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MACKINLAY 1883 5 53 1978 EftfereJ according to Act of Parliament bj Wm. ISBISTER, /• /^ office of the Minister of Agriculture. Ottawa, .883. 1 PEEFACK 8* Hatoio been wqnesled fcy the Pablishers to mite o small work on the subject of Health, whieh m^t bo ueeW to U,e elder scholar in schools aod to the pnbli" gene™l y, I h.ve done so in the hope that it may s„p7y a want of pmoe magnitude. The limited size of Uie work as well as the somewhat youthful persons to whomTfa ch,cfly addressed, have rendered it as dilficult as nZl^ make a selection of materials, and to use ver^ pZ an^ s.mple language. I hope the subjects introduTed w^U be deemed worthy of careful consideration, and that the flmilia tadfrs Sh" m"' »°' "" -""-P'-'fclo «o any class 1 ., \ ^ ""^ ""y portion, as for example the chapter theatraZeZ T ''"'°"' "^ '""'^ ""> '« 'dv-ced' or de?er dfor ft T^.P'™"'' «■« "ading of it may be oelerred for a time ; but it is hoped that none is bevood .ho oomprehens.on of adults in the masses of tha people^ Sh„Sd series, i shall hope that the instruction may not be limited EI>WAIiD SMITH 140, Sariey Street, January, 187^ cr II. III. CONTENTS. CHAP. Preface . . Intkoductory I. Solid Foods; — Sugar Honey Fat Starch Flour Dried Peas, Beans, and Lentils 13read . , • • • Rice, Sago, Arrowroot, and Tap Fresh Vegetables . liutchers' Meat . Uncooked Meat . Offal . . . Gelatin and Isinglass Bacon . Poultry and Game Cheese . Fish . . . ; Eggs . . . , II. Liquid Foods: — Milk .... Water .... Tea and Coffee . Beer, Wine, and Spirits III. General Questions Relating to Digostibiiity of Solid Foods Coadimcnta . , loca Food PAOB V 1 6 7 8 12 14 16 17 20 23 28 32 33 34 36 36 37 38 39 41 44 48 63 56 68 Till C O N T K N T S. 0*-». roisonous Substances sometimes Eaten .... 69 Tobacco gQ Hints about Cooiiing (52 IV. Clothing yo V. Movements of toe Body: — Exertion y^ Occupation -j-j Itecrcation yo Gymnastics g2 VI. Eest and Sleep 95 VII. Cleanliness and Bathino ...... 104 VIII. Dwellings: — Houses ^ jQQ Ventilation , , , jjg IX. Sketch op Pqysioloot , . 120 X. Atmospoeric Conditions: — Elements of the Atmosphere 136 Pressure ^ ^ 142 Moisture , , . , 143 Electricity 146 Liyht 147 XI. The Mind and Mental Wobk 150 XII. The Special Senses: — The Eye . I55 Ophthalmia in Schools 161 The Ear . . . 164 The Nose I70 Stuttering 170 XIII. General Remarks on Personal Conduct and Health, 172 XIV. The Sick-Room : — Contagious Diseases I79 Colds, Coughs, Bronchitis, and Asthma . . . .181 Rheumatism . . „ 190 Headache, &c. . . . , 192 rAOK fi9 60 62 70 . 74 . 77 . 80 . 82 . 95 . 104 . 109 . 116 . 120 . 136 . 142 . 143 . 146 . 147 . 150 . 155 . 161 . 164 . 170 . 170 /ILTH, 172 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Fir,. Exercises 1. Fat Cells i\ Man . 2 ifc 3. Otiieu Fat Cells 4. Fat Cells of the Coioa Nut 6. Gloiu'les ..f (jiL IN Cueam and Milk 6. Stakcii Cklls op many Plants 7. Yeast Cells .... 8. Section of Healthy Potato ®' " Diseased Potato . 10. «' II „ 11. Stkawperry Cells . 12. Musculau Fihre 13. A Cistern Filter 14 to 34. Illustrations op Gymnastic 35. Section op the Heart 36 Scheme of the Circulation 37. Circulation rv fUE Frog's Foot 38. Circulation :;,- the India-Rubher Plant 39. Blood Corpuscles op numerous Animals 40. The Lungs . * • • • » 41. Section of the Skin 42. Stomata on Mouths of Plants 43. The Iris in the Eye 44. Section of the Eye 45. Section or the Ear 40. Ossicles, or Little Bones of the Ear 47. The Cochlea of the Ear 48. The Ladyuintu op the Ear TAGS . 9 . 9 . 10 . 10 . 13 . 16 . 25 . 25 . 26 . 26 . 28 . 46 86 to 94 . 123 . 124 . 125 . 126 . 126 . 127 . 134 . 140 . 156 . 158 . 1G6 . IG7 . ins . 169 ■I A' 1 to f N 81^ -^ cai faoi evi of tall wo Wc fas] disi pre and groi A rem the ovei trad i I HEALTH. INTRODUCTORY. liTER ages of apathy, the people of this conntry have beffrm to recognifle the fact that the mortality amongst m is exces- sive, and Bhould bo diminished. We now see in sickness the cause as well as the fruit of poverty, and in a low tone of health the antecedent of sickneflH. and are convinced that the evil may be ameliorated. Thi aviction is no doubt a pledge of better things ; for, if we ;^. .d lesson disease and mor- tahty, we must remove or lessen their causes, aii4 to do so wo must inquire into them and devise suitable remedies. We have now arrived at a period wbon it has become even fashionable to speak of the origin of the most contagious diseases as due to preventible causes, and may therefore be presumed to have passed the shifting sands of mere theory and speculation, and to have placed our feet on the fiim ground of ascertained facts. Acting on this truth, great efforts are now put forth to remove such unsanitary conditions as may affect masses of the people, as defective drainage, accumulations of filth overcrowded rooms, ill-ventilated workshops, and injuiious trades, and to provide a supply of para air and water. HEALTH. all Of which tend both to prevent the occurrence of some epidemic diseases affecting many at the same moment, and elevate the tone of health of individuals. Legislation is active and official persons abound in every locahty whose duty It IS to enforce the law, and all that can bo done for a people makes satisfactory progress. The next and yet Jaore difficult and important step is to bring about that which can be done hj the people. Until those for whom we legislate are well informed on the subject of legislation, the progress, if sure, will be slow; but let us so en ighten the masses of the people that they shall indi- vidually appreciate the benefits to be conferred, and wiUinr'lv assist, and success wUl be rapidly attained. «anitary knowledge is still almost restricted to the few ptonZnTf "^ '"'''"' ""' ^'^ "''' ^^^^ "^ -^verk« a.iong the labouring men and their wives, who, with their children, furnish the chief part of the povert;, sickness and mortality of the country-or, in oth'er wofds, arc "he chief victims of unsanitary influences. Yet the beginning of better things appears in tracts and lectures on health! and m the influence of a certain number of persons of both sexes in numerous localities. _ The most hopeful effort is, however, that which seeks to instil sanitary knowledge into the minds of the young at the same time that they acquire the information which is' to ail them in per orming the active duties of life, and to show that however valuable the latter may be to ensure an income, the Wer IS yet more useful, in preventing sickness and dJath. When, a the same time, the precepts thus inculcated are educed to practice, we may look for a generation of men longei life than ourselves, and who will increase and hand down their knowledge to theii- children. INTRODUCTORY. !o of some )mcnt, and ?islation is lity whoso \onQ for a step is to le. Until ho subject but let us 3hall indi- 1 willingly 3 the few y converts vith their sickness, 3, are the beginning 'n health, 3 of both seeks to 3g, at the is to aid ihow that ;ome, the d death. :atcd are of men alth and lid hand _ Such IS the aim of the present work. It is intended to inform the mmd on the subjects involved in the word Health, to show how health may bo retained and ill-health avoided and to add to the pleasure and usefulness of life. It ad- dresses itself primarily to the young of both sexes, and although It necessarily embraces subjects of some difficulty to them, It is made less difficult by the omission of technical terms, and the use of plain language and simple statements. Hence if read at school or by the fireside, its statements will be readily explained ^nd all that is vakiablo may bo com- muted to memory. But it is equally written for those of more advanced age, whose minds have not been specially directed to the subject, and It will, It is hoped, afi^ord information to both the poor and rich members of the community. A moment's reflection will show how wide is the subject of health for it not only embraces a knowledge of the struc- tures and functions of the body, but of all the influences which act upon It from without. Nothing is too great to be included or too small to be excluded by it. Hence a new difficulty arises, hat of determining what shall be introduced and what wi hheld and how much each subject may be discussed ; for If the subject be so vast, what proportion of it can be com- pessed mto a very small book? This would be treated dfferently by different authors, as each formed his estimate the relative importance of the subjects to chose whom he desired to instruct, and according to his own taste and know- ledge in selecting and treating them. I can, therefore, hope only to have exercised a discretion which may not be very unwise and, with whatever ability I possess, to havo treated the subjects truthfully and simply. With the subjects selected, it matters, perhaps, lltilo ns <<, the order m which they shall be treated, and yet some ix^d HEALTH. feodties of tho youDR, and tho advantage of gainins ralLr ban of repomng. their attention. Hence, whil t f w nl doubUess be more logical first to explain tho ,trnctu7e and acton of tho body, and tho properties of the atmosphere which snrroundsit.and then to proceed to otherminnte dcta Is t may be asserted that tho children of this conntry won M M o understand ,t, and would grow weary of tho subjec It seems des.rablo to begin with a short account of foods smco they are famUiar, and of daily use and obs! vatiot' and to defer tho n.>,.e scientific and abstruse questions to tho end of tho volume, in the hope that, on arriving hem, the mmd of tho reader will bo better prepared for thour oonsideratioo and appreheniiion. indevelopcd oing, rather t it would, ucture and atmosphere lute details, ^ would fail he subject, t of foods, bservatioD, d to none, questions irriving at Bpared for CHAPTER L SOLID FOODS. Foods are not eaten indiscriminately, but carefully selected according to their qualities, so that some are popularly known to be stronger than others, and to have a special fitness for certain seasons or kinds of work. This knowledge may be very general, but it is not the less real ; and the duty of science is to render it more precise by careful researches, and to explain the reasons for the course which experience has d coated. ITiis has led to a division of foods according tenlhftrw? ^' "^'^''"^ composition, and we are now taught that they act in two ways, viz., by warming and Ttln ^° ^'^^' ^"^^ '^" ^^^'^^ ^« ^°* «ff«<'* both ob- jects, so that some ore said to produce heat and others to repai waste. Thus sugar, fat, and starch make heat only! BTTGAB* anKLt^T^ ^"'"'^^ '" ^''^'^ ^'^* particularly in fruits, ZtZ ft '° ^''«° ^''"''"^^'^ f'°°^ tb« J«i«es of many plants, as the sugar-cane. fln0nr.rnoni. „nd '— -v I IS obtamed in crystals, mixed with a little treacle in moist HEALTH. «ugar, but pure and made white by purification in loaf sugar. Iho lai^ger the crystals and the less the treacle, the purer is he moist sugar, whilst the whiter and harder the loaf sugar the better is the quality. ^ That part of the juice in the sugar-cane which does not form crystals but remains a thick fluid, is called treacle, and. although very sweet, is less pure than sugar. When sugar IS being purified so as to make loaf sugar, the treacle rung out of It and IS called golden syrup, and is purer, although perhaps less sweet, than treacle from the cane juice There is also much sugar in milk, which is obtained in crystals, but it is more costly, and does not sweeten so well as cane-sugar. * There are, therefore, three kinds of separated sugar in actual use,-viz., cane sugar, fruit sugar, and milk sugar, but the first IS much more abundant than both the others Sugar IS a valuable and universal food, and one by which other foods are made more palatable, and their nutritious qualities increased, but it is possible to eat it in excess. Thus when It IS added in a large quantity to milk for infants, it lessens the proportion of that pari which repairs the body, and thereby tends to make the child unduly fat, whilst at the same time it destroys the relish for foods which are not so sweet. It IS not taken alone, as a necessary food, but as a luxury and IS very liable to cause indigestion and bilious attacks! Hence, although so agreeable and useful, it should be eaten with foods m moderation, and the quantity may be reduced to a very low point without serious consequences It is eaten in much larger proportion by the young than the old. and m hot than in cold countries, but usuaUy from two to tour ounces are eaten daily in our foods. It is interesting to know the quantity which is usually lound m foods, and it is shown in the following table. HONEY. loaf sugar, bo purer is I loaf sugar b does not eacle, and, Tien sugar reacle rung ', although 6. btained in m so well, i sugar in lilk sugar, others. by which nutritious is. Thus, infants, it the body, ilst at the ire not so I a luxury, 3 attacks. be eaten ) reduced )s. It is a the old, m two to 3 usually e. Table No. 1. Kumier of pounds of sugar ^'^i<^hJ^reJound^ in m pounds of the foUoiciny Kiee aad Indian meal Peas Turnips Crotiin Potatoes Bread Eye meal . , Wheat flour . Bailey meal . , Now mi!k Oatmeal and Skim Jlilk Parsnips . , Butter Milk . Beer and Porter , Treacle . , Moist tSugar . , lbs. . 0-4 . 2-0 . 2-1 . 2-8 > 3-2 , 3-8 . 37 . 4-2 , 4-9 6-2 6-4 6-8 6-4 87 770 950 HONEY. The Chief food-ingredient in honey is sugar, which cor- responds m character with fruit sugar. It is collected ir. n^ t""' '* '' already formed, and is not pro- duced by he bees. It has a peculiar flavour, which is also denved from flowers, and in some instance has been poisonous ; but, speaking generally, it is a very agreeable and useful food. The collection of honey may be effected at a very small cost and greatly to the advantage of the cottager, so that it is a matter of great surprise that much more is not obtamed. One swarm of bees, which may be may, however, be r<^uli?^^ i" iod or Ti^nal T^ 'T''' '^^^^ of ten, a,>d therefore half of a noS t ^ch"^' idV"\'"-"f ?^'''^ tea parts, and «> on with the other quaiftitfi. ^ "" '^'"''*^ "^^ 8 HEALTH. purchased for a few shillings, will prodnco others every year ; and there ia not the least difficulty in every cottager m the country paying a large part of his rent from this source alone— a source which scarcely gives him any trouble, and IS tolerably sure. Our working classes have not realised the advantages which they might gain from it, as weU as from the keeping of fowls, to which we shall hereafter refer, and by so doing they lose several pounds yearly. Let every householder keep hives, and increase the number with every swarm of bees. Honey was formerly much nsed in this country in the production of a kind of wine caUed mead, as well as to sweeten food, before sugar had been introduced ; but now it is more profitably sold as a luxury to those who wish to cat sweets with their bread and butter, at tea or breakfiiBt. It is a very good kind of sugar, but too luscious to bo eaten in large quantities without disordering the stomach. It is always desirable to bear in mind that it may have poisonous qualities if flowers of a certain kind abound in the neighbourhood ; and should it produce unusual effects, as sickness and giddiness, when taken in moderate quantities It should be discontinued. The best honey is obtained where there is a gi-eat variety of flowers, including, particu- larly, clover and heather. PAT. Fat and oil are similar substances, but the first remains solid, except in very hot, and the latter, fluid, except in very cold weather. ^ The fat of flesh is enclosed in little bags or cello (Fijrs. 1 to 3), so that it is usual to cut lumps into small pieces to aUow the £at to run out more readily when it is made Theee FAT. lora every y cottager this source onble, and t realised t as well I hereafter irly. Let tuber with ;ry in the sweeten it is more 5at sweetB > is a very 1 in large may have md in the Qfiects, fis [uantities, obtained f porticu- remains >t in very ; (Firrs. 1 11 pieces, ia made hot. The hardest is called suet (Fi. 8). Thoro is also fat m many vegetables, and particularly in nuts, and tMs -tt. Tig. t. Fat Cells in Mak. Blowing the ceU or bag a. and the contained semi-eolid fet I. ^80 is found in little bags or cells. A very large quaniitv 18 made from the nut of the palm-tree, the cocoa-futlnd Ihe Tig. 2. Fat Cells. ^ '^^^' Tliese represent a nnmb t of cells o» «j,n™- v /^ ^^^^* bags miea with iiit. °' ^^°^^ ^°^^. ^^^ ^ a crystalline form in the cella. Oil is found in nearly ovcry part of an animal, but particn- lO HEALTH. liirly about tho skin and foot, aswhalo oil, seal oil, and ncat's- fuot oil ; in tho liver of fisbos, as cod-liver oil ; in tho milk of animals, as the butter in cow's milk (I'ig. 5) ; in tho seeds of all i^lants, as linseed, rapesecd, mustard-seed, and cotton- Rocd oil ; in tho fruit of many trees, as tho olive oil from tba berry of the olive-tree ; in certain stones called shales ; ■ ,■■- w i Fiff. 4, Fat Ceils op thb Cocoa Nut. Tlicse cell!! aro six-sidod— not round, .MR in tlio piccoiling fl^nires— and are Mlf'il with mimy small masses of solid flit. Rff. 6. Glouules of Oil This cut represents the creara in milk before it is neparatcd and itiiido into butter. It consists of plohiilcs of nil sizes, and each one is said to Luvo an exceedingly fine covering. and it is collected in great quantities in cracks or openings in tho earth underground, as petroleum or rock oil. Some of these cannot be used as food in this country because they are not of an agreeable flavour; but as the taste of people varies, and particularly in dilfcrent parts of the world, the inhabitants of cold countries eat whale oil and oven tallow, whilst in this country we like the fresh fat of tho ll^-li of animals, butter from milk, and the dripping from roasttMl meat, and in hot countries they prefer oil to fat. Some people cannot eat every kind of fat of animals, but , and noat's- in tho milk in tho seeds and cotton- ivo oil from lied shales ; FAT. II ' Oil crenra in rnilk and miidc into rplolmlos of all is said to Luvo iveriflg. )pemngs in lis country IS the tasto irts of the lie oil and b fat of the )ping from to fat. limals, but only one, as butter or the fat of bacon, whilst others can cat every kind in ordinary use. Some eat very little fut, and even greatly dislike fats generally, whilst others are very fond of them ; but probably nobody exists who does not eat some quantity. It is not a sign of good health to refuse to oat fat generally, for fat is necessary, and we should eat probably from one to three ounces of it daily. But few persons knew how much fat they eat in the dif- ferent foods which do not appear to contain fat, as well as in flesh, and the following table may be useful to them. Table No. 2. TabU ahowitig the number of pouudn of fat in foods : — Potatoes, Carrots Parsnips , Butter Milk and Ilice Bread • . Skim Slilk Wheat Flour and Rye Meal Poiia Biirley Meal . White Fieh . Lean Beef • Parsley . , Ox Liver . Loan Mutton Salmon . Oatmeal. Skim Blilk Cheese Indian Moal . Eg? . . P^els , , Veal . . Tripe . , Cream . , Fat Beef Yolk of Et-g .... Cheddar Choose and Fat Mutton Fttt Pork 100 pounds of the following Iba. 0-2 0-5 0-7 1-6 1-8 2-0 2-1 2-4 2-9 3-6 3-8 41 49 5-5 6-6 6-3 81 10-5 13-8 lo-8 irv4 '2C,-7 •JU-H 3u7 31-1 48-9 13 HEALTH. PiVMrd Bncon . , , , Driod liacor: . . . , ' Uutter, Dripping, and uimilar fhts lbs. 83-0 Children who dishko fat cause much anxiety to parents, for they are almost always thin, and if not diseased, are not healthy. If care be not taken, they fall into a scrofulous condition, in which diseased joints, enlarged glands, sore eyes, and oven consumption occur, and every ellort should be made to overcome this dislike If attention be given to the foregoing remarks, there need be nc anxiety about the possibility of increasing the quantity consumed, whUst with neglect, the dislike will probably in. crease untH disease is produced. The chief period of growth ~\az. from seven to sixteen years of age-is the most im- portant in this respect, for a store of fat in the body is then esser*,ial. '' Those who are inclined to be fat usually like fat in food, and then it may be desirable to limit its use. But to this wo shall again refer. Some who cannot eat it when hot like it when cold, and all should select that kind which they prefer. Those living m Russia and Lapland devour very large quantities, as seven pounds daily, and eat it even raw, whilst those dwelling in hot countries use very little. It produces more heat than any other kind of food. ^ 8TAB0H* Every one knows starch as it is used in fltiffenJng linen, but does not know that he eats a great quantity of it every day It IS found largely in all kinds of grain, as wheat and rice, whilst fago, arrowroot, and tapioca are made almost entirely of it and ■Water. It is in bags or cells, which can be soon only b" th' STARCH. »3 Ib«. CO -8 7.'}-3 83-0 to parents, t diseased, fall into a 3, enlarged and every there need io quantity robably in- l of growth e most Jm- 3dy is then •at in food, to this wo cold, and lose living 3, as seven Iwolling in t than any linon, but •yday. It ice, whilst y ofit and ily by the microscope, and as the cells of each kind differ from every other in bIzo and form, or in their markings, one can Bay Fig. 6. Stauch Cells {mafjnijied). «, ^vheat; J' ««,^:.%rice: rf Potato; - tons Ics mois ; /. Cell wall ruptured by ary neat , g, cells of the rhubarb containing stai-ch granules. ^ Whether a starch cell is from rice, or wheat, &c., as in Fig. 6 _1» hen, however, the starch has been removed from the bag it 13 no longer possible to say from what plant it was obtained, lor It IS the same from every kind of food. It is not at all difficult to separate the starch from other substances associated with it, for if fine flour bo well washed m water the starch foils to the bottom, and may be removed and dried. It is thus that starch is made" in this country, and m preparing arrowroot and sago in other countries. '4 HEALTH. Thifl is the groatoHt proportion of onr solid food from vegetables, aud wo eat from four ouucoh to one pound of it daily, *^ Taiilb No. 3. ^^'^'''^'r of pounds of, tarchv>hich are found mm pound, of the fdlomng food* ;— •'J -r 61 8-4 Turnips . , , Carrots . , , PiirHnips , , PotatooH , , Wh(!iiton Bread . Pph8 . . , Oattnoal , , Indian Moal . . Wheat Flour . Barley Meal, Rye Meal liice . . , Arrowrdot . 9-8 18-8 47-4 65-4 68-4 64-7 66-3 69-4 79-1 82-0 When starch hns beon eaten it becomes sugar or fat in the body, or it may bo entia-ely conaumod. FLOUB. Floor is made by grinding seeds, as wheat, when it is com- monly called flour; and oats, barley, and rye. when it is called meal. Wheat flour is preferred to Qvoxy other for its flat our, and It 18 practicaVlv the most nourish-ni? of ^\\ ^.Trains. Oatmeal is a very strong anu go. J fou^ but is not much eaten m this country. This is not owing to want of nutri- tive value, but to its higher price as compared with wheat- flour, and to a rougher flavour, so that children, as they grow up, prefer wheat flour to it. It is, however, still eaten as a daily food in the colder parts of our country, as in the Higbiands or Islands of Scotland, and the Peak of Derby- FLOUR. food from )ound of it t fie /'flowing 61 8-4 D-6 J-i 5-4 ^■4 i-7 i-S )-4 »1 !-0 or fat in it is com- ben it is tour, and Qot much of nutri- h wheat- as they till eaten as in the r Derbv< gl'ralt^ "■"'"'"' ""' "^"'' '"'■"' "«"'■' ---'' Harloy meal i, calon in somo parts of Wales cither alone or w.th wheat tlour. but is . mueh poore, f.„a than ^^Z Ever), seed has a, Wn and kernel, and ,vho„ it i. pound th« flour ,s a ujuturo of Loth; but nearly all tuf Z, .an bo removed by sifting, and in proportion as it is r Koved the flour beeomes whiter. Fine flour me „s tha from wh.ch all or nearly all the sidn has been " it , o Jt .eoonds or household, that whioh has more of the Iwn tb,rds havo more etUI, and batch, or brown flour Z ne; z^^ T '""ti"";" "■ ^'"^ ^"" '» "ivided intoV i: parts wh,eh aro sold as bran or sharps, for the food of ani aals but thoro are ahyays small pioees of the kernel with t 1 The bran when it is oaten by man, is liable to pu,«e. a. it belter left out of tho (lour. *" Thoro is none of these foods so mod ond ,.ho„„ .. eeeonds wheat flour, e.oept where '^oltlitZZVl IS costly to buy. b'^'^w, a.-a Flour consists chiefly of starch, with some sugar and gluten, or bird-lime, besides various salts. ^ The flour of wheat and oatmeal is made into puddings «.d that of wheat, rye, and barley into bread. When S 18 boiled ,n water the starch cells (Fig. 6) burst an^f h? * . ;.capo3and thickens the water ; Lt'^^tme : i ' t b boiled longer than wheat flour because its sta cTcol ' do ,j, ^o«« a.i««», iiuwevoi, Biiouid be well i6 HEALTH. boiled. When yeast is added (Fig. 7) the flour ferments and becomes light and spongy. Yeast dumplings are mado with this dough boiled in water, but they should not bo boiled too long, or they will become less light and not so digestible. Flour mixed with fat, baking-powder, or egg-powder, is rolled into thin layers and mado into piecrust, but it is not easily digested if too much fat be used. When mixed with suet chopped into small portions it may be boiled or baked as suet pudding, or mado into the crust of boiled meat or fruit pies, or it may be rolled into layers and wrapped up with treacle or preserves in roley-polcy puddings. The pieces of suet should not be toe large, nor so small that when cooked they cannot be seen. Pastry made with butter or fat may be eaten when both hot and cold, but when with suet it should be They are little bags which are eaten hot. tilled with granules, and mill- ^tt, . n • r, -, , tipiy by division as in e, each VV ueaton flour IS Often adulterated Kfectcr^^"''^'"'*'"^'' with cheaper foods, as rice flour, or with stronger foods, as pea-meal, or with useless substances, as Paris plaster ; but more commonly an inferior kind of wheat flour, as that of wheat which has Bprouted, is added to it, when it is said to bo unsound. Yeast Cblls. DRIED PEAS, BEANS, ANB LENTILS. These are said to be the strongest of all vegetable foods, because they contain the greatest proportion of that substance (nitrogen) which repairs the body, and in this respect they are BREAD. 17 • ferments and igs ai-o mado should not bo it and not so egg-powder, 3crust, but it used. Whan IS it may be it pudding, or if boiled meat lay be rolled iped up with n roley-polcy of suet should so small that mot be seen, er or fat may lot and cold, it should be n adulterated rice flour, or I pea-meal, or >re commonly at which has Qsound. ;etable foods, hat substance ipoct they are very hko skimmed milk cheese in animal foods. They are no doubt, very nourishing and sustaining, but the flavour is somewhat harsh and strong; and children, particularly, do not hku them so well as potatoes or broad. Those who are very poor should use them in proportion to their cheapness on account of the nourishment which they give. A few observations should be borne in mind when thev are cooked and eaten. 1. The shells should be taljen out, since they are not digestible, and will bo very likely to disturb the bowels 2. They should be well boiled, but not to a perfect pulp, lest when they are strained their form cannot bo distinguished. 8. They should be cooked or eaten with fat or bacon liquor, since they are very deficient in fat. 4. They should be properly seasoned, and if onions turnips, or similar fresh vegetables, be cooked and eaten with them, their flavour will be disguised. 6. Do not eat food made of peas too frequently. Pease-pudding is a very good food when eaten with fat Broad beans are not eaten when they are dried, but a small kind like the kidney-bean (haricots) are much used in other countries, and have a more agreeable flavour than peas. . Y^f/^f ^ vegetables are scarce, as in the winter, this kind of food IS more generally eaten. The German soldiers, m their late war with France, were fed chiefly on sausages made of peas, bacon, and dried meat. Lentils or pulse, are much eaten in other countries, and are equally good food with peas and beana. BBEAD. ^ Bread is generally made into loaves or cakes of Romn in.hn, m tiucl^ncsb, as m ordinary whcatcn, rye, and barley bread ; i8 HEALTH. but oatmeal can bo mado into thin cakes only. It ia pro- p.ired by adding water, yoast {Vig. 7), and salt, to flour, and when the dough bogiuB to rino it is put into tho oven and baked. SomotimoH baking-powder is used instead of yeast, and makes tho bread light; but it is not eo good. The yeast may bo cither fluid, a,s brewer's barm ; or almost dry, a.? Gorman yoast ; and both, if good, cause fermentation equally well. When bread is to bo made, the flour is thrown into a vessel, and well mixed with a proper quantity of salt. A .pace is then made in tho middle, in which warm water and yeast are placed, and tho flour is gradually mixed with them until tho whole is made into dough, when it ia well kneaded, and placed before tho firo until it begins to rise. It should be lightly covered, and not made too hot, and it should not bo allowed to rise too much. When it is ready, it is taken out and quickly made into cakes, or placed in tins, and is ready for tho ovon. The heat of the oven should not bo too little, or the bread will be close and sodden, nor too groat, or it will bo too much dried, or oven burnt ; and when the cake will ring on being struck with the knuckles, it is sufliciently baked. "^ About two ounces of salt and three pints of water are required for each fourteen pounds of flour. Tho water makes tho starch cells swell, and perhaps burst. Tho yeast, or baking-powder, mixes air or a gan with the dough, and by separating it, makes the dough light and spongy, but in doing so, the yeast (not tho baking- powder) wastes some of tho flour. The heat in the baking helps to burst tho starch colls, and drives ofl'so much of the water as to make the bread agreeably dry. If too nmch water is left the bread is too moist, and is disagreeable ; and if too httle, the bread is dry and hiud, and has lost much of L K E A D. »9 It is pro- to flour, and ho oven and md of yeast, frood. The ■ almost dry, forniontation intrs a vessel, A i pace is nd yeast are cm until the noaded, and t should be iould not bo is taken out ind is ready or the bread will bo too ■will ring on baked. f water are nd perhaps ir or a ga!4 dough li^qht the bakiug- the baking inch of the ' too much aeable ; and jst much of jtH flavour, and H<,n,o of its nutrimont. The moro water ig .ft ho heavier is the bread made from a stone of flour, and the loss water the lighter i.s the weight of bread. 14 lb. of rtonr should make 11) lb. to 20 lb. of bread. When bread is bought It should not bo tco moist, as it becomes drier by keeiuMK; It nhould Ik, a day old, but when home made, it may bo kej)! Heveral days with advantage. When it is baked or bought it should bo kept in a dry place where the air is fresh and good, for it absorbs air and might become unwholoHomo. Jiraad made from good seconds wheat flour gives the most nourKshmeiit lor the money expended, but in many places ryc-llour or barley-meal costs much less and is added to it. Ihero 18 loss nouri.shu.ent in such a mixture than in wheat flour alone, but it is often very agreeable as a change of food, and ryo keeps the bread moist. Brown broad, ryo bread, or barley bread do nol agree so well with children as white wheaten bread. Bread is very frecpiontly adulterated with alum to make it wh ter. ihe alum ,8 easily shown by dipping a slice of bread into a weak watery solution of logwood, when it beeoiues of a purplish tint. The logwood infusion is made by putting a fow pieces of logwood into boiling water, ai,d albwmg .t to Htand for three or four hours by the fiie Ihe colour of the infusion muat not bo deep. Oatmeal .8 not n.ado into loaves because the starch cells a thick mass ; bu .t is made into thin cakes from a quarto" to half an nich thick. The oatmeal is mixed withVa e.^^ yeast, and s-a it, as in making loaves of bread, and the doth IH the,, spread out into a thin l.yer and baked on a hot iron plate or stone. U t,, ,,,,, ^^^ ^^, ^,^^^ ^ -- 4 20 HEALTH. meal the cakes will bo hard, gritty, and dry, and if too much water bo left the cakes will become sour. When properly made they may be kept good for months. When neither yeast nor baking-powder is added to tho flour or meal the bread or cake is unleavened, and must bo made thin and baked so as to be crisp. This kind of cake is eaten by the Jews at tho period of tho Passover. Pearl barley and Scotch barley aro creed by being soaked in water, and are then boiled in milk or made into puddings. Wheat which has been steeped in water and then boiled in milk, and spiced, is called frumenty or frumity, and was in use a thousand years ago. It may interest the young reader to know how it was made in 1850, and to read the English words of that time — ♦' Nym (take) dene, wete and bray (bruise) it in a morter wel, that the holys (hulls or shells) gon al of, and seethe (soak or simmer) yt til it breste (hurst), and nym yt up and lat it kele (cool), and nym fay re fresh broth and swete my Ik of almandys {alniumls) or swete mylk of kyne (cons), and temper (mix) it al, and nym the yolkys of eyryn (er/r/s) ; boylo it a lityl, and set yt ad on and inesse yt forthe wyth fat venyson and fresh moton (7maton)." They are very good and agreeable foods. RICE, SAGO, ARROWROOT, AND TAPIOCA. These foods are not grown in England, and are therefore bronglit here in a dry state, and are almost exclusively used in making puddings. Eice (Fig. G) grows and is thrashed and winnowed as we grow and prepare wheat, and is eaten, instaad of wheat, by hundreds of millions of people in hot countries, where wheat is i RICE, SAGO, ARROWROOT, AND TAPIOCA. 31 f too much en properly cicd to tho id must bo ind of cake r. ing soaked ) puddings. n boiled in and was in low it was Is of that n a morter ^nd seethe yt up and wete mylk coiis), and ^'n (q/f/s); )rthe wyth therefore xclubively ved as we wheat, by e wheat is « but little known. It is not so good a food as wheat, beeauso It has very little gluten (or bird-lime), and is almost entirely composed of starch. When it is ground tho flour does not stick together, so that it could not be made into loaves, but as It IS sometimes cheaper than wheat and is whiter it is added to wheaten flour to adulterate it. This is wrona because it is not so good a food as ordinary flour, and by making the flour whiter the purchaser is led to think that it IS hner and better than ordinary flour. When it is eaten instead of bread it is not ground, but the whole rice is boiled in water until it is soft, and it is then eaten alone, or with meat or fat. It should not be so much boiled as to fall to pieces, or much of the starch will be lost in the water and thrown away, whilst the rice would not be so agreeable to the taste; but it should be cooked enough to be softened throughout, and not to taste hard or gritty. Different kinds of rice vary more in this respect than in the nutriment which they give, so that some, as the Carolina rice swell, thicken, and improve in flavour, whilst others, as the Patna rice, swell but little, and are apt to have a dry taste. "^ When rice is made into puddings with milk, sugar, and spice, it IS more agreeable and nourishing. It should be well cooked, but if too much so, there wiU be waste of the milk, and the sugar will not be so sweet. Rice is not so cheap as flour when bought retaU, having regard to its power to nourish, and should not be larselv used by the poor. ^ '' Bago, arrowroot, and tapioca (Fig. 6) aio not grains like rice or wheat. Sago is obtained by boating the stem of a palm-tree, and arrowroot by beating the root of a tree, and in both cases the matter thrashed out is washed and dried. The preparation of arrowroot is interesting, inasmuch as 22 HEALTH. Ihejuicoof the root is so highly injurious to Hfo that tho Indiftiia dip arrows into it in order to make thorn poisonous. The following description of the process is quoted from my work on botany : — " In a dense forest of Gniana the Indian chief has stretched his sleeping-mat between two high stems of tho mugnolia. lie rests indolently smoking beneath the slmdo of the hroad- loaved banana, gazing at tho doings of his family around. His wife pounds tho gathered mandioc-roots with a wooden club, in tho hollow-trunk of a Ireo, and wraps the thick pulp in a compact net made from tho tough leaves of tho great lily plants. The long bundle is hung upon a stick which rests on two forks, and a heavy stono is fastened to the bottom, tho weight of which causes tho juice to bo pressed out. This runs into a shell of tho calabash gourd placed beneuth. Close by, squats a little boy, and dips his father's arrows in the deadly milk, while the wife lights a fire to dry the pressed roots, and by heat to drive off more completely the volatile poisonous matter. " Next, it is powdered between two stones, and the casava meal is ready. Meanwhile the boy has completed his evil task; the sap after standing some considerable time has deposited a delicate white starch, from which the poisonous fluid is poured off. The meal is then well washed with water, and is the fine tapioca, resembling in every respect arrowroot." When you next eat a tapioca or arrowroot pudding remember how closely life and death are associated. These substances contain scarcely anything but starch and water, and are not therefore so nourishing as rice, much less aa wheat. They are not made into broad or pastry, but only into puddings, either with water alone when they are voiy poor food, or with milk and spice, when FRESH VEGETAULES. 33 fo that tho poisonous. I from my 1 stretched magnolia, the broad- ly around, a wooden thick pulp tho great lick which ed to tho pressed ird placed is father's 5ro to dry oiiiplotely ho casava 1 his evil timo has poisonous hod with •y respect pudding • at starch as rice, bread or or alono, ce, when hoy aro a very agreeable food, particularly for children rhoy should bo wall cooked. Arrowroot is very dear and no a all o.uul to flour in nutrin^ent. yet it i 'vo ' foohshly g,ven .n tho belief that it is very nourishing, anj the oby many young children aro ill-fed. It is much used by tho sick when prepared with milk or wine. FBESn VEOETABLEg, paremp,, and turmps-aro very oocoRsary foods, and by and a groat vanely of grocn herbs, aro valuablo for the latte^ purpose when fresh and young. None is so useful as Iho potato, because it is the most nutntious; but even potato, when eaten alone, is a poor food, and not equal to rice, mueh less to flour. It is che 1 when grown by the eottager by his own labour and in his mvn garden; but when bought, it is much dear r than bread, having regard to its nutriment only. Honee whils" .t .s a necess.,ry food, it is not always cheap, and sho^rd „ .s?r r "' 'r,'"^" " "■""""'y- ^alf » pound a day 8 probably enough for each person, and when green ve7 tobies are plentiful, 1 ad may be eaten instead of it. Whea ea en in argo quantities, as in Wales or Ireland, butter- milk or milk should he eaten with it. The allow^ce "t " farm-house in Ireland is ten and a half pounds of potato and three and a b.alf pints of butter-mUk daily There are many kinds of potato, but two aro particularly distinguished in cooking, viz.. mealy and wa.y, and persons differ much in their taste respecting them. The mea v are perhaps generally preferred, but as they boil down ZtZ •0 piece- readily, they are less economical than the^waxy '1 »4 HKALTH. When cooked by boilinrj, they may bo cither soft tbronj^^h- out, as is preferred in England, or a little hard in the ceiitre, as in Ireland. When baked alono, tboy should bo well cooked in their skins, so as to break down into a powder throughout, but when peeled and baked in fat, they remain whole. If cooked in their skins, there is less waste than when peeled first, but the waxy do not look so well after peeling as the mealy. A good kind of potato is heavy in proportion to its size, which shows that it is starchy rather than waxy. This is readily ascertained by lifting it in the hand as you would judge of an orange. Potatoes should be eaten with fat and salt, meat or milk. The increase in the price of potatoes of late years has been due to the "potato disease," by which the crop has been greatly reduced in quantity, and the gathered potatoes have subsequently become unsound. This was the immediate cause of the famine, attended with great loss of life, in Ire- land, in 1845, since the people provided no other food in suflioient quantity for their use, and when it failed they were absolutely destitute. That groat calamity, however, has borne good fruit, by leading the inhabitants of Ireland, Scot- land, and Wales to rely less upon that article of diet, and to provide themselves with Indian corn, oatmeal, or other food of higher nutritive character. The disease still remains in a limited degree, and its pos- sible occurrence is a sulvject of anxiety every year. Its nature has not been satisfactorily determined, but it is first 3een in the removal of the starch from the cells of the potato, and then by the presence of a fungus. Some affirm that the fungus is the cause, and others the eficct, of the disease. These changes are well shown in Figs. 8, 9, and 10. It is sometimes possible to separate the part of a potato Ki;sH Vi; GET. MILES. -S 't thronf^h- tho coiitre, d bo well a powtler ley remain t^asto than well after its size, . This is r'ou would i or milk. •s has been has been xtoes have immediate fo, in Iro- 3r food in they were ever, has and, Scot- 3t, and to ather food 3 its pos- ^'ear. Its it is first he potato, n that the sease. 10. a poiabC which IS diseased from that which is sound, and to use ',o latter for food, but not infrequently the disease ,xU'u\ls farther than can be seen by the naked eye, and it has U.u found moro ecoBomical and healthful to give the whole potato to the pigs. '■ All green vegetables require to bo well boiled, and cho green colour should be preserved by adding a little soda io the water. Iho fresher they are, the better the flavour and colour. Cabbage is the cheapest of all gardon green Fig. 8. P ^ Section of Hevlthy VnTi-m c ■,. Cjj "tAl.iH\ l-OTATO. bECTIOV OF DlSEASEI) ToTATO empty. .Such a potato is vidueiuss. vegetables, and should bo grown freely ; and whether fried boiled, It should be well cooked. Turnip-tops are the cheapest and best of field green vegetables, and should be eaten freely. Carrots and parsnips are better food than turnips, as they contain more sugar, fat, and starch, but they are dearer. White turnip is preferred to the Swede, because of its moro agreeable flavour, but it is not so nourishin- 111 arc used more to flavour food than as food; but ev^cry kind of 26 HEALTH. fresh vo-,'ctiiblo that is good for food, should be eaten as freely as possible. There is much noodioss waste in the use of vegetables, for by peeling and cutting, the potato is often reduced to half its former size, and much is lost in throwing away the outside leaves of cabbage, lettuce, and celery. The parts which are thus cut away may not be so tonder and agree- able as that which remains, but they are goca food, and if not Fig. 10. Section of Diseased Pot.^to. Tlio polls of the potato aro ocnupiod hy ii t'iinf,Mis. iis sliown hy the thirk lincg which triivuiso thi; cut. Snch u po- tato might give rise to diseuae. STUAWnBUUY CkLI.8, The eolls lie loosely amonpsf onch of hnr, iind are not picsHed toffcthor ii.s in " 'T 4. Kiich contains ,i siimll qii:in- .ity of .solid matter, aud is then fllk-a With juiee. given to the pigs aro really wasted. These foods are vorv costly in towns, and servants should be careful in preparing them. Fruits of every kind which are used as food, should be eaten in thoir season, for their juices are very agreeable and useful, although not very nutritious. Such are apples, pears, gooseberries, strawberries, and all our garden fruits (Fig. 11). Ail may be eaten when cither raw or evoked, but some as FRESH VEGETABLES. ) eatcQ as 'Cgotables, educed to away the The parts iiid agree- aud if not atSif 27 KLL8. Hfonrhnllipr, frctlior IIS in sniiill ijii;in- is then tilluU are vory preparing,' itould he cable and OS, pears, some — as I aim buouW not bo caton raw in ariio ouantilif« Tn .1,^ m,dJlo of sum^or, too „„ch f„.h fruit 17" '.ii, rrhu a or pur«,„K, and do ha™, but it is io.s liLly to do if c",.kod and caton with sugar ; and if it .hould occur a arrest it at first. When coolung Ihcm in pios or puddin-s it tie sweetness of tho sugar. So also when malsinR nrcserve, fruU dT ^ r^"' *'''°'' '^ '""•'^ ''" I'""""' kining Strawberriea, Wild I) Cultivated . ■Raspberries, Wild . i» Cultivated . Apples, English ronnctt . M White do.ssert i> English golden pippin Tears, sweet red Cherries, sour . . \ n sweet black „ sweet light red Uliickborriea . , iiilherrios , , JIulborriea • , Grapes . • , ^ lbs. 4-5 7-5 3/) 47 6-8 7-6 lOG 7-9 87 107 13-1 44 57 . 9-2 from 10 to 20 fla!-'''' '" only, U is neeessa; o7uUttTo twr"? r"\""' ""'' it go«d through many months if..,'"''^''""'' adding three founds 'of Ta t td t 'lartert^ a" °""^ "^r ^.tpetreto a gaUon of water, and .^^X::!::!^^ are preferred to other" ah,,,!,'?'''' ""'' '°°'= and leg of mutton preiJ™ ' t l,,'" '"'. f ^'"^ are therefore the dearest in.) ■ " J"'"'"' "■* less flavour and are colri; °^''^''' •'"""■'' ^"''''='' '"»™ poor pers„n:b„u ; r: ruTthrcr'"'""""™'""*^' ^ them tender bv L.nnd 7 r^ ""^''''J"'""'' "'"' ""'^'o them properly'^ '' "' "°"^'"^'' "'"' "t'reeable by flavouring bear"irmin7vif"tb """ "" '™ "'"»' -"O"'"- »» veryuISr bul'- ' tte'Xr if it' "'"r"'- ^»' ^ from lean flesh, and a very fatToL „! .b'""'? '".^ •""""^ is not so economical at hTf b '' ' "" "'''' °' """""n. fat. Yet as per"ons d ft> L ?"™ "' ""' '"» *'"">»' """"i it may buy the fat ;«! Lrl'" 'f °« '"'' ""'^ «'"' 'it" fat leg' of LuttoIlsCrl" t:;: "a"" !"" '"^ '°"°- ^ ecoaom.cai as a leuu one, if both ^ ^ 32 HEALTH. are well fed, and gonorally joints with much fat are not cheap. As to bone, every one knows that it is not so valuahle aa meat, and that a joint with much bono sells for less than one with little. Thus the aitch-bono has some of the best- flavoured meat, but it has also a large bone, and is there- fore sold at a lower price ; whilst the leg of mutton has very little bone in proportion to the meat, and is sold at a high price. That joint is the most economical which has the least bono and fat in moderate quantity. The thin ribs of beef may have little bono, but they have much fat, whilst the round and the thick flank may be entirely without bone. But bones are valuable as food when properly cooked. It is better to keep the meat for a short time than to eat it when quite fresh, and if it becomes drier it loses only water and is none the worse. It should not, how- over, be kept until it smells disagreeably. Meat which has been kept a little too long should be roasted rather than boiled. UNCOOKED MEAT. It is not a frequent habit in this country to eat uncooked meat or flesh, but sometimes butchers' boys and others eat thin slices of raw meat. In other countries, however, it is not uncommon to eat ham, salted legs of mutton, and dried and smoked beef raw, besides eating sausages which are made of all sorts of meat, either raw or very insufliciently cooked ; and the people say that uncooked meat gives more strength than when it is cooked. No doubt uncooked meat may bo digested by the stomach, and some uourishmcut may be lost in cooking it; but OFFAL. 33 thoro aro son.ot.mo, littlo worms and other creatures in moat wh,.* aro changed into other kinds of wormsro^ od,„s ,f , cj, arc eaten alive, and cause the most fr LhtZ J.««e». It .» therefore far better to lose a little nouriS ...cut by c„oki„g the meat than to have such terrible rdt .om eat„,g u raw; and all meat, whether fresh, sdted o Jr,ed, should bo cooked before it is eaten. Many people in Germany and elsewhere have had .TO 000 worn,, „, o„„ inch of tbeir llesh after having eaten of disc sed penetrated everywhere, even into the eyes, and caused death. OFFAL. What in called tho ofTal of meat is usually good food th n tl ^' '""' f" ^"''' ^°^ '""^y ''' ^'^^y- cheaper ban the same weight of meat. Sometimes the liver and lungs are disease.I, and they should be carefully examined cooked. Ihe head makes excellent soup or broth. The heart a very economical, hut it is not so full of flavour or so ea ily chewed as other kinds of meat. The feet are very gelatinous and are agreeable and useful food. Tripe is quickly digested and not very nourishing, but it is eatilv prepared and is agreeable. ^ Blood is not 80 much used in the country as in towns but when made into black-puddings, with baiy or grZ' f^ and seasoning, is very good and agreeable fo.^. Whe ^it aTd the ^^.^"^'"-'."^-'^ b« -ved and eaten in th s .^^ and the pudding-skins are easily obtained from the bowels .hen w.n washed. It has long been the practice of ,Zt 3tiaLu to mako a quantity of black puddings at Miciiaei- m 34 HEALTH. mas for use during the winter, and to hang them in strings to the roof until required for use. Two or three pounds of blood are nearly equal to one pound of meat. Tri})e and cowheel are favourite foods in towns, and may be readily prepared, but should bo well cleaned and boiled. It is very doubtful whether much more food for man could not be obtained from these sources, for at present a much greater proportion goes to the dog kennel and to the glue boiler than is desirable, and but few housewives in villages either properly value them or will take the trouble to obtain and clean them. It is quite true that being so quicVly digested they are not fitted for a principal meal, but thayare at least valuable at supper, and also at dinner to those poor who cannot obtain fltsh. The oil which is obtained from the cowheel has too strong a flavour to bo used as food, but is valuable for other purposes. It is very desirable that the true value of this large class of foods should be better understood by the poor, in order that much food which is now lost to man may bo retained. The prejudices of many are giving way since more persons will now eat blood than formerly, and the nutritive value of these and every other kinds of food is better known. GELATIN AND ISINGLAS3. Gelatin is made from many substances which do not appear to be food, as the skin, bones, hoofs, and horns of animals, and is therefore so much food saved from waste. It is prepared by boiling them to separate it from other matters, after which it is clarified or decolorised, dried and cut into strings. When again dissolved in warm water it swells and acquires more than its original bulk. It is nearly tasteless, and therefore requires lemon juice, wine, or other i i i i cODdimentg to be ndrlaA n. • lies, but no. so goti^t ^'"rrf '''""'''' val„»Me ,„»«. both fi.h and eg! It i,"t'.r ,•". ""''"'"^ '"'"'■'"" '» moal. ^° " " "«"' "''"d upon to furnish a the R„s.ian soa, and from V'^"""' "''"'' " "»"?" io dear„ than ordina; X 1??.?"" f"'^ '' "■""" taste, and it will make a fl L ^l v t W 7/"™" "= '" "" of ordinary gelatin, but these advan I '""" ""'*"''" to the groaUy iaorelsed oo,! *'' '" ""' "' "' '5""' BACON. a plTaredtyle'l?" f"™"^ ""'^ ''^ " « ™^« ''- hif^are t^X ittltToidTt'l 1°°h' ""'"'^""^^ '°» ohieiiyof fat which ifl! .'"'' P"™' »"* """'i't' however, very aire ah! i ^ "'°°?'""« ""'° «"»"• " i^- other fat C it fH"? ' 1 "^ '"fP'''' "■« ?'»«» "' "er or of body In I'L ^'""" "°°'' '» """tain strength ^^aentd^g rd^rurhr4g"rd^:z^^"^^ «ay not^have money wherewitf tly ^^^.tri: ean'keeff "'''',""' T'^ I""" P^™° » «"» -""""tT who VrfeylToneyT'wtr '" "" ^' ""^ »- »^V Bacon may be either fried or hniU^ rr *i. * te hrfarirr""""'""" '^^"""^^ titbit :;d"h,.s 6ive Ji„ fat and llavour wluch have been boiled out of the I 3^ HEALTH. nvr'brl'T'?"'' '?'7'' " ""'' "^'^ «""""h alone to make broth I>ut is good when moat m hoild in it It should not bo thrown away, for if not oaton tho fat n ay bo skimmod off and used in cookinr. ^ easTwc half ''/r ^\^r'"^^'^ ^'^"^ ^"^ *°"«^' '^^^ - «ot easily chewed. It must be cut into thin raHhors if fried but and has a delicious flavour. Shoulder of bacon, or ham requires very gentle and careful cooking to make it as tendT; -ind agreeable as possible. Bacon is. however .one X preferred for its fat, and is more or les agree.ible as the J! ..s well or ill-fed, and tho bacon well or^ carlXlJll There are many agricultural counties where bacon is the ->ly kind of meat which the labourer can obtain, and, then in very small quantities, once or twice a week. Hen e it IS very much prized and liked by them, but it is not so nutritious as fresh meat in that quality which repairs the lody. and is ra.ly if ever so cheap\s th'e lower pS^^^^^^^^^ \\hilst, therefore, it is a very agreeable and useful focni every pereon should obtain fresh meat in preference, if th^; means wiJl permit them to do so. POULTRY AND GAJIR. These are not so nourishing as butcher's meat,and,RpeakJna .onera%, are much dearer. Thoy are useful t > the s^k If he rich, yet a rabbit is often a cheap and agreeaWe dish o the poor. Most kinds of wild game arc to gh r th n butcher's meat, and are made tender by being W unW they are a little disagreeable to the smell. Nearly aU game should be roasted. ^ ^" CHEESE. ,'h nlone to in it. It fat may bo and is not 'fried, but les tender, , or ham, ■ as tender ^'cneraliy as tbe pig isly salted •on is the md, tben, Hence it s not so pairs the cd joints, ful food, >, if their speaking sick and ble dish »er than pt until arly all I CnEESE, digest. It Ja cot » .!,„„; 7 . ""''«' """''• f<«"J agreeable addition to bread \vL ■> • ""'^^ran ".ilk, it contains much fit tdlr.i 'I """''' ^""" """^ and is good food but wW„ T , ^ '^'"""' "■"• >«>«<=■•. no fat, and itTs oni" „I ™ *™-»"'' ""™ '^ 'Me or The use of 1. ' ""'' ''°' " ^ooi food. regarded Z\ necet ^ ! ;! Tf 1";' ^',"=''" " '= counties the poor rarely eat Urt' ' T""'"' '^ »"'" but chiefly lo poverlv L „^ t " '""'"^ ''"^ '" ■>"''". cheap and^f i'nfer 'r''X andt;" ^"'"°'' ^"'^ " '» buy meat. Hence a Iner of . * --V" '°° ^'"" '° infely common, whilst one of ™ , . """^ "'"'™'' '^ ™°od. rare. The quanU tv of .1 " ^S'^'"'''''' « exlremelr is .ot dimin shTng V„ a .rtT" "r"^"™' ""' -""'^y in small quantity! atLr' 'Tr'"''' '^'""' " "»'« rather as a luxl or 'th .r^ ""'"" ™ "> "'""^ '»"*. -" able that it shouM be eatet T" "\:, '"'"'■ " '= "<" O"''" of 'hat which -epairs tto hod '•f''"""''' " ™""^'« «"»% all foods. '^ " ''"'^y' """J ^° *•■• is the richest of dou^r^lX^dt^i^rb:^^^^^^^ ^'"'- ^^-«™. good Sonae Ame'rican chee : iL ,ty wl fnTh "'' ^^"'"'^ which is not liked, whilst ,„.„.1> f """'"™" oausos mdigestiou, ^ "^ " " ""^ """"g aud 38 HEALTH. nsH. Fish is a good food, but not equal to flesh in nourishing the body. Some kinds— as herrings— contain much fat, and are so far very useful, whilst at the same time they aro very cheap. Others, as soles, have little fat, and are much dearer, or as whitings, which are often very cheap. Cod-fish is a good food and often cheap, but rarely so cheap as the lower priced joints of meat, in proportion to the nourishment afforded. The fat or oil is not so much in the flesh as in the liver, which is not much eaten. Salmon in season is the most nourishing of all fish, and when it becomes plentiful and cheap, should be uni- versally eaten. It has red blood, and is therefore more like butcher's meat, and contains a large quantity of oil, which is like the fat of flesh. When out of season, the fish is very thin and watery, and contains scarcely any oil. Eels contain much oil, and are delicious but dear food. On the whole, fish is not so much eaten in England, or so much cultivated in our rivers and ponds, as it ought to be ; but as it soon perishes, the supply from the sea must be fitful, and its price vary much. It will, however, become plentiful and cheap. Dried fish cannot be so cheap as fresh, but is nourishing, and a bloater is more agreeable than a fresh herring. It is, however, often cheaper than flesh, and more convenient to the poor both in town and country. When very highly salted it often causes indigestion. The value of fish, in proportion to the nourishment which it affords, varies extremely with the kind and the abundance of the supply, and, therefore, with the locality and the weather, but it can never supplant meat. Where fish is brought to the shore in large quantity it is I EGGS. 39 be Iho cheapest food ol.l,i»ablo; bm if ,bo i„|,abil„„u cannot purchase butcher's meat also, they will fal nt d.Bea,e. It „ said that leprosy is found where flsh t mull and flesh very little eaten, and it is ,„it„ certain that If hsh can be obtained as . relish, or a change of food i ^y be both agreeable and useful, but if it be the only iikl of animal food, ,t is iMufficieot to maintair, good health EGOS. Eggs are veiy good food, and all persons who can sliould keep fowls They are not equal to meat, although they a e more hke lean meat than fat in their action, anS when the fat Whenever they are cheap, they should be eaten freely d e yi:eVr"^."^""^'^°^ ^^^*^- p-^^^^ ^-T'; rnnV ./ f '"' ^°'''^''' ^'^ "^""'^ ^it^ the amount of cooking so that a raw egg will be digestedin H hours, whist a hard-boded or fried egg will require 3 or 8^ hours. Th y should therefore not be made hard by cooking ^ The eggs of all birds aro of nearly the same value in nounshment jn proportion to their size, but some, as tho e of he seagull, have a strong flavour, which is not liked fteshTMf ^"^?' "''' '' ^''^ '''^'y ''^ b« obtained th.r'r^.' r/l'^' *^' P^" '^'""^^ '^^t h« *«« hot, and nto it ri !r' '' ' ^'^"^ '^""^^' ^^^*' -^ P^PP- put Inbo h 1 '...'^^ '"'■''""y *"^^^^ -^ made brown on both sides. The pan should be small, and fh. fr;.A ... 8nouia be eaten when quite hot. Boiled eggs should be put 40 HEALTH. first into cold water, and when tho water boils the eggs will bo cooked enough. They di/Ter in flavour according to the kind of bird and itrt food, so that a duck's or ^roose's egg is stronger than a fowl's egg. The egg of a well-fed barn-door fowl is far sweeter than of one poorly fed, and that of any bird feeding on fish 18 strong and less agreeable. The egg of the turkey is good and rich, and that of the plover has a very delicate flavour. Hard-boiloQ eggs form very good portable food to the traveller, whm eaten with bread and butter, and will keep off hunger for a long time. They, however, demand plenty of fluid, and if mUk bo drunk with them the nourishment will be the greater. I! I eggs will 'd And ilti 1 a fowl's • sweeter g on fish 7 is good flavour, d to the v'ill keep d plenty rishment < CHAPTER IL LIQUID FOODS, MILK. Milk is the best of all fluid foods, and in nourishment is not unhke meat. It is eaten exclusively by infants, and nothing IS more valuable to young children of all ages. As the child grows, bread and other foods are added to the milk, and when he is grown up he eats meat instead of A young infant needs nothing but the mother's milk, or cow s rnilk with one-third of warm water and a little sugar. At eight or twelve months old, a little boiled flour may be ^l:;!^:"'-' ''-' '-' ''-'' ''-' -^^' ^^-^ - - Milk is not liked by all persons, but if it be eaten when cooked or hot and in small quantities, it agrees with almost 2!'^I,J:'' "^'^ ''-' ^ ^ ^-^^ ^-% ^^ once Milk differs very much in flavour and nutriment, according to the food and nature of the cov., so that some specimen^ have more water, and others more cheese, or butter (Fig. 6) When new It contains water, sugar, cheese, butter, and salt ,' and has all the kinds of food required by the body When Bkimmod it has lost nearly ail its butter, but U about half^ ( 42 in'.ALTH. an-ounco of „„ot l,c l.oilo.l with n pint of tho Hki.nmo.l milk. "u k When thu chc..so as well as tho huttor havo boon tukon out, tho roma.nin^. fluid is calKnl wh.y, and contiiins water. «'.KHr, aclK. and HaltH, with perhaj.H a few small lumpn of .utter, and ,s thoroforo valuable, but far loss so than either Bkim-uulk or now milk. «oin^""/^' rr' ^""^ ^''" "^"^"'^'^ *'>« •'"tt^"'- becomes Bol.d. and ,H taken out, and only butter- n.ilk in left. This con a.ns Home choeno and a little fat or butter, besides s.-.^ar, amd, and salts, and is therefore much better than whoy, an. sJidr;;;^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ In hot weather all thoso kind« are very agreeable when eaten cold, but m cold weather it is better to tarm new and bmmed m.lk. If milk be boiled, a skin forms upon it. and IB not quite so nourishing. It is sufficient, without boiling It, to make it as warm as it can be drank. All these are good foods, and none should be thrown away. Some think that skim-milk is worth very little, and Ih" r V/-" • "■^' "'^'^^ ^^^>' ^'»^-« -^«y (i^ '^* U only to got al the butter-milk and ^aim.milk they can obtain. If I'ought Lhey are much cheaper than new milk, and may be purchased when new milk could not be afforded. No doubt new milk is the best of all kinds, and should be obtained for infants and very young children. Whenever therefore, a poor man can keep a cow he should do 80, both to give milk and butter to his own family and to ell them to others. Many parishes allow cows to feed in the lanes on payment of a small sum weekly, and many land- owners and farmers .vould gladly let cows food in their fields on proper payment. ' MfLK. 4J lUit .fa cow cannot l.o k.pt. or cow's milk bought, a goat Bhould 1,0 obtained, which will givo perhaps two ouurtH of "Hik a day. The n.ilk is thicker and of stronger flavour than cow's milk, but chii.lren will drink it. It should bo diluted with ono-third or onu-half of water. _ It is quite certain that the oxtre.iio value of milk as a food IS not well understood in this country, so that much is given to animals which should bo eaten by men, and money i, Hpent upon food of much less value. It is better appreciated n. .Sweden, Swit/orhmd, and other mountainous countries, for there the men drink several pints daily, and are stron- and laborious. Nothing would so much tend to save the Iilo of infants, and to enable children to grow up into healthy men and women, as an abundant use of good miJk and nothing therefore would tend more to lessen diseaso' and mortality. Its value nowover, the greatest in many states of disease, and particularly in consumption, or the state of weakness whieh tends to that terrible disease, and the aim Bhould be to take two or three pints daily, either alone or made into puddings. ^ Every person, whether farmer or consumer, is interested in increasing the supply of milk, and every facility should be oflered to the poor to keep cows. Several remarkable cases of typhoid fever have recently arisen m connection with the use of milk. It is said that even the rinsing of the vessels with foul water has caused it m some, whilst in others the milk has been dUuted with such water. Some have affirmed that milk from a house in which there were cases of this fever, has produced it, and that milk allowed to remain in or near a room with them will become poisoned. The influence of foul water in producing tlio disease is well kno^vn, and this may account for the effects of the milk • bnf wTiUo* « milk which come, frl 7t ' .T^ ''' '"''<'■' '» "^M impossiblo for the rsumerT T ^ '^?°''^ <■"'»'• " '» ^bich i, used i. h h urVLtT '"" '"^ ""' object denervos the Zllol 'fCl'Z" V*' ^'"' the consumers. ™ producers and WATEB, ^«.s ...or' ;i.h:^?:t„t wint r n «bantw.t:^tTrti;"'i:::Th:rd:»''r' "-' --- Tie quantity of water Zhtl '^ . ° *■'"'" """"• -«...nu:i::xid^j:rr-r-- Table No. 5. Sugar . lbs. Rice • • • . • 5 Indian Meal . • • • . • . 13 Peas, Wheat Flou ^ Rye Meal, Butt< ArrowToot 3r and Fats, and Dried Baco • 14 n 16 Treacle . • • 18 Green Bacon .' Cheddar Cheese • • • . 23 . 24 Bread . ' • 36 Fat Pork • 37 Skim Milk Cheese '. • • 39 Fat Beef • 44 Fat Mutton . • 51 Veal . : • • 53 Lean Mutton . • O f 63 • • • • * 72 } 'I WATER. 45 n to avoid over, it is the water lot. The icers and Qtenance t^e many !o found at there id more fc. foods is >Ilowing f foods kted. Egg, Ox Liver . , Potatoes, Eels . , * Salmon . . . * * White Fish and White of Efftr* raranipa ... Carrot" . , * ' * Turni . , ; * • lbs. 74 75 77 78 82 83 91 ^Z^^^ty- "' ^ » ""'^'^^ ^^^ ^^ Cream . , New Milk . ! I * Skimmed Milk and Butter Milk ■Beer and Porter . pts. 6G 86 88 91 It is of the greatest importance that it be pure for fonl water produces fever and other deadly diLsTs If ^ hoi f ■ "'"' "' "■" "°»' of «"■=" " "ow small hey should bo more generally used. They lose their power after a eertam fame, but may bo readily' renovated bylhe rftriol) and f, K,™''''^''™P' of sulphuric acid (ouVf ntriolj, and a tablo-spoonfo of mnriatic acid «r.^ „aa bem to from two to four gallons of water ihrnVa" he whole m the filter for a few hours, after which r,ouv ^:,f """' »'P- -" water through, and ii^Mt'Zy t6 HEALTH. j If the water is drawn from a well, see that dirty water does not run in at the top, nor any drain, petty, or pi.- ety be placed so near that filth from it may get into the well. Keep the ground at the top of the well hard and c ry, and if possible paved, and keep it lower than the top of the well. Do not let any slops be thrown down near the well. Let the well be covered so that no animal or dirt can lull into It, for a dead cat or rat in the water will do great Harm. If possible h^ive a pump instead of a draw-well, and Kg. 13. FxLTBh PLACED WITHm A CiSTERN, BY THB LoNDON AND GenbRAI Water Pukifyino Company. if there are any lead pipes, see that the pump is in constant use, or the water may cause lead poisoning. If thfi water got low in the summer-time, the well should be cleaned out, as the mud at the bottom may do harm. If water is obtained from a brook see that it is running water, and that there is no filth in it. A filter is easily placed in the brook by making a wooden box, eighteen inches square and deep enough to be higher than the water. At the bottom' for twelve or eighteen inches in depth, put a quantity of well' WATER. 47 titTwoT' I^^'f r ^""u' ^"^ ^"^"' -^ «°ver them with wood. I3oro holes in the eide where the burnt bones Z:\r7:'''!r *'^ '^°°^ *° -*-' -^ also In I where 1 n/t' '^ '' '^'""^^ '"*^ *^« ^P^^^^ -hove. If the water is not running it is probubly not fit for use • bu shoud bo boiled and allowed to coof, or be mterrd.' m^ ^°"'' '"*'' '*' '^ '^""^^^ «ot be drank. When water is very hard it wastes a great deal of soap ^.hec stern should be covered and cleaned out from time to wme for the washings from the roof alone will make it black and leave a deposit. Running water, like brook-water. is the best for making tea, but well-water may be used for cleaning and cooking. ^ Water should have no smell or taste, and should be per- fectly clear and bright. If it have a bad smell or taste it Bhould be examined. If it be not clear, but only muddy from sod washed into it, it will become clear on setting it aside, and may bo good water. Such a state of water often occurs m brooks after rains ; but when .it is clear it Bhould be without taste and smell, like good water, and if otberwise, there is something wrong Water should also be cool, as it is"then more refreshing in summer; but very cold water sometimes hinders digestion and even causes cramp. When this is so, a little warm water should bo added to it to take oflf the chill It IS necessary to drink water with solid food, unless soma othei fluid, as broth, be taken with it. in order that it may be dissolved and distributed, and that other matters which are no needed may bo taken out of the system ; but it is not well to drmk much water at the beginning of the dinner, or to J 48 HEALTH. dnnk at any time more than is needful. There are some people who never drink water alone, because they taT! enough of other fluids. A man requires two to three I of some kmd of fluid every day. and more in summer C xn wmter, and with violent exercise than at rest. There are also many substances, as pepper and pickles, taken in food wmch cause thirst, and induce the eater to drink an^ even other fluids, as beer, will add to thirst ' The supply of water to villages is often very deficient both in quantity and quality, and ,s not only a Jsof Z fort but a very frequent cause of disease. Every housl holder should first see to the water, and wherever a house can be obtained which has a supply from publ wate' bXw 1'::^"^ T'T '^ '--' ''-' weiifiti;w::i^'a iiigfter rental Diarrhoea or vomiting, especially in hot weather, should lead to an examination^of th'e wate'r, and i^ there is frequently pain in the bowels, and the water passer, through lead pipes, there may be lead poisoning. ^ TEA AND OOFFEB. If the tea be pnre, a cheap kind « as good aa an expensive one, for they are all from the same tree, and the only d^ff^! except that the green is the very young leaf, and contains more of the property of tea. A less quantity of greTn t a W.11 therefore suffice. The weight 0? a tealpoonfd of of gr en tea is much heavier than one of common black tea. This IS of importance in forming a judgment of the qualities ad prices of teas, and shows that a small quantity, by mea! sure, of one kind contains really as much as a large qLtitv ^'^nother kind. Ihia is sho™ ia the following table _ ii I TEA AND COFFEE. 49 WEIGHT OF TEAS. Taulb No. 6. £lack Teas, Oolongf , ^ngou (inferior quality) tlowery Pekoe . , Souchong . , Congou (fine) , J Weifi-ht of a Spoonful in (irains. . 39 62 62 70 87 Hyson Skia. Twankay , Hyson Imperial (fine) Caper (scented) Gunpowder (fine) Green Teat. 58 70 66 90 103 123 Number of Spoonfuls in u I'ouud. 179 138 113 100 80 120 100 106 77 68 57 th?^ -V^ /J^ *'" "' ^* '' ^^*°^ varies not only with ^tr m '' ^' '"* "^*^ *^^ -°^« - which H is! pared. When made from hard water, in a cold teapot with the water not then boiling, and allow;d to stand X cd good tea cannot be expected. The proper mode of maS 1. Use sufficient tea. 2 Make the pot warm with hot water, or otherwise before the tea is put into it, or it will cool the hot water ' 8. Let the water be boiling at the moment of usine it Water rapidly cools when taken off the fire ^ 4. Fill up the pot at once. 6. Covor the i„apot, or place it where it will be kept I so HEALTH. nearly as hot as boiling water. Do not place it on iron which as nearly cold-as a cold hob. or fonder, or firo-irons --and imagine that it will bo kept warm becanso it is before the fire, for iron draws out the heat very rapidly. 7. Let it stand for ten minutes. while take the trouble to obtain a little for that purpose. If well-water be used, or if the water bo hard, add a very small pinch of carbonate of soda. Tea is still very much adulterated, but not so generally as •t was some years ago. Other leaves, as those of the sloe- tree, are commonly added ; but if you will take a leaf of tea which has been washed and compare it with the others you will be able to detect the difierence. Stalks are often found m the cheaper teas, and if they belong to the leaf hey are not without value, but they are not so good as the leaf, and should not be allowed in any considerabfoTuantit Green teas are sometimes faced with copper so as to make I em look bright. Never buy a bright-looking tel Cht elay and many other things are added, and oven iron filings increase the weight, but all these can be ascertained with a httle care Whatever is heavier than leaves will fall to the bottom of the pot. Some so-called tea does not contain a particle cf tea. Ihus one quantity is mentioned as consisting wholly of the following substances :-Iron filings, plumbago, chalk, china clay, sand Prussian blue, turmeric, indigo, starch, gypsum, ca echu and gum, and the leaves of the camellia, savanqua chloranthus, elm, oak, willow, poplar, elder, beech, hawthorn and sloe. * Tea, even when good, contains very little nutriment-none whatever in proportion to its cost— and therefore there is the more reason for detecting adulterations. It was not known TEA AND COFFE E. 51 fluid a?^ fh ; ""T' "'* ^^^'^^'^ *"^« *^^ ««-« l^ind fluid, and herefore tea has its use. It is, however a sort of nervous stimulant, for it makes our minds clearer and brLh er and after takmg it we are more ready to work If, therefore, it is scarcely a food in itself, it helps to quicken the use of good food, and gives us a sense of com ort. It IS more fatted for those who eat too much than for the starymg, and after a good meal than in place of a mea^ • and, 0. the whole, those who have too little food would Tpend th.ir money much better by buying milk. ^ Some take tea with meat, and call it a tea dinner, or a meat tea, but tea and meat do not seem to agree well to- &:niai:t''' ' ^^' '' ''"''-''' '' ' ''-'-' ^-^ food with It, or when the stomach is inclined to be irri- table It IS very apt to cause indigestion. It is doubtful ^hether any other thmg causes so much indigestion amongst the poor, and when that disorder exists tea must not be taken. Tea IS not fit for the use of infants and young children for they need stronger food, and that which is notT stimulating. Tea seems to be liked most by those who 8it much and take little exercise, particularly if they occupy warm and close rooms or workshops, and it is then the most valuable. At the same time those who take much exercise have less need for it, and desire it less. It is easy therefore, to see whether too little exercise, and hot and close rooms, with much tea, are likely to be so healthful as much exercise with plenty of real food. s« HEALTH. Coffee should, if possible, be fresh and finely ground, but ^.ff rrl '^'''* ^"^^ teaspoonfal of chicory to four of HZ'J' T'^^'i T^'^' '' "^^^"^ '' '^ *- P'^* it into a warm jug, and pour boiling water upon it; then stir it and When pouring it off stop the grounds. The chief use o coffee-pots of eveiy kind is to stmin the coffee from the St cor ^^^ -"" -' --' s^aarshoullbeTn:^ some persons prefer tea, and others coffee/ a sel^'t be), and tea at the tea meal. As tea tends to increase, and coffee to decrease perspiration, the former is more fitted for hot and close weather, when we do not perspire enough and the latter for cold, or any kind of weather when the sSn is soft, and we too readily perspire. f«lf n^V'-'^tf '^^""^^^^S effect upon the brain, and when usetul If we wish to remain awake for some special duty and injurious when we ought to sleep. They differ in S respect in different individuals, a., pe'rhaps n T ame on lato at night in any considerable quantity. The effect of coffee npon the stomach in producioK or con immng indigestion is the eame as that of tea Lt ill reduced If two-thirde of the quantity be hot milk' ^ Cocoa and chocolate, when made with mUk, are reallv good foods-far better than tea or coffee, althougTnot o ^h^eenng to the spirits-and would be much more'nsefd Z I BEER, WINE, AND SPIRITS. 53 ^ Cocoa-mbs should be boiled in water for several hours m order to extract all that is valuable as food but pr pared cocoa, being finely ground and mixed with ugar d . solves very readily in boiling water or milk, and the who e may be eaten. Perhaps few foods are so nutritious or wi satisfy the appetite so well, as cocoa and milk, if p entv of rrmsLrei' "' ' " ^^^^"^ «-^ ^- ^^ HeU:::!Ji BEEB, WINE, AND SPIBITS. Nothing e«n be more certain than that these snbelances are .ot necessary to persons in health, and whilst they TayL alen m small qnanlities without injnry. they are much mor! frequently .,y„„o„s than useful. They contain but Utt e that « truly natnmeut, and cannot therefore be properly caUod foods; yet there is some nutritive material in beer hab.t, and therefore might be got rid of without any disadvantage ; whilst at the same time they are costly, and lares'" tITT Tr "' """^y •^'^'i^' 'h« -'^B Classes. The cost of two pints of ale daily, viz Rs M . week, wodd well clothe a whole family, whU^t 1 le io!s of nutriment would occur by omitting the stimulants. They do not give strength for work in any proportion to their cost, but on the other hand often maUpeoXdui heavy, stupid, and unfit for work. The most Lvere Td' continued work can be performed without them Ti there are now some millions of people in this coua^ who never taste them. Happy wiU be the day when tW „e finds Th^^ ul '"^ P""""'"'y "-y "•« working m.n.'^wr finds It difficult to mamtain his family. Then wUl the e i^ I 54 HEALTH. They may be properly used as medicines to give appetite to the H.ck or to Lolp digestion, or to Htinulate tLTob and should be ordered by the doctor ' ^otTnUhem: ''' ^'' '''''' ^^^^ *^^*« ^^-' -^ -" It is said that they increase the heat of the body and therefore are as useful an some other foods • but n Ta Arctjc regions it was proved that the en^^: 'exe " n^o Bp nts was necessary m order to retain heat under those extremely unfavourable conditions. Tea was used by Dr Kane s sailors ; but the question is not whether tea was neces sary to maintain heat, but whether alcohols were desirlbL and It was clearly proved that they were injunous ' ' Ihe proper position of these fluids is that of luxuries or poisons, and not of necessaries. As luxuries fh!' e tolerated by those who like them and™! 7,,:^^ but they are mtolorable when they brutalize the hu haTd' and bring want to the wife and familv R«„n 7 '^"^;"*n^ has shown that the consumption tf its llTT' Every child should resist the temptation to drink them and be a missionary to endeavour to reclaim others from the practice of this folly. °°^ ^ The basis of all improvement in sanitary arrangements n. m education and morals, must be the dimUt o/ irnnf fi? — n, of the use of these articles .^iLZl ^ If any preference is to be given it should be of ordinarv beer over spints and the latter should be placed en ti^ 1^ the disposal of the doctor and for sick people ^ liEER, WINE, AND SPIRITS. 55 About 120 millions of monoy arc spent yearly in these substances, and therefore we may well ask whether so larse a sum 18 wisely spent. If we allow that there are 1,000 mU- hons of people in the whole world, and that a 4 lb loaf of bread could be purchased everywhere for 6U., that sum would feed the whole world with § lb. of bread daily for one month ; or, if wo take the populations of Great Britain and Ireland Canada, North America, Franco, Germany, Italy. Spam Portugal, Greece, Russia, and all the states of Europe together, it would give them the same for about four months It would supply J lb. of bread daily to every person in Great Britam, North America, and Canada, all the year round. ^ Consider then if this were saved how much less starva- tion there might be, how much fewer women and children need to work merely for a living, and how much better the working man'e family might be clad and educut.d. 120 milhons a year means about ^64 a year for every man woman and child in this country, so that a family of six per' sons would save nearly £25 ayear-a sura sufficient to make a little fortune. If all, or nearly aU of it be useless, and much of it far worse than useless, should we not induce those who have not too much money to live without them ? CHArTER nr. GENERAL QUESTIONS RELATING TO FOODS. DIGESTimUTY OF SOUD FOODS. The digestibility of various kinds of foods varies very much. pro^cd by the experiments of Dr. Beaumont. This physi- cian had a patient, who by a gim-shot wound had an external opening into the stomach through which substancos could b introduced and withdrawn. Small silver balls were pre- Zt '" .n . " T"" °^ '^' '"'''^^'^ '^^^^ «"t«r them, nd bemg filled with a food were introduced, and allowed to remain until perfectly digested. The following table contains the results of these experi- Pood. Pork . . Ciiiiiliige Dutks . Fowls , Do. . . DIGESTION OF FOODS. Tahlb No. 7. I' — Animal Food. ModeofCoodingr. Time rrqnired for Digestion. • • • . roasted , , • • • • boiled . , , • • • . loiiMted . , hrs. inin. . . 15 - • 4 15 > . 4 • • • . do • • • . boiled . , , , • 4 • 4 DIGE.5TIDILITY OF SOLID FOODS. 57 I D8. mnch, 8 was physi- iternal could ) pro- them, fed to speri- aitted FimhL Boof . Do. . CIlOPHO OvstciH MllltoU Do. . J).). . , (-lii( ken , Mode of Cooking, > • fried , . twini lM)il Thno ror)iiIre4 for DiK'Hiion. htH. nun. I'll,' (sickling) . {»(ioso . , . . • ro >:, cil • boilrd , • • rudsii'il . • bi.iit'il . . • friiMHSi cci . . bniili'il . . . rua.sliil ri 1 4- ... (In. . l:"^"y 1... . ;'5f,- • roMstod Co,l lM.Hli(cur.d, dry) . b..i'„d . l!-^ I''*«r broiiod. • tMiilcd . • brnilcd . . b()'l('d . . niw . , • boilod . do. . Uniiiis Voiiibon Steak , Siihnoii 'i'lout . I'l^'K" (whipped) , Tripe (HouMed) . , Pig's fett (soused) Many will be surprised to find that voget even longer tiuio for digestion than animal 4 3 3 :} 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 « 1 1 1 30 30 30 .•{0 1.0 45 45 30 30 30 30 25 15 45 30 30 30 in. Food. Cdbbago. . , . Beetroot . , , , Tiirnipw . . , , l-'otatoes ... * Wheiitcn bread . Carrot .... Indian Corn bread Do. cako Apple-diimplinnr . I'otatOfS .... i>« ParsuicH. , . - //.— Vcfjetahh Fond, Mode of Cooking, boiled d-). do. do. baked boiled baked do. , boiled . baked . roasted boiled , ble food requires food. TimR reqnirel for iJipcstion. hrs, 4 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 nun. 45 30 30 30 15 15 33 30 30 s^ HEALTH. Food. Mode of Cooking. Sponge-cake .... baked /^Vl'^ •. toiled L>iU\y,ge fpickled) . . raw . A])})los (sour and mellow) do J^'"!oy boiled i "'"«'=» do. ^J'-" ■ do. Apples (sweet and mellow) ru' lUce boiled Time rainired for digestion. hrs. mm. 2 30 2 30 2 2 2 2 1 45 1 30 1 CONDIMENTS. Certain condiments, as salt, are necessary to hoallb, whilst lT:t "".r""' "°°«"'' "-"^ P'""^- are agreeable anlu ful when the appetite fails. IS salt m bread and other cooked foods we do not need to eat half that quantity by itself. There are some who do no! eat salt separately, and who therefore say that thev do »ot ea .t at all, bat although the qnantity^equir d n„y Sc,; '\ "'t'"^'^""""^' «"" -»^ "^-W ^0 'aken anj particularly with vegetables. Pepper and mustard are useful to give flavour to taste- less ooas, and to stimulate the sense of taste and the flow token ,n moderation, for they may excite indigestion, and after ^, j, use simple foods are not enjoyed.' So long as ord nary food is eaten and the appetite is good, the use of habit '' ^^°«ecessary and becomes simply a matter of ^Vinegar is often useful as a food, and particularly in hot weather, when we crave for acids, whether i„ fruits or otuorwise, and as meat is less relished in hot than in cold weather, and does not contain acids, we find vine.^ar -'ind pi. Ues very agreeable and even useful additions to it POISONOUS SUBSTANCES SOMETI MES EATEN. 59 Too much vinegar is, however, very injurious, and by caus- ing jndiges .on and loss of appetite, makes people thin. .N either p.ckles nor vinegar are really necessary L those who are well and can obtam various foods according to the season but on sh.p-board they are often of the greatest use ' Pickles m^ade very strong with pepper are also much more ns d m India and other hot countries where the appetite fails than m England. 'it'i>eute POISONOUS SUBSTANCES SOMETIMES EATEN. Many deaths have been caused byeatii>g poisonous mush- rooms and pufT-balls. It is now said thft 'there are Z^^ kinds of niushrooms which may be eaten without dang7 but It will be better to eat only the one kind which is known to be not poisonous. They have an agreeable smell and pinkish gi Is ; and those should be preferred which g ow in the open field, and not under trees or in a wood. Moreover the large are not so good as the small. Be sure to sme^l them, and take care that the gills are not white ; and if yo" have any doubt do not eat them. Many of the very gaHy Horse chestnuts are not so agreeable in flavour as the Spanish; and they are also acrid and cause pain in the stomach and bowels, like a poison. The bulbs or roots of the arum, or as they are called " bulls and cows," should not be eaten The tild M^ '^" °^°""*''^^"-^^^ '^'^ «^id to be poisonous. ihe wild lettuce is poisonous. The berry of the potato is poisonous. The black berries of the deadly nightshade in gardens and of the dulcamara in the hedges, are poisonous. HEALTH. body, which food doe not It "n,'"™'""""'" but, on the contmrv .'= /"D'ams no nourishment, i» retained in the hn. ^°"'"'''' P"'™ ''''™ «>« s-uoko use it The j i ™,/h 1° •"T'"' "■"' ''°""'" ^«« -»' than people imlL. " """^ ■•''«"'™'' f'""" Poking withoutt ' ■ ""' '""^ ""' » '"-'"' ^""Id be bettef so'rLrihr:otfri['hoT':"™'°r"°«''°"' »'-■■'' a:d\:di;: /ot^ «:7j;^^^^ ^^o ^-oTrtoirz:; 0^ " -^.to =;:: :7s;rr-itr POISONOUS SUHSTANCE S SOMETIMES EATEN. 6l oisonous, scraped e in both Before te a very ihes and for it; ugh not iguished it when tlike the ■n it be san, but quently ens the ihment, smoke ire not noking better waste le it is ) smell ife and many oper- throat at use is de- an amusement which rv'eluL ." IT J' " """P'^ another it i„ atao.t the oeeupa ^ of f h'' ™"" '" both mind and bodv H..r.T , ' ""'' •"""""'laleF aching. vroLTL.yj2r::;:t'" '''- '•" "™''"-' It may be true that tobaeeo is smolied with imDunlfv .,„, •. .8 oqually true that the whole tendency oHte ac7on i f^ . elates to ,..T:^:i:^: :i^ty : Lh s:hrh "'f " profitably emploved i.r,.1 ,.,i • i ^ ' '"'™ ''«<"» education or oZr mod™ oT f, "" """^^P" ''^'='^'='' f"' h^\ if XI modes ot advancement in life or fnr th^ ac,uired:""Brt •" "^ 311^^, ^^'^ ^ - X^rrrbtr-^:-— time, and nervous power. " """""y' mort 'mT^'^'"'' ", ''°''"''"' *" ''^'i^'" 'h"' tto mind is more fitted for work when seethed b-.- tobacco WM ! refemng to states of disease which are exceSLal ^ op.m„„ that it is more fitted to di 2g fte duZ of^hXo^ When not under the infiuenee of this Ir % 'Z ..o^roTh^gt „r •,let'"th™;'°°''"^ ^r '«"" Rn^ nf n A ^ ^' ^^^ ^^'"^ves are artre. soft and of a dark green colour, whilst the flower is red and when seen m great masses is a very mef7.nl- ? ' n. plant is not cultivated in this colli ir.l'l'''T. ^^^: 6a HEALTH. tobacco on account of the great tax which is levied upon tobacco by the goverameut, but is grown as an ornament in our iiower gardens, and the leaves are sometimes dried to bo used by gardeners in killing insects by smoke The cultivation and preparation of this substance occupies g oat num crs of persons in America and the Spanish "OS and the cap.tal and enterprise involved may bear some rela .on to the production of wine. Even the selection of the leaves for tue kinds of tobacco demands great skill and knowledge of the market; and delicacy o! taste in the selecfon of fob,«cos grown h, different soils and in variou c lunates .s as essential as it is to a tea-iaster or a wine nr"" chant. Ihe great variety which the tobacconist oifers to his customer depends upon, firstly, soil and climate ; second^ aves of other plants, and the addition of substances to give Strength and flavour. ^ It seems simple to say that tobacco is , : dried leaf of the tobacco-plant, and ohould have one qualify, but few repafa tions are more complicated by questions of select-on, flavour and names. It must be ranked with luxuries, and not with necessaries, whether food or medicine. HINTS ABOUT COOKINO. hZ' ^7 f"fy'of^'"'<'i to cooking under three of the heads of foods, but .t is desirable to consider the sul/ec tin a omewhat more general manner, for on the ri.ht mode The object of cooking should be well -nn.v ^ ,od and then the methods employed will be bettc, a,,, .dated It^! .ot to change the food, for a potato is ,huost pCLy the HINTS ABOUT COOKING. 63 ame after as before boiling, but to make it more tender so ^t It may be easiJy broken up by the teeth, to imp7o o'i s flavour, and to supply warmth to the body ^ The first requirement is perfect cleanh-ness, so th.t no foreign substance may be added to the food and that ^r eater may not be disgusted. This implies ck^an sauce a r bas.ns knives forks, and spoons, and all other utenT do not ieava the hand Togt y Z " 1^ mT'"' "' to use it. Tike all .],„„ . ^., , ^""''^ ^'S^'- }'»" dirty .ea„,e,et::natrcrear''^"'"°'' "" """" "> "» o.lTr;r :;rt ir a:7.;;i'-'i' " ^"- oolic. It is belter to boil sole b ° » ^ . ""''' ^™ - vau.d, or tie copper will injure the food; but with 64 HEALTH. iron vessels it k of less important', o. Nev. r boil itnything, and particularly acid foods like fruitf!, in an uatinnod copper vessel. As certain foods, as miik, are apt to burn when placed upon the fire, and to adhere to tb-: Bide^' of the siiucopan, care should be taken to clean the resetji bdoro it is again used for cooking. if cookiug-forks be dirty between tbo pronga and left so bi>( r jiio, they v/ill injure the flavour of the food. Keep knives, forks, and spoons which are used in cooking as cloaa a; id bright as those used in eating. a'ockery Hrid glass, whether good or common, are often very imperfectly washed in greasy ^\,if.or, which is not thoroughly wiped off. Teacups show ma/irs of food outside, and neither the inside nor outside is hrlo^ht and shining.' They should always be well washed and rinsed in clean hot water, and after being drained, should be well dried and polished with a dry towel. Dirty and greasy hands are an abomination in a cook, for Bhe must handle some foods as they are moved about, and people must eat the durt. It is no doubt difficult to keep the hands clean, but it is much less so to one who is careful to use forks and spoons, and who appreciates the fact that some one must eat what she has handled. Many handle bread, meat, butter, cheese, and nearly every kind of food need- lessly, and should be taught to use clean forks and spoons. Matters which are not only offensive and disgusting, but really prejudicial to health, may be convoyed by dirty hands. When her hands are dirty, she may wash them with a loss of two minutes only. It is necessary in making soups and o* iishes to taste the food f; m time to time in order ' ju' ■ as to the flavour and not ^. TOfjuentiy the same sp ., i wkh convoyed the HINTS ABOUT COOKING. 6S food to the mouth, is put I ack into the dish or saucepan and used agam and again. This is a dirty habit, and it is better to take out a small quantity of the soup with one epoon, and taste of it with another T,.S'*^ IT! ^""^ ^''^y ^'°^^^^ ^"^ ««rt«J«ly make dirtv hands and dirty, greasy dish-cloths and towels will not maki clean dishes and clean food. When food is to be boiled, the vessel should be placed npon a bnght fire, and not thrust into the smoke as though It were intended to foul both the food and th vessel vessels reqmre to be cleaned. A small red fire will cook b^ter than a large, black, smoky one, and a furnaTwh h c.n be closed so that the saucepan may be placeT on th^ hot plate, will be far more cleanly and lesf t/oublo" Jo^a °''" 'Yt "°* ^' *°° ^0^' No food should be placed m one which is red hot on one side for T ^'n I burnt on that side before it is warmed thr ugi t the^the/ Let the temperature be nearly the same on aU sides tn^fl It IS also desirable to see that there is an onpnJn. 11* which .he stea. „ay escape, or ITd T^'Z 2' but m even the best range it is desirable to open th! 7 .a?;»?rfbUZirththt^^^^^^^^^^ Gas-stoves also claim attention, for thev rti«wi,„.. .1, heat more uniformly and cleanly, Ind mayL to e tofo' nncal than coal-grates it properly ro«„/ated. TLeyZ 66 HEALTH. lij^hted and extingnished instantly, and therefore need ba u^ed only when required, and are employed in nearly all largo establishments in towns. Objection was formerly taken to the flavour of the meat thus roasted, but now thai the stoves are lined with clay or terra- cotta, they are un- objectionable. There are but few foods which require to be cooked in boiling water, for they will be better cooked in water below that heat, say at 180° F. This is the case with meat, milk, eggs, and soup, and the reason is that the albumen (like the white of egg) becomes solid at 180°, and hard and less diges- tible at the boiling point. Therefore meat kept at 180° will bo tender and digestible, whilst, boiled at 212°, it will be Lard and almost indigestible. It may be that the cook has no thermometer, but she knows when fluid is kept under the boiling point, and therefore below 212°, and may readily guess that it is sufficiently near that heat. The use of the Norwegian-stove is in this respect as well as for economy very good. It is simply a box lined with felt four to six inches in thickness, and when a vessel con- taining boiling water is placed in it and closed up, it will keep it hot enough during the whole time required for cook- ing food. Thus if a leg of mutton be placed in a vessel with boiling water and just boiled on the fire, it may be enclosed in the box whilst the housewife attends to other duties; and without further expense for fuel or further attention will be found cooked at the proper time. This arrangement is very simple, cleanly, and economical, and any one may make such a box for a few shillings. Let some child explain this to her mother and induce her to try it, and particularly in those parts of the country where fuel is very dear. Milk, soup, tea and cofl'ee sh9uld not be boiled, but tea ha HINTS ABOUT COOKING. <^7 and coffoe Bhould bo made with boiling water poured irto :u!:::r.'^^ '"-"'' ^^^^ ^^^^^ ^^^^^ ^^^^ -^ ^^- ^^.t Fresh vegetables require more heat than the substanceB already named, but when once boiled they may be a low Jd to simmer Care should be taken to cook th'm weH^but hey should not be boiled down lest the flavour should bo lessoned and waste caused. Much attention is required to roast meat, whether before the fire or m a stove, so that it shall be done throughout and yetthejuices be retained within it. Not unfrequently J 8 und rdone or overdone, and few can eat the former, whfl the latter causes waste of food. It should be dried 0^0 outside quzckly. and then exposed to a lower heat, v al and pork require more cooking than beef or mutton, for they are less agreeable and digestible when underdone, and there fore there is often much waste. Bread does not require this management, but should be baked a an even temperature throughout ; but pies contain- ing meatwiU often be cooked on the outside before the inside IS ready for the table, unless the meat be previously in part cooked; and if the inside consist of several substances, as meat and potato, the difficulty becomes greater, A good cook will take care that all are equally cooked when eafen. The flavour of nearly every food is changed and impi. -~d when cooked, but persons differ as to the degree in which they would have food cooked. Thus some prefer a piece of beef which IS red and full of juice, and others the out- side which IS dried and has the flavour of burnt flesh Hence, there is no universal rule, but each household must have ,1. own law. At the same time a perfectly roasted joirr. .11 supply both kinds, at least to a limited extent, for the outer p^-t will be more cooked than the inner. A joint 6? HEALTH. Which is undorcookod and remains raw and sodden is rarely siaio. '" ^ '' ^' '''''^ ^" « I^^^f-^IJ The digestibility of foods varies with the mode and degree of cooking, as has been already proved by Dr. Beaumont's expenments. but it also varies with the temperltur 1 which It :s eaten. Cold foods rarely digest so well as when hot p t^euarlyinold persons; whilst^ half-cooked Joint served up luke varm is still less digestible. Hence it is dos,n.ble that food should be properly cooked and hen served when as warm as it can be conveniently eaten. The warm,ng-np of food also demands a passing remark, tha hard and tough which . ,. .rst cooki.g was tender. If It bo undesirable to boii meat at first it is equally so in v/arming it up in stews. ^ ^ ° Tho subject of waste is intimately connected with cnokin. Loss we.ght of meat is not necossarily wasto. for nearly ^1 except water ..o,y be retained, and the quantity which remains will aflord as much nutriment as the larger quanti v before cooking. If ho^ ever. th. lean or the fat'be b'urn t ^ too m , coo.ed there will be a real loss. Boiled meat should ose about one-fourth of its weight, and that v^i h ImTse at ? r' " *'^ '^ '^' ^'^^^^* roasted me will lose about one-third .asides the weight of the dri.pin^ Many cooks, however, thro-, away the broth, or Uirty or seli the dripping, all of which .. improper Bones should nd ^ roasted, if they can bo removed from he moat, but boile. If oken or sawn into small pi.^r and then placed w... water in a digester with a lid wh ch s' fstened down and stewed for twelve to twentv-fourioar bey will allord vory valuable material with which to help to make soup. Every thrifty housewife should not on| HINTS ABOUT COOKING. 69 I is rnrely hulf-cold 1(1 flcgroo aumont's 'aturo at as when ted joint nco it 13 nd then ID. remark, nd make 3 tender, lly so in cooking. T nearly y which quantity )urnt or id meat vhich is d meat 'ipping. or sell Bave the hones but buy others for this purpose. This is a part 01 cookery and feeding with which we aro not sufficiently famdiar in this country, but the high price of moat should leacn ns to bo more economical. Cooked food of every kind should be placed where there froHh, pure, and cool air. and where insects cannot deposit and liquuls, which 1. possessed by both cooked and uncooked tuod IS insutficiontly appreciated, or better larders would be providcl m good houses. Under present arrangements there s no part of a house for any class in towns whi. h is so defec- tive, bu in the country nearly aU the better class of houses have cellars which are cool. The air should, moreover, be dry and m motion. Moist an-1 stagnant air is most condu- cive to putrefaction and particularly in hot and close weather, whi St air which IS in motion is generally cool and compara- tively dry Take care, th, refore, that there is a ,ood pantry or cellar, that it is well drained, and has a strong current air passmg through it. Do not place the food near any uxain, water-closet, or any other source of offensive smells. Dor zn a close cupboard containing a variety of things and near a fire. Cover it in warm weather in such a manner that flies may bo excluded whilst air is admit^-d, and watch it from time to time. d from pieces, hich is hours, o lielp )t only km 11 CHAPTER 17, CLOTHING. The requisite clothing depends upon tho coldness of the weather, and as we live in a very variable climate the neces- sary amount varies more than daily. ^ 1. As to tho underclothing. Linen next the skin veryreadily gives a sensation of cold after the body has been heated and has perspired, so that it rather tends to give than toprevent colds. Calico absorbs a larger quantity of moisture and is much warmer under the same circumstances, but woollen whilst it absorbs less is tho warmest of all. As tho skin perspires in hot weather it is not desirable to wear linen next it, and caUco or woollen should be substituted according to the heat of the weather. In cold or cool weather there can be no doubt that woollen is preferable, but in the heat of summer cahco may be substituted. In our climate we are, however, liable to chilly evenings with warm days, and a thin woollen vest is safer than an extra calico shirt. Woollen vests for cold weather maybe either thick woven Scotch shirts, or made of fine Welsh flannel. Fitting the body is, however, quite as important as closeness of tex- ture, for if they do not fit well the cold air will find access underneath it. Hence the woven shirt is often a better pro- tector than flannel, but the texture should be close. This is also the case when in any weather much exertion is I CLOTIIINO. 71 followotl by rest, in which latter state cold may bo readily taken. In warm weather a thinner wool, as that of merino, may be Hubstitutcd, and unless the weather bo very hot it if generally tho proper clothing. In this respect, however, persons differ, as they do or do not perspire readily, and as their skins aro sensitive ; for he who perspires readily requires woollen to prevent cold whilst a dry and hot skin may be sufficiently protected by calico clothing. ' It is much to be regretted that women do not always wear woollen next tho skin, whether in summer or winter- and still more so, that there aro men who are much exposed to cold, and do not wear it. All persons should wear it from their infancy. 2. As to outer clothing. It is necessary that there should be an outer garment which may be worn or thrown off according to tho weather and tho sensation of heat. This may be a cloak, coat, or shawl; and provided the trunk be covered, the arms and logs may be covered or uncovered This should be of woollen, even for women, and even in* warm weather. 8. The intermediate clothing. This must depend upon the means of tho wearer, mode of life, and season. In cold weather it should no doubt be of wool, whether for women or men ; but at other seasons calico and silk may be substi- tuted for women, and perhaps linen for men. The very proper tendency of our day is, however, in favour of wearing woollen fabrics lor outdoor wear by both sexes, and at almost all seasons ; but in the hot season they are exceed- ingly light, and of open texture. They are also the most economical, and, as now manufactured, look extremely well. How much better does a good woollen dress look than a dirty and crushed calico, and in the end how much cheapei { 72 HEALTH. Hence, at all seasons, and for every kind of clothina for outdoor wear, woollen is to be preferred. When silk or very light fabrics are worn by women there should be sufficient underclothing, besides the woollen vest. Clothing in the house must necessarily difler from that for outdoor at the same season, but the diflerence should be chiefly m the outer garment. There are few if any subjects so important in the management of children as clothing, to protect them from changes of temperature ; and both for them and for the old It IS desirable that it should be such as shall not oppress by heat or starve with cold. Too much clothing, by causing the skin to perspire freely, makes them more liable to take colds, whilst undue cold lessens vitality Persons in middle life are more able to resist these as al) ocher influences. Clothing at night is also worthy of attention. A thick and heavy cotton counterpane weighs down the body without giving much warmth, so that the body is working during B eep, and is less refreshed in the morning. Except the BbeoLS, all coverings of the bed should be of wool, which gives the greatest warmth in proportion to its weight ana the counterpane should be either equal to a blanket, or a blanket should be substituted for it, and a thin li^ht covering like a sheet thrown over it. K there be too much warmth the body is relaxed, the skin made sensitive, and health IS impaired. If too little warmth, the body is unne- cessarily wasted by loss of heat. The old rule is, however a good one-viz., to keep the feet warm and the head cool.' Hence, the number of blankets to be used must vary with the weather and season. _ Young children and old people need more clothing at mgbt than those of middle age. and in winter the most CLOTHING. 73 IS requn-cd for all ages, at about four to six o'clock in the morning, when the cold is the greatest. The ick d m.nd great consKleration in this matter, and usually need more clothing than those who are well. What kind of nieht-dress shnnM l^« « r. ,. "'feUi uicsb snouid be worn ? Some r^v a cahco covered by a wooUea dress, and others eaTco oi The very young and aged should have the former, and thot heltuldt ■ -'t:^ ""''''"^'^ "' rheuma'tis: In traveffing, and when making very varyin. decrees of oxerfaon ,t ,s desirable to carry a ScotTh piafd s'hawfof fine wool wh,eh is both light and warm, and may be Led by Bight or day, and over any part of the body * Woollen stockings are desirable for persons with cold feet, and are perhaps better than cotton for everybody and shoes or boots, strong and thick, according to the s;,™ and work, should be worn. Especial care should be taken as to the clothing of in fants and very old people in cold weather, for the absence of a sufhcent degree of h.eat often causes deatt need not enfrely cover the^.., of infants, as we some t mes see, for then they could scarcely breathe andTr» hable to snifocation; but it is desirabfe tha such young creatures should not breathe extremely cold air. l/r2 rence to the aged, g,.eal attention should be paid to the warm h ol the,r extremities, for the circulation being feeble and the producfon of heat small, the hands and fel nTav become cold, and exl.auslion, leading to death, may re uU ^ N<.tbmg but tiannel or some other woollen clothbg can be s„ftc,ent protection to ..ther of these classes, an"d mu!h i"jurj^ K^suiis from the ybsence of it. CHAPTER T. MOVEMENTS OF THE BODY. EXERTION. Exi^RtioN, whether called labour, recreation, or amusement, is essential to health, and as the body was made for labour, work is its natural and honourable duty. An idle man or woman is a discredit to the race, and unusually liable to fall into disease, whilst an industrious person adds to the wealth of the country, and is more likely to be healthy and happy. Exertion is useful, inasmuch as it quickens the circula- tion, deepens and quickens the breathing, promotes per- spiration, and stimulates digestion, and thus helps the body to take food, and to get rid of that which is not required. This is so marked, that the breathing is seven times more with fast running than when lying down at rest. The pulse is quicker when sitting than lying, when standing than sitting, when walking than standing, and when running in proportion to the speed. Even moving the hand affects those actions. This subject is so interesting that I will introduce the results of a very large series of experiments which I made as to th« influence of nearly all kinds of exertion :— \ r h I h EXERTION. 7S Tahle No. 8. Effect of Exertion, The lying posture , TJjG sitting: poHture Heading aloud or Hinging The standing nocture . Kailway travelling in the Ist class » n f> n n n u H M It 2nd class upon the engine, at 20 to 30 miles per hour . ., " , , » 60 to 60 in the 3rd class . . . ." " upon the engine, ave^-age o'f all speeds n at 40 to 60 miles per hour tf Walking in lho«ea ." . . ^^ *« ^^ ,, on land at 1 mile per hour . Elding on hors.-back at the walkii-^ pace Walking at 2 miles per hour Riding on horsebaek at the cantering 'paco Walking at 3 milos per hour . Ridmg moderately Descending Btops at 640 yar'ds pe'rpendiculnr per'hour' Walking at 3 miles per hour and carrying 34 lbs. Riding on hoMcback at the trotting pace ? " Swimming at good speed . wSwlt'i'SJill"'' l^'^' Peiiendicular'por hour vvaUimg at 3 m es per hour and carrj'in r ns iba „ 4 miles per hour . o ^^o ids. The tread-whet.l. .wending 45 steps per miiiutfl * Running at 6 mUe« per hoi» . ^ * * • • • « The reason why exertion is beneficial by increasing the vxtal actxonB is, that the greater the action within the bod' he more oodis consumed, and the higher the health, (Tnt be natural and hero be sufficient food,) whilst with sloth thesis less vital action, and less health. There is a restriction, however, as to exertion for the breathing and pulsation are limited in frenuencv to Trl, >^eyond which life canr.nf K. ^„;..„:„h - '^ ^ ' ?.— ^vr.iircti. xais iiiuit varies in being 1 IS 1-18 » 1-26 >» 1-33 » 1-40 » 1-5 )» 1-52 If 1-55 1) 1-58 i> 1-68 »» 1-61 i> lo4 »> 1-65 »i 1-9 »» 2-2 »> 276 >» 3-16 » 3-22 >» 3-33 M 3-43 »l 3-5 tt 3-84 It 4-05 It 433 H 4-4 » 4-75 II 6-0 »» 6-5 M 7-0 76 HEALTH. different persons, and according to practice and habit, so that one man can do that which is impossible to another. But the greater the exertion, the stronger and larger are the muscles which make it, so that the blacksmith's arm is much larger than that of an idle man. Thus, the more you do, the more you will bo able to do. ^ ' The best time to make great exertion is about two hours alter a meal. It is not a good time before breakfast, althodgh moderate work may be then performed ; and those who go to work before breakfast should first take a cup of hot milk, tea or coffee, or other simple food. The body is weakest before breakfast. ^ After a full meal it is not good to take any violent exer- oise, but ordinary work may then be properly performed. After the labour of the day, the body becomes tired, and therefore the evening is not the best time for work. Some persons work all night, but it is not so healthful as working by day. It is easier to work in cool weather than m Hot but m excessively cold weather the limbs are - benumbed, and cannot move so readily. In hot weather the most laborious work should be done in the morning and evening, and light work in the -middle of the day. Increase of food is required with much work. If the appetite fail, the body becomes weak ; but if it remain good, the body is strengthened. Therefore, in the healthy state, the appetite indicates the quantity of food which is required. Women are not able to do heavy work like men, because their bones and muscles are not so large, but they do light and delicate work better. Children should not be required to make groat exertion, as their bones are not solid at the ends. Old men cannot make so much exertion as the young or the middlo-agod, and their bones are more brittle and liable OCCUPATION. 77 to be broken. An old woman of eighty years of age faWmo down xs very liable to break her thigh at Ihe hip jofnt. ' Vio ent or rapid exertion made by children, and also by Btout or aged people, often ixyures, and sometime" causes d.ease of the heart, when the same taken n"he Ordinary way would do no harm. Rapidly running up-stairs or to meet a tram, sometimes causes death. Hence wS exerce as of tl. utmost importance to health, it sh^^t be bv fb'or 'l 'T"^ '"^ '^''"'''^ "^^""^'•' ^"^ particularly by tho e who have passed the period of youth. But disease of he heart even in youth may often be traced to indiscre ion Th! I rr "'^''" ^" '°^^^°^' ^"--^' or jumping The kmds of exercise will be further referred to under the beads of '« Occupation," '« Recreation," and «• GymnastkJ' OCCUPATION. There are perhaps more occupations that are unfavourable than favoni-able to health, and ail need to be watched lest they should lessen health. Persons who sit at desks or work in close rooms, as clerics teachers, printers, tailors, and shoemakers, are liable to dis- eases from want of bodily exercise, and from foul air. Those who bend the body forward, have the chest flattened or con- tracted. Plumbers are liable to colic from the lead which they use. Match-makers are injured by the phosphorus • chimney-sweeps by the soot ; millers, grinders, and those who ,vork in dust, breathe it, and get disease of the chest Colliers are liable to explosions in the coal-pits, and miners generally, often breathe very foul air. Farm labourers, who BO often wear M-et clothes, are Hable to rheumatism ; and all persons are liable to accidents in pursuing their occupations. it IS desirable tnat each person should know his own r» HEALTH, danger and try lo prevent it. or to remedy any i„;„rie» caused by it. ' ' '"juries Thus those who sit much should walk about when thev the" op°en°;,> ""'"« '""^ '"'"' '''"■"y "' "-"«-« i" Those who stand much should sit wbr n possible. uprght, and when the.r work is over they should throw deeply and thus try to expand the chest. When thoy walk tte deeper they breathe, as in running, the more they wdl expand and open the ehest. It is quite possible to preven any injury from such work by proper C when work .s over. The two evils now mentioned apply ,o women and children, and to a greater number of ylng men than any other, and hence, wherever there is a gymna Slum or any place where gymnastics can be performed thev should attend. In both these cases there is also a" enden ' he health fa.ls because there is not much exerfon maTe and the a,r wh.ch they breathe is usually warm and fou ' Proper exercise will remedy these evUs, at least to a orea extent, If the person appreciates the danger to wWch to is exposed and will diligently try the remedy Other trades, as those of plumbers and chimnoy-swoens require that the skin shaU not be needlessly covered wUh pamt or soot, and that the hands and face shall be well washed several times a day. ' Those who breathe dust should wear a piece of «„, gauze with or without cotton wool, over the mouth l, nose, by which some of it will be kept out of "he lung, and every means should be taken to prevent it, and t OCCUPATIO \ 79 remove it from the room by good ventilation. The two latter are the most important, since they may be the most effectual ; but those who are obliged to be very near the place where dust is made-as steel grinders-should wear the gauze and cotton wool, even when there is good ventila- tion and a fan is used in the workshop. There would be fewer explosions in coal and other mines and fewer deaths from foul air. if the miners would use' proper precautions. All should take care that the laws are obeyed, and report any one who, by breaking them, may cause the death of others. The miners themselves must be their own protectors. There would be much less rheumatism if people were more careful to avoid the rain and to change their wet clothes for dry ones. This is no doubt difficult or even impossible with some, but it is possible with many; and thousands of poor labourers, who can no longer work because of rheuma- tism, might now maintain their families, if they had contrived to keep old dry clothes to wear when the others were wet. So also the bed and bedclothes should bo dry and no person should knowingly sleep in a damp bed or sit in damp clothes. Let each person ascertain the particular danger to which he IS exposed and use common sense when trying to prevent It, and he will very generally succeed. The ventilation of workshops is of the utmost moment, and yet it is very little attended to. The rooms are generall^ overcrowded, whilst there are noxious fumes from gas burn- ers or charcoal stoves, which are very likely to bring on or increase, diseases of the throat and chest. They are iso almost always too hot, and thereby make the workmen and workwomen more likely to take colds, become feeble, and iuU **i*/V vUiiO Uitl^ tiUiit 8o HEALTH. Many f.00,1 laws have been passed to regulate these ques- tions m factories, workshops, brickyards, fnrnacos, and other places and the workmen should see that they are properly earned out. Tailors' shops, printing offices, and milliners^ rooms in towns, are very unhealthy, whilst cotton mills are generally too warm. Such workpeople should carry over- clothmg to be put on when they leave tke mill or workshop to prevent colds. ^' Children are now very properly forbidden to work in such unhealthy places, and thereby an opportunity is given them to grow up healthy and strong before they enter on the duties of hfe; and the hours of labour for all classes have been restricted of late years, so that less injury may be inflicted All these laws are intended for the protection of the working people, to improve their health, and to prevent fevers, consumption, and other diseases. Special inspectors are appointed by the Government to watch their operation, and the workmen should caU their attention to any infringe- ment of them. '^ ^ RECREATION. Recreation is necessary in order to maintain health of body. This differs with the circumstances of each person and the period of life, but in some degree and of some kind it is desirable for all. It may be said that bodily recreation is not needful for a workmg man who makes enough exertion without it, but that IS not correct. Different kinds of work cause certain classes of muscles to act, but not all of them, and recreation l.y giving more variety of action, calls the latter into play' A hard-working man even may find recreation and health in a bodily senae, m a game of cricket. But work is not, alwnvg RECREAIION. 8l hard, and a very largo of ,„ .^ - Prorortiuu ui woriang men women sit or stand during their labour, and do not make great exertion. They, therefore, above all others, ne^d to nto play, bo also richer people .vho are not required to do much bodily work need recreation. There is "so a larger c ass of people who work with their brains, and not with their bodies, and who become very tired and exhausted at the end of the day. They are us lly he Wiuchned to take recreation, and yet they greatly'need Hence there is no man, woman, or child, whether rich or poor. Idle or industrious, who would not be the better for recreation. But even so good a thing should be used with r asonable caution ; for as it is clear that work is our first duty, and that no one could be justified in neglecting it, recrea^on should therefore, be limited to suit;ble tfme wot/r?; V^^^^^i^^^ be taken with a view to evade woik, but to lessen the evil efiects of it, and to keep the body well fitted for duty. Recreation which leads to Idleness will tend to vice, poverty, and disease, and not to health and is not that which we recommend. So, also It should be enjoyed under proper conditions of weather, so' that colds may not be taken, or clothing unduly injured • and without evil influences, undesirable associates, foul language, and mtoxicating drinks. If a lead to waste and drunkenness it is an evil, and not a good. Therefore each person should select the kind of recrea- tion, and the time and circumstances, which best suit his requirements and convenience, and always remember that more ham may be obtained from evd associates and habits, at play than at work. The recreation to which we rafer is, however, chiefly of G HEALTH. boys and men n thiscountrv rJrio ! "* wan,.,. .„a wm b. the .0. b.a,thyL:„rsr„i Eve- such well-known kinds of reerealion require «™ lal.on 80 that wo may learn to stand, walk, run slip a^d jump m the best way, with a view to ^erfec ly de'v Ze tSf GYMNASTIOg, ev''r:;ioo?of r°""?""''^' .re performed in nearly e.. ) cnooi of this country, and it is desirable th«t ihi praci,™ should he extended and become un ver al Th!,! recorr;; .;r "'"' t^°™' °' '^™' wuhoTstmcfn ; ohirsruirhrhir vr^^'^"'^""« "■» ^-^^ class oJ „„»!;'"".''"' 'r" "'" °''J^'" '^ '» 'J'^v^lope every Class 01 muscles, to make the body mora ninl» „„a . . I certain movements which under »LT ■ ' '" '"'"='' be most „«»f„l .„!, J^™'"' ""-""mstances, may oe most useful, and as a necessary consequence to „.. .-.a , superfluous water and fat from the body "e ; ° fa ,"1t! achons, particularly those of the skin Zi fungs * """ Regarded as an amusement, thevhavotho „j" i indicated, besides those of spendiL »n\ '"^™"'»S<'» J««' ^i:ttbtL:^:-----^^^^^^ to ovor.e.ite the functions and o^^^/r^d;^ ~ GYMNASTICS. 83 n!fl^"''^ "If !f ' "'^ ^y ''''''' *° ^^^'^•'^ exhaustion and disease rather than health. The scheme as carried out in onr ^ost gymnasiums for example, that at Oxford, under 1' ,e UTaZTur. IrT^rT' i' \7. ''*'"'^"'' '"'^ ^^ '^'■^^"'^*^°° ^^^'^rdin,. to pra t ce and ability is very complete, and is based upon the mo ei of he French, which has been long in operation a ^8 em of training for the army. It includes the following : Walking, running, leaping, climbing, and the use of the Ic.iping-rope. leaping-pole. horizontal beam, vaulting bar. vaulting horse, fixed parallel bars, movable parallel bars trapezium, pair of rings, row of rings, elastic ladder, hori- zontal bar. bridge ladder, plank, ladder plank, inclined ad^er. prepared wall, vertical pole, fixed vertical pole B anting pole, turning pole, pair of vertical poles, pafr o Blantmg poles, vertical rope, rotary and mast. ^ ' ^ "' This 18 a very long array of means for the development of the muscles, and to attain perfect agility. The whole scheme is doubtless desirable for those vvho would pJrf^ hemselves. but it cannot be said to be necessary fo^ he attainment of health and strength, or for the masses of the people. Whilst, therefore, we would advise the use of a many as may be within reach (in due subjection to strength simpler ones, which are now or may soon be found in our ordinary schools. We will, however, further premise th-at Z whole scheme is divided into several classes, according to more difhcult the second, third, and fourth courses. Ihose of the first course, under Mr. MacLaren'» instruct tions, are as follows ;— "Jsiruc- 1. To walk, at slow time, a short distance. 2. To ran, at slow time, a biiort distance. ^ 0" IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) // 1.0 I.I 11.25 ■ 50 ""'^™ us IM 2.2 S 140 20 m \A. mil 1.6 V <^ //. ■CM f>> ^ fV 'C^ % ^.\ ■>- f/^ 84 HEALTH. 8 To leap hei<,^ht, in one or two movements, when standing; — ' "'"»^" To leap width. 4. The same, when running. 6. To leap height and width with the rope. 6. To leap width standing with the pole. 7. The front, rear, and side march, when sitting, with the horizontal beam. ° 8. The same, when upright. 9. To vault over the bar in three movements To vault over the horse. 11. The same, when running. 12. The single and double mirch backwards and forwards, on the fixed parallel bars, when travelling. 13. To clear the bar by the front when oscillating To rest on the left bar and clear the right by the front. 14 To clear the movable bars, resting on the first or second, over the bars. U.a 1 ^ r ^''' ^7"^ !:^' ^''^ *° ^^' '^^°°^ bar, with either hand leadmg, under the bars. bars. ^^ '''* '"^ *^' ''''^^' ^°^ ^'"^^' ^""'^ b^^^^e'* t^e lifU; th:Sum! '''''' "^^' '' '''' '''-'' ^' ''^ ^-^■ 16. To make the single and double circle with a pair of rmgs, and to turn with the feet in the rings. 17. The swing. 18. Travelling on the horizontal bar. with either hand leadmg sideways, and with the legs bent or pending reverBer""^ '" ^^" ^"' '^'' ''"^'' ^^^ '^' ^^^^^^ ^'^«* o' GYMNASTICS. 85 or Ll'adS"'' ''' ''"'^ ^"' '^^*' ^^' '''''-' ^-^' -^«' forwa-Js'' ""'' '^''' *'^ ^^''^' P^-^' ^-Wds or ladd!"/"' ''"'' ^^^^^ *^' ^"^^^"^^ ^^'^^^'' --d above the 23. The same, with the prepared wall. ^4. The vertical pole with hands and feet eithflr 1,..^ leading, or hand over hand. ' ^^""^ un":;:r '"' ''' ^^^^^^^^ p^^^' ^^^^ ^^- -^ 26. The turning pole, with either hand leading. 27. The same, with a pair of slanting poles. J8. The vertical rope, with hands and feet, either band 29. The simple climb. We will now very shortly describe those which are in general use, and may be taught in all schools. THr; SINGLE HORIZONTAL POLE. This may be sapported at one or both enjs, and should bo a few mches above the reach of a person sta ulin» on th 1. Jnmp up ana seize the pole with the thumband fin..ers on the upper „do, and hang by the finders. (Fig. 14 ) 3 Draw yourself up slowly uutil your chest is on a level wuh the pole, and then suddenly rise to the full height oi 86 HEALTH. the Straightened arms whilst throwing yourself a little back- wards. (Fig. 15.) Fig. 14. 4. With the pole fixed, slowly draw up the feet to the level ot the bar, and then let yourself down slowly. (Fig. IG.) mg.is. o Instead of letting yourself down, put the feet slowly bcUeon he arms, and then fall to the ground. (Fig. 16 ) thcin stciulily over the bar. (Fig. IG.) 7. ywing slowiy first, and then boldly whilst hanging oa itle back- GYMNASTICS. the bar, until the body can be swung thrnnah h.}e -"T Kg. 16. •he level 16.) slowly 16.) 1 carry ng oa otht.™^" '""^'"^ "^ "^^ ^''- JO^P fro-" o-o end lo the diffi^f IT'""- '""' '°'' ""^ *™« '°^"«' knot are ve,y .;=:!Cdi:trrr^rjtr.^:- 11. Hanging by the feet.-When the feet are broufht In oivtiowtdTon/ '""v ^•"■"'O •"' '"--^0 -d the (Fig! 10 ) l"='P-<'-''"-'y witiout swing or jerk. TWO PAKALLEL BABS. r - .Y^ te,.oiig posts about 4 luet high. 88 HEALTH. 1. Stand between them and take the first position by spriuf^'ing up, and, with the arms quite straight, place a hand on each bar, and remain suspended with the body above the bars. (Fig. 17.) Tig. 17. Fig, 19. Kg. 18. 2. Then walk backwards and forwards, suspended as before. (Fig. 18.) 3. Swing the legs and body backwards and forwards be- tween the bars. (Fig. 20.) Fig. 20. 4. Draw up the legs at a right angle to the body, and then lot the body up and down by straightening and bending the arms. d. Do the same with the legs pending. (Fig. 19.) GYMNASTICS. sition by eoahand .bove the ided as irds be- y, and ending 89 6. With the arms laid along the bars, after taking the first position draw up the body, and swing backwards and for- 7. From the first position raise up the legs together and Bit upon either bar. 5 «* *»"u ^^\ Sf f g/a'ef^Iy in the central line so as to throw the r^f^v, u^ ^^"^ °°' '"'^ *^ *^" ^'^^'' ^lig^ti^g 0^ the bars with the hands. (Fig. 22.) 9. Kneel upon both bars with the hands placed on them, Tig. 22. a»d then slide the hands forward and the feet bad:ward, and tees both from the inside of the bars. (Fig 28 ) 9° IlKALTH. 11. Then draw up the otlicr f„ot and place it on the bar and by the too draw yourself upright. IFii^Zi) ' 12 With the hands graspi„n, both bars on the oiatside, draw «P he legs carefully, and pass tbom over the head, hinging by the arms, and then return. (Fig. 21.) Fip- 24. ^'eO. THE GIANT STKIDE. An upright and strong pole is fixed firmly into the n-nnn^ and stands fifteen feet above it. At the top a Tong travelhag :ron eap .s fixed in a pivot and passes through thref or more eyes, from whieh ropes are suspended. The rop s at the other end may simply have one or a series of Jots or-a erossbar of strong wood whieh may be easily gras™d and they are snfliciently long to bo readily reached The b.ar or knot >s then seized, and the rope extended to its ful 2t'e: ; r" " ""■'. ""^ '"^ ^"""S'' '^'^ »P Ws fee •md IS earned to a certain distance round the pole The .jump may be repeated or the swing may be kept „p by a few touches of the ground with his toes. This should be prac tised m both directions, and attempts made to jump as hTI -possible, either without or over a line «p to'te" fSt i)t ro fu tre( hig smc wail trill \ by 1 GYMNASTICS. 9X on the bar, .) utside, draw 3ad, hangicg 7\ the ground a strong ough three The ropes of knots, y grasped, led. The to its full > his feet, 3le. The ) by a few i be prac- p as high ten feet CLIMBING THE ROPE. The rope is safoly suspended, and should be one inch in tljickncss. It should be seized firmly by the hands and •iscendod by extending one hand as much above the other as .lossible, and descended in the same manner. This will not DC possible at first, and the beginner should also seize the rope with his feet, using the foothold on the rope as a fulcrum in ascending. (Figs. 25 and 2G.) Fig, 27. Fig. 25. Fig. 28. CLIMBING THE POLE. This scarcely needs description since every boy climbs a tree by grasping it with his arms and legs, and raising them higher alternately. When climbing a palm-tree with very smooth sides, the Indians fix a bandage round both their waist and the tree, and then planting the feet firmly to the trunk, quickly and safely ascend the highest palms. When the polo is greased it is a dlTi -ult task to ascend it by the aims and hands alone, even when the feet are bare. 92 HEALTH. OLIMBINO A BOABD. The board may bo placed at any angle, but at tho first esson It Bhould be tolerably flat. Tho edges are seized by the fangers, whilst the body is carried up by tho advance of the feot in very short stops. (Fig. 27.) THE WOODEN HOBSB. This may be simply the trunk of a tree about twelve op sixteen mches in diameter fixed upon four straiebt lees which are set at an angle. It is well fitted for the practice of vaulting, and should be at the usual height of tho saddle on a horse viz., nearly tho level of the chin, and two pommela Bhould be inserted to represent the two ends of the saddle. ' Fiff. 28. 1. To mount. Seize the pommels and spring up until tho straightened arms rest upon the horse (Fig. 28), and then throw tho right leg over it. The advantage of this practice is not in the mounting only but in the agility which is gained by springing up from the toes. In dismounting, first raise the body from the saddle by ga beh GYMNASTICS. it tho first I Boized by advance of twelve or aigbt Ieg8 practice of saddle oq pommels saddle. until tho nd then practice vhich is ddle by 93 placing tho hands on the fore pommo! of the saddle, and then brow the right leg over and alight on the toes. This mav be varied by preventing tho toes touching the ground and again vaulting into tho saddle. (Fig. 29.) Fig. 30. Fig. 29. These two series of actions should be repeated in order to giun elasticity and agility. 2. The position of the face may be easily reversed. Mount Fig. 32. Fig. 81. behind the saddle, and then placing the hands on the two 94 HEALTH. pommels rise up and swing round bo &b to aligLt in tho saddle. (Figs. 29, 33.) 8. With both hands on tho front pommel, swing high in tho air with tho logs crossed and aliglit in tho saddle with tho face reversed, and then return by a swing in the contrary direction. This is not an operation which is easily performed, but requires practice and agility. 4. The legs may be passed through the arms, and the Fig. 84. rigr.sa dismount occur on the off side. This requires the hands to be placed on the pommels, and then the body being raisod the feet are drawn up and pushed through. (Fig. 80.) 6. The hands being placed as in mounting, the body may be thrown over the front of the horse and seated sideways behiiid the saddle (Fig. 33), or the body may be thrown over the back of the horse. This may requiie the impetus of a short run or jump. (Fig. 32.) 6. Being seated behind the saddle with the hands on the hind pommel, the body may be raised and thrown off the horse (Fig. 32), or with the left hand on the fore pommel and the right on the hinder one, you may swing so as to be coated before the saddle with your face looking backwaud. (Fig. 83.) The somersault is shown on Fig. 34. silt in tlio g hi^'h in iddlo with 3 coutniry rmcd, but , and the hands to ig raised 30.) 'ody may sideways 3wn over )tus of a 8 on the I off the nmel and 30 coatGd Fig. 83.) CHAPTEK VT. REST AND SLEEP, BEST. Althouoh the body is a working inacbino, and the mind which acts through it is immaterial, they cannot be exercised without intermission, if life is to be maintained. Work and rest are twin sisters, and each must have its sway in turn. " All work and no play, m-' Jack a dull boy," has long passed into a proverb, and is , expression of a natural law applicable to all mankind and at all times. This rest is of two kinds, viz., that which immediately follows fatigue, or a sense of inability f^ continue to make exertion, and that which is prolonged through a whole day, during a great part of which the body could work. The necessity of the former is apparent, because the mind is con- scious of diminished present ability to work, but the latter has not always been allowed, since it is the result of long observation and of reasoning rather than of instinctive con- viction. Experience has shown that men cannot perform laborious work beyond two, three, or four hours at a time without requiring temporary rest ; and as this corresponds with the temporary effect of food, the moal-hour has become also the hour of rest. But with the recurrence of each period for 96 HEALTH. work, the sense of fatigue and the necessity for rest become greater, so that at the end of the second period of four hours' work in a day, the body is more fatigued than at the end of the first. The degree varies with many causes, such as the amount of labour required, the capability for labour, and the state of the weather ; so that the question of the proper duration of a day's work is not easily answered. Twelve hours has hitherto been regarded as a fair standard, but in many occupations the day is extended to fourteen or six- teen, or contracted to eight or ten hours. Even if the powers of the body were to be taken as the only test, it would nor be easy to lay down a universal rule ; but the effect of the mmd, and the anxieties of life upon the powers of the body must be considered, and the advantage of allow- ing leisure for the cultivation of the faculties of the mind as well as for the discharge of the duties of the body, cannot now be overlooked. ^ One cause of the sense of fatigue is due to the disturbance of the circulation ; for one who has walked much finds his feet swollen and his shoes tighter, or if he has used his arms much, finds his hand larger immediately afterwards; but the chief reason is the necessity for the feeding of the muscles or, as It IS termed, the repairing of the waste after labour, since with labour there is much waste and little repair, whilst with rest there is much repair and little waste. Hence we see why it is that the sense of fatigue increases as the day advances, and disappears after the night's rest. This must not be confounded with the receiving of food into the body, for as will be shown farther on. food thus eaten must be digested before it can nourish, and must be circu- lated in the muscles before it can repair them. Hence there must be at all times food in the blood in a state fit for use and the muscles must have intervals of rest, ia which they REST. 97 t become i of four an at the ses, such )our, and le proper Twelve 1, but in I or six- n if the y test, it but the I powers f allow- uind, as , cannot urbance nds his lis arms but the auscles, labour, , whilst nee we he day s must to the I eaten circu- 3 there >r use, 1 they have time, bo to speak, to nourish themselves, and to be agam strengthened, and ready for a proper period of labour. Hence we see the close connection which exists between the circumstances which, together, make health, viz., labour, food -proper m quantity and quality-good digestion of food, rest for the full use of food, and reinvigoration of the working powers of the body. ** The effect of labour npon the circulation begins to be of the hands, feet, and head very quickly lessens ; but if the to restore ^e balance. This is, however, assisted by the posture of the body, as every one knows who after walking raises his legs on a chair, and is soon conscious of the dimi- ^htf.r'T "[ f ?'°*^' ^^* '' ''' '^"^^r^d perfect ^hen^the whole body is laid horizontally. This is ex- pla ned by the fact that when the body is erect th. heart must force the blood upwards to the head, and becomes fat.g,ed ; and as the tendency of the blood is to fall in spite of the heart, the circulation is carried on with greater diffi. culty as the upright position is prolonged. But when the body IS honzontal, this difficulty almost vanishes, and the blood IS moved along by a smaller propelling force More- over, ,t IS a fact, which will be more fully described hereafter, that in this posture of greater ease the circulation is also filower, and the heart is relieved in both ways With the short intervals of rest during the day anri the ong interval of the night, followed, as they usu ^^ are, L 80 marked a sense of relief, is there any necessity on this ground for any further relaxation ? It is an ordinance which has long existed that man should rest one day in seven • and however It may be objected to or abused, it is nominally allowed by all cnihscd nations, so that every nation has is 98 HEALTH. Sabbath, although on different days of the week. This has a religious bearing, which should occupy the highest place, as affording leisure for the reception and contemplation of reli- gious truths, and particularly of such as refer to our future state, and for the performance of works of charity and piety, for which time could not be afforded on the other days of the week. But the experience of man has shown that it is per- haps equally important in its bearing upon the fitness of the minu and body to discharge the duties of this life. If we are conscious of a sense of fatigue with real labour as the day advances, is it not equally true that the sense increases as the week advances, and that whilst the Monday morning finds us fresh and vigorous, and " wound up for the week," on the Friday and Saturday mornings we are much less so ; and, in fact, that in any occupation which really taxes the powers of the body, more and better work is done in the early than in the later half of the week. Do we not long for the rest of the Sunday as that day draws nearer and nearer ? But this has been proved to be based upon truth by direct enquiry. In a long series of experiments as to the quantity of food eaten and drank, the amount of waste thrown out of the body, and the weight of the body, I proved that the following changes take place during each week of really hard and re'Tular work ; — 1. The appetite gradually lessens, so that less food is eaten at the end than at the beginning oi the week. 2. The digestion and use of food is lessened in the same manner, so that there is less waste removed by the kidneys and more by the bowels. 8. The weight of the body is lessened in the same manner at the end of the week. 4. With the rest of the Sunday there is improved appetite (■ _ REST. 99 and digestion, so that on tho Monday and following days the weight of the body is increased, and the quantity of waste material issuing by the kidneys largely increased also. The same results have been observed by those who work horses without a day's rest. The horses lose appetite, become thinner, lose spirits, and are dull and sluggish, be- come less able to work, and at length die earlier. It is now a fixed belief of those who have the care of such animals, that it is cheaper to lose their work one day in the week than to work them every day, and that no increase in quality or quantity of food can obviate the ill-effects of labour con- tinned without intermission. Do we therefore need further evidence of the wise prohi- bition of labour on the Sunday for man and animals, and, regarding the subject only in the point of view of health, is not he the wiser who refrains from bodily labour on that day? The necessity for this rest must vary with the degree of labour of the week, so that the idler may be said not to need that which is of the highest utility to the working man. It is a matter of congratulation that the workers are in- finitely more numerous than the drones of society, and if all do not work hard with their bodies, they are not idle in either body or mind. So the degree of rest varies also ; for it is not pretended that it is to be absolute, and that no motion should be made on Sunday. A really hard-working man may require more bodily rest than one who makes little exertion. Grahame writes : " Hail, Sabbath ! theo I hail the poor man's day." Yet a moderate degree of action on the Sunday is neces- sary to obtain roiie^" for the mind, and to discharge our 200 HEALTH. ft I much "h ' . ^ ^'"' '''"P' '™y ">« ^"■"'''y "-ay h ther and thither in pursuit of ploasnre. A proper discharge pure ntn ! 1! •''' ''°'' "*'°"°'' '" «™""y ««Wa and thaT^il L r " "™^™'»% P«ctieaMe, seem to be '•On to God's house the people press'd, l^assmg the place where each must rest iiach enter'd like a welcome guest " • • • • , ••And forth unto the fields I went, And Nature's living motion lent The pulse of hope to discontent." So. in reference to yet longer intervals, the English people of every c ass have arrived at the conclusion that a respi ! from daily labour for a few days or weeks in a year when other scenes may be sought, and present troubles and ialonr forgotten, is as wise as it is agreeable • an^ iiTi^ r. .aaway trains and steamhoa. l^TloL^^J't^ZtZl .neome, this practice will, donbtless. further iTcreasr Th! morf hours the night's rost, the Sabbath, aTtheyeariv cX^X': ""'"' '°"' ^'''' "- "■» P-- '^t SLEEP. !t»!'hTf'\™r'''!l'° '"'' and health, and the foUowing are Its ch ef effects. The body is at rest by lying down™! T ZTTTV ""'"'""' "" "»P-ati„n are*at rerlowoat point and allow more resi to the heart and lunl th' c^culatioB « the most easy, for tho column ofWoidl I SLEEP. lOI I honzonW and a., the actas of tho body are at their lowest pomt The eyes and ears are at rest by darkness, silence, and anconscousnoss. The mind is oblivions, and tronbles aeuter, the spmls more cheerful, and aU the powers of the body revivified and fitted for work. P.H'rr'^rT." '''' '""^ ""'"^'"S *° "fr^mstanees. Food, If taken too .ate, so as not to be digested, and if either too much or too httl., lessens it. Some kinds of food, as tea and coffee, may prevent it. Anxious thought and pain, or even great pleasure, lessen it. In proportion as it i^ sound the body and mind are refreshed. Hence the conditions most conducive to sleep are previous moderate exertion; light suppers taken at least two h„rs be ore going to sleep ; no tea or coffee taken at night; calm! ness of mind and subsidence of thought; a comfortable bed neither too much nor too little bed-clothing; silence darkness, moderate warmth and freshness of the air in the bedroom. Those who work in the night and sleep during the day ' say that they sleep well ; but they have less than those who sleep in the night, and it is much better to sleep in the night than by day. t ^ uiv Sleep is clearly more easily obtained at night during the darkness, and is more dimcult when the nights are very ^ort as at midsummer, than when long, as in mid-winter. With the morning light appearing early, the eyes have not so much rest, and as there is less silence in the streets than in darkness, unconsciousness is less profound and Bleep IS hghter. Hence there is more and better sleep in winter than m summer. It IS nronor to retire in »">"* ""-'-- -x _? i • ^ -^ ouie w ^voB xjaiiy ttfc uigat, wnen the day's xoa HEALTH. work IS done, and the body and mind are fatigued, and the soundest and best sleep is then obtained. It is said that " one hour's sleep before midninrht is better than two after- wards." But when should we awake and get up ? Clearly when we are conscious of dreaming, for consciousness has then in great part returned. To awake feeling refreshed and yet strive to sleep again is to waste time and weaken the body ; for every one knows that the second sleep ig not so refreshing as the first. Yet many do this, either from sloth or to wait until a fixed hour for rising. It is difficult to name a given number of "hours for sleep at all seasons, but eight hours for an adult, man or woman, and somewhat more for children and old people, is believed to be right. Children naturally sleep long because their bodies need rest for growth, and they go to bed very early ; whilst old people are more wakeful, and require to lie down longer than they can sleep. People generally sleep too much, having regard to their health and the proper use of time, and with the mind at rest a less quantity would be equally good. They should not. however, go to bed late and rise early, but if they must rise early they should go io bed early. Those who go to bed at nine may get up at four or five clock, and those who stay up until ten or eleven may rest until five, six, or seven o'clock according to their age, health, and duties. ' The proper rule is to go to bed early and rise early, and to make the best use of the morning hours for devotion and study. There can be no doubt that to He down an undue length of time, and to use too much clothing, is to relax the body and to make it less fit for exertion, so that, independently of waste of time, less toi^e and health of body result The heart becomes feeble and the skin unusually sensitive, whilst S L E E P. 103 !, and tLe said that wo after- Clearly ncss has efroshed,, i weaken sleep is iher from sleep at nan, and ed to be r bodies ; whilst Q longer to their I at rest lid not, lUst rise > bed at stay up o'clock, •ly,. and on and at the same time the lowest state of vital action is unduly pro- onged, so that disease, having the character of debility and a tendency to take colds, must follow. On the other hand, to rise when we have been sufficiently refreshed is to add to the usefulness of the body as an instrument of labour and to pro- ong lile. Two hours a day saved from prolonged sleep adds thir y days to every year of life, and every twelve years we shall have practically lived one year longer. We forget this as hfe passes, but how will it appear when He is ending I The greatest men of all ages have been early risers, so as to tnd time for their work, and if the young would strive to enaulate them they must not waste time, whether in bed or otherwise. Oh ! for a single day ! is the thought of many at the last; and even those who have spent their time the most useiuUy feel that there is stiU much more that they might have done. ^ length le body idently . The whilst CHAPTER vn. CLEANLINESS AND BATHING. Cleanliness of the body has at least three advantaffeg • ft promotes health, improves the personal appearance, and 're- moves causes of offence to others. So important is it that a great practical divine said that cleanliness is next to godli- ness. Although cleanliness is not so universal as it should be, It 18 now much more common than formerly, and a dirty person is not regarded as respectable. No lesson is more miportant for the young than to learn the necessity for perfect cleanliness of the body; and although they may not be able to accomplish it in its fullest sense, they should make every effort to do so. When the skin is durty the pores are covered, and the per- spiration which goes on without being noticed, is hindered This IS more important than is generally understood, for it is by means of that kind of perspiration that the body is kept cool, and the heat regulated. In this sense dirt will be more hurtful in summer than in winter, because the coolina of the body IS then more needed, but it is required at every hour (.f the day, and particularly within three hours after meals. It is also more needful in those who have enough to eat than in those who starve. (See Fig. 20, p. 184 ) ^ But besides cooling the body, the skin throws out matters which the body does not need and must get rid of, many of CLEANLINESS AND BATHING. 2 05 Which have a strong odour when allowed to remain on the BkiD. so that dirty persons smell sour or are otherwise offensive. If not removed from the skin they prevent more from escaping, and the body is obliged to retain that which for health It ought to lose. Further, perspiration with dirt adhering to the skin, which may not be offensive at first becomes so after a time, and makes the person disagreeable' to all about him. It must not be forgotten that those who have dirty and offensive skms become accustomed to the smell, and do not notice that it is offensive, and thus they are disagreeable and disliked by others, without knowing the cause. This is hrmniatin ''''^''''*^^'' '^^' ^^^" ^°^^' i« extremely These remarks apply to the whole skin, for every part of It perspires; but more particularly to certain parts. Thus the face neck, and hands being uncovered, cool the body r/u k'\*^! ^'''' ""^''^ ^'' ^°^«^«^' «^d therefore should be kept particularly clean. The arm-pits and feet give a peculiarly offensive smell, which is perceived through any amount of clothing, and particularly when the person IT'^^'f ^^'^'^^'^ Bhould be kept very clean. When woollen shirts are worn next the skin, and particularly in hot wea her, and are not changed frequently, and the skin 18 not cleansed daily, the part of the body which is covered becomes offensive. ° ^wveieu In hot weather the perspiration now referred to, and which IS called insensible because we do not see it. is greatly increased, and covers the whole body with vapour or fluid^ It IS partiaUy absorbed by the clothing, bnt the parts unclad necl T '' .'*"^"' '' ^''''' This is absolute^ necessary in those who make much exertion, and if it were possibfi to BtoDit thfl xMi^ — * V » " "^ " " were ^ lop u, wie pers uu«t die. Mr. y of those who xo6 HEALTH. work hard bocomo very dirty with the dust, as is particularly the case with colliers, or chimney sweeps ; and if they aro not cleanly, it is most difficult for them to keep in health. Many more diseases aro duo to want of cleanliness than dirty people are aware of. From all this, it follows that whilst the hands and face should be cleansed several times a day, the whole body, in- eluding the feet, should be washed so frequently as to keep it clean. There is difficulty in many small houses in obtaining conveniences to wash the body all over, but every one may wash below the head, face, and neck, and the feet daily, and when engaged in dirty work, may wash down to the loins. There are now public baths in all the larger towns, and everybody should wash in such a bath once a week, or as often as may be possible. The use of soap is necessary, and particularly to work- men, and hot water should be used whenever the skin is very dirty. The washing and subsequent rubbing should be thorough, so as to completely cleanse the skin and remove the water. Those who do not make much exertion, and who wash the body daily, find that very little soap and effort are necessary, whilst the ease of washing and sense of comfort are very great. Try to do this, and you will find it become easier and moie agreeable every day. The use of clean clothing is nearly as important as washin« being n.„re damp t .L ,!tt that" '^f^^ ''"' "'" oho.«.*.- -* ., . ^^^®'- ^^^s 18 partly due f,n fV,Q -""xciitci ui me Soli, but ehififlu ♦/^ +1, ' "p . ■" " * ^^ ^'^^^^y *o the perfection of the no I'EALTH. i I dram.af^e. If the soil be sandy it will absorb foul slops and other water, and so appear dry on the surface, whilst at a depth of a few inches it may hold a great quantity of water which no drainage could entirely remove. Do not therefore be deceived by the appearance of the surface, but see that the ground is kept dry by drains. ^ A clay soil is cold unless it be well drained, for the water lies upon it and makes the air damp, and the sun's heat does not warm it. Undrained clay must be injurious to health, but well-drained clay need not do harm. Grass land around a house is cooler in summer and warmer in winter than arable land. The surface should be well drained by surface-drains, because of the rains and slops, and the gutters should be' laid so as to carry off the water perfectly, and be kept clean. They should lead into underground drains, or carry the water entirely off the promises. No surface or underground drain should go near a well, and no slops or dirt should be thrown near a well, lest the water should be fouled. The underground drains are not readily seen, but they should be known to the tenant. Many are ill-made of broken bricks, and allow the foul water to stand in them, or to run throu<^h their sides. They should be made of glazed earthenware pipes, soundly joined together. Where there are grates leading into such drains, there should be traps which will prevent the foul air coming back into the house or premises, and this is particularly necessary when the drains lead into a pit or cesspool, which is closed over, and does not otherwise allow the foul gases to escape. Wherever there are cesspools they should be ventilated by stand-pipes, so that foul air cannot accumulate ; and wliere there are sewer drains inside a house or yard they should be ventilated in the same manner. HOUSES. Ill In the country the petty should be kept very clean, the Pit covered with ashes, and there should be a roof to keep out the ram. If there is any overflow from it, see that i does not go near the well, and have it cleared away con- stantly. It as better to have earth or ash-closets which do not need any pits. They are simply boxes placed under the seat, and dry earth or ash is thrown in after the petty IS used When the box is full it is carried out and emptied into the garden, and the contents used as manure. The simplicity and efiiciency of the plan are very great In towns where there are water-closets see that the apparatus IS m good repair, and that there is plenty of water, and take care that nothing be thrown down that might stop up the closet. Do not draw water for drinking from a cistern which supplies a closet. If you perceive a foul smell from th. closet, sink, or grating, be sL that there is something wrong, and that you may have fever unifcss it be put right. If there be a pigsty do not have it very near the house. Keep It very clean, und do not allow manure to accumulate, but carry it away and cover it with earth until it is ready for use on the land. Be careful that there is no filthy water [he' wefl. *"' ''^' " "'"""' '' ^"^ *^^* ''- g« --' Do not leave heaps of filth or rubbish near the house and be sure to keep the surface of the ground well washed! clean, and dry. ' The well should not be very near the house, petty, or pigstye and should be covered over, and the top should be higher than the ground. Be watchful if there should be any doubt on these things. •' 113 HEALTH. Warmth, Houses should be kept reasonably warm, which implies means of cooling in summer, and of heating in winter. Sufficient care is not taken in this country to protect our rooms from the full influence of the sun in summer, so that sonae of the bedrooms are insufferably hot when entered at night, and really unfit for habitation, whilst the heat of the living rooms causes profuse perspiration, which is not of an agreeable odour, and tends to excite decomposition in food or other articles. We rarely provide any other protection than a white calico blind, and, if shutters are attached to the wmdows, they are rarely closed for this pumose. Out- side Venetian shutters are as uncommon here as they are umversal in France and Italy ; but they have the advantage of excluding the hottest rays of the sun, whUst they admit a current of air, and are most valuable. The inside Vene- tians are more frequently used than formerly, and are desirable, but are altogether inferior to the outside shutters both m excluding the sun and admitting air. Whilst warmth IS healthful, too much heat causes relaxation, and particularly m children, so that a very hot room is almost always dis- agreeable and unhealthful. A south-west aspect is better for this purpose than a southern one, since the full power of the sun is exerted upon the front of the house for a shorter period, and where there is (as there should always be) a front and back, one part of the house may be cool when the other IS hot. It is also desirable that there should be pro- tection afforded by trees, so that some part of the immediate neighbourhood may have shade, and afford a cool retreat- but they should not entii-ely surround the house, or be ver^ near it, lost they should induce damp. The warming of houses is still in a very rude state in this WARMTH. "3 country. The first plan is seen in barbarous nations of having a fire in the middle of the room, and an opening in the roof for the exit of the smoke. The next step was to convert the hole into a tube by building a chimney, and to remove the fireplace to the side wall, and then we had a hearth with or without " dogs," on which the fuel was burnt. a wide, open hearth place, higher than a man, and a chimney leading to the roof. The third stage is that which is now almost universal-that is to say, the hearth-place is filled below with a fire grate, intended for heating and cooking, and above by bricks and stone, so that the chimney L brought down quite, or nearly to the grate. With this arrangement the heat is given out on one side Of a room, and cannot therefore warm each part equally, and the larger proportion goes up the chimney, and is lost. What 18 required is a system by which all the heat shaU be saved, and distributed where it is required. When a stove is placed in the middle of the room, as in France and Germany, the heat is more uniformly distributed to all parts ; and as a pipe is attached to it which conveys the heated smoke and air, and passes through the room, it also dis- tributes heat, and saves much of that which now passes up the chimney. It is not too much to affirm that, by such an arrangement, the room would be better warmed with one- third of the quantity of fuel now used with the ordinary grate and chimney. Moreover, the pipe, or flue, from such a stove, could be made to pass through the hall or bedrooms, and thus warm them without any increase of cost, and keep rooms dry, wmch, being but little used, ar^ liable to be damp Such stoves are made with various degrees of ornament, and at prices withm the reach of all classes, and, if encased in ear.henware. are not liable to burn objects touching them. Rooms may be equally well warmed without either stove 114 HEALTH. or fire-grate, by carrying around them a flue from a etove, or pipes circulating hot water from a boiler in the kitchen or elsewhere. This would probably be the most economical mode of warming rooms if the houses were adapted to it when constructed, and the trouble and expense of keeping them in order is very small. Moreover, the heat thus dis- tributed may be regulated, and the supply cut off at any moment. The pleasure afforded by an open fire in our rooms has hitherto hindered the general adoption of these plans, for abundance of coal has not made it too costly ; but it is merely a sentiment, and, in its absence, we should soon find that social pleasure depends much more upon ourselves than upon a bright and cheerful-looking fire. It is scarcely practicable to fix upon a temperature which should be maintained at all seasons, for that which would feel warm in winter would be cold in summer. Perhaps Br to 60° in winter, and 60° to 64° in summer, is the most agreeable temperature. When coal is used, the chief inconvenience is the dirt and dust which it occasions, whether in bringing it into the room, in its combustion, or in cleaning the grate, and these cost no little in labour, brushes, and furniture. When charcoal is used, there is the danger of suffocation by carbonic acid gas, which it produces in burning, and, if allowed to escape in the room, will render the air unwholesome. Many persons have been found dead in bedrooms which were closed, when there was a charcoal fire. With such fuel there should be perfect means of removing the heated air, and the rooms should not be closed. If the air should feel heavy and oppressive, and cause an inclination to sleep, the windows and doors should be opened, and the foul air allowed to escape. < 2 I a c I h CJ ft V. WARMTH. "5 Q a stove, he kitchen 3conomical -ptcd to it of keeping thus dis- off at any •ooras hag plans, for t is merely I find that than upon ire ■which ch would Perhaps the most e dirt and the room, hese cost barcoal is onic acid lowed to lolesome. IS which '^ith such e heated r should to sleep, foul air if II is however, more common in this eoanlry to burn charcoal ,n stove, in workshops than in dwelling rooms, and ., ^fu ""^ ■""'' troublesome kind, and chronic T°u u ^j!'"'"" «""'' f>"»^ «" perceived, the charcoa, should bo discontinued. "»i>.oai Gas is also used both to give heal and light, and produces fumes of « sulphurous and irritating nature iiseasL of the eyes and nose and bronchitis are much more commonly duo to th,s cause than is generally allowed, and the more so that no special means are provided for the removal of the fumes. Whenever the sme 1 ,s offensive or irritating, it indicates tha better ventJafon ,s required, as no one should willingly breathe air thus made impure. ' '^Z^'-r^^^^ ""^Z"' '^'^ '^"''' explosions and Buffocation when It escapes from the pipes into a room. Gas by itself does not exp ode but when it is mixed with the air,'lnd a ight IS introduced, it may do so with the most serious con- sequences. Whenever therefore there is a smell of gas the windows and doors should be opened, and no fire or ight admitted until it has been removed. Jl''" '"r ^'°^'' '^ '^P^"'^°" ^'° *^« «°^^" ^™ount which escapes without causmg a smell of gas, but it is often inju- rious o hea th, and causes headache, lowness of spirits, and loss of appetite. In this minute quantity it rather resembles a sewer saie 1 than that of gas. When the quantity is bZ dl to^;! "^'^ ''-'' ^^"^^^^^^"' ^^' --^ ^-^^« ^-e Hence the use of gas is attended with no little injury to health and with some risk of explosion, and the utmost care should be taken that the pipes and joints should be per- fect, the taps turned, and the supply cut off at the meter when the gas is not required. There should also be proper ii6 HEALTH. means of ventilation. A small fishtail gas-burner consumes as much air as a man. When a chimney is on fire, the opening at the bottom should be entirely and quickly stopped up, so as to prevent any air being admitted into it. Ihe use of petroleum for giving light and heat is often attended by danger of explosion or of fire, since it burns at a temperature far below that of boiling water. If allowed to escape, and then ignited, it may burn the house down, and therefore the utmost care should be taken to prevent this. It should be obtained in small quantities at a time, be kept in well- corked tin cans in a cool place, and never poured out in a room with a fire or a light. It is dangerous to burn it in glass fountains, lest the lamp should be thrown down, and the glass should break. SUber's lamps are good, inasmuch as they are of metal, and only a few drops of the petroleum can be burnt at a time. VENTILATIONe An ill-ventiJated house is almost sure to bring fever, and a house to be well ventilated must have in every room means for the air to come in and go out. Houses built back to back cannot be well ventilated, and should not be inhabited. All houses should have windows and doors at the front and back, which should be opened every day, so that a draught may go through them. The windows should be made to open, and should be opened as the weather will allow. The living rooms may be well ventilated when the bed- rooms are ill ventilated, for the doors are very frequently opened, and people go in and out ; whilst the doors and windows of the bedrooms are kept shut. Therefore pay r consumes the bottom to prevent d heat is e, since it water. If burn the i be taken uantities at place, and ght. It is mp should jer's lamps 3nly a few )ver, and a om means ilated, and I windows be opened should be the bed- frequently Joors and efore pay VENTILATION. 117 8 that there are two openings into it through which air may pass aH the night. The chimney of the bedroom L often stopped up to prevent the dust and soot fainng bTt as dus wh h can be cleared away, than bad health and fever J;x =.-- r.:r-i: ,r;r.rr vent lation, anj ffio bed should be placed out of the draught • but the amouu must be tested by the smell of the room and a^frtTe'l^aturiteartt"^^^^^^^ colds; but keep a proper temperature from the beginnSg Take care also that the rooms are not too cold byv»: tilahon or you may greatly injure the health of chUdren ::dr<,s::^""'^™'''""^''»^--^'^i"w If there are no means of ventilation besides the door win- t • r^f r^^y- '"'^ "■« doors and windows fit close " yoa should have ventilating bricks of the size of an orl' ..ary bnck put ,nto the walls close to the ceiling and a there is a draught from them cover them on the inj^rwith finely perforated zinc. "" ii8 HEALTH. It is clear that the necessity for ventilation vaviog very much. Thus, if the house be built on a hill where the winds blow on all sides ; the doors and windows, and perhaps the roof allow air to enter freely ; if people constantly go in and out ; if not too many live in the house, and the wcathci be cold, there will be less necessity than under the contrary conditions. The two next important questions are the mode of construction of the house, and the number of people in a given space. If the house be overcrowded it cannot be sufficiently ventilated, and this is the case with very many houses of the working men. It is difficult to say what space ehould be allowed to each person, but in public lodging- houses it is two hundred and forty cubic feet, and two children might be reckoned as one adult. In all these matters the smell is a good test, for if it be foul, the air is certainly bad, and the house is over-crowded or ill-ventilated, and fewer people or more air is required. Do not forget that furniture and heaps of rubbish in the house and cupboards fill up space and retain foul air. Keep no old rags or bones, or any other rubbish, in the house, and put away all the clothes into drawers, so that there shall be the least possible hindrance to the circulation of air. Let special care be taken that the cellar, pantry, and passages are kept sweet and airy, and that no foul smells or rubbish are in them. If they are foul, they will taint the air of the house and the food, and may produce disease. The rooms, and particularly any that are foul, should be whitewashed every few months, so as to become sweet. Many persons care nothing about the state of those which are not usually seen, but as one room affects another, all are really important for health. Do not keep heaps of dirty clothes or dii'ty linen, and par* VENTILATION. 119 rics very ho winds haps the ,'0 in and wcathci contrary aro tho of people iannot be ry many bat spaco lodging- and two if it be ■crowded [uired. h in the r. Keep e house, lat there xculation try, and smells or it tho air ticularly tho linen used by sick persons, but have them washed as soon as possible. The linen of fever patients should be at once put into a boiler and boiled for half an hour; and no very dirty linen can be well washed if it be not well boiled. With all this, it is needless to say that tho house should be kept perfectly clean by washing and scouring, but if there are boarded floors, do not use dirty water, or too much water, or allow it to drip between the boards. A badly, washed boarded floor is often very ofl-ensive to the smell So also when brick or tile floors are washed, they should be well dried, and the children shoold not get their feet wet by them. The roof should be in good order, and neither the floor nor the waUs damp. A damp house is almost always an- healthy, and needs better ventilation. If the walls rising from the ground are damp, it may be costly to cure themt but the dampness of floors may be more readily remedied by dramage. When houses are properly built, dampness is prevented by a damp course, layers of concrete, and drains. Con- sumption, rheumatism, low fever, and general ill-health, are frequently found in damp houses, and if the damp be in- curable, the tenant should leave it. Perhaps there is no one defect in the small houses of tho labouring classes so prejudicial to health as damp, if it be at aU general. honld be e sweet. •se which other, all and par- fi CHAPTER IX. SKETCH OF PHYSIOLOGY. Ottr bodies are made for exertion, as is shown by the nse of the bones and flesh, or, as the latter is called, muscles, so that wo can walk and run with our legs, lit> and tight with our arms, and carry burdens on our shouldeis, and by those agents perform the duties by which men generally gain their living. But the bones and muscles as they are used, wear away, and need constant repair ; and for that purpose food IS required. Hence, wo must have teeth to chew, palates to taste, throats to swallow, stomachs to digest, and other organs to prepare the food for its use in the be 'y. Besides these, we need the bowels to carry away needless and refuse food, and other organs to get rid of the wasted part of muscles, bones, &c., and some portions of food which are waste, and no longer useful in the body. All these are of no value in themselves, but necessory to make the body a working machine ; and at the same time a good Providence has so arranged that they give us much gratification. No man can live altogether for work, for he would directly waste away ; and no man should live altogether, or chiefly, for eating, or he would be useless to others ; but we must eat and work together, and in due moderation. SKETCH 07 PHYSIOLOGY. X3I Further, the hody 18 wftrm, and in that fitate is the most fitted for both work and pleasure ; and (what is not a little surprising) it is almost equally warm under all circumstances. Here, then, wo have a great problem— how to warm the body and to keep it always ec^ ally warm. Besides all this, the body, as a machine or instrument for work, must be guided by intelligence, just as a steam- engme must have an engine-driver ; for a muscle or a bone cannot guide and direct itself. Hence we require the mind —the intelligence, by which we know what we desire, and the will, to order the muscles to move. This is done without onr perception, and yet we know that we direct it by our mind and will. Those functions in the body v hich are needful to maintain life, as the digestion of food, the circulation of the blood, and the breathing of air, go on without our will, and are therefore called involuntary; for if they required our wUl they would stop when we slept, and we should die. See, then, the beautiful arrangement of Providence :— We have muscles to enable us to work, and we can* direct them by our intelligence and will ; We have organs which repair them, and act without our perception and wUl, and maintain life either with or without our knowledge and consent ; We have minds which direct and control our bodies and wills, which make us free agents in their use • We keep the body warm, and at about the same heat at all times, with very little voluntary attention and control ; We get rid of unnecessary and refuse food and wasted muscles and bones, with very little attention and control • And in all these actions we have so much pleasure that the poor and the rich may enjoy life in not very ditfu-ent degrees. laa HEALTH. We will now in a very fow words show bow those opera, tions tal:n place. Wo select food partly by our taste, partly by oor expcri- cnco, and partly by our opportunities and pecuniary moans, and in quantities which wo find by experience to bo necessary, or if more than necessary, such that the body can receive without immediate injury. The food is almost always a mixture of different things, for nobody willingly makes a meal of one kind of food alone. It is taken in proper portions into the mouth, where it is mixed with a large quantity of saliva, and chewed by the teeth until it is made into a soft, half-fluid mass, when it is swallowed. The amount of chewing required differs very much according to the kind of food, as we know when chewing a piece of tough meat and a well-cooked potato ; but it should still be perfectly done. The quantity of the saliva, and the necessity for it, varies ; it is the most with bread and all foods containing starch, for by it the starch is changed into sugar. All such foods should be well mixed with it, and not hastily swallowed, or they will not be well digested. If the food be not soft enough it is sometimes arrested in the throat, and a large piece of meat may stop the breathing, or when it goes lower down it calls upon us to drink water to wash it through the gullet into the stomach. Having entered the stomach, Ihe digestion of animal food begins, and that of vegetable food is continued. The secre- tions of the stomach, called the gastric juice, are poured out in large quantity and dissolve the food. The food as it is changed is absorbed into, or drank by certain small vessels, which after a time pour it into the blood-vessels, through which it is conveyed to the heart, and the heart by its beats sends it to all parts of the body. Some of it remains in the iKF.TCH OF I'lIYSlOI.OOY. 123 blood, an_.,„^a ino vuuy it will naturally I " » HEALTH. be tho most rapid whon the necessity is the greatest, and the least when it is not wanted. Thus after a meal it rapidly increases fifteen or twenty beats per minute for one and a half to two and a half hours, and then becomes gradu- ally slower until the next meal, after which it rises and falls again. There is therefore an increase directly after every meal, and a decrease before tho next meal. Generally tho in- crease is the greatest after a good breakfast, and the least after supper. The pulsation is the lowest in the middle of the night, with sleep, at two to five o'clock in the winter, and one to three in the summer, and at that time many people who are very ill die. These changes go on every day in all persons, but are the greatest in the young and least in the old. The greatest change, however, takes place with exertion, so that the number of beats may be doubled during great labour. Thus, when sitting at rest it may be sixty-four, walking at one mile per hour seventy-five, at two miles per hour eighty, at three miles per hour ninety, at four miles per hour one hundred and ten to one hundred and twenty, and running at six miles per hour one hundred and forty. This is in proportion to the waste of the muscles, and therefore to the necessity for food, and may be taken as a measure of the quantity of food which should be eaten under the different conditions referred to. But without exertion the difference between the lowest pulsations of the night and the highest after dinner may be thirty to fifty per minute. 4. As to the breathing. The breathing follows the same rule as the pulsation, although not necessarily in precisely the same degree, but it is the lowest in the night, has the same changes with meals, and is increased in nearly equal proportions by exertion. 6. As to producing heat. It is difl5cult to understand how SKETCH OF PHYSIOLOGY. duce heat withTut flaJn t-r . T"" *•■"«' ^^-b Prc Thua if oU of vitriol bTadLT, ^""^ '"■'"""^"^ '""''<'«tnre or oombTnaCof ?h „ " ""' '° '"'"»'' «"" «"> precisely so that the T .• ? """^ P'"^""" '"=»«• It is hody s: h::t:drr h'^;t ""^^ -«■'- '"o combinatioa which has noTTh. T " '"' "'"'»''=''' burning the food "^ "'""• ^'''« » '^'^d duces more th:„ l^eaf or ^t' ^^^uZ''' T?'"^'.'"^^' P™' fet is eaten in enormons ont«r • °^'''*"" ""^ ''«» ««" -at in modemtequTntrs n ai'rte'y"^ """ °'™*^' vegetables and fruit'in hot countries ''"" "^'""^' "'"' to the greate t "^^^te V 1 !- Th'^"!,'^^' '^ P'"^"-" Variation in heat corll ««„ag the digestion of food. andrespi^tionf enTwUh I'tr'f r •'" f"'-"- greatest after food, but with "";" ""* *"^ ""« -=:;d t-Ff-~^- o.heatafterr^::r.rc::trar-»'- h.)a.all umes. And how is this cflcctcd? ture 99 134 HEALTH. The skin performs this function by causing increase of per- spiration when the body is too hot, and lessening it when it is cool. A man at rest is cool and his skin has no percep- tible moisture, but when he runs violently the perspiration txickles down his face, and his shirt becomes wet with it. jLltJ. -.1. Section op the Skik. Fig. 41 shows a section of the skin with the minute structures which are necessary to its functions. 1, 2, and 8, The scarf skin, or epidermis. 8, The true skin. 4, Colouring matter of the skin. 6, Papillae, by which we have the sense of touch. 7, Sweat glards, with ducts or tubes, 9, passing through the skin and scarf skin to the pores on the surface, 11, and throw out perspiration. ' 'i : SO of per- t when it 10 percep- rspiration t with it. SKETCH OF PHYSIOLOGY. ,,- The oxpl„™ii„„ of iho cooling of the body hZZZZ. v-ho ,, acquainted with science. Fluid/f ike all o.? bodies) Lave heat in two forms, one of which i,l, urn me sKin, and the skin becomes cooler Thna ih^ e minute *oagh the , 11, and CHArTLR X. ATMOSPHERIC CONDITIONS. Wb are surrounded by tho atmosphere, and are influenced by all its variations night and day, so that it is necessary for us to take an account of it as it aH'ects the question of health. ELEMENTS OF THE ATMOSPHKBE. The air consists of two ^'ases — oxygen and nitrogen— which are simply mixed together in the proportion of about twenty-one of the former to seventy nine of the latter. There is also a small admixture of carbonic acid, and a quan- tity of vapour of water, which changes at every moment. These proportions vary somewhat in different places and at different times, as shown in the following table :-^ H Tablb Showing the Proportion of Oxygen in 100 Parts of the Air on Hountaint and the Ocean, in Cities, and many other Places. 1. Mountains, Hills, and Seas, Gay-Lussac and Humboldt .... „ in the air from mountains and fens De Sa< ^sure in the nir from mountains . Frankland in the air at Chamounix in Switzerland Oxygen in 100 parts. 20-9 to 21-2 21-49 2098 to 21-15 20-80 Wl W( aflaenced issary for tistioQ of trogen — of about le latter. I a quan- moment. s and at Mountain* a in 100 rts. to 21-2 21-49 to 21-15 20-80 ELEMENTS OF THE ATMOSPHERE. Frankland in tho air at the top of Mont Blano . Sailor m the air, 18.000 feot high,' from a halloon ! n- T? a" c "«"ir tho earth Dr. B.^Angu« Smith in the air on tho tops of hilla! » in Scotland . " mountains '• ft bottom of mountains in Scotland .' " land ''"' °'' "'^ "*"^-«^°'« '"^ Scot- |3.intheai.^^^^,,^,_^^;„^ .^^.3 BlTo ? °^ "fountains higher than Mont Hognault, in the air, of "Ecuador * ' * Her^bBtadt 1' H a' f^Y'^ ^'^^ ' - Vogel o^ h« il iltic Ocean , , Oxyffon In 100 parts. 20-96 20-80 20-88 20-92 2008 20-98 20-94 2099 to 21-G3 20-91 . 20-95 to 20-98 2096 . 20-92 to 20-9', 21-59 21-69 2. Citiea. Dp. B. Angus Smith, in the air of London -^ l!-kndl;^^?'^^-^^-^'^-^--g« E. and E.G. " W.C. and W. '* N W., S.. S.W., and W., Scl Many open places in Hummer Worst parts of Perth T^oU«„ • xt. . ">' ^*^^^^ of Scotland . Eegnault Paris M n n n *» fiunsen M $f n n n n n If Lyons and neighbourhoo'd Berhn . Madrid , Geneva . Toulon . Heidelberg (average) 20-8ff 20-88 20-86 20-92 20-96 20-95 20-93 20-96 20-7 to 21-16 average 20-96 20-P^ to 20-99 20-91 to 20-96 20-90 to 20-99 20-91 to 20-98 20-90 to 20-99 20-91 to 20-98 20-84 to 20-92 Of the two gases, nitrogen is useful only to dilute and mi^ with the oxygen, for it does not act as food or In food We may therefore omit any further reference to it^ ' i^xygen is that element withont wHi«k ^..^ ^- ', , . . „-«v« iuua cuiua noil bQ 138 HEALTH. made useful to the body, and upon which strength, heat, and even life, depend. It is taken into the lungs by breathing, and there absorbed into the blood vessels, by which it ia carried to all parts of the system. Whilst performing this journey it is always acting, and unites with hydrogen to form water, and with carbon to form carbonic acid, both of which are thrown out of the body by expiration ; besides making many other compounds which pass out by the skin and kidneys. When a spark is placed in oxygen it breaks out into a flame, whilst a piece of heated wire burns and phosphorus is ignited in it, and an additional proportion of it in the air increases the effects of respiration. Hence it maintains heat, light, and life, but when added to hydrogen it forms water, and to carbon, carbonic acid, and these useful properties are lost, so that in both of them an animal dies, and a flame goes out. It is in forming this union that oxygen gives out heat, and, most of all, in its combination with hydrogen. It ceases to have any further power so long as that union continues, but when it is again free it can sustain heat, light, and life, as before. Thus it is essential to health that it exist in a sufficient proportion in the atmo- sphere, that it be breathed, that it undergo these chanf^es, that it be thrown out of the body, and that it be again set free. As to the first, it will be in the proper quantity if no other gas has been added to atmospheric air, but if otherwise, it will be so much less as the other is present. This other gas is almost always the carbonic acid produced by respira- tion, or the burning of gas, candles, coal, or any other sub- stance, and in proportion as it is present the air becomes unfit for respiration, and tends to cause disease. As to the second it varies with the rapidity and depth of respiration, and we have seen how greatly that changes with food and exertion. The third is more constant, but whilst it increases ELEMENTS OF THE ATMOSPHERE. 139 th, heat, and ►y breathing, which it is forming this hydrogen to icid, both of ion ; besides by the skin en it breaks e burns and roportion of I. Hence it to hydrogen , and these m an animal s union that combination )wer so long free it can t is essential in the atmo- ihanf^es, that n set free. y if no other ' otherwise, This other I by respira- y other sub- air becomes , As to the respiration, th food and it increases i or dim mshes health as it occurs, it is lessened by a state of ill-health. and increased by perfect health. ^ ^ ^ Ihe fourth takes place with the second, for the exniraf^n •s the same in amount as the inspiration, and the ^!^^ of . ich are practically eaual T5nf fv, • f ^"^""^^^s of the removal of il'Zuir 12:^'""" *'' ^""*^^° breathed. This ma ^ Ic^d'in^l^^^^t^^^^^^^ person walking away rrom it, as when he a^e^ ex It t bringing m fresh air, or, as it is called, ventilation \Vh. ^ fio-ency will depend upon the quantity „f foul at 1 " d opo.nng., and the rapidity „f the current, and it wi f thort We i;e^.ncreased or di.ini.hed V the direction antfotcHi There are also two other forces to be mentioned Be,f and thus displaces and removes any given nuantitv .n^ very .n.por.ant agent in ventilation The other s'th/ " or nno spread to every part, "xhis is callcdl'er'sS p,ii t oi a particular gas from one place to another. j I40 HEALTH, iii Upon the proper consideration of these questions depends nearly the whole science of ventilation, and the art is the more difficult inasmuch as rooms, people, winds, and heat vary in every house and at every moment. It is quite clear that it must differ with the season, and also that an amount of ventilation which would be sufficient for a very few per- Stomata, OB Mouths op Plants, 4 2 8 Eg. 42. sons in a room, would be quite inadequate if the number were greatly increased. As to the fifth, the mode by which the oxygen is again freed from the carbonic acid is by the respiration of vege- tables, which live upon the carbon, and under the influence of the sunlight separate the oxygen, and set it free into the atmosphere, as shown by the beautiful Stomata of Plants in Figure 42. Th«Re little mouths, by which plants breathe stions depends the art is the nds, and heat is quite clear lat an amount very few per- ^ the niiinber ^gen is again iion of vege- the influence free into the ita of Plants [ants breaths ELEMENTS OF Thp a-t*,^ J" IHE ATMOSPHERE. 141 rtow the Cham Jt o",Lh ?" '"" °"' '^^"8'' "> tie loaf. Hence, ^hL^rlli "'f "'' *" "=■"'' "^ there Should be ^esetahLtoTntakr t^Vf . " '""'°' ch efly in ereaf +n,,rr,c u ""°^^^^ "• But it is made wh JtherfctnbeU'r "™'"' "' ^°">"^ «-' -^ another necessity C Ih w Z T- . ''"^' "•^"' '^''>"™ carry town air to'the cottrT 'tt.t ITh"" ''^' °'"' a.r to r,e towns. When there i very iitSe ^^ """""^ »- f the air, the atmosphere in BrTaUow^! K ""°™" «n« .pressive, and causL dis asf tI "'' '""' and August, when, with much heat and ^M ''•'". "" '"'^ body in London becomes weak and! 7'"^' ''"^'■ certain conditions fever T \ "PP^s^ed, and, under But with 3tron;:k rr'/Zmr;;! fr*- '''^^^• lessens vitaf chants and Z'Z " •"^"^''- ^"^ '<>"»« ia well inown thft Ve l! !/ '^'' """'»««' 'hem ; and it work With mind and! dy ut^Cf t1 """ ""'» ^ this respect, ^owovor, w'e have a ^eat adtr''"- '" temperate climate, for it is never t!„ff "^^^"^e" '" our vent work ; whiis in ve™ hot ' *, ""'' ""''' '" "''• i3 less work performed^ Mo^^'l^ "f f "»''». ticre changes in either direction Ton IrL f "'. ■"" ''°''^''' restore the normal state. An erf™ T T ''™"' ■"*'* With th« Wind ftom the south.'^a "i'.'"4'^X '" '^"^^' ■ r -i „vv« lako tae wind to '■"'"^C'T'- "?,"Tr.' 142 HEALTH. the south-west or some other cooler quarter, and bring rain. This is by far the most important cause of winds, and, dis- agreeable as it may be, it also brings us relief. PRESSURE. The weight of the atmosphere is about fifteen pounds on every square inch, or thirty thousand pounds on the whole of our body, and therefore enough to crush us to the ground if the atmosphere did not press upon us equally on all sides, and thereby enable us to keep upright as easily as to lie down. But variations in the weight have a marked influ- ence upon our feeling of health, and upon the action of our bodies, both within and without. The changes are shown by the barometer, so that it stands at about 30 inches (or sustains a column of mercury 80 inches high), when the weight of the column of air is about 15 lbs. on the square inch, rising when the air is heavier, and falling when it is lighter. The barometer is commonly high with dry and frosty, r<,nd low in wet, weather ; and has such an influence upon us, that we are comparatively strong and cheerful with a high, and weak and dispirited with a low, state of the instrument. The following are the principal effects of the varying pres- sure upon the body: — With a high barometer or great pressure, — 1. The circulation is supported and quickened. 2. The air is condensed, so that we breathe more oxygen in a given volume, and have more vital action. 8. The outflow of water by the kidneys is increased, whilst that of the skin is lessened. 4. Our appetite for food is increased. 5. Our capability for work is increased, 6. Our spirits are commonly higher. MOISTURE. bring rain. is, and, dis- 1 ponrrls on n the whole the ground )n all sides, y as to lie irked infla- tion of our are shown ) inches (or , when the the square when it ia h dry and n influence leerful with itate of the rying pres- ore oxygen ised, whilst expected, and our spirits, circulation, appetite »nd v^f.i etS iTthe ' """' ^' '''' '^- f-" '" -^ to tlC^d " " *'"'" '"'"""'y 'o P-P- "nd Whenever the barometer falls very low, we are conscious of somethini; nnnsual in thn oi»i t ^i lunscious Which leads those to look aftha . " atmosphere, it ia in r.a^ V. I ^' instrument whose duty .J 1 u '^'°^'' ^° *^° ^«^t^«r. as sailors at sea and although a storm may be exx>^oiJ^ ih. . ' occur some time before thLV' ^ sensations chancA cj. 1 f '^ ^''y appearance of such a ittland V« H '° \'"\'* fr'^^^y-oming, when the wind 18 st^l, and the barometer high, we are strong and cheerful and ready for any exertion ; and although some of this eel i^s^^lfVeV'' 1* ' ''-'' ^- ^- *^ *^^^-- Cth/ullA "'^°^P^^:«- A^igh barometer is a more Healthful and happy sign than a low one. MOISTURE. oJ^r^^^T^^""' " '""y P'"* """J "* all ti^s. contains a qnanfty of watery vapour, which, when it is deposited b. comes dew. The quantity is increased by rais nHre Lm" tT:' "f/^r-" "y '»-ring it ; f„^ .b^ is a L" 1 1 fulTt ;f ,77 ^'"'^ "'' '" ■=«-'"»• When Z a r „ full, ,t IS said to be saturated, and any quantity beyond hat IS deposited as dew. But let the a"be the? h [tod and It IS no longer saturated, and will contain more Ind even wi h more, may bo really drier than before, for t' may be able to cariy a yet greater quantity of vapour L Zi quantity of vapour, it wil be less drv fnr if io . saturauonand to the point when it 3',/ ^"•""r ■" ''*"^fB:Kr:!?9W5 ' : "'*iyyssmT-r'"'.7'. 144 HEALTH, til 11 aro very familiar facts to us. Lot a glass of lukewarm water bo brought into a warm room, and no change will appear upon it, but lot a glass of cold or iced water be brought, and it soon becomes covered with moisture from the air imme- diately about it. Go into a field on a clear night, and you may find dew on a stone but not on a piece of wood ; and the reason is that the stone radiates heat quicker than the woocL and by that means cools the air about it, and causes it to be saturated and to deposit moisture. Hence air is dry or moist, not according to the weight of vapour which it has in a given volume, but according to its temperature, and tiiereforo to the capacity which it has to receive more vapour. A wind blowing over a hot desert or sandy plain becomes drier, not because the sand has taken moisture from it, but because it has become hotter and could absorb a greater quantity than it had before. Let such a wind then blow over the sea and it takes up a quan- tity of vapour, and becomes lower in temperature and is agam moist. Thus our easterly winds are dry, whHst our Bouth-westerlyarewet; the former being far from saturated, whilst the latter may be nearly saturated, and require only a small fall of temperature to cause the vapour to fall as rain. The importance of this to health is extreme. Thus we lose a great part of the water wirich we have drank by the expired air, since the air is of higher temperature than the atmosphere, and is also saturated. The drier, therefore, the air which we breathe, the greater ^vill be the quantity of vapour \vhich It can carry from the body. Now if we breathed air as hot as our bodies and yet saturated, no water could leave by exinration, and we should be oppressed and faint. On the other hand, if we breathed air at the same high tempera- ture, which was extremely dry, it would carry off a great ivarm water will appear rought, ana air imme- t, and you tvood ; and r than the and causes the weight icording to / which it )ver a hot > the sand 3me hotter 3fore. Let ap a quan- ire and is whilst our saturated, quire only to fall as Thus we ink by the } than the are, the air of vapour eathed air ould leave 'aint. On I tempera- Of a great It has also tho same effect over the skin an^ ',u prevents or greatly increase. f^I ' *^ ®'*^®^ Hence health, ^JZlmaZl^r ""'' ^"'P ™"^y»- dryne8s or mo, lure of tl,„ .'t ^u "'""' ""'^ '""'"y "^ or which su^ouTds ° Th;,T'"l? "^"'' ^^ '"»^«'» of elhnate and season ^ ''"^ ""^ ''='^°'' «" «^"g« and we lose vanonr TT . ^^^P^'^tion it becomes dry Aiimi.i (i,„ ■! 1 .• *^ ^' ""'' season, nav in Augub , the vital actions are the least, and we have iZ muscular vigour and less disposition a^d ability to vok Then we are liable to the most nm-tal diseases, and on onlv re lef is ,n the violent storms w..oh e.cess of heat kduces After which we s-iv ihnt th" "-- -- n-i ^ <- , "^t^ucea, Z46 HEALTH. The spring is the most healthful of all the seasons, because it follows a cool season, and we have none of the extremes of the others, and yet we have the highest state of the vital actions and strong winds. We have no difficu]ty in cool- ing the body, whilst the appetite enables us to eat plenty of food and thus to produce much heat and to perform all our physical duties perfectly. The autumn is much less healthful because it follows the depressing influences of summer, and has the air often laden with moisture. The temperature and winds are very uncertain, and when the former is high and the latter quiet, dii^ease of the nature of fever and exhaustion is sure to pre- vail. Hence it has been taught in all ages that autumn is the period of the year when there is the greatest danger to health, and when the greatest care is required to prevent colds and to maintain the full vigour of the body. •a ELECTRICITY. An electrical or "thundery" state of the atmosphere has always a depressing influence, and in many persons causes profuse perspiration, fainting, and loss of appetite and spirits. Every one feels that there is a diflerence in the air before and after a thunder-stoira, md it is due partly to the discharge of the electricity by lightning, and partly to the violent rain and wind which often accompany it. When the air is very warm, close, and stifling, and there is much distant lightning, we do not feel relief until the discharges come near and brijjg a storm. The great power of electricity is well known, for it splits the trunks of trees, breaks down high church spires, and kills men and animals. It should also be known to every OE^ %at it strikes the highest object, provided it be a tree, or LIGHT. 147 IS, because 3 extremes )f the vital J in cool- 1 plenty of rm all oar ollows the air often s are very tter quiet, ire to pre- it autumn 3st danger to prevent imosphere y persons f appetite tice in the 1 partly to partly to t. When is much iischarges )r it splits •ires, and to every a tree, or a bmlding havmg iron in its construction, and tliercforo no one should take shelter under a tree when the ightats lT^r\ /"" ""' ^"''^ "o™ *«'»«^' i3 by ob:erv no whillt Zfl 1 ""^ ''^'"''™ "■' ''-'' »" "»> 'bundc , : « mile m 4i seconds, and yon hear the thunder after von have seen the flash, although both occurred to/eth r 'III h.gh bu.ld.ngs should have lightning conducto „f Z from thn7"'7 ""™ *''^"'' ""'""' ""o »>-'"ct LIGHT. it !fv!r'' "1"^^^' '"*''"^'^y ^'^^*' ^"^ *^« P^^a^nre which It gives 18 beyond expression. What do tL V.U ♦.hint nf ;* TTrU^« e »»uaii Qo tue ±isquimaux thmk of It when for many months in the year they are in total darkness ; and how gladly do thev L J ./ ! , the highest hills to see th'e tot ttlr^of h "s t" whlh How does the plant growing in a cellar seem to long for hght when ,t turns and stretches itself towards the opening m the shatter through which a gleam of light enteral Ch a plant would be green and strong if it ^^XL iflt but ,n darkness it is whitish-yellow, thin, fnd weak ' ' So w.th the poor children who are brought op in the dose, dark courts and underground cellars t some Z our large towns. They grow up pale, thin, weak, and" iriless or d.e at a very early age. Those who live n the oprn a ; and run m green fields should be very thankfulfor The r 143 HEALTH. II Light is necessary for the proper growth of both animals and plants, and for the restoration to the atmosphere of the oxygon which we have elsewhere said is locked up in the carbonic acid from respiration, until it is sot frco by plants. In those northern couii fries where is no light for many months at a time, there are no plants such as we see here, and the animals find inhabitants are extremely few, and do not much increase in numbers. Light may exert greater action on the body than we are aware of, but its effect upon our spirits is well known ; and how should we be acquainted with the beauties of nature if we had it not ? We should be dull and mopish, ignorant and stupid, even if we could live, in continual darkness. But the amount of it varies with the season, so that there is much more light in summer than winter, because the sun then rises higher in the heavens, and there is commonly less cloud. So it varies with climate, and in borne places it is BO great that they are glad to live in darkened rooms to escape from it when it is the brightest, or to wear dark- coloured spectacles. Have we not, even in England, some- times been thankful for a cloud to hide the sun on a burning summer day, and to protect us not only from the great heat, but from the light ? Have you ever considered how beauti- ful and useful are the clouds, with their varying shapes, densities, and colours, and what our atmosphere would be in summer with great light and heat and a bare blue sky above us ? With too much light the skin becomes bleached, and we lose the ruddy glow of health, whilst disease of the eyes is often caused in those unhealthy children who are liable to Bcrofulous diseases. On considering these statements about the atmosphere we must see the gi-eat advantage of the changes which take LIGHT. Z49 1 animals ere of the ip in the )y plants, for many here, and id do not m we are wn; and nature if ignorant 3SS. But there is the sun ommonly places it rooms to lar dark* id, some- . burning eat heat, V beauti- shapes, lid be in blue sky , and we the eyes liable to p ace m our sea-girt island and climate, and, instead of com- plammg, should be thankful that we live under conditions which are more favourable to health than any other people in the world. Those nations who have extremely cold winters for seven or eight months in the year, as in Canada, or who have extremely hot and dry weather for many months without change, as in India, or who have a season of con- tinued ram for two or three months, would be delighted With our changes, by which sunshine and showers, heat and cold, dry and wet, are wonderfully mingled together, and give us Fo great a variety of pleasure and pain. Only let ^eiyoy the good, and try to avoid the ^yH, and be )here we ich take I I, .it m CITAPTER XL THE MIND, AND MENTAL WORK. Thkrt? are some who thoughtlessly say that the condition of the nnnd has nothing to do with the health of the body; but although the connection is not so distinct as that be- tween food and health, it is nevertheless real and power- ful. It is true that many have apparently robust health who take no pains to cultivate and direct their minds ; but, on the other hand, it is equally true that those who perform much mental work frequently fall into eerious bodily disease. It may be allowed that defective cultiva- tion of the mind may still leave the body in full power to work, and thus reduce man to the level of the lower animals ; but better cultivation of the mind might yet save the body from many diseases into which it falls, and enable it to do better and more useful work. As the body IS directed, so it may be protected, by the mind, and either kept from danger or be more quickly restored to a state of sanity. How many colds are taken without consideration, and how many diseases are brought on by idleness and intempe- rance, which would have been avoided if the man had had the resource of a cultivated mind I How many improper or dangerous foods are eaten for the want of knowledge, and how many accidents (so called) happen which with more THE MIND, AND MENTAL WORK. iSr ndition of he body; that be< id power- st health r minds; bose who 3 Berious 3 cultiva- power to he lower yet save alls, and the body id either a state and how intempe* had had •roper or dge, and th more mtchgenco and observation might have been avoided! A we 1-cultuated and regulated mind in not only no hindrance to the fu 1 development of the powers of the body but may greatly aid them. ^ Take, however, on the other hand, the case of a youth who ,s exceedingly str :h ,s. and falls into disease. Is the result due to the cu'avati.n. of the mind, or to the neglect of the most reasonabl , ;v.oc,aut .ns an to bodily health ? He sits up late at nig.-, hen ' j over his books, takes too ittle exercise, eats tor atcie food, has languor and indices- tion, looks pale and thin, and is w.ak and ready to fall into consumption. All this may be true, but is not necessary • and on the contrary, however ho may have cultivated hia mind m some directions, it shows clearly that he has failed m that which people call common sense, and has thereby iiyured both body and mind. Hence the cultivation of the mind should be carried on ^th jud^ent, and in due submission to the requirements of the body. U study be the duty of the youth, let him pnrsue it diligently, but with such intervals of rest and bodily exertion as may maintain good appetite and health The proportion of hours of study and bodily exercise may vary with the degree of mental work, the heultbfulness o' the room and surroundii.g air, the natural strength of the body and the degree of health ; but as a genera! rule it may be doubted whethor any young person can sit at close study for more than two hours at a tin.e without requiring bo.lily exertion to sustam vital action, and rest to recruit the mind Two hours mental work and a quarter to half an hour's bodily exercise, will be quite compatible with the greatest progress m study. Moreover, it may be d. uhted whether such a stu.lcnt can work with advantage for more than eight hours a day, in 152 HEALTH. !■ addition to the intervals of rest ; for the issue will not turn upon the number of hours devoted to work, but r on the intensity of the attention given, and the complete apprecia- tion of the subject. It is much more easy to study in a dreamy fashion than in earnest; and to read a little and then think of other things, than to fix the mind earnestly upon one thing for a period of two hours. Again ; whilst many may be unable to rise at 4 or 5 a.m. to study, or if they do rise, are scarcely awake, it is no doubt much more useful to employ the early rather than the later hours of the day for that purpose. Four or five hours spent in mental work before mid-day will yield far better results than those which may be spent afterwards, and have the further advantage of leaving time for bodily and mental recreation, after a proper day's work shall have been done. There are many who affirm that they work the most satis- factorily after midnight, but such are exceptions to a rule, and probably work less well at an earlier part of the day by reason of ill-arranged meals or other habits. Such a condi- tion is not desTable. But what shall we say to those who must follow another occupation during the day, and cultivate their minds when that has ended ? They deserve greater credit than those whose duty it is to cultivate their minds all the day, and should not be discouraged. A large majority of occupations are such as need ujt exhaust the mind or greatly fatigue the body in their pursuit, so that there may be no real diffi- culty in devoting two or three hoars in the evening to mental cultivatf n ; and to many such a change brings real relaxa- tion. Let them occupy an hour before the morning labour, when it is possible, and thus shorten the work at night by an horn-, and they will find study less onerous, and any sup- THE MIND, AND MENTAL WORK. 153 I not turn 1^ on the 1 apprecia- tudy in a little and earnestly or 5 A.M. , it is no ther than ur or five yield far ■terwards, for bodily >hall have tost satis- 9 a rule, le day by I a condi' 7 another ids when an those day, and jupations y fatigue real diffi- mental il relaxa- g labour, night by any sup- posed evil effect upon the body a myth. There is no reason to believe that study during one such morning hour and two hours at night will injure, provided the health be fivirlv good and the surroundings healthful. Let such youncr men take courage, and remember that some of the most distin- guished men have laboriously obtained their fume under dithculties as great as theirs. Hence the cardinal rules of health are :— 1. Work in the early, rather than in the later, part of the day. and do not rob yourself of sleep ' fore midni-ht 2. Alternate your mental work with bodily relaxlition, and make as much use of the latter as the time will allow Gymnastics which expand the chest, singing, shouting,' running, and jumping, are proper kinds of relaxation. 8. Limit your mental toil to that number of hours which will enable you to work well with the mind, and to obtain proper recreation for the body, as well as facilities of obser- vation for the mind. One great advantage of the cultivation of the mind in its rektion to health, in addition to the increased intelligence which IS thus acquired, is a sense of satisfaction and ease of conscience, by which the pleasures of life are enhanced and enjoyed. Whatever enables a man to have a conscience void of offence towards God and towards man, should load to health, and although this is not the highest, it is one of the higher grounds on which such a desirable result is based We too much neglect the cultivation of that part of oar nature which is immortal, and attend to that which presses Its claims more urgently, and yet is perishable. A happy and intelligent man. other things being equal, should be a more healthy man than he who lives a careless animal life In connection with this subject is that quality or condition 154 HEALTH. which we call spirits ; and can we doubt that good spirits do wait upon good appetite, digestion and health, whilst low spirits represent languor and disease ? These are due partly to nature, for some have as naturally a flow of good spirits as others are melancholy, mopish, and low-spirited, and it becomes each to endeavour to reach the happy medium ; partly to the weather, for a fine, bright, sunny day cheers, whilst a gloomy, dark, and cold day dispirits every one ; but, above all, to the due regulation of the mind, and a conscientious discharge of the duties of life. An even flow of spirits is as conducive to our own health as to the happiness of those around us, and should be diligently cul- tivated and jealously guarded. 3d spirits h, whilst I are due ' of good -spirited, le happy anny day its every iind, and An even 18 to the utly cul' CHAPTER XTT. THE SPECIAL SENSES. THE EYE. The eye differ? mnch in structure as it is seen in * fly and ip the higher animals, but that of man and the higher animals IS the same, and is the most perfect of any known to us It consists of a dark chamber enclosed by very strong tissues to protect it from accidental injury, and lined by the retina or expanded nerve which receives the impression of the rays of light, and through the optic nerve conveys them to the mind. The light is ad -^itfca into this chamber from the front Of the eye and in r ch -.entities as the pupil will allow. First, It passes through the outer structure called the cornea (Fig. U\ (covered by the mucous membrane or conjunctiva) whicn consists of several layers, all of which are transparent when healthy, but in a state of disease may become opaque as IS seen in the white specks on many eyes. It then enters into a chamber in which hangs the curtain called the iris of a different colour in the eyes of different persons, and passes through it by the opening called the pupil (Fig. 43). This important part is made larger or smaller by the degree of contraction of the iris, and then admits many rays or excludes all but those which pass through the centre of it. It is larger when the light is feeble as at night, and smaller when the light iS6 HEALTH. is very strong, and admits a proportionate amount of light iuto the eye. It corresponds also with the state of the general health ; for one who is weak has a pupil which is larger than when he is well ; and also with the condition of the brain, for in inflamm ition of the brain and in certain states of madness it becomes contracted almost to a pin's point. This curtain (Fig. 43) hangs in a fluid called the aqueous or watery humour, which varies in amount in different persons, as will be stated presently, and by which the cornea is made to project forward to a greater or less extent (Fig. 44.) The next important struc- ture is the crystalline lens (Fig. 44), which, like the cornea consists of layers, and is transparent in health ; but in disease— called cata- ract—or by old age it be- comes opaque. It is doubly convex— that is somewhat rounded in form, but is more expanded towards the back than the front of the IS opaque It prevents the li-ht v-m^ma iL u •! Uinaers it that oyect. a. «eof L^l^i tS-t fsZZ 1 be opaque m the direct line of he puml , „• ■ , « p..s„n .a, .e, with the ^^^Uu^Z^ The importance of this structure is t,.refore ext:-omdy Pig. 43. The Ikis. The iris, 3, is seea from the inner side of pupilfl: ^""^^ ^^' '^^'^' *' «^d the THE EYE. 157 of light into the general 5 larger than he brain, for of madness aqueous or t persons, as i inner side of -. 4, and the i over the ed that it When it it, or so d should f on the ihe image sxtrcmely marble when the eye is c^i7„' '' t. ? "'" '"'''' " ^''"« transparent state when a i?h "' ""^ f ° ^' """ '" "' ont allowing thtlolntt air^f f T"^ t"" between the thumb and iuLTnlthJl ^ "°^''^'' found to be mere solid thanTe "" '"^ '"""' * "' '» Immediately behind the lena, and ooeuDvins »1I tJ,. .How. the ..ysSir.o r^er.Sfh':^ ^'^ ^"' behind the cornea ma; b let ' rthouT " """"""'^'^ wrraitrii^^ttrsei tzT -- retina is invert^ro 'np! L" down t'*/' «'«'-'■ "P™ the e^sts in nature. iZXZCl ^ .T ' " '"^ ""J^"' and carefully cnH,m„ ^„* .. ^ ''*"8 an ox's eye ima,e of an^Tt irhls^^^ tZ'^\ ^'^ ''» upside down ;--orvetn,nrp . -it , '" *^^ ^^°' '^ ^^en eye of a wM.'e rabrarXSit:'^::^"'' f t when the inverted image will be seen ' " '^"'"• atodt Fig" T "'"' '"" """^ "^^ ^--^^0 -e deUne. iV -^ ^ss HEALTH. Rg. 44. Section of the Eye. 1, The optic nerre encioe d in its sheath, 2 19, The lens through which the light passes to enter the vitreous OQ r?,"™.°F' \^'^J^^ to make us impressions upon the retina, 14. 23, 1 he ms with the pupil, 12. I'^Tt^iy^- ''' t^^'T^'T}} ^t^l^ture forming the front of the eyo. 22, The anterior chamber filled with water. ^ ^ This organ is liable to two very common defects, viz., long sight and short sight, to which it may bo desirable to briefly refer, as well as to numerous diseases which cannot bo described here. Short and long sight mean that an object is not seen in the most perfect degree at the distance fromt^ ,yeat which It is well seen by mankind generally, viz., s: mt sixteen inches. A sb. -sighted person hold,- 'ns ok nearer, it may be, quite -^ to the eye, whilst th. iou.-sighted bnldfl THE EYE. 159 be vitreous la, 14. •f the eye. viz., long to briefly anuot bd t seen in 3 at which it sixteen nearer, it ted holds ^.v X. ' ;, ^^ anterior chamber of the evn hv wh.cl, ,„ ,bo case „f short A^, the front of the eye 'or .he sightTooflat'^Boe'r """'7 ■"*"""«• -" »"^ " '"« wfth each «cfohioir r' ''*'"'•" ^P""'""'"'' ^ "">' ihe canso of this is sometimes a natural one, for the eve to approach ^acV^t Tht t^^r *\r "" ""'"' carelessness hi,t m„ 1. f sometimes the result of becomes a IthoslXh"'"'' '^["^''^''^ "^ ignorance ; and it habits with attenLn 1, '*"'"' "^ ^'"''^ '° ^'^^ 'h^'O Th.,-; ,'"'"• ■""" """-rect them at once. per^oris ZateT" " 'T"""'' «"-^»'- "" » "^ort-sighted L,u^u:rrlL^ oTof zrr^^^^^ often remalltdtcove edTr " '\^ '''"°™"' (""" " ohtained, and properX;' m dft^lr rttV"""" "" and more by withdrnxv,',,,, +i u V^ ex.ena the focus more as age advances. neeaiessly strong) Iho.e who have long sight are uaable to see min... «1- x6o HEALTH. jects when very near, and therefore not only do not see the beauties visible to others, but cannot determine whether an object looks the same to others as to themselves. The former may be remedied by the use of spectacles, but the latter evil is never entirely removed. It should therefore be the aim of all persons to ascertain whether their sight is natural, and if it be not, to have it corrected by judicious practice and the use of spectacles; always, however, taking care that the latter shall be some- what weaker than the occasion requires, so that the short- sighted may ere long see properly without spectacles ; and the long-sighted should increase the power of their spectacles very slowly with the increasing defects of age. This is not a proper occasion on which to refer to diseases of the eye generally, but two are so common and important, that they demand some notice. i SQUINTINa. Squinting not only deforms and distorts the features of a child but interferes with the direction of vision, and there- fore with the nse of the eye. The eye affected is rarely so perfect an instrument of sight as the other, and the longer the obliquity remains the more the evil progresses. As it is more difficult to bring objects within proper grasp, imperfect and erroneous impressions are produced. The cause, when squinting is simple, and not dependent upon prior disease of the eye, is the undue contraction of one or more of the muscles of the eyeball, by which the centre of the eye is drawn out of the proper line of vision. When it arises from this a small operation will im- mediately remove it, and it cannot be removed by any other means. OPHTHALMIA IN SCHOOLS. i6i t see the hether an 'ho former latter evil ascertain have it tectacles ; be some- he short- ; and the ipectacles diseases Qfortant, ires of a id there- rarely so te longer 3. As it mperfect spendent bction of IT "which r line of will im- ny other OPHTHALMIA IN SCHOOLS. infancy nartlv in \a . ^^"""^ ^"^ *° d^^^ase in habitTf\:bM'.,Ve ;r;'h"dirt;'"; ^^ ^^^"^ *^ ^^^ itchin, sensatiL. rent'm;^^? t ?bL\f " ^^° the first two without the aid of ihal I '"'"''^y may be Drevent«rl h^ f / surgeon, but the third laeir prospects in life can scarcely be overstated • hnf the causes are more numeron« or,^ a ''^®"*^*^^ » but primarily to a defect in the general h(^s*Uh a v, , ., , hav?:itf fr^^^^^^^^^^ ^^ *^^ -^-I« -ffer, or the eyes , bn ^^'\^'''''''^ «***« of the system if not of mougJau .. youth-as many years probably as they w^i M i6a HEALTH. remain ?" %^ s-V.;!. The next scries of causes are. how- ever, pTovontiDlo, and demand much more attention than they hn\ o received. Take tho following :— The school-room is almost always ill-ventilated, often over-crowded, with the tempemfi-^ higher than that of other rooms, whilst the air h oiose, stagnant, and irritating from the exhalations of tho bodies of tho children. This renders every part of the body, and particularly tho eyes, which nre uncovered, unduly sensitive, whilst the children have their tone of health lowered still further, and are thereby more likely to fall into disease. When the school tasks are over the children rush into and about the play-ground, which is probably exposed to every point of the compass,' and to a cold north-easterly as readily as to a warm southerly wind, by which the sensiti . e e e^omes congest-d or in- flamed. In numerous instances ' o surface of the play- ground is covered with gravel or sand, and the feet and wind togethei' throw volumes of gritty dust into the air which lodge in the eyes and further inflame them. Play over, the children go into the lavatory, which b very cold and damp, and there wash in cold water, with the aid of common acrid soap, • /hich gets under the lids and further irrii 'es th.^ eyes. When the child with smarting eyes wishes lo dry the soap and water away, he uses a towel which is already wet and unable to absorb water, and therefore rube ^w..y at his fac . and eye^ in the vain hope of ridding himself of the nuisance. Probably t'aj towel has been used by others having tlio disease, and is soiled with d mny actually communicate the the diseased secretions, disease to a healthy chij Further, the dining-? m .o generally overcrowded and hot, and full of the fumes of dinner, which may |,roduce some degree of irritation in the eyes, and after staying there for OPHTHALMIA IN SCHOOLS. 163 >8 ftre, how- jntion than ated, often lat of other tating from his renders J'es, which Idren have re thereby 1 tasks are iy-p;round, I compass, I southerly it'^d or in- iiie play- i and wind air which ch is very with the lids and smarting le uses a i^ater, and in hope of ;owel has jiled with licate the vded and uce some there for twenty minutes the children rush into the playgrou. 1 as they did from the schoolroom. The bedrooms in all the modern pauper school, are large, airy and very cold, both by reason of the amount of space which is now demanded for each child and the absence of any hear the officials m charge complain of this, as it respects the young children in the cold weather. Lofty, long, and wide rooms with a separate bed for each child, and no dis- f ribution of heat, ca .ave no other effect in the winter ; and when the children leave their beds in the morning and dress ^on of cold ''^^ ^"""'"'^' *^'^ "' '^' '''^ impersona- Moreover, whilst the dietary, taken as a whole, may be eufficien , it is ill distributed, since there are but three meals a-day allowed, and if the meat which ig given at one meal were distributed over several, it would nourish the children bet er A child does not need four ounces or five ounces of cooked meat at a meal, but it requires four meals a day, which 1 ^tead of being cold or lukewarm should bo hot. Gruel ^^ pea-soup are also as much too freely, as milk is stint- ingly, bupphed. What then is necessary in reference to preventible causes ? 1. io prevent an undue elevation of temperature in some of the rooms, und thereby the sud. . changes from heat to culd ; * 2. To warm in a moderate degree the lavatories and nedrooms; a To prevent gritty dust in the playgrounds, and to provide play sheds not exposed to the north and east winds • 4. To supply good white curd soap and chilled water, and a larger quantity of towels, taking care to dry the wet towels il not sufficieutly dirty to be removed. 164 HEALTH. 5. To reguIatG tho dietary more in accordance with homo locdmg. In addition "acre should be a system of epocial supervision of those children who ore of a scrofulous habit and peculiarly nable to ophthalmia. In reference to treatment, it is clear that the first duty is to separate the diseased from the healthy, and to supply to each individual that warmth and food, soap, water, and towels which his case requires, and to add the treatment of tho general hea th and of the eyes, which every medical man knows how to apply to such cases. Needless spreading of the dis- ease will be prevented by such means, although the con- stitution and local conditions may not be very amenable to treatment, and the case may linger long in hospital. It IS also clear that the medical officer should pass before all the children m the school in single file at least once a week and carefully notice the state of the eyes and the general health ; whilst if there were medical inspectors of the central authority they would be able to confer with the local medical officer, to the advantage of the school. We again say that more injury is caused by bad soap and wet towels than is generally believed. All these evils may not exist in every school, or in an equal degree, but they do exist and are nearly universal, THE EAR. The ear like the eye, does not differ in man and the higher animals, but is the most perfect in them, and infinitely more so than the same organ in fishes and the lower animals. It consists of three parts essential for collecting and trans- mithng sound, and for producing the sense of hearing, whioh are represented in the four following beautiful fig-ires THE KAR. i6s with homo BuporviBion I peculiarly irst duty is ) supply to and towels tent of tho man knows if the dis- 1 the con- nenable to 1. 3 before all 36 a week, be general he central al medical soap and evils may but they he higher infinitely be lower nd trans- ig, which a furl .r, • 7,"'^"^ "■" "•"•"""■'» "re call.cto,! in a fu tl,t.r dofjroe, and hcarinR is ii.croasod. On the oil 'r ana l«,m of tho oar vary m diflbront porsona, tho ecnso „f heanng must vary also. " Tho lube or auditory canal which leads from tho outer to th m„ld ear begins at the outside and ends on Ihotsid! wuh the t,,-htiy stretched membrane called the drum lit comes narrower as it Roes inwards, and is directedrward and ward but „ not perfectly direct in its coarse o oZtn its viration Z r°" "'^ """^ """" ''--- -»« of t vibral ons of the air and assists the sense of hearing ■ and .^thehol" b-l'"""'""^"'^ *"'""• -™d« "-Lard we:rn:tt:dtrr:. °'""'''' '^ '^° "-^ ~- »^ There are hairs at the entrance of tho tube to arrest the adm,s,,on of dust and other substances, and wax is seeroW m the tube which may so increase as t; fill it and prodtce the same sounds as when tho finger is placed in the ear The bu "tW 1 '"" '"" "»' «'™ ri-toanyinconvenenco but that of wax IS .mportant and leads to the habit of picW the ear to which reference wi,l again be made. WblnTil .nsufficent jt is usually the result of disease, and when LtoteTure tT '. ": "T'' "^ '"^^"'"^ — -tr mto the tube. The tube is Imed by a membrane which may iizr "'"'"'''' '" '"^ '"^"^ "' '"^ -'- «f The dram is somewhat oval in form, attached to bone at .t3 edges, and lymg obliquely across the tube. It is moved i66 HEALTH. by tbe vibrations of the air somewhat as in an ordinary drum by the strokes of a stick, and conveys them to the inner ear, by a very small bone which is attached to its centre. Its use is therefore to intensify and convey the Fig. 46. Section of the Human Ear. a, The external tube ending at the drum, and surrounded by bone. ^ The itiner end of the eustachian tube, ending at the drum. e, The commencement of the eustacliian tube in the throat. e and d, The inner ear or the semi-circular canals and cochlea. vibrations of the air to that part by* which they will be felt and hearing produced, and it is said to divide the outer from the middle oar. The above figure shows the parts already described, and albo a tube which begins on the inner side of the drum and THE EAR, 167 m ordinary lem to the ched to its convey the •i^is' d by bone, rum. )at. achlea. 3y will be the outer ribed, and (irum and expands as it proceeds downwards. This passes into the throat, and is known as the eustachian tube by which air IS brought through the throat to the inner side of the drum and permits the drum to vibrate freely. ' People by swallowing can force air into it which is felt to crack in the ear ; and when the throat is inflamed, the opening into It may be closed, and the sense of hearing greatly dimi^ mshed. -^ The parts of the ecr in which the sense of hearing is produced, ^ are small, curiously and beau- ^ tifiilly formed bony structures, known as the semicircular canals (Fig. 48), and the cochlea (Fig. 47) with which the drum is con- nected by a series of very small bones so connected together as to allow a little motion among thorn (Fig. 4G). They are attached to two membranes, one at either end, and as the drum vibrates Thei -..-e three '.ct- .^s, vi7.- the vibrations are carried to the sc Inl t'l^^o^ i^^^sr^SZvi. inner membrane, which sets in «.^Tho '^rSS.n;- ,.„.„.,.' motion a very small quantity of rt 'ktS^t^ Si^f lluid m the canals, and influences ^^'^" ^'^^• the nerve of hearf;,g which is in contact with it. Hence the vibrations of the air are collected by the externa ear conveyed by the auditory tube to the drum, mo'Med by the air entering from the throat, conveyed to the internal ear where they are perceived and the eflbctis carried on to the bram or mind by the auditory nerve. Sounds of all iiiiids and qualities can be distinguished by experience or special crammg, but their meaning is learnt by the sciences Fig. 46. The Ossiclen, or Ltttlb Bones of tue Eak. i68 HEALTH. of speech and music and by observation. Vibrations of air, which are as slow as IG and as quick as 24,000 in a second, can bo hoard. The slower the vibrations the lower the tone. All these parts which in their healthy state assist in the sense of hearing may become diseased ; and although in some conditions, as in inflammntion of the brain and in certain nervous affections, the sense may be increased so as to be distressing, the common effect is to lessen the sensation of Fig. 47. Section op tkr Cochlea op the Eau, This very beautiful .sfruoture rcsemblos the inferior of a snail's shell in form There is a central ,ullar which exprmrls at the top. nn,! around it a thhi 1 .v« of bono w.n.ls in a spiral manner. The spiral cavity thus forme<1, is Ined by very delicate structures, and is suppUed with a branch of the nerve of hearing! Bound. This is produced by many causes, as thickening of the membrane of the external tube, too much wax, thickening of the membrane covering the drum, perforation of the drum, closing the eustachian tube, breaking the chain of little bones or ossicles, or diminishing their power of motion, and various diseases of the internal oar. Hence we have in the ear an organ which varies very much in its condition and fitness for hearing, and is influenced by a thousand external agencies ions of air, Q a second, sr the tone. ssist in the gh in some in certain ) as to be snsation of ri-'^-r-.r^i C'-'S-y-t ";.i4 hell in form, t a thin l.tycr tl, is lined by 'e of hearing-. kening of hickening the drum, ttle bones tion, and in the ear nd fitness 1 acrenciefl THE EAR. 169 as well as by the inevitable changes occurHna in u Many children become deaf in .J^MeZlZZ t Z' sons are more or less hard of hearing in old age! "^ '"' This IS not the place in which to describe t£e diseases of the ear. but we may for a moment refer to two hab tTwhic^ Fig. 48 Secth/n- of the Lahyrinth of thh Ear v. Th; 'vesfee.' ^^'^ '"^ '"^""'^'^ representation is ,>iven in Fig. 47. tend to injure this organ or to produce disease, viz., picking the ears and closing them with wool children, by which the sL in on the insJd side is dirtied and u-ritated, and by causing it to be inflamed; produces^r. dis 17© HEALTH. charge. This again causes itching, and thereby tends to keep up the habit. In later life, a toothpick or a needle is used to clean out the ear, and irritates the skin the more, until by an accident it perforates the drum of the ear, and may permanently injure the organ for the performance of its duties. This is not unfrequently induced at first by the effects of measles or scarlet fever which set up inflammation m the ear, and then the bad habit steps in and the disease is perpetuated. This occurs frequently without the knowledge of the person who does it, and requires the timely warning which a friend may give. No one should rub the inside or prick the ear or use any instrument which might perforate the drum. Closing the ear with wool is a very absurd practice, and particularly in hot weather, and by making the internal parts ot the ear sensitive prepares them to take cold and to become inflamed. Such a practice, if merely a habit, should be discon- tinued. If Nature intended the ear to be closed she would have made better provision for that purpose. THE NOSE. Many young children pick the nr^e, and cause sores which remain for years ; and it is said that this is an evidence of worms m the bowels. The importance of the practice is not great, but it is desirable that a bad habit shodd be discon- tinued, and the cause removed. STUTTERINa. The most important defect of speech is in that of stutter- ing, and its cause and remedy are but imperfectly under- stood. ' STUTTERING. 171 J tends to a needle is the more, le ear, and ance of its •st by the lamination disease is •e of tha ing which e or prick forate the ctice, and rnal parts o become be discon- he would It IS not generally due to any known defect in the muscles or other parts by which speech is produced, but is pro- bably owing to a defect of that nervous power which rt-u- lates the muscles, as to the order in which they should move. ^\^hen a stutterer is excited, he stutters the more ; whilst vjhen^he is alone, and forgets him.elf, he speaks more Many persons profess to have methods by which this serious defect may be cured, and all that are rational are based upon the regulation of the acts of breathing and speaking. The first requirement is to induce the stammerer to take his breath in the usual regular manner, and not to hold it and emit it by jerks ; and the second is to practise the speaking of all the vowels first and then of all the letters of the alphabet slowly and perfectly. This will probably occupy twelve months, but with great watchfulness nearly every case may be cured. It IS however, more easy to effect tl.is when the intelligence of the stammerer is enlisted in the process, and he is quite persuaded that it does not arise from physical defect, which IS permanent, but from causes over which he has control. •es which idence of ice is not > discon- stutter- y under* I CHAPTER XHL GENERAL REMARKS ON PERSONAL CONDUCT AND HEALTH. We have now considered, in as much detail as the plan of this work permits, the leading subjects which are involved in the preservation of health and the prevention of disease, and It may be useful to sum up much that has been written in a chapter of a general character, and to add such remarks as have not found a place elsewhere. _ The leading rules in the management of infants are to give as much warm milk as can be eaten, to allow as much sleep as possible, and to keep the body warm. After a few months of life, bread and farinaceous foods may be pro- perly added, and in due time vegetables and gravy, bread and butter, and similar foods ; whilst there may be much greater freedom of motion and exposure to the air allowed and consequently somewhat less care in supplying external warmth. It maybe doubted whether meat is necessary to the health of a child under two years of age, but after that period it may be supplied in a very moderate quantity. Up to perhaps seven years of ago but little more animal food than milk and eggs is required,, provided that they can be obtained m sufficient abundance, but no objection can be taken to a very moderate supply of meat or soup. Broth should not REMARKS ON PERSONAL CONDUCT. CT AND e plan of involved disease, 1 written remarks 3 are to as much er a few be pro- ', bread le much allowed, external e health >eriod it Up to od than ibtained en to a uld not 173 form any considerable part of a chilrl'n ri;n+„ contains ve^ littlo nouLh^on.." I ar'tTs'jr;: ■f plc-nty of new milk bo eaten there will h„ ! I' . -n.ly, with tte addition of butte tl L ,7 :* th" fat meat, eare should bo taken to lessen it in « modora e »on>e I dnd oVfat wb ' l Zlli::d "t". ^f^"'""™ "' the diffieulty. ' *'" ""*" "^""oms The quantity of food eaten throughout ehildhood should be abundant, .nasn^uch as growth requires a la™ part to be uantH."' V'^"' """ ^^"''^'"y -' '-^ thu' twice th Tel t'l':tr"" "^T" '""^ "^"'t in -oportLnt weight, should be supplied up to fourteen ^ears of a™ whdst^ under ono year of age it should be fi.J Z^:Z During aU this period of life free exercise of every part of the body, free exposure to the ordinary tempera" and roaso b„ „ „.y„^ ^,^^,^ ^ ^^p^_^^^^ so'that le ktam y not become too sensitive, the muscles may grow freely Id b..d,Iy agility may be acquired. If there shourd be feeble ness body there will bo the more need for rnHk and me ' regulated exercise and moderate warmth ' At this, more than at any other period, it is desirable to tho bi , ,4 iid'^n';'!?; iVfoir :: tTro™ ba : 't ;""' '"^ '">^^' °1-. -d theshoudor: maae, and the lun^s hnvn fi.o f ^ .. -^ the cho»t be iJat an"]" ..I,:",;,. u ,/'""'' ."""»: Should 174 HEALTH. parents be astbmatical or consumptive, the greatest attention to these directions should be given. Posturing and exercises for ton minutes daily, by which the shoulders and arms may be thrown back, whilst the chest is expanded by deep inspirations, if begun in childhood, will probably suffice to prevent injury to health. The period of youth and early manhood is that which usually determines the character, bodily and mental powers, and personal habits of the man, and is therefore fraught with his future fortunes. Sufficiency, without excess, of both animal and vegetable food ; regulated hours of work, study, and exercise ; avoidance of causes of debility, exhaustion and disease ; daily habits of observation of natural and other objects; inquiries into the causes of things; due regard to the claims of relations and neighbours, and of our duty to God and man ; a sense of responsibility tempered with a consciousness of seeking to discharge the duties of life faithfully, and to improve every faculty of body and mind, with due submission to the order of Providence and to those who are set over us, will tend to happiness, useful- ness, long life, and health. Early rising and a good breakfast are indispensable, with such exercise, study or labour, as we may be then required to make. Food before entering upon any continued or hard work ; an early, sufficient, but not excessive dinner of meat, vegetables and pudding ; a light tea and Ught supper, or a later and more nutritious tea, with reasonable variety of bodily and mental exertion and rest during the ^ay, early retiring to rest, and sound sleep during seven >r eight hours will tend to health. If the person be inclined to be stout and wishes to become ess 80, he should not eat too much fat, bread, or farinaceous food ; but prefer lean meat and skim milk, and yet take t attention I exercises arms may by deep suffice to hat which il powers, ught with , of both rk, study, xhaustion and other 16 regard i of our tempered duties of body and lence and s, useful- ible, with required inued or e dinner ■nd light msonable iring the ag seven 5 become inaceous yet take I REMARKS ON PERSONAL CONDUCT. 175 bread^ and fresh vegetables in moderation. Extreme means of this c ass may reduce the health as they reduce the tat; but the aim should be to improve the health, whilst more exercise and less food are taken. On the other hand to mcrease the tendency to lay up fat, it is ireces- eaiy to eat now milk, fat and farinaceous foods as well as meat, and to somewhat lessen the amount of exertion whilst the digestion and every function of the body are' kept m their highest vigour. Thinness may not be an evil, and if it were, it may be duo to a peculiarity of constitution which time alone can change ; but at the period of growth and active exertion it is as natural, as is a tendency to lay up fat with advancing age and repose of mind or body. It is not unusualy fat men who are tho leaders m either bodily power or mt ntal vigour and activity and, as a rule, to lay up fat is to lessen mental action and c earness of mind. Whilst, therefore, a reasonable deposit of fat may be desired, any excess becomes a burden and a hmderanco to the performance of duty. If the object be to train for bodily work there should be regulated exercise of the whole body, as well as of that Bpecially required, in a degree beyond what is ordinarily taken, whilst the diet should be almost exclusively of meat bread, and fresh vegetables. Not more food should be taken than can be digested, nor more fluid drunk than the proper solution of the food may require. The aim must be to cause the greatest development of the muscles, and to supply abundant material for their maintenance, whilst all useless material is kept out or carried from the body. When training for running or rowing the diet consists of under- done and lean mutton-chops and beef-steaks, with a moderate quantity of bread and potato. Water is drank in a limited ^ ^, ^ a^conoiic m^uvia uao ngorousiy excluded. 176 HEALTH, If the desire bo to study with tho greatest ease and clear- ness, the quantity of food should be somewhat restricted, so that a sense of ojipression may not occur, while its quality Bhould be that just described, with a further addition of milk, and perhaps of tea. With all this, the appetite, diges- tion, and excretions, must be kept in order by sufficient bodily exercise. A word on the subject of fluids may be roquired here. The use of fluid is to soften the food and carry it into the blood ; to remove from the body uscloss material, and to supply sufficient to the solid structures and fluids of tho body. It is therefore necessary, but the quantity taken is usually more than is necessary. A habit of excessive drink- ing of any fluid is easily acquired, for tho body retains or throws out fluid very much as it is supplied, and as some eighty tc T^^Tiety per cent, of all the body (except the bones) is fluid. U vt^ clear that bulk and weight may be increased by water nion^. There is a power in the body both to fix and to disebur,.;,) fluids from the structures in varying degrees. Hence it is an evil to drink too much fluid of any kind, and part cularly water and tea; but the evil is less with the use of milk. Fermented liquors should never be given to suckling mothers or to infants and children, except under medical advice, and as life advances the necessity for them in health does not increase, although they may be better tolerated. These remarks are applicable to that very large part which is called middle life, during which all the powers of body and mind are developed, but it may be desirable to add a word on the subject of moderation. Moderation in work and pleasure, in bodily exercise, mental labour and food, is the ground of health, usefulness, long life, and happiness. The whole object of life is not and clear- itrictcd, so its quality iddition of tile, diges- iont bodily ired here. t into the a.1, and to da of the T takon is ive drink- retains or . as some he bones) reaped by to fix and ? degrees, kind, and >h the use suckling : medical in health irated. art which 1 of body to add a REMARKS ON PERSONAL CONDUCT. 171 % ation of money bo the cud and aim of iifo. The pro^nt l-raefce tond» to excess of so-called pleasure by one and o a x.ety by another class, both of which are unfrLdly to tb h,«host state of health, and are far less desirable than ho «u,ple arphcat,on of the precept to " Provide thin ,s honest in the sight of all men," "to do in.tiJ morcy, and walk humbly with o^r " ^ ' '°''" In advanced life tho special senses, as sight, hearing, an^ taste lose much of their power. The bon'es are mof ngid the muscles weaker and less agile, all the vital functrons languish, and everything indicates that the body as an .nstrument of power and work, is lUlling ,nt„ decal The mind also loses its force and activity, and with tho Bubs.dence of the passions a state of reposeVs, or sho Fd be present, wh.ch gives, perhaps, as much pleasure as the tronger pass.ons of earlier life could a.lord. Then appears fhedesrrabrhtyof not having abused health, and of lav" made due provision for old age in a pecuniary sense, as al!f n he cultivation of the mind, which will remain wh" fte ™ tivation of the bodily powers may have been lost Happy old age without painful disease, with sufficient necessaries and comforts for the body, with a mind weU stored with resignation, without anxious thought, and with a good hope beyond the grave 1 B '. aaa with exercise, lefulness, fe is not tu «j ■,%. ^>, IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) /. <^\^ :/ ■^^^ 1.0 I.I 1.25 M 1.8 U IIIIII.6 ^^JV-^ O-^A Hiotographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTFR.N.Y. 14580 (716) 872-4503 €3 ? r 4^, i/.A Pit CHAPTER XIV. THE SICK-ROOM. It may not be out of place in concluding this wort to add a few remarks which eeem to advance beyond the region of liealth, and to enter the border-land of disease, for there are certain ailments, slight o^ frequent, to which persons in health are subject, who are yet said to be in health, and a few common and widely-spread conditions of sufferinR which are yet, in the main, consistent with health. We do not profess that this is a very logical or clear distinction, but we think that some observations respecting them may be tolerated if useful. ' A sick-room, whether used for a cold or other passing and temporary evil, or for long-continued disease, is not unusu- ally hot, close, and dark-conditions the reverse of those which are required to maintain health. The doors and win- dows are carefully shut, the blinds lowered, and the cur- tarns of the bed drawn as i£ the whole aim were to suffocate the patient. Generally speaking, the reverse of this should be found. The air should be fresh and sweet, which implies proper provision for the change of it; the fire should be moderate, so that the air be neither hot nor cold ; the furni ture should not be in excess, and no accumulr.tion of clothes whether clean or dirty, should be permitted. The carpei and floor should be scrupulously clean, and no accumulations work to add tho region of for thero are h persons in loalth, and a of suffering, Ith. We do Jtinction, but hem may be passing and i not unusu- rse of those Jrs and win- nd the cur- to suffocate this should hich iniplies 9 should be ; the furni- 3 of clothes, The carpet somalations CONTAGIOUS DISEASES. 179 Of dust or dirt should be found under the bed or in corner. scalded as frequently as may be necessary. White or coloured bhnds and curtains, a few flowers, and othe/ub- -ts bltari:tV^ r^^*' ^^ ^^" - such tLres;in; ooo«8 as may be obtainable and flttinu „»»?' ''fT'n' '™'°'"" """^ dark„e8B mnsl depend upon the natnre of the Ulness and therequirements of the moment bnt He t the human coanteuance do much to render a sick room cheerful. Above all, let there be wise head, wiuL. mission, with common sense, in the patient COSIAOIOOS DISEASES. One of the most common uses of this room is for the -Jmen s of chUdren, which are of a contagious or kfe'tious character, and which rarely occur more than once t fel such as measles and scarlet fever-the former which is often so mild and unimportant as not to need the ailof the tZ^rStT: T'' '• "'''" '"' "">" -La'thl' appears to be, ard requires close attention and medical skill. More important diseases are produced by the nel" of proper precautions in tho treatment of scarlet ever oven When .t appears in the mildest form, than perhans from any other ailment. Small-pox is the mo;* important dJZ of this class, but It is, fortunately, disappearing. tJ^r:,K^ "'^""°" '"P"'""' -ntagious or infectious fever., to which we do not propose hero to reler. wh.,.,.. I So HEALTH. I th?.lr ? K ? 7 ^ ""'°°'' " '^ P''*""^ necessary that the pationl be kept quite apart from other, for a certain therefore, we may here give a few directions, which ^ill hi generally applicable. ™ or a Jrt'of.l; T"" '\°"l^ ''^ "«''"y '■«^'"'"«'' «« ""O ""•«> or a part of the house which is separated from other inmates. nL , \ / "^ "" ''"*'"' '' "'""""y »'»te'', and such dismfectants nsod as moy be necess^rv Ti.. i. . r.„„j„.. ,„, a . , , ,. ' necessary, ihe best are Condy s red fluid, carbohc acid, and carbolate of lime, chlor- Joths to be hung m vanons parts of the room, and tie chlonde of hme by being placcu with a little vinegar in a carefully used, and, as the chlorine is irritating to the eves nose, and throat, it should not be too strong. Lr used in Li 8. Disinfectants are, however, of little nse as compared with fresh an-, and therefore the first duty is to provide pnipor ventilation, without draugb, oold^ The sen e of emoll IS a good guide as to the state of the air, and, if the air be sweet, there is little for such disinfectants to do The pcson which causes the spread of the disease is greatly m- dilution and free circulation of air. ^ tou\J^ /'"'''' "^"^^^ ^'^^^^' "*^"^"«' ^^^ «^«^ object touched by or m contact with the sick, should be carefully isolated, and such as will permit, thrown i^rboU ngwaor,inwhich they should be well stirred and boHed for halt-an-hour, after which they will be harmless AU others should be disinfected by other means 6. The nurse should be restricted to the sick-room, or COLDS AND COUGH. ecessary that for a certain liscase ; and, hich will be to one room tber inmates, ed, and such be best are ' lime, chlor- cbloride of 'f satjirating )ni, and the -inegar in a d should be o the eyes, ' used in all 9 compared to provide he sense of and, if the o do. The greatly in- creased by irery object should be into boil- and boiled iless. All >room, or i8i fnt^s'lntt'"' ^'""'^ ""' »-och.e with any other articles used or touched by them ^ "'""■"^ "-d other JrieSor'^Ltrj""'"'^'' "" " f"""'?'"- »<« the child .CuZ::u:j':cr'' ■"" *"■"« """ «- be di,!::K: i^iriix ;r r - '''"'"- '» shouM he va.. .„,;-- ^^^^^^^^ o.thysc\t-^r^^^^^^^^^^^^^ by whitowashina the ceiUna on^ „ n :. • "''^"^"S, and ♦^ ♦ u ^ .-^ ^ ceiling and walls, and it mav bo wJqa to take oflf the wall-nanf^r ti, , , , "^ ^^^^ «, aud ™th llrr. aL^^:x:teu tr:z:^ two, admit plenty of air to every part of it CM a ^ :r;^r^'"'^-----he?'r^!ri COLDS AND COUOH. ^Anoth. condition of unive.a, occurrence is that of coids is a txTsetirirc^rrdtir ti- «■-» ooid. ihe sensation is due tt;:^r:::i:^;:?j;^ lS2 HEALTH. akin to heat only, so that with the ordinary tempera- ture, the person feels cold, and yet the skin may be of its usual temperature. It is very common to see such an one Bitting before a fire muffled up in every part, so that the external air cannot gain access under the clothing at the neck, wrists, or feet, and he even covers the parts which are usually bare, viz, his hands and head. He perceives the slightest movement of the air, and cannot tolerate any one moving near to him, lest currents in the air should bo excited. With all this the skin may be moist, or in its usual state, or somewhat dry. but with a cold merely there is not a state of fever, although it may be one of feverishness. There may be sneering, with discharge from the nose and eyes, if the cold appears like influenza ; or there may be cough, with pains in the muscles, or coughing if it tend to The cause is generally undue exposure to cold air without proper clothing and protection, but generally the air is also damp, as that of a valley or on a rainy day. Not unfrequentlv It IS warm and damp ; but then cold is obtained by throwing off clothing, sitting in an open window or door, or in a draught fi-om some other cause, and thereby there .. exposure of the body whilst the skin is unduly sensitive, It may be asked why a current of air should give cold when still air of the same temperature will not do so. This IS owing to the fact that a larger quantity of heat is carried off when the air is in motion (assuming that the body is warmer than the air, as it is almost invariably in this climate), and therefore becomes cooler, although air in motion may not be cooler than still air. Hence, when we are too warm, we dehiiht m a breeze, because it cools us; but i£ we are COLDS AND COUGH. 183 iry tempera- nay be of its such an one , so that the thing at the parts which 3e perceives tolerate any ir should bo usual state, 3 not a state he nose and ere may be f it tend to air without air is also nfrequently )y throwing ^r, or in a '.>i exposure give cold, ) BO. This is carried ie body is is climate), lotion may too warm, if we are not too warm, or if we are too cold, we shun it an^ ih sensation of cold warns us of our dangeT ' ^ .ni?''>r*'T' ''^' ''^ ^ ^^^""^t« ««rele68ly. and take cold Without knowing where and when • whnLr *v escape. So«.e „o habituaUy earelessabou i/ '» Zt make no provision for the occurrence of a shower „r! udden change of temperature, whilst others wear thick shoos or boots, and flannel shirts, and carry a shawl or ovlr :rtLtoTtr;:r ' -'-' -" '^'— - ^^ It d^ itfVciih: rhafhr;rr''-''f ■^'"^■'■'^ health. Son.0 take shelt r nnder a L T"'1u «'""' Agam, the state of health predisposes in nr against colds. One who is alwav7f r P'^*^'*' ing from an illness, oT is sLtZiab fJ h'' "' ''''''" are brought on bv cold T . n ^'''^'"^ ^^^^^ !., s^^ieij\vr, are perhaps 1 84 HEALTH. more liable than mer to this evil, although their duties less expose thorn to severe weather, because they are more sen- Hitivo, and less sufficiently clad, and, it may be added, are often forgetful of themselves in seeking to discharge their duties to others. Children and old people are also more liable than adults in the middle of life. But in reference to all these special liabilities, it mur* be remarked that wise caution may avert danger, and unwise carelesHnoss induce disease, and that in all cases it is a ques- tion of undue exposure to those conditions which give cold. Exposure to very severe cold, as in a snow storm in flcotland, may produce extreme loss of heat, which goes beyond the idea of a cold, and the sensibility nay be so benumbed that the person is not aware of his risk. This is also the case with very old persons, who are exposed to even moderate cold, and by which life may be brought into great danger. Nature indicates the proper treatment in the outset of a cold by giving the sensation of cold, and the eager desire for warmth. To go to bed for two or three days, clad in flannel, but with not too much bed clothing, will give the rociuiaiio warmth, and take away the currents of air which give the sensation of cold; but the head, and hands, and neck fihould also be covered. To occupy a hot-air bath in which the air is both hot and dry, or a room having the same con- ditions, for twelve to thirty-six hours, will in the same way assist a cold, but a vapour bath will not have the same good eflTect, neither a room in which a fire gives an equal tem- perature. For such an one to sit directly before a hot fire, is to increase the disease, because the heat and the open chimney cause a great current of air towards the fire, and the person must be hot on one side and cold on the other. The true requirement is equal and sufficient warmth, without the least perceptible motion of the air. I COLDS AND COUGH. i8S ir duties loss iro more sen- )e added, are icharge their re also more 38, it mnr* be I and unwise ) it is a ques- !h give cold. 3W storm in I goes beyond snumbed that ilso the case en moderate at danger. J outset of a er desire for lys, clad in ^ill give the 3f air which ds, and neck ith in which e same con- e same way 3 same good equal tem- I a hot fire, d the open he fire, and the other, ith, without ih!^'\^i"^^^^ *!" P'^'^"'" P'^^'^'^^ perspiration? Not at the first, for perspiration further cools the body, whUst our TmlVrr 'V, '"* f r™'^' ^*^ "«"« ofrerfs^ness prevent fever. At that point the doctor is required. Why are hot gruel and other hot fluids given ? If given stimulate the nerves, and therefore they should be as hot aa quantity they may produce great perspiration and be unne- cessary if not prejudicial, and therefore they would nrbe Wisely given. J^l^i '?.,* ^' "'!»«<"'«■"'«« dnring a cold f This is often deeded by ho patie.t himself, for ho eaanot eat; b„t to starve . cold, as it is called, is rarely wise. Ordinary bu^ simple food, and that always hot and more than nsuaUy fluid IS the proper kind of diet. ' ' Hence the golden rule is this.- Do not sit in a drauKht Mid when you feel cold take instant means to remove from the canse or to protect the body. With a cold, stay at home and keep the body warm from the first, ■„! free f^m ever^ a mospherio change. A cold which ma, 6e checked and cured in the first twenty-four hours, maV be beyond ret^h ^» ,A t^ .- ''• ^' """""^ " ^' 0" »*"«« =» '"» that a shtch m tune saves nine." When you are in doubt as for tLTT ""T' "' ■"" ''""^ '^«' ""o result, send for the doctor. Remember that colds are almost always prevenUble, and therefore should not occur, and when T^ll are ahnost always remediable, and should not bo dangero,^ ; but they do occur and do lead to great danger. .fffr!^"'v '."""" ''*'''''""'"» "^^ fo' » cold which affects the chest and causes cough. When ...v,.,^. strictly medical sense it is an important disease, but in the ordinary sense it is usually unimportant. A cold with an ordinary cough is called bronchitis, or a cough with some expectoration without other disease has the same designa- tion, and particulariy when the cough is severe and tight, and with some pain about the chest. It occurs usually from a cold, and therefore under the conditions which give rise to a cold, as in the winter and in cold and wet seasons ; or if in warm weather there has been nnduo exposure by sitting in draughts or without sufficient clothing or exposure to the night air. It will rarely if ever arise from dry cold unless there be an unusual tendency to the disease, as from previous attacks. The breathing of cold and damp air is very likely to produce it, but much more so if the skin be insufficiently clad. Two conditions exert a great influence over it, viz., the state of the throat and the skin. The act of coughing takes place in the throat, and whatever causes irritation there causes cough either directly or by the influence of the current of air over the throat as it passes down in respira- tion. One having an inflamed or very sensitive throat is aware that the current of air feels cold as it is inspired, when with the throat in its ordinary state no such sensation is experienced. Hence, whatever conditions make the throat inflamed cause cough, and such are among many, inspiring very cold air, drinking strong liquors, drinking or eating very hot things, smoking tobacco in excess, and inhaling charcoal or acid fumes. The influence of the skin in producing cough is shown by the eff'oct of a sudden chill, and it is chiefly through this part of the body that cold acts. The act of coughing is a very useful tell-tale, established by nature to prevent improper substances passing down or no, bnt in the sold with an h with somo imo designa- e and tight, e nndor the i^inter and in ore has been >ut Rufficient arely if ever tendency to hing of cold uch more so it, viz., the ighing takes tation there ince of the 1 in respira- ^e throat is is inspired, ih sensation a the throat y, inspiring » or eating id inhaling 3 shown by irough this established g down or COLDS AND COUGH. 187 remaining in the throat. Thus, if food enters the top of the windpipe instead of passing down to the stomach, a most violent oough is produced, with the intention of throwing it back and ejecting it from the mouth. If we breathe some injurious substance as coal gas, or the fumes from acid works or hot steam, cough is excited, to make us aware of the danger. If there be too much secretion upon the throat or in the windpipe which would interfere with breathing, cough 18 produced, and it is dislodged and thrown into the mouth It is not therefore correct to assume that cough is always an evil which should be remedied, for usually it is harmless or beneficial. What then should be done with a cough ? 1. If it has been produced by a cold, it should be treated as « part of the cold, and as the latter improves so will the former. 2. If there be much irritation in the throat, it should be treated in the throat by something which soothes that part of the body, as moderately warn and moist air, warm mucilaginous liquors as gruel, barley water, milk and water and hnseed tea, or by jelly, blancmange, jujubes, or liquorice, which dissolve slowly in the throat and by coating the surface protect it a Uttle from the action of dry, cool, or irritating air. In these applications it should be remembered that when the remedy has passed down the throat it is often of no further service, and therefore small quantities should be used and allowed to remain in the throat as long as possible before being swallowed. All stimulating substances as ardent spirits pepper, vinegar, and pickles, by irritating the throat, increase cough, and should therefore be rigidly excluded from the dietary. 3. Do not attach too much importance to an ordinary !f'«^ 1 88 HEALTH. cough, but bo content to use tho ordinary moans to remove It and to prevent its increase ; but as cou/'h arises from various diseasoe, both of short and long duration, if it con- tinue long, or is severe, or occur without cold, or is accom- panied by pains in the chest or by fever, apply to tho doctor without further delay. How many old persons are asthmatical and unable to oinoy life or to mamtain themselves by their exertion I Asthma is confirmed bronchitis accompanied by shortness of breathing and cough, and varying almost always with tho weather. Nearly all such persons are ill during tho winter and comparatively well during the summer, whilst a few are more afflicted in the hottest weather. The former are very sensitive to slight changes, but more particularly of damp and cold weather, whilst some can bear dry frosty air tolerably well. Hence the night is worse than tho day and sound sleep is not easily obtained. Nearly all such per- sons are liable to - attacks," and are not equally well in the same weather, and many are so affected that they are com- paratively well in a house or a neighbourhood which would not be healthful to others. Each person has some peculiarity and experience should be his guide. ' With shortness of breathing it is not possible to run or to ascend stairs rapidly, or to make great exertion, as all such efforts require more breathing than can be made, and when the attack occurs the sufferer cannot lie down but must sit up in a chair or be propped up in bed. When the cough is very troublesome and the difficulty of breathing great the doctor must bo consulted. An asthmatic person should first be guided by his own experience as to the place and room in which to live, and the kind of diet and exertion suited to them, provided he have gained knowledge by experience. As a rule, the fol lowing directions will be proper. COLDS AND COUGH. 189 ns to remove arisoH from DD, if it con> or is accom* ,0 the doctor iblo to enjoy l)y shortness ilways with during the er, whilst a The former rticularly of •y frosty air ^0 day, and I sach per- well in the 3y are com- hich would peculiarity, o run or to as all such , and when it must sit le cough is ; great the )y his own a live, and rovided ho ie, the foi 1. Ho should avoid cold and damp air, and therefore win- try weather and exposure in the early morning or late at Bho'jli'loi:" '' "^ ' """" ^'"^"^^ •" *^^ -^*-' t« 8. A very damp climate or situation is almost always more „,anous than a dxy one; but yet a very elevated leldt^u;! *' ''''''' ""^^'^'^ '''' ''''-''' ^^^«' ^« 4. He should wear something like a respirator when he goes into cold air. so as to warm the air before h :>reaaie8 It. but the ordinary respirator often hinders the air from passing through it, and he has to open his mouth and inhale he air around it. A muffler, or handkerchief, would often bo moro asoful. 6. Ho should neually breathe through his nose, and keep h.8 mouth shut, and thus warm tho air as ho inspires it. "^ to breathe, it is proper to . nsider whether tho oxorUon ia not too great for him. 7. His bedroom should bo neither too cold nor too hot rf Uio room bo small, a firo should not bum during the night unless it bo really necessary. 8. If sitting in a chair, or on the bed, the chest, shonl- iZCu:t:T'' '=--^-"'-o«-olotbing,,est 9. His diet should be simple and ordinary, and, above all hiugs the quantity of food or fluid to boTaken at a ti,^ should be small, lest it should increase the shortnes of breathing; and it should, therefore, be given frequenUv and also lu the night. Warm, and not col!^ fluids aldfoo'd should be given, and alcoholic stimulants aro often iijiious r^o HEALTH. mi mi' EHEUMATISM. Rheumatism is the greatest plague of the working man, and yet is almost entirely due to man's neglect. The great sore- ness of the limbs and muscles, from which the shaking of a cough is intolerable, is of this nature, and if ihe cold conld have been prevented, rheumatism would not have occurred. The rheumatic pains in the joints, which many have with damp weather, are due to improper exposure, and, probably, colds, in years gone by, which have left a tendency to renewed attacks ; but they may also be due to local causes of suffering, as decayed teeth, and can be prevented only by the removal of the cause. Rheumatism is, however, almost invariably due io cold and wet combined, and not to cold alone. Thus a fine frosty day may not induce it, if the body be properly clad, but a shower coming on, and the clothing becoming wet, even in a. much warmer temperature, rheumatism follows. Why do wet clothes give rheumatism? Because the water becomes converted into vapour on the skin by the warmth of the body, and by so doing causes cold, precisely as perspiration cools the body. If, therefore, the part in contact with the water were not too hot, it becomes too cold (although the other parts of the body may be warm enough), and thence produces rheumatism. Hence, when the whole body is equally wet, the probability is that a cold will be taken, and when only a part of it rheumatism may arise ; or when, with the whole body wet, some part is dried and warmed, as by standing before a fire, whilst other parts may be wet and cold, the latter may become rheumatic. Rheumatism differs from rheumatic fever in that the latter affects the whole body, and is accompanied by fever. RHEUMATISM, 191 Ing man, and le great sore- shaking of a e cold could ivo occurred, y have with nd, probably, tendency to local causes Dted only by due io cold Thus a fine roperly clad, ;oming wet, 1 follows, because the skin by the Id, precisely the part in )ecomes too ly be warm ;e, when the t a cold will may arise ; i dried and r parts may c. a that the d by fever. part affeetod for labour Z'M f '"""P""'""*' tie is liable to recur witWoa a Lach7''"^ ^^ '^""'"'' originated it ""^ '"'' "'""'' "«"' '!"" which should be attended to. ^ ^ clothing ^'ttt'^of r^'r/irlr' "^'^r""^-" '^ -"'^ ->p'« at 01 a cold, tor it cannot be thrown off at nr^ L . IT'ZT'"' '''' '" "-- -'"out iucrealr ■ material, aad very freout.^v ■ " V "'"" w""'" sHnbylheappl^TtioroThTalror:?,''' '"' "^'"'^ hot water or salt, or bv ruhwL •, • ' "''"'' °' """S "' ruh„. <■ .• ^ rubbing it, gives temporarv mllcf Other applications, of a medical character IrTZ usually required, such as stimulating XwhLTactTtr same manner when rubbed into the sWaw^h i feared, and the doctor sent for Diseasp nf I . -. ^d thus often commences in^LroVarhX 192 HEALTH. 18 s "ft BEADACHE, ETO. Another very ordinary series of conditions may be classed to^'ether with constipation, cold feet and hands, and head- ache. In order to maintain health it is well established that the bowels should be relieved once a day, and more is not usually necessary or desirable. This is commonly effected by the un- assisted order of nature, but may be aided or retarded by habit and food. It is well to visit the closet at a fixed hour daily, and common cnperience shows that the hour after breakfast is the best. This habit should be regarded as one of the most important duties of life in relation to health, and nothing should be allowed to interfere with it. Food has also an influence; since green vegetables, and particularly those having acid juices, increase the tendency, whilst much bread has the contrary effect. Fats assist when they are eaten largely, and an unusual quantity and variety of food has the same influence. Spirits and alcoholic liquors have the contrary tendency. It is desirable to distinguish between foods which aid naturally and those which act by causing irritation, since the latter may cause waste of food and set up disorder or disf^ase. Thus brown bread causes relaxed bowels by the bran inducing irritation, and thereby nutrition is rather hindered than aided. Acid fruits and sour milk in summer act as medicines rather than as foods, and may produce too much action, and --hen they are indigestible, as pieces of raw fruit, may bring on serious diarrhcoa. Whatever acts by causing irritation should be regarded as a medicine. When there is a tendency to constipation due consideration should be given to the chai-acter of the food as well as to the HEADACHE, ETC. 193 lay be classed ds, and head- shed that the is not nsually ied by the un- r retarded by t a fixed hour le hour after gardcd as one to health, and t. Food has d particularly , whilst much hen they are iriety of food liquors have 3s which aid itation, since p disorder or )0wels by the on is rather Ik in summer ^ produce too , as pieces of Whatever acts edicine. consideration well as to the habit above mentioned, and it will often bo found that a al.<,« remedy. Due exertion fa «au si e7or Z' f " ""'''° -iU^o.^^ Cold hands and feet with onlv nr^;«„>,, that the body should be kl^ U' insufficient, and fa insufficient to pScerlti^^rc '""itl "k" ^ the skin wni be iseM an/ :l^ ^^"' ™ '"^ "^ '"^^'"8 te made ^ ^^.^...1^:'':,;^^ :T^:t^^^^ -"-'' No one should sleep with cold fPA* k»+ u . , hot w.e, in bed to .^ t^ e^' ^ t^ • f Lt Many suffer from intense headache which is not dun ^ Warmth to the bodv. wfirm for^A „ _„_ j _. . •" "°^» « S""" ttiJeneat and perfect A 194 HEALTH. rest in the lying posture, possibly in a still and dark roc,m for some hours, and the evils sometimes suddenly pass away, and we see life again in its natural aspect. When this is not the result it is probable that the cause is deeper seated, and the advice of the doctor should be sought. d dark rov,m iddenly pass )ect. When use is deeper e sought. INDEX. Ages, Personal conduct at dif- foront, 172. Agricultural labourers, 77. Alcohols not n5ce88ary, 54 ; waste of money m, 55. Alum in bread, Test for, 19 Arrowroot, 20 ; how prepared, 22. Asthma, 188. ^ ' Atmosphere, Elements of, 136 Atmospherical conditions, 136.' Autumn, 146. Bacon, 35 ; when cheap, 35. ;^akirig-powder, 18—20. Barley meal, 15. Barloy, Pearl or Scotch, 20. 108°*' 107; cold, 107; in flea, Beans, 16. Beer, 53. Bees should be kept, 8. ' Beetroot, 5. Black-puddings, 32. Blood corpuscles, 126. Blood-vessels, 124 — 128. Board, Climbing, 91. Bones, 32 ; cooked, 68. Bran, 15. Bread, 15—17; how made, 18- brown bread, 19; alum i^ bread, 19 ; cooking of, 6?. Breakfast. 174. «» ' •• Breathing, 132, Bronchitis, 185. Brook water, 46. Broth, 30. Butter, 42. Butter-milk, 42. Cane Sugar, 6. Carrots, 25. Charcoal, Danger of, 114. Cheese, 37 ; in Sunth Wales and Wiltshire, 37 ; Stilton, &c.. 37: m milk, 42. » . • , Childhood, Food in, 172. Circulation in man, 123; in frogs, 1^0 ; m plants, 126 ; variation m rapidity, 131. Cleanliness, 104. Cliit.hing rope, pole, &c., 91. Clotliu.g, 70 ; for ditlerent aget and seasons, 72 ; at night, 72 travelling, 73. ^ ' Coal miners, 79. Cochlea of the ear, 168. Cocoa and chocolate, 52. Coffoe, 52 ; when to be prefenw to tea, 52 ; action of, 62. Cold baths, 107. Colds and coughs, 181. Condiments, 58. Contagious diseases, 179. Cooking, Hints about, 62 ; nten. 8i_i« to be clean, 63; ranges. 6o; by gas, 65; waste bv. 8h! CooKing of meat, ao. Cowhocl, 34. 196 INDEX. ■M Cornea of the eye, 168. Cows allowed to feed in lanes, 42 ; should be kept, 43. Damp course, 119. Digestibility of many foods, 66 ; of cold food, 68. Digestion, 122, 131. Diseased meat, 29. Diseases from occupation, 77* Disinfectants, 180. Disinfecting rooms, clothing, &o., 180. Drains, 110. Dripping, 30. Ear, 164 ; outer and middle, 165 ; inner, 167 ; bony, 106—169. Early rising, 174. Earth closets, 111. Eating raw meat, 32; diseases from, 33. Eggs, 39 ; fried, 39 ; hard-boiled, 40. Elements of the atmosphere, 136. Electricity, 146. Exertion, 74; eflFect of, 75; on circulation and respiration, 132; best time for, 76; at night, 76 ; by women, 76 ; vio- lent, 77. Eye, 155 ; diseased, 161. Fat, 8 ; fat cells, 9 ; fat in niany foods, 11 ; fat disliked, 12. Perniented liquors to suckling women and children, 176, Filters, 45 ; renovated, 46, Fish, 38 ; dried, 38. Flannel clothing, 73. Flavour of cooked food, 67. Flour, 14 ; adulterated, 16. Fluid, how much, 176; use of, 176. Foods, cooked, 62; warmed up, 68 : where to be kept, 69 ; selection of, 122, 129; alike in kind of nourishment, 129. Frog's foot. Circulation in, 126. Fruit sugar, 6. Frumenty, 20; how made in 1360, 20. Gas, Explosions from, llff. Gelatin, 34. Giant stride, 90. Golden syrup, 6. Grinders, 77. Gymnastics, 82 ; Mr. If cLaren*! school of, 83. Ham, uncooked, 32, Haricots, 17. Headache, 192. Health, llules of, 168, Heart, 33. Heart, Circulation in, 123, 124. Heat produced, 132; regulated, 133. Heat-producing foods, 6. Honey, 7 ; poisonous, 8. Horizontal pole, 85. Horse chestnuts, 59. Houses, 109 ; site of, 109. Infants, Pood for, 172t Iris, 156. Isinglass, 34, Joints of meat, 31. Labyrinth of the ear, 169. Lens of the eye, 158. Lentils, 16. Light, 147 ; action of, 148, Liquid foods, 41. Liver, 33. London and General "Water-puri- fying Company's filter, 46, Long sight, 169. Lungs, 33. Lungs, 127; of plants, 140* Match-makers, 77« Meals 129, INDEX. 197 ulation in, 125. how made in from, 115. Mr. If cLaren't 32. 158. n in, 123, 124. 132; regulated. oods, 5. 10U8, 8. 85. 59. ) of, 109. .172. I. ear, 169* 58. n of, 148. ral Water-puri* 'a filter, 46. ants, 140* Meat, 28 ; character of good, 29 • uncooked, 3.3. Milk, 41 ; for infanta, 41 : cold. 41 ; diseased, 43. Millers, 77. Mind, and mental work, 150- effect on health, 151. ' M'Lareu'a system of gymnastics, 00. Moisture in the atmosphere, 143 Monkshood root. 60 Mountitin-ash berries, 59. Muscular fibre, 28. Mushrooms, 59. Mustard, 68. Nettles, 23. Night, Circulation and respiration in, 132. Nightshade berries, 69. Nitrogen in air, 137. Norwogian-atove, 66. Nose, 170. Oatmeal, 14 ; requires much cook- mg, 16; cakes, 19. Occupation, 77 ; in close rooms, 77 ; the effects of, 77 ; remedies against, 78. Offal, 33. Oil, 9 ; in cocoa nut, 10 ; in milk, Open fire, 114. Ophthalmia in schools, 161; causes of, 161 ; remedies lor, 163. Ossicles of the ear, 167. Oxygen in air, 136. Parallel poles, 87. Parsnips, 25. Passover-cakes, 20. Peas, 16. Pease- pudding, I7. Pepper, 58. Personal conduct and health, 172 P'irspirution, 105. Petroleum, 116. Petties, 111. Physiology, Sketch of, 120. Piiklea, 59. Pigsty, HI. Plumbers, 77. Poisonous substances, 59. Polt! climbing, 90. Pork, 28. Potato, 23 ; quantity eaten daily 23; cooking of, 24; when cheap 24 ; diseased, 24, 25, 26 ; benr of, 59. ' Poultry and game, 36. Pressure of the atmosphere, 142 • eflect of, on body. 142. ' Puff-balls, 59. Pulse, 17. Recreation, 80. Heat, 95 ; on Sunday, 99. Rheumatism, 77, 79, 190. Rice, 20. Rope climbing, 90. Rye meal, 15. Sago, 20: how obtained, 21. Salt, how much required, 68. Salting meat, 31. Sausages, 29 ; diseased, 33. bchool-room, its ventilation, 16'> Season, Effects of, 145. Shopa, Unhealthy, 80. Short sight, 159. Sick-room, 178. Silber's lamps, 116. Skimmed milk, 42. Skin, Section of, 134. Sleep 100; by day, 101; best in ^ly night, 101; conditions of, 101 ; how many houra, 102. Soils for site of houses, 110. Sound, rate of travelling. 147 Soup, 30, 33. ^' Spinach, 23. Spirits, 63. Spring, 146. Squinting, 160. Starch, 1 2 ; starch cells, 1 3 ; starcb in foods, 14. 198 INDEX. Htomata of planta, 140. KtovoB, 113. Stuttoring, 170. ^ugar, 6 ; sugar-cane, 6 ; sugar- uiaplo, 6 ; Hugar in foods, 7. Sweat-glands and pores, 134. Tailors, 80. Tapioca, 20. Tea, 48; proportion of weight and bulk, 49 : how to make it, 49 ; adulterated, 50 ; scarcely a food, 61 ; not fit for child- ren, 51. Tobacco, 60 ; injurious and waste^ ful, 61 ; preparation of, 62. Troacile, 6. Trichina spiralis in flesh, 33. Tripe, 34. Turnip-tops, 23 ; tumipa, 26. Typhoid fever from milk, 43. Veal, 28. Vegetables, Fresh, 23. Ventilation, 116; of workshops, 70; of hottses, 119; bedroomfly 117 ; of schools, 162 ; of pantiy and collar, 118. Ventricles of the heart, 123. Veronica, 60. Vinegar, 69. Warmth, 112; by stoves, 113. Water, Foul, "ddld to milk, 43. Water, in many foods, 44 ; filters, 45 ; hard, 47 ; cool, 47 : defi- cient in villages, 48. Water-parsley, 60. Weekly rest required, 98. Week's work, Eltect of, 98. Well, 111. Wet clothes, 79, 190. Whey, 42. Windpipe, 128. Wines, 63. Wooden horses, 92. Woollen clotliing, 70. Workshops, Unhealthy, 80. Worms in flesh, 33. Teast, 16; yeast cella, 16. Youth, Food ID, 174. SPELLIIG BOOK SUPERSEDED. REVISED ENGLISH EDITION, 1882. PRESCniBKn BTTHK COUXCI. OK PuBUO InsTRCCTIOK KOK U8K IN THE Public School in Nova Scotia. The above is the only Spelling prescribed. A. & W. MACKINLAY, PUBLISHERS. THE ROYAL COPY BOOKS. Prescribed by the Council op Public Instruction USE IN THE Public Schools. ADOPTED BY THE PROVINCIAL NORMAL SCHOOL. Truro, AND THE HIGH SCHOOL, Halifax, N. S. FOR A. & W. MACKINLAY, PUBLISHERS.