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AI
OUTLINES
0I<'
ENGLISH GRAMMAR
FOR
THE USE OP JUNIOR CLASSES.
BY
C- P. MASON, B.A F r TD
PRICE,
Canadian Edition.
60 cents.
TORONT
abammilleh^cchwellin;;^,.
ST. WEST.
isrg.
Entered according to Act of Parliament of Canada, In the Office of tha
Minister of Ajfriciflture, by Adam Millkr & Co., in the year 1879.
UQ.O^
.
PREFACE TO THE SIXTH EDITION.
The previous editions of this work have been received with so
much fovour that I have been emboldened to introduce into
the present what I hope will be found some considerable
imi)rovements. The general plan of the work remains unaltered.
The object aimed at has been to take young learners at that
stage when they have acquired such elementary ideas on the
subject of grammar as may be gained from my " First Notions
of Grammar," and to reduce those ideas to regular form by
means of careful definitions and plain rules, expressed always
in the briefest manner consistent with rigid accuracy, and
illustrated by abundant and varied examples for pra. .-.-, A
clearer and more intelligible style of typography has been
adopted, and the amount of matter in the text has been slightly
increased. In particular the learner's attention has been from
tmie to time directed to the older f<.rms of the language. It is not
intended that he should, at first starting, learn \hese by heart,
but by the time he has mastered the rest of the text, he might do
this with advantage. No attempt has been made to deal with
everything that comes under the head of " English Grammar,"
or to introduce the young learner to difficulties which he would
be incapable of mastering. A superficial discussion of the
mtricacies of contracted and elliptical sentences is worse than
useless, as the knowledge to be derived from it proves valueless
f
vi
PREFACE.
at the first strain of actual practice, and results in disappointment
and disgust. It must be understood, therefore, that the present
work will only enable the young student to deal with sentences
of perfectly plain and ordinary construction. By the time he
has gone through it, he will be able to analyse sentences of
very moderate difficulty ; but he must not be daunted if he
finds that for the present, he can do no more. I think he will
find that what he knows, he knows well ; and he will afterwards
attack the more difficult constructions, as they are presented to
him in my larger grammars, with interest and confidence.
The Exercises in this edition have been greatly ami)lified, and
entirely remodelled upon the plan adopted in my recently pub-
lished "Shorter English Grammar." This is one cf the most
important parts of the work. Young learners cannot master
wordy discussions presented to them in a book. They require
clear, short, and accurate definitions and rules, brought within
their comi)rehension by the oral explanation and illustrations
of an intelligent teacher, and followed up by abundant practice,
embodied in carefully graduated exercises. In dealing with
these also the work of beginners should, as far as possible, be
gone through viva voce. I have endeavoured to make these
exercises as varied, useful, and lively as possible. Young learners
hate prosy, stilted sentences. They enter much better into
the grammar of an illustration, if the subject-matter of it is
something familiar to their daily lives and thoughts ; and an
occasional laugh at some homely topic does a good deal towards
dispelling the lisdessness which is apt to creep over a class.
C. P. MASON.
dukeseix,
Christchurch Road, Stkeatham,
January, 1879.
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
The numbers refn- to the faragrafhs of the text.
Historical Outline.
Preliminary Defmitions
The Alphabet
The English Ortliograpiiical System
1-3
4-17
18
ETYMOLOGY.
Classification of Words - Definitions
Inflexion
Nouns— Common and Proper .
Gender of Nouns
Number— Singular and Plural .
Case— Nominative, Possessiv 'Objective
Declensions in Anglo-Sr.xon <>.ul in Chaucer
Adjectives.— Classification of Adjectives
Inflexion of Adjectives ....
Inflexion of Adjectives in Anglo-Saxon and in
• Comparison of Adjectives
Articles
Pronouns.— Classification of Pronouns
Personal Pronouns ....
Ancient Forms
Demonstrative Pronouns .
Ancient Forms ....
Chaucer
20—21
22
23-31
33-39
40—51
52—61
62,63
64-75
76
77,78
79- S6
87-92
93-95
96-100
lOI
102-106
104— 107
Vlll
TAIM.K <)!• CON'IENTS.
The Relative Pronoun that
The IiUerro^'ative and Kclative Pronouns
Intlcxion of Who Ancient Forms
Indefinite Pronouns .
Distributive Pronouns
Reflective and Possessive Pronouns
Verbs — Transitive and Intransitive
Auxiliary \'erbs
Active Voice and Pa^jsive Voice
Moods .....
(Jerunds and Participles .
Tenses ....
Number and Person . . .
Conjugation of \'er))s - .Stronj; and Weak
Verbal Inflexions in An^lo-Saxon and in Chaucer
Shall, Will, May, Must, Can, ^^c.
The \'erbs Have, Be, and Do .
Ancient Forms
Conjugation of a \'crb at full length .
Adverbs
Prepositions .
Conjunctions ...
Interjections
COMPOSITION AND DERIVATION OF WORDS
SYNTAX.
Sentence— Subject— Predicate
Relations of Words to one another
Subject and Predicate
Object
Complex Sentences
Summary of the Rules of Syntax
ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES .
APPENDIX— Constituents of English
EXERCISES
io8—
1 10
1 1 1 -
121
III
122 —
126
127-
•3«
132-
•34
135-
•39
140
141-
•43
144-
152
•53-
•57
158-
166
167,
168
169—
-176
178-
180
iSi
192
•93-
198
•95-
•97
200
201 —
■216
217-
-220
221—
-226
227
228-
266
268-
280
281-
293
294-
-312
3I3-
^•5
3'6-
-347
348-
370
371-
^•3
page
no
page
120
)8-
no
I —
121
III
»2
126
7—
•3»
J2-
134
J5-
•39
140
M-
143
u-
152
53-
«57
;8-
166
67,
168
S9-
176
78-
180
Si
192
)3~
198
?5-
197
200
31 —
216
17-
220
21 —
226
227
28-
266
HISTORICAL OUTLINE.
-*e»-
TUF. various lanpfiiascs spoken by mankind admit of bcinfj j^roupcd
torjcther in certain great families, tlie momixMs (if each of which
resemble each other more or less closely in the words ii-,cd to express
ideas, and in tlic grammatical framework of forms and inriexions by
which the words are combined. One of these families of languages
has been called the Indo-European, or Aryan family. It includes
the Sanscrit, Persian, Slavonian, Latin, (Week, Keltic, and 'leutonic
languages. The Teutonic branch of this fimily is divided into two
principal stocks, the Scandinavian and the (Jerman ; and the (iennan
stock is again subtlivided into High (lerman langu.igcs ;si)oken in the
mountainous districts of the south of (lermanyi and Low Cerman
languages (spoken in the northern lowland-, of '(;crmany). English
belongs to the Low German branch of the Teutonic stock, and is
akin to Frisian. i)utch, Flemish, Platt-Deutsch, and Mojso-Ciothic.
The inhabitants of Gaul and Britain, when those countries were
invaded by the Romans, were of Keltic race, and spoke various
dialects of the Keltic group of languages.
The conquered (lauls adopted the Latin language, and the Franks
and Normans, who at a later time established themselves in die
country, adopted the language of the people thcv con(|ucred. Thus it
has come about that French is for the most 'part a corrupted form
of Latin, belonging to that group of languages which is called
' Romance.'
The Keltic inhabitants of Britain did not adopt the Latin language,
but retained their own Keltic dialects. One of these is still spoken by
the Keltic inhabitants of Wales.
English is the language brought into England bv the Saxons and
Anglos, who in the fifth century con.|uercd and dispossessed the
British or Keltic inhabitants, and drove the remnants of them into the
remote mountainous corners of the island, especiallv Wales, Cornwall
(which was called West Wales), and Strathclvde (comprising Cumber-
land, Westmoreland, and the Western Lowlands of Scotland). They
were a Teutonic race, coming from the lowland region in the north-
western part of Germany. The name Angle appears to have be-
longed at first only to one division of these Teutonic invaders : hut
in course of time, though long before the Norman Conquest, it was
B
OUTLINES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
extended over the rest, and the entire body of the Teutonic inhabit-
ants of our country called themselves and their lan-uagc English
and their country England (Angle-land). In speaking of themselves
they also, at least for a time, employed the compound term Anglo-
Saxon. English thus became the predominant language in our
island from the Firth of Forth* to the English Channel, and has con-
tinued so for more than thirteen centuries. During this time it has
of course, undergone many changes. It has adopted many new
words from other languages, and its forms have been altered to some
extent ; but it has lasted in unbroken continuity from its introduction
until now.
Modern English is only a somewhat altered form of the language
which was b- ought mto England by the Saxons and Angles! and
which in Its early form, before the changes consequent upon the
Norman »„onquest, is commonly called Anglo-Saxon. The rrram-
matical framework of Modern English is still purely Anglo-Saxbn.
mn^LnT'fi' /'•' 1?'"'' ^^^l°:Saxon (or old English) differed from
modern English in this respect, that it had a much greater number of mam-
matical mflexions. Thus nouns had five cases, and there were different
declensions (as m Latin) ; adjeptives were declined, and had three renders •
pronouns had more forms, and some had a dual number as well as a sinmil'ar
and plural ; the verbs had more variety in their personal terminations. The
greater part of these mflexions were dropped in the course of the three cen-
turies folio v/mg the Norman Conquest, the grammatical functions of several of
them being now served by separate words, such as prepositions and auxiliary
verbs. This change is what is meant when it is said that Anglo-Saxon (or
ancient Lngnsn) was an injlexumal language, and that modern English
IS an analytical language.
. 7^?.^^f.^^er part of the foreign words that have been incorporated
!." °j J^?^'^'^' f "'^/'''■^ "°^ P'^" *"d parcel of the language, may be
divided into the following classes :— t> h , y ^^
1. Words of Keltic origin.— The Anglo-Saxons adopted a few
Keltic words from such Britons as they kept among them as slaves
or wives. These words consist chiefly of geographical names, such
Mendip, Wight, Kent, &c. ; and words relating to common household
matters, such as Mn, crook, clout, darn, gruel, mattock, moi,
rug, wire, &c. .-^ > ^ rj
rr?' ^?!^^^ ^^ Scandinavian origin.— IMen of Scandinavian race
(Ficts, Norsemen, and Danes) made repeated incursions into this
island during several centuries, and established themselves in force on
the eastern side of the island, in East Anglia, Northumbria, and part
ot Mercia. In consequence of this a good many Scandinavian
words made their way into common use, and Danish or Scandinavian
forms appear in many names of places in the districts occupied by
■1)
thTn mSrn InglisV' "^ ^^""'"^ ^"^"'''" '^''''"'' ''*"'^ ^""^ ^""^^ '''°'" '° ^^^ Teutonic type
ic inhabit-
English,
hemselves
111 Auglo-
e in our
J has con-
ne, it has,
aany new
d to some
troduction
: language
igles, and
upon the
he gram-
Saxon.
fercd from
r of gram-
e different
i genders ;
a singular
ons. The
three cen-
' several of
I auxiliary
-Saxon (or
English
irporated
:, may be
-d a few
as slaves
nes, such
W/zance),
ousehold
ck^ mop,
nan race
into this
force on
and part
dinavian
dinavian
upied by
utonic type
HISTORICAL OUTLINE,
the Scandinavian invaders surh '^^i /n, ^ *..,. „ ? • /-- • , v
brought about in the southern dialcctl. ""^^ "^
throuTriat°n-o'f'",l°l^'"' T" °''"* ^""■"^ introduced
SSia^-- - ^n'^.t:r^.^^HJra^L"r- j
adapted X the"' m-iZs'^o'STe"' 7'"' """It "C P'-«- -'''^
are mostly ecclesiastic^d terms 'rn^inonf^ '",^^^ ^^'^'^ '"''"^'
Se o?,h^ "r. n^!ii;nvi-^',;t'j,r ^x!o°f' ^f-^ '^#
to be he kn^'u," 'e f ho msslTtlJ '*-,''' '""""y"' ""=^" ■^='"«l
important ^^$ t It ° v.as'S 1' ^, c elerat'S'" f',',";' firsT"" ""
of the older '=„,"' I, *„"io b ^S'Tnl' 'rr""' '"'''Tt'
mmmm
Xr t Ln I ';; ^0,111"-;;]^ '°t"' ^^^r"^"^^ Norman-French, the
4 OUTI-INES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
4. Words of Miscellaneous origin.— The extensive intercourse
maintained during the last three hundred years with all parts of the
world naturally led to the introduction of words from most languages
of importance, relating to natural productions, works of art, or social
mstitutions, with which this intercourse first made us acquainted.
Thus it has come about that the two chief constituents of modern
English are Anglo-Saxon and Latin, mixed with a small proportion
of words of miscellaneous origin.
As a general rule (admitting, of course, of numerous exceptions) it will be
found that words relating to common natural objects, to home life, to a.^riculture
and to common trades and processes, are usually of Teutonic origin! Words
relating to tlie higher functions of social life -religion, law, government and
war, to the less obvious processes of the mind, and to matters connected with
art, science, and philosophy, are commonly of classical and mostly of Latin
origin. iVIost words of three or more syllaljles, and a large number of those of
two, are of classical origin. The Teutonic element prevails (thouL'h very far
from exclusively) in words of one or two svilables, and is by far the most
forcible and expressive. Hence it predominates in all our finest poetry It is
impossible to write a single sentence without Teutonic elements, but sentence
after sentence may be found in Shakspeare and the English Bible, which is
pure English, in the strictest sense of that term.
One great advantage which English has derived from the minglinir of the
Teutonic and Romance elements is the great richness of its vocabulary^ and its
power of expressing delicate shades of difference 'n the signification of words
by the use of pairs of words, of which one is Teutonic and the other French *
The changes by which Anglo-Saxon (or the oldest English) became modern
English were gradual, and no exact date can be given for the introduction of
this or that particular alteration. Still the process was influenced or accelerated
at certain points by political events. The Norman Conquest, and the political
relations between the conquering and the conquered race, naturally made
Norman-r rench the language of the court and the nobles, of the courts of justice
of the episcopal sees, and of garrisoned places. But the loss of Normandy in
r206, the enactments of Henry III. and Louis IX., that the subjects of the
one crown should not hold lands in the territory of the other and the
political movements under John and Henry III., stopped the further
influx of the Norman element. At the same time the absolutist tendencies
of the kings drove the nobles into closer union with the Anglo-Saxon elements
of the nation; and the French wars of Edward HI. roused an anti-French
feeling among all classes, which extended itself even to the lanpuatre
insomuch that we learn from Chaucer that in his time French was spoken in
England but vr ely, and in a corrupted form. In 1362 appeared the edict of
Edward HI. that legal proceedings in the royal courts should be conducted in
English.
* Compare, for exaniple,/Y//;/^ and sentiment, u>oyk and labour, bloom ^nd /lower. The
number of pairs of exactly synonymous words is small.
intercourse
arts of the
: languages
t, or social
linted.
if modern
proportion
=i) it will be
agriculture,
in. Words
nment, and
lected with
ly of Latin
■ of those of
gh very far
ir the most
etry. It is
lit sentence
e, which is
ling of the
vry, and its
n of words
:r PVench.*
:iie modern
)duction of
accelerated
lie political
rally made
1 of justice,
)rmandy in
ects of the
, and the
le further
tendencies
1 elements
nti- French
language,
spoken in
le edict of
aducted in
'ower. The
OUTLINES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
INTRODUCTION.
1. Speech or language is tlie expression of thought by means
of words.
2. Words are significant combinations of elementary sounds.
These sounds are represented to the eye by marks or symbols
called letters, the whole collection of which is called the
Alphabet (from alpha, beta, the names of the first two letters of
the Greek Alphabet). The right mode of uttering the sounds
that make up a word is called Orthoepy (from the Greek orthos,
' right,' and epos, ' spoken word '). The right mode of representing
the sounds that make up a word by means of letters is called
Orthography (from the Greek orthos, 'right,' and grapho 'I
write '). '
3. A sentence (Latin smteiitia, ' thought ') is a collection of
words of such kinds and arranged in such a manner as to express
some complete thought. The words of which sentences are made
up are of different sorts, according to the kind of purpose which
they serve in a sentence.
Thus, in the sentence " The little bird flies swiftly through the
an-, bird is the name of something that we speak about ; the
points out which bird is meant ; little describes the bird ;
flies tells us something about the bird, by stating what it
does ; swiftly denotes the manner in which the bird does
this ; through shows how the action of the bird has to do
with the air.
OUTLINES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
.J^A^fT' '''''" ""' '''•'*''''" Which words may be arranged
are called Parts of Speech. '*"'^ni,ea
THE ALPHABET.
k1; 't ?' M ^'"'.^''^- E' - F' f= G, g: H. h: I, i: J, j:
K, k : L,l: Mm: N, n : O, o : P, p : Q, q : R, ^ : S, s : ' ; :
U, u: \^v: W, w: X, x : Y, y : Z, z.
'fif.'tT'''' ^t"^"" ^^®it^' °' '^' ""'^ C''i"<^d Vowels (from Latin voca/ts
and with \ .' T""'^""^ ^- '^'''^>' ^'-^^ be fuHy sounded by themseCs'
?rP rn H ^°"^'""°"^ P'-^f ^^^ of the breath. The remaininT^e e's
are called Consonants Latin con, 'together,' som,n 'smmdinl'?
They cannot be sounded ^vith a continuous breath Z'ei the ston^^;
tIIIV\^''T^^ "f the breath by which the voue L are sounSed
They therefore have a vowel either before or after them. """"^^d-
v.7?r^ r"""^^ '°""1' ""'^ represented by letters in English in a irreat
IS:-"'''* ""^''^ '^' ^"""^'"^ "°^^^ fn sounSTnd
Far, clerk, aunt, heart.
Mete, meet, meat, people, chief, receive.!
Pet, many, said, bury, tread, friend.
Herd, bird, curs, earth.
Pit, pretty, sieve, busy.
Bite, thy, eye, height, dies, buy, aisle.
speaking of the Divine Bong. The/mlv alsX used^ar^^ V^ ^^^ T P"""""""' "^^'^ '"
when it is used in a special or technicaTsense asVw v'v^ l^^K""""^' "^ ^ ^l'""'"" "°'"'.
+ It IS convenient to bear in mind tfw^ with the e-rrntl-n r' .»,» ,w.^„i • j ...
*i with the sound otV.- is tound only in woTds d'rfved^fr^mThe } ,Hn Zl^^ '"f ^^f/^(^'!'<'
receipt (recipio). conceit (concipio), &c. "" '"'^"'' ^ ''^^'^ (decipio).
INTRODUCTION.
e arranged
twenty-six
I in shape
)r Capital
I, i
', s :
T, t :
in vo calls,
lemselves,
ing letters
iiinding ').
^r stop or
sounded.
lie sounds
mete; the
is of u in
in a great
und and
ise singular
1111, used in
imon noun,
: bep;inning
Adjectives
ijesty, Her
: word of a
nd celtinz,
/(decipio),
Poke, coat, toe, soul, tow, sew, owe. door.
Pot, what.
Rude, rood, flew, blue, fruit, through, shoe.
I;^u]l, good.
Fun, love, does, flood, rough.
7. When two vowel sounds are uttered without a break between
them, we get what u called a vocal or sonant diphthong (from Greek
forofThen" °' ''"""'' ^^^ P'^^^^^^^Se, 'sound ').^ ^ There are
2. oi, as in hoist This diphthong is also written oy {doy), and uov
{buoy). It IS made up of the sound of a fall, and fin mete. ^
3. eu (as in «^/,..^.) This diphthong is also expressed in writing by «
{mute), ezv or ewe (few, ezve), eau {beauty), ui {stdt), ue {hue), yzi\ule).
4. ou (as in noun). This is also expressed in writing by mo {nmu).
8. When two of the letters called vowels are written together to
Sphthong.""'^ '°""'^' ^^ ^^' ^'^^' ^' '^^^^^ ^" improper
8. The letters w and y are commonly called semi-vowels. When
they are followed by a vowel sound in the same syllable, their sound
approaches that of a consonant, as in win, twin, you, yonder When
eit^ri^dfohflfon^"' ^" '^^ T' ^>'l''^^'^ '^'^y ^°™'^'"^ ^^'th it to form
ether a diphthong or a simple vowel sound ; as awe, how. nray, bey,
YUria) ^ ^"'^ '''' whenever it is followed by a consonant (as in
10. The letters 1, m, n, and r, are called Liquids. 7 (or soft f) s
r, ^ and softc/t, are called Sibilants (Latin slMare, ' to hiss ') The
liquids and sibilants do not stop the breath abruptly, but admit of a
pro ongation of the sound. Consonants which admi?of a prolongat on
^1., M-P TF ""^n^'^- ^'^''^^' ^^' *■' J' «' ^> ^'■^ also called spirants or
breathing letters (Latin sfirare, ' to breathe ')•
<j^^",^,^^ ^^^^^ consonants are called Mutes.*
dumb ).
(Latin miitus^
'^4^k,")^^ ^' ^' ^' """'' ""' ''"'^ called labials, or lip letters (Latin labium.
are called dentals, or tooth-letters (Latin
The mutes d, t^ th,
dens, ' tooth ').
ThrnnTfff ^'/?' • "^ ° ''"'' ""}■ ^^' ^" ^^^^) ^""^ "^^Ued gutturals, or
throat-letters (Latin ^«//«r, 'throat').
not sISnd'edXTin ""kn^^^f^^^. ""'^ ""'^'' ''^''-^' -•' '«"- which are wriuen but
8
OUTLINES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
and\?afc AsSe 'o^in a'J'< \'rf' '"^^"^^^ ^^ ^^e breath,
was formerly a gmufral leUer ' ""'' '^''''''^ ' ^° ^^^^^he '). It
13. The mutes are also classified in the following manner :-
Sharp (or thin) mutes— p, t, k.
Flat (or middle) nnites -b, d, g-.
Aspirated mutes ( sharp— f, th (in //////), hard ch.
T ,•! ^ flat— V, th (in this), g-h.
';ie'':,;rrzt"a„r;r'*"'' »"^ ^ » «" '^^- com-
14. Some of the mutes are sounded in more ways than one
£;5^'irti^rt\-ss„t<irS;;
■ ^'.it'..iS::LL ' '' "'"■' "'»'""■'-• "y P«"-S " after it, a,
orf cdlS?':/'Stt™^':;; " "■•"'"« 'r *^'- '' i' » -"S'= vonel.
one vowel sound P"nouncea together and containing only'
/^rW^'""'"'' °' two syllables is called a Disyllable, as
. WIXS""*' °' *"= ^'"'^W- '= -"^d - Trisyllable, as
^^i::^^^^:^^!^^^^^^^^^ a Poly.
/ and .. 'hovvS tTicJ&:-^Z''!f' ""''' ''"'''■"-^'' ^he letters
AormsuU Thc!e ■!r^ ^e"erally doubled, as trave/, traveller; hocus,
violated: -as ^rshiplt. ''^" ^""^ ^'^^" ^'"^'^^ ^" ^^.ch the^ x^e is
\
)f the breath,
reathe '). It
er :-
2h.
ilant. Com-
ne.
lit soft (z= s)
ft (= tch),
om Frencli,
;nch.
(^ww), and
yy^-y); but
after it, as
igh vowel,
ning only
osyllable
liable, as
liable, as
a Poly-
monosyl-
i a single
> doubled.
(/. But if
ant is not
'he letters
t; hocus ^
le nJe is
INTRODUCTION.
When a syllable (not beginning with /) is added to a word endinrr
'^l^rJ^v'^^ ® '''^1" \ ''"^'^'-" '^""^"'•ant is employed to show that the
precechng vowel ,s long : compare shin :.,J shhu; Am an 1 C' t
Tori !d ' ' '""''l'^' ''"t IS retained if it is ret.uired to nre-
i^Xayr^KHer'Snai'^r' "^^ ^~^'"' ^^ '"^''^^^ .A.^.4.'^^St
18. The English orthograpliical system has many imperfections.
The same vowel sound is often represented in different wavs
^nSlI same letter or diphthong often represents very different
(irch, ardiano-el; his, this J thi7i, thine. Sh(-in^n,
The same sound is sometimes represented by different
•nsonants. Comnnip /^//.A- ^./,.. . .5 "• uy amerent
consonants. Cc^pare\..^-;;;^rVS;'^r>.vf ..^°^
S «^y //«;;^, plumb j knowledire, privilege ; fdlip, Philip j
gaol; know^
picked, Pici.
ck^x^duX ^°T^Vi^ sometimes expressed by two letters, as by
c/2 in duck ; ch m loch; and most of the written digraphs.
Complex sounds are sometimes expressed by single letters
as by t and u in mine and muse j s in .y/.nv / \xijust. *
tbiil^ CO '' f ' •^' ^"?' Pe^'^^aps, 7£/ and y, are superfluous letters •
their sounds may be represented by other letters. ^e"ers,
vvP^b'nll'^^"'''v'^. """"^ y ""^ separate sounds, and the nasal mr
we shall .laye forty-one elementary sounds in English WlX
pronounced like hiv, and is not a separate sound crnsonantflre
often not pronounced, as in thr mgh, plough, knell, kno^ " ^'^
ETYMOLOGY.
19. Etymolog-y is that division of grammar which deals with
separate words.
10
OUTLINES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
^ CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS.
called Parts of Speech. These are eight in number :-
5. Adverb.
1. Noun.
2. Adjective.
3. Pronoun.
4. Verb.
6. Preposition.
7. Conjunction.
8. Interjection.
n<^„ stands, as • yJ^S^! '^^I'iZ:'^^?^'^;;^^'' ~"''^" ""^
other word, or sentences which hive n^^^^ r^"^" •'■^^•'^'"" *" ^""^«
as, ' We eat bread S mra^' He h?. I 'fh ''''"''"" ')' """'^ ^^'^^••'
' ig«^// he is rich, he is humble.' ^^ '^" ""''"' ^"'' '^' ^'^'V
^ Interjection (Latin /«/,•;-, 'between' ;;/,Vvc < ti,..^ n •
INFLEXION.
he form of a word either to mark some modification of the notion
which the word stands for, or to show the relation of the word to
some other word in the sentence.
WC
NOUN.
XI
JTc-r ^s^r:r;:"cXl 'Si-;^* r/-- ^-•'-•
Prepositions, Conjunctions nn.i t«<.
inflected. ^"notions, and Interjections, arc not
I
NOUN.
^3 The word Noun means name (Latin, ;iomen). A noun is
a word used as the name of something.
^ CLASSIFICATION OF NOUNS.
24. Nouns ai.. divided into two principal classes :^
1. 'Jommon Nouns. 2. Proper Nouns.
j/ l.-COMMON NOUNS.
^. A common noun (Latin, com;,ums, ' shared by several ') Is
a word that, the name of each thing out of a clL of t i^^^^^^^
of the same kmd, as /^orse, stone, city, or of any portion of a
quantity of stuff of the same sort, as u>Juat, iron' ZT
distinguishes that aninril frnm oil ^?i"^ T ,^ ^^^'^ "''^»'"= ^'^^^-s"^
distinguish one CsTfi-laTot^^^^^^^^ '°"' °^^^^^"S^' ^"^ ^^^^ not
26. Common Nouns are subdivided into—
1. Ordinary Class Names.
2. Collective Nouns.
3. Abstract Nouns.
\
13
OUTLINES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
An Ordinary Class Name is one that belongs to each
individual of a class, or to each portion of some sort of
material, as horsCy tree, ivntcr, marble. Names of materials are
used in the plural -when different sorts of the material are spoken
of, as ' teas/ ' sugars,' &c.
A Collective Noun is a noun which in the singular number
stands for one collection of several individual things, as
//(vv/, payliainent, multitude. In the plural it stands for several
such eolleetions.
An Abstract Noun is the name of a quality, action, or
state, as /itiftlness, ruiinini:;., }^ro7i.'t/i, sleep. As Arts and Sciences
are in fact /troeesses of thoui^ltt and aetion, their names are Abstract
Nouns, as astnmomy, lo^lc, grammar,
27. Alistract nouns are derived from adjectives (as hardness from liard),
from verbs (as i;i\nvtk from ^raru), or from nouns that denote a
function or state (as priesthood from priest, 7C'i<to7C'hoo(t from widow).
The inlinitivc mood is often used as an abstract noun.
Abstract nouns are sometimes used in the eonerete sense, that is,
standing for that which possesses the quality which they denote.
Thus iiohility frcciuently means the whole body of persons of nolile
birth ; youth, the whole class of young people, anil so on.
28. Common nouns arc significant. They not only denote, or mark
out, the objects to which they are applied, but also connote, or note at
the same time, the whole combination of marks or attributes, throi.gh
their possession of which the various individuals named by the
common noun are grouped into one class.
II.-PROPER NOUNS.
29. A Proper Noun is a word used as the name of some
particular person, animal, place, or thing, as John, London,
Bucephalus, Excalibur. The word proper {h:ii\n proprius) means
o^cin. X proper name is a person's or thing's own name.
Proper nouns are written with a capital letter at tlie beginning.
30. Proper nouns, as such, are not significant. Even if the name,
considered merely as a word, has a meaning, it is not applied to the
object which it denotes in consequence of that meaning. Margaret
meM\?, pearl , but it is not implied that a person called Margaret has
pearly qualities. Many proper names, however, such as Snowdon,
Blacicwater, Newcastle, were at first descriptive.
81. Proper nouns are sometimes used like comnon nouns, when they
denote classes or collections of persons grouped together because they
i to each
ae sort of
itcrials arc
arc spoken
liar number
things, as
for several
action, or
id Sciences
c Abstract
from hard),
lat denote a
from wido'iv).
ISC, tliat is,
they denote,
ons of nol)le
Jte, or mark
t', or 7iotc at
:es, tlirof.gh
ned by the
NOUN.
13
e of some
I, London,
■ius) means
a
beginning.
if the name,
ailed to the
Margaret
argaret has
s Snowdon,
, when they
because they
;r""I?:^;!r^f::;" f^V^^ ^^at marked so.e indiv;.„„d.
man, that he is 'a i.rc„l!7'j,V 'r'r '/, '"'^ •"«^'' "^ "^ '"^ ^"""i^^
philanthropists like IIoS.' '''''^ "'^ "'" Howards,' meaning
"^^LEXIONS OF NOUNS.
GENDER.
tuner sex. 1 hus all thmgs are arranged in three chs.e.
34. In like manner, nouns are divided into thr,.» .u
-m a„ed oender., whieh co.respond .oTe fee or:::; "f
tilings just mentioned. These -.ro tL -w ,• classes of
from the Latin .,„„,. .« kind or ,^rt • '^"'*'' ^^'^
noln!„Tr„„t"-irlreyL*U?enZ fl ^t'^'"'' " "•--»-
longmg to a male '). ^"''*^""ne gender (Latin masculinus, ' be-
orlt?,iTf t^ssit^^rtr ;=, ^"""' » fr-'- —
female '). senaer (Latin/67//;/«««j, ' belonging to a
^W^nan, ,u«n. ,mker, ,narc, ,.e„, e^, Mary, Jane, are feminine
Stone, tree, home, London, are neuter nouns
oft .'SraSdreiS'',,;"^ JS *i'<'™ - often take „„ ,,,„„„,
pronouns, t ^ ^ Irequently referred to by means of neuter
14
OUIMNES OF KNGLr«;H ORAMMAR.
35. The names of animals sometimes tlo not indicate tlicir sex, as
shftp^ bird, /tiiiok, ludr, niousi', rnvin, swan, i/ovr. y\lso various
nnmes ot persons, as parent, spou.r. servant, &c. Such nouns are said
lo Im nf couimon or undetennii^t. ' i::endcr.* Some mascuUne nouns
{hone, i/^\^),-A\\^\ some feminine {du.k, goose), arc often used to denote
cither sex.
36. 'riiiii};s witliout life are often pn sonifwd, or sjioken of as if they were
liviiiy beiniis, and therefore either of the male or of tiie female sex.
MOSES OF DENOTING OENOEB.
37. The distinction of sex in living beings is marked in three
ways —
First Mode.— Quite different words are used,t as : —
Masculine. Feminine MaseuHne. Feminin"
Father mother Drake duck
jl'^thcr sister Cock hen
Husband wife ' Ram ewe
Uncle aunt, &c. Hull cow, &c.
Afan (like the (lerm.iii Mensefi) was formerly used of the female as
well as of the male. \^'c see tliis in the compound -coman, a
modified form of lui/niiian—i,., ■'Jfinan.
Father means 'one who feeds;' fiom the snnie root as /vw/ and fa-t
(compare pa-ter and pa-sco). Mother is from a root ma—' bring forth. '
Daughter ((Jr. Bvyir-np) meant originally 'milkmaid.' The root is the
same as in dug.
Htuband (A.S. hihkntda) is the manager or master of the house. Bonda
m A. S. means tiller or manager.
38. Second Mode— Inflexion.— Gender is indicated by the
termination of the word.
A. Dititerent suffixes arc used for the masculine and the feminine.
Maseuliite.
Murderer
Caterer
Governor
Emperor
Sorcerer
Feminine,
murdeiess
cateress
governess
empress
sorceress
• Bui ir J .
treated a-, t; n;- .■
used to iA;^.-.!;n.i
used thai v:v.
■■:- .' lyih :-; eo show the sex of the person denoted by the noun, the noun is
nri!-.!- ■■\^ or femunne accordingly, and a masculine or feminine pronoun is
i '■'-'> ^ pl"™ ?• parents is of necessity common. A singular noun so
j'l loes nnt <.h.-)-. - .e ncx uf the person spoken of, is treated as musculint.
+ btrici^j. speak.- j» this is not gmmmaticai ^^nd^r.
; their sex, a.i
Also various
loiins arc said
sculine nouns
iscd to denote
as if they were
female sex.
ked in three
•nttntne,
ick
:n
/e
w, &c.
the female as
ind ~uoman, a
1 /lY-i/ and fa-f
— ' bring forth.'
The root is the
Aottse. BonJa
:ated by the
2 feminine.
oiin, the noun is
inine pronoun is
singular noun so
1 iu masi.uUnt.
NOf/N,
»5
inV^':-n:feT,.:,:i„;r„L"r"""'' ^■""■^ ""''""^' -'«'■»'-
...L'!"" '""'"'"^ '=f""-lf-m .1.0 m.,sc„li„e by adding fc,„i„i„.
When tlms„(r«i.„,l,i„|„ 1. "'■""'"" ■ ""y''"-. ""'J''"-.-"-
Masitili m: i:..,.:..:...
Masitilinc.
Man-servant
He-devil
Buck-rabbit
liull-calf
Feminine.
maid -servant
she-devil
doc-rahbit
cow-calf
Musiuline.
Cock-sparrow
Do^-'-fox
He-<roat
I'ca-cock
/''e»iinine,
h(.'n-s[)arro\v
bitch-fox
siie-i^oat
pca-hcn
NUMBER.
40. Number is n variation in form which shows wliether we
are speaking of one thing or of more than one.
tie i^iural. J lie Smgalir Number of a noun is that form of
1 winch IS used when we speak of one of the thin- for u'f
the noun stands, as s/u/>, horse, herd. ^ °' ''^""'^
Tlie Plural Number of a noun is that form of it which is useH
Tt nds^" T^ 1 "°7 '""^ °^^ '' ''^^' ^- whilh e nolm
stands, as ships, horses, herds.
i6
OUTLINES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
MODES OF FOBMING THE PLTJKAL.
42. The plural is fofmed from the singular in the following
modes : —
First Mode.— By adding the syllable es shortened to s when-
ever the pronunciation admits of it. The full syllable es is now
added only when the singular ends in a sibilant {s, sh, soft ch, x
org), ^% gas, gases; lash, lashes ; witch, witcltes ; box, boxes; topaz,
topazes
The letters es are also added (but without being sounded as a separate
syllable) after several* words ending in o, as licro, heroes ; potato,
potatoes; in the word alkalies; after y when it is preceded by a con-
sonant, the y being changed to i, as lady, ladii's ; and after words of
Anglo-Saxon origin ending in If or f preceded bv any long vowel
sound except oo. In these cases the flat sound which s always has
in es affects the preceding consonant, and f is changed to v/as elf,
elves; shelf , shehies ; leaf leaves; thief thiei'es ; loaf, loaves. Wife
and knife get/ changed to v in a similar way— w/W, kfiives.
43. All nouns except those above mentioned, and the few
nouns which form their plurals in the second and third modes
hereafter specified, have their plurals formed by the addition of
s only, as book, books ; /at her, fathers.
When y at the end of a word is preceded by a vowel, s only is added
to form the plural, and the y is not changed, as valley, valleys; boy,
boys. Qu counts as a consonant.
44. Second Mode. — By adding en, as ox, oxen; brother,
brethren; child, children. This mode was once more common.
45. Third Mode. — By changing the vowel sound of the
word, as tooth, teeth; mouse, ?nice ; foot, feet; goose, geese; man,
men.
46. Foiirth Mode.— By leaving the singular unchanged, as
sheep; deer; grouse; swine ; fish ; fowl, &c. (in a collective sense),
cannon; salmon; perch, &c.
* The usage in the case of words ending in o is arbitrary, and by no means uniform es
being commonly added. But s only is added to words ending in io and n,y, ;,nd to the fo!-
lowuig words ■.—domino, virtuoso, tyro, quarto, octavo, duodcciino, mosauito, canto, urotto
solo rondo. ■*
NOUN.
17
le following
i to s when-
^ £s is now
I, soft C^, X
oxes ; iopaz,
as a separate
■oi's ; potato,
jd by a con-
fter words of
long- vowel
• always has
to V, as i'/f,
aves. Wife
Vt'S.
id the few
lird modes
addition of
nly'is added
alleys ; boy,
I ; brother,
:ommon.
md of the
^/ese ; man,
hanged, as
tive sense),
ns uniform, es
and to the fol-
canto, grotto,
of what « named, as ' sugars.' ' ^ines,' ' n<^C'^
48 Plurals of Foreign Words-Latin, Greek, French Ittlian
urn " " ®^'^' ''^^ ^^'■enus, genera.
a " " » ^' 'IS datum, data,
ixorex" " " ^e, as formula, formula.
ices, as radix, radices.
))
ies, as series, series.
les
(2.) In Greek words
Nouns in on form the plural in a, a, phenomenon, phenomena,
jna " » ses, as crisis, crises.
" " " mata, as miasma, miasmata.
difc in^Staf ri!--'""' °™"^ ''"™ '■"""'^ Plurals,\vhi0h
Singular.
Plural.
Plural.
Brother brothers (dv birth\' 1 , . ^Mrat.
Die
Fish
Q-enius .
Index .
Pea* ....
Penny .
Shot ....
rlips ( f,.^ 7 ■ ■ \ ^ ciotnes [gariite,
dies {for coining) dice {for i lav)
fishes {regarded separately) ^sh Uolhctv<^)
geniuses Onen of talent) ^. genii rS.)
indexes {tables of contents) fndices( i X/^,,^
50. Plurals used as singulars.—
I. Words in -ies from Greek adjectives, as mathematics.
News is^,owt ahvayrsimnhr W.//^''•"''/ ^'""^^ ''^^''^
properly a plural. ^m^ular. Sniall-pox (sing, pock) is
_61^Nounsjised^n^y^jhe^luraL--Nouns representing
t " These ill news " (Sh.-,kspeare, Much Ado, II. i, ,80).
i8
OUTLINES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
things which are double or multiform are used only in the
plural, as —
1. Instruments or articles of dress made double, as scissors,
tongs, breeches, drawers.
2. Portions of the body, certain diseases, games, ceremonies,
&c., usually regarded as aggrei!;(jtes of a number of parts, as
entrails, measles, billiards, nuptials, matins, ashes, stocks.
CASE.
52. Definition. — Case is the form in which a noun (or pro-
noun) is used, in order to show the relation in which it stands to
some other word in the sentence.
English in its Anglo-Saxon stage had five cases, at least in pronouns,
the N'otninative, Genitive, Dative, Accusative, and Instrumental. We
have now only three cases, the Xoini native Case, the Possessive Case,
and the Objective Case. Iiinouui the nominative and objective cases
are alike in form. ^
NOMINATIVE CASE.
53. The nominative case is that form in which a noun (or
pronoun) is used when it is the subject of a verb ; that is, when
it stands for that about which something is said by means of a
verb, as 'Men build houses,' -The boy was struck by his
brothen' If the verb of the sentence be in the active voice, the
subject of the verb stands for the doer of the action described
by the verb. If the verb be in the passive voice, the subject of the
verb stands for the object of the action described by the verb.
In either case the subject stands for that about which some-
thing is said by means of the verb.
It answers the question made by putting who? or what? before the
verb, as 'Who build houses?' 'Men.' 'Who was struck?' 'The
boy.'
POSSESSIVE CASE.
54. The possessive case is that form of a noun (or pronoun)
which shows that something belongs to the person or thing for
which it stands, Thus in ' I sa ,v Jcjlin's book,' the possessive
case yb//«' J shows that something (namely a book) belongs to John.
nly in the
as scissors.
ceremonies,
of parts, as
stocks.
in (or pro-
t stands to
in pronouns,
•nental. We
'ossessive Case,
jjective cases
a noun (or
at is, when
neans of a
.ck by his
voice, the
L described
iject of the
y the verb.
ich some-
' before the
k ? ' ' The
r pronoun)
• thing for
possessive
'S^ to JoJm.
NOUN.
19
Of th'e PreVSnyl!u^Ph"elt£tiS'^^^^^^ ^^V^^^s^^ by means
father's house,' we nfay say, « The^Cse of mvtSe'> '■'"^' '°^ ' '^^>'
the letter .with an aposfrophe be^o^ i ( hu ' " tT' '^' "''"^
case; as, >//,/. men's e;L, t„ „ ^,' '■> ^^ ^^'^ nommative
the possiive ^ase \^ t^Ll-.^^j'^:^'^^ T' '' '
trophe after the .. as ' the /.>^s' feathers.' ^ ^ ^ ^'""^ '^'' '^'''-
57. The old (ienitivc or Possessive snffi- ;„ t^ .• ,
served i„ //'.,/«..,/,,_,, i.t //-wf ; ''iJ'f'S^f ''^' '^^ (still pre-
masculine and neuter nouns and in t'i^ -'^^ , ^' '''•''' "'^^'l ""b' in
force is stall heard after a sibil n .f.r"//;' " ''^'^'^^ ''' ■^-^''^'^^'^
in the possessive case singular mrKn/fr"-"- , ^''^' 'iP"-t-ophe
been dropped, and serve? ^w it .t^ I'^.u'^^^^
possessive case singular and nor nl. ''.'°^. ^^'-1^ "^ "oun is in the
It is sometimes placed after n.L f^^'i'-'^-'i'ifve or objective plural
when no possesJiir^X J ^re \'"s w'"'"" P""?^^ in a siLil^n,'
sake'), and after plurals cLu fin c f 'r '"" ' ^'"^ conscience'
have before us M^o.^esi'^f cirwltllri'-tl^r ''' ''' ^^'^' ^
OBJECTIVE CASE.
58. The objective case is that form in which i n- nn
notm IS used when it stands for the obiect of tL T ""' ^'''"
of in some verb, or w^hen it comes afterf ^°''°^ ''^"^^'"
sentence, ' The stone struck thrboyTthe IoTZTT^ I" '"
for the object of the action is cc,^l]T T J-^' '''''"'' ^^^^^«
and is in the objective case 'in ^ senteLf ^ff °''^' "^^^'
in a coach,' the noun W, wh ch Lestf^ t^^^ '''' ■'''^"-
IS in the objective case. ^^'^ preposuion />/,
th'?;.M^^^^:i;^ ^ -e^.f e the Latin dative, to denote
or thing indirectly affected by the nrrinn ^k . ^^''"'' ' ^"' '"'"'^ P^'-^""
n ; .as ' Give //w man a shil m. ' ' 1 d ?.?! ''^ T) '\'' '^''^^^ "'^^^t of
dative differed in form fron. tlie accusative. '" ^" "^^* ^"°''^'^ ''^^
n|n •i^!;:';?^-- t^^^ect^e c , ,,, ,^,, ,, ^ ^.^ ^^^^
z^//^;;/ or what before the ve rb 'nd iu . ^'^^/'^^fonncd l,y putting
..ven above, ' whom or wharJi'd ^ s^o^ncS^P >^:,;;;, ^I^^.Tbo;!^
20
OUTLINES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
61. The following are examples of the declension of nouns in
modern Engi'sh : —
Singular.
Noininati'c'; Case Man
Possessive Case Man's
Objective Cay' Man
Nominative Case Father
Possessive Case Father's
Objective Case Father
Plural.
Men.
Men's,
Men.
Fathers.
Fathers',
Fathers.
ANCIENT ENGLISH DECLENSIONS.
62. The following examples of the older declensions of nouns will
show how largely English has dropped its inflexions.
"!'
ANGLO-SAXON FORMS.
FIRST
DECLENSION.
, 1
(Nouns ending
ht essential a and e.)
ji'
1:
Norn.
Gen.
Dat. \
Abl. ]
Si
Masc.
nam-a
nam-an
nam-an
Hgular. '
Fern.
tung-e
tung-an
tung-an
Neut.
eag-e
eag-an
eag-an
Plural.
(All Genders.)
-an
-ena
-um
Ace.
nam-an
tung-an
eag-e
-an
SECOND
DECLENSION.
i V
(Nouns ending
Masc.
Sing. Plural
Nam . hund -as
• in a Consonant, and A/a
Fcvi.
Sing. Plural.
sprKC -a
sculines in -e.)
Neut.
Sing. Plural.
word word
Gen.
. Dat.
Abl.
hund-es -a
1 hund-e -um
spra2c-e
sprasc-e
-a
( -ena
-um
word-es -a
word-e -um
Ace.
hund
-as
spraec-e
-a
word word
The Third Declension presents no additional forms of special importance.
FORMS OF THE TIME OF CHAUCER.
63. By this time most of the above inflexions had disappeared.
Except a few traces of a dative singular in -e, inflexion in nouns had
been reduced to the formation of the plural number and the geni-
tive case.
I. The common plural inflexion was -es (Chaucer) or -is (Wiclif),
shortened sotnetinics to -s, fur which z is now and then found in
words of Romance origin.
t
S
a(
th
ac
fo
nouns in
ADJECTIVE. - ,
FemWne nou„, occasionally have no, -s, b„, .,, a, • to,* MW (hear.'.
ouns will
rj.)
lural.
word
-a
-um
word
irtance.
ippeared.
ouns had
he geni-
(Wiclif),
found in
ADJECTIVE.
64. \Vhen we spe.-.k of a thing we often require to mention
some qtjaluy or state of tl,e tl,ing, or its nnmber or quant tv or
some relation >n ,vl,ielr it st.-,„ds to ourselves or to o.rer L"
riie words that do this .are called Adjectives.
It dt™\"est^cetSU"/)J'S.tel*"-<' -*•''■ '^ - ^^Jective.
Ldr ' "^' " '"'*'°^'* "^''" f°' ""'^'^ ">e noun
ad^cuJlpai^ tl: .^e'??dl.Sw5?;i! "r«;Li)';?iv
through the au- ; ' ' 7.'/./.-// hand will vou have ? ' "^''^ ^"^^ ^ '^ ^/^^///^'///i^
adfectfviToin;Ttotti,fulli;:' ?"?'^>' •^)""^'[>^' ^'^^^ ^''-^^-"^ -
fo^ro. cither Z^ S^n^^^^^nliSy t^ sI^S ll^r"^ ^^^"^^
Hence we may also have the fnllowin-
69. Deflnition.-An Adjective is a word which limits the
22
OUTLINES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
application of a noun to that which has the quality or state,
the quantity, or the relation, which the adjective denotes.
70. As an adjective is not the name of a separate object of
thought, an adjective can never be used as the subject of a
sentence, or as the object of a verb, or be governed by a pre-
position.
CLASSIFICATION OF ADJECTIVES.
71. Adjectives may be arranged in the following classes : —
1. Qualitative Adjectives, or Adjectives of Quality.
2. Quantitative Adjectives, or Adjectives of Quantity.
3. Demonstrative Adjectives, or Adjectives of Rela-
tion.
72. I, Qualitative Adjectives, or Adjectives of Quality, are
adjectives which denote some quality or attribute (from the
Latin qualis, ' of which sort '), as virtuous, white, large, small, great,
little (in the sense of ' small '), such, same. The verbal adjectives
called Participles belong to this class.
73. II. Quantitative Adjectives, or Adjectives of Quantity
are adjectives which denote how much or how many of that for
which the noun stands, we have in our thoughts (Latin quantus,
' how great '). This class includes —
a. The Cardinal Numeral Adjectives, one, two, three, &c
C^he words hundred, thousand, million, like pair and dozen, are
nouns.* They may be used in the plural, as hundreds.)
h. The words all, any, some, half, many, few, much, more,
most, both, several, none or no (= 7iot any). Some of these
relate both to number and to quantity.
Examples. * All men are mortal.' ' He sleeps all night.' 'Some
men prefer this.' * Give me some wine.' ' Wait half an hour.' ' Few
persons will believe that.' ' I have iruch pleasure in doing this.'
,
• In Anglo-Saxon they were foiloived by the genitive case, as though we said 'A hundred
of sheep, &c.
ou
ADJECTIVE.
23
tion n ! ^^°^°^strative Adjectives, or Adjectives of Eela-
It ;T;;hfr"'"''' ^""^ ^"^'^-^^^^ adjectives which pott
rdati^ w i:T '" ''"'^'/"^^ "' '' ''""''''''^^ --^ kind o
relation which it bears to others or to tlie speaker
T n r , '^"'^" '^""^""^' °^ P— '-» Adjectives
- The Ordmal Numerals,t first, second, third, &c.
th?;-^airex;Ssscd " 'f ,;:;r ' s" "'^!)"'^ ^^-'"^ ^'- "-- ^o which
' Blessed are the W ; 'Vr'mee ,' Scons' 'l^P' V ''•' ^^°^ P^^P'^'
to be used sMhsfnnH,.:!.; ' "''''''^ PLi.>,ons. Adjectives are then said
to be used substantively.
,
INFLEXION OF ADJECTIVES.
JhIu^^'^'^'Z'"' '\T^'''' ^^"gli-'^'^' are not declinable words
^:::r;::i ''- '-'''- ''^ -' '-'' ^^'^^^ ^- p^-'
ANGLO-SAXON FORMS.
declension. "^■'^•^'^"'"le. funinme, and neuter nouns of the first
'XJarri'""'"' '>' ^ ^^^'^-^-^ word, adjectives were declined as
Norn,
Gen.
Dat.
Ace.
Abl.
Masc.
til (good)
tiles
tilum
tilne
tile
Singular.
Fern.
til, -u
tilre
tilre
tile
tilre
Neut.
til
tiles
lum
til
tile
Plural.
M. andF. Ncut.
tile tiki, -e
tilra tilra
tilum tilum
tile tilu, -e
* Some
' ' Few
FORMS OF THE TIME OF CHAUCER.
and of adje^ives u^ejSaXe^'^Lltlr e^? f T ''''''^'^'
ceded by demonstratives and posSives '"'^ o^ adjectives pre-
out
It >W «,«./, or /,.«. ^aKy wc are speak^f of. '^'^^^'^"^^^ °f ^ "^"ti'y- They do not point
24
OUTLINES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
V.
COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES.
79. Adjectives have three forms called Degrees of Com-
parison. These are
1. The Positive Degree.
2. The Comparative Degree.
3. The Superlative Degree.
80. The Positive Degree of an adjective is the adjective in
its simple form, used to point out some quality or attribute of that
which we speak about, as ' A black cat,' ' Kfine day.'
81. The Comparative Degree of an adjective is that form of
it by means of which we show that one thing,* or set of things,
possesses a certain quality or attribute in a greater degree than
another thing, or set of things.
82. The Comparative Degree (Latin comparativus, from comparo,
I put together') is formed from the Positive by adding to it the
syllable -er,t before which mute -e is dropped, as ' My knife is sharper
than yours;' 'John's book is pretty, but mine is prettier ,■ ' Your
parents are richer than mine.'
83. The Superlative t Degree of an adjective is that form of
it which shows that a certain thing, or group of things, possesses
the attribute denoted by the adjective in a greater degree than any
other among several, of which it is one. It is formed by adding
st or est to the adjective in the positive degree ; as, greatest,
largest. Thus, of several boys in a group, we may say, ' John is
the tallest: Of the countries of Europe we may say, ' England is
the wealthiest:
IRREGULAR COMPARISON.
84. In the case of some adjectives, the degrees of comparison
oW^'^ff Tif '' tl'"-^ ?^?^^ generally whatever we can thi„k about, i.e., make a distinct
oDject 01 thoiight, inc ucling /(vwwj, as well as what we commonly denominate thines.
=,rPnr,V;n„"f ;» ''''"'V^? ^""'''•''''''^ ■'T°'' -^'■■' in Jeclension dropping the vowel, .-^3 inflected
fhrsuffix is -'■'« declension. The letter r is the softened form of a sibilant. In Gothic
j Siiperialive {\M. S7,pcrlaiivi,s, from suf'erlatus) means 'lifting up above.' The suoerla.
tive degree lifts the thing that it is applied to above all the rest of tlie group. ^
of
foi
loj
mi
ADJECTIVE.
of Com-
jective In
ite of that
form of
)f things,
jree than
cojnparo,
to it the
is sharper
•/' Your
; form of
possesses
tha7i any
ly adding
, greatest^
' John is
ngland is
mparison
:e a dist'nct
ings.
ma inflected
In Gothic
rhe superla-
are marked by what
are the foUowintr :
Positive.
Good
Little
iMiicht
Many
Bad
Late
[Nigh]
Fore
Old
Far
[Forth]
are commonly termed irregular forms. These
Cont/'iirn/ive,
better *
less
more
more
worse I
later or latter
nil; her
former
older or elder
farther
further
SupeHative.
best
least
most
most
worst
latest or last
Highest or next
foremost or tirst
oldest or eldest
farthest
furthest
85. Adjectives of more than two svHables ami m. of v ■
of two syllables, do not allow of the o ma on of . "'^^''^'''^
superlative degrees by means of suffits^^^ Z '"^
denoted bv prefixin.- th. ..^ \ ^^^ '''""^^ ''^^^^ are
in the pos'tiv de'L rt^^r' 't'"''' '' ''' ^^j"-''-
P^'S^^'^SS^^ of.suffixes of com-
holesf) ; in -er (as fe>JrddTr%^^^^^^^^ merriest; holy, holier,
abler ablest) ; those which ImT the ccent on '?.'', '" "^^'^ ^""^ ^^^'^
polite, politer, politest; severe L^r..,' 1, ? ^^^ }^^^ syllable, as
picasanter,pieLntest:- na^rower^',^^^^^^^^^ '-^"^ some others, as
ARTICLE.
^t CS- zx .:'r 1: :. rsr °^
i i-^tin ariicu/us, ' a joint.' wee nc
: note on
a6
OUTLINES OI' KNGMSH GRAMMAR.
89. The Indefinite Article an is another form of the numeral
one (A.S. a//). It indicates that we are speaking either of someone,
or of a/ij' ofie of the things for which the noun is a name, as, * I
saw an old man ' ; *A child [i.e., any child) should obey its
parents.'
90. The form an is used before words beginning with a vowel
sound or mute //, as an apple, an heir.
An drops the n* and becomes a before words beginning with a
consonant, the aspir.ite //, or the letter u when the sound of ^y is put
l)efore the tt in pronunciation, as ,1 man, a liorsc, a ycilinv ball, a use-
ful bool;. IJut an is kept before the aspirate when the accent is rot
upon the first syllable of the word, as ' an historical event.'
91. The Definite Article the is used to define or mark the
particular individual or individuals that we are speaking of.
92. The definite article is used in English before significant nouns.
(a) It is used to mark out or individualise out of all the things usually
denoted by the name, that one to which attention is directed. It does
this by directing attention to some attributive adji"'.''t by which the
individual is distinguished. Thus, when we say, tiic Hack horse, the
points attention to the adjective black.
(b) The word the is used to show that one individual is taken as the
representative of its class, as when we talk of the lion, the eai;le, or to
show that we are speaking of the whole of the class to which the name
belongs, as when we speak oi the stars, the English, the good, the Alps.
PRONOUN.
93. A Pronoun (Latin pro, ' for,' nomen, ' name ') is a word
used instead of a noun, as when the speaker, instead of naming
himself or the person to whom he is speaking, says, ' I am rich ' ;
• You said so ' ; or uses a demonstrative pronoun to avoid the
repetition of a noun that has already been used, as * John has
come home, he is very tired,' instead of * John is very tired.'
• In old English the form a or o is found for (tn (as ae in .Scotch for ,7«t')even when used
as a numeral. We still say ' A day or two ' ; ' They are both of a size,' i.e., <Aone size. ,,
e numeral
)f some onCy
Line, as, * I
I obey its
h a vowel
ing with a
o{ y is put
l>a/l, a use-
;cent is rot
mark the
:ing of.
ns.
lings usually
ed. It does
y which the
ck horse, tlu
taken as the
' ea^lcy or to
ch the name
od, the Alps.
PRONOUN.
LS a word
of naming
am rich ' ;
avoid the
John has
ired.'
I'en when used
one size. ,,
87
CLASSIFICATION OF PRONOUNS
86.
I. Personal
TABLE OF THE PRONOUNS.
Substitiitizie,
f I, thou, we,
\ you or )e
II. Demonstrative he, she, it, they
III. Relative. that
IV. Interrogative )
and Relative ) ^^"°' ^^^t
V. Irideflnite one, aught, naught
Adjective.
this, that; these, those
VI. Distributive
VII. Possessive
which, what, whether
any, other, some
self and selves in
myself, ourselves,
&c.
(each, every, either,
( neither
mine ami my, thine
and thy, his, her
and hers, its, our
and ours, your and
yours, tlieir imd
theirs.
self and selves in him-
self, themselves, &c.
VIII. Reflective
The Nominative Case / is always written with a Capital letter.
I. PERSONAL PRONOUNS.
86. The Personal Pronouns consist of
1. The Personal P-onoun of the First Person.
2. The Personal Pronoun of the Second Person.
87. The Personal Pronoun of the First T>^r>.e.^ • \^
ng any names. It ,s made up of ihe following forms :—
NominaliveCa!,..., i ^'"S"'"-- r^mA
'^ossc'sstve
Obj,
W^i^"^-- K'^-My] [Our]
Me
Us
28
OUTLINES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
98. Tho Personal Pronoun of the Second Person is the
pronoun which is usctl when wc speak of the person or persons
spoken to. It is declinable, and has the following forms : —
Singular,
Thou
[Tliine r>r Thy]
Thee
Plural.
Ye or You
[Your]
You or Ye
Noniinathie Case
[/'0SSi-SS/7'(' CdSc'j
Objective Case ....
99. In Anglo-Saxon only the singular forms of this pronoun were used in
addressing a single person. In ordinary usage the singular is now
restricted to solenui addresses, as in prayer to the Deity and in poetry.
100. The I'eisnnal Pronouns have, properly speaking, no Possessive
Case, that is to say, no Possessive Case with the force of a substantive.
in Anglo-Saxon, wlien tli. genitives of these pronouns were used in
tlie possessive sense, they were regarded as adjectives and inflected
accordingly.
101.
ANOLO-SAXON FORMS.
First Person.
Second Person.
Sing. Dual,
Plural.
.9/;/i,'-.
Dual.
Plural.
Norn
ic wit
"^'^ , >
A'o/n, ))u
git
ge
Gen,
min uiirer
ure(user)
Gen, ]nn
nicer
eower
Dat.
nie unc
us Bat ])6
inc
eow
Ace.
me (niec) unc(uncit)
lus (usic) /ice, ^le(^ec) inc (,incit)
e6w(e6wic)
FORMS 01
? THE TIME OF CHAUCER. .
First Person.
Second Person.
Sins;nl(ir,
Plural. ' Singular,
Plural.
Norn
Ich, lU, I
we thou, thow
ye
Gen,
min (niyn) mi (my)
our, oure thin (thyn), thi (thy)
your, youre
Ohj,
mc
us
the, thee
1
yow
il.-DEiVlONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS.
102. The pronoun which is used as a simple substitute fo*" a
noun that has already been employed is often aiUed the Personal
Pronoun of the Third Person It is more correct to call it
the
Demonstrative Pronoun of the Third Person
It has
the
following forms : — c- ,
° lingular.
AJaseuline. Feminine.
W'uter,
Nominative Case. ... He She
It
Possessive Case .... His Her
It's
Objective Case Him* Her
It
* Uim was originally a dative c7!A<t. It will be seen that the datives him, her, and them,
like tiw, t/we, us, and you, have supplanted the accusative forms.
3on is the
or persons
,s: —
-al.
ou
Ye
were used in
,'ular is now
11(1 in poetry.
• Possessive
mbstantn'e.
ere used in
id inflected
103.
104.
I'RO.VOUN.
29
riinal.
Nominative Case. .
/'i>ss{:'!si7'c' Case 'I'lifii- ' i.' n .
ANGLO-SAXON FORMS.
Si>ii^ii/(ir.
Masc.
J-'iin.
A^om.
he
he,')
Gt'ii.
Ills
hiVe
Dat.
him
hire
Aci,
liinc
111- (hig)
Xcut.
Iiit
his
him
iiit
Plural.
h; (hig)
hira (hcora)
him (heomj
hi (hig)
n.
FORMS OF THE TIME OF CHAUCER.
Plttral.
ge
eower
eow
e6w(e6wic)
Plural,
ye
your, youre
yow
stitute fc a
ie Personal
I call it the
It has the
iter.
t
t's
t
her, and them.
Singular,
Masc. ^ Fell I.
Norn, he slie, sehe
Gen. his liire, !iir
Ol>j. liim hire, iiir, here
A\'ut.
hit, it
his
hit, it
Plural.
Of all Genders.
thei, they
here (Iier, liire)
liem
THE DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTiVES THIS AND THAT.
105. This and That may be userl n« ^o„i ^
(.0 point .0 Ching., themsclvJ). I, s c.s^?y„f ""r^"'':''
is 'near me,' Tim points to ,vli"t i ' ?t n y, ''"' '" "■''^'
as ' Tl,is book,' . TlL chair.' ' '"''™'='^ '■■"'" ™^-'
was mentioned before if as ' V .tiw. ?, • ' rl"^^ ""^^^^^ '» what
your choice , '/- leads '^'m'erjrC-Xp^^ef" *""^^'^" '"'
106. Whp" •IT--' ~ ' • .
noun, or requidng tZ^^'^^^:^ ^^iJ^out being joined to a
termed demonstrative pronouns. ^P'"^' '' """"^ ^''"^ ^h°"^d be
30
107.
OUTLINES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
ANGLO-SAXON FOBMS.
Singula)-.
Plural.
Mas. Fern.
Neiit.
M. F. 6- N.
Nom.
se (pe) seo (t>e6)
pKt
I'd
Gen.
Vnis |)ttre
bres
I'ara (prera)
Dat.
|iam {I»a;m) ])a?re
|Jam [y
rem)
Pam (pafm)
Ace.
Vone (I'rene) |)a
l)set •
PA
Instr.
b', Pe
\% ]'e
The inslrumenta] case py (thy) appears in the form them, such expressions
as ^ the sooner the better,' =^ *hy how nmch sooner, by so Jitnch better.'
I
!'f
III.-THE RELATIVE PRONOUN THAT.
108. A Relative* Pronoun is a word which refers to some
noun or pronoun already used to denote the person or thing
spoken about, and called tlie antecedent of the relative, and which
joins the clause in which it stands to that which precedes it. Thus,
in the sentence, * He is reading about the battle that was fought
at Hastings,' that refers to the noun battle, which is called the
antecedent to the relative that, and joins the clause ' that was
fought at Hastings ' to the word ' battle ' in the preceding
clause.
109. The pronouns who and which are also used as relatives.
In ' I have found the sheep ivhich I had lost,' the pronoun which
refers to sheep, and sheep is the antecedent to the relative which.
In * This is the man 7vhose house we saw,' whose refers to niati, and
ma7i is the antecedent to whose.
110. That cannot now be used in all cases where who can be used. A clause
beginning with that limits or defines the noun to which it refers, and
is therefore improjier when that noun does not admit of further limita-
tion. Hence we cannot say 'Thomas that died yesterday,' or 'My
father that is in America. '
IV.-THE INTERROGATIVE AND RELATIVE PRONOUNS
WHO, WHAT, WHICH, V/HETHER.
111. The pronoun who, neuter what (A.S. hwa, neuter hwcet)
was in Anglo-Saxon an Interrogative pronoun.
• Relative is a b,nd term, because it is insufficient. He, she, it, this, that, thev are also
(litcnilly; rcLtiivc pronouns, bcuausic they refer to ■juiiie preceding substantive Tnc relative
pronouns, however, differ from the demonstratives, by having a grammatically connectivi:
force.
PRONOUN.
Plural.
F. 6- N.
a
ara (prvra)
am (psCni)
a
li expressions
inch better.'
rs to some
n or thing
and which
s it. Thus,
was fought
called the
' that was
preceding
5 relatives,
loun which
tive which.
D mauy and
;d. A clause
it refers, and
irther limita-
ay,' or 'My
NJOUNS
uter hwat)
', they are also
The relative
xlly connective
Modern Forms.
Norn. Who
Poss. Whose
Ol'j. Whom
31
Ang-io-Saxon Forms.
Masc. Fern. j^,„f^
^y»i. hwa
Gen. hwa's
^^<^t- hwam (hw£cm)
V'"'"- li"one (liw.xne)
Inst. ■ '
hwact
hwa;s
hwam (hwc6m)
hwa't
hwi (hwy)
112. What has the neuter suffiv / Tf \. ^v.
is no^v indeclinable, and is used not onf "'"'?' °' '"^''- ^'
also as an adjective. When used ... k^ ''•' ^"I^-'^tantive, but
J c. vvnen used as a substantive it is neuter.
i^i^T^^: "' tf -;= =" ^-po™" °f "-■ or
it i» .stiil aulm 7Zt ?"""*■ '"" "■'■ <''*)• I" Scotch
sortP-TrpIerK !^"™''"' "> *^ '-«!" ^W<>, • of what
sherry, which will you take>» I« 7 , 'J'^"^^ "^'ort and
definite number ■ «* 'h t'/ , '^f '■"''' '^"'' ""^ <"" "^ «
"cr , 7, /w and 7,./m/ ask indefinitely.
™^^r^it^-^2e:/:xi:^-;:ir^
WHO, WHAT, AND WHICH AS RELATIVES
omitted, . .. Who steals ^"Z., ^^:£^ '^ ^''^^
116. What was the neuter nf li/i,. a
in the nominative or objective oni!^ '"^ "' ^ substantive
never relates to any antecedel T ^ ?'"' " ''^'"^' '-^"^ "°^-
rnoreover, is ahvays'on" ' '"'^^^^ ^'^^ "^"^- ^/-^' -hich,
IE
32
OUTLINES OF PZNGLISH GRAMMAR.
TIic old genitive whose (= hw?es), however, is occasionally used as
an ordinary relative in poetry, as : " The question ivJtosc solution I
rc([uire " {Drydcii) ; " I could a tale unfold whose lightest word," &c.
{S/iakspere).
117. Instead of what, the ordinary relative relating to animals
or things is which.
118. It is, however, quite a mistake to call ^ u<hich'' the neuter of '7v/io.^
It was formerly used like 'who,' as " Our Father, which art in heaven."
119. Which preceded by a preposition is often replaced by where, as wherein
= in which ; xuliereto = to which, &c.
120. The relative pronoun is frequently understood, as, "That is the
person I spoke of," " for the person whom 1 spoke of." But it is not
now omitted unless, if expressed, it would be in the objective case.
121. The word as (A.S. calswa = also, i.e., all so, German als)
is often used as a substitute for a relative pronoun, especially
after same and such ; as, " This is not the same as that ; " " His
character is not such as I admire."
%
V.-INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.
122. The numeral one is also an Indefinite Pronoun.
The numeral one is a sort of indefinite demonstrative when used as
the article an. It has long been used in the sense of ' soir'^ — or other,'
'a certain.' Thus (as an adjective) " His wrath which oiu day will
destroy ye both " {Milton) ; " One Titus Gates had drawn oi» '^imself
censure, &c." {Macaulay). As a substantive, " One in a certain place
testified " {Heb. ii. 6). It is very common after some, each, and every,
and is even used in the plural, as " That the poor may fall by his
strong ones" {Ps. x. 10) ; "These little ones." As an indefinite substan-
tive it assumed the sense of the French on (= homme), as, " A quiet
conscience makes one so serene" {Byron) ; "A sonnet to one's mistress "
{Shakspere) ; " 07ie can hardly believe it."
123. Aught (A.S. dwiht) is derived from the Anglo-Saxon
substantive 7viht, a ' thing,' which we still employ as a masculine
in tht noun wight, and d = ever. The negative of aui:^Jit is naught
or nought. The shorter form not is the same word.
124. Any {(hnig) is a derivative from an, * one,' just as ullus
in Latin is a diminutive of umis (Key, /^/ Gr, § 334). In
old English we find ony. It denotes either number or quantity.
i'KO.N'OlTN,
lally used as
tc solution I
;t word," &c.
to animals
iter of '7ij/io.'
irt ill heaven."
Tt', as wherein
" That is the
3ut it is not
ive case.
German ah)
n, especially
hat;" "His
un.
hen used as
=>. — or other,'
^tu day will
1 oii '"imself
;ertain place
', and every,
J fall by his
lite substan-
s, " A quiet
i's mistress "
Lnglo-Saxon
'. masculine
t is naught
St as uUus
334)- In
quantity.
125 Other means one of two (like the Latin alter) It -.
used as a substantive it has the ordmary mnexio"s''of fntun ^"
It St 11 has this force m somebody, sometimes, somet/iin<r It novv
denotes an undetermined part of a whole.
VI.-THE DISTRIBUTIVE PRONOUNS.
127. Each (A.S. a'k = d-ire-Zmn'/r '>^ in <^
son,') is used both adjective,; /:d';:;,«,:,:^.,r ""' "" "' '
and so on Novtid v. /wi ^ °*^®''' °^e from another '
tion,as4hey dnorsptt^t^oeaew;"'^ ?^^^^^^ '''''' '^^^ P'-^'P-i"
from one ano-her da v '' Tho n.-?. '''' ^'"' '"^ "'"'^ ' " " They hear
.-carded as fbrmin, a soij of c^HlpcS l^ tr^L-cS:^:^^."-^ '^
129. Every (old English rcerre/e or e7'eri//e tint i. ^,.. n
IS a compound of A.S. .../>r 'ever ' m,! X ' ""'"^^
series taken one by one. ' ^ ^' '"^ ^"""^^'^ ^^" °^^
130. Either has two meanings, i. It means 'each of two ' as
On either side one "' ( Mu xix iR) , T^ ? '
but not both.' -^ '*• '• ^' ^""^"' °"e of two,
Each, ever., ^S^:;.;?'^^^^-- ^^^^^ ]|-^
VII.-REFLECTIVE PRONOUNS.
132. Tlie objective case of the Personal Pronouns and of the
clemonstrouve^^^^^^^^
„(-*X^_^„P'?v'''''* ^^V^ prefixed to the indefinite r.rono,,n<; in 4r 1 T~
<^ = ^^.n Hence ca.e «V.V„.^//= '^^ivJi^/l/^^^l^r^- J^^^^^
ac
34
OUTI.INKS OK KN<5MSI' GRAMMAR.
fijUxku ' I bend hack '), when ;im action directly or indirectly
affects the doer of it. 'riuis- -
" I'll disrobe ino " (.Sh.iksperc, Cymb. v. i, 22.)
" I can 1)11 y nic twenty " {Macb. iv. 2, 40).
"Prepare thee "(Sh. M. J'r/i. iv. i, 324).
" Clet tlicc wdod cnouj,^h " {Tempest ii. 2, 165).
" .Si<,Mi()r .Antonio commends liim to you" (J/. /'. iii. 2, 235).
" Let every soldier hew him down a bough " {Xracb. v. 44).
133. In An-Io-Suxon the personal pronouns, in wh.itever case thev
were used, uc.e strenothened by having tlie adjective silt\ i e self
K-samc, comi>are scljsiwic\ agreeing with them (' I self,' Ikv) ' ''I-his
combin.u.on of pronoun and adjective is still seen in himself Jtcrscif
^^a"'VT'^' but ,n the case of the personal pronomis :s;// can^'
somehow to be rcgardcc as a substantive, and was preceded by the
possessive case {myself, thyself, ourselves, yoursehu-s). ^
Tlu-re is nothing ;v/..;//r^ about self oitlier as adjoclive or .ts sul.st.nn-
tut (^--o. '••.C, • I lo himself s.iicl so " ; •' I love you for yourself .ilone.
jS-c.). I he refleetive force belongs altogether to the i)ronoun to uliidi
t IS appended, or, properly speaking, to the zv;/; 'that denotes the
rejtcctcd action.
VIII. -POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS.
134. Besides the simple possessives her, our, your, their, we use
the secondary or double possessive forms, hers, ours, yours, theirs.
Ihese are only used when the noun to which they relate is not
ex,,Tessed, as, " My pen is a bad one, give m^ yours." In modern
English mine and thine follow the same rule.
VERB.
135. Deflnition. A verb is a word by means of which we can
say something about some person or thing.
13e, The word which stands for what is spoken abou^ is called
the subject of the verb, and is in the nominative case. In
relation to the Subject, the verb is called the Predicate.
8omI;btnrnr'thl"V'-'''-''^^'''''' '"^ ''^'''' '^ 'P°^^" about that it does
do?e to?t '^ '"^ ^""^^ ^^' ^' ''''"' '' ^^= something
VKRM.
or indirectly
35
ii. 2, 235).
''• V. 44).
/er case they
•v///; i.e. self
\'^c.). This
///.u-//, herself,
ins self came
ceded by the
' or iis suhstan-
►'oursolf aloiu'.
iii'iim lo whicli
at (k'notes the
'//«>, we use
vours, theirs.
elate is not
In modern
hich we can
ut is called
case. In
te.
that it does
t-omething
CLASSIFICATION OF VERBS.
138. Verbs are divided into two classes—
1. Transitive- Verbs. 2. Intransitive Verbs.
A Transitive Verb is one which denotes an action or feelintr
fhP n. T' / "^^^^'^-^ '^'^ ^^^t'^er." The word which .stands for
the object of the action described by the verb is cXd th.
ol^et Of the verb. ,t ,s ,>nt in the J^ective e ^ e i^
mutual object of a verb u^^^<\ n,^^ 1 r , r . "'^ •?'^^''''-
object of the al:: ""' ^" confotnnled w.th the .../
ort^^bn'l^'Tr"'^ ":'" "'"''^ '"^^'^^^ ^ •^^'^' - --^^^-.
or an act on o. feehng winch ,s not chrected towards an object-
as, to be, to Ml, to s,t. to rgoiee, to no,. Verbs of this kind a e
sonietunes called Neuter Verbs.
"The sea breaks ^iLforc'^r^cks'"" "T,h. ''^ "^''^ "'"'""''^ '-
In old Kn,dish in\rans,,ive vcH. we -e often oZ';! '?"''' -''''^^•"
used retlect.vely as, " Mie thee home " " F- e t elb^^
S "le^'onJ^"'^"'"^!^'?^ ^'^rt -"-s'y^this";ay, tt " t
which o-erleapsi,sdf.'' "" "^''^'-''^^^ \^n^.^\i -^ " Vaultin/'ambition
cailiSl^s: '^C'j^e^t aS';S;S^^^ r^' ^^"7 "^ ''=-'- ^'^-fi*
cakes eat short and cr sn " / ! "^ ' '' '^^""g'^ ^^'i^n it is cut ; ' " Tlie
" The book sold well.' '^' " '"■" "'"•'' ""^ ^'"'^J^ ^'"^" '^cy are eaten;'
INFLfrXIONS OF VERBS.
Mood' \t" t"'' "' '^' '"^'°"^"g modifications :-- Voice
Mood, Tense, Number, Person. '
* Latin /nj/zivVr, " to trn nri-nct • " .i,.. .• ~ ^ "^ •
to the object of it. «° ""°''* ' ">^ ■■>^""" Passes over, as it were, fr.„n ti,e deer of it
tSrk ^^^^^^^^^^:^i^- -'-^'r^ -- --are
36
OUTLINES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
These are expressed partly by inflexion, partly by the use of
auxiliary verbs.
A verb is a notional sqx\ when it is so used as to retain its full and
proper meaning, as " I 7.v//go" {i.e., ' I am resolved to go') ; " You
'^Krj' play m the garden" {i.e., 'You are permitted to play').
A verb is an auxiliary verb when its own proper signification droim
outc)l sight, and it merely serves to mark some modification of the
notion expressed by another verb. Thus in "He ivill fall," 'tw//' does
not imply that he is resolved to fall, but onlv marks futurity. In " 1
work hard that I ;/mj' gain the prize," ;;wjdoes not express permission,
but Helps to indicate the sulijunctive mood of the verb 'gain.'
VOICE.
141. Voice is the form of a verb by means of which we show
whether the subject of the sentence stands for the doer, or
for the object of the action spoken of by the verb. There 'are
two voices —
1. The Active Voice. 2. The Passive Voice.
The Active Voice is made up of those forms of a verb which
denote that the subject of the sentence stands for the doer of the
action described by the verb ; as, " The boy strikes the ball."
"The cat killed the mouse."
The Passive Voice is made up of those forms of a verb which
denote that the subject of the sentence stands for the object of
the action described by the verb ; as, " The ball is struck by the
boy," The mouse was killed by the cat."
142. The same action may be expressed by either voice, but
then tlie word that is the object of the active verb must be the
subject of the passive verb.
In the strict sense of the above definition only transitive verbs can
properly be used in the passive voice. But in English a noun (or pronoun)
in the objective case following a verb and preposition, or the indirect
object of a lerb, maybe made the subject of a complex passive phrase
as
He spoke to the man— The man was spoken to." " They took
great care of him— He was taken great care of."
143.
The Passive Voice of a verb is formed by prefixing the
VKRU.
by the use of
etain its full and
to go ') ; •' You
1 to play').
;nification drops
dification of the
ill," '7w//' does
uturity. In " I
)ress permission,
'gain.'
lich we show
the doer, or
I. There are
sice.
a verb which
doer of the
a the ball."
1 verb which
le object of
?Mick by the
!r voice, but
must be the
ve verbs can
(or pronoun)
the indirect
.ssive phrase,
" They took
prefixing the
37
various parts of the verb be to the nnrTo^f ..
The perfect participle of a tran^lf:^, .^^^^ ^^ ^^^ ^^^^
c • . " ^^ passive in meaninfr
Some intransitive verbs Itivp tN«i. r '"eaning.
of the verb />,, folUnved by he n sTor^n '? '^'''' ^"'""^^^l by means
come"; ''He /. ..one/' ^Gvoarcter^.^'V fr'^'P'- '-^^^ " ^ -'
these with passi\-e verbs. Tlie si-m n7 l! ^''''^" "°^ ^^ confound
verb ^e, but the/,m/.v/.^,.//,,;^/,';f,;;j,;^,,;;;^j;^ss.ve voice is not the
MOOD.
vert .rrri^^r, -^.r^^^^^^ -r on. or .™ ,„
which ti>c action or fact denoted I'vZ v i ' °' """"" '"
thought witl, the .l,ing thatir^oto oi; ' ' "'"'""''"' '" ""'
145. There are four moods :—
A. Three Finite Moods.
1. The Indicative Mood.
2. The Imperative Mood.
3. The Subjunctive Mood.
B. The Infinitive Mood.
THE FINITE MOODS.
l.-THE INDICATIVE MOOD
whiTai''LXtratir„r'"'''^''°^^^°™^ "f--"
relation to some even or stat^f^ '• ^""T"' °' ^PPo^^o" has
speaker as actutal^d Tndln , *'"f J'"'^'' " '^^"'''^d ^y the
-guilty,. His pt,nish,„en7:, *t Z^^^' '°-"°™'^ " ^ "^^ ''^
2. -THE IMPEEATIVE MOOD.
147. The Imperative Mood is a form of the vprh i
!:::!:i::i^!!!L^-"-'j. -<i-^ orrho^^io:* atf."'^^',;:
oui'
^
3S
OUTLINES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
that book." " Go away." The subject of a verb in the imperative
rhter;.""^ "''"^'' '" '"^^ '' -•-^-^- -' "^oXt:
3. -THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
148. The Subjunctive Mood comprises those forms of a verb
vh.chare used when a statement, question, or supposit o„ has
r lafon to an event or state of things which is only X'"/;/
and which , snot treated by the speaker as ;m^,er of It J:
pendent of his thought about it. "^ ' ^"
that ^.11 ^^1 ea ness '' • " 'toi^rV''"!'/ ''l^^'^'^'"^' ^^^^ " See
^/^;/r/.«. thee ") in cHus;. aIJT T" ^^>' '^PPelite, lest sin
/ iiiv,^ ; , in Clauses clenotmtr the tmrnnrf r.f -> . ■ i
command (as "The scntenrp iv. fi-,.,f ./ Purport ot a wish or
for lifo 'M . f-, ^t-nccnce is that tlic prisoner be innrisonprl
148. The tliree finite moods of verbs may I,e descrihM ,. .i.
Mood of Fact (Indicative), .l,e Mood of Conoeptton S„r
ttve), and the Mood of VoUtion (ImperadveT "^ '"""
THE VERB AS A SUBSTANTIVE.
1.— THE IirriHIIIVE MOOD.
byr'vI^,'Cf!T «°°''^''P^'-^' *e action or state denoted
Z I Ta reference to person, number, or time It mav
/J/r -A '°;.=*J-' -dependent phases as "IsawS
Jail, 'I know Jnm to br hnn<=.<:f" ^^J,.• ■ .,
it a ' Mood ' (see definiionT Tf c "f T""""' "' ^" ^"^"^
v^ v^cc uenninon;. it common v has tlip inrce^ r^f r,
substannve, and may be used either as the subje o as the obi ct
V eTftu?utdT-""" ""^'" ■""°^""'- <™-'y '" dt?
vvnen thus used it is not properly a mood at all.
TO//, must, /,•/. ,/,„.^ ,i S „?,'•■ "^"y ^"',''" "= ""y. '■"«. ''""!,
by the simple i2n?.ive'^4o"',S'aJ"T'-^''''' "'■''"'' "'^ ''''"""ed
.,W... , .. He mad^ ri"S^'"',^=. , hid rarrtil^/ylu^i." "=
in the imperative
5, "Go thou and
forms of a verb
supposition has
3nly thought of,
'' of fact, inde-
iw///or7w:y//(as
"purpose (us " See
fippetite, lest sin
ort of a wish or
tx be imprisoned
contrary to the
' actiial fact (as
" Oh ! that it
ascribed as the
tion (Subjunc-
VEK^
39
r state denoted
time. It may
"■ I saw him
s us in calling
le force of a
as the object
Y to and but).
the infinitive
ay, can, shall,
are followed
^ " : " Bid me
tell you."
^^^S:^^::^r^ ^-^n,^, .Hen
subject or object of another verb 11 c ini ' '"'"''r^' "^'^'"^^ ^^ '^^
as a declinable abstract noun, and a iVti ve . ?v,?''n''Tr^''' ^''^''^^e^'
endmg n. -annc, ox -ennc ami ,m t. !' » *"[ »^ (^'alled ^.\^<, genoul\
used to denote Vamv 'it tlE..^ '■' ■'^' P'-^P^^'tion /,,, was
in place of the simpirinfinU vc''^.^^'''^,^/-^'^^ '" ?"'^ '" be'usS
verb, and so wc say/" /vf v^ is I'uu r n / '^'' • ""' r^'^""'' "^ '''""tJ^cr
to see you." ' ^^^ is numan, to jorgive divine " ; "I hope
As this infinitive preceded hv //■ k..^
Saxon gerund, i. is Si^lt^XmlTt i'SZiZ. "' '™' '"^ ^"f-''"'
2— THE GERUND.
Tiie gerunds of the verbs Z,/,/^ o„j * ,_ ,
gerunds, as "He went c^zy throZ wt W^ >% ^^"""^ ^°'"P"""d
desirous of ^.vV/^,. admired!^ ^ "^'""^ ^""^ ^^'^ fortune " ; " He is
or
m
'^.^^Z, r.^,^'*-^||^'3 or as ^i^ of ,.„,,
athematics7 n«^r/«^, He is fond of studying
(b>«s rftS';,^/^£%^,t1uSs"^ """ "-- - "- --jecs or
THE VERB AS AN ADJECTIVE.
PABTICIPLES.
156. Participles are verbal adjectives tKo
because they /^,./.^, of the nattire botirnf ^ T '° """^^
adjective (Latm ^...^,,,;. ,:~:^|;/^ ^ verb and of an
There are two participles formed by inflexion th. t
Participle and the Perfect Particinil ru ' ^^Perfeco
always ends in .>,^. VVhen fol 'ifrl \^^ ™P^'"^^^ Participle
have an object as - ^.!^ T/ "" transitive verb, it may
The perf.ct^Sleirn/^:;rs:rrc"-^^^ ^^"^^^^
^. The Imperfect Paruuple is always active, the itfea
40
OUTLINES OF I'NCW.ISH GRAMMAR.
Participle is passive, provided the verb be a transitive verb ;' as.
" I saw a boy beatins a dog." '■Frightened by iIk- noise lie'ran
away."
I
Even in the perfect tenses, as "I have written a letter," the oritrin of
the construction is, " 1 have a letter 7i/r//A7/," where 7vritten is an
acijec^ive a-recing u-ith letter; in Latin, Habeo epistolam seriptam
u ;• 1 , .I''^'"f'cipli-'s are often used as mere adjectives of ciualitv'
as A stn/cing remark " ; » The dreaded hour has come." ^ ^ '
TENSE.
158. Tenses (Latin te?npus, 'time') are varieties of form, in
verbs, or compound verbal phrases made with the help of
auxiliary verbs, which indicate partly the time to which an
action or event is referred, and partly the completeness or
incompleteness of the event at the time referred to.
159. There are three. divisions of time the Piesent, the Past,
and the Future. There' are also three ways in which an action or
event may be viewed : —
I. It may be spoken of as incomplete, or still going on. A
tense which indicates this is called an imp-rfect tense.
2. It may be spoken of as complete.
this is called a perfect tense.
A tense which indicates
3. It may be spoken of as one whole, without describing it as
complete or incomplete in relation to other actions. A tense
which does this is called an indefinite tense.
160. An action may be viewed in these three ways with
reference to past, to present, or to future time. We thus get
NINE PEIMARY TENSES.
I I. The Past Imperfect :or Progressive), showing that at a
certain past time an action was going on, as, I was writing: I
I ivas being taught. ^^
A.S 2. The Past Perfect, showing that at a certain past time an
action was complete ; as, I had written ,- I liad l>een tau^rht.
\J'J \ Pa^t/ndefinite (or Preterite), speaking of the action
as one whole referred to past time ; as, / wrote j I was taught.
iitive verb ; as,
«i noise he ran
sr," the origin of
e written is an
'olain scriplniii,
Ives of qiiahty,
ies of form in
the helj) of
to which an
ipleteness or
red to.
jent, the Past,
;h an action or
going on. A
nse.
hich indicates
escribing it as
>ns. A tense
e ways with
We thus get
'ing that at a
IS writing J /
past time an
taught.
of the action
as taught.
VERn.
41
\ am t>eini,r taught . H'^:>i.nt timt , as, / am writing j I
l.mnkl. "P""'" ■ »=' '' f'"^' written; I have been
(w.^^l=|'J:fiT™J,,^:^f«»;^'-. je;-;^^^ action „, „„,
i"ut, , .IS,/ ujrite; lam taught.
'^'" laZ '^^ll'^'':^?^i;^.}'^-\/-^^ and /... are not the
tooi< place in pasSe, yet tire 'co^^i^i "'^''r"?^ "'^ ^'' "^ ^"ti"g
what the tense indicates is referred to f'''''7l- ''''' ^.'^''°" ^''^'^'^ '«
IS a/m<?«/ tense. ' '^^'^"'^^ to/m^«/ /,,,,^. jjj,^^,^ ^j^^ ^^^^^
SECONDAEY TENSES.
162. Besides the primary tenses, we have the following ._
.Jhe Present Perfect of continued action-I ha.e teen writ-
The Past Perfect of continued action-I ha, teen writing.
«..Ti;^/^'^'" ^"^^^°* °f °°^tinued action-I shall have been
COMPLEX FORMS OF INDEFINITE TENSES
, Y°" do assist the storm » (Shakspere, 7V„;/. i. i, 15)
They set bread before him and he did eat " (2 Sam. xii. 20)
These forms become pmnhifir ivV^n - • w ,
auxihary verb. THpv ^;i^ y^ '' ^'^^'^^s is laid upon the
interrogative sentence! ^°™^^°"ly employed in negative and
%
OU'lI.lM'Si OF KNOLIi)!! (.UAMMAR.
f
FORMATION OF TENSES IN THE ACTIVE VOICE.
164. 'I'he Present Indefinite and the Past Indefinite in the
Active Voice are tlic only two tenses formed by infiexion.
The Imperfect tenses are formed by the indefinite tenses of
the verb /><', followed by the imperfect participle.
The Perfect tenses are formed by means of the indefinite
tenses of the verb /mir, followed by the perfect i)articiple.
The Future tenses are formed by means of the auxiliary verbs
s/ia// and 7c>i//, followed by the infinitive mood : s/ui// being
used for the first person, h>i// for the second and third in
affirmative princii)al sentences ; but in subordinate clauses, after
a relative, or such words as //, li'/ien, as, though, unless, until, &c,,
the verb shall is used for all three persons ; as, " If it shall be
proved" ; "When He shall appear we shall be like Him."
USE OF THE TENSES.
165. The Present Indefinite Tense is used :
I. To state what is actually taking place, as, " Here comes the rain."
3 To state what fie<iuently or habitually takes place, or is universally
true, as, " It rains here daily ;" " Honesty is the best policy.
■I In lively narrations a person nften imagines himself to be present at
the events he is tlescribing, an.l so uses the present im^Q {Hisloric
Picsi'iit) in speaking of past events.
4. It is used for the future when the real time is fixed by the context,
as •' We start next Monday for the Continen' ."
166. Besides its ordinar, use, the Past Indctinite Tense is used ;
1. With the force of an Imperfect, as, "They clamed while I played."
2. To express what happened frequently or habitlially, as, " In those
days people at'- without forks."
NUMBER.
167 Number is a modification of the form of a verb, by means of
which'we show whether the verb is spoken of one person or thing,
or of more than one. There are, therefore, two numbers in
verbs, the Bingui^ auu ihc £^1^^=^, .^orre..i..jH o -« -
numbers in substantives.
VKRU.
VOICE.
(finite in the
xion.
lite tenses of
he indefinite
articiple.
Lixiliary verbs
: shall being
md third in
clauses, after
ss, until, &c.,
If it shall be
rlim."
PERSON.
'M
mes the rain."
(r is universally
policy."
to be present at
: tense {Historic
by the context,
ise is tised :
hile I played."
y, as, " In those
b, by means of
;rson or thing,
o numbers in
ncr to the two
person or persons acw'r.st V t,l 'rf ' °' ?'''' "' '"^
thing. ""^ ^I'^'i^'' of some other person or
There are three persons.*
1. The First Person.
a. Tho Second Person.
3. The Third Person.
either singly or 'rth°othcrs!'''^ "'''" ''^" '^'^^^^^ speaks of himself
The Second Perqnn ;.. ,. i
for the person or'^^Ss' spSn to"" '^^ ^"'^i-t ^^ the verb stands
r^^^tl^tlCZ ihJ'^'s^'-.^- -I^ect Of the verb denotes
CONJUGATION OF VERBS.
_ 169. The Conjugation , Verb i« th^ r
inflexions and combinations used to nd L a/°"''''"°" °^ ^^'^ '^'^
Number, and Person. '"'^*''^' ^ '^^^e' Mood, Tense,
byVheVoTrnTtirof u"e Wite.' These" rfl^'''^' ^'^^•"^"•«^^^"d
A. Verbs of the Strong Conjugation.
B- Verbs o.^ the Weak Conjugation.
THE STROim CONJUGATION.
171. The preterite of v^rbs of tv,« o..
formed by modifying til vlw , ^""^ Conjugation is
J1,__IJ_ ® vowel-souud of the root.
• The inflexions bv which P»i-c„„ • . . ■
We still see l,\ ». ;„ ' -- ' ^^' ' 'softened to f,.t„ „,hi. -^ - Z\ ^"'fi«s for the thre-
44
OUTLINES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
iff
i
I
The Perfect Participle of all verbs of the Strong Conjugation was
oril^mllv formed by the (adjective) suffix -en and the prefixed particle
ge^ Thl suS .;/has, now disappeared from many verbs, and the
prefix ^e from all.
This Conjugation contains no verbs but such as are of the old
Teutonic stock of the language.
THE WEAK CONJUGATION*.
172 The preterite of verbs of the Weak Conjugation is
formed by adding -e^, or -/ to the stem, . final (if there is one)
being omitted, as wait-ed, lov-ed, deal-t.
or inThe change of final d into t, as meet, met; bend, bent.
173. This suffix is in reality a preterite form of the verb do, which was
lent to / love did, or I did love.
174 The perfect participle of most verbs of the weak conjugation
is the'same in form as the preterite.
NoS; rrnchrorloreign origin ; and all fresh formations.
175. A-VERBS OP THE STRONG CONJUGATION.
, Verbs in which the preterite is formed by vmveUhange, and the perj^ct
■participle has the suffix -en or -n.
Pres.
((I.) blow
crow
grow
know
throw
show
Pret.
blew
crew
grew
knew
threw
[shew]*
or showed
P. Part.
blown
[crowed]
once crown
grown
known
thrown
shown
Pres.
draw
fly
lie
slay
see
Prd.
drew
flew
lay
slew
saw
P. Part.
drawn
flown
lien or
lain
slain
seen
• A provincial form, found also in Spenser.
VERB.
njugation was
efixed particle
rerbs, and the
ire of the old
►njugation is
f there is one)
jvious existence
el of the stem,
nt.
, do, which was
r loved is equiva-
ak conjugation
eutonic stock of
n ; all verbs of
ations.
JUGATION.
tge, and the perjfct
P. Part.
drawn
flown
lien or
lain
slain
seen
Pres,
{b.) drive
give
ride
(a) rise
smite
{c.) forsake
shake
Pret.
drove or
drave
gave
rode
(a)rose
smote
forsook
shook
P. Part.
driven
given
ridden
(a) risen
smitten
forsaken
shaken
Pres.
stride
strike
strive
thrive
write
take
Pret.
strode
struck
strove
throve
wrote
took
45
p. Part.
stridden
stricken
striven
thriven
written
taken
Pres.
bear
beat
break
cleave t
shear J
speak
Pr/'/ r. _
steal
Pret.
bare or
bore
beat
brake or
broke
clave or
clove
shore
spake or
spoke
stole
P Part.
borne or
born *
beaten
broken
cloven
or cleft
shorn
spoken ,
stolen I
Pres.
swear
tear
wear
weave
choose \
freeze
tread
Pret,
sware or
swore
tare or
tore
Wore
wove
chose
froze
trode or
trod
PPart.
sworn
torn
Worn
Woven
or Wove
chosen
frozen
trodden
or trod
3- /« the fotto7oin.r - / L °^ ''■"^
Pret.
began or
begun II
bade or
bid
tirank or
drunk II
sang or
sung II
sank or
sunk II
span or
spun
spat or
spit
P- Part.
begun
bidden or
bid
drunken IT
or drunk
sung
sunken If
or sunk
spun
Pres.
get
ring
shrink
spring
stink
strike
S Chese was a^nM ^°"J"gation.
\\ -These forms are nmJ'" ,i P''cseiit.
Pret.
&Xor
got
rang or
rung (I
shrank (j;-
shrunk /I
sprang or
sprung II
stank or
stunk
strake or
struck
swam or
swum I
P. Part.
gotten or
got
rung
shrunken IF
or shrunk
sprung
stunk
stricken IT
or struck
swum
Borne means carrUd.
iii-i
Prct.
bound
bit
OUTLINES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
4 In the following verbs the preterite is the perfect participle used as a
preterite.
burst
chide
climb
cling
fight
find
fling
grind
hang
hide
burst
chid
clonnb
clung
fought
found
flung
ground
hung
hid
P. Part.
bound
bitten or
bit
burst
chidden or
chid
[clomben]
clung
fought
found
flung
ground
hung
hidden or
hid
Pres.
shoot
slide
sling
slink
slit
stick
string
swing
win
wind
wring
Prct.
shot
slid
slung
slunk
slit
stuck
strung
swung
won
wound
■wrung
P. Part.
shotten or
shot
slidden or
slid
slung
slunk
slit
stuck
strung
swung
won
wound
wrung
5. In the follmving verbs the perfect participle has been borrowed from the
preterite.
Pres.
abide
awake
heave
hold
let
shine
seethe
Pret.
abode
awoke
hove
held
let
shone
sod
P. Part.
abode
awoke
[hoven]
holden
or held
let
shone or
shined
sodden or
sod
Pres.
sit
stand
strike
take
spit
Pret.
sat
stood
struck
took
spat or
spit
P. Part.
sat
stood
stricken
or struck
taken or
took
spat or
spit
6. Unclassified Forms.
Pres.
eat
cHg
[bequeath J
Pret.
ate or eat
dug
quoth
Part.
Pres.
eaten
run
dug
come
Pret.
P. Part.
ran
run
came
come
II
B. -VERBS OF THE WEAK CONJUGATION.
176 Besides the large class of what are frequently called Regular
Verbs, because the preterite and perfect participle are uniformly made
by the simple addition of -ed, which includes ail verbs of French or Latm
origin, the foUowing verbs belong to the Weak Conjugation :—
iciplc used as a
P. Part.
shotten or
shot
slidclen or
slid
slung
slunk
slit
stuck
strung
swung
won
wound
wrung
arrowed from the
P. Part.
sat
stood
stricken
or struck
taken or
took
spat or
spit
le
P. Part.
run
come
tATION.
' called Regular
uniformly made
f French or Latin
nation : —
Pres.
bereave
creep
deal
dream
feel
flee
hear
keep
VERB.
Pret.
bereft
crejn
dealt
dreamt
felt
fled
heard
kept
P. Part.
bereft
crept
dealt
dreamt
felt
fled
heard
kept
Pies.
kneel
leave
lose
mean
sleep
sweep
weep
shoe
Pret.
knelt
left
lost
meant
slept
swept
wept
shod
Pres.
bleed
breed
feed
lead
2. Verbs in xvhick the siifhT /„,. / j
vmvel. -^-^ ''"' ^"■''■''^ dropped after the
Pret.
bled
bred
fed
led
P. Part.
bled
bred
fed
led
3. V
Pres.
meet
read
speed
light
Pret.
met
read
sped
lit
47
accompanied by a
P' Part.
knelt
left
lost
meant
slept
swept
wei)t
shod
shortening of the
P. Part.
met
read
sped
lit
Pres.
beseecli
buy
catch
bring
sell
• ' • ■ J>hich the addition of don is a-cmn^^ • y /
•i ■!>u:,d of the root. -^ " ^'^ ^ is a. co/nf anted by a change in the
Pret.
besought
bought
caught
brought
sold
P. Part.
besought
bought
caught
brought
sold
Pres.
seek
teach
think
tell
Pret.
sought
taught
thought
told
P. Part.
sought
taught
thought
told
Pres.
bend
blend
gild
gird
lend
Pres.
cast
cost
cut
hit
hurt
knit
put
rid
>S;'rji/*';fi>' "^ '"•"^^'"■■< >"""•• ^'.^.,,.^.M^
Pret.
bent
blended
gilt or
gilded
girt or
girded
lent
P. Part.
bent
blent
gilt or
gilded
girt or
girded
lent
Pres.
build
rend
send •
spend
wend
Pret.
built
rent
sent
spent
W'cnt or
wended
V P' Part.
built or
builded
rent
sent
spent
wended
'w. ™ ..m * „,^. ;„. -&,^^.„,,„„„,„„ ^„,,,„^ ^^_^
Pret.
cast
cost
cut
hit
hurt
knit
put
rid
P. Part,
cast
cost
cut
hit
hurt
knit
put
rid
Pres.
set
sjied
shred
shut
slit
split
spread
thrust
Pret.
set
shed
shred
shut
slit
split
spread
thrust
P. Part,
set
shed
shred
shut
slit
split
spread
thrust
ii'i
48 OUTLINES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
'. 6. Verbs which have preserved the formation of the strong conjugation in
the perfect participle.
Pres.
go,
[enjgvave
help
hew
load
melt
mow
rive
saw
^ret.
Pres.
clothe
freight
work
P. Part.
gone
[en]graved [enjgraven
or
engraved
helped holpen or
helped
hewed hewn or
hewed
loaded laden or
loaded
melted molten or
melted
mowed mown or
mowed
rived riven or
rived
sawed sawn or 1
sawed j
Pres,
shape
shave
shew
sow
strew
swell
wash
wax
Pret.
shaped
shaved
shewed
sowed
strewed
swelled
washed
waxed
7. Verbs not included in the preceding classes.
Pret.
clad
freighted
wrought or
worked
P. Part.
clad
fraught or
freighted
wrought or
worked
Pres.
lay
say
have
make
Pret.
laid
said
had (i.e.
haved)
made (ie.
maked)
P. Part.
shapen or
shaped
shaven or
shaved
shewn or
shewed
sown or
sowed
strewn,
^rown,
or
strewed
swollen or
swelled
washen or
washed
waxen or
waxed
P. Part.
laid
said
had
made
-i
verb
PERSONAL INFLEXIONS OF AN ENGLISH VERB.
177. The following table exhibits the personal inflexions of a
Let a single stroke (— ) stand for the infinitive
mood (without to), and a double stroke ( — ) lor the first
person singular of the past indefinite tense.
Indicative Mood.
Present Indefinite Tense.
Singular.
I.
2.
3.
I.
est or St
Singular.
eth, es, or s. ;
Past Ifuiefinite Tense.
Z est or St.
I.
Plural.
Plural.
ig conjugation in
P. Part.
shapen or
shaped
shaven or
shaved
shewn or
shewed
sown or
sowed
strewn,
Strown,
or
strewed
swollen or
swelled
washen of
washed
waxen or
waxed
P. Part.
laid
said
had
made
VERB.
inflexions of a
the infinitive
=) lor the first
iral.
iral.
I.
2.
3.
Singular.
VERB.
Subjunctive filood.
Present Indefinite Tense,
49
Plural.
Past Indefinite Tense.
Ti, cc '^^ '"""^ ""' '" ^^^ Indicative Mood.
pm-es. ' f a vefb endrin /. ^ P'-f ^ded by a consonant, af /f^'J'
&-., to preser;e the^a'd u"d'of^lL'rfs1;y^'^'°'"^.-'V^ ^^' -
""u or rue <, as trafficktuir, mimicked.
VERBAL INFLEXIONS IN ANGLO-SAXOM.
178. -A. Verbs of the Strong Conjugation.
Niman (to take).
Indicative Alood.
Present Tense. , n , •. ^
Sing. Plural, I <:i!^'J'"''^' ^'"'';
1. nime nimaS . ^ ^^l^ral.
2. nimest nimaS ■ namon
3. nimeS nimaS f "f"'^ "amon
I 3- nam namon
Subjunctive Mood.
Present Tense.
Sing- Plural.
I, 2, and 3. nime nimen
Sing.
I- creope
2. crypst
3- crypS
Present Tense.
Creopan [to creep).
Indicative Mood,
Preterite Tense.
Sing pi^^^i^
h 2, and 3. name namen
Preterite
Sim
Tense.
Plural.
crupon
crupon
cnipon
Plural.
creopaS | ,
curious change of vowd. '''°"'' P'''°" ^^"g^^'-^r. ^"^1 the
179.-B. Verbs of the Weak Conjugation.
Liifjan {to love).
/nf. -lufjan. Imp. Part. - I
Per/. Part.~{g^)Modi
ufjende (lufigende).
t
50
OUTLINES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Indicative Mood.
Siiig.
Present Ten.e.
Plural.
lufje°lufige) lufjaS ilutigeatS)
lufast lufja'> (kirigeaS)
lufaS liifja^ (kifigea'S)
Pret'ritc Tense.
Sing.
1. hi lode
2. lufodest
3. lufode
Plural.
lufodon
lufodon
lufodon
Subjunctive Mood.
Present Tense.
Sing. Plural.
I, 2, and 3. lufje Kifjcn
(lufige) (lufigen)
Preterite Tense.
Sing. Plural.
lufo-le lufoden
Imperative. —Sing., lufa. Plural, lufjaS.
VERBAL INFLEXIONS IN CHAUCER.
180. The Infinitive ends in -en or -e. The Imperfect Participle ends in
-yng- or -vnge. The Past Participle of Strong Verbs ends in -en or -e ; that
of Weak Verbs in -ed or -d (sometimes in -et or -t), and often has the
prefix ge-, or its weakened form i-.
The inflected gerund is occasionally fou d (as ' to scene,' Kn. T. 177).
The Present Indicative has in the Singular the suffixes (i) e, (2) est,
(3) eth, and in the Plural -en or -e for all persons.
The same inflexions occur in the Preterite Indicative of Weak Verbs.
The Preterite of Strong Verbs has -e in the Second Person Singular,
and -en or -e in all persons of the plural.
The Present and Preterite Subjunctive have -e in all persons of the
Singular and -en in all persons of the Plural.
The Imperative ends in -eth in the Plural, and (in some classes of
verbs) in -e in the Singular.
DEFECTIVE AND ANOMALOUS VERBS.
181. The verbs shall, will, may, must, can, dare, wit are defective ;
that is, have not the full complement of moods and tenses.
A peculiarity which all these verbs (except 71/111) have in common, is,
that the present tense is m reality a preterite of the strong conjugation,
which has replaced an older present, and has had its own place
supplied by a secondary preterite of the weak conjugation. One con-
sequence of this is, that they nono of them take -s as a suffix m the
third person singular, as that suffix docs not belong to the preterite
tense. They take after them the infinitive without to.
i
VERB.
Tense,
Plural,
lufodon
lufodon
lufodon
Plural,
lufoden
I
articiple ends in
-en or -e ; that
d often has the
,' Kn. T. 177).
es (i) e, (2) est,
F Weak Verbs.
Person Singular,
I persons of the ^
some classes of
ERBS.
;■/ are defective ;
tenses.
i in common, is,
ing conjugation,
its own place
ion. One con-
a sufllx in the
to the preterite
51
182.
Present Indefinite Tense
-f/'rt^- Plural.
4 1 u ,. ' r We] shall*
[Thou] shaltt 2, [You] shall
He] snail 3. ^TheyJ shall
SHALL.
Indicative Mood.
Past Indefinite Tense
Siugular pi,„.ai
ri should I, [Wc] should
[lho«]shoukist 2. I You] should
[lie] should 3 [TheyJ should
.V///V«/«/-...i. [I] should.
^""-''^ I- [We] should.
Subjunctive Mood.
Past Indefinite Tense.
2. [Thou] shouldest^/- shouldst.
2. [You] should.
[He] should.
[They] should.
^s;/^s;^i;^::^^-'^--christ^:,s£e^
the Idea ol obligation disappear •' ^' ^ "'"^ auxiliary,
183.
iR/w^;//- Indefinite Tense
Smgular, pi^^.^j
frr"' M ^- [We] will
[7hou]mlt 2. [You] will
[He] will 3. [T,,e>-] will
WILL.
Indicative Mood.
Past Indefinite Tense.
f"^Sular pi,,,.„i^
n hou] wouldst 2. [You] would
[He] would 3. [They] would
Subjunctive Mood.
Past Indefinite Tense~Uk^ the Indicative
mil is followed by the infinitive without .. ; as, " He .///not obey "
and iiif 'tti^c""^ '^'"-' ^°™ -^ -^- or -/-• ' Chaucer uses .... i::;;;:^;:,
involvedthepaymentof the penalty or 11,!.^//^^^^^^ verb meaning to kill. As killing
fine,' and thence ' I owe ' simply. ^ '^^^ ^' ^ ''^''^ "^'"^d came to mean ' I owe "hi
Oi'cTArilC aiLcGE G,^ lDUCATIO.\
:«
f I
1'
5*
184.
OUTLINES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
MAY.
Indicative and Subjunctive Moods.
Present Indefinite Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1. [I] may I. [We] may
2. [ThouJ mayest 2. [You] may
or mayst
3. [He] may 3. [They] may
Past Indefinite Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1. [I] might I. rWe] might
2. [Thou] inightest 2. [You] might
3. [He] might 3. [They] might
186. The verb may formerly denoted the possession of strength or power to
do anything.* It now indicates the al ence of any physical or moral
obstacle to an action, as " A man may be rich and yet not happy ;
"He might be seen any day walking on the pier, ?<-■., 'there was
nothing to hinder his being seen.' When thus used it is a principal or
notional verb.
The verb may is often employed as a mere auxiliary of the subjunctive
after that and lest. Instead of " Give me this water that I thirst not,
we now say "that I may not thirst."
MUST.
186. This verb has now no variations of form tor tense or person.
When it refers to past time it is now usually followed by the perfect
infinitive, as " That must have been delightful."
187. The modern form must is borrowed from the old preterite, in which s
is a softened form of the t in mot before the suffix -te (compare wist).
188.
CAN.
Indicative Mood.
Present Indefinite Tense.
Singular.
1. [I] can
2. [Thou] canst
Plural.
1. [We] can
2. [You] can
3. [He] can 3- [They] can
Past Indefinite Tense.
Singtdai
I] could
hou]
couldest or
couldst
[He] could
Plural.
1. [We] could
2. [Yoii] could
3. [They] could
Subjunctive Mood.
Past Indef. 7V«j^— Like the Indicative.
The / in could does not properly belong to the verb,
inserted to make it agree in form with should and would.
It has been
• Thus in Mati. viii. 2, for "Thou cattst make me clean" we find in Anglo-Saxon "iju
miht me geclaensian " ; in Wiclif s version, " Thou maist make me clene."
VERB.
S3
It has been
iVnglo-Saxon " j$u
The old meaning of the verb U ' tn Vr,^ .
■n Chaucer, J „m,h CSJ°,]:Z\:^"Z S,"^." " '"" >-«
M,llon n,«„s " „„k„o„„ ?. (zJS" .le), ' ^"''"P''. a"! in
ISO « OUGHT.
,„ T WIT.
wist. The oM parhcple i. preserved in ,mJuT;^^° ^^^ '^ ' '
DARE
peS ^s^fh^rS tfoll%t'C: Z'rtV •=?/-'■ The third
tense now in use is ' I ULlt '^^u \ I^^ '^'^''''^ § 'Si). The nast
--) ^<'''-i-.so'ct;,'«eS?^t^;l™/,^ivSh' "
19a T. THINKS.
co^fVrol'lhrXn^rslrri," .'Tf'"'''' ™™- •-™.- and
methought. ., i.-no, ,he TamSc. °.^'^uLJ}'%1""' ^^ i=
verD I thmk (from thencan).
183. The Notional and AuxiUary Verb HAVE.
Infinitive Mood
inae^t. Ten,e, CToJ have. P.^«, ,,„„, f.r„J have had.
Participles.
Indicative Mood.
Present Indefinite Tense
Present Perfect Tense
n^ular^^ have had, &c. /^V.;./. f VVe] have
had, &c.
Respecting the form see ,«,«/.
1
i
54 OUTLINES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Past Indefinite Tense.
Sint^ttiar. i. [1] had ; 2. [Th^u] hadst ; 3. [He] had.
F/ura/. 2. [We] had ; 2. [\ ou] had ; 3. [They] had.
Past Perfect Tense.
Singular. [I] had liad, &c. Pliirul. [We] had had, &c.
Future Indefinite Tense.
Singular. I [I] shall have ; 2. [Thou] wilt have ; 3. [He] will have.
Plural. I. [We] shall have ; 2. [Vmi] will have ; 3. [They] will hcve.
Future Perfect Tense.
Sing. [I] shall have had, &c. Plural [We] shall have had, &c.
Imperative Mood.
Singular. Have [thou]. Plural. Have [you or ye]
Subjunctive Mood.
Present Indefinite Tense.
(Used after if, that, lest, unless, &c.
Siniiular. i. [I] have ; 2. [Thou] have ; 3. [He] have.
I. [w."" ^"' ^'
Plural
, e] have ; 2. [You] have ; 3 [They] have.
Present Perfect Tense.
(Used after if, that, unless, &c.)
Sinmlar, I. fl] have had ; 2. [Thou] have had ; 3. [He] have had.
X.\\ - - ■
Plural.
VVe] have had, &c.
(a.) Past Indefinite Tense.
(Used mostly after if, that, unless, &c.)
The same in form as in the Indicative Mood.
(l>.) Secondary or Compound Form.
(When not preceded by Conjunctions.*)
Sins. I. [I] should have ; 2. [Thou] wouldst have ; 3. [He] would have.
Plural. I. [We] should have : 2. [You] would have ; 3, They would have.
(a.) Past Perfect Tense.
(Used mostly after if, that, unless, &c.
The same in form as the Indicative.
{b. ) Secondary or Compound Form
(When not preceded by Conjunctions.*)
Singular. Plural
1. [I] should have had. I. [VVe] should have had.
2. [Thou] wouldst have had. 2. [You] would have had.
3. [He] would have had 3- [They] would have had.
• After if, though, unless, lest, &c., the second and third persons arc formed by ihouldii
and should.
v.-'.Rn.
55
)nncd by sko»ldii
feet tenses like an ordinary verl, ' ' " '"'''>' ^^^e aJso imper-
' possessing ' ha^'j^ow; alul^^.^ ei^J^LlS:'''^' ''^""^' '^"^ "«'-" ot
194. The Notional and Auxiliary Verb BE.
Infinitive Mood.
In..a„ue I,n.., [To] ,.. p,^,„. ^,„„^ ^^^^ ^^^ ^^^__
Particip'-s.
Indicative Mood,
c- , Present Indefinite Tense
• nvej are . 2. [\ ou] are ; 3. [They] are.
W, / T . Present Perfect Tense.
Sw^'u/ar. I have Ijeen, &c. P/»ra/ \v u u
' ^inrat. "■ have been, &C.
c- , . , ■^*''*^ Indefinite Tense.
'"•"■'"■ ■• '^'"j "- ■ ^^' Iv':!,™ T;a4i i"i"-
e- , rr-, "^^^^ Perfect Tens-,
e- ; Future Indefinite Tense
c- , Future Perfect Tense
Imperative Mood
Sin^u^ar. Be [thou], /y^. Be [ye .. you].
Subjunctive Mood.
Present Indefinite Tense.
/V^ra/. I. [VeN be : f fJ^°Vi^^ ' 3- [He] be.
Lwej be, 2. [You] be; 3. [JheyJ be.
ii
OUTLINES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Present Perfect Tenie.
(After if, that, though, unless, &c.)
Singular, i. [I] have bee" ; 2. [Thou] have been ; 3. [He] have been.
riural. I. [WeJ have b. .n ; 2. [You] have been ; 3. [They] have been.
Past Indefinite Tense.
(Used mostly after if, that, though, unless, &c.)
Singular, i. [Ilwere; 2. [Thou] wert ; 3. [He] were.
Plural. I. [We] were ; 2. [You] were ; 3. They] were.
Secondary or Compound Form.
(When not preceded by Conjunctions.*)
Singular. I. [I] should l)e ; 2. [Thou] wouldstbe ; 3. [H"1 would be.
Plural. I. [We] should be ; 2. [You] would be; 3. [ThtjJ would be.
Past Perfect Tense.
(Used mostly after if, thai, though, unless, &c.)
The same in form as the Indicative.
Secondary or Compound Form.
(When not preceded by Conjunctions.*)
Singular, i. [I] should have been; 2. [Thou] wouldst have been;
3. [He] would have been.
Plural. I. [We] should have been ; 2. [You] would have been ;
3. [They] would have been,
105. ANGLO-SAXON FORMS.
Inf. — beon, wesan. Imp. Part. — wesende. Perf. Part. — (ge)wesen.
Indicative Mood.
• Present Tense.
!
1
Sing.
Plural.
Sing.
Plural.
( beom (beo)
I eom
i beoO
I sindon (sind)
( aron
I
waes
WE^ron
hist (b^st)
eart
beotJ
sindon (sind)
aron
Preterite Tense.
2
ws^re
waeron
byS
is (ys)
beoS
sindon (sind)
aro'n
.3
was
wseron
* Afict' if, thoiigk. Unless, lest, &c., the second and third persons are formed by tfu>uldst
and should.
med by skouldst
Sing.
Plural.
Sing.
Plural.
Sing.
Plural.
het)
«'e (si, seo)
wese
beon
si'en (sin)
wesen
wrere
Witreii
be(5
be6(^
VKRIl.
Subjunctive Mood.
Present Tense.
2
be6
sfe (si, seo)
wese
lieon
si'en (sin)
wtsen
Preterite Tense.
v„V, ,:
wferer.
Imj er tive.
M'OS
57
beo
sie (si, seo)
wese
beon
si'en (sfn)
wesen
Wf6re
waJren
106.
FORMS IN CHAUCER.
Inflnitive-ben or been. Past P.-ben, been.
Indicative.
Present Tense.
•g;^?«A»' I. am ; 2. art ; 3. both .r is.
I'lural. ben, arn or are.
Preterite Tense.
Singular, i. was; 2. were; 3. was
/y«ra/. weren ^r were.
Imperative.
Singular, be. /y«;v//. beth
s d„ppe<, i„ ,„„ = .l;!;„:"l^-if ^'°™ ^^ J|e /of ,He ,00!
subjunctive. ' "^ soitened to r m the plural and in the
In CM E„gUsh „« („, ,„, _ ,„, ,„,^ „^,, ^^^ ^^^ ^ ^^ ^^^^ ^
»8. 'Th' Notional and Au^riUary Verb DO.
- , ^ Infinitive Mood.
Indefinite, [To] do : ImDerfert rr^i u ^ •
J , /.///.;>/. [To] be doing ; Perfect, [To] have done.
,' 1
OUTLINES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Participles.
Imperfect, Doing; Perfect, Done; Compound Perfect, Having done.
Indicative Mood.
Present Indefinite Tense.
Singular, i. [I] do ; 2. [ThouJ dost ; 3. [He] doth or does.
Plural. I. [We] do; 2. [You] do ; 3. [They] do.
Past Indefinite Tense.
.Sini,'ular. I, [1] did ; 2. [Thou] didst ; 3. [He] did.
Plural. I. [We] did ; 2. [You] did ; 3. [They] did.
199. /)t>(\vhen used as a notional verb) is not defective in Voice, Mood,
or Tense. /?/</ is a reduplicated Preterite. The iorms doest a.r\A doeth
do not belong to the verb when it is a mere auxiliary.
Complete Conjugation of a Verb.
SMITE.
ACTIVE VOICE.
Infinitive Mood.
Indefinite, [To] smite ; Imperfect, [To] be smiting.
Perfect, [To] have smitten.
Perfect of Continued Action, [To] have l)een smiting.
Participles.
Imperfect, Smiting ; Perfect, Having smitten.
Perfect of Continued Action, Having been smiting.
Indicative Mood.
Present Indefinite Tense.
Singular. I. [I] smite ; 2. [Thou] smitest ; 3. [He] smites.
Plural. I. [WeJ smite ; 2. [You] smite ; 3. [They] smite.
Present Imperfect Tense.
Sing. I. [1] am smiting ; 2. [Tlu.u] art smiting ; 3. [He] is smiting.
Plur. I. [We] are smiting ; 2. [You] are smiting ; 3. [They] are smiting.
Present Perfect Tense.
Sing. I. [I] have smitten ; 2. [Thou] hast smitten ; 3. [He] has smitten.
Plur. I. [We] have smitten ; 2. [You] have smitten ; 3. [They] have smitten.
Present Perfect of Continued Action.
Sing. [I] have been smiting, &c. PJur. We have been smiting, &c.
Past Indefinite Tense.
Sing. I. [^I] smote ; 2. [Thou] smotest _
"smote; 3. [They]
Plur. I. [We] siL' te; 2. [You]
3. [fje] smote.
" smote.
VERB.
Past Imperfect Tense.
59
^. _ *"""' ^"ii'eriect Tense.
Sin
Phi
Past Perfect Tense.
Past Perfect of Continued Action.
^^ng. [IJ had been smiting, &c. Plur. [We] had been sn.dng. ^.c.
Future Indefinite Tense.
Future Imperfect Tense.
^"^^. I shall be smiting. &c. PUir. We shall be smiting. &c.
c- rri . Future Perfect Tense.
^-^. [I] shall have smitten. &c. P^ur. [We] shall have smitten. &c
Future Perfect of Continued Action.
I shall have been smiting. &c.
Imperative Mood
Singular. Smite [thou]. Plural. Smite [you .. ye].
Subjunctive Mood.
Present Indefinite Tense.
i^^^^r if, thai, though, lest, fkc)
Singular, i. [I] smite * • 2 TTk/i . ' "'^•'
/'/«;•«/. I. [ WeTsmite i rv^ f ""'-^ ' 3' [He] smite.
L ej smite , 2. [You] smite; 3. [They] smite.
Present Imperfect Tens^
^'S. :: [fes/; .»L-;-, vfxijf-s„,
^/«P r III ,, • ^'■®^®^* I*erfect Tense.
Present Perfect of Continued Action.
J have been smiting, &g.
---~--^.' f ^^^tes^ji:;^^^^;;;;^^
6o
OUTLINES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Past Indefinite Tense.
Identical in form with the Indicative.
Secondary or Compound Form.
(Wlien not preceded by Conjunctions.)
Shi^K I. I should smite ; 2. Thou wouldst smite ; 3. He would smite.
J'/nr. I. We should smite ; 2. You would smite ; 3. They would smite.
(After i/, that, lest, &c., the second and third persons are formed with shouldst
and should,)
Past Imperfect Tense.
(Used mostly after if, that, though, &c.)
Sitig. I. [I] were smiting ; 2. [Thou] wert smiting ; 3. [He] were smiting.
Jriur. I. [WeJ were smiting; 2. [You] were smiting ; 3. [They] were smiting.
Secondary or Conditional Form.
(When not preceded by Conjunctions.)
Sing. 1. [I] should be smiting ; 2. [Thou] wouldst be smiting, &c.
Plur. I. [\N'e] should be smiting ; 2. [You] would be smiting, &c.
(After?/, that, lest, &c., the seeond and third persons are formed with shouldst
and should.)
Past Perfect Tense.
(Used mostly after?/, though, unless, &c.)
i had smitten, &c. (Like the Indicative.)
Secondary or Conditional Form.
(When not preceded by Conjunctions.)
Sing. 1. [I] should have smitten ; 2. [Thou] wouldst have smitten, «&c. ;
3. [He] would have smitten.
Plur. 1. [We] should have smitten ; 2. [You] would have smitten ;
3. [They] would have smitten.
(After if, though, lest, &c., the second and third persons are formed with
shouldst and should. )
Past Perfect of Continued Action.
[I] had been suuiing, [Thou] hadst been smiting, &c.
Secondary or Conditional Form.
[I] should have been smiting, [Thou] wouldst have been smiting, &c.
PASSIVE VOICE.
Infinitive Mood.
Indefinite. To be smitten.
Perfect. To have been smitten.
d smite,
lid smite.
with shouldst
•e smiting,
were smiting.
»g, &c.
g, &c.
with shouldst
mitten, &c. ;
ve smitten ;
formed with
ing, &c.
Sing,
Plur.
Sing,
Pito;
Sin^
Plur
Sine
Sin^.
Plur.
Sing.
Plur.
Sing.
Plur.
Sing.
VERij,
Participles.
Indefinite. Being smitten.
P'-'-fici. Smitten, or Having been smitten.
Indicative Mood.
Present Indefinite Tense.
art smitten , 3. ihey are smitten.
Present Imperfect Tense.
I am being smitten. Thou art being smitten. &c
*
Present Perfect Tense.
Past Indefinite Tense.
Past Imperfect Tense.
[I] was being smitten, &c. Plur. [We] were being smitten, &c.
Past Perfect Tense
Future Indefinite Tense.
Future Imperfect Tense.
I shall be being smitten, &c.
Future Perfect Tense.
r. I shall have been smitten -2. Thou wilt have been smitten •
I rvv„T u ^; P^ "^'^ ''''^^ ^^^en smitten. ^ '
I- LWe] shall have been smitten: 2 rVouT will I, i
smitten; 3- [They] will have lin^miUen.-' ''''' '^''^"
Imperative Mood.
Be [thou] smitten. Plur. Be [ye] smitten.
61
F
( !
62
OUTLINES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Subjunctive Mood.
Present Indefinite Tense.
(After if, that, though, &c.)
Sing. I. I be smitten ; 2. Thou be smitten ; 3. He be smilten.
Pitir. I. We be smitten ; 2. You be smitten ; 3. Tiiey be smitten.
After that the present and past indefinite tenses are replaced by compounds
oimay, 'That I may be smitten,' 'That I might be smitten,' &c.
l-resent Imperfect Tense.
(After if, that, though, lest, &c.)
Sing, [I] be being smitten, &c. Plur. [We] be being smitten, &c.
Present Perfect Tense.
(After /'/J that, though, &c.)
Sing. I. [I] have been smitten ; 2. [Thou] have been smitten j 3. [He]
have been smitten.
Plur. We have been smitten, &c.
Past Indefinite Tense.
(After if, that, though, &c.)
Sing. I. [I] were smitten ; 2. [Thou] wert smitten ; 3. [He] were
smitten.
Plur. [We] were smitten, &c.
Secondary or Conditional Form.
(When not preceded by Conjunctions.)
Sing. I. [I] should be smitten ; 2. [Thou] wouldst be smitten ; 3. [He]
would be smitten.
Plur. I. [We] should be smitten ; 2. [You] would be smitten ;
3. [They] would be smitten.
After Conjunctions the second and third parsons are formed with j/w«/jx/
and should.
Past Imperfect Tense.
(After if, that, though, &c.)
Sing. I. [I] were being smitten ; 2. [Thou] wert being smitten ;
3. [He] were being smitten.
Plur, [We] were being smitten, &c.
Past Perfect Tense.
Identical in form with the Past Perfect Indicative.
Secondary or Conditional Form.
(When not preceded by Conjunctions.)
I. I should have been smitten ; 2. Thou wouldst have bef i smitt - ;
3. He would have been smitten.
I. We should have been smitten ; 2. You would have bee.i .nitten;
3. They would have been smitten.
After Conjunctions the second and third persons are formed with shouldst
and should.
Sing.
Plur.
ADVERB.
63
ing smitten ;
ADVERB.
wha. is mean brtyingh^aVa'rr. ""*"'''■ ™^ '=
modifies a vorV. o^ 5 "*"'■'' "^ " '^"'^ which
^^^^' ''ThTbit^rro^^^^^ °^'^^ ^^^-^' - "«^ --
tivf tt^ScSf :oV^:^r£tf.;;° ^'^^ ?^'^r'"^ ^^ - -b or adjec
badly,' means all that ' wri es ' menn?^ ""^ m " r*"^ "^^'f' ' Writes
word ' badly ' restricts tiTe ^nnl.v ? ' r"? '''''^ >' ^''^sides. But this
class of the'actifn?iL''^lbed' by r Thl'"/' ' ' ^''''' ' '^ ^ ^'^^
Tt^ftr.i4.- A ^ Therefore we may also '--ve the
CLASSIFICATION OF ADVERBS.
is coming AMer." ' ' "^' ""'"«'' >'«/^a'ar " ; " He
clause in'which it oc^tti h".h reT of t^ .'" """"'^ *^
"Come when vou aro .„^ "f '^"' .f *« sen..nce; ^s ?eJim
cannot come •"). ^ '"^^ '' ^""''"^ ("thither I go, ye
Here «,Av, modifies the verb are, and ««.. modifies ^..
the clause which they introduce '^ ^ ' '•"'J^ctive or adverb in
aoe. ThefoIIowi„gwordsareooajunotivea<.v«rbs: »-..., ^/„,,,
'$'■
Ijl
64
OUTLINES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
whither, whence, why, wherein, whereby, wherefore, whereon, whereat
wliereoict, whereafter, wherever, as*
207. Both simple and connective adverbs may be classified
according to their meaning, as
1. Adverbs of Time : Now, then, after, before, presently, imme-
diately when, as, ''As 1 was return inrr, I met him "), &c.
2. Adverbs of Place and Arrange ru^ut: Here, there, 'hence,
wliere, whither, whence, wherein, whereat, in, out. uA down
within, witlwut, firstly, secondly. Sec. j j >
3. Adverbs of Eepetition : Once, twice, &c.
4. Adcerba of Manner : Well, ill, badly, how, hoivever, so, as.
To this r.ass bdong the lumerous adverbs formed from adjec-
tives by t!(e sx/^xdc ly, ab rightly, badly, &c.
5. Adverb.'i^ ..f Quantity or Degree : Very, fwarly, almost,
guile, muc^i, more, most, little, less, least, all, half, any, the
\' tne more the better," &c., see § 107). These o re only a par-
ticular kind of Adverbs of Manner,
6. Adverbs of .AJarmation and Negation : Not, no, nay, aye,
yea,
7. Adverbs of Cause and Consequence: Therefore^ where-
fore, why, consequently.
FORMATION OF ADVERBS.
208. Adverbs are for the most part formed by inflexion,
derivation, or composition, from nouns, adjectives and pronouns. '
209.
Needs (-
Adverbs derived from Nouns.
of necessity), siraightways, noways, and some others are old
genitive cases of nouns. Adverbs of this sort were once more common.
Many adverbs are made up of a noun (originally in the accusative
case) and a qualifying adjective, which have hardened into compounds,
ouch are
Sometimes, always, otherwise, meantime, midway, yesterday.
Many adverbs are compounds of on (weakened to a) and n, noun,t a
afoot {= on foot), abed, asleep, ahead, aloft {on lyfte = 'in the air'), &c
In a similar way we get indeed, betimes {i.e., by-times), bt forsooth.
• As is also a simple or dein... -itive adverb. It is a strengthen. ' ■- . r so ' A<i ' —
•also' = 'ealswa (A.S.) oc/. .n:, —
«/U''Sr«/XL!" '=°"'"'^"' " ^'"^ ^^■■^"'='^ compounds of d ■ • ,.J). such as apart,
reon^ whereat
be classifted
'esentl}\ itume-
in "), &c.
', there, f hence,
out. up, down,
oivever, so, as.
;d from adjec-
■ •arly, almost,
>uilf, any, the
re only a par-
/, no, nay, aye,
irefore, where-
by inflexion,
d pronouns.
others are old
more common.
the accusative
o compounds.
ind a noun, t a
in the air'), &c
ifj/.' forsooth.
- '' w. 'As' =
l), such as a^art.
ADVERU.
65
210.
Adverbs derived from Adjectives.
fromwhichtheywe eZived Tn A f '>?"'^ '^';"' ^' "^^ adjectives
Pronominal Adverbs.
211. These are formed from pronominal roots.
(I.) By the suffix -re, marking //^.. ;_/,,;-., Ihere, where.
2. By the suffix ther :-kMer, thither, whither.
tUl^wlT'^'' ■" ^^•'- ■'"' "^^ --^'-^^-^ -'-"^culine suffix) : then or
(S-) By the Anglo-Saxon instrumental inflexion ■//,../ i, \ u r
'"■ ^y^t:^^^:i^^ifiz Sf^ ™* p-p-'--; - h Che ;„„e
'<■ .W/.1,. The J;effl JS °„f ,L :Sir,he",5» Et! '"
^^^' Adverbs of Negation.
th= old subji„cl^e7,' or ,//• b« i,5 " " " '"'"P"""'' "^ -"" >"■ -^' ">"
COMPARISON OF ADVERBS.
214. Some adverbs admil of degrees of comparison.
The comparative degree of an adverb is that form of it which
If*;;! 'T'"'" *' °*" "'"> ^^^P*":' '0 ^ome condition
of manner or degree by which they are both marked, but "n
m
66
OUTLINES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
different degrees. Thus, "John reads ///, but Thomas reads
worse; " " I was but /iWe prepared, but he was /ess prepared."
The superlative degree of an adverb is that form of it which
mdicates that out of several actions or qualities which are com-
pared together, one surpasses 'all the rest with respect to some
condition of manner or degree by which they are all marked, but
in different degrees; as, "Of all these boys, William writes desf;"
' John was less cautious than I, but Thomas was the /east
cautious of the three."
v^W^^A^ suffixes for comparison are now -er and -esf. In modern
English adverbs m -^r and -es/ are seldom formed except from those
adverbs which are the same in form as the corresponding adjectives,
nf S l-'"''^'''' ^'"'^'^''^'' ^9"S, longer, /ongest, &c. The usual mode
S /La, ? ^"^ comparison is to prefix the adverbs more and most, as
wisely, more wisely, j/iost wisely. '
216. The following forms should be noticed :—
Positive,
well
evil [ccntr. ill)
much
nigh or near
forth
far
late
[adj. rathe*]
Comparative.
better
worse
more
nearer
further
farther
ere
later
rather
Superlative.
best
worst
most
next
furthest
farthest
erst
last
PREPOSITION.
217. Prepositions f are words placed before nouns or pro-
nouns, by means of which we show the relation in which things,
and their actions and attributes, stand to other things. In, " I
saw a cloud in the sky," in is a preposition, and marks' the
relation (of place) in which the c/oud stands to the sky. In
"Tom peeped through the keyhole," t/irough denotes the relation
(of movement from one side to the other) of the act of peeping
* ^J'*'^ '■^'•^e (early) primrose." {Milton, Lye.) ~~~
^/ Jv, '*'°i • ^'f-^""''''"' ,!""^'y ™P''es 'placed before' {L^tm prae = 6e/ore iositui -
{^''A^l^''^'^ seir-contrad.ctory when (as i. sometimes the case) r^eno^Hon%-« f^^::
the word tnac It governs, as in • the pen -which I wrote with.' -r^— -u-i -i. a, „,
PREPOSITION.
67
to the keyhole. In « Hp ic r^ ^ r
tion of .he attribute /:j[r»:rTt''''"'"""'^ ^^'^-
which follows a preposition i i„ T ., "°"" ^ P™"""
.0 be governed by the preposition °''^""''= ^'"^' ^"^ '^ =-«
toXr «S ""rherirf ''""' ■•■"'' attributes can only bear reh,i„„=
word that staltds I'^lZf.^CT^flTV^'^}^ P'a"d be'fo e"a
IdjeS"" ''"'=■' '°"°- ■■ wlt?;:^SS^sulTa"„^rv^bTr
218 Preo„ V*^""''^^'°^ °^ PREPOSITIONS.
forth
from
in
at
for
of or off
on
through
(2.) Prepositions derived from Adverbs.
«• By a comparative suffix
^^'" over'
till
to
up
with
under
ba^t?I?.l?re!SL:)-«P-ition; to an ad^erl
butt (A.S, be-iitan)
throughout
underneath (A.S under-neoan)
withm(A.S. wiS-innan) '
without (A.S. wiS-dtan)
abaft (A.S. a-be-jeftan)
above (A.S. a-be-ufan
about (A.S. a-be-iitan)
h '"l^A-^- be-hindan)
beneath (A.S. be-neo0an)
d') Prepositions formed bv t«.o«--
across (from Fr. croix) around ^r round
adownt or down (A ^ r^e ^' v aslant
apins^J (A S "ni^e^-, ^^ '%"'' .
along (A.S. andlang |n' ^ "^ f^'?^''^'-^ (^.S. on f,weorh crooJieci)
amid ^r amidst (A.S\ on middum^ 1 °7
among^^amongst(A S on^Pmnn nt^ ^'"'^ '''' ^^^ides (= by side)
onMevel, over-agamsi ') outside, &c
in answer. ^"S'"-^-*- on preposition awrf = oA/osite or ,V .*.- ^ .
OUTLINES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
(4.) Prepositions fovme-l by prefixing an adverbial particle to
a proposition ; —
into until upon without
onto unto within
Relu Lions indicated by Prepositions.
220. The principal relations which prepositions indicate are
those of place, time, and causali*^^
Prepositions were first used to express relation in space^ then they
were applied to relation in time, and lastly were used metaphorically
to mark relitions of causality or modality.
CONJUNCTION.
221. Conjunctions are so called because they join words and
sentences together (Lat. con = ' together,' j'ufigo = * I join ') ;
but a word is not necessarily a conjunction because it does this.
PV/io, which, and that are connective words which are pron<-. ns.
When, where, as, &c., are connective words which are adverbs.
Definition.- Conjunctions are connective words, which have
neither a pronominal nor an adverbial signification.
CLASSIFICATION OF CONJUNCTIONS.
222. Conjunctions are of two kinds.
1. Co-o;'dinaci.y^e Co.. junctions.
2. Subordinative Conjunctions.
223. Co-ordinative Conjunction,! are those which unite
either co-ordinate clauses {i.e., clauses of which neither ];, depen-
dent on the other, or enters into its con;, ruction), or words v, nich
stand in the same relation to soi oth r word in the sentence.
They may be subdivided accordi; ,0 ir meaning into
1. Simple Conjunctions:- td,vu,h.
2. The Adversative or exceptive conjunction \-~u,it.
3. Alternative Conjunctions either— or; neither— nor.
Both is the numeral adjective used as a conjunction.
COMPOSITION AND DERIVATION.
IS indicate are
69
other An, . . '™°"= '5 ma relation of dependence upon the
other, that .s to >^i,y, »,ters into its construclion mil, ,/,e f}J „fn
suhlmnve, an adjMve, or an adverb. ■' ^
226 Suhordmati,,. Conjunctions may be subdivided into
1. The Simple Conjunotior of Subordination .w/,„/
3. causa, Cot^unetif ^ T:;'!"'*' ''""' ""'"■
sequence :_.,.„„„., , - ,„ -/> '1;^^, '^/S"' "' ""'
4. Hypothetxeal Conjunetions :-,/, a„, unleu, e.a-t, &,
6. Conees«ve Conjunetions :-,/,„.,.;,, aM,„;„, alt,
6. Alternative Oonjunetions -.-w/u^i/u-r-^
7. The Conjunetion of Comparison -.-luan.
•• s: °'''^r'rL,/;i"i:' ^""''•»' «3-rs' irs.!;
228.
INTERJECTION.
sentences; as, ... o; A>u «,. 'Zr^i:n>^^:^ ,
caaedTric^TXro'roS:™' ='= --"^ f°"-ed by what is
COMPOSITION AND DERIVATION.
228. VVr>rfIo m"" V~ A\ -J ^ •
an,' w..;'or ;;t ■ ;;wc j'° '"° ^'— -^^--^ ^ds,
/
70
OUTLINES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
A word is a primary word when it does not admit of being
resolved into simpler elements \ as man, horse, run.
Secondary words are formed partly by Composition, partly by
Derivation.
COMPOSITION.
229. A word is a compound word when it is made up of two
or more parts, each of which is a significant word by itself; as
apple tree, tea-spoon, spetid-thrift.
A.-COMPOUND NOUNS.
230. Compound Nouns exhibit the following combinations :—
^'tL TT P'^^"''cfl '»y a ""."". as haystack, cornfield, oaktree, teaspoon.
Ihe lirst noun may bo a dehning genitive, as swordsman.
2. A noun preceded and modified by an adjective, as roundhead, black-
bird, quicksilver, Northampton, mulday, midriff {A.^. hri/^hoyfth).
3. A noun preceded by a verb of which it is the object, as stodgap, pick-
pocket, makervetght, turncock, wagtail, spitfire. i'i> rM' >-
4. A noun denoting an agent preceded by what would be the object of
the correspondmg verb, as man-slayer, peacemaker.
5. A gerund preceded by a governed noun, as ivire-pulling.
6. A verb preceded by a noun, as godsend {vQty rare).
7. A noun preceded by an adverb, which modifies (adverbially) the
neah-bAr:= «one who dwells near'), off-shoot, a/tertite, by-paifi
8. A noun preceded and governed by a preposition, a% forenoon.
\ ')f^^^^ preceded or followed by an adverb which modifies it, as inlet
welfare, onset, go-betxveen, standstill, income. ' '
B.-COMPOUND ADJECTIVES.
231.-Compound Adjectives exhibit the following combinations :-
\.^\ ^''j^''''^i preceded by a noun, which qualifies it adverbially
Lfif^'^'-^'iVlrf^ P^''^^'^''>■^' ^lood-red, ankle-deep, brZt-h'gh
headstrong, childlike, hopeful. ^ '
^J^^fS^f^^l'', ^hesecon^Po^^fls is often a participle, asmseafaring
l>ed-ndden, heart-broken, tempest tossed, sea-girt, &c. ^<^u/anng,
3. An imperfect participle preceded by its object, as tale-bearing
heart-rending, time-serving, &c. oeann^,
"^'^^^ adjective or participle preceded by a simple adverb, as upright
do7onright, under-done, out-spoken, inborn, almighty ^prtgnt,
S- A noun preceded by an adjecti-
three-bottle man,
txvopenny cake, a three-foot rule.
manifold.
idmit of being
//'(?«, partly by
ade up of two
I by itself; as
oaktree, teaspoon.
'an,
ounJhead, black-
i. ^rj/"^ bowels).
as stopgap^ pick-
be the object of
ing.
idverbially) the
'leighbour (A. S.
rtaste, by-path,
''orenoon,
iifies it, as inlet,
nbinations :— -
it adverbially
p, breast-high,
as in seafaring,
IS tale-bearing,
xh, as upright,
Id, manifold, a
COMPOSITION AND DERIVATION.
71
C.-COMPOUND PRONOUNS.
232. See the section on Pronouns.
D.~COMPOUND VERBS.
238. These present the following combinations •-
1. A verb preceded by a separable adverb, as cn>erdo, understand.
2. A verb preceded by its object, as back-bite, browbeat.
3. A verb preccled by its complenK-nt. as whitewash, rou.h-hew.
4- A verb fo owed bv an q.lvprl, nc / ^
f"t of. dout or lu^e~Tly\t'r}^^
aufthun.) '^"^' <^"^ = '^<' up. (Comp. Germ.
DERIVATION.
ceKt'bfwt;twordVare"i?^^^ of the term, includes all pro-
InpractL, how^^^er, ^.^.^^ ^f^J^^^^^^^ other wo?ds.
putting together of words bo ho - S of^wbiT^f ^''"' ^^^'^^ is the
existence, and inflexion l^rhil ^hl nL ^ retam an independent
certain classes of woTds by wVicl 'he varief S'of'^th^"' ^'^^"^"^. '"
relations are indicated. (See § 22 ) ^'^'^'^^•es of their grammatical
A weakened voweJ sound ^^i^ks fderlled wor'd. "''' ""'^ ''''''''■
DERIVATION BY MEANS OF TEUTONIC
PREFIXES AND SUFFIXES.
DERIVED NOUNS.
236.
Noun Prefixes of Teutonic Origin.
I- un ; as in unrest, undress.
error or fault i„ ,he action rifcmd to T^rf °""rT^ ™P"«
or,g,n, as ,„«„,„, „„> = QM F^itS i" r„''llltl^""'""
Noun Suffixes of Teutonic Origin
287. 1. suffices denoting a person or the doer of an action.
" ^> '•"'c,-^'-, f'akcr, oeggar, liar.
-ter (original.^, j,^;^ ,^„^^ agent), -,^,W,,, „„,„,^, ,,^„,^,
i
I! 'i
h
if
72 OUTLINES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
-ter, -ther, -^&x,— father, daughter, spider (= spinder or spinner). .
-nd (old imperfect participle), fiend Jriend (from Gothic /?/a« ' to hate '
ana frijon ' to love ').
238. 2. Suffixes denoting an instrument,
-el, -\e,— shovel, girdle, shuttle.
-ter, -der, — ladder, rudder.
239. 3. Suffixes forming Abstract Nouns.
-dom (connected with deem and doom, implying coiidition or sphere of
action),- kingdom, earldom, thraldom, martyrdom, Christendom.
~^°°**' -^^f"^ (A.S. =person, state, coxiC^\\:\ox).),~manhood,priesthood,
childhood, godhead.
-red(A.S. nft/= counsel, power, ?.\.?A.€),— hatred, kindred,
-ship, -scape, -skip (denoting j/Ja/^, fashion),— frUndship, hardship,
worship (i.e. worth-ship), lattdscape or landskip,
-ing,— hunting, blessing, fiooring, clothing.
-neBB,— redness, goodness, witness.
~^\~^\~^^)}'^' J'''^F^^> ^^'^^^^' <^'^ath (die), gift, might (may), theft,
fijght, nft [xwq), mirth {mQxxy), trust, flood. ^ ' ■"> /'
240. 4. Suffixes forming Diminutives.
-en ;— maiden, kitten, chicken (cock).
-el, -le—satchel (sack), paddle ( = spaddle, from spade).
-rel ; cockerel, mongrel, gangrel, wastrel.
~^'^,X.,!'^"^^t"^' pipkin, mannikin, Perkin ( — Peterkin), Tomkin,
IVilkin, &c. '
-ling ;— duckling, kidling, darling, suckling, hireling, starveling.
-°^\''—^iJi<'^k'^"ilock, ruddock (robin red-breast), /w«^r/& (torn-tit),
Pollock (Paul), Baldock (Baldwin), &c.
-y, -ie, ey ;— daddy, Annie, Charley or Charlie.
241. 5. Patronymics.
-ing ( = son oO s-Atheling. In tribal and family names, as Tooting,
Hardingiiavi, Pilkington. ^
DERIVED ADJECTIVES.
Adjective Prefixes of Teutonic Origin.
242. I, a, alive, aweary. Athirst k in A.S. of-]>yrst.
2. a, a corruption oi ge,- -alike =gelic.
3. un (negative, not the same as the k« in verbs) ; unwise, untrue, and
before Romance wonl:.
the two sides unez'cn (i
as untourteous. An umpire is one who makes
n or un, par) by joining one of them.
or spinner). -
fijan ' to hate '
n or sphere of
hristendoin .
ood, priesthood,
:d,
ship, hardship.
t (may), theft.
'n), Tomkin,
meling.
lock (tom-tit),
COMPOSITION AND DERIVATION.
Adjective Suffixes (Teutonic).
1Z
'''• "1ii^:':5.7ffii;t'"^^- ^^-^^^edtonoun,asi„..^^..,
-er or-r; bitter, lither, fair.
-em (a compound of the two last) ; northern, southern, &c.
-el or -le (A.S. -o\), fickle, little, brittle, idle,
a diminutive i. :™)jj/, ;^S.'° "'^"'^^^ '' naturally give^
-less (A.S. /... = /....,/..,/,,,,, ,,,v/,.«0. Heedless, senseless, lawless
-^^^S;;:tZ:l^:^i:^ ^ course)tonouns. Codl^l.^.n,,
ttresonu, quarrelsome, «'/5./. Jr.:iX.iS:;:. j;:^;'^ " ^ '''"'''^^
-th^ord (originally a superlative suffix), in numerals. Third, fourth, &c
for wLhVSn'iV^"^^^^^ ^"^^ presence of that
-'^aSS^U^S^S;.-^^^^ to' fVom A.S. u.eor.an.
244. For Derived Pronouns, see §§ 113-129.
s, as Tooting,
, untrue, and
le who makes
hem.
246.
DERIVED VERBS.
Verb-Preflxes (Teutonic).
"" L*„ltTand »S'it°°"f "" "'■"™' 0' "''" """•""-= idea,
'! a
in
74 OUTLINES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
for ( = German ver) usually implies that the action indicated by the
simple verb is negatived, or done in a bad sense, z.% forbid, forsake,
forget. I<orgive meant originally ' to make a present of.' (Compare
Lat. condonare.)
mis,^ denoting error or defect, as in misspell, misbelieve, viisgive. Before
Koniance words, misadvise, misdirect.
yxn {Goihic and = against, back, German ent), implies the reversal of
the action indicated by the simple verb •.—unbind, undo, untie.
Ansxver (A.S. andszvarian) has the same prefix; Unbosom, unketinel,
unsex, &c., are formed directly from nouns,
g-ain (root of against, German ^^^,?«); gainsay, gainstrive.
with ; withdraiv, withstand, ivithhold.
to ( = Germ. zer; not the preposition to) ; to brake ('broke to pieces'
IS still found in Judges ix. 53). ^
Verb-Suffixes (Teutonic).
246. -el or -le, added to the roots of verbs and nouns gives a combined
frequentative and diminutive force : dazzle (daze), straddle (stride),
shovel (shove), s-waddle (szuathe), dribble (drop), gamble (game),
waddle (wade), snivel (sniff), grapple (grab), from nouns -/6«^^/
(knee) nestle (nest), sparkle (spark), throttle (throat), nibble (nib ox neb),
curdle, scribble (scribe). '
-er (giving much the same force as the last), glimmer (gleam), wander
(ivend), fritter { fret) . flitter a.nd flutter (flit).
-k (frequentative) ; hark (hear), talk (tell).
-en forming causative or factitive verbs from nouns and adjectives ; as
strengthen, lengthen, frighten, fattett, siveeten, slacken.
-se, forming verbs from adjectives ; cleanse, rinse (comp. Germ. rein).
Derivatives formed by Modifications of Sound.
247. Verbs are often formed from nouns by a modification or weak-
ening of the vowel sound, c. of the final consonant, or of both. Thus
ih!;nf\T-^7^^'J"\^ ^'?'^ '""''-^^^ ^'''''^ {brood), feed {food), knit
M/.W^./^'tr^i^^^'f Z^^''^)' '"^'^ (^^^/)' f^^l^>e{half\ breathe
(hook). The same process is seen in Romance words, as i>rise from
Prt^, advise {advice), &c. The weakening was occasioned by verbal
suffixes, which have since disappeared.
^JS; "^''^"sitive (causative) verbs are often formed by a slight
modification or weakening of the root vowel from intransitive
verbs denoting the act or state which the former produce. Thus fell
\\rom tall), set (from sit), raise dxom. ris A Jay i/iA drevch idr'"^'^
•wend {wiHf),giic/l {quail, A.S. CTuelan'io dxG'). ' " "^""
COMPOSITION AND DERIVATION.
dicated by the
forbid, forsake,
3f.' (Compare
isgive. Before
he reversal of
do, untie.
som, unkennel,
>ke to pieces '
;s a combined
■addle (stride),
wible {game),
nouns —kneel
<le {nib or neb),
learn), wander
idjectives ; as
Germ, rein),
und.
ion or weak-
3oth. Thus
[/00(f), knit
•If), breathe
'{lass), hitch
; prize from
;d by verbal
by a slight
intransitive
Thus fell
nek {drink),
75
shabby, fkirt = shirt Ic!^ " '^'' ''"'■'''^' = '^''''^^ ''''^'y =
aif1nit?a^8'°"rn!''^ ^"''^' '"T"^"" ^^^ retention or omission of
seef'*2^2?|'''''^ ^^^""^^' rrepositions, and Cor^unctions
DERIVED WORDS CONTAINING PREFIXES AND SUFFIXES
OF LATIN ORIGIN.
^^^' Prefixes of Latin Origin.
assent, ^wf^tr '^''''' '''''''^^' "^^"'^'' announce,%prar,
amb- or am- (round). Amputate, ambiguous.
^^l^""'' <^''°^^^* ^«/.'^7«z./a«, .„,.nw (or .„.../.;), ..//.
circum or circu (round). Circumlocution, cireuit
de (down, from). Denote, describe, descend
negative be^ 4::^-£rtz;,, Ss^jis^^^nr' -'
extra (bej^ond). Extravagant, extraneous, stranl
in (in, into), modified to il-, im- ir- en «»« r ,
impel, irruption, endure embrae/ ' TV^f"' T"", "'^""■'' '^^«"''«,
in {negative). /,«„„,, ,-„,^„^^_ ilksiamale, iy,atim.l.
76
OUTLINES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
i
inter, intro (among, within). Interdict, introduce.
mis- (Old Fr. mes = Lat. minus) ; mischance (comp. Fr. mkhant),
mischief.
Ob, obs (against), oc-, of-, op-. Oblige, occur, offend, oppose.
per (through), pel-. Permit, pellucid. Disguised in pardon {per-
donare), pilgrim (Ital. pe/legrino = peregrinus).
post (after). Postpone.
prae or pre (before). Praelection, preface. Disguised in provost
(= prae-positus) .
praeter, preter (past). Preterite, preternatural.
pro (forth, before), pol, por-, pur-. Promote, pollute, portray, pur-
chase ipro-captiare), purpose, purveyor.
re or red (back, again). Redaction, redound, reduce. Used before
Teutonic words in reset, reopen. Sec.
retro (backwards). Retrograde. Rear in reanoard.
88 or sed (apart). Seduce, scd-ition.
sub or subs (under), sue-, suf-, sur-, sus-. Subdue, succeed, suffuse,
surrogate, sttspend. Disguised in sojourn (sub diurno). Prefixed to
Teutonic words in sublet, &.c.
subter (beneath). Subterfuge.
super (above), sur. Superscribe, surface {=: superficies), surfeit,
surcharge.
trans or tra (beyond). Translate, tradition.
tdtra (beyond). Ultramontane.
Suffixes of Latin Origin.*
Suffixes Denoting Persons.
(Doers of actions, persons charged with certain functions, or having
to do with that for which the primary word stands.)
-tor, -sor, -or, -our, -er ( = Latin ator) ;— doctor, successor,
emperor. Saviour^ found-.-r, enchanter.
-ant, -ent (^^r\\c\^\G%);-attetidant, tenant, agent.
-er, -eer, -ier, -or, -ary (Lat. -arius) ;— usher [ostiarius), archer,
(arcuarius), farrier (ferrarius), brigadier, engineer, chancellor,
lapidary.
-ate (Latin -atus) ;— legate, advocate. Weakened to -ee, -ey or -y in
nominee, committee, attorney, jury (juratus), deputy (deputatus),
-ess (Lat. -ensis) ;— burgess, Chinese.
-ess (-issa, fern, suflfix) ; — countess, traitress.
253.
• It is difficult to classify these suffixes with anv annroach tonrenisinn- as snm*. >.="• n■/^^•
very much confused, and adjectives and participles often make their appearance as nouna alid
verbs.
Fr. mkhant)s
oppose.
I pardon (per-
sed in provost
portray, pur-
Used before
sticceed, suffuse,
I. Prefixed to
ficies), surfeit,
ns, or having
tor, successor.
irius), archer,
V-, chancellor.
, -ey or -y m
ieputatus).
iS some hayff zot
tee as nounb and
COMPOSITION AND DERIVATION. yy
254. Sufaxes forming Abstract Nouns,
"""{potion-^; rammi (reTmMoT) '~'^'"'"'> ^^^'^«/ ^^"sw,t, poison
time'). ['^ccmpnon-), reason, season, {sation-, 'sowing
-ty. -ity (Lat. -tat. -itat-) ,-vanity, cruelty, city [civita^),
-ruae •,—Jorlttude, magnitude.
-our (Lat. -or) ;-lahour, ardour, honour.
• "^ lev or'*ol'~''"f ^'' '""T^'' P'-eceded by / or s, -tia or -sia -
^y or -ce, aristocracy, fancy, grace. sxa _
"*"';n:SM^;Sir;'"* °' """'"'^' '^^'^''^■^^' >^^"^^' '^^^-^^^ (^^-^/az).
-ure;-e/^;v/«;r, culture, picture, censure.
-e (Lat. -ium) •,~exile, homicide.
-se, -ce, -8 (Lat. -sus) j-^^.^, «^^,v^^ p^^,^^^^
255. Suffixes denoting the Means or Instrument,
-ble, -bule ;— stable, vestibule.
cle, -cre;-.^.,«,/,, ^,^,.,;,^ tabernacle, lucre, sepulchre.
-^^, -tre;— cloister, theatre.
-me, -m, ~n (Lat. -men) ;-z../,,;«,, ^harm, leaven, noun.
'"^^eJtTp^yZ:^ ^''"''"' ^^«° ^°™-g ^^bstract nouns, as mc^e-
258. Suffixes forming Diminutives,
-ule \— globule, pillule.
■^4 S;;, :^ch:;ic;iz^.^j^^ -^-^ ^ ^^^
"*^«JS/SS^^' b"^°f obscure origin);-^/., ballet, poCet, armlet,
257 Suffixer fox-nnng Augmentatives.
-oon, -one, -on ;-, ,//..... *ro;n6one, million, flagon.
258. Suffixes having a C<!>U«otive or Generic Sense.
~^ca^;, ~^^^a;St^,.;^^S^^-:;;^
i I
78
OUTLINES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
259. Suffixes forming Adjectives.
(Many of these adjectives have become substantives in English.)
al ;— legal, regal, general, comical (passing into -el in channel-
canal), hotel, jewel, or -le in cattle [capitalia).
-an, - ane, -ain, -en, -on (Lat. anus) \— pagan, vmndane, certain,
mizzen (ineaianus), surgeon, sexton.
~ain, -aign, -eign, -ange (Lat. -aubvlb)',— mountain, champaign,
Joreign (Joraneus), strange (extraneus).
-at \— regular, singular.
-ary, -arious (Lat. -arius) ;— necessary', gregarious. Nouns— ja/an/.
granary, &c. •^'
^ -ian ; — Christian.
-ine, -im.;— feminine, feline, divine, pilgrim (Ital. pellegrino, from
peregrinus). ^ a ,
-ant, -ent {'^^xik'vi^Xi^^);— volant, fluent, patent.
-ate -ete, -eet, -ite, -ute, -te, -t (from Latin participles and
adjectives) ;— innate, concrete, discreet, erudite, hirsute, statute,
polite, chaste, honest. These adjective formations often become
nouns, as mandate, minute, fact, eject, &c.
-ile, -il, -eel, -le, -el (Lat. -ills and -His) ;— fragile, senile, civil,
frail, genteel, gentle, able, kennel (canile). -^ ^ ' >
-able, -ilole, -hie ;-culpadle,.edil>le,feedle (flebilis), old French floiVe
(compare German wenig from weinen), teachable.
-ic, -iq}xe;— civic, public, unique.
-ous, -ose (full of, abounding in) ',-copious, verbose, grandiose, jocose,
faitious. ° » y »
-ous (Lat. -us) ; — anxious, omnivorous, murderous.
-acious ; — mendacious, loquacious, vivacious.
-ions or -y (Lat. -ius, after /or and sor) ;— censorious, amatory, illusory.
-i^\—fei-vid, timid, hurried.
-ive, -iff (commonly after t and s of the perfect participle) r—rcMW
caiafl, plaintive, plaintiff, indicative, adoptive, restive.
-estrial, -estrian (Lat.-estris) ;— terrestrial, equestrian.
260.
Verb Suffixes.
-ftr (-ficare, forming compounds rather than derivatives) '—terrify.
-ish (-esco, through the French inchoative conjugation in -ir, -issantV.
—banish, punish, &c.
261. There .n re two principal modes in which verbs are fuimed in
iinglish from Latm verbs. One mode is to take simply the crude
1 English.)
1 in channel —
mciane, certain,
in, champaign.
Nouns— ja/rtry,
belkgrino, from
participles and
irsitte, statute,
often become
!e, senile, civil,
French Jloidle
'ndiose, jocose,
atory, illusory,
pie); — captive.
; — terrify,
-ir, -issant);
e foiined in
y the crude
I
COMPOSITION AND DERIVATION,
.he accent on ^^'^ZX^^^I^^^Z^'"''' ^»™^'
Noun.
accent
affix
collect
concert
Verb.
accent
affix
collect
concert
Noun or Adjective.
object
produce
frequent
absent
Verb.
object
produce
frequent
absent
GREEK PREFIXES.
263. The following prefixes are found in words of Greek origin —
a or an (not). Anarchy.
amphi (on both sides, or round). Amphibious, amphitheatre.
ana (up). Anabasis, anatomy, analogy.
anti (against). Antithesis, antipathy.
apo (from). Apogee, apology.
cata (down). Catalepsy, catastrophe.
di (two, or in two). Di syllable, diphthong.
dia (through, among). Diameter, diaphanous,
en or em (in or on). Emphasis, enema.
endo (within). Endosmose.
epi (upon). Epilogue, epitaph.
ec or ex (out of). Exodus, ecstatic.
exo (out :Je). Examose.
hyper (over). Hyperkolical.
hyj» (under) J/ypotenuse, iypoihesis.
meta (implying change). Mclanurphosis.
para (beside). Parab&ia, paraphrase.
peri (round). Peristyle, perijueter.
pro (before). Program.
pros (to). Prosody.
% 5S51S^"°''''' ""^ ^" "^ '"'■ ^^"'''' ^«*-^ ^^-
eu (well). Euphotiy, eulogy.
m
8o
OUTLINES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
GREEK SUFFIXES.
264. The following suffixes mark words of Greek origin :—
-e : catastrophe.
-y ( = w) : anatomy, monarchy,
-ad or -id. Iliad, ^neid, Troad.
-ic, -tic. Logic, cynic, ethics, arithmetic.
-ao, maniac, Syriac,
~fhremy,\7Hpse]^ "'"^'' '''""' '"'P^^'"^ P'^^^y ^P<^ralysis\ hypocrisy,
-ma ; diorama, enema,
-tre, -ter (-rpov) : centre, meter.
-St, iconoclast, sophist, baptist.
-te, -t ( - Tijs) ; apostate, comet, patriot.
-sm : sophism, spjistn, aneurism.
-isk : asterisk, obelisk.
-ize (in verbs) : baptize, criticize. This termination and its derivatives
have been imitated m modern formations, &s minimize, theorize, deism,
egotism, egotist, annalist, papist. '
CHANGES IN LATIN WORDS PASSING THROUGH FRENCH.
265. An attentive examination of § 253, &c., will show the usual
changes that are to be looked for when a Latin word has passed
through French mto English. The following (amongst others of
less difficulty) should be borne in mind :
J;vL°fr """''' '''"" ^^^"^^" ™^^^- C°-P-^« --^^^- and
2. c or c- often vanishes when it occurs before a dental or between
vowels, -^^^^ro /eat and/actum, sure and securt^s, pay aLT^^^
treason and t^-adttton, and look at chance, obey, Vecrean^TfyJay^^'
4 iHitol c becomes ch, as in chief, chance, chandler, chant, change.
J« J?or:rS;lc°"^ of .ydisappears ; as in couch from collocare,
.f-f"^.P^^^om^^vor/,as in chz,f (ca^uf)^ ravin {raHo\ river
K^ipar tus), cover \co-operire), van {ab-istiie).' " F'^ n rioer
\
SYNTAX.
8i
!j), hypocrisy.
ts derivatives
'.orize, deism,
FRENCH.
riaL""f '^°'' ^ '™'^''' ''^''^"^^' '-^^ '" "^'^-^^ {viaticum), age
9. bi, pi vi before a vowel becomes ^e or rt!F^. as in abridir.
deluge icitluvtum), assuage {ad-suavis), sage [sapio). ^ V^^^^s),
.u ^^\ / ^f!" '"'"''^ ^^°P^^^ ^" *^^^ E"g"sh or brought in
through French has sometimes been re-introduced at a later period
directly from the Latin. In that case the older word shows a
more mutilated form than the later. Compare hs/iop and episcopal;
mmsler and monastery; priest and presbyter; pistol and epistle; balm
and balsam ; sure and secure.
Sometimes the older form has kept its ground with a different shaHf^
I'^S anlvirr^ /^«-.. andV«i«r.y blZ^^tll^'pf^^^j
f^lZT/f^'^fTr^''^^''^''''^ 'Countenance z.udi continence ■ feat
ana tradition, frail and/ragtlej loyaUndi legal; (mich and collocate,
f the usual
las passed
others of
udden and
)r between
nd pacare,
, seal and
(lius, chair
rotundus,
v,/ay, &c.
it, change.
1 collocare,
'>io), ri
ver
SYNTAX.
J^ 1 ^^**'' ""^^"^ arrangement (Greek syn, to-
gether, taxis, arrangement). The rules of syntax are statements
oHhe ways m which the words of a sentence are related to each
268 A sentence is a collection of words of such kinds, and
arranged m such a manner, as to make some complete sense.
C.J u "7 ° '/ complete sense is meant, tiiat something is
^atd about something. ^
P
82
\h
11
II
OUTLINFS OF ENCUsh GRAMMAR.
269. It is plain, therefore, that every ordinary sente-cc must
consist of two essential parts :— ^*
1. That which denotes what we speak about. This is
called the Subject.*
^lT^^u "^^^^^ denotes what is said about that of
Which we speak. This is called the PredTcate
the idea wlJcrs'crn'ec^ed^^f^
is called the subiecT inr?t .V. • ,?,^ ^^--'^mmar, the single noun/a\/ier
father and\S bcVn" tSed L^enh '^ '^V''''^' ?"'^^^t^^ ^^"^^
subject and predicate enla.gements or adjuncts of the
272. It follows
stantive.
'ivd X
the subject of a sentence must be a sub-
273. The subject of a sentence therefore may b.e :—
1. A Noun.
2. A Substantive Pronoun (see § 95).
3. An Infinitive Mood (see § 150).
4. A Gerund, or Verbal Noun (see § 153).
%oirIe TvTrv IrH^H '^ "'"^^ made the subject of dls-
course, every word being a name for itself
6. A phrase or quotation ; a phrase being, to all intents and
purposes, a name for itself ' '"tents and
^\-t. ^^y^^^^^^-^f Clause, that is, a clause which in its relV
the* ^^/ipitot7aill°' iV^Cs" ?' ...^ '^.^edTf T^'- "°' ^'^o-foundei with
maucau subject ' birds.' but/>^^ lspr.,dua^ ^^cr^'^u^I n^^X'tl^^lSl^}''^-
la
e
o
ve
an
wl
be
inc
it i
<
gat
n
of;
nee
way
SYNTAX,
»te'.;cc must
ut. This is
ut that of
ate.
escriptioft of
to represent
' This boy's
; " the pre-
XiOMXi father
nected with
ricts of the
a separate
, that can
thought is
le a sub-
83
t of dis-
tents and
ti its rela-
tigle sub-
Dunded with
> the (gram-
loun.
I't
CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCE-
Sentences are of three kinds :—
A Simple. B. Complex. C. Compound.
verf it is?.id t 'h"''"'' '°;'''"' °"'^ °"^ ^^'^J^^' ^"^ ^^^ fi"!^^
vero, It is said ta be a simple sentence.
ancf^: ^';^\^"'\^^"/^"^^, contains not only a principal suhjert
ami t verb but also other dependent or subordinate claus-s
278. When a sentence consists of two or more principal and
0. '"l'heT,r^dilfV'"f ''"'""'^' ^°'' '"""^''^S th:u we think
01 the prdcate denotes some fact or idea which maybe con-
::;r?hr *." "™^- '-' '"' ""'°" -^>' ^--ved^in^re
"ThonJrikt the room.'' ''"''"'' '^ declarative- as,
• A nesatzve, if there is one, is taken as part of the predicate.
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^"^ OUTLINES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAK.
denotes should subsist, the sentence that results is a xlcd an
h?room'^^"V^'^*^^" ''^'r'' ' ^'' " '^"l'»'"as, leave [thou]
the room, May you speedily recover."
^: i^i^'l"^'"'^ '"^'■^^y ^^""^' °f the connexion as subsisting
without declarmg or willing it, vve get a conceptive sentence
2S0. In all the above-named kinds of sentences, the i:nu;wm//or/
connexion between the subject and the verb is the same
RELATION OF WORDS TO ONE ANOTHER.
281. The modes in which the various worJs and groups of
words m a sentence are related to each other may be classed as
follows : —
1. The Predicative Eelation.
2. The Attributivo Relation.
3. The Objective Relation.
4. The Adverbial Relation.
THE PREDICATIVE RELATION.
282. The Predicative Relation is that in which the predicate
of a sentence stands to its subject.
283. In the sentence, "The boy ran away," the verb ran is in the
?ou1d ''ITot 'nT:i '" ^\^ ^^'i'iy- In 'the sentence, ''The ial i^
round, not only the verb ;s, but the adjective r,?!aid, which belon"s
to^the predicate, is said to be in the predicative relation to the sub"ect
THE ATTRIBUTIVE RELATION.
284. When we attach to a noun or pronoun an adjective, or
what IS equivalent to an adjective, the adjective or its equivalent
stands in the Attributive Relation to the noun or pronoun, and
IS said to be an Attributive Adjunct to it.
285. Thus in '; Wise men sometimes act foolishlv," 7a/se is in the
Attnbut.ve Relation to the noun „u-n ; it .f.scn/>cs the' men. If we say
fhiv T Z'^'^uT" ''^''" '^'■'''' '^"^ 't^ complement ^>/se are both in
the Predicative Relation to men, r *^ «= "uui in
Its is ci.iled an
las, leave [thou]
as subsisting
ptive sentence.
le p-ammatical
the same.
OTHER.
id groups of
be classed as
SYNTAX.
."s
the predicate
ran is in the
" The ball is
vhich belongs
to the subject
adjective, or
s equivalent
ronoun, and
ise is in the
1. If we say
? are both in
ATTRIBUTIVE ADJUNCTS.
286. Attributive adjuncts may be of the following kinds : -
'pa^red'^;°a'J;u'nc°7oTin:.^"^'" -Jd dimply, or accom-
^t £°?^ sai3Ta'''*'°^ '° *'' substantive; as, "John Smith,
3; A substantive in the possessive case • n? '• \T,r ^-o*! .
house " • " TriVin'o J,r.^i, » ,7t^ '^*' °*^® ' ^^i ^^J father's)
down," 'or f°sSs „S pVec3ldT,ru°scd'rfhr"'"""
us ; The leader of the party " ; « The love of money »
.s . y^'i.y^i CO iuiuk ; i-nQ trcQi in f/ie i^ardcn "
5- ^Ji Adjective Clause (§ -,21) as "Thev //,„f ..',;n /. • 7
287. One atiributive adjuncl may often be replaced by another Tin,. f„,
THE OBJECTIVE RELATION.
288. When a verb, participle, or gerund denotes an action
which IS d^ected to.vards some object, the word denoting hat
object stands ,n the objective relation to the verb, partici;ie, o
gerund Thus u. " The dog bites the boy," boy is I the ^b^ct
ive relation to bUcs. In, " Seeing the tumult, I went out," tumllt
IS m the objective relation to seeing. In, "Hating one's neigh-
bour IS orbidden by the Gospel," nekhlour is in the obj efve
relation to the gerund hating. The object* of a verb is h!
zs^^t^: vr ^'^^^^ ^^^"^'^ ^^ ^'^^ °^^--^ ^^- -^-
280. The object of an action may be denoted by
I. A noun ;-as " He struck the table."
^•^AS ubstantive Pronoun ;~as " We admire him.-
■\
" i
.he ^i;:s^^ti^'^^?i;^:^'""« -^^^^ is th. „,;j.ot ..r a.,;..;..; with .....^t;;;-;-
86
OUTLINES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
3- "^T^f^ in the Infinitive Mood;— as "I love to hear
music ;" " I durst not come" "^'^^
Xton'r""^ or Varbal Noun ;-as "He hates lenrnin^
5. Any word or phrase used as the name for itself --as
Parse iwnf in the followinij sentence." '
6. A quotation :-as " He said ' S/unu me thai book: "
^a^^/vfd^^^^"'^"''^ Clause ;-as "We heard t/uit he had
THE ADVERBIAL RELATION.
290 Any word, phrase, or clause which modifies or limits a
verb, adjective, or attributive phrase is in the Adverbial Relation to
It (see § 201), or is an Adverbial Adjunct to it.
ADVERBIAL ADJUNCTS.
291. Adverbial Adjuncts may be of the following kinds :—
I. An adverb (see § 201) ; as, " He foutrht bravdv" « T cpf
oni yesterday- '• He is vJry industriou°"' ^' ^ ''*
%^,^'jJ,5r^.^7P^«««ded by a preposition ; as, " He hopes
The gerundial infinitive {k 152) often forms an adverbial adiunct
" T-To 1; jr •^^ si>i\cu incii' 'III tlw siiDimer"
He lives three miles away." " (Jo that way."
^^^^^^^^^"^^'^-^^ in the objective case, before which some
such preposition as /.u)r A-;-mi-lu i,avc been put \s "' rk™
(/..'., to me) the booi<." •" 1 will sin,. vot^LTfort],) aTone "
^a^uS^rs: ??s°sr^^Siurv^f?5:^^::
'"f wS!:;;?^S;;?7s;:i" ' ^^"' ^--^ --^ ^- -^^"
I love to hear
hates iearninir
for itself ;— as
book: "
1 ///(?/ /it' had
-s or limits a
ial Relation to
SYNTAX.
87
kinds : —
wcly." " I set
IS, " He hopes
killed the '
^erbial adjunct
cecdp " This
adjunct, as,
///(' stir/tmcr."
B which some
as, "Give w^
y<Tt) a song."
utdircct object
attributive
', " The sun
■ being absent,
' (Wi ready J "
/m.«." -n^^TiSlsliP"''''''''''''' ""'' ""•-" ^'^^ taught aTs
byro'th^r '"' ^^^^^-'^-' Adjuncts n.ay often be replaced
say " He fa.lecl b,ru.s, l,c -L u^nl^:^ '^ carelessness >• ,ve may
Subject and Predicate
-ichthe.have1ncIZ:-~:-:-
^ J95. The subject of a finite verb is put in the nominative
c^P, ^^an:^:j!!:^^^^r^^ clenotes a ni.Uitn.e ..s
wlKMitheidea\obekopt M iewTsno thoL^/^^^^^ '? ''^" f^'"'-^'' ""'"'^^^■•.
muhitude were of one mind" H " ^ h ", ."^"'"P"-^^'^'- As, " The
^/.nto the defile." beca.s. we th^l'^^L^S^ ^i^'lJ^-J^ -"
a., "John and Tho ma were w 'ikin^?''^^ *^ conjunction .^ J' »
pound subject is consic erec as ?inr"L'°:lf'^"';; , ^^"' ^^^en the cum-
the singular ; as " The m,W1 n . -^ °"^ ^^'^^^^ '^e verb is kept in
valley Wags »' (A;, i' ii" ^^^V ' '^"■" '""''"' '"''"^''^'^ ^ " " "'" ^"d
298. Every finite verb must have a subiert in M, • •
case expressed or understood. ^ ^''^ nommative
'f;
88
OUTLINES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
M-
SUBJECT.
302. The subject of a sentence may be—
1. Simple. 2. Compound. 3. Complex.
303. The subject of a sentence is simple when it consists
ofa single substantive, or a simple infinitive mood: as, "/love
truth ; " Men are mortal " ; " To err is human."
304. The subject of a sentence is compound when it
consists of two or more substantives coupled together by the con-
junction and; as, " Cassar and Pompey were rivals." " You and I
will travel together."
^ol^l^'io'^^Zi:;!!^^^^^^^ do not couple substantives
lugeiner so as to tonn a compound subject. Thev imolv th-it nt,» nf
iNeuher John nor Thomas has arrived."
305 The subject of a sentence is complex when it con-
sists of an infinitive phrase, of a substantive clause, or
of a quotation ; as, " How to do it is the question " ; " That he
said so is certain"; -England expects every man to do his
duty, was Nelson's watchword."
the^ere?DronSn'l'' Tl °^''" ^"ticipated by the pleonastic use of
c"erir;.rsirr.''^ ^'--"^^i^ wicked ....///>.^^';,;s^
'!^
Enlarged or Expanded Subject.
tn-K??' 'T^^, .Subject Of a sentence may have attached to it any at-
§ S),as,^ ^""" "^ '"">' ^°"^bi"-'i«" of attributive adjunct Vee
" TAe man told a lie " [Deviomt. Adj.).
" Goodmtn love virtue" {Adj. of Quality).
"%JolL'Ji' ^^"'^ ^""''' ^''^ "°' '""'^"'^ ^'^ f^'l^^^" ^^oun in
"yoAn's new coat, which he rvas wenH,,g for- the first tivw, was torn"
_ (I. x\oun m Pass. Case, 2. Adj. of Omiity, 3. Adjective C/au^),
omplex.
hen it consists
i; as, "/love
und when it
er by the con-
' " You and I
lie substantives
ply that one of
is singular the
was in fault ; "
when it con-
B clause, or
" ; " That he
m to do his
Jonastic use of
ubstitute for
to the verb it
I //•^jy""//is
to it any at-
adjuncts (see
er" {JVoun in
'«.v, was torn "
Clause).
SYNTAX.
" ^0 ^" early is healthful. " ' '
I' To loz'c one's enemies is a Christian duty "
' Playing'withfire is dangerous."
PREDICATE.
307. The Predicate of a sentence may be
1. Simple. 2. Complex.
SIMPLE PEEDICATE.
808. The predicate of a sentence i<; «im«i« u ,
to be conveyed is expressed hv" , T^ ''^'" *^^ "°^'°"
fiourishes, ^' Ti^X" " I /I" ^^^^ ^^' " ^'^^-
COMPLEX PREDICATE
sense complete Of thi, tL u ^^^"^ *° '"^'^e the
-«>^^, ..//, ^...; th^' "'"' ""'•' ""' ^"^h ^^^"^'^-^ verbs, as
th^an?' ;it t^Se." 1^1 ^^^T'' " ^ ^^"'" ^ " ^ ^'^^
phrase (a substantive an adiertiv/ n? k "'? '""'^ "^^er word or
verb ; as, " The hi^e "/E ''' "^.^1^1'? /'' '"'^"'^'^^^ "'''h the
this kind are called VS of IncomrflJrr'f • ^'''-" ^^''bs of
words used with them to nv,L thi ?^ ®*® I*redication, and the
the complement of tie Proicate^^^^ '°'"P^^'^ ""^^ be called
of ^JbTiat^pll ""^ ^ ' °°"^^^^ ^'^^ ^^ -'-^^^
complement "'°°°^^'"*" Predication accompanied by its
1. Subjective Complement.
sive?{he^comp?eSS^^^^^^ predication is intransitive or pas-
90 OUTLINES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
The complement of the predicate in these cases is spoken of the subject,
and must therefore agree with the subject in all that they can have in
common. Hence the rule that the verbs be, bccotiu;feeU he called, &c., take
the same case after them as before them.
2. Objective Complement.
312. When the verb is transitive, and in the .ictive voice, the
complement of the predicate stands in the attributive relation
to the object of the verb ; as, " He dyed the cloth red." " She
called the man a liar." This kind of complement may be termed the
Objective Complement.
OBJECT. ♦
313. The Object of a verb may be
1. Simple. 2i Compound. 3. Complex.
These distinctions are the same as in the case of the Subject
(§ 303, &c.).
There is also a peculiar kind of complex object, in which a substan-
tive clause is replaced by a substantive followed by a verb in the
infinitive mood. Thus, for " I wish that yoii may succeed" we may
have " 1 wish you to succeed; " for " 1 believe t/tat the man is guilty ^^
we may have " I believe tJie man to be guilty."
314. The neuter it often serves as a temporary representative of a complex
object, sliowing its grammatical relation to the sentence, as " I think //
foolish to act so. "
315. The object of a verb may have any combination of attributive
adjuncts attached to it. It is then said to be enlarged or expanded.
Complex Sentences.
316. A Complex Sentence is one which, besides a principal
subject and predicate, contains one or more subordinate clauses,
which have subjects and predicates of their own.
317. Subordinate Clauses are of three kinds : —
1. Substantive Clauses.
2. Adjective Clauses.
3. Adverbial Clauses.
1 of the subject,
hey can have in
^a//tv/, &c.,take
ive voice, the
bive relation
1 red." "She
be termed the
3X.
the Subject
ich a substan-
a verb in the
cccd" we may
nan is guilty"
ve of a complex
, as " I think it
I of attributive
)r expanded.
s a principal
nate clauses,
I )
SYNTAX.
9X
SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES.
318. A Substantive Clause is one which, in its relation to
the rest of the sentence, is equivalent to a substantive. It
may be either the subject or the object of the verb in the princi-
pal clause, or it may be in apposition to some other substantive,
or be governed by a preposition.
Substantive clauses usually begin either with the conjunction that,
or with an .nterrogative word. The conjunction that, however, is
frequently understood ; as " I saw he was tired."
319. In the sentence " I know that he did this," the clause 'that he
did this ' is the object of the verb ' know.'
In " He asked me how old I was," the clause * how old I was ' is the
object of the verb ' as/bed.' *
In " When I set out is uncertain " the clause ' when I set out ' is the
subject of the verb ' is.' *
In "We should have arrived sooner, but that we met with an
accident," the clause 'that we met with an accident' is governed by the
preposition ' l/ut.'
320. When a substantive clause is the subject of a verb, it is usually
represented temporarily by the pleonastic demonstrative 'it' as '*// is
not true that he died yesterday."
ADJECTIVE CLAUSES.
321. An Adjective Clause is one which, in its relation to
the rest of the sentence, is equivalent to an adjective. It
stands in the attributive relation to a substantive, and is attached
to the word which it qualifies by means of a relative pronoun, or
a relative adverb which is equivalent to a relative pronoun pre-
ceded by a preposition.
In the sentence " Look at the exercise which I have written," the
clause * which I have written ' qualifies the noun ' exercise,' and is
much the same in force as the participial phrase ' written by me.'
In "That is the house where I dwell," the clause 'where I dwell'
qualifies the noun * house.' Where is equivalent to in which.
• How a.T\iwhen are here interrogative words. In cases of this sort we get what is called
a dependent (or indirect) question.
92
OUTLINES OF ENGLISH (IRAMMAR.
®^^' 1^""^""*'^','?"''^^'"'"'' '''"'"'=''• "'' "^Vhcre is the book I &ave
you f Jor whuh 1 gave yon ; " I have a mind presagct me such thrift "
o!.c.,\or which presages, tkc. '"V'l
323. Sometimes adjective clauses are used substantively, i.e., with no
antecedent expressed, as " Who steals my purse, steals trash." ThU
oni.ssmn of the .antecedent is usual when the relative what is used as
I heard what he said," "There is no truth in what he said!" ' '
824. Clauses beginning with ax must be regarded .as adjective cLiuses, when
they MUmsuch and same. Thus, in " I do not .admire such books as
ne writes, the clause as he lorites is an adjective clause qualifyinL'
books, and co-ordmate with such. ' *"
325. An adjective clause (like an ordinary .-idjective) has usually a
^^Jt'lT "•■, '•^^^t'-'c'-ve force. But it often happens thai clauses intro^
(luced by rcLuivcs are, as regards thciryiym- and vteanimr, co-ordinate
^vith the pnnapal clause. Such a clause is continuative rather than
n^ nrr'iv;^ » ti"' '" ^ T',*" '" ^''''' '''■°"^^''' ^"'>° ''^P^'^d that you had
not arrived, the sense of the sentence would be the same if ««</ //>^
were substituted for who.
%
ADVERBIAL CLAUSES.
326. An Adverbial Claiise is one which, in its relation to the
rest of the sentence, is equivalent to an adverb. It stands in
the adverbial relation to a verb, an adjective, or another adverb.
Thus, in the sentence, " He was writing a letter when I arrived," the
clause when I arrived;' indicates the time at which the action
expressed by the verb was writing took place. The clause " when I
arrived'' is therefore in the adverbial relation to the verb was
writing.
CLASSIFICATION OF ADVERBIAL CLAUSES.
327. Adverbial Clauses may be arranged in the following classes :—
!•— Adverbial Clauses relating to Time.
828. Clauses of this kind begin either with the connective adverbs which
denote time, or with the conjunctions before, after, while, since, ere,
toitil, &c. As, " Every one listens zuhen he speaks." " He punished
the boy whenever he did wrong. " "He never spoke after he fell. "
2.— Adverbial Clauses relating to Place.
829. Clauses of this kind are introduced by the relative or connective adverbs
where, whither, whence, &c. As, " He is still standing where I left
him. " thither I go ye cannot come."
SYNTAX.
s the book I gave
fiT tm such thrift,"
ly, i.^., with no
eals trash," This
c zuhat is used, as,
t he said."
ctive clauses, when
nire such books as
: clause qualifying
'e) has usually a
lat clauses intro-
r/>/^, co-ordinate
iive rather than
lied that you had
e same if and he
relation to the
t. It stands in
lother adverb.
1 I arrived," the
hich the action
clause " 7v/ien J
the verb was
SES.
iving classes :—
■e adverbs which
while, since, ere,
"He punished
2fter he fell."
nnective adverbs
ling 7iihere I left
93
3.— Adverbial Clausos relating to Manner.
830. Adverbial clauses relatinR to manner are commonly introduced l,v the-
relative or connect ve adverb ^j F ,r •< H,. m-^i .V / 7,J
"It turne.l out <;. / ex/<caj." '^ " ' "^ ''''' ''' '" ""*' "^'^'
4.— Adverbial Clauses relating to Degree
332. E.g., " He is not so {or as) tall as I flinin.tit" /;.. „ t .u i r
beginning of the adverbial clause qualities tall understood!
6.-Adverbial Clauses relating to Cause.
333. These usually begin with the conjunctions because andyin
^^Tf ''r'^.if, ^^^'^^^^ ^«^*^i"« t° I^urpose and Consequence.
•»<**• ■^- ,«,'■. lie ran so fast that he was out of breath " Ucr.. .1, „ i t • i
dause .. that he was out of breath " sta;;c;^;rfhe .^S^r^^t
836. fVj]^'\^;^l ^l;^"^e^^^^^^^^ comealso under this head. E.,.,
quilSie: the'eltlt.r' '''"'" "^'' ""'^ ''^^ ^'^^''^ ^^^
7.— Adverbial Clauses relating to Condition
subordinate sentence is called the hypo:heticai , lause. "'"^'"""'> ' ^''^
338. Suppositions may be of two kinds.
home, I shall «e him." "If y„„, ,«,„ ,. fiS3 Xine i, ,„t^"
II
iii
94
OUTLINES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
m
\v't\
I
nim. If our horse had not fallen lic '
not have missed the train."
liovvn (which he did), we should
°*^' mlod " Xf"'."? ^ -Tf, '" u '■'''■y '"u"'^ '■'»'' ^^^«= »'«« 'he subjunctive
mood. Thus, 1 wish that he were here (which lie is not)."
843. When we make a supposition wiili regard to the future, and state its
ii^y'-"""' ■'*' ^"'-' '■'-•"•arded, he would be encouraged to perse-
In suppositions tht; conjunction // is often omitted. /;' ,. "Had I
known this (;.... If I had known this). I woul.l not have come."
r/^^; ^',^"^^/.b,<r-'""i"R witl' f'"^t often have a ////////>,<,r ox dejinwsr
u ; ^ ''ff'-^'^^n force in relation to an adjective, as " He was vexed
that you did not come " ; " I am sure that he did i[."
COMPOUND SENTENCES.
345. A compound sentence is one which consists of two or
more co-ordmate principal sentences, joined together by co-ordi.
native conjunctions, as "He is happy, but I am not": "Thev
toil not, neither do they spin."
«f?*®" p-°''dinate clauses are grammatically independent cf each
CONTRACTED SENTENCES.
^ 347. When co-ordinate sentences contain either the same sub-
ject, the same predicate, the same object, the same comi)lement
or the same adverbial adjunct to the predicate, it often happens
that the portion which they have in common is expressed only
once. In this case the sentence is said to be contracted.
Exampies.-^^ Neither I nor you have seen that," i.e., " Neither
I [have seen that,] nor you have seen that." "He loved not
t'oot'jll^" ' H° ^1 ' '•'■}■' "^ -'"^^^ "°^ ^i^^Jy' but [he foved
^^too well. Here the predicate is expressed only once.
" ^^IJF'O" purifies and ennobles the soul " ; i.e., " Religion
punhes [the soul] and [religion] ennobles the soul " Here he
subject and the object are expressed only once
R.
>t), I would speak to
:h he dill), we should
e also the subjunctive
he is not)."
J future, and state iis
ihe subjunctive mood
encouraged to perse-
«1. A.^v-. "Had I
t have come."
midiii^ or definmg
as " He was vexed
consists of two or
ther by co-ordi-
mnot"j "They
ependent cf each
nent part of some
er the same sub-
tle comj)Iement,
it often liappens
expressed only
tractod.
It," /..•., " Neither
" He loved not
;Iy, but [he loved]
ily once .
; i.e., "Religion
soul," Here the
SYNTAX.
95
^^caiion/.ari e";retd'!;;riy ont'" "'^' oHnco.nplete pre^di-
"He advances slowly but surolv" . / . « u ■
but [he aclvancoslV/relv'- Her; tb'. ^ advances slowly,
pred.cate are exprissed only onccl ' '°'""'°" '"^^^^"^ '''''^
'w'iterwell'"'^ Horf .r""= '•'■' " ^'« ^^'^^'^ [-->!] and [hel
advS\.^r!icuunj;^^^^s^.rSe: ^"' '''^ -"-^-
SUMMARY OF THE RULES OF SYNTAX
pa?tfof^'!i?l"or^'re"he?e ony;"?o^^",''^'^^*^^>' ^'•^'"' "" P'-^-'in.-
the opportunity of stu^^.^?, -|> S^' ^-J- ll^^r^pd^
CONCORD.
349 In inflected latiguages (like Latin, German, or English in
ts earhest stage, concord means the use of those gramr^^atica^
forms which are congruous with each other. g'-^'^niatical
JS^'^t^^JSil^^^^T^ 'Tr^' ^^- ^-" to a
above kind of concord. It ,s re>Arr^ ^' therefore very little of the
still have the rule that ^^rSx^t^'^'^^ ^''^''^'^'^ 'y M'" ^ve
and person, and that the demons r,H^I^ '^^ f'^^''''^ '" number
must agree in gende a^.d n The, , k ff^""" "f '"^f '^^ird Person
Iftheterm.^Av«<v// is useTfor anv linl k°"^ ^' '^'"'^ '^ ^''-^"^'s-
den()ter.v/^'-^/,//^^//,,.'tI ntis nmZ^ m^^'"""^ t''"'' '' ^^n only
which mitnt be rePe'senteJ brfSrm h?/'''^'"^'^'^''^'''''-^'ations
example, that in " Ae wonL w/^ v^s Wr\^^ "°'- "^^ ^'-^y- ^"^^
agrees n gender with ' woman 'Jl " * ^^^ recovered," ' who.'
af used i/.ha. ^^^:^7^k^^:SS'^^Z. "»' "■= ^""™"'
SYNTAX OF NOUNS.
351. A noun in the nominative case may be used
I. As the subject of a sentence (§ 273)
.j^I^n apposition to a noun or pronoun in the nominative case
'ln^^4?et??rfetn1ro9^^'"^'^'- - Passive Verb of
4- As a Nominative Absolute (§ 291, 5).
5- As a Nominative of Address.
96
OUTLINES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
^ III
362. A noun in the possessive case must be attached to some
other noun, to which it forms an Attributive Adjunct* (S 286 V)
and on which it is sometimes said to depend (see" § 286)
This noun is sometimes omitted when it can readily be supplied
m thought as "I bought this at Smith's [shop]," MVe weilt to
bt. Pauls [church]."
353. A noun in the objective case may i)e used
I. As the direct object of a transitive verb (§ 288)
%ft^'^ot^l ^^''' of a transitive verb, whether active
.> In apposition to a noun or pronoun in the objective cace
^cado?(l 3nf ""'"' "^ ' "■^"'"''^ ""'''^ °^ incomplete predi-
5- In various Adverbial Adjuncts (§§ 291—293).
6. As a Cognate Objective.
7- After Prepositions.
SYNTAX OF ADJECTIVES,
and adjectivelVhich h\"e be^L^sutUtlJSl^'e T7 5 ^"'^'^^"^'^-^'^
a coachhousranJsSbfe ^'^^ ^« G^^'l^^^lnFiZlr^ " ''' '^^
The singular demonstrative adiectives 'earh' nnri «„
present.' ^"^^bJiti-rea , iiach boy ana girl received a
1 lie tables and chairs were in confusion » • " H« ^ofi r n \ '
appes and nears"- « M,r „„V,ii '-""'"^'°'\ > ne gathered all the
_KH_jtnu j^eais , My uncle, aunt, a nd cousin came yesterday."
father' •John's' is a«/«« in the pLS" c,°e t ^^"^'"■' ^^ ^" acijective. In 'John's
too far to say that th. n^un'i.l"tt objS. 'd'Lti'v^rS^ a^.a^t^'rali^a: ""' '' "^ «°'"«
ttached to some
net* (§286,3), I
d (see § 286).
ily be supplied
" We went to
;d
58).
whether active
ijective case,
icomplete precli-
Adjectives are
d substantively
5-
ted befoVe each
saw a liorse, a
aselv connected
; as " He built
sr."
and ' every '
" Every man,
girl received a
my,' ' our,' &c.,
3ugh of course
?and Queen" ;
thcred all the
ne yesterday."
It does not become
-ctive. In 'John's
Cac'haris ' is a noun
lilt a preposition, is
<)' But it is going
b.
SYNTAX.
97
we must say 'the idlUnXhlstrs bo""I'"' *" ^'" ^""^ ^^^^^ '
SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS.
357 Pronouns must agree in Gender, Number, and Person
with the nouns for which they stand. Their case is determ neS
by the construction of the clause in which thev o- t Thus • ' t
do not hke John (o^J.) ; he (/..;;.) is an idle 'boy , '" I know 'the
man (ofy.) whose iJ>oss.) portrait hangs there,' &c.
when, if cprossed, i, would be i.f ",e noSitu!:,' .J^^:/"^'*' ™"«''
be used with reference to Ae Mvid L s o 1 ch 'E'f,'''"' " ""' '"r
both sexes distributed by moans o7?l'e1i^VJ „^ ifi™J ;°-'''^
f^n|/LV:;:^e.eVv^t^t™t.#t'no"£^SH
If an ox gore a man or a woman so that //„ die » (/', ,TS ,81 ■
te!?srs^^■^eS^^';25s,"'°"° *""''' ™- - -"-''"'W'S^p-
SYNTAX OF VERBS.
Concord.
361. The general rule respecting the concord of verbs is that
a verb agrees with its subject in number and person (§ 294).' ' See
soS^^;^.^n|s^ :n^n2ct[:;;lrsf^^'Sr
tUle of a book, &c., must be treated as a singular, as "Johnson's
H
y8
OUTLINES or i:n(;i.ish gkammai
n nw., . ! ""^^ u t "^^'^ °^ S'^""^ interest ;" and generally when
riZ^ ^u- ■ " "^ g"»d distance ;" "Two-thirds of this is mine by
right. Iwice two ,s four." For the usage when the subect is a
col cct.ve noun, see § 296, and for the case of a compound subTect or
«V^, §"97'" ''" ""^^"'"'" '" ^"'"^^ °'^'' """"^ ''^••'-- -i"'""' by mS; of
no?S" K^^'"'"/ ^"bj^'^'s, differing in number, or person, or both, are con-
ccted by .,;/,/, the verb must always be in the plural ; and in^e first
person, ,f one of the subjects is of that person ; in the second person if
one of the subjects is of that person, and none of the first, as, « f anThe
are of the same age,' ' You and I shall be too late.' » ^ ''"a ne
nltefn^'itivP^-'^ h' """""^^'^^ ^y eMer~or and neithcr-nor imply an
alternative. Hence a plural verb cannot be attached to two such
"NdAlr5nhn r""- /"u%^" ^l^'^ken] or Thomas is mistaken";
JNeither John [is mntaken] nor Thomas is mistaken."
^^^' numVer''or°pe'rsoT'''°" '''°"^^ ^ "'"^^"^ '^ "'^ ^"^J^'^'^ ^'^^^ '"
n
Use of tho Moods.
are fupeffluouf!"" ^^^ "^^ °^ ^^^ Indicative and Imperative Moods
367. The rules for the use of the Subjunctive Mood in hypo-
thetical and concessive clauses are given in §§ 340, &c.
l.J^^\^^^ Subjunctive is the proper mood to use after that and
lest m clauses denoting purpose (§ 335).
^.®^" 1\^ present tense of the subjunctive is used to express a wish •
?ou,'^&?. ^"' ^°" " ' " ''"'^ '' ^"''''''" • " ^"-^ ^^^'-y bSg «S
870. The Infinitive Mood may be used
1. As the suLject or object of another verb (§§ 150, 273, 313).
2. With a noun or pronoun in the objective as its subject,
forming a substantive piirase which is the object of another
verb (§ 313).
3. As an Attributive Adjunct to a noun f§ 386, 4), or as an
Adverbial Adjunct to a verb or adjective (§ 291, 2). It is onlv
the gerundial infinitive that can be thus used.
4. As the complement of a verb of incomplete predication
\S 309}-
generally when
be singular, as
his is mine by
le subject is a
unci subject, or
xl by means of
both, are con-
md in the first
icond person if
:, as, ' I and he
-nor imply an
I to two such
act contracted
is mistaken";
ibjects differ in
•ative Moods
'od in hypo-
fter that and
press a wish ;
essing attend
273, m)'
5 its subject,
:t of another
4), or as an
). It is only
predication
ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES.
99
ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES.*
SEPABATION OF LOGICAL SUBJECT AND LOGICAL PEEDICATE.
Examples,
Lo^iiical Subject.
KGramniatual Subject with Attributive
Atijuiuts,)
Our messenger
We
The village preacher's modest man-
sion
The wretched prisoner, overwhelmed
by his misfortunes,
Loi^ical Predicate.
[Prcdicaic I'crb, with Objective and
Aiiuct bial Adjuncts.)
has not arrived.
will carry all our property with
us.
A bird in the hand
rose there.
was on the point of putting an end
to his existence.
is worth two in the bush.
Analysis of the Logical Subject.
372.
The fo lowing example illustrates the separation of the logical
subject into the grammatical subject and ■- ■ ' ^"^ '"S'cal
(§ 270).
its attributive adjuncts
n>;^l^c:lrs;;ZsX^s;r=^:^;ii;\ ^u& .S^;^=^°^ '^-"- -'"«
lOO
OUTLINES OK ICNJUSH GRAMMAR.
e.
enemy,
onset of the
Logical Subject.
Grammatkal Subject. Attributive Adjuncts of Subject.
Soldiers
logical Predicate.
i I. The
j 2. of the tenth legion
3- wearied Ijy their lone
march *"
4- exhausted from want ol
food
were unable to resist
the onset of the
enemy.
Analysis of the Logical Predicate.
■Jot comptIm7a«f :1''"P^'^ ''^ ''^'^' P'-^dicate is separated
Logical Subject.
Logical Predica'e.
Predicate Verb.
The sight of distress
tills
We
will bend
Object,
with Adjuncts.
a benevolent
mind
our course
Adverbial Ad-
juncts.
1. always
2. with com-
passion.
1. thither
2. from oflf the
tossing of
these fiery
waves.
Analysis of both Subject and Predicate.
,374. In the following example both the sttbject and the object of
g march, and
onset of the
t/ Predicate.
lable to resist
inset of the
y-
s separated
'verbial Ad'
jttncfi.
ilways
with com-
lassion.
hither
rom off the I
tossing of
these fiery [
waves.
! object of
ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES.
lot
Atlnlmtive
Adjuncts of
Snhjict.
tidings ; t. The
2. mournful
3. of the death
of his sou
D ... \ ^,. Attributive ■ Adverbial \
Predicate. , Object. , Adjuncts of , Adjuncts of
I 0/>ject. I Predicate, i
filled
heart
'• the . with the
2. proud I iieenest
3 of the anguish
old man I
Analysis of Complex Predicate.
"Thai hero. Mud esmmlly called Ihe saviour of Us eomihy." .
Predicate.
Subject with
Adjuncts. I y^,.(, gjr
lucoinpiete
Predication.
Adverbial Adjuncts of Predicate.
that hero was called
Subjective
Complement.
the saviour
of his
country
Adverbial Ad-
junct of P'erb.
Adverbial
Adjunct of
Complement.
^'This misfortuu^ennl^c^rtcu^ ^^^'p^^i^^Zi^m^^
Subject -with
Adjuncts,
Predicate.
This mis-
fortune
Verb of
fncomplete
Predication.
Objective
Comple-
ment.
Object luith
Adjuncts.
Adverbial Adjuncts of
Predicate.
Adjunct of
Verb,
Adjunct oj
Complement.
will make | miserable the poor
man
certainly j for life
m
(!!
;l
11
102 OUTLINES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Complete Analysis of a Sentence.
foKnJmai^er°3'' ""''"''' °^ '" '^"'^"" '^ ^° ^e conducted in the
J;pm!.n?T"u*''\'"^J*l''' °f the sentence. (See § 271. &c. for a
statement of what the subject may consist of.) ^' '
312). complement make up the entire predicate (§§307-
aaS^e^^ an inttK^t:;^ ^ SJ^^^^ SJ^SS^^^Sl
the'at'dbutive SoTto thS^'H^"'' "'^^fj^^^'^^.^'^^^^^^' *^hich are in
of the con;;iemem of the predS If ' h/wf'^'.' °'" *° ^'if -^^J^^^
infinitive mood (,^ 315) ^ ''^*^' '^ ^^^ '^"e*" ^e a verb in the
in the'adverbTa" Sto^Str; /'/'h'^' °^ ^^^^^Hl^' ^^'''"^" -^ich are
predicate See? 20Tfnrnr.P^^^ '° ^^^ complement of the
F luire. (bee § 291 for a hst of what these may consist of.)
EXAMPLES OF THE ANALYSIS OF SIMPLE
SENTENCES.
Su/yca, 'officer.'
Atti-ibiitive ad-
J tilt its 0/ subject,
I- 'the' ({286, I).
2. 'enraged' (§286, i),
3. ' having ridden up to the spot/ (§ 286 1)
PreJuate made up | Verb of incomplete predication, ' struck.'
J \ Olijcctive complement {\ 312) « dead.'
Object,
Attributive ad- ( i.
juiicts p/ object, \ 2.
''Adverbial ad-
June
eate.
'man.'
'the.'
' unfortunate.
jtmcts o/predi. \ ' \^^^. '''*^ ^F
j 2. witli a single blow of his sword ' (§ 291, 2).
spot ' (J 291, 2).
ticted in the
&c., for a
which may
list of what
incomplete
id indicate
ate (§§ 307-
iject of the
:e predica-
the depen-
liich are in
the object
irb in the
which are
ent of the
PLE
'truck the
I).
ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. jq,
alflis'tl ^If ^'""'^ ^ '""^ ''^ 'ff^''^ ^^^^^ « ^rawn sword riding
Subject, < i_ >
Attributive ad- \ ,
junct of subject, ] coming home.'
Predicate, < saw.'
<^^>A 'officer.'
Attributive ad- \ '• '•'^'?-'
juncts of object, ) ^- ' ^itli a drawn sword ' (5 286. a.)
(3- nding along the street.'
379. " /t is /."
Subject,
Predicate made
up of
It.
{ Verb of incomplete predication, 'is'
( 'Subjective complement, 'I.'
880. " Who are you * ?"
Subject, 'you.'
Predicate made , Verb of incomplete predication, ' are. '
'*poj \ Subjective complement, ' w\ioV
381. "77.. duke will never grant this forfeiture to hold-
Subject, 'duke.'
A ributive ad- \
jurut of subject, S
Predicate,
Objective infinitive \
phrase {\ 2,11) ]
Adverbial ad-
junct of pred.
' the.'
'will grant.'
' this forfeiture to hold.'
1.2).
I ' never. '
382. '' All but one were killed.
say 'neaVa,,.' A^ tre'sar^l' tiS. f/?v'e I'o k Ifs .irsLtncVa:
'All except one were killed," we see that ' exceot one ' TJ "
being excepted- forms a nominative absolute whTchSnMHIv' "?f
anything but the predicate. Similarly 'but one ' m?.?I,f h?,^ ^'', T^
equivalent to Meaning out one,' or 'ff .e leave oSSe '' Titl^
tnen be an adverbial adjunct of the verb similnr J,^^" i-
such a sentence as " N^ne but the brave deSnStheS'' 'u^"
mean euher "None outside the class W. dese ves tl ; fair '" o^
Lc avmg out t he class brave, none deserves the Sir" '
^nJJ^r-lT'hfT "'""^ "-'-rogative sentence is tbe~same as tha7o7"ti;; de'clar^ive
i
104 OUTLINES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
In such a sentence as "Who but a madman would act thus?" it U
simpler to take 'but a ma.lman ' as modifvinn the prcdica e 1.^ n
equivalent to "leaving out the class madman.''^ predicate, bcinn;
ANALYSIS OF COMPLEX SENTENCES.
383 A Substantive Clause (or Noun Sentence, as it is often
called) does the same sort of work in a sentence as a xXoun An
Adjective Clause does the same sort of work as an Adjective An
Adverbial Clause does the same sort of work as an Adverb.
It follows that every subordinate clause is an inte-ral nart of thp
entire sentence, and has the same relation to some cor^^tuent part of
the sentence as if ,t were a noun, an adjective, or an acfvcrb! ^
iniSaJed.''"''^^''' °^ ^ '"'"P''" ''"''"^^' '^''' ^^'''^''"" '""^t be clearly
semtnce^mifs'; fZ^T subordinate clauses, the analysis of the entire
mam sentence and to each other has thus been cSy narked the
grammatical structure of the clauses which thev inirodiS lir, -^m
e^ipredlrTntrs^^S! ^ •"'"■■'"•' -'--"'- T^Srrj
SENTENCES CONTAINING SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES.
I. A Substantive Clause as the Subject of a Verb.
885. " That you have wronged me doth appear m this."
SuhjWt {substau/ive clause), • that you have wronged me ' ( i )
Pnaicatc, 'doth appear.' ^ '"
Adverbial adjunct of predicate, ' in this. '
Subject,
Predicate,
Object,
Analysis of {i).
' you.'
' have wronged. '
'me.'
Irs,
886. " // is not true that he said that."
Temporary or provisional subject, ' it.'
Peal sub/, (substanti-'c clause)^ ' that he said that '
Predicate, made up of I ^„''''/'. "f'"'^'""/^^'^'' predication, 'is.'
., ,. , ,. '^ , \ '^wiecnve contpkment, 'true.'
AdverbtaladjuHct of predicate 'not.'
t thus ? " it is
cdicate, bciii''
it is often
Noun. An
ective. An
verb.
part of the
uent part of
b.
it be clearly
f the entire
? clause wc
^uses to the
narked, the
inciples as
2r into the
No corn-
finite verb
JSES.
'"erb.
(I).
ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES.
387 ^ f ^f "°*^^^ Cl^^^° as the Object of a Verb
387. You k,.o.u very u>ell that I never said so."
105
Subject,
J'mliraU,
' you. '
' know,'
O/'Jcrt (su/,st*,Uivc dausr) 'th^?'ir'n •, ,
Analysis 0/(1).
Subject, , J /
Predicate, .g,^j , ,
A.herlml adjuncts of \ ,. 'n'ever.'
prcauatc, '
■ \ I. 'ne\
I 2. 'so.^
^®®V '\^'-' ""'^''^ ""^ ''"''' ("^'i / ''vas "
•jU/yccr, , I
Predicate, ,,: , ,
Object (substantive claus, ) ' how nlrl r
^'^-■^'ala^l/uncto/^reLt,'^:^ ill! ^^l
Subject ,^,^""^J'^'^o/{i).
Predicate, i ^^>l[ of incomplete predication, ' was '
A^^erbiai adjunct ^^^oi;:^!::,::::^'''':^:?^- '
389 '"\^,!r*'"'^^^ --^^^^ ^^ a Preposition.
389. f should Aave/or,i .. hi,n, but that he repeated the offence "
'^oir^tSi'^lS-^-^l-- P-eded by t^ P-position but, the
have forgiven" (§ 291^ 2). ^'''^''^'^' ^''J""'^' of the predicate "should
SENTENCES CONTAINING ADJECTIVE CLAUSES
•^«^>'' . 'cohort.'
Attributive ad- f '• '^''/''V,?, ' the. '
juncts of subject, | ^- -^'^J'^^^^f^^^^'^^ 'whi.h had already crossed the
Predicate, .^ame.'
Adverbial ad- ( r. 'quickly.'
of predi-\2. 'to blows.
juncts of
cote.
i *• lu UIOWS.
' 3' ' with the enemy.'
I
■ I
; I '
iir
I06 OUTLINES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Analysis 0/ {i).
Subject, 'which.'
Predicate, ' 'had crossed.'
Object, > river. '
Attributive afjiinct to object, ' the.'
Adverbial adjumt to predicate, 'already.' *
392. " Give iiic that large book that you have in your hand.^'
Here the adjective clause "that you have in your Imnd " is in the
attrilnitivc relation to the object 'book.' The relative that is the
object, of itave,
393. " Give me what you have in your hand.*'
Here the adjective clause, "what you have in your hand" is used sub-
stantively, that is, without having its antecedent t/iat expressed. In
the analysis we may either introduce the word tiuU, the object of eive
and set down the relative adjective clause as an attributive adjunct to
It, or >ve may at once call the adjective clause the object of the verb
'give' (J 318).
Care must be taken not to confound adjective clauses like the above
with substantive clauses be^'inning with the interromtive what, as
fell me what he said" (J 319).
894. " His condttcl is noThich as I admire:'
Here aj /admire must be taken as an adjective clause co-ordinate with
such, and forming an aitiibutive adjunct to the noun 'conduct ' under-
stood, which IS the complement of the predicate 'is.' Wj does duty
for a relative pronoun, and is the object of admire (§ 324).
SENTENCES CONTAINING ADVERBIAL CLAUSES.
395. An Adverbial Clause is always in the Adverbial Rela-
tion to a verb, adjective, or adverb ir the whole sentence of
which it forms a part.
When such a clause beprins with a subordinative conjunction, the con-
junction does not enter into the construction of the clause. When the
clause begins with a connective adverb, that adverb must have its own
relation indicated in the analysis.
396. " When, in Salamanca's cave,
Him listed his mai^ic wand to wave.
The bells would ring in Notre Dame."
Subject {voith attributive adjunct), ' the bells.'
Predicate, ' would ring.'
ANALYSIS OF SENTRVCRS.
• hand."
and" is in the
tive that is the
d " is used sub-
expressed. In
object of give,
iitive adjunct to
iect of the verb
like the above
'ative what, as
3-ordinate with
cnduct ' under-
As does duty
14).
^USES.
)rbial Bela-
sentence of
tion, the con-
(. When the
have its own
1-^'^^.^-! '• ^•■'^'^f-^ '-'^-^ i" Salamanca's —
'"''■' ^2. 'in Notre Dame.'
c /• ,, . Analysis of [2).
Suhject {Infinitive \ , ^ '
ptnuc), )• to wave his magic wand.'
oS:"' :{;;;;^-!.'-.. 'pleased.'
Adval'ial adjuncts ( i. 'When '
ofprcduate, l,_ 'in Salamanca's cave'
387. " //. r.n so fast tha: I could not overtah him "
Subject, .,,^,
J rciftcate, < f_^„ >
Adverbial aiiJuHcts 1 'fnLf ' ,.,,/•/■ j,
' ^' '"*^' I could not overtake him ' (3).
Analysis 0/ {2,).
{Adverbial clause co-ordinate with ' so. ')
Subject, «j >
Predicate, \ I'f^f >"<-""N<-'te p-edication, 'could*
I Lomplement, ' overtake,'
Adverbial adjunct 0/ predicate, 'no?
398. " //,- .r/,;/v /^;,,/ ^/,,,^ ^ ^^^.^^^^^ j^^^^ ^^.^^^ „
has become adverl,ial, modifj^ng' spoke!' ""■' ^"' '" '''"'"'' '"^'^""-•).
389. " He is not so wise as he is 7vil1y:'
Subject, < he. '
Predicate, | ^''^'''[c^, '"complete predication, «is»
^/„ /■ / y ^•^"''J'''^'''-''-' (implement, 'wise'
Adverhal adjunct oj predicate, ' not '
Co-ordinate adverbial j , < ^^ .•
Analysis 0/ {i).
(Adverbial clause qualify in<r « wi<;p ' ^„ / ^•
/ y^-'Wi, "^^^^t and co-ordinate with ' so ')
Subject, ' he, '
Predicate, \ ^^"'^."'/''^'^omplete predication, 'is.'
^ /„. / • ; ^^ '^""J'^ctive complement, ' wittv '
^./m-^.«/ a,^«„,/ ^y eomplemcnt, ' as. ' ^"
107
u
Hi
f99
OUTLINES wF ENOLISII (JRAMMAR.
Sh/i/iy/,
Attriliiilive adjuncts
of subject.
Predicate,
400 fSfiaimiiiats Clauses contained within olaiises which
are thomselvos suboiv^mate.
401. "/A- infi-rrcd from this that the opinion of the judire was 2)
that th- prisoner w.is guilty r y A "' " -«;
Sutjcct, 'he.'
Predicate, 'inferred.'
Object, [ ^"^"I'^l^iiitive clause, ' That the ()i)inion of the
,,,,,,. ( ju<lge was that the prisoner Wiui-uilty'd).
Adverbial adjunct of predicate, 'from this' (j 291, 2) «> ' w
Analysis of{i).
'opinion.'
I I. 'the.'
I 2. 'of the judge.'
( Verb of inciHiiplete predication, 'was.'
. Complement (Substantive clause) ' that the
{ . prisoner was guihy ' (2).
Analysis of {2),
Subject [with attributive adjunct), ' the jirisoner.'
Predicate, • -'erb of incomplete predication, 'was.'
( Complement, 'giiilty.'
EXAMPLES OF THE ANALYSIS OF COMPOUND SENTENCES
Alf??'.°i,""?T ^?'^"^.es of this kind require no special discission.
All that has to be done is to analyse each of the co-ordinate clauses
separately, oniutmg the conjunctions by which they nre connected, bS
insertmg not if the conjunctions are neither— vor.
n.fP^i" ^"' l'^*^ greater number of sentences with compound subordi-
nate clauses belong to the class of contracted sentences
CONTRACTED SENTENCES.
404 Before a contracted sentence (§ 347) is analysed thp nnrK
omitted ruust be expressed at full length '^"^lysea, the parts
..,'*?f ■ '\ T'' i''!'"'^^ *''"f i^^ese things not only did not haMen but
could not have happened." In full— nuj^en, our
fit! '. w^ \-^'^^<^<^'^y^ that these things not only did not happen ']
L(b; We perceive that these things could nut have happened."*]
(A) ' Every assertion is true wholly.']
^(h) ' Fvery assertion is true in part.']
(c) • }'v -y assertion is false wholly.']
(D) ' En ^' aisertion is false in part.']
407. Wh:n
neither, nor, tlv.
junction in tho ?.v;
omitted.
. ■ "u late ^ontenccs or clauses are connected by
>i .. e .ip':ai!ve not may be substituted for each con-
' '^ .iie cojtju!:ru->e portion of the words being
::!b.
Lauses which
^ judge was 2)
le opinion of the
;r Wii, guilty'(i).
on, 'was.
ausc) ' that the
«, 'was.'
J^NTENCES
al discnssion.
iinate clauses
onnected, but
lund subordi-
;d, the parts
( happen, but
pen']
ened. ]
vholly or III
onnected by
)r each con-
ivords being
ANALYSIS OF SENTKNCES.
lZ^l:!:'''Ztll- '''''' '"'"''"''' '"'''""" «"'• ^-- goodness, is
ffjf 'Th',": .',";'" ^''".'■^•^■^■'■'••"'-•^•'* n-'t lu.Mc-nessis hateful '1
L(i') J ho man nWu. Joves not guo.h.c^s is hateful. ^ ^
Elliptical Sentences
whicK . .ad., ..pp,..r'!;;'^ttXw;tK t!^2 -iissit
be taken to ascertain r '^ / "/; i w ''• , ^" •'"•I'y.^'ny tlie.n care must
clauses and wlKtt word ufr.tit-.^:;'^,^^^^^^^ '" '"-' ^'^P-''ent
rrccoai„gdemonstSr^.T Jn,'l ,'' ^'"■•^yV--r''i"ate with the
word. '"^ ■^"^ '^"^' modifies (adverbially) the same
Sufyrf, , j^^ ,
Prediiak [{^'''J'."fj>'<:<'»iplete predication 'is'
r%. /• ''^'','y'''''''''''''<'w//^w<7//' 'tall '
Predicate, \ ^/'^' "f ^"^omplete predication, 'am '
:; He does ..o.\;irs"o\Srrf S,;^ S' t">»"ri ■"on.,..-.
He,c ,he .,..„;„ ,„„,, „,„,,,^^ ,^^ ^^^^.^^^^ .^ ^^^ ^^,_^ ^^^^^^^^
indus,riJ^,r™he"f,Tvr-'''" "'""■'' '" f""-"He is ire
__Jle_h^sjv-ri.,e,, m„„ ,e,,,„ .ha„j;o^[have ™«e„ „a„y l«,ers]."
no
OUTLINES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
APPENDIX.
*« i
WORDS BELONGING TO THE TEUTONIC STOCK OF
ENGLISH.
[iVoi/iin^ more is attempted here than a brief classification, with a few
examples],
ANGLO-SAXON CONaTITUENIS OF MODERN ENGLISH.
1. Words constituting the grammatical framework of the language.
Most of these liave been already discussed.
1. Pronouns. 3. Prepositions.
2. Numerals. 4. Conjunctions.
5 Adjectives of irregular comparison.
6. Auxiliary Verbs.
7. All verbs of the strong conjugation (§ 175), together with a large
number of verbs of the weak conjugation (particularly those given in
§ 176).
2. The greater part of the words formed by Teutonic suffixes
(§§ 236-250).
3. Most words denoting common natural objects and phenomena : —
f;
lie ; oak, acorn (i.e. ac-
corn)
a;pl, irpei ; apple
{ESC ; ash
ajspen ; aspen
bitel ; beetle
b:ir ; boar
beofer ; beaver
bco, Wo ; bee
birce ; birch
bla-d [branch) ; blade
boc ; beech
brid [the jvi/»^ of an
animal) ; bird
broc ; brook
clrciT : clay
clam [mud) ; clammy
coc ; cock
comb [valley) ; in names,
as Alcomb, Compton
cran ; crane
cu ; cow
da;g ; day
denu [vallc)') : den {in
names, as Tcuterden)
deor [ariimal) ; deer
ea [water) ; island [i.e.
ealand)
efcn ; evening
eovKe ; earth
fiE^er; feather
fisc ; fish
flod ; flood
frosc ; frog
fugel [bird) ; fowl
gos; goose
hreS ; heath
hafoc ; hawk
hagol ; hail
hors ; horse
hund ; hound
lencten [the spring) ;
Lent
leoht ; light
mona ; moon
regen ; rain
s3e ; sea
snaw ; snow
spearwa ; sparrow
Stan ; stone
sumcr ; summei
sunne [fem.) ; sun
treow ; tree
wreter ; water
woruld ; world
Ijunor ; thunder
APPENDIX.
OCK OF
on, with a few
GLISH.
ihe language.
r with a large
those given in
onic suffixes
lenomena : —
vk
1
e
nd
he spring) ;
t
on
1
,v
parrow
nmei
) ; sun
ter
arid
nder
in
4. Words relating to the house and farm.
a-bacan ; to bake
acer, recer ; acre
aeg {//. acgrii) ; egg,
eyry
hxis; bath
here ; baiiuy
bere-crn (erii=://(7rd') ;
barn
bin (wair <;:;■) ; corn -bin
burd ; board
bra;c ; bivoches
bi'ian Uo nil: ; boor
buc ; buck-ct
bulluca [calf] ; bullock
camb ; comb
ceaf; chalT
cealf; calf
cese, cyse ; cheese
cetcl ; kettle
chicge [l,d[) ; clock
cnedan ; to knead
coc ; cook
cod (bag) ; peascod
cradol ; cradle
croc (/,;/) ; crock-ery
cwearn {mill) ; ciuern
delfan [dig) ; to delve
die; dike, ditch
ealo ; ale
eriaa {to plough) ; to ear
fcarh {little pi.;) ; farrow
feorni {foo,i ) ; farm
foda ; food
furh ; furrow
fyr ; fire
gad ; goad
gKrs ; grass
geard {hedge) ; yard,
garden
grut {//iml) ; groats,
grouts
haufes ; harvest
heorS; hearth
hlaf; loaf
hof {/lo/tse) ; hovel
h riddel {sieve) ; to
liddle
I-rof ; roof
hus ; liouse
hwivte; wheat
Invcol ; wheel
mcolc ; milk
ofen ; oven
01 tgeard {yard for worts
or vegetables) ; orchard
oxa ; ox
u\){han'est) ; reap
sceap ; sheep
wi^gen ; wagon, wain
wudu ; wood
I'a'c; thatch
I'erscan ; to tliresh
5. Words relating to family and kindred.
broSor ; brother
bryd ; bride
cild (//. cildra) ; child
cnapa, cnafa {boy) ;
knave
cyn ; kin
d<)htor ; daughter
flvder ; father
hubonda {householder) ;
husband
modor ; mother
nefa ; nephew
widuwa ; widower
widuwe ; widow
wif {'woman) ; wife
6. Words relating to the parts of the body and natural functions.
ncleow ; ankle
a.dg {/>ag) ; l)elly, bulge,
l)ellows
ban ; bone
biod ; blood
bodig {statui\) ; body
bosm {fold) ; bosom
brae?f ; breath
breost ; breast
ceaca ; cheek
cedwan ; to chew
cin ; chin
cneow ; knee
eage; eye
ear ; ear
earm ; arm
elboga ; elbow
finger ; finger
flx'sc ; flesh
fdt ; foot
fyst ; tlst
gesiht ; sight
gi'ima ; gum
hrer ; hair
hand ; hand
lieafod ; head
heals (neek ; halter
hel ; heel
heorte ; heart
hlist {the sense of
hearing) ; listen
hoh {heel); hough
hricg (l)aek) ; ridge
hrif {Ih'wels) ; midriff
lim ; limb
lippe ; lip
maga stomach) ; maw
nu-aig ; marrow
miW ; mouth
nregl ; nail
nasu ; nose
sculder ; shoulder
seon ; to see
toS ; tooth
tunge J tongue
t'coli ; thigh, thews
kdte ; throat
112
OUTLINES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
I: HI
••J:
li
I,
(.
|]'
L
7- Words denoting common attributive ideas.
l)Ia;c ; black
Mac (/>a/c-) ; blcr
bleo ; blue
brail ; broad
bnV.i ; brown
ceald ; cold
dcarc ; dark
deop ; deep
eald : old
fxgr ; fair
fxtt; fat
fill ; foul
geolo ; yellow
god; good
gra5g ; grey
grt'ne ; green
hal ; hale, whole
heah ; high
heard ; hard
hefig ; heavy
hwivt {s/ia>-/>) ; to whet
hwit ; white
leof {,/<■,?;•) ; lief
rud (red) ; ruddy, ruddle,
ruddock (/Ae robin-red-
breast)
8. Words relating to common actions and things.
acsiau ; to ask
ath ; oath
])eataii ; to beat
IjL'udan ; to bid
bcurgan [to protect) ; bur-
row
beran ; to bear
berstaii ; to burst
biddan ; to l)id
bitan ; to bite
bhysan {to blu-w) ; blast
bledan ; to bleed
brecaii ; to break
bot (n-»iei/y) ; to boot
brucau {to use) ; to i)rook
bugan (to bend) ; l)ough,
elbow
bur [d-velting] ; lic^wer
burh ijort) ; borough
ceap (bari^a/n) ; ' chap-
man, cheapside
ceorl ; churl
ceorfan {to </tt) ; carve
ceosan ; to choose
clypian; to call, jrA'//
cnapa {boy) ; knave
creopan ; to creep
cunian ; to come
cunnan {to ^■/lo-o, to be
aldi)
cwen {-woman) ; queen,
(juean
cwysan ; (s)quash
cwelian, cwellan ; to kill,
to. quell
cweSan ; to say {qnoth)
did {part) ; deal, dole
don ; to do
(Iraidan ; to dread
tlrencan ; to drench
dreogan {to work) ; drudge
drigan ; to dry {drought,
drug)
diincan ; to drink
dwinan {to pine) ; dwindle
dyppan ; to dip
eorl ; earl
etan ; to eat
faran {to gi^ ; fare
fadian {set in order) :
fiddle-faddle
fcallan ; to fall
fodan ; to feed
felan ; to feel
feoh (cattle) ; fee
lleiigan ; to fly
folgian or fyligean ; to
follow
fretan {;^nai() ; fret
galan (to sing); nightin-
gale
gar (dart) to gore
gerefa (companion) ; reeve,
sheriff (-shire-reeve)
gifan ; to give
gitan ; to get
grafan {to dig) ; en-
grave
habban ; to have
ham {dwelling) ; home
helan {tu hide) : hole,
hell
hyran ; to hear
hweorfan {to turn) ;
warp
lar ; lore
leod {people) ; lewd
lie (corpse) ; lychga^e
luf; love
sciran ; to shear
scufan: to shove, scuffle
■&mcM\ {to creep); sneak,
snake
soft (truth) ; sooth
sorh ; sorrow
sped (success) ; speed
si)ri.'can ; to speak
steopan (bereave) ; step-
son
wed (pledge) ; wed-lock
wop (weeping) ; whoop
wa'scan ; to wash
wealcan (to roll) ; walk
weorpan (to throw) j
mould-warp
yrnan ; to run
ma?r ^"^^'^'^ ^'^'^ '^^*^ '^'^^^^'^ '^ leferred to the author's larger gram-
lard
;avy
arp) ; to whet
ite
) ; lief
; ruddy, ruddle.
k [the robin-red-
:o give
:o get
[to dig) ; en-
; to have
■)clliug) ; home
'u hide) ; hole,
to hear
w (to turn) ;
ipk) ; lewd
rf) ; lychga>e
to shear
to shove, scuffle
creep) ; sneak,
'/t) ; sooth
rrow
ress) ; speed
to speak
bereave) ; step-
'ge) ; wed-lock
pi'ig) ; whoop
to wash
[to roll) ; walk
(to tkrozv) ;
■warp
D run
arger gram-
Th« . ™^ CLASSICAL ELEMENT IN ENGLISH
very large number of those of wo%ihbles t^o'''f °'';^""' 'T^ ""
mostly words formed bv F>urL7lJ),f' ^ exceptions being
Most 'monosyllabi; word's ^fSsl te ?f TeTonT"""-"^^?'^ ^""^^•
are derived from Latin and Greek he ireltirom T''-'^'"' ^'"' '"''">'
through French. The following^beL^' ,f u if L s ' - ' '""' '" "'
ace (as)
age (aetatictim).
Old /)-. edage
aid (adjutum)
aim (aestiniare
dean (decanus)
desk I , ,.
dish ) (^''^<="s)
dose (Soirty)
doubt (dubitare)
alms (tKir\ii.oa\ivr\) dress (diriirere)
arch (arcus,
av.;t (amita)
\\o.a\, (balsamum)
base (bassus)
beast (bestia)
beef(boves) ._, ^,^
blame (b asphemia)feign (finge.e)
boil (bulhre) fierce (ferus)
boon (bonus) '
brace (brachium)
brief (brevis)
due (debitum)
duke (dux)
fair (feria)
faith (fides)
fay (fata)
feat (factum)
bull (bulla)
cagef (cavea)
car \
carry | (carrus)
charge )
cape (caput)
cash (capsa)
chafe (calefacere)
chain (catena)
chalk (calx)
chair (cathedra)
chance (cadentia)
charm (carmen)
chase {captiare)
chief (caput)
coin (cuneus)
couch (coUocare)
foil (folium)
force (fortis)
forge (fabrica)
found (fundeie)
fount (fons)
frail (fragilis)
frown (Irons)
fruit (fmctus)
fry (frigere)
glaive (giadius)
gourd cucurbita)
grant (credmtare)
grease (crasus)
grief (gravis)
host (hospit-)
hulk (bKKa.t)
inch (uncia)
jaw (gabata)
jest (gestum)
jet (jactum)
join Cjungo)
male (masculus)
mount (mons)
niece (neptis)
noise (noxial
nurse (nutrix)
ounce (uncia)
pace ]xassus)
paint (pingere)
pair (par)
pay (pacare)
jieace pax)
peach (persica)
place (plateay
plait (plectere)
plea I , .
plead I Placitum
plum (])iunuin)
sauce (salsus)
scarce (ex-scarpttis)
scourge(ex-corrigeic)
seal (sigillum)
search [circare)
seat (sedes)
short (curtus)
siege (assedium)
sir (senior)
sluice (exclusis)
soar (exatirare)
source (surgere)
spice (species)
spouse (sponsus)
sprain (exprimo)
spy (specio)
squad, square (ex-
plunge ///,w/v-,v?;v) " cjuadrare)
point (puncium) stage (staticus)
poor (pauper) -■- ' ' ■
praise (preti.ire)
pray (precari)
Iireach (pr;vdicaie
pray (privda'
count (comes) ^ ^^..^^^
count (computare) joy (gaudium)
cork (cortex) lace (laqueus^
cost (constare)
coy (quietus)
cue (cauda)
cull (colligerc)
dame (domina) ...,„, „,,
daunt (ihmilarc) ula '
lease (laxare]
liege (legins)
lounge (longus)
mace (massa)
■motir (mac.
priest ; presbyter)
print (priinerc)
prize 1
price } P''^'"""
proof (probare)
push (pulsare)
quire (chorus)
quite (quietus)
lave I ""^'''^^
ray (radius)
rear (retro)
rill (rivulus^
river (riparius)
roll (rotulus)
round rotundus)
rule regula)
safe (salvus)
strain (stringo)
strange (extraneus)
strait (strictus)
street (strata)
sue, suit (sequor)
sure (securus)
taint (tinctus)
ta^k (taxare)
taste (taxiiare)
taunt (temptare)
tense (tempus)
tour ( ,
turn I 'o'""^'-e
trah""" \ ("-actus)
treat (tractare)
vaunt (vanitare)
veal (vitulus)
view videre)
void (viduus)
vouch (vocare)
vow (votum)
mesh) sage (sapiens)
The above Tst does not include a larw
Latin origin of which is obvious, such
waste ^vastus)
arge number of nionosvllalilts tl
For further list
T fMotc ttic curious change of b,
see the authdr's larijer grainma
as cede (cedo), long (longiis).
lie
Pi or V, between vowt
> into soft g.
114
If!
OUTLINES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
A List of the principal Latin Words from which
Derivatives are formed in English.*
aim.
act,
Acer {shay/>), acidus (sot,?-), accrhus i,5///.7-) ;
acrid, acerbity, acrimony, acid.
Apuo {I sharpen) ; acute, :iciimen.
Aodes (/w«iv) ; edifice, edify.
Aequus i/ctW) ; equal, equation, adequate,
eiiuity, equivocate, equinox.
A^stimo i. I value): estunate, esteem,
Aistus [tide] ; estuary.
^-.\.^Taxi% (of emilesi duration) ; eternity
Aevum la^-e) ; coeval, primeval.
Ajer (yiV/.r' : agriculture, agrarian.
Ajger (/tea/ ; exaggerate.
Ago 1/ sei in motion, drive, do] ; aeent
agile, agitate.
Alacer {h-isk) : alacrity.
A..ini (other), alter [other of two) ; alien, alter,
alternate.
A\o(I nouiish); alimony, aliment.
A!tus (/,4-/;, deep) ; altitude, e.v:dc
Ainbttio [coiirtingjavour) ; aniliition.
Ambulo (/ luaik) ; amble, soiiiiiaiiibulist,
Amo [I love), amicus [friend:, amor ilovc) ;
amour, anioroii.s, amicable, amiable.
Amoenus pleasant ; amenity.
Ainplus (large) ; ample, amplify
Ango {/ ehoke) ; anxius, anxious, anxiety,
anguish, anger,
Angulus (corner, bend) ■ angle
An.ma(M'a//(), animus (;;;;«</, ; animate, ani-
mal, magnanimous.
Annulua (ring) ; annular.
Annus year, ; annual, anniversary.
Anus (<;/(/ ;cw«««) ; anile.
Aperio (/ open) ; April, aperient.
Apia idee) ; apiary.
AppeUo {/call) ; appellation, appeal.
AptMB if tied) : apto (//it) ; .ndapt, apt.
Aqua (-water) ; aqueous, aqueduct
Aibiter (umpire) ; arbitrate.
Arbor (t>-ee) ; arbour.
Arous {6ou') ; arc, arch.
A deo (/ lur-n) ; ardent, arson
.Aitluus (iteep) ; arduous,
Ai-guo (I prove) ; argue, argument.
Ar.dus (dry) ; arid, aridity.
Arm.l iftttinss) ; arms, armour,
Aro (1 plough); arable,
Ax3 {s/iill) ; art, artist, artifice.
Aitu3 (_;„/«;■), articulus (Utile /oint or fasten-
III:;) ; articulate, article.
Asinus (ass) ; asinine.
A?per I rough) ; exasperate.
Audax (bold) ; audacious, audacity.
Audio (I hear) ; audience, audible,
Augco (/increase); auction author.
Aiu-is tear) ; aurist, auricular.
A'.irura (gold) ; auriferous.
Auspex (one who takes omens from birds) ■
auspicious, '
Auxilium (help) ; au.villnrv
Avarus (greedy) ; avarice, avaricious.
Avidus (eager) ; avidity.
Avis (bird); aviary.
Barba (leard); barb, barber.
Beatus (blessed) ; beatitude.
Bellum (-war) ; belligerent, rebel.
Bene (7oell) ; benediction, benefit
Benignus (kind) ; benign
Bestia (beast) ; beast, bestial.
Bmi /«;,; l^ t2yo) ; binary, combine.
ms(tuiiee); bissextile, bisect.
Brevis (short) ; brief, brevity.
CabaUua (horse) ; cavalry.
Cado, ,f«/. casum (I fall) ; cadence, ac-cident
oc-casion, casual. '
Caed^o, caesum {/cut) ; suicide, incision, con-
Calculus (pebUe) ; calculate.
J^alx I chalk, calcine,
CaUus [hard skin) callosus ; callous.
Campus (plain) ; canij), encamp.
°i-^ ■ ' %^^'""-)< Candidas (white) ■
r»ni?r.^"l' '"«n'^'''"-y. candle, candour.
tanis (dog) ; canine
Canna (reed) ; canal, channel.
rl^m ^^f'/'S):- <-hant, incantation.
CapiUus (hair) ; capillary.
t'apio (/ take), captus (taken) ; captive, capa-
city, accept, recipient.
Caput (head) ; cape, capital, captain, chapter,
precipitate. '
Carbo [eoal) ; carbon ; carboniferous.
^Z'j.an (prison) ; incarcerate
Cardo (hinge) ; cardinal.
Carmen (song) ; charm,
Caro carnis [y?«/0 : carnal, incarnate, charnel-
house, carnival,
Carus (dear) ; charity.
vastus 1 pure) ; chaste.
Casus (falling) ; case, casual,
tausa ; cause j excu.se, accuse.
Caveo (/ take care) ; caution,
tajus holloiv) ; cave, excavate.
Cjedo (/.j^ff) ; cede, precede, cession
Ce.ober (Jrequcnted) \ celebrate,
lieler (gunk) ; celerity.
Celo (/ hide) ; conccil.
Censeo \/ Judge) ; censor, censure,
l/entura (hundred) ; cent, century.
Centrum ; centre, concentrate.
""e'cre""'" '"'''"''''•?"""'''); discern, discreet,
C6Tiai [resolveit) ; certain, certify.
Cesso (f loiter) ; cease, cessation,
Charta(A,/,.,-j; chart, charter, cartoon.
Ungo (/gird) ; cincture, succinct,
Ciroum (round), circus (a circle); circle,
^ circulate, circuit,
vito ;7 :v:ise) ; cit.ition, excite.
• In most cases caly a few samples of the English derivatives are given.
which
avaricious.
le.
. rebel.
benefit.
il.
combine.
;ct.
ky.
cidence, ac-cident,
icide, incision, con-
; callous,
camp.
caiididus [white
die, candour.
nation.
n) ; captive, capa-
, captain, chapter,
miferous.
incarnate, charnel-
•; chastise.
al.
>e.
ite.
:ession
'ate.
isure,
itury.
discern, discreet,
rtify.
ion.
r, cartoon,
inct.
circle) ; circle.
en.
LATIN DERIVATIVES.
115
Givia (cifizen/ ; civil, civic, city.
OUmo (/ shaiti) ; claim, claiii.jur
Ojarus (ir/^/ii) ; dear, clarify.
(ilMsia; cl.iss, classic.
Cla.\io(/s/iia); close, exclude.
Cjeraans (w/VV/) ; clemency, mcx-ment
CUno (/ /vmi) ; incline, declension,
(.■iivui {slOf^ins ground) : decl.vuy
Coelebs (bachelor) ; celibacy.
Coslum {heaven) ; celestial
Cogito (/ think) ; cogitate.
CoposoD (/ examine^ ; Ttco^nhi
00 / till) ; culture, cultivate, colony.
t/Olor ; colour,
Com-.i (companion): concomitant, count
Oo.Ti.ijortas (convenient): commodious.
ooaimu.us ; conmiou, community,
toatra (against) ; counter, conirarv
Oopia(/A«/v); cop.Qus
r^^MwVV'v'j' '"-'•'■?'''•''•) : copul.•ui^■e.
Co],i3(/A«/); cook, decoction.
Oor, crdis, (heart): mrai.il, concord.
Coroni; crown, coronation,
Coi-puj (/W,'); corps, corpse ino.r,,orate
corporeal, corpulent,
Cras (lo-inorroiv) ; procrastinate.
Cr^d.i ([ belui>e): creed, incredible, crec'it
troa; create.
Creaio (/ grou^ ; increa.se, crescent
Onmop (,/,a>y<0 ; crime, criminal,
Orul.ij (raii^ crudelis ; cruel, crude.
U-ux (cross) ; cru.sade, crucify.
r,'!vA,'i";"'/" ^''/"'l' ■'^1'='^"'"'^' recumbent
Cubitus (a lend, elbow) ; cubit
Culp.i (/rt„/^) ; inculpate, culpable
Cum-Alus (heafy ; accumulate.
Cupidus (eager) ; cupid, cupidity,
Cuia (care) ; cure, curious, procure,
I'Urro, cursum (/ run); concur, discursive
current, course.
C ir/us (bent) ; curve.
Oustodia [guard) ; custody.
J);xmnoi damn, co."^emn.
Debeo, debitum (/ , ,;«; ■ debt, debit.
Dfibihs [weak) : debility.
Decern (ten 1 ; Decemuer, decimal
Deoens {becoming) ; decent, decorous. '
Census ; dense, condense.
Dens tooth) ; dentist, trid.-nt, indent.
Desidero (/ lon^for' ; d.s.re, desiderate.
Ueus (God) : deity, de fv, deodaiid
Vextie [right] ; dexterity.
DiCO, dictum (/ sayi: contradict, predict
diction, dictate. '
Dies {day): diary, diurnal.
Digitus [^nger) ; digit, digital,
V\sn\l3{worthv) : condign, dignity, deign
Di30. 1/ lear,,): disciple, discipline. ^
iJ;Vido; divide, division.
Divinus ; divine, divination.
Dp, datum (/ give) : dative, add, date.
JJopeo (/ teach) ; docile, doctor
Joior (r>-/c/). doleo (/ grieve) ; dolorous.
condole.
Doiiio (/ tame) ; indomitable.
Doraus (house) ; domestic, dome.
iJOIhinua {master) ; dominate, domain.
i'Oiio (//resent) ; donation, condone.
^ormio (/ slee/) ; dormant, dormitory.
DublUS (,/,;«#//„/; ; doubt, dubious,
"adduce'™ ^^ '''■""''• '■'"'• (-'o'Hlucl, duke.
Duo (Crc,)) ; dual, duet, duel
Durus (hard) ; endure, durable.
^hviMiy, unken] ; ebriety, inebriate.
£co (/ eat] ; edible.
Ego (/,, ; egotist.
Enio (/ ^,y,j ; redeem, exempt.
£0, ivi, itum [I go, : exit, initial,
iquua [horse\ eqnes i//(,ri.wrt«) ; equine
equerrv, equitation. equine,
aiferra'-"''''''' ' ^"' ^"°^' "'°"''°''^' erratic,
Sxamino \ I weigh) ; examine.
±;:;3mpluin ; example, ^ample.
Exeroeo ; exercise.
|xp.,dio [/set free) ; expedite, expedient.
:b.xperior (//^_j,) ; exp.-rt, experience
■p»K,^u' w'-'f/f ""• '■"i'""'''-' : fabric,
f;abula (/.^^/,. story) ; foble. fobulous.
facies {make) ; face, superficial.
Faoilis (.■ay,) ; facile, difiiciilty.
Faoio (/ make do) ; fact, faction, alTect, de-
ficient, benefactor, perfect, feat,
f>iUo '/deceive) : false, fallible.
i3.ia3.yeport) ; fame, infamous.
f aniilia ; family, familiar.
ians (iA'«Xv«(,'), fatum [what is sfioken) ■
infant, fate, fatal. ■^ '
Fanum [temple) ; fane, profane.
xaveo ; favour.
Febris ; feser, febrile.
Felis (cat) : feline.
Fehx (/;<T//y) • felicity
ienuna (woman) ; feminine, effeminate.
lendoj/ strike): defend, fence.
dilate, translate.
Ferox ; ferocious, ferocity,
^errum [iron) ; ferruginous,
ierveo (/.Ja/V) ; fervent, fervid,
iestus (solemn) ; festive, feast
Fides (faith) fido (/ trust) ; fidelity, confide,
penidy, defy. '
Figo, fixum {/fasten) ; fix, crucifix.
Films [son ; filial, aflSliate.
iindo. fissum (/ cleave) ; fissure
Fingo (/ .r//a/«<-) ; fiction, figure, feign,
iinis (end) ; final, confine, infinitive
^rnnus ; firm, confirm, aflSrm.
iiscus (treasury) ; fiscal, confiscate.
Flagro (/ burn) ; flagrant.
Flamraa; flame, inflammation.
?w f ,"7 (/ /"W) i infiate, flatulent.
F eoto (/ boui) ; deflect, flexible.
Fhgo< /strike) : afflict, profligate.
Flos ( flower) ; florid, flourish.
FlUO. fluxum [/flow), fluctus [wave) ; flux.
influence, fluid.
Fodio, fossum (/ dig) ; fosse, fossil.
Folium (/^a/) ; foliage, trefoil.
ions ; fount, foumaiii.
Fonna ; form, reform, inform.
Fomudo [fear) ; formidable.
Fors, fortuna ; fortune.
Fortis [strong) ; fortify, fortress.
ii6
OUTLINES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
li';
nil;
'fll
ill 'I.
u
Frango, fractum (/ ireak) ; fragile, frail, in-
fringe, infraction, fragment, fracture.
Frater (brot/ier); fraternal, fratricide.
Fraus, fraudis ; fraud.
Frigus (co/d) ; frigid, refrigerate.
Frons; front, affront, frontispiece.
Fructus (Jruit], fruor (/ enjoy) ; fruit,
fructify, fruition, frugal,
Fri;stra [in vain] ; frustrate.
Fugio {I Jiee): fugitive, refuge.
Fulgeo (/ lighten) ; refulgent.
Fuliiien [tJiiinderholt] ; fulminate.
Fumus (smoke) ; fumigate, fume.
Fundo (/ pour) ; foundry, refund, confound,
confuse.
Fundus {bottom) ; found, foundation.
Fungor (/ discharge) ; function.
Funus; funeral.
Fur (thief) furtive.
Gelu [ice) ; gelid, congeal, jelly.
Gens (taee), gigno (root gen-), / fieget :
genus (kind); gentile, generate, gender,
degenerate, general, gentle.
Gero, gestum (I bear); gesture, suggest, belli-
gerent.
Glacies {ice) ; glass, glacial, glazier.
Gloria; glory. '
Gradus {step), gradior (/ tvaik) ; grade, di-
gression, transgress, aggression.
Grandis (large) ; grand, aggrandize.
Gratip,; grace, gratuitous, gratis.
Grattis; grateful, gratitude.
Gravis i heavy) ; grave, grief
Grex {flock) ; gregarious, congregate.
Gubemo (I pilot) ; govern.
Habeo (/ have) ; have, habit, prohibit.
Habito [dwell] ; habitation, inhabit.
Haereo (/ stick) ; adhere, hcsiiaie.
Haeres (heir) ; inherit, hereditary.
Halo (/ breathe); exhale, inhae.
Haurio, haustum (/ draw) ; c.\haust.
Herba | herb, herbaceous.
Hibemus (wintry) ; hibernate.
Homo )nan\ ; human, homicide.
Honestus; honest.
Honor; honour, honorary.
Horreo (/ shudder) ; horror, Iiorrid, abhor.
Hortor; exhort.
Hortus {garden): horticultuie.
Hospes guest) ; hospitable, host.
Hostis ■nemy) ; hostile
Humeo \I am wet) ; humid, humour.
Humus grouttit) ; exhume, humble,
Ignia (fire) ; ignite, igneous.
Ignoro ; ignore, ignorant.
Imago; image, imagine.
Impero (/ command] , empire, imperious,
imperative.
Indico {/point); indicate.
Inferus (loio) ; inferior, infernal.
Ingenium (talent) ; ingenious.
Ingenuus (native) ; ingenuity.
Insula (island) ; insulate.
Integer (whole) ; integral, integrity.
Inteuigo (/perceive) ; intelligent, intellect
Invito; invite
Ira (anger) ; ire, irate, irascible.
Irrito (/provoke) ; irritate'
Iterum (again) ; reiterate.
Iter, itineris {journey) ; itinerant.
Jaoeo (/ lie down) ; adjacent.
Jaoio, j.actum (/ throtu) ; eject, object, ad-
jective, conjecture.
Jocus ; joke, jocul.ir.
Judex ; judge, judicious, prejudice.
Jugum IjvA-e) ; conjugal, conjugate.
Jingo, junctiim ; join, joint, juncture, con-
junction, Mijunction.
Juro {/ swear ;; conjure, jury, perjury.
Jus I justice), Justus (Just) : iust, injurj',
jurisdiction.
Juvenis (young) ; juvenile, junior.
Labor ; labour, laboratory.
Labor (/ slide) ; lapse, collapse.
Lao milk); lacteal, lactic.
Liedo, laesum (/ dash or hurt) ; lesion, elide,
collision.
Lapis (stone) ; lapidary, dilapidate.
Latus (broad); latitude.
Latus (side) ; lateral, equilateral.
Laus, laudis (praise) ; laud, laudable.
Lavo (/wash); lavatory, lave.
Laxus ijoose) ; lax, relax.
Lego (/ depute) ; legate, legacy
Lego, lectum (/ gather) ; collect, elect, lec-
ture, college, legion.
Levis (li^ht), levo (/ /,/t) ; levity, alleviate,
relieve, elevate.
Lex, legis (law ; legal, legislate.
Liber {free) . liberal, deliver.
Liber (book) ; library, libel.
Licet (it is lawful) ; licence, illicit,
LigT (/ tie): oblige, religion, league.
Limes (boundary) ; limit.
Linea; hue. lineal.
Lingua [tongue] : linguist, language.
Linquo, lictiim (/ leave); relinquish, relict.
Liquor, liquidus ; liquid, liquefy.
Litora; letter, literal, illiterate.
Locus (place) ; locate, local, locomotion.
Longus ; long, longitude, elongate.
Loquor (/ speak), loquax ; elocution, loqua-
cious, colloquy, eloquent.
Lucrum i^ai?i) ; lucrative, lucre.
Lurto, lusuin (/ play) ; elude, prelude, illusion,
ludicrous.
Lumen (light) ; luminous, illuminate.
Luna, (moon) \ lunar, lunatic.
Luo (/ 7vash); dilute, ablution.
l,\\itrVim(pHriJicat!on): luslre, il ustrate.
Lux (light) ; lucid, elucidate,
itfagister ; magistrate, master.
Magnus (,gn'(i/J, m.njor (greater) ; inagiKtude,
m.ajesty, mayor.
W.ilus (badi ; malice, maltreat, malady
Mamma ■ breast); mamma, mammalia.
Tllando (commit, enjoin) ; mandate, cuninr.nd,
Maneo, mansum / remain] ; mansion, remain,
remnant, permanent.
Manus {/;«;«/) ; m.nnual, manufactory, manu-
script, niaintr.in, manacle, emancipate,
manumit.
Kare , wi); marine, mariner.
Msrs ; martial.
Mater (mother) ; maternal, matricide, mStron,
matrimony.
tincrant.
eat.
; eject, object, ad-
prejudice,
conjugate,
ioiiit, juncture, con-
jiry, perjury.
'ust) : just, injur)',
;, junior,
lapse.
/tiirt) ; lesion, elide,
[lapidate.
lateral.
d, laudable,
ave.
Egacy
collect, elect, lec-
I ; levity, alleviate,
jislate.
er.
:e, illicit,
on, league.
language,
relinquish, relict,
quefy.
rate.
1, locomotion,
longate.
; elocution, loqua-
n.
ucre.
e, prelude, illusion,
illuminate.
ic.
ion.
sire, il usliate.
B.
ter.
atcr) ; inayiutude,
?nt, malady
maniinali.T,
landate, conun.nd.
; mansion, remain,
anufaclory. manu-
lacle, emancipate.
matricide, mStron,
LATIN DKRIVATIVES.
Matena {timber, stuff) ; matter, material.
Waturus (r//,-) ; mature, piemaiure.
Medeor U heal] ; remedy, medicme.
Mediug (middle) j mediator, immediate.
Melior (better) : ameliorate.
Memor (mind/ul). memiiii (/ remember) ■
remember, memory, commemorate.
Mendax (/)'/;/<,-) , mendacious.
Mendious (Avi,'.i^J ; mendicant.
Mendum (fault); mend, emendation.
Mens, mentis [mind] ; mental, vehement.
Blereo {/ dtseri'e) ; merit.
Mergo (//./««i^c) ; immerse emergency
merx (wares): merchant, market,
ffietior, mensiis sum (/ measure) : immense,
mensuration, measure.
Kiles (soldier) ; military, militate.
Mi\le(t/i,>itsaK,0; mile, million.
miniater (seri'aiif) ; minister, mini.stry.
fflmor (less), minuo (/ lessen) ; diminish
minority, mmuie.
Miror (/ admire) ; admire, miracle
fflisceo, mixtum (/ mi.i); miscellany, pro-
miscuous.
Miser (wretched) ; miser, misery.
Mitto, missum (I send); admit, permit, pro-
mise, mission, missile.
Modus (measure) ; mode, mood, model, mode-
rate, modest, modulation.
Mola i mill, me.al, molar, immolate, emolument
aiie miller s perquisite)
mt\h.i(so/t); emollient, mollify.
Moneo (/ %uarn); admonish, monument
monster, monitor
Mons; mount, mountain, surmount, promon-
tory.
MoHBtro (/ sIio'm) ; demonstrate.
Morbus (disease)-, morbific, morbid
Mordeo, m9rsum (/ Me) ; remorse, morsel
Mors, mortis (death) ; mortal, mortuary
fflos, mons (custom) ; moral
Moveo. motum (/ mcwe). mobilis ; move
motive, moment, mobility, emotion
Multus (many) : multitude, multiple.
Mumo (fortify^ ; munition, muniment.
MMliy.'/'^'-^^^'^'"'''\= '•pmiuienite, immunity.
Murus (ivall) ; mural, intramural
fflus . (muse) ; music, amuse, museum.
Muto (/ change); mut.able, comimue.
warro ; narrate, narrative
Nascor, natus sum (/ am bom); nascent
native, nation, cognate, nature.
Wavis (s/it/>); naval, navigate, navy
SmiU. (sailor); nautical, nautilus.
Necto. nexum (/ tie) ■ connect, annex.
«ego (/ deny) ; negation, renegade.
Negotimn (business) ; negotiate
Kervus (j/>-/«^) ; nerve, enervate.
IJiger (blaci-) ; negro.
Nihil (nothing) : annihilate.
Nooeo (/ /,„,-/■) ; innocent, noxious.
ao-soo, notum (/ hno-u,) ; no-men (name), no-
pilLS (noble) ; noun name, nominal, noble,
ignominy, note, notion.
Non (not) ; non-entity, non-ace
Norma (rule); normal, enormous.
Novem (nine); November.
117
Novus («ra/) ; novel, renovate, novice.
Nox (nig/it) ; nocturnal, equinox.
Mubo (/ marry) ; nuptial, connubial.
Nudus (naked); nude, denude.
NuUus (none) ; nullity, annul.
Numerus (number) ; numeral, enumerate.
Wuntio ; announce, renounce.
Nutrio (/ nourish) ; nutritious.
Obhvio (from liv-idus) ; oblivion
T^JT-^'^^n'-^ /"'/</./); occupy, occupation.
Ccto (etgnt) ; octave. October.
Oc'ilus (eye, bud\ ; ocular, oculist
Odium (hatred) ; odious, odium
Odor (smelC) ; odour, odorous.
Offioium((/«/_j'); office, officious.
Omen; ominous, abominate.
Omnis (all) ; omnipotent, omnibus
Onus, oneris (toad) ; onerous, exonerate
Opinor (/ think) ; opine, opinion.
OptO (/ desire) ; option, adopt.
Opus, opeiis (work); operate.
Orbis (circle); orbit, exorbitant.
Ordo (order) ; ordain, ordinary.
Orior, ortus (/ rise); origin, abortive.
Uro (/ speak) ; orator, .adore.
Os, oris (mouth) ; oral
Osculor (/ kiss) ; oscillate.
Ovum ((;^i,>-) ; oviparous oval.
Pagus (village) ; pagan, peasant.
Va.WiVim (cloak) ; pall, paiMiate.
Palpo (/ stroke) ; palpable, palpitate,
j Palus (stake) ; pale, palLsade, impale.
Pando, pansum and passuin (/ spread) ■ ex-
pand," expanse, comp.ass.
I Par (equal) ; peer, compare.
Pareo (/ appear) ; apparent.
Pano (/ bring forth) ; parent, viviparous.
Paro (/ put prepare) ; repair, compare,
i-ars (AjrC); partition, party, particle, parti-
ciple, parse, particular.
%'^''°^y^^^'f''\(.Ueed); pasture, pastor.
Pater (father) ; paternal, patron, patrimony,
patrician. '^ ■"
Patna (country) ; patriot, expatriate.
Paf-nl; F'^'"^ ^' '"ff""!-' P'-"ient, passion.
pauper (poor); pauper, poverty
Pax, pacis (Peace) : pacific.
Peetui (breast); pectoral, expectorate.
reounia (money) ; pecuniary.
p!n5i///' f'"^ : compel, repulse, pulse.
Pendeo (^ //„„^); pendo, pensum (/ hang or
7veig/i); depend, pension, recompc^nse,
perpendicular. '
Penetro (/ pierce) ; penetrate.
Perdo (/ lose) ; perdition.
Persona (mask); person.
Pes, pedis (>,/); pedal, pedestrian, impede,
expedite, biped.
Pestis (plague); pest, pestilence.
Peto, petitum (ask, seek); petition, compete,
repeat, appetite. ^ '
Pingo, pictum (paint) ; .depict, picture.
P}io(/ steal) ; pillage, compile
Pius {dutiful) ; piou-, piety, pity
Paoeo (///.•««■); placid, pleasant.
Plaiita; pl.mt, plantation.
Planus (Ie7,e0 : plane, plain.
Plaudo (/ clap) ; applaud, plausible.
«a^
ii8
OUTLINES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
.14
IP
■I J
I
Pleba (cnmmoitalty) ; plebeian.
PJeoto (/ weave) ; complex, perplex,
Pleo(/yf//); pleiuis (/«//); plenary, com-
plete, replete, supply.
Plioo (/>/,/); apply, comply, duplicity,
double, complex, pliable.
Ploro (/ wir/>): deplore, explore.
Plumbum (leaii); plumber, plummet.
Plus, pluris {mon) ; plural, .surplus.
Poona (/i>ic), punio (Jiuiiish) ; penal, punitive,
repcii't, uenance, penitent.
Polio I polish, polite.
Pondus (weight) ; pound, ponder.
Pono, positum (//lace) ; impose, deposit, com-
pound, position.
Populus ( Av»/A) ; popular, publish.
Porta (tloor) ; portal, portico, porthole.
roito(/ carry); export, important.
Portus (harhour) ; port.
FosBum (/ can) ; possible, potent.
Post (after) ; posterity.
Praeda (/>lumier) predatory, prey.
Preoor (/ /nij/) ; deprecate, precariou.s.
Prehendo (I grasfy: apprehend, comprehend.
Premo, pressum (I press) ; express.
Primus (first) ; primeval, primrose.
Prinoep«(;«W«ff); principal. i
Pnvo (/ deprive) ; deprive, private.
Probo (/ make goni) ; prove, probable, re-
probate.
Frobus (honest, good) \ probity.
Prop«(«m>-), '^xo\\mwi(Hearest)\ propinquity,
proximate.
Proprius (one's o^vn) ; property, propriety.
Pudor (j/(rt;«f), pudet; impudent,
Puer (boy) : puerile.
Pugno (/ figitt) ; pugnacious, impugn.
Pungo, punctum (I prick) ; pungent, puncture,
expunge, point.
Purgo (/ cleanse) ; purge, purgatory.
Purus; pure, purify.
Puto (I cut, calculate, think); amputate, com-
pute, count, depute.
Guaoro, quaesitum (/ seek) ; question, inquire
(]Uery, exquisite.
auahs (of which kind) ; quality, qualify
QM3.nt\Xi(hoju great): quantity
Quatio, quassum, cutio, cussum (/ s/iake);
quash, percussion, discu.ss.
auartus (fourth), quadra (square) quar*
(|uarter, qu.idrant, quadratic.
Queror (/ complain) ; querulous.
Quies (rest) : quiet, acquiesce.
Radius (ray) ; radius, radi.ite.
K-adix (root) ; radical, eradicate I
Rado, rasum (/ scrape) ; erase, razor.
Rapio (/ snatc/i) ; rapid, rapture, rapine, rapa- :
Clous, ravish, ravage.
Rarus (thin) ; rare, rarefy. i
Ratio (reckoning) ; reason, rational. j
SAt\M (reckoned) ; ratify, rate
Rego (/ make straight); regular, direct,
regent, regiment, rector, rectify.
Rex (king) ; regal, regicide.
Regnum ; reign, regnant. j
Repo (/ cicep) ; reptile, surreptitious. ,
Res (thing) ; real, republic. '
Bideo, risum (/ laugh) ; deride, risible. I
|igeo(/ni»ij/«if); rigid, rigour.
Ritus; rite, ritual.
Rivus (hook), rivalis (having the same brook
in common); river, rival, derive, rivulet.
Kobur (oak, strength) ; robust, corroborate.
Roio, rnmm (/ gnaw); corrode, corrosion.
Rogo (I ask); arrogate, prorogue.
Rota (wheel) ; rotate, rotary.
Rotundua; round, rotund.
Rudis (untaught) ; rude, erudite.
Rumpo, ruptum (/ break); rupture, eruption,
corrupt, bankrupt.
Ruo (/ rush); ruin.
Rus, ruris (country) ; rustic, rural.
Saoer (sacred), sacerdos (priest) ; sacred, sacri-
iice, sacerdotal.
Sagai (knowing) ; sage, .sagacious, presage.
Hal ; salt, saline, salary.
Salio, saltum, sultiim (//<•«/) ; salient, assriil
assault, salmon (t/ie leap'n^' fish), insult. '
»ajus, s:i\MK (safety); salute, salutary.
Balvus (safe) ; .salvation, saviour.
Sanottis (holy) ; saint, sanctify
Sanguis (blood) : sanguinary.
Bono (/ make sound) ; sanative, sanatory.
Sanus (sound) ; sane, sanity, sanit.iry.
Bapio (/ taste, am wise), sapor (taste);
savour, sapient, insipid.
Satis {enoug/i), satiir ( full), satio (/ fill) ;
satiate, saturate, satisfy.
Soando (/ climb) ; scan, ascend, descend.
Bcindo, scissiim (/ split) ; rescind, scissors
Bolo (/ know) ; science, prescience, omni-
science, conscious.
Soribo, scriptum (/write); scribe, describe,
scnplure, postscript.
Sorutor (/ examine) ; scrutiny.
Seoo, sectum (/ cut); sect", section, dissect
segment, secant,
Sedeo, sessum (/ sit), sido (/ set); session
.sedentary, sedinr^ent, possess, subside,
assiduous, consider.
Senex (old-man) ; senile, senate.
Seiitio (/ feel, think), sensus (feelim;) ; scent,
sentence, assent, sense.
Sepelio (/ bury) ; sepulture, sepulchre.
Septem (seveii); September, septennial.
Sequor secutus [I follow), secundiis (follow,
ing) . .sequence, sequel, consequent, perse-
cute, second.
Sero, sertum (/ set in a row); insert, exe,:,
desert, series, sermon.
Semen 'seed); seminary, disseminate.
Servus (slave), servio (/ serve), servo (/ jvatch
or preserve) ;_ .serf, servile, servant, pre-
serve, deserve.
Sidus (star); sidereal.
Signum ; sign, signal, resign.
^^0 [I am silent); silent, silence.
Similis (like) ; similar, assimilate, resemble,
simulate.
Singuli (one by one) ; single, singular.
Ststo [/stop, I stand); consist, insist.
Booms (companion) ; social, society.
Sol (sun) ; solar, solstice.
Solidus ; solid, solder.
Solor ; con-.sole, solace.
Solus (aloiie) ; solitude, desolate.
rigour.
ing the same brook
al, derive, rivulet,
list, corroborate,
•rode, corrosion,
irogue.
•y-
iidite.
rupture, eruption,
:, rural.
ieif) ; sacred, sacri-
gacious, presage.
if) ; salient, assail,
fiiui Jis/i), insult,
te, salutary,
viour.
ify
y.
live, sanatory.
y, sanitary.
?), sapor (taste) ;
0, satio (/ Jill) ;
end. descend,
escind, scissors
prescience, omni-
scribe, describe,
iny.
;', section, dissect,
(/ set); session,
possess, subside,
late.
i (feeling); scent,
sepulchre.
septennial,
secundus (fo/hm-
consequent, perse-
('); insert, e.\er:,
seminate.
e), servo (/ watch
ile, servant, pre-
tence.
milate, resemble,
inpular.
St, insist,
ociety.
LATIN DERIVATIVES.
119
ate.
Solvo, solutum (/ loosen) ; solve, solution.
jnug; sound, sonorous, consonant
Spareo, sparsum (/ streiv) : sparse, disperse.
opatium ; space, spacious, expatiate.
Speoio, specturn (/ looi-). species (appearance,
kind) \ special, respect, spectator, despise,
suspicion.
Spero (/ hope) \ despair, desperate.
Spiro (/ breathe), spiritus (breath) ; spirit,
aspire, conspire.
Splondeo(/i///«") : spl.-nJo'ir splendid.
Spondeo, sponsum (/ promise) j sponsor re-
spond, despon 1.
Stemo, stratum (/ th>o:v down); prostrate,
consternation.
Stirps (/•<".'); e.xtirpate.
Sto, statutn (/ stan-t) ; station stature, stable,
distant, obstacle ariiistice, substance.
Statuo(/ set up); statuj. statute.
Stringo, strictum (/ tight,jn) : stringent, strain,
strict, strait.
Struo, structum (I pile up) ; construct, destroy
construe. '
Studium (zeal) ; study.
Stupeo (/am amxzeii) ; stupid.
Suadeo (/ adi'isc) ; suasion, persiwle.
Sum (lam), rootes. una (being) ; eniity, pre-
sent. FiUurus (about to be) : future.
Summus (highest) ; sum, summit.
Sumo, sumptum (/ tah^; a.ssume, consume,
consumption.
Super (abmv) ; superior, supreme.
Surgo (/ rise) ; sur^'e, resurrection
Taoeo (/am silent): tacit, taciturn.
Tango, t.actum (/ ^o«f/;) t.act, contact, con-
tagion, contiguous, attain, attach.
Tardus (slow) ; retard, tardy
'Iego,tect\\m(/ cover): protect integument.
Temno (/ despise) ; contemn
Tempero (/ moderate) ; temperate, temper.
Templura; temple, contemplate.
Tembus (^/;«,) ; temporal, tense.
Tendo, tensum (/ stretch); contend, intend,
tense, tension.
Teneo, tentum (/ //,;.',/); tenant, tenacious,
tenour, retain, content, retinue, con-
tinuous.
Tento or tempto (/ try) ; tempt attempt.
Termmua (boundary) ; term, terminate.
Tero, tritum(/ rub); trite, contrition.
Terra (earth); terrestrial, terrene, inter,
terrier, terrace.
Teneo (I frighten): terrify, terror, deter.
Testis (witness); testify, testimony, attest,
detest, protest.
Texo, textum (/ weave) ; text, context, texture,
textile
Timeo (/ /ear) ; timid.
Torqueo, tortum (/ t^vist); torsion, contort,
torture, torment.
Torreo, tostum (/parch) ; torrid, toast.
Totus (w/w/f) ; total.
Traho, tnactum (/ draw) ; treat, tract, attract.
Tremo (/ tremble) ; tremour, tremendous.
Trss, tria (,'.'(m') ; trefoil, trident, trinity.
Tribuo (/ assign) ; tribute.
Tribus ; tribe tribura.
Trudo, trusum (/ thrust) ; extrude, intrusion.
I TueoT(/ protect); tuition, tutor.
Tumeo (/ s^ivll); tumid, tumult.
Tundo, tusuin (/ thump); contusion.
Turba(wy/.); turbulent, turbid.
Vlbra (beyond), ulterior (further), ultlmus
i/urr/test); ulterior, ultimate, penult
ym\iTx (shade); umbrage, umbrella
Unoia(„ twelfth part); ounce, inch, uncial.
Unguo. unctum (I anoint) ; unguent, ointment
unction.
Unda (wave): .abound, redound, abundant.
inundate, undulate.
Unus (one) ; union, unit, triune, uniform, uni-
verse, unique.
Urbs {city) ; urban, suburb.
TTf geo (/ press) ; urge, urgent.
Uro usium (/ bum) ; combustion.
L;tor, usus (/ use) ; use utility, usury.
\.ioo (/ am unoccupied); vacant, vacation,
vacate, vacuum, evacuate.
Vagor (/ wander), vagus (wandering) ; vacue.
v.iurant, vagabond.
Valeo (.' am strong); valid, valour, value,
avail, prevail.
VanuB (empty) ; vain, vanity.
VaTor (steam) ; vapour, evaporate.
Veho, vectum (/ carry); convey convex,
inveigh, vehicle.
Velio, vulsum (/ //w.t) ; convulse, revulsion
Velum .>Tr»v«^)j veil, reveal, develop.
Vendo (/ sell) ; vend, venal.
Ven' ror (/ worship) ; venerate, revere.
Vcmo. ventum (/ come) ; convene, venture,
convent, prevent, revenue, convenient,
covenant.
Ventus [wind) ; ventilate.
Verbum (^vord) ; verb, verbal, proverb
Verto, versum (/ tU7n) ; verse, version, con-
vert, divorce, adverse, advertise, universe,
vortex, vertical.
Verus (true) ; verity, verify, aver.
Vestis [garment) : vest, vesture, vestry.
Vetus [old] ; inveterate, veteran.
Nia. (loaii); deviate, pervious, trivial
Vicis (change) ; vicissitude, vicar.
Video, visum (/ see) ; visible, vision, provide
revise, visage, prudence, providence, sur-
vey, envy.
Vilis (cheap); vile, vilify.
Vinco, victum (/ conquer); victor, vanquish,
victim, convince, convict.
Vir (man), virtus (manliness) ; virtue, virago,
triumvir, virile.
Vis (force) ; violent.
Vita (life) ; vital.
Vitium (fault) ; vice, vicious, vitiate
Vivo, victum (/ live) ; revive, vivify, vivacious,
victuals.
Vooo (/ call), vox (voice) ; voice, vocal, voca-
tion, invocate, convoke, vowel.
Volo (/ will) : voluntary, benevolent, volition.
Volvo, volutum (/ w//) ; revolve, volume, re-
volution, voluble.
VoTO (/ de7/our); vorarioue, devour
Voveo, votum (/ vow); vote, votive, votar\'.
devote, devout.
Vulgus (common people) ; vulgnr, divulge.
Vulau»{w««ar); vulnerable. ^
lli.
lao
OUTLINES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
EXERCISES.
If.
iwn
I. Common Noiins and Proper Nouns.
Pre/mmary Lesson.— Definition of a Noun. Distinction between
Common Nouns and Proper Nouns (§§ 25—31),
Exercise 1. Say (or write) ten common nouns which are the
names of each of the following things : —
'• '^"'"^'^'s- 2. Trees and flowers. 3, Things that you see in the room.
4. Things to eat, to wear, or to play with. 5. Some stuff or materii.
Say (or write) ten proper nouns which are names of
I. Boys or girls. 2. Towns. 3. Countries. 4. Rivers or mountains, q
Dogs or horses. 6. .Ships. 7. Houses or parks. 8. Months and days.
Exercise 2. Write the Common Nouns in the following sentences
m one list, and the Proper Nouns in another :—
John likes school. My brother has a horse called Dobbin. The boys were
reading about the battle of .\gincourt. Bellerophon rode a winged horse
called J/^gasus. My uncle is the captain of the 'Bellerophon.' Lie down,
,v T , ^'■^^^'1<='" ascended Ilelvellyn. March is a cold month. The
soldiers had a weary march. She brought me a bunch of may. I like May
better than June. King Arthur's sword was called Excalibur. We saw an
eclipse of the sun. The horse that won the race was Eclipse. Petrels and
swallows are birds. That cow has lost a horn. He sailed round Cape Horn
m the ' Petrel. ^
•r l'7°^"''^y ''''°''^ ^.''^t t°° with an 'if'" (Sknl-sp.). " Tellest thou me of
Its? He wants to know the why and the wherefore of everything.
Modes of form-
II. Singular and Plural.
Preliminary Zm^//.~Definition of Number.
ing the plural (§§ 41, &c.).
Exercise 3. A. Write the plural of each of the following nouns :—
Sheaf. Chimney. Enemy. Valley. Duty. Osprey. Calf. Echo.
Sky. Dray. Convoy. Buoy. Victory. Loaf. Wife.
Boot.
Cargo. Negro
KXERCISES.
121
Leaf. Stuff. Scarf. Speech. Ass. tJr.iss. Thrush. Grotto. Potato.
Crutch. Day. Army. Wife. Journey. IJeauly. Way. Coach, Gas.
Staff. PufT. Life. Pony. Wiiarf. Hoof. Man. Uok. Tootii. Trick.
Brother. Thief. Toy.
B. Write the singular of each of the following nouns :—
Arches. Trespasses. Mice. Lice. Feet. Halves. Staves. Waves.
Pies. Lies. Cries. Flies. Bruises. Trees. Kine. Oxen. Children.
Bees. Noses. Nooses. Pence. Marcpiises. Heroes. Boys. Speeches,
Beeches. Dies. Ties. Taxes. Bruises. Patches. Graves.
3.
ion between
liich are the
in the room,
iteri- i.
lountains. 5.
nd days.
\g sentences
rhe boys were
winged horse
' Lie down,
month. The
I like May
We saw an
Petrels and
id Cape Horn
t thou me of
ything.
2S of form-
ig nouns : —
Calf. Echo.
Loaf. Wife.
III. Capital Letters.
Prelimimry Zesson.—VsQ of capital letters (§ 4, m/e).
Exercise 4. Copy out the following examples two or three times
and then write them from dictation :—
The mayors of provincial towns. The Lord Mayor. The barristers and
solicitors. The Solicitor-General. A court of justice. The Lord Chief
Justice. I speak of lords and commoners. The Lords and Commons. The
princes and dukes. The Prince of Wales. The Duke of Bedford. The
recorder of these events. The Recorder of Carlisle. The office of sheriff.
Mr. Sheriff Johnson. The house of mourning. The House of Commons. Our
common supplications. The Book of Common I'rayer. An object in the
middle distance. A student of the Middle Temple. The first chapter. James
the First. The prescription of the doctor. The life of Dr. Johnson. The
clemency of the conqueror. William the Conqueror. We have a good hope
through grace. The Cape of Good Hope. The evangelist Matthew. St.
John the Evangelist. The death of the emperor. O Death, where is thy
sting? ^ ^
IV. Verbs, Sentences.
Preliminary Zm^«.— Definition of Verb, Subject, Predicate,
Sentence. Use of the Nominative Case. Agreement of the verb
with its subject (§§ 135, &c., 294).
Exercise 5. Point out the subject and the verb in each of the
following sentences, and explain their functions, that is, what they do
m the sentence. Thus, " Boys play." 'Boys' is the subject, because
It stands for that about which we tell something by means of the verb.
It is in the nominative case. ' Play' is a verb ; it tells us something
about boys*
Birds fly. John works. Cats scratch. Snow falls. Soldiers fight. Stars
shine. Geese cackle. Horses neigh. Up went the rocket. Down came the
rain. In came William. Thus ends the tale. Then cometh the end. Here
• Not about the subject, because the subject of a sentence is only a word, and the verb
tells us something, not about a word, but about that for which the word stands. Beware of
confusion about this.
laa
OUTLINES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
comes papa. Now fades the glimmering landscape on the sight. Deep drank
Lord iMarinii)n of the wave.
Exercise 6. Put some verb or other with each of the following
nniins, so as to make a sentence : —
( Irass. John. Trees. Cows. The sun. Stars. The wind. Mary. The
child. Dogs. Lions. Owls. Mice. Hoys. The i)ird. Parsons. The
candle. Horses. Water, yoldiers. Ships. Day. The leaves. Puss.
Rain.
The following are verbs of which you can make use : —
.Sail. Fight. Swim. Sink. Shine. Dawn. Howl. Shriek. Play.
Squeal. Grow. Fall. Work, f'raze. Twinkle. Blow. Run. Squeak.
Roar. Preach. Cry. Sing. Kick. Scratch.
Put a subject of the proper number before each of the following
verbs :—
Shine. Chatter. Plays.
Appear. Arrive. Sinks.
Pray. Break. Speaks.
Sing. Sings, Howl. Scratches. Run. Flies.
Float. Dances. Glitters. Growl. Works.
tlif
i
m
V. The Possessive Case.
Prdhninury Lesson. — Formation and use of the Possessive Case
(§§ 54, &c:.).
Exercise Qb. Draw one line under those nouns in the following
sentences which are in the nominative case plural ; two lines under
those which are in the possessive case singular ; and three lines
under those which are in the possessive case plural ; and show in each
instance to what other noun the noun in the possessive case is
attached. This may be done by placing the same numeral over each,
II 2 2
as " I found Henry's book and William's slate."
John's hands are dirty. Men's lives are short. Hens' eggs are white. The
children's voices are loud. The horses ate the oxen's food. The keeper
caught the vixen's cubs. Goats' milk is wholesome, A cheese was made
from the goat's milk. The bird's leg was broken. The birds have built nests
in the farmer's barn. The farmers' barns are full of corn. The bakers' shops
were shut. The baker's bread was spoilt. The masters heard the boys'
lessons. The boys tore the master's book. The boy taxed the masters'
patience. The men heard of their wives' danger. The kittens are in Mary's
lap. The boy pulled the kitten's tail. Peter's wife's mother lay sick of a
fever. John's day's work is nearly finished. Tom's horse's leg was broken.
I bought this paper at the stationer's. He lodges at the baker's. We went to
St. Paul's this morning.
In the following sentences insert a possessive case where there is a
blank ; —
The boys tore frocks. Tailors make clothes. I found ball.
We bought this at shop. Weasels suck eggs. The cushion is
t. Deep drank
the foUowinR
i Mary. The
Parsons. The
leaves. Puss.
Shriek. Play.
Run. .Squeak.
the following
Run. Flies,
owl. Works.
sessive Case
the following
) lines under
[ three lines
show in each
isive case is
al over each,
e white. The
The keeper
ese was made
ave built nests
: bakers' shops
ard the boys'
I the masters'
are in Mary's
lay sick of a
y was broken.
We went to
2ie there is a
und
ball.
EXERCISES.
123
stuffed with feathers. We heard voices. .Show me letter
"p'r .r" 'Ti:"n' ~;'°°'«? —cries were hcaJ Who fo nd
I I'^ra-oi? Ihis shoemaker makes boots. Who hcii-.l
lessons? Johnnie broke piaythint's. M..ry tore — hook. ''"^"' —
ing^nolfnf •- """ P°''^'''''« ^^««' ^i"^'"'^'" and plural, of the follow,
Kil^- SSLJ^-i.^:^'- S^. S^ i^' ^-y '-^y- «-.
VI. Transitive and Intransitive Verbs.
Preliminary Zm^«.-- Distinction l)etween Transitive Verbs and
Intransitive Verbs. The Object of a Verb. Tlu
(§§ 138. 139).
le 01)jective Case
subiect7orv7rh« '"Jhe following sentences point out nl.ich nouns are
the^use of ?le S in 1' ' ^"■' "liJ^^'^^f verbs. In each case explain
h^rw ? "^e -Subject, as in Exercise 5, and explain the use of
S, eS ff'thf vS'h'r ^~" •^"''" ^^^"^"^ ^'^^ b=^"' '^'h^ word S.'//. the
acJS denoted'b'y' fhTvS." ^'^"'^ '"^ ^'"^ ^^'^'^'^ '^ ^'^^ "^J^'' "^ '^e
voS aThto ^Th "^i ^"•'^'^ ^^'.™ce. Bakers m.ake l,re.ad. A lion de-
gS4Sy[;;e^^;^^X-;:^S.S^4°- kicked the groom.
The
he cushion is
i!n?®^^"^® X®- "^"'^ °"' ^he following sentences and draw one
line^under the transitive verbs, and twoLes under 'the intmnsitive
boJsTearn'lessons' Th''.'"'^'', ^^''? ^^' S^^^^' ^he sheep ^ra.c. The
124
OUTLINES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
I U,
VII. Verbs used transitively, intransitively, and
reflectively.
Prclimiiiary Lessofi.~V trhs used (wiih a difference of meaning)
I. as transitive verbs ; 2. as intransitive verbs ; 3. as reflective
verbs (§ 139).
Exercise 11. Write out the followin- sentences, and draw one
ine under the verbs that are used transitively, two lines under those
that are used intransitively, and three under those that are used
rcHect.vely. A \erb should be treated as a transitive verb used r^ilec
tivoly whenever a reflective pronoun can be supplied as an object so
rnii '"f '',/''l'f.?'^ '""''^ complete, as " I always wash [mvself] with
cold water ; " I he visitors withdrew [themselves]" :—
The travellers started yesterday. The hunter started a hare. 'I'he man spoke
French. The man spoke well. The boys play in the garden. Therirl Xs
tlie piano. The ship sar.k. The man sank his fortune in the undertak n?
Tie judge ned the prisoner. The thief tried the lock. The boy ie hard"
-I e traveller returned yesterday. The merchant returned the goods. The
old man slipped on the ice. He slipped a shilling into my haml. T e
aujence hooted the speaker. Owls hoot. He has twisted his an e The
snake yists and turns ..bout. The eaith turns round. He turned the man
out of he room^ He gave up the game, ^'<n, had better give in. The town
sunendered The governor surrendered the town. We all rejoiced a Ws
H v^w T , ? '" '"""^"JS- I wuhd rew my claim. The deputation with-
diew. lake this chair. Take yourself off. (k-t your umbrella, (let thee
as "h; cnnld"''' n^"' Tl -"^^'^ '"'"^'-Ta "' '"^'"^" ^ "°''^*^- "^ "^^^'e ofiT as fast
as he could. He cut his finger. He cut aw.ay pretty quickly The sinn-er
delighted the audience. I delight to hear him. ^ ' ^
Exercise 12. Find a dozen other verbs that may be used both
transitively and intransitively, and six that mav be used reflective v
VIII. Words used both as Nouns and as Verbs.
/V.'//;///;Mn'Zm^;/.— Study the meaning- and use of the word
iro;; m such sentences as 'Iron is heavy ' and 'The women iron
the shirts.'
Exercise 13. Take the words in italics in the following sentences
and say ,n each case whether the word is a noun (becaSs-" t?s S
Thing doS)?-""^^' °' " '"■'' ^^'''"'' '' ''■'"' ^'°" ^^^^^ some person or
He took a pinch oi smiff. John muffs the candle. The furroTos are not
drinf •■//^"c-^"'''"'^"'''"'"-"^- The maid milks the cowf Se ch^id en
t" L a^f ho/ "tI 'T'r' "^.^^"^ ^'i!^'- Tl- --1< sU.a,ns the mea The
trans are hot. The laundress irons the shirts. The passengers crowd the
EXERCISES.
vely, and
nee of meaning)
3. as reflective
, and draw one
les under those
e that are used
t'crb used rcflcc-
as an object so
sh [myself] with
. The man spoke
1. Tlie girl plays
the undertaking.
2 boy tried hard,
the goods. The
my hand. The
his ankle. The
: turned the man
ve in. The town
II rejoiced at his
'ed me yesterday.
\ deputation with-
Jrella. (Jet thee
5 made off as fast
dy. The singer
be used both
sed reflectively
lake sentences
Verbs.
: of the word
; women iron
mg sentences,
cause it is the
ome person or
The children
the meat. The
gers crowd the
'25
deck. A cymod filled the squan: She decks herself with ornammts We
^■7/w;w/ accounts. lie oniamcnts the table with jilate. ««w««^- vve
usf/r^t" 'L.'l.lTJ^S" '" "'■'^" "-f""»-S -ords are
c!l 'S. £; S!"' S!- 1™!"'- "■""■ «"^'- ■"«■ ■'°*'-
as^oS'or af verb™ '"*"'>' """^ """'= '""* "»'• "= "=«' =i*er
IX. The Personal Pronouns.
Prelimimry Zm^«.— Forms and use of the Personal Pronouns
and of tlie Demonstrative Pronoun of the Third Person, Personal
mflexions of verbs (§§ 96, &c., 177, 200).
Esoreise IS.* Suppose John is speaking to Thomas, substitute
the proper pronouns for their names in the following sentences and
the proper names for the pronouns :- 5 ^ ^^^. ana
Tl/^'n,'^ "T ?i'''""'''' '", ^•''^ ^'^'■^^"- John's father has come home. Mas
Thumas s brother arrived ? John's pony is lame. John has had Tohn's dinner
Sk>''.-h''"'^ ^''^"'"^f John's ktiife.' Will Thimas give iolm Tloras's
¥htL iacTThra^-Jtl'Llt"- ^'^"'^'^ l^rotherisoufer thin John's. iSJ
v.,yT.^'''■'' '?'"'■ "'^' ^P''' ^ hurt you? You have spoilt my book. I saw
ZhlvV''r''''.r- Thy friends are here. My sister will call upon youT
mother. \ our brother has sent for me. Did I not tell thee so? Your book
IS not so pretty as mine. My father will go with you. Dost thou hear r^e ?
\ our brother will accompany my cousin.
Exercise 17. Substitute pronouns for nouns wherever thev are
stTnd for •- "''"^' sentences, and state what nouns the pronouns
^.h^^-p'^T ^^' lost Mary's thimble. John's mother has sent John to school,
where John will learn to read. The dog's master beat the clog with a stick
£sor t' ;'"^ ^'M''' '"'^^^''^ ''^S- ^^hen the boys have f.ni^ied ihj bS
essons, the boys will go out to play. John hurt John's hand. The horse fell
inne"r"" R ""^T ""i ^'^''f^ ^'^^ • ^he chil.lren ha've not yet had the children'
ov 7; ^ h ,' "n ' ^'"■''' '''''' ^" '''''■ The boys' father will soon send the
boys to school. 1 he cart turned over on the cart's side.
thX^^']|'''^x.'''1!'"' ^'"'^ ''°y ^'^'"^"^^' he ^V'ls attentive. The boys have lost ■
wlL H -^ ^ '■''"' '"'y-^y '"''^h his rider. Parents love their children,
hi. boo ^xlr\t\'''°''^^' ^'.' "°"'^'' ^'^"^ her to school. Jane has foumi
mns tP? Ti " n r ' ^'^^'^ l'^''"'^ 'heir lessons they must say them to the
ZT. ' . 1- "''^",:^'" l^f P'l'^l "hen they have finished their work. The girls
^iS^^u^SSi '"^ "'" ''''" '■"'• ""^'^ ^«^'"- ^^°'^^' ^°" -''^^-
i26
OUTLINES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
M
I .Sf,
X. Pronouns as Subjects and Objects of Verbs.
Preliminary Zm^;/.-Inflexions of verbs to mark Person. Con-
cord of Verb and Subject (§§ 177, 200, 294).
Exercise 18. Point out which pronouns in the following sentences
are subjects of verbs, and which are objects, and explain their usefn
the same way as that of the nouns in Exercises 5 and 7 Also ooim
out the pronouns which denote possession. >iiso point
\Vp S'^ ^'"^ ^^''''"'^ ''^ '' '"■^^^- They will love you if you are eood
fro/k XV 7 l"'^^;,"' yesterday The boy has hurt her. He has torn he
frock. We took them home. Look at this book, it is John's • I found it fi
the garden. Her mother has lost her senses. Her mother beat her He
S^l;'^^'"' '^?T" T\ '"^ ^''- The children left their hats in he Srden
they must go and fetch them, or they will be spoilt by the rain If vou c o nnf'
Jh« 'CiTr^ ' ",'" ^^"' y^" ^^'^y- His^fatherives him dearly? loTe
IwilM.v f "°* '7-^ ""t ^^' '^•■°'h^' ^^s 'easing her. I will arm me
I will lay me down. Get thee gone. I will bethink me Tieih n^ ^^, 1
some expedient. Arm you against your other foes. ^ °*
XI. Direct Object and Indirect Object.
Preliminary Zm^,;. -Difference between the Direct Object and
the Indirect Object of a verb (§§ 58 ; 291, 4).
th?f^?r°'°® ^®- ^'^^ °"^ ^'"^ ""d" those nouns and pronouns in
him a box on the ears Marv fetZd .ifs ^^l^ ""^ '° '''"'• ^ '"^''^^ed
our losses. 'tJu Will last yo>,rir,he,;a,!^'" "'' ""^ ■=«■«■""'-""''<>«» of
ki„raS'lnL°,e„';L"l''stXr^^ iS'^ur '■^"^"^^"'^ "'^^
XII. Conjugation of Verbs. Tense Forms of the Aotive
Voice.
Preliminary Zm.,;. -Formation of all the tenses in the Indica-
tive Mood of the Artiv<. Voire Pirt • -f w \. 2 ^naica-
«.„„ , i^--!.!.- v,)ue, rarta ut which the coiiiuound
tenses are made up (§§ 160-167, 200). ^ompouna
)f Verbs.
L Person. Con-
owing sentences
lin their use in
i 7- Also point
if you are good.
often see her at
He has torn her
I's ; I found it in
r beat her. He
Lis in the garden ;
1. If you do not
n dearly. I love
I will arm me.
Bethink you of
ect.
;ct Object and
nd pronouns in
i, and two lines
I gave him a
\iss me the salt.
dealt the cards,
lim. I fetched
neighbour out a
le kind woman
a bough. He
till us venison ?
e us comforts of
bjects of each
the Active
1 the Indica-
e compound
EXERCISES.
127
ively ; naming the tenses as you do so :— success-
y4. .Slro7>g Fcrbs. He throws a stone We dnw wit,, v .t.
house. He "ives me amnnl,- ^ »^""i-. we ciraw water. V ou see the
;;£;'SS t;S:~ ^^fsra ,- ss
We met our friend'at his house 'l read Sny Lkl"""' "^'"^^ ''t/°°'"'
XIII. Tense Torms of the Passive Voice.
Preliminary Zdf^^;/. -Formation of the various tenses of the
Indicative Mood of the Passive Voice (§§ 143, 200).
^.Sf'Tif® ^\ ^^^rigQ the verbs in the followincr sentence, into
each of the other tenses successively of the IndTcitlve Mood L th^
Passive Voice ; naming the tenses as you do so >^ ^^^
XIV. Mutual Eolation of the Active and Passive Voices
J'/./Z/Wj; Zm.«._When an action is described by means of
he Passive Voice mstead of the Active, the object of the verb
Pass;:eATx4.) '"°"" ^'^ "'^"^ °' ^'^ ^"' ^" ''''
pafslTver'bs^lstS"^; """t- '^" *^"°^^'"^ ^^"^«"^<=^ ^'° ^- to use
Sit'nn/^T?! ^^^ of active vcrbs. Thus for "The f'.g bit the
l.t does not cea.se, however, to be a TranufV,.lttf In'^^'T'^ ^°"-'^ ^'"' "° direct object.
T2S
OUTLINES OF ENGMSH GRAMMAR,
t! 3
I lie hoys h.ivc eaten the cake. They liad not counted the cost, The men
will liave hnished the work before ni^ht. Tlie men will he carrying the hay
o-morrovv. We were gatherniR nuts in the wood. The servant Imd swept
the room. I he soldiers are defending the city. We hn'e our parents The
man has earned the reward. We shad refuse your recjuest. My lather built
his house. Homer composed the Iliad. A shoemaker makes shoes. We
he.ard the thu der Mamma bought a bonnet. He has drunk ui^ all the beer
I< leness will clothe a man with rags. Dul that boy make your nose bleed'
V\ ho tore your book ?
Exercise 24. Make a dozen sentences containing a transitive
verb in the active voice, and then alter them as in the last exercise.
Exercise 25. Change all the following sentences so as to use active
verbs instead of passive vci bs in the same tense :—
The sparrow was caught by the hoy. We were overtaken by a storm. A
new house will be built by my brother. The children had been scolded by the
nurse. The wme had been drunk by the butler. The door was opened by
me. Too much was expected by them. The letter was written by us. Mice
are cautjht by cats. Meat is sold l)y butchers. He was killed by the blow
Hie cake was being gobbled up by the greedy boys. I was being pushed by
my neighbour. Has a new house been built by your uncle? By whom has
your coat been torn ?
Exercise 26. Make a dozen sentences containing a transitive verb
)n the passive voice, and then alter them as in the last exercise.
Exercise 27. Write out the following sentences, and draw one
line under those verbs which are in the active voice, and two lines
under those which are in the passive voice (§§ 143, 160) :—
Arrc'.vs are shot by tiie .archers. The archers are shooting arrows He is
i-iinning. He is gone. He is spending all the money. The men are come.
Ihe town was taken by assault. The troops were being led across tiie river,
ine officer was leading the troops across the river,
I shall be blamed for this. I shall be travelling all night. We were travel-
ling all day. The wine was beini. drunk. The men are drinking bocr The
gardener has been mowing the lawn. The money will have been spent in
vaiu. W e are losing time. Time is being wasted.
h).
XV. Gendor of Nouns.
Prelinudary Zm^?;/.— Signification and formation of Gend2rs
(§§ 33—39)-
Exercise 28. State the gender of each of the following nouns :—
Cow, horee, do£r, man, girl, ship, hnu<^e. Robert, Jane, London, Thames,
goose, hen, cock, bird, sheep, pig, boar, fox, uncle, nephew, John, \ .en,
lass, ox, form, desk, tree, servant, footman, maid, lioy, nursemaid baby
slate, gander, elephant, tiger, lioness, Maria, France, Napoleon, cart, ' infant^
cost. The men
cairying the hay
■rvaiit had swept
ur parents The
My lather built
ikes shoes. We
k uji all the beer.
»'oiir nose bleed ?
ig a transitive
ast exercise.
as to use active
by a storm. A
;n scolded by the
f was opened by
en by us. Mice
ed by the blow,
bciny; jnished by
? By whom has
transitive verb
ixercise.
and draw one
and two lines
arrows. lie is
J men are come,
icross the river.
We were travel-
ling beer. The
t been spent in
of Genders
ng nouns :—
mdon, Thames,
f, John, \' ;en,
rsemaid, baby,
n, cart, infant,
EXERCISES.
129
brother, lady, pen, lord, king, sovereign, (jiieen, ruler, judge, author, cousin
nom ' S M^ria.'"'' '°'' ^^""'"' ''''"'""■ '^'^^ ^'''^'-^ ^he Agam^m!
Exercise 29. Give the feminine nouns that correspond to the
masculme nouns, and the masculine nouns that correspond to t e
feminine nouns in the following list :— cspuim 10 tne
Nun. Daughter. Ram. Earl. Duchess. Doe. Boar. Bachelor Girl
Sister. Drake. Bui Hind. Aunt. Witch. Nephew. Lady? Sir iSc k
Exercise 30. Write down 1. Ten masculine common notms ->
Ten masculine proper nouns. 3. Ten feminine common nouns. 4'
ren femmine proper nouns. S- Ten neuter common nouns. 6 Tet
neuter proper nouns. 7. Ten nouns of ambiguous or common gender.
XVI. Parsing.
Preliminary Zm^//. -To parse a word you must state i. to what
part of speech, and to what subdivision of that part of speech it
belongs ; 2. what the function of the word is, that is, the kind of
work that It does in the sentence ; 3. the accidence of the word :
4- the construction of the word in the sentence.
Examples of Parsing.
" Johti's brother has found a shiUing:'
John's is a Proper Noun of the Masculine Gender [because it
is the name of a n.ale person and is that person's ow-n name*
It IS in the Singular Number, and in the Possessive Ctse
depending on (or in the attributive relation to'the nol „
brother' [because ,t denotes that '-hn' possesses some"
thing, namely 'brother']. P^b.csses some-
^rSn^V" '-^ Common Noun of the Masculine Gender [because
it denotes a male person, and may denote anv other of the
same class]. It is in the Singular Number, and is m the Noni!
native Case because it is the subject of the verb" has found'
£&e?S? '' ''''''' '- ^^^ P--" '-^^-^ whom^lir:!
& J*
?find^ou^^ V^ '^^'"'''r-^'''' "^ *^^ Strong Conjugation-
(find, found, fuimd;. Lit is a verb because it tells us some-
^^^^^'^^^t'^^^:^tZ::i^A''''' when p^is written, su^ii
arc of the utmost importance? ^ ""utted , but m oral work, .-.nd for beginners, they
■FiSB-
T
1;B
'3° OUTLINES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
thing about John's bmtlier, anu it is transitive because it
denotes an action which is done to some object] ft is in the
Act ve Voice, Indicative Mood, Present Perfect Tense! ind is
in the Singular Number and the Third Person to agree with
Its subject ' brother.' It has ' shilling ' for its object.
Shilling is a Common Noun of the Neuter Gender [because It
is tl e name of something which is not a living bein.j, and may
be used for any other thing of the same class]. It is in the
Singular Number, and is in the Objective Case because it is the
staS trtVrr'Tri '^"^. '■°""d'[that is. becau e it
dhected] ^^^ ^'''°" "^^""^^^ ^y the verb is
" //e will please ;w."
^^JLI ;?'-'""»"sVu*'''^ Pronoun of the Third Person and Mas-
n^ h! ^;'"''"' P^^^"se it stands for a male person who is
neither the speaker nor the person spoken to] in the Sinjjula?
Number, and m the Nominative Case because it is the subjfct of
.hn.r\ ^v.ll please ' [that is, because it stands for the pirson
about whom the verb tells something]. Fcr!»on
' ^^"i,^- ®T ' '' ''\Transitive Verb [because it denotes an action
<V.W '\^''^T\ to 5" object], of the Weak Conjujat on
fc 'pP f ''1' ^'l^f^^K ^^ '' '" the Active Voice, Indicative
^d tl tP'h ^"^-^fi^'te Tense, and is in the Singular Number
and the Third Person to agree with its subject ' he.'
^^eider^^n?'/ ^^TT f '^^ ^'P* ^^''^'^ ^"^ of Common*
S u ^ stands for the speaker without naming him, or
her]. It ,s m the Singular Number, and in the Objective
^willp^eSse.'^ " '' ' °^j''' °^'*'^ ''^""'^'^^ activiverb
^' I shall be seen:'
*I' is a Personal Pronoun of the First Person of commonf for
N^IimfnT'^ "^I^^^X ^^ '' '•? th^ ^'"S^"^'-^'- Number, and is in he
bl sTn ' rM,.f '"'^ Y'^Tf ''u'' '^" '"''J^^t of the verb 'shall
R%.1h K ^ "' 'r'''^'^' ^"■Ll''^ P^'''0" ^bout whom something
IS said by means of the verb].
*??fSi^f f^''!^^' ^ Transitive Verb [because it denotes an
action that is directed to an object], in the Passive Voice
Numhr H P-^' ""T'^ ^"^^fi"'^^ "T^"^*^' -"d in the Singu a;
Number and First Person to agree with its subject ' I.'
^^Lend vte a shilling."
'wh^rh k''^^ Transitive Verb [because it denotes an action
which I S done t o so methin g], in the Active Voice, Imperative
a femak 'plrson^'"'"'''"' "' ^''""^''"''' '^ 'he context^Iho^^s whether the speaker is a male or
t See last note.
/e because it
] It is in the
Tense, and is
to agree with
ect.
ler [because it
;in^-,% and may
. It is in the
cause it is the
is, because it
y the verb is
on and Mas-
erson who is
the Singular
the subject of
3r the person
tes an Jiction
Conjugation
:e, Indicative
liar Number
)f Common*
ling him, or
e Objective
active verb
>mmont (or
and is in the
verb * shall
1 something
denotes an
sive Voice,
he Singular
'I.'
an action
Imperative
:er is a male or
EXERCISES.
131
Mood, Plural Number* and Second Person, to agree with its
subject ' you ' understood.
• Me ' is a Personal Pronoun, &c. (see above), in tlie Objective
Case, because it is the Indirect Object of the verb " Lend.'
Exercise 31. Parse all the verbs, nouns, and pronouns in the
tollowmg sentences, except those in italics :—
The hunters caught a hare. The hunters were chasing hares. The hare
was being chased. The house was pulled down. The masons are buildinji a
house. Many new houses have been built. He was running away. They
called her back. She gave met a shilling. I lent the mant a pound. We
have heara the news. You have lost the sight. John's sister has told met the
news. We saw Henry's cousin yesterday. Mary's frock was torn by the doo-.
Ihe girl s frock will be mended. You will be overtaken by the storm The
men will soon have finished the work. She had been bitten by the do^' The
cat has scratched her. Henry's father will give hert a new book. Hand met
the bread Read the letter. Tell me t the news. Go thou and do likewise.
Hear ye, Israel. + Get thee behind me. John.I hand met the bread.
Exercise 32. Parse the nouns, pronouns, and verbs in Exercises
19, 21, 22, 23, 25, and 27.
XVII. Adjectives of Quality.
Preliminary lesson. — Nature and use§ of a Qualitative Adjec-
tive (or Adjective of Quality) ; Attributive and predicative use of
Adjectives (§§68, 72, 311).
Exercise 33. " The girls wore smart bonnets." ' Smart ' is an
Adjective of Quality, it shows 0/ what sort the ' bonnets ' are. It is
joined attributively to the noun 'bonnets.'
" The girls' bonnets are smart." Here ' smart ' is an Adjective of
Quality joined predicatively to the noun ' bonnets.'
Pick out the Adjectives of Quality in the following sentences, and treat each
of them in the same way as 'siaart' in the above examples : —
He rides a black horse. The bird has white feathers. The bird's feathers
are white. Idle boys hate lessons. Ripe fruit is wholesome. Tom's horse is
brown. Rude boys are disagreeable. Dogs are faithful. Dogs are faithful
• ' You ' is always a^n»w«M//(;v?^ plural, even when it refers to c«? nerson. Of course, if
the singular ' Thou ' is expressed or understood, the verb is singular ; but the subject
which is usually understood is the plural 'you.'
+ In parsing this word state that it is in the objective case, because it is the indirect object
of the verb. (See Section xi , Kx 19.)
t Parse this word as a Vocative or Nominative of address.
S C-irefuHv guard beginners againr.t the r.-imm.on, hut obvious blunder, of saying that
'adjectives denote the 7?<rt/i//ci (y«o««.j.' Nouns ^^re names, i.e., words. In 'a black dog '
the adjective 'black' does not mark any quality belonging to the name 'dog.' It is the
animal that is black, and not its nanie. An adjective is not a ' noun-marking word,' but a
' thing. marking word.'
nrT/:R!n rn' ? ^'^^ ^- cnnn^Tin^
132
OUTLINES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
t {
IJ
The „,„Bl„y chll,ire„ ale »m= ap"? i Ifc t ', ,1 ", i?,,lf fc'""'Th'-
Insert a (2iiahtative Adjective in each of the following sentences :-
I saw a horse. Give me some near^ FTp w n
— boys will be punished. Look at that — Sw! He wears n-Ta*;-
XVIII. Adjectives of Quantity.
Pnliminary Zm^«.— Nature and use of Adjectives of Ouantitv
or Quantitative Adjectives (§ 73). ^,iuannty,
of ^STtv '■ it'tSf '^ ''T''' '"^'^^^"P^'^^'-' 'Twelve ' is an Adjective
ot (Quantity. It tells us howmany pears we are speaking about.
It 'f'.'lir.f -f T^-' Tw "''"'>'" ' ''^°'"e ' is an Adjective of Quantity
It tells us (indchnitcly) how much money we are speaking abour ^"
The naugluy, greedy little boy at- twenty pears. The i^oor womm hn=
many troubles. (Jreat * riches brin- much care I h-ive b'n I A ^ f
success. My liule brother is ill. Many".en poLss grean.ct ^5oWout
Insert a Quantitative Adjective in each of the following sentences :-
Give me shillings. I shall have pleasure. boys learn fast
W e have not -— rich friends. He has had -— experience ohn hns mad;
s^— 'n-St'^HaJ""^- '""^ P'-'^^f ''^^ — -o.Sng:^°Th "paTem
Slept -n.ght. Have you- mpney ? Give me sugar. He loses
hand
his tune in play. He has only
eye. He j;rnspetl me with
XIX. Demonstrative Adjectives or Adjectives of Relation.
Prcliimmry Zm^;/.-Nature and use of Demonstrative Adjec-
tives. Different sorts of Dem onstrative Adjectives (§ 74, 95).
andsomelera^nllilS^'yr.uJy.''''"' " ""'■""" ^"'■"''""" «" Adjective of Quality.
! de-'l. Sinful
ready speaker,
tie boy. The
at. He rode a
loak.
sentences : —
a —
iars a
— man.
— hat.
would not act
physician. We
of Quantity,
an Adjective
r about.
: of Quantity,
: about.
liaw one line
Adjectives of
' twelve ' and
)r woman has
tilef hope of
es. Hold out
ive no money,
iny men love
bread ? Few
entences : —
oys learn fast.
ohn has made
The patient
ir. He loses
ne with
Relation.
tive Adjec-
4> 95)-
not tell us how
ive of Quality,
EXERCISES.
M3
" Give me that book."
'That ' is a Demonstrative Adjective, or Adjective of Relation
It points out a certain book without describinjj it. It qualifies
the noun ' book.' '
" He lent me his knife. ''^
•His' is a Possessive Pronominal Adjective or Possessive
Adjective Pronoun. It points out a certain knife, without
reference to quality or quantity. It qualities (or is joined
attributively to) the noun ' knife.'
Exercise 35. Write out the following sentences, and draw one line
under the Adjectives of Quality, two lines under the Adjectives of
Quantity and three lines under the Adjectives of Relation (or Demon-
strative Adjectives), bearing in mind that several adjectives belomr
(with a slight difference of meaning) sometimes to one class, sometimes
to another. (See J; n. b.) Look carefully at the definitions. Indicate
what noun each adjective belongs to, or qualifies, by putting the same
numeral over both the adjective and the noun, thus :— -
I 2 3 I 23 4 4
" We heard of the poor old man's sudden death."
Give me that large book. Ring the bell. Bring me my new boots. This
boy IS Idle. These sheep are fat. Look at the second line in this pajie. She
will have the last word. We walk every other day. You will know better
one cay. No other course is possible. Any man could tell you that. .Some
people like this loud music. Each child received a penny. Every device has
been tried. Either alternative is disagreeable. My apple is ripe. His first
attempt was a failure. She is my first cousin. She wis my first love. He
has but ittle discretion. He has a large head and little eyes. A little leaven
leaveneth the whole lump. A little child might lead him. An enemy hath
done this. That last song was capital. Neither version of the story is correct.
Those little boys are my cousins. Some * thief has stolen my watch. We had
some + beef for dinner. Any * fool might see that. Have you any + money ?
I have not the least appetite. He spent half a day with me. John is his
half brother Second thoughts are best. We arrived on the second day. I
went to see him one day lately. I have but one brother. There was no other
way left. Which J w,ne do you prefer? What J news have you heard?
What X nonsense he talks !
XX. Comparison of Adjectives.
Preliminary Zm^«.— Degrees of Comparison (§§ 79—86).
Exercise 36. Write down the comparative and superlative degrees
of the following adjectives, or their substitutes :—
noun?"* '*'''' ^^'^'^ '^ ^ demomtmtive pronominal adjective (or indefinite adjective pro-
t Here this word reLites to quantity.
•„J ^'1'* .i'*'"". I"'"''°g?''ve Pronominal Ad; ctives (or Interrogative Adjective Pronouns)
oelong to the class of Adjectives of Relation (or Demonstrative Adjectives). ^^nouns;
a
134
OUTLINES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
f*
•I'm
if
winsome, sid, ma if K'au iful fii, n? V^' ^T^^^' '^'f^' •■^''' "'^h. monstrous,
clever, idle, genMe. '^^^""'^"'' '^'^'''' 'J"", hearty, quarrelsome, blithe, splendid.
Write down all three degrees of the following adjectives —
slendere": iuS'SK^'iS' P"^''^\.'^"-'' steeper, tenderer, worst,
srrightlie^mightieitrttLt:St.^l-Ses»^
XXI. Parsing of Adjectives.
Prelimivary Zm.;/.-To parse an adjective state what sort of
adjective it is, in what degree of con.parison it is, and to what
noun It IS attached either attributively or predicatively. Lastly.
state Its three degrees of comparison. ^'
Examples. '• His numerous virtues won much esteem ."
His :- -A Demonstrative (or Pronominal) Adjective, fit /,oints
^;^/ce.tam virtues, but does not describe or enumerati them 1
It .s jo.ned attributively to (or qualifies) the nou" wt 5 "'
Numerous :-An Adjective of Quality in the Positive D.wee
K(:?quS)trn?urvtri'J Itisattachedattnbut^^Ty
attached attributively to the noun Wirtu^s^ ""(ffi, mor^:
" T/tese men are richer than those."
These :-A Demonstrative Adjective in the Pluml Numhpr
joined attributively to the noun ' men.' [' These 'S/«/oSS
men, but does not describe or enumerate them.] ^ ^
Richer :-An Adjective of Quality [it describes certain men] in
'ten^' TRThrr!ch^?,ThesT' '^^'""^^^^^ " ^^^ -""
^"'^^£:^Z^^.^& - '^^ ^^-^ Number,
EXERCISES.
135
'landsome, com-
ich, monstrous,
iJlithe, splendid,
:s
enderer, worst,
, handsomest,
more, last.
what sort of
md to what
:ly. Lastly,
• [}i points
erate them.]
* virtues.'
tive Dogree.
attributively
how much
free, and is
luch, more,
il Number,
oints to the
in men], in
the noun
I Number,
ite only if the
noun stands,'
■ the fHcdfiiH^
ying that ' an
must be care-
" IVht'ch hand will you have ? "
T^onoun'MiT'?"/"''"''''^ ^^•'"'^"■^'^ ^' Interrogative Adjective
those examples where thProl. I ^'u'^'^'* ^"^"^' carefully to
which noun?Seadiectiv?qUr '" P°^^«^^*ve case, and %ee
Gi^e m'l's'omrmor" meaT Tn" I thTliHe'h'^"h ^ '^"" '^'^"^ '''^' ^'^ -"■
the other volume. He has iJa nerl Jn ^'^ ""^^^ '"""y '""'^ '^^"" • ^^^^ me
My youngest br<;ther Ls iS"heTc'onTpriiTrhi'"l ''^ ^'J" '^^:"^^'^-
was quiet. Each boy shalfhave a grea' pTec^o caL That' lit l'"'^ T
no milk. My vountrer sister i« ill v '"-'-'•"' '^p'^'- -I hat little girl has
yesterday. Ripe^SsTre", r tianln^t:: '"f/ '°:| ^^^ "--X
ment he can make Few in,I Kri„r ^1 ' '^"^^ '^ '''*^ ^^ast atone-
his superiors. Tils few"; l" f a s" wer?SS" 7 ""• '""^ "'=" ^''^
hasty. Vou will know some day^or" L Son i .. i'"'' P"'°", ^'^ '""^
the nk. r/5«^ are mv .-hilHr^n °'^.. '^'^- ^0"^^ careless person has upset
hooks. 7././rfwm ^ouK ThV i/tl' ""' """ ""'"'^ ^""''- "^^^ •'^'■^ two
is youVs ? WhereTe the herT + Tnhn'"'^'.'/ ^f " ^?''^ ^^ ^"^^^^ '^"""^^
is L/;v///«/ of al my couSs I went '** '^'^ '"''f;^'-^'^ t i" the class. She
M. .W... Here i^tad'^;!.!- tv^e ^^J ^'J T'i^'ili noYtlt I'- ^^
«ir& s5od^rre^ TmSef °Tke "''1'' '/"^ ^'^'^' ^^"^'^^ ^^^ '-"• The
a lar^ies' man. He oTSre Jh.v? ^'''°^\^\^ too long. He is quite
work. I have haS a whole day's'an'LitT''"'^; te.^7' ""TV P"' ^'^'^
school. The elder boys' behaviur was exce£u Shi' w' '^' ''^' ^"^f
hat on her head. The laree linen Hm..^.- ^''^^"^"t. She wore a large man's
tall corporal's h;t was kSed off le VueTf r?' M -""' " °" ^'^^ ^he
desk. He cropped the black horse's tin H k ^^^'^'^ ^P'-^tent lock to his
dress in the shoj. '""'• "^ ''""S'^t the handsomest lady's
are'^utdTiiSively'and wtchT ^"""h""^, '" '^^ ^"""-"^ -"fences
having the isii:^^^^:^%::^^^y^^^, ^^'^^°-
is ?he:tyllSh radmire"most' 'V^oS ^'f S°? V^'^^ -'^ '^^*- ^hat
wanted. Will you havT theT or those? H.°'cf"^ l^""' ^"""^ ^^''^ ^^^
them. I do no^ love eitherVtht^^^ Th".? .f Iv^hrrsS. " iTa'nnol
' One ' is an Indefinite
SuW^tivSnouP.'^ •"= ''''''''' '° ^ P'°"°"" - -«=" - '0 - noun. „ „ .,. ,
stuti °'5^Jt[i: ■'^li:^""'^ ''^ =* '^"''^'^"''^^ P— . -Wch i. here quaiiued by the demon-
I.e^i^S/Xpli^d'°wfrh°thradrerve'=Thr ad' "'[.""''erstood. When no noun can
substantive. *^ adjective, the adjective itself must be regarded as a
>t.
w
'36
OUTLINES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
X UW h\ ? ^ ^"""^ """"'7 ^"'' '"^y '^^^'■' ^vhichevcr ball you
wL I I '^'^PP'"'-'**:' '\'n store for you! Tell the .,ther,s what I said
\\hat lovdy weather ! Many suin-r almost perpetual ill health. U-t each
thJn the nK ''""V'V"" 'T" ^ ^^'''•^' '^'""" "^^' ? ''''>'^ "^i^'^ke is worse
than the other. Which i)en do you w.int ? Kithcr will do.
Exercise 38. When M/.f and //w/ are not attached to a noun
expressed or understood, they must be parsed as Demonstrative
T"T ^m"^ •''' J^e'"«"^trat,ve .uf/eaives), of the Neuter Gender
and in the Nominative or Objective case. '^-■wnucr,
Parse the words in italics in the following sentences :—
d,r?v f i' n''"^''^'i 7. P'r'- ^'^"^ r""' "" ereat disappointment to us, I low
dare you tell me Ma/ ? I cannot undertake Mts. I can never believe M?,/
sViuStn.SSX?^""^'^'-^'"- ''''^''^^^ ^"^'^'-- ^^ ^^-- "
Exerciao 39. The demonstratives ' this,' ' that,' and ' it ' may
stand, I. for a noun ; 2. for an infinitive mood or gerund with its
adjuncts ; 3. for the act or fact stated in a sentence ; 4. for the gerund
or inhnitive that denotes such an act or fact in an abstmct form « It '
otten stands for an infinitive mood, a gerund, or a sentence thit i«
^00,^ to l,c used. ' This' and ' that ' are sometimes employed in
similar manner. ^ / « •" a
State clearly what the words in italics stand for in the followintr
sentences : — °
There is a pen, give // to me. I hoped to get here before noon, but I could
not manage U. Our duty is to obey the dictates of conscience, however
difficult ^/ may be. To comply with your request is <lifficult, if // be not
absolutely impossible. He said that the matter was self-evident, hut I could
believe H. I wi.l help you if // is possible. I will call upon v u to-morrow
that man. It grieved him to lose s. .nuch money. It is impossible to tell
what the result wm b. //isofno use trying to hefp him. I think "v best to
hold my tongiie about the matter. It vexes me that he should act in this way.
/r IS very likely that he will come to-morrow. I think // very strange that he
did not tell me. If you do not give up these bad habits, you will suffer for it
tie thought of enlisting as a soldier, but this I would not allow. He asked me
to surrender my claim, but I woiM not consent to t/tat. Read these letters to
your father ; t/mt wUl amuse him His father threatened to disinherit him. and
(/tat brought him to his senses. '
XXII. Abstract Nouns.
Prelminary Lesson.-
(§§ 26, 27, 239, 254).
-Nature and formation of Abstract Nouns
cliever ball you
;r.s what I said,
jalth. Lot each
tiie, tjive me the
mistake is worse
led to a noun
Demonstrative
feutcr Gender,
lent to ns. How
ver l)elieve that.
me by that, I
ind ' it ' may
irund with its
for the gerund
ct form. * It '
itence that is
mployed in a
the following
on, but I could
ence, however
t, if /,' be not
mt, hut I could
he would not
you to-morrow
(' never known
ipossible to tell
think // best to
let in this way.
strange that he
ill sutTcr for it.
He asked me
these letters to
herit hijn, and
tract Nouns
EXERCISr.S.
137
Exercise 40. A. Give the abstract nouns which correspond to the
following adjectives :— ^
hm,T' i'"'^'''"' ^T'"' ''•y'- "•"'••V, splendid, just, meek, temperate, large, wide
bro.-ul, slow, quick, red, blue, sour, sharp, sweet, distan , nea' soft a e
innocent, durable, brilliant, merry, brief, white, l-.ng, able, hum i:ie popular'
(lant, uselul, jealous, monstrous, dead.
B. Give the abstract nouns derived from the following nouns :—
Friend, son, father man, child, king, martyr, priest, widow, relation, infant,
sovereign, regent, leader, magistrate, mayor, sherilf, captain, colonel.
folbwfn°''verb^'.'!L^' "°""^ ^"°' ^"^'"^ ^ '^"^^ corresponding to the
(iTend; condescend ; der.ange ; arrange; complete; protect; suspend-
weigh; ha e; justify; move; smg ; abstract ; advance ; measure erase-
proceed: depress; interrogate; deviate; degrade; displace ; debase , Son-'
thiele; steal.* '""''"'' '^"^•^^ ' P'^'^^^ ' '^^ ' ''^''^^'^> 'reat ; depart ; seue ;
t). Give the adjectives or nouns from which the following abstract
nouns are formed :— ^ awauciLi
Fickleness; suopleness; height; depth ; acidiiv , , uience ; dependence-
impertinence; ee, ^nce ; uprightness ; st, ^th; \veaknes; ; mor alit? •
durability; grandeur; width; death; wisuom; infirmity ; amplitude -con.'
venience; piety ; humility ; brevity, rascality; mayo alty shrievaky -
loredom; g.rllinod ; nobility; stupidity; sleepiness; greenness; rigiS "y ;'
ductdty , sonority ; prosperity ; valour ; magnanimity ; elevation ; candour ■
legfity':' '''"'' ^'''"^'^'' ^'"''"> • ^^^'^' >'""'^' ^^^^'h; ponSosity ;'
derived '•— ^^^ ""^^^^ ^^^^ '''^^'^'^ '^® following abstract nouns are
Intrusion ; reflection ; esli mgement : seclusion ; injection ; thought ; flight ;
thrift ; growth ; tilth ; decision ; coercio.^ ; defence ; conception ; adaptation •
SSr/lSgC"'' '''^''"'°"' composition; declension; pressure ; action;'
XXIII. Adverbs.
Preliminary Lesson, - Nature and use of Adverbs. Adverbs of
Manner answer the question ' How ? ' Adverbs of Degree show
' to what degree or extent ' the meaning of a verb, adjective, or
other adverb is to be taken. Adverbs of Tune answer the
questions '■ When ? ' < How long ? ' ' How often ? Adverbs of
Place answer the questions ' Where ? ' ' Whence ? ' ' Whither ? '
138
OUTLINES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
is bad ;
it is an
Adverbs are usually said to modify* the verb, adjective, or
adverb to whicli they are attached (§§ 201 — 216).
Examples.
" The mountain rises abruptly froin the plain."
Abruptly is a word that shows how the mountain rises (or
answers the question ' How does the mountain rise ? '). There-
fore it is an Adverb of Manner, modifying the verb ' rises.'
" That is too bad."
Too is a word which shows to what degree * that '
or answers the question 'how bad?' Therefore
Adverb of Degree, modifying the adjective ' bad.'
" He came yesterday."
Yesterday is a word that shows when he came (or answers
the question ' When did he come .? '). Therefore it is an
Adverb of Time, modifying the verb ' came.'
" We seldom see him."
Seldom answers the question * How often do we see him ? '
Therefore it is an Adverb of Time modifying the verb ' see.'
" My uncle lives there."
There shows the place where my uncle lives (or answers the
question ' Where does my. uncle live .? '). It is an Adverb of
Place, modifying the verb ' lives.'
Exercise 42. Deal as in the above examples with each of the
Adverbs m the following sentences :—
I saw him yesterday. John often writes to us. We went thither. They
f™'^Tr- -^Wpl-y^l-eautifuliy. We lay down to sleep. nSw attend
tome. My friends live yonder. He went away. They rode along toaether
J^mTJ'l^^f'V^^T^'-^ ^^' '' "P^^'-^"'^' T'^- ^^'I'l--- played Sr
IirllL .. '^"^- e""^"' straightway. He always contradicts me.
raDi2H^i '■'''■, '^'T^'?- I placed my hand thus. You speak too
rlPol ^"t very learned. I am almost penniless. The bird is quite
dead. I am much obliged to you. He was an extremely wicked man. I am
very much obliged to you. We have got thus far on our journey. Oh ! I am
m„I -^ 7^ ^^u '° ""^"y '^"'■'^'- ^^^ '^ '■^•' to° extravagant. I am very
ibolish.'"'^"' ^^ ^"^ '°°" '"'"'■""''• "^'^^ P'^'^J^'^' "^^^ monstrously
Exercise 43. Make half a dozen sentences to illustrate the use of
eacn sort of adverb contamed in the preceding examples.
denoTe'd Irthfverb ir^erformed.''"^ '°""' "'"'" °' """""'""• '" "' ""<^^^ ^^ich the action
adjective, or
EXERCrSES.
139
itain rises (or
se ? '). There-
2rb ' rises.'
that'
fore
is bad ;
it is an
e (or answers
fore it is an
we see him?'
verb ' see.'
answers the
an Adverb of
each of the
thither. They
. Now attend
along together,
played indoors,
contradicts me.
You speak too
i bird is quite
;d man. I am
y. Oh ! I am
nt. I am very
IS monstrously
ate the use of
which the action
hisi alarmp.l nf nl ? • ' *""^>- ^^« '■* """''' c.)mpo.se,i. lie was the
mSnt^^H^® ^^" ^}^^^ *^" sentences containing adverbs in tiie com
pa.at.ve degree, and ten containing adverbs in the superlative degree
Exercise 46. Parse the Adverbs ,n Exercises 42 and 44.
XXIV. Novma used Adverbially.
Prdiminan, Lesson.~A noun in the objective case with an
adjective or some equivalent phrase, or even standing by itself
often does duty for an adverb The noun should l)e parsed
as being m the Adverbial Objective, modifying (cither singly, or
when taken with its adjective) some verb or adjective (§ 29?, 3).
Exorcise 47. Pa.-se the nouns in italics in the following sentences —
him m:!;w'S'"H?!L Many a /.;.. have I played with him. I have seen
XXV. Adjectives used Adverbially, and Adverbs reduced
to the form of Adjectives.
J^fnary Zm.;;.--Many adjectives, especially those of
Quant.ty, are used as substantives, it being impossible to supply
140
OUTLINES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
any particular noun with them. These (like nouns) are often
used with an adverbial force. They once had the dative inflexion.
It IS better now to parse them as simple adverbs. When they are
used as subjects or objects of verbs, or after prepositions, they
should be parsed as substantival adjectkcs, or (more simply) as
substantives.
On the other hand, many adverbs which once ended in -e have
lost that inflexion, and become identical in form with adjectives.
'' Much has been revealed, but more remains behind." Here ' nmch '
Sn "^'"'' ^^^ substantives, the subjects of the verbs that follow
"I do not much admire him:' ''He is not much hafifiier." Here
much IS an adverb, modifying (i) a verb, (2) an adjective.
'^^QX^'"'^ ^^^^'^^'' ^^^^ '''""'^ ^" ^^^^^^ modifying the adverb
" He has not much money; his brother has more:' Here ' 7nuch ' is
an adjective qualifying ' money,' and ' more' is an adjective qualifyinff
' money ' understood. ^ ^ ^
Exercise 48. Parse the words in italics in the following sen-
tences, carefully distinguishing the adjectives proper, the substantival
adjectives, and the adverbs : —
I have eiwit^/i. I gave him a// I had. In gt;nera/ I approve of his pro-
ceedings. Aft/r/i depends upon his answer. He knows more than he tells
Here is some wme, will you have a tiWe ? He told me less than his brother'
Do not let us hear more of that. You know most about it. The lon^ and
the short of it is, that I had my pains for nothing. I will follow you through
thick and thin. He is my ksl friend I did my best. He is the best dressed
man in the room. He slept all ni-ht. He has lost all. All bloodless lay the
untrodden snow. That is all nonsense. He is all powerful here. We have much
cause for thankfulness. He is much worse to-day. Much remains to be done
I am much happier. He has more ability than his brotiier. He is more con^
tented. I could hear no more. He is no * wiser than Ijefore. I have no ink
He shows but little gratitude. We expect not a little from him. He is but
little better. That is a most lovely prospect. Nobody else-\; was there. I
have not meat enough. % I have enough and to spare.
He is less restless than he was yesterd.iy. He ran all round the park.
You know best. Do your best. The future is hidden from our gaze. In
future times he will be famous. That decision was right. He cut 7-izht
through the helmet. Hear the right, O Lord. We have a choice between
• ' No,' as an adverb may be Liken as the simple adverb ' na ' = never (A S 1
+ F,l-;c 'i'; always ail iidvcb ' '''
is a substaiuive '^ ^^^^ ^'^^^^ ^^ ^" adverb, meaning, • in sufficient abundance,* except when it
ns) are often
tive inflexion,
/hen they are
tositions, they
re simply) as
ed in -e have
adjectives.
Here ' much '
s that follow
tpierP Here
g the adverb
ere ' much ' is
ive qualifying
illowing sen-
stibstantival
Dve of his pro-
than he tells,
in his brother.
The long and
«• you through
le best dressed
>odless lay the
We have much
ns to be done,
is more con-
have no ink.
He is but
was there. I
ind the park.
)ur gaze. In
He cut right
loice between
S.).
' except when it
EXERCISES.
141
f:ltulstj'^^:tar\'t%xrhat'^%''°^^^^ '^^'-'^- ^^^
is wearisome. That is TZuv r^r it ' "''^ "" ''"""'^ "^ Pleasures
He was, a .^ thuLSr^^Tw^l^^ou^^e'^^liinr ^l^^ ifS
They have money .«;«;/5 He i /^^vsLT fr"' ^'""S^ ^^^ been done,
I ne'er shall look u on h^ /fJ ii- ^ ^''^^^'• "^ «wore//Xv a trooper
starting. He was disZr n/ 1.^"" .1^"^ 7°">- ^9"^^- We were L,
starting. He was discoursing about U.e /.«/"n/the 17' T^ ^"""l >^'
step from the sublime to the rid^ullT. w„ ■^"^'- • 7,''^''^ '^ ^ut a
war the fire. n^'^«^^«J. We are «m^ neighbours. Come
XXVI. Prepositions.
7'r.//.«w^ Lesson.~mv.r^ and use of Prepositions. Rela-
tions which they indica . Words which they join (§§ ./7_r.o).
Examples,
noun ■7o?/.1„Th"Xct-f ca» l^ll " =" "'^P™",'"" ''™-? *=
I. shows ,he reia,fo„*?™rij:5',r„ieT.o L;x'(flor.r ' '"°""-'
leaped.. ,. shows U,e refJ;io?o7aS"S (^T^irjS^ '^^ '^'^
noun "n* fnlillfSf^" «°a^i^•" P'''''"''''™.^"''''-"-" ">= P™-
r. shows .he r^J^Tl SS^ffif I V^ts'^'^^^: ' ^'''"'•'
the^'i^tyt inTlifS^l^s^i" ''= '*"'"« -"'-- ™
in Lot.°S.""pXk totthKrcen'roVr '" 'i' "'"'■-• "^ '»"•" '-es
am fond of music The h,hk n.ll P "J '""'•, "' ™'l'* »' <!>« f'-ao'v. I
A blow o„ the tod knocUd 1„V,"/' "'"",'■;, ' »■" .""i""' «l>o»t his sifety:
at the l«, of hi m„„er.„med hi Ja"„ ^\71 ""^ T" '" "■"»"'■ «™f
ail evil, Uiek rode to Vork n„ „i/'.i, '^''e. '»™ ?f money is the root of
l>ooks „„ the table. a,n vea,y „f ^0,1 t?, '" °'''°> '"' "<" "'"''' tl-e
b.'mS'b;"„'"adtx'' ""'''>■'"« ■"»»•■ ''"««ti--«<i«..ub„.„,i.T;;;;;^,
«.//.« r«emblls ^X^ Sr/dv^rt'"'""' " '' =-' ^''^«"-- ^hen it denotes that one
?!!
142
OUTLINES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
shall start the day alter to-morrow.
my hand a letter from my father.
lie shrank from the danger. I have in
Exercise 60. Make ten sentences in which a preposition shows
the relation of a thing to a thing; ten in which it shows the relation of
an action to a thing; and ten in which it shows the relation of an
attribute to a thing.
t
XXVII. Adverbs and Prepositions.
Preliminary Lesson.~l^\\Q same word is often used both as an
adv:rb and as a preposition. VVJien it governs a noun or pro-
noun, it is a preposition. When there is no noun or pronoun
governed by it, it is an adverb.
Exercise 51. Parse the words in italics in the following sen-
tences : — *"
He got up behind. There is a garden behind the house. Do not lag behind.
He departed before my arrival. I told you all that before. Run round the
^ble. The earth turns round. I rode inside the omnibus. He rode outside.
He ran after me. That comes after. The box was painted loitlrin and wWiout.
bhe stayed wttlun the house. Come along. We walked along the road We
walked by the river. The storm passed by. 1 will come by and by. He cut
a piece ^the loaf. The stick is too long ; cut a piece off.
Exercise 62. Find a dozen words which maybe used either as
Adverbs or as Prepositions, and make sentences to illustrate their
use.
XXVIII. The Infinitive Mood.
Preliminary Lesson.~-k. Nature and use of the Simple Infinitive
Shall, will, may, and do as notional and as auxiliary verbs.
Must and can are always notional verbs (§§ 150, 151).
Examples.
" / ivill never forget you. "
•Will':— A defective (notional) Verb; in the Active Voice,
Indicative Mood, Present Tense ; and in the Singular Num-
ber and First Peison, to agree with its subject ' /.'
'Forget':— A Transitive Verb in the Active Voice, and in the
(simple) Infinitive Mood, depending on [or the object of) the
verb ' a////.' •* '
EXERCISES.
143
JC1-. I have in
osition shows
he relation of
elation of an
d both as an
loun or pro-
of pronoun
llowing sen-
net lag behind.
'un routid the
e rode outside.
n and 'without.
he road We
d by. He cut
ed either as
ustrate their
le Infinitive
liary verbs.
)•
ctive Voice,
igular Num-
;, and in the
bject of) the
" Thou shall tiol sleal."
' Shalt ' is a defective (notional) Verb ; in the Active Voice, Indi-
cative Mood, Present Tense ; and in the Singular Number and
the Second Person, to agree with its subject ' Ihott.'
' Steal ' i.e a Transitive Verb, in the Active Voice, and in the
(simple) Infinitive Mood, depending on (or governed by) the
verb ^ shall.'
" You may go."
'May' is a defective (notional) Verb, in the Active Voice, In-
dicative Mood, Present Tense ; and in the Plural Number, and
the Second Person to agree with its subject ' you.'
•Go' is a Transitive Verb, in the Active Voice, and in the
(simple) Infinitive Mood, depending on (or governed by) the
verb '• imiy.^
"" He did his duly." ^'^^^''^ '"
'Did' is a notional Transitive Verb, in the Active Voice,
Indicative Mood, Past Indefinite Tense, and in the Singular
Number and the Third Person to agree with its subject ' He.'
" / shall soon depart,"
Here ' shall ' is an auxiliary (not a nolional) Verb. The simple
infinitive 'depart' depends upon it in the same manner 'as
m the preceding examples. The two verbs ' shall' and
depart ' may be parsed separately, or the compound phrase
shall depart ' may be parsed as the future tense of the verb
depart.'
'''• He will come presently.''
Here 'will' is a mere auxiliary of the future tense. The notion
of volition is entirely lost sight of. It may be treated like
shall' in tlie last example.
*' You do assist the storm." " Did you hear the rain f "
In these examples ' do ' and ' did ' are mere auxiliaries. ' You
do assist ' does not differ in the least in sense from ' you assist.'
The verb does not itself constitute an emphatic form. The
compound form is emphatic'only when an emphasis is laid
upon the 'do.' But then any form is emphatic when it is
emphasized.
" He docs this that he may vex me."
Here ' may ' is a mere auxiliary of the Subjunctive Mood, and
is in the Subjunctive Mood itself. The notion of power or
permission has altogether vanished. It does not assert that
he is able or is permitted to vex me.
Exercise 53, Parse all the verbs in the following sentences, an4
144
OUTLINES 0¥ ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
oraitli,S""i°/.*' «»■'' -'^» ""..her .hey
or as auxiliary verbs : —
are used as notional
would not come when I called him v^fi^n "\<=o"'d not reply. He
on making a no.se. xuu neea not De alarm
wt;^'';;;;,^? .irr -;,;7 '^-'•,. vo„ wouid- noT w mTheip
in? We will never yie To threats mL K^^^' ^^ "''"'''• '^'*'^>' ^ ^""^^
says that he will not come ^°" ''^ y^"' ^'''^^'^'^ «e
/'r./.>«-^«^_, Zm.;/.-B. Nature and use of the gerundial infini-
tive or infinuive w.th ' to.' As the subject or ob|ct of anoth"
verb It does the work of a substantive. When it denotes the
ziTi;[;:r °' '" '?"" " '''''' '' ^^^^ ^^^ -^•^ ^^ -
The neuter pronoun 'if' is often used as a . -mporary or pro
visional subject or object, to show that an infinitive is comL
and to indicate its construction. '-""img,
" // is useless to make the attempt "
temporary subject Of the verb 'is.' ' "™'"- ^''-
forming the real subject of t^e verb ' is ' l"d""' ^^"°^'
'attempt 'in the objective case. ' ''"'^ governmg
" //i? ////W'j // i>e//cr not to come " Hp ri> 'it'W. ^u . .
Of .he verb ..hinks- and .he iafinhive Wme ^^is't'Sl^Z/*^'
wi.h .he force of an aXerbLodif;r„';°'.!;rve'b ^l'^"''^ ""'''■ "-"
fo.^wir,tnS.ei"f„The't;=;iti"ei'lt^e""il'^
used as notional
lour ago. I shall
i not reply. He
it. He shall not
)u need not stay.
They would keep
assist the storm.''
)t have my help
d. May I come
ur brother? He
?rundial infini-
ct of another
t denotes the
e work of an
)orary or pro-
'e is coming,
Third Person,
, forming,' the
e Voice, and
nitive Mood,
id governing
tpornry object
■il object.
'e verb in the
: Voice, used
rd ' it ' in the
ucceed. /^ is
ible /o reltnn.
He came to
EXERCISES.
I4S
pay me some money. He did his best to ruin me. I am delijrhted to see* you.
He IS anxious to do* his duty. The water is not fit to drink* I am happy tO
find* you so much better. They are come to stay with us. We found /?ini.
possible to go on. 1 am glad to hear* it. I shall be aoxry to leave* He
IS too clever to make* such a mistake. Such a fellow is not fit to live*
Exercise 55. Make ten sentences in which a gerundial infinitive
IS the subject of a verb ; ten in which it is the object of a verb ; and ten
in which it does the work of an adverb.
XXIX. Gerunds and Participles.
Preliminary Lesson.— Origin and use of Gerunds and Participles.
The verbal noun in -ing should be treated as an ordinary abstract
noun when it is preceded by an article, or followed by the pre-
position 'of.' When it governs a noun or pronoun in the
objective, it should be treated as a gerund (§§ 153—157).
Exercise 56. Write out the following sentences, and draw one
line under the Abstract Nouns in ^ins^, two hnes under the Gerunds •
three lines under the imperfect (Active) participles : — '
Seeing t is believing. He went to see the hunting of the snark. I see a
man riding on horseback. I like reading. 1 like reading history. The
excessive reading of novels is injurious. He hates lying. A lying witness
ought to be punished. In keeping Thy commandments there is great reward
His conduct is in keeping with his professions. We arrived there first through
taking a short cut. We fell in with a ship sailing to America. He is delighted
at having succeeded I in his design. We were late in consequence of having lostj
our way. He was angry at my going away. No good can come of your doing
that. Oblige me by all leaving the room. On some opposition being made he
withdrew his demand. I lay a thinking. § Forty and six years was this temple
m building. We started before the rising of the sun. By sedulously doing his
duty he gained the approbation of all. Quitting the forest, we advanced into
the open plain. There was a great deal oi" shouting and clapping of hands.
XXX. Parsing of Participles.
Preliminary Zm^«.— Participles proper. Participles used as
ordinary Qualitative Adjectives. Participles used absolutely
(§§ 156, 157).
may be parsed
1} may be parsed
id knock ' may
• In these cases the gerundial infinitive does the work of an adverb, and modifies the
''''! h/u^ adjective. Sometimes it expresses the cause of the state denoted by the adjective.
When the verbal noun m -ins does not govern an object it may be treated .as a siniole
abstract noun. '^
i This inii.-t be treated as a compound gerund. It is impo.ssible to construct the abstract
noun m -ini; with a past participle.
§ Here ' a ' is a preposition (= at or in). ' Thinking ' had better be taken in such construc-
tions as the Abstract Noun in -ing.
'46 OUTLINES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
''^Famie<ny the wind, the fire blazed fiercely:^
I^Tv honmtr,-',^ ii,,.^f„^ L- J ...
" My honoured master bade me tell you this."
" ^"''f''KK'f'iintly, he pressed my hand."
qua%ingi;^pSLi;?^S^^' ^^''^^ ^^-'-P'« °^ the verb ' s.ile,'
;' C.v«,V/.r.V,,/^,/,,.,,_^^^ /.. has done very well."
ol^ect of the transitive parliclple ' cL^iJe'lng.' ''' ^'j'^''^^ ^^^^' ^he
' i^rtz/, smilini^r Morn."
noun ' Morn.' ' '-i'l-TKaJSe Adjective, jomcd aHiibutively to th4
Exercise 67. Parse the Participles nTthe following sentences -
towcm,.,. i„ her pride „r „h„ ,,,.,'" '''"''""? '" »' Ih'- M'inclow. A falcon
».Sl.l««rl,„o,l cam, .atjf ,„; [ ,|,ch „l"'T"'f "'""'.'ITroach, th" „ S
»»■' P'="'l«<i by » pipe and ,X '°'""' '''"'"' '" "'i' «■'= clothe,'
XXXI. Interrogative antj Womtive Sent«noes.
are^:^;:drefru~i„':,f'"^"'' °^"" ?"'-"«"- -"'-ce
sentence whicit wo" d ,1 Ik "V™^ "' "'°='= "^ "'^ ''"'""'ive
yot. hear ? ' and ■ " id 1, ear' . "wl" ? ,7"''- ^""P-"-^ ' »«
- so V Who. didttr,:e;. P >! a 'itT jX 'Tc ' "wr"'
do^yot, „ve = . and ' ; live there,' &c. Use Tf the ve'rif'S:!'""'
^^^stS;s! and 'ss^:^:^ s?,rr- ">
EXERCISES.
147
le verb 'fan.
ely.
Ji",' used as an
i'erb ' smile,'
e verb ' con-
ive case, the
'erb 'smile,'
tivel> to tlie
ntences : —
red annuity,
liling villain.
3U have done
• A falcon,
t and killed,
h, the whole
fine clothes,
jes.
J sentence
eclarative
•are 'Did
' He told
, ' ^Vhere
Do.'
nsuers to
o ' JiewcJ,'
br;iLT,hT/ n ^'^''"'^'^'"^ Have you any money? Did your
brother 'lo tha ? Does your sister sn.g well? Will your father return to
morrow ? Shall you be ah-aid to go? Will you meet me there to-morrow ?
Did the man go aw.iy ? Have the boys hurt themselves?
Exercise 60. Take the answers to the preceding questions, and
turn them into the negative form. w"csuunb, ana
Exercise 61. Parse the verbs and the interrogative pronouns and
adverbs in the following sentences. pronouns ana
[In the first few sentences (i-) is put after the subject and (.;) after
the object of the verb when it is an interrogative pronoun, and the
same numeral is placed after an interrogative pronoun and thrprepo-
sitiontnat governs it and after an interrogative adverb and the word
hat It modifies; and «) is placed alter those interrogative ponoims
(or pronominal adjectives) which qualify the nouns that they precede ]
Who (.) called me ? What (o) did you say ? Which {.,) way is the shortest ?
What io) did you eat for supper ? On what (n) day do you set out ' What
(I) do you hope for (i) ? Whom (2) are you writing to (2) ? Where (\) do
you live (3) ? How (4) far (4) did you walk ? 1 ^ ^ >> ^3) clo
What comes next ? Which boy made that noise ? What author do vou
1 ke best ? N\ horn are you waiting for ? Whom did vou see ? On vS dav
do you set out? Where .lid you find that book? \\lHiher are vou eoiS
What induced you to say so? Which of them is right? \\-hich of 'hese
books do you want ? Which pleases you most ? t. '^ • ^^ "'^n 01 Jiese
What ails you? In which house does your uncle live? What poet's
writings please y.,,u most ? On what day do you set out ? When t wiH you
come ? How t did you do that ? How t man/ persons were present > How t
often do you write home? Why t do you say that? HowV soon will vou
come ? Where J are y<,u going to ? Where t do you come from ? ^
fnr^ti!!/"''"^'' ^"•''^^ 'u^ questions in this exercise in full, and then
turn these answers into the negative form.
XXXn^^Jjpperative Sentences.
Preliminary Lesson.— \3%q of the Imperative Mood (§ 147).
" Go thou attd do likewise."
' S° 'J^ ^c" '"'•■ansitive verb in the Active Voice ImoeritivP
Mood, Second Person Singular, to agree with Kubjict
dePl^l^irthTnotfn'peir-'"'"^"''"" '''°"°"" of common gender, in the possessive case
ocLSo^l't?ditcSraXe?b''"'"°''^ "'= -^'^^f ""= -ntence in which it
goUe'aly;heVrepUiS^*^^ doing duty for an interrogative pronouo,
148
OUTLINES OP ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
" Lt'/ me see that."
'Me ' is in the objective case, governed by < let.'
?e!rr r rr ''^" ^'^ ^^^^^ *" ^•^^ foUowing sentences:-
Let hi.rsfe^t'^7:t'us' b;'S .^'^ l'"" '^"^''-'/'"' '^>- - --ns vulgar,
cautious in tl,e business! VXtl^^^^T""''- ^'^' "« P'"^/- ^et me be
XXXIII. Relative or Conjunctive Pronouns
Prelinunary Zessou.-Vs. of Relative Pronouns (§§ xo8-x2i)
J/e IS a ;,uw who is beloved by everybody " ''
antecedent ' man.' It is in tbo Z • '""' ^° ^-""^^ ^"h its
the subject of the verb ' s be oveS ' T i"" ''^' '^r*''"^^ '^ '^
■s beloved by all ' to the noun 'man ' J°'"' '^' ^^""^^ ' ^^o
" ^^'. wt '^'' Z'^'^'' '^^"'' ^'"'^"'"'fyou met yesterday."
^n^° lar N?.11f -^^7^" tL^^pS^S ^^"^^ ^^ ^?^^
antecedent ' lady ' It is in tb^ p ^^'i^""' *« agree with its
on (or qualifying the noun' < husband ''"it'^.v' ^frl'"^*
whose husband you met yesterday ^Jotheliri?;' ^^^""
/^r^n- /^ //,^ man whom you tvished to see "
'S'sle"''°"'''' '" ^^^ objective case, the object of the verb
" ^'« Thl't' ^Tf ' "' '^'^ '''^ '''''' ' asked you for."
sSnar^^JS'lnV^rrifpe^^"^^^ ^^^"^-' '" the
antecedent 'book.^ his in tb^ Person, to agree with its
by the preposition ' for ' It ioinlfb. /""7 ,'''^'"' ^"^^'•"ed
for' to the noun ' book ' ^"'^ ^^'^' ^ ^'^^^^ you
t Par.e, boys as a Vocat.ve or ffominative of Address.
.. X If • whose 'be reatedns^h,.°n ^""^'."^"'^e of Address.
like a noun in the ^..^^ '7,-P"-;^f-^'*'^.'=,«-^e "f a substantive pronoun it must be r„ ^
mm be dealt vyith'as an adjective ^'" ^' '"^^''^'^ ^' °° ^ ?«■" with mj .Z"'/s ^^'h
EXERCISES.
it agrees with a
mperative Mood,
its subject ' you '
)ice, and in the
ovcrned by) the
sentences : —
no means vulgar,
pray. Let me be
nouns.
(§§ I08— I2l).
Gender, in the
' agree with its
>e because it is
le clause ' who
Gender in the
agree with its
e depending!
ins the clause
' lady.'
t of the verb
2nder, in the
gree with its
se, governed
t I asked you
i.|9
t must I)e parsed
"«>■, /its, &c., it
♦uT ffu" ,'*"^^'""u°^^ '■^^*^'^^ '^^^''^^ 's word for word the same as
that of the clause which results when a demonstrative pronoun or the
antecedent noun is substituted for the relative. Thus 'That I asked
you for is like ' I asked you for it (or the hook) ' : ' Whose husban
you met yesterday ' is like « you met her husband yesterday.'
Exercise es. Parse all the Relative Pronouns in the foI!o\^!n"
sentences, and test the construction by substituting demonstratives fo?
the relatives as in the above examples :—
The man whom you met is my brother. The artist who p.aintol (hat picture
died last year. I never saw the man whom you speak of. Where is the nen
which I gave you ? I who am poorer than you are, a, contented' Thou
who wast my friend and guide, hast forsaken me. You, who have clone the
damage, must repair it. We who are well off should pity and help the poor
He IS a man whose appearance \i prepossessing. The Ijoys whose work is
finished may go out to play. He that is down need fear no fall. I will show
you the horse which I boutjht yesterday. The picture which |,leased you so
much was painted by my brother. You have not brou^-ht me the volume that
I uu ,•• ,. ^ 'f '^^ ^^'■y '"^" ^^^^ I w=^s speaking of. Their sorrows
sliall be multiplied that hasten after another God. It is That that gr eves me
3h,Vh.'rP'°"''"^f''r,''"^'''''- "^""'^y' "^"y. 'lol telltheeofmyfoes;
\yhich art my near'st and dearest enemy ?'^ "I am that verv duke whirh wns
thrust from Milan " "Whosoever* hath, to him shaUbe gu c ". '> ^' les^d
IS he whosoever shall not be offended in Me." He .loth sin that doth belie the
dead. Whose hatred ,s covered by .Icceit, his wickedness shall be showed
before the whole congregation. They are but faint-hearted whose courage fails
hJr^ °^TK"^-''-.u"^'°-''^y V^^' '^"'^ ^'' l^'""'' ^"'h me shall be my
brother. This is the priest all shaven and shorn, that married the man all
tattered and torn, that kissed the maiden all forlorn, that milkc.I the cow with
the crumpled horn that tossed the dog that worried the cat that killed the rat
that ate the malt that lay m the house that Jack built.' Here is the man whom
I sent for. Give me the book that lies „n that table. Give me the book that
I asked for. Bring back the book that 1 lent you. He likes everything that
1 hke. He likes everything that pleases me. He likes everything that I am
fond of Correct the mistake which he made. Correct the mistakes which
occur in that sentence. w»m,u
Exercise 65. Supply (and parse) the relative pronouns which are
omitted in the following sentences.
Pay me the money you owe me. You have not sent
yesterday. Have you received the money I sent you ?
went to. Vou are the very man I was looking for. " I h
me such thrift, that I should questionless be fortunate."
I came. Those are the very words he used. Is the task I
He is not the man I expected. Which was the road you
the book I gave you He has not answered the letter I
IS the book you promised me ? Put on the smartest d' ''s
the goods I bought
That is the place I
ave a mind presages
That is not the way
set you finished yet ?
took? That is not
wrote him. Where
you have.
ThlJ''^„?,1!I'l"^.i°'^ these compound relatives does not differ from that of the simple relatives.
They should be described as (omfouiui, or indefinite reUitives. ^ «'*"ves,
ISO
OJTLINES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
/hich a suppressed relative may be
Make a dozen sentences in
suppli-d,
which way he went? Is that w at^Jou ". L^'t II''' '^''J ^'''' y"" '^^'^
want to know who broke the wim ml TheJ I-, Zl """ ""^^^ ^^V '*^''' ^ ^
>s tlie matter with you ? Do voi. Zow Jhn7. , """T '^^'''" '" ''"• '^^'hat
I said? I5y what means can ^rs„cTe«I? On' k ":'';"'• .,P'^ ^^^ '>'-^" ^^hat
do you tell me what I know a Sv Wh..!:'' f^'''^ "'" ^^^ '^'""'^^ •' ^^^V
.an Whose house was^oUffl ^IS^^^^S rJrir/an!t ^l^^^i;- '-^^
Xlxereise 96. Whon ' vuhi^u > „ • ,
«»«». wnen which accompanies and qualifies a noun it
ijunctive Pronominal Adjective.' It then
--- — --• »»in;ii wnicn
special anwcedent in nlfce of wh ' h ', '.'"' ,'"*' ,™nli:"cc, l«,i l,as no
following sentences .- * " """''=• '^'"^ ' "hieh ' in the
«..«= . h™b,e conLsi»„;,rau""„.it'^jjE^Lh";kX',^^^^^^
fo Jpr4;,es!"aSUJrtJLlSraS'iS -SS -"J^^
That is not what I sen you for I cannnT'"^' ! ^f "''. ^^''''''' y°" ^^^^ raying,
not (lone what vou pr ,E° Have vo"T'" '°! ''''''' >'°" ^-^'^- ^'«" have
What astonished me most wi; hl!Z, ^T ^0""^! what you were looking for ?
what happened. W^em said tl ^1^.^"''/ , '^'^'^^'^'''•'^t follows. Deiribe
manly, ^fie does whaSr he ] e t;u '^'^.f' ^^' '"^^'^ "■^^'^^e^ i«
you send. He is pleased by whatever pleaTe'nl"' " "'"'^ '° whomsoever
XXXIV. Eelative (or Conjunctive) Adverbs.
Pre^miuary Zesso..~Use of Conjunctive Adverbs (§ .04)
of the principal dause ' ^ '^"' '^'"^^ **^ ^^^ P^-^^^^^te
T Mma tlut tln.s preposition does not Eovern • lh-,',"i ~w"t"- ' '^ ='"'«tituted for 'i^C •
Itssuppressedantecedenfthat,' ^ " """'^^ (which is the pbject of to'ask"). but
relative may be
ndcr the relative
4ns : —
hich I jjave you?
Vho said so? Is
s? Did you see
hat you said? I
hnttodo. What
)id you hcnr what
you come .•' Why
eive what I >cnt
lias just ai ved?
^o you knu.v the
t" give this to?
lifies a noun, it
ctive.' It then
fice, hut has no
' which ' in the
lot wait for me.
iiy brother. He
er's displeasure.
ierstood in the
;ecedents:—
'es yet. Whom
Duld, nor refuse
^ou are saying,
ask, Vou have
re looking for ?
ows. Describe
kes whatever is
to whomsoever
3rbs.
s (§ 204).
dverb in the
he predicate
EXERCrSES.
»Si
ntecedent, wher.-
ed for 'what.'"
of to'qsk'X IJUt
If a conjunctive adverb is equivalent to a relative pronoun
preceded l.y a preposition it joins its clause to the antecedent
Parse the conjunctive adverbs in the following
Exercise 68.
sentences : —
.erbs in the
each adverb
nistin-uish the connective from the interrotnive ar
When did you arrive ? We came when vnn ,i;,i wv. . , ^
arranged the matter. Where did you lose your p^^^"^^^ """ ''"^ ^°''
XXXV. Conjunctions.
J^re/immry Lesson.- Study the definition and classification of
Conjunctions (§§221—226).
Clair Sdltate wC^uir^ ''"'" ''''"' ^^'' °^ ^^^^^^ it is, and of what
' both-and ' ' dth?r T"^' °7^ntences .t couples together. The pairs
uom and, either— or,' and ' neither— nor,' may he taken tofrpthpr
and parsed as correlative and co-ordinative conrnct.on? jdninfsth
Sn th"e cireth.Vh m"^'"'"". ^ubordinativi conjunctlonru^suil y
join me chiuse which they introduce to the predicate of the orinrin/l
clause. The con unction ' than ' joins its clause to he D^ecedhfi
comparative adjective or adverb. preceding
Exercise 71. Parse the conjunctions in the following sentences :~
[I will! sleeo Either iTm m;=f 1, ""^ '^^ "^'^ ^"^" '" Peace and
I] sleep. ^" mistaken, or you are. I can neither cat nor [cait
wiS'bJ JjnlJe'd^T S ir£t"- Ifth 'J' "^ 'i^""' 'i^ '^^^ "° -°"^y- You
pumsneci u you do that. If I had seen him, I would have spoken ta
iSa
OUTLINES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
him He would not help me, though he knew that I was in need. Thouch
hand join hand m hand, the wicked shall not be unpunished. You will lose the
prize unless you work harder. Take heed lest you fall. He spoke' loud that
1 m ght hear him. I cannot give you any money, for I have none. My
brother is tal er than you are. He is richer than his brother [is]. He comes
oftener than [he] e-er [came]. As that is the case, I will come
Exercise 72. Parse the words in italics in the following sentences
bearing m mind that words like before, after, since, &c., when followed
?!/,""/ """Pr""";!'',,'" ^\^ objective case, z.xt prepositiom,hnt are
conjunctions when followed by a clause containing a finite verb with
Its subject:— ^-n." >viui
John arrived .?/?^;- his brother. He walked before me. Do not go before I
come. We left after the concert was over. He was sorry after he hTd S it
Since you say so, I must believe it. He has not smiled .T«ihis son died We
have not eaten since yesterday. They will go away before night. Thty staved
rmtil the next day. I will wait until you return. They stayed in 5s S
hn'll I^fn-i^ "'■' 'P'"V ^nll '^"^' >^" ^^^^ P^^^'^"^. ^ ELpt ye repent, ye
I willltay '"' "^ "■' '' "°''°'^y '"*' ""' ^' ^""'^- You may'^go.^«/
Exercise 73. Parse the word 't/iat' wherever it occurs in the
follewing sentences.
Show me that picture. He did not say that. That book is mine. He is
the very man that I want. Play me the tune that I like so much. He says
ha we shall never succeed. He does that that he may vex me. I am afraid
that he says that, that he may deceive me. They that will be rich fall into
emptation. There is not a man here that I can trust. I lent you that book
that you might read it. I hear that he has lost that book that I lent him
You ought to know that' that 't/iat' that you see at the beginninc of the
clause IS a conjunction, because I told you that before.
thf wo??'^^h^*' ^*^^ ^^^ °^ ^^^ sentences to illustrate each use of
XXXVI. The Subjunctive Mood.
Preliminary Zm<7«.— Nature and use of the Subjunctive Mood
(§ 148).
Exercise 76. Parse the verbs in italics in the following sentences
and explain in each case why the subjunctive is used : — '
Take care that dinner he ready for me by two o'clock. Beware lest some-
thing worse happen to yo^. Live temperately that you may live lone If
you ivcre generous, you would help me. If you had sent for me, I would
have come. If he ivere to swear to it, I would not believe it. If I had any
money, T ■;t>o,4ld givf it tc ■ ou. Oh ! that it tvcrc with me as in days that are
past. If this were true he zvould not deny it. I would have done it if I had
been able. He cou'd not be kinder if he were my brother. Except the Lord
I need. Though
You will lose the
; spoke loud that
have none. My
[is]. He comes
le.
ving sentences,
when followed
utlous, but are
tinite verb with
> not go hefore I
>■ he had said if.
is son died. We
t. Thty stayed
:d in Paris until
pt ye repent, ye
iTou may go, but
occurs in the
3 mine. He is
nuch. He says
e. I am afraid
le rich fall into '
you that book
that I lent him.
iginning of the
e each use of
nctive Mood
ng sentences,
vare lest some-
live long. If
■ me, I would
If I had any
1 days that are
ne it if I had
itccpt the Lord
EXERCISES. let
Imild the house, they labour in vain tliat l)uikl it. Peace /v to his ashes A
south-west l>lo7a on ye, and Mster you all o'er. I 'uvuul I 7ac-re a weaver I
cou/J sing psalms or anything.
Exercise 77. Parse the verbs in italics in the following sentences,
carefully distinguishing the moods and noting whether the verb relates
to what IS actual fact, or expresses one of tiie subjunctive ideas. The
use of a past form in relation to present time, or of a past perfect
when there is no reference to any other event, merely to denote Xut
time, IS one of the marks of the Subjunctive Mood :—
You may * go You may keep' the book. He says that thn t he way vex me.
The boys wmtd not be quiet when I l„g.ed then, to be so. He 70ould not tell
me If 1 asked him fhe old man mi^ht be seen liaily sitting in the porch. He
came that he mght beg money of me. He may^^ have been in the house, but
I did not see him He xvmld be angry if he hieiu of it. He -would have ken
angry if he had known of it. I had just finished when you came in. " I fad
1 but died an hour before this chance, I had lived a blessed time." He would
not open the door when I knocked. He would open the door if you knocked.
He 7vould have opened the door if you had knocked. You should I not tell lies.
If he has betrayed hi^ trust, I will never forgive him. It he\7'^Vnhat he
./.OT. to be punished. If he had done it, he 7uould have confessed it. If he
rf-^r/it, he would ^^xion^Ay displease me. If that was his repiv, it was a very
foolish one. If he -were to make such a reply it -would be verV foolish. If he
hal heard ih^ ne^ys, he kept it all to himself. If he had heard the news, he
zaou/d not have kept it to himself. He could not do that if he tried He
could not do It when he fried. He might have come if he had wished '(Z.^. it
would havebeen in .ns power, &c). It may be very strange {i.e. it is possible that
It IS very strange), but it is quite true. It ;Vhave been my fauhS it ?'
possible that it was my fault). ^ ^
Exercise 78. Make ten sentences in which the indicative is used
alter if and ten in which the subjunctive is used.
XXXVII. Apposition.
^ Preliminary Lesson.-\NhQn a noun is attached without a con-
junction to another noun or pronoun, to give a more complete
description of the person or thing meant, it is said to be in
apposition to it, and is in the same number and case§ (§ 286, 2).
verbl'^^S^'e sS," 'xxvj m'.''" '"'''""^^ """"d ""«' ^^ Parsed as notional, not as auxiliary
t TV ' ''' ' f ." P°>\^''^'e 'hat he mns in the house-
is indicati'i^' °^it fSuow, the'^analoev if 'ifX-'" '"^""v.' ''^'"'^ '" P^-''^"' '™e. ^'nd yet it
8 That is nrnviXH ,K analogy of ought and the other preter tepresent verbs.
neL'putrn^Siont%'n«h"r'but"th':"twr '"" "'J''"'"" P"= """""' "^"^ P-^"»-<= ''^
a„j f\\ K^-uaiiiuii lu .inoiner. out the two nouns arc trotted as a i-r-'r --/> — -'-v.. J „:.^,
of 1he'^coTpS'nl""'i;'' ".tl T f'' "^•^ ^^\r" of"thftwo"nVun?,;hat ?;:«'' he'eta
'dog.' . ^ " compound proper noun, m the possessive case, depending on
If-
I!'
I
154
Ujcercise
sentences :—
OUTLINES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
79. Parse the words in italics in the following
duIf'the'S'-'/.'!/ ^'''""' ?'"'; y^ '"■°''»^'- ^'''"'' i« expected. Pan-
rp« nnnln 1 ^ V Tu'' '''""'' '" England. You, the author of that report are
hI?eadle'r/.iS' ^'°"^ ""'' ^''"^' ^^^'='^^'^^- "^ '^^ ^'-•^'«> --V^!
XXXVIII. Attributive Adjuncts.
Preliminary Zm.;//. -Nature and classification of Attributive
Adjuncts. Phrases that do the work of Adjectives (§ 286).
Exercise 81. Point out the attributive adjuncts of nouns and
pronouns ni the following examples, and in each case state of what
they cons.st, and to what they are attached. When two or more
adjuncts are attached to the san.e noun, distinguish them carefully ?-
John's coat is seemly. My cousin Henry died last week. A rattlinc storm
Se A .n^^HTr- '"^: '" the garden. My brother Ws ^"7"
Jame. A man clothed* m a long white robe came up to me We soon
reached tl,e top of the mountain." The prisoner's guih s ma;ifest The
returnecl. rins is no tmie for trilhng. I saw a house to let further on
Whose hat dul you take ? I borrowed VViliiam's big two-Waded knife A
bird in the hand is worth two in thebush. A frien.l in need s a fr end ndeed
s^L on?r P?™''^^'°'l t° g" Leave of absence was refused him I he^
some one knocking at the door. The love of money is the root of all evil I
saw a big boy striking a little one. Feeling unwell, I went to lie down
XXXIX. Adverbial Adjuncts.
Preliminary Zm^«.-Nature and classification of Adverbial
Adjuncts. Words and phrases which do the work of Adverbs
by modifying verbs, adjectives or other adverbs (§ 291).
v.SfJ?f^ ®^-- ^^-^'^ ^" '"^^^ ^""'^^ adjective or adverb the ad-
Ittached •■^"''' '" ''"^'" '" '^^ following^entences are respecUvely
A We started ^,zr/,,. He spoke eloquently. Do not talk fast Corner
wm S;-.. fi 7 ':' '''^"■"'^: '^'"''- "'^ '^ '" a./«««.«<..vrgood temper. S'S-J
go ir; P "^ " ''"" ^"'^"^ ^ ^^^ -"^"y P«^^°»^ ^ere tire ? f^I^did you
-^l^!''"'i_"!l"5' ^" J^'^' ^' ''"■' '^"''"g about your brother. I am
' walking in the e.irden '" ' do'ihl-H ;„ n *'?';/''"'*'<: ;*t-ntcnccs the .attributive aujuncts are
Of this kind nVcomain i i o m thiVh hl^ *,'"' ?''''/ ^'- '^ "^""'P'" a""butive adjunct
•long,'and-whi^e''raVu«crortt„ot'f^^^^^^^ '"' °"" ='"''=•"='' '° "" ^hus ' a/
EXERCISES.
1 the following
is expected. Pan-
• of that report, are
alienated even you,
S.
I of Attributive
es (§ 286).
s of nouns and
se state of what
en two or more
lem carefully : —
A rattling storm
ler Tom's pony is
:o nie. We soon
is manifest. The
It in the rain, we
to let further on.
bladed knife. A
is a friend indeed,
sed him. I hear
oot of all evil. I
to lie down.
of Adverbial
rk of Adverbs,
91).
id verb the ad-
ire respectively
ilk fast Come
I temper. Where
? Why did you
)■ brother, I am
■with all the words
ibiitiye adjuncts are
: attributive adjunct
d to it. Thus 'a,'
15s
S;l^S'^"?ou^!lT//'''''T-* I«haIlbeglad/.^.«./^.„^,,. Vou
p^f H^ii rorfhr7:v.i:r fK' f 74t Je:^ r " r ^«
I was given /. understand/ /hat you had left town. 7?'^^ I?i7uf S
across the park He came forth bound hanJ^ ancl>,/ He L ,^^ Zl
r'lhT wJrse.'" ' ^"- "^ "'" •^^ '-^ (= ^-^ -^^4 Jhe wtr! ^^ aS
soo^n. '^:VvL%)a^^. ^^J^'^;^ ^ ^'IffiT ^"^"7^""'
whit T hivp fr. =^„ T . 11 • t; . -"-^^ '''^ '"^ favour of hearme
wnat 1 nave to say. 1 will paint ^w< a picture. J -"'"-t,
E. r^i^ /5c;-j« <Jrt„^r exhausted we could not proceed. The rest must nerish
livf^i'SoTefagir'^^''- "^ ^'^P' "' -ntroubted sleep. We cannot
semfnTes'^fa^t'e oFwhL°S '''" adverbial adjuncts in the following
SSr^theTireattSed:-!' '°""'^' ^""^ "" ""''■■'' ^^'•^' '-^^J-^-'
They arrived yesterday. They will be here to-night. He craved for n
speedy deliverance. I am much displeased wi.h youf concU.ct^ He is not
like his sister. He accompanied us most of tlie way Y n 3 n .^^Jl
tE'I- "h' ^PP--.^^-« dagger in hand Hc'buiU a wa tea Tt thX
There is a church a mile distant from the town. You are speiuliiS vour t rn;
to no purpose. I .m not disposed to sell the horse. We^we ^ all Snrof
the accident. We live in constant fear. Wait a bit We had nothincl/r^).?
What IS the matter with you ? He is too ready to take offeS We fre Id
tojeeyou. Why did you say that ? My poV being lame, I « ?!de
Exercise 85. In the following examples show which of the ohrases
Te L"Lf •/ P'-^P^f."'^" ^"d a noun do the work of an adjecdve
.e are aitnbmjve ^diuncis, and which do the work of an idverb'
Attached. ^ ^^^ ^^ ^"^J""''' ' ^"^ ^^°^ ^° ^^^' ^^'•d each is
He shot a great quantity of game on the moor. What is the use of all thi,
fuss about the matter.' I am delighted to see you in good heakh We were
trSs re'verv ^eS"' h'° ^°"' "^'^ ^^'"^'^^^ °^ ''^'^^^^"S in foreign Jun!
tries are very great. He is a man of great ndustrv Hp irrnmniicK^^ f^„ ► 1
by unflagging industry. A man addTcted to sSinduIgence^ f'not^r^^^
gre atness. He is fond of angling. That is a good ^fm .|pr Tngling. Tarn
• Select from Exercise 54 all the examples of the Ocn.ndiM Infinitive used idverbiallv
beL':\fco;Seta?ASi;:,lfcr ^^°"°""^ '" "'^ o'^J-tiverwiS^oHfatrS^ition
t'' AHd'to lh«/""^"''f' '"„E?'e'-"se 4? which contain adverbial .adjuncts,
t Add to these examples all those m Exercise ig which coatain an Indii-ect Object.
iS6
OUTLINES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
shouted to the boys at the topffhfs voice. ^""^ "' '^^ '°^ °^ "^"^ ^'^^^- «^
Exercise 86. Make a dozen sentences in which a oreoositicn
followed by a noun or pronoun forms an attributive adjunct^ and a
dozen m which it forms an adverbial adjunct. ^^m^^, and a
XL. Parsing of Adverbial Adjuncts.
Parse the words in italics in the following sente-^ces carefullv
distinguishing the adverbial objective from th^e other uses of S
the ^ay. I see him most days. Most c/avs are ini;1#.« fA ^I r- •
we have a rubber. Every 4«/„rnexfSiiSaiedW "^""'1
every evening next 7i/.v^. We went over drv L/^^ .^^^ ^'^ engaged
^^ExereiM 88. Parse the words in i,ali„ i„ ,he f„,l„„i„g ,en-
He will have the expense desides all the trouble H^ «.;n h .u
and the trouble desid,s. Both John and I w^re nr.c?! ''I ^,T "l^ "P^"«
present. I will both lav me down ?n L ^ , T''' '^^''^ ^■'"^^^'^s W'^re
Lard it. He sat up all Z\,t AllX ^\^^^ ^t ''"'''/, '^" 'Y'^ P^^«^"'
We have ^M.r things to attend to OtZr?!' k r " ."^^ Powerful at court,
may break him. b% you wifl never bend W^'m' ''' I"' ^ *^^"r'- ^°"
There was butk min/te to pa^ I would do" it ?«/ t^^^'/" '"r ^^(, " "
There is no one ^«/ pities him. Parsr' but ' in ft. - ? *'"" f^''^!^'^' ■'•
road is difficult. I never dni J/l^beer or wW t^ ''"''"'^- ^^'''-'
enough.* We have not ^..^ - ^T^hVLri^^ead^irj^f^^^
; • Enough • may be a subsUmtive. but it u never ^^^^^^iT^^^^^^^,^;^
EXERCISES.
;asure at your be-
le is not prone to
ce on his promises
V neighbour? He
too feeble to make
:e abounds in good
las given up riding
of the class. He
h a preposition
adjunct, and a
its.
es, and not go-
idverbial Objec-
:ept those in the
s being in the
ict is really one
5'^ces, carefully
T uses of that
London. Pr.pa
don. He spends
^e. have lost half
Every evttning
We are engaged
this way. Lead
count the times
5ed, we started.
following sen-
lave the expense
/' brothers were
U those present
werful at court.
I cannot. You
to all but IT ;.
f am forbida- .1.
ntence. Bit,. ,'
gave us trouVr
i^k .ind to spare.
ially an adverb.
157
wThl've'Ss^T J/^^th7d"y"7°"-/ Tr T'\ eo. /- you are sent for.
vve nave wasted ,*«// he day. I am half mclined to believe it I havp nnt
told you one /.«// of what was said. He ^teed not be afraid! He 42 Lie
oversight. His needs w 11 be well sunnlipH H«\^, / j , ^^
Samaria. He left ,.w day.' Whft sl^lf we" do"^"^"^' ufXZ^^Zt
dinner. Who comes „.x/.? He has lost his .«/y son. We have^L fou!
shillings left. Do wnat you please, oh/v be quick about it I Lv™,/
tuhat to say unto thee. I feel \ome,Jhat indisposed ^^ """"
XLI. ANALYSIS OP SENTENCES.
I. Simple Sentences.
Preliminary Z^'ww.— Nature of a simple sentence. Dil -rence
between the logical Subject and dedicate, and the grammatical
Subject and Predicate. (§§ 276, &c ; 302, &c. ; 371, &c.i)
Exercise* 90. Divide the following sentences into the logical
subject, and the logical predicate :— iogicai
The child has hurt himself. This naughty child has torn his clothes. The
boys came home last night. John's parents have sent him to school
Dismayed at the prospect they beat a retreat. The owner of hat esSe
intends to sell ,t. My little brother has fallen down. The children dred vSith
r&T' '1 ^T""'-, ^\^ ^""'J^^ °^ "^^^ ''"'^ '^^y h^^« «^"t him 'to sea. A
rich old uncle has left him a large estate in Yorkshire. The horse, terrified
by the lightning, ran away at full speed. ._^. ' ^^^"^^^"^
Questions may be divided in a similar ma t. The construction
SfirTrThn." « w7 '"•?" primary diviMon, if the predicate be
ShJiin ^ ^P 5 f'w?^''^",r" y^"' ^'°^her return to town.?" may be
divided. Pred. « When will return to town.?' Snbj. 'Your brother?
Divide the following sentences in a similar way :—
Does your uncle the doctor know of this? Went not my spirit with thee ?
v^u t W ? W.' ^^5°' °^ '^'^ ^r^ ^'' ^'' ™'^'^"^'^ ? Who if the world told
yoS S ^our^urs^ef ^'"'"'^ "'' ^°'' "'"'^^y'' «°^ "^"^ ^^^"•"g« ^ave
nftf^®''°'^®.®i'u "^u^ component parts of a compound tense are
often separated by the mtrusion of adverbial adjuncts. Take the
STf^ ^.^"/^"^es.^nd put with the subject in each the w/tole of the
verb that belongs to it, without the other words. Thus from "We
have already heard the news," take " We have heard."
Thy»'^"-n°°" '■^^''^ °.y destination. The field is already being reaped
The work will very probably be finished before night. We shall la di^ time
in'anll'ys.v'""'''"' '" ""' ^°"°"''"^ "''""''''^^ "^^^ ^ '=^''«" f°^ P«"ice in parsing as well as
+ If the subject be the interrogative ' who," it had better come first.
fS8
OUTLINES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
JiiJI
Exercise 92. Take the following s.n fences • ,n, senar^f,. tl,»
hi"?2i,'n2 lS"'ll ™„", "" "'"' "'"""'• '"' t'other' Jo„„W p„,y
his lessons? What ooets wark<! nipac*. vr^., «,^<.^5 lirL ^ **'",^" "Joy Knows
demand ? What nauS liSt^SSLXSowT'^' ^°''^ "^ ™"' ''^
Exercise 83. Make (or find) a dozen sentences in which the
grammatical subject is enlarged, and state in each case of what thi
enlargement consists. ' ^"^
.«?cf !-'"^% ?u • Separate the following sentences into two groups, one
SI f K^ l^'^ u '"^''"^ •'^^''^ '^ ^ grammatical object of the pre!
dicate verb the other consisting of those in which there is not a
grammatical object. Then take the sentences in the first g^oup and
set down separately the object of the verb in each, and the several
attributive adjuncts of the object. Thus : " John sent'to us an amusing
account of the proceedings." Oijea :-' Account.' AUrtZPve
SS/-^"^^-"'''-""'- '^"'' '' '-"^"sing'; 3. 'of thep^o!
My cousin arrived last night. We were greatly amused by his story. He
wirw' wf''";-!?'^ ^^°"' ^'t ^'°^^^'' Have'you read this authS's las?
work ? Whom did you see at the concert ? The girl is admired by everybody
Even^body admires John's littlt sister. Thus Inded a war t of ten yS
iZl'T: ,P's ended that most unpleasant business. Down came the rain
1 saw a soldier on horseback. J I met some gipsies in my ramble. The mastr,
enclis" ?in''rrLcke*s.'""""'" ti;r;;o;i;7ri;o7pT o7words forming separate adiuncU .:
t Mmd that the subject very often /o/Zo, • i, i verb.
t Observe that this phrase does not show .> .':; s the act of seein? took olar • O = » f ' .
sentence with the next. seeing tooK piac. w. .. A Cu.s
EXERCISES.
159
inted the difficulty,
n ail '.he mornirr.
ery si.iiple mean";
1 '' separate the
and its adjuncts
ther John's'i pony
ar) came ir'., the
ly alms) beg.ui to
(This) law, (the
the other side of
y desk) has been
ing of success) he
of baseness) (the
5 of the garrison
Y- A horse,T.,-\n,
the pump in ihe
/hich boy knows
3ods are most in
in which the
se of what the
:wo groups, one
ject of the pre-
there is not a
first group and
id the several
us an amusing
Attributive
' of the pro-
his story. He
lis author's last
I by everybody.
(■ of ten years'
came the rain
e. The mast -
rate adiuncts
=1d te K ^^ *°P "^''^^ ''h'-r ^^^ '"=^" '^'^^^ '^^ PO°r little boy on
th.,: :ead. The boys were rewarded for their diligence. My horse fell down
u; uie roao. Deep drank Lord Marmion of tlfe wave. On tlT top of the
hill stands a stone cross. We were strenuously advised to turn back.
Exercise 95, Take the sentences in the last three exercises and
write down the several adverbial adjuncts of the predicateTn each.
Exercise 86.
sentences
i. Cor*!
Jt tl't^S
Give the complete analysis of the following
John's account of the affair alarmed me. Every finite verb in a sentence
hai a subject. My brother Henry told me* that. I saw the occuSce
^rough a gap m the wail. That lazy boy did not go out of doSsallX
wmT?- .,^1'^' y^" '''";•' '^' ""'''' ? ^ ^^^'^e nothinfmore arlent^r Cryine
w 11 not help you out of the difficulty. To act thus till displeSe his Ser
To do this properly requires time. Who spoke last ? Whom did yoi hear ai
a? th. L'^i^,'"°''"l"g? Hopi"g to find an easier road, we lef?our c^ompanion
Sss^eos i'h,/;rrt^''*.-y°" ^""^ y°"^ ^^y? "^»^«d ast^ckTSJ^or
in thi ^ 1 What foolish notion possesses you ? A little girl's voice was heard
Lest wStjnd Thf Si' ^"""^ ^ ^'^'^ '" '^' ^'^'^"-- ^^ "-p" ^
nest was tound. The tall lady's dress was torn. Some ladies' silk dre«P,
Exercise 97. Take the following pairs of subjects and verbs and
build up sentences by putting in objicfs, where they are wanted and
enlarging the subjects, predicates, and objects, with L rnanradiu'nSs
attributive and adverbial, as you can. Thu's, from « Men rob" voil
cnSfT'^^^^-K ^^^^^ ^ ^°'^'' ot^e*" sentences in a similar way with
subjects and verbs of your own choosing. ^
Exercise 99. Parse all the words in Exercises 94 and 96.
XLII. Verbs of Incomplete Predication.
Preliminary Zm^«.— Nature and construction of Verbs of
Incomplete Predication. Mode of analysing sentences in which
they occur (§§309-312; 375).
• Look at 8 291, 4.
t Remember that 'how' is an adverb.
i6o
OUTLINES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
l!|'»
1 '"If ^
prisoner was pronounced gSty of honicW 'bought a fool The
wme tastes sweet. She looks very ." et v H. '"y ^°"^'":« friend. The
s ood silent. They entered lauJhiX %'u \ "^""^ ';''-''-'''='' Emperor. He
playground. ^ ^"^ iaughmg. The boys rushed shouting into the
cafe''oTt°hrcomplem^e'n7 eit£ K'"^' "^ f "fences. AccouHt for the
&c., take the saSe^ase Stlh/J^^^^^^^^ ^^'''^^ ' be,' ' become,^
that the ^orn^^rn.St^i:^^^^^SSZ^S:i^^^^^
wh^T^feVfJo^dTn'nTaktfati' ' '^? "^ ■ncomplete predication
active or the pasffve voke'^^rs^.^H^e^'^^i^f, ■' '? °'^ '''''. '" ^'^^er the
gone;' ' He was struck' But ^Xn S^V r^ '''''' ^^>''"g 5' 'He is
verb it is usually called an^L.;t:"/^:i^° ^°™ ",''"'^ of another
pound form denotes the perforrnanr7th: . /■ '""^'^ ^^'^^ ^^e com-
tion of an action. WheS'SSi/ /c z/"^'""^",""' "•" ^^^^ ^o'^Ple-
denoted, the participle that foUmi • ?^ ''''■'''^'^ "^ ^^'^ ^^<:tioh is
«amp"«°- '"'"""' *= "^"""^ ■«- of "'= verb i„ ,he following
ready, I am in doubt about thit ThI k ' '"^ ™^n would die. We are
J"an was starved to death The 'hi Jren ar^ h.'ff^'f'"'^"''^'^'- '^^^ P«°'
by an arrow. The poor soldier Lbadh"„ndS^^ f '^- • "" ^"^ ^"""^ed
delay is trying to our natienre T .^ \ ^"""'^f*. I am trymg to do it. This
by the concert. HeKled Toh^ l!f'''''^'°'',?y°"- ^e were delighted
Where are you? Where Se^olten SAhTmoTrg?^ '°°^ '^' ""^ p'-'
tiv??s;s;3:nS;o?;^c^s:5Sf^ss^!^^^^^^ ^^-
HeTonSS^tl^^Ujli rxXf"' The'Va d^ V^^'^" .-^ ^^'"^ '^^ ^'-r.
man a liar. You have made 2, V hands diJv ^^'^ ^'"^- "e called the
prisoner gui ty. We consider Mn! . c , ^^ ^^*^ J"''y pronounced the
imprudent This lasuretderS the .^otfe- ^^% ^^'"^ '^^' «^«P -^
EXERCISES.
i6i
ntaining Subjec-
Ile became my
h suddenly. He
:ht a fool. The
iin's friend. The
1 Emperor. He
ihouting into the
ccount for the
' be,' ' become,'
2tter) by saying
; subject.
Jte predication
rb in either the
ying ;' ' He is
rise of another
ases the com-
5r the comple-
" the action is
^'e of quality,
sort, to be is a
1) the 'verb of
complement.)
the following
'e been. The
die. We are
It. The poor
: was wounded
to do it. This
were delighted
for his pains.
ning Objec-
k him clever.
He called the
onounced the
his step very
nee the wine
ter. He set
plement of the
:n is the object
Exercise 104. Analyse the following sentences, in which the subjec-
tive complement is a verb in the infinitive mood.
He is believed to have perished. They are supposed to have lost their way
He is thought to have poisoned the man. Hn Jk Vi»ii°oim.i »r. Ko r.,™,! ti,»
step was considered to be very imprudent.
Exercise 105. Parse the preceding sentences
He is believed to be mad. That
He was ordered to sit down.
Analyse the following sentences containing Infinitive
Exercise 106.
Complements.*
They can write well. We can sing. They may depart. We must make
haste. You shall be rewarded. I will be answered. I must ro home. I can-
not hear you. They may take the money. I will return shortly. They shall
have a good scolding. That cannot be allowed. Nothing could be more un-
fortunate.
Exercise 107. Analyse the following sentences, carefully distin-
guishing those cases in which a verb is followed by a complement from
those in which it is followed by an adverbial adjunct. See whether
the word in question denotes the condition of that which is spoken
about, or the manner in which an action is done.
That looks pretty. The bell sounded cracked. He spoke loud. The cry
sounded clear and shrill. His voice sounded feebly. His voice sounded feeble.
He has travelled far and wide. They have not made the street wide enough.
The neople wept sore. It grieved me sore. The stones have made my feet
sore. He rubbed his face hard. The water is frozen hard. He rubbed his
face sore. They came late. This delay will make us late. The bird sang
clear. The ship passed clear of the rock. The water r-uns clear. Her voice
sounds clear.
XLIII. Complex Objective Fhrases.t
Preliminary Lesson.— Use of the Objective and Infinitive
Exercise 108. Analyse the following sentences containing ob-
jective infinitive phrases : —
He heard X the wind roar through the trees. I heard the man say so. We
saw the thief try to pick a gentleman's pocket. I wish % you to come to-morrow.
I believe t the man to be innocent. I felt J the air fan my cheek. I have heard
[people] say that he is very rich. Have you ever known % the man confess
being in fault ? I expectedj the travellers to be here by this time.
• These complements are in reality in the Objective Relation to the verbs of incomolete
predication. _ "^
+ These infinitive ;ihrases are often scarcely distinguishable from infinitive moods used as
oljjectiye complements ; but it will bt s>en on consideration that there is the tame kind of
distinction between ' He made the ^!;;;.:. cry ' and ' He saw the child fall.' that there is
between He made the man angry' -, ' iie found the man .lead.' In constructions of this
sort the verb m the infinitive mood n ly be parsed as being the verb in an objective infinitive
phrase, having the preceding noun or pronoun in Cu objective case as its subject.
I Notice that the meaning of this verb is guite complete in itself. The i
following phrase is the object of it.
whole of the
M
ill
162
0(7TLINES 01
<AMMAR.
A.
R?
XLIV. Complex Sentonoes.
Substantive Clauses.
having frst dra,. „ a thick li„e7id.Vh. u 7 ",""'"" '= *= ^''^ject,
employed as ;, , .mporaX, m Drovlfm^f . k- '^ "''"'"=■ ^hen ' it ' is
and place after ,1 tfe suStantFvT^fi ™''i'^'' *'^' '' d""" as such,
the substan-.ii - ch„!,! 2i "".^ "^'""^^ "' the real subject. Analvse
'.hat ■doe. ,;„, e'reMn ^L'ttSItX*' 1""' '^--J-clSn'
a'd-Ss'"' " --^«ive zr,r!o:'£:,^'sj''Xo.zz
*alt nn?Sff,?;,SS"S' jrwr" *r?~=^'°^ Exercises,
c ause, remembering that Cou h.w,T„^ "''"''' ""^ ""= substantive
c ause, or noun-sentence unl? , i,T,. 1"' " ':<'!npl«e substantive
all the adjuncts that m!; "b"e'a,«he"to ifc^^h'ete""'" '"'=• "'*
That he dla the deed is quite certain TJ, * i
can have told you that, puzzles ," How f r T\ '° '^ "ndeniable. Who
What we are to donex't is the qiesiion wfe" '''"" ?'''^y ^^'"'^ *^ uncertain?
How I found the matter out is no concernTf ' ''%%^'^y '' «*&"ifies "othinj
n..ta.en can easily^
to.da;! yiZclZnlhi\ll\J^ii''^^^^^^^ ^' ^'" not arrive
thmks. It is uncertain how long? Si sSv ' "ot matter what hi
staS'c?a'use°s tJ^e^S^tif a ^"1^ o?^'"l^^ '" ^^'^^ a sub-
transitive verb :— ■' ' ^ ^^'^°' °^ of a phrase equivalent to a
the\'o"nr'ot'^;irriLVr S^ '^ \' --d. I think I have
old you are. Tell him I cannot ec hS L"!f '"''"t '°'^ y*^' '^ ell me Iw
He ,s^o„«„„ ,., , ,,,, _ -- V- - ■« r ,f frhti
Exercise 111.
:!!!!^!!J'l^!;!^^^ '*^ ^hich a sub-
.h* !.!H'.°l""rh°f •'^"«'' '*' '^ temporary or proviT^. -.■,,.~~Z~.
EXERCISES.
163
oi substantive
1 which a sub-
) is the subject,
When ' it ' is
: down as such,
3ject. Analyse
:he conjunction
which it intro-
r pronouns or
iing Exercises,
he substantive
te substantive
lite verb, with
leniable. Who
re is uncertain,
gnifies nothing,
pletely y ,u are
: have ?
will not arrive
latter what he
ivhich a sub-
luivalent to a
think I have
Tell me how
now when this
caUing on me.
ink ofrll this.
that shall not
hich a sub-
is in the case of
lause, and then
Btantfve clause is in apposition to a noun. . - comes after a preoosition
or is used absolutely with a participle, like a nominative absSe - '
preTe^^t^is;ttr Seg^^^^^^^^^^ ^^ was
''f-/1- He did. this ?o thi\n<IVty.'^tlu^^^^^
r'-^l'/fi"^/ '^' 'i^'^ ^^""^ ^ *^^ '^'^ ^"^-^^^ I came on the chance ^hit
I m^ht find you at home. Who can want the thought how moLtrous it wa
for Malcolm and for Donalbain to kill their cracious father ? H^^J^ ?
that he would come anon. There was a rumnfr fh,t fv "^ ^^nt me word
defeated. I would not believe tErio:;^ thaTJSu iJouch tt "Zvided'Z
report be confirmed, we shall know what to do. Provided this
XLV. — Adjective Clauses.
Preliminary Z«j^«. -Nature, form, and construction of Adjec-
tive Clauses (§§ 321-325). •'
^^^Vf'^it^ }}f' •^'■^'^ ^ *'^'" ''"e under the adjective clauses in
lastfyl?^SeTdl'?"''"r'' ^'^^'" ^^^^^^^^ ^^e emire sentenc^! and
lasuy ana.^ <:e the adjective clause separately ;*—
which" iTnt" """' '^'''/''"f '^y '""'^''■"'^ "'■^' "°w wears his crown. The book
your hand '1 T,/"",/"kP''-'=1'-. ,?*^.°^" ""^ '^^ ^^^^ which you ..ave^n
SwSfchlhadW Th.'"''' ^'[* '"'° temptation. I have found the
fortress whither hi-onJ 1. ?K°" r^^^e" ^^""°' ^"<='=^^^' '^ ^^^i''*^"' The
had mLTl eavv ■ ' - ^" > ^^ " themselves was soon captured. He
I saw ?he cantni ,n th. -'''' "^^^ J?,'"'''"''^ °^ which nearly crushed him.
Exercise 116.
cise 63.
^^^1^. ^StS!:;;:eT!;^Lnis'"^^ - ''- --
wh^ftL-%lS\'^.°vn?/'"i'"'',' ^°"'^'"i"^' adjective clauses in
and then anlSem'P^^ ^ ^°^^" '" ^^^'^^ it is omitted.
Exercise 118. Analyse the following sentences in which the
^r- o^^^nS b^/PrepSr ^^^^^ ^" ^'^^ "^ ^^
.1 rZ:!lfZJ:^J:'ty -i'^.r^ I bought these apples.
Deal in a similar way with the sentences in Exer-
■ncc you came. I can
; f'i.-'i,' *r,i'ST,iTA?.r5st.„i" ■ - " "• -" -' ^-
own.
164
OUTLINES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
■if
*jJ
had IW waj soon capiural. ' "" '"""' "■■""icrthcdrfcatel troop
Ssercise 121. The word •^>,.„<
c ause, and somelimes rnrndSc ,1™?""" if'^duces .-,„ adjective
-.Pented .,„,. he Had done. Be'L?« Ji'-J *' - .fj-J He » »
Exercise 122. Make (nr fin^\ ^
use of 'what,' and analyse them ^ ^ '^°''" ''"'""^^^ illustrating each
noSudverb^whe^^^^ and the pro-
adverbs, when used as the eadV-iI^nV^^f the same twofold use ; the
by prepositions, having a r./X fi'ce! ''''''"" ^''^""""'^ ^°^^'-"ed
Analyse the following sentences :-
Find out who did that Whr^™ .
XI-VI. Adverbial Sentences.
Cla^Tf « 3:,^™';-''^"-. f-". -d «ruc.„re of Adverbial
1. Adverbial Clauses relating to Time.
firs^XtngTdo«e"dtVl"„i '""i'TA -"^^"-3, after
analyse these clauses separately t ^^^^""^'^l Clauses, and then
t Renllm\"ef S^P'^ ^ antecedent noun.^ "—
Ju know the source
the defeated troops
uces an adjective
IS a substantive
placed by « that
lishing the sub-
parse the sen-
lie what I know
out what is the
lat ails you. You
e flid. He soon
t he ought to do.
Ilustrating each
and the pro-
mfold use ; the
3uns governed
St. I could not
Tell me where
" angry. I do
)f Adverbial
itences, after
£S, and then
'tiiher, &c., have
r'/rr, before, till,
'e pronoun. It
Iff with 'that'
e.
EXERCISES. 165
I will tell you the secret* when I see you. When you durst do it, then you
were a man. I did not know that till you told me. While he is here we
shall have no peace.
. A plague [be] upon it, when thieves cannot be true to one another. What
signifies asking, when there's not a soul to give you an answer? I'll charm
the air to give a sound while you perform your antic round. He arrived after
we had left. 1 shall be gone before you rre up. He left the room as I
entered. You may come whenever you please.
a. Adverbial Clauses relating to Place.
Exercise 127. Analyse and parse the following sentences :—
He still lay where he fell. Where thou dwellest, I will dwell. Wherever
you go, I will follow you. There, t where a few torn shrubs the place disclose,
the village preacher's modest mansion rose. Whithersoever I went, he followed
me. Seat yourselves wherever there is room.
8. Adverbial Clauses relating to Manner and Degree.
Exercise 128. Analyse and parse the following sentences :—
As the tree falls, so J it will lie. Do as I tell you [to dol. He is asS
avaricious as his brother is generous. The|| longer I know him, the less I like
lum. 1 heh more he has, the more he wants. She is as good as she is beauti-
lul. We do not always write as we pronounce. He always does as he
promises [to do]. '
4. Adverbial Clauses relating to Cause, Purpose, and Con-
sequence.
Exercise 129. Analyse and parse the following sentences :—
He came because I sent for him. I cannot tell you his age, for I do not
know it. Because Thou hast been my help, therefore in the shadow of Thy
wings will I rejoice. Since you say so, I must believe it. As he has begged
my pardon, I will forgive him. "=«.<:u
He toils hard that he may get rich. I called on him that I might tell him
about that matter. He retired to his own room that he might study quietly.
Take care that all be ready. Take heed lest ye fall into temptation.
I am soil tired that I am ready to drop. He is so weak that he cannot
stand. He is such a liar that nobody believes him. It is £o dark that we
cannot see.
mrtrlif^-.^fl"^ ^ Sentence of this kind, 'when ' should be .iescribe-l as a connact.ve adverb
modifying the verb 'see,- and joining the clause 'when 1 seey ,a' to the prStt' will
* ' ^Vl'j^^ 'K* ^'^"f ' where-disclose' are co-ordinate adverbial adjuncts of 'rose '
1 The fir« '«^ ^'T^ ^' ""^ tree falls' are co-ordinate adverbial adjuncts of 'wiinD
clause demonstrative, the second relative. Each modifies the adjecTive hi it*
strit^r '''' '"^'" *''^"'* '" """ '''°"'' °"*- '^''' '^"' ' '^"^ ' '" "='»''^e' 'he second demon-
'ti?ed^-''''^^"'°"'"^''''^ '*°' *"■* "'' adverbial clause are co-ordinate adverbial adjuncts of
1 66
OUTLINES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
5, Adverbial Clauses relating to Condition. Hypothetical and
Concessive Clauses.
Exercise 130. Analyse the following sentences :-
unless you invite me. Except ye rSn^ve Z^^,7iu*'^- '• ^ ^'" "°' "^ome
he IS nch he is not contented Had I known* »S ^t'^IP^''^''- though
fi'^T!i''^' ^"« y°» 'nybiother I could noTdVJf ' ''^''"'^ '"^^^ ^'^t^d
finished the work had it been possible ^°'" J'""* ^ *°"ld have
MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES FOR ANALYSIS AND PARSING.
I. Lightly and brightly breaks away
Ihe morning from her mantle gray.
^" K.f^ '^^? ^"1, 9"'ck the bells all night
Kang out from Bristol town.
3- The gallant king, he skirted still
ihe margin of that mighty hill.
4. All alone by the side of the pool ^
A tall man sat on a three-legged stool.
Kicking his heels on the dewy sod, '
And putting in order his reel and his rod.
^' Ss fn"nf ^irk cottage, battered and decayed,
Lets in new light through chinks that time has made
6. His daily teachers had been woods and rills.
7. Love had he found m huts where poor men lie.
8. Waiting till the west wind blows.
The freighted clouds at anchor lie.
9. Here in cool grot and mossy cell
We rural fays and fairies dwell.
ID. The sable mantle of the silent night
Shut from the world the ever-joysome light.
"■ Ti, ^''°'" .y°"der ivy-mantled tower
Of\urhT^ """^ i?^' *° *h^ '"oon complain
Mni . u^ ^^' wand'ring near her secret bower
Molest her ancient, solitary reign '
f ^
• 'If is omitted.
t Supply 'persons,' and take 'as 'as a relative pronoun.
h'<t
ypotheticid and
ou, if I had known
'■ J will not come
e perish. Though
ihou/d have acted
ou. I would have
MD PARSING.
las made.
lie.
tive pronoun.
EXERCISES. 167
12. Beneath those rugged elms, that yew-tree's shade,
Where heaves the turf in many a mould'ring heap,
Each in his narrow cell for ever laid,*
The rude forefathers of the hamlet sleep.
13. There, at the foot of yonder nodding beech,
That wreathes its old fantastic roots so high.
His Hstless length at noontide would he stretch,
And pore upon the brook that babbles by.
14. In climes beyond the solar road.
Where shaggy forms o'er ice-built mountains roam,
The Muse has broke the twilight gloom
To cheer the shiv'ring native's dull abode.
15. Night, sable goddess, from her ebon throne
In raylcss majesty now stretches forth
Her leaden sceptre o'er a prostrate world.
16. He that is down need fear no fall,
He that is low no pride.
17. Our sport shall be to take what they mistake.
18. My hour is almost come.
When I to sulphurous and tormenting flames
Must render up myself.
19. We are not weak if we make a proper use of those means
which the God of nature hath placed in our power.
30. Him the Almighty Power
Hurled headlong, flaming, from the ethereal cky
With hideous ruin and combustion down
To bottomless perdition.
21. He that fights and runs away.
May live to fight another day.
22. The evil that men do lives after them.
23. Now, night descending, the proud scene was o'er.
24. When they do choose
They have the wisdom by their wit to lose.
25. I must freely have the half of anything that this same
paper brings you.
26. Their perfume lost, take these again.
27. The great man down, you mark his favourite flies ;
The poor advanced m.akes friends of enem.ies-
* Take ' each— laid ' as a nominative absolute.
168
OUTLINES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR,
28. The night is long that never finds the day.
29. How dangerous is it that this man goes loose.
'" Z7n StTonr ^' ''''' ^^"^^ "°^ -^^« ^P-,
31. That we would do, we should do when we would.
32. Breathes there the man with soul so dead
Who never to himself hath said, '
iliis IS my own, my native land'?*
34. These honours peace to happy Britain brings.
35. Whilst light and colours rise and flv
Lives Newton's deathless memory.
''' '"d^"^^'' "^^^' '' "^"^' ^PP«- that malice bears
37' It doth appear you are a wordiy judge.
^^" ^ZJh^ 7T'^ ^'^^ y°" l'«l« thanks for that if she
were by to hear you make the offer. ' ^
^^' Th."f Hnfi,'"^ ^-"'^ ^^^" >'0" do take the prop
That doth sustain my house ; you take my life^
When you do take the means whereby I live
40. As fruits, ungrateful to the planter's care
On savage stocks inserted, learn to bea?
WUa'ZT y""""' *^"' f^^"" Passions sh^ot,
Wild nature's vigour working at the root.
41. While from the purpling east departs
T5,Tu ^ l\^^ that led the dawn,
Blithe Flora from her c,>uch upstarts,
for May is on the lawn.
V
I -t
* A quotation is not adependent c^u^e. it is merely a complex substantive.
lit
se.
ipies,
«'ould.
another the
:he reputation
malice bears
that, if she
op
e
antive.
'£poeht in Hiatorjr mark an Epooh in the Study of It"
O. "W. JoHiraoK, H.M.M.8., Han
EamiltOB.
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AT IiAST TOVKDl
EPOCHS OF ENGLISH HISTORY,
BT
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■"~~— — ^-— — —
J. KINO, 1J.A., LL.D., Principal, Caledonia. H. S.
on the Analysis of difficult aenVeniesioTtZ\tS£Tl\ T''* «bapter
woryar be,ond any English ^mm^ttMr'th'^C^il^;^'
4h a S^"'^''.? ^^^'^' ''• M^Duflerin School Toronto
the estimation of the besrjS of such JorL S.V 'J * '?'«^'^ '"'''"' »«
the countiy. It has reached a rw<.ntSfl!I?jT.*'*® P*''""' teachers of
have no doubt it wlU rj^t whK^^. hf 'k °" '° f"*'"""* "nd 1
Province. "° ""* "^^ •>'«'» appreciation in thia
Hi
hi.S
n
m
r
Ik
f
JOHN SHAW, H. M., H. S., Omemee.
been hori;,g^'^e?intrd?c'^d''iiZ' Z^ "^f '^."^">' *<"«hen. hav
teach tKe BSbJeot by exnlanatL ri.fln^r '"''"'''i' L^ '"""'od being to
Without atereJtypoJ»rrb>p'Cthr,i-,^^^^^^^^^^
It i-'l'n''' "*f =^«Y' B-A.. H. M. Cobou.« Col. Institute.
terchers\"n"dSr<^^upiI?!'*'''' "''''■ " '^ '^ ^«" "^"vedhy
JOHN JOHNSTON. P. S. I.~^llevllle and South Hastings.
Of aU the gramn^ars that I haveaeen. I consider Mason's S beat.
J. MORRISON, MA.. M.D.. Head Maater. High School, Newmarket.