His
wealth and, to some extent, his social standing were determined by
the number he possessed. For the increasing of his stock he made
frequent predatory incursions upon neighboring tribes, especially upon
those towards the south, and sometimes these expeditions were ex-
tended to a great distance. Personal names were often derived from
successful exploits of this kind. 2. The Pawnee warrior always pre-

286

PA WNEE.

ferred a bow of Iwis (fare, and besides the bow in actual use he
would often have in his lodge a stick of the same material, which
at his leisure he woukl be working into shape as a provision against
possible exigency. Bows of this wood were rarely traded away.
£ois (fare, however, was to be obtained only in the South, and for
the purpose of procuring it a sort of commerce was kept up with cer-
tain tribes living there. Now in both these respects — his fondness
for horses and his preferences for the hois if arc — the Pawnee is re-
markably at one with the tribes of the Southern plains; and though
they may not be cited as i)roof of his Southern origin, they are at
least indications. The Pawnee usually locates the Mississippi to the
southeast, and the sea to the south. This is perfectly natural, if his
present indistinct knowledge of them is the remnant of a more intimate
accjuaintance that he once possessed in the South.

"The original inhabitants of the conquered territory the three
bands already named claim to have been the Otoes, Poncas, Omahas,
and Ski'-di. It is in the subjugation of these tribes that the Pawnee
finds his heroic age. The tradition is that the Otoes and Omahas
were entirely expelled from the country, but, after a long absence to
the northward, returned, or rather, were driven back by the Dakotas,
and were allowed by sufferance to occupy lands adjacent to the Mis-
souri, as the Pontas had continued to do since the first conquest.
From that time they have remained wards of the Pawnees. This
much at least is true : the Pawnee always spoke of the Otoes, Poncas,
and Omahas as subjugated tribes; and when together in council, on
war or hunting expeditions, though generally acknowledging their
prowess, — especially that of the two former, — he still treated them as
dependants; and in times of impending danger from the common
foe, the Dakotas, they uniformly looked to him for succor.

"There is an interesting document that may be mentioned in this
connection. The Pawnee has a song, constituting the finest satirical
production in the language, relating to an attempt that the Poncas
are said to have once made to recover their independence. Their
warriors in a body, so the account states, made a pretended visit of
peace to the village of Xau'-i, at that time the head band of the
Pawnees. After lulling to rest, as they supposed, the suspicions of
the Xau'-i, according to a preconcerted plan, they made an attack
upon them, but were signally discomfited. In commemoration of the
victory then achieved the Pawnees composed this song, and the
presumption is that such a remarkable production would not have
originated and maintained its position permanently in their minds
without a good historic basis.

"As regards the Ski'-di, the traditions of the other three bands
are very positive in affirming that they are the remnant of a once
separate tribe, that has been subdued and incorporated into the
Pawnee family. The only statement they give as to the time of this
conquest is that it was long ago. Of the exact spot where the event
transpired they say nothing. They further claim that once the Ski'-
di attempted to reassert their independence, and to this end surprised

PA WNEE.

287

and badly defeated tlie Pit-ahau'-e-rat band while it was out on a
buffalo-hunt. But the two other bands immediately rallied about
the survivors of the rout, and having entrapped the Ski'-di, inflicted
upon them a severe retribution ; and since then they have been con-
tent to remain quieti/ in their place as one of the four bands. All
this the Ski'-di deny. They, however, agree with the other bands
in saying that there have been hostilities between the two parties.
In \^%S ^^^ "i^" were still living who had borne part in a struggle
of t...s kind, probably during the closing quarter of the last cenuiry,

"The historic basis of this may be somewhat as follows: In the
migration of the Pawnees from the South the Ski'-di preceded the
other bands perhaps by nearly a centurv. With them were the
Arikaras. These two bands together possessed themselves of the
region of the Loup. When the other bands arrived they were re-
garded as intruders, and hence arose open hostilities. The result of
the struggle was that the two bands were forced to admit the new-
comers and aid in reducing the surrounding territory. Subsequently
the Arikaras seem to have wandered, or more probable to have been
driven, from the confederacy, and to have passed up the Missouri.
Later the Ski'-di, in consequence of some real or fancied i)rovoca-
tion, attempted to retrieve their losses, but were sorely punisiied,
and henceforth obliged to content themselves with a subordinate
position in the tribe.

"The known facts upon which this interpretation is based are
these : i. The remains of the old Ski'-di villages in tiie valley of the
Loup are more numerous, and many of them much more ancient
than those of the other bands. 2. The names of several of the
Ski'-(ii sub-bands are local and still retain their meaning; a fact tliat
would seem to indicate that they were first bestowed in this locality.
3. Since the tribe has been known to the United States the Ski'-di
have always acknowledged the precedence of tiie other bands.
Though they have been frequently remarked as more intelligent, as
warriors they are inferior. 4. They claim to be more nearly related
to the Arikaras than 10 the ?av,nees proper. They, also, do not speak
pure Pawnee. Their speech, while Pawnee, is dialectic, and forms
an intermediate link betwee 1 the pure Pawnee and the Arikara.

" Their population is a matter of the greatest uncertainty till 1834.
I find an estimate of them in 1719 (attributed to Mr. Dutisne) at
about twenty-five thousand, probably of no special value. Lewis
and Clarke, in 1805, estimated three bands, — Xau'-i, Kit'-ke-hak-i,
and Ski'-di, at four thousand. They speak of the tribe as formerly
very numerous, but at that time broken and reduced. Major Pike,
in 1806, estimated the entire tribe at six thousand two hundred and
twenty-three. Major Long, in 1820, gives their number as six thou-
sand five hundred. Thus far only three bands seem to have been
known. The authorities in either case were only hearsay, and the
estimates are not above suspicion. In 1834, Major Dougherty, the
Pawnee agent, and well versed in the affairs of the tribe, estimated
them at twelve thousand five hundred. Messrs. Dunbar and Allis,

'WWWe5KB33T!=

288

PA WNEE.

while travelling with the tribe during the three years following,
thought this too high, and placed them at ten thousand. In 1838
the tribe suffered very severely from the smallpox, communicated to
them by some Dakota women captured by the Ski'-di early that
year. During the prevalence of the epidemic great numbers of
children perished. The mortality among the adults, though great,
was not so excessive. About a year and a half after this scourge
Messrs. Dunbar and Allis made a careful census of the tribe as cir-
cumstances would permit, and found them to be six thousand seven
hundred and eighty-seven, exclusive of some detachments then
absent. These would have probably raised th(? total to about seven
thousand five hundred. The conclusion at which they arrived was
that their previous estimate may have been quite near the true num-
ber. In 1847 the number was not far from 8400. In 1856 they
diminished to 4686 ; in 1861, to 3416; in 1879, to 1440.

" Tiie causes of this continual decrease are several. The most
constantly-acting influence has been the deadly warfare with sur-
rounding tribes. Probably not a year in this century has been with-
out losses from this source, though only occasionally have they been
marked with considerable disasters. In 1832 the Ski'-di band suf-
fered a severe defeat on the Arkansas from the Comanches. In 1847
a Dakota war-i)arty, numbering over seven hundred, attacked a vil-
lage occupied by two hundred and sixteen Pawnees, and succeeded
in killing eighty-three. In 1854 a party of one hundred and thir-
teen were cut off by an overwhelming body of Cheyennes and Kio-
was, and killed almost to a man. In 1873 a hunting-party of about
four hundred, two hundred and thirteen of whom were men, on the
Republican, while in the act of killing a herd of buffalo, were at-
tacked by nearly six hundred Dakota warriors, and eighty-six were
killed. But the usual policy of their enemies has been to cut off
individuals, or small scattered parties, while engaged in the chase or
in tilling isolated corn-patches. Losses of this kiiul, trifling when
taken singly, have in the aggregate borne heavily on the tribe. It
would seem that such losses, annually recrrring, should have taught
them to be more on their guard. But 1 ;t it be remembered that the
struggle has not been in one directir n against one enemy. The
Dakotas, Crows, Kiowas, Cheyennec, Aiapahoes, Comanches, Osages,
and Kansas have faithfully aided each other, though undesignedly in
the main, in this crusade of extermination against the Pawnee. It
has been, in the most emphatic sense, a struggle of the one against
the many. With the possible exception of the Dakotas, there is
much of reason to believe that the animosity of these tribes has been
exacerbated by the galling tradition of disastrous defeats which
Pawnee prowess had inflicted upon themselves in past generations.
To them the last seventy years has been a carnival of revenge.

"One important fact should be noted in this connection. The
treaty of 1833 contains no direct provision that the United States
should protect the Pawnees from the Dakotas on the north, and the
Comanches and other tribes on the south. But, unfortunately, the

PA V^NEE.

28q

Pawnees distinctly understood that this was the case; i.e., that so
Ic. g as they did not molest other tribes, such tribes should not be
allowed to trouble them. Accordingly, for several years, they scrupu-
lously refrained from any aggressive hostilit<>s, though meantime
suffering severely from their various enemies. It was only after a
final declaration from the Government, in 1848, that it had no in-
tention to protect them that they at last attempted to reassert their
prestige. Thus, during this period, wliile tliey stood in need of the
utmost vigilance, the general influence of the Government was to
lull them into fancied security, and centre ui)on them the intensified
efforts of their hereditary foes.

"Another cause has been the locality of the Pawnees, directly in
the pathway of trans-continental travel during the last half-century.
This great highway has lain along the Platte Valley, directly through
their territory. Special diseases, as cholera, syphilis, and certain
intantile epidemics, have in this way been freely communicated to
them. Modified ailments of a syphilitic nature have been quite
prevalent, and have no doubt done much towards undermining their
native vigor. It is claimed by some that not a member of the tribe
for a generation or more has been entirely free from scrofulous taint,
but this is an exaggeration. In addition to these the Indian's great
terror, the smallpox, should be mentioned. Lewis and Clarke state
that the Missouri tribes had suffered from a visitation of it just
before their expedition. About 1825 the Pawnees suffered terribly
from it, again in 1838, and also in 1852. There have been lighter
visitations from it on several other occasions.

"The history of the tribe since the accession of Louisiana may
be passed over briefly. Lieutenant Pike, in 1806, found tiie Kit'-ke-
hak-i band somewhat under Spanish influence. A short time before
his arrival an expedition from Santa Fe had visited them, intending
to form a treaty with the whole tribe, but for some reason returned
without fully accomi)lishing its i)urpose. The intercourse between
the Pawnees and the Spaniards thus revealed seems to have been of
long standing. Salmeron refers to them as known to the Spaniards
as early as 1626. There is also mention by old writers of an expe-
dition to them from Santa Fe in 1722, but it did not reach its desti-
nation. So far as I can ascertain, the continuance of this inter-
course in the early part of this century was in consequence mainly
of the frequent incursions of the Pawnees into the province of New
Mexico for the purpose of stealing horses. These raids were a
source of great detriment to the people of that province. Till quite
recently horses or ponies bearing Spanish brands were conmion in
the tribe, and were frequently traded in considerable numbers to the
Arikaras. The Spaniards not succeeding in protecting their prop-
erty by force, had recourse to repeated negotiations, hoping, appar-
ently, in this way to conciliate the friendship of the Pawnees, and
thus avoid further losses. In 182J. a treaty to this end was formed,
and is mentioned as occasion of j.^ f:at rejoicing to the people of New
Mexico. They thought themselves relieved from a long-continued

«9

2go

PAWNEE.

anxiety and annoyance. The treaty, however, seems- to have pro-
duced little, if any, amelioration, for, in 1854, emissaries thence
again visited the Pawnees, but with no satisfactory results.

"On the other hand, their relations with the United States have
always been friendly. Instances might be catalogued, no doubt in
considerable number, in which they have committed outrages. But
if against these should be set a list of the wanton provocations that
they have received at the hands of irresponsible whites, their offences
would be probably sufficiently counterbalanced. One incident may
be given in illustration of this statement. In the spring of 1S52 the
Pawnees were reported to have flayed a white man alive. The facts
were these: In a small California emigrant-train was a young man,
who repeatedly made boast that he would kill the first Indian that he
met. One evening, as the train was halting for the night, on a small
tributary of the Elkhorn, a Pit-a-hau'-e-rat squaw, from a village near
by, came into the f-amp begging. Some of the emigrants carelessly
rallied the hapless boaster as to tiie opportunity thus afforded to re-
deem his threat, and finally, in sheer bravado, he shot and killed the
woman. W'.ien the band, on the following day, learned of the
murder, the 'v^arriors pursued and overtook the train, and by their
superior numbers compelled the surrender of the young man. After
a council, they ordered the train back to the scene, and there, in the
presence of his comrades, did flay the unfortunate man as reported.
The stream on which this horrible transaction took place is still
known as Raw-Hide Creek. One Indian who participated in this
summary retribution is still living, and from him I gained this ac-
count, which has been sufficiently corroborated from independent
sources. During the last fifteen years a battalion of Pawnee scouts,
under Major Frank North, have been employed a large portion of
the time by the Government against the hostile Dakotas, and in every
campaign have won high encomiums for their intrepidity and
soldierly efficiency.

" In 1834 the villages of the tribe were located, the Xau'-i on the
south side of the Platte, twenty miles above the mouth of the Loup.
The Kit'-ke-hak-i village was eighteen miles northwest, on the north
side of the Loup ; the Pita-hau'-e-rat, eleven miles above it, on tiie
same side. Five miles above the last was the Ski'-di village. The
sites of these villages were changed from time to time, as convenience
or other special consideration might prompt, the average continuance
in one place being not over eight or ten years. The Xau'-i and
Ski'-di villages were never moved to any considerable distance from
the locations named. The Ski'-di village, it is worthy of note, has
always been situated to the west of the others, and they have a
superstitious belief that this relative position must never be altered.
Hence the term tii'-ra-wit-u, eastern villages, applied by them to the
other bands. The Pit'-a-hau'-e-rat village, for a considerable por-
tion of the time, both before and since the date named, was upon
the Elkhorn, some distance east. The Kit'-ke-hak-i, as already
shown, from their first discovery till Pike's visit, were settled on the

PA WNEE.

291

ates have
doubt in
jes. But
:ions thut
r offences
dent may
1852 the
The facts
ling man,
an that he
on a small
llage near
carelessly
ied to re-
killed the
ed of the
d by their
an. After
lere, in the
3 reported,
ace is still
ted in this
ed this ac-
dependent
nee scouts,
portion of
id in every
:)idity and

Republican. This has given rise to the theory that in the northward
movement of the tribe they stopped here, while the rest continued
on. But there is reason for believing that before occupying this
region they resided with the rest of the tribe on the Platte, They
hive the same tradition as the Xau'-i and Pit'-a-hau'-e-rat concerning
the conquest of that country. There has been a tradition also that
after the conquest they moved south for the strategic purpose of
keeping the Kansas and Osages from the hunting-grounds of the
Upper Kansas River. Their associations with the other bands during
the time of the separation were always intimate; their interests and
motives were one, and their speech identical. The exact date of
their return to the Plaite is not known, but in 1835 men of the
band, apparently not more than thirty-five years of age, stated that
it occurred while they were children ; probably about 1812.

" One of the most important events of later Pawnee history was
the missionary work among them during the years 1834-47. In the
first of these years Messrs. Dunbar and Allis, already mentioned,
visited the tribe with the intention of establishing a mission in it.
Finding the immediate realization of their plan impracticable be-
cause of the absence of the Pawnees from their permanent villages
for a large part of the year on their semi-annual hunts, they deemed
it best, rather than altogether abandon the enterprise, to accompany
them for a time on their various wanderings, with the double purpose
of acquiring the language and familiarizing themselves thoroughly
with Pawnee usages and character, and also of exerting whatever in-
fluence they might to induce the tribe to adopt a more settled man-
ner of life. Mr. Dunbar travelled with the Xau'-i band, Mr. Allis
with the Ski'-di, Dr. Satterlee, who joined them some time later,
travelled with the Kit'-ke-hak-i. In February, 1837, he made a visit
to the Cheyennes on the Upper Arkansas, hoping to be able to bring
about a treaty of peace between them and the Pawnees, and on his
return in March was killed by a lawless trapper. After two and a
half years spent with the tribe in this way, they were finally induced
to accept the encouragements offered by the Government and mission-
aries, and seemed to evince a sincere desire to enter upon a more
regular and fixed mode of living. A spot on Plum Creek, a small
tributary of the Loup, was accordingly chosen in 1838 as the site of
the mission and Government establisl'inent. Disturbances inter-
vened immediately after, and prevented the execution of the design
till 1844. I" that year the Government establishment and mission
were begun at the place chosen; a large farm was opened,' mission
buildings erected, and a considerable number of the Xau'-i and some
of the other bands induced to fix their residence in the vicinity.
The tribe all displayed a very friendly disposition, and so far as they
were concerned the effort to advance their condition towards civili-
zation was progressing most favorably. But, unfortunately, the entire
enterprise had awakened the jealous suspicions, and in the end roused
the most persistent hostility, on the part of the Ogalalla and Brul6
Dakotas. Each year they invaded the region in full force, usually

393

PA WNEE.

taking advantage of the absence of most of the Pawnees on their
hunts, killing where they could, and destroying corn-patches and all
other i)roperty that they might discover. These continued depreda-
tions finally compelled the abandonment of the mission and farm in
1847, •1"'^' tlic Pawnees forthwith reverted to their former life.

" The tribal mark of the Pawner , in their pictographic or historic
painting was the scalp-lock, dressed to stand nearly erect, or curving
slightly backwards, somewhat like a horn. This, in order that it
should retain its position, was filled with vermilion or other pig-
ment, and sometimes lengthened by means of a tuft of horse-hair
skilfully appended so as to form a trail back over the shoulders.
This usage was undoubtedly the origin of the name Pawnee. In the
sign language of the tribe and other Indians of the Plains the Pawnee
is designated by holding up the two forefingers of the right hand,
— the symbol of the ears of the prairie wolf. The precise origin of
this j^ractice is a matter of some uncertainty. They claimed that
the wolf was adopted of choice as the tribal emblem because of its
intelligence, vigilance, and well-known powers of endurance. Tiieir
enemies, on the other hand, interpreted it as a stigma upon tlie
tribe because of their alleged prowling cowardice. Tl'e emblem
probably originated from the name of the Ski'-di band. They
being in advance of the other bands in the northern migration, be-
came known to the tribes about them as the wolves, and as the other
bands arrived the sign was naturally made to include t..^iTi also, and
in this enlarged use was at length accepted by the Paivnees them-
selves. The Ski'-di, however, insist that their name has no etymo-
logical connection whatever with Ski'-rik-i, a wolf. Their exphma-
tion is that the Loup — i.e.., Wolf River — was long ago so designated
from the great abundance of wolves in its vicinity. (Wolf River is
not an infrecpient designation of streams with Indians; as Wolf
River in Kansas, also in Wisconsin.') From the fact of their location
upon it they became known as Wolf (River) i'^dians. Finally, to
most of the Pawnees themselves the real distinction between Ski'di
— i.e., Ski'-ri — atid Ski-rik-i was lost. This is unusually close Indian
reasoning, but rot altogether conclusive.

" The tribe, as already indicated, consisted of four bands : Xau'i-,
or Grand ; Kit'-ke-hak-i, or Republican ; Pit a-hau'-e-rat, or Tapage;
Ski'-di, or Loup. The English names given are all of French origi-
nation. The first was applied to the Xau'-i as being the head band,
and also the most numerous. The exact origin of Republican, as
applied to the second band, I never learned. There has been a tra-
dition that it was first suggested by the semi-republican system of
government observed among them when first known ; but this feauire
was no more marked with them than among the other bands. It is
also said to have been applied to them because of their having for-
merly resided upon the Republican River; but, vice versa, the stream
was in all prol)ability so named from the band (the Kansas River
from the Kansas Indians, the Osage irom the Osages, etc.). Tapage
(aLo 'iappage and Tappahs) is of unknown origin. In the treaty of

PA WNEE.

293

1S19 they were designated as the Noisy Pawnees, which I presume
was the'-i the supposed meaning of the name Pit a-hau'-e-rat. In the
treaty ic is spelled Pit-av-i-rate. Tapage is the French substitute for
Noisy. Forty-five years ago they were known as the Smoky Hill
Pawnees, from having once resided on that stream in Western Kansas.
In the summer hunt of 1836 they pointed out to Mr. Dunbar some
of their old villages. The name Loup is already sufficiently ex-
plained.

"These bands were all further divided into sub-bands and families,
each of which had its appropriate mark or token. Tiiis was usually
an animal, as the bear, the eagle, the hawk, the beaver, etc. ; though
sometimes other objects, as the sun, the pipe, etc., were adopted.
The separate lodges, and even articles of individual apparel, were
usually marked with the token of the family to which the owner be-
longed. These subdivisions have now entirely disappeared, except
as partially retained among the Ski'-di.

"The men were generally of excellent physique, of good stature and
robust muscular development. The upper part of tlie body was fre-
quently large in proportion to the lower extremities, but not so much
so as to occasion deformity. The feet, as also the- hands, were small,
and in walking they were intoed. Obesity was not usual, unless in
advanced life. Congenital malformations were rarely seen. This
might in part be due to the fact that sickly children, who would be
most likely to present such peculiarities, did not survive infancy.
The hair was dark, coarse, and straight ; the eyes rather small, black,
and inclining to the lack-lustre type. The features, ordinarily well
proportioned, were frequently of a very marked character and power.
The mouth was a little large perhaps, and the lips thin. These, with
the eyes, are the expressive features of the Pawnee face. Hence
their proverb, * If you wish to know whether a man is brave, watch
his eye ; if you wish to learn whether he speaks the truth, watch his
lips.' The teeth were usually regular and remarkably good. I have
seen old men, the crown of whose teeth was worn quite away, and
yet they had not lost one. Toothache was scarcely known.

" Tiieir endurance was astonishing. Cases were numerous of sus-
tained effort, which must seem incredible to those not personally con-
versant with the fact. Runners have been known repeatedly to travel
over one hundred miles in twenty-four hours, or less, without stop-
ping on the way for sleep or nourishment. Their gait at such times
was a swinging trot. Their power of abstinence was equally marked.
Mr. Dunbar, while travelling with them, has known them in many
instances to go without food three days, and utter no complaint, nor
remit perceptibly anything of their wonted activity. On such occa-
sions, to still the gnawings of hunger, they were accustomed to wrap
a thong several times tightly about the waist. It should be added,
however, that all such seasons of special exertion or denial were in-
variably succeeded by periods of recuperation, in which full compen-
sation was made.

"The women were considerably smaller than the men, those who

«;,

miv

294

PA YMASTEH.

would be remarked as large (by our standard) being extremely few.
This was due, no doubt, in some degree to early marriage and child-
bearing. Their life was one of constant toil. From early dawn till
late at night they were incessantly at work. A Pawnee woman with
nothing to do would be a strange anomaly. They cut and adjusted
the wood used in constructing lodges and building horsepens ; built
the stationary lodges ; pitched and took down the portable lodges ;
tanned the skins used in covering the latter (a work both tedious and
painful), sewed them together and fitted them to the lodge; dressed
the robes, which were many, both for home use and for trade ; bridled,
saddled, packed, and led the horses on the march, and unpacked
them on going into camp at night ; made and kept in repair all
articles of clothing, mats, bags, bowls, mortars, etc. ; cut and brought
all the wood for fires, much of it from a distance, on their o\:\\
backs; made fires, did the cooking, dried the meat, dug the ground,
planted, hoed, gathered, dried, and stored the corn. In si
whatever was done, other than grazing, watering, and bringing m
the horses (which were generally done by smaller boys), and going
to war, killing game, smoking, holding councils, and giving feasts
(which belonged to the men), they did. When with the men in the
lodges, they occupied the most inconvenient part ; in the winter the
men enjoyed the fire, while they sat back in the cold. In girlhood
many of them were quite good-looking, active, and bright, and when
together in their work they were very loquacious and facetious ; but
their toilsome life and harsh treatment frequently rendered them ill-
favored and morose.

" The average duration of life was much less than with the whites;
decrepitude began much earlier, and decline was more rapid. Prob-
ably few were to be found in the tribe who were really over sixty
years old, though many had the appearance of it. Rheumatic com-
plaints with the aged were frequent- and very severe.

"A friend, who has had much experience with the Indians of the
Southwest, informed me that he is inclined to believe that the Lipans
of Mexico are of Pawnee stock. They have, m times past, ex-
changed frequent hospitalities with the Wichitas, or Pawnee Picts,
and the two understand each other's dialect readily. The name Li-
pans he explains as Li-pa-nis; i.e., the Pawnees This derivation is
interesting, and, so far as a single word can afford evidence, is very
satisfactory. The clue at least deserves careful investigation, and
may lead to important results in determining the remoter ethno-
logical relations of the Pawnees. Unfortunately, I have not been
able, after repeated efforts, to obtain any vocabulary of the Li pan
language by which the worth of the conjecture might be finally
judged. If such kinship does really exist, though the Pawnees their.-
selves made no such claim, it would suffice to explain the fact of their
apparent familiarity with the geography of the country toward
Mexico."

Paymaster. Make sign for Money and Chief. Sometimes it is
also necessary to make sign for Whites.

PEACE.

295

lely few.
1(1 cliild-
dawn till
nan with
adjusted
ns ; built
; lodges;
dious and
; dressed
, bridled,
unpacked
repair all
d brought
their o..n
le ground,
In s: ,
ringing in
and going
/ing feasts
lien in the
winter the
11 girlhood
and when
;tious ; but
d them ill-
he whites ;
id. Prob-
over sixty
atic conv

lians of the
the Li pans
past, ex-
aiee Picts,
|e name Li-
;rivation is
ice, is very
(ation, ;viid
)ter ethno-
not been
the Li pan
be finally
[nees them-
ict of their
try toward

letimes it is

Peace. Clasp the hands in front of body, usually back of left
down. The sign for Smoke is also frequently made.

Indians are at peace with those whom they smoke with. To make
peace is to smoke. Some Indians clasp the hands by interlocking
the fingers, holding forearms vertical.

Deaf-mutes make the Indian sign for Quiet, to denote a state of
peace ; and they also make their signs for Fighting, Stop, and
Quieting Down.

The ceremony of making peace varies somewhat with the different
tribes, but a necessary and essential part with all is the smoke, and
with the sacred pipe.

The Cheyennes hold up the pipe before it is filled, pointing to
near where the sun rises. The pipe is then filled, sometimes adding
to the tobacco some sacred root or sweet-smelling grass ; then, before
lighting it, the palms of extended hands are held up towards the
"four winds," — a petition that the peace may not be blown away;
then the tobacco is lighted, and the smoke of peace taken. They
claim that they feared some disaster or disease would overtake them
if they did not keep a peace made in this way. The grass and crops
would not grow, an epidemic would break out, the snow would fall
to such a depth as to occasion great distress, the burden of some
affliction would surely fall upon them. They also claim that the two
Gods who went into the cave and brought out, among other things,
the pipe, told them that the pipe was "good medicine," and in-
structed them to use it in a friendly way ; to smoke it in making
peace with their enemies. They think they are the first people who
had the pipe given them. To make it very impressive, sometimes
the left hand is held high above the head towards the sun or the
zenith, as though clasping the hand of God.

The preliminaries to the talk and the smoke were usually deter-
mined by circumstances ; the pressure of the necessity for an imme-
diate peace often cuts all these short. If the two tribes had been at
such bitter war that it was not safe to openly approach within speak-
ing or signalling distance, some tobacco would be secretly left near
the camp, or, in the absence of this, rude hieroglyphical figures
would be drawn on the rocks, on a piece of par-fl6che, or on bark,
and left where it would be sure to be found. If the tobacco was
taken, that was an open and sacred avowal of a desire for an inter-
view, and negotiations were at once entered into. The inherited
hah ts of many generations could not be wiped out by talking and
smoking, and so the peace made between many tribes often only
lasteu during the existence of the absolute necessity which brought
the two tribes together.

When the Sioux chief Crazy Horse came in and surrendered in
1877, ^^s formed all of his warriors in line, in advance of the women
and children ; then, in front of this line, also mounted, he had some
ten of his headmen ; and then in front of these he rode alone. I
had been sent with Indian scouts to meet him. He sent me word
requesting a similar formation on our part, and asked that I should

296

PEAK— FEND D'OREILLE.

ride on in advance alone. Then we were to dismount and first shake
hands, while seated on the ground, that the peace tuight be solU.
After all this had been done his headmen came up, the |)eace-i)ipc
was ])ro(hiced, autl we solemnly smoked. One of his headmen put
a s<:ali)-ja{ket and war-bonnet on me, and presented me the pipe with
which peace had been made. Some tribes, when they wish to say
that the peace has not been kept, express it by saying " the pipe is
broken."

Peak. Compress the right hand, and bring the ends of fingers
and thumb as nearly together as possible, throwing the hand into as
near a cone-shape as one can ; then hold the hand well out in front
of body, hand well raised, and back outwards.

Deaf-mutes make the cone with both hands.

Femican. Hold extended left hand, back down, fingers point-
ing to right, in front of body ; strike several times the left palm witli
lower edge of closed right hand ; then rub the hands together to
denote the mixing; then hold both hinds, palms up, in same hori-
zontal ])lane in front of mouth, little fingers touching, and blow on
the palms. These gestures represent the pounding of the dry meat,
mixing it, fat and lean, and after this fat is melted with marrow,
blowing away the scum which rises to the surface of the vessel before
the contents are poured over the powdered meat. In choice peuii-
can great care is used in the selection of th( meat when drying it,
and a great deal of fat and marrow is used. This food is prized
very highly, and, carefully put up in bales, remains sweet and good
as long as it is kept dry. The Red River half-breeds deal in this
extensively.

Fend d'Oreille. There is no well-established tribal sign. Some
call them the "Boat or Canoe people" ; some indicate a large ring
in the ear, and others often give for them the same sign as for Flat-
heads.

The custom of wearing especially large ear-rings, if it ever existed,
has long since passed away. The custom of flattening the skull is
not now practised, and tradition does not say when it was. Mr.
Bancroft claims that it pertains to tribes nearer the Pacific coast,
and agrees with Father Ravalli in locating the custom with the Che-
nooks. He says, "It is about the mouth of the Columbia that the
custom of flattening the head seems to have originated. Radiating
from this centre in all directions, and becoming less universal and
important as the distance is increased, the usage terminates on the
south with the nations which I have attached to the Chenook family,
is rarely found east of the Cascade Range, but extends, as we have
seen, northward through all the coast families, although it is far from
being held in the same esteem in the far North as in its apparently
original centre. The origin of this deformity is unknown. All we
can do is to refer to that strange infatuation incident to humanity
which lies at the root of fashion and ornamentation, and which
even in these later times civilization is not able to eradicate. As
Alphonso the Wise regretted not having been present at the crea-

PEND D' OREILLE.

897

tion, for then he would have had the worki to suit him, so dilTerent
ages and nations strive in various ways to remodel and improve the
human form. Thus the Chinese lady compresses the feet, the Euro-
pean the waist, and the Chenook the head. Slaves are not allowed
to indulge in this extravagance, and as this class are generally of for-
ei.i,'n tribes or families, the work of ethnologists in classifying skulls
obtained by travellers, and thereby founding theories of race, is
somewhat complicated ; but the difficulty is lessened by the fact that
slaves receive no regular burial, and hence all skulls belonging to
bodies from native cemeteries are known to be Chenook. The Che-
nook ideal of facial beauty is a straight line from the end of the
nose to the crown of the head. The flattening of the skidl is
effected by binding the infant to its cradle immediately after birth,
and keeping it there from three months to a year. The simplest
form of cradle is a piece of board or plank, on which the child is
laid upon its back with the head slightly raised by a block of wood.
Another piece of wood or bark or leather is then placed over the
forehead, and tied to the plank wiMi string.;^ which are tightened
more and more each day until the skull is si aped to the required
pattern. Space is left for lateral expansion, and under ordinary cir-
cumstances the chilli's head is not allowed to leave its position until
the process is complete. The body and limbs are also bound to the
cradle, but more loosely, by bandages, which are sometimes removed
for cleansing purposes. Moss or soft bark is generally introchiced
between the skin and the wood, and in some tribes comfortable
pads, cushions, or rabbit-skins are employed. The piece of wood
which rests upon the forehead is, in some cases, attached to the
cradle by leather hinges, and instances are mentioned where the
pressure is created by a spring. A trough or canoe-shaped cradle,
dug out from a log, often takes the place of the simple board,
and among the rich this is elaborately worked, and ornamented
with figures and shells. The child, while undergoing this process,
with its small black eyes jammed half out of their sockets, pre-
sents a revolting picture. Strangely enough, however, the little
prisoner seems to feel scarcely any pain, and travellers almost uni-
versally state that no perceptible injury is done to the health or
brain. As years advance the head partially but not altogether
resumes its natural form, and among aged persons the effects are not
very noticeable. As elsewhere, the personal appearance of the
women is of more importance than that of the men, therefore the
female child is subjected more rigorously and longer to the com-
pressing process than her brothers. Failure properly to mould the
cranium of her offspring gives to the Chenook matron the reputation
of a lazy and undutiful mother, and subjects the neglected children
to the ridicule of their young companions, so despotic is fashion.
A practice which renders the Chenook more hideous than the com-
pression of his skull is that of piercing or slitting the cartilage of
the nose and ears, and inserting therein long strings of beads or
hiaqua shells, the latter being prized above all other ornaments.

298

PEND D' OREILLE.

Tattooing seems to have been i)ractised, but not extensively, taking
usually the form of lines of dots pricked into the arms, legs, ancl
cheeks with pulverized charcoal. Imitation tattooing with the
bright-colored juices of different berries was a favorite pastime with
the women, and neither sex could resist the cliarms of salmon grease
and red clay. In later times, however, according to Swan, the cus-
tom of greasing and daubing the body has been to a great extent
abandoned. Great pains is taken in dressing the hair, which is
combed parted in the middle, and usually allowed to hang in long
tresses down the back, but often tied up in a queue by the women
and girls, or braided so as to hang in two tails tied with strings."

In reply to some inquiries of mine, Father Ravalli wrote me a
letter, from which I make the following extracts:

"Our three nations, Flatheads, Pend d'Oreilles, and Koutenays,
never adored the sun, but, before the light of the gospel, they had
their Monton or Medicine, some worshipping one kind, some an-
other kind of small animals, and bringing them with themselves
when travelling; so they had not any * Sun-Dance.' They had,
however, two kinds of dances particular to them, one called Estu-
enchyand the other Eftionly. The dance Estuenchy was performed
only by men, and that before going to war, to excite themselves to
battle. When they do that, all men, half naked and curiously tat-
tooed and painted, gather in a great lodge, then singing the warrior
song and beating the tambour or any noisy article in perfect time
and cadence. With the song they do a little jumping, always re-
maining in the same spot. I have seen it several times, and it is
truly electrifying and diabolical.

" The other dance (Eftionly) is performed only by the women
after a victory in the battle. These wcnen stand in circles in the
centre, and the men make a peripheral ». cle concentric. Then tlie
men beat the tambour and sing, and thi. omen walk around and
around, in slow progression, till this kind 01 re is to an end.

"The inquiries here certainly have no rele. ""ce to the actual
manner of dressing of the Flatheads, Pend d'Ort.'^s, and Koute-
nays, — being the objects of our daily observation, — but rather to the
manner of dressing before the coming of the whites, and in that
I can say something, having been with them many years before the
immigration altered their customs. Only to be better understood,
we must observe that in the actual tire.-sing of the Indians (Pend
d'Oreilles and Koutenays have, and had iiivx.iys, identical dressing with
the Flatheads) they wear generally not p^nts as the whites, but long
stockings, protecting the legs and kivurs, consisting of a hose, the
upper extremity of which is overlapping to a string or belt at the
loins. They wear also moccasins, and a blanket or a buffalo-robe,
which is particularly characteristic of an Indian. What I remark
here is a part of their ancient custom of dressing only, instead of
artificial stuff they used skin for material. When I entered among
them nearly forty years ago, besides the underlaying garment already
mentioned, they had, men and women, over all, a kind of long shirt,

PEND D" OREILLE.

299

simply composed of two skins, sewed in their longitudinal side by
means of fibres and of tendons of the animals. Moreover, two
small skins, connected at the proper place to the two big skins and
wised in the shape of sleeves, covered the arms of men, and the
women had the same thing as men but not sewed, and so loose as to
be able to present the breast to their babies. The ornaments of men
were generally a kind of necklace, made of various fantastic things,
as claws of bears, feet of elk or human feet, little bundles of hinuan
hair from the scalp of their enemies, sea or river shells, and tiie like;
and always each man had a small 'Viirrorand a pair of tweezers hang-
ing from the neck, and a knife at the left side. The mirror and
tweezers they were using when encamped to ])lu(:k the points of the
beard, and the knife for any occasional need, principally for skin-
ning animals in their hunting. Ornaments of beads or grains of
enamel, though they used them moderately, yet was a thing partic-
ular to women. The dressing of the women was longer, covering to
their feet. At their waist the women had a belt, ornamented gener-
ally witli brass buttons or with beads. They had short leggings, or-
namented with beads, similarly were the moccasins ornamented.

" When first I cAme among the Flatheads there was the custom
to gather in the lodge of the dead many old women and friends, and
there was a lugubrious lamentation, or rather a wailing, according to
a proper tune and cantillatioi.. I believe it is yet observed in some
camps of Nez Perces not Catholics. Now, having laid aside the
custom, they gather in a lodge and pray all night, of course receiv-
ing there the night-meal. Some days after the burial the nearest
relatives of the deceased congregate all the willing people of the
tribe to pray in an appropriate lodge, and, after ])raying, they make
a common dinner for all the people present. Moreover, they have
a custom to distribute all personal property of the defunct to the
poor, or to some other person in need, according to their notions,
commonly retaining aside the animals, if any, in benefit of the
children or nearest relatives.

"The Flatheads, Pend d'Oreilles, and Koutenays have the same
customs, and being Catholics, bury their dead in a Christian manner.
They pray and sing over the corpse, and bury it in a coffin, en-
shrouded and wrapped in the best blanket or richest garment the
relatives can procure.

"To have an illustrated history and records of a nation supposes
a degree of civilization and an advancement in the knowledge of its
utility which cannot be dreamed of in the actual state of the
Indians, in whom the knowledge of the existence of people of dif-
ferent color, of long afar habitation, of their number and doing, is
dated only since our coming among them.

" I have, we have, oftentimes interrogated them to know whether
they maintained some ancient tradition, but mine and our inquiries
were always fruitless, as they are a people of the present moment, as
every one may perceive from their actual manner of doing. They
do not care for the past, and less for the time to come. Another

300

PEND D' OREILLE.

point for which they have a kind of impossibility — to conserve
records of their forefathers — was tlie continued wars with the neij^li-
boring nations, in which annually was a decimation. Regarding;
their mmiber of men killed in battle, etc., no one conserved an oral
history of their vicissitudes. To have from them any illustrated
record it is evident that it cannot be, and the illustrations, which
willingly I would have i)erformed, were checked by our inability to
obtain information from them of any kind about the things in
reference.

" 7.'he hair of men, as that of women, was left growing, with the
Flatheads, Pend d'Oreilles, and Koutenays, according to nature,
only some men were cutting the hair before their front on account
of the vision, others having a lock descending upon their nose, and
the eyes were appearing between such lock and the hair of the
temple.

" The Flatheads had their bows made with great accuracy. The
Blackfeet and their associates had them bare. In fact, after choosing
a proper branch from which to make the bow, and having split it
and polished with stone and etpiisetum, they covered the back
of the bow with the two sinews found near tlie spinal column of big
animals, as buffalo, elk, etc. They glued them to it, by reducing the
skin of fish to a thick jelly by boiling, and they completed the work
by jirotecting all that with the skin of a rattlesnake or other serpent
glued to it. Such o])eration, besides improving the a{)pearance of
tlie bows, contributed in a great measure to the elasticity and strength
of the article,

"It is a real misfortune for the Flatheads that, partly from neces-
sity, partly from stubbornness and love of liberty, they should con-
tinue the nomadic life as of old. The loss in their tem|)oral and
spiritual welfare is immense by such depreciated custom. But in the
condition in which they are they mivst, by necessity, be well versed
in the sign language, otherwise they could not have any conversation
with the other nations when travelling. I am not acquainted with
the manner of manual talking of the Sioux or Crows, but by a
natural and obvious inference, I must say that the dumb language of
all tribes must be the same for all, otherwise how would they under
stand each other?"

The head-cliief, Michelle, informed me that they were not formerly
called Flatlieads or Pend d'Oreilles, but as they — the present so-called
Flathead band — killed one another, they were called " know-nothing
peo])le." Kalespel (meaning good) people at present only includes
the Pend d'Oreilles.

It is about one hundred and forty years since these Indians fi.st
saw ponies.

The vocal language is noticeable for the gl and cl sounds.

Polygamy has, through the efforts of the priests, been abolished.
The women do not wear a protection string. The men usually bang
the hair in front like the Crows, braid it on each side, and allow the
portion at back of head to grow to its full length and to fall loosely.

PEOPL E— PEPPER.

301

icing the

Miclit'lle, in speaking of their beliefs and customs, said to me, "The
old, old people, a long time ago, believed that a good man — a chief
— was in the far East, and they said that as he was good he took pity
on them when they prayed to him. There was another old man in
the far West, and they prayed for him not to see them. When the
priests first came they asked us if we prayed, and, if so, to whom ;
asked if we prayed to the sun, and we said. No; we pray to a good
man, a great ciiief in the far East. They told us not to do this,
and instructed us to pray to other Gotls and saints. In olden times
we Ihouglu that after death, if we had been good, we went to the
East, and if wicked, to the bad man in the West. Some five liun-
(Ired years ago there was a man named Weosel, and lie climbed a
tree, and as he climbed the tree grew, unlil finally he was raised into
the far heavens, and saw the world and people there. He came back,
told his story, and died here. The old people said the good man of
the East made the world, and everything in it. When the whites
(aine they called this man a God, and said he was above; but we
knew all about this before they came."

At the time of the Nez Perce war, in 1877, there was great tur-
moil and intense excitement at this agency, and even tne agent
feared that his Indians might be persuaded to join their old friends,
and so fearing was about to reniove his wife and children from tlie
danger, when Michelle went to him and said that he and his warriors
would protect the agent's fMiiily from all harm, and if they left it
would cast the shadow of an unjust suspicion on his friendship for
the whites. The agent was so deeply impressed witii the loNalty of
the old chief that lie concluded to trust the lives of his wife and
little ones to the care of these Indians, and in telling me the story
was visibly affected.

In this connection it seems proper to say that some fifteen years
ago a white man, a miner, was killed some eight miles below Mis-
soula, and the murder was attributed to the Indians. Michelle's son
was found near the place the next day, arrested by the enraged
whites and speedily hung. Before his death his father saw him, and
the young man swore that he was innocent ; but his father told him
that he could only be saved, or his death avenged, by a disastrous
war with the whites, and asked him to sacrifice his lift for tiie good
of his peoi)le ; told him to go bravely to deatii There was good
evidence afterwards to show that the murder had been committed by
members of another tribe, and that the boy was, as he clai -led,
innocent of the crime.

People. Push the extended index finger of right hand, bad; out,
other fingers and thumb closed, out to front and right of body ;it
differeiit heights, index finger pointing upwards.

People are also represented, of course, by proper signs for men,
women, aP'' hildren.

Deaf-niu..a form the letter P with each hand, and then raise and
lower the hands in front of body.

Pepper. Make sign for Flour, for Black j then hokl extended

302

PERHAPS— PIPE.

left hand, back down, in front of body ; move the right hand, back
up, over left in horizontal circle, rubbing tips of f.iigers and thumb
as though sprinkling with pepper. Indians rarely use pepper, and I
give the sign more to show how these gestures are coined than for its
practical value.

Deaf-mutes make their sign for Black, and shake right hand, as
though shaking pepper out of a box on something in front of one.

Perhaps. Conception : Two hearts. Bring side of right hand, at
base of tiiumb, against breast over heart, back of hand up, first and
second fingers extended, separated, pointing to left and front, other
fingers and thumb closed; by wrist action, turh the hand, so that
back of hand will be about to front ; then back to first position, re-
peating motion. I have also seen both hands used. This sign is
much used, nearly always when there is any doubt in the matter, and
in making a promise to an Indian it is of vital importance, as it is
next to impossible to explain a mistake (which they call a lie). A
promise once made, however trivial it may be, should be kept most
sacredly to the full spirit and letter. When it is desired to express
many conflicting emotions, or many doubts, as to different ])lans of
action, all the fingers and thumb of right hand are extended and
separated, held in the above-described position, and the hand turned
in the same way.

Deaf-mutes hold the nearly-extended hands, back down, in front
of body ; lower one and r?ise the other like a pair of balance-
scales.

Picket. (To picket animal.) Conception: Driving stake in tlie
ground. Make sign for Timher; then hold closed left hanil, thumb
up, in front of body, and strike it two or three times with closed
right hand, imitating the motion of driving pin in the ground.
This sign would, of course, mean driving any stake in tlie ground
if used separately ; but would be understood from its connection ;
i.e., the signs for the animal, Lariat, etc.

Piegan (Indian). Partially close the right hand ; i.e., keeping barks
of fingers from second joints to knuckles about on line with back of
iiar.d, ball of thumb resting on second joint of index ; hold the
hand close to lower part of right cheek, back of hand to right, edges
pointing upwards; move the hand, mostly by elbow action, in small
circle parallel to cheek. (See Blackkeet.)

Pipe. Conception : From manner of smoking. Bring hands,
backs down, in front of neck, left hand about height of chin and
few inches from it, right in front of left several inches and a little
lower, index fingers curved, others and thumbs closed ; move the
hands simultaneously to front and downwards few inches; repeat
motion. Frequently only the right hand is used, and either left or
right can be placed in front, where both are employed. Sometimes
the hands are closed as though grasping the long wooden stem
usually used by Indians.

Deaf-mutes indicate the shape, and then make a puffing motion
with the lips. They sometimes indicate the long German stem wiih

PIPE.

303

extended thumb and little finger of right hand, other fingers closed,
carrying hand from mouth well down and slightly to front.

Professor J. D. Butler, of Madison, Wisconsin, states " that pre-
historic pipes being found all over our country show dealings of all
sections with Minnesota, being made of a red stone which, it is said,
can be quarried only in or near one single county of that State, now
fitly named * Pii)e-stone,' "

Mr. James \y. Liiid gives the following legend of the quarry:
"The Pipe -Stone Quarry is a place of great imjwrtance to tlie Sioux.
From it they obtain the red-stone clay — Catlinite — of wliich their
pipes and images are formed ; and a peculiar sarredness is, in their
minds, attaciied to the place. Numerous high bluffs and cliffs sur-
round it; and the alluvial flat below these, in which the quarry is
situated, contains a huge boulder that rests upon a flat rock of glis-
tening, smooth ap[)earance, the level of which is but a few inches
ahove the surface of the ground. Upon the portions of this rock
not covered by the boulder above, and upon the boulder itseT, are
carved sundry wonderful figures, — lizards, snakes, otters, Indian gods,
r.'.bbits with cloven feet, muskrats with human feet, and other strange
;..'ul incomprehensible things, — all cut into tiic solid granite, and not
'■<()ut a great deal of time and labor expended in the perlbrniance.
: \'^ commoner Indians, even to this day, are accustomed to look
-.pon tliese with feelings of mysterious awe, as they call to miid the
legend connected tlierewith.

"A large party of Elianktonwanna and Teetonwan Dakotas, says
the legend, had gathered together at the quarry to dig the stone.
Upon a sultry evening, just before sunset, tlie heavens suddenly be-
came overclouded, accompanied by heavy rumbling thunder, and
every sign of an approaching storm, such as frequently arises on the
prairie without much warning. Each one hurried to his lodge ex-
pecting a storm, when a vivid flash of lightning, followed immedi-
ately by a crashing peal of thunder, broke over them, and, looking
towards the huge boulder beyond their camp, they saw a pillar or
columi] of otTS'ike standing upon it, which moved to and fro, and
grailually ^- Pitied down into the outline of a huge giant, seated upon
liie boulc'^r, witii one long arm extended to heaven and the other
poiiuiivj, . ov/r to his feet. Peal after peal of thunder, and flashes
cf lig. ':n . ';. quick succession, followed, and this figure then sud-
denly iiii^: j) ;< ctred. The next morning the Sioux went to this
boulder anct 'ou'^'t these figures and images upon it, where before
there had becii nothing; and ever since that the place has been
regarded as wakan, or sacred."

Tiiough this stone undoubtedly furnishes the be?t material for In-
dian pipes, yet the Comanches, Utes, Bannacks, and Shoshones use
a rather soft stone of greenish color. VVheMier they cannot obtain
stone of sufficient size, or do not care for such large pipes, I do not
know, but as a matter of fact their pipes are quite small.

Th Jtes, Bannacks, and Slioshones prefer and use cigarettes more
thai. '.'; viy do pipes, and the two latter smoke but little, usually after

304

PISTOL— PITY.

meals, and some of them only just before going to sleep. The stem
of tlie medicine-pipe is usiiully decorated with porcupine-work,
bright-colored skin of duck's head or neck, and a scalp-lock or
horse's tail and some ribbons.

In explanation they say that all these articles represent things that
are good to have ; that they moke the stem look well, and when they
pray to God with a pipe, it is good to have these things to offer him.
The skin of the duck is undoubtedly used on account of the asso-
ciation of this bird with the myth of creation.

The most mysterious pipe, or one possessing the strongest medi-
cine, is that of "Elk-Head's," spoken of in the story of the White
Buffalo.

Through all the stories and histories of the Indians the pipe has
been the emblem of jjeace and friendship, and has always played
an important part in their religious, war, and peace ceremonies.
To smoke " the pipe of peace" was essential to the perfection of
every compact of ♦"riendship or treaty entered into by these people,
and they usually i \->^ a pipe made and used only for this i)urpose,
the stem or tube L: om two to three feet long, one half-inch in

thickness, and from ; and one-half to three inches wide, and
decorated with cluck-skm, eagle-feathers, brass tacks, horse-hair, etc.
(See Smoke.) A pipe captured from an enemy is highly prized.

The |)artisan of a war-party, in former times, was the pii)e-bearer ;
but " Wasliakie," chief of the Shoshones, told me that on account
of so much treachery being perpetrated it was finally abandoned.

In addition to the stone pipes the tibia of the deer and antelope
were hollowed out at the largest end and used for pipes, but they
were not very durable. The thick muscle at the neck of a buffalo
bull or bull elk, twisted and dried, was also used for a pipe.

Pistol, Make sign for Gun, and hold up right hand, fingers and
thumb extended ; and left hand, thiuiib extended, fingers closed, — a
"six-shooter." Sometimes the sign for Gun is made, then the
length is marked off on left forearm with lower edge of right hand,
left hand extentled and slightly compressed.

Deaf-mutes denote a short gun, and then hold out right hand as
though firing a pistol.

Pity. (To pity some one else.) Conception : Cry or shed tears
for. Hold hands, i)alm downwards, in front of and near body,
hands few inches apart, equally advanced and same height, index
fingers extended and pointing upwards, other fingers and thumbs
closed ; move the hands outwards and slightly downwards, or
towards person.

Deaf mutes make gesture like Indian sign for "bless you."

Pity, (^Sense of others taking pity on one.) Hold hands well
out in front of body, as described above, but with backs out; bring
them towards body, slightly raising them. When saying "God
takes pity on one," hold hands higher than head, lower them when
bringing towards body. This only illustrates what I have said in
regard to position of place of person taking pity, etc. Some Indians

PLAN—PONCA.

305

make signs for Poor and Love, asking that such an interest be taken,
tliat one shall be fond of them; and then, of course, action will be
taken to relieve distress.

I have also seen signs made for " I am poor; give me something."

Plan. Make sign for Work or Make, for Search or Look, and
for Road or Trail. A good plan or project is a good trail or road;
it is easy to travel in it, etc. ; and a bad one begets all sorts of
trouble and distress.

Deaf-mutes touch forehead, and then hold tips of extended and
separated first and second fingers ct» left palm, back of left hand
down ; the right hand is turned so as to give different position to the
vertical fingers. (These latter probably are intended to indicate
measurement with a pair of dividers.)

Plant. Make signs for Corn, for Work, and then hold the com-
pressed right hand, back up, near right shoulder; move the hand
little to front, and then lower it (as though dropping seed in the
ground); raise the hand, move it farther to front, and again drop it
as before.

Deaf-mutes hold partially-closed left hand in front of body, and
drop the compressed right hand into left from above.

Poison-Vine. Make sign for Vine, and then indicate that wher-
ever it touches the body it kills the part.

Deaf-mutes indicate the vine, and then denote a swelling of the
part touched.

Ponoa (Indian). I have seen the forehead tapped with the right
hand fixed as in Arapahoe, and I have also seen signs for "sitting-
down soldier" and " shaved heads" made to denote them. I do not
think there is any distinct and well-known tribal sign in general use
by surrounding tribes.

The Poncas claim that the Omahas, Osages, Kaws, and two or
three other tribes, a long time ago, lived with them and spoke the
same vocal language. I could not trace definitely their migrations.
Big Bull, one of the headmen, said his grandfather told him that in
olden time? when the above-named tribes were with them, they
lived near the Atlantic Ocean, and in their westward migrations
became separated. They started on this movement from near
Washington, District of Columbia, the Kaws and Osages coming
across to Kansas, and the Poncas and Omahas going farther north, to
Northeastern Nebraska. They claimed that the Poncas were at one
time where the present city of St. Louis now stands. These several
tribes have about the same customs, manners, and habits, and differ
but slightly from the Pawnees. They call the sun God, and the
earth Grandmother, and pray to both when making supplication.
Tliey formerly roached the hair, but after meeting the Plains Indians
let it grow, and wore it like them.

There are five hundred and ten Poncas at the agency in the Indian
Territory, and one hundred and twenty-five on their old reservation
at the mouth of Running Water, in Northeastern Nebraska.

The agency buildings are located near numerous springs of fresh

io6

PONY.

water, two and one-half miles from the mouth of Salt River, on a
high mesa formed by a bend in the river. The buildings are new
and in good condition. There are seventy-nine small log and board
buildings, about twelve feet square, scattered out over the reserva-
tion, and near these ten acres of land have been laid out and fenced
with wire and one board. The land was broken mostly by agency
employes. The agency is well supplied with all that the Indians need
in the way of agricultural implements. The soil is fine, the country
a rolling prairie, well adapted to grazing, and if the rain supply does
not fail, good crops can be raised.

Pony. (See Horse.) The hardy little animal known as the Indian
pony is justly entitled by its royal blood to all of the best qualities
with which it has been accredited, viz., speed, endurance, and
docility. The thoroughbred barb-horse, of kindred origin with the
Arabian, cultivated by the Moors of Barbary, and introduced by
them into Spain, was the animal brought to America by the early
explorers ; also used by the Spanish cavalry which landed on the
shores of Mexico with Cortes, Narvaez, and others, and sent as
presents to the natives by the Spanish authorities. At that time
horses were not gelded, and mares and stallions were used indis-
criminately, and from this source are descended the wild horses of
America, and the immense herds owned by the Indians. The nativ s,
who were awe-struck and terrified by the sight of the first horse . J
discharge of the first gun, soon overcame their fears and greedily
seized upon both. Lashed into the travois, and made to carry
heavy burdens when very young, close in-breeding, and change of
climate, all these have been potent factors in reducing the size of
this horse, which, however, never was very large, though superior in
this respect to the Arabian.

The English and Dutch who colonized the present Eastern States
were poor. The French in Canada found the water-ways better
suited to their purposes than the use of horses overland, but in the
South, from Florida to California, climate and conditions were fav-
orable for the reception and propagation of this animal. The pres-
ent traditions of the Indian tribes are clear and positive in regard
to the introduction of the horse among them, and so far as the
great plains are concerned, what the railways have done for us this
animal did for them; in fact, it developed the Plains Indians. The
average height of an Indian pony is a little over thirteen hands,
weight about seven hundred pounds, clean flat limbs, small sound
feet, fine nostrils, excellent eyes, and broad foreheads. Those in
daily use with the Northern tribes become very thin and weak during
the winter months, but quickly fatten on the early spring grasses. In
winter, near the large villages, the grass is soon eaten off, even if the
deep snow has not buried it beyond the reach of the pony's power
of i)awing, and then the animal is subsisted mainly on cottonwood
bark, large trees being felled by the squaws for this purpose; and
when through fear of having the ponies stolen, or to guard agauist
Iheir straying off, they are picketed in the camp at night, each one

animal,
hand res
Indians
this anin

Indiar
times th
everythii
many br
well. T
They wei
been col<
containii
plant loo
after bei;
ready for

Portra
right, as
by index

All sigi
such artii
stood, an

PO OR—POR TRAIT.

307

iver, on a
s are new
and board
e reserva-
ind fenced
by agency
lians need
le country
upply does

the Indian
st qualities
•ance, and
in with the
oduced by
y the early
led on tlie
nd sent as
t that time
used indis-
Id horses of
Hie nativ s,
t horse . d
id greedily
e to carry

change of
the size of

superior in

stern States
vays belter
1, but in the
s were fav-
The pres-
e in regard
far as the
for us this
lians. 'I'he
leen hands,
[mall souml
Those in
kreak during
[grasses. In
even if the
juy's power
:ottonwood
Irpose ; and
|ard against
t, each one

is provided with a large bundle of limbs, and the bark from tliese
sticks is cleanly gnawed off. This bark is very nutritious and healthy.
Poor. (Possessions.) Hold left hand, back to left, in front of
body, index finger extended, pointing upwards and slightly to front,
other fingers and thumb closed ; bring right hand, back to front and
upwards, little above and slightly nearer body than left, other fingers
and thumb closed ; lower and raise the right hand two or three
times, mostly by wrist action, and as hand is lowered the sides of
index fingers rub against each other. To emphasize, turn the left
index by rotary motion, and press the side of right hand against it
as it passes down. Here the left index represents a person stand-
ing, and the motion of right indicates that the clothing is rubbed
off, — not removed, but torn away by the friction of ill fortune, — and
this condition represents the poverty under which the person is
suffering.

Deaf-mutes hold left forearm horizontally in front of body and
clasp the ; eeve on under side with thumb and index, dropping hand
as thougt^ indicating that same was torn into strips or rags.

Poor. (Emaciaed.) Conception: Flesh clawed off. Bring
hands, palms towards body, in front of and close to breast, hands
same height, fingers curved, edges horizontal ; move right hand to
right, left to left, curving fingers a little more. The hands are moved
as though clawing off flesh from ribs ; the flesh is scratched off by the
claws of sickness or starvation.

Deaf-inutes " draw a long face," and pass the spread thumb and
index of right hand down over cheeks, pressing them in slightly so
as to add to the hollow cheeks.

Porcupine. Hold right hand, as explained, to represent size of
animal, then make sign for Hair, the fingers more elevated, back of
hand resting on forearm. Frequently sign for Sew is made. Some
Indians make signs for eating bark, for Tail and Shooting, to denote
this animal.

Indian tribes as far west as the Rocky Mountains used in former
times the quills for garnishing moccasins, leggings, in fact, nearly
everything that is worn. They have the art of staining the quills in
many brilliant colors, and the work is not only beautiful but wears
well. The quills were used about as lavishly as beads are at present.
They were assorted and dyed by placing in fairly hot water which had
heen colored in some cases by ochre of the desired tint and a plant
containing a great deal of resinous, sticky, gummy substance. This
plant looks a little like sage, but has a yellow flower. The (juills
after being softened by the water are taken out, flattened, and are
ready for use. The tail is used for a comb or stiff hair-brush.

Portrait. Hold left hand as in Mirror, and make motion with
right, as though sketching something on left palm with pencil, held
by index and thumb.

All signs of this character are of course of very recent origin, and
such articles being rare among them, would not be readily under-
stood, and would usually require further explanation. The necessity

3o8

POSSESSION— PRAIRIE- DOG.

for this is evident when it is remembered that this gesture is the
same as the one for History ; it means a picture.

Deaf-mutes draw the crooked index of right hand down over centre
of forehead and face, over nose. This for picture, and usually add
signs for Form for portrait.

Possession. Hold closed right hand, back to right, in front of
neck and few inches from it, thumb extended and ball pressing side
of index at second joint, and pointing upwards; move the hand
slightly to front, at same time, by wrist action, turn it so that thumb
will point to front, back of thumb up. Both, hands are frequently
used, the left being under right, its back to left, hands about in
position of clasping and holding a stick vertically. Make the sign
for person, and this sign added would express belongs or belonged to
the person ; point to person and make this sign, would express
yours, his, hers, mine, theirs, etc.

Deaf-mutes push the extended right hand, palm out, to front,
fingers pointing upwards.

Powder. Hold extended left hand in front of body, back down,
and rub tips of fingers and thumb of right hand just over left palm.
(See Gunpowder.)

I once saw an Indian make motion with right hand, as though
pouring powder out of a horn into left palm.

Prairie. Bring the little fingers of extended hands, palms up,
alongside of each other, in front of body, fingers pointing to front;
separate the hands, carrying right well to right, left to left. Some-
times the extended right hand, bad. down, is held well in front of
and lower than right shoulder, fingers pointing to front; move the
hand a few inches, mostly by wrist action, to left two or three inches;
repeating motion, as though cutting with edge, — all obstacles, hills,
etc., are cut away. This is also the sign for Bv Itself, and is used
in free-gift, fainting, murder, acci'dent, etc. Some Indians, after
niakii ; sign for Level Country, make sign for Tree and for No.

Deai-mutes use the first-described gesture, holding backs of hands
up.

Prairie-Dog. Hold the right hand well down in front and to
right of body to denote height of animal ; then make sign for Hole ;
then hold partially-closed left hand, back out, in fror*. of body;
bring compressed right hand from below up against left palm, and
when thumb and index are above left index, snap them as in Litile
Talk. This denotes the chattering noise made by these little ani-
mals. Sometimes after the height of the animal the right hand is
bent back at wrist to indicate a little animal sitting on end, and then
the sign for Little Talk, made generally several times to denote
the chirping.

The prairie-dog, owl, and snake live in the same hole. This little
owl is called the dancing-owl by the Indians, and kills the snake by
watching when he comes out of the hole, seizes him by the back of
the neck and chokes him to death. The Arapahoes claim to have
seen half-eaten snakes, and they also claim that the snake eats quite

PRAY.

309

goodly-sized prairie-dogs, and about this they were very positive.
Tiiey call the smaller species, found through the Rocky Mountains
from the British to the Mexican line, the black-eyed or black-browed
prairie-dog, in distinction from the larger species found on the Plains
between the same lines. The difference in size strangely corresponds
to the difference in stature of the Plains and Mountain Indians.

"The prairie-dogs, peaceable citizens and the only rightful owners
of the homes which their own industry had provided them, are joined
by two squatters, — the snakes and the owls. The dogs being socially
disposed, not only allowed them to remain undisturbed, but in visiting
each other at their respective homes, left their babies unprotected in
their nests at home, not suspecting danger. The rattlesnakes, taking
a mean advantage of their simple-minded neighbors, devoured one
or more of the little innocents during their absence, and as prairie-
dogs can't count, and as their families are usually numerous, they
remain ignorant of the foul crimes daily perpetrated in their midst.
The owl now appears as an actor in this little tragic drama. He
feeds upon vermin, moles, etc. ; but I am informed upon reliable
authority that this owl is also very fond of baby rattlesnakes, and re-
turns the compliment of Mr. Snake for his kind attention to the
prairie-dogs by eating up the young snakes; thus swift retribution is
dealt to this base and ungrateful wretch, who so unworthily occupies
his squatter's quarters in the burrow of the unoffending prairie-dog.
I suppose the real truth is that nature has grouped them together so
that they may prey upon one another, and thus prevent the too rapid
increase of these troublesome animals."

The Arapahoes give four species of prairie-dogs : the two above
mentioned, — i.e.. Plains prairie-dog, the one found in the mountains
in the higher altitudes, — the marmot, and the large squirrels.

Pray. Indians make vocal petitions to the God or force which
they wish to assist them, and also make prayer by pointing the long
stem of the pipe. The Poncas call the sun God or Grandfather, and
the earth Grandmother, and pray to both when making supplications.
Running Antelope, a chief of the Uncapapa band of Sioux, said, in
regard to pointing the pipe-stem, that the mere motion meant, "To
the Great Spirit: give me plenty of ponies, plenty of meat; let
me live in peace and comfort with my wife, and stay long with my
children. To the Earth, my Grandmother: let me live long; hold
me good and strong. When I go to war give me many ponies, and
let me count many * coups.' In peace let not anger enter my heart."

The four winds towards which the pipe is pointed frequently are,
first, to the southwest (place where ponies come from); second, to
the southeast (place where there are many people) ; third and fourth,
to the northeast and northwest, whence come deep snows and buffalo.

It seems a startling assertion, but it is, I think, true, that there
are no people who pray more than Indians. The God or force to
which they appeal is in their regard as omnipotent as all the forces
of nature ; as invisible as music ; as indefinite and intangible as all
space, and both superstition and custom keep always in their minds

3IO

PREDICT— PRIES T.

the necessity for placating the anger of the invisible and omnipotent
power, and for su])plicating the active exercise of his faculties in
their behalf.

Deaf-mutes place the palms of extended hands together in front of
body, fingers pointing to front and upwards, and incline the head.

Predict. There are naturally many ways of expressing this, as in
the relation of the dreams and visions following the sweat-bath, the
Sun-Dance, or prolonged fasting in solitude ; and then the signs for
Distant, Talk, and Good would be made. (See well into the future.)

Frequently the sign for Little Talk is made opposite and close
to right ear, and then sign for Distant ; coming' events cast not their
shadows but their sounds before, and many Indians pretend at least
to hear the whisperings.

Deaf-mutes hold extended left hand in front of face, fingers point-
ing to right ; carry right fixed as in See or Look under left. (See-
ing under left hand, seeing things partially hidden.)

President. Make sign for Whites, for Chief, for Big or Great,
and frequently point in direction of city of Washington ; or, make
sign for Sit in that direction.

Sometimes the signs for chief standing high above all others in the
East are made, and at times the right hand is swung circularly around,
before the signs for Big and Chief are made. (The big chief of all.)
I saw among the Blackfeet the sign for Ashamed made, — the idea
seeming to be that he was too great a chief for one to look at face to
face. I never saw this but once.

Deaf-mutes make their signs for Chief Ruler and for United
States.

Pretty, (See Handsome.) Sometimes both hands are held in
front of face, and then the sign for Good is made, as though face
seen in a mirror.

Prickly-Pear. Form partial ellipse with thumb and index of right
hand, other fingers closed ; hold this hand near the ground or floor,
the plane of the ellipse being at an angle about such as the fleshy
plant frequently assumes ; then with the extended index of right
hand, other fingers closed, make one or two thrusts near foot, to in-
dicate the action of the spines of the plant when one accidentally
hits or touches it.

Priest. Conception : Black-robed. Make signs for Coat, carry-
ing hands well down, and for Black j usually sign for Whites is first
made. Very frequently called Medicine-Man, and by some Old
Man, establishing in this way a sort of kinship with the God who
made them.

The Crows, Piegans, Bloods, Blackfeet, Koutenays, Fend d'Oreil-
les, Flatheads, and some others call the God who made them the
"Old Man." This was explained to me, however, on the ground
that, as he had been talked about for such a long, long time, they
gave him this name to simplify matters and avoid d* scriptions. The
black-robed, the white-robed, the long dress, the old man, and the
man who talks to the medicine-chief in the sun or the heavens, are

PRISONER— PUSH.

the names by which priests and ministers generally are known. For
the Jesuits, sometimes the index dngers are crossed on breast.

Deaf-mutes make the «■' a of tlie cross on the breast, and touch the
tips of fingers above heaa, hands extended, palms towards head.

Prisoner. Conception : Bound at wrists. Close the hands, and
.ross the wrists, in front of body, usually right resting on left,
tliumbs up.

Deaf-mutes use the same sign.

The Southern and Eastern tribes have in times past perpetrated
many fiendish cruelties on their captives, but it must in justice be
said of the Plains Indians that they have not, as a rule, tortured their
prisoners, — I mean reserve them for death by torture ; particularly
has this been the case with the Sioux, Cheyennes, and Arapahoes.

In their inter-tribal warfare the men were killed at once, the
women and children adopted into the tribe.

Private. (To talk to a person privately, secretly.) Hold ex-
tended left hand, back up, in front of left breast, fingers pointing to
front and right ; make sign for Little Talk, under and close to
left palm. This represents a confidential talk ; the idea being that
the conversation will be hidden away from the rest of the world.

Deaf-mutes close the right hand, thumb extended, ball pressing
against second joint of index; place the back of thumb against lips,
and then push the right hand under left, held as explained in the
Indian sign.

Proud. This is used by Indians mostly in the sense of vain.
Make signs for Paint, Dress, and after each sign for Good, and
perhaps for Fond. (Fond of fine dress, vain of personal appear-
ance.)

Deaf-mutes close the fingers of right hand, and pass the tip of ex-
tended thumb up over centre of breast.

Pueblo. Make sign for Mexican, for Work or Make, for Blanket,
and Striped.

All the Pueblo Indians are called Mexicans who make the striped
blanket. This is the general sign in the North.

Mr. Ben Clarke, the able interpreter and relialjle scout at Fort
Reno, Indian Territory, said in regard to this, "The Indians here
have no sign for the Lipans, unless you include them in the sanje lot
with the New Mexico Indians, south of the Utes, the Mescalero
Apaches, and Pueblos ; they make sign for tying hair behind the
head for all of them."

Push. Firmly close the hands, and hold them near breasts, hold-
ing hands and forearms rigid; move them to the front as with an
effort.

This gesture is also used for Must.

Deaf-mutes use the same sign.

312

QVARREL— QUIVER.

Quarrel. Hold extended index fingers, pointing upwards, oppo-
site each otlier and several inches apart, in front of body, tips little
lower than shoulders, other fingers and thumbs closed, back of right
hand about to right, left about to left, hands equally advanced ; by
wrist action move tips of index fingers, first right tip towards left in-
dex finger, then left towards right, repeating motions, and executing
them sharply. This is also used for scolding ; the two fingers repre-
sent two people, figuratively speaking, flying at each other. Some
make signs for Talk and Bad, ar.d still other Indians use the sign
for Abuse.

Deaf-mutes hold the extended index fingers horizontally, tips about
four inches apart ; the hands are moved to right and left, keeping
same relative positions.

Queen. Make signs for Female, for Chief, and Big.

Sometimes they call the Queen of England the Great Mother, and
of course make signs accordingly.

Quench. Make sign for Fire ; then hold extended right hand,
back up, over the point where sign for Fire was made, and lower
the hand : then make sign for Wiped Out.

This gesture is used metaphorically a great deal ; a disturbance or
outbreak frequently being represented as a fire.

Question. See Interrogate.

Deaf-mutes point the extended index of right hand, other fingers
closed, and then crook or curve same.

Quick. Make sign for Hurry.

Deaf-mutes make same gesture.

Quiet Down. Hold extended hands, backs up, in front of body,
at about height of shoulders, fingers pointing to front ; lower the
hanvis slowly.

Dtaf-mutes use the sau^e sign.

Quiver. Carry partially-closed and compressed right hand a little
above and slightly in rear of left shoulder; then move the hand
upwards to front and right, as though drawing an arrow from a
quiver supposed to be carried upon the back.

"The Pawnee bow-case and quiver are made of skin, dressed to
be as impervious as possible to moisture. The usual material was
elk-skin. Indians who could afford it sometimes made a quiver and
case of the skin of an otter or panther. In removing a skin which
was to be used for this purpose from the carcass, care was exercised
that every particle of the skin — that of the head, tail, and even the
claws — should be retained, and appear in the case when finally made
up. Cases of this make, with their heavy coating of fur, were virtu-
ally water-proof, and were very highly prized." {Dunbar S)

WI
case,
is pris
are n
strap
heavil
qiiivei
Navaj

QUIVER.

l^Z

Whatever fur or skin may be used for the arrow-quiver and bow-
case, tlie liair is usually left on in tanning. The mountain-lion skin
IS prized most highly for war purposes. Extremely handsome ones
are made by the Crows, mainly of otter, and that portion of the
strap by which the quiver is carried, passing across the breast, being
heavily beaded and fringed with ermine. This particular style of
quiver is as much a specialty of the Crows as the blanket is of the
Navajos

'H "I , »■"

^mi

314

RABBIT— RAIL IVA Y.

Rabbit. Indicate tlie height, and th,en make sign for Ji'mp, moving
the liand on sliort curves, repeating motion three or four times.

P.«?ccoon. Indicate height ; make signs for Taii-.

Race. Indicate what with, and then move tlie index fingers to
front, as in I'.cjUAl-.

Deaf-mntes make their sign for Strucole or Effort, and then
sign like Indian gesture for Fast.

Racing is one of the standard amusements of all tribes, and so
often and thoroughly are the horses and young men tested that their
relative speed is known to within a few feet, but I never knew (hat
any of their races partook of a sacred clurarter until I received tiic
following from Mr. K. L. Clark :

"There is a custom, however, still kept up among them (the
Wichiitas^ which sometimes obtains credence with others, for being
performed to produce rain, bat which is really perpetuated througli
a belief that if the jiractice is discontinued their existence will soon
come to an end, — a belief that is vitalized in the same way that other
traditions are kept alive among the wilder tribes, such as the Sun-
Dance, etc.

"This is their annual run or foot-race, of about five or ten miles
distance, i'. which all their able-bodied men engage, and takes place
every spring."

In their foot-races any advantage which one runner can secure
over another by trickery is not only considered proper and fair, but
is commended, and the same principle obtains in their i)ony-races,
the latter of which are usually for short distances, four hundred yards
being the favorite. The animals, as a rule, receive no special prep-
aration, and rarely are any precautions taken in regard to feeding
them before the race. The boys ride without a saddle and if behind,
usually whip from the first jump to the end of the course, legs and
arms flying; but his perfect seat, harmony of motion of horse and
rider, does n )t allow this to interfere as much with the stride and
speei r.r, one would imagine or naturally expect

Usually, whatever is wagered is placed in a pile at the winning-
post, and very rarely is there any dispute over the result of the race,
and at times so reckless is the betting that they are reduced from
comparative wealth to abject poverty.

Railway. Make signs for Wagon, for Fire, holding right hand
in front of and highe*- than head, and then sign for Fast. Fre-
quently only signs for Wagon and Fast are made.

Deaf-mutes indicate the iron rails and movement over same by
holding extended and separated index and second finger in front of
body, pointing to front, other fingers and thumb closed; then jring

KAIN.

S»5

IP, moving
times.

fingers to

1 and tlKMi

es, and so

1 that tlicir

knew that

iceivcd the

them (tlic
, for iteiiig
;vl through
; will soon
that other
s the Sun-

r ten miles
:ikes i)la{0

-an secure
d tair, hut
ony-races,
Ired yards
,'cial prep-
to feeding
if beiiinil,
, legs and
horse and
tritle and

winning-

the race,

iceil from

ight hand
ST. Tre-

same by
n front of
hen jring

right hand similarly fixed, and place tips of index and second finger
on knuckles of index and second of left hand, back of right Ik iid
outwards, fingers vertical; move the right hand to front, ti])s of
index and second jjassing over and touching backs of index and
second of left hand.

Rain. Conception : Falling from clouds. Hold closed hands,
backs up, in front of body, about height of head, the hands near
eac h other, equally advanced and same height ; lower the hands
slightly, mostly by wrist action ; at same ilme open, nearly extend,
and separate fingers and thund)s ; in this position fingers point about
downwards; repeat motion two or three times.

An Indian once sai<i to me that as the clouds settled they were
pressed together and the water was forced.

Deaf-mutes make their sign for Watkk, and then bolding ex-
tended hands, backs u|), in front of body, at about height of head;
lower the hands, at same time rubbing tips of thumbs and fingers.

When I was at the Wichita Agency, in the Indian Territory, I
was told some remarkable stories by a Mr. Spooner, the trader, in
regard to the f)ower of the Wichita and Cr.ddo "medicine" for
rain. He was an honest, sensible, practical man, relia'ole and trust-
worthy, yet the necromancy of those Indians had made a great im-
pression on his mind, — so great, that it fell little short of conviction
that tiiey could really produce rair.. His experience extended
over several years, and on two or three oc,f:i,sions, after a drougiit,
when it seemed ;'.:i though the crops would certainly be destroyed,
the Indians had gone through the religious ceremony of their Medi-
cine-Dance for rain, and rain it did. Once he said he was spe-
cially impressed. For weeks there Viad been no rain, the ear'.h was
parched and burnt ; the heat had been inten.se ; day after day the
same brassy, cloudless sky; when one evening, as the sim like a
great ball of fire was sinking in the west, one of the Inilians came
to his store and told him tliat it was going to rain the next day.
There was not a cloud to be seen, not a sign which indicated any-
thing of the sort, and questioning the Indian, he ascertained that
they had been having the Medicine-Dance for three days, and
that afternoon their medicine-man had assured them that their
prayers had been heard, and that it would rain the next day, — and it
did.

I endeavored to investigate the matter, and meeting "Big Man,"
chiei of the Caddos, asked him about it. He pointed out the place
where they had their medicine house for rain, and ex|)laiM' 1 that
it was only used for the purpose of bringing rain through their lance,
which was a religious ceremony, in the efficacy of which lU'V had
perfect confidence. "Big Man" wa^ suspicious, and refu.'td a: first
to tell me anything of the ceremony (I was conversing wito him in
gesture speech), saying he was afraid of me. They have been forced
to give up so many of their superstitions, so many of their beliefs
have fallen before the aggressive warfare of the advocates of the
Christian religion, that he feared they would be forced to give this

^mm

316

RAINBOW— RAPIDS.

up if he explained it to me ; and having perfect confidence and
absolute faith in its power to bring rain, one can readily understand
how reluctant he would be to take any chances against its loss. I
succeeded in gaining his confidence, and he briefly said that some
thirty or forty men gathered and danced under the immediate super-
vision of the medicine-man, each one having a ra'tle filled with red
beans, and the dancing continued from four to six days. The squaws
brought cooked ])rovisions for them, and the supply was, as a usual
thing, very bountiful, and was usually brought before the dancing
commenced. He said this dance was similar to the one practised
by the Wichitas for the same purpose,

At Fort Berthold I was told the following story in regard to
rain, elicited by my question as to who they thought made the
rain :

"Long, long ago there was a famous Gros Vertre hunter. He
prided himself on the great amount of game he killed, and if a day
passed without some success on his part he was sad and dejected. His
fame was very great. One day, after killing a large amount of game, he
lay down and fell asleep. The four eagles — golden, bald, spotted-tail,
and brown — seized him and carried him to the Thunder-Bird's nest,
which was on a high bluff with perpendicular sides of rock. He
tried in every way to find a trail down, but failed. In looking for
the trail he discovered the young eagles and young Thunder-Birds,
who told him why he had been brought there, viz., 'That an im-
mense snake, with two heads and long horns, came from the adjacent
lake and ate them.' The eagles returned, confirmed the story, and
asked him to kill the snake. One foggy day the snake came as usual,
and expecied to have a feast of the young birds, but the hunter fired
his arrow at it, and wounded it, and then, with a long knife he had,
he cut it in two parts, and then each of these into four, and then, at
the request of the eagles, he cut these parts into small pieces. Then
they called all the birds of the air there for a feast, and at this feast
he discovered that the birds made the rain."

Rainbow. Make signs for Rain, for Finished; then pass the right
hand, back up, above head, parallel to arch of heavens. Some
Indians also make sign for Medicine, and say it belongs to the
rain and thunder. Some tribes call it the Great Spirit's fish-line,
•and say it is " big medicine to drive away the rain." It is also called
"the rain's hat." Some tribes have vulgar names for it. . If seen
in the east, it is considered as a sign of bad weather; in the west,
good.

Deaf-mutes use spread thumb and index to "span the heavens."

Bapids. Make sign for Stream or River, for Rock, and then
hold right hand, back up, near breast, fingers extended, separated,
and pointing to front and downwards; move the hand swiftly to
front and downwards, giving it a tremulous motion, mostly by wrist
action.

Deaf-mutes indicate water (not deep), and by a wavy, tremulous
motion of hands indicate the current.

RASH— RED.

317

Rash. Make sign for Foolish or Crazy. Some indiccate it by
saying, "A person went along witliout looi<ing." This amounts to
the same thing, as an Indian would be considered crazy who would
do this.

Deaf-mutes indicate careless or foolish bravery. For careless they
pass the right hand from right to left in front of forehead, index and
second finger extended. For foolish the little finger and thumb are
extended.

Rattle. Hold the closed right hand in front of and higher than
right shoulder J shake the hand as though holding and shaking a
rattle.

The rattle is made from gourd-shells, birch-bark, par-fleche, etc.,
and from four to ten inches in diameter. The handle is short, usually
about one foot in length. Inside the gourd, or whatever is used, are
inserted small pebbles, bits of deer-hoof, or something that will make
a sound. The Plains Indians use mostly the rattle made of uiitanned
skin, and attached to the handle is a scalp or buffalo-tail, or the long
hair from the forehead of the buffalo. The rattle is not ordinarily
used in dances, but possesses a sacred character, and is used mostly by
the medicine-men, and to such an extent in sickness that it might
fairly be considered the doctor's badge of office. The noises made
are certainly disagreeable enough to drive away anything or anybody
tliat could go ; and disease being a malign spirit that has invaded
the body, the Indian doctor rattles, gurgles, and shouts till the spirit
leaves.

Rattlesnake. Make sign for Snake ; then hold right hand in
front of right shoulder, index finger extended and pointing upwards ;
shake the hand, and give a sharp vibratory motion to index. Fre-
quently a hissing sound is made to imitate the noise made by the
rattles.

Deaf-mutes make their sign for Snake, and then hold right fore-
arm horizontally in front of body; place left hand nea' Ibow, left
index extended and pointing upwards, other fingers .md thumb
closed ; give a vibratory motion to left index.

Ravine. Indicate the cut banks, or describe the character of the
formation.

Reach (To). See Arrive There.

Recover. Hold right hand, back U]), in front of right breast,
index fi^iger extended and pointing to left and front ; raise the hand,
at same time turn it, mostly by wrist action, back to front and index
l)ointing upwards ; one is near death by disease ; this is used to
denote the recovery; one is in great danger, barely escaped. The
gesture is also used to denote the fact that one lives, and is used
metaphorically in regard to the remainder left after spending a part
of one's money.

Deaf-mutes indicate a flow of blood and rip palms of hands.

Red. Conception : Paint used on the face. Rub the right cheek
with palmar surface of first joints of fingers of right hand, fingers
extended, touching, pointing upwards; circular motion of hand.

318

REFRESH— RE TREA T.

Deaf-mutes touch lower lip with tips of fingers of right hand.

Refresh. Explain the cause and make sign for Recover.

Relieve. Explain in what way. To illustrate : suijpose a sentinel
on a butte, and you are ordering one out to relieve him, point to or
make sign for person, and signs for Go and Bluff; with left hand
for Arrive There ; right hand moved out to left for Tell or Talk, for
Soldier, for Sit, holding left hand as in Bluff and right resting on
left ; for arrive or come here, point to or make sign for person, for
Sit, and for Search or Look. This would order a person to go out
to the bluff, tell the soldier there to come in, and for the person to
stay there and look, or watch the country about the bluff.

The manner in which our troops are sometimes posted as sentinels
or pickets is a matter of amusement and derision to Indians. A
vidette is placed on the highest point near camp and marches up and
down his "beat" regularly, and can be easily seen by these keen-
eyed people miles and miles away; they don't have to be close
enougli to recognize the dress, the movement is sufficient ; it is a
man, and surely no one but a white man, for an Indian would only
have his head above the crest of the hill, and even that concealed
by some brush, rock, tree, or tuft of grass.

Our method has one advantage. If any one is lost from camp, he
has a good landmark to find his way back, and this is the best that
can be said of it.

Remain. Make sign for Sit. Sometimes, but not often, the sign
for Wait is made.

Deaf-mutes close the fingers of both hands and extend the thumbs;
then cross the thumbs, placing boll of right on left thumb-nail.

Remember. Make signs for Heart and for Know. Frequently
the sign for Keep is made in such sentences as, I will remember; I
want you to remember.

I have also seen the signs for Not Lost and Heart Knows By
AND By made.

Deaf-mutes place palmar surface of extended fingers of right hand
on foreliead, and then cross tiiumbs as explained under Remain.

Repeat. Make sign for Often.

Deaf-mutes make sign for Again, and repeat same ; for Again,
they place the tips of fingers of rigiit hand, held partially com-
pressed, on left palm, latter held in front of body, back down.

Restrain. Make sign for Hold and for Keep Quiet.

Deaf-mutes hold left hand well in front of body, clasp it with right,
and draw it back.

Retreat. Indians or troops driven back ; or warriors charge and
repulse, etc. Tiie attack is indicated as in Charge, and then the
hands are turned, mostly by wrist action, so that fingers point to
rear, and the hands moved quickly or slowly according to the nature
of tlie retreat. With Indians a scattering is also usually indicated.

Deaf-mutes denote the marching of soldiers by holding hands in
front of body, nngers extended, separated, and pointing downwards,
one hand few inches behind the other; the retreat is indicated by

RlZn— RISING MAN.

319

moving hands to rear. They also sometimes make their sign for
Overcome.

Rich. There is no one gesture ; must be explained. To say that
one had many ponies would express riches, however.

Deaf-mutes indicate a great deal of money.

Ride. To ride an animal, hold hands as in Horse, and then
move hands to front on short vertical curves.

To ride on a wagon or other vehicle, make sign for same, and
then sign for Sit on left palm ; extended left hand held in front of
body, fingers pointing to front.

Deaf-mutes use the same signs.

The Comanches and Utes are considered by many Indians the best
horsemen, and the Nez Perces and Cayuses as having the best or
fastest ponies. The Southern Indians perform more daring and diffi-
cult feats on horseback, and are more exjjert in the use of the lasso
than the Northern. Nearly all Indians I have seen use very short
stirrups in ordinary riding, but on an emergency not only strip them-
selves, but ride their ponies •** bare-back" ; this not only in fighting,
but in swimming dangerous streams, etc. In covering long dis-
tances, such as with war-parties, etc., a fast, "scuffling" walk or
slow trot are the usual gaits, making about five miles an hour, and a
halt made at noon, the animals unsaddled, and turned out to graze,
or picketed close by the little fire made for cooking.

Ridge. Bring closed hands, backs out, close together (edges
touching) in front of body, hands about height of shoulder ; sepa-
rate hands, moving right to riglit, left to left. Sometimes one
extended hand is used, held in front of body, forearm and index
finger horizontal.

Deaf-mutes use the same sign.

Ring, f Finger.) Hold extended left hand, back up, in front of
body; I juch back of one or more of the fingers, just in front of
kn.ckhs, with tip of right index, other fingers closed.

The hands could change position. The exchange of a ring be-
tween the sexes has at the present time a very strong and tender sig-
nificance. The men seem even more fond of wearing finger-rings
than the women. I have been told that special importance has been
given to rings since they have had intercourse with the whites. A
young man may be goine; to war, meets his sweetiieart, tells her he
is going away, and s" vs, " I want to marry you when I come back
from war," pulls ofi a ring and gives it to her, and if she receives
it the action signifies her consent ; and when he is away, by looking
at it she is reminded of her absent lover.

Rising Man. Make sign for or point to person; then hold left
hand, pahn nearly outwards, in front of body, about height of neck,
iiKKA finger extended and pointing upwards, others and thumb (l^'-fid ;
bring extended index of right hand alongside of the left, but lower,
other fingers and thumb closed ; raise the right hand slowly, right
index pressing lightly against side of left. The right index repre-
sents the "rising man," and frequently the left some well-known

BHBW

320

RIVER— ROSE-BVD.

man of eminence; he being mentioned, and the gesture showing that
the other was attaining an equal, if not greater, eminence. Some-
times the right index is raised by itself, then sign for By and By and
Chief made.

Biver. Conception : Water flowing or moving. Make sign for
Water ; then from this position carry hand little to left of face, close
to it, and height of neck, index finger extended and pointing to
left, other fingers and thumb closed ; move the hand to right until
about opposite right shoulder, keeping index horizontal. This means
any stream of water.

Deaf-mutes make their sign for Water, and then indicate its flow
by passing extended right hand from left to right in front of body.

Road. (Wagon.) Make sign for Trail and for Wagon. Some
Indians add sign for Whites, and I have seen the backs of the hands
up in Trail.

Deaf-mutes hold the hands several inches apart, palms towards each
other, fingers pointing to front, in front of and close to body j then
move the hands to front.

Rock. Make sign for Hard. Sometimes indicate shape.

Deaf-mutes hold the closed left hand, back up, in front of body;
close the right hand, and with second joints strike two or three
times the knuckles of left hand.

Images are carved on the sandstone rocks by some of the medicine-
men, and the kind and groupings of the figures are suggested to
them in a dream or vision. They sometimes repair to the rocks,
and remain seated and lying on top for four nights and days fasting,
— neitlier water nor food during this time, — and if blessed with a
vision of some special remedy to cure disease, or the location of
the camps of their enemies, and if afterwards by a happy use of the
remedy satisfactory results ensue, or the war expedition is success-
ful, the images receive a rude worship-; and in some cases sacrifices
and gifts are made to them long afterwards as the Indians pass by.
A famous rock of this kind is located on Painted Rock Creek, near
the Big Horn Mountains, a stream emptying into the Big Horn
River. The fissures of the rock and the ground near its base are
strewn with beads, bits of clothing, etc., — gifts or sacrifices for good
luck.

At times this same practice obtains near old battle-grounds where
a signal victory was secured, and figures carved on the rock receive
the same sacrificial worship.

Rope. Hold hands as in After, then, as right hand is drawn to
rear, by wrist action, make tip of index describe a spiral curve.

Deaf-mutes bring left hand, back up, in front of body ; place as
nearly as possible the second finger on back of index, its tip rather
hooked on to the tip of index.

Rose-Bnd. Hold partially-curved and slightly-compressed left
hand; fingers little separated, back to left and front, in front of body,
index finger horizontal and pointing to right and front ; bring right
hand similarly fixed to right and front of left, and make motion with

ROTTEN— RUN AGAINST.

321

right as though picking or pulling off berries from tips of fingers of left
hand.

Rotten. For wood, make motion of striking it, and then sign for
Dust or Powdkr. For rotten meat, indicate smell, etc.

Rough. Same as Bad Lands, without making sign for Cut
Banks.

Deaf-mutes move the right hand on short curves to front, to indi-
cate the rough surface.

Run (To). Make signs for Walk and for Fast; or hold hands,
backs about outwards, in front of body, with right nearest to it, index
fingers extended, right pointing to left, left to right, other fingers
and thumbs closed, tip of right index opposite base of left; raise
right hand, and carry it to front briskly, right index passing horizon-
tally above left ; when beyond it, lower right hand slightly ; as right
hand stops, carry left to front similarly, and bring right back to its
first position, right index passing under left as it is brought back ;
repeat motion two or three times. The wrists are held a little
loosely, so as to give a vibratory motion to index fingers as the hands
stop; the hands stop rather suddenly; in fact, the motions are exe-
cuted briskly by jerks.

Run Against. Hold extended left hand, back out, well in front
of body, fingers pointing to right ; hold extended right hand, back
about outwards, near body, fingers \.^ ting downwards, knuckles
height of left index ; move right hand out briskly, back of fingers
of right hand striking sharply against left palm and inner surface of
left fingers. This is used to represent both mounted and dismounted
persons running against anything ; to denote also a falling off or
over, make above sign, and then sweep right hand outwards beyond
to right, and lower than left, turning palm up, and fingers pointing
to front.

Deaf-mutes hold extended left hand well in front of body, back
out, fingers pointing to right; the extended right hand, back to right,
fingers pointing to front, is thrust out so that tips of fingers strike
left palm.

«t

322

SABRE— SAC.

Sabre. Make sign for Long Knife, and sometimes add motions
for il rawing sabre from scabbard.

Deaf-mutes make this latter sign.

Sao (Indian). Make sign for Shaved-Head.

Tiiis branch of the Algonquin family, known as the Sac and Fox
tribe, formerly occupied the central and eastern portions of Wis-
consin. Tlie coalition* of the two bands is known to have taken
place as far back as 17 12, and perhaps long before that. By inter-
marriage and other influences tiiey have coalesced, and can now
only be considered as one band or tribe. Their wars with the Chip-
pewas were, like all family quarrels, of an intensely bitter and sav-
age nature. Their relations with the Sioux to the Northwest were
those of both peace and war, — the latter predominating in later
years. Witli the VVinnebagoes they were generally at peace. Forced
to the Southwest from Fox River by their enemies, they occupied
the Rock River Valley until 1804, when they ceded that country to
the United States by treaty, but with the proviso that they could use
it for hunting-ground until it was needed by white settlers. It was
to regain possession of this valley that the Black Hawk war of 1832
was undertaken. This war was inaugurated by the murder and
mutilation of their agent, a Mr. St. Vrain, at Rock Island, where
they then had their agency. The Indians had promised to move
and remain west of the Mississippi, but in the spring of that year
Black Hawk moved his entire village to the east side, and announced
his intention of planting corn in the valley of Rock River, — the
announcement uniioubtedly being meant as an excuse for his action.
Messages had been sent to the Chippewas, lowas, Sioux, Winne-
bagoes, and other tribes, and though they sympathized with the up-
rising, yet none but the Winnebagoes became entangled in the war
and suffered by the subsequent defeat. In 1820 they occupied the
Mississippi Valley between Prairie du Chien and Rock Island.
There is now a small remnant in Iowa and a few in Nebraska, but
the majority of the tribe are in the Indian Territoiy, having j^one
there under the treaty of 1867. Their agency is located on Deep
Creek.

Though the soil in the bottom-lands there is rich, yet the uncer-
tainty of rain and v-onsequent frequent fadure of the crops has been
very discouraging to those Indians disposed to engage in agriculiure.
They liave, however, made some progress.

Keokuk, the present head-chief, a son of the ohl chief Keokuk,
was burn at the mouth of Rock River in 1825. He has adopteii the
" white man's road," li- s in a small brick house, has a white woman
for a wife, posse:.ses a goodly herd of cattle and cultivated fields,

SACRED—SADDLE.

323

wears citizen's dress, and has so far progressed in Christianity that
he occasionally preaches in the little chapel at the agency. He
claims that his tribe learned the sign language from the Plains In-
dians, and that vocally the Kickapoos, Shawnees, Ottawas,«Potto-
wattomies, Chippewas, Menominees, Sacs and Foxes, all speak about
tlie same tongue, with some slight dialectical differences, which do
not prevent them from understanding each other.

About the creation he said, "God made the Sacs out of yellow,
and the Foxes out of red, earth."

They now bu y their dead in the ground much after the manner
of the whites, though they formerly placed the remains in a sitting
posture.

They have one annual Medicine-Dance, usually held just after the
budding of the leaves in spring, and to participate in this one must,
with much ceremony, be initiated into the medicine-lodge.

At the death of a member of the fraternity a dance is held, and an
election takes place to fill the vacancy.

Tiie agent, in his report for 1881, gives the population of this
tribe as four hundred and forty, and thirty-two of the Missouri Sacs
anfl Foxes.

Sacred. See Medicine.

Sacred Arrow. Make signs for Arrow and for Medicine.

Some of the tribes claim that their God appeared in person, and
gave them, among other things, arrows. These they kept most
sacredly, and handed them down from father to son for many gen-
erations. Nearly all these arrows are now gone, being swept away
by the vicissitudes of war and the trials of their nomadic life. Only
a few years ago the Cheyennes had a sacred bundle which contained
these arrows. The myths and traditions of the Plains Indians all
seem to show that they believed there was a time, and not so very
many generations ago, when they did not have the arrow to kill
game with ; but these stories are all silent as to how they did kill it.

Sad. Conception: Heart laid on the ground. Make sign for
Heart, and then sweep the hand from this position to the right,
front and downwards, turning palm up, and partially compressing
the hand, as though the heart were physically laid on the ground.

Deaf-mutes hold palm of right hand near face, fingers extended,
separated, and pointing upwards; lower the hand slightly, at same
time partially close it, and incline head.

Saddle. He' J both closed hands, forearms vertical, several inches
apart, in front of body, hands equidistant from body and about
heigiit of shoulders, back of right to right, left to left, hands same
height; bring the elbows nearer each other, and at same time, by
wrist action, bend back the hands, right bent to right, left to left,
so that backs of hands are nearly downwards.

Deaf-mutes indicate the animal and shape of the saddle.

Saddle (To). Make signs for Animal, for Saddle, for first part of
Sadulk Blanket. Sometimes signs sre made to denote the fasten-
ing of girth, but not often.

wmnf^m

324

SADDLE BLANKET— SALT.

Deaf-mutes imitate motions of grasping saddle and throwing it on
animal's back.

Saddle Blanket. Make sign for Blanket; then hold extended
and sUghtly-compressed left hand, ba( k u|), in front of left breast,
fingers pointing to right and front ; hold right liand similarly fixed,
but with fingers pointing to front and left, to right of and a little
lower than left hand ; carry right hand on curve upwards to left and
downwards, and place its palm on back of left hand, hands at right
angles. If a pad or piece of skin is used instead of blanket, of
course it would be indicated by proper signs.

Safe. I have never but once seen a gesture to exjjress this state
or condition. It is, however, such a good one that I give it : Hold
nearly-extended left hand, back down, in front of boily, and plaie
tip of extended right index, held vertically, in centre of left palm,
other fingers and thumb closed. This would hardly be generally
understood; the particular circumstances why safety was doubtful
would have to be explained. The gestures for Work or Make, for
Bad and No, would be understood, and would indicate that no harm
would be done to a person.

Sage. Conception : Growth of bushes in btmches. Hold com-
pressed right hand, bringing tip of thumb and tips of fingers near
each other, in front of right shoulder, height of breast, back of iiand
down, fingers pointing upwards; move the hand to front, right and
downwards; then resume first position, and lower it in another jdace.

There are several species of sage, and in some sections the bush
grows sufficiently large to make very good fuel. The tridenta and a
smaller white species are used for making a tea, which is administered
in fevers, and used for fumigating. There is also one species which,
by rubbing between the palms of the hands, emits a pungent smell,
and is said to be excellent for producing wakefulness. It is used by
Indian scouts in passing through an enemy's country, where sleej)-
lessness is the price of success.

It is also believed by some tribes that the white species, fastened
to the poles of a tepee, will preserve the lodge from being struck by
lightning. For this reason, and its well-known medicinal properties,
it is held in the hand in the religious ceremonies called the Sun- and
Medicine-Dances.

I have been told that sage-tea possesses some of the properties of
absinthe.

Salt. Touch the tongue with tip of extended right index, other
fingers and thumb closed, and make sign for Bad. Sometimes the
tips of finger and thumb are rubbed as in Pepper, and sign for
White made.

Deaf-mutes hold left hand, back up, in front of body, index and
second fingers extended, touching, and pointing to front, other fin-
gers and thumb closed; with right hand similarly fixed, tap or strike
the backs of index and second fingers of left with palmar surface of
index and second fingers of right hand.

The Plains Indians have not generally acquired the taste or liking

SAME—SCALP.

3*5

for salt, and use but little, .and so far as I have been able to learn,
they never used any substance of a similar character for seasoning
their food.

Same. See Equal.

Deaf-mutes hold right hand, back up, little finger alone extended,
in front of right breast ; then move hand over to front of left breast,
advanced at same distance from body as first position.

SanS'Arc (Sioux Indian). Make signs for Sioux, for Bow, and
for Wiped Out.

This French translation of the Sioux word for this band has clung
to them with rather singular tenacity. Several stories have been
told nie as to the manner in which they first received the name. In
the segregation of the larger Indian nations, made necessary by their
manner of subsisting themselves, it was a matter of convenience to
name the sub-tribes and bands, and this name usually resulted from
some accident or peculiarity pertaining to the chief or the band. It
is claimed by many that a long number of years ago a sub-chief
started out with a war-party against the Crow Indians, but before
reaching the Crow camp they were surprised by their enemies,
routed and stampeded, and in their fear and flight threw away tlieir
bows, not having fired an arrow. In consequence they were ever
afterwards called " No Bows." Speaking of this, an old Indian
stated to me that one time long ago this band were suddenly de-
serted by all their dogs, and as this was before they had any ponies,
it was a very serious matter. The medicine-man informed them
that the dogs would return if they would place their bows on the
tops of the lodges. This was done, and the dogs did return ; but
Ix'ing suddenly attacked by their enemies, they did not have time to
get their bows, were forced to flee without them, and were, in
consequence, called "No Bows." (See Sioux.)

Satisfy. There is no one special sign. The sign for Good would
ordinarily be made ; though the gestures for An Abundance of
Ponies are sometimes used. (See Eaten Enough.)

Saw. Imitate the motion of using the instrument.

Deaf-mutes use the same sign.

Scalp (To). Point to scalp-lock, and move the left hand out to
front and downwards, as though grasping hold of object (scalp);
make sign for Cutting Up, under left hand held in this position.

I made a special investigation in regard to this custom among
the following tribes : Cheyennes, Arapahoes, Sioux, Comanches,
Kiowas, Apaches, Wichitas, Pawnees, Sacs and Foxes, Otoes, lowas,
Kickapoos, Utes, Blackfeet, Bloods, Piegans, Arickarees, Gros Ven-
tres, Mandans, Shoshones, Bannacks, Nez Perces, Pend d'Oreilles,
Koutenays, Caddos, Poncas, Shawnees, Seminoles, Chippewas, Crows,
Gros Ventres of the Prairie, and Assinaboines, and in no case could
I find that there was any superstitious belief or fancy that scalping a
person in any way detrimentally affected his soul after death.

Tlie custom of taking scalps grew out of and became necessary
because of false claims made to the honor of killing their enemies.

336

SCALP.

It is simply a proof of tlio killing; evidence beyond cavil or doubt;
and no superstition exists tliat by scali)ing or other mutilation tlie
jjrogress of the spirit towards the happiness of life after death is
thereby interfered with. The error of the very general belief that
such is a part of an Indian's religion lias probably been perpetuated
by the fanciful statements of unreliable men, and the daring (iceds
performed by Indians to keep the bodies of their fallen comrades
from falling into the hands of their foes. These actions arise from
the fact that bravery of this kind always brings a man's courage into
bold relief; his action is observed by many; and the natural desire
all human beings have of saving the remains of comrade, friend, or
kin from mutilation. It should be distinctly understood that how-
ever mutilated a person may be who has been killed in, or who dies
from the effect of wounds received in battle, he (as an Indian said to
mej "goes by the most direct and easiest trail through a country
rich in the freshest grass and purest water to the Happy Hunting-
Ground." (See Milkv-Wav.)

Tlie Blackfeet Indians claim a sacred origin for the custom (see
Blai.kfeet), and I have heard the Cheyennes say that there was a
scalp with the medicine-arrows given them by tlieir God, and that
in consequence it was also a religious duty to take the scalps of tiieir
enemies; but even these admitted that the main objects were to
obtain proofs of the killing, and to give their friends the pleasant
opportunity of glorifying the deeds of the warriors and to dance
over the scalps of their fallen foes.

I was told that the leader of a war-party among the Mandans was
in former times entitled to the hair of the scalj)s taken by the party
to adorn a scalp-jacket, and at his death the jacket was buried with
his remains; so that a war chief took with him his 'nsignia of rank
beyond the grave. Many tribes have used scalps to decorate their
shirts and leggings, but they must be-for each individual scalps of his
own taking. As they expressed it, *' When a man was dressed in
this way he wore his badge of bravery, — of courageous deeds per-
formed ; he walked a chief."

In former years the Sioux Indians, if they had time, cut off the
heads of their slain enemies and took them to their first camp after
the fight, where the entire scalp was taken off. To make it par-
ticularly fine, they kept on the ears with the rings and ornaments.
In case a woman had lost some of her kin by death, and her heart
was, as they say, " bad," she was at times allowed to go with tlie
war-party, remaining in the camp made near the point of attack.
The head of a slain foe would be given to her, and, after removing
the scalp, she would make her heart "good" by smashing the skull
with a war-club. Hands would be also cut off and taken to her;
these she dragged on the ground, with a rope, back to the main
village.

In olden times — in the days of the bow and arrow — there were
very many hand-to-hand combats, and then many Indians were
scalped and not killed. It is claimed that the Fort Berthold Indians

SCALP.

327

mdans was

lind near tlieir village what were called "scalped men's houses."
Tlu'se men were disgraced, and were not allowed to be seen in tlie
main camp or to live with their families ; bill I could not absolutely
confirm this.

Scalping is not necessarily fatal. Mrs. Jane Johns was scalped by
the Seminole Indians in Florida and survived. The attending i)hy-
sician, Dr. Welch, states, "I measured the extent of the skull di-
vested of natural integument, which was from the upper part of the
forehead (leaving at its commencement only a few hairs) to the
occiput nine inches and one-half, from above one ear to the op[)osite
side nine inches."

On the 28th da> of April, 1868, Thomas Cahone and Willis Ed-
monston, freight conductors of the Union Pacific Railway, were fish-
ing in a small stream near Sidney, Nebraska. They had no arms.
Indians had been coming and going about the place, and no danger
from them was anticipated, or even thought of. Tlie terminus of
the road was at Cheyenne. There was a small company of inf.intry
at Sidney, tinder command of Lieutenant (now Captain) Hubb, U. S.
Army. S u.denly a small party of mounted Sioux swept down on
the fishermen, in plain sight of the post and the town. The Indians
had just before tried to run off a small band of horses, and been
foiled in the effort by the herders and others, who fired at them.
The Sioux had separated into two parties, one going down the track
near which the men were fishing, the other circling after the stock.
There was no i^scape for the men, as they were caught between the two
parties. The Indians used only arrows, but riding up alongside of
these men, they put eight into and through Cahone, one of which
passed entin iv through his body; it entered under the point of the
right shoi.M'T blade, and the point of it protruded an inch or two
from his breast. Four arrows were fired into Edmonston. Some of
the arrows going through Cahone's lungs, caused a great flow of
blood, and he fell on his right side. The Iiidian in advance dis-
mounted and took his scalp proper ; the second one cut off the scalp
from the left side about seven by four inches. Edmonston was not
scalped. The soldiers and citizens hurried out, and the Indians took to
flight. The wounded men were brought in to the station, where the
arrows were cut out. The one that went through Cahone's body was
easily enough extracted, the arrow-head being cut off and the shaft
pulled out. The rest were more difficult, but were extracted. At no
time did Cahone lose consciousness, and he told me that when he was
being scalped he closed his eyes, and expected each instant to have his
skull crushed, or feel the knife plunged into him. In October last
I met him near Ogden, as the passenger conductor running east, and
he informed me that he was in excellent health ; that he now never
suffered from his wounds or from the scalping. Edmonston was the
passenger conductor at this time running west from Ogden. Cahone
was twenty-five years of age at the time of his wounding and scalp-
ing, and had served during the war of the Rebellion in a Pennsylvania
regiment.

!28

SCALP-LOCK— SCA TTER.

Scalp-lock. Touch with tii)s of fingers of right hand tlie top of
tlie lie;ui, just back of the crown. (See Hair.)

Deat'-iiiiiles use the same sign.

'I'he majority of the IMaiiis Inilians braid that portion of the hair
contained in a circle, about two inclies in diameter, at tlie crown of
the head. 'I'lu' braid is formed of tliree strands, and the cin Ic is
marked by pulling out the hair, and this little circular i)alh is
painted, usually with red ochre. The hair of the head is i)arte(l in
the .uiddle, and the parting extends to this circle. The scalp-Kxk
seems meant to be a mark of manhooil ami defiance, a sort of "take-
it if you '.Lire and can" idea. It is marked out and braided wiicn
a boy reaches the age of about five years, and covers the sp.ice calkd
the crown or curl of the hair, so that any one can readily tell wlun
he sees a scalp whether it is genuine; i.e., only from this portion
of the head. Mr. Du!d)ar says of the Pawnees tliat the heads of tlie
men were close-shaven, except the scalpdock. This was dressed as
before described. (See Pawnkk.) The beard and eyebrows were
kept carefully pulled out. The instrument used for this purpose was
a spiral coil of wire, about an inch in diameter and two inches \ow^.
It was hekl closely against the face, and by j)ressing the coils
together the hairs were caught and pulled out. Much time was
spent in this work, and great jKiins taken to prevent the beard or
eyebrows from showing at all. The hair of the women was allowed
to grow long, and usually hung in two braids at the back. The part
of the hair was kejit smeared with vermilion, especially by girls and
young women. Men, and women also, sometimes wore a luuulkcr-
chief or other cloth tied about the head like a turban.

Mr. Charles H. Heaulieu, the gentlemanly and accomplished clerk
anil interpreter at White Karth Agency, writing me in regard to
scal|)ing, said, " I learn that when the troubles first commenced be-
tween the Sit)nx and Ojibways, disputes among Ojibway braves
arose about personal bravery, and in many instances arrant cowards
claimed to be brave, therefore it was made a proof of bravery to
taK-; a scalp, four pieces tVom a single head being a limit, or four
persons taking scalps from one heatl, the 'choice cut' being the
to|jk.»ot, and all ranking accoriling to the order in which eaeh
of the four removed his portion of the scalp. These persons we're
mentioned in the Scalp-Dance song, and were thenceforth looked
upon ab braves and leaders, and to be depended upon in times of
danger.

"The cutting off of the head, mutilating the bodies, and re-
moving the scalps of slain foes seemed also to irritate the relatives
of those killed."

Scarce. Make sign for Where. This indicates only here and
there one. Sometimes th? sign for Wiped Out is also made.

Deaf-mutes make their sign for Few, opening the hands very
slowly.

Scatter. Hold the closed hands, backs up, near each other, and
close to brciist ; move right hand well to front and right, left well lo

SCENT—SCHO OL- HOUSE.

329

front and left; at same time extending and separating fingers and
tlHiinl)s.

IK-af-miites use the same sign.

Scent. Make sign for I-uacjuani', usually omitting sign for Good.

Deaf-mutes pass the palmar surface of extended fingers of right
hand over and close to nose and mouth, froi'^ above down, fingers
pointing to left.

School-House. Make sign for Hoi;s;-., for Wiiitks, for Look, fin-
gers pointing towards left i)alm, and for Know.

Deaf-mutes clr.p loft palm with right, hoih hands extended and at
right angles, ar.d then make sign for House.

1 was i)arti-.;ularly struck with the importance of, and the ])ossible
results which might lie achieved by, sending Indian children to
s( hool when I was visiting the Pawnee Agency, Indian Territory,
where the following notes were made :

'^ Friiiay evenitii^, April 2i), 1881, 11 r. M. — I attendetl a so-called
'collection' of the I'awnee students this evening; Rev. Mr. I ley-
worth presiding. The agent and teachers were jiresent, and some
one hundred bo^r, and girls, attentive and bright looking, with hair
cut short and wearing citizen's dress, were in the room. They sang
'Hold the Fort,' 'Sweet Bye and Bye,' and several other hymns
ipiite well ; with a metallic nasal twang to be sure, but they entered
into it with spirit and evident understanding of the sentiments con-
veyed by the words, and their pronunciation was good. 'IVeaty ob-
lig'.tions reipiire the Pawnees to keep their children at scho'^' frcjm
seven to seventee 1 years of age. Tlie (iovernment Ins not kept to
its part of the obligation entered into. Tiie buildings < annut ac-
( ommodate all, in fact, not more than one-third of the children at the
lH)ar<ling-schools ; but the jjrospcct to-night seems quite fail and
bright for these liCle peoi)le to make a rapid advance along the
'wl)ite man's way' in the near fiilure. The start is made early
enough to do some good. The breech-cloth and blanket, and all
the habits and customs that go with them, are discariled before the
(hunage is done, before their characters are formed ; in brief, before
they accpiire the art of being expert bar!)arians Instead of learning
to take advantage of every littK* knoll, ravine, or tuft of grass to
'reep up on game; instead of leariung how to shoot and ride, and
becoming fondly attached to all these ways of barbarism, they are
Karning how to take care of themselves, Ikjsv to conduct the affairs
of life on a higher, better, and more prosperous plane than (.id their
ancestors. Clothed and fed at the school, the impressions received
there will abide with them during their lives, and there are enough
of them to have some influence on the entire tribe. Eastern schools
take them after their characters are formed. They may cut off the
hair, abandon paint and wear citizen's dress, but their hearts long
fur the days when they were happy little chililren tumbling about an
Indian camp; so when they get out of school they go (juickly back
to the old pleasures; the old longings overcome them, the hair
grows, the paint appears, the breech-cloth is tied on, the blanket is

330

SCOLD— SCOUT.

wrai)ped about them, the pony is mounted, and the deprivation of
all this for a length of time only lends a keener pleasure, and we
have a savage only sharpened and brightened by his association with
the wliites. Eastern institutions could follow boarding-schools at
the agency, just as our colleges do the common schools scattered all
over our land, without which we should ourselves soon be in the
embrare of barbarism."

Scold. Make signs for Quarrel or Abuse, or for Talk and Bad.

Scout. Make sign for Wolf.

Great care is taken in the selection of the young men who are
sent out to gain and bring in information of the movements and con-
dition of the enemy, or of the location of game ; and, if there is
time, many ceremonial forms are gone through with in the selection
and in giving instructions to them prior to their departure. The
essential qualifications of a good scout are courage, good sense, truth-
fulness, and a thorough knowledge of the country.

Supi)ose four are wanted. They are selected in council, and then
sent for; some of the headmen going for them, and leading them to
the council-lodge, where, after much solemn and prayerful smoking,
perhaps some speeches about the importance of the occasion, — dilating
on the benefits that will accrue to the entire people in case of suc-
cess, and the evils and disasters that may bef:dl them through defeat, —
the special instructions for the service to be required, as well as the
general instructions which all Indians know by heart, are given them
by the chief. These general instructions are usually to the effect
that they must be wise as well as brave ; to look not only to the
front, but to the right and left, behind them, and at the ground ; to
watch carefully the movements of all wild animals, from the move-
ments of buffalo to the flight of birds ; to wind through ravines and
the beds of streams ; to walk on hard ground or where there is grass,
so as to leave no trail ; to move with great care so as not to disturb
any wild animals; and, should they discover anything important, to
return with all possible speed and bring such information as they
may find.

Frequently before starting the medicine-man makes medicine for
them, — prayers and sacrificial worship to the sun, moon, Thunder-
Bird, rivers, bl iffs, and winds. The sun and moon are to furnish
light, the Thunder-Bird is to spare, the rivers to offer no impedi-
ment, the bluffs to furnish points of observation, and the winds not to
blow harshly : all nature is asked to assist.

Of late years, in addition to their arms, the scouts carry a mirror
and field-glass, which are furnished by friends if they do not them-
selves i)ossess them. One or two only are sent in the same direction,
— a larger party could see no more, and its size alone would increase
the danger of discovering them to the enemy. The safety and value
of a scouting-party lies not in their fighting qualities, but in their
keen-eyed, crafty, shrewd cunning and watchfulness.

Suppose the scout is seen returning, his story is nearly told by his
movements or by his mirror long before he has approached near

SCOUT.

331

enough for vocal communication. If, when he is near enough for
the sound of his voice to be heard, he imitates the howl of a wolf, he
has seen the enemy. The main party meanwhile gather in an in-
complete circle, with the opening towards the direction from which
the scout is coming, and at the opening place a pile of buffulo
"chips," or spread out a blanket upon four sticks. When the scout
reaches them, if the enemy is too close, or immediate action is neces-
sary, so that there is not time for the story to be told in the cere-
monial way, he kicks down the blanket or scatters the chips, as an
oath that he is telling the truth, and briefly and hurriedly tells his
story. If there is time for a smoke, the pijJC is fdled, lighted, and
tiie interrogator points the stem to the zenith, sun, earth, and four
winds, and then holds the stem to the scout's mouth, who takes four
wliiffs; ag m the pipe is pointed as before, and again four jjuffs are
taken by the scout ; this is repeated four times, when the interrogator
«ays, "You know all the hills, valleys, and streams in this coun-
try; you were born and grew up in it; now tell us what you have
seen."

The scout divides his story into four parts, which are told at inter-
vals. At each interval the smokes are repeated, and the interrogator
adds, perhaps, to his question, " Tell us, and your people will have
glad hearts ; they will i)raise you, and raise your name up among
them." On the completion of this ceremony the entire story is
usually told continuously without interruption.

This is, as 1 have said, the custom when there is plenty of time.
Usually the return of a scout sent on in advance of a war-party creates
the wildest excitement, and all forms and ceremonies are ignored or
forgotten.

Scout (To). Make sign for Wolf; then bring right hand, back up,
well in front of body, about height of lower part of face, first and
second fingers extended, separated, and pointing to front, other
fingers and thumb closed ; mostly by wrist action turn the hand so
tiiat these fingers will point to right, to left, and downwards.

Some tribes use the extended index fingers, others and thumb
closed, of each hand, backs up, one held parallel to and little in rear
of the other. If left were in front it would be advanced several
inches more than right, and about four inches to left.

We iiave in these gestures, first, the sign for WoLr , then sign for
See or Look, then looking or searching in different directions, and
on the ground for trails, etc. Descriptive gestures usually accom-
pany the above, such as going on ahead, creeping up to the crest of
l)ills, etc.

Deaf-mutes hold the partially-closed right hand well out to right
and front of body ; then move the hand to left on small curves.
This more in the sense of searching for souicthing.

As I have stated under Trail, Indians are bred up to trailing,
scouting, and horse-stealing, until, like game-dogs, their natural and
instinctive powers are wonderfully increased.

The object of scouting is to see and not be seen. An Indian,

332

SEARCH—SELL,

if mounted, carefully and slowly rises to the crest of every hill, and
by a keen, roa'ching, sweeping glance takes in all the country
stretched out below and beyond him. In ascending, if mounted, he
dismounts just before reaching the top, and rises to the crest behind
some rock, tree, or tuft of grass, and in going between divides, he
moves as rapidly as possible. In bivouacking, if it be not considered
necessary to change camp after dark, the scouting-party moves over
an emiiiv. ce before going into camp, then any one who may be fol-
lowing their trail will naturally be exposed to view before reaching
the camp. Should a fire be used, and it is feared that it may expose
them to the enemy, it is made of dry wood, which burns with little
smoke, and in a ravine, so that what smoke is made will be dissipated
befo-° it reaches the altitude of the sides; and then after dark the
party moves on and camps without a fire. Unless well away from the
enemy and confident of their ground, they do not build fires. (See
Scout, Trail, and Lead.)

Search. See Scout.

Season. The usual nomenclature for thj seasons is Winter,
Spring, Summer, Fall.

Deaf-mutes indicate three months cold, three months growing,
three months hot, and three months falling leaves.

The particular season is also frequently denoted by the condition
of something in nature which reaches a particular state about tiie
same time each year, such as grass large, buffalo bulls fat for ujmmer;
late in the summer, choke-cherries rijje and buffalo cows fat ; fall,
plums rii)e and leaves fall off; late fall, first snow. (See Moon.)

i?ee. Bring rigut hana, back up, well in front of lower part of
fac?, first and second fingers extended, separated, and pointing to
front, otiier fingers and thumb closed. The hand can, of course, he
held a little to right or left of body, and the fingers should point in
the direction one is represented as looking. Some tribes use both
hands as I have explained under Scout, and sometimes before either
gesture the tips of fingers touch eyes.

Deaf-mutes hold right hand in front of face, back cut, index and
secontl finger extended, sei)arate(l, and pointing upwards; move the
hand to front. They makii a difference between see and look ; In-
dians do not.

Indians are certainly remarkable for power and keenness of vision,
which are inherited qualities, and they are greatly aided in detecting
the presence of game by their intimate knowledge of the movements
and habits of animals.

Seize. Move the open hands out m front of body, close them
suddenly, and draw them in briskly towards body, as though seizing
hold of an object. Sometimes Hie left forearm is held vertically,
and the right hand clxsps wr'st and drr.^.^ the arm to right.

Deaf-mutes ust the same 'jigns.

Sell. See Exchange.

Deaf-mutes raise hands in front of body, as though holding up a
piece of cloth for exhibition.

SEPARA TE— SHARP.

333

Separate. Hold the hands, backs up, near each other or touch-
ing, in front oi body, index finger extended and pointing to front,
other fingers and thumbs closed ; by wrist action turn the hands, so
that rigiit index points to right and front, left to left and front; move
the right hand to right and front, left to left and front.

Deaf-mutes bring the closed hands together in front of body,
back of right to right, left to left; separate the hands, carrying right
to right, left to left.

Sergeant. Make sign for Whites, for Soldier, and then with
index of right hand mark the position, extent, and number of stripes
on the arms. Instead of this latter, sometimes the signs for Little
and Chief are made.

Sew. Hold extended left hand, back to left, in front of body,
fingers pointing to front, thumb extended, its back a little lower
than side of index and presst'^f against it; bring tip of extended
right index just over thumb, ii;-... x pointing to left, other fingers of
right hand closed, thumb extended, and its inner surface pressed
against inner surface of index; move the right hand slightly to left,
and by wrist action turn back of index down, so that nail of right
index just touches side of left index as it passes it ; repeat motion
two or three times, moving right hand trifle to front each time.

A small bone from near the ankle of a deer was formerly used as
an awl in sewing; other bones which were capable of taking a high
polish were also used to make holes in leather, through which the
sinew was drawn. I have heard it stated that porcupine-quills were
also used for the same purpose after being filled and stiff'eiied.

Shackle. Lean forward and clasp the ankles with the hands.

Deaf-mutes use the same sign.

Shadow. The shadow of a person is represented by making sign
for person ; then hold right hand, palm to front, little to rigiu and
slightly to rear, and higher than right shoulder, fingers separated
and pointing upwards; lower the hand with a wavy, tremulous mo-
tion. Sometimes make sign for Sun on one side, and then outline
the object on the other.

Deaf-mutes make a sign very like that made for darkness, and
then indicate a drawing off from left palm with right hand.

Sha^e Hands. Clasp the hands in front of body. Some hold
forearms vertical and lock the fingers. I have been told by the In-
dians that ihey in former times only clasped hands on concluding a
treaty, making peace, or other matters of a similar nature and great
importance, i'he most of them now in their intercourse with the
whites observe the custom, but not among themselves.

Sharp. Make sign for whatever instrument one may wish to speak
of; then hold extended right hand, back down, in front of right
breast, fingers pointing to front; touch lightly the lower edge Oi
right hand with palmar surface of ball of left thumb, as though test-
ing the edge of a tool, and then make sign for Good.

Deaf-mutes hold left hand, back up, in front of left breast, index
and second finger extended, touching, and pointing to front ; with

234

SHARP'S RIFLE— SHEEP-EATERS.

right hand similarly fixed touch lightly side of left index with palmar
surface of index and second of right hand; right hand suddenly
drawn back to right.

Sharp's Rifle. Conception : Movement of breech-block. Make
sign for CjL'n ; then hold extended and slightly-compressed left hand
in front of body, back of hand to left, fingers pointing to front,
thumb extended and pressing against index, forearm horizontal ;
bring nearly-closed right hand just tmder and touching left wrist (as
though grasping the lever which moves the breech-block) ; move the
riglu hand downwards and outwards.

Shaved-Head. Bring the back of extended hands, fingers point-
ing to rear and slightly upwards, alongside of head ; move the
hands downwards as though cutting hair with lower edges of hands.
Fre([uently only right hand is used. This is the general sign for all
those more Eastern tribes who formerly shaved or burned off the
hair, exccjjt a tuft near crown.

Deaf-mutes extend the thumb and little finger of right hand, close
the otlier fingers, and make motion as though shaving head with side
of tiunnb.

Shawl. Make sign for Female, and then sign for Blanket.

Deal-mutes indicate size and shape, and then make motion as
though throwing same around the shoulders.

Sheep. (Mountain.) Conception : Horns. Compress and slightly
curve the hands; bring them in front and above the head ; carry
them on vertical curve parallel to and close to sides of head, hands
l)assiiig just back of and stopping a little below the ears, backs of
hands towards head. The Lands pasi on curve similar to that made
by the horns of the sheep.

Softened by boiling and steaming, dishes were formerly made from
the horns of the mountain sheej), and even now some Indians will
not eat out of any other dish, believing it would bring them bad
luck. The horns were also split and made into bows; this required
great skill and much labor, but a very superior bow was made in
this way.

Sheep. (Domestic.) Make signs for Mountain Sheep, for Whites,
and for With. Sometimes curly hair is indicated, as well as the
oi)eration of shearing.

Deaf-mutes indicate a shearing motion with index and second
fingers of right hand over left forearm.

Sheep-Eaters (Shoshone Indians). Only a few years since there
were found in the Rocky Mountain region, between parallels 42'^ and
47° north latitude, Indians who lived at some of the highest points
of these mountains. They subsisted mostly on mountain sheep, and
on this account were called "sheep-eaters."

They were supposed by many authorities to be a separate tribe,
differing in language, habits, and jihysical peculiarities from all the
tribes which surrounded them, while others claimed that they were
offshoots from the Shoshones, Bannacks, Flatheads, Pend d'Oreilles,
Nez Perces, Crows, and Blackfeet, and that their poverty alone forced

SHELL—SHIELD.

335

them to tliis peculiar life apart from their tribe. Of course, all the
tribes living near the mountains where the big-horn are found de-
vote more or less time to hunting them, but a careful investigation
among the tribes named has convinced me that the sheeiJ-eaters
proper were Shoshones, and I think their origin as a separate band
was due to the invasion of the Blackfect from the North. (See Sho-
shone.) Seeking refuge from tlieir enemies in the mountain fast-
nesses, they discovered new ways of living, and adopted the peculiar
habits of life whicli characterized them. They dressed in furs and
skins long after other tribes near them had obtained blankets and
clothing froui white traders, and they dwelt among the rocks and in
caves. Ill this they did not differ greatly from the rest of the Sho-
shones and Bannacks, as these tribes were noted among the surround-
ing Indians for their miserable lodges. Long after their own and
other tribes had ponies, the "sheep-eaters" ap])arently made no
efforts to secure them, and they also exhibited a corresponding lack
of enterprise in obtaining fire-arms. In hunting the big-horn they
used dogs. The sheep, on being pursued by the dogs, fled to the
higii and isolated points, and were then approached to within close
range by the Indians, and killed by the bow and arrow. Tliere are
quite a number of these Indians at the Shosiione Agency, Wyoming ;
at Fort Hall and Lemhi Agencies, Idaho ; but they have now adopted
the customs and ways of living of the bands tiiey are with. In
l)hysiqiie, mental qualities, and religious beliefs they are and always
liave been very much like the Shoshones.

Shell. Conception : Neck ornament. Shells worn as ornaments
are represented by forming an incoini)lete circle with curved thumb
and index of right hand, space of about an inch between tijjs, other
fingers closed ; bringing the hand in front of breast, little finger
resting against centre, back of hand to left and downwards.

For siiell, generally, the partially-compressed hands are brought
together in front of body, sides of tliuiubs and lower edges of hands
touching and pointing to front; mostly by wrist action turn the
hands as though hinged at lower edges.

Deaf-mutes hold left hand in position above described, make a
strike downwards i)ast and close to left palm with lower edge of
right ; then bring hands into the position explained, and turn in
same way.

Shield. Form an incoinplete circle with curved index and thumb
of rit;!it hand, space of about two inches between tips, other fingers
closed ; hold left forearm horizontally in front of body, pointing to
right and front, left hand closed ; place little finger of right hand on
left arm, just above elbow, back of hand nearly to front, plane of
incomplete circle nearly vertical, as though the shield were hanging
on left arm. Sometimes the circle is formetl with index and thumbs
of bo;h hands, and the hands held to left of left breast.

In the days of the bow and arrow and sjiear the shield formed an
indispensable part of a warrior's equipment. Made from the un-
tanned thick skin of a bufliUo bull's neck, and usually of double

33«

SHOE— SHOSHONE.

thickness, it was a great protection ; and in addition to the physical
power of resistance, they were frequently accorded supernatural
qualities. When in camp, they were hung on a pole to the east of
the lodge, or cluster of tepees, as a charm to ward off danger or harm.

With the introduction of the modern long-range breech-loading
rifle, and, the consequent uselessness of shields, sentiment and sujkt-
stition concerning them have nearly passed away. Some few camps
still have them, perhaps one or two in a band or tribe, but they are
no longer carried in battle, and are used solely for the good luck
they may bring the camp.

Indians are quick to adopt new and improved Weapons, and equally
prompt in abandoning worthless imj)edimenta.

Shoe. Make sign for Moccasin and Whites.

Deaf-mutes thrust the right hand, as far as the knuckles, in' ■> the
partially-dosed left, left clasps right.

Shoe (To). Make sign indicating the animal to be shod ; then
hold closed left hand, back to left, in front of body; strike with the
lower edge of closed right hand, back down, the second joints and
exposed palm of left hand several times, as though driving in the nails
to fasten on an iron shoe to the foot, left hand representing the hoof
of the animal.

Deaf-mutes make their sign for Shoe, and then indicate the nailing
on in a similar manner.

Shoot. Hold nearly-closed right hand, back up, in front of breast,
nails of first three fingers pressing against palmar surface of thumb;
move the hand outwards, very slightly downwards and little to left,
at same time extending and separating fingers and thumb with a
snap. (See also Heavy or Volley Firing.)

Many Indians make a difference in the gestures for the firing of a
gun, and the discharge of an arrow from a bow. For the latter they
hold the hands as in Bow, and after separating them, extend the
index fingers with a snap ; then to indicate an object as hit by t!ie
arrow, the extended left hand is held well out in front of left brea,st,
fingers pointing upwards, and the right index thrust out and passing
between fingers of left hand. (See Dead-Shot.)

Deaf-mutes hold hands as though aiming a gun, and then crook
right index as though pulling the trigger.

Nearly all Indians are good shots, and though a " team" for long-
range target-firing could not probably be found at even the larger
agencies without special instruction and practice, still they would
make an excellent record against game or any moving objects. In
firing from their ponies when at full speed they are, at times, wonder-
fully expert.

Short. Hold slightly-compressed right hand, fingers pointing up-
wards, to right and front of body, hand at height desired to be
represented.

Deaf-mutes hold hand, back up, fingers pointing to front.

Shoshone (Indian). Hold the right hand, back to right, in front of
right shoulder at about height of waist and near it, first and second

SHOSHONE.

337

fingers extended, touching, and pointing to front, others and thumb
closed; move tlie hanti several inches to front, and, by wrist M'on,
give a wavy, sinuous motion to extended fingers. Frequent!, uily
the index finger is extended. I have also seen signs made for Had
or Brush Lodge to denote these people.

The Shoshone or, as they are usually called. Snake Nation for-
merly occupied with the Hr^nnacks an immense geographical area, in-
cluding what is now known as Southeastern Oregon, Idaho, Western
and Southern Montana, the northern portion of Utah, Nevada, and
Western Wyoming.

In my investigations I was unable to ascertain positively why they
were called Snakes, but one of t'leir old men claimed that it was be-
cause they formerly ate serpents. I consider these Indians inferior,
physically and mentally, to the Plains Indians proper, or to the Nez
Pcrces north of them. Many of the bands living in the interior fur-
inerly had only the rudest kind of lodges, — at limes only a pile of
sage-brush to shelter them from the wind, — and they subsisted on
reptiles and insects, in fact, wliatever they could find alive, and such
roots, seeds, and berries as grew on the alkaline deserts and in the
mountains. With them rabbits were considered large game. Some
of the bands living near the streams and lakes abounding in fish sub-
sisted mostly on them, anil they exhibited some skill in the manu-
facture of grass nets, and still others were energetic enough to secure
ponies and hunt large game. With this nation is first found the
deification of the wolf and coyote. In former times it is claimed
that on account of their myths and superstitions in regard to these
animals they did not kill them. Such is not the case now, an*! wiien
pressed by want it is doubtful if they ever held any animal as sacred.

In their myth of the creation, the Gods who created them and in-
structed them in the ways of life are represented as two brothers,
the Wolf and Coyote. The cohabiting of the Wolf with a fair young
girl, whose creation, however, they do not take the trouble to explain,
produced the Snake and Bannack nations. They locate definitely
the den where the Wolf and his brother, the Coyote, lived, and claim
that their tracks, leading from a spring of water to their den, can yet
be seen in the solid rock. They are represented as possessing all
the attributes of humanity as well as having supernatural powers.
All that is good, from a Shoshone stand-point, they created, and all
their ways of living are the direct result of these Gods' special and
personal instruction.

The men of the Shoshone nation are below medium height. The
women are also short in stature, with round faces, and for Indian
women have rather well-rounded limbs and plump bodies; they allow
the hair, which they part in the middle over the head, to fall loosely
down on the face, usually cutting off the ends squarely. They do
not wear a protection-string. The men wear the hair in all kinds of
styles, imitating the Crows, Flatheads, and Sioux. They are not as
much given to wearing armlets and other charms as many other
tribes. They keep no account of individual ages. Their tradition

338

SIC A'— SIGN LANGUAGE.

of the first vMte man seen by fhem evidently refers to the party of
Lewis and Clarke in 1804, who found them near the source of the
Jefferson Fork of tlie Missouri River. They secured their first ponies
from their kinsfolk the Comanches. They claim to have first had
smallpox, and to have lost many of their people by the disease,
about the time they first saw the whites, and that large numbers have
been swept away by it since then. They do not use porcupine-work
in garnishing robes, moccasins, etc.

Tiiey have waged a defensive warfare for a greater number of years
than tiieir traditions reach to with the Blackfeet, Sioux, Cheyenncs,
and Arapahpes, and with the trilJes immediately surrounding them
tliey have been at both |)eace and war. What is known as the
Washakie band broke with the Utes in 1834, over a dispute in regard
to some stolen ponies, and only within the last few years have they
had any friendly relations since that time.

The agent's report for 1881 gives in Idaho, at Fort Hall, eleven
htnidred and twenty-eight Shoshones and five hundred and two Ban-
nacks ; at Lemhi, seven hundred and seventeen Shosliones, ]5an-
nacks, and Sheep-Eaters; at the Shoshone Agency, Wyoming (Wash-
akie band), eleven hundred and fifty; and in Nevada, at the western
agency, thirty-eight hundred ; making a total population of seven
tliousand two hundred and ninety-seven.

Sick. Hold extended hands, backs out, in front of and close to
breast, hands in same vertical plane, space of about two inches he-
tween ends of fingers of righ^ and left hand, fingers of right hand
pointing to left, left to right; move the hands outwards few inche.i
several times, mostly by wrist action. This represents throbbing,
and of course, to locate the sickness, hold hands similarly fixed over
the affected part, palms towards and parallel to it.

Deaf-mutes place the left hand on the breast, and incline the head
forward, resting forehead on the right hand.

The general idea of sickness among the Indians seems to be that
an evil spirit has entered the person, and that when it is exorcised
all will be well. The efforts of the medicine-men are principally
directed towards casting out this malign and mysterious presence.

Sign Language. Hold extended left hand, back up, in front of
body, fingers pointing to front and right ; touch the back of fingers
with palinar surface of extended fingers of right hand ; then hoM
extended right hand, back up, fingers pointing to left and front,
and touch the back of fingers with palmar surface of fingers of left
hand ; then make sign for Talk.

Deaf-mutes make their sign for Talk.

1 have, in the introductory, given my views in regard to the origin
of this language, — stated something as to its extent and use. The
gestures — the motions of hands and arms I have described — only
coldly outline the force and expression which this vehicle of com-
municating ideas is capable of.

The human countenance speaks in the most exquisite shades of
significance; "the soft, silent wooings of love, the frantic fury of

SIGN LANGUAGE.

339^

hate, the dancing delirium of joy, the hungry cravings of desire, the
settled melancholy of dead hopes," — all these emotions are vividly
]iicturcd. The blanched cheek and skulking figure may express at
times a wonderful amount of fear and cowardice, while a noble
bearing, flashing eye, and determined expression of face may exhibit
a dauntless courage. A haughty, cold, and cruel manner may con-
vey more scorn, contempt, and hatred than could be expressetl in
words, while a glance, a smile, a tf nder pressure of the hand may
convey a whole world of symjjathy .md love. The gestures I have
described only, as I have -aid, awkwardly outline the picture ; the
coloring and beauty and force of expression must bi* filled in by the
manner of making the signs.

I found, ill my special investigation, that the evidence of the In-
dians as to its existence or non-existence in other tribes was no
worthy of implicit confidence. Many of them stated to me that in
former times this language was the one common and universal
means of communication between all the tribes of American Indians
who spoke different vocal languages. As they expressed it, " the
old peof^le of all the tribes used it."

Little Raven, the former head-chief of the Southern Arapahoes,
said to me in regard to the use of gestures, " I have met Comanches,
Kiowas, Apaches, Caddos, Snakes, Crows, Pawnees, Osages, Mes-
calero Apaches, Arickarees, Gros Ventres, Nez Perces, Cherokees,
Choctaws, Chickasaws, Sacs and Foxes, Pottawattomies, and other
tribes, whose vocal languages, like tiiose of the named tribes, we did
not understand, and we communicated freely in sign language. Tiie
summer after President Lincoln was killed we had a grand gathering
of all the tribes to the east and south of us. (Little Raven was at
his agency near Fort Reno, Indian Territory.) Twenty-five different
tribes met near old Fort Abercrombie on the Wichita River.

"The Caddos made a different sign for Hokse, and also for Moving,
but the rest were made the same by all the tribes."

From personal investigation, I found subsequently that some of
the tribes named had scarcely any knowledge of the sign language
used by the Arapahoes, The Kickapoos, Shawnees, Otoes, and
lowas, as well as the Caddos, Delawares, Wichitas, and others,
claimed to have learned such gestures as they used tVom the Plains
Indians.

Chief Joseph, of the Nez Perces, said that his tribe learned the
language from the Blackfeet some forty years ago, and yet it is a
Well-known fact that these Indians used gesture speech long before
this time. Nichelle, chief of the Pend d'Oreilles, said, "All the
tribes talk in signs when they meet, if they cannot understand each
other's vocal language. The Blackfeet, Crows, Flatheads, Kou-
tenays, Pend d'Oreilles, Cceur d'Alenes, Spokans, Nez Perces, Yaki-
niis, Pelouses, Cayuses, and others, all make the same signs. When
I was a young boy, my grandfather told me that a long, long time
ago, when two tribes met who did not speak the same vocal lan-
guage, they always talked in signs." - ..<- .,-• • 1

340

SIGN LANGUAGE.

Fatlier Ravalli, whom I met at Stevensville, rather confirmed this,
as he informed me that some tliirty-five or forty years since lie pre-
pared a work on the sign language, and claimed its extensive use
when he first came among these people. (See Fi-atheau.) And
still there is no doubt but that the Chenook jargon, compounded
from English, French, and Indian languages, has long been and is
still used by the numerous small tribes on the Pacific sloj)e in tlic
extreme Northwest, just as Spanish, or rather Greaser Mexican, has
been used by the Pueblos, Navajos, Southern and Uncompahgre
Utes, Apaches, and some other tribes in the Southwest.

The remarks made by White Cloud, head-chief of the Chippewas,
are worthy of special consideration, and shed a great deal of light
on this subject, viz. :

" Indians had no particular trouble in communicating ideas by
means of signs. If two Indians of diflerent tribes were seated on
the ground, and a white man approached them, he would see no
difference, but if an Indian approached them, he would discover at a
glance tlie difference, and would probably know to what tribes they
belonged." So in gestures, one Indian described some article of
wearing apparel to another, and the tribal identity is revealed.

I do not think it can properly be said that any gestur'.- speech,
which can be called a language, exists among the majority of the
Ojibways or the Algonquin family north of the British line, who,
occupying a country which slret<'hes from the Rocky Mountains to
the mouth of the St. Lawrence River, speak the same language or
dialects easily understood. The peculiar nature of their relations
witii the Plains Indians and other tribes, and the great gtographical
area covered by their own vocal language, has obviated the necessity
for their developing or learning gestures. Some few, like the Pem-
bina band, have been thrown more with the Plains people, and are
fairly good sign-talkers. It can, ho.wever, be said of these Indians,
as well as of the Indians of other tribes, who are not at the present
time fully conversant with gesture speech, that sucli signs as they do
make are in the main similar to the gestures used by those who are
proficient.

There is, of course, sufficient variation in each tribe, and between
tribes, to establish individual and tribal identity, and there are a few
words and expressions the signs for which are made totally different.
It is natural to suppose that in the majority of cases the conceptions
would be the same with people who are in the same stage of develop-
ment, and whose surroundings, occupation, dress, and habits are
similar; and again, the main object of the language, viz., intercom-
munication between tribes having different vocal speech, would have
a great influence, particularly as its other objects, such as instruction
of and communication with the deaf, a check against inefficient or
corrupt interpreters, with hunting- or war-parties when the use of
oral language would discover them to the game or to their enemies,
and when persons are separated by a distance greater than the voice
can reach, would not be interfered with.

SILENT— SIOUX.

34«

Silent. Place palmar surfare of tips of fingers of right hand over
lips, and usually incline the head slightly to front.

Deaf-mutes place tip of index on lips and incline head.

Silver. Make sign for Money and point to something white.

Deaf-mutes ur,;. the same sign.

Since. See AtTER.

Sinew. Hold right hand in front of body, bark to right, inner
surface of thumb and index touching, other fingers closed ; nib the
thumb and ir.lex as though twisting a thread held by thumb and
index ; then make sign for the animal from whicii taken. This
sliould, I suppose, be called fascia, as it is the thin tendinous cover-
ing which supports the muscles. It furnishes thread of superior
strength, and admits of division, so that it is easy to secure any de-
sired size or thickness. It is universally called "sinew" by the in-
terpreters.

Sing. Hold right hand, back to right, in front of face, index and
second finger extended and separated, others closed, tips a little
higher than and close to mouth ; mostly by wrist action, move tlie
hand briskly, so as to describe with tips of fingers a small horizontal
circle.

Deaf-mutes hold the extended left hand well in front of body,
fingers pointing to right ; then wave right between left and body, as
though keeping time to music.

Sionx. Conception : Cutting off heads. Hold right hand, back
up, in front of left shoulder, height of throat, index finger extended
and pointing to left, other fingers and thumb closed ; move the hand
horizontally to right, index passing near throat. Sometimes the ex-
tended hand is used instead of index finger, or the side of index is
drawn across the throat.

To denote the Sioux (other than the Assinaboine branch), the
Gros Ventres of the Prairie, Blackfeet, Flatheads, and some other
tribes, in addition to above, bring palms of extended hands against
top of head and move them down the sides, to indicate parting the
hair in the middle and combing it down over sides of head. Tlie
tribal sign undoubtedly originated from the cu Dm the Sioux for-
merly had of cutting off the heads of their enemies slain in battle.
(See Scalp.)

Why, when, and by whom these Indians were first called Sioux is
not positively known ; however, there seems little doubt but that they
received the name from the French voyageurs. They call themselves
Dakotas, or Lakotas, the latter being the Teton dialect, and say that
this word means people who speak one language, or are united by a
common tongue.

The Rev. E. D. Neill, in his " History of Minnesota," states, on the
authority of French voyageurs, that by the Algonquins they were
called Nadowee Sioux, which signifies enemies, and that the name
Sioux was taken from the last part of this word. The Algonquin
word, however, for enemy is bohn or boine, as is seen in Assinahoine.

In answering some inquiries of mine, Mr. Charles H. Beaulieu says,

34a

SIOUX.

"Tlie Ojibw'vys called the Iroquois ' Nuw-do-way,' or ' Naw-do-way-
sce.' Oil further inqiiiry I gain no Miformation otlier than I have
writtf". before on this subject, with the exception that x certain
si)ecies of snake found in the States south of this one (Minnesota),
not so poisonous, or, as they s;iy, not so cross, as the ' she-slie-cjuay'
(rattlesnake), was called naw-do-way. Old men here retnenii)n
Naw-do-way-see-wug (plural) used as an exclamation on the ajjproach
of enemies, but it is now only used to denote the Iroquois. It wonlil
seein to me that Indiai.s east, speaking the Ojibway tongue, co\il(l
give the origin or definition of the word. Sioux cannot be traced
to any Ojibway word. Half-breeds now living here remenibev hearing
it first useil by early French voyageurs, anil may have had its origin
from Naw-do-way-stp wug (i)lural) for Iroquois."

The French c::lied these Indians Nadowrissioux as far back as i 685.
Cadillac, writing to Count Ponchartrain, under date of August, 1703,
says, "Last year they sent M. Boudor, a Montreal merchant, into
the country of the Sioux to join Le Sceur. He succeeded so well
in the trip that he transported tliither twenty-five or thirty thousand
pounds of merchandise with which to trade." It will thus be seen
that the use of the word is of long standing,

In speaking of their language, Mr. Riggs says, "The Dakota
language, as spoken by the various bands, is tlie same ; but yet tiierc
are considerable dialectic difkrences. TI e « of one dialect becomes
hoxkorg'xn others. In the Teton or Prairie village dialect /is
extensively used, which sound is not heard among the Eastern
braiuhes of tlie nation."

In writing to the Rev. John P. Williamson I mentioned the </
aiid / dialects of Sioux. In reply he said, "Your nomenclature of
dialects is hardly, I think, distinctive as 'ar as the Santee and Yank-
ton are concerned. To make it entirely satisfactory the Santees
shot Id say deda (very), but they say nina, same as Yankton. They
should say midi (water), bur. they say mini, same as Yankton.

" I ihink a better distinction is hd.,K'U and kd. This distinction is
l)e!fect. There is not an //(/ in the Santee language but what is
changed as above for the other dialects. Santee hda, go home.
Teton i,Vrt, go home. Yankton kda, go home. Your distinction is
more simple than this, and perhaps if I had time to compare more
fully I might, with certain restriction, like it, but with my observa-
tion t!ie ilouble consonant gives a better idea of the dialect."

Leaving *o the philologist the study of the "common stock,"
which, -uiording to some, embraces Winnebago, Osage, Kaw and
Qu;i|)aw, Iowa, Otoe, Missouri, Omaha, Ponca, Mandan, Hidatsee,
and Crow, ve find there are four dialects in the Sioux language,
viz., Santee, Yankton, Assinaboine, and Teton, — the latter differing
from the fiiat three much more than they differ from each other.

The best authorities in the hd and kd dialects give the meaning
of Teton as CiCiivH fromTinta, prairie, and Tonwon, village; heme
Prairie villjge ; and this would seem to derive support from the
location and manner of living of the Tetons for a number of years

SIOUX,

343

jrast. I am strongly of the opinion, however, that this is not correct,
and the dialects prove conclusively that the separation must have
t iken place a very long time ogo, and probably wlien they were liv-
ing in a wooded country east of the prairies, all the bands subsisting
themselves in a similar manner.

The story I first heard in regard to the name and separation was
tluit a chief with a few followers left the main camp or village, and
was subsequently joined by others, so that it was acomnton (piesticjn,
' How many tepees has he?' In rapid conversation they will say to-
day for how many tepees, Te-tona, and I, therefore, believe that
Teton is derived from this expression, instead of that for Prairie
village.

Of the seven bands of the Teton branch, viz., Ogalalla, Min-
i.econjou, Sans- Arc, Uncapaj)a, Brule, Two Kettle, and HIackfeet,
the meaning of the Sioux words Ogalalla and ILicapipa have been
most distorted. 1 have endeavored to correct this i; I'.T the proper
words.

The language is more easily learned than most Indian tongues,
au<l the ^'■/ or Teton dialect seems more eu|)h()nious than the others.
There is scarcely a tribe in the Northwest which does not have one
or more who speak Sioux quite fluently. To such an extent is the
language used in the intercommunication by tribes that it may be
considered the court language of the Northern nations.

From (;ral traditio.i, pictured and written history, as well as
fr(>m the stories told by the Sioux and Indians of the surrounding
tribes, the Lacotas, or Dakotas, as they call themselves, readied the
limit of their eastern migration when they inhabited Northwestern
AVisconsin and Eastern Minnesota. Imagination and conjecture
have placed them much farther east, an<l the extent of this is so
shown in a little jjamphlet ])ublished by Mi. A. W. Williamson, that
I make the following extract :

"This paper is a preliminary rssult of my fatlier's dying request
to complete an article he was preparing, showing that the Dakotas
are of European origin. Some fragments as to m)\ lology and tra-
dition I hojie at a future time to publish. I close by giving the
ron( lusions to which he was Ic' >y forty-five years of observation.
Dictating these vas his last work before he went to his home above.

"Concerning the origin uf tiie Dakotas and those speaking kin-
dred languages : Their a.uestors laiiied on this continent near the
(lulf of St. Lawrence about the san^e time, [jrobably at least three
thousand years ago. The Dakotas were and continued to be on the
north side of the St. Lawrence and great lakes, and the climate being
unfavorable to agriculture, soon abandoned it, anil depended for sub-
sistence wholly on the chase and fishing. 'I'hus they had no per-
manent villages, and as there was no allotment of the territory to
any part of the peojjle, all hunted freely iver every part of the terri-
tory the entire tribe cotdd defend and hold as their own, wliich
< luised frequent intercourse. Besides, at certain seasons of the year,
tliey would assemble at the best fishing-grounds, and there remain

344

SIOUX.

for weeks together. These all continued to speak the same language.
At some remote period the most westerly portion reached and en-
tered the prairies, whence their name Titon, — dwellers on the prairies.
From that time their mode of life changed, the buffalo became a
chief part of tneir game, they ceased to have much intercourse with
their eastern neighbors, and so developed a dialect which differs
from the Santee and Yankton far more than they differ from ea( h
other, and from the Assinniboine. As it is certain that the separa-
tion of the Assinniboines must have taken place nearly three hundred
years ago, and perhaps yet more remotely, and as the Assinniboines
have been wholly separated, the Titons but partially, I think tliat
this separation could not liave been less than six hundred years ago,
and was probably much more remote.

" As was said before, I think the tribes speaking kindred languaj,'cs
were south of the St. Lawrence River, 'i'hey doubtless found t'u
coasts of New England occupied by the Algonquins or others, who
would not suffer the intruders to remain near the valuable fisheries.
'I'liey had prol)ably lost very little of the knowledge of agriculture
whi<h their fathers had brought from Europe when they reached the
valley of the Ohio River. Here, finding a beautiful agricultural
country, they settled in villages and built the mounds and earth-works
con( crning whose origin there has been so nuich speculation. The
extent of these works is such as to show that the builders must have
lived chiefly by agriculture, for it would be impossible for hunters to
subsist at one ])oint the number of men sufficient to build or hold
them. Many have asserted that these mounds must hive been built
by a different and superior race, because none of the Indians found
jji this countiy by our ancestors had skill to construct them, iii't
this has no foundation in fact. The Indians have as much con-
structive talent as ourselves. If they did not build better houses it
was because they felt no need of theui. None of our best mechanics
can, with the Indian's tools, make a dug-out canoe nearly as good as
the Santees livinp .>n the Mississippi made thirty years ago, and very
few of them (an, with -is best tools and the Indian's canoe for a
model, equal •(. The Indians, in like manner, excel in making
arrows, as may be seen by any one who witnesses the whole process.
I have no douot that the Inclians of Dakota slock who lived in the
Ohio Valley possessed the recpiisite skill to construct any earth-works
and motnids found in that State. These villages being widely scat-
tered, and those inhabiting them living by agri'uUure, they had bttlc
intercourse with each other, an'l ;iius arose the various kindred lan-
guages. The development of thes languages must have occu|)ie(l
at least one thousand years, and probablv very much longer, unless
we suppose that they were soparatetl into strongly-marked dialec ts
before they reached the Ohio Valley, which does not seem to me to
be probable.

"At some remote period, probably about the time of Colmnbus's
discovery of America, the Algontpjins or Iroquois began a war ul
extermination against these iid\abitants of Ohio. Hunters have evei

SIOUX.

345

been prone thus to war on their agricultural neighbors, and unless
the latter have a well-organized government, seldom fail to be the
victors. The contest was probably a long and severe one, and many,
perhaps much the greater part of the mound-builders, were slain.
Their enemies, finding them no more, naturally supposed that they
were exterminated, yet many of them escaped to the west. The
Winnebagoes removed to the west shore of Lake Michigan, where
their persecutors probably never found them. The lowas and Otoes
fled to tlie prairies of Illinois, where they built many earth houses,
the ruins of which still remain, and may be seen by examination to
have once been human dwellings. Satisfactory reasons could be
given for the difference in size. Tiie Omahas, Osages, and other
Southern bands migrated to the southwest of the Missouri, and when
first visited by wiiite men were living in earth houses, the ruins of
which are now similar to many of the mounds in Ohio."

In justice to the a.ithor, it must be noticed that he observes "con-
cerning th » origin cf the Dakotas, and those speaking kindred lan-
^uages,^^ The ear'iest reliable history, as I have stated, locates the
villages of the Sioux proper on the lakes and streams near the head-
waters of the Mississippi River. Powerful and war-loving, they waged
buccessfiilly offensive and defensive warfare against the surromuling
tribes, until the Algoncpiins, with the assistance of the French,
l)ressed them to the west and south. There seems little doubt but
til. t many, if not all of them, in olden times used the dirt lodges in
thv , '•manent villages, something after the manner of the Mandans,
I'a. 1, and other tribe.., a >d had their cultivated fields near them.
In their early intercourse with the whites they were generally friendly,
looking upon the pi.Ie-faces at first in superstitious awe, and then
hailed them as benefactors vho brought to their people many useful
and ornamental articles. The officers of the Northwest Ywx C'ompany
bore testimony to their uniform friendship, and stated tliat it was the
boast of the Sioux in every council for thirty-five years that tl'.eir
hands had not been stained with the blood of the white man, but
the seemingly inevitable irritation which ensues untler our system
when savagery and civil' .ation are broiighL in contact was realized,
and to many of these people every while man became a foe, and
every white woman legitimate i>rey. This feeling culminated in
what were known as tlit Spirit Lake massacre in 1857, and the Min-
nesota massacre in 1862, the latter of which, in extent, brutality,
beastly atrocities, and sickening mutilations, scarcely finds a pirallel
in the whole history of our border warfare. The Sioux had just cause
for complaint, but their fiendish action wiped out all sympathy for
the wrongs they had suffered.

In mental, moral, and physical qualities I consider the Sioux a
little lower, but still nearly equal to the Cheyennes, and the Tetons
are the superior branch of the family. In some of their customs and
beliefs the Eastern bantis differ from the Western as much as they
differ from other tribes. The Western bands do not have the same
custom of naming their children, which with those of the East is to

mmm^^^

J;*.

346

SIOUX.

call the first-born son Cliaske, the second Hirpani, the third H'l-
peda, the fourth Chatun, the fifth Harka. The first-born daughter is
called Winona, the second Harpen, the third Harpstina, the fourth
Waska, the fifth Weharka. Sometimes these names are retained
through life. A close study of different Indian tribes has convinced
me that all people in the same plane or period of savagery or bar-
barism possess about the same ideas of religious worship, and are
greatly alike in other respects. Of course, climate, food, and occu-
pation cause many ])hy;-.ical and mental characteristics, but still the
barbarian of the North, dwelling in his house of ice and subsisting
on oils and fats, is not so very different from 'the barbarian of the
South, who, basking in the sunshine, needs no house, and subsists on
the tropical fruits with which nature bounteously supplies him.

The Sioux were a very numerous and powerful people, and had
they possessed a greater and closer community of interests they
would have been able to have dictated terms to the -surrounding
tribes, and oftered a more dangerous resistance to the advance of our
western civilization ; but the Santees and Yanktons were latterly only
anxious to repel the advance of the Ojibvvays, preserve the lands of
their forefathers, and continue in the old life; while the Tetons
were restless hordes, drifting about on the vast prairies beyond, sub-
sisting mainly on the buffalo. They were the typical Plains Indians,
and with them the sign language grew into a more perfect develojj-
nient than with any other branch of the Sioux family. Their mode
of life developed them physically and mentally, and being beyond
the reach of missionaries, their old religious beliefs were better pre-
served. In their organization of soldier bands — in fact, what might
be called their form of government both in peace and war — they were
also superior to the Eastern bands.

With this tribe, as with many others, the position of chief was
not necessarily inherited or secured through election. (See Chiek. )
Their laws and ceremonies for the preservation of the chastity of
the women were severe, searching, and comprehensive ; but it would
appear that except in cases of adultery tiie man was not liable to
punishment. Among some bands the "virgin feast" was held an-
nually, and all the unmarried females of the camp were subjected to
this test of virtue. With others, any girl whose reputation had been
assailed by slander could demand that tlie sacred fires be lighted (at
these feasts it was customary to light or make a new fire, either by
friction or with flint and steel), and that the accusers be brought to
the sacred circle and the truth or falsity of the accusation estal)-
lished. The accused was allowed to testify in her own behalf, and
it is stated that on one occasion, among the Santee Sioux, a maidt li
having been falsely accused by a young man of the tribe, took tiu-
following oath: " Hear me, Spirit of Good, in Thy presence and
in that of all these present, I pronounce this man a baseful liar, and
whichever of us has this day desecrated by falsehoods this sacrt'd
circle, dedicated to virtue, may the curse of that Spirit rest upon ilio
family of the liar; may they sicken and die one by one. By thii

SIOUX. . . 347

knife, emblem of retribution, I ask may they be stricken frorn earth,
and may the cause of this linger to the last and perish miserably."
Tiiose who were not able to vindicate th^-ir honor were fre<iuently,
for the time, abandoned to the lusts of the camp ; but many of these,
after being thus brutally debauched, became respectable wives and
mothers. The law, apparently growing out of public opinion, whicli
prohibits the marriage of blood relatives, is strictly enforced ; but so
far as I have been able to learn there is no division of the tribe into
gens as explained by Mr. Morgan. Blood relationship was, however,
only kej)! by oral tradition.

The mythology of the Sioux is not very extensive, and va?"ies with
the different bands much accordinr to the visions, vagaries, and
innginations of the medicine-men, wliu manufacture stories to please
their own i)eople or satisfy the cravings of some enthusiast of the
white race who may be gleaning the fields of the savage. It is safe
to say that nearly all their myths have now become greatly colored,
— seriously entangled with the stories told them by the missionaries
and others.

The Commissioner of Indian Affairs, in his report for 1881, gives
the following as the population of the Sioux at the different agencies :

IN MONTANA, AT FORT I'ECK AGENCY.

AssinalH)ines 1413

Yanktonnnis Sioux ........ 4^14

Total 6227

FORT Illil.KNAl" AGENCY.

AssinaI)oi«es 900

IN NEIIRASKA, AT SANTIOK AGENCY.

Santee Sioux . 767

Santee Sioux, at riaiulrcau, Dakota Territory . . . 306

Total 1073

IN DAKOTA — CHKYENNK RIVKR A(;ENCY.

niackfeet Sioux 259

Sans-Arc Sioux 346

Minin-'conjou Sioux 537

Two-Kettle Sioux 759

Total 1901

CROW CREEK AGENCY.

Yanktonnais Sioux . 1061

devil's LAKE AGENCY.

Sisscton Sioux 43a

Wah])etf)n Sioux . 403

Cut- Head Sioux 24I

Total 1066

LOWER BRl'Lfe AGENCY.

Lower Uruli Sioux 1 509

SISTER—SISTER- INLA fV.

riSE RIDGE AGENCY.

Ogalalla Siuux

ROSEBUD AGENCY.

Rnil6 Sioux
I,i>afer Sioux .
Wahziiliz.ih Sioux
TwD-Keilk' Sioux
Northern Sioux
Mixed Sioux .

Total

SISSETON AGENCY.
Sisseton and Wahpeton Sioux

STANDING ROCK AGENCY.
I,o\vt'r Yanktonnais Sioux
Upper Yanktonnais Sioux
IJlackleet Sioux .....
Unca])apa Sioux .....

Hostile Indians added July 28, 1881 (surrendered from those
who tied north of frontier line in 1876-77) :

Minnecoiijou Sioux .......

Urule Sioux .........

Sans-Arc Sioux ........

Uncapapa Suuix ........

Oj^'alaila Sioux ........

Ulackfcet Sioux ........

Total

YANKTON AGENCY.

Yankton .Sioux

7202

3566
1564
1 164

384
500
520

7698

1377

89s

493
728

521

753
170

524
703
556
107

545°
1998

Making a grand total, including the Assinaboines, of . , 37,462

These Indians are nearly all what are called blanket or wild In-
dians, supported by Government at their different agencies. Some
of them have made feeble efforts at agriculture, a few have stock
cattle, and some of the children arc sent to school, but the great
mass are scarcely any further atlvanced in civilization than they wca
when they firsit met the white rare.

Sister. Make sign for Female, and then place the tips of ex-
tended index and second finger against lips, extended fingers hori-
zontal and backs up, other fingers and thumb closed ; move the
hand horizontally several inches to front. (See Kinship.)

Deaf-iTiutes make sign for Female, and then join index fingers as
in Indian sign for Marry.

Sister-in-Law. Make signs for Brother, for His, and for Wii k.

Deaf-mutes make sign for Sister, and then place spread thumb
and index of right hand against left palm, left hand in front of
body, fingers extendeil, touching, and pointing to front.

Sir—SLOH'.

349

Sit. Hold closed right hand in front of and a little lower than
right shoulder, back of hand about to right ; move the hand down-
wards several inches. This is also used for resting, stopping, to be
at a place, abide, stay, remain, etc.

Deaf-mutes use the extended right hand, back up, fingers pointing
to front. Sometimes they use both hands.

Skunk. Represent height of animal ; then hold right hand, back
to rear, little to right of right shoulder, index finger curved, others
and thumb closed ; move the hand to front several inches by gentle
jerks; then make sign for Stink.

Sometimes the following is made, instead of the curved index,
which represents the manner of carrying the tail, viz. : Hold ex-
tended left hand, back up, in front of body, fingers pointing to
front ; draw the tips of extended first and second fingers of right
hand, back to front, pointing to front and downwards, others and
thumb closed, from ends of left fingers to rear, over the back of left
hand ; then point to something white. This represents the white
stripes on back of animal.

Deaf-mutes indicate a little animal that stinks; some indicate this
by drawing tips of index and second finger up over face and top of
head.

Sled. Hold the hands, backs down, in front of body, same
height, equally advanced, and several inches apart, index fingers
curved, other fingers and thumbs closed ; move the hands simulta-
neously to the front, — represents the runners of the vehicle.

Deaf-mutes use the same sign.

Sleep. Bring the extended hands, backs down, with a sweep, so
as to lower them slightly into the following position : left hand in
front of right breast, fingers pointing to right, right hand several
inches to right of left, fingers pointing to front and right, and as the
hands are lowered to this position, incline the head to riglit. Some-
times tiie right hand is held nearer the head, and with those not
conversant with gesture speech, tlie head is inclined to right, and
rests on right palm.

Deaf-mutes carry open hand to front of face, palm towards and
near it, incline the head slightly to front, close the eyes, and partially
close the hand. They also sometimes incline the heatl to right, and
rest side on palm of right hand.

Sleep (With). Make sign for Sleep (above) and for With ; or if
with a female, place the palm of extended right index on let"t, left
hand Ixick down, fingers pointing to front.

Deaf-mutes use the same signs; i.f., Sleep and With.

Slow. Make sign for Wait, or signs for Fast and No.

In speaking of a village, or party moving slowly, indicate many
camps, — move a little distance and then camp. Some metaphor is
usually employed ; languid or slow gestures also indicate the slow
movement. For a slow pony I have seen gestures made to denote
whipping same, and he, instead of going forward, nearly stops, with
a tendency to lean back.

35°

SAfA L L—SMA LLPOX.

Small. If an animal, indicate the height. In such sentences as
" a small number of lodges," small quantity of anything, make sign
for Few.

Deaf-mutes bring the hands near each other in front of body.

Smallpox. Conception : Marks made by the disease. Compress
and curve the right hand, and tap the face and chest, sometimes
adding Smkll and Had,

Deaf-mutes use the same signs.

The Northern Cheyennes claim that they never had the disease,
but many were swept away by the cholera in 1849.

Mr. F. F. Girard told me that in 1852 or 1853 he went np the
Missouri River from Uerthold to Fort Union (mouth of the Yellow-
stone). He passed an Assinaboine camp of some three hundred
lodges. They told him that they then had the smallpox in camp.
In the spring he returned and found this camp literally a camp of the
dead ; not one had escaped the scourge.

I have heard many sickening stories told of the ravages made by
this disease. The Shoshones and Bannacks said they suffered from
it some thirty years ago ; they moved to Bear River, wiiere the
disease appeared in the s|)ring, and by the fall nearly one-half of the
entire camp had perished. I was told at the Blackfeet Agency that
it was some forty years since they had the smallpox, which they
caught from the whites at Fort Benton. The people there sent the
Indians word not to come in, but they had no other place to go to
trade, and went. As a result, the Piegans, who formerly numbered
thirteen or fourteen bands, each as large as their entire number now,
were nearly swept away. Some bands came out of this awful ordeal
with only one or two families. Their treatment for it, as well as the
kindred diseases, "chicken-pox" and " measles," is almost certain
death, viz., hot steam bath and then a plunge into cold water.
With such treatment, living in filth and exposed to cold winds, it is
little wonder that they were nearly wiped out of existence.

Professor Schoolcraft speaks of this scourge as follows: "No
disease which has been introduced among vhe tribes has exercised
so fatal an influence upon them as the smallpox. Their physicians
have no remedy for it. Old and young regard it as if it were the
plague, and, on its appearance among them, blindly submit to its
ravages.

"This disease has appeared among them periodically, at irregular
intervals of time. It has been one of the prominent causes of their
depopulation. Ardent spirits, it is true, in its various forms, has,
in the long run, carried a greater number of the tribes to their
graves ; but its effects have been comparatively slow, and its victims,
though many, have fallen in the ordinary manner, and generally
presented scenes less revolting and striking to the eye.

"This malady swept through the Missouri Valley in 1837. It first
appeared on a steamboat (the St. Peter's), in the case of a mulatto
man, a hand on board, at the Black-Snake Hills, a trading-post,
sixty miles above Fort Leavenworth, and about five hundred miles

SMALLPOX.

351

above St. Louis. It was then supposed to be measles, hut, by the
time the boat reached the Council Bluffs, it was ascertained to be
smalIi)ox, and had, of course, been communicated to many in whom
tlie disease was still Intent. Every precaution appears to have been
taken, by sending runners to the Indians, two days ahead of the
boat ; but, in spite of these efforts, the disease spread. It broke out
among the Mandans about the 15th of July. This tribe, which con-
sisted of sixteen hundred persons, living in two villages, was reduced
to thirty-one souls. It next attacked the Minnetarees, who were
living in that vicinity, and reduced that tribe from one thousand to
al)out five hundred. The Arickarees, numbering three thousand
souls, were diminished to some fifteen hundred.

" Tiie disease j)assed from these to the Assinaboines, a powerful
tribe of nine thousand, living north of the Missouri, and ranging in
tiie plains below the Rocky Mountains, towards Red River of Hud-
son Hay, whole villages of whom it nearly anniliilated. This tribe
had their principal trade with Fort Union, at the mouth oi the
Yellowstone.

"The Crows, or Upsarokas, extending west from this point across
the plains to the Rocky Mountains, who were estimated at three
thousand strong, shared nearly the same fate, and lost one-third of
tlieir numbers.

"It then entered and spent its virulence upon the great nation of
the Blackfeet, who are known under the various names of Blood In-
dians, Piegans, and Atsinas. They have been estimated at tiiirty
thousand to fifty thousand. The inmates of one thousand lodges
wore destroyed. The average number in a lodge is from six to eight
persons.

"Granting everything that can be asked on the score of excite-
ment and exaggeration, not less than ten thousand persons fell be-
fore tliis destroying disease in a few weeks. An eye-wiiness ot this
scene, writing from Fort Union on the 27th of November, 1S37,
says, 'Language, however forcible, can convey but a faint idea of
tlie scene of desolation whicli the country now presents. In wiiat-
ever direction you turn nothing but sad wrecks of mortality meet
the eye ; lodges standing on every hill, but not a streak of smoke
rising from them. Not a sound can be heard to break the awful
stillness, save the ominous croak of ravens and the mournful howl
of wolves, fattening on the human carcasses that lie streweil around.
It seems as if the very genius of desolation had stalked through the
prairies and wreaked his vengeance on everything bearing the shape
ol humanity.* "

Another writer says, " Many of the handsome Arickarees, who
had recovered, seeing the disfiguration of their features, committed
suicide, some by throwing themselves from rocks, others by slabbing
and shooting. The prairie has become a graveyard ; its wild flowers
hloom over the sepulchres of Indians. The atmosphere, for miles,
is poisoned by the stench of the hundreds of carcasses unburied.
The women and children are wandering in groups, without food, or

35»

SMELL— SMOKE.

howling over the dead. The men are flying in every direction.
The proud, warlike, and noble-looking Blackfeet are no more.
Their deserted lodges are seen on every hill. No sound but the
raven's croak or the wolfs howl breaks the solemn stillness. The
scene of desolation is appalling, beyond the power of the imagina-
tion to conceive.' "

SmeU. Bring the right hand, back nearly up, in front of lower
part of face, first and second fingers extended, separated, nearly
horizontal, and pointing towards face, tips close to chin ; move the
hand upwards, mostly by wrist action, nose passing between tips.

Deaf-mutes pass the palmar surface of the extended finger of right
hand from above down over and close to nose and mouth, fingers
pointing to left.

Smoke. For distant smoke, like a signal-fire smoke, make sign for
Fire, and continue raising hand till higher than head.

For smoke in a lodge or house, make signs for Fikk, for Bad, and
bring extended and separateii fingers iw^K thumbs, backs out, in
front of and little above eyes; lower hanils slightly, ami bring tiieni
a little closer to face than in Fog. This is also used for a smoky
atmosjjhere, — one cannot see well through it.

Deaf-mutes give a rotary motion to the hands, one about the other,
as they are raised from a position about in front of waist, hands
open, fingers slightly separated.

Smoke. (To smoke a pijie ) Hold closed left hand, back to left,
in front of body ; bring palm of extended right hand about tiirce
inches over left hand, antl strike with this palm left index and thumb
briskly two or three times, then make sign for Pipe. This really
means fill up the pipe.

Deaf-mutes make their sign for Pipe, and then make motion with
lips and cheeks as though puffing at same.

Indians have no salutation like ouns on meeting or separating, hut
it is the custom with many tribes to say on mee'.ing, " Fill the pipe ;
let us smoke." There are few people who smoke as much as the Plains
Indians, and certainly few who give to it in so great a measure a re-
ligious character, making of it a social pleasure a;id prizing it highly
and sacredly as a mark of friendship. We are told that, " in tiie
belief of the ancient worshippers, the Great Spirit smelled a sweet
savor as the smoke of the sacred plant ascended to the heavens ; and
this homely implement of modern luxury wa'"> in their hands a sacred
censer, from which the hallowed vapors rose; as fitting propitiatory
odors as that which perfumes the awful precincts of the cathedral
altar amidst the mysteries of the church's high and holy days."

As I have stated, the Indians of the majority of the tribes, on the
slightest provocation, seem to crystallize into a circular group seated
on the ground. If the circle is large, more than ten or twelve, two
or more pipes are used. Suppose a group of six or eight ; the pipe
is filled and passed to the medicine-man, if there be one in the
group, if not, then to the eldest or acknowledged headman, who
lights it, takes a whiff or two, then points the tube or stem to the

SMOOTH—SOAP.

353

God or force in nature which he wishes to propitiate or supjjlicate,
accompanying tlie movement frequently witli an oral petition ; then
points tlie stem towards tlie eartli, and perhaps to i\\Q four winds;
then the pipe is passed around, each man making his prayer by point-
ing the stem as in the first case ; the pipe is handed back to the right,
and not smoked on the passage. The pipe is pointed to the earth,
that it may hold them good and strong; to the " four corners," that
no harsh winds may blow against them, meaning not only the phys-
ical action of storms, but trouble and distress; to the sun, that they
may have light to sec their way clearly ; the sun is specially smoked
to just before going to war, that they may see their way clearly, so
as to avoid danger and death. All of these motions are not made
each time they smoke, but some of them are. The Chippewas do
not pass the pipe in smoking, unless in making peace or some other
impressive ceremony; socially, each man has his separate pipe.

The Bannacks and Snakes do not smoke nearly as much as the
Plains Indians, many only cigarettes after eating, and some take a
smoke just before going to sleep. The Utes also use cigarettes more
than they do i)ipes.

Smooth. Make sign for Pkairie, and to emphasize add signs for
Rock or Bi-uff, and All Gone, or Wiped Out.

Deaf-mutes rub back of extended left hand with palmar surface of
fingeis of extended right.

Snake. Conception : Motion. Hold right hand, back to right,
in front of right shoulder, about height of waist, first and second
fingers extended, touching, and pointing to front, others and thumb
closed ; move the hand several inches to front, and, by wrist action,
give a wavy, sinuous motion to extended fingers. Frequently oidy
tlie index is extended.

Deaf-mutes give a rotary motion to the hand, so that tips of ex-
tended fingers describe a spiral curve, and on terminating movenient
hold the extended and separated fingers pointing to front and
upwards.

Snow. Make sign for Rain, and from this position lower the
bands some inches, backs up, fingers touching and pointing to front,
— falls like the rain, but lies on the ground.

Speaking of snow, a Mandan Indian said to me that the Gros
Ventre God and Mandan God had a dispute about this, one claim-
ing that it was better to have it always pleasant and warm, bright
sunshine and flowers ; but the other said no, that their health de-
manded cold weather ; so they made snow, gave us moccasins, and
showed us how to make all our clothing to protect us from the cold.

Deaf-mutes make signs for White, Rain, and lower the hands very
slowly in latter gesture.

Snow-shoe. Trace the size and shape with index of right hand ;
make sign for Walk, Snow, and Good.

Deaf-mutes indicate a long Shoe, Walk, and Snow.

Soap. Bring hands in front of body, and rub them against each
other, as is done in washing them.

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354

SOFT— SOLDIER.

Deaf-mutes indicate size of cake, and then make same sign.

Soft. (Sense of miry.) Hold left hand, back to front and left,
well in front of right breast, index and thumb curved, forming about
half of a horizontal ellipse, other fingers closed; bring closed right
hand and pass it from above downwards through this ellipse (con-
sider the right arm as the foreleg of an animal, and let left thumb
and index mark off the extent which it is supposed the animal does
or would sink); then hold right hand similarly fixed opposite left
breast, and execute similar movement with left hand and arm.

For Soft in any other sense, use signs for Hard and No.

Deaf-mutes close and open hands, as thpugh pressing something
between fingers and thumbs.

Soldier. The conception for this sign seems to be drawn from
several gestures : In Line, Bow, Stout, or Strong, holding a fiery
horse. Bring closed hands, backs up and slightly to rear, well in
front of body, hands at same height, equally advanced, touching at
thumbs and index fingers ; separate the hands several inches, carrying
right to right and left to left.

The Crows and some other tribes usually make the sign for Hold.
At certain times the members of an Indian village are forced to keep
together, held, or, as they say, "soldiered," hence this sign.

The Berthold Indians touch something black and draw palm of
extended right hand from left to right across lower part of face. In
olden times these Indians had a police force regularly detailed to
look after the camp, and their insignia of authority was the blackened
face.

White soldiers are sometimes represented as Whites with a peculiar
visor to cap, as marching in column, as whites with sharp instrument
on end of gun, and whites who fight.

Deaf-mutes hold the closed hands against left breast, right several
inches above left.

The origin of the word '' Cheyenne" having been given as derived
from the French word " Chien," and this applied to a tribe of In-
dians, because the men of the tribe were known as "dog-soldiers,"
and the organization of certain tribes into phratries and gentes, as
given by Mr. L. H. Morgan, led me to make careful inquiry in
regard to the present organizations, and, so far as tradition goes,
what had been the form of government in times past.

Mr. Morgan broadly asserts that the plan of government of the
American aborigines commenced with the gens, and ended with the
confederacy; the latter being the highest point to which their govern-
mental institutions attained. It gave the organic series, yfrj/", the
gens, a body of consanguinity having a common gentile name;
second, the phratry, an assemblage of related gentes, united in a
higher association for certain common objects; third, the tribe, an
assemblage of gentes, usually organized in phratries, all the meml)ers
of which spoke the same dialect ; d^\v\, fourth, a confederacy of tribes,
the members of which respectively spoke dialects of the same stock
language.

SOLDIER.

355

I sign.

ont and left,

)rming about

closed right
ellipse (con-
et left thumb
; animal does

opposite left
d arm.

No.
ig something

; drawn from
lolding a fiery
1 rear, well in
I, touching at
ches, carrying

ign for Hold.
forced to keep
is sign,
draw palm of
rt of face. In
irly detailed to
3 the blackened

with a peculiar
arp instrument

t, right several

Irnment of the
;nded with tlie^
li their govern-
[cries, //'^/', tlie
Igentile name;
united in a
the tribe, an
the members
leracy of tribes,
Ithe same stock

I cannot help feeling that Mr. Morgan's careful stucly of the form
of government of the Iroquois League colored his writings in regard
to all other Indians; certain it is that no trace now exists of such
organization among many of the Plains Tribes. The very nature of
the warfare carried on by these predatory hordes for hundreds of
years, as well as the character of their social gatherings, prevented
any such structure. Among the larger tribes, like the Sioux and Co-
manches, we find several different bands in each tribe known and
recognized under the tribal name, and yet specially designated by
the name for the particular band ; but, all the men being warriors, it
seems only natural that we should here find a special crystallization,
formed through necessity and pleasure. There were many influences
at work which gave special names to the soldier bands.

The Southern Cheyennes gave me the following six bands as their
organization: ist, Fox ; 2d, Dog; 3d, Bow-String ; 4th, Bull ; 5th,
Medicine-Lance; 6th, Chief; and they informed me that the prom-
inence and numbers of each band depended in a great measure on
the leader. For instance, the Dog-Soldier band led all others in
1869, but when "Tall Bull," the chief of this band, was killed by
General Carr's command in the spring of that year, this band de-
clined in prominence and numbers from that time. In the summer
of 1868 "Roman Nose" led the Medicine-Lance band, and this
band was more numerous and ranked higher in bravery than any
other; but he was killed in General Forsyth's fight on the American
Fork of the Republican River in 1868, and then this band lost its
prestige and wasted away in numbers.

The Southern Arapahoes have seven bands: ist, Fox; 2d, Fool-
Dog, or Rattle; 3(1, War-Club; 4th, Medicine- or Crooked-Lance;
5th, Crazy, or Fool band (meaning that they knew or paid no atten-
tion to danger); 6th, Dog; 7th, Old Chief.

The Comanches have five bands, and claimed that the difference
is in the dances prior to getting up a war-party. They are named :
ist. Swift Fox; 2d, Gourd; 3d, Raven; 4th, Buffalo Bull; 5th,
Afraid-of-Nothing.

The Kiowas have five bands : ist, Raven Soldiers (black leggings) ;
2cl, Sheep; 3d, Feather-Head; 4th, Horse; 5th, War-Club.

The Caddos have four: ist, VVolf; 2d, Bear; 3d, Panther; 4th,
Beaver.

The Kiowa Apaches have only three bands, viz. : ist. Big Horse ;
2d, Raven ; 3d, Swift Fox.

The Sacs and Foxes have no regular soldier bands, but claim that
long ago they had a soldier band, which camped separately from the
main village.

The Arickarees have eight bands, viz. : ist. Fox ; 2d, Thief; 3d,
Basket; 4th, Shaved-Head (one side shaved); 5th, Big Dog; 6th,
Bull; 7th, Crow; 8th, Black Mouth.

The tribes at the Flathead Agency seemed to have a very meagre
organization. In former times they laimed to have had one or two
men called "dog-soldiers," and wh;.n a war-party started th^y went

3S6

SON— SPOON.

in advance of the rest without arms, only taking their medicine and
their rattles. As the old Indian who told me the story, said,
" They went right into the enemy's camp or ranks, and, if killed,
the rest turned back."

It was claimed that they also had a band of club-soldiers, forty
or fifty in a tribe, who executed the orders of the chief, and were
apparently a police force to preserve order in the camp (my inform-
ant here sang for me a beautiful and inspiriting war-song, suitable for
a dog-soldier, at least he seemed to think so).

The Eastern b^.ids of Sioux do not seem to have a very perfect
organization of soldier bands. The Teton Sioux have eleven bands,
viz. : ist. Strong Heart ; 2d, Prairie- Dog ; 3d, Crow (carry a lance) ;
4th, White Breast-Strap ; 5th, Shield ; 6th, Night Brave; 7th, Night-
Owl Head-dress ; 8th, Badger-mouth Prairie-Dog ; 9th, Tall Brave ;
loth. Orphan; nth. Warrior.

Son. Make signs for Parturition and Male.

Deaf-mutes make sign for Male, and hold hands as in Born, only
a little lower.

Sorrel. Touch something yellow in color, and make sign for
Little.

Most Indians call a sorrel horse a yellow horse, and a dun-colored
the color of an elk.

Deaf-mutes use the same signs.

Sour. Touch tongue with tip of extended index of right hand
and make sign for Bad.

Deaf-mutes touch tongue and assume a scowling expression of
countenance.

Source. (Stream.) Make sign for Stream or River ; then hold
closed left hand, back to left, in front of body; carry the extended
right index, other fingers and thumb closed, to front, the right and
place tip against fingers and exposed palm of left hand, right index
horizontal.

Deaf-mutes hold left hand extended, fingers pointing upward, and
place tip of right index against left palm.

Speak. See Talk.

Spear. Bring right hand, palm outwards, in front of and close
to right breast, index finger extended and pointing upwards, others
and thumb closed ; raise the hand to arm's full length, and, by wrist
action, give a tremulous motion to index finger.

Deaf-mutes hold closed right hand near right shoulder, and move
it briskly to front, as though using a spear.

Spider. The Cheyennes vocally call a spider by the same name
that they do a white man, and of course make the same sign.

I have seen added to this an imitation of biting with tips of
thumb and index of right hand, other fingers closed, and then the
sign for Rope made.

Spoon. Make sign for Buffalo ; then touch the right hand with
finger-tips of left as right is in position, and make sign as though
dipping into some vessel with right hand, and carry it to mouth,

SPO TTED— STAND.

357

der, and move

From the buffalo-horn were made nearly all the spoons used by
the Plains Indians in formei times.

Deaf-mutes move the right hand, with index and second finger ex-
u.ided, as though dipping into some vessel, in front of body, and
then carry same to mouth.

Spotted. Hold left arm about horizontal and pointing to front ;
separate and p'ightly curve fingers of right hand, hold it some inches
above and to right of left wrist, the fingers and thumb point about
to left, and their ends are just over left forearm ; lower right hand,
ends of fingers and thumb toughing left forearm, as the hand passes ;
raise the hand, then lower it, moving it each time little towards
elbow, tips of fingers and thumb touching left arm in upward and
downward movement.

Deaf-mutes tap in different places the back of extended left hand,
held palm down, fingers pointing to front, with tip of curved index
of right hand, other fingers and thumb closed.

Spring. Conception : Grass coming out of ground. Make sign
for Grass and Little.

In the North, where the snow disappears about this time, some-
times the signs for Snow and Wiped Out are made, and I have also
seen signs for Cold and Finished made.

Deaf-mutes make their sign for Grow.

Spring. (Water.) Make sign for Water ; then form a horizontal
circle with thumbs and index fingers, in front of body, other fingers
closed ; then carry right hand, back down, just under the circle,
nails of first three fingers pressing against thumb ; raise the right
hand slightly and nearly extend the fingers with a slight snap ; repeat
motion ; to represent the bubbling and boiling up of the water.

Deaf-mutes use the same sign.

Springfield Rifle. Conception : Throwing open breech-block.
Make sign for Gun ; then hold extended and slightly-compressed
left hand well in front of body, back of hand to left, fingers pointing
to front, thumb extended and pressed against index, forearm hori-
zontal ; bring nearly-closed right hand, and place side of right
thumb on base of left ; move the hand upwards and to front, as
though throwing open breech-block.

Spy. Make sign for Wolf. To spy about is to act the wolf.
This metaphor comes not only from the sneaking, prowling habits of
the animal, but a wolf-skin cap was frequently used by scouts and
spies in approaching a camp, or rising above the crest of a hill. The
disguise was a good one, and the howling of a wolf easily imitated.

Stand. Bring right hand, back out, well in front of, little to right
and little higher than, right shoulder, index finger extended and
pointing upwards, others and thumb closed. This is used to repre-
sent anything as standing upright.

Deaf-mutes hold the extended left hand, back down, in front of
body, fingers pointing to front, and place the tips of extended and
separated index and second finger on left palm, other fingers and
thumb closed, fingers vertical.

358

STANDING ROCK— STEAL.

For a column, or any inanimate object, they indicate its s'lape.

Standing Rock. Make signs for Stand and Rock. Standing
Rock Agency, on tlie Missouri River, derives its name from the
small rock which stands on a slight eminence near by, and which is
an object of awe and reverence to the A*"ickarees and Sioux.

The myth in regard to it is, that an Arickaree woman, with a baby
in a blanket at her back, in grief and anger left her lodge and went
to this little knoll and remained all night. In the morning when
her people' went to look for her, they found only this rock, which
they have since considered sacred, as it is the woman and child
changed to stone. They painted and dressed it; made sacrificial
offerings of beads, paint, arrows, etc., to it." Some years after the
Arickarees had moved farther up the river, a Sioux war-party finding
it so decorated, one of the number tore off the clothing, rubbed away
the paint, scattered the offerings, and scornfully said, " It is only
holy for the Arickarees." The war-party went on, and soon after
had a fight with the Arickarees, in which the scorner was the first one
killed. In this way it became sacred to the Sioux as well, and they
have since kept up the custom of decorating and making offerings
to it.

Star. Make sign for Night ; then form an incomplete circle with
index and thumb, space of about half an inch between tip of index
and thumb ; raise the hand upwards towards the heavens. To rep-
resent many stars, sometimes both hands are used, and pushed up in
different directions. To denote any star of particular brilliancy,
such as the morning star, the hand is held towards the direction
where the star is supposed to be, and then the tip of index pressed
against the ball of the thumb and snapped two or three times to
denote the twinkling.

Deaf-mutes rub the extended index fingers placed alongside of
each other, other fingers closed.

The Arapahoes have just enough' knowledge of astronomy to name
some of the stars and constellations.

They call the Big Dipper "the broken back."

Mars, " big fire star."

Jupiter, " morning star." When Jupiter is an evening star, "the
lance." Some call it " the winter star."

Pleiades, " the bunch."

Venus, "day star."

77/^ ^a^/«, " the hand."

The Plains Indians have special names for a greater number of
stars and constellations than some of the mountain tribes.

The Snakes and Bannacks speak of the morning star and evening
star ; but, so far as I could learn, have no name for any constella-
tion.

Start. Make sign for Go.

Stay. Make sign for Sit.

Steal. To steal from others. Hold extended left hand, back up,
to left and front, well in front of left breast, fingers pointing to right

STEAMBOA T— STRING.

359

iiomy to name

ter number of

and front; carry right hand under and close to left hand, so that
right wrist will be under and close to left palm, index finger of right
hand extended, pointing to left and front, other fingers and thumb
closed; draw the right to right, rear and slightly upwards, at same
time curving, nearly closing index finger.

This combines signs for Fetch or Bring, and Secretly.

Deaf-mutes hold left hand similarly, and carry right under left in
the same way, but m.-ke a grasping motion with right hand instead
of index finger.

Public sentiment so thoroughly condemns theft, that among them-
selves Indians have but little trouble on account of thieves. Having
no locks or keys, honesty in this respect is a necessity. The per-
sonal possessions of Indians are so well known in their camps that it
would be extremely difficult for an individual to steal any article, re-
tain possession of it, and not have it known.

Steamboat. Conception : Fire-boat. Make sign for Boat ; th^n
sign for Fire, holding the hand in front of and little higher than
head. Sometimes a puffing sound is also made with the mouth.

Deaf-mutes make their sign for Boat, and then hold hands to
right and left of body, and give them a circular motion to denote
the wheels.

Stingy. Make sign for Heart and for Few. The heart is narrow,
compressed.

Deaf-mutes make same signs as for Miserly.

Stink. Make sign for Smell and Bad.

Deaf-mutes use the same sign.

Stop. See Halt.

Deaf-mutes strike palm of extended left with lower edge of ex-
tended right.

Store. Make sign for House and for Trade.

Deaf-mutes make their signs for Hoi;sE and Sell.

Straight. See True.

Deaf-mutes pass lower edge of extended right across palm of ex-
tended left, edge touching palm, hands at right angles.

Strike. Hold extended left hand, back down, well in front of
left breast, fingers pointing to front and right ; raise the extended
right hand in front of and higher than right shoulder ; strike the
left palm sharply with lower edge of extended right hand. This is
usually used to represent a blow given with a weapon. Indians —
men and boys — do not fight ; i e., have recourse to fisticuffs. Public
sentiment has never allowed this manner of settling disputes. The
women do sometimes pull hair like their white sisters.

Deaf-mutes strike the left palm with closed right hand.

String (Protection). Make sign for Rope, Little, Female ; then
bring the knees together and imitate motions of tying a string around
them.

Among many tribes, young girls just before and after reaching the
age of puberty, use at night what is called a protection-string. This
is a small cord which they tie around the legs, just above the knees,

360

STRIPED—SUN.

before going to sleep at night. The liberty and license of an Indian
camp make this necessary, for some young man in the village may
mark the position in a lodge where a girl sleeps, and, when the in-
mates are sleeping soundly, cautiously and carefully creep in at the
door, or quietly pull up one or two lodge-pins near where the girl
lies, crawl in and feel her person if she has not tied herself.

Public opinion makes this string sacred, and to untie or cut it
would be regarded as a heinous offence, much as rape is considered
with us. This string is also used by married women when their hus-
bands are away, and with the Cheyennes some women keep the same
string from early youth to old age.

Striped. Hold left arm as in Spotted, and then draw palm of
extended right hand from left to right across the left forearm in dif-
ferent places.

Deaf-mutes draw the right hand down over and around surface of
body

Strong. Make sign for Brave. Sometimes sign for Must or Push
is used ; in such sentences as "I want you to be strong in your ef-
forts," "strong in your work," etc.

Deaf-mutes bring the clinched fists down from about height of and
opposite shoulder to height of waist, and assume a determined ex-
pression of countenance.

Sugar. Touch the tongue with tip of extended index of right
hand. Sometimes sign for Good is also made.

Deaf-mutes hold tips of extended index and second finger against
lips, and make motion with jaws as though eating.

Sumach. Mak" sign for Leaf, for Red, and rub tips of fingers of
or lower edge of closed right hand against left palm.

The leaves of the sumach are dried, then, broken up by rubbing
in the palm of the hand, and mixed with tobacco, are used for
smoking.

Sometimes the signs for Smoke and Good are also made.

Summer. Make sign for Grass, holding hands quite high. Some-
times sign for Hot is also made. I have also seen signs made to
denote the sun as passing directly overhead, and Hot.

Deaf-mutes make their sign for Hot; i.e., drawing crooked index
across forehead from left to right.

Sun. Form an incomplete circle with index and thumb of right
hand, space of about an inch between tips; hold hand towards east-
ern horizon, and move it on a nearly vertical curve towards the west.
The right hand fixed as above, and pushed up towards any one posi-
tion of the sun, is all that is usually done. This sign is frequently
used to denote the time of day, which is determined by the position
of the sun in the heavens.

Deaf-mutes raise the right hand towards an imaginary position of
the sun, index finger extended and pointing at this sun ; raostly by
wrist action describe a small circle with tip of index, then, extending
and separating fingers, move the hand downwards tremulously, to
denote the rays of heat.

SUNDANCE.

361

d surface of

ooked index

Sun-Dance. Make signs for Dance and for Whistle. Some add
signs for the enclosure, and putting of skewers in muscles of breast.

The Sun-Dance is a religious ceremony, the fulfilment of a vow
made to some mysterious force in nature. If an Indian be sur-
rounded by his foes, he promises the God in the sun or the Great
Spirit that if he be delivered from the hands of his enemies he
will, when the time comes (usually full of the moon in June), dance
the Sun-Dance. If some friend or kin is at the point of death, he
makes the same vow: if the Great Spirit will restore his friend or
kin to health. In time of sore need he calls on the greatest and
most mysterious force of nature for aid, and promises that he will
subject himself to physical suffering and torture, fasting and mutila-
tion, if succor is accorded him.

This dance partakes as strongly of a religious character as any cus-
tom which the Indians have preserved since the invasion of the white
race; and to my mind, gives evidence that before our Christian re-
ligion was disseminaud among these people by the missionaries they
worshipped the sun more than anything else in nature. This view
seems to have support in the fact that to-day, after some hundreds
of years of contact with our religious views, they still worship the
mysterious and unknown in nature.

I attended the Sur. -Dance in the camp of the Sioux war chief
Crazy Horse, in 1877, '^"^ ^ S'^^ ^^ details, briefly, as I observed
them there. The tepees were formed in a circle, with an open space
towards the east. The Sun-Dance pole was selected by the medicine-
man of the camp ; a cottonwood one, about eight inches in diameter,
and thirty feet long from the butt to where it forked. It was located
in a ravine about two miles from the village, and a day was devoted
to cutting and hauling it to camp, a labor in which the entire village
united, men, women, and children. Spring was radiant in her
beauty, and the savages decorated themselves and their ponies with
crowns and shields of wild clematis and other foliage. A group of
old women gathered near the foot of the tree selected and danced,
chattered, and howled.

The sides of the ravine were thickly lined with painted and dec-
orated savages. The man who had performed the bravest deed
during the past year advanced and hit the tree a light blow with an
axe, and gave two sticks to the old women, who chanted and danced
more vigorously and hideously than before. These sticks were
tokens, good for a pony apiece. Then two or three more followed
suit, — struck the tree and gave something away to the poor. Two
virgins, gaudily gotten up in dresses worked with beads and elk-
teeth, cut down the tree and trimmed it. It was then carried by
the sub-chiefs and headmen a short distance towards camp (they re-
fraining as much as possible from touching it with their hands, hand-
ling it with ropes), where it was put on a wagon. This troubled the
soul of an old man, who, sitting near me, said he was afraid the
Great Spirit looking down would see it, and would not like it ; it
was a deviation from a good old custom, which was to have it carried

362

SUN-DANCE.

by tlie headmen to the camp. Four halts were made going to camp,
and at each halt the God in the sun was prayed to, through their
way of smoking. 'I'he last halt was made when this strange and
wild procession was about half a mile from the lodges. The warriors
here formed in a line, and charged, with shots and shouts, for the
centre of the space enclosed by the tepees. The one who first struck
the place where the Sun-Dance pole was to be planted, was supposed
to be the one who would "count the first coup" in case of a war-
party going out. They charged and recharged across this open
space, and as I saw it I thought of another scene which must have
been somewhat similar, and which occurred only one short year
before, — the field of the Little Big Horn River; where General Custer
and his three hundred men went down so speedily to death, sur-
rounded by this horde, and where this very chief had two ponies
shot and killed under him, as he rode in his demon-like way into the
very midst of the soldiers, firm and fearless in his conviction that he
could not be killed by a bullet.

The pole was laid on the ground, and all repaired to their lodges
for a feast, which, however, did not include those who were to dance
the Sun-Dance. They must fast until after it was over. These in-
cluded the few who had made the vow long before, and those who
had agreed to join in the trial. The last had not made a promise,
but they would arouse their courage, show their power to endure
bodily suffering, join their friends and kin in worship.

In this camp of about six thousand only three had made the vow,
and yet, I think, ten fasted, were mutilated, took part in this horrible
worship called a Sun-Dance.

The second day was devoted to planting the Sun-Dance pole,
making a circular shed or enclosure around it, fastening the " medi-
cine-bag" to the forks of the pole, etc. The early part of the third
day was devoted to cutting holes in the ears of the babies. These
little wretches were laid at the foot of the pole, and their ears
pierced with a knife by the medicine-man.

Those who were to dance only had for clothing a wrapping about
their loins; sometimes, I was told, they only wore a breech-cloth.
They each had an attendant, who painted him, filled his pipe, rubbed
the palms of his hands with sage and other green herbs, and talked
encouragingly to him. They seemed to need the encouragement,
for they were faint and weak from fasting and the fear of the horri-
ble torture awaiting them. Around them were feasting and laughter.
The circular shed was filled with people, who had brought huge ket-
tles of food. Later the women kinsfolk, wives, sisters, and sweet-
hearts, came in singing, and had their arms slashed by the medicine-
man's knife, thus endeavoring to support with their suffering the
pain and torture being undergone by the men. Finally one of the
dancers was laid with his head near the foot of the Sun-Dance pole,
and two holes were cut in the muscles of his chest, through which
two sticks or skewers were thrust. To each of ihese sticks a string
was fastened ; then the victim was lifted up, and the strings were

SUNDA Y.

fastened to a lariat hanging from the pole. The victim now blew on
a whistle made of the bone of an eagle's wing, looked at the sun
and its course from its rising to its setting, and until he could free
himself by tearing out the flesh and muscles, dancing, whistling,
l)raying for deliverance, and making other requests. Sometimes
strings are tied into the muscles of the back and a buffalo-skull
fastened to them. I saw one Indian throw himself back with all his
force and might, but he could not tear himself loose ; he had to
wait for a slight decay of the muscles. One or two were very weak-
kneed, heart-sick with fear and fasting; and if ever I saw regret, it
was on their painted faces. The most of them stood it stoutly
enough. After breaking loose, if they are exhausted, they are carried
off on a blanket, and kindly and carefully cared for.

It would take many pages to describe this horrible ceremony in
detail, I have only tried to give some of the salient points. I was
told by a Sioux that the enclosure was a church ; their Grandmother
(the Earth) was represented by the grass and sage, and a cross was
made at the foot of the pole to represent the sun and stars.

The Shoshones call this dance the "Dry-Dance," and hold it
about June, when green grass has " come up pretty well." Some
one in the camp gives the dance ; i.e., gets it up, and asks the x^thers
to join. Those who participate do not eat or drink for four days
and nights during the continuance of the dance. The prolonged
fasting, excitement, and physical exertion sometimes produce faint-
ing; and any visions had while in this condition are h-ghly prized.
There seemed, from the description, but little difference between
this and the Sioux Sun-Dance. The promise does not originate in
the same way, but is more the result of religious zeal. A bufflilo-skin
is hung on the pole at the forks instead of a medicine-bag, the
h d is left on the skin, and by continually looking at this some
vision is hoped for and expected. They plant one pole in the centre,
and have ten in the outer circle ; and instead of constantly looking
at the sun, they look at the buffalo-head.

The Comanches told me that they did not have a Sun-Dance, but
did have dances of a religious character to propitiate the force or
Great Spirit in the sun.

The Poncas have a Sun-Dance like the Sioux ; and at the one held
in 1880, when they were suffering great sadness at the loss of their
country and many were dying of nostalgia, under the pressure of
the excitement and religious fervor one was thrown into such a state
of desperation that he had the medicine-men make the incisions in
the muscles in his chest very deep, — so deep that he could not free
himself, and he finally directed them to hitch a j)ony to his legs and
drag him away from the Sun-Dance pole, which was done. Another
cut off his little finger and ate it.

The Nez Perces have no Sun-Dance, but a yearly dance is held in
the winter.

Sunday. Make sign for Day and Medicine.

A Sioux, who was not thoroughly conversant with gesture speech,

364

SUN-D G—S IVEA T- L OD GE.

in answer to my question as to what sign should be made for Sunday,
said, "Work," "No," "White," "Dress," "Good;" indicating
that Sunday was a day of rest and fine dressing for the white people.

Deaf-mutes denote a day of rest, or a holy day. For rest they
fold hands on breast.

Sun-Bog. Conception : Fires to warm the sun. Make sign for
Sun, and then with both hands make sign for Fire, holding hands
on each side of and close to position of right hand when making sign
for Sun. The Shoshones call this phenomenon "the sun's winter
ear-ring," and of course make signs accordingly.

Deaf-mutes indicate a small sun near the sun.

Superior. In comparing two persons or objects the extended
index fingers are placed side by side, other fingers and thumbs closed,
and the index held highest represents the superior person or object.
One superior to several or many, extend the thumb and fingers of
left hand, fingers pointing upwards, and place the extended index of
right hand near but higher. The right hand is placed a little or
great distance above left, according to the degree of superiority.

Deaf-mutes fix hands, as in their sign for Chief, and hold one
higher than the other.

Surround. Hold hands well out and to right and left of body,
hands equally advanced, same height, palms towards each other,
lower edges pointing to front, index fingers and thumbs curved,
spread and horizontal, other fingers closed ; bring hands towards
each other, and form a horizontal circle with thumbs and index
fingers, in front of body.

To make a surround of buffalo, make sign for Buffalo, the above
sign for Surround, sometimes adding signs for Kill, Bring (with
both hands), Cuttiitg Up, and Pack.

For Bring, move the hands outwards after the horizontal circle is
made, extending index fingers to Tront ; then draw the hands hori-
zontally in towards the body, at same time curving index fingers as
though hooking on to something ; repeat this latter motion in differ-
ent directions. In former tim.es buffalo were, of course, more nu-
merous ; but the absence of weapons or their inferior quality ren-
dered it necessary to take great precaution against disturbing the
herd. The camp was carefully moved as near the herd as possible
without disturbing it, and, before they had ponies, a favorable loca-
tion was selected, where the topography of the country needed but
a few fallen trees to make a pen, into which the buffalo were driven
and killed. There seems to be no doubt that they secured many by
stampeding herds over precipices. After they got ponies the herd
was attacked from all sides by the men and a large number killed.
Then there would be no more hunting until the meat and skins
had been taken care of by the squaws, when another surround would
be made.

Sweat-Lodge. Make signs for Medicine and Wickey-up.

Sometimes signs for Medicine, Work, Rock, Fire, Wickey-up,
and motion of throwing stones into the wickey-up are made.

SWEAT-LODGE.

365

The use of the sweat-bath by means of heated air and steam seems
common to all tribes, and with all it is used not only to cme physical
disease, but as a form of worship and supplication.

Mr. Dunbar says of the Pawnees, that "they had one hygienic
usage (as also many other tribes) that no doubt did much to counter-
act the prejudicial influences of their uncleanly mode of life. In
slight indisposition, and frequently in health, the vapor-bath was re-
sorted to. A small frame-work of withes, about six feet in diameter
and four in height, was built. Several of these might at any time be
seen in different directions in a village. Whenever any one wished
to enjoy a bath, several large heated stones were placed in one of
these frames, and the frame-work covered heavily with blankets or
skins. The person then crept within, taking along a vessel full of
water. By sprinkling this slowly upon the stones the interior was
soon filled with dense steam, which might be enjoyed as long as de-
sired. The frequent use of these sudatories produced most beneficial
results in maintaining and stimulating the activity of the secretory
system.

Sitting Bull, the Sioux chief, gave me a very elaborate C- ^cription
in signs for the sweat-lodge, or sweat-house, as the interpret! t:. usually
call it. He made signs for wickey-up, for the covering of sime with
blankets and skins, heating the stones, pouring water om tliem, talk-
ing to them, makmg requests, hoping the Great Spi ' would listen
and make them live long on the earth, give them plenty to e.ii:, furn-
ish them all "' • wanted, give them success iu war, and ;Totect
them in peace.

Thv Vame is usually made of green willows, about an iiich and a
half in diameter at the large ends, which are stuck in the ground.
The smaller ends are then bent over and fastened, forming an ellip-
tical-shaped frame-work. The number of willows used varies greatly,
frequently being determined by a dream of the man who makes the
bath-house.

The Arapahoes use any number from fifteen to one hundred and
seven, and a special sweat-lodge is made just before the annual
Medicine-Dance. I had heard so much of this bath, had seen the
abandoned little frames at so many temporary Indian camps when
they were on the march, had seen the same kind of a little house
used by so many tribes who in all other customs varied so much, and
was able to find out so little in regard to it, that in August, 1881,
being at Fort Keogh and a Cheyenne camp near by, I concluded to
take one with the Indians. I spoke to the chief and made an ap-
pointment. I had no interpreter, and could only talk with the In-
dians in the sign language, but at about two o'clock one afternoon I
rode to the camp. The tepees were located on the bank of the Yel-
lowstone River in the midst of some stately cottonwood-trees. The
atmosphere was smoky, and a filmy veil of blue mantled the not dis-
tant Bad Land bluffs. A lazy hush had settled on this straggling
little Indian village on this hazy day, which so gently heralded the
near approach of autumn. I arrived befor^ the preparations were

366

SWEAT-LODGE.

made, and so had the benefit of witnessing all that was done. The
squaws turned out to cut some wood, and soon a pile was ready near
the sweat-lodge, which in the mean time was covered, first with some
untanned buffalo-skins, leaving only a small entrance, and then with
canvas and ulankets. This lodge was made of twelve willows, four
on each side and two at each end, placed in the ground nearly in tlie
shape of an ellipse, then bent over and fastened, so that the frame
was not quite four feet high. The ground inside had been smoothed
off and strewn with leaves and grass. In the centre was a circular
hole about eighteen inches in diameter and twelve deep ; this was
carefully cleaned out, so that only fresh dirt remained. The squaws
laid down a row of sticks a few feet outside the entrance to the lodge,
and then placed a row of small stones, about six inches in diameter,
on these sticks, then some more wood and then stones, till a crib
about two feet high and three feet wide and four long was made,
which was then set on fire.

In the mean time I iiad gone into some tall weeds and thick bushes
near at hand, which formed a perfect screen, and arrayed myself, by
means of a borrowed strap and towel, in a breech-cloth, and stepped
forth dressed for the bath. My appearance created some merriment
on the part of the squaws. The chief brought his pipe, tobacco, medi-
cine-rattle, and much of his war outfit, which were first ])laced in-
side. He, with the little stick used for cleaning the Indian pipe,
drew the figure of a man without arms or legs in the dirt at the
bottom of the hole. A buffalo-skull, white with age, was placed just
in front of the little door. We had crowded in, and were seated
tailor-fashion on the ground. The chief filled his pipe, putting a
little tobacco in the hole, and mixing with the tobacco some sweet-
smelling dried grass. He lighted the pipe and pointed the stem to
the zenith, to the figure in the hole, to the painted buffalo-skull out-
side, and to the four winds, at the same time muttering a prayer.
After taking a few puffs, or rather inhalations, he passed the pipe to
me. When we had finished smoking the stones had reached a red
heat, and about this time we were joined by five other Indians, so
that we were pretty closely packed in. The squaw passed in one of
the stones, using a forked stick, which was placed in the centre of
the hole, and upon it the chief dropped a few bits of the sweet-
smelling grass, which, as it burned, gave out a pleasant fragrance.
His rattle and other trappings were then handed outside. One of
the medicine-bags was placed on the buffalo-skull, and the rest were
laid on the roof of our little house. The other stones were then
handed in, and when carefully piled in the hole reached about a foot
above the surface of the ground. The skins and canvas were then
let down over the door, and we were suddenly in total darkness.
The heat became intense. There was a report like a pistol-shot, but
from the sounds I knew the chief had taken some water in his mouth
and spouted it out on the stones. Waves of hot air and steam passed
over me, which seemed more like liquid fire than steam and air. \
hand touched my right arm and was moved down to my hand, and

SWEAT-LODGE.

367

I then felt a wooden bowl of water handed me. I supposed it was
intended that I should take a swallow, which I did, and passed it to
the Indian on my left. I was sitting upright, and my head touched
the roof of the little house. My hair was so hot that I could hardly
touch my hand to it. I was becoming dazed and dizzy with the heat.
The perspiration ran off my body in huge drops.

I could not talk to the Indians, as I did not understand half a
dozen words of their vocal language, and in the intense darkness
signs could not be used. Of course, with a slight effort I could have
raised some of the skins which formed the covering to the lodge, as
they were only fastened to the ground by a few stones, but my pride
would not let me do this. I felt that I was being physically and
mentally cooked. The chief, who was also a medicine-man, from
time to time sang in a weird, chanting way. Suddenly the covering
to the lodge was raised at the door and opposite it, and the sun-
shine blazed in, and the cool air swept gratefully over me. The
copper-colored forms of the Indians were all bowed, the heads near
the ground at their bent knees.

Tliis was not in worship, but merely to avoid the extreme heat of
the top of the little lodge ; it brought their heads nearer the hot
stones, but still the heat was not nearly as intense as at the top. I
also noticed that the hair of the Indians was wet. Instead of swal-
lowing the water they had held it in their mouths for a moment, and
then spouting it into the curved hands, had saturated their hair with
it. I at once poured some water from the bowl on my head, thor-
oughly saturating my hair, and it seemed to clear my brain as from
a hot mist. The covering of the lodge remained up some moments,
and was then closed as before. This time I held my head down, and
my hair being wet, I experienced no uncomfortable sensations. A
mouthful of water only was blown upon the stones as before. (Some-
times a little musk or something of the kind is held in the medicine-
man's mouth, so that a pungent odor is emitted as this water is blown
upon the stones.) The covering was raised and lowered four times,
and then quite a quantity of water was poured on the stones, filling
the little house full of hot steam. We all then went to the river and
phniged in, and felt greatly refreshed. Had I understood the neces-
sity of wetting my hair and keeping my liead near the ground, I do
not think I should have experienced any ill effects from the bath ;
as it was I was half ill for three or four days, and I attributed it to
the overheating. I am accustomed to taking Turkish and Russian
haths, and have been in a hot room for some time when the ther-
mometer indicated one hundred and seventy degrees, and gone from
this through different stages to nearly ice-water, but I have never
experienced anythin7 like the cooking I got in that Cheyenne sweat-
lodge, and I am confident it was their ordinary bath. Women and
little children join the men in these baths.

The spring of the year, just as the snow is disappearing, seems to
be a favorite time for the Cheyennes to indulge in this bath ; and at
this time they " mak'-; medicine" for a speedy disappearance of the

368

SWEET— SYPHILIS.

snow, quick growth of the grass, and prompt fattening of all animals.
I once saw an old man, seventy-six years of age, walking around on
the snow perfectly naked, except for his breech-cloth, both before
and after taking one of these baths. When vision-seeking, the
dreamers do not, I believe, have the skins raised, but try and secure
supernatural knowledge by enduring the hot air and steam for pro-
longed periods.

These baths are also taken by persons who are greatly angered or
depressed by the loss of friend or kin by death. I know a Sioux
chief whose little son, the pride and joy of his heart, was taken sud-
denly sick and died. His sorrow and anger made him a dangerous
creature to meet. His friends put him in one of these baths and
"washed his grief away."

Briefly, then, as an Indian once said to me, the sweat-lodge is
made as a " medicine," to ask of the Great Spirit anything we want.
If one is sick or has anything the matter with them, they go in and
ask the Great Spirit to heal them ; and all go to ask for assistance
and guidance.

I afterwards learned that the figure in the bottom of the hole indi-
cated what was specially wished and prayed for, — a figure of a man
without limbs indicated a wish to kill an enemy ; a pony-track, to
steal ponies. It is considered specially good luck for the medicine-
man to take the bath with others, and he is master of ceremonies.

As they lived mostly on buffalo, the head was placed in front of
the sweat-lodge that they might pray to it ; might not forget to
petition the Great Mystery of the universe to perpetuate the buffalo
and have them always near their villages.

Sweet. See Sugar.

Swim. Make sign for Water ; then strike out well to front with
extended hands, backs up, as though swimming ; moving first right
hand, then left. Indians do not swing the hands so much to right
and left as the whites in swimming, but make more of a pawing
motion to front.

Deaf-mutes imitate our method of swimming.

Syphilis. Lay compressed hands on groins. The Arapahoes claim
that they caught this disease from the Indians to the South. They
express it, "When a man has caught the disease, that a woman has
broken his thigh with her six shooter."

TAIL— TALK.

369

all animals.
f around on
t)oth before
eeking, the
r and secure
;am for pro-

r angered or
low a Sioux
is taken sud-
a dangerous
e baths and

vreat-lodge is
ing we want,
ey go in and
or assistance

he hole indi-
ure of a man
ony-track, to
the medicine-
eremonies.
d in front of
[lot forget to
te the buffalo

to front with
ng first right
nuch to right
of a pawing

jahoes claim
outh. They
a woman has

Tail. Carry right hand, back nearly up, to rear of centre of body,
index finger extended pointing to rear and downwards, others and
thumb closed.

Deaf-mutes use the same sign.

Take. To take from some one else : Carry right hand well out in
front or to right or left of body, index finger extended and pointing
to front, right or left, others and thumb closed ; bring hand briskly
in towards body, at same time curving and nearly closing index
finger.

If taking from a number of persons, repeat motion in different
directions, as though they were in a semicircle in front and to right
and left.

To have some one else take from you : Hold hand as explained
above, but turn the wrist and arm, so that index finger will point to-
wards body, thumb and index of hand up, back of hand about ver-
tical ; carry hand well in towards body, curve the index, and move
the hand briskly outwards, as though hooking on to something.
This is also used in the sense of taking from one's people, etc.

Deaf-mutes make a grasping motion with hand.

Talk. There are two distinct signs for this, which are, however,
used in different senses. A little talk, a short speech, a few words,
or " one person talking to another," would ordinarily be expressed by
holding right hand, back up, and slightly to rear, in front of, close
to, and a little lower than mouth, hand closed, with nail of index press-
ing against thumb ; move the hand slightly to front, :X same time
extend index with a snap (the words are thrown out) ; repeat motion
three or four times. This is talking or speaking a little to another
person.

For some one else talking: Hold right hand fixed in same way,
back out, and snap fingers towards face or ear, hand held well out
or opposite right ear; in the latter case rather close to it.

A slight sound made at a distance, and only faintly heard, would
also be expressed in this way.

To illustrate this sign, and give an idea of the manner of estab-
lishing the relative positions of objects: suppose two persons stand-
ing and talking to each other. Represent the two persons by the
extended index fingers pointing upwards, other fingers and thumbs
closed. Suppose the persons were standing iwice their height apart,
hold the index fingers twice their length apart, and then make the
above sign for Talk, holding hand so that words are snapped from
the position of the person talking towards the tip of the extended
index.
For a council, " to speak at length," to ** talk ^ great deal," etc.,

U<Ji<

370

TALL— TAN.

would be expressed by holding extended right hand, back down,
in front of, close to, and little lower than mouth, fingers pointing to
left ; mostly by wrist action move the hand outwards few inches, re-
peating motion two or three times. This is speaking or talking to
some one. To be spoken to or talked to in the above sense: Hold
the right hand fixed as above, well out in front about height of chin ;
move the hand in towards body few inches, mostly by wrist action,
repeating motion three or four times.

To represent a number of persons as talking or speaking in coun-
cil : Make sign for Council, then hold extended hands, backs down,
at same height, equally advanced, well in front of shoulders, about
height of breast, fingers pointing to front; move the right hand,
mostly by wrist action, towards left, fingers in this position, point-
ing to left and front ; carry hand back to its first position, at same
time execute a similar motion with left hand towards right ; repeat
these motions rather briskly three or four times. In this sign the
words seem handed back and forth.

The distinction 1 have made in the two signs is not always strictly
observed, but I am convinced that it is correct, and should be.
Sometimes after each of the signs, particularly after the first one,
the sign for Little is made. Frequently the first-described sign is
made with both hands and repeated several times, to denote several
peril ns talking, or one person talking very much.

Deaf-mutes make a circular motion of extended right index in
front of mouth.

Tall. Fix, move, and hold right hand as in Stand, but higher,
nearly full height of extended arm.

Deaf-mutes use the same sign.

Tan. Bring the hands in front of body, fingers partially curved
and touching, hands slightly compressed, left hand a little nearer
the body than right and a little lower, hands a few inches apart,
back of left hand nearly to front, back of right hand nearly up-
wards, the curved fingers pointing towards the ground ; bend for-
ward sligiitly and execute a pawing motion by moving hands down-
wards and to right and rear on a curve. The position of the hands
is sometimes reversed, and movement made to left and rear, — this
represents cutting or scraping the meat from the skin; then bring
the closed hands in front of body, equally advanced, same height
and few inches apart, back of right to right, left to left; move tlie
hands about horizontally, briskly past each other two or three times;
this represents rubbing to soften the leather. Sometimes a motion
to indicate putting tanning material on the hide is also made.

In the process of dressing and tanning buffalo-robes, the fresh
skins are first stretched very taut on the ground by means of pins
driven through the edges, or the hides are lashed to the lodge-poles
of the tepee or fastened to frames, in which positions they are left
until thoroughly dry. The fatty matter and a portion of the hide
are removed in thin shavings by means of some sharp instrument, —
usually, at present, a piece of steel fastened into a piece of horn. A

TANGLED— TELEGRAPH.

371

thin coating of the tanning material, which is a mixture of about
one part of brains to two parts of well-cooked liver, with a little
fat added, is then spread over the inner surface of the hide, which is
then rolled up and allowed to remain two or three days, when the
tanning material is washed off. Sometimes the hide is dipped three
separate times in brain and liver water. A small rope made of sinew
is tied to a tre^; or stake at an angle with the ground of about forty-
five degrees, and the robe rubbed over it until it is dry and soft. In
tanning deer-, antelope-skins, etc., the skin is soaked in water and
the hair scraped off, after which they are treated as described for
buffalo-hides and then smoked.

Their process of tanning and dressing skins and robes is very
laborious and slow, and in view of the work expended, it is wonder-
ful how cheap their produce of this kind is.

For tepees, buffalo- and elk-skins are considered the best, the hair,
of course, being removed before tanning. Buffalo-hides used for
this purpose, and for the soles of moccasins and par-fleches, are
usually from animals which are killed when the fur is worthless.

Tangled. The hands are moved one about the other, usually
having fingers slightly separated.

Deaf-mutes same.

Taste. Touch the tongue with tip of index of right hand, other
fingers and thumb closed.

Deaf-mutes use the same sign.

Tattoo. Compress the right hand, bringing tips of thumb and
fingers near together, and tap with ends of fingers the portion of
body which has been marked in this way.

Deaf-mutes use only tip of index to denote the marks.

Two tribes, the Mandans and Wichitas, take their tribal sign from
this peculiar way of decorating themselves. The Plains Indians
generally do not practise it ; but the Apaches in the Southwest and
many of the tribes in the extreme Northwest do.

Tea. Make sign for Tree, sign for Leaf, sign for Drink, and
sign for Good. Sometimes the signs for Kettle, putting the leaf in
it, and for Make are also made.

Deaf-mutes form a horizontal circle with index and thumb of left
hand, other fingers closed, and move index and thumb of right
hand, — placed on this circle, — as though stirring something in a cup.

Colonel J. W. Mason informed me that the Indians with him
(Shoshones) found a shrub on the mountains near the National Park
which, when boiled in water, made a drink possessing the character-
istics o , — the same in taste and effect; the entire shrub was used.
This was found at an altitude of about eight thousand feet, and near
by it the Indian? also found a bulbous root which made excellent soup.

Telegraph. Make sign for Write ; then hold extended left hand,
back out, in front of body ; strike with lower edge of extended right
hand upper edge of left, allowing hand to slightly rebound, and then
sweep hand into the position of Go, making this latter sign quite
briskly. . , , • .

372

TEPEE.

Latterly, since the Indians have seen telegraphic instruments work-
ing, they frequently make sign for Write, then tap the left palm
several times with tip of curved index of right hand, other fingers
and thumb closed. Sometimes sign for Iron, Strike, and Talk are
made.

The telegraph wire is represented by first making the above sign,
then drawing extended index of right hand horizontally from left to
right, well out in front of body, about height of head, other fingers
and thumb closed.

Deaf-mutes hold left hand, back up, in front of body, index alone
extended and pointing to front ; tap with tip. of curved right index,
other fingers and thumb closed, the knuckle of left index, and then
move the right hand sharply to front, tip of right index touching
back of left.

Many stories have been told about the Indians considering the
telegraph line as particularly "bad medicine" ; and I even heard
that this special aversion grew out of a most violent shock one got
from the current of electricity when he was cutting the wire.

I do not think they have any special feeling about it one way or
the other ; they know that it is beyond their comprehension, — they
do not understand it ; and hostile Indians seldom interfere with it,
because in many instances their interference has discovered their
presence and led to pursuit and punishment. In addition to this
there is nothing to be gained by the destruction, — i.e., no material
benefit accrues to them, — and to take any risks Indians must see
something to be gained, — some advantage to be secured.

Tepee. Bring tips of extended index fingers together, forming
an angle ; tips of index fingers about height of breast and several
inches from it, other fingers and thumbs' closed, back of right hand
up and to right, .left hand back up and to left, index fingers in the
same vertical plane.

Sometimes the index fingers are crossed at first joints ; and I have
also seen both compressed hands brought tips together and forming
a cone.

Deaf-mutes make their signs for Indian, House, and White.

From fourteen to twenty-six poles are used in a lodge, and one or
two for the wing-poles on the outside ; these latter for adjusting the
wings, near the opening at the top of the lodge, for the escape of
smoke ; the wings are kept at such angles as to produce the best draught.
The best poles are made from the slender mountain-pine, which
grows thickly in the mountains. The squaws cut and trim them,
and carefully peel off the bark. They are then partially dried or
seasoned, and are first pitched for some time without any covering
of canvas or skin. By being thus slowly cured they are kept straight.
The length depends on the size of the lodge of course, and varies
from sixteen to thirty feet.

Mr. Dunbar says of the Pawnees, that " their lodges were of two
patterns, so utterly unlike in appearance and construction that it
would scarcely seem possible that they should both be the work of

TEPEE.

373

ke, and varies

the same tribe. There was the ordinary skin lodge used while on
their hunts. The frame consisted of from twelve to twenty smoothly-
dressed poles, sixteen feet long. After a good set of these poles
had once been secured, they were carried on all their travels, just as
any other necessary furniture. When a lodge was to be pitched,
three of these poles were tied together near the top and set up like
a tripod. The cord with which these three poles were tied was suf-
ficiently long for the ends to hang to the ground. The other poles,
save one, were successively set up, the top of each resting against
the first three, while the lower ends formed a circle, from twelve to
seventeen feet in diameter. The tops were then bound together
securely 'y means of the pendent cord. One edge of the covering
was now made fast to the remaining pole, by means of which it was
raised up and carried round the frame-work, so as to envelop it com-
pletely. The two edges of the cover were closed together by wooden
pins or keys, except three feet at the extreme top, left open for a
smoke-hole, and an equal space at the bottom for an entrance. The
spare i)ole was attached to one edge of the cover at the top, so that
the smoke-hole might be closed or opened at will. The skin of a
bear or some other animal was fixed to the outside of the lodge, im-
mediately above the entrance, so as to hang down over the latter as
a sort of door. Inside, the fireplace occupied the centre of the
lodge. About it were spread mats, which served as seats by day and
couches by night. All furniture not in actual use was packed on the
outside next to the lodge walls. The covering of the lodge was one
continuous piece, made up of buffalo-skins nicely fitted together.
In tanning, these skins were dressed so thin that sufficient light was
transmitted into the interior even when the lodge was tightly closed.
When new they were quite white, and a village of them presented an
attractive appearance. Sometimes they were variously painted,
according to the requirements of Pawnee fancy.

"The other was the large, stationary lodge found only in their
permanent villages. The construction was as follows : The sod was
carefully removed from the area to be occupied by the lodge. In
the centre an excavation, three feet in diameter and five inches deep,
was made for a fireplace. Lieutenant Pike states that the entire area
was excavated to a depth of four feet. This is a mistake. The ac-
cumulation of loose soil immediately about the lodge, during the
process of construction and subsequently, did, however, sometimes
produce an apparent depression inside. The soil taken from the
fireplace was carefully placed in a small ridge immediately about its
edge. The entire area as thus prepared was then repeatedly beaten
with mallets or billets of wood prepared for the purpose, in order to
render it compact and smooth. About the fireplace, at a distance
of eight feet from the centre, a circle of six or eight strong posts,
forked and rising twelve feet above the surface, was set firmly in the
ground. Outside of this circle, at a distance of nine feet, was set
another circle of posts similar, but standing only seven feet high,
and the same distance from each other. In the forks of the posts

374

TEPEE.

of the inner circle strong poles were laid, reaching from one to
another. Similar poles were likewise laid on the posts of the outer
circle. Two feet outside of this circle a small ditch, two inches
deep and three wide, was now dug. In this ditch, at intervals of
four inches, were set poles two or three inches in diameter, and of
sufficient length to just reach the poles on the posts of the outer
circle. These inclined poles formed the frame-work of the walls of
the lodge. Poles of like size and at equal intervals were now laid
from the lower cross-poles to the upper, but reaching so far beyond
the latter that between the upper extremities of these poles a circular
orifice, about two feet in diameter, was left as a skylight and smoke-
hole. These poles formed the support of the roof. Willow withes
were then bound transversely with bark to these poles at intervals of
about an inch. At this stage the lodge had some resemblance to an
immense basket inverted. A layer of hay was now placed upon the
frame-work, and the whole built over with sods, the interstices in
the sod-work being carefully filled with loose soil. The thickness
of the earth upon the roof was about nine inches, on the walls
considerably more. The external appea/ance of a lodge as thus
finished was not unlike a large charcoal-pit. The entrance was
through a passage twelve feet long and seven wide. The sides of
this passage, which always faced the east (as did also the entrance
of a skin lodge), were constructed exactly as the walls of the lodge ;
the top was flat and heavily covered with turf. Over its inner
extremity, where it opened into the lodge, was hung a skin as a sort
of closure. The lower part of this was free, so that it might be
easily thrown up by those passing in and out. Inside, till a person
became accustomed to the dim light, all seemed obscure. Near the
fireplace was a forked stake, set in an inclining position, to answer
as a crane in cooking. The ground about the fire was overspread
with mats, upon which the occupants might sit. Next to the wall
was a row of beds, extending entirely around the lodge (except at
the entrance), each bed occupying the interval between two posts
of the outer circle. The beds were raised a few inches from the
ground upon a platform of rods, over which a mat was spread, and
upon this the bedding of buffalo-robes and other skins. Partitions
made of willow withes, bound closely together with bark, were set
up between the ends of adjacent beds; and immediately in front of
each bed a mat or skin was sometimes suspended to the poles of the
roof as a sort of curtain, to be rolled up or let down at pleasure.
Furniture, as arms, clothing, provisions, saddles, etc., not in use
was hung upon different parts of the frame-work, or variously bestowed
about the interior.

Several families usually lived in one of these lodges. Though each
family had its particular part of the dwelling and the furniture of
each was kept separate, anything like privacy in conversation or life
was impossible. What one did all knew. Whenever a member of
any one of the families cooked, a portion of the food was given to
each occupant without distinction of family. They were also very

TEPEE.

375

)n, to answer

accommodating, borrowing and lending freely almost any article
they had.

The dimensions given in the preceding description are tiiose of an
average lodge. The actual proportions of one taken as of ordinary
size were : Diameter, thirty-nine feet ; wall, seven and one-half feet
high ; extreme height of roof, fifteen and one-half feet ; length of en-
trance, thirteen feet ; width, seven feet. Some of these figures might
be considerably larger or smaller. One lodge measured was only
twenty-three feet in diameter; another was fifty-six feet. Among the
remains of an old Ski'-di village on the Loup, one of the lodges seems
to have been two hundred feet in diameter. The tradition is that it
was a medicine-lodge.

As may be readily inferred, the building of one of these fixed
lodges was an undertaking involving much labor. The timber quite
frequently was procurable only at a distance, and with their facilities
its adjustment was a tedious process. And yet, after all the outlay
necessary in its construction, it was occupied a comparatively small
part of the year, i)robably not over four months. The remaining
eight months they were absent on their semi-annual hunts. Still,
these fixed residences were of great benefit to them. They pre-
served alive the idea of home, and were undoubtedly one cause of
the tribe's retaining a sort of fixity and regularity in their yearly
life which otherwise might ha', e been relinquished long ago. On
sanitary grounds their brief y. arly continuance in these dwellings
was no doubt fortunate. The ventilation in them was very defec-
tive, and continuous occupation would in all probability have been
a fertile source of wasting disease.

This large lodge was also used among the other branches of the
Pawnee family, though in the South its construction was somewhat
modified. Catlin represents the Arickaree lodges as conical, with ho
projecting entrance. This is a mistake. Their lodges were essen-
tially the same as those of the Pawnees. Among the Southern
branches the frame-work was similar, but instead of a covering of
turf they were heavily thatched with straw or grass. Marcy, in his
" Exploration of the Red River," gives a cut of a Wichita village, in
which the lodges are represented as conical. This pattern was in
use, but the other was the more common.

I give the following description of the Chippewa tepee, kindly
furnished me by Mr. Charles H. Beaulieu :

"The conical-shaped wigwam is used altogether when camp is
moved every day or so, and which can be hastily put up by first
making use of three poles, placed together very much on the prin-
ciple of the stacking of arms for infantry ; other poles are then
placed equidistant on the ground, their tops resting on the forked
tops of the three poles first placed in position. The number of poles
and their length depends on the size of the wigwam required to
accommodate the family. The poles are placed on the ground
from twenty to twenty-four inches apart. This style of wigwam is
also altogether used in the winter-time, its conical shape and birch-

376

TEPEE.

bark covering reflecting heat of a moderate fire built in the centre.
The outside of tiie wigwam is banked with snow to the height of
one and one-half feet, preventing a draft or the cold from coming in
at the bottom. The door-way is generally well closed with a blanket
or two. A cross-piece is tied on to two poles opposite each other,
upon which a piece of green wood, crotched at both ends, is forked
to hang kettles or pots when cooking; one end of this ])iece of
green wood is forked on to the cross-piece, the other holding the
bail of the kettle.

" The material next the ground in these wigwams, and upon which
matting is placed, is boughs of balsam, fir, or cedar. Hay is also
used. The covering of these wigwams is' always of birch-bark.
Being in a country where timber is abundant, the poles are not re-
moved on moving camp. The frame of the wigwam used by the
Chippewas in the summer-time, when permanently located, are of
any kind that are pliable, are placed securely in the ground and
bent to the shape required, each pole having its mate on the opposite
side of the lodge. Wherever these poles meet or cross one another,
they are securely held with inner bark of basswood ; other and
smaller poles encircle those stuck in the ground. Raised platforms
about fourteen inches high are made on each side of the wigwam as
one enters the door-way. These are made of any size, and have
sometimes two door-ways, which are always in any wigwam opposite
each other. The average size will accommodate from ten to fifteen
persons. Cooking is generally done outside, except in rainy
weather. When mosquitoes are unusually numerous, smudges are
built in the wigwams ; but they are generally remarkably free of
those pests.

"This style of dwelling is never used in cold weather. There is
ariother kind of summer residence built very much in the shape of
an ordinary white man's house ; average size thirteen by eighteen
feet ; sides four and one-half feet high, and four and one-half feet
roof; side of tamarack, Norway pine, or cedar-bark; birch-bark
roofing.

" Sugar-camps or wigwams are always of this shape, with birch-bark
sides or mats of stitched rushes. These wigwams are seldom with-
out two entrances, and have the raised platforms as mentioned in
number two. In placing birch-bark on wigwams of any description,
it is laid on as siding would be on a house, sufficient lap being
allowed to prevent drifting in of snow or leaking in rainy weather.
The birch-bark covering for wigwams is cut from ten to twelve feet
long and about four wide. The bark is gathered in June. A tree
a foot in diameter will produce bark a yard wide. In removing
bark from trees, it is done according to the use for which it is
needed ; consequently for wigwams it is removed in lengths of four
feet. AH the rough parts on outside are removed, and it is then
sewed with a certain root of a tree found in damp places, or the
inner bark of basswood. After the strips are sewed together,
slender cedar or pine sticks are fastened at each end, to which

THERE— THUNDER.

377

1 the centre,
he height of
111 coming in
ith a blanket
; each other,
ds, is forked
this ])iece of
holding the

i upon which
Hay is also
f birch-bark,
s are not re-
used by the
cated, are of
ground and
I the opposite
one another,
; other and
sed platforms
le wigwam as
ze, and have
warn opposite
ten to fifteen
pt in rainy
1 smudges are
jably free of

There is

le shape of

by eighteen

one-half feet

birch-bark

1 birch-bark
eldom with-
nentioned in
description,
nt lap being
iny weather.
o twelve feet
ime. A tree
In removing
which it is
gths of four
d it is then
aces, or the
id together,
d, to which

strings are attached to tie the bark in place, or tie up the bundle
when the bark is rolled up."

I think that red-elm and ash-bark are also used for tepees as well
as birch-bark.

There. To represent a person as going to a place, the left hand
usually represents the place, as in Arrive There. The sign for Sit
is frequently used, moving the hand well out from body.

Thick. Hold extended left hand, back to left, fingers pointing to
front, in front of body ; i)lace the right palm against lower edge of
left hand, right hand at right angle with left ; bend up tlie fingers and
clasp the left hand between thumb and fingers, tips of fingers and
thumb at middle of left hand ; move the right to front two or three
inches and back, repeating motion.

Deaf-mutes use the same, only the fingers do not touch back, or
thumb palm of left hand.

Thief. Make signs for person and for Steal.

Deaf-mutes use the same gestures.

Whipping and taking away property are the punishments which
thieves have to undergo, but public sentiment is so strongly against
this class that the Indians experience but little trouble from them.
Many of the tribes will, however, steal anything they can carry away,
from any strangers who may be with them, or from neighboring
tribes, even though they may be at peace with them.

Thin. The best way is to point to something thin, but I have seen
the extended left hand brought in front of body, fingers pointing to
front ; then rub the lower edge with tips of thumb and index of right
hand, other fingers closed, ball of thumb resting against first joint
of index, index and thumb pointing upwards, edges of hands at
angles with each other, back of index to left, back of thumb nearly
to right.

Deaf-mutes use the same sign.

Think. Conception : Drawn from the heart. Hold right hand,
back up, against left breast, index finger extended and pointing to
left, others and thumb close ; move the hand horizontally outwards
and to right eight or ten inches.

The Crows and some other tribes seem to combine signs for True
and Think, holding hand as above described, but when moving to
front allowing index to drop so as to point to front and downwards.

Deaf-mutes place tip of extended index against centre of forehead,
other fingers and thumb closed ; move the hand so that tip of index
describes a spiral circle.

Thousand. Make signs for Hundred and Ten. (See Count.)

Deaf-mutes make their signs for the letter M and One.

Thread. Rub inner surface of tips of thumb and index as though
twisting thread ; make sign for Sew, and in this gesture carry
right hand well beyond left, as though pulling a thread through the
material.

Deaf-mutes make motion of sewing.

Thunder. Make signs for Bird and for Fire, holding hand in

378

TIMBER— TIRED.

front of and little higher than head. Usnally the sign for Rain is
also made.

Some Indians make signs for Bird and Medicine ; and I have also
seen both closed hands held in front of and close to mouth ; the
hands thrown outwards, upwards, and to right and left, at same time
opening them to denote the noise. Some Indians accompany the
gesture with a vocal sound.

Thunder i' called both the "shooting" and "fire bird."

Some consider that immense wings cause the rumbling, rever-
berating noise, and that the flash comes from the "shooting."
This latter would seem to be of late origin, — since the introduction
of gunpowder.

I have also been told many times that the noise was the crying or
angry growl of the bird, and the lightning, the fire flashing from its
eyes and mouth.

The interpreters tell me they call it a God. It is one of the few
mysteries that they have a name for, and it is certain that they pray
to and make offerings to it.

A Bannack Indian said to me, " The thunder asked the mosquito
why he was so full of blood, and where he got it. The mosquito
said he got it out of the pine-trees. He would not tell that he got
it out of animals ; and so the thunder believed it, always striking
and destroying the trees. I do not know what the lightning is, I
only know it can kill, and we have no way of preventing it. A Ban-
nack Indian once tried to escape from a storm, — ran his pony before
it; but as he reached camp, and just as he dismounted, the ' irse was
killed."

Timber. See Tree.

Time. In reckoning the age of a person, or in speaking of past
or future time, the general custom is to say "so many winters,"
"This year" would not necessarily be "this winter." (See Year.)

For time of day make sign for Sun, holding hand toward the
point in the heavens where the sun is at the time desired to be repre-
sented. To specify any length of time during the day, mark space
the sun passes over.

Time, as I have observed, is reckoned by the Indians, — days, by
nights ; months, by moons ; and years, by winters.

Our expressions which convey ideas of present time are expressed
by the Indians by now, or more frequently, to-day.

It may very truthfully be said that Indians care very little about
time ; they seem to have more of it than anything else.

Deaf-mutes hold left hand, back up, in front of body, tap back of
left hand near knuckles with tip of slightly-curved index of right
hand, other fingers and thumb closed.

Timorous. Make signs for Coward and Little.

Deaf-mutes make their sign for Afraid, drawing Ipack only a little,
however.

Tired. Hold hands, backs up, well in front of body, hands equally
advanced same height and several inches apart, index fingers ex-

TOBACCO.

379

for Rain is

tended and pointing to front, others and thumbs closed ; lower the
hands a few inches, and at same time draw them very sliglitly towards
body. This is used in the sense of worn out, exhausted, etc.

Sometimes before making above sign, the thighs are touched with
hands.

Deaf-mutes hold the hands, backs up, near each other, in front of
body; move the hands on small curves, right upwards to right and
downwards, left upwards to left and downwards, at same time aiming
hands backs down ; as the hands turn downwards on the curves, let the
hands drop by a sudden relaxation of the muscles, as though paralyzed.

Tobacco. Hold extended left hand, back down, in front of body ;
place the lower edge of closed right hand on left palm ; rub with
the lower edge the left palm by giving circular movement to right
hand. This is the general sign for whatever is smoked in a pipe,
and frequently the sign for Smoke is added. What is usually called
"plug tobacco" is represented by above sign, and then hold ex-
tended left hand, back to left and downwards, fingers pointing to
front, well in front of and lower than left shoulder; place lower
edge of extended right hand on left wrist, at right angles with left
hand (this makes the size), then hold left hand back to left and front,
in front of body, fingers pointing to front and right ; hold extended
right hand just in front and little higher than ends of fingers of left
hand, hands at right angles, lower edge of right hand pointing to
front, left, and downwards ; move the right hand to front, left, and
downwards, right palm grazing left finger-ends as though cutting
them off with its lower e>^ge, repeating motion.

"Plug" is the kind of lobacco now commonly used by the In-
dians for smoking (they very rarely chew it), mixed in the propor-
tions of one art tobacco with four parts of red-willow bark, the
leaves of a vine called laube, or the leaves of sumach. The inner
bark of the red willow is the portion used, and is prepared by scrap-
ing it off in long shavings (first carefully removing the outer bark),
drying or breaking or cutting up into small particles.

In smoking they inhale the smoke into the lungs, and eject a great
portion of it through the nose, sometimes blowing it in a thin col-
umn towards the God they may be making a prayer to.

The bark and leaves have rather a mild, pungent taste and pleasant
odor, and the tobacco is so diluted as to relieve it from any very
pernicious effects, even in the first attempts at smoking.

Many of the women smoke. The boys begin when about eight
years old. The exceptions to the habit are rare ; but the Sioux chief
"Spotted Tail," by far the ablest Indian I have ever known, was
one; while "Little Wolf of the Cheyennes is constantly smoking
and chewing, rarely, howevr, using an Indian pipe, and he does not
dilute the tobacco with leaves or bark, preferring a strong cigar to a
pipe. I have never seen more than half a dozen Indians who
chewed tobacco.

Deaf-mutes hold closed hand near mouth and hoist the hand to
right, as :hough twisting off a " chew."

38o

TOBA CCO-BA C— TRADE.

Tobacco-Bag. Make sign for Tokacco ; then hold slightly-curved
hand, back to left, in front of body; bring compressed hand from
right and above, and thrust it downwards between spread thumb and
index of left hand.

Together. Make sign for With.

Tomahawk. Hold left forearm in front of body, pointing up-
wards and to right, and lay the extended right hand on the hollow
of the left arm. This is not a common sign.

Sometimes it is indicated by simply striking forward and down-
wards with right hand.

To-morrow. Make sign for Night, and, c6ntinuing motion, make
sign for Day, and usually represent the sun rising in tlie east.

Deaf-mutes throw right hand to front from right shoulder, back of
hand to riglit, thumb alone extended and pointing upwards.

Tornado. Conception : Wind charges. Make sign for Wind,
and, continuing motion, make sign for Charge.

Tortoise. Hold right hand, back up, in front of and lower than
right shoulder, hand near body, hand nearly closed, but back of
fingers from knuckles to second joints nearly on line with back of
hand ; move the hand horizontally to front, at same time, by wrist
action, twist the hand to right and left.

Some Indians make sign for Water, shape of the animal, and
move tlie hands to imitate motion of its feet.

Deaf-mutes hold slightly-compressed left hand in front of body,
edges pointing to right ; place right under left, touching palm,
thumb extended and projecting above back of left hand.

Track. Make sign for Walk and point to the ground.

Deaf-mutes use the same sign.

Trade. Make sign for Exchange. I have found among some
tribes that the Southern sign as used by the Comanches — i.e., hands
passing each other — was taken to mean the incompleted transaction,
and the other as the bargain or trade concluded.

Deaf-niiites indicate a giving and taking.

Mr. Dunbar says of the Pawnees, that " trade was never very ex-
tensive. Their implacable warring with neighboring tribes neces-
sarily precluded any general commercial intercourse. Their trade
was confined, therefore, to the few tribes with whom they were on
terms of amity; i.e., the Arikaras, the Mandans, and Wichitas.
From the latter they obtained horses and Ims (Van; from the two
former eagles* feathers, a commodity in great demand among the
Pawnees, and red pipe-stone. The articles given in exchange to the
Arikaras and Mandans were horses, salt from the plains of the Upper
Arkansas, and to the latter sometimes corn. To the Wichitas they
bartered pipe-stone, and to some extent eagles' feathers. With the
whites also their trade was limited, never having been sufficient to
induce the establishing of a permanent trading-post among them.
The nearest stated establishment of this kind was at Bellevue, on the
Missouri, and here their dealings were comparatively light. Perhaps
there is no instance of another tribe equally large whose trade in all

TRADE R'-^TE AIL.

38r

htly-curved
hand from
thumb and

ointing up-
the hollow

and down-

otlon, make
east.

der, back of
irds.
for Wind,

1 lower than
but back of
with back of
me, by wrist

animal, and

jnt of body,
iching palm,

among some

— i.e., hands

transaction.

ever very ex-
tribes ncces-
Their trade
ley were on
d Wichitas.
om the two
among the
hange to the
)f the Upper
^ichitas they
With the
sufficient to
mong them.
][evue, on the
[ht. Perhaps
trade in all

directio'.'.c was so restricted. The isolated condition in which they
lived, shut in on all sides by unforgiving foes, seems in a considerable
measure to have disused them to the thought of any such relations,
and tai'ght them to rely only or chiefly upon themselves."

Trader. Make signs for Whites, Chief, and Trade.

Deaf-mutes make the sign for person. Give, and Take.

Trail. Hold the extended hands, backs down, in front of body,
hands ecjually advanced in same horizontal plane, lower edges a few
inches apart ; move the right hand to rear a few inches ; at same
time carry left to front ; then bring left to rear, and move right to
front, repeating motion two or three times. This is used more in the
sense of a heavy, well-marked trail, made by tepee-poles or \vagons.

For a tepee-trail, first make above sign, then cross the extended
index fingers at first joints, others and thumbs closed, index fingers
forming an angle little less than a right angle and held horizontally,
hands held close to body j move the hands to front and slightly
upwards.

For a wagon-trail or road, make first sign us above, then sign for
Wagon.

For a slight trail made by a person or beast, make sign for Walk.
(The footprints are left only.)

I met in the Indian Territory a Kickapoo Indian, wlio made for
pony-tracks horizontal and.incoinplete circles with thumbs and index
fingers, and then the motion 1 have described under Walk.

Trail (To). Make sign for Track or Trail, and sign for Look,
the fingers pointing downwards towards ground and moved well
about. Something akin to the rigidity of muscles which comes upon
a pointer or setter dog when he scents a game-bird is seen in some
Indians when discovering and following a trail and fresh "signs"
are seen. Tliere is, of course, great difference in the capacities of
individual Indians as trailers, some being no better than many white
men, whilst others are astonishingly capable, and become famous in
their tribes for their ability. In 1S78 troops were sent out from
Fort Keogh, Montana, to intercept some Clieyennes, who had been
reported by an officer as crossing the Yellowstone below the post.
After the troops had been two days out from the garrison, a Chey-
enne scout, called "Poor Elk," was sent out with dispatciies. He
had ridden all night, and his pony was very tired, when he joined
the column at about ten o'clock in the morning, but he managed,
with much whipping, to keep his pony alongside the troops. The
country had been overrun by great herds of buffalo, the grass had
been eaten and broken down, and there was a perfect labyrinth of
buffalo-paths. Some excelknt wliite and Indian scouts were with
the command, but nothing had been discovered until, suddenly,
"Poor Elk" stopped (he was riding abreast of the middle of the
column), and going a little distance to the right, to more thoroughly
scan the country, came back at a shuffling tired gallop, and reported
that he had found the trail of the Indians.

It crossed the direction of the troops at right angles, and one-half

382

TRAP—TRAVOIS.

of the command had already passed over it. "Poor Elk" followed
it for about a mile to where the pursued party had camped. He
brushed away the ashes from the dead fires, and felt of the earth un-
derneath ; examined the droppings of the animals, counted the num-
ber of fires, and noted, by the marks made by the pins, the size of
the lodges; carefully scrutinized some moccasins, bits of cloth, etc.,
that had been thrown away ; noticed that the moccasins were sewed
with thread instead of sinew, and were made as the Sioux make
theirs; discovered that the calico was such as is used at agencies;
found a bit of hair-braid, such as Sioux Indians fasten to the scalp-
lock. A sweat-lodge had been built, indic^tting that they had re-
mained in camp at least one day, and the droppings of the animals
determined that the stay had been but one. The position of the
camp, the tying of the animals near the tepees and wickey-ups, the
number of lodges, the care taken by the Indians in leaving, — all these
things furnished evidence as to the number of Indians and animals,
and the number of days since they had camped there. Though moving
stealthily, yet they were in no special hurry ; were Sioux and not
Cheyennes, as stated ; had recently left an agency; had not crossed
the Yellowstone at the time reported, but two days previously;
were evidently a party of Sioux who were on their way to join the
Indians north of the British line. In fact, the record left by these
Indians was as complete as though it had been carefully written out.

In following the trail of animals, the knowledge of their habits and
peculiarities is of the greatest assistance. Troops frequently go
through or across country. Indians take the line of least resistance,
and war-parties keep concealed. A broken blade of grass, a bead
or feather dropped, a moccasin-track, and the story is told.

White horse-thieves on the frontier frequently disguise themselves
as Indians and "run off" stock; but, as a rule, they make a trail
which can be easily detected. The .Indian whips and other articles,
which they drop, are placed where they are sure to be seen by the
pursuers. Their moccasin-tracks are made in the snow or soft earth,
where they will be distinctly outlined. In fact, they overdo the
business, and yet they have deceive! many good white trailers.

Trap, For iron and steel traps, touch or point to something made
of iron or metal, then hold hands 'equally advanced, at same height,
in front of body, back of right to right, left to left, index fingers,
slightly curved, pointing to front, other fingers and thumbs closed ;
raise the hands on curve, and bring index fingers side by side, touch-
ing, with a jerk, — to represent action of jaws of trap.

The traps made and used by Indians, such as the "deadt'all" and
others, are described by natural signs.

Deaf-mutes make same gestures.

Travois. Make sign for Tepee, for animal which hauls the poles;
then bring both hands, backs up, opposite each other at same height,
well out in front of body, index fingers extended, pointing to front
and slightly upwards ; draw the hands to rear and slightly downwards,
terminating movement when hands are near body ; keep left hand

TREATY— TRUE.

383

t" followed
mped. He
le earth un-
ed the num-
, the size of

cloth, etc.,
; were sewed
Sioux make
at agencies ;
to the scalp-
;hey had re-

the animals
jition of the
:key-ups, the
g, — all these
md animals,
ough moving
oux and not
i not crossed
5 previously ;
y to join the
left by these

written out.
jir habits and
"requently go
ist resistance,
grass, a bead

old.

;e tliemselves

make a trail
)ther articles,
seen by the

or soft earth,

y overdo the

trailers.

lething made

same height,

ndex fingers,
mbs closed ;

\l side, touch-

leadfall" and

lis the poles ;

I same height,

)ting to front

downwards,

;ep left hand

inches to right

md bring extended right hand, back up, just over
ing to left ; draw the right hand horizontally a few
g..,.. The first sign represents the tepee-jioles, the second
their position when fastened to the animr.l, and the third the skin or
blanket fastened to the poles upon which the person or load is
placed.

The tepee-poles are fastened at their smaller ends by a rope or raw-
hide thong, wliich passes over the pony's withers, and the large ends
of the poles drag on the ground. The poles become shafts, and
behind the animal the load is fastened. Small children are frequently
placed in a wicker-work basket fastened to these poles ; and for trans-
porting the sick and wounded the skin of a freshly-killed animal, a
robe or blanket, is fastened to the poles, forming a bed upon which
the sick or wounded persons recline, tv»o poles only, as a rule, being
used for this purpose.

Treaty. One tribe with another, signs for Work or Make, for
Smoke and Shake Hands, are made. With the whites. Shake Hands
and Write.

Deaf-mutes make their signs for Fight, Stop, Talk, Agree, and
Peace.

Tree. Make sign for Grass, holding hands a little higher than
shoulders. This represents timber, — trees. For one tree make above
sign, separate the hands but slightly, and then hold up extended
right index.

Deaf-mutes hold left forearm vertically in front of left shoulder,
fingers extended, separated, and pointing upwards ; place right hand
at left elbow. This represents one tree ; for more, move the hands
and arm thus fixed into different positions.

Trot. Make sign for the beast, and then bring closed hands,
backs up, in front of body, same height, equally advanced and few
inches apart ; strike to the front and downwards on a curve, first
with one hand and then with the other, repeating motions briskly;
imitating as nearly as possible the action of an animal's front feet in
trotting.

Deaf-mutes use the same sign.

Trouble. Make sign for Heart; then hold right hand as in Per-
haps, having all fingers extended as explained in latter part of that
description, and turn the hand as there described. Troubled, un-
settled, worried with a feeling of fear, would also be expressed by
this sign, and sign for Excited. Heart also in a flutter and rising
into the throat.

Deaf-mutes move the hands in front of face or forehead.

True. Conception : One way, or tongue straight. Hold right
hand, back up, in front of and rather close to neck, index finger ex-
tended pointing to front, others and thumb closed ; move the hand
to front. Sometimes the sign for Like is made ; indicating but one
way ; does not deviate to right or left ; straight from heart and tongue.

Deaf-mutes hold right h.'..(d, back to right, in front of neck, ex-
tended index and vertical, other fingers and thumb closed ; move

384

TR UNK— TWO-KE TTL E.

the hand to front, tip of index describing a circle, so that when hand
stops it points to front.

Trunk. Hold the closed hands, backs down, equally advanced,
same height, and about opposite shoulders, well out in front of body,
forearms horizontal. Sometimes indicate size.

An Indian trunk is made of a large square- or rectangular-shaped
piece of untanned skin, the hair carefully scraped off, and the hide
folded into shape when green and wet. They are usually decorated
with different colored paintings, are used for packing dried meat,
clothing, etc., and are called " par-fl6ches."

Deaf-mutes indicate size and shape, and make motion of putting
something in same.

Try. Make sign for Push.

Deaf-mutes use the same sign.

Turkey. Conception : Beard. Make sign for Bird, and then
hold compressed ri^nt hand under chin, close to breast, fingers point-
ing downward:: : shake the hand slightly, which is held loosely at
wrist. Sometimes only index of right hand is extended.

Deaf-mutes hold right index on bridge of nose, to denote the
wattle v-f the turkey-gobbler.

Turtle. See Tortoise.

Tweezers. Nearly close right hand, inner surface of tip of thumb
and index pressed together, index and thumb nearly extended, hand
fixed as though holding a small pair of tweezers; carry hand to face
or eyebrows, and jerk it away as though pulling out hairs.

Deaf-mutes use the same gesture.

These are in constant use by the Indians in pulling out the beard,
eyebrows, eyelashes, and hair of the body generally.

Twinkle. Make sign for Star; then, still holding hand in this
position, snap the index and thumb as in Little Talk. To indicate
the brilliancy of a diamond or anything that twinkles, make sign
for the object, sign for Same, and above signs.

Twins. Lay the palmar surface of extended and separated index
and second fingers on abdomen, other fingers and thumb closed;
tlien make sign for Parturition. I have also seen sign for Partu-
rition made, closing thumb, third, and little fingers.

Deaf-mutes indicate sex and a growing up equally, as well as same
mother and one birth.

There is but very little doubt in my mind that some Indian mothers
who have twins born to them destroy one. Twin children are very
rare. Sitting Bull has had twins born to him by each of two wives.

Two-Kettle (Band of Sioux Indians). Make signs for Sioux,
for Kettle ; repeating these motions as though another kettle was
alongside of the first.

There are several stories told as to how this band of Sioux Indians

first gained this name. One of the most plausible is that a certain

^ chief insisted on having a certain part of the buffalo cooked in one

kettle, and certain other parts in others. They belong to the Teton

branch. (See Sioux.) . •

UGL Y— UNCER TAIN.

385

when hand

iT advanced,
mt of body,

gular-shaped

,nd the hide

ly decorated

dried meat,

n of putting

D, and then

fingers point-

ild loosely at

) denote the

f tip of thumb
ctended, hand
\l hand to face
irs.

out the beard,

hand in this

To indicate

les, make sign

Iparated index
Ihumb closed;
Ign for Partu-

|s well as same

idian mothers
tldren are very
I of two wives.
Ins for Sioux,

ler kettle was

Isioux Indians
1 that a certain
looked in one
to the Teton

TJ.

Ugly. Pass the palmar surface of extended right hand circularly
in front of and close to face, and then lowering hand from this posi-
tion, make sign for Bad.

Deaf-mutes hold the hands at same height in front of and close to
face, bac^ of right hand to right, left to left, balls of thumbs resting
on sides of index fingers, which are slightly curved, other fingers
closed, right hand near right cheek, left near left ; move the right
hand out a few iiiches, and the left in towards face; then carry left
out and right in repeating these motions.

The sign is not a common one with Indians, and while I have seen
the gesture for handsome, pretty, or beautiful often made, I have
seen this very rarely indeed.

TJncapapa (Band of Sioux Indians). Conception : Ends of in-
complete circle. Make sign for Sioux, for Encamp, and then form
an incomplete horizontal circle, witli thumbs and index fingers in
front of body, other fingers closed, tips of thumbs touching, space
of about an inch between tips of index fingers ; then, still holding
left hand in position, place the tip of extended index of right on
first joint, other fingers and thumb of right hand closed, index nearly
vertical, and move the hand outwards, tip of index of right touching
side of left from first joint ; then place right hand in its place in
forming the horizontal circle, and move tip of left index similarly
out over side of right from first joint.

It appears that this band of the Teton Sioux was named from the po-
sition they occupied in the camps. A favorite way for Indians to
encamp was in an incomplete circle, with an open space, — this open
space being usually towards the east, — and this band occupied the
ends of the incomplete circle. The word, according to the Indians,
was derived from, or, more properly speaking, is a corruption of
Hun-ka-pea, which means ends or outlet. Running Antelope, one of
the headmen, and the most noted orator of the tribe, located on the
Missouri River, at Standing Rock Agency, Dakota, told me that he
could remember when there were in the band eight hundred and
fifty lodges. They had four chiefs, he being one of them. These
four chiefs met whenever occasion required, and decided what the
band was to do, where they were to move, etc. The soldiers were
young men, and promptly obeyed the crier, who gave the orders
of the chiefs to them and to the camp. (See Sioux.)

Uncertain. Make signs for Know and No, 01 for Perhaps.

Deaf-mutes use the same gestures.

As I have before stated, this sign is of frequent use and great ser-
vice ; and where any shadow of doubt exists it should always be em-
ployed. A mistake is a lie. A broken promise destroys confidence,
and, unless confidence is instilled and retained, the fruits of the best
and noblest efforts are almost sure to be of the Dead Sea order.

386

UNCLE— UTE.

Uncle. See Kinship.

Deaf-mutes hold right hand near right side of head, as in their sign
for letter U, index and second finger pointing upwards, lower hand
with a wavy, tremulous motion.

Understand. See Know.

Deaf-mutes place tip of rirht index at centre of lower part of
forehead, back of hand to r ght, other fingers and thumb closed ;
move the hand up and down a few inches two or three times, tip of
index touching forehead as the hand is moved up.

Unite. Make sign for With.

Deaf-mutes bring closed hands together in front of body, back of
right to right, left to left, hands touching at backs of fingers between
first and second joints, and expand palmar surface.

Unlucky. Make signs for Medicine and Bad.

Deaf-mutes make their signs for Happenings and Bad.

Ursa Major, Make signs for Star, and denote the position of the
constellation, called by some the "Seven Stars."

Deaf-mutes indicate in the same manner.

The Sioux say that these stars represent a band of foxes ; their
king was killed in the Bear's tepee (a circular cluster of stars to the
left of the Dipper). The four, — Alpha, Beta, Gamma, and Delta, —
which form the quadrilateral, are carrying the dead king in a blanket.

Epsilon is the medicine-man, Zeta is the woman with a baby on
her back (the little star near this is the baby), and ''^ta is the woman
with the dried meat. The stars of the tail or handle to the Dipper
have, however, different names ; some calling Eta simply dried
meat, and Zeta water for the dead king.

Some Indians, in smoking, point the stem of the pipe to these
stars, and make a petition for their release; praying that they may
be permitted to proceed on their journey, and no longer be held
under the malign influence which fOTces them to wander in the same
circular trail.

Ute. Make sign for Black, and rub the /ace as in Red.

The Ute Indians have, as far back as history and tradition go,
occupied or roamed over the mountains and small valleys of the
country between parallels 37th and 41st north latitude and the
105th and 113th meridians. With the Snakes and Bannacks they
have, as a rule, had friendly relations, with the exception of what is
known as Washakie's band, and with this band, until quite recently,
they have been more than " half at war" since 1834. With the
Plains Indians they have ever been at war. With the Mountain In-
dians to the southwest, and with the Navajos and Pueblos, both war
and peace have obtained at intervals, the latter predominating.

Many years ago Mexican traders went among them, and from inter-
course with them, and with the Navajos and other tribes who spoke
that language, many of them learned to speak Mexican quite fluently.

In 1844 the Mexican who had charge of the trading-post on the
Uncompahgre River was killed by these Indians and the goods appro-
priated 10 their own use.

VTE.

387

in their sign
lower hand

>\ver part of
umb closed ;
times, tip of

(ody, back of
igers between

osition of the

f foxes ; their
af stars to the
, and Delta,—
g in a blanket,
vith a baby on
, is the woman
to the Dipper
simply dried

pipe to these
lat they may
)nger be held
er in the same

Ied.

tradition go,
valleys of the
tude and the
{annacks they
on of what is
uite recently,
With the
Mountain In-
ilos, both war
linating.
nd from inter-
es who spoke
uite fluently,
-post on the
goods appro-

In stature and appearance these Indians combine, one might say,
t'ie qualities of the Plains Indians to the east with those of the
mountain tribes to the west and south ; in stature, between the Ban-
nacks and the Sioux. They are shorter than the Bannacks and
taller than the Sioux. They dress the hair like the Sioux, but, as a
rule, wear no scalp-lock, though some have adopted the custom, —
particularly is this the case with the White River Utes.

By dressing the hair is meant the parting, braiding, and wrapping
the braids with strips of otter-skin, wearing feathers, etc. The
women wear the hair loose, usually cropping the ends at the neck
and parting it in the middle. Both sexes make a lavish use of paint.
The men are fond of pipe-clay and shell ornaments, and decorate
their leggings and moccasins with a long fringe and with beads.
The leggings, both for men and women, are still generally made of
buckskin, and the women usually have their leggings sewed to the
moccasin when the two are not cut from the same piece. The com-
bined garment is drawn on like a stocking, and as the material is
inelastic, they have to be made so large that when on they present
an untidy appearance.

The Utes possess large numbers of Navajo blankets, trading
directly for them or securing them from their traders. The lodges
are now usually made of canvas, are small, have only a few poles,
and do not compare favorably with the lodges of the Prairie Indians.
I saw many made of old flour-sacks sewed together. They frequently
paint the lower portion of the lodge with ochre, thinking it may
shield them from bad luck. Many of them have herds of cattle,
ponies, sheep, and goats ; and this, as well as the possession of
blankets and wicker-work vessels, shows the influence of their inter-
course with the Navajos. The women wear their dresses quite short,
reaching to just below the knees. The moccasins for the men are
made, as a rule, with the soles separate from the uppers. Many of
the men wear beards and moustaches.

Dr. A. J. McDonald, who has had quite an extensive experience
with this tribe, kindly secured for me the following :

" None of the Indians present knew the meaning of the word
designating the tribe. They said they had always been called Utes,
and supposed that Shinnob so named them at the time of their
creation."

The subjoined is a list of the several bands using the Ute lan-
guage, showing the present location of each:

Tabequache, at Ouray Agency, Utah. Population, as per

report of the Indian Commissioners for 1 88 1 . . . 1500

Muache, Capota, Weeminnache, at Southern Ute Agency.

Population, as per report of the Commissioners for 1881 . iioo

Yampa, Grand River, Uintah, at Uintah Valley Agency,
Utah. Population of the White Rivers, as per report of
the Indian Commissioners for 1879 .... 900

Population of Uintahs as per report of 1881 . . . 474

Total ... 3974

388

UTE,

The above is extracted from the Annual Report of the late Hon-
orable Commissioner of Indian Affairs.

The following story of the origin of the Ute Indians was related
by Tabby. It is very quaint and amusing :

"Shinnob {i.e., God) having a deep-rooted antipathy to white
people went to war against them. After a long and fierce fight
Shinnob was killed.

*' But his enemies had not got rid of him, for not long afterwards
he came to life again. Immediately after his resurrection from the
dead, he determined to revenge himself by creating races of men
who would be inimical to the white people, and who would, in the
course of a brief period of time, sweep them from the face of the
earth. Shinnob commenced operations by procuring several large
bags (probably made of buckskin, the Indian said), and filling them
with loose earth, sticks, small pebbles, sand, etc., and 1> iving tied
up the mouths of the bags very securely, he left them ui r a large
tree, intending to return in proper time to open them, when each
sack would have contained several Indians perfect in form and
understanding. But, unfortunately, the devil (Shinnob's brother)
happened to visit the spot where the sacks were. His curiosity was
excited to a high degree, and he longed ardently to find out what
his brother had been doing, but he feared Shinnob too much to dare
to touch the bags. At length the temptation became too strong for
resistance, and one night, when there was no moon, he carried off
the bags, one by one, and deposited them in a place where Shinnob
could not possibly discover them. Having secured all the sacks, he
loosened the strings. Out of one rushed forth Utes, from another
Navajos, from another Sioux, and so on, and from these created
Indians sprung all the several tribes that now inhabit the earth.
Had the devil not interfered with the work of Shinnob, the Indians
in the bags would have been in all respects perfect; but as it was, they
were thrust out into the world prematurely (before they were thor-
oughly hatched), and consequently Indians are subject to death,
disease, and the other numerous ills of life."

In the above narrative, I have, as far as practicable, used the very
words of the interpreter.

The Utes with whom I conversed could give no information as to
how the several bands became separated, nor could they say what
caused the reduction in the number of the people; in fact, they did
not seem to know that the number had at any time b^en reduced.
According to Tabby's account the Utes believe that the earth always
has been as it now is ; that Shinnob, ages ago, for some good reason
of his own, created great numbers of people, animals, fishes, insects,
etc. He said that all the Indians believe that houses, stables, agri-
cultural implements, machinery, and, in short, all things, were first
planned by Shinnob. Tabby, to illustrate his meaning, said that
Shinnob, after making the first plough, left the implement where it
would surely be found by white men, who would be able to imitate
it. The Utes have no Sun-Dance. Their annual dance, which is a

the late Hon-

is was related

athy to white
id fierce fight

ang afterwards
;tion from the

races of men
) would, in the
he face of the
r several large
nd filling them
id bwing tied
n ui r a large
em, when each
: in form and
mob's brother)
is curiosity was
o find out what
.0 much to dare
2 too strong for
, he carried off

where Shinnob
ill the sacks, he
s, from another
11 these created
labit the earth,
lob, the Indians
It as it was, they

they were thor-

bject to death,

e, used the very

iformation as to

i they say whut

n fact, they did

e been reduced. ^

the earth always f

>me good reason

s, fishes, insects,

es, stables, agri-

lings, were first

-aning, said that

)lement where it

able to imitate

,ance, which is a

VTE.

389

religious ceremony, generally takes place some time during the
month of February or March. With willow-boughs a large circular
enclosure is formed, and the ground within is stamped smooth and
hard. Places are set apart for fires, so that the " dance-hall" may be
properly illuminated. At one end is the orchestra. I will endeavor
to give a brief description of the musical instrument used. A hole
is dug in the ground, and into it is fitted snugly a large tin bucket,
bottom upwards. Each musician takes a stick, about eighteen inches
long, notched from one end to the other. One extremity of tliis
stick is held in the left hand, and placed in contact with the edge of
the tin bucket. In the right hand tiie performer holds a small piece
of wood, square or rectangular in shape, and from three to four
inches in thickness, and scraping this upwards and downwards on
the notched stick, he produces the ravishing music which so delights
the dusky dancers. The men and the squaws arrange themselves
into two lines, so that the sexes stand opposite and facing each
other. When the music commences two squaws clasp hands, ad-
vance to the male line, and choose their partners; then two more in
the same manner make their selection, and so on until all are sup-
plied. Now the males and the females from their respective lines
advance towards each other with a trot and a swaying motion of
their bodies, until the couples are almost face to face, and then with
similar backward movements return to the places from which they
started. This alternate advance and retreat is all there is to the
dance, but the participants apparently enjoy the exercise immensely,
and often continue the dance until they are completely exhausted.
What are termed " Bear-Dancea" are frequently indulged in merely
for sport, they have no religious significance.

The marriage customs are very simple and unceremonious. At
night the would-be husband consults the parents of the girl he wishes
to marry. If the paternal and maternal consent is obtained to the
nuptials a bed is at once made, the happy couple "turn in," and
are thenceforth man and wife. It is usual for the husband to offer
some present to his bride, but this is not compulsory.

If a man be detected in the crime of adultery with another's wife,
the wronged husband satisfies himself by killing a horse belonging
to the offender, or by taking from him some blankets or other valu-
able property. The offending wife is perhaps chastised by her hus-
band, but is not divorced or separated from him.

Names are given to Indian children, both male and female, by the
father. If the child bears any resemblance, or fancied resemblance,
to any person or thing, the name of that person or thing is given to
the child. It often, perhaps generally, happens that in after-life the
name is changed. It has beei frequently noticed by many persons
that the Utes object to give their own names when asked, requesting
some other Indian to answer for them. On making inquiries re-
specting this matter, they one and all declared that no objection ex-
isted among them. Nevertheless, it is evident to any one acquainted
with these Indians that many of them are extremely unwilling to

39°

UTE.

themselves mention their own names. There is a superstitious belief
held by some few that the act of signing papers, either by writing
the name or by making a mark, is apt to result in the death of the
party concerned.

Nowadays chiefs are elected by consent of the majority. No
special ceremony attends the election. A number of Utes may desire
to make a certain member of the tribe a chief; they talk about it
for a while, and spread the information throughout the whole band,
and, if it is found that the greater number are willing that the pro-
motion should be made, the lucky man from that time becomes a
chief. Hut formerly the choice of chiefs was conducted differently.
The frequently-recurring wars that then took place between the
Utes and other tribes of Indians brought to light the fighting quali-
ties of the warriors, and the bravest men were made chiefs.

Within the memory and knowledge of the oldest Ute living, so
says Tabby, there never have been any "soldier bands," — every able-
bodied male is a soldier. So far as I could ascertain, they recognize
no form of oath ; but they believe that one who falsifies will be sub-
jected to very severe punishment after death.

Tabby and the other Indians present denied that any superstition
existed against killing any animal, bird, fish, or insect. On my
mentioning that some persons claimed that a Ute was averse to tak-
ing the life of the coyote and of the crow, he ridiculed the very idea,

I questioned them as to " names of moons in a year," and also as
to whether they had named any of the stars. The "moons" are
designated bynames, as are also many of the planets, and I at the
time made a note of said names, but having mislaid my memo-
randa, I am not able to reproduce them here. The "Milky-Way"
(Nali-rah-wa-aek) they suppose divides the heavens into two equal
parts. I next talked with them concerning comets and eclipses,
and was much astonished to find tbem quite well informed on such
topics. They entertain no superstitious ideas whatever in connec-
tion with any of the heavenly bodies. Tabby said he supposed
Shinnob had made stars, comets, etc., for some wise reason of his
own, and that he (Shinnob) probably intended that man should
know very little of such matters.

Tabby, who is now, I should judge, about seventy years of age,
first saw a "Spaniard with horses" when a very young child. He
thinks he must have been about ten years old when he first saw an
" American," but it was so long ago that he does not now remember
many of the circumstances attending the meeting.

The Utes all firmly believe in the immortality of the soul. The
story of the future as told to me was as follows : After death all In-
dians go straight to heaven ; on their arrival there they are required
to appear before Shinnob for trial. If the Indian while on earth led
a good life according to the judgment of Shinnob, he is permitted to
remain in heaven ; but if, on the other hand, he meets with the dis-
approval of the Almighty Judge, he is sent off somewhere or another,
nobody knows where.

titious belief
r by writing
death of the

ajority. No
es may desire
talk about it
whole band,
:hat the pro-
le becomes a
i differently,
between the
ighting quali-
iefs.

Jte living, so
— every able-
hey recognize
;s will be sub-

y superstition
;ect. On my
iverse to tak-
the very idea.
," and also as
" moons" are

and I at the
id my memo-
' Milky-Way"
nto two equal

and eclipses,
•rmed on such

r in connec-
he supposed

reason of his
man should

I years of age,
child. He
je first saw an
low remember

le soul. The

death all In-

are required

on earth led

permitted to

with the dis-

re or another,

[/T£.

391

They claim that in ages past Shinnob taught Indians how to con-
struct arrows, pipes, etc., and commanded that the children should
be instructed in the art from generation to generation.

The Utes keep no account of individual age. The custom of
wrapping the hair with strips of otter-skin has no significance beyond
mere ornamentation, and this is true also respecting their use of
paint.

I could not discover that any superstition existed against suicide.
Tabby seemed to think it a very foolish practice, but in his opinion,
if a person desired to destroy his own life he had a perfect right to
please himself.

It seems that in this tribe there are no peculiarities in the treat-
ment of "mothers-in-law." In the treatment of sickness "sweat-
houses" are occasionally constructed and used. They are made by
digging a hole in the ground and covering the opening with willow-
branches and blankets. Very hot stones are placed in the hole and
water poured thereon.

A custom is prevalent of requiring women during the menstrual
period to lodge by themselves. A small tent is usually erected for.
this purpose within a few feet of the family lodge. During child-
birth the woman is assisted by old and experienced squaws; but in
cases of difficult labor, the native medicine-men are called in, and,
recently, some such cases have been turned over to the care of white
physicians. The sitting posture is, I am told, the most common,
but sometimes the recumbent and other positions are assumed. In
the former it is customary for the assistants, as soon as the pains set
in, to frequently lift the patient up by the arms. After parturition
the woman is required to remain in a special lodge set apart for her
use for the period of one *' moon." She is forbidden to eat meat,
her principal diet being bread and large draughts of warm water.

The Utes do not make a practice of eating dog-meat, but do so in
times of famine or great scarcity of other more palatable provisions.

In October, 1881, I was travelling over the Uintah range of moun-
tains, and during a snow-storm at night came on a Ute camp, con-
sisting mostly of Uintahs, but some few White Rivers were with
them. After some little persuasion they took me into one of the
tepees, and, by the flickering light of the lodge fire, while the squaw
was preparing my supper, I obtained from the chief and headmen, by
means of gestures and their poorly-spoken English, a brief history of
their tribe as they understood it. They claimed that for many gen-
erations they had been divided into bands, which occupied different
parts of the country, extending from Great Salt Lake to the head-
waters of the Cimarron River. These bands were known by some
familiar custom which they practised, or from some physical feature
of the particular part of the country they occupied. To oppose the
invasion of the Sioux, Cheyennes, Arapahoes, Comanches, Kiowas,
and other tribes, these bands were at times united, and lived and
fought together, quickly separating and going to what might be
called their respective homes after the necessity for the concentra-

392

VTE.

tion had passed away. The present Uintahs and some other bands
were tailed Pah-go-wee Nutzes, or Big Water Utes ; the White
Rivers, Yam-pah-recks, or Root-Eaters. The Uncompahgres, Mo-
natz, or Cedar-Tree Utes, and several bands are consolidated with
what are known as the Southern Utes, viz., Travois band, Willow
band, Skin and Painted Lodge band, etc.

The White Rivers are more conversant with the sign language than
the other bands, their geographical position having thrown them
into more constant and intimate relations with the Plains tribes, par-
ticularly of late years with the Arapahoes.

VACCINA TE— VOMIT.

393

other bands
the White
»ahgres, Mo-
)lidated with
and, Willow

inguage than
hrown them
IS tribes, par-

Vaccinate. Make signs for Whites, Medicine, Man, and then
thrust the extended right index, other fingers and thumb closed, at
left arm, tip striking it midway between elbow and shoulder.

Deaf-mutes thrust index al left arm.

Many of the Indians at the different agencies are now regularly
vaccinated, and the older men are extremely anxious to have the
operation performed. They rightly have an unqualified horror of
smalliiox, knowing their powerlessness to cope with it.

Vigilant. Make signs for Look in different directions, moving
the hand quickly, for Much, for Sleep, and No.

Deaf-mutes fix the hands as in Guarding, and then move them into
different positions.

Village. Make sign for Tepee and for Camp.

Deaf-mutes make their sign for House in different directions, and
Small. (A small collection of houses.)

Vine. For a vine on the ground, make a serpentine motion of
the right hand, index fi.-.ger alone extended.

For on a pole or tree : The left arm or hand represents the object
to which the vine clings and winds about, and the right index traces
the course about it.

Deaf-mutes use the same gesture.

Vine. (Poisonous.) Make sign for Vine (above), for Bad, and
then indicate that the vine kills the part of body it touches.

Virgin. Make sign for Female, for Marry, or Sleep With, and
for No.

Volley. See Heavy Firing.

Vomit. Hold compressed right hand, back to right, fingers point-
ing upwards, in front of and close to neck ; move the hand slightly
upwards, then turn, and, by wrist action, move it outwards and down-
wards on curve, repeating motion.

Deaf-mutes use both hands, and imitate motion of a person vomit-
ing.

394

WAGON— WANT.

Wagon. Conception : Wheels, Hold hands, backs down, in front
of body, equally advanced, same height and a few inches apart, edges
pointing to front, index fingers well curved, others and thumbs closed ;
move the hands so that Index fingers will describe a small vertical
circle. Sometimes the hands are held backs up.

Deaf-nuites hold the hands, backs out, index fingers extended,
others and thumbs closed, right index pointing to left, left index to
right; then, mostly by wrist action, move the hands so that tips of
index fingers describe vertical circles.

Wagon-Road. Make sign for Road and Wagon.

Deaf-mutes U3e the same gesture.

Wait. Make sign for Sit or Halt, repeating same; making ges-
ture more gently and not stopping hand so abruptly as in Halt.

Deaf-mutes make their sign for Stop.

Walk. Conception : Motion of feet. For a person : hold hands,
backs up, in front of body, equally advanced, same heiglit and a few
inches apart, fingers pointing to front; move the right to front, up-
wards and downwards to same height as when starting ; move left to
front similarly ; and as left is brought down, draw right hand to rear
and repeat first motion ; same with left, repeating motions.

For an animal : close the hand and execute similar movements.

Deaf-mutes use same as the first-described gesture.

Want. Conception: Give me. Hold right hand, back to right,
in front of and close to cnin, and form an incomplete circle with
curved thumb and index, back of, index about height of mouth,
space of about half an inch between tips of index and thumb, other
fingers closed, plane of circle vertical ; move the hand on a small
curve downwards, outwards, and then upwards, the upward movement
being mostly made by turning hand by wrist action, so as to bring
little finger nearly as high as index.

This sign is not very much used by some tribes, and by a few not
known, even with those who use gesture speech to a great extent.
An Indian, instead of saying, " I want you to do so and so," would
say, "I think it good for you to do it."

The sign is so much like Water or Drink that, unless the con-
nection is clear, it is liable to be misunderstood.

Deaf-mutes make signs for With and Need ; for the former they
hold hands, backs down, equidistant from body, at same height and
several inches apart, edges pointing to front, fingers curved and
separated ; the hands are drawn in a few inches, and the motion re-
peated two or three times. For Need, they hold the right hand,
back uj), in front of body about height of shoulder, index finger
curved, others and thumb closed ; mostly by wrist action, make a

> 'Am,

WAR.

395

wn, in front
apart, edges
nibs closed ;
nail vertical

rs extended,
eft index to
I that tips of

making ges-
n Halt.

hold hands,

rht and a few

to front, up-

move left to

hand to rear

Ions.

lovenients.

)ack to right,

circle with

it of mouth,

numb, other

on a small

d movement

as to bring

by a few not
great extent.

1 so," would

"ess the con-

foimer they
je height and
curveil anil
e motion re-
right hand,
index finger
ion, make a

downward motion with right hand few inches, repeating motion
several times.

War. Make sign for F'ght. It has been often asserted, and
quite generally believed, that Indian warfare is but simple assassina-
tion and murder. Viewed from our stand-point, it does partake
strongly of the characteristics that we associate with these crimes,
and certainly success with Indians is due mainly to the constant
])ractice of stealth and crafty vigilance. Regarding it, however,
from the stand-point of the savage or barbarian, which is that the
object to be attained in war is to inflict the greatest possible amount
of damage upon the enemy with the least possible risk to them-
selves ; and considering, also, the necessities which crowd upon
them to pursue such a course, tl^ough we cannot justify their wanton
atrocities, yet we find our opinions modified somewhat in regard to
them.

The original conquest of their tribal domain, and the maintenance
of their prestige and position as tribes, depended entirely on their
prowess ; and where existence depended upon the possession of war-
like qualities, it is no wonder that they were fostered ; that war was
the burden of all oratory and song, and that the highest ambition
of an Indian should be to gain distinction as a warrior, especially
as this ambition was stimulated by the knowledge that success in war
would be rewarded by the highest honors and greatest powers in
peace;. Nearly every tradition of the tribe was richly colored with
deeds of valor and daring; and the murder of a helpless woman
and the stealing of a few ponies took rank not from the act, but
from the blow inflicted on tlie enemy. Not only was the hope of
reward held out to those who survived the dangers of the " war-
path," but those killed in battle were (according to their belief)
received with great demonstrations of joy, and made chiefs in the
life beyond death. Indians possess as much courage as any people,
and when young, sometimes not only scorn the fear of, but really
court death. Age brings wisdom and recognition of the fact that
more is accomplished by craft and cunning than by reckless daring.
The cheap bravado which has led so many to imagine them cowardly
wretches was the resuit of their training to constantly remember
their maxim of war, — " Greatest amount of damage to the °nemy
with the least amount to on( s self."

Again, people in the hunter state have no pension lists, and the
death of the head of the family left that family to the mercy and
charity of their people; and in savagery as in civilization, incrcy
and charity are at times both blind and deaf to the sa.Tfrings of
humanity. This, taken in connection with the fact that tneir wars
iv^'e, as a rule, waged for glory and spoils alone, bred in tiiem a
courage "apable of great things for a sudden dash, but left them with-
ou*^ he fibre of true bravery in tenacity of purpose and capacity for
prol • ,_d endurance under a severe strain.

Their war tactics are the stealthy approach and sudden onslaught,
when, if the surprise and numbers sweep everything before them, an

396

IVAJ?.

heroic display of courage is sometimes made ; but a determined or
unexpected resistance, and they scatter and iv-'tire.

The practice of the custom of trusting everything to a single effort
undoubtedly has had its effect in their not harassing an enemy after
their effort was made ; but at any rate, it is a fact that they are wo-
fully lacking in enterprise in this way. It is a common custom
among all the Northern tribes for war-parties to start out and go
hundreds of miles through an enemy's country on foot, — these are
usually horse-stealing expeditions. Their equipment consists of the
ordinary dress pf an Indian, — a lariat wound diagonally over the
right shoulder and around the breast, a waist-belt full of cartridges
and a breech-loading rifle of modern pattern, and an extra pair of
moccasins at the waist-belt. These small parties on foot leave no
trail, are less liable to detection through being seen, can cross any
kind of country, have no care of animals at night, and for many
other reasons find it to their advantage to go in this way.

"The return of a successful war-party was an occasion of mt'St
extravagant demonstration. Men, women, and children united in
welcoming the victorious braves. The following night a Scalp Dance
was celebrated, in which each one had opportunity to magnify his
exploits. Prisoners, unless women and children, were rarely tak' r ,
and hence scenes of fiendish delight in inflicting exquisite tortu
were unusual. If, on the contrary, the party had been unfortunate
and suffered loss, its return was quiet, and gave rise to dejection and
unrestrained lamentation on the part of the friends of the lost.

" Many of the most dariig adventures were made by braves v/ho,
unaccompanied, penetrated the enemy's country and watched oppor-
tunity to inflict some signal stroke of surprise. This was a favorite
mode of warfare, and sometimes stoical scalps were brought back as
the trophies of one such exploit, and secured for the adventurers a
life-long notoriety. Trips of this cliaracter might be extended hun-
dreds of miles and require weeks of absence in their accomplish-
ment." (/. B. Dunbar.')

In all of our Indian wars it has seemed necessary to use Indian
allies, and these have iisually been permitted to perpetrate all kinds of
savage atrocities, mutilating the dead in the most horrible manner,
so that we have not taught the Indians by exam])leany more civilized
warfare. I do not here refer to the excesses of savage fury which have
from time to time broken out, as in the Minnesota massacre in 1862.
These isolated cases, filled with more horrors than pen can picture,
are to Indian warfare generally what the savage actions of an in-
furiated mob are to civilized war.

The Apaches in tfie Southwest at present and the Eastern Indians
of the past seem to have far exceeded all others in fertility of re-
sources, so far as fiendish cruelty and excruciating torture inflicted
on prisoners are concerned ; still, all Indians make war as horrible as
possible so as to strike terror to the hearts of ^heir enemies.

I was once in command of some Indian scouts where an engage-
pient was anticipated in a day or two, and I was having a smoke and

PFAX— WAR-BONNET.

397

rmined or

ngle effort
lemy after
ey are wo-
)n custom
ut and go
-these are
iists of the
^ over the
cartridges
Ltra pair of
t leave no
1 cross any
I for many

on of must
n united in
scalp Dance
magnify bis
arely tak' r ,
isite tortii
unfortunate
ejection and
le lost,
[braves who,
;hed oppor-
a favorite
;ht back as
venturers a
tended hun-
accomplish-

use Indian
all kinds of
3le manner,
re civilized
which have
re in 1862.
:an picture,
s of an in-

ern Indians
•tility of re-
ire inflicted
horrible as

lies,
an engage-
smoke and

council with them. The chief in the most friendly and pleasant
way explained to me that they " killed the women and children, for
that made them (the enemy) afraid." He spoke of the killing just
as he would have spoken of the destruction of any other property
of the enemy ; he looked at it merely in the light of a blow to be
inflicted.

War, To Go To. (Go on the war-path.) Hold right hand, back,
near'.y to front, in front of and close to right breast, index and
thumb spread, index finger pointing to left, thumb upwards, other
fingers closed ; move hand well out to front and slightly upwards,
or to right or left. This sign is also used for horse-stealing expedi-
tions ; following the general rule to indicate, if possible, the direc-
tion to be taken or that whicli was taken ; this being one of the
legitimate and proper acts of war.

For other i)eople to go to war against one or one's people, hold
the hand as above well out in front ; turn the wrist as much as pos-
sible, so as to make a movement similar to the above, towards the
body.

Deaf-mutes make their sign for Fight.

War-Bonnet. Carry the extended hands from front to rear, par-
allel and close to sides of head, fingers pointing upwards, tips little
higher than toj) of head, palms of hands towards head; then sweep
the right hand from the crown of the head well down to rear of
body. Sometimes the sign for the tail-feather of the golden eagle is
added.

The tail-feathers of the golden eagle are used for making these
gorgeous head-dresses. There are twelve feathers in the tail, and as
many as sixty or seventy are used in making tiie bonnet. The feathers
for the cap proper are fastened to cloth or skin made to fit the head
in the shape of a brimless and crownless hat (old hats are now fre-
quently used). The feathers are placed side by side, touching, and
when the bonnet is put on the head assume a nearly vertical position,
the whole forming a cylinder-shaped head-gear. Fastened to the
head-Micce behind is a long strip of skin or cloth (red cloth is now
gei)' .;''y used), which, when the person is standing, reaches to, and
SO' :invr's trails on, the ground. The feathers are fastened on one
Uilp: X ais cloth in the same way as on the cap. The latter is also

e-, ; ' i' ' decorated with real or imitation buffalo-horns; and some
tiibc> 'i've, i'^esides, masses of ermine-skin fastened on near the base
of the > f'.ers. Some bird, or the special medicine which belongs
to the owner of the bonnet, is also fastened on, usually in front. At
the ti])s of the feathers a few horse-hairs are fastened with glue, and
ribbons are also sometimes fastened to the tail-piece. Many Indians
place the most implicit confidence in the medicine, which may be
only a dirty little bag given them by their magician or medicine-man,
and are firm in the belief that it turns aside all the missiles of their
enemies.

" VVhirlwind," the once famous chief of the Southern Cheyennes,
V 'CT I atked him to tell me of the hardest fight he had ever been

398

WAR-CLUB.

in, said, "It was with the Sacs and Foxes, who were behind cover,
dismounted ; I charged them, and was met with such a perfect storm
of bullets that every feather in my bonnet was cut away." I asked
how it was that he was not hit, and he replied, "My medicine was
on my head," and seemed to express from his manner that this was a
full, complete, and perfect explanation. The lodge was full of his
people, many of whom had seen him in this fight, and they corrob-
orated his story.

Where eagles are plentiful, war rare, and provisions scarce, the
bonnets are comparatively cheap; but with many tribes they readily
bring in barter a good pony, and some Indians will not for any price
part with them, feeling that their good luck Avould desert them. I
have had many Indians tell me about bullets which were coming
straight for the centre of their breasts, but which the power of their
medicine on the head drew up and made them pass harmlessly by.
The Crow Indians are, by some tribes, given the credit of inventing
this head-dress. One of this tribe claimed to have had a dream or
vision in "^i l^e was told to make and wear a head-gear of eagle-
feathers, ai.v his enemies could not kill him. He did this, and
his "mediciu- .vas so strong that the others adopted the same,
and other tribes learned it from them. The Crow became so rash
and confident — felt so strong and secure in his medicine — that he
allowed a Mexican to shoot at him at short range, — only a few feet
distant, — and the Mexican killed him.

The usual explanation for its use is that it makes a man as brave
as the bird from which the feathers are taken, carries fear to the
hearts of the enemy, and is handsome. (See Eagle.)

War-Club. Irdicate size of war-club stone; clasp left index with
right hand, to denote the raw-hide covering to handle, and then
strike forward and downwards with right hand. Seme make sign
like Axe, only closing hand.

There are several varieties of war-clubs, but an excellent one,
much in use by the Northern Indians, is made of a small quartz or
other hard rock, about three inches in diameter and five inches in
length, elliptical in form but rather pointed at the ends. The rock
is carefully dressed into shape by means of much pounding with other
stones; around the centre a slight depression is made, and a strip of
green raw-hide is put on, which on drying shrinks firmly into position.
This strip is sufficiently long and wide enough to wrap around the
handle, which is of wood, three-quarters of an inch in diameter, and
about four feet long. At the end of the handle a scalp is frequently
fastened, and near the stone some horse-hair wrapped with porcupine-
quill^. Sometimes the handle is ornamented with a piece of a buffalo's
tail, eagle's feather, etc.

Frequently the club is simply a piece of hard wood, with three or
four butcher-knife blades carefully fastened at the large end. In fact,
both material and shape vary according to the fancy of the individual.
As will be seen from the gesture, the Indians do not call these weapons
war-clubs, but simply something to strike a blow with.

WAR-DANCE— WEARING APPAREL.

399

ind cover,
rfect storm
" I asked
idicine was
t this was a
full of liis
liey corrob-

scarce, the
:hey readily
)r any price
t them. I
rere coming
wer of their
rmlessly by.
of inventing
a dream or
ear of eagle-
iid this, and
d the same,
ame so rash
line— that he
ily a few feet

man as brave
s fear to the

ft index with
'le, and then
.e make sign

xellent one,
liall quartz or
"ive inches in
The rock
,ig with other
ind a strip of
into position.
) around the
liameter, and
is frequently
th porcupine-
' of a buffalo's

nth three or
knd. In fact,
[e individual.
Ihese weapons

War-Dance. Usually the sign for War, To Go To, is made, and
then the sign for Dance.

I have seen the following, but do not think it common : Hold
left hand, nearly closed, well out and to left of body ; strike at it
with partially-closed right hand, and then make sign for Dance,
This may come from the custom which, it is claimed, was formerly
practised by some of the tribes, of "striking the post," which was
an announcement that the man had joined the war-party.

War-Pony. Make signs for Pony and for Fast.

Indians do not, so far as I have observed, call their ponies ivar-
ponies ; but any pony which is fast they sometime^ say is a good
pony to go to war with.

Warrior. Make signs for Man and for War, To Go To.

Sometimes the signs for Man and Fight are made.

The warriors of a tribe are all the men, old and young, who are
physically competent to use a weapon. Any young man or boy who
has been to war is called a warrior.

Wash.. Make sign for Water, and imitate motions made in
washing.

Deaf-mutes use the same sign.

Watch. Form a horizontal circle with thumb and index of left
hand, other fingers closed ; hold extended right index over and
close to it, other fingers and thumb of right hand closed ; move the
right index round over the horizontal circle. Make sign for Look,
holding fingers so as to point at the circle formed by left thumb and
index. Make sign for Know, for Sun, holding right hand in dif-
ferent position. These gestures indicate the size of the watch ; the
right index, motion of hands ; look at these and one knows wiiere
the sun is ; i.e., what time it is.

Deaf-mutes make motion of drawing watch from vest-pocket and
holding same to right ear.

Water. Conception: Drinking out of palm of hand. Hold par-
tially-compressed right hand, back down, in front of, close to, and
litilw above mouth, fingers pointing to left and upwards; move the
hand downwards, turning palm towards mouth.

Deaf-mutes make their sign for the letter W, holding tip of index
against lips, and moving hand out two or three inches, repeating
motion.

Weak. Make signs for Strong and No, or touch arms and thighs
and make sign for Tired.

Deaf-mutes hold extended left hand, back down, in front of body,
fingers pointing to front; place tips of vertical and separated first
and second fingers on left palm, back of these fingers outwards,
others and thumb closed ; move the hand slightly and bend the
second joint of fingers a little, indicating weak knees.

Wearing* Apparel. With exception of breech-ciout or cloth,
blankets, and other articles previously enumerated, wearing apparel is
usually represented by passing spread thumb and index close to and
about parallel to surface of body covered by the articles.

400

WHEN— WHIP.

Deaf-mutes pass extended hands instead of spread thumb and
index.

When. Make sign for Interrogate, for How Many, and then
specify time by proper gesture for Nights, Moons, or Winters. In
such sentences as " When will you return to-day?" make sign for
Interrogate, and indicate two or three positions of the sun, point
to person, and make sign for Arrive Here. At night, one can say
middle of night, a little after sunset, or a little before sunrise.

Some tribes know about the times when certain stais rise or set,
and note the time at night by these means; but such attainment is
by no means common.

Deaf-mutes hold left index extended and vertical, others and
thumb closed ; make a circle round left with tip of extended right
index, otliers and thumb closed, and when the index reaches the
starting-point, stop it and point it at tip of left index, — intended to
represent an interrogation-mark.

Where. Conception : What point ? Point with extended index
of right hand, back up, in different directions, in front of and to
right and left of body, other fingers and thumb closed, holding hand
higher tiian shoulders, and moving it outwards and downwards, index
finger pointing upwards and outwards, and when lowered to last posi-
tion being horizontal, stopping hand in downward movement when
little lower than shoulders.

Deaf-mutes use the same gestures.

Whetstone. Make sign for Hard or Rock; then hold, extended
and touching, first and second fingers of left hand in front of body,
pointing to front, other fingers closed ; with extended and touching
index and second finger of right hand, others and thumb closed,
placed on side of left index at right angles ; move the hands out-
wards and inwards, as though sharpening a knife. It must be re-
membered that Indians sharpen a. knife only on one side. Some-
times the sign for Knife is first made.

Deaf-mutes use the same gestures, only turn fingers as though
sharpening knife on both sides.

Whip. Strike with closed right hand from front to right and rear
of body, as though astride of a riding animal, and whipping him on
the flank.

Deaf-mutes indicate the striking, but usually as though animal
were in front.

Mr. Belden describes the Indian whip so well that I quote the
following :

" Riding-whips are made in great numbers by the Indians. They
are of various kinds and curious patterns. Some are twisted out of
horse-hair and wrapped with fine sinew, to make them stiff and elas-
tic, others are woven of buffalo-fur, and others of grass or bark.
The regular Indian riding-whip is made of leather, fastened to a
wooden handle. A bone, or piece of round, hard wood, about six
inches in length, is taken, and through each end a small hole is
bored across the grain. Another longer hole is then bored in the

WHIP— WIIISK'E V.

401

umb and

and then
ITERS. In
e sign for
sun, point
ne can say
rise.

rise or set,
ainment is

others and
:nded right
reaches the
intended to

:nded index
t of and to
olding hand
wards, index
to last posi-
'ement when

,ld, extended
|ont of body,
,nd touching
lumb closed,
hands out-
must be re-
Iside. Some-
Is as though

light and rear
)ping him on

lough animal

I quote the

iians. They
.wisted out of
Ltiff and elas-
rass or bark,
fastened to a
pd, about six
fmall hole is
aored in the

end of the stick along the grain, until it intersects the first hole.
The lash, with a loop on its end, is next inserted in the end of the
whip, and a peg driven through the small hole and loop, to keep it
from coming out. A loop or wrist-strap is then put in the other end
of the handle, and the whip is ready for use. The lashes of these
whips are two or three feet long and very heavy, being made gener-
ally of buckskin, elk, or buffalo hide. They are frequently not
plaited, but knotted every five or six inches. Tliese knots are called
bellies, and are intended to make the punishment more severe than
it would otherwise be. The elk-horn whip is very pretty, being
usually beautifully carved and painted many colors. Sometimes the
long prong of a black-tail deer is used, studded with brass tacks or
pieces of silver. Frequently the handles are covered with fur or
buckskin, which is ornamented with bead-work."

Whip (To). The same gestures are used as in Whip (above).

Whirlwind. Hold right hand, back up and to front, hand held
'oose'y at wrist, so as to drop with its own weight, forearm nearly
ori^ontal, in front of right breast and about height of waist, the
fingers separated and slightly curved, fingers pointing about down-
wards ; ra se the hand, at same time, by wrist action, give a swinging
motion to hand ; t'.g., so tliat tips of fingers describe a spiral curve.

Deaf-mutes make their sign for Wind, and then about the same as
above.

Whiskey. The most usual signs for this among the Plains Indians
are for Drink or Water and Medicine.

Whiskey has been and is called " black- water," " white-man's-
water," " crazy- water," "fire-water," the latter by the Sacs and
Foxes, Shawnees, Shoshones, Nez Perces, and the Eastern tribes
generally. Of course the sign, as a rule, follows the name.

Deaf-mutes make signs same as Tea, Drink, and then imitate
motion of a drunken person.

Indians seem to have a natural fondness for whiskey, and the
Hudson's Bay and American Fur. Companies traded it to them in
former years in unlimited quantities, working incalculable damage to
the different tribes. To those Indians who have come in close con-
tact with civilization it has been a greater curse than either war or
disease, and perhaps one might say both. They never mix water
with it, — the stronger it is the better ; and they drink it as though it
were some pure and mild cordial, softened by care and age. I have
known some who had perfect control of their appetites, but the vast
majority have not ; and many wars, much unnecessary bloodshed,
and great wretchedness to them have grown out of their fondness
for liquor, and the cupidity and rascality of white traders in selling
the article to them, never thinking, or at least not caring for the con-
sequences. We have certainly in some cases made them savages,
and then cursed and killed them for being such.

Scattered all along the frontier the same sad spectacle is presented.
First robes, skins, and bead-work are sold, then the ponies; then the
women are debauched and diseased, and thefts and murders are coni-

ilpa

402

WHIS TL E— WHITES.

niitted, either to secure whiskey, or as the result of drinking it. None
of the Northern tribes have ever manufactured anything at all like
it, but they claim that the gall of the buffalo produces intoxication.

Indians drink as they smoke, — seated in a circle on the ground ;
the bottle or vessel is passed round and round until empty.

The name "fire-water" was probably given from some action
similar to that described by Professor J. D. Butler, who says, —

" In 1683, Perrot having built a fort near the outlet of Lake Pepin,
paid a visit to the Sioux up the great river. He was placed by them
on their car of state, which was a buffalo-robe. He was thus lifted
on high by a score of warriors, not like Sancho Panza tossed in a
blanket, but borne as reverentially as the Pope on his sedia gesta-
toria, or portable throne, into the house of council. There, holding
a bowl of brandy, which the Indians thought to be water, he set it on
fire. He thus made them believe that he could at will burn up their
lakes and rivers. A score of years before — certainly as early as
1665 — he had become a potentate among Pottawattomies near Green
Bay. Perrot was worshipped with clouds of incense from a hundred
calumets, because he brought iron, — especially in the shape of guns
and tomahawks. The farther west he went the more unheard of his
iron and powder, and the more they proved him a God."

Whistle. Hold right hand, back to right, in front of mouth,
index finger extended and pointing upwards and to front, other
fingers closed ; move the hand briskly a few inches in the direction
of index several times.

Indians make whistles out c*" "ihe wing-bones of eagles, hawks,
geese, and some other birds, the eagle's wing being the most highly
prized. These large bones from the wings are cut off at the end,
and a small orifice made near the end like a boy's whistle, i)roducing,
when skilfully played upon, a sound exactly like that made by the
bird itself; usually, as in the case-of the turkey, like the plaintive
note of the turkey.

They wear them, attached to a string, around the neck, and use
them for various purposes. In dances, in courting a girl, — i.e., mak-
ing a signal for a meeting, — in battle, particularly in making a charge ;
and when small parties are scouting, to give the alarm whether their
game be of the human family or the brute creation ; but whenever
used these sounds convey a meaning, easily and quijkly understood,
from a love-note to the shrill cry of war. With small scouting-
parties they are particularly useful in giving a warning.

Deaf-mutes imitate the motion with the lips.

Whites. Conception : Hat or cap. Hold right hand, back up
and to right, in front of, close to, and a little to left of face, index
finger extended pointing to left, others and thumb closed ; draw the
hand to right, index finger passing horizontally in front, close to,
and opposite eyes.

Some tribes nearly close the hand in drawing it from left to right ;
and I have also seen the hat represented with spread thumbs and
index fingers of both hands. Some Indians call the whites "knife

WHITE MAN— WICHITA.

403

r it. None
r at all like
oxicalion.
le ground ;

ome action
.ays, —
Lake Fepin,
:ed by them
s thns lifted
tossed in a
sedia gesta-
lere, holding
, he set it on
)urn up their
yr as early as
s near Green
im a hundred
,hape of guns
nheard of his

i."

nt of mouth,

front, other

the direction

agles, hawks,
e most highly
ff at the end,
e, producing,
made by the
I the plaintive

neck, and use
rl,_;.^.,mak-

Ling a charge;
I whether their

but whenever
ly understood,
Inall scouting-

land, back up
tf face, index
fed ; draw the
[ont, close to,

left to right ;
thumbs and
whites "knife

men," and make signs accordingly ; some call the Americans, in con-
tradistinction to the British, " Long Knives." The Sioux call the
whites vocally by a name which they claim meant God before the
missionaries came among them.

The general sign means "the people with hats or caps," and
includes all those who are not indigenous to the soil ; and picto-
graphically this was the manner of distinguishing them from the
nat;ves.

Deaf-mutes make the sign for White People, usually distinguish-
ing the nationality, as Spaniard or Mexican, English, etc.

White Man. Make sign for Whites and Man.

Why. Make the sign for Interrogate, but turn the hand more
slowly.

Deaf-mut< s hold right hand, back out, in front of face; move the
hand dowr. wards and outwards, and assume an inquiring expression
of countenance.

Wichita (Indian). Conception : Tattooed rings. Hold right hand,
back outwards and to left, in front and to right of lower part of fiice,
index finger extended and pointing towards face, other fingeis and
thumb closed ; by wrist action swing hand so that tip of index will
describe a curve, the diameter of which shall be about six inches.
The hand is held loosely at wrist.

After a careful study of the subject Mr. Dunbar classes this tribe
as a member of the Pawnee family, but admits that others differ with
him in this opinion, saying that " Catlin, who visited them in 1833,
is very emphatic in denying any relationship between them and the
Pawnees, claiming that in stock, language, and customs they are
altogether different. Gallatin mentions them as presumed, from
similarity of name (Pawnee Picts), to be related to the Pawnees.
Their first settlement was near the eastern extremity of the Wichita
Mountains, longitude 99' 20', latitude 34° 50'. Before 1805 they
had for some reason moved southeast to the Red River. In 1850
they were upon the head-waters of Rush Creek, a tributary of the
False Wichita."

Mr. Dunbar also includes in this family the Caddos, Wacos, Kee-
chers, and Ta-wa-conies. (See Caddo and Pawnee.)

The Wichita women formerly, in summer, usually wore only a
short bark skirt about the loins, no waist. They painted or tattooed
the face and rings around the breasts, and from this custom sprang
the tribal sign. There is no evidence that the men tattooed any part
or portion of their face or body.

Their permanent village lodge was made in a conical shape similar
to the skin tepee, but larger, and thatched with willows and grass.
On this account some tribes called them "the people of the dark
lodge." In the fall, after they had harvested their corn, etc., they
abandoned their thatched lodges and went out for their annual hunt
after buffalo, and did not return until mid-winter. Their corn,
beans, dried pumpkins, and personal effects were "cached" in huge
cistern-like holes, and so much care was exercised in concealing the

404

WICKEY-UP.

locations of these " caches" that no one ever thought of looking for
them.

It has only been five years (1877) since quite a successful buffalo-
hunt was made by these Indians from the vicinity of their present
agency on the Wichita River, Indian Territory.

At present many of them wear citizen's dress, crop the hair squarely
off round the neck, and have no scalp-lock. They possess quite a
number of wagons, and have partially adopted the forms of worship
of the Christian religion. They gather together at their little church
on Saturday evening, bringing food and tentage, and many remain
until Monday morning, though the less enthusiastic leave on Sunday
afternoon. With their singing, preaching, and praying they mix a
great deal of feasting. About Christmas time they have a sort of
"camp-meeting" service, which lasts about a week. In personal
appearance they are rather inferior, dark complexion, stout, and
short in stature. They are conversant with the sign language.

The agent, in his report for 1880, gives the population of the
Wichitas as one hundred and ninety-eight.

Wickey-Up. Hold the hands several inches apart in front of
body, index finger extended, others and tiiumb closed ; raise tlie
hands on curve, bringing them sufficiently near to lap the index
fingers, inner surface of left to second joint placed on back of right,
backs of index fingers up; then from this position change the hands,
back up, edges pointing about to front, fingers partially separated
and sligiitly curved, index fingers near each other; move the right
hand to right and downwards on curve.

I suppose the word came from the wicker-work-like appearance of
the willow or brush frame-work over which Indians throw pieces of
canvas or cloth when out on the war-path and camp for the night,
or for a short time only. Willows are cut and trimmed ; the larger
ends are sharpened and stuck in the ground, and then bent down
into the shape desired, and the smaller ends fastened together. The
manner of making and the shape may disclose the tribe. The
Cheyennes, Sioux, and some others first put in two rows three or
four feet apart, the length of the rows being determined by the num-
ber who are to occupy the little house, the space between the willows
being about three feet. The tops of the willows are bent over
and twisted together, making an oval-shaped roof, at the highest
point about three feet from the ground ; then canvas or cloth of
some kind is fastened over the top and brought down to the ground
at the ends and on one side, the other side being left open. The
Crow Indians make their war-houses, as they are sometimes called,
nearly circular in shape, and sometimes large enough to have a fire
in the centre if necessary, and they all sleep with their feet towards
the fire. These Indians also used very frequently (as they all do
more or less) quite large logs to make these war-houses, for protec-
tion in case their camp should be fired into at night. Of course
the little wicker-work house is not proof that tne Indians are on the
war-path ; it shows only that a camp was made by moving Indians.

WIFE— WIN.

405

looking for

sful biiffjlo-
leir present

lair squarely
sess quite a
5 of worship
little church
nany remain
e on Sunday
T they mix a
ye a sort of
In personal
I, stout, and
iguage.
lation of the

in front of
;d ; raise the
ap the index
)ack of right,
ge the hands,
illy separated
ove the right

appearance of
row ])iece3 of
for the night,
1 ; the larger
[n bent down
igether. The
tribe. The
rows three or
by the num-
n the willows
[re bent over
the highest
^ or cloth of
|o the ground
open. The
[times called,
;o have a fire
feet towards
they all do
. for protec-
Of course
ns are on the
ing Indians.

Indians take every y)recautinn against ^^vcc^rx^t except keeping awake.
Their arms are placed within reach, usually near the hea(i of tlio
bed, and everytl* \g is as carefully arranged as though they fully ex-
pected to be (as the frontier word has it) " jumped" before daylight ;
but they do not keep sentries posted to give warning of the approach
of an enemy. (See Camp.)

Wife. Make sign for Female and Marry.

The Blackfeet, Flatheads, and some other tribes make sign for Sit
by the right side, bringing right hand down from near shoulder, in-
stead of Unite or Marry. (The wife is the woman who sits by the
right side.)

Deaf-mutes make sign for WvOman and Marry.

The conception of the lilackfoot sign indicates a higher order or
better tone than the other; but unfortunately, they do not hold their
wives as sacredly even as some of the other tribes. The Jesuits have
nearly eradicated polygamy from the Flatheads, Pend d'Oreilles,
Koutenays, and many other tribes west of the Rocky Mountain
range, but the Plains Indians and others still i)ractise it. I once said
to an Indian, in reply to his question why I was not married, " I
have no wife, and therefore am at liberty to travel about, go to war,
etc., at my pleasure, and, as a consequence, can, as a chief, rise
more easily,"- -illustrating this by the index finger of my right hand,
raising it slowly and showing that nothing pulled it down. He
cleverly said that this was wrong, a mistake. He had two wives,
and they formed a support on each side of the index and helped to
raise it.

I think there are more female children born to Indians than males,
and when the number of young warriors killed in their tribal wars
is considered, it will readily be seen that the number of females must
be greatly in excess of the males; and polygamy, therefore, is a
necessity with barbarism.

Wild. Make sign for By Itself, and then bring the slightly-com-
pressed right hand well in front of body, about height of shoulders,
back of hand nearly outwards, forearm about horizontal, hand bent
at wrist and knuckles, so that fingers point downwards. This is the
sign frequently made to denote a group or " bunch" of animals, and
these gestures would seem to indicate a group of animals unfettered
by any surrounding influences; entirely by themselves. I have also
seen the sign for Look made to the rear of body, and then the sign
for Go made sharply. (A look and they run away.)

Deaf-mutes raise the hands with a wavy motion in front of and
higher than shoulder, fingers extended, separated, and pointing up
wards, and assume an astonished, wild expression of countenance.

Win. Make sign for Kill ; usually represent in what way. A
person wins twenty dollars from another, — the person "kills" the
other for that amount.

Deaf-mutes sometimes make their signs for Money, Laid Down, and
Get Victory, or sign for Overcome. For Victory, the right is
raised in front of body with a wavy circular motion. For Overcome,

4o6

WINCHES TER RIFL E— WING.

the hands are brought in front of body, back of right to right, left
to left, hands closed, with exception of thumbs, wh'ch are extended
and pointing upwards, tlie right hand is a few inches in rear of left
and a little higher (perhaps an inch) ; by wrist action turn the hands
simultaneously, so that thumbs point to front, moving right hand a
trifle to front as though it had forced the left over.

Tiiis metaj)horic icliom is much used, as Indians are constantly
gambling ; and the same expression is also used in regard to winning
a girl's affection. (See Phrases.)

Winchester Rifle. Conception : Putting cartridge in chamber
of piece. Make sign for Gun ; then hold extended left hand, back
to left, in front of left breast, fingers pointing to front, back of
thumb height of side of index, and side of thumb pressed against
side of index. Make th.nsting motion with extended index of right
hand, other fingers and thumb closed, from rear to front alongside
of palmar surface of thumb, as though putting cartridge in chamber
of gun.

Wind. Hold hands, backs up, near body about height of shoul-
ders, hand= samp height and nearly in the same horizontal plane,
fingers extended, slightly separated, and pointing in the direction the
hands are moved (which is the direction the wind is supposed to
blow), hands few inches apart ; move the hands outwards with a
wavy, tremulous motion. For wind blowing towards one, execute a
similar movement towards body ; the movement is sometimes accom-
panied with a blowing of the breath.

Deaf-mutes make a waving motion of hands in front of body.

Some tribes believe that wind is caused by the movement of
immense ea.s of a huge animal in the mountains, called at tin
black-tailed deer.

The Bannacks and Snakes say their God, "the Wolf," causes it ;
the Cheyennes claim that the old woman in the cave who gave them
tiie seeds, tobacco, etc., makes it. A Mandan chief said to me,
" Long ago a war-party of Mandans started out after their enemies,
two of them got separated from the rest, and came across a monster
on the prairie. It looked something like a huge turtle, but contracted
and enlarged like a pair of monster bellows. Qne of them said
they ought not to touch it, that it would bring them bad luck ; that
disaster would overtake them if they molested it ; but the other said
he did not care, he was going to shoot an arrow into it any way ; he
did not care what the consequences might be ; and, suiting the ac-
tion to the word, he fired. The arrow half buried itself, and they
both went to pull it out, when a great gust of wind, like an explo-
sion, blew them high in the air and far out to sea. They landed on
an island, and, when nearly starving, the huge animal, which so much
resembled a turtle, appeared, told them to get on its back and he
would take them to the shore. This animal causes, since the arrow
was fired into it, the hurricane and strong winds. Before this time
there were only mild and gentle breezes." ■•:■■'■, -

Wing. Hold the left forearm in front of left breast, pointing to

WISE— WOMAN.

407

) right, left
•e extended
rear of left
n the hands
ight hand a

; constantly
1 to winning

in chamber
hand, back
mt, back of
ssed against
ulex of right
nt alongside
; in chamber

j\\t of shoul-
sontal plane,
direction the
supposed to
wards with a
me, execute a
jtimes accom-

of body,
ement of
id at tin

causes it ;
-10 gave them
said to me,
leir enemies,
OSS a monster
lut contracted
of them said
id luck ; that
he other said
any way ; he
iting the ac-
If, and they
ke an explo-
ey landed on
hich so much
back and he
ce the arrow
lore this time

, pointing to

front and right; pass the extendeil right hand from shoulder down,
over and little to left of arm, wrist passing over arm and close to it,
back of hand up, fingers pointing to left.

Deaf-mutes imitate motion of wings, then place right hand near
anc^ tf^ left of left shoulder.

Winter. Hold closed hands in dont of body, forearms about
vertical, hands several inches apart ; give a shivering, tremulous mo-
tion to hands. Sometimes, and particularly with Northern Indians,
the sign for Snow is also made.

Years, as I have remarked, are called winters by the Indians.

Deaf-mutes make sign for Cold and denote three months.

Wiped Out. See F^xterminate.

Wise. Make sign for Heart ; touch forehead, and make sign for
Good. (Heart and head both good.)

Deaf-mutes place the back of curved index against centre of fore-
head, other fingers and thumb closed ; move the index up and down
few times.

With. Hold extended left hand, back to left, in front of body,
fingers pointing to front; bring side of extended right index hori-
zontally against centre of left palm, other fingers and thumb closed,
index pointing to front. Frequently the thumb is not closed.

Deaf-mutes bring the closed hands together in front of body, balls
of thumbs resting on second joints of index fingers, and sides of
thumbs touching, hands touching at exposed pa.aiar surface and
backs of fingers between first and second joints.

Wolf. Hold the right hand, palm out, near right shoulder, first
and second fingers extended, separated, and pointing upwards, others
and thumb closed ; move the hand several inches to front and slightly
upwards, turning hand a little, so that extended fingers point to front
and upwards. Sometimes both hands are used, left being similarly
fixed to right and held opposite left shoulder.

Some tribes not thoroughly conversant with the gesture language
make signs for Gray, size of animal, large tail, and long, sharp
nose.

Woman. Make sign for Female and indicate height. I have also
seen among the Chippewas the hands swept about the body near the
ankles to denote skirts of the dress.

Deaf-mutes use the same signs.

Even among tribes that are thoroughly conversant with gesture
speech the women, as a rule, only possess a limited knowledge of it ;
the exceptions being v/ith such as the Arapahoes and Cheyennes, where
for years intimate relations and daily intercourse between the tribes
have been kept up, both languages being difficult to acquire and each
tribe preserving its own. In savagery and barbarism women are
merely beasts of burden, prized and valued for their skill in fancy or
capacity for heavy work, rather than for any beauty of face or figure.
The men are fond of and will fight for them, but their affection is
something of the character of the love which a wild beast has for its
young. A life of filth, drudgery, and exposure, sustained by the

^08

WONDERFUL— WORK.

coarsest of food, s nnf conducive to female perfection of form and
feature. The beautiful Indian maiden is io ra''C tliat one might be
justified in callinj,' her a myth, but the hideously repulsive old hags
of an Indian village are sad and wretched realities, and yet, judging
from ajjpearances, their lives are not unhappy ones. They expect
and anticipate the burdens of life, are bred and reared to them, and
no vain and hopeless longings and yearnings poison and embitter the
hard duties of their daily life. Though not, as a rule, permuted tc be
present at ihe councils, and not allowed to join the men in the more
imijortant feasts, they exercise a great influence over the warriors.
Their shrill, metallic-voicjd songs of encouri\gement urge on the de-
parting war-party to greater exertions, to braver deeds, and the same
shrill voices give them j^raise and welcome on their return, and
should any have fallen, for days their weird wild chanting fills the
air o{ the camp with the great deeds of those who have been slain,
and this honor is dearly prized by the savage heart. In this and
many other ways they shape and control the public feeling and
opinion of the camp, and this is the greatest force which controls
the destiny of all Indian tribes. (See Female.)

Wonderful. Make sign for Medicine.

Deaf-mutes make a s'gn like that they make for New.

Woodpecker. Make sign for Bird ; then hold left forearm about
vertical, in front of left shoulder, left hand extended, back to left ;
bring partially-compressed right hand, and place palm against left
forearm on right side near elbow, fingers pointing upwards (direction
of forearm) ; move the hand with a jerk or jump to left side of fore-
arm, and little higher up, then again to right side, imitating the pe-
culiar manner of hopping on the surface of a tree of this bird ; then
lower the left hand, and tap the palm several times with the tip of
curved index of right hand, others and thumb closed.

The first time I saw this sign made was in a conversation with an
Indian who claimed to be a medicine-man of high degree, and
he informed me he had learned a wonderful remedy for a special
disease from the whisperings of this bird at night. His gestures
were graceful, and the peculiar habit of the bird so clearly imitated
that I recognized and understood the sign instantly.

Deaf-mutes indicate in the same manner.

Work. Bring extended hands in front of body, fingers pointing
to front, back of right hand to right, left lo left, hands few inches
apart, right hand a little higher and slightly in rear of left, so that
tips of right fingers are about opposite left wrist; lower hands by
wrist action, so that fingers point downwards and to front j raise
them in same way, carrying right hand a trifle to front, then as hands
are raised carry them a little to right, reversing position of hands;
/.c, right in front ; lower anc^ raise as before, and carry tc first posi-
tion, repeating motion.

This sign is used very often in the sense of make and 'cvork, and
frc:iuently in such sentences as " I will try and fix it for you," " We
are farming," " Will go to my people and work hard lor them,"

form and
might be
old hags
t, judging
ley expect
them, and
ibitter the
.ted tc be
I the more
; warriors,
on the de-
li the same
»turn, and
iig fills the
been slain,
1 this and
eeling and
;h controls

earm about

ack to left ;

against left

s (direction

ide of fore-

|ting the pe-

bird ; then

Ih the tip of

lion with an
Icgree, and
ir a special
;is gestures
■ly imitated

WOUND— WRITE.

409

"With them," "For peace." (Rather more in the sense of ivork
than make.)

I saw a Piegan Indian simply push his hands downwards, closing
and opening them as though clutching at something ; and i luve also
seen others give a more tremulous motion to hands. Th'^se gestures
are not common.

A Sioux who was not very proficient in sign language saivi, when I
asked him the gesture for work, that he would make signs for
" coming to agency ; white man talks to me ; tells me to chop wood ;
move about," etc.

Deaf-mutes make motion with hands to right and left as though
rapidly bringing the keys for business. They ciost the hands and
cross the wrists, backs of hands up; striking back of left with right
hand tv;o or three times.

Wound. Hold right hand well out in front of body, \. dex finger
extended and pointing towards body, other fingers and thumb closed,
back of hand to left and front ; move the hand briskly towards body,
turning index finger to left or right, ,c. tliut its tip just grazes surface
of body, and moving well to right or left, as though glancing as
finger passes by body.

Deaf-mutes use about the same g*;sture.

Wrap. Bring the slightly-compressed hands, backs about out-
wards, in front of body, backs of fingers of right hand resting against
inner surface of left, index fingers about horizontal \ move the hands
around each other in rotary motion. .

Deaf-mutes use the same gesture.

Wrinkle. Wrinkle the skin of forehead and clasp same with tip
of fingers a.>d thumb.

Deaf-mutes make same sign, and also draw lines on the face with
tip of right index.

Write. Hold extended left hand, back to front and downwards,
in front of body, fingers pointing nearly to right, then, as though
holding pencil between thumb and index of right hand, make motion
of writing on left palm.

Deaf-rcutes use the same sign.

[rs pointing

few inches

left, so that

hands by

Iront ; raise

Ml as hands

of hands ;

first posi-

•iVork, and
lou," "We
lor them,"

J::z.

410

YA. /K70N— YOUNGER.

Yankton, Yanktonais (Sioux Indian), Make sign for Sioux,
then for Pierced Nose, as in Nez Perce.

Tlie above is the gesture made by the Teton Sioux for the Eastern
bands, including the above. Mr. Mark Wells, the Sioux interpreter
at Crow Creek Agency, informed me that, the word Yankton, or
more correctly, I-hanke-ya-ton-won-wa, meant " Farthest Village."
Yanktonais, or more correctly, I-hanke-ya-ton-won-ya, or smallest
of farthest village, or smallest band of Yankton's.

I am not entirely satisfied with this, as the root seems to me similar
to that of Uncapapa, and though not positive, yet I think I once
saw the sign made for this band similar to that for U!:capapa. (See
Sioux.)

Year. Make sign for Winter. For this year, add sign for Now.
Many Indians use the expression as we do, but it is better to denote
the time by the season of the year.

Deaf-mutes hold extended left hand, back down, in front of left
breast, fingers pointing to front; hold the closed right hand two or
three inches over left palm, back of hand about to right ; move the
right hand on a small horizontal circle, and then rest same on left
palm.

Yes. Conception : Bowing the head and body. Hold right hand,
back to right, in front of right breast, height of shoulder, index
finger extended and pointing upwards, other fingers nearly closed,
thumb resting on side of second finger; move the hand slightly to
left and a little downwards, at same time closing index over thumb.

The index finger represents a person standing, and the bending of
the body and head in assent. (See How.) , • , , .

Deaf-mutes incline the head to the front-.

Yesterday. Make sign for Night, then, still holding left hand in
position, sweep the right upwards and to right on curve, bringing it
down to same height as left hand, during movement turning back of
hand down.

There are two conceptions for the sign, viz., the night laid aside,
and beyond the night, the latter probably being the best.

Deaf-mutes make sign for Day and Ago; latter by throwing right
hand over right shoulder.

Younger. Make signs for Parturition and After.

for Sioux,

the Eastern
: interpreter
y^ankton, or
St Village."
or smallest

me similar
;hink I once
\PAPA. (See

ign for Now.
er to denote

1 front of left
hand two or

It ; move the
same on left

right hand,
)ulder, index
learly closed,
slightly to
jver thumb,
le bending of

left hand in

, bringing it

[•ning back of

\jit laid aside,

APPENDIX.

krowm

g rigl^f

SIGNALS — PHRASES— PROPER NAMES — INDIAN NAMES OF
STREAMS AND MOUNTAINS WHICH HAVE NOT BEEN PRE-
SERVED ON MAPS, ETC.

SIGNALS.

The signs or signals made by the Indians to communicate infor-
mation over great distances with Pony, Blanket, Mirror, Smoke,
Fire, Arrows, Flint, Steel, etc., although showing a crafty shrewd-
ness and quick perception, yet fall far short of the supernatural
powers of communication which some people accredit ihem with.

With a Pony. Considered separately, we have first the pony ;
used to attract attention, denote danger, indicate presence of enemy,
game, etc. ; and yet there is but one general well-defined signal,
which is by riding in a small circle, or backwards and forwards.
With some, the size of the circle or the distance ridden, up and
down behind the crest of a hill, determine the si of the party or
the quantity of game seen. This attracts attent. n, givis warning,
and is intended to concentrate or scatter the party. If a hunting-
party is out and one of the number discovers game, this signal is
used ; or if one of a scouting-party discovers the enemy. Indians
can usually tell whether it is intended to give information and warn-
ing of their foes or of game by the care taken by the rider to con-
ceal the movements of his pony and himself, as well as the circum-
stances of the particular case. If nothing is discovered, the Indian
in advance rides up on the crest of the eminence, and usually dis-
mounts, but the riding on top in full view is sufficient. The rapidity
of riding backboards and fonvards, or in a circle, determines the
imi)ortance and necessity for imniediate concentration. Very fast
would call for desperate exertions and violent efforts to reach the
rider as soon as possible. Should the Indian in a(^vance, after riding
rapidly in the circle, suddenly secrete himself, those with whom he
is communicating will do the same. The enemy is close at hand and
too numerous for them to aitack.

Indians notice every moving object. Ages of transmitted power

412

APPENDIX.

have given them a wonderful keenness of vision. I have seen large
numbers of Indians scattered out over the country, only one now
and then being visible as he rode on some eminence, when suddenly
this signal would be made, and they would come pouring in from
every direction, as much commotion among them as in a disturbed
ant-hill, and the cause of alarm communicated, apparently, as mys-
teriously as these little creatures give the alarm to their fellows, and
call for help when molested. Before the Indians had ponies, corre-
sponding movements were made by the men on foot, — i.e., running
in circle, appearing on the crest of bluff's, running in zigzag way
down side of same, if they discovered an ene'my; in sho', attracting
attention and giving information in about the same way. The return
of a successful war-party is announced by some one of the party
riding on in advance, and riding furiously up and down the crest of
some bluff near camp.

With a Blanket. To attract attention, question, interrogate, to
ask the reason for anything, etc.

Grasp thi- corners of the blanket with right and left hands, so as
to spread blanket to full size ; extend and spread arms, held nearly
vertical, to full length. This might be called the first motion. Swing
the arms two or three times to left and right, keeping blanket in
same vertical plane, hands describing a vertical curve. The full
surface of the blanket is thus presented, and can be seen a long dis-
tance. The blanket is of course held in front of body. In swinging
blanket to left, the left hand goes nearly to the ground, and then,
as it is swung back, the right goes nearly down, and so on.

If either before, during, or after a battle, engagement, or skir-
mish, etc., it is desired to call for a cessation of hostilities for any
purpose whatever, make sign for question, etc., described aoove (first
position), then bending forwards, bring the blanket near the ground,
repeat this, and second time lay the'blanket on the ground by open-
ing the hands as they come near it. This leaves the blanket about
spread out on the ground, and expresses the idea of a weaker party,
having had enough, and for any party of laying down hostilities ;
calls, in fact, for an armistice.

To request all of a party to come in or to approach. Make sign
for Question; then, by bending body forwards, bring blanket near
ground ; repeat this ; then lower extended arms till horizontal from
shoulders, and bring the hands together in front of body, keeping
arms about horizontal ; then hold one corner of blanket with right
hand, arm extended, and pointing to front and horizontal from
shoulder ; sweep the right arm to left and in towards body. This
!atter means come or approach.

To request only one of a number to approach. Make sign for
Question, and, by bending forward, bring blanket near grcund :
repeat this; then hold blanket by one corner with right hand, held
high in front of body ; compress blanket with left hand as it rests
in this vertical position by grasping it near centre, then make sign
for Coftvs or Approach as described above.

APPENDIX.

413

seen large

one now
I suddenly
g in from

distviibed
y, as niys-
;Uo\vs, and
nies, corre-
f., running
sigzag way
.attracting
The return
f the party
the crest of

errogate, to

hands, so as
held nearly
tion. Swing
• blanket in
;. The full
n a long dis-
In swinging
:i, and then,
yn.
nt, or skir-
ties for any
auove (first
the ground,
nd by open-
anke't about
eaker party,
hostilities ;

Make sign
blanket near
izontal from
dy, keeping
;t with right
zontal from

ody. This

ce sign
lear grc

for
und :

hand, held
as it rests
In make sign

Discovery of a party. Grasp one corner of blanket with right
hand, arm extended pointing to front and horizontal from shoulder;
hold the other corner with left hand at right shoulder ; move the
right arm horizontally to right and left. The Comanches formerly
swung a shield, instead of a blanket, if they discovered an enemy
instead of game.

A great many. Hold blanket as in Question, and then sweep-
ing hands downwards, then slightly upwards, and bringing them
together in front of body.

To indicate a herd of buffalo. Spread the blanket on the ground,
bringing it down so that the action can be seen at a distance, therx
with hands or feet raise a dust near the robe or blanket.

To ask how many have been killed. Make sign for Question ;
then grasp blanket with right hand, arm extended to full length,
held in front of and nearly vertical from shoulder ; then bend the
body forward and swing blanket to front on the ground. In reply
the number killed would be expressed by the number of times the
blanket was swung forward on to the ground.

A person in front of a party ; to direct them to secrete themselves, or
to retreat, would be expressed by grasping the blanket with right
hand at corner, arm extended pointing to front and horizontal from
shoulder ; by holding the other corner with left hand at right shoul-
der, and then swinging the blanket to right and downwards, well
down to the ground, and repeating motion.

To say, Do not approach, or to express any negative. Grasp one cor-
ner of blanket with right hand, other with left ; carry left hand to
right shoulder, and right hand to left of left shoulder ; swing the right
arm nearly horizontally to front and right, terminating movement
when right hand is little to right of body ; repeat motion; being
careful by dropping right hand in bringing blanket to first position,
as if brought directly back ; it might be mistaken for approach.

Information is frequently conveyed, by means of preconcerted sig-
nals, as, suppose an Indian in advance of two parties on an elevation,
where he can be seen by both, to be watching the approach of an
enemy ; one of his parties circles to right, the other to left, both
keeping concealed. At a favorable moment the blanket is raised,
and both parties charge in on the enemy from opposite sides. To-
pography favoring manoeuvres of this kind might be rare. So arc
any orders f ivcu by one Indian to others in battle.

One in cuvance, desiring to have those in rear come forward, would
turn towards the party, grasp blanket with right hand at one corner,
arm horizontal from shoulder ; hold the other corner with left hand
to rigiit shoulder ; sweep right arm to left and in towards body
quickly and repeat motion.

In all of these motions, if blanket is too large to be held, or man-
aged readily, fold it to suitable size.

There are some other signals with a blanket, such as denoting
whether the enemy is afoot or mounted ; but as they are not gener-
ally understood, I have not described them.

««

414

APPENDIX.

Little Bull, chief of the Turtle Mountain or Pembina band of
Chippewas, told me that by swinging a blanket towards the setting
sun from the east the tribes generally knew that this represented
** Chippewas." I could not confirm this, however.

I was told by an Uncapapa Sioux that they used the blanket more
in communicating information in regard to game (buffalo) than any-
thing about their enemies. For an enemy discovered, the Indian
who made the discovery would fall back behind the crest and bow
nearly to the ground, first in one direction, then in another. Indians
of other bands of Sioux did not confirm this.

Should a person not have a blanket, motions of the arms are made
as though holding a blanket. This is not very clear except to tell a
party to approach or go away. For the former, sweep the right arm,
hand back out, from well out in front and to right of body in to-
wards body. For the latter, the hand is held palm out, and swept
out to front and right of body.

With a Mirror. There is not a very extensive code with a mirror.
Its princii)al use is to attract attention, give warning, etc., and the
number of flashes are often determined on, just prior to its use, by
special decision of the participants. Its particular value is the power
to communicate intelligence over great distances in.an instant of
time, provided always that the sun shines.

Thougli there is no special code, yet the mirror is used to impart
information in regard to the pursuits of life which are nearest and
dearest to an Indian heart, namely, love, war, feasting, and hunting.

A young man, armed with a looking-glass, will seat himself on
some little eminence near the camp, where he can see the tepee of
his sweetheart ; she appears at the door of the lodge, the flash of
light from the mirror falls upon her, and then moves to the right or
left. Even if this arrangement has not been preconcerted she divines
the meaning, and is suddenly seized with a desire to go after wood
or water in the direction which the flash indicated, and a meeting is
the result.

To call people to a feast some previous arrangement has to be
made. Sometimes it is understood that the invitation will be issued
in this way, and of course the flashes are looked for, and they are not
particular as to the number. An old Indian illustrated its use by
saying, "Suppose eight or ten of us were seated here smoking and
became hungry. Knowing some one in camp who had plenty to
eat, one of our number would go to the man's lodge and hint that
something be cooked. His suggestion meeting with success, he would
excuse himself for a moment, step outside the tepee, and signal us
to come ; and on the strength of this information we would, one after
another, happen around to the lodge, and of course be invited to
eat when everything was ready."

In hunting, suppose the scout sent on in advance discovered four
bands or herds of buffalo, and then many scattered over the country,
four distinct flashes would be made, and then a fluttering motion
given to the mirror.

1 band of
he setting
epresented

nket more
I than any-
the Indian
t and bow
r. Indians

IS are made
jpt to tell a
; right arm,
body in to-
, and swept

th a mirror.
:tc., and the
3 its use, by
is the power
n instant of

;d to impart
nearest and

and hunting.

It himself on
the tepee of
the flash of
the right or
. she divines
o after wood
a meeting is

It has to be
rill be issued

they are not
ed its use by
Ismoking and
lad plenty to
Ind hint that
less, he would
Ind signal us
lild, one after

be invited to

Icovered four

Ithe country,

[ring motion

APPENDIX.

415

Information in regard to any other game would be commuricated
in a similar manner, and its location to right or left of the advance
scout be made known by turning the flash to the right or left. By
preconcerted arrangement the kind of game would be determined
by the number of flashes.

For war purposes. Suppose the scouts sent on ahead discover a
large number of the enemy close at hand, a continuous, quick, vibra-
tory, tremulous motion is given the mirror; no distinct flashes. The
party in rear scatter and secrete themselves. Should there be dis-
tinct flashes, the party in rear hurry forward, moving to right or left
as the flashes may indicate.

The system to be used is talked over, thoroughly understood, and
agreed upon by the party before the scout or scouts are sent on in
advance.

With Smoke. The remarks in regard to mirror apply with equal
force to smoke. It attracts attention, gives warning, and by {)revious
special arrangement, or the peculiar circumstances of tiie occasion,
may communicate many phases of information ; may request a con-
centration or direct a scattering out; may announce a victory or dis-
close a defeat.

This method of communication is especially valuable in a moun-
tainous country or one covered with forests. As it is sure to attract
attention, it might be well ■> remember that it has in many instances
discovered small and helpless parties of white people to hostile In-
dians.

Quite a common way of announcing the success of a war-party is
to build two fires a short distance from each other, sending up two
parallel columns of smoke (two columns signify good luck). If the
war-party has not been successful they return very quietly, probably
going into the village at night.

Signal smokes are made peculiar in some way, as by suddenly
appearing and as quickly disappearing, — this being a sure way of at-
tracting attention. A small fire is sometimes built of perfectly dry
wood without the bark, making but little smoke ; then some brush,
grais, or evergreens are thrown on, and a blanket is held over the
fire and removed at intervals; this sends up great puffs of smoke.

The Plains Indians use signal smokes in a very limited manner.

Fire-Arrows. These are rarely used at present, and the stories in
regard to them have, I think, been exaggerated.

Any highly inflammable material is fastened to an arrow lig'ited
and discharged into the air. The chief of the Santee Sioux said to
me that they used them mostly to burn bears, raccoons, etc. , out of
hollow trees.

Flint and Steel. Smal' parties creeping up on a camp at night
receive information from the scout in ad van .y- by means of a flint
and steel. The Indian faces his own part" draws his blanket over
his head and arms, and only leaving a sinall open space, by means
of the sparks struck from the flint gi/es information as to the num-
ber of lodges, distance, etc., of the enemy.

4i6

APPENDIX.

Figures or Pictures are made on the ground, on the bark of trees,
on pieces of skin, and these sketches give information as to where a
party has gone, what it has accomplished, as well as its fiiendly or
warlike desires.

For peace a pipe is usually drawn, and people shaking hands repre-
sented ; war, a tomahawk and a broken pipe.

The marks made by the enemy determine whether peace or war is
wished for. ...

PHRASES.

The following phrases show something of the construction of the
language, and present some of the metaphoric idioms' by means of
whicii Indian gesture speech is so enriched as to be able to convey
the expression of difficult ideas. Many of them are noted in the
description of the gestures under the words ; but it seemed best to
group them together here even at the risk of repetition.

I have deemed it necessary to note the deaf-mute manner of
arriving at the expression in but a few instances.

Do as you please, it makes no difference to me. Make sign for
Trail, and indicate, by holding up fingers, that there are two or
more; then hold the left hand, back up, in front of body with as
many fingers extended and separated as there have been trails indi-
cated ; point to person and make sign for Look, the fingers of the
right hand pointing at those of the left, representing the trails;
point to person, then with index and thumb of right hand make
motion of picking up one or more of the fingers; point to person ;
make signs for Think and Good ; sign for Same or Even, and for I.
Literally translated, this would then be. Trails two or more; you
look at them ; take or pick up the one you think good or best ; same
or even to me. The trails are here used in the sense of plans or
courses of action.

Deaf-mutes say. Please yourself ; I do not care. Vor yourself ihty
push the closed right hand towards person, thumb extended, ball
resting on side of index, back of hand to right. For do not care
they touch the forehead with palmar surface of extended and touch-
ing fingers of right hand, and then wave the hand to right and
downwards, turning palm up.

I am free from crime. Raise the extended hands to full length
of arms at each side of head, palms up ; make sign for God, for
Look, holding right hand high above and little in front of head,
left little lover than the position first described, first and second
fingers of ric;ht hand pointing downwards towards left palm. (Some-
times the sign for Look is also made with left hand, fingers pointing
at right palm.) Make sign for Blood, and touch left palm with
lips of right fingers, right palm with tips of left ; then make sign
for No. " God looks at the palms of the hands and sees no blood
on them." This is used mostly in the sense of murder.

Deaf-mutes muKC their signs for Law, Break, and Not

APPENDIX.

417

.rk of trees,
to where a
fiiendly or

lands repre-

ce or war is

ction of the
by means of
le to convey
loted in the
raed best to

manner

[ake sign for
e are two or
body with as
:n trails indi-
ingers of the
ig the trails;
It hand make
ht to person ;
[en, and for I.
ir more; you
[or best ; same
,e of plans or

i your self y^^'i
Ixtended, ball
\x do not care
Id and touch-
Ito right and

lo full length
[for God, for
|ont of head,
and second
Llm. (Some-
Igers pointing
Vt palm with
tn make sign
^ees no blood
r.

)T.

To become old. Make signs for Old and for Arrive There.

Deaf-mutes make signs for Old and To Become. For the latter, the
left hand is held, back down, in front of left breast, at height of waist,
fingers pointing to front ; right hand is held, back up, in front of
right breast, fingers pointing to front ; move the left hand to right
and right to left and downwards.

For murder; free-gift (to perform any act gratuitously, without
hoping for or anticipating a reward or payment) ; faint ; accident,
the sign for Bv Itself is used, with the descriptive gesture. In the
first case some one is killed, and the addition seems to convey the
idea that nothing is in view but the killing; everything else is cut
away ; there is no cause, provocation, or justification. In the second,
nothing is in sight but the gift ; ther'' is no anticipation of or look-
ing for any return gift, as is the usual custom among them. In the
third, the conditi^'n of the person is plainly that of death, though he
returns to life. In the fourth, it happened by itself ; there was no
cause or reason for it.

To win in gambling ; to win a woman's affection, the sign for
Kill is used. The person is killed to the extent of tiie amount won
from him ; and to win a girl's affection is also to kill her ; i.e., mean-
ing, I suppose, that all opposition is destroyed.

To keep a camp together ; allow no one to go beyond certain
limits, is to hold or soldier it, and the men appointed for this pur-
pose exercise their authority, even to the killing of those who resist,
if necessary. First dogs will be shot, then ponies, then the men
whipped, and shot if they resist. Tepees are cut up, property
destroyed, to enforce the law or punish a violation of same. The
sign for Hold is made.

Wounded, but not fatally. The sign for Wound is made, and the
sign for Recover.

To expend, trade, or lose a portion and have a remainder left,
the sign for Live or Recover is used ; to denote the amount that
remains, amount that lives, recovers or survives the action.

My people. Make sign for Mv ; then the signs for Men, Women,
and Children; or hold the right index at different heights in front
and to right of body.

To travel through an unknown country is expresses', usually by
making signs for Streams, Bluffs, etc., and Know, No. Indicate
the moving; make sign for Night and Same. To travel through an
unknown country is the same as travelling at night or in the dark.

J am glad to see you. This is variously expressed. The most
common way perhaps is to make signs for I, look at person. Heart,
and Good. Frequently part of the sign for Day is used after making
sign for Heart; and I have also seen in addition to this, for em-
phasis, sign made for Cloud, and then the hands raised or pushed
up. "The clouds rise and disappear when one meets a friend."
After Heart the sign for Light is sometimes made.

I am sad or disappoint-^d. Make sign for I, for Heart, and then
from this position of the right hand, carry it outwards and down-

"^T'lf r'li-H^MiUn^iiiii

ii'

4IS

APPENDIX.

wards as though laying it on the ground. The weight of care or
sorrow presses it down ; the burden is too great to be carried, and
the* heart is laid on the ground.

Is such a person dead or alive? Make sign for Interrogate,
point to person, make sign for Know. Make sign for the individual
:il)out whom the inquiries are being made; for Die and Alive.

What is your name ? Make sign for Interrogate, point to person.
Make sign for Call and for Possession.

To be raised into prominence on another person's merits. Give
the description by proper gestures, then tiie act of being raised into
view; brought into notice. Hold the right, hand in front of body,
height of breast, back to right, index finger extended and pointed
upwards, other fingers and thumb closed. (This represents the person
of merit, through whose power the other is to be elevated to renown.)
Place tlie centre of palmar surface of extended left index on tip of
right, left index pointing to right and upwards, other fingers and
thumb of left hand closed. (This index represents the person brought
into prominence.) Raise the hands. The left index reclines on the
right, and is pushed up.

They paid no attention to your advice and orders ; now they obey
you. This is frequently expressed by saying, they had no ears, or
their ears were small ; now their ears are open. They listen.

To listen is used in the sense of obeying. Aggressive and violent
measures to force persons to obey are frequently called "opening
their ears, making them large, so that they can listen,"

I live here. Make sign for I, for Live, and for Sit. The latter
is frequently used in the sense of this place.

I will remain here three years, in signs, would be, I, Sit, Winter,
and then indicate Three by holding up fingers.

To pay no attention to a person; to ignore, suppress, and in a
certain sense depose, is expressed by saying, that a blanket has been
thrown over the person.

I am old ; my teeth are worn, are bad, and loose, and I suffer
from indigestion on account of these afflictions. Make signs for
I, for Old ; place the palmar surface of fingers of right hand near
ends on front teeth, and move the hand to right and left. Make
sign for Bad ; then take hold of the front teeth with thumb and in-
dex of right hand and shake them ; then hold right hand, back out,
near the teeth, fingers pointing up, extended and separated, and
give a tremulous motion to the hand. Make sign for Eat, for Good,
and No, and Sick, opposite stomach.

Literally translated, " I — old — teeth worn — bad — teeth loose —
eat — good no — sick." This phrase illustrates the fact that frequently
gestures convey many ideas other than those sketched by the signs.
The air-picture is the skeleton merely, but suggests the rounded lines
and rich coloring.

An old Indian usually has his teeth worn. They do not decay,
but wear oflF, and become loose, and this condition is suggested by
speaking of old age. The condition of the teeth again suggests im-

APPENDIX.

419

f care or
ried, and

RROGATE,

ndividual

IVE.

to person.

its. Give
•aised into
t of body,
id pointed
the person
3 renown.)
X on tip of
"mgers and
,()n brought
ines on the

V they obey
no ears, or
sten.

and violent
d " opening

The latter

IT, Winter,

!S8, and in a
:t has been

ind I suffer

e signs for
hand near
eft. Make
mb and in-
d, back out,
jarated, and
•, for Good,

leth loose —
It frequently
)y the signs.
)unded lines

not decay,
luggested by
1 suggests im-

perfect mastication, and this indigestion and consequent discomfort
and sickness.

I was made a scout. To be made a scout is to be made a wolf,
and to be sent on in advance to spy out all that keen-eyed and crafty
cunning may learn. The usual way of expressing this is to say tliat
the chiefs met in council and made me a wolf; giving, as a rule,
any special instructions. (See Scout.)

Tou are nothing ; you are a low fellow ; a dog. I scorn, detest,
defy, dare you to do your worst against me, is expressed by pushing
the right hand towards the person vituperated, thumb between index
and second finger.

I knocked him over with a single shot. In this sense it is usual
to use one clap of the hands, as in Volley or Heavy Firing, to
denote the discharge of a gun, and the right hand is swept outwards
to right and downwards from its position, after clapping the hands
sharply together once. These gestures are also used to express the
idea of shooting and hitting the object fired at in a vital part.

Such ex|)ressions as Very poor; hard up; extremely destitute ;
intense physical suffering, are usually expressed by adding the sign
for Brave to the descri])tive gestures.

To obey orders; accept and follow advice given, is frequently
expressed by saying that the road or trail made for them was picked
up and held on to ; using here for hold on to the second described
sign for Remember.

To express the idea of riding rapidly and continuously a long
distance. Make the sign for Gallop, but move the hands slowly to
front, and at same time give them a tremulous motion similar to that
in Wind; sometimes adding Sleep and No. This corresponds to
our metaphor of " Riding on liie wings of the wind."

To induce a girl to elope is to steal her ; and to picture the pre-
liminaries necessary to effect this, after making sign for the Girl or
Female, hold the left hand, back to left, in front of body, index
finger extended and pointing ujjwards (to represent the girl) ; then
make sign for Little Talk, holding right hand near left, and snap-
ping the thumb and index at tip of left index. Make sign for By
AND By, and again holdmg left index as at first, make sign for Kill
towards it ; then make sign for Night and Steal. This rejjresents
the girl or female as standing ; hence she has stopped to listen.
After a time the words spoken to her take effect ; in fact, kill her
mentally and physically ; all opposition dies. The maiden perishes,
the woman appears. In defiance of custom, public opinion, and
scorning fear of punishment, she, when, as they say, "darkness like
two huge blankets spreads over the earth," goes with her lover; and,
as he has made no presents for the valuable animal he has secured,
he is said to have stolen her.

To be near death and recover. Make first part of sign for Die ;
but just as right index or hand is about to pass under left stop it ; draw
it back a little, and from its then position make sign for Recover.

To ride against anything and be thrown off. Indicate riding on

420

APPENDIX.

horsel)ack, and make sign for gait at which riding ; then hold left
hand, back out, well in front of body, fingers touching and pointing
to right ; carry riglit hand briskly outwards, and strike left palm
sharply vvith backs of fingers of right hand ; then sweep the right
hand outwards, upwards, and slightly to right and downwards, turn-
ing palm up, terminating movement when right hand is a little lower
than left.

He reached here yesterday, came into my lodge, sat down, and
I told him to tell me the truth. Make signs for or point to person,
for Arrivk Here, for Yesterday, for My, Tepee, Sit, for I, Talk,
— making this gesture towards the person or where he has been rep-
resented as sealed, — Talk to me, and True.

Living in a certain part of the country. To illustrate : To indi-
cate the Indians living in the Indian Territory, make sign for River
(Arkansas), Call, Flint, for on other side or Beyond ; then hold
the partially-compressed right hand, fingers separated slightly and
pointing about upwards, well out in front of body (or in the direc-
tion of the country described) and little higher than shoulders; by
wrist action turn the hand slowly two or three times from left to
right or the reverse. The Nortfiern tribes call the Indian Terr-tory
the country beyond Flint River,

To learn to read and write. Make sign for Write, for Look
(fingers pointing towards left palm), sign for By and By, then for
Know or Understand, sometimes rejjeating the sign for Look.
Some tribes simply express Know and Count, as in How Many.

The beautiful and sublime, the grand and gloomy, the destructive
and revivifying forces of nature, are in constant use by the Indians
to express their emotions and thoughts.

A large village is a forest of tepee-poles.

A multitude, the people are compared to the blades of grass on
the prairie.

A charge is like the rush of a tornado, or the fierce onslaught of a
mighty flood sweeping all before it.

A braggart talks fire ; his mouth is brave, his heart a coward.

Men are frequently compared to animals. The scout is a wolf,
skulking through ravines, seeing without being seen.

Some years ago PeH ('Ip-d called some of the employes about the
agency "long-tailed rats," who got away with the Indian provisions
at nigiit, carrying off the stores to their own nests.

Many of the same metaphors are used by all the tribes I have
come in contact with, though life at an agency, or being thrown in
contact with the white race, seems to quench the eloquence as well
as many other of the best qualities of the Indians.

The two following phrases are very similarly expressed in gestures,
and I have at times had difficulty in securing an instantaneous recog-
nition of the difference when used by themselves. In any conver-
sation which naturally led up to the question, of course there would
be no trouble.

Where were you born? Make sign for Interrogate, point to

APPENDIX.

421

hold left
pointing
eft palm
the right
-ds, turn-
Ltle lower

own, and

person,
I, Talk,

been rep-

: To indi-
for River
then hold
ightly and
the direc-
Lilders; by
om left to
II Territory

:, for Look

5y, then for

for Look.

1 Many.
destructive

le Indians

of grass on

[aught of a

oward.
is a wolf,

:s about the
provisions

ibes I have
thrown in
nee as well

lin gestures,
^eous recog-
bny conver-
there would

Ie, point to

person, make sign for Parturition and for Where. Tiie latter
gesture should be made distinc tly, and the index finger brought de-
liberately down at several differtnt points in front of body.

Where are your children? Make sign for Interrocjate, point to
person, sometimes sign for Possession (see Mv or Minej, for Par-
turition (sometimes repeating this gesture), and for Where. I have
sometimes seen after gesture for Where sign for Sit, at others for
Live.

To freeze any part of the body. Make sign for Cold and for
Kill; the latter gesture made towards the afflicted member or part
of body; the cold kills the part.

PROPHR NAMES.

The following projjcr names are some of them interesting on ac-
count of their peodiar formation, some are difficult to express in
gestures, and others give a correct interpretation to the Indian word,
something that has not been done in the vocal and written trans-
lations.

Where the tribe is not well known, or where it is desirable to par-
ticularize, the tribal sign is first made, then the sign for Call, and
then the gesture or gestures for the name. Should the man be a
chief, that follows immediately after the tribal sign. To illustrate,
take the following: I, to-day, shook hands with lllack Eagle, chief
of the Pawnees; in gestures: I, Now, Shake Hands, Pawnee
Chief, Call, Eagle, Black.

I give the names as they are usually interpreted, some as I re-
member them, some that I have copied from a printed list of the
names of the Indians at one of our agencies, and others from some
'. lu muster-rolls of enlisted scouts. Some of the tribes seem to revel
in smutty personal names, and particularly is this the case with the
Shoshones, though at every agency, I think, there are many names
which civilized taste will not permit to be used in printed or vocal
form. Some of the names in my list I found could not be expressed
in accordance with the translation. I made some little investigation,
and, as far as I went, found that it was equally impossible to express
them in the vocal language of the Indians. In ordinary conversation
the personal names are usually very much abbreviated, only enough
given to clearly mark or distinguisi-; the person.

American Horse. Make sign for Horse and sign for Whiies.
I have also seen the signs for a big pony or horse made to denote this
name ; a big i)ony being an American horse.

Whistling Elk. Make sign for Elk, and then sign for Whistle,
or a snorting, whistling sound.

End-of-the-Woods. Make sign for Tree, separating hands well, to
denote the trees or forest or woods, then make sign for Finished.

Running Horse. Make sign for Horse and for Fast, or for Race,
repeating this to show that the horse has been ri!n, thougli this
would more properly be translated Race-horse.

•

422

APPENDIX.

I liave also seen for this the sign for Gallop, moving tlie hand
sharply and quickly.

Spotted Weasel. Make gestures to denote a small whiti- animal
with black tip to tail, and then make sign for Spotted.

Bad-Wild-Horse. Make signs for Horse, for Bad, and for By

TtSELI'.

Count-Coup-One-by-One. Make signs for Count-Coup, for After,
then ("ouN.'-Coup again, repeating this once or twice.

Qog-Walks-on-the-Ground. Make signs for Do<;, for Walk, and
I)oint to ground. If not in the open air, some dirt or dust would
be pici:ed uj), or tlie sign made for Dirt or Dust.

Spotted Tail. Make signs for Tail and Spotted.

Crazy Horse. Make signs for Possession, for Morse, and for
Crazv. Tiiis gives a correct interpretation as I understand the
vocal wonl in the Sioux language. It should not be Crazy Horse,
but IlisHorsr is- Crazy.

Man-Afraid-of-his-Horses. Make signs for Possession, for Horse,
and Ai'RAIu.

The remarks made about Crazy Horse apply with etpial force
here. The man is not afraid, but his horses are afraid of him.

The fertile brain of some interpreter has also given us " Young-
Man- Afraidof-his-Horses." The old man was at one time chief of
the Ogalalla Sioux, I think, just before Red Cloud became their
famous chief, and he gave his own name to his son, it being simply,
" His-Horses-are-Afraid," or " His-Horse-is-Afraid."

Little Warrior. Make signs for War, To Co To, for Man, and
then for Little. Either one of three, according to the idea de-
sired to be represented ; i.e.. Short, LrriLE, or Small.

No Neck. Touch neck and then make sign for No or Wiped

')UT.

I have seen both used, one aboiit'as much as the other.

Thundering Eagle. Make signs for ICAuLiiand Thunder. I know
of no way to r',present liiunderi'ig.

The-Horse-comes-Last. Make sign for Horse ; then bring right
hand from well out in front towards body, fingers extended, sepa-
rated, and pointing towards body and upward. This represents
animal coming ; then make sign for Hehind.

Waiting. Usually sign for Sit ; but sometimes for Wait or Hold
On are m;ule.

Touch-the-Gloud. Make sign for Cloud, and then, hoUling ex-
tended left hand, back up, in front of and higiier than head, place
the tip of extended right index against palm. As the tip of index
strikes left pain; the right hind rather i)ushes up left, and this idea
is in the vocal word more of a push than touch the cloud.

Swiil Bear. Make signs for Bear and for Fast. There is no dif-
ference in either the vocal language or gesture speech of Indians, so
far as I know, between the words Swikt and Kasp.

Pretty Lanoe. Make signs for Lance and for CiooD. The lance
might be painted or decorated, and these attributes could be de-

APPENDIX.

423

tlie hand

ic animal

id for By

or After,

Vai.k, and
lust would

K, and for
Tstiuul the
■a%y Horse,

for Horse,

eijual force
f him.

us " Young-
me chief of
ecame their
eing simply,

Man, and

le idea de-

o or VVirED

• EK. I know

bring right
Mided, scpa-
s represents

,\rr or Hold

hoUling ex-
head, place
^ip of index
[nd this idea
Id.

tre is no dif-
Indians, so

The lance
lould be de-

scribed, but the sign for Pretty, Handsome, etc., seems to refer
especially to ))eoi)le.

Sitting Bull. Sometimes th" general sign for Buffalo is niudc,
and then sign for .Sir. As often, however, and more properly, the
sign for Buffalo Bull is made, and tlien sign for Sit.

INDIAN NAMES OF STREAMS AND MOUNTAINS
WHICH HAVE NOT BEEN PRESERVED ON MAPS,
ETC.

Many of the Indian names for streams, mountains, and prominent
bluffs have not Ix-en jircserved on our maj)s, and tnis someti.Mes leads
to serious confusion.

During the Sioux and Cheyenne war of 1876-77 friendly Indian
scouts were sent out to locate the lio;stiles and bring the information
to a large military command locatetl near the Black Hills, Dakota.

Thehostiles iiad only a short time before been south of the V'^ellow-
stone River. The scouts returned and reported that the hostiles had
gone north ; had, in fact, crossed the Missouri River. Subseipient
events proved that the hos'iles liad //^V crossed the Missouri, but had
crossed to the north of the Yellowstone, and tlicse hitherto . .iab!!=>
scouts were crtdited with lying and mischievously bringing in a false
re|)ort with the ieliberate intention of deceiving. .*Vs a matter of
fact the scouts were honest and had faithfully performed their work,
and the mistake grew out of tlie ignorance of the interpreters.

The Indians call the Yellowstone Elk River, hut the majority only
.so name 't as far from its source .as the mouth of i'owder River, and
some only as f;ir as the mouth of the Rosebud. P'rom these points to
its confluence with the Missouri it is called by the same name as
that by which they designate the latt >r stream, viz.. Muddy, or Big
Mudtly. The junction of the Yellowstone an<l Missouri they call the
Forks of the 15ig Muddy. The scouts said the hostiles had crossed
the Big Muddy going north ; and the interpreter, not know ing the
distinction made by the Indians, natinally su[)posed they had gone
north of the Missouri River.

I only give a few of the more [)rominent names tvhich have come
under my personal observation.

Names on Map,
Missouri River.

Milk River.

Yellowsloiie River.

Clarke's Fork (of Yellowstone)

I'rior's Fork (of Yellowstone).

Clear Fork (of I'owder).

Indian Namks.

\\'\<^ River, hut more jiroperly Hi;j
Muilily Rivor. I oiico heard it
called Mi-iiimii River.

Lillle Kiver.

F!k River, as t'x|ilaiiied aliove.

Rotten Hiilfalo 'I'on^'ue.

Arrow River.

l^odge I'olc.

:\ ■

424

APPENDIX.

Names on Map.
Little Missouri River.

Grand River.
Cheyenne River.
White River.
North Platte River.

South Platte River.

Republican River.
Arkansas River.

Cimarron River.
Canadian River.
Washita River.
Mississippi River.

The Rocky Mountain Range.
Big Horn Mountains,

Indian Names.

Thick Timber by Sioux, and Antelope

by Cheyennes.
Ree, or Corn River.
Ciood River.
Smokin}^ Earth River.
Shell River, sometimes Shell on Neck

River.
Greasy, or Fat River. I have also

heard this called Goose River.
Shield River.
P'lint River. The Indian TeiTitory is

called by the Northern Indians the

country beyond Flint River.
Buffalo Bull River.
Red River.
Lodge- Pole River.
I have only heard the Mississippi called

Big River.

MOUNTAINS.

The Backbone of the World.
White Mountains.

It may be said that not more than one-third of the bluffs and
buttes, which are the lanchnarks of the great plains, have retained
their Indian names. Different tribes have, of course, in many in-
stances different names for them, but it is a remarkable fact tiiat they
are in most cases, where known at all, known by the same name.

Aij

lES.

c, and Antelope

Shell on Neck

I have also
e River.

m Toritory is
n Indians the
River.

INDUX,

WITH SYNONYMES.

ssissippi called

)rld.

; bluffs and
ive retained
n many in-
ict that they
le name.

AliANDONKD

divorced,
thrown away,
displaced,
deserted,
forsaken.

Aboard

■siltinf,' down,
oil (op of.

AnORTION

AnovE .'....

AiibKNT

AiiusK

scold.

ill-treat.

upliraid,

def.-ime.

fletract.

Accident

chance.

no reason for.

ACCO.MI'ANY

with,
escort.

Accost

hail.

salute,
interrogate,
question.
Ache

physical pain.'

sick.
Across

on the other's'ide of.
to cross,
(o pass over.
Add

join,
increase,
put to.
Anui.TERY

PAGE
21

Anv ANci:..
move.

21
22
22
22

inarch.
Advance Gi;ard...

scout,
before,
ahead.
Toreinost.
fo l)e in front

Al RAID

shrink from.

cowardly,
suspicion,
temerity,
dread. '
nervous,
fearfid.
Ai-RAii) OK No One.
I)rave.
coura>,'eous.
lion-hearted,
fearless.

After

since,
hy and hy.
I later. ^

AlTERNOON

AOE

ACENCY ..."'.'

AiJENT (Indian).".'."

Agitate ''

Agony ,''

physical pain.

mental sufferinij

'iistress.

/ 'tEAU

Aid

assist.

counsel. .

advice.

help.

PAGB

26
26

28
28

425

42t')

INDLX.

FAGB

Aim, ie 28

poini at.
Aught 28

dismount.
Alikk 28

same.

even.
^LIVE 29

living.

above 'ground.

breathing.

All 29

All Gone 29

wi[)e<l out,

consumed.
Alliance 30

co-oj)eration.

confederacy.

league.

Alone 30

Amatory 30

Ambitious 30

aspire after.

long for.

desire.

crave.

American 31

Among 31

in the midst of.

comm ngle.
Ancestor 31

progenitors.

forefathers.
Angry 31

mad.

ranrcful.

savage.

([uarrelsome.

ill-tempered.

passionate.
Annihilatk 31

destroy.
Annoy 31

disturb.

agitate.

trouble.

Annuities 32

Another 32

Antelope 32

Anxious 32

solicitude.

anxiety,

uneasiness.

Ai'ACIlk 33

ArrAREL 37

dress.

clothing.

PAGB
Al'PEAR 38

come into view.

Apple 38

Approach 38

draw near.

come.

Arapahoe 38

Arickaree 43

Arise 45

start up.

rise.
Arrange... 45

plan.

settle.

adjust.
Arrest 46

seize.
Arrive Here 46

reach here.

rome to a place.

•■eturn.

Arrive There 46

Arrow 46

Arrow-Head 49

Artilleryman 49

Ascend 50

climb.
Ashamed 50

humbled.

abashed.

diffident.

mortified.
Ashes 50

dust.

AsSINAHOINii 50

Astonish 54

surprise.

astound.

awe.
Astray 54

lost.

deceived.

wander.

Astride 55

Attack 55

assault.

storm.

fall upon.

march against.

advance against.

fire at.
Attempt 55

try-
endeavor,
strive.

Attention 55

Aunt 55

INDEX.

427

PAGB
38

38
38

■ 43
. 45

. 45

.. 46
.. 46

,.. 46

... 49

... 50

.... 50

.... 50
.... 54

55
55

PAGE

Aurora Horeaus 55

ghosts' road.

Autumn 55

Avoid 55

shun.

])r.ss by.

elude.
Awe 55

surprise.

astonishment.

wonder.

reverence.

Awl.
Axe.

56
56

59
59
59

Baby 57

Badv-Hoi.ukr 57

cradle.

Bachelor 57

Bacon 58

fat.

fjreasy.
Bad

mean.

wrony.

vile.

detestalilo.
Bad Lands

Iiroken country.

IJadgkr ,

Bai;

Bald

Band 59

chief's lodges.

soldiers helonj^in^; to ciiief.

Bannack (Indian).. 59

Barracks 61

s(ildier'.s house.

Barrkn 61

Bashkui 61

diffident.

modest.

youthful.

shy.

timid.
BA.SIN 62

hufValo-wallow.

Baskkt 62

Bat 62

Battlk 62

volley (irinjj.

engagement.

Bay (water) 62

Bay (color) f2

red.

Bayonet 62

Beads 62

Bear 63

Beard 63

Beautikui 64

good face.

fine.

handsome.

pretty.

Beaver 64

Beaver Dam 64

Bid 64

Before (in time) 64

prior to.

l)reviousIy.

anterior.
Before (in order) 64

in advance.

ahead.

in front of.

to lead.

higher in rank.

Behind (in time) 65

Behind (in order) 65

cowardly.

fearful.

inferiority.

following.

in rear of.
Bki.(i\v 65

heneath.

under.

Belt 65

Berry 66

Best 66

Bet 66

wager.

gamble.

rallle.

stake.
Betray 66

deceive.

lie to.

led astray.
Beyond

other side of.

Big.

•66

great.

wide.

large.

broad.
Bk; Billy 67

corpulent.

stout.

fat.

lusty.

Bird 67

Bison 67

Bit

Bite

snap at.

67
67

INDEX.

PAGB

Bitter 67

unpalatable.

unsavory.

nasty.

ill-flavored.

sour.

BiTi'KR-RfKvr 67

Bl.ACK 67

Bl.ACKKKKT (Indian) 68

Bl.ACKKEET (.Sioux Indian) 73

Blanch 73

dread.

turn i)ale.

scared.

terrified.

panic-slrick'jn.

Blanket 73

Bi,Ess Vou 74

thank.

pray for,

j^ratitudc.

B1.IM) 74

Bi.oou 74

Blood (Indian) 74

Blue 74

Blui'k 75

Boat 75

Boil 75

tumor.

swelling.
Boil, To 75

bul)l)le.

stew.

cook.

Bone 75

Bonnet 75

Born 75

parturition.

hring forth.

Borrow 76

Bow 76

BofcvsTRiNG 79

Bowi 79

Braid (hair) 79

Brain 79

Brand, To 79

mark.

(ijj.ure.
Brave 79

fearless.

daring.

bold.

heroic.
Bravado 80

brag.

boasting.

lying- ,

vaporing.

PAGE

Bravado— (continued).

bluster.

Bread 80

Break 81

sunder.

rend.

Hreech-Clotii 81

Bridoe 81

Bridle 81

Bring 81

fetch.

British 81

British Live 81

Broad , 8i

wide.

Brother 82

Brotiier-in-Law 82

Brook 83

small stream.

BRUi.fe (Sioux Indian) 83

BlEKALO 83

Buffalo Bui.i 83

Buffalo Cow 83

Buffalo Calf 83

Buffalo, White 88

BuFFALo-RoitE 90

Bull-Berry 90

Burn 90

consume.
Bury 90

rite.

sepulture.
Buy 92

purchase.

procure.

bargain.
By* AND By 92

wait.
By Itself 92

Cache 93

conceal.

hide aw.ny.

Caddo (Indian) 93

Cali 94

to name.

knowi IS.

summon.

cry out.

invite.

Camas 94

Camp 95

village.

bivouac.
Candid 95

sincere.

honorable.

frank.

INDEX.

429

PACK

. 80
. 81

. 81

,. 81

.. 81

,. 81
.. 81
.. 81

.. 82
.. 82
.. 83

... 83

... 88

... 90

... 90
.... 92

.... 92

94
95

Candid — (cominued).

open.

straightforw;ird.

undisguised.

Candi.k 95

Candy 95

Cank 95

Cannon 95

Cannot 96

impossible.

will not do.

beyond power.

Canok 96

CaSon 96

defile,
chasm.

Cards 96

CARTRUxiK 97

CARTRlDGE-Hr.LT 97

Cat 97

Catti.k 97

Cavalryman , 97

Ckntrk 97

Ckrtain 97

Charcjk 97

assault.

attack.

onslaujjht.

storm.
Chkat 98

steal.

fraud.

deceit.

CuiKRlES 98

Chkvknne (Indian) 98

Chk KKN 107

CHIKF 107

leader.

headman.

jiartisan.

fjreat.

distinguished.

renowned.

famous.
Child 109

youth,

l)rogeny.

issue.

offspring.

CiiiFPKWA (Indian) 109

CiKuv 115

cut up.

new.

divide.

Cir.AK 115

Citizen 115

Clean-Handki) 116

free from crime.

guiltless.
Close 116

near.

internate.

compact.

compress.

Cloud 116

CoAi 116

Coat 116

Coffee 117

Cold 117

chill.

frigid.
Collect 117

accumulate.

to bring or gather together.
Color 117

tinge.

hue.

stain.

Coil'MN (Troops) 118

Comanche (Indian) n8

CoMH 122

Come 122

approach.

draw near.

Come Between 122

Come into View 122

ap]iear.
Commence 123

begin.

CoNCEAI 123

cover,
disguise,
secrete,
hide.

CONC.RESS I2j

Cook 123

Copulate 123

Corn 124

CoKPORAi 124

Corpse 125

Corral 125

enclosure.
Coi'NCii 125

meeting.
CouNSEi 127

advice.

caution.
Count 127

numeration.
CoUNT-Coup 128

strike an enemy.

achievement.

finishing stroke.
Country 129

43°

INDEX.

PAGB
CoURTSiflP 129

wooing.

Cousin 130

Coward 131

poltroon.

dastard.

Coyote 131

Cradi.e 131

Crazy 131

mad,

foolish.

doting.

flighty.

Cree( Indian) 131

Cross 132

sulky.

ill tempered.

Cross (decoration) 132

Cross (to) 132

ford.

go over.

Crow (Indian) 132

Crow (liird) 138

Cry.

shed tears.

desire.

suffer.
Cunning 138

subtle.

sly.

wily.
Cutting Ui' 138

Dakota (Indian) 140

Dam 140

Dance 140

Dangerous 142

Dark 142

Daughter 142

Day 142

Daybreak 143

Dead 143

Dead-Shot 143

marksman.

Deaf 143

Deak-Mutk 144

Deceive 148

lead astray.

Decrepit 148

old.

infirm.

Deep 148

Deer (white-tailed) 148

Deer (black-tailed) 149

Deer (red) 149

Defame 149

slander.

vilify.

Defy 149

hatred.

aljhorrence.

defiance.

threaten.

Delight 149

Depart...'. 149

Depose 149

displace.
Destroy 150

waste.

demolish.

Dew 150

Die I

'3«

expire,
depart.

Dig 150

Dirt 150

Disarm 151

Disgust 151

weary.

dislike.

Dismount 151

Dispatch 151

Distance \ 151

Distant 151

remote.

far away.
Distribute 151

give.

divide.
Dive 152

plunge.

Divorce 152

Do 152

work.

act.

attend to.

Do Not 153

Doctor 153

medicine-man.

physician.

jiriest.

juggler.

Dog 153

Dollar 154

Door 154

Doubt 154

Dream 154

Dreamer 155

Dress 155

api)arel.

clothing.

Dried Meat 156

Drink 156

Drive 156

herd.
Drouth 156

INDEX.

431

PAGB
149

. 149

• 149

• >5o

.. 150
.. 150

... 150
... 150

... i5»
... 151

... i5»

.... 151

.... i5«

.... i5»

.... iS«

.... 152

"52

'52

153

154

>54

155

IS6

156

PAGB

Drown 156

Drum 156

Drunkard 157

Dry 157

Duck 157

Dull 157

Dumb 157

mute.

silent.

still.

Eagle 15S

Early 158

Ear-ring 158

Earth 159

Eat 159

Eatp.n Enough 161

Effort 161

trial.

attempt,
' essay.

Egg 161

Elk 162

Elopk 162

steal.
Encamp 162

resting-place.

bivouac.

sleep.
End 162

finish.

close.

stop.
Enemy 162

foe.

Enkrgktic 162

Enlist 162

Enough 162

Enter (walk into) 162

Equal 163

same.

even.
Escape

elude,

evade.

Evening

Every Day

E.xchange

trade.

barter,

bargain,

purchase.

sell,

dispose of.

traffic.
Excite

PAGS

164

163

163
163
163

164

arouse,
awaken.

E.xciTE — (continued),

stimulate.
FIxterminate

destroy.

wipe out,

eradicate,

consume.

sweep away.

ravage.

annihilate.

extinguish.

Faint 165

die.

Fall (seaFon) 165

Fall (water) 165

Fall (to) 166

Fame 166

renowned.

celebrated.

Farm (to) 166

Farther 166

beyond.
Fast 166

swift.

pass by.
Fat (animal's) 167

stout.

strong.

fine form.

Father 167

Father-in-Law 167

Feast 167

meal.

rejwst.

Feather 171

Female 171

Few 172

compressed.

close.

crowded.

near together.
Fight 172

skirmish.

outbreak.

battle,

encounter.
Finished ,,,. 173

ended.

done.

Fire 173

Fire (discharge) 173

Fire (volleys) 173

Firm 173

resolute.

strong.

steady.
Fish 173

432

INDEX.

TAOB

Fix 174

settle.

arraiifje.

(letennine.

Fi.Af; 174

Fl.ATUKAi) (Indian) 174

Flint 179

Float 179

Flood 179

Fi.f)UK 179

Fl.OWKR I So

Fly I. So

Fly (to) 180

For. 180

Fond 180

love.

rejjard.

likinj^.

Food 180

Fool 181

stupid.

unwise.

indiscreet.

rash.

silly.

Footprints 181

Foor-RACK 181

FoRAGF. 181

Ford iSi

FoRKLocK 181

Forest 181

timber.

Forever 181

Forort 182

lost.
Forks 182

confluence.
Fort 182

barracks.

post.

tjarrison.

Found 182

Fox 182

Fragrant 182

perfume.

swect-smellinj;.

balmy.

Freeze 183

Freeze Over 183

Friend 183

companion.

comrade.

jiartner.

Frighten 184

Frog 184

Frost 184

Fruit 184

Funerai 184

PAGB
FuTtfRK 184

(J A 1. 1 185

Gai.i.oi' 185

idpe.

canter.

ride.

CiAMl. 185

Gai' 185

mountain i)ass.

depression.

dclile. .

ravine.

CiKNDer 185

Generous 185

f^Dod-hearted.

i>i^-hearted.

liberal.

hospitable.

noble.

GiiusT 186

GiRi 187

Give 187

!,'rant.

!)cstow.

GivK Me 187

Give Name To 187

Gi.AD 187

heart fjood.
Gloomy 187

sad.

Glove 188

Glue 18S

Go 188

depa-.t.

leave.

Go Away 188

Go Near 188

Goat 188

Goi) 189

mystery.

medicine.

(loi.i) 191

Good 191

Goose 191

Grandi vrHiK 191

Grandmother 192

Grass 192

Gratitude 192

Grave 193

tomb.

burial-place.

Gray 193

Grazing 193

Greasy 193

fat.
Great 193

wide.

INDEX.

433

PAGR

184

iss

. 18s
. 185

. 185

,. 185

186
187
.87

187

187
187

187

188
188
188

188
. 188
. 188
. 189

. 191

. I9>
. 191
.. 191
, . 192
.. 192
.. 192
■ • 193

.. 193
.. 193
... 193

... 193

Great — (continued).

broad.

large.

Grken

Grieve

Grizzly

Gros Vknire (Indian)

Gros Ventres of the Prairie

(Indians)

Grow

Guide

lead.

direct.

conduct.

Gum

Gun

Gun-Cover

Gunpowder

Heli',

work with.

assist.

'93

pport.

193 , "'•"•K" ('")•

210

•93
'93

hold.

yuard.

protect.

Haii.

ice.

sleet.

Hair

Half

Hale-Ureed

Halt

stop.

pause.

stand still.
Handsome

good-faced.

beautiful.

pretty.

Hang

Hang (to)

suspend.

pendent from.
Happy Hunting-Ground.,

heaven.
Hard

difficult.

firm.

brave.

unfeeling.

inexorable.

Hard-Uread

Harlot

Hat

Hawk

Headache ,

Heap

mound.
Hear

attention.

Heart

Heaven

Heavy

weighty.

197 Here 210

199 Hermaphrodite 210

199 I Hide (to) 211

secretly.

|)rivately.

confidentially.

199 lost.

200 I hidtlen away.

200 Hide (skin) 211

200 High 211

; IIILI 21!

201' His or Hers 211

Histoky 211

HoilBLE 212

201 fasten.
201 disable.

2UI Hoc 212

205 Hold 212

I detain,

stop,
limit.
205 keep.

I retain.

Hole 213

i Homely 213

205 bad face.

205 j Homesickness 213

heart-sick.
I weary.

206 Honest 213

Honey 213

207 Horse 213

pony.

Horseback 214

Horse-Race 214

Ilospn Ai 214

Hostage 214

208 Hot 214

208 House 214

208 How 215

209 yes.
209 approval.

209 How Many -iiS

How Much 215

209 HuMP(bufnilo) 215

Hundred 215

209 Hungry 216

209 Hunt 216

210 search,
look for.

434

INDEX.

PAGR
IIURKV 221

hasten.

expedite.
HUJiUAND 221

I (myself) 222

Ice 222

Icicle 222

Impossible 222

cannot.
Imprison 222

confine.

lock up.

bind.

In (within) 222

Incitk 222

arouse.

stir u|>.

provoke.

excite,
Incrkask ,.. 222

augment.

Indian 223

Infantry 223

Intkriok 223

lower.

behind.

minor.

.subordinate.

secondary.
Iniiahit 223

live in.
Injure 223

harm.

hurl.

Interpreter 223

Interrocjatk 224

((uestion.

attract attention.

ask.

in(iuire.

examine.

Iron 224

Island 224

Itching 224

Jealous 225

envious.
Joke 225

sport.
Joyous 225

«lad.

light-hearted.

Jump 225

Junior 226

Keep 227

remember.

PAGB

Keep — (continued).

hold on to.

retain.

guai<l.

keep close.

near.

Keep Close 227

Keep Quiet 227

fear nol.

(piiet down.

Kettle 227

Kidney 227

Kill 227

Kinship. 228

Kiowa (Indian) 229

Knife 230

Know 231

understand.

comprehend.

*Know Not 231

Koutenay (Indian) 231

Lacota (Indian), Sioux 232

Lake 232

Lame 232

Lance 232

Laroe 232

great.

cajiacious.

Lariat 232

Lasso 232

Last 233

hindmost.

Last Year 233

Lead (to) 233

I:eak 233

Lecginus „ 233

Lend 234

Liar 234

Liberate 234

Lie 234

to mistake.

invent.

false.

fabrication.

fiction.

Lie Down 234

LiCHT (not heavy) 235

Light (not dark) 235

Lightning 235

Like 235

same.

even.

similar.

resemble. • • •• -•
Listen 235

hear.

pay attention to.

INDEX.

435

rAOB

227
227

227
227
227
228

229
230
231

. 231

• 232
. 232

.. 232

.. 232
.. 232

.. 232

,.. 232
... 233

... 233
... 233
... 233
.... 233
.... 234
.... 234
.... 234
234

234
235

235
235
235

. 235

Lrni.K 236

minute.
LivK 236

reside.

dwell.

exist.

LiVKR 236

Lock 236

Lodge 236

LoNi; 236

lengthy.

extension.

to last.

to endure.

Long Knike 236

Long Time 236

alw.iys.
Look 237

inspect.

see.

view.

behold.

Lost 237

Louse 237

Love 237

esteem.

liking;.

affection.

Low 237

Luck 237

prosperous,

fortunate.
Lung 237

Mad 238

anyry.

Maii,-C()Ach 238

Make 238

Male 238

Man 238

MandAN (Indian) "238

Many 242

crowd.

numerous.

host.

much.
Many Times 243

often.

repeat.

Maphy 243

Marvellous 247

Match (lucifer) 247

Mean 247

small-hearted.

stingy.

selfish.

miserly.

penurious.

247
247
247
247

248
249

Mean — (continueti),
shabby,
greedy,
rapacious,
sordid,
niggardly,
low.

' Measlks

Meat

I Mkdai

I Medicine

I mysterious.

I unknown.

] holiness,

luck,
vision,
dream,
fortune,
chance.

j Medicine-Dance

Medicine-Man

j jihysician.

I prophet,

juggler.
] dreamer.

j priest.

magician,
conjurer.
' seer.

wizard,
soothsayer.
j charmer.

! Meet (to) 254

come together.

Memory 254

heart knows.

Menses 254

Metai 255

hard.

Meteor 255

>' .\iCAN 255

Midday 255

I Middle 255

i Midnight 255

! MiDWiNrER 255

Migrati 255

I move.

\ Milky-Way 256

Mingle

256

mix.

MiNNi;coN.(ou (Indian) 256

Mirage 256

fallacy of vision.

phantasm.

Mirror 256

Mislead 256

deceive.

lead astray.

436

JADEX.

Miss (to) 256

pass I)y.

MiSTAKK 256

Mix J57

bk-n.l.

ininj^le.
MorcAsiN 257

MONKY 25<)

currency.

cash.

specie.

M(1NKKY 2()0

MoNiii , 260

Moon 260

MoosK 261

MoSQl'ITO 261

Mol IIKK 262

M()Tiii:r-in Law 262

Mound 262

Mountain 262

Mountain Lion 262

Mourn 265

jjrieve.

cry for.

lament.

bewail.
MousK.., 263

MOVK 2f)j

nian.!i.

Mowinc-Maciiinf 264

Much 264

Mud 264

MUI.K 2(>4

MURDKR J()4

Muskrat 265

Must 2t)5

My OK Mink 205

Nam I. 266

called.

coLjnomen.

Narrow 268

Navajo.s( Indian) 268

Nkai; 269

■;i()se by.

c;)ntijjiious.

.\(ijacenl.

Nke,):."' 269

Nkoro. 269

Nki MKW 269

Nkw 269

Nkxt Year 269

Nkz Pi-.Rc.'- (Indian) 269

Nir.iM" 271

No 271

Noon 271

Notify 271

tell.

Notify — (continued).

talk to.
Now 271

present time.

to-day.
Number 271

Oaih 272

vow.

to swear.
OiiEY ^ ... 272

listen to.

]>ay .attention to.

Ocean 272

Officer 272

Ofikn 272

OcAi.Ai.l.A (Indian) 272

OiiiiwAY (Indian) 273

Ol.l)

273

decrepit.

ajjed.

inlirni.

((itoshe 274

OsAC.E 274

OttI'R 274

Out.sihe 275

Over 275

Overtake., 275

Owi 27s

Pack 276

place.

I'ADDI.E 276

I'AIM 276

I'M.SY 278

Parade 278

troops.
Part 278

half.
Pariisan 27S

chief.

leader.
Partner 278

brollicr.

coniratle.

Parturition 278

Pawnee (Indian) 279

Paymaster 294

money chief.
Peace 295

truce.
Peak 296

apex.

summit.

tip.

crest.

Pfmican 296

Peni) d'Oreillk (Indian) 296

INDEX.

271

272

••• 272

272

273

274

••• 274

27s

276

278

279

294

29s

296

396

296

Pkoii.k •'*"»'

persons. •'°'

Pkitkr

Pkricai's .V.\".".V.".".".'.'.".'' ^°'

to be possible. ^°^

may he,

doubtful.

contingent.
PiCKKI

fasten.
I'IKCAN (Indian)

Pin.; '

302

'i.i.

302
302

304

Pray— (continued),
ask.
beg.
retpiest.
petition.
dcma..(l.
implore,
tnireat.
address.
iniportui:e.

Prkdk r

foretell.

*MHI

3'o

Pity (to pi.y some onod;;;;::::;:; C ' prksIokT"-

npathw.e. ^ ^ I *'*•■^"'^•^J

Jiympaini/.e.
compassion,
nicicy.

lender.

PlTV (other>

etc. I.,

Plan

taking puy on one,

arrange.
<lcterniine.
I'lovidc.
dispose of.

I'l.ANT

to farm.

Poise )N-VlNK

304
305

30s
305

Prk.ity. ...... .'.'.''".*''* ^'°

i !iandsoine. "^'^

I; '"d face.

PRI Ki.Y-pKAR

pkiksi ; 310

Pkisdni-r.. 3'o

PUIVATI, '.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.v."'. ^"

secretly. 3"

confidentially,
in confidence,
sacredly.
PrduIi

vain.

PoNCA (Indian) ^^2 ' n '^"'"^•••'''^'^•

Po.NY.. 305 Piri:ni.() (Indian)

Poor ",",'.. ^^^ ^''''•"

nov,.rt^ 307 must.

307

poverty,
indigence
want,
distress,
destitute,
pinched.
Poor

emaciated

weak.

sinewless.

wasted .

leanness.

l)Uiiy.

thin.

starved.

shrunk.

skinny.

PoRfmi'iNK

Portrait ■.■.■.■.'.".■■; 307

Possession 3°?

must,
try.

; QlMRRKL

j scold.

j disputations.

! Qt'KKN

Qi'i'.y<li ,

9"i;siioN

QlMCK .']

Qt'lKT IJ0VV.\......

subdirc.

silence.
Quivik

3'i

3'2

312
312
3»2
3'2
312

Povvi

ownership.

J08

K.MIHIT ,

KaC'COO.N ....

Rack

to run.
contest.

FiAII.WAV....

>KR

Rain.

I'RAIRIK,

3«a

314
314
314

J»4

plains.

PRAIRIIvDOG.,

Pray

supplicate.

308 ' Rainmow.... 3«S

308 R

Ai'ins.

30S Ram
309 i

swift-flowing waters
1

foolish.
Iir.ivc.

3' 6
3'6

3'7

43B

INDEX.

Rash — (coniinued).

reckless.

careless.

adventu'ous.

Rattlk 317

Ratti.ksnakk 317

Ravink 317

Rkacii 317

arrive there.
Rkcover 317

restore.

Rkp 317

Reirrsh 318

Rki.ik.vk 318

replace.
Rkmain 31S

stay.
Rkmkmiii.r 318

hold oil to.

Kici'KAr 318

Rkstrain 318

hold.

confine.

restrict.
Rf.trkat 318

flee from.

esca]ie.

Rich 319

Ridk « 319

RiDGii: 319

crest.

Ring

!I9

finger ornament.
Rising Man 310

chief.
RiVKR 320

stream.
RoAO 320

trail.

way.

route.

pack .

nourse.
Rock 320

hard.
Rt)i'K 320

cord.

line.
Ro.sKBun ,20

ROTTKN 321

decayed.

decompo.sed.

Rough 321

Run 321

Run Against 321

slunihle.

Sabrk 322

PACB

Sac (Indian) 322

Sacred 323

divine.

holy.

mysterious.

Sacrki) Arrow 323

Sad 323

mournful.

dejected.

disappointed.

Saddi.k 323

.Saddi.k (to) 323

to pack.

Saddi.k Blanket 324

Saki: 324

secure.

uinnolested.

Sack 324

Salt 324

Same 325

equal.

Sans-Arc (Indian) 325

Satisfy 325

Saw 325

cut.

ScAl.P (to) 325

scali>-i.ock 328

.Scarce 328

rare.

uncommon.
Scatter 328

ilisperse.

fly.
Scent 329

smell.

Sciiooi.-HousE 329

Scui.u j3C

quarrel.

find fault with.
Scout 330

advance-guard.

picket.

sentinel.
Scout (to) 331

search.

watch.

to trail.

follow.

hunt.
Search 332

examine.

scrutiny.

Season 332

See 33a

look.
Skize 33a

Srasp.

imprison.

INDEX.

PACK
322

"323

323
i^l

323
323

324
324

324
324
325

325
325
325

325
328
328

328

329
329

j3c
330

33'

439

332
332

333

wrap.
Shkki-

l>ifj-horp.

Shkki- (domestic)

Shkki>-Kati:rs (Indian).
Shki.i '

neck ornaiiient.

ShII.1.1)

sciecr.

Shoot

lire a(.
disch.nrge

PAGB

Seize — (continued).

find.
Sell

separatk !!!!!!!.

diverj^e.
branch off.
to par'.,
wander from.

Serckant

Sew " " " "

fasten,
stitch,
tack.

Shackle

Shadow

shadf. ""■

Shake IIaniw *

SUAki* ^^

cutting; edge,
t'd^e-tool.
Sharp's Kimk

Sh 'vkd-Heai) '..,

SiiAvvi

2,2i

Zli

349
349
349

Sir •-*'•■

rest. -549

wait.

Ski;nk

1 Slid .....!."

I Sleep ','.......^...,.

! rest.

' lie down.

Sleep With

Slow •549

loiter. ■'•^'-'

l<ehindhand.

S.MALI

short. '50

low.

Smallpox

Smeli '5o

Smoke

334
334
334

{52

3.S--'
3.S2

353

334

334
334
335

33S

Smoke (to smoke a pipe) ],.'

Smooth

even.

level.

Snake

Snow •'S3

Shoe

SHOK(to) !;!!!!!!";";;;:;:;;■:;;■•• \i

136

},}>(^

Short

Shoshone (Indian)^.'.'..! i^^l

?>i'^

Sick

ill.

infirm.

indisposed.

suffer.

di seised.
Sir.N LANGliAr.K

Silent .'...,.

dumb.

ilose one's mouth.

taciturn.

Silver

Since .."!!...

after.

Sinew

Sing ..'

Siot;x (Indian)."*.".'.";! \\\

Sister 34ii

Sister. IN- Law !.'.'." .'.".".*." \Tsi

348

338
341

341
341

341

I Snow-Shoe...

j Soap

I Son-

I niiry.

I Soldier

I Son

i Sorrki

! SoitR

j acid.

i tart.

I Source

I head.

fountain.

rise.
Speak

Ldk.

tell.

say.

relate.
Spear

lance.

Spider

Spoon

SpcrriED .

353
353
353
354

354
356
356
35''

556

356

;•'••• .}s6

Spring (season)'.*.*.'.""'.""' 'jfj

SpRiNc (water) I^J

SpRiN(;iiELl) Rii-LE.. ...";,' f,;

Spy '^'

s' out. 'S'

h :nt.

I'K)k,

Stan/)

Stai* dino Kock*.!..!.."

357
358

440

INDEX

PAGH

Star 358

Start 358

Stay 358

Steai 358

Steamboat 359

Stinoy 359

mean.

penurious.

Stink 359

Stoi' 359

halt.

wait.

Stork 359

Straight 359

true.

direct.

Strike 359

String (protection) 359

Striped 360

Strong 360

brave.

vigorous.

hearty.

powerful.

Sugar 360

Sumach , 360

Summer 360

Sun 360

Sun- Dance 361

Sunday 363

SuN-Do(; 364

Superior 364

greater.

higher.

above.
SURROUNU 364

encircle.

concentrate.
Sweat-Loik;k 364

swoatl)ath.

sweat-liouse.

.Sweet 368

Swim 368

SYI'IIIIIS 368

Taii 369

Take 369

appropriate.

capture.

catch.

dispossess.

confiscate.

seize.
Talk 369

converse.

speak.

tell.
Tai.i ; 370

PAGB

Tan (to) 370

to cure..

Tangled 371

Taste 371

flavor.

sapidity.
Tattoo 371

mark.
Tea 371

TEI.EtJRAPH 371

Tepee 372

lodge.

wigwam.
I tent.
I There 377

at that place.

' Thick 377

Thief 377

Thin , 377

Think 377

believe.

upiiie.

look upon.

regard.

Thousand 377

Thread 377

line.

Thunder 377

TiMiiKR 378

forest.

trees.

Time 378

T1.M0ROU.S ^78

Tired 378

weary,
■fatigued.

prostrated.

faint.

exhausted.

overtasked

Tobacco 379

Tobacco-Hac. 380

T<k;i..ther 380

To.mahawk 380

To-MORROW 380

Torn AD 380

Tortoise 380

Track 380

footprint.

Trade 380

Trader 381

storekeeper.

salesman.
Traii 381

road.

trace.
Tram, (to) 381

follow.

INDEX.

441

PAGk

• 37«
37«

• 37*

• 37>

• 37«

• 372

. 377

• 377
. 377
- 377
•• 377

.. 377

.■• 377
.. 378

... 378
... 378
... 378

379
?8o
380
380
380
380
^80
'380

380
381

381

38«

Traii. — (continued).

search.

look for.

pursue.

hunt.

Tr/.i 382

Travdis 382

litter.

Trkaty 383

Trke 383

Trot 3S3

Trouiii.k 383

anxious.

disturbed.

restless.

.innoyed.

Tri;k 383

straightforward.

honest,

reliable.

candid.

Trunk -584

Try 384

TURKKY 3X4

Turti.k 3S4

TWKKZKRS 384

TwiNKi.i: 384

Twins 384

Tvvo-KF.Tri.i' (Indian) 384

U'Ji.Y 385

bad face.

ill favored.

repulsive.

Uncai'AI'A (Indian) 385

Unikrtain '385

doubtful.

jirecarious.
UNd.K 386

UNDKRSTANr) 386

know.
UnM K 386

Uniitky 386

unfortunate.

bad.

Ursa Major.. 386

Utk 386

Vaccinatk 393

Vujii.ANr 393

attention.

heedful.

watchful.
Viii.AGK 393

camp.

town.
ViNK 393

I'ACE

Vikcin 393

unmarried.

VoM.KY 393

Vomit 393

Wa(;on 394

Wacon-Road 394

Wait 394

Walk 394

Want 394

wish.

desire

War 395

War (to>;(i tn) ,. 397

War-Bonnkt 397

head-dress.

War-Ci uii 398

War-Danck 399

War-1'ony 399

Warrior 399

Wash 399

Watch 399

time-piece.

Watkr 399

Wkak 399

tired.

feeble.

Wearing Aitarki 399

Whkn 400

at what time.

Whkrk 400

at what place.

Whktstonk 400

Whip ipo

Whirlwind 401

WiiisKKV 401

li(|Uor.

WiiisTLi' 402

Whitics... 402

people not indigenous to America.

Whit- Man 403

Why 403

Wichita (Indian) 403

WicKKY-Ur 404

temporary shelter.

Wll'K .' 405

Wild 40^

untamed.

alone.

Win 405

success.

victory.

overpower.

vanquish.

victimize.

overreach.

Winchester Rifle 406

WiNO 406

442

INDEX.

l-AGH

WlNC 406

WiNTKR . 407

Wii'Ki) Otrr 407

exlerminated.
WisK 407

shrewd.

safjacious.

sharp.

clever.

keen.

sound.

lonjj-headetl.

With 407

W<n.K 407

Woman 407

WoNKKRI I I...
WooDl'KCKIk.

Work

WolNP

I-AGB

408

. 408

409

Wk \i' 409

fold.

pack u|>.

Wrinki.i. 409

Wuiii. 409

Yankton tl,iulian) 410

Ykar 410

YE.S 410

Ykstkrhay 410

YouN(;i K 410

Al'PHiNDIX.

SIGN. M.S.

PAf;E

Wrni A ['oNY 411

With a Hlankkp 412

Huestiuii.

inlerrojjate.

attract atlention.
Armistiit 412

truce.

p»'ace-ofrerin}».
Al^p)\>nih 412

come.

advance.

come near.
Discovi'i- 413

announce.

lind.
Many 413

nuiltilude.

Herd ,>t huff ii to 413

Hitw muny killed 413

Warn..... 413

denote d-Tn^t-r.

^ivc :iii .il;'rm.
Depart 413

(lo not approve.

leave.

Commands 413

WiiH a MiKKOK 414

/tssi^niafii'ti 414

appointment.
htvitt to fiait ... 414

Huntinii 4'4

War „ 415

With Smokk. 415

FirkArrows 4H

Flint and Stkki 415

KiCIIRKS UK

Ground

Pn TltRKS ON

416

PHRASES.

Do AS YOU I'l.KASK, IT MAKIvS NO

dikferk.nck to mk 416

I AM KRtK I ROM ( RIMK 416

To iiKfoMi; Oil) 417

MiRDKR; I HI i.-i;ilT; KAINT;Ar.

CIDINl, Kit 417

To WIN IN C.AMItl.INC 4I7

To' KKKP A I'A.MP roCKTIIKR 417

WOUNDF.D, l!t r NOT l-ATAI.I.Y 4I7

To EXTKNI), lUADK, KTC 4I7

My I'Koi'i.K 417

To TRAVKI. THK<>li;ll AN l.'N-

KNOWN (OINrRV 417

I AM 01 AD 10 SI K Y'UI 417

I AM SAD OH DlsAriH)INrKD 4I7

Is SUCH A I'KRSON DEAD «)R

AI.IVK.' 418

What is your namk? 418

To UK raised inio i-rominence

ON ANorilER person's MERITS.. 418

They paid no aiieniton ro

YOUR ADVICE 418

I LIVE HERE 418

To PAY NO ATTENTION TO A PER-
SON; TO ICNORR, SUPPRESS, ETC. 418
I AM 01. D; MY TEETH ARE WoKN,
ARE HAD, AND LOOSE, AND I SI!|'-
KER EROM INDK.EsriON ON AC-
COUNT OK Tllt-SE AEI I.ICIIONS.. 418
1 WAS MADE A SCOUT 4I9

INDEX.

443

PACB

408

, 408

409

• 409

. 410

416

IAKl;S NO

416

417

INT; A<'.
417

4>7

IIR 417

11 Y 417

»<7

4<7

AN t'N-
417

4«7

I'Ki' 4»7

418

IINKNCK

Ml' K I IS.. 418

TON I'O

418

) A rr.K-
;ss, I'.Tf. 418
.; woUN,

1> I SIIK-
ON At.-

i noNs.. 418
W9

You ARK NOTHING; YOU ARE A
LOW FKI.I.OW; A 1);>(;. I SCORN,
DKTKST, KKI Y, DARK YOU TO DO
YOUR \YORsr ACAINsr MK

I KNOCKKI) III.M (IVIR WITH A
SINGI.K SHOI ..

VkRY I'OOR ; HARD I'l'; I XTRKME-
LY DE-STITliTK; INI NSE PHYS-
ICAL Si;i KKRINC, KIT

To OIIEY ORDERS ; ACCEPT AND
KOLLOW ADVICE

To RIDK RAPIDLY AND CONTIN-
UOUSLY A i.oN(; distanc:e

To INDUCE A (MRL TO Kl.ol'E

To UK NK\K DKAIH AND RECOVKR
To RIDE AGAINST ANVIIIING AND

UK I HROWN OKI-

IJit, REACHED HERE VICSTERDAY,

came into my lodgk, sat
down, and i told him to
tell me thk truiii

Living in a certain part ok
the couniry

to i. earn 10 read and write...

Where were you horn ?

Where ARE YOUR CHILDRKN?

To KREK/.E any PARI OK THK
IJODY

PAGE I

I
4"'>

419

419
419

419
419
419

419

42c

420

420
420

421
421

PROPER NAMKS.

American Horsk 421

Whistling Ki.k 421

Endof-thk- Woods 421

Running Horse 421

Spotted Wkaski 422

Had-Wii.d-Horse 422

Count-CoupUnkhy-One 422

Dog-Walks-on-thk-Ground 422

Spotted Taii 422

Crazy Horse 422

Man Akraid-ok his Horsks 422

LiiTLK Warrior 422

No Neck 422

Thundering Eagle 422

Thk-Horsk comi-s-Last 422

Waiting 422

Touh THK Cloud 422

SwMi Hkar 422

Pretty I,ani:e 422

Sitting Hii i 423

INDIAN NAMES OF STREAMS
AND MOUNTAINS WHICH
HAVE NOT BEEN I'RESEKVED
ON MAI'S, ETC.

Missouri River 423

Milk Rivkr ." 423

Ykli.owstonk Rivkr 423

Clarke's Fork of the Yellow-
stone 423

Prior's Fork of the Vki, low-
stone 423

Clear Fork of Powdkr 423

I.htle Missouri Rivkr 424

Crand Rivkr 424

Chkyknnk Rivkr 424

White River 424

North Platte Rivkr 424

South Plai ie Rivkr 424

Republican Rivkr 424

Arkansas Rivkr 424

Cimarron Rivkr 424

Canadian Rivkr 424

Washita River 424

MissLssippi River 424

MOUNTAINS.

Rockv Mountain Ran<;k 424

Uii. Horn Mountmns 424

THE END.