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(tmmm ^orirti! of (Civil <*ttj)iiim,6. INCORPOKATKD 1887. TRANSACTIONS. N.B.— This Society, uh 11 body, does nut hold HmU responsible (or the fHcIa uuj opinion, stotcd in any of its piibliontions. i:NKi;(iY AND LAMOE. NNINnilAiM, .M By (i.e. CiiNNiNj^iAM, .M. Can. Soc. ('.>;, lu piesonfUK t!,c loll„wi,,i. paper toflto Ctinadian Society of • iv.l iMigiMooiH some ap„i.,)^o' should, rjerliapH, be oflemi lor havin^r taken up u «ubje.t that is ditterent .1, style Ironi those usutiliy brought forward. I„stea,l of describing BOino pai'ticular work, a general invefinini' tho process of combustion heat is given oul which can bo ajiplied to tho doing of work. Wlienco comes the energy of the fuel? Modern science shows that it comos from the sun's rays. The energy of thesun has boon absorbed in tho produeti(m of the fuel and is held stored up thert' until combustion again sets it free. And each unit of beat s(!l. free by lombustion has. as before ex- plained, its mechanical eipiivalont. if oa(di unit could bo cap- tured and made lo do work all could bo Iransfoiined into work done. Llnfortunatoly, our appliances and cn;;ines foi' converting boat into work are as yet so imperfect thai by far Ihe greater part of tho boat evolved in t -,inbu.-lioii escapes and spnuids through tho surrounding media, and only a very small jiortion of it is converted into useful worl». F (in calculations which the wrilei- made in i-egaid to ihe eneigy of fuel in locomotives *. it was found thai on tho Canada Southern b'ailway, a line having very flat gradients, runidng ibiougb the souihern pari of the Province of Ontario, so small a<|uantity as 2.;i ounces of coal pro- duced in combustion sullieicnl energy lo move a ton wei"dit (American) one ndle. Though the fact that a little piece of coal such as this— that can easily lie in the palm of one's hand — possesses within itself the dormant force (bat is eajiable of moving a mass more than thirteen thousand times its weight a distance of a milo is .»ntiicienlly asl()nishing, yet what nnist be our wonder ai t'-., power of fuel, when we find that todo this great work only :! 'r cent, of tho total energy contained in this little piece of co;d is used, and !H;i pei' cent, is lost and w;i-ted. If all ibo energy eonlained in the L'-3 ounces of coal coidd bo harnessed and made todo work, il would, on the Canada .Southern Eiulway, bo capable of moving a Ion weight 2^ nnles! While wo have this fact before us, lei us compare it with sindlar work done by human energy alone, unaided by mechanical ajjplianceH. To convey a ton (2,0UO lbs.), a distance of a mib^ by "bearers " would require the full energy of two men Ibi' a whole dav. If *''■- CunninKliiim nri " TIic tlm-rfty of Fufll Inst. Civil Engincon, vol. Lxxxiii, p. 311. I.ncomotive.s ; " iiiiimte.* nf prDCcedings thoy took 100 lb. loadH, uad, woiiW .oquiro to mak. (ei, " tripB '' ""<1 thus walk '.'0 n.ilos f, ,lo (ho work. The oncM'jry of two mo'n bnng oxpon.ioa f,.,. a .lay, wo„M thoivl„r„, only accomplinh what tJ,eonoi>,!.yof2-;iouncoHor loul .loes on the Canada Southern Kmlway m throe minutos,-takinK the speed otn freight (rain ui 20 miles per hour, We see from this how much l-.tter adapted s called. This is dearly derived from the food which\e eats, taken in conjunction with the iiir which he breathes Some- " tbiug analogous to combustion must he taking place in his " ammal frame, and Just as in an engine the energy of the fuel ' 18 converted into heat and work, so in his body the enei-y of " food IS converted into heat and work, F ,o I, therefore ifas a " kind of energy analogous to that which fuel possesses Now I' whence does food derive its energy? ft i,s either animal or vegetable; ifthef.rmor, no doubt tho a'limal which furnished I' It had fed on vegetables, so that we may limit our en,|uirv l'> Hie " latter. Whence then do vegetables derive their ener.ry' W,. " reply, from the sun's rays," '^ A complete investigation of this sul.iect in all it, aspects such as ,s undertaken by .Spencer in the chapter bcierc mentioned shows that the prime source of all energy on the earih is tin' sun's rays. In oider to lay the ll)undations on which to hnild the succec'ing argumen. in regard to labour, it is nccessiirv t.. make some quotations from this chapter. At page liOli, .Spencer says ■'■■ " When we enciuire under what forms previously t-.^isted the "force which works out the geological changes clas.sed a^ " aqueous, the answer is less obvious. The effects of rain of " n-ers, of winds, of waves, of marinocurront,, do not manifcstlv " proceed from one source, Analysi-., nevertheless, pioves to us •' that thoy have a common genesis. If we ask, Wheice onies " the power of (he river curroni, bearing .sediment down to the 'sea? Tho reply is, The gravitation of water throughout the ^^ tract which this river drains, if we ask. How came this water to be di.sper.-ed over this tract .' Ti, reply is, It fell in the shape '' of rain. If we ask, H,.w came the rain to he in that pusitim, whence it fell / 'fho reply is. TI.e vapour from which it was "condensed was drifted there by the winds. If we ask How •' came tho vapour to he at that elevation ? Tho ropiv i,s, 'ft was •• raised by evaporation. And if we ask. What force "thus raiscl " It ■! The reply i.s, The sun's heat. Just that a.,ounl ,.f .rrivi- " tative force which the suns hcit overcame in raising theatoms " of water, .s given our again in the fall of tho,so atoms to the " same level. Honco, the deun„i Htep by ..tep, we go back from the " motion of llio |)iNi<.n l(. tlio ovupoiutioM of the wuter ; tbonce " to tho heiit fvolvcfl (liirinj; the oxiduti m of. ul ; thurico to tho " u-Mimilntion of carbon by tlio plauiHof wlio.se imboUdod lomuiiiH " coal coriHiHtH. thoiico to tbo ciiboiiic, (leid from wliirh llicir car- " bon WHS ohliiinod : ami ihorico V, the rayH of li«bl .hat dooxi- '' diziMl Ibis cai'bonic iicid. Solar forcon, millioriH of years ago " oxpoiidcd on the oaith's voirotalion, and sinco locked up Imnoath •' itH Hurface, now Hmelt tho niotals i(M,uirod for our machinos, '' turn tho lathes by which tho machines are shajiod, wo; l< iliem' " when pill toKcihor, and distrihiit.. the fabric they produce," These few extnicts will indicate, with MiilHcionl doarnesH, the sense in which the term •' Kncixy" is uhc.I, and -ive in as'con- donsoda form as possihie, the ronclusions arrived al ijy the application of th j modern doctrine of the ( ',>nHorvation of lineixy. Krom this we see ttial all force with which we are acquainted on the earth (except tho force of gravity) is j)riinarily due to the sun's rays. All human enor^^y and all animal energy, the force of rivers and wind., the energy of heat and light in whatever maaner raaniffsiod • all are ultimately due to thosolar ruys. And thus a strong healthy inim, and a heap of coal mio each of them sources from which can be obtained energy Ihal may ho applied to the doing of work: and both derive their energy from the same source— the ,Sun. Ueverting now to the deHnition given, that " Labour is tho expenditure of Energy," we can understand how wide that delini- tion is. Itoth energy and matter are alike uncioatuble and indestructible. All that man can do is to ini.wo matter, and to guide and control energy. The energy that he can make use of appears under various forms ; but under all the.so forms it can be used by man to certain extents and degrees, and can ho directed by him to the doing of work. And in sd far us energy is used to do work that commands ronumeratlon, it is Labour in the sense in which that word is used by tho PoUtteal Economist. \Vnth this fundamental notion of what Labour is, we wlil be in a position the bettor to investigate all tho phenomena of Labour. In his primitive condition man has control over no other energy than that stored up in his own body, and produce.! bv the coiisumi)iion or cumbusti.)n of the food ho eats. If lie wishes to move from one place to another, he can do .so only by his own muscular e.xeriion: i.e. by the :;pendiiure ot his own energy. If ho wishes to convoy anything liom one place lo an- other, he can do so only by carrying it himself: /. e. by a further expenditure of his own energy. The liist step in ad' ance of this Itrimitive condition is taken when he rears and trains animals,— horses and cattle -to do this work (or him: thus substituting the less costly animal energy for his own: or when he makes boats, •' dugouts,' or canoes, by which he can convey hiiuselt and his goods on the water with n less expenditure of his own energy than ho would have to make to do the .same work on land. A further advance is made when he constructs vohides for his liorses to drrw. and preijares ways on which the v.'hides may travel, thus economising tho energy of his h.nse, and enabling it to convoy more goods in this manner than it could when loaded in the primitive fashion on its back: and when ho improves the build of his boats, so thai, by oflbring less resist- ance to the water, his energy in j.iopelling may be able to con- voy a larger weight of goods than formerly, and thus rendered more offlcienl. A >till more decided advance is made when he applies sails to his boat, and employs I he energy ol' the wind— which he can obtain without any C(»t of production- to propel tho boat and its load, while his energy is expended merely in directing and guiding the vessel. Kvery impr.)vement in ship- building has been mad, with consuuitly the same effect: to obtain the largest and fastest carrying capacity with the least expenditure of human energy: to build vessels, and to construct and arrange sails for them, that will enable them to be moved with the hlij?hto«t bi'ow,o, nml ut im iimiiy mm^Iom t.. tho diioeti.m of the wind uh poHHihlo: thiit i«, to riiuUo -h.- liir^'OHt ihwmLIu mho or tho omi-tiy oftlio wiii.l, wilhout ih« diivcl prnpellirij; tbir.- of huiniin otuTj^y, Thv application ol atiiiiial enor^'y l'> ihu (loiti^nC work hiiN pro((ii'(lo(l on iinuN Mimilni- lo tlioNO ab..vo indicated. IfoiwH hnvo been caiefully brod and louiod » U'< to piodnco nniniaU that wore onpahic of (.sorting jrmit sirenKlh, or ]>iiitini,' loilli «rrat HlK'od; that in, luiinialM in whoHc liodios lliu ciu'igy of tlie food conNiimcd would \h> trnnNformed into tho lurKOHt posHiblo iimount of active onorf,'y, and whoHO liodio.* should lio host adaplcd to ro- transfbrm thin rnorgy inio work. VtdiicUw havo hoenconHtiMciod a.'* light aH poHHililo, ;inil of tho \t expenditure of energy is more than recouped hy the subsequent saving ollected in tiie energy expended in the doing of work. The trur reaon lor tho use of energy other thun human, is that other kinds of ontigy can do certain kinds of work quite as well a> human energy, and that other kinds of oiieigy in the doing of this work are much loss costly than human energy. Tho amount of work done— using work in tho Bcientitic .sense of "footpounds'— in raising a ton one hundro.l feet, is tlie same whether it be dono by men, horses, or wind or wateidriven machinery. The quantum of energy expended ,m' absorbed is tho same in one case as in Iho others ; but the cost of the energy is much greatci *or men than for horses, and much greater for horses than (br wind or water-driven machinery. A further and great advance in obtaining (dieap energy was miuie when man discovered how to apply the energy of heat de- veloped in the comhustion of fuel, to the doing of work. This onei'gy of fuel is precisely a.-alogoiis to tho energy of men or horses, and is derived ultimately from tho same source. It is also much less costly than the energy of men or animals, ;ind though in direct comparison, not loss costly than the energy of wind or falling water, yet in its application to th.^ doing of work lias so great an advatitageover thcno enoigies, in contiiiuiiy and portability, that ultimately in j.ractico it is found to be less co,stly than cither in tho vast majority of cases. Wind driven machineiy is subjocl to tho fitful changes of tho wind, i.n.l to tho complet lo.ssof I he energy when the wind die- away. Watoi- •iven lachinery is liable to similar drawbacks through changes in . .•oathor, causing the water to be frozen in cold or drTod up in great heat. When thosrcontiiigciiciesaii.-ie tho ma( hinoi y stops, production of commodities is suspended, while the mairi- 6 tanaiK-o of the mon nn.l nnimnlH otiKnKct about the nmphinomimt be «,)Mtmiio.| ,i.ni,,K ilio ..nCo.rod IIU'mhh, iiint Hi., minio m whil.. wr.rk ,H «„i„^ on. Tins n.st ..( ,nuM.t..n..nr.. huM, tl.oroH.iv, to be borne with no concomitiint pnHliiciion to Hiipport it, H„t „o HUcl. .Imwhiu'ks oxi«t in r.,,Mr.l to t „C,,„u.^y ,l„,iv,.a ;,,,„, ni..|. Ho lonn iw wc Imvo I'li.'l w., hiiv.. ,)iir k1„,o of onor^y and "'" "!'i '"'"" "•' i' '" Iho 'l')i"K "f w..rk ciu. ^'o oi, wl.oilu.'r tli,> win.l blow-. ..mot ; alike in cold „r in hot wm.lh„r. Tliai Imd energy is lesn costly that .ho oner^y of n.m, ...■,n,imal., ,vhm. coal .'an ho ol.fuin.'d wilhoat oxtri».)r this, to the cr.st of l|,e lio,>*o energy must bo ad.lod tho cost ol a mai.s energy expended in driyiag and tend- ing tho animal while lo the cost of the fuel energy must he added only a vry small fraction of a man's energy ; for two m.'ii together c.mid (|uiiewell dlr.nt and.'ontrol tho energy .level.. pe.l In tho comhusiion of 20 tons of coal. Thus a day's' energy ,)f a horse is only o.iual- to tho energy derived from 5 pounds or.(.al, in a locomotive engine running im i good line of railway; and the work whieli occupies a horse tli,. whole day in the .loiog ean b,' done hy fi pounds of coal in ahoul an hour aii.l a half. Similar reasoning may he applied (o make the c„mpiiris..n with human energy. A «tr..ng, able bodied, wel|.nouiisho(; mini can dovelopo in a .lay's work ah.Hit 2,200,(100 (l.ol pounds of energy, o.iual to one-sixth „f the energy ..f ,-. horse. T,. produce this enoigy the .ombustion of fr..m ;{ to 4 pounds of f.)o.l i.s loquirod. Tho cost of thi.s, reducel to similar money basis t.. that almve given, is ao cents per diem, 'i'o accomplisli tl,,. ..•mie am.)unt .,f work, of a similar kin.l lo ihar done by a horse (su.^h as haulinga vohiclo..nagood r. ad), six mon woul.l have to be us.^.i ; and llie costof ibo food from which their energy is .U'lived would be 8!.,^0, as comjiared with .'iO cenis f.r ihc'horse an.I I cent tor the oal. In this eumpaiison we do not sj.eak of the mnumralion that in.isi he paid for the ditferent kiii.ls .)f lal.iur used, which is something very diileront, but simjily ..f the est of the matrix from which the energy Ih ov.dve.l. in any .use whothor C men, 1 horse .)r 5 pounds of coal ho use.l, the' sanie aiiiount of " work " is d..n,., the same amount .'!' tool poun.ls are ertected, I ho same .luanlum of solar energy is lurnoil into useful work. But when this energy is obtained through men Ihe c;isl of the matrix (measured by a common nu.ney -lan.lard) is SI. 80; thr.ii.gh a horse i( is HO cents, aii.l through eoal it is 1 cent! 'rherof..ie if w.)rk can he d.)ne hy coal instead of by men or horses, it will ovidenlly he done much more cheaj.ly ; and if man can ^'''!L""JL'"''_!i^' "'' ''»bstiliitit.,g i'tie! .'iiergy for human or animal • Taking the rwislance at 8.1 lbs. iicr ton, w„uia almost L-xaotly ab^b aM tiie oriTm- ot tho llUMl'. *' »"""'K.V 'n tl>«> 'l<'lii« of work itml inHkiiix of lominoiliiio^, lli« ciiHl (il tlio work unci iliu CKmiiicnliticN will ho >il l>y iiim locoiniillvo in ii torlh purt of '.bo tirno tiiiK woulii t'oriiiorly Imw Imioii ruijuircd Uy liiiu- (In-iU of liorM'r* and inori, ami iit itii uirm/,iri«ly «mnll riiK'liiin ol' tku I'oi'inor cont. It JH only durin^r llif proNcnt conlury that iniwi \nu dlHOovorod, and 1)0011 iiblo 'd apply, liio Hlorcd up i)tior(,'y of hoal in i'liol to tho porlormuni'o ol work— Ui;it man Iuin lu'on aliK' lo mihititiito Ihirt t'uoruy for iluil nl' nion or ^nimalM. Kioin tho day* ol'.lohii to (Joorj^o IVih tlioro wu« no other way ol' rapidly moving' on land, from ono part of tho countiy U) anoihor, oxcopi hy tho aid of hornCH. Now man Uu* di.scovorod thu oni'r^ry of fuel and how to \i»o il, and i'ono(pioiilly tho <(h| of loiomotioii in wondorfully ilocMuasod and tho rapidity of it at wondorfully incroanod. A Miuglti lo 'om )livo on a lino of railway with t!at >,'""idioiitH, mich iw tho t'unuda Southorn Kailway, cnii «ad about, ilu' woik for not los-, than 10 davr* 'I'iio woii,'ht of fooil that ihosn horion and mon wouhl uon^umo in this linio would ho about il" ton... Wo theroforo have 20 tons of coal as— roughly Npoaking— tho "onor- gotic oc|uivulont" of 07 to.is of animal and human food; and tho coal docs tho wi'i'k in a twt^itioth part ■)(' iho timu loquirod by the mon and horses 'I'ho locomotive otigine, as a doer of work, has alho thin grunt Mdvantugo ovo:- mon or horsoH, thai it o.xpendri energy oiily while it is working ; when it stands idle wo let tho tired go out. It is not so with the horse— ho must ho fod and his energy maintained whoioei' he works or stands idle. 'I'hore has I. go on continuously an o.\pcnditu; if energy in order that hiH energy may he available at tho lime that we desire to use it. The application of find eiio.'gy lo the doing of work other than locomotivo has gone liiiward, during the present century, in a similar manner, and has proiiucod amilogoiis results. Whenever il has been po.ssihlo to substitute fuel energy for human or anim.'il energy in the thousand and one moihanieal opjiaticns uso II largo mun'tu lor ovuporulion iniil rmlidtion! Kiitiiro ugoH will Hoe vn- tly more Ihun ai prosont ot (ho loarNo aiul roii^ni lalioiir of life an modify. Thonilbro, iih iIui labour ab-orl.od in prodiiciiii' " '■""" lily di'ciraHjM in value ho will that coniinoiliiy dcfrou«io in valuo. What is moaiU by tho " valuo of labour ?' Wo moan the nmuunt and vuluo, un moiiKurod by tho cohI, of labour ali>oi hod in produoing tho labour. And by labour is lo |,o umlorf hA, not nu'iidy tho labour of human bfin;;.-*, but '■ ciioruy " mi it.-, wido.it Moiiho, that in. loot pouriiU ol work doiio by wliatovor agomy iho work may bo otVo.tcd. Thoioloiv, if (ho pro iiiction of a rommo. dity loiiuiroK tho ubsorption of a fcituiii iiuantily of "fool pound-." of work, Ihun Iho loss cosily (ho onorgy in llml is u.sed lo olloct ihoso tiiol pounds Iho loss co-tly will tho uominodity bo. And whut In mount by ■• loss costly ono'my ' is tbut loss onoi^v bus l)oen absorbed In producing lhi\ onor;,'y ihan would hiiv-! bcon ubiiorbod in producing unoi|;y of unothor kind Tho roducc thir nomowhal com|)licatod statomont to a concrolo oxample, tuko (ho lollowing : Suppose Ihoro in a co.'lain woik to !)c ibmo of a simj,|i. kind, such as pumping w.itor, thai might bo n.': formed citho.' by huiniini auimut or fuol onorgy, Tho (|uanli , .f work dimo, the numbor of fool pounds niincil, iho amount of onorgy oxiiomlcd in anyc;iHc is tho sumo. Let tho i|uuiiliiy ol work hi! I.'J.^llO million liioi poui.ds, which would aboul loproscnt thu daily oxcrliou needed to pump Ihe water ..U|.piy for a town of :iUO,ilOO iidiabilanis * to a height Ol Kio foot. To use huniiin energy for iho peif. nuance of tliim work (;,l.'On men would bo reciuireil i : animal onoigy would reiiiiire 1,000 horses, and fuel energy would require (he com- bustion of about 20,40(1 pounds of coal |, or roughly i;{ (Ameri- can) tons. By any of (hose agencies wo could do (ho work. Six thousand m«n, one thousand horses, or thirteen i )n^^of co;i| : each of thorn is tho •• pofnitin! " of (he offoctivo energy needed to pump tlio water to the -lesiivil height. Bui soe how dillore-it is tho value of the dilferonl energies, and how much more costly the water would be if pumpod by tho human energy insload of by (he fuel. Kach of the six thousand men wouM have lo have been maiiitaiiicd and widl nourished from birlh up to about 25 yo.irsof age in order to be capable of pultin.u Citli tho exerliou required, and this ropro.-.ents a very huge amoiiiii of oxor'ioii and eneri^y exi)ondod both by himself and oiher- in the jji-ovidingof food and shelter during that long period. Haeh (,f Iho one thousimd horses would ill o have to have been reared, fed and ier.dod lor s.-voii or eight yours from birth before being cipable rd' performing the duty above indicate 1, and (his also imjdies a huge exiionditurc of energy in order that the hovso labcmr may be available when re- quired, liiit Iho fuol energy is ..bl.iiricil meroly by ihe exjicdi- tare of the energy necessiiry (o extiuci ihc coal from ibe earth. Tho energy is in the fuel, implanied in it by the sun ,s ia,r thou- sands of years ago, and waiting to be liberated by the jn-oecss of eombustiim, II dons hqi re.juire to be biiil! up, a>^ if were, by a • 12 mmion ((t. S.) Kiillons, Mking lii) milldiis per lioiiil a.s thu roriuisii,. riciuntily. t Takirid tho c.leotivo encrKv of cai-li iimii ui 2,'M.ii ii r„ut i>ouiul» pur diem ; This \t assumiiiK tlie oflVctive enern.v uf tho fuel ut 5 hit cont. u( iho tot„| oiiergv tho tota[ onoi-gy beiriK Uluiillioii It. \\,f. per iimiiid ut' (.-duI. ' ' y slow and careful procesH, an in tlio ciiHe of moii and \\om\A, but whenever we posHoss the fuel wo have a concentrated mr.^s of energy, ready for imraediato u.so, or that can be stored for use at any future period. The co^t of tliis Hourco of energy is much Iosm than the cost of ueini,' men or animals as our source. For when we employ men or animals wc have not only to j,'ive as the remuneration of their labour the cosi, of the matrix whence their energy i» derived (i.e., their food), but wo also have to r^^munorate the liibouf involved in producing the man or the horse in the proper stiongth and condition to do the woi'U ; wo have to take account of tlie energy previously expended in a series of years to produce the energy wo are about to use. But when we got our work performed by the energy of fuel the problem is ilirtorent. We are not required to remunerate the sun for the w.>rk he did thousands of years ago in storing up his energy in the t'nol for us ; we merely have Uj consider tho cost and remuneration (based upon the cost) of th.> machine through wliidi tho fuel enorgv is turned into wjrk, ami the cost of the coal. The eni?)!/)/ inilie fuel we obtained with the coal, and it costs us no greater expendi- ture of ei;ergy to dig coal from the earth than to dig stone. We may make a roug'i comparison of these tiu'oo energies by reducing tho matrix whence each energy is derived to the com- mon measure of a money value. For the men and horses the matrix is, of course, their food, for tho engine it is the fuel. The daily fooil of tJ.OOO men would cost $1,SOO.OO " " 1,000 horses " " 300.00 Thirteen tons of coal " " 52.00 But, as pointed out betbre, the cost of the food for the men and horses represents only a fraction of what would lie the cost of em- ploying ' '-esc agenries to supply the needed energy. The wages of the men would (in this country at least) be quite four limes tho cost .,f their daily food. The co.st of the horse labour, in- cluding the wages of men required to contnd and tend the horses would bo not less than 3i times tho cost of tho horse fb(Kl. But the cost of the human laliour required to superintend and direct the energy of the fuel in the engine would add only about two- thirds to the cost of tho coal.* Therefore we may expand the comparison of the cost of labour I'oi' doing this pumping work as follows: — By men, per diem S7,L'()0.00 Byhorees" " 1050.00 Bycoal " " 87.00 This is for labour alone in each case. Nothing is said of the cost of the machinery that would in any event be needeil. Wo can see at a glance nov how much more valuable the water would be if the pumping were done by human energy instead of fuel energy. Labour is thf cause of value, but human labour in such a case as this would make the water ^o valuable us to put it beyond the roach of most people. It is only when we use the chea]) labour of fuel that tho cost of this commodity can bo brought low enough to be purchaseablo by all, even tho ])ooro,sl. If water were pumped for a city by human labour it would be so expensive a luxury that none could atford to use it. Kven slave labour, where the slaves were captured in war, would bo loo costly. It is only since man has discovered the /.iieap labour of fuel that it has been possilile to pump water to supply the needs of largo cities. This view of labour and eneigy has been dealt with for the purpose of emphasizing the fact that labour, in tho scionco of political economy, should not mear> human labour onlv, but should be undersiood as the upjilieation of omrgy to matter. Labour is tho basis upo,; which all transactions connected with the accumulation and distri'iiitiori of wealth rest, and therifbie the problems of labour ar<' those which should Mrst bo solved. It is the more necos.sary to draw attention to the view of lidiour • " A Treatise on Water .Supply KujfinmriuK," !>>• J. T. FaiininK, j.. 575. .N'.V. ; I). Vaii- nuatrauj. above 8et forth, hocuuso writers on political econoniy have almost entirely idontirio,! labour with human lubour pure and simple; have, therelbro, con.idored the cost oflabour as boin« almoHt HynonymouH wit,, th., rate „f wages ; and-.^ecognizinK labour as the cause of value-have reached the erroneous con elusion that a lowering of the cost of production of commodities (and therefore a cheapening of commodities) can be brouwht about only by-or as .iependeut chiefly upon-a loweriuL^ of the rate of wages. That this conclusion is erroneous the j.iain facts of every day life abundantly tell us. Commo.litics have wonder- ally ,lecrease.l in j.rico of late yea.^s, and y,i wages have risen : theoxpianalion being that commo.lities are now to a «reat ex- tent producci by u quite different, and perhaps cheaper^ kind of labour roM, that used sevonty-five years ago; and have there- lore fallen ,n value (and in price, as being a measure of value) in accordance with the proposition that "The value of the labour involved In the pn.. or eight men, therefore • I'y the help of water carriage, can convey and brin- back the -same quantity of goods belu-een London and lvlinl)ur"-h ^is fiftv " broadwhceled waggons, attended by a hundred men, and drawn ••by tour hundrwl horses. Upon tw., hundred tons of ..oods •_ I herotore, carried by the chcpost land carriage from London' • to Edinburgh, there must be charge.! the maintenance of a hundred men for three weeks, and both the maintenance and ' what IS nearly equal (o i|„. maintenance, the wear and tear o|' "lour hundred hor.ses, as well as of fifty groat waggons. Whereas ' upon the same quantity of goods carrie.l by water, there is to be charged only the maintenance of six or eight men. and the ••wear and tear of a ship of two bumlred tons burthen, to-ether •' with the value of the supi'iior risk, or the difference of th.. "insurance between lan.l and water carriage. Were there n., ' other communicati.)n between those tw., places, therefore but •' by land carriage, as no go.„lH c.ul.i be transporled Iron, the one '•to the 01 her. except such whose pric.^ was very considerable in " pr.)imrtion to their weight, they could carrv .... but a small '• |>art of that con.merco which at p.^escnt subsists betwee., them " and c..nse.[uently could give but a small part .,f that encour- ■'ag,.ment wbh^b they at p,oseni mutuallv aflord t., each other's "in.lustiy. 'fhorecoul.l b.. little or ..., commerce of any kJ.id " between the .lista.it parts of the worl.l. What go.).ls' could I' bear the expe.ise of land ca.Tiage betwee.. Lon.lon and Cal- "cutta'? Or If theie were any so precious as l.. be able to suu- "poit this expense, with what safety could thev be transported " through the lerrit.uMes of s., many barlm.'O.is nations .' Those a " two citiert, however, nt present carry on a very oonsidorabla " eoraraerco with eacli other, iind by mutually all'orcling a market, "i^ivo a good deal oC onuouragoment to each other's indimtry," " Since such, theioforo, are the advantages of water carriage, " it it natural that the first improvements of art and industry "should be made where* this convenioncy opens the whole world "for a market to the produce of every sort of labour, and that "they slK)uld alwa3-s bo much later in extending tliemsolvcs into " the inland parts of the country. The iidand )iarts of the coun- "try can, for a long time, have no othei' market foi' the greater " part of their goods, but the country which lies round about "them, and separates them from the sea coast, and the great " navigable rivers In our North American Uolo- '' nies the plantations have constantly followed either the sea " coast or the banks of the navigable rivoi's, and have scarce an v " where extended themselves to any considerable distance from " both." ' Thus wrote Adam Smith, and the deductions that he drew from the facts presented to him, were undoubtedly sound. At that time man had at his con-.mand no other agency for the convey- ance of commodities on land than the energy of men or animals ; no other agency for their conveyance by sea than the energy of the wind. These energies, widely unlike though they seem, we now know owe their being to the same parentage, the solar rays. Since Smith's day we havodi>covered how to uiO the solar energy through the combustion of fuel. This now convoys our goods for lis on land as well as on sou ; and does it so cheaply, that the difi'erence in cost between land and water carriage is inconsidoi'- able. The results flowing from this it is almost impossible to enumerate. Kvery jiart of the country, no matter how fur inland or remote from a navigable river, is now accessible to every market in the world. Populous towns that in former times of necessity grew only on the sea coast, or on the banks of large rivers, so that by water <'arriage their' want-, niiuht bo supplied, are now to be found far inland, distant irom any waterway, and yet unconscious of any disability as the result of this position ; as instance, the largo inland cities of iho Uniteil States. Withoui fuel labour and the locomotive, it would have been impossible to have peopled the North American (Jontinent as wo see it to-day. The conveyance of iummodities enormous distances, and in vast iiuantities on land, is now scarcely moi'c costly than Ibrmerly it was by water, and every day the cost is being lieci-eused. If an all rail route were construi'ted from London to Calcutta, as doubtless will be done some day, goods of many kinds would be brought by it to England, and the cost of bringing them would be no bar to their use. Since Smith's day, all the conditions ot the economic problem have Ijcon utterly cliangeil ; what appeared to him ridiculously impossible, is nou- a maiter of every day occurrence; and all ibis has been biought about by the introduc- tion of cheap labour; not such hibour as ho tboiighl of and wrote about, but labour in tlio wide sens.' of the application of energy to matter. But, though it was not to be expected lliul Adam Smith should be able to forsee the etfect of the introduction of a power that waj* unknown in his day and geneivUion, h is sui'prising to timl thai HO great and so recent an author as .lohn .Stuart .Mill, shoulil have dealt with the question of labour as being confined .solely and entirely to human laboui'. His whole theoiy of |)roduetion is built upon this view of labour, with the result, thai his con- clusions ari' erroneous. The writer is well aware, that in confut- ing the doctrines of a man so emineni as .Mr. Mill, be is doing that which will lay him open to the charge of rashness, but the work is undei'takon simply from ,-i desire to set foitb tlie Iruth on a subject that is extremely dithcult and complicated. That Mr. Mill contines himself to the restricted view ot labour as stated above, a few extracts from his work will abundantly ' Wealth of Natioua." Chapter III. Book l.~ ' 12 Hhow. The quotations are from " Pi'inciplew of Political " Economy," book i., chapter x., " Of tho Law of the increase of " Labour." The steps of his urnumcnt are as follows : " Production is not a tixoil, but iin increasing thing. * * " * Nothing in Poiiticiil Kconomy can be of more import- " anco Iban to ascertiiiti tiio law of this increase of ])ro(lu(lion ; '• tho conditions U> which it i> sulijocl ; who! her it has priiclically " any limits, ami what these are. * * * * * " We have soon llmt the essential requisites of production are " three,— labour, eapital, and natural agents; tho term capital, " including all external and pliysiciai roiiuisitos which are pro- " ducts of labour, tho term natural agents all those which ore ' ""f- * * * NN'e may say then, without a greater " strol(di ol language than iindor the necessary e.\-pIanations is " permissible, thai the re(iiiisites ol'pi'oductioii aro laiioiir, eapital, " and land. Tho increase of production, theref )ro, depends on flic properties of these elements, ft is a result of tho increase, " either of tho olomonts therasolvos or of thoi>- productivones.s. " Tho law of tho increase of production must bo a consor|ueMcc of " tho laws of these elements ; tlie limits of the increase of pro- " il- 3lion must be tho limits, whatevorthey are, set by those laws. " We proceed to consider the three elements successively, with •' reference to this effect; or in other words, the law of the " increase of production, viewed in respect of its dejiondenco, " first on labour, secondly on capital, and lastly on land." " The increase of labour is the increase of mankind ; of popula- " tion." Mr. Mill then proceeds to discuss all the various circumstances and conditions governing the increase of population ; tlio <|ues- tions of natural fecundity, of marriage, of the circumstances that encourage or check marriage ; of the circumstances that conduce to the production, roaring and maintenance of large or small families, etc. In view of what we have lieen considering, this view of labour is utterly liillaeious, and when extended logically — as il is by Mr. Mill — to the (|uestion of wages, .ost of produc- tion, etc., inevitably loads to fai>o conclusions. The increase of labour i.s not the increase of raankin.l. It, is the increase of the application of the enei'gy of motion io matter, but that energy of motion is not necessarily the energy of human beings By the discovery of how to convert the eneigy of heat into work a large addition has been made to the amount .u labour done in the world, without any increase in the aniouiu of human labour performed,— nay rather, with a concomitant decrease of human labour. A simple invention that secured some of the heat that at present, wiih our imperfect engines, esea|)es and is lost, and converted this heat into work, woald be an increase of labour; and this without any increase of human workers, or even of tho quantity of fuel consumed. This is a matter of such very day occarronco, thai ))eoiile are prone to miss tho true signiticariee ol' tho hirge, broad facts llial lie constantly bolbre them. The work of cimveyiug goods Ironi place to place on lan.l is now carried on to an extent never boioro .seen in the world ; the labour expended in this is fur greater than ever before; but this labour is mainly fuel energy, not human energy. The engine driver, conductor and brakemon on a fi eight train, are ihero merely ti)r the pur- pose of controlling and managing the eiiei'gy of the fuel ; the actual work— the labour of moving (he train— is done bv this energy and not by the men who .'ontrol ii, just as the foreman olagang of labourers merely controls and directs the energy of the laboureis ; ihe work is done by tliera, not by the tbr"nian. Adam Smith, with the da'.i at his command would jtronounco it impossible that lli,' common necessaries ot liie could bo tran.s- ported hundreds of miles overland to siipjily the wants oi a lar-'e town population; the cost ot the labour involved in lUv transiu'- tion; the expense of the hundreds ol men and horses needeii Io; the work; would be so gieal that ihe town popidalion could not atloid to pui'chase the necessaries of life, in othei' wurds thoy 13 could not exist; and (horof.iro lari;o t.iwiiM ('(Mild only }j;m\y iioar the Hea coast .)!• oti tho bimkn of— „r clnso lo—navi-ablo rivers. Hut by dispensing with Ihi.s cosily Imnian and animal labour, by Hubstituting for it a much clieapcH' and far more otHciont kind of laiioiii', the work that was in Adam Smith's time ulioriy inipos- sible, is now f that knowledge, during the present century. To arcrue th'it increase of production, resulting from increase of labour'' can be brought about only by an increase of human labourers, or an in- crease in their efficiency, is to lo.se sight of what men of science have been doing during the past 50 years. LMboiir has increased and production has increased, not by adding to the laborers but by dispensing with the labourers ; not bv rendering their labour more efficient, but by using .'i diflei'cnt. source whence to derive the energy their bodies tbrnierly supplied. T,) aiiempt at the pie .sent day to furnish all the labour re,,uired to cany on the worldsdaily life, from the energy „f men and animals would result in the complete break down ..f the .social machine Kveiv large town w.iuld in a short time be rcluced to starvation ' Th"e shareofthe world's labour that is now borne by fuel ener-v is almost beyond our power to measure: but if unv catastmohe were su.ldenly to deprive us of this power, and we were to be rey im. tho woric of iLo w,.i Id will b^> dono by fiiol cn,w;,'y, or ,U Iom.1 by onor^^y olber than human ; imman onor«y will 1.0 aimo-1 solely oiaployod in merely directing and controlling (he inanimate energy of fuel or eloc^tricity Tho cheap labour resulting from this wide application of cncr-y will not only largely dccrcuHC (he eost of pn.hiclion of commodities ''"\;'''" ••'''^' •-"■ly !'"■'•""•'" 'he quantity ,.roduced. Com'- n.odities will thoivforo be more widely dlR.eminatod amom; maiikmd ; in other words a far larger portion of the human race will ciipy I ho comforts and luxnri..s of life then at present enjoy them. What are liixin-ies mow -far heyon.l t!ie roach of "the l)oororclusses-.will then bo nncossarics at I h.' service of all Tlie work of the human toilers will bo in a fi,- greater degree than at pi-e8ent,merelydirectivo,controlli„ganniui with an extra.^t from a report to tho fuiie.! States Irovernment, mtulo in 1S8^. o,, Te.doiical Kducation ; ' which ropt.rt shows that now. in a tiictorv where seventy pi,, ,„:,ki„„. machines were at work, ten.lcd by „„|y fjv. men in all, 7 ;V)0 000 inns are turned out per diem. To do this amount oi wo,.k in .^tnithsday the lahour of one hundred and tif(v-six men would have b..en roquir..d ; now only live, nw\ these live meiely fo- the IMirpose of Kuiding and controlling the luol energy. In this in , wo. "10. Til., iib.iv,. cii..|ili,li.,iis jiini. Ii|., INcwYnrk : I). .■\,.,.letiin.k('„., -. " Kwciit l.,'c.>iiciiiiic. OiimiK.'s." ,). i>.h, inii.li. from dutii fLii.ni..ili(.(l in .Mr, Well.'' mi'e .' Jbul:,,.SO, :i"W™IU,,.r.Vu,i„„s.'''li„„Ul. Cl„u„erl. 4 Iteccnt Eoononno . h„nge,.," „. ,VI. VUe report i« by U. S. Comul ScboeuhnlV. 16 stanee practically tlio whole luhuiir has been displacod by fuel labour. Wo may UHhumci tliat the sainu amount of " work " in done, of "toot poiiiuls" abnorbod, in .nak.n^r 7,500,000 pins to-day an in Smith's day ; but there is this dillercnco, that now wo ob- tain our foot i)oiinds from thu enor^y of boat evolved in the com- bustion of fuel, whereas in Smith's time it was obtained from the food comsumi'd by one hundrol and tifty-six men. Numerous other instances, all siiewin^ the same tendency to substitute fuel energy for human energy in the doinj,' of work, could l)e fur- nished ; and the reason for this substitution, and the etloet of it is always the same, viz.. to reduce the cost of production of commodities. Perhaps it may be objected that such displacement of luiman labour by fuel labour is not bcneticial to the human race ; that the workers thus thrown out of employment are noce.ssarily placed in hard straits. Uut this objection, though at tirst sight reasonable, is not valid. Though the workers are displacetl in particular handicrults and occupations, yet the great increase of production caused by the employment of fuel labour in sucJi triides, causes a vast development of employment for human labour in related occupations and trades. The introduction ot fuel labour has been of great benefit to the human race, as is shown by the uni)aialloled inci'case of pojiulation that has taken place during the present century since the introduction of fuel labour. Population uiU increase just as fast as, and no faster than, the means of subsistence increase. Xow the etiect of the introduction of fuel labour has been largely to reduce the price of commodities, and to increase wages; in oilier words, the means of subsistence has been brought within the roach of a much larger number of people than formerly, and have been sup- plied moi'o amply and fully. Thoi'ofore, population should increase. That it has increased wonderlully, statistics amply prove. In the 300 years from 1300 lo KlOO, the population of b]nglan(i and "Wales did not double (2,.500,0(MI to 4,812,000); in the 200 years from ItiOO to 1800, it did not double (4,812,000 to 0,335,000) ; but between 1801 and 1888, it has incieased over thioo times (9,335,000 to 28,(;00,(I00), besides the very largo numbers that have been thrown off by emigration. The nineteenth century has been much more favourable to the e.xpan>ion of the human race than any jireceding centuiy, because the introduction of fuel labour lias rendered the means of subsisteme so much more easily attained. To the Kngineer— the Civil or Mechanical lOnginoor— the view of labour set iorth in the jireceding pages can hardly fail to be of interest. Our work consists mainly of devising means for substi- tuting other energy for human, in the doing of all kinds of work, and in preparing ways tor the more complete attainment of (his! All kinds ofsteam-driven, hydraulic or electrical macluncrv, liavo this object in view; so too, has the construciion ofall railways, canals, electrical I'ailways, cable car .systems, etc. The root idea is always to economise energy, to substitute a less cosily tor a more costly energy, to make the eneigy we are at present using do more work if possible than it formerly did. The etiect of this is to reduce (be cost of producing those commodities that are necesxary for the sustaining and developing of human life, and to sujiply those commodities in greater profusion. Our work has been so thoroughly done,— tri|ile exjiansion marine engines have .so reduced the cost of convoying commoililies, and cheap energy the cost of producing them— that politicians have felt themselves called upon to interfere, and by taxation to nullity the results that our labours would olherwiso ))roduco. " Protection," as it is called, counteracts what .science achieves. Hut I he discu.ssion ofMii- would lead to matters i'oieitrn to a and, theretore, having reached ih paper may fittingly be brouLdil l( uty of engineers; IS lioint, this already lengthy ) a conclusion. ( j UANVHjIjH O -HfJTV NINOltAM ToaoNTO, I'Jth March, 1891. Mri-Af JC~AI Cn; .^v„. /' 1^- lU