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Les diagrammes suivants illustrent la mdthode. 32t 1 2 3 4 5 6 AI OUTLINES 0I<' ENGLISH GRAMMAR FOR THE USE OP JUNIOR CLASSES. BY C- P. MASON, B.A F r TD PRICE, Canadian Edition. 60 cents. TORONT abammilleh^cchwellin;;^,. ST. WEST. isrg. Entered according to Act of Parliament of Canada, In the Office of tha Minister of Ajfriciflture, by Adam Millkr & Co., in the year 1879. UQ.O^ . PREFACE TO THE SIXTH EDITION. The previous editions of this work have been received with so much fovour that I have been emboldened to introduce into the present what I hope will be found some considerable imi)rovements. The general plan of the work remains unaltered. The object aimed at has been to take young learners at that stage when they have acquired such elementary ideas on the subject of grammar as may be gained from my " First Notions of Grammar," and to reduce those ideas to regular form by means of careful definitions and plain rules, expressed always in the briefest manner consistent with rigid accuracy, and illustrated by abundant and varied examples for pra. .-.-, A clearer and more intelligible style of typography has been adopted, and the amount of matter in the text has been slightly increased. In particular the learner's attention has been from tmie to time directed to the older f<.rms of the language. It is not intended that he should, at first starting, learn \hese by heart, but by the time he has mastered the rest of the text, he might do this with advantage. No attempt has been made to deal with everything that comes under the head of " English Grammar," or to introduce the young learner to difficulties which he would be incapable of mastering. A superficial discussion of the mtricacies of contracted and elliptical sentences is worse than useless, as the knowledge to be derived from it proves valueless f vi PREFACE. at the first strain of actual practice, and results in disappointment and disgust. It must be understood, therefore, that the present work will only enable the young student to deal with sentences of perfectly plain and ordinary construction. By the time he has gone through it, he will be able to analyse sentences of very moderate difficulty ; but he must not be daunted if he finds that for the present, he can do no more. I think he will find that what he knows, he knows well ; and he will afterwards attack the more difficult constructions, as they are presented to him in my larger grammars, with interest and confidence. The Exercises in this edition have been greatly ami)lified, and entirely remodelled upon the plan adopted in my recently pub- lished "Shorter English Grammar." This is one cf the most important parts of the work. Young learners cannot master wordy discussions presented to them in a book. They require clear, short, and accurate definitions and rules, brought within their comi)rehension by the oral explanation and illustrations of an intelligent teacher, and followed up by abundant practice, embodied in carefully graduated exercises. In dealing with these also the work of beginners should, as far as possible, be gone through viva voce. I have endeavoured to make these exercises as varied, useful, and lively as possible. Young learners hate prosy, stilted sentences. They enter much better into the grammar of an illustration, if the subject-matter of it is something familiar to their daily lives and thoughts ; and an occasional laugh at some homely topic does a good deal towards dispelling the lisdessness which is apt to creep over a class. C. P. MASON. dukeseix, Christchurch Road, Stkeatham, January, 1879. TABLE OF CONTENTS. The numbers refn- to the faragrafhs of the text. Historical Outline. Preliminary Defmitions The Alphabet The English Ortliograpiiical System 1-3 4-17 18 ETYMOLOGY. Classification of Words - Definitions Inflexion Nouns— Common and Proper . Gender of Nouns Number— Singular and Plural . Case— Nominative, Possessiv 'Objective Declensions in Anglo-Sr.xon <>.ul in Chaucer Adjectives.— Classification of Adjectives Inflexion of Adjectives .... Inflexion of Adjectives in Anglo-Saxon and in • Comparison of Adjectives Articles Pronouns.— Classification of Pronouns Personal Pronouns .... Ancient Forms Demonstrative Pronouns . Ancient Forms .... Chaucer 20—21 22 23-31 33-39 40—51 52—61 62,63 64-75 76 77,78 79- S6 87-92 93-95 96-100 lOI 102-106 104— 107 Vlll TAIM.K <)!• CON'IENTS. The Relative Pronoun that The IiUerro^'ative and Kclative Pronouns Intlcxion of Who Ancient Forms Indefinite Pronouns . Distributive Pronouns Reflective and Possessive Pronouns Verbs — Transitive and Intransitive Auxiliary \'erbs Active Voice and Pa^jsive Voice Moods ..... (Jerunds and Participles . Tenses .... Number and Person . . . Conjugation of \'er))s - .Stronj; and Weak Verbal Inflexions in An^lo-Saxon and in Chaucer Shall, Will, May, Must, Can, ^^c. The \'erbs Have, Be, and Do . Ancient Forms Conjugation of a \'crb at full length . Adverbs Prepositions . Conjunctions ... Interjections COMPOSITION AND DERIVATION OF WORDS SYNTAX. Sentence— Subject— Predicate Relations of Words to one another Subject and Predicate Object Complex Sentences Summary of the Rules of Syntax ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES . APPENDIX— Constituents of English EXERCISES io8— 1 10 1 1 1 - 121 III 122 — 126 127- •3« 132- •34 135- •39 140 141- •43 144- 152 •53- •57 158- 166 167, 168 169— -176 178- 180 iSi 192 •93- 198 •95- •97 200 201 — ■216 217- -220 221— -226 227 228- 266 268- 280 281- 293 294- -312 3I3- ^•5 3'6- -347 348- 370 371- ^•3 page no page 120 )8- no I — 121 III »2 126 7— •3» J2- 134 J5- •39 140 M- 143 u- 152 53- «57 ;8- 166 67, 168 S9- 176 78- 180 Si 192 )3~ 198 ?5- 197 200 31 — 216 17- 220 21 — 226 227 28- 266 HISTORICAL OUTLINE. -*e»- TUF. various lanpfiiascs spoken by mankind admit of bcinfj j^roupcd torjcther in certain great families, tlie momixMs (if each of which resemble each other more or less closely in the words ii-,cd to express ideas, and in tlic grammatical framework of forms and inriexions by which the words are combined. One of these families of languages has been called the Indo-European, or Aryan family. It includes the Sanscrit, Persian, Slavonian, Latin, (Week, Keltic, and 'leutonic languages. The Teutonic branch of this fimily is divided into two principal stocks, the Scandinavian and the (Jerman ; and the (iennan stock is again subtlivided into High (lerman langu.igcs ;si)oken in the mountainous districts of the south of (lermanyi and Low Cerman languages (spoken in the northern lowland-, of '(;crmany). English belongs to the Low German branch of the Teutonic stock, and is akin to Frisian. i)utch, Flemish, Platt-Deutsch, and Mojso-Ciothic. The inhabitants of Gaul and Britain, when those countries were invaded by the Romans, were of Keltic race, and spoke various dialects of the Keltic group of languages. The conquered (lauls adopted the Latin language, and the Franks and Normans, who at a later time established themselves in die country, adopted the language of the people thcv con(|ucred. Thus it has come about that French is for the most 'part a corrupted form of Latin, belonging to that group of languages which is called ' Romance.' The Keltic inhabitants of Britain did not adopt the Latin language, but retained their own Keltic dialects. One of these is still spoken by the Keltic inhabitants of Wales. English is the language brought into England bv the Saxons and Anglos, who in the fifth century con.|uercd and dispossessed the British or Keltic inhabitants, and drove the remnants of them into the remote mountainous corners of the island, especiallv Wales, Cornwall (which was called West Wales), and Strathclvde (comprising Cumber- land, Westmoreland, and the Western Lowlands of Scotland). They were a Teutonic race, coming from the lowland region in the north- western part of Germany. The name Angle appears to have be- longed at first only to one division of these Teutonic invaders : hut in course of time, though long before the Norman Conquest, it was B OUTLINES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. extended over the rest, and the entire body of the Teutonic inhabit- ants of our country called themselves and their lan-uagc English and their country England (Angle-land). In speaking of themselves they also, at least for a time, employed the compound term Anglo- Saxon. English thus became the predominant language in our island from the Firth of Forth* to the English Channel, and has con- tinued so for more than thirteen centuries. During this time it has of course, undergone many changes. It has adopted many new words from other languages, and its forms have been altered to some extent ; but it has lasted in unbroken continuity from its introduction until now. Modern English is only a somewhat altered form of the language which was b- ought mto England by the Saxons and Angles! and which in Its early form, before the changes consequent upon the Norman »„onquest, is commonly called Anglo-Saxon. The rrram- matical framework of Modern English is still purely Anglo-Saxbn. mn^LnT'fi' /'•' 1?'"'' ^^^l°:Saxon (or old English) differed from modern English in this respect, that it had a much greater number of mam- matical mflexions. Thus nouns had five cases, and there were different declensions (as m Latin) ; adjeptives were declined, and had three renders • pronouns had more forms, and some had a dual number as well as a sinmil'ar and plural ; the verbs had more variety in their personal terminations. The greater part of these mflexions were dropped in the course of the three cen- turies folio v/mg the Norman Conquest, the grammatical functions of several of them being now served by separate words, such as prepositions and auxiliary verbs. This change is what is meant when it is said that Anglo-Saxon (or ancient Lngnsn) was an injlexumal language, and that modern English IS an analytical language. . 7^?.^^f.^^er part of the foreign words that have been incorporated !." °j J^?^'^'^' f "'^/'''■^ "°^ P'^" *"d parcel of the language, may be divided into the following classes :— t> h , y ^^ 1. Words of Keltic origin.— The Anglo-Saxons adopted a few Keltic words from such Britons as they kept among them as slaves or wives. These words consist chiefly of geographical names, such Mendip, Wight, Kent, &c. ; and words relating to common household matters, such as Mn, crook, clout, darn, gruel, mattock, moi, rug, wire, &c. .-^ > ^ rj rr?' ^?!^^^ ^^ Scandinavian origin.— IMen of Scandinavian race (Ficts, Norsemen, and Danes) made repeated incursions into this island during several centuries, and established themselves in force on the eastern side of the island, in East Anglia, Northumbria, and part ot Mercia. In consequence of this a good many Scandinavian words made their way into common use, and Danish or Scandinavian forms appear in many names of places in the districts occupied by ■1) thTn mSrn InglisV' "^ ^^""'"^ ^"^"'''" '^''''"'' ''*"'^ ^""^ ^""^^ '''°'" '° ^^^ Teutonic type ic inhabit- English, hemselves 111 Auglo- e in our J has con- ne, it has, aany new d to some troduction : language igles, and upon the he gram- Saxon. fercd from r of gram- e different i genders ; a singular ons. The three cen- ' several of I auxiliary -Saxon (or English irporated :, may be -d a few as slaves nes, such W/zance), ousehold ck^ mop, nan race into this force on and part dinavian dinavian upied by utonic type HISTORICAL OUTLINE, the Scandinavian invaders surh '^^i /n, ^ *..,. „ ? • /-- • , v brought about in the southern dialcctl. ""^^ "^ throuTriat°n-o'f'",l°l^'"' T" °''"* ^""■"^ introduced SSia^-- - ^n'^.t:r^.^^HJra^L"r- j adapted X the"' m-iZs'^o'STe"' 7'"' """It "C P'-«- -'''^ are mostly ecclesiastic^d terms 'rn^inonf^ '",^^^ ^^'^'^ '"''"^' Se o?,h^ "r. n^!ii;nvi-^',;t'j,r ^x!o°f' ^f-^ '^# to be he kn^'u," 'e f ho msslTtlJ '*-,''' '""""y"' ""=^" ■^='"«l important ^^$ t It ° v.as'S 1' ^, c elerat'S'" f',',";' firsT"" "" of the older '=„,"' I, *„"io b ^S'Tnl' 'rr""' '"'''Tt' mmmm Xr t Ln I ';; ^0,111"-;;]^ '°t"' ^^^r"^"^^ Norman-French, the 4 OUTI-INES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 4. Words of Miscellaneous origin.— The extensive intercourse maintained during the last three hundred years with all parts of the world naturally led to the introduction of words from most languages of importance, relating to natural productions, works of art, or social mstitutions, with which this intercourse first made us acquainted. Thus it has come about that the two chief constituents of modern English are Anglo-Saxon and Latin, mixed with a small proportion of words of miscellaneous origin. As a general rule (admitting, of course, of numerous exceptions) it will be found that words relating to common natural objects, to home life, to a.^riculture and to common trades and processes, are usually of Teutonic origin! Words relating to tlie higher functions of social life -religion, law, government and war, to the less obvious processes of the mind, and to matters connected with art, science, and philosophy, are commonly of classical and mostly of Latin origin. iVIost words of three or more syllaljles, and a large number of those of two, are of classical origin. The Teutonic element prevails (thouL'h very far from exclusively) in words of one or two svilables, and is by far the most forcible and expressive. Hence it predominates in all our finest poetry It is impossible to write a single sentence without Teutonic elements, but sentence after sentence may be found in Shakspeare and the English Bible, which is pure English, in the strictest sense of that term. One great advantage which English has derived from the minglinir of the Teutonic and Romance elements is the great richness of its vocabulary^ and its power of expressing delicate shades of difference 'n the signification of words by the use of pairs of words, of which one is Teutonic and the other French * The changes by which Anglo-Saxon (or the oldest English) became modern English were gradual, and no exact date can be given for the introduction of this or that particular alteration. Still the process was influenced or accelerated at certain points by political events. The Norman Conquest, and the political relations between the conquering and the conquered race, naturally made Norman-r rench the language of the court and the nobles, of the courts of justice of the episcopal sees, and of garrisoned places. But the loss of Normandy in r206, the enactments of Henry III. and Louis IX., that the subjects of the one crown should not hold lands in the territory of the other and the political movements under John and Henry III., stopped the further influx of the Norman element. At the same time the absolutist tendencies of the kings drove the nobles into closer union with the Anglo-Saxon elements of the nation; and the French wars of Edward HI. roused an anti-French feeling among all classes, which extended itself even to the lanpuatre insomuch that we learn from Chaucer that in his time French was spoken in England but vr ely, and in a corrupted form. In 1362 appeared the edict of Edward HI. that legal proceedings in the royal courts should be conducted in English. * Compare, for exaniple,/Y//;/^ and sentiment, u>oyk and labour, bloom ^nd /lower. The number of pairs of exactly synonymous words is small. intercourse arts of the : languages t, or social linted. if modern proportion =i) it will be agriculture, in. Words nment, and lected with ly of Latin ■ of those of gh very far ir the most etry. It is lit sentence e, which is ling of the vry, and its n of words :r PVench.* :iie modern )duction of accelerated lie political rally made 1 of justice, )rmandy in ects of the , and the le further tendencies 1 elements nti- French language, spoken in le edict of aducted in 'ower. The OUTLINES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. INTRODUCTION. 1. Speech or language is tlie expression of thought by means of words. 2. Words are significant combinations of elementary sounds. These sounds are represented to the eye by marks or symbols called letters, the whole collection of which is called the Alphabet (from alpha, beta, the names of the first two letters of the Greek Alphabet). The right mode of uttering the sounds that make up a word is called Orthoepy (from the Greek orthos, ' right,' and epos, ' spoken word '). The right mode of representing the sounds that make up a word by means of letters is called Orthography (from the Greek orthos, 'right,' and grapho 'I write '). ' 3. A sentence (Latin smteiitia, ' thought ') is a collection of words of such kinds and arranged in such a manner as to express some complete thought. The words of which sentences are made up are of different sorts, according to the kind of purpose which they serve in a sentence. Thus, in the sentence " The little bird flies swiftly through the an-, bird is the name of something that we speak about ; the points out which bird is meant ; little describes the bird ; flies tells us something about the bird, by stating what it does ; swiftly denotes the manner in which the bird does this ; through shows how the action of the bird has to do with the air. OUTLINES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. .J^A^fT' '''''" ""' '''•'*''''" Which words may be arranged are called Parts of Speech. '*"'^ni,ea THE ALPHABET. k1; 't ?' M ^'"'.^''^- E' - F' f= G, g: H. h: I, i: J, j: K, k : L,l: Mm: N, n : O, o : P, p : Q, q : R, ^ : S, s : ' ; : U, u: \^v: W, w: X, x : Y, y : Z, z. 'fif.'tT'''' ^t"^"" ^^®it^' °' '^' ""'^ C''i"<^d Vowels (from Latin voca/ts and with \ .' T""'^""^ ^- '^'''^>' ^'-^^ be fuHy sounded by themseCs' ?rP rn H ^°"^'""°"^ P'-^f ^^^ of the breath. The remaininT^e e's are called Consonants Latin con, 'together,' som,n 'smmdinl'? They cannot be sounded ^vith a continuous breath Z'ei the ston^^; tIIIV\^''T^^ "f the breath by which the voue L are sounSed They therefore have a vowel either before or after them. """"^^d- v.7?r^ r"""^^ '°""1' ""'^ represented by letters in English in a irreat IS:-"'''* ""^''^ '^' ^"""^'"^ "°^^^ fn sounSTnd Far, clerk, aunt, heart. Mete, meet, meat, people, chief, receive.! Pet, many, said, bury, tread, friend. Herd, bird, curs, earth. Pit, pretty, sieve, busy. Bite, thy, eye, height, dies, buy, aisle. speaking of the Divine Bong. The/mlv alsX used^ar^^ V^ ^^^ T P"""""""' "^^'^ '" when it is used in a special or technicaTsense asVw v'v^ l^^K""""^' "^ ^ ^l'""'"" "°'"'. + It IS convenient to bear in mind tfw^ with the e-rrntl-n r' .»,» ,w.^„i • j ... *i with the sound otV.- is tound only in woTds d'rfved^fr^mThe } ,Hn Zl^^ '"f ^^f/^(^'!'<' receipt (recipio). conceit (concipio), &c. "" '"'^"'' ^ ''^^'^ (decipio). INTRODUCTION. e arranged twenty-six I in shape )r Capital I, i ', s : T, t : in vo calls, lemselves, ing letters iiinding '). ^r stop or sounded. lie sounds mete; the is of u in in a great und and ise singular 1111, used in imon noun, : bep;inning Adjectives ijesty, Her : word of a nd celtinz, /(decipio), Poke, coat, toe, soul, tow, sew, owe. door. Pot, what. Rude, rood, flew, blue, fruit, through, shoe. I;^u]l, good. Fun, love, does, flood, rough. 7. When two vowel sounds are uttered without a break between them, we get what u called a vocal or sonant diphthong (from Greek forofThen" °' ''"""'' ^^^ P'^^^^^^^Se, 'sound ').^ ^ There are 2. oi, as in hoist This diphthong is also written oy {doy), and uov {buoy). It IS made up of the sound of a fall, and fin mete. ^ 3. eu (as in «^/,..^.) This diphthong is also expressed in writing by « {mute), ezv or ewe (few, ezve), eau {beauty), ui {stdt), ue {hue), yzi\ule). 4. ou (as in noun). This is also expressed in writing by mo {nmu). 8. When two of the letters called vowels are written together to Sphthong.""'^ '°""'^' ^^ ^^' ^'^^' ^' '^^^^^ ^" improper 8. The letters w and y are commonly called semi-vowels. When they are followed by a vowel sound in the same syllable, their sound approaches that of a consonant, as in win, twin, you, yonder When eit^ri^dfohflfon^"' ^" '^^ T' ^>'l''^^'^ '^'^y ^°™'^'"^ ^^'th it to form ether a diphthong or a simple vowel sound ; as awe, how. nray, bey, YUria) ^ ^"'^ '''' whenever it is followed by a consonant (as in 10. The letters 1, m, n, and r, are called Liquids. 7 (or soft f) s r, ^ and softc/t, are called Sibilants (Latin slMare, ' to hiss ') The liquids and sibilants do not stop the breath abruptly, but admit of a pro ongation of the sound. Consonants which admi?of a prolongat on ^1., M-P TF ""^n^'^- ^'^''^^' ^^' *■' J' «' ^> ^'■^ also called spirants or breathing letters (Latin sfirare, ' to breathe ')• doubled. (/. But if ant is not 'he letters t; hocus ^ le nJe is INTRODUCTION. When a syllable (not beginning with /) is added to a word endinrr '^l^rJ^v'^^ ® '''^1" \ ''"^'^'-" '^""^"'•ant is employed to show that the precechng vowel ,s long : compare shin :.,J shhu; Am an 1 C' t Tori !d ' ' '""''l'^' ''"t IS retained if it is ret.uired to nre- i^Xayr^KHer'Snai'^r' "^^ ^~^'"' ^^ '"^''^^^ .A.^.4.'^^St 18. The English orthograpliical system has many imperfections. The same vowel sound is often represented in different wavs ^nSlI same letter or diphthong often represents very different (irch, ardiano-el; his, this J thi7i, thine. Sh(-in^n, The same sound is sometimes represented by different •nsonants. Comnnip /^//.A- ^./,.. . .5 "• uy amerent consonants. Cc^pare\..^-;;;^rVS;'^r>.vf ..^°^ S «^y //«;;^, plumb j knowledire, privilege ; fdlip, Philip j gaol; know^ picked, Pici. ck^x^duX ^°T^Vi^ sometimes expressed by two letters, as by c/2 in duck ; ch m loch; and most of the written digraphs. Complex sounds are sometimes expressed by single letters as by t and u in mine and muse j s in .y/.nv / \xijust. * tbiil^ CO '' f ' •^' ^"?' Pe^'^^aps, 7£/ and y, are superfluous letters • their sounds may be represented by other letters. ^e"ers, vvP^b'nll'^^"'''v'^. """"^ y ""^ separate sounds, and the nasal mr we shall .laye forty-one elementary sounds in English WlX pronounced like hiv, and is not a separate sound crnsonantflre often not pronounced, as in thr mgh, plough, knell, kno^ " ^'^ ETYMOLOGY. 19. Etymolog-y is that division of grammar which deals with separate words. 10 OUTLINES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. ^ CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS. called Parts of Speech. These are eight in number :- 5. Adverb. 1. Noun. 2. Adjective. 3. Pronoun. 4. Verb. 6. Preposition. 7. Conjunction. 8. Interjection. n<^„ stands, as • yJ^S^! '^^I'iZ:'^^?^'^;;^^'' ~"''^" ""^ other word, or sentences which hive n^^^^ r^"^" •'■^^•'^'"" *" ^""^« as, ' We eat bread S mra^' He h?. I 'fh ''''"''"" ')' """'^ ^^'^^••' ' ig«^// he is rich, he is humble.' ^^ '^" ""''"' ^"'' '^' ^'^'V ^ Interjection (Latin /«/,•;-, 'between' ;;/,Vvc < ti,..^ n • INFLEXION. he form of a word either to mark some modification of the notion which the word stands for, or to show the relation of the word to some other word in the sentence. WC NOUN. XI JTc-r ^s^r:r;:"cXl 'Si-;^* r/-- ^-•'-• Prepositions, Conjunctions nn.i t«<. inflected. ^"notions, and Interjections, arc not I NOUN. ^3 The word Noun means name (Latin, ;iomen). A noun is a word used as the name of something. ^ CLASSIFICATION OF NOUNS. 24. Nouns ai.. divided into two principal classes :^ 1. 'Jommon Nouns. 2. Proper Nouns. j/ l.-COMMON NOUNS. ^. A common noun (Latin, com;,ums, ' shared by several ') Is a word that, the name of each thing out of a clL of t i^^^^^^^ of the same kmd, as /^orse, stone, city, or of any portion of a quantity of stuff of the same sort, as u>Juat, iron' ZT distinguishes that aninril frnm oil ^?i"^ T ,^ ^^^'^ "''^»'"= ^'^^^-s"^ distinguish one CsTfi-laTot^^^^^^^^ '°"' °^^^^^"S^' ^"^ ^^^^ not 26. Common Nouns are subdivided into— 1. Ordinary Class Names. 2. Collective Nouns. 3. Abstract Nouns. \ 13 OUTLINES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. An Ordinary Class Name is one that belongs to each individual of a class, or to each portion of some sort of material, as horsCy tree, ivntcr, marble. Names of materials are used in the plural -when different sorts of the material are spoken of, as ' teas/ ' sugars,' &c. A Collective Noun is a noun which in the singular number stands for one collection of several individual things, as //(vv/, payliainent, multitude. In the plural it stands for several such eolleetions. An Abstract Noun is the name of a quality, action, or state, as /itiftlness, ruiinini:;., }^ro7i.'t/i, sleep. As Arts and Sciences are in fact /troeesses of thoui^ltt and aetion, their names are Abstract Nouns, as astnmomy, lo^lc, grammar, 27. Alistract nouns are derived from adjectives (as hardness from liard), from verbs (as i;i\nvtk from ^raru), or from nouns that denote a function or state (as priesthood from priest, 7C'i ^ pl"™ ?• parents is of necessity common. A singular noun so j'l loes nnt <.h.-)-. - .e ncx uf the person spoken of, is treated as musculint. + btrici^j. speak.- j» this is not gmmmaticai ^^nd^r. ; their sex, a.i Also various loiins arc said sculine nouns iscd to denote as if they were female sex. ked in three •nttntne, ick :n /e w, &c. the female as ind ~uoman, a 1 /lY-i/ and fa-f — ' bring forth.' The root is the Aottse. BonJa :ated by the 2 feminine. oiin, the noun is inine pronoun is singular noun so 1 iu masi.uUnt. NOf/N, »5 inV^':-n:feT,.:,:i„;r„L"r"""'' ^■""■^ ""''""^' -'«'■»'- ...L'!"" '""'"'"^ '=f""-lf-m .1.0 m.,sc„li„e by adding fc,„i„i„. When tlms„(r«i.„,l,i„|„ 1. "'■""'"" ■ ""y''"-. ""'J''"-.-"- Masitili m: i:..,.:..:... Masitilinc. Man-servant He-devil Buck-rabbit liull-calf Feminine. maid -servant she-devil doc-rahbit cow-calf Musiuline. Cock-sparrow Do^-'-fox He-, horse, herd. ^ °' ''^""'^ Tlie Plural Number of a noun is that form of it which is useH Tt nds^" T^ 1 "°7 '""^ °^^ '' ''^^' ^- whilh e nolm stands, as ships, horses, herds. i6 OUTLINES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. MODES OF FOBMING THE PLTJKAL. 42. The plural is fofmed from the singular in the following modes : — First Mode.— By adding the syllable es shortened to s when- ever the pronunciation admits of it. The full syllable es is now added only when the singular ends in a sibilant {s, sh, soft ch, x org), ^% gas, gases; lash, lashes ; witch, witcltes ; box, boxes; topaz, topazes The letters es are also added (but without being sounded as a separate syllable) after several* words ending in o, as licro, heroes ; potato, potatoes; in the word alkalies; after y when it is preceded by a con- sonant, the y being changed to i, as lady, ladii's ; and after words of Anglo-Saxon origin ending in If or f preceded bv any long vowel sound except oo. In these cases the flat sound which s always has in es affects the preceding consonant, and f is changed to v/as elf, elves; shelf , shehies ; leaf leaves; thief thiei'es ; loaf, loaves. Wife and knife get/ changed to v in a similar way— w/W, kfiives. 43. All nouns except those above mentioned, and the few nouns which form their plurals in the second and third modes hereafter specified, have their plurals formed by the addition of s only, as book, books ; /at her, fathers. When y at the end of a word is preceded by a vowel, s only is added to form the plural, and the y is not changed, as valley, valleys; boy, boys. Qu counts as a consonant. 44. Second Mode. — By adding en, as ox, oxen; brother, brethren; child, children. This mode was once more common. 45. Third Mode. — By changing the vowel sound of the word, as tooth, teeth; mouse, ?nice ; foot, feet; goose, geese; man, men. 46. Foiirth Mode.— By leaving the singular unchanged, as sheep; deer; grouse; swine ; fish ; fowl, &c. (in a collective sense), cannon; salmon; perch, &c. * The usage in the case of words ending in o is arbitrary, and by no means uniform es being commonly added. But s only is added to words ending in io and n,y, ;,nd to the fo!- lowuig words ■.—domino, virtuoso, tyro, quarto, octavo, duodcciino, mosauito, canto, urotto solo rondo. ■* NOUN. 17 le following i to s when- ^ £s is now I, soft C^, X oxes ; iopaz, as a separate ■oi's ; potato, jd by a con- fter words of long- vowel • always has to V, as i'/f, aves. Wife Vt'S. id the few lird modes addition of nly'is added alleys ; boy, I ; brother, :ommon. md of the ^/ese ; man, hanged, as tive sense), ns uniform, es and to the fol- canto, grotto, of what « named, as ' sugars.' ' ^ines,' ' n<^C'^ 48 Plurals of Foreign Words-Latin, Greek, French Ittlian urn " " ®^'^' ''^^ ^^'■enus, genera. a " " » ^' 'IS datum, data, ixorex" " " ^e, as formula, formula. ices, as radix, radices. )) ies, as series, series. les (2.) In Greek words Nouns in on form the plural in a, a, phenomenon, phenomena, jna " » ses, as crisis, crises. " " " mata, as miasma, miasmata. difc in^Staf ri!--'""' °™"^ ''"™ '■"""'^ Plurals,\vhi0h Singular. Plural. Plural. Brother brothers (dv birth\' 1 , . ^Mrat. Die Fish Q-enius . Index . Pea* .... Penny . Shot .... rlips ( f,.^ 7 ■ ■ \ ^ ciotnes [gariite, dies {for coining) dice {for i lav) fishes {regarded separately) ^sh Uolhctv<^) geniuses Onen of talent) ^. genii rS.) indexes {tables of contents) fndices( i X/^,,^ 50. Plurals used as singulars.— I. Words in -ies from Greek adjectives, as mathematics. News is^,owt ahvayrsimnhr W.//^''•"''/ ^'""^^ ''^^''^ properly a plural. ^m^ular. Sniall-pox (sing, pock) is _61^Nounsjised^n^y^jhe^luraL--Nouns representing t " These ill news " (Sh.-,kspeare, Much Ado, II. i, ,80). i8 OUTLINES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. things which are double or multiform are used only in the plural, as — 1. Instruments or articles of dress made double, as scissors, tongs, breeches, drawers. 2. Portions of the body, certain diseases, games, ceremonies, &c., usually regarded as aggrei!;(jtes of a number of parts, as entrails, measles, billiards, nuptials, matins, ashes, stocks. CASE. 52. Definition. — Case is the form in which a noun (or pro- noun) is used, in order to show the relation in which it stands to some other word in the sentence. English in its Anglo-Saxon stage had five cases, at least in pronouns, the N'otninative, Genitive, Dative, Accusative, and Instrumental. We have now only three cases, the Xoini native Case, the Possessive Case, and the Objective Case. Iiinouui the nominative and objective cases are alike in form. ^ NOMINATIVE CASE. 53. The nominative case is that form in which a noun (or pronoun) is used when it is the subject of a verb ; that is, when it stands for that about which something is said by means of a verb, as 'Men build houses,' -The boy was struck by his brothen' If the verb of the sentence be in the active voice, the subject of the verb stands for the doer of the action described by the verb. If the verb be in the passive voice, the subject of the verb stands for the object of the action described by the verb. In either case the subject stands for that about which some- thing is said by means of the verb. It answers the question made by putting who? or what? before the verb, as 'Who build houses?' 'Men.' 'Who was struck?' 'The boy.' POSSESSIVE CASE. 54. The possessive case is that form of a noun (or pronoun) which shows that something belongs to the person or thing for which it stands, Thus in ' I sa ,v Jcjlin's book,' the possessive case yb//«' J shows that something (namely a book) belongs to John. nly in the as scissors. ceremonies, of parts, as stocks. in (or pro- t stands to in pronouns, •nental. We 'ossessive Case, jjective cases a noun (or at is, when neans of a .ck by his voice, the L described iject of the y the verb. ich some- ' before the k ? ' ' The r pronoun) • thing for possessive 'S^ to JoJm. NOUN. 19 Of th'e PreVSnyl!u^Ph"elt£tiS'^^^^^^ ^^V^^^s^^ by means father's house,' we nfay say, « The^Cse of mvtSe'> '■'"^' '°^ ' '^^>' the letter .with an aposfrophe be^o^ i ( hu ' " tT' '^' "''"^ case; as, >//,/. men's e;L, t„ „ ^,' '■> ^^ ^^'^ nommative the possiive ^ase \^ t^Ll-.^^j'^:^'^^ T' '' ' trophe after the .. as ' the /.>^s' feathers.' ^ ^ ^ ^'""^ '^'' '^'''- 57. The old (ienitivc or Possessive snffi- ;„ t^ .• , served i„ //'.,/«..,/,,_,, i.t //-wf ; ''iJ'f'S^f ''^' '^^ (still pre- masculine and neuter nouns and in t'i^ -'^^ , ^' '''•''' "'^^'l ""b' in force is stall heard after a sibil n .f.r"//;' " ''^'^'^^ ''' ■^-^''^'^^'^ in the possessive case singular mrKn/fr"-"- , ^''^' 'iP"-t-ophe been dropped, and serve? ^w it .t^ I'^.u'^^^^ possessive case singular and nor nl. ''.'°^. ^^'-1^ "^ "oun is in the It is sometimes placed after n.L f^^'i'-'^-'i'ifve or objective plural when no possesJiir^X J ^re \'"s w'"'"" P""?^^ in a siLil^n,' sake'), and after plurals cLu fin c f 'r '"" ' ^'"^ conscience' have before us M^o.^esi'^f cirwltllri'-tl^r ''' ''' ^^'^' ^ OBJECTIVE CASE. 58. The objective case is that form in which i n- nn notm IS used when it stands for the obiect of tL T ""' ^'''" of in some verb, or w^hen it comes afterf ^°''°^ ''^"^^'" sentence, ' The stone struck thrboyTthe IoTZTT^ I" '" for the object of the action is cc,^l]T T J-^' '''''"'' ^^^^^« and is in the objective case 'in ^ senteLf ^ff °''^' "^^^' in a coach,' the noun W, wh ch Lestf^ t^^^ '''' ■'''^"- IS in the objective case. ^^'^ preposuion />/, th'?;.M^^^^:i;^ ^ -e^.f e the Latin dative, to denote or thing indirectly affected by the nrrinn ^k . ^^''"'' ' ^"' '"'"'^ P^'-^"" n ; .as ' Give //w man a shil m. ' ' 1 d ?.?! ''^ T) '\'' '^''^^^ "'^^^t of dative differed in form fron. tlie accusative. '" ^" "^^* ^"°''^'^ ''^^ n|n •i^!;:';?^-- t^^^ect^e c , ,,, ,^,, ,, ^ ^.^ ^^^^ z^//^;;/ or what before the ve rb 'nd iu . ^'^^/'^^fonncd l,y putting ..ven above, ' whom or wharJi'd ^ s^o^ncS^P >^:,;;;, ^I^^.Tbo;!^ 20 OUTLINES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 61. The following are examples of the declension of nouns in modern Engi'sh : — Singular. Noininati'c'; Case Man Possessive Case Man's Objective Cay' Man Nominative Case Father Possessive Case Father's Objective Case Father Plural. Men. Men's, Men. Fathers. Fathers', Fathers. ANCIENT ENGLISH DECLENSIONS. 62. The following examples of the older declensions of nouns will show how largely English has dropped its inflexions. "!' ANGLO-SAXON FORMS. FIRST DECLENSION. , 1 (Nouns ending ht essential a and e.) ji' 1: Norn. Gen. Dat. \ Abl. ] Si Masc. nam-a nam-an nam-an Hgular. ' Fern. tung-e tung-an tung-an Neut. eag-e eag-an eag-an Plural. (All Genders.) -an -ena -um Ace. nam-an tung-an eag-e -an SECOND DECLENSION. i V (Nouns ending Masc. Sing. Plural Nam . hund -as • in a Consonant, and A/a Fcvi. Sing. Plural. sprKC -a sculines in -e.) Neut. Sing. Plural. word word Gen. . Dat. Abl. hund-es -a 1 hund-e -um spra2c-e sprasc-e -a ( -ena -um word-es -a word-e -um Ace. hund -as spraec-e -a word word The Third Declension presents no additional forms of special importance. FORMS OF THE TIME OF CHAUCER. 63. By this time most of the above inflexions had disappeared. Except a few traces of a dative singular in -e, inflexion in nouns had been reduced to the formation of the plural number and the geni- tive case. I. The common plural inflexion was -es (Chaucer) or -is (Wiclif), shortened sotnetinics to -s, fur which z is now and then found in words of Romance origin. t S a( th ac fo nouns in ADJECTIVE. - , FemWne nou„, occasionally have no, -s, b„, .,, a, • to,* MW (hear.'. ouns will rj.) lural. word -a -um word irtance. ippeared. ouns had he geni- (Wiclif), found in ADJECTIVE. 64. \Vhen we spe.-.k of a thing we often require to mention some qtjaluy or state of tl,e tl,ing, or its nnmber or quant tv or some relation >n ,vl,ielr it st.-,„ds to ourselves or to o.rer L" riie words that do this .are called Adjectives. It dt™\"est^cetSU"/)J'S.tel*"-<' -*•''■ '^ - ^^Jective. Ldr ' "^' " '"'*'°^'* "^''" f°' ""'^'^ ">e noun ad^cuJlpai^ tl: .^e'??dl.Sw5?;i! "r«;Li)';?iv through the au- ; ' ' 7.'/./.-// hand will vou have ? ' "^''^ ^"^^ ^ '^ ^/^^///^'///i^ adfectfviToin;Ttotti,fulli;:' ?"?'^>' •^)""^'[>^' ^'^^^ ^''-^^-"^ - fo^ro. cither Z^ S^n^^^^^nliSy t^ sI^S ll^r"^ ^^^"^^ Hence we may also have the fnllowin- 69. Deflnition.-An Adjective is a word which limits the 22 OUTLINES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. application of a noun to that which has the quality or state, the quantity, or the relation, which the adjective denotes. 70. As an adjective is not the name of a separate object of thought, an adjective can never be used as the subject of a sentence, or as the object of a verb, or be governed by a pre- position. CLASSIFICATION OF ADJECTIVES. 71. Adjectives may be arranged in the following classes : — 1. Qualitative Adjectives, or Adjectives of Quality. 2. Quantitative Adjectives, or Adjectives of Quantity. 3. Demonstrative Adjectives, or Adjectives of Rela- tion. 72. I, Qualitative Adjectives, or Adjectives of Quality, are adjectives which denote some quality or attribute (from the Latin qualis, ' of which sort '), as virtuous, white, large, small, great, little (in the sense of ' small '), such, same. The verbal adjectives called Participles belong to this class. 73. II. Quantitative Adjectives, or Adjectives of Quantity are adjectives which denote how much or how many of that for which the noun stands, we have in our thoughts (Latin quantus, ' how great '). This class includes — a. The Cardinal Numeral Adjectives, one, two, three, &c C^he words hundred, thousand, million, like pair and dozen, are nouns.* They may be used in the plural, as hundreds.) h. The words all, any, some, half, many, few, much, more, most, both, several, none or no (= 7iot any). Some of these relate both to number and to quantity. Examples. * All men are mortal.' ' He sleeps all night.' 'Some men prefer this.' * Give me some wine.' ' Wait half an hour.' ' Few persons will believe that.' ' I have iruch pleasure in doing this.' , • In Anglo-Saxon they were foiloived by the genitive case, as though we said 'A hundred of sheep, &c. ou ADJECTIVE. 23 tion n ! ^^°^°^strative Adjectives, or Adjectives of Eela- It ;T;;hfr"'"''' ^""^ ^"^'^-^^^^ adjectives which pott rdati^ w i:T '" ''"'^'/"^^ "' '' ''""''''''^^ --^ kind o relation which it bears to others or to tlie speaker T n r , '^"'^" '^""^""^' °^ P— '-» Adjectives - The Ordmal Numerals,t first, second, third, &c. th?;-^airex;Ssscd " 'f ,;:;r ' s" "'^!)"'^ ^^-'"^ ^'- "-- ^o which ' Blessed are the W ; 'Vr'mee ,' Scons' 'l^P' V ''•' ^^°^ P^^P'^' to be used sMhsfnnH,.:!.; ' "''''''^ PLi.>,ons. Adjectives are then said to be used substantively. , INFLEXION OF ADJECTIVES. JhIu^^'^'^'Z'"' '\T^'''' ^^"gli-'^'^' are not declinable words ^:::r;::i ''- '-'''- ''^ -' '-'' ^^'^^^ ^- p^-' ANGLO-SAXON FORMS. declension. "^■'^•^'^"'"le. funinme, and neuter nouns of the first 'XJarri'""'"' '>' ^ ^^^'^-^-^ word, adjectives were declined as Norn, Gen. Dat. Ace. Abl. Masc. til (good) tiles tilum tilne tile Singular. Fern. til, -u tilre tilre tile tilre Neut. til tiles lum til tile Plural. M. andF. Ncut. tile tiki, -e tilra tilra tilum tilum tile tilu, -e * Some ' ' Few FORMS OF THE TIME OF CHAUCER. and of adje^ives u^ejSaXe^'^Lltlr e^? f T ''''''^'^' ceded by demonstratives and posSives '"'^ o^ adjectives pre- out It >W «,«./, or /,.«. ^aKy wc are speak^f of. '^'^^^'^"^^^ °f ^ "^"ti'y- They do not point 24 OUTLINES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. V. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 79. Adjectives have three forms called Degrees of Com- parison. These are 1. The Positive Degree. 2. The Comparative Degree. 3. The Superlative Degree. 80. The Positive Degree of an adjective is the adjective in its simple form, used to point out some quality or attribute of that which we speak about, as ' A black cat,' ' Kfine day.' 81. The Comparative Degree of an adjective is that form of it by means of which we show that one thing,* or set of things, possesses a certain quality or attribute in a greater degree than another thing, or set of things. 82. The Comparative Degree (Latin comparativus, from comparo, I put together') is formed from the Positive by adding to it the syllable -er,t before which mute -e is dropped, as ' My knife is sharper than yours;' 'John's book is pretty, but mine is prettier ,■ ' Your parents are richer than mine.' 83. The Superlative t Degree of an adjective is that form of it which shows that a certain thing, or group of things, possesses the attribute denoted by the adjective in a greater degree than any other among several, of which it is one. It is formed by adding st or est to the adjective in the positive degree ; as, greatest, largest. Thus, of several boys in a group, we may say, ' John is the tallest: Of the countries of Europe we may say, ' England is the wealthiest: IRREGULAR COMPARISON. 84. In the case of some adjectives, the degrees of comparison oW^'^ff Tif '' tl'"-^ ?^?^^ generally whatever we can thi„k about, i.e., make a distinct oDject 01 thoiight, inc ucling /(vwwj, as well as what we commonly denominate thines. =,rPnr,V;n„"f ;» ''''"'V^? ^""'''•''''''^ ■'T°'' -^'■■' in Jeclension dropping the vowel, .-^3 inflected fhrsuffix is -'■'« declension. The letter r is the softened form of a sibilant. In Gothic j Siiperialive {\M. S7,pcrlaiivi,s, from suf'erlatus) means 'lifting up above.' The suoerla. tive degree lifts the thing that it is applied to above all the rest of tlie group. ^ of foi loj mi ADJECTIVE. of Com- jective In ite of that form of )f things, jree than cojnparo, to it the is sharper •/' Your ; form of possesses tha7i any ly adding , greatest^ ' John is ngland is mparison :e a dist'nct ings. ma inflected In Gothic rhe superla- are marked by what are the foUowintr : Positive. Good Little iMiicht Many Bad Late [Nigh] Fore Old Far [Forth] are commonly termed irregular forms. These Cont/'iirn/ive, better * less more more worse I later or latter nil; her former older or elder farther further SupeHative. best least most most worst latest or last Highest or next foremost or tirst oldest or eldest farthest furthest 85. Adjectives of more than two svHables ami m. of v ■ of two syllables, do not allow of the o ma on of . "'^^''^'''^ superlative degrees by means of suffits^^^ Z '"^ denoted bv prefixin.- th. ..^ \ ^^^ '''""^^ ''^^^^ are in the pos'tiv de'L rt^^r' 't'"''' '' ''' ^^j"-''- P^'S^^'^SS^^ of.suffixes of com- holesf) ; in -er (as fe>JrddTr%^^^^^^^^ merriest; holy, holier, abler ablest) ; those which ImT the ccent on '?.'', '" "^^'^ ^""^ ^^^'^ polite, politer, politest; severe L^r..,' 1, ? ^^^ }^^^ syllable, as picasanter,pieLntest:- na^rower^',^^^^^^^^^ '-^"^ some others, as ARTICLE. ^t CS- zx .:'r 1: :. rsr °^ i i-^tin ariicu/us, ' a joint.' wee nc : note on a6 OUTLINES OI' KNGMSH GRAMMAR. 89. The Indefinite Article an is another form of the numeral one (A.S. a//). It indicates that we are speaking either of someone, or of a/ij' ofie of the things for which the noun is a name, as, * I saw an old man ' ; *A child [i.e., any child) should obey its parents.' 90. The form an is used before words beginning with a vowel sound or mute //, as an apple, an heir. An drops the n* and becomes a before words beginning with a consonant, the aspir.ite //, or the letter u when the sound of ^y is put l)efore the tt in pronunciation, as ,1 man, a liorsc, a ycilinv ball, a use- ful bool;. IJut an is kept before the aspirate when the accent is rot upon the first syllable of the word, as ' an historical event.' 91. The Definite Article the is used to define or mark the particular individual or individuals that we are speaking of. 92. The definite article is used in English before significant nouns. (a) It is used to mark out or individualise out of all the things usually denoted by the name, that one to which attention is directed. It does this by directing attention to some attributive adji"'.''t by which the individual is distinguished. Thus, when we say, tiic Hack horse, the points attention to the adjective black. (b) The word the is used to show that one individual is taken as the representative of its class, as when we talk of the lion, the eai;le, or to show that we are speaking of the whole of the class to which the name belongs, as when we speak oi the stars, the English, the good, the Alps. PRONOUN. 93. A Pronoun (Latin pro, ' for,' nomen, ' name ') is a word used instead of a noun, as when the speaker, instead of naming himself or the person to whom he is speaking, says, ' I am rich ' ; • You said so ' ; or uses a demonstrative pronoun to avoid the repetition of a noun that has already been used, as * John has come home, he is very tired,' instead of * John is very tired.' • In old English the form a or o is found for (tn (as ae in .Scotch for ,7«t')even when used as a numeral. We still say ' A day or two ' ; ' They are both of a size,' i.e., a/l, a use- ;cent is rot mark the :ing of. ns. lings usually ed. It does y which the ck horse, tlu taken as the ' ea^lcy or to ch the name od, the Alps. PRONOUN. LS a word of naming am rich ' ; avoid the John has ired.' I'en when used one size. ,, 87 CLASSIFICATION OF PRONOUNS 86. I. Personal TABLE OF THE PRONOUNS. Substitiitizie, f I, thou, we, \ you or )e II. Demonstrative he, she, it, they III. Relative. that IV. Interrogative ) and Relative ) ^^"°' ^^^t V. Irideflnite one, aught, naught Adjective. this, that; these, those VI. Distributive VII. Possessive which, what, whether any, other, some self and selves in myself, ourselves, &c. (each, every, either, ( neither mine ami my, thine and thy, his, her and hers, its, our and ours, your and yours, tlieir imd theirs. self and selves in him- self, themselves, &c. VIII. Reflective The Nominative Case / is always written with a Capital letter. I. PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 86. The Personal Pronouns consist of 1. The Personal P-onoun of the First Person. 2. The Personal Pronoun of the Second Person. 87. The Personal Pronoun of the First T>^r>.e.^ • \^ ng any names. It ,s made up of ihe following forms :— NominaliveCa!,..., i ^'"S"'"-- r^mA '^ossc'sstve Obj, W^i^"^-- K'^-My] [Our] Me Us 28 OUTLINES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 98. Tho Personal Pronoun of the Second Person is the pronoun which is usctl when wc speak of the person or persons spoken to. It is declinable, and has the following forms : — Singular, Thou [Tliine r>r Thy] Thee Plural. Ye or You [Your] You or Ye Noniinathie Case [/'0SSi-SS/7'(' CdSc'j Objective Case .... 99. In Anglo-Saxon only the singular forms of this pronoun were used in addressing a single person. In ordinary usage the singular is now restricted to solenui addresses, as in prayer to the Deity and in poetry. 100. The I'eisnnal Pronouns have, properly speaking, no Possessive Case, that is to say, no Possessive Case with the force of a substantive. in Anglo-Saxon, wlien tli. genitives of these pronouns were used in tlie possessive sense, they were regarded as adjectives and inflected accordingly. 101. ANOLO-SAXON FORMS. First Person. Second Person. Sing. Dual, Plural. .9/;/i,'-. Dual. Plural. Norn ic wit "^'^ , > A'o/n, ))u git ge Gen, min uiirer ure(user) Gen, ]nn nicer eower Dat. nie unc us Bat ])6 inc eow Ace. me (niec) unc(uncit) lus (usic) /ice, ^le(^ec) inc (,incit) e6w(e6wic) FORMS 01 ? THE TIME OF CHAUCER. . First Person. Second Person. Sins;nl(ir, Plural. ' Singular, Plural. Norn Ich, lU, I we thou, thow ye Gen, min (niyn) mi (my) our, oure thin (thyn), thi (thy) your, youre Ohj, mc us the, thee 1 yow il.-DEiVlONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 102. The pronoun which is used as a simple substitute fo*" a noun that has already been employed is often aiUed the Personal Pronoun of the Third Person It is more correct to call it the Demonstrative Pronoun of the Third Person It has the following forms : — c- , ° lingular. AJaseuline. Feminine. W'uter, Nominative Case. ... He She It Possessive Case .... His Her It's Objective Case Him* Her It * Uim was originally a dative c7!Ass{:'!si7'c' Case 'I'lifii- ' i.' n . ANGLO-SAXON FORMS. Si>ii^ii/(ir. Masc. J-'iin. A^om. he he,') Gt'ii. Ills hiVe Dat. him hire Aci, liinc 111- (hig) Xcut. Iiit his him iiit Plural. h; (hig) hira (hcora) him (heomj hi (hig) n. FORMS OF THE TIME OF CHAUCER. Plttral. ge eower eow e6w(e6wic) Plural, ye your, youre yow stitute fc a ie Personal I call it the It has the iter. t t's t her, and them. Singular, Masc. ^ Fell I. Norn, he slie, sehe Gen. his liire, !iir Ol>j. liim hire, iiir, here A\'ut. hit, it his hit, it Plural. Of all Genders. thei, they here (Iier, liire) liem THE DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTiVES THIS AND THAT. 105. This and That may be userl n« ^o„i ^ (.0 point .0 Ching., themsclvJ). I, s c.s^?y„f ""r^"'':'' is 'near me,' Tim points to ,vli"t i ' ?t n y, ''"' '" "■''^' as ' Tl,is book,' . TlL chair.' ' '"''™'='^ '■■"'" ™^-' was mentioned before if as ' V .tiw. ?, • ' rl"^^ ""^^^^^ '» what your choice , '/- leads '^'m'erjrC-Xp^^ef" *""^^'^" '"' 106. Whp" •IT--' ~ ' • . noun, or requidng tZ^^'^^^:^ ^^iJ^out being joined to a termed demonstrative pronouns. ^P'"^' '' """"^ ^''"^ ^h°"^d be 30 107. OUTLINES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. ANGLO-SAXON FOBMS. Singula)-. Plural. Mas. Fern. Neiit. M. F. 6- N. Nom. se (pe) seo (t>e6) pKt I'd Gen. Vnis |)ttre bres I'ara (prera) Dat. |iam {I»a;m) ])a?re |Jam [y rem) Pam (pafm) Ace. Vone (I'rene) |)a l)set • PA Instr. b', Pe \% ]'e The inslrumenta] case py (thy) appears in the form them, such expressions as ^ the sooner the better,' =^ *hy how nmch sooner, by so Jitnch better.' I !'f III.-THE RELATIVE PRONOUN THAT. 108. A Relative* Pronoun is a word which refers to some noun or pronoun already used to denote the person or thing spoken about, and called tlie antecedent of the relative, and which joins the clause in which it stands to that which precedes it. Thus, in the sentence, * He is reading about the battle that was fought at Hastings,' that refers to the noun battle, which is called the antecedent to the relative that, and joins the clause ' that was fought at Hastings ' to the word ' battle ' in the preceding clause. 109. The pronouns who and which are also used as relatives. In ' I have found the sheep ivhich I had lost,' the pronoun which refers to sheep, and sheep is the antecedent to the relative which. In * This is the man 7vhose house we saw,' whose refers to niati, and ma7i is the antecedent to whose. 110. That cannot now be used in all cases where who can be used. A clause beginning with that limits or defines the noun to which it refers, and is therefore improjier when that noun does not admit of further limita- tion. Hence we cannot say 'Thomas that died yesterday,' or 'My father that is in America. ' IV.-THE INTERROGATIVE AND RELATIVE PRONOUNS WHO, WHAT, WHICH, V/HETHER. 111. The pronoun who, neuter what (A.S. hwa, neuter hwcet) was in Anglo-Saxon an Interrogative pronoun. • Relative is a b,nd term, because it is insufficient. He, she, it, this, that, thev are also (litcnilly; rcLtiivc pronouns, bcuausic they refer to ■juiiie preceding substantive Tnc relative pronouns, however, differ from the demonstratives, by having a grammatically connectivi: force. PRONOUN. Plural. F. 6- N. a ara (prvra) am (psCni) a li expressions inch better.' rs to some n or thing and which s it. Thus, was fought called the ' that was preceding 5 relatives, loun which tive which. D mauy and ;d. A clause it refers, and irther limita- ay,' or 'My NJOUNS uter hwat) ', they are also The relative xlly connective Modern Forms. Norn. Who Poss. Whose Ol'j. Whom 31 Ang-io-Saxon Forms. Masc. Fern. j^,„f^ ^y»i. hwa Gen. hwa's ^^<^t- hwam (hw£cm) V'"'"- li"one (liw.xne) Inst. ■ ' hwact hwa;s hwam (hwc6m) hwa't hwi (hwy) 112. What has the neuter suffiv / Tf \. ^v. is no^v indeclinable, and is used not onf "'"'?' °' '"^''- ^' also as an adjective. When used ... k^ ''•' ^"I^-'^tantive, but J c. vvnen used as a substantive it is neuter. i^i^T^^: "' tf -;= =" ^-po™" °f "-■ or it i» .stiil aulm 7Zt ?"""*■ '"" "■'■ <''*)• I" Scotch sortP-TrpIerK !^"™''"' "> *^ '-«!" ^W<>, • of what sherry, which will you take>» I« 7 , 'J'^"^^ "^'ort and definite number ■ «* 'h t'/ , '^f '■"''' '^"'' ""^ <"" "^ « "cr , 7, /w and 7,./m/ ask indefinitely. ™^^r^it^-^2e:/:xi:^-;:ir^ WHO, WHAT, AND WHICH AS RELATIVES omitted, . .. Who steals ^"Z., ^^:£^ '^ ^''^^ 116. What was the neuter nf li/i,. a in the nominative or objective oni!^ '"^ "' ^ substantive never relates to any antecedel T ^ ?'"' " ''^'"^' '-^"^ "°^- rnoreover, is ahvays'on" ' '"'^^^^ ^'^^ "^"^- ^/-^' -hich, IE 32 OUTLINES OF PZNGLISH GRAMMAR. TIic old genitive whose (= hw?es), however, is occasionally used as an ordinary relative in poetry, as : " The question ivJtosc solution I rc([uire " {Drydcii) ; " I could a tale unfold whose lightest word," &c. {S/iakspere). 117. Instead of what, the ordinary relative relating to animals or things is which. 118. It is, however, quite a mistake to call ^ u. — or other,' ^tu day will 1 oii '"imself ;ertain place ', and every, J fall by his lite substan- s, " A quiet i's mistress " Lnglo-Saxon '. masculine t is naught St as uUus 334)- In quantity. 125 Other means one of two (like the Latin alter) It -. used as a substantive it has the ordmary mnexio"s''of fntun ^" It St 11 has this force m somebody, sometimes, somet/iin^ in <^ son,') is used both adjective,; /:d';:;,«,:,:^.,r ""' "" "' ' and so on Novtid v. /wi ^ °*^®''' °^e from another ' tion,as4hey dnorsptt^t^oeaew;"'^ ?^^^^^^ '''''' '^^^ P'-^'P-i" from one ano-her da v '' Tho n.-?. '''' ^'"' '"^ "'"'^ ' " " They hear .-carded as fbrmin, a soij of c^HlpcS l^ tr^L-cS:^:^^."-^ '^ 129. Every (old English rcerre/e or e7'eri//e tint i. ^,.. n IS a compound of A.S. .../>r 'ever ' m,! X ' ""'"^^ series taken one by one. ' ^ ^' '"^ ^"""^^'^ ^^" °^^ 130. Either has two meanings, i. It means 'each of two ' as On either side one "' ( Mu xix iR) , T^ ? ' but not both.' -^ '*• '• ^' ^""^"' °"e of two, Each, ever., ^S^:;.;?'^^^^-- ^^^^^ ]|-^ VII.-REFLECTIVE PRONOUNS. 132. Tlie objective case of the Personal Pronouns and of the clemonstrouve^^^^^^^^ „(-*X^_^„P'?v'''''* ^^V^ prefixed to the indefinite r.rono,,n<; in 4r 1 T~ <^ = ^^.n Hence ca.e «V.V„.^//= '^^ivJi^/l/^^^l^r^- J^^^^^ ac 34 OUTI.INKS OK KN<5MSI' GRAMMAR. fijUxku ' I bend hack '), when ;im action directly or indirectly affects the doer of it. 'riuis- - " I'll disrobe ino " (.Sh.iksperc, Cymb. v. i, 22.) " I can 1)11 y nic twenty " {Macb. iv. 2, 40). "Prepare thee "(Sh. M. J'r/i. iv. i, 324). " Clet tlicc wdod cnouj,^h " {Tempest ii. 2, 165). " .Si<,Mi()r .Antonio commends liim to you" (J/. /'. iii. 2, 235). " Let every soldier hew him down a bough " {Xracb. v. 44). 133. In An-Io-Suxon the personal pronouns, in wh.itever case thev were used, uc.e strenothened by having tlie adjective silt\ i e self K-samc, comi>are scljsiwic\ agreeing with them (' I self,' Ikv) ' ''I-his combin.u.on of pronoun and adjective is still seen in himself Jtcrscif ^^a"'VT'^' but ,n the case of the personal pronomis :s;// can^' somehow to be rcgardcc as a substantive, and was preceded by the possessive case {myself, thyself, ourselves, yoursehu-s). ^ Tlu-re is nothing ;v/..;//r^ about self oitlier as adjoclive or .ts sul.st.nn- tut (^--o. '••.C, • I lo himself s.iicl so " ; •' I love you for yourself .ilone. jS-c.). I he refleetive force belongs altogether to the i)ronoun to uliidi t IS appended, or, properly speaking, to the zv;/; 'that denotes the rejtcctcd action. VIII. -POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 134. Besides the simple possessives her, our, your, their, we use the secondary or double possessive forms, hers, ours, yours, theirs. Ihese are only used when the noun to which they relate is not ex,,Tessed, as, " My pen is a bad one, give m^ yours." In modern English mine and thine follow the same rule. VERB. 135. Deflnition. A verb is a word by means of which we can say something about some person or thing. 13e, The word which stands for what is spoken abou^ is called the subject of the verb, and is in the nominative case. In relation to the Subject, the verb is called the Predicate. 8omI;btnrnr'thl"V'-'''-''^^'''''' '"^ ''^'''' '^ 'P°^^" about that it does do?e to?t '^ '"^ ^""^^ ^^' ^' ''''"' '' ^^= something VKRM. or indirectly 35 ii. 2, 235). ''• V. 44). /er case they •v///; i.e. self \'^c.). This ///.u-//, herself, ins self came ceded by the ' or iis suhstan- ►'oursolf aloiu'. iii'iim lo whicli at (k'notes the '//«>, we use vours, theirs. elate is not In modern hich we can ut is called case. In te. that it does t-omething CLASSIFICATION OF VERBS. 138. Verbs are divided into two classes— 1. Transitive- Verbs. 2. Intransitive Verbs. A Transitive Verb is one which denotes an action or feelintr fhP n. T' / "^^^^'^-^ '^'^ ^^^t'^er." The word which .stands for the object of the action described by the verb is cXd th. ol^et Of the verb. ,t ,s ,>nt in the J^ective e ^ e i^ mutual object of a verb u^^^<\ n,^^ 1 r , r . "'^ •?'^^''''- object of the al:: ""' ^" confotnnled w.th the .../ ort^^bn'l^'Tr"'^ ":'" "'"''^ '"^^'^^^ ^ •^^'^' - --^^^-. or an act on o. feehng winch ,s not chrected towards an object- as, to be, to Ml, to s,t. to rgoiee, to no,. Verbs of this kind a e sonietunes called Neuter Verbs. "The sea breaks ^iLforc'^r^cks'"" "T,h. ''^ "^''^ "'"'""''^ '- In old Kn,dish in\rans,,ive vcH. we -e often oZ';! '?"''' -''''^^•" used retlect.vely as, " Mie thee home " " F- e t elb^^ S "le^'onJ^"'^"'"^!^'?^ ^'^rt -"-s'y^this";ay, tt " t which o-erleapsi,sdf.'' "" "^''^'-''^^^ \^n^.^\i -^ " Vaultin/'ambition cailiSl^s: '^C'j^e^t aS';S;S^^^ r^' ^^"7 "^ ''=-'- ^'^-fi* cakes eat short and cr sn " / ! "^ ' '' '^^""g'^ ^^'i^n it is cut ; ' " Tlie " The book sold well.' '^' " '"■" "'"•'' ""^ ^'"'^J^ ^'"^" '^cy are eaten;' INFLfrXIONS OF VERBS. Mood' \t" t"'' "' '^' '"^'°"^"g modifications :-- Voice Mood, Tense, Number, Person. ' * Latin /nj/zivVr, " to trn nri-nct • " .i,.. .• ~ ^ "^ • to the object of it. «° ""°''* ' ">^ ■■>^""" Passes over, as it were, fr.„n ti,e deer of it tSrk ^^^^^^^^^^:^i^- -'-^'r^ -- --are 36 OUTLINES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. These are expressed partly by inflexion, partly by the use of auxiliary verbs. A verb is a notional sqx\ when it is so used as to retain its full and proper meaning, as " I 7.v//go" {i.e., ' I am resolved to go') ; " You '^Krj' play m the garden" {i.e., 'You are permitted to play'). A verb is an auxiliary verb when its own proper signification droim outc)l sight, and it merely serves to mark some modification of the notion expressed by another verb. Thus in "He ivill fall," 'tw//' does not imply that he is resolved to fall, but onlv marks futurity. In " 1 work hard that I ;/mj' gain the prize," ;;wjdoes not express permission, but Helps to indicate the sulijunctive mood of the verb 'gain.' VOICE. 141. Voice is the form of a verb by means of which we show whether the subject of the sentence stands for the doer, or for the object of the action spoken of by the verb. There 'are two voices — 1. The Active Voice. 2. The Passive Voice. The Active Voice is made up of those forms of a verb which denote that the subject of the sentence stands for the doer of the action described by the verb ; as, " The boy strikes the ball." "The cat killed the mouse." The Passive Voice is made up of those forms of a verb which denote that the subject of the sentence stands for the object of the action described by the verb ; as, " The ball is struck by the boy," The mouse was killed by the cat." 142. The same action may be expressed by either voice, but then tlie word that is the object of the active verb must be the subject of the passive verb. In the strict sense of the above definition only transitive verbs can properly be used in the passive voice. But in English a noun (or pronoun) in the objective case following a verb and preposition, or the indirect object of a lerb, maybe made the subject of a complex passive phrase as He spoke to the man— The man was spoken to." " They took great care of him— He was taken great care of." 143. The Passive Voice of a verb is formed by prefixing the VKRU. by the use of etain its full and to go ') ; •' You 1 to play'). ;nification drops dification of the ill," '7w//' does uturity. In " I )ress permission, 'gain.' lich we show the doer, or I. There are sice. a verb which doer of the a the ball." 1 verb which le object of ?Mick by the !r voice, but must be the ve verbs can (or pronoun) the indirect .ssive phrase, " They took prefixing the 37 various parts of the verb be to the nnrTo^f .. The perfect participle of a tran^lf:^, .^^^^ ^^ ^^^ ^^^^ c • . " ^^ passive in meaninfr Some intransitive verbs Itivp tN«i. r '"eaning. of the verb />,, folUnved by he n sTor^n '? '^'''' ^"'""^^^l by means come"; ''He /. ..one/' ^Gvoarcter^.^'V fr'^'P'- '-^^^ " ^ -' these with passi\-e verbs. Tlie si-m n7 l! ^''''^" "°^ ^^ confound verb ^e, but the/,m/.v/.^,.//,,;^/,';f,;;j,;^,,;;;^j;^ss.ve voice is not the MOOD. vert .rrri^^r, -^.r^^^^^^ -r on. or .™ ,„ which ti>c action or fact denoted I'vZ v i ' °' """"" '" thought witl, the .l,ing thatir^oto oi; ' ' "'"'""''"' '" ""' 145. There are four moods :— A. Three Finite Moods. 1. The Indicative Mood. 2. The Imperative Mood. 3. The Subjunctive Mood. B. The Infinitive Mood. THE FINITE MOODS. l.-THE INDICATIVE MOOD whiTai''LXtratir„r'"'''^''°^^^°™^ "f--" relation to some even or stat^f^ '• ^""T"' °' ^PPo^^o" has speaker as actutal^d Tndln , *'"f J'"'^'' " '^^"'''^d ^y the -guilty,. His pt,nish,„en7:, *t Z^^^' '°-"°™'^ " ^ "^^ ''^ 2. -THE IMPEEATIVE MOOD. 147. The Imperative Mood is a form of the vprh i !:::!:i::i^!!!L^-"-'j. -' '^PPelite, lest sin / iiiv,^ ; , in Clauses clenotmtr the tmrnnrf r.f -> . ■ i command (as "The scntenrp iv. fi-,.,f ./ Purport ot a wish or for lifo 'M . f-, ^t-nccnce is that tlic prisoner be innrisonprl 148. The tliree finite moods of verbs may I,e descrihM ,. .i. Mood of Fact (Indicative), .l,e Mood of Conoeptton S„r ttve), and the Mood of VoUtion (ImperadveT "^ '""" THE VERB AS A SUBSTANTIVE. 1.— THE IirriHIIIVE MOOD. byr'vI^,'Cf!T «°°''^''P^'-^' *e action or state denoted Z I Ta reference to person, number, or time It mav /J/r -A '°;.=*J-' -dependent phases as "IsawS Jail, 'I know Jnm to br hnn<=.<:f" ^^J,.• ■ ., it a ' Mood ' (see definiionT Tf c "f T""""' "' ^" ^"^"^ v^ v^cc uenninon;. it common v has tlip inrce^ r^f r, substannve, and may be used either as the subje o as the obi ct V eTftu?utdT-""" ""^'" ■""°^""'- <™-'y '" dt? vvnen thus used it is not properly a mood at all. TO//, must, /,•/. ,/,„.^ ,i S „?,'•■ "^"y ^"',''" "= ""y. '■"«. ''""!, by the simple i2n?.ive'^4o"',S'aJ"T'-^''''' "'■''"'' "'^ ''''"""ed .,W... , .. He mad^ ri"S^'"',^=. , hid rarrtil^/ylu^i." "= in the imperative 5, "Go thou and forms of a verb supposition has 3nly thought of, '' of fact, inde- iw///or7w:y//(as "purpose (us " See fippetite, lest sin ort of a wish or tx be imprisoned contrary to the ' actiial fact (as " Oh ! that it ascribed as the tion (Subjunc- VEK^ 39 r state denoted time. It may "■ I saw him s us in calling le force of a as the object Y to and but). the infinitive ay, can, shall, are followed ^ " : " Bid me tell you." ^^^S:^^::^r^ ^-^n,^, .Hen subject or object of another verb 11 c ini ' '"'"''r^' "^'^'"^^ ^^ '^^ as a declinable abstract noun, and a iVti ve . ?v,?''n''Tr^''' ^''^''^^e^' endmg n. -annc, ox -ennc ami ,m t. !' » *"[ »^ (^'alled ^.\^<, genoul\ used to denote Vamv 'it tlE..^ '■' ■'^' P'-^P^^'tion /,,, was in place of the simpirinfinU vc''^.^^'''^,^/-^'^^ '" ?"'^ '" be'usS verb, and so wc say/" /vf v^ is I'uu r n / '^'' • ""' r^'^""'' "^ '''""tJ^cr to see you." ' ^^^ is numan, to jorgive divine " ; "I hope As this infinitive preceded hv //■ k..^ Saxon gerund, i. is Si^lt^XmlTt i'SZiZ. "' '™' '"^ ^"f-''"' 2— THE GERUND. Tiie gerunds of the verbs Z,/,/^ o„j * ,_ , gerunds, as "He went c^zy throZ wt W^ >% ^^"""^ ^°'"P"""d desirous of ^.vV/^,. admired!^ ^ "^'""^ ^""^ ^^'^ fortune " ; " He is or m '^.^^Z, r.^,^'*-^||^'3 or as ^i^ of ,.„,, athematics7 n«^r/«^, He is fond of studying (b>«s rftS';,^/^£%^,t1uSs"^ """ "-- - "- --jecs or THE VERB AS AN ADJECTIVE. PABTICIPLES. 156. Participles are verbal adjectives tKo because they /^,./.^, of the nattire botirnf ^ T '° """^^ adjective (Latm ^...^,,,;. ,:~:^|;/^ ^ verb and of an There are two participles formed by inflexion th. t Participle and the Perfect Particinil ru ' ^^Perfeco always ends in .>,^. VVhen fol 'ifrl \^^ ™P^'"^^^ Participle have an object as - ^.!^ T/ "" transitive verb, it may The perf.ct^Sleirn/^:;rs:rrc"-^^^ ^^"^^^^ ^. The Imperfect Paruuple is always active, the itfea 40 OUTLINES OF I'NCW.ISH GRAMMAR. Participle is passive, provided the verb be a transitive verb ;' as. " I saw a boy beatins a dog." '■Frightened by iIk- noise lie'ran away." I Even in the perfect tenses, as "I have written a letter," the oritrin of the construction is, " 1 have a letter 7i/r//A7/," where 7vritten is an acijec^ive a-recing u-ith letter; in Latin, Habeo epistolam seriptam u ;• 1 , .I''^'"f'cipli-'s are often used as mere adjectives of ciualitv' as A stn/cing remark " ; » The dreaded hour has come." ^ ^ ' TENSE. 158. Tenses (Latin te?npus, 'time') are varieties of form, in verbs, or compound verbal phrases made with the help of auxiliary verbs, which indicate partly the time to which an action or event is referred, and partly the completeness or incompleteness of the event at the time referred to. 159. There are three. divisions of time the Piesent, the Past, and the Future. There' are also three ways in which an action or event may be viewed : — I. It may be spoken of as incomplete, or still going on. A tense which indicates this is called an imp-rfect tense. 2. It may be spoken of as complete. this is called a perfect tense. A tense which indicates 3. It may be spoken of as one whole, without describing it as complete or incomplete in relation to other actions. A tense which does this is called an indefinite tense. 160. An action may be viewed in these three ways with reference to past, to present, or to future time. We thus get NINE PEIMARY TENSES. I I. The Past Imperfect :or Progressive), showing that at a certain past time an action was going on, as, I was writing: I I ivas being taught. ^^ A.S 2. The Past Perfect, showing that at a certain past time an action was complete ; as, I had written ,- I liad l>een tau^rht. \J'J \ Pa^t/ndefinite (or Preterite), speaking of the action as one whole referred to past time ; as, / wrote j I was taught. iitive verb ; as, «i noise he ran sr," the origin of e written is an 'olain scriplniii, Ives of qiiahty, ies of form in the helj) of to which an ipleteness or red to. jent, the Past, ;h an action or going on. A nse. hich indicates escribing it as >ns. A tense e ways with We thus get 'ing that at a IS writing J / past time an taught. of the action as taught. VERn. 41 \ am t>eini,r taught . H'^:>i.nt timt , as, / am writing j I l.mnkl. "P""'" ■ »=' '' f'"^' written; I have been (w.^^l=|'J:fiT™J,,^:^f«»;^'-. je;-;^^^ action „, „„, i"ut, , .IS,/ ujrite; lam taught. '^'" laZ '^^ll'^'':^?^i;^.}'^-\/-^^ and /... are not the tooi< place in pasSe, yet tire 'co^^i^i "'^''r"?^ "'^ ^'' "^ ^"ti"g what the tense indicates is referred to f'''''7l- ''''' ^.'^''°" ^''^'^'^ '« IS a/m<', followed by the imperfect participle. The Perfect tenses are formed by means of the indefinite tenses of the verb /mir, followed by the perfect i)articiple. The Future tenses are formed by means of the auxiliary verbs s/ia// and 7c>i//, followed by the infinitive mood : s/ui// being used for the first person, h>i// for the second and third in affirmative princii)al sentences ; but in subordinate clauses, after a relative, or such words as //, li'/ien, as, though, unless, until, &c,, the verb shall is used for all three persons ; as, " If it shall be proved" ; "When He shall appear we shall be like Him." USE OF THE TENSES. 165. The Present Indefinite Tense is used : I. To state what is actually taking place, as, " Here comes the rain." 3 To state what fie