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ariiit4 tli<; civilizutions and savnijjlsins of I'Aiiopc and Anic'iica, more particularly ot" tlir Span- iards and the Aztecs, as matters stood just i)etore the first epoch of civ- ilization in that quarter. One mij^hty wave of pi-o- jH^ress had swollen up, rolled alon<^ the ctMituries, and subsided, and for a time all was calm. From old ivn^ and luxury Roman i-ivilizatioii died, and (xi'rmanic hiirharism and Christianity assisted at its burial. Social systems, like creeds and polities, evolve from conditions apparently fortuitous, l^efore tlu' occu[)a- ti(»n of W(^stern Euro})0 iiy the R(tmans, society con- sisted of small-town a-'ricultural conununities, every family ])roviding its own necessities, livin;^ in a state of indej»endence, paying;" no taxes, supportini;' no gov- I'rnment, the revenue of states beinaf for the most part obtained from the workin;jj of state lands by state slaves. Sometimes a number of these towns WL>uld confederate, and the confederations divide their time between cultivating the ground and warring on each (•ther. Every citizen was a. soldier and a land-owner, and much of his time was spent in attempting to de- fend or increase his ( jmain. For everyone of these conditions we may find a parallel in the earlier periods of the history of more than one of the American ab- original nations. The foundation of our present social structure was laid in Europe by the Romans in tlio days of repub- lican grandeur. Sending out their armies north and west, they laid under contribution fair provinces and fastened upon the peo])le their laws. In their social structure there was no intelligent middle class; a profligate aristocracy and a cruel jiopulace compri-cd the republic. All the world besides themselves were barbarians, and if caught were made slaves. In their colonies were but two classes, conqueror and con- Ki:Ul>AU.SM. was hpnb- 11 aufl Is and ^social ss; a- ri-icd were their coa- qnorod. Under their systi inatic divastatlons and (rushing rule, depopulation and di'sohitioii rollowcil them. ]>ut witli the empire arose u protective spirit Avliieh sprt-'ad tran([uillity and fostered a Hpeeirs of hiisL! culture. The intellect was forced into a hot- liou.sc develojinu'ut, and cocK.'S ol' niainiers wito i-st-ili- lislu'd, hut under a condition of hontlajj^e so .servile^ as to fftti'r miiiil and deu^radi' morids. Into this mass of tutored isxnorance a martial spirit was infused hy the fierce tribes from (jlermany, and a spirit of supersti- tion and bigotry })y the churchmen of Home. "^I'hen glowed a red(U>r immorality tluin ever republic had seen. The liomani/.ed natives of ,'">| 'n who had more readily adopted, and more rapidl , de\eloped, the ai'ts and industiies of their masti iv-> tlian the oilier colonies, at hrst attempted t(» r ^.^ thi; h.ir!»arous Visigoths to their level. ]hit it is easier !<» pull down fho)'. to build up. Their own social structure \\as mmt! of the stroiigest; the prii>onderauee «it" power was with the hai'barians; the loutish northmen bore lu^avily r.[ion them, and Spain in common with all Kurooe lapsed into the age of darkness. Ancient barriers were broken down, and ancient laws obliterated as by one general act of ol)livion, Society, molten, was recast. The lands of Europi- wei-e parcelled anew. Con([uered })rovinces were hiokeii into frao:ri)ents, and distributed amoni; th( military chiel'taius who had taken jtart in the concjuest. A multitude of independent states were formed, dilleiing i:i language and traditions, but all I'alling into a system of military tenures with singular uniformity. From the ninth to the foui'teenth centuries, essentially the .same species of feudality, though in modified forms, existed throughout Euro[>e. This uniformity is to be attributed, not to any connivance of the concjuei'ors, who were of widely different stocks and training, but to social necessities, which under like conditions worked out similar results. Phases of European feudalism were scattered all over America, fronn Alaska to Pat- COMPARATIVE CIVILIZATIONS AND SAVAGISMa agonia, ana were formed to some extent ever amon^ the so-called savage nations. The first groat Jaw, common to all, both in Europe and America, was that of self-protection. The possession of lands which were won by the sword must be held by the sword. Every land-holder was a soldier, and a feudal kingdom partook more of the character of a military than a civil government. These military sovereign- ties in the various dismembered provinces were with- out political system, separate and independent. In the Old World, the conqueror assuming dominion over the territory allotted him divided it among his chiefs or barons, who in return stood ready with men and arms according to their ability, and at their own cost, to obey the call of their king in order to make or repel an invasion. The nobles, accepting the con- ditions, built for themselves castles and fortifications, and partitioned their lands among their vassals, who in like manner were bound to do military service ac- cording to the pleasure of their lord. The title to lands thus held b}^ feudal tenure was vested in the sovereign, and few other obligations rested upon the occupant than that of attending him in his wars. Cap- tives taken in battle, and freemen who were unable to secure land, sunk into a state of serfdom or villanage. They were employed in tending flocks and cultivating the ground. Their condition was but little better than that of absolute slavery. They were bound to the soil and made to pass with it, but could not be removed from it ; nor did they possess any of the rights pertain- ing to liberty or property. Thus society during the feudal ages was but a state of vassalage, of greater or less degree. This system, however well adapted to purposes of offence and defence, was but little calculated to pro- mote internal tranquillity, or lay the foundations of powerful states. Every feudal baron within his own domain was absolute master Even the king could not interfere to regulate his internal affairs. He ! V. FEUDAUSM. bliaii soil >vocl uu- tbe br or js of Ipro- js of own tould He could make war upon his own account at pleasure, intliet the death penalty upon his vassals, Sbize and liold the lands of his neighbor, if he possessed the power, with none to question him. AH the world lived in barracks. The master of a household was but chief of a band of robbers. To overrun adjacent lands, murder the inhabitants, burn the houses and drive off tJie cattle, was the ordinary and honorable occupation of life. Following the promptings of am- bition or revenge, neighb<:)ring barons would for a moment lay aside their hereditary feud, and join against some distant or more powerful foe; after which each returned to his ancient quarrel with tlie other with new vigor. By their blot>dy contentions the nobles thus kept the country in a state of perpet- ual fermentation. Husbandmen, in the pursuit of their vocation, tremblingly ventured beyond the j)re- cincts of the castle during the day, and at night hud- dled in small villages beneath its walls. They were moreover obliged to hold themselves in readiness to attend their master in his raids at any moment. Marriage among them was discouraged. Soldiers to figlit, rather than women and children to feed, Avas the necessity of the feudal lord. Redress for injuries rested upon the arm of the injured, and when forms of justice were established, matters were but little changed; for decisions were governed by juission ratlier than principle, and too often the judge was the criminal, and the accuser his victim. Social intercourse was prevented ; commerce l)e- tween foreiun nations ceased; seas were infested bv pirates; every foreigner was an enemy. Medireval regulations made the stranger a vassal of the lord within whose domain he rested more than a year and a day; shiiAvrecked mariners were made slaves. The property of strangers was at their d< atli confisi^ated to the ruler. Highways were filled with banditti, so tliat travellers could journey only in companies. Laws were made and customs established which almost pro- COMPARATIVE CIVIUZATIONS AND SAVAGISMS. hibitod distant journeys, so that all knowledge of remote nations was lost. Under these baneful in- Huonces population increased but slowly, and increase of such a character obviously tended to strengthen the I:, ron, make powerless the sovereign, and rivet still tighter the chains of the vassal. Humanity thus restrained became dwarfed. Budding civilization with- ered in such uncongenial climes, and Europe })lunged into profound ignorance. But for the Ottoman on the east and the barbarian on the north, the feudal system would not have existed so long in western Europe. Finally it collapsed in a struggle between sovereigns and nobles. And all this while, and later, the [)eople were nothing but the plaything of the rulers, the tools alternately of kings, barons, and priests. In Spain the feudal system was greatly modified by the eight centuries of Christian warfare, which not only developed Spanish valor and Spanish chivalry to the greatest advantage, but knit the several king doms of the peninsula in one connnon cause, condition of the Spanish peasantry was imjtrcned, rather than otherwise, by a war in which personal prowess rose above social distinctions; yet tJie atti- tude of classes was essentially the same as in France and Germanv. Villanajje was less known in Castile and ]jeon than in Aragon, whose histitutions and geo- graphical position gave to that kingdom a peculiar physiognomy. Thus was the humanity of our own civilization caged like wild beasts in a menagi'rie; pc^nncd up in petty principalities, ducliies, and baronial j)rovinces; a state of universal antipathies but one remove from savagism. Obviously out of these grim sliadows not a step could be made till the partition walls were battered down. \Vhence was deliverance to come!' What mighty power should arise and breathe peace upon the na- tions, heal innumerable hatreds, and cause thousands of hereditary foes, as one man, to sheathe their bloody le THE CRUSADES. swords and clasp bauds like brothers? It was not by tbe will of man, nor through man's invention, tliat these feudalistic fetters were to be broken; but as ever in human affairs, it was that mysterious power of progress ever working in and round societies. On this occasion that power was Christianity, the religion of all others with which European civilization seemed most inclined to fraternize. An aid in itself to pro- gress, it has been aided and purified thereby. When Aryan paganism gave way to the purer Semitic faith, Christianity became a power mightier than Rome her- self — a power destined, in the hands of Roman pontiH's, to rule Christendom long after Rome the mighty had fallen. Csesar and Christ, the sword of Roino and tlie faith of Rome, were for a time one in purpose and in })ower; but faith, rising superior to brute force, seized the sword and for a time wielded it in her own interests. It was tlic very irony of religion, that frenzied zeal which, during the crusades, gave cliristianity the form of chivalry. The martial spirit now became inllamcd by fanaticism, and society was profoundly moved. From the earliest ages of the church, it liad bei.-n deemed an act of piety for believers in Christ to make a pilgrimage to his tomb, and gaze uj)on the scenes by wliich he was surrounded when working out the re- dein[)tion of man. The riglit of these i)ious j)crsons to visit tlie holy sepulchre was never (questioned by the Mohannnedans until near the close of tiie eleventh century, when a series of atroi-ities were committed by a horde of Turkish invaders which roused all Christen- dom. The nations of Eur()i)e paused in their inter- necine bickerings, and turned their eyes witli one accord toward the east. During the two succeeiling centuries millions of volunteers came forwai'd and enlisted in holv' crusades against the profane infidels. Although extrenu'ly disastrous to the crusaders themselves, the elfect of this movement on civilizat'on was most bene- COMPARATIVE CIVILIZATIONS AND SAVAGISMS. ficial. To join as believers and brethren in a common cause, to turn the arms which for centuries had been drawn only against each other upon a foe of their faith, was to dissolve the insane crystallizations of ages. Chieftains of proud families, who for generations had nourished an inveterate hate one for the other, threw aside their animosities, and joining hands in Christian union if not m Christian love, hurled their united strength against the enemy, vying with each other in acts of magnanimity. The enlightening benefits of travel and intercourse with the more refined cities of Italy and the east, the awakening of a new faith between man and man, the necessity of acknowledging human rights and duties other than those of power and place, roused the intellect from its long lethargy. A people, which for ten generations had hardly lost sight of the banner which waved from its castle tower, was led forth as from a dungeon to behold scenes hitherto be- yond their conceptions. Side by side they marched through new and wondrous regions, w^iere, in place of imps and ogres, creatures of their clouded imaginations, thty found a people like themselves, ready to join in promoting a cause in which their whole soul was en- gaged. The doctrine of universal enmity became less defined, and vague conceptions of human relationships arose. The immediate effect of the crusades was to asso- ciate and intermix mankind. Europe became more intimately acquainted with the luxuries and refine- ment of Asia. The power of the maritime cities Genoa, Pisa, and Venice, whose vessels carried the crusaders eastward, was increased. The absence of feudal lords on their pious wars delivered the land somewhat from contentions; households were split into fragments and scattered, and their independence inspired them to labor. A consciousness of manhood arose in their breasts, and with it came self-respect, wealth, domestic comfort, and social advancement. Population increased; towns were built; manufactories bi'ies CHIVALRY. established; and a class between the nobleman and the churl appeared. Serfs who had enlisted in the lioly cause on their return were free men. Many of the barons, in setting out on their crusade, had been obliged to part with their landed possessions in order to procure a becoming outfit; many never returned, and of their estates some were bought by the sover- eign at a nominal price, others reverted to tlie crown in default of heirs. Thus, as the feudal aristocracy dechned, govci-nment centralized, and regal authority trained streni^th. Spain, meanwhile, had infidels enough at home; the whole Mohammedan war was but one grand crusade, and petty feudalistic fights were swallowed up in one large fight ; so that neither the feudal system which l)()und men, nor the holv adventures which liberated them, obtained in Spain as elsewhere througliout Europe. Another phenomenon, however, which grew out of all this, imported into Si)ain at an early day, finding there a rich soil, took root, and fiourished extra\ agantly, dee})ly tinging the character of the nation. Chivalry, from cJievalier, knight, or horseman — we might call it mounted monarchism; now the cham- pion was for Christ, and now for a fair lady — at once defender of the faith, and defender of all things else; protector of the innocent; righter of the wronged; under the banner of the cross, crusader; wandering over the world in quest of adventure, knight-errant. A strange blending of relinion and ijfallantrv, of ' >"si.i;igs and justice; a fantastic sentiment fortunate ioi humanity at this juncture, most fortunate for woman, lilting her uj) from her low estate, arraying her in brightness, and i)lacing her among the stars, meanwhile toning down man's cragginess, polishing manners, calling up finer instincts , ornamenting, adorn- ing strength with sympathy and valor with constancy, arraying virtue in robes of loveliness, stripping some- 10 COMPARATIVE CIVILIZATIONS AND SAVAGISMS. what from war its ferocity, from vice its liidcousness ; trulv, a nobler fanaticism than tliat which adds tor- ture to ignorance, and better at all events than the beastly customs of feudalism. Acting in conjunction witJi the holy adventures, and before the creation of standing armies, chivalry played its part in the great work of civilizing man. But whence more directly came chivalry? About the middle of the tenth century humane men of the nobler sort, fired by self-sacrificing devotion to an unselfish cause, ingrafted u[)on certain orders of knighthood the sentiments of ])rotection to the weak, and vindication of the riijhts of humanitv. This chivalrous spirit was fostered by the crusades, and in the eleventh century, tournaments, regulated by fixed laws, were established throuuhout Christendom. To eradicate the grosser evils of feudalism, to redress wrongs, to vindicate the right, to merit divine favor bv metini*' out fair iustice to man, were amoni>' the ex- alted purposes of this romantic sentiment. Hence woman, as the ensemble of all that is lovely and depend- ent, became the prime object of chivalrous devotion. Ifere it was that she was first raised from a servile state, and placed beside that divine love of which she is the incarnated essence. Thus we see in the chival- ric ideal a blending of thhigs temporal and spiritual; a materialization of Christianity. It was an outward manifestation of the inner and hidden life of the mon- astery. For a time this spirit well accorded with the genius of the age; cliivaliy became the great religious and social inspiration, and all creeds and customs were made to conform to it. Neither is it strange that in this new glow of manhood the sentiment swelled to excess, nor that this excess, like all excesses, brought about reaction and decline. As in the church, that inordinate zeal, which, amidst filthy poverty and self- torture, wrought out j«>ys ecstatic, thus elevating the ininxalted devotion of every true knight. Even the most bene- ficial [)art of the chivalric ideal, the worshi[> of woman, was carried to such an extreme as in the end to result in a lovelier immorality, and into wickedness lendered all the more seductive from being veiled. Xeverthe- less, the temporary uni(jn of chivalry and Christianity against wickedness in high places could not be other than a great stej) towartl refinement. The special political and .social state of Spain dur- ing the Arab invasion, no less than something in the Spanish character itself, contributed to develoj) a chivalric ideal of more than ordinaiy vividness. "Spain gives us," says Hegel, "the fairest picture of kniglithood in the middle ages, and its hero is the Cid;" and, adds Schlegel, "the spirit of chivalry has nowhere outlived its political existence so l(»ng as in S])ain." For this lofty and more than fanciful species of chivalry, Spain is indebted to the Saracens. It has even l)een held that they originated the system and taught it to Europe. SismontU afKrms that those "notions on the j)oint of honor, which not only ])os- sessed a great influence ovei- the svstem of cliivahv, but even over our modern manners, rather belonged to the Arabians than to the (;iermau tribes." Upon the ruins of the kniglits temj^lar and hospital- ler, who obtained large possession in S[)ain after tlieir return from the crusades, aro.se three new chivalric orders; Santiago or St James, Calatrava, and Alcan- tara. The first of these orders was approved by papal bull in f 175. The story of its origin is briefly 12 COMPARATIVE CIVILIZATIONS AND SAVAGISMS. as follows: During their struggles with the infidels, the apostle St James had vouchsafed on many occa- sions to appear in aid and encouragement of the Christians. His body, which had been miraculously discovered, was interred at Compostela, a small town in Galicia. Thither resorted many pilgrims who, in the performance of their pious duty, suttered greatly from the constant annoyances of the Arabs. For tiie jtrotection of these devout itinerants, several knights and cavaliers united and formed the order of Santi- ago. The members of this order were distinguished by a white mantle, upon which was embroidered a red cross, shaped as a sword, under which was an escalop shell, this being the device upon the banner of their saint when he appeared to them upon the eve of battle. And many a death-shriek has gone up from the wilderness of America in answer to the terrible battle-cry of the steel-clad Christians: "Santiago y d ellosl" Saint James and at theml The fraternity of Santiago were sworn to obedience, chastity, and comnmnity of property. The orders of Caiatrava and Alcdntara imposed upon their members greater austerity. The obligation of perpetual celi- bacy was assumed; they were obliged to sit at table in unbroken silence; to eat the plainest food, with but one dish of meat three times a week, and to sleep armed and ready for battle. During the conquest of Granada tliese chivalric orders vied with each other in presenting an imposing appearance in the field. There always existed between them a generous rivalrv; at the first in the loftiness and severitv of their vows, and at the last in the skill with which they evaded them. Chivalry at length met its death at the hand of mili- tary art. As early as the fourteenth century knights began to desert their round-table principles, and fight for those who would pay them best. But in Spain the spirit lingered long after the form had departed. Not until Cervantes had published his caustic carica- WALLED TO\VNS. 13 ture, a hundred years and more after America's dis- covery, was the passion for knight-errantry wholly eradicated from the popular mind. The ridiculous antics of the valorous knight of La Mancha were too much for even the sedate Spaniard to swallow, with all his reverence for the past. With the building of walled towns there is a new shuffle and a new deal in the game of statecrait. The mail-clad barons and their restless retainers find their match in the stout burghers of the cities. This new order, the French tlers-etaf, the English commonalty, is played by the kings against the nobles, and the re- sult is a decline in lawless op})ression, and a rise in lawful tyranny. Hitherto every link in the chain which bound men together was forged by injustice. The weak and the wretched, unable to defend them- selves, were forced to take refuge within castle walls; and thus the power of the nobles was increased as that of the peo[)le diminished. The forming of indeiHMi- dent nmnicipal comnmnities, theref\)re, with a re[>ubli- caii form of ijfovernment, is a lono' stritle forward. Ijanding and walling themselves in, the connnoners are able to bid defiance to their old masters. The sovereign, who is king in name only, regards the rise of this new power with favor; or if not, he is power- less to oppose it. The towns become cradles of liberty, a refuge for the oppressed. Slaves and serfs resorting thither, and there remaining umnolested for one year, arc free men. Wealth, the precursor of refinement, begins to accunmlate; laws are made and the machinery of courts adapted to requirements. To enlarge their in- fluence, municipalities join the sovereign against his barons, or forming leagues among themselves, become independent of both king and nobles. Kin<;craft now becomes an art. Baronial castles are thrown down, burying dead feudalism beneath the ruins. A check is placed upon the growing power of u fOMrARAIIVE CIVILIZATIONS AND SAVAOISMS. the citii'S, and Kurgiiisv to tlic opposite extreino mon- nroliv risoH into dtspotisn). A tliviiu' ])o\ver, it" not a celcstiul origin, is ascribed to rulers. The kinij run do no evil; his word is not only law, hut rii^liteous law. T\)v doctrine of halancing jiower arises — first, domes- tic, the feudal j)rinci))le halanced hy the municipal, with the ecclesiastical hehl in reserve to l>e thrown into either side of tlic scale as the interests of tlio church dictate; and finally, as ]>(^tty principalitii-s coalesce, the states thus formed hold each other in check. That brilliant trio, Charles V., Francis I., and Henry VIII., divide between them Euro[>e and America, then fight each other for the supivnuicy. Tin so mighty potenta^^'^'S in their lust of iiom[) and power, actuated by no princi})le save that of personal aggrandizement, crimson the soil of Europe with tlie blood of their subjects, and then themselves return to dust. With artful kingcraft, killing becomes an art. Hitherto men had roamed for i)rev sin^lv or in small bands ; now they unite and establish rules under wliich their murderous propensities may be more fully grati- fied. Time was employed not uneciually in pursuing those arts which led to takinii- and to sustaining life. The undrilled artisan, however, made but a poor sol- dier, while raids and fightinus were not the schools t)f prosperous husbaiKhy, nor were the higher functions of the government less paralyzed by the heterogeneous fragments into which the military force of tlie nation was split. Grand results can be achieved only by united strength and concerted action. It is onlv when the resources of tlie state are finnly grasped and ab- solutely wielded by one sole sovereign, that tranquillity at home and respect abroad can be maintained. Be- fore armies were established, disjmtatious cavaliers vacillated, almost at will, between the court and their feudal domains; but however fascinating such a life might be to themselves, it was one little calculated to STANDING ARMIES. 15 their a llfc Ited to elevate the people, or .stroni^tlioii the arm of the gov- erniuent. In order to initi;^ate this evil, thr sov- ert'ii^ns of Europe, about the middle of the fi^'tci'iith century, introduced the system of standiiiiX aimios. J)urini;" the turbulence and anaichy of feudalism, ex- cept in Sjiain vhere the sevei-al states wen; obliged to unite ai^ainst the encroachments of tlu^ Aial)S, kno\vledeople, relieved from sudden and constant calls to do military service, were enabled to pi'osecute their s(>v- cral vocations with ijreater advantaiife to themselves and to tlie state. Up to this time the rules of chivalry had ])revented gentlemen from appearing ujion the field of battle ex- cept in lull armor and mounted, with all the gaudy parapliernalia of the tournament. And by tluin the fate of battle was determined; but little dependence was to be ])laeed on undisci[)lined churls drawn IVom the barcmial estates. All this was now changed l>y the ai)peaj"ance of a new element in military practice, destined by intensifying war to promote the interests of peace. Gunpowder, an invention of the Chinese, was carried by the Arabs into Spain, whence it spread throughout Europe. With the use of fire-arms the machinery of war became more complicated, the necessity for disci- pline was increased; the mounted cavalier, encased in breastplate, helmet, and shield, lost his advantage, and the cavalry became more formidable. But the adop- 16 COMPAKATIVE CIVIUZATIONS AND SAVAfJlSM3. I tion of any new invention at that time took place but slowly, and not until lonji^ after the conquest of Amer- ica were tlieir ancient ini[)leinent8 of warfare laid aside by the Sj)aniardH. A curious medley of death-deal- ing instruments was displayed upon the battle-fields of the sixteenth century. Cross-bows, battle-axes, pikes, and arquebuses, short-swords, bucklers, daggers, and pistols were placed into the hands of the infantry; while the stately knight, glittering in full armor with lance anrse ; the Saracen footmen with cross-bow, cimeter, spear, and arquebuse. Fortress walls were scaled by the esculaJorfs, under cover of mantelets, or movable parapets; and for ef- fecting an entrance into walled towns, large wooden towers, provided with ladders, drawbridges, and all the requisite apparatus, were rolled up to the ram- parts, whence the attacking party emerged upon the wall-top and descended into the city. During the wars of Granada, artillery being the arm most necessary for the carrying of fortified places, their catholic majesties gave every attention to the perfection of this weapon. From Valencia, from Bar- celona, from l^ortugal, from Flar. lers, and from Sicily powder was b ought, and with that belonging to the kingdom, dep uted in underground magazines. Ar- tillery officers '^ere procured from Italj', France, and Germany; gui were multiplied; their construction was improved, nd more convenient proportions given to their caliber The batteries increased the rapidity and force of their fire ; burning mixtures were brought OUNl'OWDKR. IT the into rcfjulsltion, and the mobility «)f the guns likewise auj^nn'iit('. Thcic the njillaiit knii^ht, olittorini,^ in hurnislu'd stciil, njouiitt' justice, and numberless are the instances among the records of the church in which the almiglity mi- raculously interposed his arm in vindication of t!ie right. To such an absurdity was this system of mili- tary jurisprudence carried, that in some instances tlio judge upon his bench, when 'about to deliver his sen- tence, might be impeached by the culprit, ami defied to mortal cond)nt. Finall}', here as elsewhere, the kir.g inter[)oscs between heaven and mankind, and appeal is made from the decisions of feudal barons to him instead of to God direct. The accidental discov- LITKRATURR 10 ery in Italy, about the niidcUe of tlio twelfth cor.tnry, of a ct)i)y of the Panel octs of Justinian, tcndocl j:frt'atly to promote the study of law and the influence of courts. -\<,'ain, in the mysterious workings of mind do wo see kiiowk'dfio hcijotteu of intensified isjnorance. That curiosity which led to learning from medijeval torpid- ity was aroused by a spirit of tlieological C()ntn>versy. J Hsputations between Arian and ]*elagian, Peripa- tetic and Platonist, however absurd in themselves, excited inquiry; and metaphysii-al wranglings over iionsensieal shadows of doctrine was perhaps as good a mental exercise as any other. Vv'hiK; Greece was the omj)ire of letters, Home be- raine the empire of political power. The .arts and < ulture of Greece were carried i)y her captors to the world's ends, Greek was the lan'>uay tlic Romans, after sinking beneath Visigothic bar- baiism, revived under the Arabs. Excepting, as we well may, the miserable theologic drivel of the (xotho- Latin fathers of the Spanish church, science and learn- ing first appeared at Cordova. Schlegel, with the pioverbial zeal of a neophyte, and newly converted rliampion of the church, has tried, without avail, to underrate the Arabic influence. Humboldt, verging to the other extreme, exalts it bevond measure. The Arabs, he says, are the "actual founders of ph^'sieal science," the authors of chemical pharmacy. They "scared back to some extent the barbarism which had slirouded Europe for more than two hundred years." They had a "far extended and variously developed literature," and they "lead us back to the imperishal)le sources of Greek philosophy." "The reigns of the two Abderrahmans," says Tieknor, " and the period f»f the glory of Cordova, which begun about 750 and continued almost to the time of its conquest by tlie Christians in \2'M), were more intellectual than could 1)0 found elsewhere." The kingdom of ( iranada, which succeeded, was scarcel}' less ftuned for its learning and rcHnement than for its opulence and ostentatious luxury. Scattered over the plain of Granada at the time of its conquest were no less than fifty colleges and seventy puldic libraries where literature was pursued, and the sciences of astronomy, mathematics, and cluinistry cultivated, Jewish literature attained eminence under tlie cali[)hs of Spain, The Moslem schools at (iranada, ('('•rdova, Barcelona, and Toledo were thrown open to Israelites, who became proficient in medicine, mathe- niatics, and astronomy. COMPARATIVE cmLIZATIOXS AND SAVAOISMS. Then it was in tlie soutliern part of Spain tlmt lit- erature first tf government, and of theology appeared. So greiit was the respect paid for learning at the close of the fourteenth century, that on tlie accession of King Don ]\[artin of Aragon, the judicial and political question of succession was neither foujjlit out nor settled bv the nobles, but decided by a committee of learned ecclesiastics and jurists. This general progress of public feeling toward en- lightenment contrib ited much to the creation of the I'niversity of i^arcelona in 1430, by the ancient magis- tracy of that city. It was endowed witli thirty-two pro- fessorshi[)S, including chairs t)f theology, jurisprudence, medicine, philosophy, grammar, rhetoric, anatomy, Hebrew, and Greek. From the intimate conunu- nication between the Aragonese and the ItalianSj the lienaissance, rising in Italy since the fall of (\)n- stantinople, was carried to the peninsula. Spain was fortunate in securing Florence as a teacher. When Cosmo di Medici died in 1404, his grandson Lorenzo succeeded to the rule of Florence, and to the guiding of great events. The crescent had eclipsed th.e cross at the golden horn of the Bosporus; with a SPAMiSU LlTEllATUKE. tlit- itiful well that From istilc. id its ados, dl the upon coun- ter. iiiove- of the cs, his- of the of law, J great ; of the ng Don ucstion tied by learned ard en- 1 of tlie b n\agis- vvo prt)- vidence, [iati)niy, couunu- ans, the ,f Con- Spain teacher, randson d to the eclipsed us; with the city of Constautine had utterly fallen the last pil- lar of the eastern empire. The learned men whom the great capital had imrsed were scattered abroad, rieeiiig with their hooks and instruments, wandering they knew not whiti.er. Lorenzo gathered many to his Tuscan city, and spared neither gold nor care that they and their manuscripts should make their stay permanent. It is well known what such a policy did for Florence; and how this light made many darl: ah- siirdities untenable for Euro})e, and even for Spain. Xew universities sprang up ; Castile took her place in the race, and everything indicated for Spain the in- auguration of new and great things. There the sci- ences were more backward in the fifteenth century than letters. Astronomy, cosmography, physics, and math- ematics had, it is true, their professors in the universi- ties of Salamanca and Alcala. But the information possessed on these subjects was neither equal to that in Portugal since the time of Prince Henry, nor conj- mensurate with the material and scientific revolution that tlie discovery of the New World had produced. "Salamanca," says Hare, "once possessed twenty-five eolleges, twenty convents, twenty-five professors, and twenty -five arches of its bridge; but the last alone re- iiiaiu intact — ev)lleges, churches, convents, and pro- Ifssorships having alike fallen. TJie university, which boasted al)ove ten thousand students in the fourteentli (vuturv, has now little more than one tliousand; and the spK'ndiil collegiate buildings, palaces wortliy of the corso »if Home or the grand canal of Venice, are either in ruins or let out to poor families." While the Mohanunedan contest was raging the fiercest, and the corruj)ted Latin of the Sj>aniar(h was merging into the Castilian dialect, Alfonso X. as- cended the throne of Castile, and for his zeal in pro- moting the intelligence of his people, was surnamed The Wise. To his Arab tastes he was indebted for this title. He labored to introduce into l']urope the sciences, arts, and manufactures of his Arab neigiibors. COMPARATIVE CIVILIZATIO:SS AND SAVAGISMS. m He was something of an astronomer, something of a chemist, and he j)ropoHed a system of tl'o heavens based upon the Ptokmiaic scheme. He patronized k'tters, and liis own writiijgs contributed not a httle to tlieir advance, and to that of science. He invited many eastern [)hilosophers to his court, and he had manv of their works translated into Castihan, Of the niore material advantages, gunpowder, our min- erals, i)aper, and the compass, though not discovered by the Arabians, were introduced by them to Euro- })can use. The first schools and libraries in the ])tnin- sula, in mediaeval times, were those of the Mussulmans. *'The number of Arabic authors which Spain })ro- duccd," says Sismondi, "was so prodigious, that many Aral)ian bibliographers wrote learned treatises on the authors born in particular towns." Was it any won- der, then, with all this, that to the Arab colleges, academies, and libraries there resorted in g'K .-t num- bers, not only the sons of the faithful, but also Chris- tians from dilfenmt parts of Europe? So nmch for the eastern, for a long time not only the principal but the only source of learning and culture in Spain. Up to this time, which was the middle of the thir- teenth century, the literature of Spain consisted of romantic poems of the order o^ El Rovaiicero (hi Cid, and a multitude of chivalric ballads of like quality. As manifestions of temperament, these eit'usions are not without value. For hundreds of years heroic romances and tales of knight-errantry constituted the popular literature of Spain, and these monstrous fictions were devoutly accepted as true history. No absurdity was too great for belief; and although this folly was eflectually crushed by the renowned ]Jon Quixote toward the latter part of the sixteenth cen- tury, shortly before which time the passion for reading books of chivalry was never more absorbing nor the influence more baneful, its impress remains indelibly stamped upon the Spanish mind. Their dramatic writings consisted chiefly of religious farces and alle- lil ALFONSO THE WISE. 25 of a veus li/A'tl little .itcd had Of uiin- vered h'^uro- R'uiu- iiians. 1 pio- uiiiuy Ml the ■ wou- UcL^es, nuin- Chris- ch for incipal Spain, thir- ted of I Cid, udlity. us are heroic ituted listrous No i'h this 1 Von h con- K-uding lor the delihly laiuatic Id alle- o-orieal plays, which can scarcely be ranked a> literature, niuch less poetry. Alft)nso digested the then existing ojjinions conoerning morals, religion, and legislation, into a uniform system of laws, applicahle to the various conditions (tf his people. This work was called his Slete Porfidas, from the seven parts into which it was divided. The learned monarch (how larjifelv from the code of Justinian, as well as from other sources. In this coni})ilation was laid, not only the foundation of Spanish jurisprudence, hut it em- bodied such sound ethical maxims as to atlect, not only the polities of Spain, but of the colouics of Louisiana and Florida, and throu'j^h them to exert a modifvinjj: inlluence upon the government of the United States. But unfortunately, the paths of literature for the two succ(H'(linnf centuries lav not throu<«:h fertile fiehis nor by clear running streams. In place of a natural growth, advancing step by step from barbaric igno- lance, the Spanish intellect plunged at once from the dieamv languor of chivalric ballads into the dei)ths of mysticism and theological speculation. Imagination still usurped the domain of reason; the battle was be- tween nominalism and realism; men fought, not for the truth, but for the abstract idea. The faith for wliich tlie Spaniards had so lonij struu'u'led ' that her secrets should be guarded by a dead language. Cardinal Bembo seeing one day a itriest en: a i>ortion of the bible exclaimed, "Leave off this child's l)lay; such nonsense does not become a man of uravitv." Latm therefore continued to be the lanufuaue of the churcii, and as the clergy only were taught, the church monopolized learning. AH through the dark m sA comparativp: civilizations and savagisms. I ago there gliiumercd beams of light from Coustan- tiin)|)le, from Bagdad, and from Cordova. The Om- ni iades kept up regular communication with the l^yzantine em])er()rs. To the papacy as the tem- poral and ecclesiastical power of the clmrch of Konie was o])p()sed the calipliate as the temporal and ecclesi- astical j)i)\ver of Mohammedanism. While the bishop of Komt! held undisputed tenii)oral and spiritual sway in Italy, in Castile, and over the entire north of Euiopc, the calii>h of Mohanmjed held undisputed temi^oral and spiritual sway at Cordova, as well as at Samarc.md. The bishop of Rome was pope because he was emperor; the caliph of Mohammed was em- peror because he was pope. As intercourse with the Greeks and Saracens increased, there was manifest throughout Euro[)e an awakened interest in learning. In Constantinople Greek was a living language until that city was conquered by Mohammed II. in 1453. In 1458 it was first taunht at Paris, in 1481 it was ]>iinted at Milan, and taught at Oxford in 1488. With the restoration of Greek literature in Italv, about the betjinnin*^ of the fifteenth centurv, b( "j,an a new eia in tlie extension of knowledge. It was this lig]it breaking in from the east that dispelled the loiiLir darkness. Latin, which as the lan<4uaLre of the learned had hitherto kept wrapped within its mystic folds the wisdom of the ancients, fell into disuse. From vulvar and aboriginal dialects modern Ian- ii'uanes were formed, and literature was taken from church control and spread before the peop.le. Schools arose, and laymen as well as clerg^'men were taught. Incpiiry and argument left the unprofitable fields of windy sclK)lasticism, and entered the more practical ])at1is f)f science. Penetrating eyes were ca.st upon liuiiian afiairs, and saw therein elements not reached by the meditations of the cloister. Men dared to give license to thought, to give rein to reason, and with it to invade the sacred })recincts of old delu:4ons, and demand of bigots the why and wherefore of their ab- ^1 PREfTINO. m istan- Oiu- i tlie tein- Kinne eclesi- 1 S4\vay itli ot U as at jccauso as Pi»- :itU the nanifcst i:anuH'j;- ,o;e until in 1453. 1 it was n 1488. n Italy, l)(>u;an a svas this lletl the e of the Is mystic ) disuse, cin Ian- en from Schools taught, fickis ot practical |a,-^t upon rcachctl •a ti» give Ll with it l-ions, antl their ah- sui'dlties. Italy again hocomes the seat of loariiing and refinement. Tlie Byzantine school of art, trans- planted with Greek literature, breaks fortli in dazzling splendor. The divine in man assumes form. A new nuisic fioatiiig through the chamhers of the soul finds vent, coagulates upon the canvas, and concretes in mai-ble statues and cathedral domes. Popular litera- ture finds expression in Ariosto, Poloziano, and Pulci ; and art in Michael Angelo, Tiziano, and Leonardo da Vinci. The subtle disputations of scholastics fiide be- fore the more philosophic n^asonings of ^lachiavelli and Lorenzo. The Ptolemaic idea of astronomy, wliich placed the earth in the centio of the universe and sent the whole heavens whirling around it, is e.\[»loded by the theory of a solar system pronud- gated by Copernicus. And as if all this were not enough for the enfran- chisement of the intellect, another and still mightier powi-r appears — the art of printing. Beside this arti- fice, sim[»le yet wonderful, all the inventions of man sink to insignificance. Transfixing thought, giving per- petual speech to the wisdom of ages, bringing up the dead past and surrounding the present with myriads of tongues, it is more magical than magic, more cunning tlian sorcery. The power of tho pulpit was thenceforth doomed to give way before the pf)wer of the press. Akliough printing was invented in Germany about 1440, the art was not established in Spain until 1474; and while destir.ed eventually to effeet the complete emancipation of learning, it was so pam[)ert d at first by the jealousv of the clerLiv J^'^d tho restrictions of <''overn- ment, that its influence was greatly retarded. Lender the j>ontificato of Alexander VI. a censorship of the press was decreed, and no book was sutfered to be j)rinted M'ithout s})ecial permission from the clergy, under pain of fire for the book and exconnuunication for the author. Four centuries have since passed away, and these fetters are scarcely yet entirely removed. ! ^i ss COMPARATIVE CIVILIZATIONS AND SAVAGISMn. By a siii'T^ular coincidence, says Lafuonto, printinj^ was introduci'd into Si)ain in tlie year Isabella be faV'^i' tor tlieuiselves fetters, tlirust tlieir willing hands into them, and then cry that thiy are held, is childish; nnd it is scarcely less so for writers of history to inveigh against one of a nation, or one class, for i)erforining the functions of an office in which they are sustnincd hy the people. When we hear rattle the chains of the struggling mind, we are too apt to forget how they came there, to forget that bondage is an inheri- tance, and to blame hu'uan liolders of power for not behaving more than godlike, and hasten to lay it down and free the race. These teachers are not the craftv ft/ serpents their bi<)gra[ihers make them; they are worms like their fellows; not possessed of any super- human knowledge more than are our teachers <.>f to- day. There is no Serbonian bog of more lutpeless depth than the teachings of ignorance. Nevertheless, as we shall see, the Spanish ministers of Christ were not wholly consistent in their practice with the teachings of tlu;ir divine master. Their practice was not wholly consistent with their profes- sion; they taught charity, mercy, peace; and for the enforcement of these mild j)recepts they brought car- mige, in(iuisit<)rial tortures, and all the demoniacal passions the nature human is heir to. It will not ik) to survey ecclesiastical morality by the light of ecclesiastical history. The pathway of Christ's fol- lowers is red not alone with the blood of the saints; the history of persecution is the history of the church ; for every martyr to Christ's love ten have been mar- tyred for the love of Christ. Not that the Christians of the fifteenth century y;vvd more cruel or less sincere than the Christians of the first century. Both were eaten up of zeal ; but in the authoritative elaboration of its dogmas latter-day faith grew ferocious, and sub- tle disputations over forms of infinitesimal importance were followed by copious blood-lettings. The schisms CHRISTIANITY. and slaufjliterings of the si^veral brandies of the cliurcli clurin«^ the second and third five ccnturit'S of its existence were more foolish than the quarrelhiiLT for tlie shadow of an ass. With the Binjfendians of I^illiput it was a matter of no sniidl ('onsc<|Ucnfe, and a point of orthodoxy, that all ei,^;^s should he cracked at the higend, wherefore the Sniallendians denounced tliein as vile and lu-retical, because any one but the most l)igoted and abandoned of God could see that ('stness with which su})ernatural aid is invoked. In these unfavorable natural features, no Euro[)ean country has been so unfortunately situated as Spain. In this theory, Mr Froude thinks there is a great deal of truth; though at the same time he instances, on the other side of the question, "Japan, the spot in all the world where earth(juakes ai'e most frecjuent, and wIk'J'c, at the same time, there is tlie most serene disl)(>li(!f in any supernatural agency whatever." It seeuis, on the whole, a mere question of the compara- tive iniluence of certain admitted powers, none of which were likely to be at all favoral)le to cool, fear- less reasoning. Look, for example, at the titful, j)re- carious life t>f the Spaniard himself, through so many generations of his early national existence, while the Toledo kept as best it could against the cimeter the western gates of Europe. In such times "thought and iiKpiiry were impossible; doubt was unknown; and the way was prepared for tiiose super-stitious habits, and for that deep-rooted and tenacious belief, which have always formed a ])rincipal figure in the history of the Sjumish nation." So much for Buckle; it must be reco«Tfnized, how- ever, with regard to the effects of this latter cause, RELIGION IN SPAIN. 33 that before the Saracens had at all set foot In the })eninsula, "no khigdom was so thonnighly under the bondage of the hierarcliy as Spain." This is what Halhiin thinks of it; while Lafuente, treating of tlie (Jrotho-Si)anisli kingdom as early as the seventh cen- tury, speaks of "the influence and preponderance of the clerjj^y, not then only in ecclesiastical matters, but also in the policy of the state." In fact, of the national councils held at that time, it is not easy to determine whether they are to be considered as ecclesiastical or temporal assemblies. Milman affirms them to have beiMi both. To such an extent had the clergy insinu- ated tliemselves in the affairs of state. Tuin again to the results of the Mohammedan invasion as set forth by the historian of English civili- zation: " There were three ways in which the ^foham- niedan invasion strengthened the devotional feeling of the Spanish people. The first was by })rom()ting a lonuj and obstinate reli<;ious war: the seconil was bv the presence of constant and imminent dangers; and the third was l)y the poverty, and therefore the igno- rance, which it produced among the Christians." The war which drove the infidels from S[)ain was a war for the i'aith, a crusade no less than a concjuest. The interests of the church, as well as the interests of the nation, were at stake; hence in martial matters the clergy took active interest, and played thci'ein no mean part. Not only did they aniniate the soldiers by their enthusiasm, and coml'oi-t tliem with promises of divine approbation, but a1 l>ots and bishops joined in councils of war, and led it;niies to battle. While the king fought for the i hurch, the church could do no less than to inculcate such maxims as should tend most to the service of the kmg. Likewise the king stood by the church and dearly regarded its inteiests. And now these two great powirs, which had marched hand in hand for ten centuiies and more, wen- aj»- l>roaehijur .. ^ meridian of their uflorv. The courts of Isahellii, Ferdinand, Charles, and Philip, with all th.eir Cau fxsT., Vou I. 3 m COMPARATTVE CIVILIZATIONS AND SAVAGISMS. i 'I forms and augnst pageantries, might well have passed for models of celestial mansions; as if the gods had come down and taken up their abode with men. And so, indeed, many regarded it. "Whatever the king Ccime in contact with," sa3'8 Buckle, "was in some de- gree hallowed by his touch. No one might mount a liorse which he had ridden; no one might marry a mistress whom he had deserted. Horse and mistress alike were sacred, and it would have been impious for any subject to meddle with what had been honored by the Lord's anointed." The despotic power embodied in a united church and state brought the Spanish people into a state of servile homage to king and clergy, and imprinted on their character its dee[)cst color. Fired by earthly hopes on the one side, and heavenly hopes on the other, the mind became greatly inflamed. It became part of tlieir religion to be loyal, and part of their loyalty to be religious. Upon the eve of battle the priest, to stimulate their zeal, wrought miracles, declared omens, and conjured to their aid the potent elements of heaven. The most trivial circumstances were seized as tokens of success or failure. As the learning of past ages lay hidden in the lan- guagtis understood only by the clergy. rucIi expositions and interpretations could be placed upon it as best suited their purpose. Thereby, in the eyes of the ignorant, they were clothed in mysterious powers; they were special confidants of the deity, and held the disposal of earthly and heaveidy blessings at their command. Hence all united to do them rever- ence. A large share of the spoils of battle fell to them. In every province wrested from the Moors, extensive grants were made for ecclesiastical institu- tions, and any attempt to curb their avarice, or dis- pute their authority, was denounced as impious and h- retical. Priests were kings, ministers, lawyers, or soldiers as the interests of the church demanded. The^' engaged in trade, and owned manufactories. Hi -! POWER OP THE CLERGY. 35 lassed s had And 5 king ne de- ount a larry a listress m8 for irc^d by •ch and servile 1 their J hopes ler, the part ol yalty to riest, to omens, ents of seized \\Q lan- •sitions las best of the [)()wers; id held [njjs at rcver- fell to floors, linstitu- lor dis- cus and I'crs, or [landed. Ljtcries. A monk could travel from one end of Spain to the other without money, his blessin*^ beintj^ more tlian compensation for his entertainment. The proudest j^randees servilely attended the cler^jy on occasions of great display, such as the burning of a heretic, or in celebrating mass, gladly embracing every opportunity of manifesting their zeal for the church by hund)liiig themselves before its meanest functionaries. The abbess of Huelgas ranked above all the ladies of Spain save the queen. Few throughout Christendom were higher in ecclesiastical dignity than the arch- bishop of Toledo, ex o|//c/o primate of Spain and grantl cliancellor of Castile. His was the metropolitan church whose canons dwelt in stately palaces, and ':A whose revenues were j)rincely rather than priestly. - In 1549 a convent was founded by Ramon Beren- ii'iier in Catalonia, on the spot where the body of l^)lJlet, a holy heiinit, had been revealed by mystic lights. The shrine became famous. Alonarchs en- riched it with their wealth and honored it with their remains. If we may credit Hare, "five humlred monks of St Bernard occupied but did not fill the ma«n»ificent buildiny;s. Their domains became almost boundless, their jewelled chalices and gorgeous dmrch furniture could not be reckoned. The library of Poblet became the most famous in Spain, so that it w ts said tiuit a set of wagons employed for a whole ytjar could not carry away the books. Poblet grew to !e t]tc \¥- IK , minster abbey of Spain, and its occupants iK'uiu «i'(>"e exclusive. Their number was reduced to sixry-hiX, b^t into that sacred circle no novice was introduced ia whose vein^i ran other than the ])ur( st blood of a Spanish grandee. He who became a monk ot' Poblet had to prove his pedigree, and the chap- ter sate in solenm deliberation upon his quarterings." Every monk had two servants to attend him, and wlien he went out he rode upon a snow-white mule. The vhole peninsula was searched for these mules, an! t\i'v commanded an enormous price. ; i; I II m COMPARAnVE Cn'ILIZATIONS AND SAVAOISMS. Nowhere in Christendom did rehgit>n enter into the daily Hfe of the |)eople as in Spain. Every house was a school of superstition. Every guild had its patron saint. Thousands of vulgar conceits, omens, prt)gnostics, tales of witchcraft, magic, and diabolic holiness were current among tlic masses. Piety was made practical. "God and St Budget bless you!" cries the milkmaid to the cow, and there were no ujore kickings. She who would know the Christian name of her lover had but to stretch a thread across the doorway, and the name of the first man who stepped over it was the name of him whom she should marry The distaff nmst not remain loaded over Sunday, ■■ .c linen of the following week would be of bat.. ality, and thousands of like ab- sunhties. In French falconry, if we may believe Paul Lacroix, before hunting, the birds w'cre sprinkled with holv water, as on St Hubert's dav hounds and accoutrements of the chase were blessed by the priests. The enemies of the falcon wet^e then sol- emnly a^ldressed in the manner following: 'I adjure you, () eagles! I>y tiie true God, by the holy God, by the most blessed Virgin Mary, by the nine orders oi angels, by the holy prophets, by the twelve upostles, to leave the field clear to (»ur birds, and not to molest them : in the name of the Father, and Oi the Sou, and of the Holy Ghost." Emblematic of all industries and interests was the cross. The bodv is fashioned like a cross; churches wer(! built in the form of a cross; seas could not be safely traversed exce})t in cross-masted vessels, nor the earth niade fertile by any other than a cruciform spade. To impress the popular mind, mystery-plays or pas- sion-plays were introduced, in which scrij)ture inci- dents were arrayed in the gaudy parapiiernalia of tlio drama. In these repulsive exhibitions, ecclesiastics ap[)eared upon the stage in the characters of the patriarchs and apostles, and even of the deity. Adam INSANE SUPERSTITION. 3t r into house lad its :)Uiens, Ivaholic ty was you; ere no iristiau across m who )ni she loaded f week ike alt- believe arinkled lids and by the lien sol- adjure Glod, by ders of M)stles, molest on, and was the hurehes not be iels, nor •uciforni or pas- re inci- of the ?siastics of the Adam ;=5 and Eve paraded l)efore tlie chaste audience naked, a. id Lucifer .stalked the boards with horns and cloven jioof and forked tail. There the Christ was crucified, the creator sat in judi^nicnt, and the fires of hell weio brifhtiv hurnin*;. Later, when taste became refined by art, these .spL'ctaeles were modified or abandoned for the more impressive grandeur of architectural jiiles, vaulti'd aisles and pictured windows; pointed spires and deep-toned bells; with statues, ineense, tapers, and the iujposuig cereuK^nials of the mass. In Spain more than elsewhere art was subordinated to religion; image woi'ship was the most fertile fielil «»f the scu]i>tor and painter. Science, if used at all, was employed only *^'> elucidate some doctrine of tJie church. In every way, l)y interpolation of scrip- tine, by exalting l)lind faith, by nursing Ixisotted ii-iiorance and trendjling credulitv, science was smoth- ercd and rationalistic thought crushed. Innovation, deviation from time-honored tenets, was heresy. To tliiidv was a crime; to study nature, magic; to attem])t to iiiteipret nature by a natural, or any other than a bihjical, standard was sorcery. in every village was a sorcerer, wise man, or magi- <-ian, a most useful member of society, who, l)eiiig in <'orrespondence with agencies infernal, wrought mira- s, cured the sick, a. id brouu^ht to lii»ht that which Avas i(»st. Days luckv and unlucky in w hich to buv and to Sell were duly noted in the almanac. Joan d'Are not fMilv hear] voices in the air, and beheld strauiic visions, hut she made the French and English soldiery see them. Columbus, on first .-ijjlitiniif San Salvador, saw the Mestern coast of Asia, and he command* d every one «)f his men to see in that island Asia, and to believe and know that it was the veritable Cijtango, the Japan of India, that they saw under penalty of having tiie tongue of every doubter cut out What had men to do with their senses, with reason? The sum of duty, ill those days was very simple H)nly l)e- lieve. Whatevt.T could not be understood miiiht be COMPARATIVE CIVIUZATIOKS AND SAVAGISMS. attributed, with Don Quixote, to encliantinent, or the work of some wicked magician. And so Jol)n Faust, the printer, was a witch; and storms and deaths and all evils were attributed to witches; and witches were burned by thousands. Sorcery and witchcraft were for centuries defended by the ablest scholastics. Thomas Aquinas, St Au- gustine, Gerson, and Bodin fought as hard against scepticism in witchcraft as in worsliip, Neither abil- ity, purity of intention, nor a self-sacrificing search for truth were proof against error; instance ^Martin Lutlier blackening the wall with his inkstand hurled against an imaginary dovil, and the puritan fathers who iled persecution, only for Christ's sake to perse- cute each other. Whoever attempted to question the truth of witchcraft was hushed by passages from scripture, by which or from which anything or nothing can be proved. The logic of su|X)rstition was a meas- uring of error b\ error, by which method the truth lias never yet been meted out. ToLxlo was famous for its witches. At Calahorra in 1507 tiiirty women were burned for witchcraft. Hundreds of instances might be cited where women and men were tlms tortured to death by these pro- foundly blind and uious men. The unfortunates who thus suffered were deemed criminally depraved, ac- cursed of God, children of Satan, whom to stnid by an excruciating death to eternal torment were a ri'jfhteous dutv. So clergymen dealt with tiie tainted of their Hock, so magistrates dealt with the accused, so dealt friend with friend, and mothers with children. Any man having aught against another had but to twist his body into a knot, call the semblance of agony to his face, cry witch, and charge the evil on his enemy to be forever rid of him. As late as 1484 Innocent VIII, complains by papal bull " that numbers of both sexes do not avt)id to have intercourse with the infer- nal fiends, and that by their sorceries they affiict both man and beast. They blight the marriage bed, de- I r AI RISTIC ABSU Rl )ITIES. stroy the births of women and the increase of cattle; thov blast the corn on the ground, the grapes in the vineyard, the fruits of the trees, and the grass and lierbsof the field." Strange that the creator and pre- server <^f all thino;s should stand still and see the innocent suffer for what he has done, and open not his mouth! Patristic writings are full of their jugglery. Among the long catalogue of miracles deemed authentic by St Augustine were five cases of bringing the dead to life. l)urini; life birds brought fruit to the anchorite, and at death lions dug his grave and howled his requiem. ( )i ten the virgin descended, and lifting the pious sup- plicant from his knees, comforted him. Images every- where cured the sick and winked and blinlvod upon the worsliippers at their .shrine. Under tlirection of tlie A'irufin of tlie Pillar at Saraf the truth by those whom they regarded as the ministers and representatives of Gtxl's will and powrr on earth. Sucli was the atmosphere in which the belief of our New World adventurers was formed. The clergy easily obtained permission to establish courts for the decision of all questions relative to their creeds arid to their property. By exU'uding untKr various artifices the jurisdiction of these spirit- ual courts, they were made to include the greatir part of all cases arisinjj: for litiuation Codes of laws were formed, and rules estal)lislied whereby uniform and consistent decisions were made. The fulmination of ecclesiastical edicts became conunon, and were more drea: to all relial states. The primacy of St IVter, at first a state of simple ire of Home declined, tlie emj)iro of St IV'ter maintained the su})reniacy, and in the eleventh century Hildeltrand, under title of Orej^ory \'1I., pi'onmly,ated the l)old conceit that the successor of St I'eter as viceijercnt of the creator is soverei<;n of the world. Tlius the patriarch of ]ionie lu'came tlie ])ope of Rome. Although suhserihini^ himself Semis Sen'orvm Dei, servant of the servants of (Jod, he was content to he nothini>" less than mastei' of the masters of nuMi. Twelve hundred vears after Christ, the vii-ar of Clirist assumes tliat tempoial autliority which Christ himself declai'ed to he no })art of liis mission. The exit of Colonna, as Martin i\., from Constance, was uiore <(lorious than Christ's entry into Jerusalem. Arrayed in gorgeous rohes, and mounteal power. Multitudes from every land flocked to Kome, as formerly pilgrims flocked to the holy sepulchre. It is inconsistent with earthly affairs for greatness like this to last. Tlie fruit of it rii)ened and decayed. The poi>e wlio made himself higher than man lived lower than tlie brute. Sixtus IV. who reigned from 1471 to 1484 was led by his nepotism into base in- trigues and treacherous conspiracies. Innocent YIII., 1484 loi)2, is accredited by his mildest historians with seven illegitimate children, oflfspring of varitms women. Tlie very name of Alexander VI., 1492- 150.}, the father of Ca3sar and Lucretia Borgia, is synonymous with cruelty and licentiousness. " The impure groves of antiquity," says Merle D'Aubigne, " probably never saw the like of the wickedness per- petrated under his roof" He secured his election by buying every cardinal at a fixed price; and on the day of his coronation he made his son CiBsar arch- bishop of Valencia and bishop of Pampeluna. This 3'outh, worthy of his illustrious father, first nmrdered his brother and threw the body into the Tiber, then strangled his brother-in-law, and finally becoming jealous of his father's favorite, stabbed him to the heart in the very presence of the pontiff*. He kept a band of hired assassins constantlv at hand to do his a/ bidding. Lucretia Borgia, twice married, lived in- k BIMORAL PONTIFFS, 43 cestuously at the same time with her father and two brotliers. The Borglas, fatlier and children, turned the imperial city into a harem. Falling at length a victim to his own diabolical cunning, the pope died of poison which he had prepared for others. Yet in justice to Alexander VI., it may be said that notwith- standing his incestuous debaucheries he was one of the most able princes of his age. He successfully quelled the refractory spirit of his barons, althougli he did not scruple to use poison and poniard in eftect- ing his purpose. He was devoted to the welfare of the people, and kind to the poor, Julius II,, 1503- 151.S, notwithstanding his love of war and his en- counigenient of art — became prematurely old from intemperance and sensual excesses. With such pas- tors, wliat may be expected of the people? The wickedness of the pontiffs did not die with them, but spread like a pestilence through all ranks of the priesthood, and infected every grade of society. Simony and licentiousness were of the most common occurrence. While the church was burning heretics for simple differences of opinion, one half of her priest- hood purchased their preferments, and lived in open concubmaiic. Yet civilization owes Roman Catholicism some- thing; for exami)le, the unification of societv durini; the tlai'k age; restraining the passion for war con- sequent on the subordination of political power to divinely deputed papal power; the unification of the Cliristiiui church, growing out of the doctrine of i)apal infalliitilitv; the abolition of slaver}'; tiie softening and refining of manners, and multitudinous social cour- tesies and benefits. Thus we have seen how the jicople of Spain were educated into ignorance and fanaticism; how truth was hidden away, and falsehood and superstition clothed in the semblance of truth; how devotion to the king and to the church was rewarded, and devotion to u COMPARATIVE CIVILIZATIONS AND SAVAGISMS. country and conKcicnco piinislied. Now Jot us see how proselytes were niade in Spain in the sixteenth century, as I liave elsewhere in this series fully

  • - scribed the en^^ines of conversion in Anieriea. And I ask the reader to compare the human sacriHces of Europe with the human sacrifices of America; com- ])are the hloody butcheries of tlie Christians with those of the Aztecs; compare the diabolical savagism of Spain and Enjjfland and France, about the time of the coiKjuest, with the worst that was found in tiie New World. So dear was the purity of the faith to both spiritur.l and temporal rulers, that in the twelfth century in- quiiers, or intjuisitors, were ajipointed throu_«;hoi'.t ]^urope to examine ])ersons suspected of heresy. If spiritual chastisement failed to make plain the niys- tcaies of reliiLjion, the unbeliever was turned over to the secular aim. AFade fertile by the copious elu- sions of AEohammedan blood, no soil in jMuope was better prepared for o'rowin;^ these rank weeds of coi-r- cion, none more prolific, than that of Spain. Followinj^ Lafuente in his notice of this institution, it appears that as early as 1232 (iret^ory IX. directed the arclibisho[) of Tarra»j;ona, as to the establishment of its courts, in Catalonia, Arai^on, Castile, and N.i- varre. The inquisitors were Dominicans as usual. The king of Castile, St Ferdinand, proved his re- ligious zeal by helping with his own shoulders to cairv the wood for the burning of heretics. The kinuf ])on ])iego of Aragon attended with his sons at the torture of Pedro iJurango de Baldach, burned by sen- tence of the Inijuisitor-general Burguete. In Castile, at least, this tribunal presently fell to pieces: so that in 14(54 in that kingdom no intpiisition was to be found, but many desired its rcestablishment. No steps, however, were taken in that reign. In 1478, at the request of Isabella, who was acted upon by her sj)iritual advisers, Sixtus IV. empowered the catholic kings to elect three prelates, and other eccle- ,18. IXQUTSITIOV. US see ixiceiith ully (1(>- i. And tlHccs <>t a; ('(iiii- ns with avagisMi ■ tiiiK' of I in the spiritui.l turv iii- ouglioi'.t tsv. If \\o mvw- over to HIS ciru- ()|te was of eoer- itution, irc'cted islmu'iit d Xa- usual. his le- ers to .! kin!^ at tlio fell to lisition inicnt. 11. Ill upon td the ecclo- Sia>;tiral doctors and lietntiatos, (if jj^ood llf(\ to iiKjuIro after and jiroeeed aL;,'{iinst tlie heretics and apostat'js of tlie realm, accordinj^^ to law and custom. Tli(-' motlern iiKjuisition was estahhslied in tlie cf)n- vrnt of San J*al)lo do Sevilla, whence it moved in ] iS| into the fortress of 'JViana. In apjti'aranee, ilii:.j (nhous institution liarnionized witli the ortliodox fr.ith; in reality, the Spanish iiuiuisition was less an eeeh^si- a^ieal than a i)olitical trihunal. It ])laced in the hand of tilt; st)vereii^ns a jiowerful instrument for suppress- ing- faction and strenLjthenin_!jf royal d»>spotisni. The nieclianism of the modern iiuiuisition was pre pared more esjiecially lor the conversion of Jews and ?!(»- liaiiiinedans. As the order-lo\i'in j;!l jxrsons to give information against any su.spected of heresy. Every now and then some member of a societv mvsterit)uslv disapiteared from his accustomed liaunts, never again to be seen. When an"este«l, the j)risoner was conducted to the secret dungeon of t'le inquisition, and all intercourse with the world forbid- den liim. Evidence was given in writing, but the name of the witness was known only to the judges. The accus(T and the accused were never brought face to face. Often the piisoner knew not for what crime he was accused. Secret and presumptive testimony was allowed, and the most absurd proof admitted, "^i'o convict of Judaism, it was only necessary to eat with a Jew, to wear better clothes than usual on the Jewi^di .T' ! 46 COMPAP.ATIVi: CIAHLIZATIONS AND SAVAGISMS. sabbath, to drink Jewish wino, or keep a Jewisli mis- tress. After undt rjjfoinjjf a mock trial, those who re- fused to confess tho crime charged upon them, whether •(uilty or not, were put to the torture. Tliree ordeals were practised in Spain for determin- ing the guilt or innocence of the prisoner: the cord, water, and fire. Trial by the cord was performed by fastening the hands of the victim behind lils back with a strong cord, one end of which was passed through a pulley attached to the roof of the chamber. The exe- cutioner then raised the victim to the ceiling, and after holding him suspended for a time, suddenly loos- ened the cord, permitting him to drop within a foot of the floor, when his fall was suddenly checked. By tliis terri1)le shock, the cord was made to cut into the flesh, and the joints were dislocated. The shocks w^ere repeated until confession was made or life endan- gered. The ordeal by water was performed by bend- ing the body over a wooden horse, in such a manner that the feet were higher than the head, and respira- tion extremely painful. A lever and cortls were then employed to distort the l)odv Jind cut the ilesh. While undergoing the most excessive agony in this i)osition, in order to render torture vet more active, the mouth and nostrils were covered with a piece of fine hnen, wetted, through which the victim with the utmost difficulty respired. Water was then poured uj)on the face, a small quantity of which slowly filtered through the linen. In the frantic efforts of the suflcrer to swallow and to breathe, blood-vessels were ruptured, the linen was saturated with blood, and the body broken and lacerated by the cords in a horrible man- ner. In the ordeal by fire, the feet of the victim were I)laced, firmly bound, near the fire. Oil or lard was then rubbed over them, until the flesh was literally cooked, and the bones protruded. Such are the sick- ening details by which alone we may show how Chris- tians labored for the salvation of souls oidy four hundred years agol AUT0-DE-F6. 47 tim were The demoniacal solemnities of the inquisition cul- minated in that grandest and most imposing ceremonial (if the church, tho anto-de-fc, or act of faith, upon wliich occasion punishment was inflicted upon the con- demned. Once more I would ask how to distinguisli the radical difference between the ])uman sacrifices of the Mexicans and Peruvians and the malignant enor- mities of tlie iiKjuisitorial trihunal, except tliat tlie former Mas attended by far less ])assion and cruelty than the latt( r. Punishments of persons convicted hy tiie comt of tlie inquisition were of various gratU-s. Propiity in every instance was confiscated; and as a grtjit part of the wealth of tlie kingdom was in the liands of jitretical Jews and floors, convictions were rai)id and easy. Some were condemned to l)e burned, otliers wlio could not be found were Imrned in effigy. ►Some Were condemned to be reconcih'd — bv which term is meant fines, imprisonment, or disenfranchise- ment. K^w the morning of the day appointed for tlio dismal spectacle, the populace were awakened l»y the muf'.Ud sound of tlie cathedral bell, and soon a crowd of (\iger spectators thronged the streets and public s(piare. The dungeon doors of the tribunal were then thrown open and the unfortunate victiuis were brought forth. First in the procession were placed the penitents, or those condenmed to do penance and l)e roco!:;iled. Xext, barefooted, clothed in ,s«» hmifos, or long yt-l- low frocks, decorated with searlet cross, and jiictures of imps and fires of hell to which the W( aiTi's sr»ul h doomed, with a high pointed-crowned hat u|ion the head, and a large crucifix borne before them, were those condemned to death. Then followed diigies of uncaught heretics; and in black coffins garnished with infernal symbols, the bones of thoi-e who had ili<"J,000 were burni'il. Such wen' the njeasui't's adopted tt) turn the luarts of men to the miUl teaching's of Mini whose name an(»us]v ])(>rfornK>d bv mi<>Jitv soverei'Mis and holv cede- siastirs? ]n Ifxll Ferdinand was succeeded by Charles, a sincen', houi'st, and by no nu>ans itaibheai'ti-d man. Yet tlie I'eligious current into which he was cast swi'pt lum into the nn)st barbarous and bigoted i-x- tremes. A terribjv fervent li''ht, and hid under no bushel, was his to the heretic. 'I\> buy a heterodox book was death. To bi- a heretic was (lames anil lire, both in this world and that which was io conu'. In the low countries the deatlis for this cause were esti- mated at oiu' hun(h'ed thousand. Almost the last tleed of the old emperor was to a[>r()val tlie prin- v\\ a scr- iiK'cd ; at CO struck (luUMunod oi'd upon 'Xecution. re kindly )thorNvise, •c, Tims ),000 IKT- wcro the Ml l<» the issioii WHS ) ilUltlH'SS .11 wdudcr e Siuuiish oiiu' such ■i'lV polll- oly ceele- I'liai'les, a lied mail. was rast (ttt'd t'\- luudt r IK) ctcrtxloX and i'lie, )iiu'. In WW estl- the last il t(i Ills accursed M Hi-; motto was, " Better not to reijj^n than reiL^n over hrreti( ■;." A life gultled hv this loadstar K-I't .such a hlood ti-ack as may he ima!L,niied; and so thoroii empiic of i^urope, that he iiii'^ht u'ltcily away from the earth with those rude doctiiacs that still ott'ended his iK)strils from many a <|uai't(i'. Thus the spirit of intolerance, kindled hy the ]\Inha.iiinudan wars, and fanned into a tierce Hame hy til' r> rormation, was kept alive hy the mighty j)oW( r of (hc-^c royal higi)ts. uh T!;r It \iva] of letters, which acted as a powerful stim- uit in mental (K'velopment, prtK luccd a corres[)()ndini^ adxaiicc ill morals. As laymen were cnahled to read i'or tluinselves, they were no longer (lepeiidcnt ujion tlie < 1 'f^;y for an interi)retation of sacred and secular wiitiii ;s. Men he'j;an to think and to judLie for theni- .selves. The clouds of su[)erstiti<»ll Wore dispelled hy th V( i.l^ ions ot science. :ri le Jloo'liias of the cU lurch and t!n' li\(S of tlu* clerLTV were comnarcd with the teachings of the apostles. The t'oui (hseascs hrcd hv ecclesiastical excesses threatened I'uiii to the church. The j( ftrmation which hroke out al»out l.VJO under l^utlici- in (lermanvand Zwin-'li in Switzerland di- vidcd I'lirojie anew. The unity of the diurch was forever hi'oken. A power minjlitier than that of arinie; and rituals jiad arisen -tlie jtower of tli t! lus ''iveii to thoU'.'ht can seaicelv h imderstood hv us. W can I'oha hh lie\cr full y leali-..', lirst, how thoroui^dily the hlaek jiail wa thiii'j;' over learniiiiif and reason hy the medijeval cliurcli; and .secondiv, how vidiemeiitlv it was torn asunder with the rise' of s[)eculati\(' discussion. J^ut in Spaiii protestantism was destined to a short career. C.vi.. I'.isT., Vol. I. 4 io COMPARATIVE CIVILIZATIONS AND SAVAGISMS. That implacable hatred for heretics which for so many centuries had nerved the arm of the nation, and kept in a fervent ^low the spirit of fanaticism and persecu- tion, had not yet time to cool. Luther's doctrines were fiercely met hy the incpiisitors; his books were seized and burned as fast as they appeared, and tliose who read them were exeonununicated. Soon after the Index ExpurgaforivS: or list of hooks condemned l)y the inquisition as dangerous to Spain, was pul)- lished, and any pepson in whose possession a copy of (me of those hooks should be found was condenmed to deatli. Thus the rising spirit of iniiuiry. di'stined to regenerate all Europe, Avas crushed, and bigotry and fanaticism still held rule in Spain. The effects of the reformation were nevertheless keenly felt upon the peninsula, and the church herself set alxiut correcting those abuses whicli heretical reformers were not alloweil to touch. Arms and n'issi(»naries were liberallv bestowetl upon the New W(nl(l, and the colonists char<_ied to exert their utmost powers to extend the faith to the benighted natives. While Luther was nailing his theses to the church door at Wiirtenberensed in the conversion of njany souls, for the great loss and injury which the accursed Luther was to cause, at the same epoch in the old Christianity." Yet another reaction. The zealot to phvase God first j)lunges into the depths of p<»verty and woe ; tlien basks in sunny sloth and fatness; then growing amln- tious, soars to eminence in statecraft, war, and wealth, only to be tlirust down by the jealous aim of royalty. Before coriuption had retiched its height, or a refor- mation had been thought of, papal sovereignty began to POPULAR UEPRESEXTATIOX. Iwinir ainl)V- tloclinc. It was tlio wealth of the clerc^y, however, that was taken iVoni them, ratlier than their religion. Fertlinand and Isjiliella were no less vigilant in sup- pivssing ecclesiastical power tlian in curbing the pre- tensions of the nobles. They claimed as a right the nomination to episcopal seis; the utmost care was taken by the crown to obtain and hold the sovereign juriscliction in churc-h affairs. Although the reverence of Ferdinand for the church was unbounded, his crafty y.cal pnlVrred himself as spiritual overseer, and he took care to have all ecclesiastical dignities and emol- uments tliroughout liis entire dominions at his own disposal. (^)uetn Isabella watched with solicitous care eccle- siastical morals, and endcavovertv. *- I t' Thus I have sketched lightly, but I trust not with undue proportion, the salient points of church inilu- enast erinjes of civilization, let us heware for the future of those delusions which swallow as in a black gulf all the nobler attributes of soul and sense. Popular representation existed in the several klnir. donis of Spain at an early period. According to Fer- reras the first cortes or coiiLjress of ("astile was held at liurgos in I JOS). It was conipo-cd of three estates, the cler<]fv, nohilitv, and coninionalty. In Catalonia the third estate was the rei)resentatives of cities, and tin; presence of the deri^^y was not indispensable. The king summoned and })resided over the cortes in person. Spain before the coalescence of Aragon and Castile was sepaiatetl into minor provinces and petty kingdt)ms, whose rulers possessed authority but little superior to some of their most powerful subjects. The coiles of Aragon was com[)osed of four estates: nco.s- h(unhrcs,ov nobility of the first class; ////«;/2:o»cs, knights or nobility of the second class; de[)utiea of towns and repres(?ntatives of the clergy. In ancient times the poW(!i'of this body was supreme. Twelve members con stituted a (juorum, and no measure ci)uld be adopted without a unanimous vote; kings were created and deposed by this body at will, ami every branch of [)ub- lic artairs was under its control. Ui>on the coronation of a king the monarch was conducted before the as- sembly, the (Jran .fusticia being seated on a thi'oni' and surroumled by the grandees and prelate s of Uie realm; the coronation oath was admir.isteri-d, '.^ here- upon each of the nobles drew his sword, and placiii'j; its point np<»n the king's heart, exclaimed: "X<» , qu ' valemos tal que vos y juntos podemos mas que v<»^, vus faceuios rev para (^ue guardeis la ley e (si uon, SMS. ol)H«i;atlon le darkest hat (laik- n culture; reasons to lorror tlie^ the future ,ck gulf all vcral king- ing t») Fei'- c was lu'ld ree estates, 1 Catalonia s of cities, lispensahle. lio cortes in \raii;on and ^ and petty y but little jects. The tates: rivoft /(cs,kni<]fhts towns and times the liMubers con- he odol'tetl •reatetl ami ,nch of puh- coronation ore the as- in a thron<' lates of tiie fred, "vhere- find phicini "No , qu' as que vo^. y e !si uou, -§ 1 I I An M 1 ■1^ SANTA UERMANDAD. » t non." We, eacli one of us your equal, and together mightier than you, we make you king, that you may keep the law, and if not, not. Upon the union of the several kingdoms of the pcn- in-;u1a under one monarch}'', the local legislative bodies were merged into one national cortes composed of two bodies, a senate, and a chamber of deputies, whose ddiherations must be apart from each other, and apart from the presence of the king. An act of the cortes must be sanctioned and pronmlgated by the sovereign hcfore it becomes a law; but in the absence or inca- pacity of a monarch their authority of the cortes is ahsolute. Ferdinand and Isabella brouijht forward several engines to weaken the power of the cortes. Tlie inijuisition — by silently removing objectionable persons ; balancing one element of the assembly against another so that the whole cimld be easily wheedled ; hv the establishment of the militarv orders of Santi- ago, Calatrava, and Alcantara, and the formation of a military i)olice, called the sanfa hermandad, or holv l»i(»therhood. This fraternity w;is a sort of feudal vigilance committing, a legally organized conipany of knights-errant, formed bv the villaLjes for the imr- j»ose of preventmg enormities which were prevalent Iteyond the settled portions of the country. Each |iU('l)lo, or town, elected two alcaldes, or justices of the peace —one noble, the other plelK'ian, undiT whom were pi leed inferior officers having at connnand acuadrilla, or eonq)any. The cuadrilleros or mi'nd)ers «)f this association, sometimes attended by the alcaldes, at other times in(lej)endently, scoured the country for evil- doers who when cuught were tried and executed on tlie spot, or taken to the village and there confmed. This frat(;rnal en tlie sixteentli cen- turies, more fully than America's, from the fact that the latter, so far at least as the Pacific States are con- cerned, has been fully presented in my Nat ire Iiacc!i,U* which the leader is referred for further comparisons; suffice it to say in conclusi(»n that in all the phasrs and stages of human proujress in all jiarts of tlie WNrl.l, and in all aj^es of mankind, there are present inm;- merable parallelisms, the lowest savaj^jism having in it appparently the germ of the highest civilization. We see in savage tril)es the same necessities mi-t by similar means, tlu^ same progressional phenomena piesent in uniform sequence in all human societies, rude or cul- tured. As regards n^ligions, superstitions, witclicraft, and priestcraft, the Americans were no whit W-hind the EuroiM'ans; they could not surpass them in absurdity. Evi ly nation had its theory of creation and a futuie state. The l*imas had their deluge as w« 11 as the Hebrews; the Pueblos their siicred fire; the Califiir- nians their sanctuaries of n'fuge; the ^[iztccs tlnir straight and narrow way to jiaradise ; and the juoplc of Yucatan tlieir phallic worship. I can understand the Yakima word for soul as readily as I can that ot the Buddhists, or Clnistians, or ]\lohammedans. The Eskimos enjoyed witchcraft long before the Salem puritans, and the Thlinkeets gave to certain animals a humanity i>efore ])arwin was born. Every American nation had its order of priesthood ; one of the [>rinci})al cities of the Zapotecs, Tojiaa, was ruled liki; Rome by a sovereign pontiff*. The people «»f the ^fos(|uito Coast had their pantheon as well as the Greeks. The ^lexicans had their ceremonial cal- ia llillil [SMS. abollslietl. LTin.ineiit; contiiuud, ance ii\Hni ^isius and iontli I'on- fact that .'S are <-<>n- C lilUCi, U> ujiarisoiis; he j)lia.siri the WMlhl, sent inmi- avin[)aa, was Ihe peo|)le IS well as gonial cal- AMERICAN CIVILIZATIONS. ondar, and jtrayers and offerinj^s were everywhere anc i tl le The Chinese liad their Confucius, the Christians Mohannnedans their respective originator Aztcts their C^uttzideoatl as well as their Nameless One, tln'ir Sujtrenie Creator, their only livini^and true God. They had their monasteries and religious festi- vals. It is a slander upon savagism to talk of its extraor- diiiaiv tiiarhiiies and cruelties in view of the la<'ts ot' J\iui<)]Hau civilization. Conij)are the barharities of the chivalrous Pedro de Alvarado, not to mention Francisco I'izairo, and the tortures inHicted on Span- iards hy the Frenchman L'Olonnois in the West liiditvs, with those of anv wild men the world has ever sei'U. Yet more: com|)are the most horrihle sav- agisms of any . ge or land with the barharities t»f Englishmen in India within the present century. ^\s regards irovernment and society, it is liardly neeessaiy to refer again to the absolute monarchies of the Xahuas and ^layas, with their scores of subonli- nate limited monarchies. Outside of them all was 1'lascala, with its aristocratic rej)ublican system, and jiailiament, or senate; and tiie confedeiation of states in Mexico, Tezcuco, and 'I'lacopan, capable of acting m some respects oidv as a whole, while the authoritv of each at ]u)nie Nvas su[>reme. Where among tive hun- ched otiiersdid the Aztecs mt their idea of the cere- mony ts, alphabets, cal'iidars, and system of the Mayas; the crtination rites, ehronological records, eloth and paper manufac- toiirs, eode of law's, courts of j»rocedure, and gladia- torial cond)ats of the Xahuas; or of the currency, government, religit}n, slaverv, ornamentation, court- COMPARATIVE CIVILIZATIONS AND SAVAOISMS. sliip and raarriaart of the general evolvings oi" the iii;i\ < rse which makes one all worlds and systems of worl I . i I LMS. iscs. and the rcbt Vintrican tiiM-ts of less tuni- lI Wo.M, s^taiKl'mg oil's s.ikc lit as one ica on an i;^lit li un- civil i/it'tl, so I'ar as the .sinii- •crvwhere lie innn in tiiat tlie te, ol' the le luoilern I (oiruj)- liii. I an, no 1 ( '11,2^. is uiin kl- > ui:'i\« rse IVOfl i>. m CHAPTER II. COLONIAJ. POLICY OF SPAIN. I do not know .mytliiug niorj liiduTous amony the solf-doceiitiona of woll- nuMiiiii.,' [ [ill' tliuii tlu'ir notion nf patriotism, as nijuirin^' tlu'ni to limit tlitir ctl'oits to tliu good of their own country; tlie notion that charity is a j;i'ogra|>liii'.d virtue; and tluit what is holy and righteous to do fur jK'oplo on (iiiu hank ot a river, it is quite imi)roi)t;r and unnatural to do fi>r ^leoplo uu tiiL' other. — Ji((din. Poi.iTU.s jis a science is too young yet to toll alto- gotlur iVoiM what has been what shall he. And yet, ll'W philosophers are found with sufficient assurance to s[>cculate upon the progressional vagaries which lliree or five centuries jience shall .stand out against the t'eudalisnis, the knight-errantries, trials hy coinhat, lack and tliuinh-screw conversions, and rehgiou-re\(> hitions ofTive or three hundred years ago. J^ut unless human nature he horn anew, then* is little I'ear that our siiccessois will iK)t find their full quota of foirK.\s to tilt for withal. We are not quite ready to place cf)lony- plantin<'- in the cate«>f»rv t)f infatuations such as holv- .sej)ulchrc crusading, yi't those who shall come after us may he. Nevertheless, the twenty-sixth century may derive henefits fi'oni the experiences of tlie six- teenth. The two hundred years fo.iowinu' the discoveries by ('oluml)us, the Cabots, and Vasco da (j!ama were the world's great age of colonization. Before the six- teenth c(>ntury, and after the .seventeenth, there were distant .settlements established by ])arent states, but none such as then appeared. And none .'^uch will ap- [)ear again until for cisilization time bridges another (67) ih y ii'jiii!'!' M niLONlAL POLICY OF SPAIN. Sea of Darkness, and some new eliristiunity finds fer- tile heathen fields to j)lough. riaiifat/oii, corrt'spondhig to the Dutcli volk-pUuitiiuj, stands as the (ally English euuivalent for the word colony, from cdlo, to till the soil and dwell in a place, jis originally applied to the grants hy Roman generals of conquered countries, snndar to the settk'ments niade later l>v tlie Kussians in Central Asia, which wiie at first niiiitary centres and afterward towns, ^'et the former terms referred rather to countries than to cities. Long before this, however, we recog- nize tlic colonization idi'a with different motives — for pur[)oses hoth of trade and agriculture, as among the I'luenicians and Greeks; for puqioses of migration, con(|uest, })lunder, and occupation, as among the north- ern barbarians; fr«)m excess of population, from a love of gold, for purposes of j)roselyting, and in order to I'scape servitude, religious j)ersecution, or other kin- dred infiictions. Those who go, dream of actjuisition in one or more directions; tho-^e who send, expect ad- "\antage. Carthage, herself a colony anf' the r.iother of colonies, defined a policy by which she established a great navy, and controlled Mediti-rraman commerce. The (h'eeic colonies Were nominally free, but some- tinu'S tributary to the pariiit state. The causes actu- ating or undirlvinii' colonial mi^'rations have not arisen as a rule from any noble impulse or jirinciplc. The ]*uritans, laiuling on the wild shoi-e of New l^ngland, ]>resent the sul)limest picture in ctjjonial history, and almost the only one at all sublime. Xeithev for greed nor glory did they leave comfoi'tabUi homes; neitlier to defraud the natives, nor fasten on them a strange religion, did they brave the wildi'rness. It was intel- lectual freedom they Would have, the higliest, holiest aspiration humanity is heir to. It is somewhat signifi- cant in this connection that the descendants of these ])eople did not long n-main colonists. Yet even here, if the truth nnist be told, was conduct incompatible with justice and strict moral j)rincij)le, by a people EARLY COLOXIZATIONS. 69 will) claimicl to liave siicrificetl all for thoso same prin- ciples of justice and morality. Tills Uusiiioss of colonizing in its c uTicr staj^'cH was sclilom i)lua.sant or profitable, either to [larent or oft'- s;!ring. The first atten^jts were almost always fail- ures so far as the ha[)i)iness of the latter w. s concerned. There was usually too nuich of the fij^htinii,^ and gov- eriiin"" elements amonjx the emigrants, and too few haiiils accustomed to the axe, and spade, and like i;!"; ]i inents for the building of substantial connnoii- wialths, Xeitlu'r hav»> the s.)VC:reigns of Europe jilayed any noble ])art in this [)eople-]>lanting. llow til Genoese was obliged to importune them for the use ot' three or four small v 'ssels! Ferdinand s[)ent some money on succeeding "loyages, and then like IK-niy of En'dand irraciouslv i)ermitted his subjects to dis- cover and colonize new lands at their own cost; ami after receiving a royal share of whatever was pur cliased or plundered from the natives, lie held all as crown i)rop(;rty and crown v ssals. \\u • the Latin races of Europe had wrested from sa\i.:\; or hal. -civilized nations three fourths of the world, tilt; larger pai't of the territory so sinzed was taken by the Teutonic races and divided into common- wealths, which wei'e in some instances united i.i leder- ations more free and forward than their originals. It strains our credulity somewhat to bi'lieve it, but j»i'ob- ably l*ope Alexander, Ferdinand, John of Portugal, Klizabi'th, and Chai'les II. were serious when thev is- sued maxims unowers. During the seventeenth and ei^hteentli centuries, America was popularly designated 'The Colonies.' Then from five America- holding nations prior to IG74, the mnnber was reduced to four, and after 17(>^), for th<.' most j)art to three; between 1775 and IS'Ja European domination in America became almost extinct; meanwhile in the United States arose the political j)rinciplo called the Monroe doctrine, which declared that any attempt on the part of European nations to extend their system or contn 1 over any part of this continent not already occupied by them, would by the ITnitod States be regarded as d;in;;vrous to their peace and safety. Jud;;ing from our]>ri'sent stand-])oint,<,n'eater results, ethical, intellectual, and material, ha\"e arisen from the colonijrations of (Jreat l^ritain than fi'oni those of any other nation. I refer to voluntary offshoots rather than to colonizations at the cannon's mouth. Though the first centarv of Sitanish-American history was mediicval ratluT than n>.odern, Sjjain's colonists in America were not persons impelled to escaju) the tradi'-guilds, or conunercial, political, or religious dom- ination of imperial cities that ground them tmder imposts and intellectual tyrannies. Spaniards did not wish to fri'o themsidves from anything. They wi're satisfied ^\iih their country and all its despotisms and fanaticism.s. Even before thinking of themselves, tiiey coiujiiered and colonized for their king. Ai'il th(Mr establishments wluii founded were like neither the IMuenician factories nor the Roman garrisons; take from them their gold mines and repartimientos, and there was little of thetn one would acce|)t as a gift. Imnu'diate gain with glory, spiritual gain and juate- rial gain with the glory »f concpiest and lordly domi- nation, was the pU!i.,.M' of the Spanish colonist, liike a child or a t^iivage to gratify a passion or achieve a ENOLANI/S METHOD SI proximate result lie would uiKler^o any liardsliij); hut III tiiut tlioroutjfh and jH-rsisti-iit application lor remote ;iilvaiita;4c'S Mliieh t'liaraeterizi'S the hijjjher onK r of iiitclii'jfenee he uas founc wanting. His passionate ciicr'jv (liili'rt'd widely from that persistent nidustry wlilcli K.ut'd tlie political fahric of the Anglo-Saxons ill Xiiith America. The i^liiglish colonist thought of the future. Whether lie rciiiiuiu'd at home, or wlierever he walked upon tlie eaitli, lie could not heguilt himself of the idea that he Mas a i'lee man. Ife had no thought of murdiT and japliie as means of suh-iistence, but Ix'took himself to a'Ticuitui'e, lahorinix with his hands, and instructing; his children in those natural riglits of which ni^.i must alwiiys stand ready voluntarily to reliiHpii.-h iome for tlie hetter Securing of oth(>rs, yet not with sutHcient ri'Liard tor the riiJ'hts of others, I i-ejiret to sjtv. So far as their own peo})le were «-oncerned, tlu^ \iiglo-Saxon Wire ready c) ough to till their breasts .vith a love of Hl)"rty in all its highest and purest forms. In these sentiments, winch were alroaU]id them first in states, and later in federations. Thus while the southern American col(»- nies Were kept wi'ak and puerile by the exci.-ssive legis- lation of tlie parent government, as we shall j)resently see, ihe New J'higland colonies, content with nothing h ss than a p(»lit'cal libei'ty which shoidd enable them ti» make their own laws and rear their own institutions, gr(>w sti'ong in the exercise of natural anrited rights. Sub.se(pientiy, when the yoke of SiKiin drojiped otl' l)y rea.son of its own rottenr.ess, all Spanish .Vmerica lapsed into a state of revolution, which IxH'.ame the primary c(»ndition of their proi^-n^ss, whih" r< v,»lutiou to the Anglo- American is u[>on instinct abonunation. The diflerenco then between Teutonic America and Latin America is not circumstantial but an inlnrited (hli'erence. From their mother one received theg* ini of strength which unfolded in magnificent civility; tlio other weakness, with its attendant stagnation and 62 COLONIAL POLICY OF SPAIN. (leatli. One souj^ht the conquest of savages, the other the conquest of self Tlic colonization of the one was a hirtli ; that of the other a i)urial. It can- not he changed to climate. We all know what a Ufarden of wealth hlossonied in the West India Islands after they were wrested from the Spaniards hy the French, English, and Dutch, little enough hav- iMts of the Americai colonists to manufacture certain articles i'or themselves were nu-t by the British iiarlia- 'y 1' ment, not to mention innH)sts and other tyrannii>s. cl Read the declaration of independence if you would know the rest. Besides her colonies, England's pride has been her maritime strcngtii, emj»loyed sometimes in carrying bibles, sometimes in forcing on unwilling nations negro slaves, tobacco, opium, and in other ,,,- I TOMPARATIVE COLOXIZATION. 63 v'asxps, the ion of the 1. It can- •w wliat a ost India Spaniards lougli hav- iftor all for I; and slu! ors of new iliints hiivt' •rincipli'S ot She will pcoi)h' at- iT^hts; hut oven while I atrocities :* d Australia utes. Her id the ])eo- It is'thr :lish .statt's- lie parent- |u;j;lit forth e much to policy <»f Ions at that 1^ so inipoli- u attenijtts re certain ish parlia- tyrannii's. ()U Would find's pride sometimes unwillin;^' in other like detestable traffics injurious to men and morals. Though we have less of Asia in America than yet clings to Europe, we may still find here, up to a recent p( riod, slavery apart from savajjism, and polygamy without Mohannnedanism. ]'2nglish policy shows no systematic attempt to raise savages from their low estate, or otherwise t(» improve them solely for their own good, such as we find anumg the Si>aniards. The English rted of the latter, Spain's best and most liberal-minded mon- arch, and of his niinister, the cimde de Aranda, that they soberly had under consideration at oiv time the i)oliev of giving the American kiuLidoms autonomv, or iixh jiendence, and that such policy was not carried out through fear lest the small white population shoidd l>e overwhelmed by the natives. The aim of the gov- ernment (Mjrtainly was that communities in its Ameii- «'an kingdoms should be as hiixhly cultiired as auv in i]ui()p(>. It is but fair to add, however, that the Spaniards in these efforts had to deal with clvilizeil nations; in their intercourse with the Apaches, Co- luanches, and other fierce tribes they wert; as unsuc- cessful as the English. Notwitiistanding her man\' ben«>volert motives and acts, Spain, like England, imposed many evils in fit- terliig political and intellectual liberty, in n-stricting commerce, manufactures, and tlie like. How then came British rule to be of so much shorter duration 64 COLDXIAL rOIJCY OF RPAIV. ■1: in New KuglanU than Spiiin'ti rule in Mexico? Bo- cause, as [ have said, New Enghmd was settled by men who left tlieir country throujj^h a love of hherty, and tliis they were determined to have in its broadest sonse. The Si)aniards, on the other hand, left homo to rule nei^Toes and Indians; they soon saw tlieir ml - take in kiliinLf so many of the natives; and alter that thev treated ihem better than tlic En-'lish, who ibund them uni)r()ritjd)le laborers, partieularly if forced. Tiio S[ianiards were satisfied with luxury and laziness; tluy desired rather to enslave others than to be fne themselves; and so lont^- as their grim sujieriors but smilingl}' iVowned on their irregularities and shared the {)roceeds, all was serene enough. The fact is, the svsteni of holding foreiijfn comniuni- tics permanently subordinate and contributory to the mother conimunitv, as we shall all in time conclude. is unnatural and unjust. Colonies are ephemeral; they will not last. but tl I' lay itly le mature ollspring is as indejiendent as himself. So states ma^- ju tly protect, and while protectin; govi'rn tlu'ir colonies until they can stand alone; after whicli it is o[)tional with the latter to be ruled w not. Further tlian tliis, it is unjust to the members of the home govermnUlcd by of liberty, ts broadest , U'l't ll'HUO V their uii - 1 after that , who fouiul mecl. Tiic id la/Zmess ; to he free jieriors but and shared ^n coniinuin- atory to the le eonelude, mend; they k-erii a clidd, t as himself. ! protecti!i;j; alone; alter ■uled or not. libers of the the beiielit \ll men, all liave e«iual nuu'h rij;ht us has the . And be- libjeetlon of sm an( I tl le li'.i'jj to pour lh(^ old bot- [last, that is. iitent has Beo [miiaratively •d irritation. Lit they had lv.^.4 pause, but by reason of their loyalty and content. It is true that three or four viceroys were depo.sed by the })e(»j)le, Spaniards and natives acting tt)gether, but dislovaltv or discontent with tlie home j'overnment liad little to do with tlnse acts, (jrovernnients are ]n riiianeiit only as they faiily represent the national cluu'acter. ]'\)r centuries iii ^lexico and clsi-where, thert: existed this essential conu^ruity betwei'U })olitical forms and the peo[>le. The trouble in the end was that, fast as the colonists had degenerate tl, the parent m)V( rnnuMit had den^enerated faster; weak as was ^It \ieo, S[)ain was weaker. It lias taken <'overnnients a lon<' time to learn, and tiiere are some statesnnn who seem yet unaware^ <»f it, t!iat liberty and e<]uity alone are conducive to j^ain. 'I'lade has been the never-failinjjf excuse; but experi- ence sliow.s that self ujovernin^ Kiii^disli-speakim^ states huy I'ar niore in Kiii;land than do her huyi' colonial infants. And it is now quite well uiulerstood by the phiiusophurs of Enj^land, if by no one else, that loss entails on the accpiiiing and ridiuLj of distant territory ; that bare acres politically adt led to national domain are a minus (juantity, benefieial to individuals, perhaps, hut prejudicial to the interests of the connnunity at larL;('. Undoubtedly, benefits accrue to s(jnie by reliev- ini( overcrowded ci\ ilizi'tl populations; but let this be a privati^ and business atl'air. (Jovernments should iiraetirallv stav at home. Ft»r the benefit o|" both, those wiio remain may help some to ^o; but ht not such helj) be j^iven with a \ itw to subse(juent imposi- tion. Leave colonization and trade, wheTO relii^ion and all ethics are oi* slioukl be, to natural chamiels, if We would see the most made of thtin. Tln^ i^o»»d old riuht to steal lands, and to kill and i'nsla\e ad libitum uiiotlindini; men, formed the main fiatures of eolony- plantiny-, followed by (»ther8 no less onerous to thq colonists; hence its later history is a record of decline. W e mav rule servants, but not sons. may Cau Pamt., Vol. I. 5 ! i'! ill i' 66 COLONIAL POLICY OF SPAIN. There wore three prime factors in tlie Spanisli colo- nial f'ahric, the govenimeiit, the euiij^raiits, aiul the pacitii'd peoples. All colonial jK)wer and pn>perty were vested in the crown; America had heen a tree fr'ii't to Isabella and Ferdinand by the pojie, who de- rived title from St Peter, and he from the cicator. From the sovereigns flowed all grants, and to them reverted all lands. All governors, magistrates, and officials, civil and ecclesiastical, were creatid and de- posed at pleasure. To the settler belonged no rights* or ])rivileges apart from the crown. To nmnieipalities was given the liberty of electing their otticials, but from the people sprang no political power. It is a significant fact that the king of Spain likewise called himself king of the Indies; mdicating thereby tliat his transatlanti<' possessions were provinces, and integral parts of the crown domain, rather than colonies in the ordinary sense. The cedillas rcalcs, by wliich tin- royal j)leasure was expressed, fornud in reality the Hist kgislative code of the kingdom of th«> Indies, embodied in the Recojiilacinv dc las fitdias, back ot which was that of Castile, and /.(/.'* Sicfc ParfaUix, or tlie common law of Spain. After the establishment of the council of the Indies, legislative j)ower veste«l in that body, under the king; executive j>o\ver, in the captains-general and vicercys, unuer the king. I havt' fully narrated in tlu^ first volume of my history of Central America how govermncnt was es- tiiblished in the Indies, first umliT the Admiral of the Ocean Sea, and continued by his successors, and se<'- ondly under the auy of New Spain at the head of one, and the viceroy of Peru at the head of the other. Subse- quently this division becoming inconvenient, a thinl viceroy alty was established at Santa Fe de Pogota, whose jurisdiction extende of "Rio (le la Plata. In fi)nus and paraplicnmria, gov- (•n.Drs of tho siudllcr tolonits imitated the vieeroys, us tlu' viceroys in tuni imitated royalty. Witliiii tluir icsjiecti- e territories tiie viceroys exercised sovereiou .-iiilliority, r<|)r('.sentiin; the person of the king and jiivr-fcd with his functions. They were supreme over (•v( IV department of govtirnment, civil and milit^iry, ami wrie tlie emlxxliment of the two gnat powers, ii'4isl;itive and executive. They apj)ointect„ The vieerov exercised no Judii'ial or ecclesiastical power-s. Yet after all tlm audieiicia might onlv advise; in case of collision, the will of the viceroy generally pr-exailed. Irr theahsencc or- death of the viceroy, supreme powei- vested in the audieiicia. And notwithstanding all this viceregal pomp anut often the vice- roy was as ready as any one t«) wink at popular irreg- ularities — for a consideration. At one time it was dirticult to find either irr Spain or in the Indies a revenue otticer who would not take a bribe. The G8 COLOXLVL POLICY OF SPAIN. ih[ M'l ;i'1 i I roiitrabaud traiU' was in volume CMjual to one third of all the colonial traftic, Justito and injustice couUl l>e Imu'^lit and sold, and tlie natives w«'ie abtuninaltlv misused in the face of what were intendcil as the most righteous laws in their favor. And so nt»torious was national dt'linqueney at one time that 'Spanish lioncstv' heeame svnonvnums with 'Punie faith.' The fact is, the jj^overnnicnt was so jxjndcrous and unwicltly as to be in some directions inoperative, and justice was overwhelmed l>y the endless forms and *lis[»lay by which it was surrounded. The innumtiable offices, b.ianls, and tribunals incident to this com[»l«x and usc- l^ss machinery, occupied an army of officials, few of whom were endoweanish col(»nies. Lands lacking silver and gold })os8essed little in the evvereigns s« t them- .selves about to regulate everything. The fruits. vegetal>les, and domestic animals of the Old World were transplanted to the new. Fmigration was en- couraged; free pas.sage offered; grants of lanil witli Indian laborers wi>rc freelv made, as (Jod had ijivi ii them much in this direction, and at little c<»st; colo- nists were exempt for a time from taxation. Five REV^ENUE. 69 o thirtl of J couUl l>e j«)ininul>ly I'd as tin* nil »t« )!'»<> w^ ; 'Spanish aith.' Tho lI unw kUIv 11 id justuH- aisi»l:iy hy A,k' (.flit»s, rxaiulusi- ials, few oi comuuTcial Ltts without ico to stt-ai ace in iH-int^ lul n»»t h»« a IS the Vwv;^^ yr. Is>llhtlla tlicir duty _ tht' In'li" s. ir Eu'^lish in tho i>iuyiit sh (olonir-- UttU' in th»' . th«ir suh- .^n»\v i>trou;j, ith tho soil the rhurai - s g. t thrm- The fruits. ()M WorM tioii was v\\- >f laud with \ had t^iv tho crown. Then for a time enterprise languislu-d, l")r this was prior to the epoch of systematic pecula- tions. Under the s^'^stem of licenses to private p^r- j oils for purposes of discovery and trade, colonization iivived, lor here was opportunity. The natives were naked and possessed much gold, anJ there was no king's army i)resent to protect them. Erelong it be- « unie necessary to establish the Casa de Contratacion, or House of Trade, and the Cons* jo de las Indias, «)r Council of tlie Indies, for the more perfect mana'.;e- nient of coloni.d commerce and colonial oovernnient. -Vnli sovereigns woidd have smiled had any one toM them that, in order to insure greater and permanent good, tho more widely extentled tlie commonwea];]i l!ie simpler should be its laws and forms of govern- ment. At first Spain's i . venue from her American king- mnierce, and by innumerable frauds and abuses of power, the viceroy might accumulate such sujns as would enable him after a few years of service t«> return to Spain with a ])rincely fortune. It is said that a viceroy received fifty thousand dollars on one iK-easion in birthday presents. On the otlur hand, several vicerovs entered office rich and abandoned it in debt, and some refused all presents. Finance, as well as evervthin-'; else, was founded on the tln'oiy that the king was proj>rietor of the land. (V'l'tain of the natives [)aid a capitation tax; some a j>riiiiivias, or first-lVuits tax; othei-s gave eighteen months' service in the mines, not all at one time, be- tween the a-'cs of eighteen and fiftv. A tenth of tho proeee(in the plantt>r taxation at every turn. After the raw mate- rial paid a tenth, the prepared article, such as indigo, CIUVEliNMEXT. 71 10 lino, and rod millions rioa. Then I tlio rovo- rnniont ox- so; so tliat re bonefitod kinj,', only sod bv Iku- to ini[>ii'ss large share :y industry, As aiiu>!i;j; brain-powoi • pla<'os, and t-is, than in The vicc- dollars jx v loonio. I'V ; of c'ci-tain ! i'niutls and iiulate suoli ■s of sor\ ice It is said lars on one >tlu'r liaiid, |)andoni'd it f«)inulod oil |»t' the In I id. LX ; some a [e eiyfhti^en le time, be- knith of the p chunh in liany subse- |l upon the raw mate- as indigo, m roohindd, and sutjar, paid aL,^ain. Then tlierc wore tlic oiist.oins duties, tho alcdhiild, of vendor's duty on urlicKs of coiiiiiicroe, and the ijuinto, or fifth, of the jiroci't'ds from tiie miius. The sale of tobaoro, salt, aiitl canls was nionopojl/cd by tiie king's oUhjers; tlie jMistal revenue belonged to the crown. For keojiing a t'eiiy, fir hei ping game-cocks, and for selling ]in Indians or negroes. The highest ambition of the colonist was to imitate Si»aiii and Spanish institutions, not to throw them off 72 COLONIAL POIJCY OP SPAIN. or improve upon tlu'iii. As their parent government had ti'ttereil and Ho^jrcd tlieni, ho would tliey letter and Hog ()th(!rs; meanwhile thanking G(hI for a fresh ptM>|»le so to ehristianize and eivilizc. And yet the time eanie whtai umon<; thost; who made ^lexieo in- dep«Mident were Spaniards tlicmsclves, t > be bufteted and ul»used for tln^r pains a Httle later. We have notijcd in Ferdinand's instructions to Ovando in 1501, li<»w first he was to \>or8hip his (jlod, and miik(? the natives WMjrship the same deity; to good men only should he given office, and th<'re must be exercised kindness and humanity in practising the im- position of repartimientos. He nmst be moderate in his household expenses, and niake otheivi so; he siiould leave judgment to judges, l»e kind to all brotherhoods, pay no heed to tale-bearers; he should be considerate in council, ciiret'ul in exami)le, discouraging idleness, att^'iitive to business, displaying courage and brevity in all things, yet not hasty or jxissionate; but when puiiisliment was necessary he must send it swiftly and suri'ly. The Spanish sovereigns were exceedingly jealous of their prerogatives, not only as against foreigners, but as against their own subjects; and this sj)irit incn^ased with the increase of their knowledy:e of the extent and value of their American posstjssions. Conunerce, njining, agriculture, and every art and industry were pUiceil under a system of severe restrictions. No for- eign vessel might trade with the colonies; no foreigner might visit them under penalty of death and confisca- tion of pro|K'rty. All merchandise to and from the Indies must be carried in Spanish bottoms. For a time even intercolonial commeice was forbidden, lie- tween ACexico and l*eru, between Guatemala and Chile, there must be no civilizing intercourse. But this highly imiH»litic restrictiou was formally removed by Carlos III. in 1774. Many manufactures were prohibited, and even the COMMERCE. 78 niltlvatlon of tlic olive and tlio vino. Whatever it Mas best I'T tlioni to hav«', tl»o niotlu>r would kindly f^;,],plv — tiuir fiinri^uro, their clothes, and no small jKtrtion even of their food, ller own welfare tirst, th(; Mrliareof the colonios second, was Spain's hiaxini. And Irst tlie sovereii^n's suhordinates in America .sliduld learn to love themselves more than him, ami the new homes hi'tter than the old ones, it was liiiallv ordained that natives of Spain should fill the higher and larL(er proportion of otKees in Spain's enloiiies; and these must he of the purest rank, vliiipf- tniit'K, ,)f old Christian fannli«'S untainted hv Jewish or Moluinunedan hlood, uncensured hyany incpiisition. J'idni first to last, however, many natives of America lia\e als(» held hii^h oftice there, political, judicial, and ecclesiastical, under royal a[>pointment. And then it nuist he reniemhii'ed that in Spain even, h'yj:}i ofHce could n(»t he held in the occu[>ant's awn jtrovince. What folly to tiy to make communities at once self- opeiative and dependent I lU exclusiveness was the most hateful feature of Si)aiiish colonial commerce. Monopoly is toconnnerce* what coercion is in religion, the most outraixeous of tyramiies; and the day will come when a free people will no more suhmit to monopolies, or iiiicjuitous com- hinations in railway, wheat, or other traffics, than they W(tuld how hefore the unjust mandate of a royal ensation. The old-time delusion was still entertained that money was not oidy wealth, but the most valuable and imperishable of propt'rty; hence that commercial jiolicy was best which brought into Spain and kei)t there the largest amount of gold and silver. The resources of the country were strained to produce this result. Every article of foreign growth or manufac- ture must be furnished the colonies by Spain alone, and to Spain must be sent all products from the soil 74 COLONIAL I'OLK V OF .Sl'ALN*. or niiiK'S of Iut ilci'viidciicii's. Tin- (|u;iiititv, ((iiiillty, lvt'nimciit nliicials uiid iiioiiopn- li/iii;^^ iiicrrliaiits t*» inako the supply always I'all sln»it of lli«' dtinaiid, so that hiiycrs would In; fayci' and prices hiioyaiit. That oijuit}^ atteiidiiijjf all healthy Iraiisaetions, whleh bciicilts the huyir as much as the seller, was waiitiiii^if. FiM a tiini! all JOiirope was ohlimd to •^•(j tt» Lishoii fer Indian ]»i'oducts, as pi-e\iai!i all American coniiMeice was restrict«'d to one port, SevilK' at tiist, and al'fer- W'ard (Vidiz; and in America to JVirtolu'llo and Wra Cruz. JJi'tWeen these poits j»assetl the aiuiual fleet, ('(in\oyed l»y vessels of war. An,e- wliei'e after Spain had, with the expulsion of In i- artisan, driven manufacturiMs from her shores. All these ^oods must then pay a heavy duty on iiiter- ini( Spain, and another on leaviuij^ S[)ain. and another on enterinijf Mexico, anti anothei" hy the sellej- - one liundred per cent in duties, and two hundred p«'r cent inon; taxes and piufits must thus he added to the co-^t hefore Spain's <'o|(»nist could call his own any Muro- [>ean article. Thus it was not loujj,' aftei' the plautinjj; of the Spanish colonies before S[iain's neighbors were i;i CLIMATE. 75 i(y, i|iiallty, Liu; ('t)|((iii( s r. Ami it IkI llioiiolxi- 's I'till sliuit ranci" aixl all lualthy iiucii as the It t»» Lislion andi'la had I COllllllflCC , and jirtti- ) uiid Wia niiual til t t, j other side o tho Spaii- uls stiaiy a at Spuiii'.s ti(»us IS|»aM- 1, nor until urd to Ht nor until A>ia and end of tin nirii'han- il, an honcfit IVoui them tliau Spain lierself, whieli had so jt alously o;iuii(hd theiu, andyetdid i,'uars of peopliiiiL;' the Xow W«)rld froui Spain was not a rapid one. The estimate iseflveii that sixty \. ais al'ti r the diseoverv l>y Columltus theio w re not Miore than fil'leen thousand 8j»auiards in the iiidi«s. N"( t o|" these tlierr Were inauy ot'the fii'st «'lass; while tVoi.i the other states of Europe there went to Auier- i. a liw hesides the seeond, or third, or tenth elass. It was ordered hy the eatlutlie .«.overeii^Mia in l."»()8 that.dl eonvirts and infamous jicisons .should he .> I hy the SpaniartU lay within the tropics, with hK-'h iiit«'rior plateaux; and it was on these tahle lands, raised fioni miasmatic junules into cold ethereal iiel'^hts, that aliori;4inal ci\ il- i/atlon aw<>k(.' to consciousness. There, t.io, th-* colonist was suddenly freed from twent\- c. ntinies »tf coi,venti(tnalisms, many of them so holI..w anire-l)uildin this acconijdishnient ; and so having sUiinnied the placi-rs they sat down to centuries (»f day-di'eanis. The slowrr, surer road to ()j)ulence was disdained at the heginning, hut with a little gold wherewith to stold. The Spanish system of le- jtarlimientos which in\ol\rd a di\ision of tlu" natives with a dl\ ision of the land, and was so highly estrcnnd in after yeajs, appeared at first to many as a traji to catch th«! simple. Some accejited tlu" oiler (»f the hr- nign nionnrlis1ini(-nt; Silt down to iror I'oail to , ))ut with ti nd and Imv lishi-d. TIh II was j^'iviii stork; tli«ii ^vstcni of i«'- i' tho nativt > dv ('StcollK'd as a tia|» to <.r 111.' Ik- s' yatlu red woods, al'ti r IVolM tlif I WiMlt liark last jtlarc on Mr, tor iii- >ni lias thi'^ tlian lion , , hair and hlut; blood »f Anu'i'ii'i all tract; ot id l»y tlu'sf of all <'oi.- a, Janiaiiu, and Java, thr mulatto cannot lonij reproduce itself, whih-' in Florida, Mc\i<'o, and Central America there is no ditliculty in so doiii;;. lint it is not iieces.sary to d'sccnd to tln'so lowest depths for class divis- \i>\\>. The creolis, as tin- otl'sprinj; of Europeans born ill America were called, thouij^h descendants of tho (■iiiii|iiir<»js. and jireser\ iii'^ in their veins the best hloud of .SjKiin iiiitaiiited, were in many instances by ],(W d« Lfi'iided, and made inferior to those shiftless (•li,i|iit.iiics who had li\ed in idleness at home. \\'hat j(n|i(\ i-oiiid be more suicidal than this, which in etlect drbariid those cntitlid liy their enterprise to the most )inii<. table positions tVoiii any but a scanty lot in tin.; institutions of the c<»uiitry, and made them by virtue of iliiir devotion wellnii^h ostra«-i/,ed. In the distri- biiliiiii of lands and natives, the coiuiuerors and their descendants Were sUp|ios(d to be t'avore«l before all "ifheis. i>ut men from S|iaiii must manage the oovern- iihiit ! institutions ot' the e(tmitry. Thus de^^raded and Ii ' '. indolence and listless and luxui'ions indiil- '^eiice, they sank into the strange jiosition of wealthy J iiid respected liumaii beings, ha\iiii^ bonus but no ciiniitry, lia\ inn' ackiinwledi^rcd rights but no voice in 111" ii" vindication ; thev were I.ikIs nf laiid-^ ami vas-als, ai.d yet the most impotent t»f mankiml. Thus w.is engendered hate between classes which subsecpieiitly la|ist d into chnmic ci\il wais. Attempts lia\c been ni;ide to classify these several C-astrS, tiioUoJi wilhnnl |tronoUlU'ed SUece->S. il.tbelt- siiii places first the chapetones, or old ( "bristian.-, un- tainted by Jewish or Mojiaimnedan blood; s<-coiid, crcfil.s; third, mulattoes and inesti/os, the former the otlsprinu: of an African and Miiropejui. and the latter an inericaii and Kurojieaii ; ami la llyl idians an* 11' u roes unadulterated. MarriaLTc with the natives was t iicouniLred by the l;o\ ermiient, but few of their CO iiiections Were ratified bv nnv holier sentiment tlian lust. Tl leie \\;i-, one oldv '.^reat li'Velhr of rank, the church. Torated, indtpendcnt nations of tluj deseendants of ]'iUropeans spranLf uj>: j»rotrctive interference with le^ard to the nati\cs, in any eonsidi lahle extent, is i'ound only wlu-re the liair-<-ivili/.»'d existed' in h\u\i numbers as to render it iiMpraeticalde to tea( h or tor- ture them to death. Teutiinie Anieiie.i ha>: Met !) sutlieienlly curbed by its al>sor|»tion «.f the (ii'e_ns of l^ui'ope; hill, it has ln-ei! still worsi- with Latin Ameriea, wliose invadi-rs thus mixed with their l.lood that of the Indian and Afi"ieaii to suroduce a )non!4'rel ]>oj)uhi- lioii iuferifU' to any (|eairof ai)j>roaehin';' the SJiccess aehieved bv the Iju'liNli. \t all events, tho hyi'othesis of ] huulioldt and ileuil, in \, u;ue /il'ly years ai^o, that ail the Spanish ('ohdiies in ^Vnuriea Would he in tiitie overthrown and subordinated bv the ^J'eutonie ia.ee, antl that the i^nat republic ihenc*^ aris- in-jf would fall in piec<'s by its owji wi'i^drt, seems now le^s likely to pn»ve true. Thinkiisef Americans aiv satisfied with the extent of their doniain; it is only eandthrs in mines, land speculators, and denia]^o^ues Avho Would now and then creatt a st nsatieu liv crvin'' U[i some injury, only tt> hv. atomd by a cession of to- ri tor v. Kven though soiut! of the Sj)anish-uVnicrican states are not so lar adsaaced in iidture and sti(ii;.^th as their Kuntp' an jirinioi^enitoi-. tiiey uro for the mo.-t jMirt intellii^i'nt and stron^j enou'^h to have put oii indi'pendetice, and to manliest ti desire i'^v pr«iL;it>. It i.s now eonc"<.led. by those best able to juuge tli;>i- ■I not bo tlls- lit IVoni tlio i. And y V. cssoniially sceiuliuits of 'crencu witli (Ic (xieiit, is ;trd in sn< li i(!a( !i or toi Iv furst'd iiv t it lias \)vr\\ iivadors tlius tand AfVicJUi \(ipill;i- tiiti exaiiilil'' Ish and I'or- apju/oat'liinu' .t all evoius. 1 1 v-.u'ur fiuv in AnuTii:i iiati^d l»y tl < lliciK'i' aris- scrnis now Ucl'U JUIS i llv it IS onlv iliUiaj^onuis «;i liv orvin'4 |'s.«;ion of t<'t'- •jican .stati's sti«'M;.!;tli as .!• tlif ino>t i;"\'(> 1 lit oil .|- |)ru;4ic CHURCH AND CLKUCJY. 79 l!ic dirurcnfo in tlie results of Latin and Toulonic c.ildiiial attciiijtts in America is as niudi «lu».' to a dif- f. I't'iKT' of national lirnt and honif inllufncc as of lai-o. Tin' Sjtanisli c(.I(inists jiad beou une((iio ai l.iiviii'^ [lolitieal independenet; tliey had to enianci- jite their niinils, wliile tlio I'ni^lish threw oil' in some rin ! :t to the full indul'jencc of their lust, and so iii;;;;n (o den-em-rato the moment tlnv laid down th. ir artns. To rule the aboriu'inals, holditi'^ their sons as m r,"s and their !d institutions of Spain tiansplante.t inter- este«l Were not jiermitted to take jtart; chri tianity piopa'^ated at the ]...iiit of the sw.nd, and Wialth amnnulated by injustice and cruelty; (»ne part of »e(y iuttened to ,rr<»ssness hy tin; abasement of .tl mother iia lit. umI wii.iermu" restrictions upon all jno- Mris^s— these are not the methods fir the attainment ot nio'je that the hi«,diest culture. The pi-imary power in M.'xic o WT iiii ill ^ '8 , W COLONIAL POLICY OF SPAIN. until Into luis been tlio s\vortity id' Mexico. But n<»w war and reliorion are •^iviii'^' way in stune meaauro to the arts of peace and liealthy deNelopment. Thf cliisivl'., I Hfiy, ruled with a strf)ni;' hand tlu infant eiMonies. Ecclesiastics wi'ie weiconud to the New V\ (»rld, and by the time tlie settler arrived his sj>iiitual ruler was ready for him. Kcclesiustieal !l,^ov- trnniei't was estahlished in America under forms anrevad 111 the Indies." The prelates should look w» 11 Vt the >«ul»«»rdinate clerii'V, and chastise otliiult is. HeretW's, Jews, anarl; from the lait\', and it \\as forbidden to lavanv impo-i EFFECT OF IllTUAL. ho cliurcli; s. At Olio particularly the landt «l rolij^iou nr*- t' peace uhd [f liand tilt \nvd t«> the arrivod his iuisticnl ;4<>v- ■V tonus ami (t]»s, l»ishu|. |»iiy cn-jit III, ui;^lit n>>t 1" viuaii luiiili'' ii'S wtTc t'ur lotis. ami "il ctiun t>r til'' y jM ii<>r»i»< il for Hcrvi' • ImiMln;,!; "^ ih'.iii iH>art, any iiiil'"'i tl<»ns iii)f)n tlicm. They iniy will. When ii<» prolate was i..'es. nt to take eharji^oofa iieWchiireli that was huilt, the kind's tnasurer should attend t> ))ayinents. In til. ir resj>eetivo districts, pn-lateswcro t tact as in<|ui.i- itors; and neither f^Mvernors nrelates shnul I Ji"t meildlo in secular atlairs; they slioidd visit the Indians of their jurisilietiou at hast once a year. Tlit'V slioidil not enjpl'iy ee< lesiastieal <'ensur«'s f* r li'iht. nlK-nees, nor lay pecuniary fines up(»n the natives. I'l i'-.«ns dyinj,' nuL'ht chooso tin ir l)Urial-]>laee, jiru- vid. il it. Mas consei-rated jjfround. Friars n»u>t not j>i'->s >!Jv persons to leave thoiu le^^acies. Children iif iiiHi'tls must he haptized; Indiatis a.nd ne!Lj;roes I'lii^t attend church. Jndians were not to pay for iiiarria'j,rs or fani'Tals. Jjy apostolie anthority, and under the text that to us are i^i Veil theheatlun for an inlieritaniM-, tho clor}.(y were jtfnnitted to do much as tla-y j>lea„sed with the Indians, thoU'di under strict l.iW: To tl lest,' llt>\V i\er, they tVe«|ueiitly paid litthi attention. I have seen it stated that their s^'stein of prescripts was carried so far that tlav iv'inindctl tlieir converts, amoii'L^ t)ther thinj^s, of their inatrinnmial thities at niidni-lit, l)y means of a hell I Filars wi-it; allowed vtiy liberty to their superiors. Franciscan monast adapt itself to ev» ly • hatacter and cI{v.sh, to tvcry climatt! ami condition. AiKI to thi^ ])ower of forms tho pt>wer ttf proj)erty, tho Cai,. V.\sr., Vol. I. 6 COLOXIAL POUCV OF ^V\lS. il^ ^,1 I 1 ji iwi r (•!' cx.iMipl"', iiiid tilt' ]Mi\\(r ut' liiV' and tloatli. aiil tlitrc was iinthiiiu;' left t(» thr native but bliml >ulmiissi(iii. And it is wondci't'ul li<>\v stiuni^ is tlir (•.'tlxtiic t'liuich tudin, wliii h l"i>r the most jKiit ha\rh'Id thrcNfii t. nor of tinir way, Shiito and Suiniitcs to the ronfi;iry notwitli- standin^. And \tt all w.is not sctcui' in rt-jard t • the temporal alliiiis of thtsr holy m<'U who hail ihl'ow i < tl'all woildlimss. ( )\\{' wonlil almost take tin* l»isho|i-; for nii-n of 1m li;d whm one saw tlniii iii ,f religious oi'di -IS, hnt anioni,^ Krethnu of the saniu- ordi r fitr provincial or' ronMntual oljice-; of honor Tln-s.- di-|iutes lasted many years, |iarticMiiirly a> to tin' imldin'^ of snch ollices hy S|ianiards. '_;;irl.u|ii!ies, or Creoles. ;i!l to tile infinite dis'^ii>t of jiope .ind kin;.^", ii whom ap[>( als wer<' constantly l»einij made. l'!cccntric a-i we nil know socic tv to he, wecan harliv r< alize tlu^ coiillictin;j,' ahsurdities which the hum.i i mind is cap;d»le of cntertaininLj. ^^ e punish miii' ; misd* incaiiois iind let ;4o j^m i .-it crimes; we jter^^ecii' and kill in tin- name and for the sake of tin* pea<-e < i ( hrist; we eiif.ipce the "gentle jireeepts of a i' Wut bliii'l tmii'^ is til' I) ;il»>trarti«>ii it It* a MM-icfy ul r«'Ut as it it is stitin-j;' 1" ill,i>ii», Nvhi' li I iii»r <»f tii'ir •jirv ii.ttwitli- in rc'jatd t • () lijul lliiow . ;c tlif l»i>!i"|'' -|.iuiii;j: alx'i'.t 'Uils Win- cur- • ;,|„1 (.J»l»Osill ,' In- saiiuj or«l' r iMiior lli'>'' •ly a-, to tli ■ fat i.u|»ii»«'S. "V !• and kinu". ' ' w .ran liar liV till' liuiii;! 1 j.Ulllr>ll ini'i'T till' |»l< il. Suiit HI ':i- \^ r IK' »r;i; XATIVr TiAfTS. tt :iii(| (1. unliable ilic Avay of it. The loto tlif woik ltcM;ini liv tilt' s\vt)r(!. Some few < t" thf wild triltts iidiahitliiv^^ uiiwliolf.sttnio lowlands w. jvKitl uniiit>K'.stftl. Tlioct»u(|ut'rorsot'act>iiunuiiity t itiur ul>sorl»or are al)'sorln'd by the roiujucicd. ^Plif <;vi]i/atioii oCtlio Xaliuas aiitl ^Favas not lioiiH' striMiLT «-,i(tii^]i, likt! tilt! (Irccian, to take captive its oontiuci- o;s, Was nicrL,^' tlic debasement tf Tlio nati\ts wii-e not in (lie eyes « t" tlicir coii- rs like Christian liat-Ucar' rs.oi* lui-bain-d inlidcl;, ; rt ol" raw matt rial I'or cliristianitv to i« it II. tjUi ro tat \ Wfl'tj a so W(.| k Upon, witiit»nt need t)t cxcrcisiiiL,^ any Imnianc eitnioiny in the use of it. The eliect was to cri ale in t!ie hreasts tit' th(> weaker race wants, such us beliefs, ■lotl les, and braiiil Its, wliert iiv eould i>t! sown civiliza 1 b ili tioii s tiiseasi's, so that ci\ ili/atioii s (Inr^s nii; fht !»<> sold, spiritual ainl tenii>oral. Xot all of these wants, houeser, w'er(! pennitted gratification; instam-e the reLi'uIatioiis ibrbitldini^ natisfs to ridc^ on horseback, .mil u iihholding the white man '^ privile^-e ot' keepinLf nn>tr(!sscs. ThoUsanils perished whili> attcinllii;^ the Spaniards uuniiL;" tlieir tontpiests and civd wai li ow niaiiv ha-: \'asco Nuhe/ to answer Ibr ? how many ('lUtes' liou many I'izai'rti the Infanitius? In the iniiies of the mountains perished many, ini'ler the haiil labor ti lie CO hi. wiiicU tl ley Were unaccus'.oiiieii, and lieltin p'lietratini^ air that strmk with fatal chills their enti\a(ed frames, so sudtleiily foiced fVom their wai'm, Miiiny vales. Hut by I'ar the trnviter part >iiiiply dis- ap[»eared. |*'or in whatsoevei' e;aib t!ie llurojiean stiani;er appi-oached them, whether as pilferer, priest. Ol' peltry man, ■ IS reselice was (liutlU Ih I- lliopeail plet\ was little It Ns pestilential than European ;uai-i« iJoth ill ueeordetl with tin; native, rei^inie; both eii^en- deii'd disi'ase, struck down stalwart warriors, swept tl Iioll J^aiids limn the i-arth with a rapiility and certainty nnattaliiahle by steel and gunpowder. m 'k 1 ia H roLoxTAL roLirv of spaix. AVlu'ii the iUir runiinoiit of Nortli Amtrica lay rowl- liii}^ ill juimoval plenty, U|"»ii its wcHtmi half al<>in', il' we iiielude ull <»t Mtfxico and Cmtial America, dwdt inure than mix huiulred tuitions, tril«H, or |»conl»'8, spcakinjjf more than six hiUKlrrd lan<;;na^eH or dialects of laii<^uan;(s. Jiefoie the JOun»itean came with his superior arms, his Ktes individual than wondert'ul. It IS a sad I tall )r«'se nted m any of its phast AVhatever the primitive process of obtaining f<"»d, it was much more easy and certain than ever afterward. If the implements used by tiie wilder tribes in the capture of animals for fo()d and clothiin; were less ef- fi'ctual, animals were less wild and more easily cap- tured. Invention sprinj^a from necessity, and wh< u the necessity which call(>d forth the invention ceast s, the jiro}.(ress madt! in that direction is soon lost. (Mm- of the greatest hanlships imposed upon tiie nativ< s, particularly toward the north, was despoiling tin ir country of game, and leaving nothing wherewitii '<• AMERICANS AND EUROPEANS. ca luv rovil- lalf ttl<»ni', u itTica, dwilt or |)C<)|»1«'8, M or iliali-'t'ts lie with his , uiul bhxMl- ustsi, hish>vr ro WOC8 uu- ttgaiiist their )rhacl placed • blow in dv- he place was ■r been bin*'', .eastly things m, aiul Heart r ,ts than nuuiy likes antl •lis- iis, tlie wuiii' sus[>iei»m, ol tl treachery . (|uiekn»'SH »>t [Kiwern; witli iiu-nt aiul dis- [soevcrwrap Lure in «u> h'>^ |f its phases t"lM»'"' |i till' iiativ> H, sustain life. Wild un'U eaiuint snddcidy cluintjr ilieir lahits, and dt-rive subsiHteiur fn»ni nrw sources. Many of the f'lir-liuntrrs supplied tin- natives with \v< ajioiis superior to tluir own for the purpose of kiil- iuLT fur-ixarini; animals, and then as jranie became Hiucc left them without amnuinition. It lias l»ceii rlaiincd tor the Spaniards that the conquest stopped thr lionihh' sacriti<«' ot'hnman biinixs which was eliock- iii.: tlic ^rowtli of ])opuh»tion ; but how niui'h «.M'owth of jtu|iidation di«l tiie Spaniaids check witii their fiie- l.Mk-and swords^ As thotii^li the j^rowth of native Aim rican populations was a matter of su<'h vast con- 4 c 111 to KuropiansI And how many human hves did S|Mi!i sacrilic*' in christiani/iuLj America' Touchiiii; the rii^dits of <'ivinzation to lands held by hunting' tribes, I would say a word. WhiK; n-coy-niz- \\\'j^ fully the economical princijtlr, tiiat, unlike personal |ii'ijierty ac<|uired by lahor, the lands of the eaith 111 loiiLT to the whole human race, not to be monopo- lized hy a few and their siu'ees.sors to the exclusion of the rest, I am yet unable to perceive any rii^hts apper- tainiiii; to civilization that do not apply to sava^ism. If e\ery individual born upon this earth h.as a rii^ht to h.s .>>liare of it, as he has a liLflit to his poition of the water, the air, and the sunshine, and that without the distinctions of wealth, inheritance, or culture, then the savai^e has a right to his portion ecjually with the eiviJized man. Xor may agiicultural nations .say with reason to jiunting nations, "Adopt our modi* of life and take u|> less room," so long as the aeiieiiltural nations peiniit certain of their niendxis to oeeui»y l.inds not ai'cording to their necessities hut limited only hy tli>ir means with which tf» buy. So long as thc^ minds of men are not e(|ually cultivated, the soil ciiii- iiot, be. 'I'he se\eral parts of the earth's surfaee have their several population.s, each (litfering from the others ill pr<»gress and condition. One has Jio more riuht pctiling th'ii" |H tli.iii another to call upon his neighbor to abandon therewith tu HI traditional customs and assume ill-litting eondifioiis. IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) k /. {./ / '/, 1.0 I.I IM 112.5 ^ IIIIM 1112.2 1.8 1-25 1.4 1.6 ■• 6" >■ Photographic Sciences Corporation s. ip .•\ 4^ \ \ "% V ^v <■" "^^ ^ 6^ ^ 'ti^ 23 WIS f MAIN STREET WEBSVERN.Y 14580 (716) a/2-?''C3 (/J. %. ^ ^ J' r; '« !l V I !!1 ■ 'I i.i 80 COLONIAL POLICY OF SPAm. It is neither just nor expedient that land should be held by individuals in large parcels, no more by the civilized man for his Hocks than by the sava(>e for a game preserve. When a landed piopriotor fails to be a purchaser, when he does not improve his lands or permits them to deteriorate, from an economical stand- point he IS as much a detriment to civilized society as would be a savage with his game park, or a European nobleman with his. "They do not make a good use of tiieir lands," says civilization of savagism. And who is to be the judge? And is every rich man's lands and money to be taken from him because he gamblis, keeps mistresses, buys legislatures, bribes judges, fos- ters iniquitous monopolies, and is a curse to his kind generally i Better a thousand times leave lands in the hands oi' tiieir aborisjcinal holders than allow them to become the j)roperty of tlie average man of millions. It is a piggish race, this human race of (jurs, and one that delights in its piggishness. The hrst comers and their descendants attempt to monopolize all the available land, and mankind forever after must buy or rent or steal from them. Who were those first rob- bers w. may not always know, nor does it nmch matter, for we are just as ready to rob to-day as ever we were. One thing is evident. The native Amer- icans, as a rule, held their lands in common, as the property of the nation, which custom civilization to- day nught well consider. In maiked contrast to this policy, landcHl property in America was not cut by the colonists into ])arcels convenient to jx.'rsons of moder- ate means, and made to pass easily from one to another, but large; tracts, sometimes wliole provinces, wei'e se'ized and held as encomiendas, greatly to the detri- ment of the colonies. The right of Europeans to seize and occu|)y the lands of the Indians was never questiomsd by the stronger })arty; neither ditl they pause to inquire it" the almighty erred in creating America, or if he made half a world for the malevolent s[)ort and donnnation INTERNATIONAL LAW. 87 of tlic otlior half, or if his servant Alexander might not [)ossibly have exceeded tlie bounds of his conuuis- sioii. Ocju[)aucy, by which the lands of a nation were made its captor's, was amon;^ the Komans a nat- ural law, and the property of an enemy res nalli'u;^, as I have elsewliore explained. Aristotle taught that Gret;ks were called ujx)!! to recognize no more rights in barbarians than in brutes; and CfJisar said it was the right of war to treat the conquered as the con- querors pleased. By the discoveries of the lifteenth and sixteenth centuries, this lionian principle of occu- ])iney became somewhat confounded, and failed to tloterniine how much of an island or a continent the sovereign of an adventurer could claim by reason of a lucky discover\^, or what were the acts necessary to be performed to secure legal ])ossessi»m against other nations of the European world. These points were settled, as usual, by fighting, the victor construing the law. If our teachers would sto}) their cant, and I'ully recognize the absolute and inexorable right of might, half the problems of mankind W(mld be solved at once, it were an)using, if not so })ainfully absurd, to hear Montescjuicu and the rest of them talk abt)ut "la loi de la nature," and "la loi de la lumiore naturelle," in connection with the rights of the conqueror. Natural justice recognizes no right of conquest; and yet all nations acquiesce in, and most of them justily, sucli robbcrv. As is ofttn s(H'n in communities of men, so m communitlt'S of nations, wrong once become perma- nent is acknowledged by international law as aright, and as such it usually passes into history. In the present day of enliglitened and ])urified morals, ag- gressoi's committing this species of robbery usually Seek to shield themselves undi'r some claim, real or pretended, and so escape the world's censure, fi»r even the sim])lest of us now I'ecognize the piinciple as atrocious; or as in the case ')f the; treaty of Cuada- lupe llitlalgo between the L'u ted States and Mexico, t!i(^ \ iclor pays t!;e vanipiisln-d money, and so ratities tiie tlieft by forced bargain and sale. o9 COLONIAL POLICY OP SPAIN. Montesquieu is sadly in error vvhen he supposes it the wish of the Spaniards to sweep the country of it-i aboriginals, so that they might the better occupy. Such a charge might much more truthfully be brought against any otlier European nation. Ter- ritory was nothing to the Spaniard without sul)jects; mountains of metal and rich alluvial plains were valueless without laborers. Never was a conquered race more tenderly considered — in theory. Other na- tions were less scrupulous. Spain would ship no slaves from Africa, but her colonies bought them from the French and Dutch, until England browbeat her into buying all her slaves from English ships. And always the other nations of Europe far exceeded the Spaniards in their cruelty to negro slaves, the English roasting them alive at Jamaica for desertion, and this within a century. In short, when the directors of the East India Company themselves admit that "the vast for- tunes acquired in the inland trade have been obtained by a scene of the most tyrannical and oppressive C(jn- duct that was ever known in any age or Cf)untry," it is idle to argue upon the relative cruelty of European nations. There was no system of destruction practised by the Spaniards. In their eager desire to seize the present, and secure every means for its enjoynient, only too many of them worked the natives to their death. This was all, except the m3'stery that the simple presence of civilization, even when overHowing with kindness, is poisonous to savagism. Still more untrue is the assertion made by many tliat the exter- mination of the Americans was urged by the catholic ecclesiastics, who claimed the slauixhter of idolaters to be pleasing to God. If ever tliere was piety or purity in man, if ever charity or heavenly zeal, then do these high and holy qualities shine resplendent in those ministers of peace who abandoned country and self, sank name and identity, and laid down their lives for the salvation of souls in the wilds of COST OF IT ALL. » America. And as for those general charge.s in cer- tain quarters that in some of the later occupants of holy office spirituality had turned to flesh, their zeal to laziness and lust, resulting in nothing more impor- tant than repeating prayers and breeding itullins Jfilii, I can only say that I have elsewhere given the his- tory of all as fully and fairly as I am able. And here the anomaly presents itself, that while the parent government in all its ordinances and instruc- tions is more just and tender toward its savage sub- jects than are the colonists, through i orrupt agents the natives may be more vilely treated than they would be by filibusters or pirates. Alone in a wilderness, with no doting parent to call upon for protection, the private colonist or settler hesitates ere he raises a swarm of enemies about his ears. Many of the atrocities attending govermnent colonization are ab- sent in private colonization. The conduct of Peru stands out in contrast to that of Pizarro no less marked than the subsequent doings in Pennsylvania contrast with those in Peru. And what price was Spain to pay for all her follies, crimes, and indulgences, for the outrages of lif r con- querors, the maleadministration of her agents, her selfish exclusiveness, her vagarious policy, her exac- tions and enjoyment? For nations, no more than indi- viduals, can indulge in crimes and follies with impunity. In colonial aft'airs as elsewhere, greed generates disas- ter. Tyrannies and unjust exactions bring their own ])unishment. Iniquity is inexorably alien from per- manent prosperity. Spain's punishment was earlier and more severe than tiiat of other European nations equally or more guilty, and whose reckoning is yet to ome. If England's God lives, then England has yet to make her final reckoning. Besides superior energy, Spain possessed material advantages which placed her before all otiier nations at the beginning of the sixteenth century. Her mer- #1, lli. I! I, [ I ■ > ! 89 COLONIAL POLICY OF SPAIN. caiitilc marine was the finest in tlie woikl, nuinberiniif over one thousand vessels. Tl le (juays of Seville were crowded. The nianutactures of Spain were anijdi', in addition to lier own requirements, to supply all her \>V colonies. C'kttli and coral-work were jiroduced at Uarcelona, which city rivalled Venice; silk and gro- ceries at A'akncia; ck)th at C^uenca and Huete; swords and muske-ts at Toledo; silk, })aper, and flaxen goods at (iranada; cloth at C'iudad-i'eal, Segovia, and Villa- castin; steel blad<.'S at Alhacete; soap and groceries at •pc •sandOcana; hats and saddles at (\)rdova; linen in (ialicia, and cutlery and j)late at Valladoliil. Some of these cities emjtloyed a thousand workmen. IFus- handrv was conducti'd hv the Min'iscos under the best methods then known. IJy systi'Uis of iriigatit)n, the soil wa-; made to yield large retui'us in rice, cotton, sugar, and other jiroducts. Even the Spanish lan- i>ii igi- and the universities felt the im[;ul.- As earlv a.s I j.K), the descendants of the concjuered Aztecs and Peruvians woi' i'ound in the schools of Spain, and Indian words in her language. Some time later look again this way. Tlowditferi'ut the ])ieture Spain [MX'sents toward the close of the sev- enteenth century. Her soil, exhausted, runs to waste; lu-r factories are closetl; her aitisans and her agricul- turists goiu' — oiu! million of her best and most ind trious subjects, the ^^()riscos, at a single 1)1 us- (iW tl le small, round worm has bi'en busy among the (piarti'i"- ings of ( 'asiiK'; lu'r domain is dismembered, Holland and J?ortugal gt)ne, Artois, Ronssillon, and Franche Comte, and after anothei- hundred years, nearly all these broad Americas have slip[)ed from her posses- sion. The exi>ulsion of the floors by Felipe 111. followtd the destructive foreign wai s of Felipe IJ. and with the beginning of the seventc^enth centurv her connmree and manufactures bt'gan to fail, ^len were even wanting for the army, and ships lay rotting at anchor for lack of sailors. The navy, which in J^hilip's time had been the tcr- PRIXC'E AND I'KOPLE. 01 ror of the sea, was now nduced nine tt-iitlis. Arse- nals and inajjfazines wore enii)tv, and tVont'u r I'oitivsscs unj^iiri'isoned. Crime and disoriK-r jirtvadfd tliiouL^li- »)Ut the land. Simony and peculation wc-rc unlilush- in*;' and enormous; so that, while the [)i'()[)K' were ground by taxation, the jiuhlie revenue w.is small. .Vs a renu'dv, which in truth onlv ay'ijfi'aNatiHl the disease, the currency was dehased. Any tliird-iate ])ower n)ight now insult with impunity the heirs of (,'liailes the ^[a,i;nificent, and of riiilij), his mo -t ca th thol ic son. Tlie lesson is — and let it he written in e sKv and ijfraven on the eterna d hill s— n< itl lei- in- chviduids nor nations can loui^ live hy im[)ositions practised (»n their fellow-men. Still there was territorv enoui^h. Often has the judicious pruning" of a too widely s[)read empire pioved heneHcial. It was pith and pulse Sj»ain pow lacked. She had hied her own vi'ins; played mntlur pelican to the church; and now to this conijih'xion things have come. In vain .shall a Chai'les aim at universul em- ])ire; even })etty Duke ^[aurices will not hiiw it so. In vain shall your nether-millstone-hearted I*hilip iloat mvincihio armadas. I n vam slia 11 V einaniU) tie Jlerrera and Luis de Leon gain the topmost height of S )anis h 1 vricism ; m vam a ( ahl ei'on or Veg; I im- nKM'taliztj their drama; even in vain shall tlie gre;^test, grandest, richest name of all, Cervantes, take rain has slept with moie or less htaviness; a sleep somewhat troubled, it is true, with fi'vercd tlreams, wherein mingled with smalhr sprites French revolutions, Isabellas, and Carlists, llolu-nzollerns and Amadeos, and Prims, and re[»ublics, and one haidly knows what else. Daring the middle age, and up to the tim. of J"'er- 02 COLONIAL roUCY OF SPAIN. 4. 1. dinand tho catholic, tlio people of Spain possessofl greater liberty tliaii any people in Europe, But about that time monarchist tre em- ployed to furnish the required commodities, while the Spaniards gave themselves up to enjoyment. They were breeding at Spain's cost communities of artisans, which more than soldiers or sailors were to Income the bulwark of the nation, and Spain was forced to pour into their coffers her dearly loved gold in ever- increasing ratio; until finally, notwithstanding the RKFLECTIVK IXFLUKNCE. 95 ononnous yield of the two Atncr'u'as, she liad not suf- licit'iit lor lur own lU'ct'ssit'us. Tlio malleoli sci'\ icf, tor more than tw(» ci'iittnit's i]\c pridr of Sjtaiii on hotli tlio Atlantic and I'acific, was I'ssciitially at an end bv tlio middle of tho oi'^litoonth i-onturv. Fni'tlicr and yet fnrtlicr grew tlio ra^o lor woalth, and tho distasto for lal)or. Wasto was tlio order of the day in both jiuhlic and |)rivat(i affaii'S. The nn)ro ^old Sj>ain got, the more she re<{uired; the more .sjio sutl'ered from her exactions, tlie more she exacted. Xow the king anil liis court, and imnunerahle minia- ture estal)lishmi>nts, and households of all grades, were kept aHamo hv western !>old alone. Industi'ies of every kind vveie aliandoned, and men lived only for that for which brutes live, to eat, sleep, ar.d propa- gate. Far better were the days of war than these days of enervating peace. It was as if all Spain had laid down everything useful, and had adopted gam- bling as an occu[)ution. And when this influx .of Wealth began to iliminish, it was found too latt ; that the nation had nothing on which to dej)end for sup- port. Spain became impoverished. Gone were the mercantile glory of Seville and Ci'idiz. A resort to l.iws prohibiting the export of si)ecie and raising the value of copj>er was without benefit. Xor was this all the disastr-ous effect of Spanish colonization in America on the aboriijiues, on the col- onists, and on the j)oople of S[»ain. There' were even wider eflects than these — such as the influence upon the commercial and political intercours(> of nations, which the thoughtful student of the times will con- sider. Partly from the reflex influence of her colonies, and partly from other causers, Europe to-tlay is more republican than monarchical. England, Holland, ar,d Portugal are monarchies in form only; France has struggled into republicanism, and even Spain has at- tempted it. Thus to the Spanish people America was a C.erna of ills, a Naboth's vineyard. They despoiled the in- H COLONIAL POLICY OF SPAIN. habitants of a distant land only to dissipate their ill- gotten Wealth, and tlu-n sink beneath the excess of 8elf-iii«Iulgence and sensuality. Two civilizations S[)ain succeeded in crushing before her ibll, an eastern a: id a western ; in Mexico and Peru it was her evil destinv to destroy a culture but little inferior to her own, and in her turn to be destroyed thereby. Spain was ruined by her successes. Let men and nations learn tiie lesson, for there are yet many in like manner to be ruined. Lord Macaulay and others resolve all the causes of the decay of Spain into one cause; which term signifies, if it signifies anything, an erring people, a corrupt priesthot)d. But this is not what Macaulay means to say. He assumes too pointedly that the Spanish nation fell into decay through the retrogression of its scn'ereigns, which assuredly was not the case. Were our Philips and Charleses worse than your Georges and your Louises; why, then, did not England and France attain these depths ? A mon- arch may helm the ship of state toward the rocks and create temporary disaster; but no nation was ever ruined solely by its rulers. With the people who constitute the nation and make the rulers, the blame must chiefly rest. ;i'. CHAPTER III. MEXICO AS SEEN THROUGH THE EYES OF SCIENCE AT TFIE OPENlN(r OF THE NINETKKNTH CENTURY. Miiltitiido omnia, »icrtt natnra iiiaria, per se immnhilis est; u^ vrati et auriu cii'iit, ita atit tratiqiiilluiii aut priKjelliu vohis sunt. — />(Vy. The two Californias were invaded and occupiLd by j)ri('sts from Mexico, at a time wiien this iv.'ion was lii'lil to be a part of Mexico. ^Mexico has been ohr-o seen; perliaps twice. The coiujuerors were ch).-;'i ul»- servcrs — tiiat is, of gold or anything worth stealiiiL;; but 'i. tlie eyes of com])reliensive genius Mexico has never been so viewed, before or since, as by FreiUrick Hinrv Alexander von Humboldt at the opening of the present century. His visit to our continent was in the interest of general science, rather than in that of any particular })ersons or ])lace. He was thirty years of age when he landed in South America in 171)9; thirteen years of his life had thus far been devoted to close study, and before him were yet sixty other years. We are told that he was a vain man, and very egotistical; but sur(>ly he had something to be vain of, and his ego was by no means a small one, either as regards time or dimensions. In his match- less ct)nunentaries we hardly know which to admire most, the universe which he describes so perfectly, or tlu! all-comprehending intellect capable of such deline- ation. Alexander von Humboldt was born in Berlin on the 1 4th of September, 17(>9, when the first mission of Alta California was being founded at San Diego. His father. Major Alexander George von Humboldt, liad Cal.Past:, Vol. I. 7 (97) ¥ i 98 MEXICO IN THE NINETEENTH CENTUPA'. been in succession chamberlain to the great Frederick, and to Elizabetr, princess of IVussia. His mother wlien married by his father, was the widow of a cer- tain Baron Yon Holwede, and was descended fronj a Burgundian family, Colomb by appellation, notable cral'tsmcn in glass in their old country. The young l[umbt)]dt was for the most ])art brought up in hi;> Other's old castle of Tegel, three leagues from Berlin. Here Alexander and his elder brother William played and studied, in a quiet, unrestricted wny, till 178(5, when they commenced their academical life at the university of Frankfort on the Oder. In 178S they removed to that of Gottingen, "a staid, grav(^ place, fall of earnest students and learned professors," among wliich last were Blumenbach, Heine, and Kiclihorn. The universit}^ life of the brothers ended in 1781). In 1790 Alexander visited Holland and England in company with George Foster and Van (lenns, and ])ublished his first work, Observations on the Basalts of the Rhine. In 17D1 he began studying under Werner, the Celebrated geologist, at Frej-berg. The result of some of his observations in the mines of that district was published in 1793 : Specimen Fhrx Frelhcrr/eiisis S:ihtcrraneii\ In 1795 he visited part of Italy and Switzerland, and 1798 found him in Paris, where he became acquainted with Bonpland, the naturalist, des- tined soon to be his companion in trav( 1, nnd with many other French savans. He here ]val>lished, in conjunction with Gay Lussae, Researches on the Cow- jws'tioii of the Atmosphere, and on his own account a work on subterranean gases. From his boj-hood, Humboldt had been planning some great voyage of discovery; and in 1789 ho was in Madrid, applying for permission to explore th(^ Spanish possessions in America. That permission was granted, and havuig secured Bon inland as a coadjutor, he sailed from Corunna in the sloop Pizarro, on the 5tli of June, 179r. On the 19th of June the Pizarro put into Santa Cruz, in the island of Teneriffe; ALEXANDER VON HUMBOLDT. 99 IV aiul i-c he , dos- witli led, in Com- )Uiit a Inniuf^ jo was re the ilssion as a zan'o, \\Q the icriffc ; and the naturalists, avaihug- themselves of the few days the ship remained there, ascended the famous Pico de Teyde. In the middle of July they reached Cumand, South America, and landed. They spent the rest of the year in visitin<^ the coast of Paria, the Indian missions of Chaymas, and the provinces of New Andalucia, New Barcelona, Venezuela, and Spanish Guayana. Leaving Caracas in Jaimary 1 800, they examined the charming valleys of the Aragua, and the great lake of Valencia, or Ticarigua, resem- bling in general appearance that of Geneva, but with its shores clothed in all the beauty and luxuriance ttf a tropical vegetation. From Puort>) Gabello they went south, crossing on horseback the vast i)lains ol" Cala- l>()Zo, Apure, and Orinoco, and the dreary llauus. At San Fernando, on the river Apure, they began a latiguing navigation of more than ;5,000 miles. They jiei formed this in canoes, crouching in awkward pos- tures, scorched by the terrible sun which not only liiihtens but colors and burns, and devoured bv a ten- fold Egyi)tian plague of crawling, creeping, and Hying tilings. Sailing down the Apure, they entered the Ori- noco at the seventh degree of north latitude, and then, ascending this river, ])assed the cataracts of Mapures and Atures, and gained the conHux of the Guaviari. Thence they ascended the small rivers Atab and Teini. From the mission of Javita, they passed over- land to the sources of the famou^ liio Negro. About thirty Indians were employed to carry the canoes through lofty forests to tlie creek of I*emichin. Fol- lowing the current now, they shot into the Pilo Negro, descending to San Carlos. From this they remounted to the Orinoco, by way of the Cassiquiari, and thus forever cleared uj) all doubts as to the existenee of a connnunication between the Orhioco and the Amazon. l*assing up the Orinoco, they visited the volcano Daida and the mission of Esmeralda ; but the Guaicas, an independent native tribe of very fair complexion and small build, yet extremely warlike, prevented the ^f i'^M 100 MEXICO m THE NINETEEXTII CEXTrRV. travellers from rcaclilnjx the sources of tlio Orinoco. From Esmeralda thev tloscended the swelliin*- rivir to its mouth, and then returned to Cumuna, by the plains of (yari, ai'.d the mission of the Caraibs, a race, next to the PatajTonians, the larofcst and stoutest known. After a i^hort rest, necessary to their enfeebled strength, they sailed for Cuba on the Kith of Novem- ber, and were nearl}^ shipwrecked on the way. They remained three months in that island; and fearini^ accident, Humboldt sent a good part of his collections and manuscripts to Europe. In March J 801 they hired a small vessel and sailed for Cartanena, South America. ()wini>' to adverse circumstances, the voyage was tedious, and they ai'rived too late in the season for crossing the isthmus of l*ananul, and reaching Gunyaquil or Lima; they liowever pushed on up the Magdalena up Santa Fe do Bogota. In September 1801, though the rainy season was not (piite over, they began their journey to Quito, crossed the Andes of Quindiu, arrived at Cartago in the fine valley of Cauca, passed througli Popayan, the capital of the province, through the dangen)us detihs of Almaguer, t]iroui:;li the town of Pasto, the villauo of 'Pulcan, and the valley of Guaillabamba, and in Jamiary 1802 reached Quito. Xeai'ly six months were here devoted to researches of various kinds in t!io surrounding country. Near midsununer, in com- pany with Don Carlos ^lontiifar, they visited the Nevado del Chimborazo. Thev traversed the fright- ful ruins of Riobamba and other villa<''es, destroyed by an earth(piake February 7, 1797, and climbed the Cuchilla de Guandifa. On the eastern sloj)e of Chimi)orazo thev stood on the hii«hest spot ever before trod Ijy man. They then descendeil to the region of vegetation and ft)lloW(Hl the great chain of the Andes, with fiftemi or twenty baggage mules. Skirting the high savannas of Tiocaxas, tlu?}' ad- vanced to Sitzun, in the woody pnramo of Asouay, ARRIVAT. IN MFAICO. 10\ and crossed tlie inouiitahis hy that dauj^orous passage. Advaiu'iinjf toward Cucnca, tliov t'oinid ruins of j);da(x,'S of tlio iiicas. ]3ryond that town was ]-.oja; iVonj Loja they passed into tlie vale of the hcd of tlio Cutaco; mounted auntains to San Felipe, and embarked on the ('huDunja; descended it to the cataract of Kentema, asceiuled tlie eastern declivity of tlie cordillei-as; t xaniiiied the arj^entiferous mountain of (iualiravoc; visited the towns of Micuipamj)a and Cajamai-ca, itnii th(^ ruins of the palace of Atahualpa in tlui vicinity of th(^ latter place; reached Lima, <'apital of l*eru, enteiinsjf for the first time that "Ion*; narrow valley hi)Un(l«Ml by tlie shoies of the Pacific in wliich rain and thunder are unknown." J n January 180."3 the travellers embarked for(;tuaya- <|uil; from Guayacjuil readied Acapulco by sea, land- i:i^' in Mexico, 2.'5d of March, 18U;5. Acapulco stands i;i the recess of a bay near a chain of '''ranitic moun- tains. The iiort is i)art t)f an immense basin cut i;i P 1' jLj^ranite rocks — a coarse-j^rained ijfranite like that of I'ichtelbei'g and Carlsbad, toothed and rent like tlie Catalonian Montserrat. In two hemis[)heres Hum- boldt Jiad seiMi few wilder sights, few scenes at once more dismal and more romantic. The climate was terrihl}' sultry and noxious, tlie inhabitants sickly and w retched. A cotton tree hoinJh il 'HIX CC/tMi, WJlOSt overturned trunk was more than seven nietn-s in cir- ca mferenc(% proved the tremendous force of the vctiila- vahs, by wliich it was often swept. in the beuinniiiir of May, tlie travellers set out in '^}' "^' the direction of the capital, ascendin^jf by the burnii valleys of Papagayo and Mescala — thermometer S'.).(r I'ahr. in the shade — to the higher plains of Chilpan- eiiigo, Tehuilotepec, and Tasco, existing in a ni<<'ed after the Asiatic fashion. Humboldt concluded from the foregoing information which he collected, and from its position being indicated in a very ancient native map by two warriors in combat, tliat tlie place served the purpose, not only of a temple, but also of a fort. Its origin is referred to the Toltecs, f )r tliis nation is to the Mexican antiquarians what tlie Pelasgian colonists were to the archaeologists of Italv — anvthing of which a Mexican knows nothiiijjf is Toltec. We next find our scientists in the citv of AFexico. Tliey found the latitude of the capital at the convent of 8t Augustine by meridian altitudes of the sun and stars. The lon-'itude was deduced from the eclipses of the satellites of Jupiter, from the distances between the moon and sun, from transference of tli*' time from Acapulco, and from a trigonometrical esti- mation of tlie difference of meridian between Mexico and Vt>ra Cruz. This method of check and countt^r- check was followed as far as possible in all cases, and thouGfh detailed accounts of these thino's can Iiardlv interest any but scientific men, they give to the most superficial some idea of the minute and patient indus- trv of Humboldt. fill CITY AND COUNTRY. 103 lllg IS ludus- Mexioo is described by earlier writers as seated in tlie midst of waters, but it is now more tliau two miles from the margin of the diminished Tjzcuco. This, a residt of increased drainage, has not contributed to tlie general fertility of the valley. A lack of vigorous vegetation has been becoming more and more appar- ent since the conquest, at which time the clayey soil, being washed by more frequent inundations, was cov- ered with beautiful verdure. The climate of the city of ^Mexico is generally mild, even in winter, as that of Naples. In point of appearance it is one of the finest cities in the new continent. It is more im]K)sing and majestic, thougli not perhaps so beautiful or so smil- ing as when great tcocallis lifted their minarets ovi r the heads of an uncomjuered people, and waters pressed on its foundations, and thousands of boats shot througli its street-canals — an Aztec Venice. The present arch- itecture is generally pure in style and of good taste, not surcharged with ornament, but solid, often even magnificent. Seldom arc to be seen those ponderous wooden balconies which disfigure .-^o many other Eu- ropean-founded cities in the Indies and Americas; but here tlie balustrades and spates are of Biscav iron ornamented with bronze. Tile travellers were somewhat surprised to see in tliis city many fine establishments devoted tt) science and the fine arts — a school of mines which was grndu- ;\\]y introletcd a maj^nificent bronze equestrian statue of Charles IV., reiLcning king of Spain, and Humboldt had the i)leas- ure of witnessing both its castinij and its erection. In this square were the new cathedral with its massive towers, built over the remains of the great tenqdo of Mexith, and the viceroy's palace, fronting the s[)ot on which the palace of Montezuma had formerly sti>od. ]5uried in one of the passages of the university of ^Texico was a great double Aztec idol, in ba.saltic })orpliyry, which had been dug uj) by workmen en- gaged on an excavation in 17*J0, conveyed to the uni- versity, and concealed there lest it might trouble the weak faith of the Aztec youth. Humboldt, by dint of solicitation, secured the privilege of examining and ski'tehing it. ]te supposed it to represent tlie Aztec god t»f war and his wife. He also studied the stone of sacrii'ice, and the calendar-stone. The first was adorned in relief with the triumphs of some old Aztec warrior, probably a king. This stone, Humboldt, con- trary to the usual hy{M)thesis, suppc)sed to have served- the pur})ose, not of an altar for tlu; sacrifice of human victims, but of a tcmaJacatl, one of those great stones on which, as on a platft»rm, prisoners were allowetl to contend, in certain cases, for their lives with ^lexican warriors. As to the calendar-stone — the most imj)or- tant of all the Aztec monuments, and one which seems to prove the existence of a civilization which we have some difficulty in belitving to be the result of ob- servations made by a nation of mountaineers in the H VALLKV OF MFXICO. 10.-) unciiltlvatcd regions of tlio iww continent Huni- l)ol(lt coniiJarod tlic cinunistanccs attending" its jtos- session by tlio Aztecs to tliose in which a l:in^n;ii;'e, rich in words and in };;raniniatical forn^s, is found with a jKople wlioso paucity of ideas is wliolly incoininen- surato with the niultiphcity <)f nieiha adapted to eon- \ry and enihodv tlieni. "Tliose lani^ua-'ts rich and ili'xihle, tlioso modes of intcrcahitioii which picsup- j»os() jin accurate knowdedj^o of the duration of tlic astronomical year, are perhaps only the renmants of .mi iiiheritancc, transmitted to them 1>\' nations jiejtto- i'oro civilized, but since relapsed into baii)arism." Humboldt had often been struck with tlu' analogy wliich existed between the ancient tradition and i.ieniorials of various })eo[)les of Asia- the; I'liihetans and Ja[)anesc, for example — and those of the ^Fi'xican races; but this anal(»_i^y was n<»wliero so ajtpai-eiit as in the division of time revealed in this calendar, in the employment of recurring jteriods, and m tlie in- genious though embarrassing method limits of the v.allev, and from thest> and a <>reat mass of collected material constructed an excellent m 'ut IIumb(,ldt was a man of the sahnis as well as of tlie museums, and was as perfect in flirtation and sarcasm as in handling fossils or gymnoti. His flirting was ])robab]y a mere foil of politeness and relaxation, but his sarcasm was incisive. These, his less philoso[)]ii- cal (jualities, or if you will his littleness, have been quietly ignored by his biographers as derogatory to h!s dignity, or to his amiability. In the city of ^[ex- ico he seems positively to have been smitten outriglit by a famous creole beauty, I^a Giiera llodriguez, dauiihter-in-law of that Count dc liei^la wlio l)uilt, ecjuipped, and presented to the king of Si)ain two sliips of war, of the largest size, in maliogany and cedar, and offered to pave the road from A'era Cruz to the capital with silver, if his ^lajesty of Spain would visit his American provinces. "She was then veiy young, though married, and the mother of two chil- dren," says ^Madame Calderon de la Barca. "He came to visit her mother; she was sitting sewing in a corner where the baron did not perceive her; until, talking very earnestly on the subject of cochineal, he inquired if he could visit a certain district where there was a l)lantation of nopals. * To be sure,' said La (jriiera from her corner, 'we can take M. de Humboldt there;' MINKS AND >rANUFACT>miES. 107 been V to Mcx- •ijjjlit JJllCZ, )uilt, two and uz to iNVould very ehil- canie corner Ikin^jf juireil was a from lere;' whereupon, lie first perceivintjf lier, stood aniazele. The convicts of the country Wi'r*; distributed among these factories, that tliev miujht be coinnt'lled to work. But free men wi'i'o confouiuU'd with these convicts, and subjected with them to the treatment of felons. Every workshop was a dark prison, whose in- mates, shut in by double doors, were ragged, pallid, and mai »y of th dcf< lem (icTormei 1. i^: veil tl lose wJio hv a refinement c»f sarcasm were called free, never saw the faces of their families except on Sundays; while all Mi.. m w h I ! (I H' 108 MEXICO IN THE NINETKKXTII Ci:\TUUV werc subjt'cted to incrciilt'SH fl<) l>o his [VSVllt that , anil was than innit- ,lv in- ^uati'cl vnno(\'^ in clitMnistrv and nnchanics, Avonld ha\«> 11 thu'»'(l the rxji«>nsrs hy liaU'. Jn the [iroccss d aiiial;4aniati(ni (.'specially, tlu'i't' Avas an eimi-nious w.-istc of iniTciiry, which itself should bo a ncvcr-failini,' source of wealth. Few countries have so many indi- cations of cinnuharas this tahle-land from tlio ll'th to t!ie --t{ parall<'is. Wein'hini;', liowcscr. upon what was ( xtracti'd were various vtxati Kiis '_;(>\(rnnn'nt regulations, forcini;. i'oi' exaniph-, e\ery niiin-ownei' to buy such and such a )»rojM)rtion of tlie ;;dverninent imported mercury, and in fiict, dealing' »)ut tlie sup- plies from all s(»urces in an arl)itrary and »'nteipii>-r- destroN iu''- way. The ores, too, when extracted, ai'e suhjectid to \arious inij»t>sts and duties of seit^-iioraue. Ndw. it tl le same wi th tl lese (hrect imjiosts on o( .1.1 lllMl \er as with the jtrotit the novertnnent derl\i's from ll;e sale of mercury. Miniiij^' o]»erations will incre ise ;e; these nn[)osts (hmiiMsh, and as the mercury iiKhs- |niisal>le to amalgamation sjiall he furnished at a llumhold was astonished that Adam iwer i>rict . 1' . . Smith should minu'le with the soundest ideas i-elative to the exchani;'!' of metals a defence of the suicidal (hities of seig'iiorag'e. Considering", then, the vast ex- tent of the Cordilleras, the jirohahle richnes- of tlieir drposits, and the wasteful way in which the compnra- tively few veins already examined ha\*' heen woiked, it is prohahle that tlu' mines of ^[exico have yet to reacli their maximum. T\\c opinion that Mexico jiroduees oiilv perhaps the third pai't of the ])recious metals which it could under hapjiier j)olitical and social cir- cmnstauces, under a better administration and with a more industi'ious and better instrueted people, is eoni- iiion to the most intelligent individuals of that country. Humboldt knew wi-ll that this was in direct oontra- (liction with most authors on political economy — they allirming the Anu'i'lcan mines to be ])artly exhausted, and partly too dei>)) for furtlicr retmmerativi' ex]tlora- tion - still ho believed that theoretic opinions must no MEXICO IX THK NINKTEEN'TU (T.XTURY. r!i; ii I' i giv(! wuy Initoro tlio results of the ])iiticiit investigation tincl t'ctinparisoii of facts. Xeitlier did lie sluire in anotiiiT very general idea, that the mines were at bot- tom more injurious than helpful to the country, and iion-prodiietivo in tlie long event of any permanent good. Of course, notwithstanding the great advan- tage of the precious metals in ])urchaslng the goods of other nations, it is well to understand definitely that it is in the nature of thin('ciniens from other and distant countries, tlioso illustrative of the mineralogical ositions of the several minerals, should l)e i'acilitated and extenrovince of ^Fichoacan, the most fertile and dcli;^htful (»f Mexico. Next ho ilescended, notwith- stanchng the heavy autumn rains, to the plain of Jo- rullo, hv wav of l^ascuaro, situated on the shore of Lake J*ascuaro, whose picturescpio beauty riveted tho attention of the traveller. ]^ut admiration gave place to awe at sight of the !Mal[)ays, a tract of thi'ce or lour S(|uare miles in extent, which had been suddenly tiirown up into a great dome by volcanic forci's, in Juno 1751). On this again six great masses a j>peared, of irom l,r{00 tf) 1,700 feet each above the old hv(l of the plains. Among these the great volcano of Jorullo was cons[)icuous; and the whole was stUTounded by tliousands of little cones from six to nine feet in height, and always covered with vapor. On the night this eruption occurred, the earth rolled like a troubled sia, and spouting fire, ashes, and mud, swallowed tlio two rivers of Cuitamba and San Pedro. The subterraneous fires at this time were moderated, and Vegetation was beginning to appear on the sides of if 112 MEXICO IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. I ' '!| the great volcano. Still, such was the eftect of the hmunicrablo small cones, or ovens, as they were called, that tlie thermometer, even at a great distance from the surface, and in the shade, marked 101)°. On the 19th of September, Humboldt descended 250 feet into the burning crater of tlie central cone of Jorullo, and collected its gaseous products. The position of this volcano gave rise to a curious train of speculation in the mind of its visitor. He remarked that there had existed from historic times a parallel of volcanic mountains, situated in a line at riofht anoles to the axis of the o;reat cordillera of And- huac. The Peak of Orizaba, the two volcanoes of Puebla, l*op atepetl and Iztaccihuatl, the Nevado de Toluca, the Peak of Tancitaro, and the Volcan de Colima, cimjpose a single " pa rallele des grandcs eleva- tions," from the Atlantic to the Pacific; and when Jorullo sprang up, it sprang up in line. Considering all this, he supposes it to be not improbable that there exists in ^[exico, at a great d^pth in the interior of the earth, a line of weakness, as modern physicists would call it, IP)? leagues in length, through the porphyritic rocks, from ocean to ocean. Perhaps, too, this chasm extends to that archipelago called by Col 1- nott tlio Archipelago of Pevillagiedo (Revilla Gigedo), around which, in the same parallel of which we have been speaking, puinice-stone and other volcanic pnjd- ucts have becK seen floating on the Pacific. From Valladolid the traveller returned toward !>[oxico by the plateau of Toluca, where he examined the trunk of the famous hand-leaved tree, the cheiros- tcmon 'i)hdan aides of Professor Cervantes, nine j'ards in circuit, and of great antiquity. He also climbed and foun'l the level of the adjacent mountain, which, itself over 10,000 feet high, contains a lake in its crater at an elevation of 12,000 feet, from which flows a cold stream, temperature 48' Fahr. Humboldt was once more in the capital about the close of September, Here he and his companion set themselves to arrange MOUNTAINS AND PYRAMIDS. 113 f the xlled, from n the t into ), and irious Ho ,raes a ine at : And- oes of ado do 3an do ; elcva- [ when ideriii*^ t there jrior of lysicists the is, too, Coll- igedo), 'c have e prod- oward amhied chelros- yards Vnnbed which, in its h flows kit was teinber. arrauL-e ® s their f^eological and botanical specimens, to calculate various nieasurenients which they had made, and plat out some of tlieir maps — especially the nstructio)\, l)ut in object; cither beiiiL; at once a tomb ai'd a ti'nij)le. There also existed strong analogies between the form of these teocallis and that of the other pyramids of Asia and Egypt; hut on the other hand, their destinies were dift'erent. Tlie pyramids of Asia and Egypt served only as the tmubs of illustrious ])ersonages. Between the Egyp- tian and the ^fexican, the p3'ramid of Belus is prol)- ahly a conuectiug link, inasmuch as it would seem that Cal. Past., Vol. 1. 8 114 MEXICO m THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. Vir.m P'. ; lii li! ' ^y-M ■^ m. c'iil: tlio addition of the temple to the latter was an acci- dental circumstance. Next, tlie volcanoes of Iztacciluiatl and i*o|io(.-utcj)(tI were visited, measured, and the latter ascended. Ti.is "Volcan grande de Mexico" is higher than Mont Blanc, and in the scientist's opinion grander in aspect than anything Europe can show. Tlie travellers then descended, often by steep slopes and through dense forests, to Jalapa, where they lodged in the convent of Saint Francis. This charm- ing town commanded a magnificent view; on the one side the ocean and its sultry adjacent plains; on the other the Cordilleras of Andhuac, the peak of Orizaba, and the square-topped Cofre de Perote. The intendency of Vera Cruz contains a remarkable ruin, that of I'apantla — a pyramid which Humboldt describes, but does not seem to have visited. The danoferous route tlirourrat ext(!nt staked on its existence. In February Hundx)ldt and Bonpland saw in tlio liospital of San Sebastian wliat would seem to have been the only cast; of the epidemic then in Vera Cruz, it brinjjj the cold season. The yellow fi'ver wjus not considered contagious at Vera Cruz; still it is inipnjb- ablo that there are many unprofessional p<;rsons who Would care to carry their medical researches to such au extent as this, in a town of such an unpleasant cliaracter. The air of Vera Cruz from its natural sur- roundings is always tainted with putrid emanations, wliich, breathed for the shortest time when at their maximum, introduce disorder into all the vital func- tions. Yet so potent is use, that persons born in that ciiy are not, while in it, exposed to contract the disease. Let them, however, leave their native; coun- try, let them visit llabana, Jamaica, or the United States, and they often fall victims to its })articular typo there; and conversely the same is true of the inhabitants of these latter places when they visit Vera ( 'ruz. From Vera Cruz the scientists were carried to llabana by a Spanish frigate, leaving Mexico on the 7tli of March. Having spent two months at Habana, l)aehing and shipping their various collections, they sailed for Philadeli)hia, visited Washington, and spending eight weeks in the United States, studying A\ith interest the men and institutions of the great republic. On the 9th of Juno they set out for Europe, and landid at Bordeaux August t], 1804, having been five years absent from Europe on their American explora- tions; of which time about a year had been spent in Mexico. At the time of Humboldt's visit to Mexico — or New Spain, as he preferred to call it — "the wealth of the great landed proprietors had attained its maximum. lie MEXICO IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. The extraordinary success of mining adventures, which had gone on flourishing with scarcely any interruption for nearly a century, had stimulated the cultivation of the soil ; and from the comparatively low price of labor, immense fortunes were realized by landlords and ca])italists." On [lis arrival in New Spain Humboldt was favor- ably impressed by the contrast oflered by its civiliza- tion to the very limited culture of most of the Spanisli South American colonies. This contrast led him t(» study very particularly the causes which led to this result. Karely has there been a man better qualified by nature and education for such a work. Profound in many of the natural sciences, and knowing more or less of all, at home in many languages and loving literature, a man of society, with German sober sense and French esprit, who knew how to conciliate those with whom he was brought into contact, he was in every sense qualified for his self-imposed task. Xo light task either, wlien we consider the magnitude of its results, and the paucity of previous information existing on the subject. To ascertain the cxael out- line of elevation of the great table-land of !^[exico, he executed five great surveys: the first across the whole country from ocean to ocean — from Acapulco to Mex- ico, and from ^Mexic to Vera Cruz; the second from Mexico to Guanajuato, by Tula, Queretaro, and Sala- manca ; the third from Guanajuato through I'ascuaro to the volcano of Jorullo; the fourth from Valladolid to Tolucaand thence to Mexico; the fifth was devote 1 to the neighborhood of Moran and Actopan. lie determined the exact heights above sea-level of 20S points, situated in the country bounded by the i)ai' allels IG^ 50' and 21° of north latitude, and lyinu' between the meridians 98° 28' and 162° 8' of longitudi' east from Paris. In the main, the soil, climate, and vegetation of Mexico resemble those of the temperate zones; liut its productions arc of no one type ; it depends little ;s, wliich rruptioii Itivatioii price of iandlords 'as favor- 3 eivili/a- j Spanish id him tt» (1 to this • qualified Profound if more or ^id h)vu»g obcr sense iate those he was in task. X<' Lgnitude of iformatiou exact out- \[cxico, he the whole to Mex- cond from and Sala- 'ascuaroto VaUadoli'l as devoted opan. lit- vol of 20S y the pav- and lylnu f longitude fetation ef 1 zones; i'Ut r)ends little CLIMATE AND SOIL. 117 on latitude, for nature has piled all climates upon the 1 lacks and Hanks of its mountains. Its worst want is that of old Spain herself, a want of water. There are parts of the Mexican interior so arid and destitute of vei^etation, that their aspect recalls the j)lains of the two Castiles; and where saline elflorescence abounds, the steppes of central Asia. This evil has augmented since the concpiest by the Europeans, who have tk>- stroyed without planting, to an alarming extent, and drained to excess great tracts of country. I have ('idled attention to the etlects of this latter evil in the viilli y of Mexico itself; and the effects of the former are perhaps even more disastrous. For timber grows scarcer year by year, while the demand as steadily in- creases, and the lands cleared of their wood seem often to become barren. The iuHuence of forests is princi- pally })reservative, cooling and refreshing the air, and protecting the soil against the direct ravs of the sun. Humboldt proves that a single tree, with foliage of a given lu)rizontal section, exercises an influence of this kind several thousand times greater than a surface of humid or grassy soil equal in area to this section. Happily, however, the sterility of which we have spoken is only to l)e found in the most elev^ated jdains, and a great part of the kingdom a|>pertains to the most fertile regions of the earth With proper cul- tivation the many climates and varying soils of Mexico could be made to su})pl3', in greater or less extent, all the productions of all the zones. But agaii'., m a few seaports and deep valleys, this fertility is balanced by a terrible concomitant. Beneath the burning sun of the tropics, extraordinary fertility too often indicates an atmosphere charged with deadly miasma, laden with the terrible germs of tropic fever. It was this which made the price of labor three times as high at A era Cruz as on the central plateau. Manufactui-es had made but small progress in the Spanish colonies - a thini; hardlv to be grieved at if many w^re conducted after the brutal system followed I 'S'llS m 118 MEXICO IN THE NINETEENTH CENTUPwY. at Queretaro ; a thing in no case to bo wondered at, considering the vexatious anr^. suspicious pohcy of the home government toward colonial [jroductions — a policy wliose spirit embodied and stigmatized itself by orders for the rooting up of vines, lest the wine of Spain should suffer by competition; by indirect and direct discouragement in all similar cases. This was partly the usual modern colonial policy. For ages all the mother countries of Europe had con- sidered a colony as a sort of step-child, which, [)os- sessing few of the privileges of home province, was to be subjected to more enactments and restrictions than a conquered one It was only thought useful in so far as it supplied raw material for the metrop )litan manufactures, and consumed again in turn a greater or less portion of these manufactures, when carried to its harbors by metro[)olitan ships. Such p"hiciples are easy of adaptation, and perhaps very slightly pro- ductive of evil to islands of small extent, or to isolated factories on the shores of a continent. It was other- wise with the Spanish colonial provinces, particularly with Xew Spain, where were sutticient hands to fur- nish labor, and a demand sufficieut to pay them. If other reasons were necessary, they would be found in the enormous expense of transporting goods iidand, an expense which would, properly applied, go far to ])rii- duce them on the spot, and an ex[)cnse still fuitlur increased by the sup[)ort of officers to guard against smuggling. Strictly speaking, there existed no royal decree declaring that manufactures should not oxisi ; but then it is on the spirit in which laws are admiuls- tered that their effects depend; and where indirect and equivocal decrees can, by their manner of exeiu- tion, bo made to produce the required effect, there is evidently no necessity for a waste of thunder in edicts more explicit. As an example of the method followed by tiie Spanish government in dealing with private enter- prise, read the following: "II n'y u qu'un demi-sieclo [ered at, y of the ions — a itsoir by wino of rect and .1 policy. liaUt'ipk:^ ;rhtlv pro- • " 1 1 to isolatud ^vas otlior- .iticulaily ds to fur- [tliem. It' |e found in inland, tin ar to pi""- lill fuitlKi' rd ai^'ainst lI no royal not oxist; •c adniini!^- •c indiivtt of CXC'i'U- ■t, thoiv is Y in edicts Ld bytiie late enttv- leau-sietl*^ MANUFACTURES. 119 que deux citoyens, aniiuc's du zele patriotlque le plus pur, le conite de Gijon et le marquis do Maunza, con- (;ur«.;nt 1(! projet de eonduiro a Quito uue colonie d'ou- viicrs ot d'artisans de I'J'^urope: le ministere espaL>nol f('i»»nant d'api)laudir a Icur zelc, no erut pas devoir lour rt'tuscr la permission do monter dcs ateliors ; mais il sut telkimi'iit entravor les demarches do ccs deux lioinnies entreprenaus, que s'otant a[)orcus ,\ la fin que (^ics ordres secrets avoient etc donnes au vice-i'oi et a I'audient^e, pour faire cchouer Icur entreprise, ils y rcnoncurent volontairement." In New Spain the nuumfacture of powder was wliolly a royal monopoly, as in most other countries. Jjiit here, as elsewhere, tlie j^overnment which creates artiticial restrictions and monopolies is .smitten with tlie pla;j;ue' of contraband. Hundxddt, as the result of diligent research, concluded that the quantity of pow- der manufactured by the rcjyal mill near Santa Fe, three lea^'ues from the city of Mexico, was to that sold fraudulently in the proportion of one to four. The mines are the principal consumeis; they are dispersed far iVoni towns, in the wildest and most solitary situa- tions, on the ridges and in the raviiu'S of the cordi- Ihras, wlien; it is impossible to watch the smu^gh.'r. This branch of contraband cannot be met but by re- ducing the })rice of the government powder, or wliat is Ifctter, bv t]irowin«>f the trade cntirelv open. The manufacture of money and jtlate was an nnpor- tant braneli of Mexican industry. The smallest towns liiid tiioir goldsmiths' and silversmiths' shops, and the mint of Mexico was the richest and most extensive in the World. The academy of the fine arts and tlie (hawing-schools of Mexico and .T;diq)a had dom^ mucli to diii'use a taste for the beautiful forms of the anti(^ue. Sei'vices of plate had been manufactnr«.'d in the capital whieh, for elegance and finish, might be compared Willi the beautiful products of European taste and skill. The mint was a building of simple architecture. 4- 120 MEXICO IN THE NIXETEEXTH CENTURY. atljoining tlio viceroy's pdacc. The silver ])roduced in all the mines of Eur()[)e would not give employment to this mint ior more than 15 clays. Yet the various machines in use were far from as })erfect as those in the French and English mints, and the motive j)ower was still mules, though the building was so situated that wat(!r might ho easily applied. The taxes on imp(3rtation, the ulcahala and the in- numerable (/crccAos, tended to clog ^lexican connnt ree, in the legitimate smisc, and promote smuggling. Hum- boldt, by the collection and examination of exact data, found that the yearly imp(jrtation of foreign goods into Spain, contraband included, amounted to about twenty million of piastres, and that the ex[>ort of its agricultural and manufacturing; industrv amounted to about six million piastres. Xow, the mines of Xew S[)ain produced yearly 2:j million of piastres; from eight to nine were exported on account of the king. Deduct, then, from the 15 million of piastres remain- ing fourteen million, to meet the excess of the imj)or- tation over the exjjortation, and we find a million of piastres, balance, in favor of Mexico, thus: Piastres. Mexico pays annually for fdreign goods. . . 20,000,000 Mexico cx^Mirts on account of the king. . . 8,000,000 Expendituro of M'jxico 28,000,000 Mexico receives for Iicr exports 0,000,000 Mexico draws from her mines 2.%000,000 Income of Mexico 29,000,000 Balance in favor of ^Mexico — 1,000,000 The specie wealth of New Spain was then annually increasing by something less than a miHioi\ piastres. In collecting the matter fur the various tables on which his conclusions are based, HumboMt endeavored to inform himself on the spot in each province, jis to its trade, agriculture, and manufactures; colk^cting and comparing all the information which might pos- sibly be of value, from all sources — in connnercial matters principally from merchants of intelligence, and the various tribunals of commerce. As to the amount of the contraband trade, it had ii|, :„.:| i li ' ' T '1 1 til ROADS AND TRAFFIC. 121 rtduced )yuiciit various •> 1 hose in ;i s power situated wt'i the in- nuurce, Huui- Lct data, n ol(lt was staying at Jala})a, in February I !!()4, at its most difficult points, in the ravine called Plan (]' 1 liio, and on the C^uosta del Soldado. It was i:i- tinded that columns of porphyry should be })laccd along the road, graven, not only with tlie distances, liut also with the elevation of each pillar above tlic li'Vel of the sea. Humboldt strongly advocated the introduction of camels as beasts of burden in Mexico. 1T(^ did not tliiuk the ta1)le-land through which the great roads i)assed too cold for them; and he was sure they would sutler less than horses and mules from the aridity of tlie soil and the lack of water and pasturage to which hoasts of burden are exposed north of (Guanajuato, > sjtfcially in that desert by which New Biscay is separated from New Mexico. 122 MEXICO IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. I ii . '! if"l riiusiili III ! ■U,:f:l Highly impressed witli the importance of an inter- of'canie communication, Humboldt collected all acces- sible information, and map[)etl in eight several .sketches the various points at which such communication might be possible. Having discussed in detail the various obstacles and advantages to be overcome and hoped for in a junction of the two oceans, at some point of Central America, Mexico, or even north of tliere, he finally concluded i)i favor either of a passage tlirough the isthmus of Nicaragua, or of one through tliat of Cupica— at the very northern extremity of South Anujrica — not because these were the shoi'test, but because, if the im|)erfect information then attain- able could 1)0 depended upon, they were the least obstructed by natural obstacles for canals of large iliiueiisions — such, in fact, as would constitute a veri- table strait, by which vessels of the size usual in the Indian and Chinese trade could pass — not a mere means of inland carriage for bari'es and Hat-boats. Humboldt ]>()inted out the Caledonian canal in Scot- land as one possessing all the qualiti(!s required for an interoceanic liighway of the world's ships. He be licved, howevc^', that a joint association for such an undertaking could oidy be founded when the practica- bility of sucli a canal — a canal capable of receiving vessels of 300 or 400 tons burden — between latitudes 7° an iLi", had l)een fully proved by accurate prepara- tory surveys, and the ground fixed u|)on and recog- ni;:cd. .Vlso, tliat whatever •••overmncnit miiifht own tlic i,o\\ ou which such a canal should be estal)lished, tlie benefit of such hydraulic work should belong to every nation of both worlds which would contribute, by t.ikin 1^ sliares, toward its execution. Next in eligibility to Nicaragua and Cupica, he put the isthmus of Tehuan tepee- --the importance of the Coazacoalco to this end had been discussed by CortJs rM early as the conquest-- and Humboldt only gave to tlie Istlimus of Panamd a fourth place as to probable practicability. 1 ti' GOVKIlNMF.XT. m inter- acccs- etcbos catiou lil tho no and ■j some .vth of )a!ssug-o hrougli^ nity ot* iii»rtt!fet, attiiiu- le least )f large i a veii- ,1 in the a mere Lit-boats. in Seot- .J for an He be sueb an inactiea - eceiviuLi; latitudes prepara- d reeog- al)lisbed, elonjj; to utributf, ipica, be Irtauco of lusscd by Licit only laec as to New Spain, socially as wvW as pliy.sically, was tlie country of inequality. In no otlicr country could such alarming contrasts in tho distrilmtion i»f for- tun«'S, civilization, and population have been stcn. The wealth, luxury, refinement, and cleirance of the higher class had its frightful antithesis in the naked, foul, and de))raved misery of the pariahs of the hind. This inequality of fortune existed, not only among the whites, but was often found among tiie mixed and Indian castes. Within the twenty years preceding Humboldt's visit, the S[)anish- American youth of the settlements of the new continent, beiuij brou<»ht more and more into con- tact with Anglo-Americans, English, and Fiench, had sacrificed apart of their national prejudice and formed a marked predilection for those nations more energetic and more advajiced in culture than the Spaniards. It was then nothing strange to him that the i)olitical movements of Europe, since 1789, should have excited the keenest attention among a peo[)lo long aspiring to rights, the privation of which is at once an obstacle to tlie public jirosperity, and a motive of resiMitmont against the mother countrv. Certain vicerovs and governors had proceeded to take measures, which, far from calming the agitation of the colonists, had only imbittercd tho nascent ill feelinof. These over-zealous rulers pretended danger in all associations for the pur- suit and dissemination of knowledge. Printing-presses were prohibited in towns counting forty or fifty thou- sand inhabitants; and to possess and read quietly the works of Montesquieu, Robertson, or liousseau was to be suspected of revolutionary principles. Now, to to be just, this terror was not wholly without founda- tion; 178'J was quite sufficient to scare any Si);uiish viceroy; it had scared all the kings of Europe — had l)urst upon Europe like a storm, causing a general holding on of crowns with the one hand and clinging tc thrones with the other. "That whirlwind of the universe," as Carlylo has it, wherein were "lights ob- 124 MKXirO TN TifE NINKTKKNTH rKXTURY, »''l : ^li M litt-'iat'd, and the torn wrecks <»!' earth an«l Ik 11 huiled aloft into the empyrean, hlack whii-hvind, which made even apes serious, and tirove most of them mad," was (juite iMpial to causing, hy the terror of its iid'ernal pyrotechnics, a Ht of moral eurft'W-legislation, and confused jjilini,' of bushels upon lights, pitiful to see — arising out of Hahhiness of liver anil oscillation of knees amonuf ministers and yfovernors and the like in ^[exico. But it was not in these futilitii-s that t\\v security of a Spanish govi^rnment lay, hut rather in the disp(!rsion of the inhahitants over so vast an extent of country, and in the mutual hatred of the various castes. The lack of sociahilitv, the utter want of all sympathy between these diffei'ing castes couhl have but one effect on an advancin<; national life. Wise after its jxeneration — a ^feneration soon to be known no more in Mexico — the government fanned these ani- mosities so that in division there might be weakness, and that in wranglings within there might be left neitlnT stomach nor capacity for strivings without. In this policy, and not in arniilua at Vera Cruz, or of San L)iego at Acapulco, Though the Indians were no longer legally subject to forced labor, they were in tlie mass in a state oT miserable degradation. Driven to the worst lands, indolent, if not by original disposition, at least by that character superinduced by long political depression, and unnerved by the listless fatalism which is its inva- riable concomitant, perhaps consolation, they live, let- ting each day provide for itself. Except in intoxica- SO memory of sorrow or death, And thuir uuinuiita arc sacred to liberty." There is, let us hope, a brighter future in store for 126 MEXICO IN TllK NINETEENTH CENTURY. :-i t :i:'l \m- M^'^' t\- the Indians in Mexico; jukI it is coi'tain, as the records of the ]t(:ll-t;ix prove, that, liowever, at an earher date this indigenous population may liave l)ecii diminished by the cruelties of the eoiKpieiors^at the time of ]luni- holdt's visit, and for fifty years before, they had been steadily inereasini:. Connected with these peoples are several great problems of origin, anti(|uity, and civilization, coneei-ii- in<^ which we shall attemjtt to present Humboldt's conclusions. And first, as intimately connected with these, wt' may speak of the ai^c of the Amei'ican con- tinent. He looked with a ij^ood deal of fjuiet ri(hcule on the idea that the so-calk-d new continent was in reality j'ounsj^ei- than the old. Was it that its exuber- ance of volcanic action indicated a modern structure, the eiiL^ines of whose ele\ation were not yet cold ? If so, is not southern Italy tlie twin of this ultimate olF- sprinij;' of chaos? Who asserts this? yet why should jihilosophers })ut asunder times and causes which effect has joined ? He preferred to su}>posi> that the volca- noes of Amei'ica had, in tlu' n)ass, pi-eserved their fires lonj^'er than those of the other continents, bec.iuse the mountains through whicli the}^ acted happened to be in ijeneral close to the sea— a nciijhbor which, in some way yet to be explained, appiars, with few cxce}>tions, to influence the eui-rgy of these subterranean fii'es. Aside from this, there are n^asons founded on hvdrct- static laws and geological discoveries which would forbid the idea of any large part of America remain ing submers^ed after the emerLT'^nce of the old conti- iu>nt. Lastly, to account for the superior climate and Soil of most parts of America, compared with that of Africa, for example, it is not at all necessary to sup- pose a later birth or upheaval from the central daik- ness. Its physical conformation, its outlines, mountains, and rivers, are fully suflicient to account for this. Nor does the existence of man seem to date, in America, from any more r(>cent epoch than in th<> other continents. It is not necessary to suppose that / -t v. RACE PROBLEMS. 127 cords • (late Llum- been great nccrn- bol.lt's il with 111 coii- idicuU' was in ucture, kU K iat'3 oiV- sliould •h effect [> volca- eir tires use the (.1 to he in some ptions, ,11 fires. livih'o- \\i )ul J remain conti- ate and that of to sup- lal dark- luutaius, lis. date, in in th<' )se that tlic countries the most anciently inliahited are tliose which sliow tlie largest populations. There are vast tracts of northern Asia as scantily j)eoplcd as the plains of New Mexico and Parajjfuav. ]-ieiU'iith the tro[)ics, natural ol)stacles — the vigor and mass of the vegetation, the breadth (»f rivers, and the frequency and extent of their inundations — fetter the migrations of peoples. Tfe believed in the unity of origin of the human race ; and as nearly as might be in the unity of stock of the American aborigines, with the exci'ption of those bor- dering the j)olar circle. Yet, it is well to understand that a European who decides on the resemblance of swarthy races is subject to a particular illusion. The uniformity of color conceals for a long time diversity of features — the eyes are l(>ss fixed on the expression, soft, melancholy, or ferocious, as it may be, than on the strange skin, antl the coarse black hair, so level and glossy that it seems always moist. Besides, it is intellectual culture which individualizes faces; wdiere this is wanting, there is rather a physiognomy of tribe than of individual — something which may be also ol)- served in comparing domesticated animals with those which inhabit the wild i)laces of nature. ThouLjh he thus «>ivesus his oiiinion as to the origin of these autochthones, and does actually discuss the (|uestioii in various parts of his works, lie considered this whole question of the first origin of the people of a continent as entirely beyon*! the pi'ovince of history, and even of philosophy. It is evident, from the whole tone of his refiections on the })arentage of the uVmerican races, that he is in favor of an Asiatic origin, but from what particular stock he derives them it is difiicult to sav. On the whole, and by compariion of various passages, ]\v. seems to lean toward the opinion that the Toltecs and Azt-^ . were a part of those lliongnoux, or descendants of Hiong-nu, known at diflferent times under the name of Kalkas, Kalmuks, and Burattes - 128 MEXICO IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. m m warlike shcpliercls, who, under their name of Huns, have laid waste the fairest regions of civilized Europe, and changed more than once the face •*" eastern Asiatic politics. He seems to favor China as the p(Mnt at which this emigration left the Old World. Let us not forget that wo are discussing, not the original c(jlonizing of the American continc^nt, inhahited as early, according to Humboldt, as tlio rest of the world, hut that of ^lex- ico. "It is historically demonstrated that Bonzes and other adventurers navigated tlie Chinese sea, to seek a remedy which should secure inmiortality to man. It is thus that under Tschin-chi-houang-ti, 201) years before Christ, three hundred couples of young people of both sexes, sent to Japan, established themselves at Xipon instead of returning to China. Miglit chance not have conducted a similar exjiedition to the Aleutian Islands, to Alaska, or Xew California? The American conthient and tlie Asiatic only a})proaching at the north, and the distance separating them in the temperate zone being too considerable for such a voyage, we must suppose this disembarkation to have taken place bencjath the inhospitable climate betM'cen the 5jth and Oath parallels; and that this civilization penetrated little by little southwards, the usual direc- tion of American migration, as all data would indicate. at that time." llemains of Chinese or Japanese vessels have even, it has been affirmed, been found on the American coast as early as the 14th century. He then seems to bring his colonists south by slow stages into ^lexico, ami connects the monuments of the Gila witli this migration. The ^lexicans made use of hieroglyphics in chroni- cling: their micrrations and other historical events: though in a manner very far from that perfection tn which the Egyptians had attained. The Mexican writings were principally rough paintini^fs of oviiits, eked out by a few conventional signs repn'scnting tlic elements and relations of time and place; while tlic If AZTEC CULTURE. 129 luns, irope, .siatic h tills ■t that of tlu' injjj to Mcx- ius aiul to seek man. ) years 1 people uiselves Migl't 11 to the i1 The foachiag them iu »r such a to have [between .ilizatlon ■i\ threc- uidk'ate. ivpaucse [found on jury, by sh^w ktsoftlu' In chroii'- ovents; octlon to Mexleaii If events, Intln;? tlu> Ivhlle tlH' Egyptian ^vritings aj)proached nearer to narratives, coiiiposetl of arbitrary and .simple eharaeters, suseepti- l)le of being emj)loyed si>parately, and of being tliiier- ently eombined. It is :)nly by a refinement of the hitter method that the painting of ideas becomes easy and ap[>r(>ximate8 to writing. Tlu^ rudeness of these ]Mexiean jialntings no doubt (U'notes the infaney of art; still, we nmst not forget the end they were prineipally intended to subserve — tliat of a simple record: and that the necessity of siin])licity, and rapidity of execution, would lead a ])eo|ile, who so expressed their ideas, to attaeh as little importance to artistic painting as do the literati (■■' J'>uroi)e, in their manuscripts, to a fine handwriting. S. we may see in all this a potent means of spoiling (ho taste of a nation. This constant familiaritv with the most hideous and disproportionate iiguri'S, and tliis obligation — under pain of confusion — to preserve the same forms without chanu^e, were enouuh to root out all sense of delineatlve grace, all feeling of the heautiful in art; without which sense and feeling, jtaintlng and scul]iture, he they nover so diligently tol lowed, cannot rise above the ranks oi' the mechan- ical. As to the value of proofs of migration or origin, to ho *l''rlved from languages themselves, whether writ- ten '»r s})<*ke;i, j[und)ol(lt si'cms to have consiih'rably ihr,ige(!. or uj least modified, his ideas in his later \vi ir>' ii.-' 'bst opinion of their importance, as ex- ]i''sst;i in 'ic introdu( tion to his Pergonal Xarratirc, was extra vagMLiy high; the most concise and [)erl'ect i:li a of his mature conclusions on this subiict niav be Hiven by a (piotatlon from his TahJcaux ik la Nature: "Th(> analogies of languages are worthy of no con- fidi'iice when they are limited to mere accord of the Miuiids in their roots. It is necessary to penetrate into th organic structure, the granunatical ilexions, and id, hut interior mechaiusni where traces appear '»f tlu \. i!: t>f iiitelllixence." Ck'u. i'AsT,, Vol. I. 9 ii I '■ 190 MEXICO IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. His only definite conclusion as to the languages of Mexico was that their great variety proved as great a variety of races and origin — a conclusion wliieh, un- less tlie tiu'nis race and origin are understood in some illogically restricted and comparative sense, is flatly in contradiction with the manner in which he else- where expresses himself We may here notice an interesting kind of record of migration, which Humboldt pointed out as worthy of attentive examination. He sa^'s identities of tastes among various peoples, as to the cultivation of certain plants, indici ; '^^er identity of race or a contact more or less a it; so that vegetables, like lan- guages or physiog: mies, may become historical monu- ments. A few strange vegetables, a few foreign words, either in tlic possession of the wanderers or among those through whom they have passed, will often fix the road by which a nation has crosses* a continent. Considered thus, the potato furnishes a problem. Not known in Mexico before the arrival of the Spaniards, it was yet cultivated elsewhere in America Irom lati- tude 40" south to 50" north. Did the Soutli Ameri- can tribes succeed in penetrating northward to tli<' banks of the Rappahannock ? or did the i)otato wander south, like the successive peoples who have apjKiarcd on the plateau of Andhuac? Iji eitlier case, how came it not to take root in Mexico? It is probabU' that pi)tato cultivation gradually extended itself north from C^hile by Peru and the kingdom of Quito, to the table-land of Bogotit, the course followed by the imas in their conijuests. But here the Cordilleras, whlcli had preserved a great elevation all the way from Chili', fall suddenly near the sources of the river Atrato. Xow, in the tropics, potatoes grow only in the cold and ^(^l^gy climates secured by elevated grounds. S'l "h were not to be found in Choco and Darien; l)at instead, close forests inhabited by hordes of hunters, enemies of every sort of civilization and cultivation. Here, then, is the barrier which physical and nn'ial CHARACTER OF HUMBOLDT. 131 nroS of U, uu- l SOlllO tlatly clsc- ■corel of vthy of ;' tastes certain contact Ike lan- il monii- forei'j^n [crers or ,y\\\ often ontinent. nn. Not ijxiuiartls, from lati- 1 Anieri- •a ti) tlif ,() Nvander ap]K'ar»''>^^' [self north ito, to tlu' the iw-i^'^ •as, wli'u'h foni Cliil^', jv Atrato. |o cold autl [s. Svv.-U .rien; '»^i^ i{ Ivuntevs, lultivafu'n- Luul nv'ViU cruses have opposed to further progress from this side. As to the nortli, if Kaleigli's settlers really did find potatoes there, as is asserted, we can hardly refuse to l)t lieve that this j)lai)t is independently indigenous to the northern hemisphere. And now we liave followed the distinguished natu- ralist from the shores of J'^uropc to that new continent, which, if Columbus discovered, he revealed; fmm plains rocked hy the earthquake, up to mountains where the lava shaj)ed the path, and down again to marshy sloughs, whei ' gymnoti writhed in the tny/.v, Hashing at will througli Jieir slimy and sj>ott(-d skins such ti'rrible shocks as no man or beast could endure — or farther south, between the Orinoco and the Amazon, where the soil is hid by impenetrabh; forests, ceaselessly echoing the noise of waterfalls, the roaring ef the jaguar, and the weird cries of tlie bearded ape, presaging rain, and sounding itself like the first muiiled sounds of a distant tempest. On the s.ind banks lay the crocodiles, moti(jnless as logs, and witli giipuig mouths, seeming in their clumsy way to ])ant. On the river banks the boa watched, with its tail anchored on sonic brancli, and its spotted skin coiled ]ik(! a spiral ; and the jaguar, as he couched along his f.iNorite limb, in silent ambusli, flattened himself still more at the traveller's step. There were men, too, not less savage, who coukl drink the bl(v.)d of their inemies; or, venomous as a viper or a Borgia, kill by tlie scratch of a thumb-nail — "men who r<'Vc-aled to man the ferocity of his species." As Humboldt passed to the north<;rn continent and ]\r<'xico, W(! fol- lowed him still, no longer afar off and vaguely, l)Ut step by step, and hiaving no notable word or work without its faithful chronicle. For us his work is , and if Asia S(>es him on her distant steppes, and tlie I'ralian mountains, and the Siberian prison-house of the tzars, wc follow him not. 'I ■'V 132 MKXICO IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURV. :^r:yrM « i t: fi "Hi Humboldt as a savant and a man astonishes us, not so nmch by liis heiglit as by his breadth. It is proba- l)le that in any simple branch of research and learning there have been greater men ; but for comprehensive knowledge his ecjual had not at this time a])peared. Not a peak piercing hea\'en, too awful, too barren for any sentiment save awe, but a mighty tiible-land, such as he loved to describe, broad as a continent and far above vulgar level; yet not so high but that golden grains and jmrple fruits dwelt there. Though egotis- tical he was humble, as all great souls are who have lifted themselves over petty men and things by stern and patient lobor; for the illimitable fields of the universe widv ii as we climb. There is a time when young and eager minds think they are very near to the most p< rfect truth — think it but needs anothc r thought, anotlier fact, and their theory of cosmos Mill l)e compli-te, ineluctable, irrefragable. But every lunr lact trails in new thoughts, new complications, and new contradictions. Men of average mind stop herr; tliey become frightened, seize an opinion, and stick to it as a battered limpit to a rock; or worse, become aggressivclv bi'^o^ed. ]^ut irumboldt was a great man, for he could always see two sides to a question; a great man who knew what he did not know. Such knowledge seems sadly wanting, for the most part, to his biographers — a race by whom he has beta ridiculously overj)raised, they either not knowing or not caring to remember that in both the literarv and scientific parts of his work were constantly employed the revision and aid of almost all the great men of his day. l^robably no man ever enjoyed the intimate society of so many philosophers as Hmnboldt, and few appear tt» have made a better use of it. It I-; oidy bj' studying his enormous scientific and friendly correspondence that a just idea of his means of information can be formed. Ho could not write of natural history like Bufibn, nor of jihilosophy and physics like his (ierman Goeth< : lie could not })aint a ruin or an antique palace liKo OENIUS AND H.\BITS. i33 ;, not v(>\ ai- ming •usive 311 for , such lid far ia)kk'U ecrotis- [) have V stern of tlu) lu-ar tt> an«>tlur nos ^viU fi y ncvf ous, aiul o^) here ; stick ti> ),ecouie a tijrcat |Vicstiou; the most has boiu l)W\u"j; **r Irary ami men ot 1 intimate )klt, aiiil It. It i< friendly iieans el BuiVeu, Goetli' -. llace Id"*- liim who looked on ^Melrose by niy^lit; the scttini^ sun, n storm among" tlie mountains, like tlie ereutor of ^^an^'red; a ]»rimeval forest, a Nia<;ara, like Cliatoau- hiiand; or the Ljlorv of tlie firmaim-nt, the elouds of heaven, and tlu^ mountain-tojis, like the peerless .jolm liuskin; yet ho was not very far from the suhlinu' in tlie massive and scjuare simplieity of his great vvoiks. He had the purity of uninihiti'd style, presn-viiiLT always a perfect atlaptai)ility and fitness to the end lie ki pt in view. l[o matlo no attempt to j^ive what it pleases Knskin to call "the far hii^her and (U'e[)er tintli of mental vision, rather than that of tlie physi- cal faets;" and consequently, Ins descriptions are of more use to engineers and geographci's than to painters aiitl poets. He could not soar, and ho was wise enougli not to court an Icarian failure. This is in itself an clement of greatness not to be despised. Of Huud)oldt's method of working, we will tran- sciihe Bavard Taylor's account : "Tho habits of Hum- holdt are not remarkable, except in the limited nun)l)er of liours necessary to sleep, and in temj»ei-ance and regularity. His time is systematically divided. \ le lises at six in the winter, and five iji the sunmier, studies two hours, drinks a cuj) of coti'ce, ictunis to his study, and commences the task «»f answering his letters, of which he receiyes yearly m()re than one hundred thousand. From twelve until two he receives A isits, and returns to work at two. At four ho dines, in sunnmT with the king, in winter at hom(>. From lour imtil eleven he passes at the table, an«l gonc^rally in com}>any with the king, but sometimes at the meet- ings of learned societies, or in the comjiany of his friends. At eleven he retires to his study, and con- tinues there until one or two, answi'i-ing letters, or Avriting his books, or jireparing them by study. 11 is lust books have all been written at midniy^ht. He sleeps four hours." With sm-h a brain, for so long a time so (Miiployed, there is no wonder that great things came of it. 134 MEXICO IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. It was Humboldt himself who said that " the course of tlie world refuses to admit of great exceptions to its com}iensatory system of pleasure and sadness," and he proved it well. Liberal in politics and religion, he was a bitter morsel, upon which bigots and reactiona- ries were always gnawing. Take the following ex- tract from his friend Varnhagen's diary, date 2(jth of December, 1848: "Humboldt has called ; he assures me tliat were it not for his position at court he would not be suffered to remain in the country, but would be expelled, so strong is the hatred of the ultras and bi<;ots ajjainst him." And at this time he was in his eightieth year. In February 1854 Hum- boldt writes: "I live in a monotonous and sad mood — et mourant, avant le principe." His brother was dead long before, and he had no consolation but in his own heart — a heart which was never closed by envy or avarice against any worthy object, liis enemies even being judges. His was a hard and lonely journey, without wife or child; even though his ]»ath was ])avtd with honor. At the best of times, " tlie way to fame is like the way to heaven — through nmcli tribulation." But since the beginning of the world — "Be the tlay weary, or l)e tlio tluy li'iig, At luiigth it riugeth tt> evuii song." And after bearing up stoutly to his 90th year against the infirmities of age, he took to his bed for the last time in April 185U. The traveller was setting out on his last journey. On the Gth of May he dietl. Karely Berlin sees such a funeral; the princes of the r()val blood of Prussia stood bareheaded by his cotliii with the greatest and tlie poorest of their people. " He is goiio— Who never soUl the truth to servo tlio liour. Nor paltered with eternal Clod for power; Wlio let the turhid streaiiia of rumor How Tliro' eitlier babbling world of high ami low; Whose life was work, whose Lmguago rife With rugged maxims hewn from life; . . .lie wears .a truer crown Than any wreath that nuiu can weave him. . . .Speak no more of hi.s renown, Jjay your earthly fancies down, And in the vast cnthetlral leave him, (Jod acceDt him, Clirist receive him." ?ourse , to its uicl ho oil, lie ct'ioiia- llg CK- 2GtU of assures urt lie :ry, l>ut of the tuuo he t Huni- luootl — ,'as tload his own envy or ACS even jourmy. )ath was the way r\\ much worhl — Ir against 1- the last. jting out. he died. les of the Ihis cotWu )ple. CHAPTER IV. LOTO.>i-LAND. In the afternoon they came nnto a laml. In wliicli it seenieil always atti.'rniH)ii, All roiind till! coast the languid air did swoon, Breathing like one that hath a weiu-y dream. T/ie Lotoit-EiUcrn. Tf ever one were justified in rising out of tlio ])ath of exaet narration, and indulging in a brief spell of till' fanciful or ideal, it is in thinking of California when the white men came. A narrow strip of sea- hoanl, the air low hreathing and of tender tone, with green and grizzly mountains for a baekgrouiul, all opening toward the sun-waves — this is our lotos-land, where fancy may place the lotos-tree, with its leaves like the ears of elepha'its, and its branches dro()])ing (li»\vn fioiii heaven. Among these branches are birds of sweetest song, whose strains are fresh from para- dise, and under their shadow angels pause and rest. The seeds of this tree each encloses an houri; and from its rcjots spring the two rivers wiiich How by the in- visible throne of Allah. Sitting on a lote-triH>, rising from the water}' mud, the Egyptians i)icture deity, while the great desert prophet jdaces a lote-tree in his seventh heaven. It is a winterless earth's end perpetually r»'freshed by ocean, a land surpassed neither l)y the island grotto of Calypso, the Elysian tit'ldsof Homer, nor the island valley of Avalon seen by King Arthur ju his dying tliought. Here day after day, and year after year, may come the stranger, and eat the lotos, and be li ij>|»y: he may eat the lotos and forget the old home and country, forget the wife and children, content for- (135) 1 li'' I m ' iiki'/ki 1 !^ a* n 136 LOTOS-LAXD ever to rest in this strani^o land, wakinj,' to fall asleep aiL,'ain, and dream day-dreams and niglit-dreains, as he floats silently down the sluii;'f,nsh stream of time. Here might he placed the Hebrew's Eden, or the l)eatitude of the Buddhist; here may the dark -eyed Italian enjoy his dolce far nientc, and the sighing ghost of Charles Lamb find a region beyond the do- niain of conscience. And I d('>ul)t not, if proper search be made, that here may be found the singing-tree of the Arabian tale, the leaves whereof are mouths, each one of which discourses harmonious music. At either end of this seaboard strip is a beautiful ba}'; San Diego, in the south, the starting-point in Alta California of the Franciscan friars in their tour northward, the initial point in their line of mission buildings, San Francisco being the northern terminus. What shall I say of this land, and not lay myself open to the charge of hy[)erbole, grosser than any ever indulged in by the ancients f If they wrote nmch about their Arabys and Arcadias — the world learning their stories by heart and repeating tlieui over and over to this day — may not I write a little about a better country ? But indeed, there is no need here for exaggeration, even if I desired to indulge in it; plain, homely prose best fits this and all honest occjusions. Grant that Andalusia is the garden of Spain, Amboise of France, Italy of Europe, and Sicily of Italy, and we may justly claim for our lotos-land a place before them all as the garden of the world. Grant to be not wholly fanciful the great story of tin- Greek Ulj'sses; we can match it in tangible truth from the li[)s of the English Anson and Cook, wlien among the soft South Sea isles, and fn)m the profane mouths of scores of ship-masters sailing along the California main, who tell how they often were forced to drag back their seamen to the vessel, provided they were fortunate enough to catch them, so loath were they to abandon the fascinations of the shore. PHYSICAL FEATURES. 187 islccp lis, as tiiiic. )!' tlio i-eyed 'iLjlnn''' iie do- soarch tree ot" s, ouch jautiiul loiut in jir tour mission riniuus. ' myst-'lt laii any y -wrote e world (T tlu'ni a littlt' no need lulo-e in lionest Spain, )icily ^'f 5-land a world. ly of tilt • itUiVoui |i anioni;* moutli^ Ulifornia ito dra;j; ley wero they to I do not say that there are licre no ott* days, no trt'a<'her<)us rocks, or slimy reptiles, or poisonous jijants; 1 do not say that winds never blow and storms never beat; that there are no withering; northern Idasts, or sand-whirlinijfs in the desert, or Miow on the uiountain-to[)s; or that sometimes when iii;j,ht sets in the eastern ridges do not subside and cover their heads beneath the fog-blankets of the valleys — but these are the exceptions, and there are scarcely enoui»'h such days to break the dead monot- ony of the warm, misty mornings that overspread the Iiiipjiy hills and echoing canons, forever wooed by the cnclianting smile of ocean. Here along we may be sui'c are no waters of adversity beneath which the sca-llower blooms nt)t. l^ut I have seen the ^Mediterranean angry, spit(>- i'ully so; one would infer from the high recorded cx.- jiciicnci's of the veracious old IHysses, in his little jiadillings thereabout, that he had been five times loimd the world, to have seen so inany things which never exi.sted. When we have catalouued the ills of all other Edens, the fever-breeding sun, the f»)ul, float- ing miasma, and other pestilential airs of Amboise and Andalusia, of Egypt and Italy, antl have spread them all out before our California lotos-land, we shall then see the poverty of this place in death-dealing agencies. To grass and flowers, indeed, death comes not in the cold and melancholy robe of autunm ; but sublimated by the summer's sun, undecaying they die, leaving their ])art substantial for the hungry brute, like the departing soul which leaves the substance of its life in generous deeds. And we are even told of saints de- ]i;iitcd, whose bodies were preserved by the gods from decay, even as Hector's body was kept fresh and roseate by the devotion of Venus and A])ollo. Ming vourself in early morning, the skv red-flu.sh- uig with the rosy dawn, upon a point of land — Point l^oiiia, if you will — and looking seawar*.! and shore- ward aloiisjf the white, curvini; line of sand, until in iJV- m 1^ M h ., '! It i IM LOTO.S-LANU. tho far perspective slioro, Bca, and sky meet; pres- ently you may see Aurt)ra stealing over the eastiiu mountains, ami peeping'- in uj)on her favorite fairy-land, nestling warm and glowing under a coverlet of gray mists, while with roseate lips she kisses night away. Salute this land, blessed above all lands! Salute the unstained altars and sky-roofed temples of lur gods I It is not the Arcadia of tradition, sung by poets, and ethercalized by romance writers as a golden refuge-land, free from the harsh prosaic life of other lands; it is the Arcadia of reality, with the three fates plying their lively trade — Lachesis who spins the thread of life, Clotho who holds the distatf, and Atropos who eli[)s, clips, cli})s, every time-tick ending an earthly existence and opening an eternity ; yet with sweet vales tl(»wered by fairy fingers, and watered by smoky streams and dew dropped by departed night, and opening through the mountains vistas far inland of a country where day is but night warmed and lighted by tlie unseeing sun, and night but shadowy day; where s[)ring and winter, life and decay, fetcli and carry fair forms and sweet odors, their coming and going being not birth and death, but only change, and man most of all most unintelligibly changeable, per- chance with daughters who even now, like butterflies, lie dreaming m their ante-natal home. Almost Jill the days are halcyon, wherein upon tho surface of the sea the kingfisher may lay its eggs to incubate. So gently slide the seasons from sumnur to autunm, and from winter to sprmg, that sunnmr seems but winter smilmg, and winter but the sum- mer born anew by the refreshing rain. So gently fades the summer, like stars before the rising moon; so sweetly falls the winter rain robing all nature in gay livery! Stingless winter with its fresliening rains spins the green and flowery coverlid which sprinj; spreads over the hills and plains. Spring breathing bliss comes, and holding wmter in her warm embrace until his surly mood is melted, SKA AND SEASONS. 130 prcs- ■asteru y-laiul, f vrniy iway. Saluti! of lur ang ^)y gokluii )f otlur o throe lo spins ;atf, and : ending yet with torotl \»y !cl uijjjiit, ar inland mod and shadowy •ay uiinjj; fetrli and iw^c, and iblc, por- ittertlies, I upon the [s eggs to suninur smnnur Ithe suni- irentlv g moon; laturo in lin^r rauis fh sprin:4 I winter in melted, spreads the hills with brilliant tapestry, paves tlu? val- I ys with tender green, and freights the gtintlo winds with the melody of birds and the fragrance of ilowijrs. t>vi'r the white shining peaks iloat tiie white shining clouds, with a purity and splendor equalled only by the gk>ries of Bunyan's eelestial city Gentle showers suoeeed the heavier rains of winter, and after the si>rin<' showers are the invisible mornin<' dew-elouds, I o o whirl), after dropping tlieir celestial moisture, hie at tlie bidding of the sun to realms impalpable. Then from the refreshed earth spring life-sustaining fruits, low panting to perform their mission of martyrdom. Spring skips over the hills scattering daisies, toueii- iiig with a livelier hue the paljutating vales, distilling into the blades of grass a darker green, deepening the eiiiiison on the rt)bin's breast, while the lapwing crests himself anew ; then sunnner comes to every valley atid gulden, curing the gra.ss, and reddening and yellowing the liHci(»us fruit, filling the air with rich aroma. Soft, warm, billowy sea bonlered by a soft, wa)'m, iiillowy shore; billowy green shore bordering a billowy hluo sea, and canopied by a deep blue sky; the iiicniiniifs always youn*;, the nii^hts soothinij:, j^entle (It \vs descendint'' wooin*j frajjrance from the fra*j:rance- hicathing tlowers, the valleys carpeted with green, the iilaius clothed in balm and boautv ; while always toward the east the hills rise and roll off in voluptuous swells, like the heaving breast of a love-lorn maid. On pin- iiacU's of the aged mountain range staiids flushed by wtstei'ii light the aged snow. Over blos.soming law-ns rush the wild, bellowing herds, treading out honey and ]Hituuie, while the bashfid hare, innocently bold, leaps through the tall grass. In the air are swallows, birds ot luck and consolation, sacred to the penates. hike the happy valiey of Rasselas, it is coni])ara- tivcly inaccessible except from one side; yet softly on this slanting shore falls the slanting light, gilding the slanting shore. The soil is light and dry, and like Attica, it is a ■M 140 LOTOS-LAND. '"Ml land of olives, vines, and honey, of sheep and cattle, rather than of corn or cereal cultivation, jL^ow-bencl- ing branches, freighted with fruit fair as any that ever tempted Eve, yet all unforbidden seek the hand, begging earth and man to relieve them of their fra- grant burden. Sun-painted grapes glowing in rich purple, green, and black clusters, fragrant with tin; unawakened, care-dispelling juice, coquet wantonly with wind and leaves. Here and there tlie earth has clothed herself above the dark and sappy green in a coat of many colors eschscholtzias, ytiUow as gold; lupins, blue as the rohc of the ephod, or purple as Ciesar's toga; ancient colum- bines, twining convolvuli, and lilies white and shining as snow. There is laurel for the Parthian victor's Mreath, wild olive for the Olympian, green parsley for the Nemean, and green pine-leaves for the Isth- mian. Gray groves of olive, dark green orange-trees gilded with golden fruit — the olive, symbol of peace, emblem of chastity, sacred to Pallas Athene. For when the gods decreed that vviioever should [jroduce a gift most useful to man should have possession of the land, and Poseidon, with his trident striking the ground made to appear the horse, Athene meanwhile planting the olive, did nt)t the gods decide that the olive was more useful to man than the horse, and so gave the city to the goddess, from whom it was called Athenie? Back of the Coast Range our lotos-land reaches not; but Jigencies are there at work, and none the less influential because unseen. There is the proud Siena, standing like a crystalled billow rolled in from the ocean, scarred and knotted by avalanche, riven hv earthquakes, rent asunder by frost and fire, fiK night, their clear, cold waters rise and fall each day with the regularity of the tide. From the woodid valleys lying between the parallel ridges, spriii)j:.s shoot up and send their rivulets to swell the largi r streams. A series of singularly regular table hills, risijig into mountains farther up, where they assume the form of battlements, with all the angles of regular fortifications and bastioned wings and front, mark the course of these headwaters i'vr many miles. The table mountains, for from fifty to two hundred feit from their flat tops, present a blank, cheerless suifac"', with perpendicular sides, then slope off in uncNrii descent, with here and there small indentations con- taining a few stunted trees and meagre vegetation. There are no outlets offered, aside from mount.iiii passes, save the portal pierced by the mighty streams through the Carquinez Straits and the Golden (iato. That rush of waters drained tlie inland sea once left !•>' receding ocean, and still drains its relic in the bay < f San Francisco, ever widening the channels which aro still too narrow or shallow for the swelling spri ig ":4. VALLEYS AND STREAMS. 143 dthougli location 'ame the r wavinj^ Che kad- Sierra at ;ios in the y of Call- in yellow 2d by the rocky ob- h glooniy I shooting iacraniento y dtnvn to ' the warm less of tho II each day j,lie woocU'd es, spriiij,^^ the larir^r table hiU^. ley assume Is of regular ,, mark the lilos. The ndred feit less surtaiv, in unevrii .ation^ coii- [rctatioii. niountiilu ^ty streams [olden Ciate. ,ncc left I'V the bay « t' [a which nvo lUng spriig .;f; flow. It is in truth two valleys merged in one, with two great rivers that join in sisterly embrace near the outlet, forming one continuous line. Each pre- sents a beautiful leaf-like ramification of tributaries, one hundred and twenty miles lotig on an average, flowing from the east as the higher slope, owing to the greater upheaval of the Sierra and its lieavier wadi. This system embraces the main flow of the country; a few minor streams fall into the same bay, the rest into the ocean in great number, but small in importance. For instance, the only navigable stream -and that only near its mouth — south of the bay of H;ui Francisco is the Salinas; all south of that are by uutinnn lost in the sands before reaching the sea. The five eastern tributaries of the basin partake of the romantic interest centring in the country, passing ;is they do through so wide a range of altitude, scenery, iiiid wealth. From the sharply })rofiled sky-line of the great Sierra, where the snow-clouds sweej) from peak to peak through the cold dry ether, and falling, liang in glistening festoons from pinnacle and dome, tho brook leaps down in l)oisterous play, enteritig open vales all afoam from their mad race, pausing in lacus- trine hollows, rippling over shallows, eddying arouml rocks, and splashing against bowlders. Descending t'aitlu X, the gnarled and storm-whipped coniferie wiiich hover about the limits of plant-life are soon left, the th'jily scattered pines gather in aroma-shedding dus- ters, tlie white rocky summits are shut out by the (iccpcning foliage of stately groves, and at length a belt of black, cor.ipact forest is entered, vast in extent and wildly sublime, bounded by earth-fractures, fan- ta>tio with buttress, towers, and bastions. Closely fitting the mountains like a vesture, rising and falling with thoir heaving sides, and wrapping their limbs in its warm velvety folds, a robe of emerald succeeds a crowK of hoary white. A belt oi billowy forest in- tervenes between this and the prairie-plain below. lianged in long vistas of sweeping colonnade, or gath- II if- ^ If: ;i ','1. m?' LOTOS-LAXD. erod in donso t^roups, standinsj; asido from bramblcd cnigs and tiilted bluflk to let in tlio j^lowinij^ sunshino, arc myriads of barbed arrow-shafts and tinted i^reen spires pierciii*:^ the sky, sable points of pine tiankin*^ the Sierra, and drooping plumes of swarthy eypress and closely interwoven firs and cedars casting cold shadows on the earth, and roofing it in infinite \erdurc. Then the ocean-seeking stream emerges upon a hilly bench sloping roughly toward the ]>lain, and covered with red metalliferous earth, blushingly conscious of its embosomed treasures. Here along tliis western base of the Sierra, from Siskiyou to San Diego, stretches the famous gold belt of California, with its thousands of dead streams, soon to be flooded by currents of human toilers inflowini; from every corner of a tributary world. A general dryness characterizes this region, as if nature, exhausted in her mightier efforts above, ])aused before entering upon the more di'licate traceiy of tlu' valley. Kising duskily from the }>lain, and fVinoino- the background wall of dark ^i-een firs with golden-berried manzanita and pttlished madi'ono, with antlered maple and dogwood, the Sierra foothills present their own peculiar aspect. Their rusty vig* - tation and dull gray undergrowth, their groves of dwai'fed pine trinnned with large bioad-spreading oak. ai'cord well with the scorched soil and lurid, eojipt ly tone. Even air and sky seem significant of tlie luct- alh'.rgical j)rocesses which have here beeri going on since time beyfan. Much of the barrenness is due to the age of fr(>st, v\ hich in the building of the Sierra succeeded the a^o of fire. Slowly creeping down the mountiiin, its monster glaciers forced their way through earth and solid rcK'k, and ribbed the western slope from toj> t" bottom, at intervals of twi-nty or thirty miles, with eroded canons and serpentine chasms. Lesser furrows were ploughed between, and thus the Sierra's b-i-i' M'as sculptured into a maze of foothills. Then tin iv was the widening process by the rains of winter and FURTHER .CONFIGURATIONS. 146 \ irrotiU \onlur»'. [ covoivd scums oi .tt.rn\)iise stivtfUos [,\\*)usan«ls irrouts ot .trilmtavy lis vo;j;i«>i»- its al)ovo. ito tracei y |)\aiu, aul ,t' tlu' lUft- r. '.lioin'j; "11 re of fr**^t' [ed the a;4o oarti\ au'l |-<)U\ tc>V ^" inilos, with ,,.r fun-'Avs Lrra's h=«-^' IrUrn tb> 'V 1 winter au«i tlio melted snow of summer, which came in rushin*; brooks and vaulting torrents, freighted with earth and roik and gold, heaping up the old moraine, and mak- ing ready for the grand carnival. A little farther and the streams enter the level plain, gli(Hiig dreamily past old and festooned oaks along the ;j;rassy banks, finally to merge and enter all together into the great receptacle. The course of the two main rivers differs more than that of the tribufciries. The Sun Joaijuin, rising in a vast expanse of morass cen- tring round Tulare Lake, H<)ws through marsh}' soil, sonii wliat turbid, yet still free from the yellow tinge that after 1848 testified to the disembowelling along the eastern base. The Sacramento runs for a long distance in the midst of striking mountain scenerv ere it enters the broad plain to expand between the fenny banks. The space enclosed by the two ranges is charaeter- izt'd by gjiind beauty of topography, of uneven har- mony, and uniform irregularities of siu'face. F(»r liunring watercourses Aviinling round the green-enanu'Ued glacis, and creei)ing with gentle nmrmurs through the tules, or round st)l- itarv buttes. wiili crests wreathed in soft silvery cloud- mantles, whieli rise abruptly from a |»lain carpeted with long, wavy grass! It swi'eps round the arena, rising lu^ie and there in long undulations, and throw- \\\\i; itstlf in angry waves upon the base of the Sierra, iuid tinally breaks into a chain of oi>en plains whose links are formed by forest-elad promontories, whieli soHiriinu's extend half-way across the valley, and cut It into transverse sections of successive ridges and in- Cal. 1'ast., Vol. L 10 ,i!;i h ii'^^ m 146 LOTOS-LAND tervcning glades, their sides fretted with rivulets and flashing cascades winding in successive leaps and rests down to a base garnished with blazing yellow and purple flowers, and expanding into smiling vales, liko isle-dotted estuaries of the ocean. The Coast Range with its series of ranges is full of these long valleys, running parallel with the coast, some exposed to tin- winds and fogs of the ocean, others so sheltered as to enjoy an almost tropical climate. All of them may be classed among the loveliest spots of earth, our lotos- land still remaining apart, unap])roachable. Round the whole circumference of the valley of California, clustered like a great diamond set in a circli- of diamonds, this system of minor valleys extends, in- tricate and confusing at the northern end, l)ut more simple toward the south. Most of the smaller <»iu s are oblong in shape, and have a level surface. Far up the sides of the Sierra, even, hundreds of them ai »■ found, well-watered, fertile, and exceedingly beautiful. The soil in the great valley consists chiefly of rich, deep loam, covered in places by beds of drift. At tlic northern end, where the plain rises and blends with the foothills, the surface is red and gravelly; but soiitli- ward, and throughout almost the entire area of tlio great and small valleys, for purposes of agrieultuiv the soil exceeds in richness the most favored districts of France, Italy, or the Rhine. Much is idyllic, park-like land, with natural nu all- ows arabesque with tawny wild-oat fields, patchis of blossoming pea, and golden mustard beds sown and husbanded by nature, and interspersed with indigo- nous vineyards, fruit thickets, and fairy flower-ganleus laid out in exquisite pattern, stars and crosst.i and chaplets of yellow, purple, white, and red; all vario- gatc^'d with scraggy, scattering oaks, clustering gro\ os, and clum})s of undergrowth, freckled by the shadows of floating clouds, and lighted by trembling lakes and lakelets, shining tule lagoons, and rivers which n<»\v race through the canons like frightened herds, tlicii CLIMATIC FEATURES 147 ilcts au(? and rests illow and ;ales, like st Range cr valleys, ^ed to the ered as t<> them nuiy . our lotos- i valley of t in a circli" Ljxtends, iu- l, but ninre mailer I'lus rtace. 1' '^^' of them art' ly beautiful etly of ri»-h. ft. At tlif nds with the but south- area of the acrriculture red districts with muffled feet roam the low-lying Lombardy pUiins; canopies of glistening foliage Hushed with misty sun- shine, with branches densely^ matt«d into a smooth, continuous belt of russet gold and green. Warm, sen- suous life is filling lowland, lawn, and meadow, and flinging the foothills which here and there crop out in little zones of timbered land, crowned by beech and birch, ash, myrtle, and laurel, or garlanding with tulips and wild onion, flax and prickly chaparral, the smooth-browed hills that rise from these seas of ver- dure. The foggy district, or seaward side of the northern section of the Coast Range, is clad in majestic forests of redwood, which overspread its sides like the shadow of the Eternal ; while the southern section, and inner ridges and valleys of the range, are smooth and bare, and dotted at intervals with orchard-like oak gather- ings, groves of stately arbutus, az^dea, and royal laurel, and red hills covered with maple, hazel, berry- li-aring bushes, red-stalked, glistening manziinita, sub- dued pines of balsamic odor, and tangled solitudes of annual and perennial plants and sweet-smelling shrubs, mustard plains, heather wastes, and meadows, all drinking in tiie morning vapors. Trailing through the valleys are long lines of sycamore, garnished with mistletoe, and on every side lakelets of blue lupine, golden buttercups, fleurs-de-lis, white lilies, and dainty hare-bells, tessallated beds of purple larkspur and thistlo-Uossoms, white and variegated convallaria and wild honeysuckles woven in fairy network, crypto- ganious and delicate ferns, aftd over all presidhjg vener- alile oaks, bearded with long flowing mo.ss of silver- gray. The madrono, with its smooth bronze trunk and culling i>ark, its blood-red branches and varnished, waxen leaves, fit garniture f(»r a nmrderer's grave, is at Monterey^ a stately' tree, but northward dwindles to a shrub. Here, also, nature spreads her green car- pet in autumn and takes it up in summer. The animal kingdom is no less profuse. Pelican MM 148 LOTOS-LAND i^ #. w and sea-gull fish together in the bays; seals and sea- lions bask and bark upon the islands of the shore; myriads of noisy wild fowl fill the lakes and tulc- marshes; the streams and ocean swarm with sulmoji- tfout and cod and herring; lions, panthers, and the great grizzly bear roam the forests, preying upon elk and deer; hares and rabbits fill the underbrush ; coyotes howl upon the hillside at night, and by day sneak around the edges of watercourses; the plains are perforated by ground-squirrels; and larks, robins, and tufted quail make the luxuriant wild oats their covert. Here birds and beasts may rest content and never migrate, their little journeys between valley and moun- tain being scarcely more than an afternoon's ramble. Piping on the tangled hillside is heard the soft note (tt the curlew, likewise the rustling of the pheasant, tliu chirrup of the blackbird, the whistling of the i)ar- tridge, and the sweet songs of the robin and meadow - lark. Even the prudent bee, careless for the futuic, sometimes leaves neglected the honey-bearing Howori^ and fails to lay in a winter's store. To elk and ante- lope, deer and bear, hill and plain, scorched by smnnur sun or freshened by winter rains, are one; bounte()u.>^ nature brings forth the tender verdure, cures the grass, and }>rovides the acorns. Here is no froziii winter, and before the white man came to stir the ground, no damp, malarious summer ; cool, invigorat- ing nights succeed the warmest days. Ice and snow, banished hence, sit cold and stolid on distant j)eaks, staring back into the faCe of the sun his impotent rays, and throwing its eternal glare over the per^ipir- in^c earth and back to mother ocean. In the survey of grand scenery, distance always lends enchantment; in California, distance covers tlie naked earth, fills up spaces which intervene between clumps of foliage, mats the thin grass into lawns in\ it- ing to repose, tones down rugged deformities, brides aoualling chasms, blends colors, veils the hills in purple WONDERS OF NATURE. 149 oauzo, and casts a halo over the roinoter mountains; until the lantl8c'a|)c, cold and forbidding jterlia[)S uiitKr closer scrutiny, fades away in warm, dreamy |M rspective. Nowhere on earth do landscajtos display so throat a variety of tints and shades. Italy may l)(iii.('(uliar, in this favored country; in soil and climate, nsnurees and eniovments, it more than verifies the iiiowuig scenes ascribed to an ever- retreating Hes- l'tri(h's. even to the doubling of the goklen app.lc.j, in 160 LOTOS-LAND. t'^f-m w^i' ;.'■■«. glittering metal, and in fruit of orange groves and orchards. Here, at the. world's end, nature has in truth made the last and supreme eflbrt toward a mas- terpiece. Thus dreamily the Pacific had slept the sleep of the ages, its waters unploughed save by whale amd por- f)oise, itn sunny islands breaking into ripples the seji's azy swells, or frowning back the laboring tempt-st. Thus ages have rolled along, centuries have come and gone, while no stranger approached the gilded sIkmv. And now, silent as a snow-bound canon of the Sierra, lonely as night on a moon-lit lake, beautiful as un- folding womanhood upon whose face the rude gaze of man hath never brought a blush, sits California, on the siiorc of a great sailless sea, the world's divine.st poein, all unsung save by the waters that murmur their presence at her feet, save by the mountain birds and wild fowl, the land beasts and water beasts, that raise their voices to scare away the stillness; all hid- den and unknown her blushing beauties and her treasures, save to the native men and women, wli(», clotlied in the innocence of Eden, creep through the chaparral, or lie listless on the bank beside their rustic rancherfa. " Let us swear an oath, and keep it with an equal mind. In tlie hollow Loto8-lanuiid, and brcatlu.' the air, and tc'cl iIh- suiisliiut', otherwise they should he killed, they and their wives and their little ones; for it is thus that the stronijftr men and j^ods decree, even as these wild men lnar tliemselves toward one another. The ditlerence be- tween them was onlv on the surface. All men at heart are still l>rute8. This was tlie lesson these j'entle sava«rea were now to be taught; they had never known it else. Hitherto, on their hills and in their canons, these lords ahoriij;!- nal had themselves dwelt like Olympian deities, con- tent with their nectar and ambrosia, and careless of the joys or woes of the busy world without, careless of the moanin<;8 of mankind, careless of the weariness and heaviness of heart of others, of wars and revulu- tiofis, of biting wjint and ])estilence, of seas tumultuous and deserts scofching, of Christian butcheries, of^xiliti- cal snarlings, of joy-dispelling books, of inquisitions, of murky, reptile-breeding prisons, of penitential castiga- tions, of hunger, cold, and heat, of m u,rs on evil, the moanings of progress, and the creaking wheels of civil- ization. All that was bright and sunny, all that savored of out-of-doors, belonged to them. They were cheerful and thoughtless and triHihg, but they were not morose, or melancholy, or sad. They were human and child- like as Homeric heroes in their petulance and tears. Enough they had both of gods gloomy and gods sunny ; but though the evil spirits cried aloud, there was al- ways at hand a certain escape. Sure 1 am the gods of their 'varm, billowy shore were sunny deities, lu»w- ever black the priests may have painted them. Hitherto the savage had supjuised himself — if in- deed he thought at all — one with his environment; of hills and vales, of ocean and sky, of trees and fruits and game, a part. He had his tlieory of how all these came about, how the world was made — thougli imt imagining that it 'extended far beyond tiie mountains m :-m COMING OF THE MISSIONARIES. 15.1 [k u\>on iv wive-* stronirer ouco bo- uiL'U at ,vcrc now I litlu'ito, s al)onu;i- itics, ei)U- aroless of ^•uroli'^^ of lul rcvitlu- uuiultu«)us ■s, of^'oliti- aisitions, ot ial i'a«ti!^a- n evil, tho lels of fi vil- li yonder — liow man was created, and whithor ho f^oes \\ hen he leaves tlii-s wo. Id. His coneeptions wen- cruder than thcst v»f tlie Europeans; nevertheless, he had tlio same riiifht to them that the Europeans had to theirs, jind who shall say where none know which was right or wrong ? Whosoever his creator, and f(>r whatsoever purpose iiiiidc, the California savage was fulHUing the design of that heing concerning him. He was not, as the incoming strangers would say, an interlop the inhabited heavens — these sainted strangers are coming hither to do you good, to tell you what the ignorant and superstitious of aL:is past ac'A of the supernatural, and to ask you to ii"- lieve it. Thev bring their formulas and ceremonials, and tell you thus and so; if you accept their hcatc- ments — which I grant is somewhat difficult for a rea- sonable .savage to tlo — well; then you shall be permittid to wait UDon them, and work for them, build houses, ten«l cattle, and till lands for them, you shall pray like them, and bless and curse as do they; and wii< u you all di(^ you shall ^ollow them to the happy luax eii they tell about, an*' wait u|)on them there. If you i< - fuse their piottered benefits, which they have come so far ant" ?re lives his cnt cannot omnipotent, dversary. way hithrr, rolling hill^. itored nian- „ar runniiv^' Ivens — the>'' [() you goo* I, ions ofag^*^ vou to l"- oremoniai>, their hcat*- \\t for a ivii- jopernihtid luild houses, shall \>vay ; and wiH u iippy heavtu if you iv- jave eomt' >" , then tli'>^'' ,)U dead, aiul cut you in pieces, you and your wives and little ones; for so their masters hid them do. They have come to tell you that you arc very wicked, while they are very good; to teli you that the maker of this universe is their particular friend, that tliiv know him well, and all ahout him — his impulses, thoughts, desires, and purposes; and that they are sjitoially commissioned by this almighty one to come to this lotos-land and tell the people hero that they are all had, altogether oad, vile, miserahle .sinners, tit only to he cut in pie?u.s, uidess they will say that tluv believe what is now beinir told them, in which ciiso they shall some day go to heaven, tin ic to sit and sing the })raises of their masters throughout all tteniity, while watching with holy satis'a«'ti»m the writhings of the tortured who never had so said. It was quite a mistake on the part o' the creator to have mac'e you at all, redskin brotLor, and unless wi' can imp' ove his handiwork we shall murder you. We do not know how a perfect being can produce imperfect work, but we know that it is so — and be- sides, we want this land, and we must have it; so speak (|uickly, for we must know whether we are to kill you, or only cultivate you to death." Thus came tlie serpent civilization into this Eden, and the inhabi- tants thereof from that moment were doomed. Again the wild man asks, "What benefit shouM tlow from this serene and heavenly life?" And the ai:s\ver is, "Besides religion, your beasts aiid reptiles aii(! birds of j)rey will be exterminated, the wilderness will be turned into a garden, famines will tH\ase, pesti- lence will be controlled, physical forces now intago- I'istie to your well-being will be subjugated, and you will bo less dependent on fitful nature. "Vou do not want them, you say, or their religion. ^ oil arc better otf as you are, as the re*il and true eniitor made you and placed you, and you do not 1« lievo that their traditions, or knowh'dge of tlu^ un- kiiu\vul)lo, are better than vours, or that they know m OPPOSING FORCES. ,i more than you of wliat they have never seen, of wliat no one has ever seen — for surely tliey eoiild not ask you, you say, ignorant and superstitious tliougli you are, to accept as true what other ignorant and su[)er- stitious men said they saw ages and ages ago. And 'f the strong white man has the right to take the li'.nils of the weak red man beeause he does not make the best use of tliem, may not any one who is able take the possessions of another on the same ground? And why do they w ish to per-suade or foret; you to accept their faith* and what would tlu'V sav were vou to cross the ocean and endeavor to thrust your religion down their throats?" Ah! gentle savage, these are pertinent <|uestions. There are several reasons why they wish you to accept tluir faith. The principles upon which proselyting stand arc benevolence, superstition, and selfishness. Probably the last named should be i>laced first. Tlnso men firndy believe that by making converts to their fiiith, as they call it, they will be most liberally })iU(l for it after their death. They have many maxims to this eflect. They will shine as stars; they will have a high yeat in heaven; they will in many ways be specially favored by their heavenly father, all the whili' having the satisfaction, as I have said, of seeing those who would not listen to them broiling in regions below. Again, if you accept their religion you accept them, and their ea 'thly master, the king of Spain; you nmst give up your liberties and your lands, and work for them, thereby making them rich and comfortable even in this lifj, so that they secure a foretaste of heaven here. Piety with property is great gain, my good savage. Then, too, strange as it may seem, believing wh.it they tell you is true, it is natural, not only for n li- gionists but for scientists and all wlio have anj' enthu- siasm in what they think and do, to endeavor to win over to their way of thinking .as many as ])ossible. This proselyting spirit is all well enough within pro[>» r MISSIONARY WORK. w ^ of what not ask ,ujrli you lid su[)er- To. And tako the not make u) is alile •CO you to /• wero you ,ur roligion (jucst'ions. mtoao<-<-'\>t jiroselytiuj^ solfishutss. rst. Thrse ;rt9 to tlieir berally paid J maxims t'> y will have iny ways bo |iU tlio VUilo jcein*^ tliosc ^ioiis bolow. J;copt them, h; youmu>t [id work to I' icouifortaitlo forotasti' »'t' lliniis; it is well enough so long as sound reasoning iiiiiy is employed, and not steel and gunpowder. Co- ncion in this direction is the greatest of crimes. In propagating creeds, or in moral conquest, conversion, (»r proselyting, men are secured more easily being led than driven. Argument has little to do with conversion ill savage minds, but example much, and food and trink- i is more. Let a superior race practise pompously any tt'iieto, I care not what they are, aujong savage )i',(>|)1l'S, and the doctrines so pronudgated will prove citcliing. See how radically in political matters a leading mind can change opinion throughout the entire tiiuimimity. So a strong-minded missionary will coii- viit ids thousands and make them do his bidding by sliver force of will. These ndssionaries are men of sublime heroism, of imhounded faith, of limitless credulity. In their (K'\(>tioii to their faitli they are as firm as Abdiel, upon wliom Satan's eloquence urging heaven to revolt fril powerless. They have been told that it is the tiling to do to ct)nvert the heathen, to njake them stand still while they nmmble dogmas and scatter water over them. Therefore they do not fear. Man i>lc ; we of to-day see in it all the natural product of his- torical antecedents. The power of the almighty tciii pered their steel. "Ah! thou my good sword, hail, bright Toledo, soul-saver, slave-maker, land-giver, gold-finder, I worship thee ! Of all things, what can give me so much as thou? Sensuality and salvation, wealth and worship, lust, avarice, and immortal glory. God and Satan recompense me for doing devilish deeds in Christ's name. Cut and slash, thou switt blood-letter, thou holy hewer of quivering tiesli ! I bow to thee ! " In the solitude and gloomy shade of their wildii- ness, although alone, no one knowing their wlun- abouts, the niissi..naries felt, at all events, that tlic eyes of God were upon them — the eyes of tlio oiii- ni[)otent Jehovah, of the Lord Christ, and of the holy vir«rin, stealing through soul and sense like the g.i/c of a tender mother, which penetrates with such strono; magnetic influence the breast (»f her not wholly unci»ii- sclous sleeping child. Their faith, like Mambriiu-V helmet, rendered them invulnerable to evil. Tiny could pray for a safe and prosperous journey to wlmt- ever spot God pleased, for thither were they bound, and then strike out boldly and confidently into tho unknown, trackless wild. To them the loss of a lift' was insignificant compared to the loss of a s<>ul. Teaching, as they did, with the doctrines of tin ir faith the arts of civilization, these missionaries m. rv in the strictest economical si'use productive labor* is. In their mission were united all the utiUties, material, moral, and ideal. And every opportunity is gi\iii heaven to bless them; they always leave a handle t'nr providence to take hold of, as the ^[ussulman hfivost upon his shaven crown a lock for the angel's ham I to grasp while being borne aloft to }»aradise. POWER OF PROSELYTING. tw (S diviiu ly lie peopU". uct of liis- iglity t«--in- Nvord, bail land-givn", ^, what can I salvation, ortal glory. Qn\- tl of the holy like the gii/o such stron;j; holly UlUiMJ- Mamhn»*'V evil. Tluy tiey to what- thcy hound, itlv into tho [OSS (»i a ''' ' of a soul. ues of tli>ir lonaries w ro ivo labor. IS. lies, material, lity is g'l^*'^ la luuulb' t'-r ihnao hi'^^'* ■oVs bau'l to (> TTiif.py combination ! Soldiers for Clirist and soldiers fdi- the king. Christ for men, and men for souls, tlu! devil helping, taking his chaneo of securing even some of tho elect Wc can understand how the king f Spain might employ soUlicrs; but that the Lord Christ should want such sc-rublty things as these gt)ing up and down tho eartli killing savages for him is past the comprehension of all wisdouK A little learning iiiiide priest and secretary pretenticms, putted u|) with ])r()ud sui>eriority. And in their own eyes the AEexi- »;ui soldiers were ever cool, gallant, patriotic, and of inflexible coura»je. Their hearts swelled with hiijh lievotion to a cause. In the new-comers were united the attributes of settUr and saint. Like Ulvsses, thev wen; n>en of pious ^viles, tlu'se missionary fathers; they were wise as seipents, though not always as harndi'ss as doves. Tluy knew how to captivate and capture the wild men. First tluy t>ntered into intimate relationshi[)s with them, material and mental, placing them.selves in their stead, seeing with their eyes, thinking their tlidughts, and weigliing and measuring their every idea and idiosyncrasy. At the outset their material condition nmst be ini- inoved. A savage can understand that religion is a tj^ood thing when it feeds and clothes him. In pro- jtnition to the presents given will his faith be. The St Sinionian soc-iety of Jesuits in Paraguay, uniting with religion a communily of W(»rldly interests, brought ilie minds of the natives under such control, that not- withstanding their abhorrence of work, they sultmitted tlieniselves with reverence to the new authority, and labored faithfully for the comnmnity. Wealth is ever the })recursor of civilization. !More than that, wealth is the foundation-stone of religion. Of all intellectual and ajsthetic culture, pt»verty is tho oiieniv. To send missionaries amoni; the savajLjo Ileal lien with empty hands avails little. Abstract fu- ture ueradv»ii- ture the great creator will change his mind and )»ur- pose because we tisk it — we, who know so much bttt> i what this world should be, who could make so mu« li better a W(»rld had we the power. Then pray, brot It- ers, pray I and we shall see come of it what we sliall see. Hail, holy virgin! Hall, holy child! Hall, fatht r nt all, omnipotent regulator! One father in heav«>n; many fatiicrs (»ii earth — lioly fithers, soU* agents and r< piv- sentative.s of our fatlier in heaven ; lathers of every MEDITATIONS OF THE SAVAGE. 161 ason, the llh^) HONvn with tho jrty irt iuv- is iin\>«>^- [ucate and bristianii'^'- icrcls; giv^' them enjoy are wealth, t here thi- pathway «'t il)ow-brul:4'^' ris when on . v{r<^en san- iTues aiul liiU church aii'l gardens, th«' wire, by tin' woman, hy ly, brotheiv, ^.rse to fiiiif^' Ltesoeoh h'uu ai»cl to il«' :i 11,1 perailvi Mi- md and \»ui- >much Vnttt 1 mke so mil' 1i pray, brotlj- ,'hat we siiiil^ [ailfathii-ot leaven; nwinv Its and iv\'»'- liefrt of •-•very nation, toni^mo, and color; fathers of the black gown, Au^ustinian and Dominican; fathers Franciscan, blue and uray; Carnu'litc fatliors of the white gown, and all the rest; fathers true and fathers false; fathers jmi'e and impure; fathers who are not fathers, and t'lilhers, alas, too much! Twelve children crowned the joys v)f happy Father (;iabriel, missionary president of the two Californias, in the year of our Lord 1 HID — su it is said, and a wise father, he. Further the red man ruminates: "If all that they do and say be good for white people, it must l)e go»)d for the red; for we are told if we pray enough, and in tlio riglit way, the almighty will revise his work, and we shall all be made white, and cunning, and have ureat good here, and a better place than others in heaven; though why a repentant sinner should be luadi; more of by the select society above the clouds than one who has never sinned, it is difficult to under- stand." ])oul)t]ess heav(!n is a iiappy i>lace; but earth is more substantial. ]3oubtless tlu- joys of heaven are very fine; but few care to K'ave eartli's sunshine to ;jjo theii^ ])oubtless Christianity is a great bo(»n : tin* native .Vmeiicansare willing that Europe should have tlu' whole of it. Doubtless angels dislike having the roinforts of the celestial citv to do drud"'erv work here I'll larth; but in seU'-sacrifiee there is bapiiiness- -in wliirh case it is not self-sacrifice. There an^ earthly anufels as well as heavenlv: tliev aiv (ilttinies indeed of earth earthy, and not always \i ly clean; spiritually minded, but gr«)ss and mattiial I'll the surface — very. Two or three hundred y»ars i(>.,'o there were more angels on this eartli than now; tin IV weie too many; nn-n had to labor ttM) hard to tird and house them; the way to heaven can now be noiiit((l out more bricHv and with fewer wortls : so >"iiii of them went to heaven, while others went — to Work. Tilt i-e is more to Christianity than monks and nuns Cal. 1'a.ht., Vol. I. U 162 OPPOSINfl FORCES. IfH; ft" ii ;, l«K t. ': J,. .. J, IS*" , — for example, the bell, invented by Paulinus of Xola, about tlic year 400; the or^'an, brought from tlic Greek church to the M'estern one in the seventii or eighth century; the gothic cathedral, which sitrani^- from the religious efflorescence of the twelfth century — all these were powerful aids to make men tit for lieaven, to make many fit for heaven who were not iit to live (m this earth. The Franciscan fathers who kindly came to our lotos-land, who came from afar to our lotos-land to drive out Satan, were astonished to learn that in* devils were here before they came. Why do deviU so beset good men; and why did not these fatluis stay at home and fight them there' "I have set ii and ray, scourge, and sit in sackclotli, for so sliall the soul find plenty and joyous honors heroafti r. iruinaii nature is fitting an immortal soul predcstint'd to eternal damnation by a beJieficent creator only as a s;u'rifice to l)e offered up for the subse(|uent bemfit of the spiritual nature. Hence the holy fathers ciy, hv- ware of the devil! and Dante revels in purgatorial pictun's. To tlie church and clergy of Spain, America is in- ilthttd for woes umiundured. The strujjf'dc against the ineradicable |>rinciple of evil within the heart, aL;ainst the fascinating demon of wrong-dath el' the believer was a Jeremiad, a lamentation, a tah- el" \V((e. Hating life, the body a loathed encumbiance, li'' Would anticipate death and enter at once a gl(»ritied existence I''iM\ulation is excited; admirini^ crowds j-athei- around the hermit's hut; Mionasti-ries are built, and thus the inward spiritual lite finds outward expression Aus- triity and discipline, having attained perfection, grow l.aiiglity. The humble saint bcccmies proud of his liuniility. For a time he still denies himself sensual indulgence, but only in order the better to gratify the nioio subtle vices of pride and power. He accepts 164 OrPOSIN(; FORCES. m |>i(tflri'r('(l nduUition, aHsunu's autliority, levies trilmto for his ;4<)illiness, waxes fat, and enjoys relij^iou. No more caves or shaky huts, or inidiiijjht vi^il, fast, or jK'iiaiioe ; hut stately castles, hroad fields, ami well-filled larder. Crowds now tlock for admittance to the churcli that <^ives her votaries both sensual anot, and in place of stony cavern and scanty Iierbs, rich viands, generous wines, voluptuous revels; and to grace their jileasures, if we may credit Draper, ** visions of loveliness . ere converted into breathing, blushing realities, who exercised their charms with better ett'ect. than of old their phantom sisters had done." Behold the end of ri«rhteousnes8 overmuch: so hard it is for man to re-create himself 1 Is not the philosophy of living to avoid extremes' The golden mean is the rosetta sthics. The man who throui;h all the waves of passion, by the craggy walls of prejudice, and through the tortuous paths of reason, holds nearest a medimu coursj', live'S nearest a perfect life, and nowhere dors excess appear more ott'ensive than in religion. In tin- earlier stages of the church, many of lu-r votaries, iii- sjtired by the examples of the apostles who lived with simplicity and sutfer-ed with resignation, labored t<> out ,|. "visioiis r,'\)\usl»ii>'^ ii'ttfi- I'tt'*''^' " Boholtl rd it is *"•'»■ 1 cxtroims '. social hiev»'- 10 waves ot and t\iro*»:-i^' st a mcdiuiu .owlierc (.U»« s ion. l»t)"' votaries, m- ,vo Uvocl witU ,, la\>orea <" render tlu »»• To sucli iiu f-abncj^atioM, •V. bccan\e >i» .onco. K>'!- loct vovei-ty i> trials is ^vtH. tor. ti foilowcrs ' >- Itation, pray; v. \,r nieditatio" ■a for vray'' and sjient their lives in koo|>iii«^ their body at deatli's tl.M.r \)y starvation and tornicuts. These anchorites, h\ rigi«l tasting and sloopUss and incessant contenipla- tinii, wrouglit tlieir imagination into a frowzy not unlike tlic dehriunis of o[)iun«, of alcohol, or of fovor. 'i'lu'V saw visions and dreanud dreams. Thi' sensihil- ity of the body was blunted, and strange phantasms llo.ittd through the brain. Thus the ai)paritions and niiiaelos of the church arc not in every instiinco a> Mtnie would have them, inventions of designing priists. Xumborlcss instances are recorded of strui'i'les with « inissaries of Satan, of fierce wrestlings with imps .ind diabolic monsters, of visions and rt;vcIations of liravcnly or hcUisJi import, in which the sincerity • if the visionary was bevond <|Uestion. The victims ul" these liallueinations may have been insane, but they wnc not impostors. Tit doubt till! sincerity of the monks and fiiars who cumo as ndssionarifs to the Now World is to doubt nligion, and give the lie to humanity. Schooled in till' discipline of the cloister, the old nature with the nld life is eradicated. By their vows, the world with its passions and andiitions is forever denied them, iiiiying aside their apparel and a(loj)ting that of their • mlt r, giving up their very name for some simple or siiiitl}^ appellative, identity, personality, that which Utnrious minds most hiufhlv prize, and which consti- tiitt'stho most powerful incentive to noble actions, is iii>t. Honors and rewards await them not hero but li< itafter. They have nothing to hope for from man, iMiiliiug to fear; for earthly ignominy and pain only add to their future joys, and death itself is but a re- Itaso from toil and sutferiny: to the eternal jovs of liaradiso. Nic«)lini tells us that when the citizens of \ it'ima threatened to throw Legay into the Danube ti'f |>n>mulgating the reforms of Ignatius of Loyola, he >'oiiifulIy replied: "What care I whether I enter 111 :i\( II by land or water?" And Motley says: "Priesthood works out its task, 'H ^\-^:i : i: -^'i mi-'- '■■ m !'? I i: 'l I. 166 OPI'OSINCJ FORCKS. aye after a<^e; 1U)W Hiiioothiii^' ponlteiit death-bedt*. roiiscciatiii^' ernatural powers in human events. To tlic forces of nature, and the apparent prevalence of chamc in human affairs, a cause must he assigned, ainl without a knowledge of the true and natural caiiM . extraordinary events are attributed to supernatui.il agencies. As the causes which govern natural |i1m nomena are known, th.it which before was supernatui;il in nature disappears. Eclipses, comets, and eaitli- • juakes are no longer evidences of divine displeasun . 13ut so long as the people remain in [)()verty and igno- rance, so long will they blindly follow their religious teachers. At this time, not only were men taught to belicvr, but forced to btslieve. l*roselvtism is an esseutial element of every religion ; anil as te;'.chers are possessul of power, so, whether priest or puritan, will they en- force their teachings. To persua if possible, if not to coerce; to win by love, or teirify by puJiisluiunts: to compel the intellect to receive what reason rejects: to make men believe to be true what they know to !»• false; to constrain to a life of hvi)ocrisv or doom t« martyrdom; to force by violence convictiotis that < iui not be carried by arguments; to torture men in act < pt ing forms and creeds which conscience teaches tin ni t( reject — or fjiiling in this to kill them. These ys'vix SrANISH CHRISTIANITY. tlie iri.struiuents with whicli religion wrought in the tiltt'onth coiitury. Thu.s it wa8 that not uUine nobles and prelates, hut tlio illiterate dregs of old ^ 'astile, were lofty in their li»yalty, exalted in their piety, fearless of any danger Nivo the i^ods and devils of their own ereation. As adventurers to the New World, without a murmur tlit-y would encounter the inhospitable climate, inhale the nmlarious air, wade through tangled morasses, (Tniilt rugged mountains, swelter under a tropical sun, and all for the love of CJod, and gold, and glory; traversing the trackless wilderness, scourging, bap- tizing, working miracles, scorning pain, disease, and dtath in their mad eflbrts to save from hell men not lialf so near that place as themselves. Carried away by a ferocious enthusiasm, they became devilish in their (lisiri's to make men Christians; butchering their fel- iiiw mm by scores, thousands, converting and killing — int anwhile ravisjiers of maids, jnurdi'rers of old men and children, j>erfidi«)us liars and cheaters, laying a fair l;ind waste in the name of peace. Their heroism was as higli for [)lunder us for piety; for lands and captivi; .slaves thi'V I'ould wrestle as fervently as for S(>uls, and thiir unscrupulous severity in the accomplishment of tht ir desires was only e(|ualled by their versatility in the clioice of means. Why they were so, what made tlirm so, it is easy enough to see in the ign<»ran<'i' and hlind fanaticism growing out of their religious teach- ings, and in their social maxims. Nor were these heterogeneous, di.set)rdant elements, though thrown together by a conjunction of clas.ses and clans, destined to remain apart, some in one and siiMic in another; on the contrary, they cond>iiicd in gitatcr or less degree in the individual, an«l formed till' hasis of Spanish, more particularly of (\istilian, cliaracter. In the same person wo see united enthu- siastic piety with cruel avarice; indeed, we need not ';.'> l>U(k four centuries, nor look alone up«)n the Span- ish IVuinsula, for unions of ill-assorted and badly min- }n i'l« 1 1- '; 1 i. i i ^ i '■ 108 OPPOSING FORCES. gle«l traits of human cliaractor ; for even now in Anjjjlo- Stixon- puritan stock, in every u live and n'>t die; these; with their cond'orts and tin ir kindness kill«'articular comfort and happinessi So tluse saints and soldiers would have us believe. .lunijM'jo was a <'on(pit'ror, and his g»«'atest achicx' - ment was the compiest of self; as I'ublius Syrus iisi >\ t(< say, "IVis vincit, (jui se vincit in victoria" - he coii- qui'rs twice who coiKjuers himself in victory. Thoiijii outwardly mild and humble, a fii'e of devoted entliii siasm burned within; butwitii self sacrificed so suli- onlinated that he envied his divine mast<'i" but one thing, cru<*ifixion — this fire shot forth occasionally, when he fancied his redeemer slighted or insultnl, but never for slight or insult placed ujion himself Hear how a brother I'riar tells in orthodo.x. terns THE PADRK I'UKSIKENT. 109 , Anglo- V turmtl ay iVoiii be sc'«u lio saint' be Span- Ic on tl\i' (>-Aui«ii- |>iiti'rniil L'l'o ln'iii;.;- iviruatioii nations \'< Hi hitlifi'. rt-ally (K- l tlMin to anil tlitir nl I'iwuio iscll"; th^' 1st JU'lii*'^" - iynis US- 'I -]\V i'oll- Thoujh Led i-ntliU ,1 _..Sl) Huli- IT but ii^'' [(•as'n'iii'l'^ • Ir insult' ^, iumclt. uluX. toUiS tlio story of his lifi": "Juniju'ro St-rra was born on the li4tli of Xovcnibfr, I7l;{, at tlu; villa d»; IVtra, i>laM(l of Mallorca, lu'lonoini^ to jMcditrrrautan Spain. His parents wwe pi'ojdf in liuniblo circunistancrs, but lit' (Irxout and pious faith accordin*^ to the c.-itiiolic (liurrli. Jlis liithor's name was Antonio Srrra, liis iiii>th«r Mart^arita Ferrer. Fi'oin liis cliildlKMid ho w.is (tf a iLfrave, benevoh'ut, serious <'haraeter, and liis ^iv.itest j)U'asure was in attentlinj.^ the church of San jlciiiardino in liis native town. T\ lest habit: M' s nnnressed uiion nis nn h ind tl « dutv o (livotinjjf liini.self to the si rvice of the church, and Im •rdinyly assumed the habit of a Franciscan fi iai- at a«'i'i tlic ai^t' of sixteen. ilis zeal and exemplary conduct iiidcared him to hi-( supej-ior, and thi! brethren of the tinier, who vied with each other in forwardin:LC his \ii\vs, and perfcctini; his theoloLjical studies. His atlrctionate, earnest, and devout spiiit led him to seek tiie conversion of the American In«lians to the faith • it" ('liiist, and he accortrm'';lv became a missionaiv of ilir Societv I'oi* the I'ropaLjation of the I''aith. In ill rdidanee with the linietious ol' his new otlice, and with the lienetlictions of ilis friends and th o.se «) f tl le 111 it ht rhood of San Francisco, he proceedtd to Mex- ii ". and for many years ollieiated in the Indian mis- ^Imis of the Siej'i'a ( Jorda, anrovince. i m m 170 OPPOSING FORCES. aiul fintlinj^ tiie religious ostaldishiiieiits there placetl under the eoiitrol of the ]Joiniiiicans, with the ui.S irojeeted two expechtions to Alta Cahfornia, one l)y iiid on the sliore hy tlie gulf, and the other hy sea. The one hv land hrouufht tlie first livc-stoek, altout GOO in nunilter of all kin tliis eountry; and in ;i coniparativelj short space of time, from the finen ot the climate and richness of the pastures, they were numhered hy tens of thou8an1) the first mission of Ah.i California. ]n the year following was founded the presidio of ^[onU'rey, and the mission of Carnielo. Ily the year 1784, he had foundetl and settleil with priests the estahlishments of San Fiancisco ])olores and Santa Claia in the north, and tho.se of San liuis ()l>ispo, San Antonio, San Jiuenaveiitura, San ( lii hriel, and San Juan Capistrano in tin* south; at each of which places weie also retained small companies ut tin' king's soldiers. "(jlradually the [»ri«'sts, under the enorgt;tic hut paternal dirt-ction ami care of the veneraide president, gatiieri'd into their missions the wild Indians of the valleys of the coast. H is and their lives wi're of gr< at exposure, lahor, and jierpetual risivs and disadvantaue>, thinui'h which tliev persevered with an ind»'lat iua''lf zeal, kiKtwn only to men ind)ue(l with direct [iurp«>-es. ami a lively, ardent faith, which knew no ([ueiichiu.; m a new field lor the rea[K'r's sickhs and lal>orei-s dis- jiroportioned to tlie work. They huilt housts, conse- crated churches, planted vineyaids and or<'hards, sowed fields, stocki'd the j>asturi'S, taught the gentiles lalmr and the consolation of Christ's religion, and finally triumjihed over all difficulties of the first settKim lit of a frontier wikh-i-ness, which, after th«ir saciil Id and sound as the rosi; j>rivations, sprung to lite and Idooniei 1 and liut this was not the oidv reward of the devottii, DEATH OF JUXiPEUO SKUUA. 171 c placed 10 aul *'^ t)10tl) 1'*^ L, one l>y r by ^*' :>• oU, al«>ut and in a . lini'niss Llu'y vvi-'i'^^ ,V() coniv;*- u ot" Ait;i viuded tli> nielo. I >y /ith priests olores aii.l San l^viU t, San *;;' tU; at *-a«li i)nJl>anic- "I I'trctic b"t u president. liaiis of tli<' riv ol' ;j;n !it .nlvanta-o- idrliitij^a*'^"' |(.t \nuv"-;^- ,) (jiicnt'i'ii'- ,.Urti-S, eousr- uir*ls.s..\\.(l irntUrsb'"'!' ar.d linalK •ir sueriti*'' I and I'l"- llhi" dr\"i"*' ( nii^t'tlc, and pious lilV' of the founder ot our state. His aim was the crown of j^lorv, tht^ jutssission of whieh aniniat(\s the devoted eatlioHe to lav tlown his lite, if neci'ssary, when he remcMuhers for all trials and sulferinjjjs that lie that e(mvorteth a s«)ul to God shall shine as a star in the Hnnainent of heaven. And now, ai^e creepiuij on apace, and privations ami Irauie I exiiosures haviuLT had their natural eUe«'t on his CI le was taki'ii sick in the month of Aui;ust, with a severe <'omi>laint of the throat and lun^s, at tin' mission of C'armelo. Loni( and an.xiously did the iVieiids and companions of IJic venerahle foundei- ol California nurse and attend him witii tlie' m<»st tender iv; but ju! told them from the first, with serenity aii -t who had devoted tiieil" lives to the '>'I<»>'N' of" (Jod Mild the conversion of tlu- gentiles His Indian chil- tlivn heuailed with ijroans and tears the melandiolv ii|i|iroach of the time which was to separate him t'or- (•\if from their si^ht, who had left all to rescue tli< ui tiHiii liarliaiisni and the lives of hrute heasts. "At last jiis body, spent with exhaustion and wi ak- in >>, but his mind eleai- to tlu' last, the fatlier of ('; I- it'Hiiia sank to j-est in the ai-ms of his beloved iVirud ami disi-iple, Francisc(» l*alou, as i^cntly as an iiit'nit • «ii its mother's breast. '"Tins event took place on the dav of San Au'jiis:iii fit the mission of Carnielo, near ^^onte•rl y, in the yeir 17> I, at the ai.^e of seventy -one, lacking- a few wcek^, I'llty-four years of his life had he olliciatt d a> ,i I'l'i' st, thii'ty-five of which were spent amoiii;; the ln- • liius of Cahlbrnia and Mexico, as a missionary ot'tlie • itliolic church. liis body was biuied near the last- iii'iitioned nussion, in one of the most beautiful vales "• ( alilnniia, within S(»nnd of old ocean's soh nm le- 'I'i' III, and amid the tears and niourniuirs o| the <<>n- 172 orrosix;; FOnCES. M'ltod heathen wlioin lu- aixl his oonipanuuiM luul tijiinod to the enjoyiiitut (tf Christian hahits ami coii- scdations. Great was tlie sorrow felt l>y the mission- aries and sinipki pijoph: of thosi! days, in our th( ii rciiiote eountry, at thi; luss of tlie veiirrahlc fouiMlrc and presi(Umt oi' tlie missions — a ftrHnu- which ex- tended even to Mexico, where his memory was nvcn d by all elasses of piiopK-, "Junfpero Sena was a man of i;nat henevokiu * and amiability of ciiaracter, charity, and <^cnerosity, combined with a fervent zeal in his iii^h duties, wlurli attaehetl to him with sti'oUL'' atlection all who caiih within the s|)herc of his inlluence. ]|e was a man i I the most in(lefatiij:al)le and industrious habits, ot'<>;re;ii persevtrance, enter[jrisc, and personal couraj^c ; and it may be said that no man with a diiferent chariictf i c(»uld have accompiished. in those days, obje<*ts sdi roun(le An-icles, and ijaihered nearly 90 savage Indian- ini-o nine of the- [afterwards j wealthiest miss'otis of tin eo untry His o- overument was fru''Jii, thrifi an< J fi W( ll-dirtieted eiiei-uv; for at his death the live-st (M> o f the -tablishni'iits number* d nearlv 20.000 hea. and the tiacliinu of tlu' ]»iiests was takitijf deep m anish «i;ovci'mni lit. I i i- life was ])ubliNh«'d in Mexico, in I7."7. undi-r th lowniLT title a I id a liiiililv curi «»u.« a! Ml ( interest 'II'' book it is to those wh(*-e Kouh-, are not »lto M/'xivit, pur I>int l-'il'jx' U Yj tu: '",'/" .'/ ^htiiviro^. I7b7 Tur tl\< u t'ouiul'i' bich i'^- lU'VoU'li*'*' I'lifrosity. ■„.s, \vM«ii who ciiii'^ * a mail 'I i(r(« ; and it ■ rliavi»«'t' » Bcfoiv 1;'- ouutl'd t'" >so aiul 1' "' crc Intliiiii- cvtons oi til' laud l"uH -* le iivc-st<" i" lo.OOO lua.i. If ill r\» >■•' '' not y' ■'; ■ l„Ur til. ' •'■ illtrivsl'ii.: jlltO'^^'^^"'' \iiulu(t, and (lirectetl with «^roat rlroinnsjH'c- titpii and cncrixy, di> wu owe th(; t'oinahitiou of tlio structure of our Pacitic enipirr, wliicli has, within lour \ ca IS, sliakcn to the roots old system an< •nncMilrs. iii>tfd and hardened by the past «;,0()0 vi ars. I!) Si>\\l(| the secti 1, and wo reap the fruit; hut who can t. II wliat a dav will hrinu- forth ^ ■ We now concludi' a fcrhlc atten)])t t<» s]l,' eathoMc missionary. To 1 tim is {'alifoniia !wii \{>i' indel>tesifin i'ect't(!>. lUiu none now !i\ mil,' in Mont er«'V who Wel'e ah\e at tlie time of his death, it has heen without su ccess In lh( present period. Ihe spot when- our Xelielalih' f'lUiiiler first said mass in Monterey in I7()ti is still traditionally pointed out hy the old Sj»anish nati\ old mission church "t San ( arlos, in the ( 'armek) \alley, iindei- whose ^l''lli tlae;s the hody of the Xtiieiahle plcsidi lit v'.as liiiii at, rest. '■' M' the tw''n'^\-toii(. d to iiitlict cruelty, they mu.^t aeeustom themselves t" hear it. And as for women, tame, indeed. mu>t !• earthlv forms, fit only lor t-arthU use, heside hei- w loiu they w«jrship in hea\en her for whom they fi'^ht a'nl die, .'.,'. hut this i-efiLjious loyalty. whi r italto-til" r ys tin" lU'-t, tV' sauftiti"! s Calit*'vn.;i 11. »t buM ••-: , t wli«n 1 r,.r Jumi" • o COO liviiia- 11 hi av. n, at • ill Aii\' 1 ' ' id iliit •«•'''> uslt'in 111'"' Iht'insi'lv"^ ' c'.l. nivi-' ' L.y ti:j;\.t "■"' hilifornia wu^ botli pru'sts n\u\ snklii-rs, :tiHl so stTuriiiLj uiiaiiimity of j>ur|n)st' antill iiioic liis jilillity to hold oHicf; hut now tin* Itankt r thus not ;i-k of his custoiniT who wishis to hoirow iiiomy what his opinion may l»r in i\'i;ard to thf immai-ulatt' con- >tion. hi d I I Voiced i)V science. iciit;ioii iind i^ovirn iiniit arc no lonurr aiiic M oialit V an< I iclii; ion Were .luiiipero's stock in trade; and e\t ry tihie ot' his nafuic was so imhued with them that, in the suhju"u;ation oj the wilderness, a handiul of men under jiis o-uidance was c(|ual to an army under tin direction ot' aimther. Xoitliward he marched, hi<;'ii, holy, and Hcreiic, hi.- inind and attitude as (iod's (Jahrii 1. j'l.intin;^ at intei- \ lis those i^reat nKMiuineiits to hi> laith. which hence- Initji Were to stand there in tlcir monotonous inllueiice like the lireakillLf ot' time Wa\«'S on the shore of ete|-- liltV yreat ocean. \e llul alas! .lunfperos succ«'S.sors were not all lil liiiii. As a lule. they could not Ik- called liaii«lsome iiieii. or men of reline of thiir tloek w'liitl Well' they \\ hateVer Iheycliose to he. ( )\.r liH'ir whitewashed wild ones they e\ei-ci>ed a too I'lU I'ful inllueiice. in theii- features earths defor- mity and heaven's «li\ inity met : so that althoU'^h they iiii'jlit 1)0 the most ill favored of men. tiny ueie yet till' most iuautil'iil of heiiiLj.^. I»y their looks and lite arul teachinLjs, and hs these alone in (he minds tl k; hunple .savaefes, must he shaped hcaxciis eter ale si I ill MX I' lull '4lory,just as cosmoMdnie coiic«'piioii.- ''V .innate ami conliouration. .luiii|iero was a man of ^^reat wiii-powtr and enei'^fy N't who could not exercisi- will and ener<_ry. knowing' tliat the almi''litv walkid l>v his sitje to hear him up \i->.i i ifl 1 170 Ol'POSlXt; FORCES. or pitcli liitn into ]i<>av<'ii in case hv fill. Ch-ii'Dud ami awt'd as wc arc l»y tlu' artivc nianifcstatioiis ot tuicc ill iiatuiT, We an- none tla- l«ss iiiturustcd in watcliin^' tlic »ii('i';/y <»t' artinfi in num. EhxjiU'Mco is iiitrllcct al»la/o; aiul wliat is lafkiiijL,^ in intellect may oi'ttii Im> mad*' 11)1 in doL^matic dtM-lamation, in l(>uii'ty, tlitsc siU-.sacTiHcinj^ ratlurs of the cliunli, and were always ready if auccssaiy to t'cc'd their young with tluir own i)lood. I'litsts and |iiety, as a suhject, must ever present i ehaptt r of e<»ntiadieti<»ns. lniat;ination is nnn'«' oft in powcit'nl than reality. The lathers were sehooled in thr invsteries of the iina<4ination, and now thev must tem li tl lell' (liselples l»V till! o\-erheat«' tian li^lit tin ir souls were setii'ehed fis tilt ii" skin> l.-nl heen liy the gloi-i(»us sun's ellidjijent hi'i'^htiiess. ,Miii gled ^^ ith his prayers weiv tory of scculaii/a- tions. The church wraps ancient learning in a luipUii rHAU.UTKR OF TIIK MISSIOXAUIKS. 177 ltio»\s oi estr«l in Irct u»»y \\\ lovul- ways, at tin;^', at»"- ,.,,\iviilsi<'ii- tluni u\«'Ui i,.n was ll" ■ 11 o\H'»»t 'i '" strains, :iii'l a John i>'"l UlVi'VSr NVltl' of li'iH raiii'l colllil >'>'''■ . it was lilt' \u>l.l K'''''V'" ..s tUiin il'y ,r Ihaf'^'^'- I,f in a niM'l^>» ;iii(l lavs it awav; sint-o wliicli tiino tlu' iM<'i'nuitv of iii.iM lias Im'cij t'in|>l()y«'«l to .strip oft' the rovniii^s, anil |i t tin- lit^lit sliino forth. All things \\ tin* <;hastly skclcttui of ahstra<'t r«li:^ious coii- t< iii]>liitioii and <'«>n>monious homage as ])ro[>itiatory (>i otl'i ruled dtitv. As to r«'al knt)wledi't', tla-v ha in their |ii iiitcnce, and sat( I nii,' an_i,^ls; of the darkness, fiends. They \\'\,' <-ruel to he kind, at least so they fancied, us kitidly ( ruel, tluiso soul-savris, as the sui%'eon who !iiid kills his victim in no hlood-thirsty or riv« n^e- t'lil iiiood. And to this end emotion must he sacrilieid tn motive ll( erou! and couiaL,''fous as tliev wtii t!n.>e (jU.llities Were often seen to fade hefore the svill- |>:itlictic and humane riit'V hail come from afar, and liv a toil.soi Me w;i\' iH \' r nu'U struggled .so hard to acliieNt' martyi'doni. \\ ' t' there no anijels at their own dotus to ent< ilaiii, ii" whiter, nearer souls to nawf ()r is it that the re- ward is in propurtion to the elfort rather than to ,suc. '■'"^-' Surely there Were Worse men ill Sp;iiii for wli '111 Christ died than these harmless lote-eaters. 1! >iit 111 Spam every man who.se soul was woi-tli s.i\ m^ iii.;l I hiive a priest of his own if he liked. They VMv plenty en<»UL,di, and idle eiKamh. Hut tliiit was ( u. r\HT., Vol.. I. r; !|'l in Ori'osiXi; FoHChS. }.J t<»<> rasy; i]\vuy Wi'vr lands wlicro cliristiaiiity v.as not sn (i\(T«l(»ii«'. Too Ljfcat pro .|M'rity is a»H't»uiitt i| ratlur ail <'vil than a Mcssini;; , ir(MKl dot-s not )»uni>!i lie Is nui'snij^ his wralh. I^iki; I^Ml^i;.^), kinj^ «it Spain, wlioni hy way of* prnanc*; tiio hermit consi^^m ,| to a cavo filled with snukrH and li/tmls, which, niiiar- uIon>iy restrained, tor days would not toueh liiin; (lod would n(»t a«cej)t the sacrifice, would not (\iii permit his servant the pleasure of hein^; eaten hy holy nptiles; hut finallv one day, as the hermit, who h.i'l heeii jiassin;^ the ni:j;ht in prayer, <'ame to him, he juy- f'ully e\t lainied, "Thtyrjit mcnowl they eat me now I I f'rrl the adder's hitt;!" And so t'orj^iven, his sins atoned, rejoic'inj^dy lit^ dies. It was the AuLTUstan a;^c of* missions, this, when the Ljood tlun(pon> lived and died; all savaucedom must l-r placed on the sto(tl the JiiMM (lictine nmtto, ( tra if UOiunt. I*ray ainl woik -especially pray. If* work was too fatii^niinj. prayer was tiasy and always effectual ; for if it hrou^l.t not the invoked the aid nt luaven aNcrted «*alamities, and htouj^ht tlown \u;.;ht paidon for sins, .iml pi-ocure«l eternal happiness for the soul. liut iiiiitllil he \ <>ui' j(»v, let vour triumph he low toncil, yom- li' lU rin;4 out their peals in whisp«'rs, and yourifuns ImIImu- ill noiseless puffs, for the souls that here should nn'st rejoice have shot lu-yond the ether 1 ulty \v:m ri'i>uut» li •h, miiat- UfU liiiii; not (N'll 'II liy li"'iy , who liail m, ii»' .!">- II, lii> ^^n'"* I, wIh'M tlir iin must I"' tlicifs w.i- l>niy iniil > t:iti';,'uiii'i. f it l»v"- It was til' y 'nr sin>. "'"' I5ut iiiulll"l .^iiiis IhII'iW JiuiuUl in">t CHAPTER VI. COLKKN A<;K ok rALIIORNlA. Ami ('%'(!!■ aKiiiuMt isttiii;; caruii Litjt MIL' ill ttiift Lytliiku iiira. — 1,'AUnjm. First tlio fJoldtn A<;t', and tluu tlio \\fv ot'dold. 11<»\\ dilKr«ntI And yi't Itctwcfii tlu' end and ln-- '^iiiniii":; <»f a drcade Caldornia j^ivis us a s|K'('inM n lit' each, Nvliirli brii'f ptilttd jin'scnts two I'pisodt s nt" society till' history of tlio world cannot parallel. Ilotli wt'ro oi'i^inal, hoth |»h('nonn'nal ; and so dostly ii|ion the Im'cIs of one follow»>d the otlu-i", that lor an iu>tant hoth wvxv on tho t-roimd at the same time, iliit onlv lor an instant. The lamh may 1k' di»wn with tilt! lion, and j>eratlventiii'e escape heint^ eaten; ii'it so with tho mild find ni'rveless inhahitant of SHiitherii ( 'alifornia, and the wild, tigerish jLTold-seeker scenting; the metal iroin afar. It was when the j^old-seekeis canu' that tiiis t^olden aire of California wasdestinetl to he alloyed with hras> ; I"!' not tho ii\f{i of »^old was ( 'alifornia's trui' Ljolden a^e. Tlit^ ai^(! of 1,'old was tho 'a\*v of avarico, tho ago of hiii- t.il iMurdi'rs, of wild nuloness and insano revellinus. More riearlv resemhlin;' the <'Uthanasia of the ancients as the pastoral lifo precetling the fimling of th Sit ria's treasures. Xover hofor o or since was thel'i a pi't, in America whore life was a long liappy holi- • lay. where there was less lahor, less care or trouhle, >ii' li as the old-tiino jrolden aije under Cronos or Saturn, the gathi'ring o{ nature's fruits heing tin ' ^1 IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 I.I IIM 1112.5 'i^ IIM IIIII2.2 m 2.0 1.8 1.25 1.4 J4 .4 6" - ► Hiotographic Sciences Corporation 23 WES rMAIIl STREET WEBSTEIi.M Y. 14S80 (716) 873-4503 ? «? 6 h ;\ \ . -& ^> 180 GOLDEN AGE OF CALIFORNIA. chief burden of life, and death coming without decay, hke a gentle sleep. To constitute a true golden age, there must be pres- ent certain conditions. Though there need be no great riches, there must be enough, so that all may live in plenty. Never were so many men in America so rich as now ; yet no one would think of calling this a golden age. We lack the true sources of happiness — innocence and contentment — essential to a golden age. We indulge too much in luxury and vice to please the gods, and so we are cursed with crimes, political and social. A golden age must be a time of truth, of right, and reason, and universal moderation. Men must be satisfied and women virtuous. Women must be satisfied and men honest. Half-way between savagism and civilization, Cali- fornia's pastoral days swept by, midst the dreamy rev- eries of a race half-way between the proud Castilian and the lowly root-digger of the Coast Range valleys. How much of culture, wealth, refinement, morals, and religion does it take to make men the most miserable ? Gold fi r use must have alloy ; in the golden age there is no alloy. It is not for use, a golden age, but for enjoyment. Savagism suffers too greatly from heat and cold, from hunger and a too deep debasement. Savagism has no golden age; if it had, it would not be savagism; yet the naked wild man, when he is happy, is very happy ; he has his periods of heavenly bliss, but they are too short and fitful, and the inter- vals are filled with a too deep despondency. But let not civilization boast overmuch. What though savages are ignorant and lazy lotos-eaters, there is not a fancied benefit civilization has that is not dearly paid for. As for ignorance, there is plenty of it left; they who read writings in the sky are not half so learned as they fancy. And as for energy, had we less of it, smaller penitentiaries would answer, and there would be fewer people at large who ouylit lo be in them. A man rolls up his five or fifty million WEALTH AND WISDOM. Ifl t decay, be pres- [ be no all may America ling this >piness — Iden age. lease the itical and truth, of )n. Men naen must bion, Cali- eamy rev- [ Castilian [Te valleys, lorals, and miserable ? age there re, but for from heat basement, would n(»t hen he is f heavenly the intei- and dies; what is he the better for it all, or any oue else? Peupeumoxmox, the savage, struggled nobly for the welfare of his people, and died. Peter Funk, tlio millionaire, struggled bravely for himself, for Mrs Funk, and the little Funks, and they all died. There are many Funks abroad, and they are getting thicker and less worshipful every day; but only once in a lifetime do we meet with a Peupeumoxmox, either savage or civilized. The human race is yet in its childhood. This planet, which for thousands of ages has been preparing for man, is but just now ready — is, indeed, not wholly finished The six thousand or sixty thousand years of infancy have barely sufficed to rid the best of us of our swaddling-clothes ; a large portion of mankind yet wear them, or wear none. Manhood, with its earnest labors, is dawning upon us; the mind is just beginning to think, and the hands to work. Nature in some slight degree is being laid under contribution; already we annihilate space, walking by steam and talking by electricity. Yet everything to man is crude, unde- veloped, and ill defined. Our religion is mixed with superstition, our politics with selfishness, our morality with fashion, and of science we know next to nothinjr. It is only in a simple and quiet life that the soul finds ail antidote to the materialism of engrossing intercourse with the world, and is able to place itself en rapport with nature and the supernatural. After California's golden age and age of gold comes tlie age of silver, into the mysteries of which we will not attempt at this time to penerate. What, then, is there here a deterioration? In many respects, yes. Men have enough in the silver age, but they are not satisfied. The bronze age is a time of violence, of wars and misdeeds. Is it progress when social, poli- tical, and commercial morals sink into the depths 1 Is it j)r()gress when men rise from the ground and through lying and chicanery get hold of the people's money, organize iniquitous and grinding monopolies for tlie we- GOLDEN AGE OF CALIFORNIA. purpose oi extorting from a too long suffering and patient people more money? Is it progress wlien all tlie world, like silly sheep, rush to the gamblhig pools of swindling manipulators of shares? The heroic age — none such has yet appeared on those shores. We have had heroes enough, braver and better than any who lead armies to battle, or in- dividually excel in the art of manslaughter — heroes who conquer self, who put under foot their baser pas- sions, who toil on all through a weary life, self-denying, self-sacrificing for some good and worthy object, for wife and children, God bless them, for the right, for humanity, for something better than the mere heaping up of money as a soul-substitute. An age of heroes, yes; but beware the age heroic; likewise the brazen age, still more the ages of iron, stone, and clay, ages of deep debasement to w ich we know not but wo may be unconsciously drifting. The shepherd of the pastoral age is not the shep- herd of to-day. On the gently sloping hillside, under the outspread, bearded oak, sat the shepherd of pastoral (lays, gazing out upon the liquid crystal, and watching his Hocks as month after month they continued to wax fat and increase. Serene his thoughts, and some- times mighty ; mighty and serene as those of tiieir herds, as they lay upon the warm, dry grass ruminat- ing. The shepherds of to-day are wolves; the people are their silly sheep, which they fatten but to devour. Shepherds of the pastoral times knew something of astronomy, and were full of piety to the gods. The shepherds of to-day know how to salt a mine, how to discriminate in freights and fares, how to keep up the price of sugar, of flour, how to swindle, cheat, and lie; they, too, are full of piety; there is no god like their god, and his name is Mammon. It was in rather humble guise that church and state came marching hand in hand up along the ocean border, two or three priests representing the one, and twice or thrice as many soldiers the other. It was MISSION-PLANTING. 183 enough, however, considering the power behind and the impotence before them; not to mention the al- mighty maker of the universe and the king of Spain, or their legions in heaven and in Europe, there were colleges and convents enough in Mexico to quite con- found Satan, who flourished in a mild form in these parts. There was the college of Zacatecas, with mis- sions in Chihuahua and Durango; the college of San Fernando in Mexico, with missions in Alta Califor- nia. The Franciscans also had missions in Sonora, Slnaloa, and Texas; the Dominicans in Guadalajara, Durango, and Zacatecas ; and the Augustinians, Car- melites, and Mercenarios, with the others, over nearly all Spanish America. After several expeditions by water and a thorough examination of the country along the shore, sites al)out fifteen leagues apart were selected for missions, which should be heavenly mile-stones and temples of God in the wilderness, resting-places of hospitality and devotion for the wayfarer; and for the fat padres who should dwell therein, acting as middle-men between (iod and his creatures, they were marks of merit for stripes, humility, and services rendered, and foretastes of heaven. Thanks, cowled priests; but ages before you brought hither your not too lc)vely persons, there was not a foot of this lotos-land from San Diego Bay to San Francisco that had not its living temple to God, be it a pebble, a flower, or a horned toad. In the selection of mission sites, care was taken to be not far from a landing for ships, and yet not so near that their Indians would be contaminated by the evil influence of soldiers and sailors. There must be water at hand, some tillable land, and a fair extent of pasturage. The work of conversion was quickly begun and went bravely on. In due time mission buildings were erected, and settlers came in and clustered near the presidio, thus forming towns, many of which remain to this day, some having grown into respectable cities. m GOLDEN AGE OF CALIFORNIA, hi 1'^ To the first one built in this northernmost section of Spain's heathen fields was given the name of San Diego, probably in honor of San Diego de Alcald, who was a saint sprung from the Franciscan order. It was founded on the IGth of July, 1769, according to the record of the foundation appearing on its first book of baptisms, "at the expense of the catholic monarch, Don Carlos III.,rey de las Espaiias, whom God prosper, defrayed under most ample authority from his Excellency Don Carlos Francisco de Croix, Marquds de Croix, present viceroy, govenu>r, and captain-general of this New Spain, by the most Illustri- ous Don Joseph de Galvez, of the council and clianibcr of his Majesty in the royal and supreme of the Indies, intendent of the army, and visitador general of this Nueva Espana, by the religious of said apostolic col- lege, San Fernando of Mexico." Its first ministers were the father preacher Friar Junipero Serra, president, and the father preacher Friar Fernando Parron, apostolic preachers of said college of San Fernando of Mexico, associated with the father preacher Friar Juan Vizcayno, appointed to the foundation of another mission. The book from which these extracts were taken replaced the originals commenced at the foundation, and which were destroyed during an Indian revolt in 1775, together with other books and papers, the church ornaments, sacred vessels, houses, and uten- sils of the mission. It appears that up to the 5tli of November, 1775, 470 adults and children had been baptized. The mission was first established on the hill or beach afterward occupied by the presidio at the port of San Diego, which the natives called Cosoy. It was subsequently transferred, in August 1774, to another site up the river, two leagues distant, known among the natives as Nipaguay, where the destriK - tion took place. The authors of the revolt were gvn- tiles and neophytes from upwards of 70 rancher las MISSION SAN DIEGO. or villages, and in overwhelming numbers assaulted the mission, which they partly plundered, and mostly burnt, wounding the corporal and three soldiers of the mission guard, and killing a carpenter, Jose Ur- sc'lino, a blacksmith, Josd Manuel Arroyo, and the missionary Friar Luis Jaume; his fellow-missionary. Friar Vicente Fuster, and another blacksmith, Felipe Komero, miraculously escaping with life. Fathers Scrra and Parron had charge of the mission to about tlie middle of April 1770, when Serra departed to found a mission at Monterey, leaving in his place Friar Francisco Gomez, Father Vizcayno having re- turned to Mexico via Lower California. Parron and Gomez administered the religious and temporal affairs of the mission for more than a year, when, owing to sickness, one returned to Lower California, and the other went away by sea to Mexico. It was then that the president appointed to succeed them Friar Fran- cisco Dumetz and Luis Jdunie, who had recently arrived in California, together with eight others, by sta. Dumetz remained there a year, and was then transferred to Monterey, being succeeded by Friar Juan Crespf, who had been till then Serra's compan- ion at tlie San Cilrlos. In September 1772, Crespf was returned to Monterey, and replaced by Friar Toiniis de la Pena, who remained in the mission till September 1773, when Father Fuster took his place hy appointment made by the vice-president of the mission. Father Francisco Palou, who acted in the }ilace of Father Serra, absent in Mexico. Jdunjc was murdered, as we have seen. It seems that, besides tlie fathers already named, Friars Pablo Mugdrtegui, ^liguel Sanchez, Gregorio Amurrio, and Fermin Fiancisco de Lasuen had visited the mission and oc- casionally officiated. It was the river of San Diego on which the mis- sion was placed, a brave enough stream when flushed with the rains of winter, but sinking into the simds of humility in summer. If there is anywhere a fairer 186 GOLDEN AGE OP CALIFORNIA. patch of earth and sea than here extends for fifty miles in every direction, it has yet to be found. The soil, though not so rank as to fill the air with noxious va- p(jrs arising from redundant vegetation, is still rich enours and a neophyte, all of whom, as well as the ixocutod one, were buried bv Father Fernando Mar- tin. A connnander did San Diego mission the honor to die and be buried there, namely, Captain Jose Alalia Estudillo, on the 9th of April,' 1830. It was a ijfreat event at Mission San Dieoo, the con- f?t'(>ration of a new church, the one latest existuig, on the 1 2th of November, 1813, the day of San Diego. Tilt" benediction took place on the 12th by Father Jose Bai'ona, Father Geronimo Boscana preaching the ser- mon. On the following day were transferred thereto the remains of the missionaries Jiiume, Figuer, Mari- ner, and Panto. The sermon was delivered by Friar 188 GOLDEN AOE OF CALIFORNIA. II Tomds Ahumada, a Dominican from Mission San Miguel in Lower California. The ministers of the mission at the time were Friars Jos^ Sanchez and Fernando Martin. A maj^nificent pile for one reared in the heart of savagedom, and not by the hands of experienced arti- sans, was that of San Luis Rey, north of San Diego, and at a little distance from the sea. It was founded by Father Peyrf in 1798. The buildings surrounded a large square, in the centre of which played a foun- tain, while the gardens were filled with fruits, and tlie fields with grain and cattle. This Padre Antonio, as Peyri was called, on his departure from the coun- try, took with him two or three Indian boys, one of whom turned priest and lived in Rome, lived a sainted savage near the Vatican. Northward the good men go, and on the site called by the natives Sajirit, and also appearing as Quanis Savit, found San Juan Capistrano, Father Presiticnt Junipero Serra officiating on the 1st of Novembei", 1770, assisted by Father Gregorio Amurrio at royal expense during the rule of Viceroy Bucareli, yck-pt " insigne favorecedor de estos nuevos estableoimieti- tos." Its first ministers were fathers Pablo de Mugar- tegui and the aforesaid Amurrio. The mission held fifteen leagues of and along the seaboard, extending back to the mountains, which area was interspersed with shady groves and fertile ravines, and covered with herds of stock and fields of waving grain. On the 7th of September, 1806, was consecrated to the service of God a new church built by the ne(»- phytes of stone and lime, with vaults. The con- struction was begun on the 2d of February, 171)7, and terminated in 1806. The benediction took place on the day aforesaid by Father Estevan Tapis, presi- dent of the missions, assisted by fathers Jos(5 de Mi- guel and Josd Antonio de Urresti, ministers of Mission San Miguel; Mdrcos Antonio de Victoria of Mission Santa Bdrbara; Jose M. de Zalvidea of Mission San CHURCH CONSECRATION. Fornando; Antonio Peyrf of Mission San Luis Rey; IV'tlio de 1m, Cueva of Mission San Jose; and Juan Norburto de Santiay;o and Josd Fdura, ministers of Sail Juan Capistrano. There were also present at the inipt)sing ceremonies Lieutenant-colonel Jose Joa- (luin de Arrillaga, governor of California, Muimel Jlodriguez, captain commandant of San Diego, Lieu- ti'iumt Francisco Maria Ruiz of the presidial com- pany of San Diego, Joaquin Maitorena, aHeroz of Santa Barbara, besides a large concourse of soldiers, civilians, and neophytes of San Juan and the neighbor- ing missions. On the 9th of the same month were transferred to the new church, from the former one, the bones of Father Vicente Fuster, minister of the mission, wlio died on the 21st of October, 1800. He \vas, it will be remembered, the companion of Father Jiiiune at San Diego in November 1775, at the tinie the soul of Jdume was set free by the natives. All this was not enough to intimidate a terrible earth- quake, which cracked the walls and rattled down the rafters and stones, killing forty-three persons, and se- riously injuring a nmcli larger number. This mark of tlie Almighty's displeasure occurred on the 8th of December, 1812. Here let me relate a miracle. No one who ever lived and worshipped God in California better deserves a name in history and a place in heaven than Padre Jose Maria Zalvidea. He was a missionary Martin Luther, if such a monstrosity could be conceived of, eminent in talents, virtues, and efficient services, par- ticularly in the development of the material resources of San Gabriel and other mission districts. He greatly loved to engage in hand-to-hand conflict with his archenemy, Satan, at whom he would scream, kick, and incontinently spar with his fists, until the devil was so frighten^ he dare not come near him. After that he would mellow, like a great l"mp of sweet cream, into the rich milk of human kindness. (Jnc day in the spring of 1841, while the pious 190 GOLDEN AOE OF CALIFORNIA. father was blessing San Juan Capistrauo by li'is j;rrs- cnco, he walked out among the cattle, his eyes fixed upon his holy book, his soul communing with heaven. ** Have a care, good father," shouted a vaqu(!ro. "He for whom God cares, my son, himself netd have no care," cahnly replied the priest, as he raised his eyes and encountered the threatening attitude of a mad bull. Then lowering them to his book again, Ik; continued his reading, turninij neither to the ri^l.t hand nor to the left. The beast bellowed lustily; tlio fatlier began to sing a hymn. The beast tore up the earth with its feet, throwing dirt upon the sacred ves- tures of the priest. Then the animal charged upon the padre, while all who saw it held their breath in horror, feeling sure that the next moment the good man would be gored to death. "Peace, peace, malignant spirit!" the father said and smiled; "come, come, wouldst thou throw dirt on me?" The mad bull paused, then raised its head, droppt d its tail, and trotted away to another part of the field, overcome by the power of God and the magic of ti good man's voice. The mission San Gabriel Arcdngel, near Los An- geles, was founded at royal expense, pursuant to ordii s of Viceroy Marques de Croix and the visitador-general of New Spain, Joseph de Galvez, by Father Junii>ei() Serra, president of the missions, on the 8th of Sep- tember, 1771. Its first ministers were fathers Pedro Benito Cambon and Joseph Angel Somera. Tlie number of baptisms of all classes from the foundation to the 29th of December, 1850, was quite large, rcarh- inof 9,123. The number of marriages is unknown, tlio record being mcomplete from 1840 to 1849. After October 1850, the town of San Gabriel was in charoe of parish priests. The last qprtificate of interment, dated December 28, 1850, bears the number 6.117, of which 1,707 were prior to the end of 1800. Among the gente de razon buried are iucluded those who were MISSION SAN GAinilEL. lis v-rcs- es fixed heaven, m^ro. lelf need 16 raisrd tiule of a a;j;ain, Ik^ l\\c rijJil.t stily ; tlio re up the icred vcs- *Ted upon breath in the good ither said hrow diit [I, dropp< d the tield, Liaijic of a iidiahltants of the town of Los Angeles. Several missionaries of the college have died, and heen in- terred in tlie church of this nussion, to wit: tTuly 28, IHOli, Miguel Sanchez; October 12, 1804, Antonio Cruzado, who had served 22 years in Sierrii (iorda and 33 in this California ; January 15, 18 11, Fnincisro Dunietz; June 16, 1821, Konian Ullil)arri; Dccendjer 21, 1821, Joa«iuin Pascual Nuez; July 0, IH.'U, Ge- r<')ninio Boscana; and on July 10, 1833, Jose l^crnardo Sanchez, ex-president of the missions. Thouias KKu- tcrio Estenaga died some time in 1847, wliile on tjr 11th of November, 1850, Bias Ordaz breathed his last. This mission occupied one of the most chf ; .ling spots in California. Its gardens abounded in oranges, grapes, figs, j^ Miegranates, peaches, apples, lini' s, pears, and citrons, and the air was pernnned with ifs trees and flowei-s. Wine, brandy, and cattle were liere produced in great abundance. I'eople are af)t to tell and believe great stories about money. Large sums in specie have been reported as existing at the missions, especially at San (ial»riel, h'.it such statements should be taken with allowance. Where was such money to come from? Most of the transactions with merchants were exchan":e of ijoods. Tliere was some coin in the country, of course — more, indeed, in the northern missions than at the south, owing to trade with the Russians, who usually paid for the wheat they bought partly in money. There- fore, let it be understood that when I give the amount of specie at a mission, I only repeat from the record, but without fully believing it myself. To drink and not get drunk; to teach temperance and keep the world sober while manufacturing rum at a good profit ; these are vital questions alike for good livers, priests, and political economists. tT-^iissens tells a story showing how^ the liquor-loving savages of San (irabriel used to outwit him while making into wnie and brandy the grape crop of the mission. It was in 192 GOLDEN AGE OF CALIFORNIA. i 1840, while Don Juan Bandini was in charge. Jans- sens observed that the Indians at work about tlie stills were always more than half drunk, and well swollen out in face and belly; the question was, How did they get hold of the liquor? In vain was every- thing closely watched night and day, and every imagi- nary loop-hole kept under lock and key. In vain liberal rations of wine were dealt out to them morn- ing, noon, and night. The mysterious intoxicatit)n increased, and bellies and faces waxed bigger and bigger. Finally it all came out, and no thirsty Maine man or Boston anti-prohibitionist showed more shrewdness in evading the law than these so lately gentle heathen, thus whitewashed by civilization. It was Janssens' custom, after he had fed the stills, to leave the Indians tendmg the fires, while he retired to his room, through which ran the tubes of tJio brandy stills and the water, the only exit tlie fluid had from the stills. It was a comparatively easy matter to watch the master, and while he was not lookino', raise the cover of the stills and help themselves. TLis, however, was soon detected, and padlocks put on tlio covers, while the offenders were ironed. Then fol- lowed a neater trick. The wine was conveyed from the fermenting vats in barrels, with one of the hea(!s off, the head being carried at the end of a long stick by the hindermost man. The burden was heavy, and the poor carriers were permitted to set it down and rest occasionally. " O, if this stick were only hollow I " sighed the hindermost. "A cane would do," answered the foremost, "and we could then take our turn carry- mg the barrel-head." And so it all came about; after which manifestation of the power of mind over matter, it were calumny to say that these heathen could not be christianized. In a beautiful plain north of San Gabriel was tlie mission of San Fernando, founded in 1797, where was distilled annually two thousand gallons each of wine and fine brandy. In 182G, besides large herds of I ii SAN FERNANDO AND SAN BUENAVENTURA. 193 Jans- )out the .nd well as, How IS evcrv- ry iiuagi- In vain ;in luoru- oxication yger and ity Maine ed more so lately ation. the stills, he retired es of the e fluid had asy matter )t lookin;J, ves. Tl.i^, put on tli'J Then fol- eyed fri)ni the heads long stick heavy, and down and [y hollow 1" '"' answi>red Iturn carry- bout; after er matter, could not iel was the where was Ich of wii»c herds of cattle, sheep, horses, mules, and swine, it had in store $50,000 worth of merchandise, and $90,000 in specie. The mission of San Buenaventura owned about 1,500 square miles, sixteen leagues north of San Fer- nando. Besides stock, orchards, and vineyards, it had, ten years before its secularization in 1835, $35,000 in merchandise, $27,000 in specie and church ornaments, and clothing to the value of $61,000. Saint Bonaventura, cardinal-bishop, was one of the great doctors of the church, and ex-minister-general of the Franciscans. This establishment, with the Santa Barbara channel at its door, was founded at royal expense on the 31st of March, 1782, by the father- president, Junipero Serra, associated with Father Pedro Benito Cambon — both priests remained in cliarge temporarily until the arrival of the royal ship, wliuTi brought out more missionaries. A new church was dedicated to the service of God in the mission on the 9th of September, 1809, by its ministers, friars Jose Senan and Mdrcos Antonio de Victoria, assisted ])y tlio clergyman, Jose Ignacio Argllello, a son of ex- jrovernor pro tern. Joseph Dario ArgUello of this Cal- ifornia, and subsequently governor of Lower California, and friars Luis Gil de Taboada, Josd Antonio Calzada, Jose Antonio Urresti, and Josd Maria do Zalvidea, ministers respectively of Santa Bdrbara, Santa Ines, San Fernando, and San Gabriel. On the 1 1th of the same month were transferred thereto from tlie old cliiiroh the remains of Father Vicente de Santa Ma- ria, ex-minister, who died on July 16, 1806. This clmreli was greatly damaged by earthquake s, which rendered it necessary to erect a temporary hut of straw at San Joaquin and Santa Ana, about three quarters of a league away, to serve as a temple. The people had been obliged to move from the mission buildings, fearing from the agitation of the sea that a tidal wave Would flood it. In November 1818, there was another flip;! t from the mission, during the presence of three weeks and three days on the coast of two insurgent Cal. Pa8T. is 194 GOLDEN AGE OP CALIFORNIA. ships of Buenos Aires, which, under Bouchard, had bombarded and plundered Monteiey. There is an entry in the book of baptisms of the mission, on the 30th of Decomber, 1827, in which the minister. Friar Josef Altimira, formerly of San Francisco, and who first planted the symbol of Christianity in the Sonoma valley, certifies having christened Papenajda, a half- breed from the Hawaiian islands, "whose natives live without knowing the true God, in a most dark and diabolical superstition, practising idolatrous rites, and paying a cult, *nmy animal 6 bestial que dan al padre pe la mentira, y gefe de los abismos.'" The zealous father stated this upon information given him b}'' his steward, an Englishman named George Colman, wlio had lived ten years on those islands, and had lately joined the catholics. Among the notable burials here recorded were three soldiers, in 1810, murdered by Mojaves, who visited the mission; of three Indian centenarians, all women, one of 100, another of 105, and the third of 114, and supposed to be even older. Also, besides Father Santa Maria, were buried in tlio mission church August 25, 1823, Jose Senan, vice- prefect, and twice president of the missions; June 18, 1831, Francisco Suner. Santa Bdrbara, famous for its choice wines and pro- fuse hospitality, was located some nine leagues north of San Buenaventura, upon a picturesque elevation about three miles inland. The mission buildings wtio of stone walls, with two towers at one end, between which was a high gable, and two wings, all of stone. The roof was covered with tiles laid in cement, and in the towers were several richly toned bells from Spain. In one of the wings lived the padres; tlie other was the prison, while rows of adobe huts near by wer? occupied by the Indians. Near the cliurdi was a beautiful garden, surrounded by a high fence of stone and cement, yielding a variety of choice fruit. In front of the church were constructed of solid ma- sonry a series of tasteful fountains, a pool, and a res- MISSION SANTA BARBARA. 195 rd, hacl e is an on the ir, Friar tnd wlvo Sonoma t, a lialf- ives live lark and •ites, and al padre e zealous im by bis man, wlio lad lately irials here rdered by •ee Indian er of 105, ;ven older, ried in tbe iiian, vice- June 18, crvoir seventy feet long. Water was brought from an adjoining hill through an open stone aqueduct, and near it were the grist-mill and bath-house, the latter a stone structure six by ten feet, over the door of which a beautiful jet of water was thrown from a stone lion's head. The water, after performing divers duties, was carried to the tannery, and finally dis- [tersed over the soil in irrigating canals. The churcli was sixty by one hundred and sixty feet, forty feet in heiijht, and the walls eight feet in thickness. Paint- ings adorned the walls, and sepulchral vaults, the final resting-place of the clergy, underlaid the floor. Kichly furnished dressing-rooms opened into the church, and the ususl paraphernalia of worship adorned tlie altar. From the chancel a door opened into a Availed cemetery consecrated to the burial of baptized Indians. Within this enclosure was a general tondi, six feet in depth, with heavy walls six feet apart, in wliich the Indians were first buried. As the place became filled, the bones were removed to a spot within the enclosure. According to a certificate of tlie father-president, religious ceremonies were held by him on the spot wliere the presidio was established on the 21st of April, 1782. The foundation of a mission was sus- ]K>nded till toward the end of 1786, when it was car- ried out half a league to the northwest. Notable events: January 10, 1795, Ignacio Rochin, soldier, executed for murder; February 4, 1798, was buried Captain Josd Francisco Ortega, who was a sergeant tif the troops at the foundation of San Diego in 1709, a most efficient officer; February 11, 1801, Jose An- tonio Rosas, a soldier, born in Los Angeles, convicted o{' heiifiale peccatum, and sentenced to be burnt, together witli the beast, was shot ; his body was passed over file, and then given christian burial; February 24, IS J 4, there was an Indian revolt, and some twenty- nine of the rebels were killed, thirteen of whom were buil'jd by the missionary, and the rest by their com- 106 GOLDEN AGE OP CALIFORNIA. panions; December 28, 1848, Joseph Lynch, Pctcr Remer, and Peter Quinn, murderers of the Reed fain- ilv in the mission San Miguel, were executed at Santa Bdrbara, and buried in the city cemeter}'^; Ramon Rodriguez, who lost his life in the pursuit of these malefactors, had been buried on the 13th of the same month; February 26, 1852. Cdrlos Antonio Carrillo, who, in 1838, received from Mexico the appointment of governor of California, but was not permitted to act as such by the northern Californians, was buried here to-day. It is known that the remains of Gov- ernor Figueroawere deposited in the mission in 1835, though no record of the fact appears in its books. There is no evidence that they were taken away again. The followinof missionaries were buried in the mission church, to wit: February 14, 1793, Antonio Paterna; December 2, 1829, Antonio Jayme, who had served upwards of 30 years in California ; Antonio Menendt z, a Dominican, who was acting as chaplain of the pre- sidio b" permission of the father-president, Narciso Duriln ; November 1834, Francisco Javier de Una; December 18, 1840, Buenaventura Fortuny; May .'5, 184G, Francisco Garcia Diego, first bishop of the Cal- ifornias, who died on the 30th of April, at the age of sixty years; June 3, 1846, Narciso Duriln, president of the missions, one of the guardians of the vacant diocese, who had been vicar-forain of the bishop tif Sonora, and twice prefect of the missions. The missionary. Friar Luis Gil de Taboada, said that on the 8th of December, 1812, while he was at tlie presidio of Santa Bdrbara, the earth shook nidst violently, and the sea receded, forming a high lilll. He, with all the people, ran toward the mission, chanting the litany to the virgin Mary. Suddenly there was a great calm. And yet all was not calm. For, upon setting up in the ground a pole with a hall upon the top, in a place where no wind blew upon it, the ball was constantly in motion during eight days. After that, the ball would keep still for two or three SANTA IN^S, 197 , Peter ed fain- it Santa Ramon of these he same Carrillo, jintment litted to ls buried , of Gov- i in 1835, ts books. ^ay again, le mission , Paterna; ad served Menende/., ,f the pr.- t, Narcis!) de Urm; , ; May '^ oftheCal- the age of , president \ie vacant bishop of lirnirs, and then move again. This lasted about a fortnijiht. Hundreds of miracles Vtiit unrecorded hereabout, because, first, they were too frequent to be startling, and secondly, the fat priests were too lazy to write them down. It was an even thing l^etween them sometimes — Christ and Belial — as represented by the army chap- lain and the soldiers, though when it came to tlie darker-skinned natives — for that of the Mexican was (lark enough — both Christ and Belial were against them. There was Father Antonio Menendez, at one time cluaplain at Santa Bdrbara, a Dominican of gay feather even for an army chaplain of the olden time. Men's souls for heaven, but women for himself, he loved, and wine and cards. This good man was once sta- tioned at San Diego, at the time when Pio Pico as a young man was trading between that point and Lower California. One day Pico arrived with a fine lot of sugar, upon which the good priest cast his eye covet- ously. "What say you, Don Pio, let me deal you a little nionte this evening?** "With pleasure, holy father, and may Saint Domi- nic help us." Game after game continued, until when the short liours were reached, all of Pico's sugar had melted into the priest's capacious maw. And with this lot of sugar was gone young Pico's entire capital, none of wliich the priest offered to ioturn. On the contrary, 1k' revile; j victim. "Know you, Pio amigo, that you just now reminded nie of our Saviour's visit to this world?" " How so ?" growled Pico. "Listen," said the priest: " ' Cristo vino al mundo & redimir el pecado; Vino por lana y so fue trasquiladol ' " Which is to say: Christ camo to ransom man of woman bom; Ue aought hia sheep, iiimself departed shorn. ' 193 GOLDEN AGE OF CALIFORNIA. The mission of Santa Inds, thirteen leagues north of Santa Bdrbara, held less land than any of the oth- ers, but it possessed beautiful horses, and vast herds of other stock. In 1823, the property of this mission was valued at $800,000. The natives called the place Alajulapu. It was on the I7th of September, 1804, that it was formally taken from them by Father Est<5van Tapis, president of the missions, associated with three other missionaries. Its first ministers were fathers Jose Antonio Calzada and Jose Romualdo Gutierrez. Among others buried here were the missionaries, Jose Antonio Calzada, December 24, 1814, whose remains were transferred on July 4, 1817, to the new church this day dedicated to divine service; July 26, 1836, Mdrcos Antonio Saizardo Vitoria y Odriozola; September 20, 1840, Felipe Arroyo de la Cuesta; May 24, 1842, Ramon Abella; December 28, 1845, Juan Moreno. An ec- clesiastical seminary was established here on the 4t]i of May, 1844. In 1836, when Colonel Mariano Chico, the ncwjefe politico and comandante general, was in Santa Biirbaia, on his way to Monterey to take formal possession of lii-s offices, Father Antonio Jimeno, then chief missionary ( f Santa Ines, provided a meal for him and suite at the Tecolote, where lived the ijeophyte Cristobal Manojo, an Indian sixty years old, but lively and witty, and with Si)anish speech peculiarly quaint. The savage was di- rected by the fax her to be present, and attend on tlie great man, who was apprised of the Indian's pecuhar wit and ways. But tlie fellow failed to present himself, and only turned up after Chico had departed. Bt ing asked to account for his failure to come and present his respects to the jefe politico, he answered : "O, father, it did not suit me to be in company Avith a bad man. He is a rascal. Don't you see he is a boy, and wears spectacles? I saw him when he Mas coming, and noticed his eyes looking from under his spectacles. I am afraid of him." PURISIMA AND SAN LUIS. fW> es north the otli- tst herds 3 mission [t was on illy taken 3nt of tlic aries. Its ilzada and •rs buried ) Calzada, ransferrcd ' dedicated 3 Antonio 20, 1840, 42, Kamon 0. An et- on the 4tli he new jefe ta Barbara, ssion of liii^ lisslonaryet julte at the )al Manojo, ty, and with ^e was di- tend on the m's pecuhar jent hiniselt, ted. Being and present red : )mpany with see he i^ ^^ vhen he was ni under liis "Nay, not so," said the other, "he is a good gentle- man ; he is our general." "Wait a while, and you will see," said the savage. "A ver quicn gana, tii 6 yo" — ^tell me by and by if he be good or bad. It is a laatter of history that this jefe politico waa one of the most despotic rulers who ever came to the Californias. Then there was Purisima, and the regal San Luis Obispo, and fourteen leagues away San Miguel, whose lands, sixty leagues in circumference, contained many farming tracts of remarkable fertility. La Purisima was first founded on the valley of the Santa Rosa river, in the place called by the natives Algsacupi, on the 8th of December, 1787, by Father Ferinin Francisco de Lasuen, president of the mis- sions. Its first ministers were fathers Vicente Fuster and Joseph Arroita. The mission was tranfiferred, on April 23, 1813, to the Canada de los Berros, and the site called Amiiu by the Indians. Its ministers then were Mariano Pay eras and Antonio Rijjoll. The former, while prefect of the missions, died, and was buried in this mission on the 29th of April, 1823. On the 1st of January, 1836, there were in this cstab- hslinicnt 192 men and 130 women. The mission named Gloriosisimo Prfncipe Arcdngel Senor San Miguel was placed on the site known by tlie natives as Raticii, or Vatica. The date of foun- dation was the 25th of July, 1797, and the founder, President Lasuen Its first ministers were friars Buenaventura Sitjar and Antonio de la Concepcion. The mission of San Luis Obispo, one of the wealthi- est in California, was situated three miles from the eoast, and about eighteen leagues north from La Purisima. Luis Martinez, under whose charge the agriculture and industry of this mission assumed the I^randest proportions, was a man of no common energy and ability. Every mountain stream was made tribu- tary to his rich lands, which covered a wide area along 200 GOLDEN AGE OF CALIFORNIA. the ocean. He planted cotton, grew olives, taught his Indians to catch otter, and navigate a launch to Santa Bdrbara. At Santa Margarita was a well-filled granary 1 90 feet long. Upon his table were always found the choicest delicacies, rich wines, and game ; and his guests were welcomed and entertained in a princely manner. When obliged to abandon his work, upon its secularization in 1834, it is said that he returned to Spain with piety and industry well rewarded in the shape of money to the amount of $100,000. This the good father no doubt thought better than taking his chances on everything in the next world. San Luis Obispo de Tolosa, this mission is called, and it dates from the 1st of September, 1772, when it was formed by Junipero Serra on the Canada do los Osos, called by the natives Tixlini. The first ministers who took charge of the spiritual and tem- poral affairs of its neopliytes were Domingo Juncosa and Joseph Cavalier. The records of this mission are incomplete. The number of baptisms therein from the date of foundation to September 21, 1821, was 2,549. The original book of marriages was burnt on November 29, 1776, at which time there had been 5G, and to the end of 1784, 163. The num- ber of deaths to the 7th of November, 1838, includ- ing a few not neophytes, were 2,441. Jose de Jesiis Pico, speaking of gold found near the mission early in the century, says : " To several of us Father Luis A. Martinez, in 1829, gave gold; to myself, Raimundo, and Gabriel de la Torre, and Francisco Soto, he made a present of about twenty ounces of gold, not coined, but in little balls of one ounce each ; because he had much affection for us, who had been his pupils and acol3rtes here in the mis- sion where we learned to chant church music. The two brothers Raimundo and Gabriel and I had been with the padre over a year before we enlisted as soldiers. This gold must have been found at the SOLEDAD. 201 taught unch to ell-filled ) always d game; ned in a idon his ja'id that jtry veil mount of thouglit ig in the is called, 72, when lafiada do The first and tem- D Juncosa aission arc irein from 1821, was vas burnt there had .'he nuiii- 8, includ- place called San Josd, near the mission. There were then — we being little boys — about twelve Spaniards within the site proper of the mission, who, as I be- lieve, were engaged in cleaning silver and gold; and I ground my belief on this, that the father had many flasks of quicksilver, together with tools and materials for cleaning these metals. I know this, that we often desired to go in and see what these men were doing, and never were permitted. It was only some Indian alcalde that was allowed to enter the quarters under menace of severe punishment if he divulged any st'cret.". . ."When Jose Mariano Bonilla took charge (»f the mission he still found a room full of flasks of ([uicksilver and cotton, and it was he who sold the ({uicksllver to a vessel." This Martinez once travelled from San Luis Obispo to San Cdrlos in a fine coach, with coachman and pos- tillion. The two savages who served in the latter capacity were gorgeously attired, silver and gold trap- pings shining resplendent. Now when this came to t!ie ears of the father-prefect, Sarria, who was humil- ity itself, he was wroth, and Marthiez was severel}- reprimanded for his violation of the rules of the Franciscans, as in this carriage ride, however nmch Lo may have enjoyed it, there was about it little pov- erty or humility. It was customary for the prelate and the mission- aries to assemble from time to time at the San Cilrlos mission for the purpose of consultation. On such occasions the missionaries proceeded to Monterey in carriages, while others rode on horseback. From ^lonterey to the Carmelo, some four or five miles, all walked, proceeding in double file, the Indian servants ill charge of the carriages and animals bringing up the roar. In the plain called Llano del Rey, fifteen leagues south-west from Monterey, stood Soledad, the inde- fatigable father of which mission, in order to obtain a plentiful supply of water, constructed with Indian GOLDEN AGE OP CALIFORNIA. If labor an aqueduct fifteen miles in length, by means of which 20,000 acres of fertile land was every year redeemed for the summer drought. So rapidly did horses breed at this mission that they were giviii away at times in order to preserve pasturage for cattle. Nuostra Scnora de la Soledad was placed on the site named by the natives Chuttusgelis, the 9tli of October, 1791, by the father president. Lasuen, wlio made Friars Diego Garcia, and Mariano Rubf its fiist ministers. The records s^^ow that there were 2,21»0 baptisms to 1841, 738 marriages, and 1887 deaths in the same period. This mission holds the remahis of Colonel tfos^ Joaquin de Arrillaga, governor and commander of the forces of California, who died there on the 24th of July 1814, and was buried the 2Gtli; also those of the missionary Florencio Ibanez, wlio was buried on November 18, 1818. Mrs Ord states that the mission San Miguel was visited by her in 1833, when it still retahied its ■wealth. Father Cabot showing her the warchousis full of produce and goods; there was also a consider- able amount of money. When she was there again in 1835, she did not see even a tumbler to drink out of, and had to use a small ji'cara that she had with her. All the effects of the mission, the cattle inclu- sive, had disappeared. The mission San Antonio de Padua was besjun (Mi the 14th of July 1771. It is situated in the sierra <»f Santa Lucia aiid Canada de los Osos. Its fouiwhr was Serra, and its first ministers were Friars Miguel Pieras and Buenaventura Sitjar. The nund^er of baptisms effected in it to the 14th of June 1850 was 4,571; of marriages to June 18, 1846, 1,282; of deaths to April 22, 1849, 4,063. Interred in this church were: March 15, 1801, Francisco Puyol, min- ister of San Cdrlos, and September 3, 1808, Buena- ventura Sitjar, both of whose remains were on tho 14th of June, 1813, placed in one grave in the pros- • MISSION SAN ANTONIO. )y means /cry yt'iir piiUy tVul oro given urage for ;d on the le 9th of ,suen, who ibl its first rore 2,21*0 deaths hi remauis of eruor and , died there the 26th; baiiez, who Miguel was ■etaiiied its warehouses a consider- there again drink out le had with cattle inclu- LS begun on he sierra ot Its fouuihr i-iars Migurl number of 1850 was ., 1,282; of rred in this puy*)l, 1'-^'"^' L808" Buiua- were on tho in the vros- le hj'ieiy; February 8, 1830, Juan Bautlata Sanclio, Avlio with Father Pedro Cabot left Spahi in company and lived together for a period of twenty-six years in tills mission; May 24, 1835, Vicente Francisco do 8ania, minister of La Soledad, and who had siTved as ])iefe(t of the missions two terms of six years each. On tlie death of the president, Father Senan, wlio named Sarrfa his successor in August 1823, the latter assumed the duties, calling himself vice-president of the missions. Through his mediation the Indian revolt at Santa Inds, La Purisima, and Santa Barbara in 1824, was terminated. When the mission San Antonio was in charge of fathers Juan Cabot and Juan B. Sancho, the latter directed agricultural oper- ations, and also attended to the music, the mission having a good orchestra. He always kept near his jHTson a handsome Indian boy named Josafat, who was charged to give timely warning of the venomous ants abounding in that region. Nevertheless tlie padre was often bitten, and then Josafat received a Avliipphig at the hands of the mestizo, Antonio Kosas. Later Josafat became a good cook, wliereupon the jtious Sancho gormandized, and in consequence often had tlie stomachache, for which Josafat was blame
  • 'ii'ls had no musical kn-'wled^e, vet til- y sang well. The hest violin and harp players Were at Angeles; the hani i)lavei'3 were from ^Irx- o, one Jjopi'Z liemg promn || u t. Tl le vio lini-t- Wel' ( alifornians, the best heing the Mrst Imsl^and of Sl'phen Forster's wife. TIu' missions had orchestras ef Indians taui-'ht by the padres, coiisistln-'' usuallv of one ])oinbo, one drum, one tria!V4lo, one violin, sev- crd base viols, and one tlute. Tli'- ])lavers saiiLir also l!l the choir, assisted by (.»thers. Although a.t tim es 'OOf 1 compass, yet it was ofteti dissonant, b(>th in l>l:\ing and sin<'in'jr. The Trdians could not ^-i-asi) nuisic. Tl!e\' were iicver call"d to nhn' at a baJl : there til" guitar and vidhn were connnonly uslcI, and at rare tiui's the band was brouglit from a man-of-war. Xotwithstanding what Aiiia/ says. San ( Jabriel liad an orchestra of Indians who }>layed ilute-, guitars, violins, drums, tiiano-lcs, and cvmbals, A1I other missions had more or |i H'Ol )( 1 oreh.cstras and sinuers. K\"''rvtliing played in tlie temple W.as c-dl. d a minuet. Joa(|uin Carrillo, father in-law of A'allcjo, was an ■ ni 428 AMUSEMENTS. accomplished violinist. When a soldier he was ono. night playing at a ball at the house of Comandaiitc Kuiz at San Diego. Ruiz was fond of a certain air, wiruh ho ordered CarriUo to })lay; and because he thought the latter too long in tuning his instrument, Ruiz ordered him put in the stocks, and sent the guests home, it being then about midnight. While Commodore Jones was at ATonterey, many balls were given in his honor by Larkin and otlnis. On one occasion Larkin borrowed of Abreijo onr of the three first piamxs brought to California. They were brought from Baltimore by Captain Smith, one sold to Jose Abrego, another in San l^edro to Eulogio Celis, and the third to M. G. Vallejo at San Fran- cisco. Aijrego granted the request, but suggisttil that a piano would not be of much use, since no nw knew how to play on it. Rut to the surprise of all, it was solemnly affirmed, the boy Pedro Estrada sui- ceeded in phu'ing the instrument, althougli he had never touched one before! It was proposed to si nd the boy to Mexico to be educated in nmsic, but the advice of David Spence prevailed, who thought a cai-- penter more useful than a musician. Most of the instruments used in the mission choii-s were made at the missions, and were consequently rude and inferior. The ancient po])ular songs of the Californians were introduced from Sonora. Their ])assion f )r nmsic is aptly illustrated In' an incident of the war. California once conquered, tlic ITnited States authorities adopted the judicious polii y of conciliathig the ^Texican element in everv wav possible. Rights of property were respected, and the people were invited by proclamations of anniesty and protection to return to their homcb, and no vioUiico should be ofl'ered to any. The commodore, wluu at Los Aiigeles, even went so far as to request (^ip- tain Rhelps, long a trader on the coast and a man familiar with the ways of the people and possess! n.; their confidence, to visit them in their hiding-places, I POWER OF MUSIC. 429 iissure them of safety, and induce them to come forth. Ca{)tain Phelps ri'plied: "You have a fine hand of iiuisir; such a thin«^' was never before in tiiis country. Let it phiy one liour in tiie phiza each day at sunset, and I assure you it will do more toward reconciling the }>le than all 3-our written proclamations, which, iiidcid, l)ut few of them could read." " My sujj;ce})ed round the corners of the linuses. A few lively tunes brouirht out the vivas of tlic elder ones, and l)efore closing for the day quite a ciicle (»f delighted natives surrounded the musicians. The following afternoon, the peo[)le from the ranchos at a distance, hearing of the wonderful performance, iH'.jan to come in. I saw the old priest of the mission of San (ial)riel sitting by the church door, op|»osite the [)laza, and introduced him to some of the otiicers. The old man said he had not heard a band since he Ktt Spain, over fifty 3'ears ago. *Ah!' said he, 'that niu^ic will do more service in the conquest of Califor- liia than a thousand bayonets.' " The Califoniians were not without their dramatic {It rfnruiances. The I\iinla, ctures, to the jxreat anmsement of the boys who hid Hear i)y and watched him. Under Chico's rule, m 1 '''. a company of Mexican maromeros (acrobats) caim to ^Monterey to perform. i li 4.10 amu.-^i:mi:nt.s. M I There were some fine race-liorsL'S licrc in j^astcr; 1 timus. C()vairul»i;is saw a liorse from San Diego at ^rexico in 18.10 wliich Avas fiunous for slioi't di.-tancf s. It Mas common to race to cliiircli on Sunday's with oxen-drawn wagons, eontainingtlio family. The staki .< wei'c money, stoclc, or halls. ^Tnnv oxui ^■a]l<:l)'(l like jiorses, and did sn from practice without h' in^ urued with the uoad. As in all other affairs, the law, with its mi )rn,ir w isdom and strength, was ncjt iar away. In IPHt Governor Fi;4:ueroa writes to Alcalde Jinicno lU'ohih- itinijf tl ic runnni'. im .tray ]ior.se.s at ^Monterey, S. in Jose, and San Francisco. In IS'.VJ at Los Anu'des Avila and Diiai'tc ;ie '.{ on a horse-race, Ixtting a l);ii'rel of hrandy, two hri'lcon liorses, and H\'e dollars. Duarte brc»ke the rules of the I race uy givmg a blow < bl( on tlie head of ^vvila's 1 lorse an hloch tl mu: t!u> w;p an( lAvih 1 appeared 1)1 fore the alcald. with witnesses to demand tlie stake-<, altliouuh Duart e s lorsc had (^tine m a head. Avila fiileil to charh l>rove the infringements. After Jiearing the testii noir, pro and con t!ie alcalde decided that as the course \\as not properly fenced, t]\c ])arties should pay a Ihi;' of i^'lO each, and that th- r;\co he repeated in twenty days, in presence of a ri'gidor. Suit was hrouglit at I.os Angeles, m IS (0, a Fernando Sepulveda to pay A, l*ico 100 calw L!"anr- a;;i diti (Mic horse lost at a race - conditions lia\i:i'>- if 'H I'gally arranged. Sv>pi'il\eda had promised to j'ny. hut afterward refusid, aUh(>ugh the judge had deriJ-'d against him with costs, in accord with article 01 of law f^'f congress, IS:")?. Sepulveda, on heing tlircaten(Ml with execution, pleaded that his property helong d to h:< fith( r; he was merelv an hiio de familia. '^riie hiiiids- man was now called upon, hut he showed that ^'ouiijif Seiu'ilveda had Won hits hifoiHv and received the stakes .1 with the fa tiler's k low hd. Th uil^re seizi d tho stock representing stake and costs, hut was orderetl 'y government to return it, SepiilviMla's asscrtior.s rcgi'''l- HORSE-R.vCiNf; AND COCK FIi.KTINO. 431 iiv'" tlic mlnoritv of tint son 1)i'liiLr ivcou'iiizcd. Tln^ Aii''i'k'S iud'je (IclavcMl olx-viii''- this order, and t]i<> docuiMonts mid a copy of Sopulvcda's stateinont was lit to t]io supremo trilmnal of ^foxico. Dii t]io 7t1i of June, 1841, tlie governor writes the ['i'( feet of AiiLii'lc'S, desiring" tliat some persons of tho ' "' ' tliat M' ices, so ( ity sliall propose re^'ul.itions foi' liorse-r the mu)iiei[ial funds may ri'Cii\e some benefit from a lax thei'coii he cause o f tl lis order was a (hsputi ht'tween two men arisiiiLT from a liorsc-race. JuK ].'^ 11, the prefect and five vccinos ni< t to [)roposr ruK s for ]iorse-ra»-'in_L:;', whidi w(trc suhmitti'd to ^oNri'nment ai)]m»val. Everv rac/e sliould l.e arrani;ed hv ]< eal ohhi^ation (ohliy^neiMii juridiea), wherein amount of In t-^. conditions, and rules wei'c to he specified, and free If elfert S Wt re stahed, thev v.-ere to be vahn d ill the [)res( iiee lA' the judge of tlie jilace, in order that the tax be colh-eti-d. P( isons iiii!>t ad\ise tlie iud^•^• of amount staked in order tliat the tax be collected. Tn Augu t IS\'2, Prefect Arg Ue decided tluit a hoise-race l)etween Nicolas A. J)en and J*io I'ico nui.>t be I'un o\'er jiara cortar cue ,>tioiie>. ()ii , tl ic OON I iiior aholished. the L IV passed by the prefect of Angeles imposing a t.ix .)n lioiNc-raees (corredores d.s caliallos). '!''i.. <'ai'rera del g dlo, next to horsi'-racing, wa^> one ef ^he inost popular sports among the native! C'alifnr- liians. ,V livi' cock was burii d with the heaniid. At a signal a horseman would start at full >i't d from a distance of about sixtv vards, and if bv a d.'xterous swoop he could take the bird by the head, 1 '' was louddy a[)[ilaudcd. Should he fail, he was 432 AMUSEMENTS. greeted with derisive lauifliter, and was sometimes unhorsed witli violence, or drajj^iyjed in tlie dust at the risk of hrt!akin»x his linihs or neck. Another anuiS( - inent was to place on the ground a rawhide, and rid- ing at full speed suddenly rein in the horse the moment his fore-feet struck the hide. Tliere was also the ruiming or coursing of bulls — corrida dc fi>ros. For this spoi-t a large space of ground was enclosed hv a stout fi'iicc;, outside of which were erected stands for the si)ectators. The bull lassoed by the horns was brought and loosed in the arena, within which were 100 or more niounted me»i, and outside an e<|ual number. Those within the enclosure, who were the bi3st horsemen and generally the most prominent of the rancheros, with their mangas or scrapes baited the bull. This was ternu^d ca])otear el toro. The animal was occasionally pricked with the rcjo7i — which was an iron-pointed lance of about 4 feet in length. When the bull had become tired, and con- sequently less mettlesome, the gate was o[)ened, and he was driven forth at full speed. Behind him came those within the enclosure, those without joining tlu'in, and following after, endeavored to cohar or rahcar the animal— i. e., seize him bv the tail and throw him. In disputing this honor there was niucli jostling and coming together of horses; and it was frightful to behold such a group of men and li(»rses sallvin'j; out of the enclosure at the risk of life and limb. There were always, on these occasions, nun and horses more or less injured. Several bulls in succession were thus c<^ursed. Another diversion, also on horseback, was known as t]\cjnrtj() de hi vara, the game of rods. The play- ers formed in a ring, the horses facing inwards, (hie of the number then rode around the circle, having in his hand a stout rod of quince or other similar wood, which from behind he gave to one of the play (is. He who received the rod pursued the giver, directing blows at his shoulders, which the latter bv the exti- BULL AND BEAR FIGHT. 433 else of skilful horsemanship endeavored to elude, until ^'aining a vacant place in the circle he was exempt fioni further persecution. This sport was continued for hours, and he who was not a skilled horseman received a good drubbing. A bull and bear fight after the sabbath services in diurch was indeed a happy occasion. It was a soul- refreshing sight to see the y,rowling beasts of blood tied with a long reata by one of its hind feet, so as to leave it free to use its claws and teeth, to one of the bull's feet, leaving it otherwise free for attack or defence. The fight usually took place inside of a strong wooden fence, behind which, and at a short distance, was enacted a high platform for women and children, most of the men being on horseback outside the ring, with reiitas ready, and loaded guns, in case the bear should leap the barrier, or other accident occur. The diver- sion was kept up for hours, or until one or other of till' animals succumbed, and it often happened that both were killed. There were also bull-fights by skilled and practised toreadores, which consisted in baiting the beasts on foot or horseback, each human brute trying to exeel the other, sticking little darts with colored paj)er Hags into the animal's hide. To succeed cleverly iv(juired some skill, as the part where they should be placed was just between the shoulders; and if the toreador struck any other })lace he was jeered ^)y the spectators. The bulls were seldom killed, except when some toreador wished to show his skill and ('(iiirage with a two-edged sword and give it the gol[)e dt' gracia. "' We used to make bears and bulls fight," remarked Bhis Pena, "for which purp<)So we tied the bull and i>eur together, the bull having one of his fore-Kgs strapped, and the bear one of his hind-legs. Some- times the bull came off victorious, and at other times Mic bear, the result depending somewhat upon the ages ot the beasts. The bears were caught on Mount Cai,. Past. 28 ! 434 AMUSEMENTS. h Diablo with reatas made by the native CaHforniiiiis, of four strinjjfs of ox-hide, the skin heiiij^ first dried in tlie sun and then soaked in water. When they hcL-an to exliale a bad odor, they were cut up in strijis of about half an inch in width, and braided." Aniaz thinks that in bear and bull fij^hts the bear re-l; hut their hlood was up t'lir hears, and busiiu'ss must wait. They wont oft' in various directions, Larins and two others toward the little hill where he had left hruin tied. Passinyf alonj' a slope where was a larj^e rye-field, suddenly there Itnped hofore them a she-hear with three euhs. In- stantly all were in hot jiursuit. They lassoed hor two (»r three times, and as often she threw oft' the reatas. At last the men let lu-r thrust it back. It was deemed fun at a festival to place clothing on top of a mast smeared with tallow and sprinkled with dust and ashes, and let the In- dians climb for it. One of the few amusements of the padre at San Josd was to throw rolled-up pancakes into the gapiiiL^ mouths of the boys, which would be i;aught by the teeth and swallowed like lightning, amid laughter antl jokes. The game of billiards was introduced at Monterev in 1828. No bets were allowed, and the price of tliu game was one real. CHAPTER XIV. OCCUPATIONS AND INDUSTRIES. Strangers to ill, they nature 'a I)an<|iiet8 proved. Rich in earth's fruits, and of the lilust helovod. They "ank in doiith, .^s opiate sluniljer stole Soft o'er the sense, an I whelmed the willing soul. Theirs was each good, Uio grain-exuberant soil Poured its full harvoi.t unconipelled by toil: The virtuous many Iwelt in common blest, And all unenvyini shared what all in peace possessed. — Jfesiod. Here, as clsewhoie throughout America, it was as masters and not as laborers that men of the Latin race dehgbted to pose. Clymer says lie never saw a 8i)anish Californian who was a mechanic, or who cul- tivated land. The aboriginal was the laboring man, and though not so bodly treated here as in S(imo other parts, his condition was practically that of a slave. Indeed, notwithstanding a law of July l.'J, 1824, to tlie contrary, there are instances approaching traffic in slaves. Antonio Jose Rocha says that a man from New ?>![exico offered to sell him a boy that he had lM)ught from one of the gentile tribes on the way to California, and to save the child from slavery, he determined to give him th«j ^70 demanded, with the intfsnt of adopting him as a son, and teaching him cliristianity, thus keeping him until he readied his majority, and then giving him his liberty. This may lia\ e V)een benevolencr, or a pretext, or both. Wages were sometimes paid, farm laborers from $3 («7) i m ' I 438 OCCTJPATIOKS AND INDUSTRIES. to $10 a month, the mayordomo or overseer $16, a clerk $15; a neopliyte carpenter at San Luis Key was paitl 88, wlio could have got $12 at Sutter's. Nevertheless, the niitive laborers could not move about from one place to another without a permit; they were paid whatever their masters chose, which were the chief conditions of slavery. Sutter says it was common for both Indians and Hispano-Califi)rnian8 to seize Indian women and diildren and sell them, and Jolin Chamberlain asserts that while he was livin<»' at the Sacramento in 1844-(), it was the custom of Sutter himself to buy and sell Indian girls and boys. Here, as elsewhere, an Indian laborer in debt to his master could not leave his service until the debt was paid. On quitting service the laborer must get from his late employer a pa|)er showing that he is pro[)erIy discjjarged. For refusing to give such a [)aper, or rc- eeiving a servant without it, except in the case of day laborers, the penalty was five dollars. In 1840 Ai- gliello, the prefect of Angeles, directed tlmt owners of ranchos having gentile Indians in their service shoulil send them to the missicm to be baptized by the minis- ter. Says Bandini : " The neglect of the supreme gov- ernment, the inditl'erence of local governors, and the contempt and sinister views of the padres have pre- vented the advance of tin; Indians, and reduced them to vice and servility." I find among the archives ol' San Diego, in 18;*)(), F. M. Alvarr.do petitioning tlu' authorities in reference to a fine of $75 for whippiiiLf an Indian servant, asserting that although forbidden by law it was the eustom. Markoff, speaking of affairs in 1835, says that the Indian laoorers wore well satisfied with a fathom of black, red, and wliite glass beads for a sc:tSon's work. Beads were in great demand among them, and com- manded high prices. In addition to the payment of beads, the Indians must bo furnished with parclKcl corn unground; iiot because they would not eat any- thing 'Ise, but because the Spaniards would not allow SHIP-BUILDINO. ilt tlicin to rrct used to better food, sayin<^ that they do not even earn that. Tlie Indians, liowover, Mere satis- fied with this, and if they wanted a deheacy they cau'dit a field-mouse and roasted it on a stiek. There wore, however, many amoni*' these Indians wlio had already beeonie accustomed to livinj^ in jiouses, and acquired a considerable knowled_Lje of domestic labor. To these the Californians either paid a salary, or clothed and fed them at their own table. Whenever an Indian became tired of this most ])rinii- tive civilization, he was at liberty to return to his native hills. After the Russians of Ross and Bodega, little was aceoni[)lished in shi[>-buildini]f until the coming of the Americans. There were Prior, Wolfskill, Yount, Laughlin, and Prentice at San Pedro, at work on a scliooner for hunting sea-otter; and two or tliriM; years later the famous J\or is Xtnla was built at ^Tontercv liy Joa(juin Gomez. Under Alvarado's rule, some small vessels were built at Santa Cruz for the coast trade between ^[onten>y and San Luis ()l)is[)o. The ciHttdn of the port of Santa J^arbara was somewhat chagrined when on the 18th of April, ItS.')!), the ship Moiitiooii arrived from Boston, and he had no boat in which to visit her t)lKeially; whereui>on he petitioned the government and a boat was provided t<»r him, Comandante ValKjo, on June 1, 1840, at Sonoma, grants to John Davis and Mark West permission to cut timber on government lands in the vicinity of Drake and Bodc-a bavs, for liuildin'jf boats to i>lv in the l»ay of San Francisco. They wen- to rep(»rt e\eiy iiKtiitli the state of their work, and the persons em- ploved, and the license to b(^ duly ret-ordeil. In 1841 John Davis of Yiiba Jhiena asked the co- iiiaiulante general fr permission to use the Mexican Hag on a schooner, which he intenarcadt>ro where now stands Xapa city ; the boat to be calKd ^^naana, to bo of tiiirty tons burden, and I< -^ 440 OCCUPATIONS AND INDUSTRIES. eniplovotl in the coasting trade, he being a Mexican citizen. She took a cargo of potatoes to ^lazatlan in 18415, where ship and cargo were both sold. If Sir (xeorgo Simpson tells the truth, there Avas not in 1842, on the inland waters of San Fran- cisco, or anywhere upon the coast from this j)oint to San Diego, any boat, barge, canoe, or other floating thing, except the native balsa made of bulrushes, in which priests and publicans used to cross the bay, or even sometimes venture out to sea. But Sir Georire Simpson did not tell the truth. ^licheltorena saw the great advantage a steam ves- sel would give for transport, and formed a com})any in 1842 to buy one; but there were no lucky stock-gam- blers or monev kinufs here then. The Eniilisinuan Bocle asked pi'rmission the year following to build a 35 tons vessel for the coast trade, which request the governor readily granted. (Jregson says he worki'd with Henry ^Farshall at Sutt(>r's fort in 1845, sawing lumber for a sehoont-r to be built on the headwaters of the Cosunmes, til'ty miles away. They received for the lumber ^-'O a thousand feet. In July 1840, upon the testimony df Boijf'^s, there were at Yount's rancho Chiles, Bald- ridge, Davis, Rose, Chino, and lieynokls, the t\n\v last named ship carpenters. They were building tor the Napa Kiver a launch, which was christeneil at the embarcailero, with the imposing ceremonies used on such occasions. A forest law obtained; permission was requiivd to fell trees; the exportation of timber was forbiddin, and the transport IVom port to pt.rt requiri'd a peiiuit from the aleald(\ who slumld keep an account of tir (juantity. Penalty t( tiiidier estimated by two expi'rts, and to In' paid to tl r muiiicipal fund of the defrauded place. Captains of vess(ds were the responsible {larties. All vessi Is might take needful supjdies of tind>er for repairs, aft' r consulting the ca[)taln of the port and the alealih'. DESTRUCTION OF FORESTS. ^m On the 13th of May, 18;U, a despatch from San Francisco was read in the assembly at Monterey, stating that a number of foreigners were ociupied witliin that iurisdiotion destroviniX the forests. Tlie jefe recommended measures to preserve tlie woods, antl a change of the reglaUicnto of August 17, 18. JO, im- posing a tax on timber. Figueroa in his report in IH.'U to the secretary of fomento says that many public works are need«^d. At tlie capital and elsewhere casiis consistoriales are of absolute necessity, and the plans and estimates he has ordered made are in an advanced state. On account of tlio swampy condition of the road to tlie lauding at Monterey, it is necessary to construct a paved street. As ^[onterey is the principal ]>ort for the ihiily in- crejtsing foreign commerce, a wharf is needed. The cost would not be y^reat. He has confided to his sec- I't'tarv, Caj)tain Zaniorano, the making of a topographi- cal plan of ^Monterey which approaches coni[>letion. The government ordered a strong fortitication al)ove San Francisco Bay, commanding the Russian estab- lisliuu'nt of Koss. ICcheandia foruKHl a plan, but went no further. The Ljdvernor was now resolved to carry it into etl'ect, and made a few i)ri'liminary })reparations. The ehronic; lack of funds, however, prevented the happy ]e, Castaiiares found in 184.'3 at Mazatlaii u mail-bag with many im[»ortant communications, wliidi luul been Ivinuf thi-re since 18.57! Lu'jTo states that imblic rodeos were ijjenerallv h^ Id in April, to allow each man to pick out his own tioiu the mission st»>ck. When the time came, the al* aide U'at the drum, and announced the day wlini the rodeo would begin. A juez de camj>o presided. SOWINT. AND RKAPIXr.. 445 Tlic owners singled out tlieir stoek, and took it to one of tlie four apartaderos. Tiieroupon the juez de (■iiin|io revised the various lierds, before the owner iitiild take them away. Xo document was «jfivfn; iudtH'd, few could write one. Arrived at his rancho, tlif ownt'r branded the calves, and cut the ears with !iis peculiar mark. Stock was let into the fields to finisli the remnants nf the harvest. The stubble was pulled out, lua})ed up. and burned. Maize, frijoles, lentils, chick-pease, r;il;il»ash, and melons were sown from March to ^Tay atiil .June, and harvested in August and Siptember. Wheat and barley were sown generally in ])ecember ami January, sometimes in November, l^arley was reaped in ^lay and June, and wheat in July and August. S[»ecial lands were generally kept for each lit' these grains. Pease could be sown at anv time. luaping wheat was done by knives and sickles, and stacks formed tt) be carted to the thiashing-tloor, Heie they were spn>ad, and mares sent in to trample out the grain, while the straw was turned. Such stiaw as was not thoroughly thrashed was thrown in a.jain, or beaten with sticks. For maize, pease, and tVijiiles, heavy sticks were used; and for other things, smaller sticks. The grain was next freed from chaff (pija) by blowing (ventear), first with the aid of wooden lurks, tlien with shovels. Those wlu> ha h(»ldinijf from three to six fancjas. Horse- iiiili'S were uenerallv used, since cattle-hides were reserved for sale. The maize was ke[it in the ear, aiiil was slielled bv hand when needed for food. Such as was sold had to be slu'lled by thrashing (;l fuerza de gairotazos). FrijoK'S, pease, lentils, and cliick-[)ea.s(> W('i(! kept in bags, or in diy places. Their enemy was the grui) (gorgojo), which attacked them while >>t'ii<(l. Grubs were not so numerous as now. Hats aiiil mice also did damag(\ but worst of all were sipiir- i' 1-, moles, crows, and mtiatCK (a bird). Bird-catchers 446 (XCUPATIONS AND INDUSTRIES. i li IukI to !»(' k«'pt Imsv ajjfaiiist tlu'Ui, traps set, ami small anows used, (irain culture was a small iiahistiv brt'ore lSjr>- :50, rauclieros raisim^ sufHcieiit only t'l' tlieir «»\vii use, ami to supjdy the presiilios The mis- sions had to produce lariL,nly to teed their people. The poor people who had no stcu'k of tluir own were t^enerallv emplov«'d as va(iui'ros to handle the stock, work in matan/as, and to sonu* small extent in cultivatinj^ tltt; soil. The i^'cnte di- ra/.on did the prin- cipal work, that is, liandlinii; stock, niarkin*;, l»ran(lill„^ and killini^. The poore'st labor was done l»y the .some- what christianizetl Indians. Coronel says that the men occupied tlieni.selves exclusively in caring; tor tlu' cattle and horses, hut this oidy tluriuLj the season of the rodeos, that they mi^ht pr(»tect their own interests, ami when the slanghtt i' "t" cattle took place, in order to c(»llect the hides and tal- low wheri'witli to make purchases and the payment of their dehts — for these artit'les served in Vwn ef ujont'v. TIh'V Were n<»t devoted to air steeds was as gfreat as the Arab's, and the un at- est token of friendship between man and man was the present of their best horse. The Califi>rnians always galloped, says Gomez, nevi-r HORSH.MAXSHir. 447 Ft iniiiij in to smoke. Wlieii the horse tired, tlio trav- vWvv would latrli the first other one hv. saw, and so con- tinue! cliany^inLC his steed, alwavssiire ofreeovi-riuLT it on t'ctuinini;. Tlie hat was small in the opening and a stiiiiLC was put on to secure it. The rider usually had liis mouth ojK'n as if to keep the hat-string tight, and the lull secure; often as he rode uloug he filled the au' with jM)pular ditties. If rain (»vertook tlu; horse- man, he would ride into the first house he came to, if thfii' Were no outhouses or sheds. The story goi'S that a horseman if San Jose won a wa^^cr that In; could start at full gallop with a salver ot' a (loz( II wine-glasses filled to the l)rim, and after til'ty rods to stop su«ldenly and hand down the salver without having spilled a drop. Ill hoisemanship, the ( 'alifornians compared favor- ahly w ith the sturdy Chilians and the llimsily attiied and almost elfeniinatc IVruvian. Jioth tln^ Califor- iiian man and horse were suj>erior to the Mexican in stimgt li and weiglit, and hy the different arrangement of the saddle-gear — the girth exactly in the ciiitre, and stirrup forward, alm(»st an a[)pi'ndage from the |MiiiiiiK'I — his figure erect and well poised. The (Jau- cho of the pani[»as perhaps might excel him in sonu- of the light exercises; but for hard work, strength and ability, the Californian stood unrivalled. Serran • re- inaiks that when Californian women ride on horsehack tli(y use the same trappings and saddles as men, though without ornaments; some are exciedingly skih'iil in mana at fuil run. Jionifacio Lopez, weighing three humhid ]>ounds, used to ride his horse at full sj»eed up and down a perilous trail at Soledad near San Dii uo, to the great wonder even of his countiymen. At San Gabriel were woven scrapes and hlaiilvt ts. as W( 11 as a coarse woollen stuH' called jerga. IIkIi were also manufactured sjiddles, bits, lK)tas, anor, or other benefits out of savagism as jins- sihle, the inestimable benefits of Christianity bcinv' more than an offset for anvthinainz, who was sent to California for having knocked an otticer iloNvn with his fist in Pitic, S»»noni. He m m r extended privileges to the ofticers, and whvu any eiir of th(Mn came to the mission, he made him eat of tin same fooii't, wiving that it was what he himself had. Once Cap tain de la (Juerra visited the missiotj and atteiiiptil to embrace the padre, but th(> latter only j)erniitt' <1 him to touch his habit. However, this priest wa< an intimate friend of Covernor Arrillnga, and re|)'^atrdly made presents to the common soldiers, all of Nvli'Ui PADRE IBANEZ. 451 loved him for his charicy. He would say that the (itHcors had their pay, and must live on it, and that tlio neophytes needed for themselves all that the mis- sion produced. He at all times manifested a jj^reat interest for his flock, treating them kindly, and t( ach- i[\\X them not only the best way of doing their work, I lilt also vocal and instrumental nmsic. At their di'iith, he paid their remains the same honors as to those of the wealthy. Most of the Fernandino friars were exemplary men, and Padre Ibanez was one of till' best beloved by the I.'dians. Two missionaries of coi»siderable prominence — Jose Altimirr,, who planted the symbol of Christianity in tlio valley of Sonon)a, and Antonio Kipoll, a very en- tliusiastic priest, who served in La l?urisima and Santa Barbara — eftected their escape. In 1828, on an American vessel, from the port of Santa Biiritnra. Tin y went on board with the pretext of purcliasing ^oods. and never returned. A letter left on the Im juli. and addressed to Captain de la (;iut'rra, informed him of their intention to save themselves from tin- hacsh treatment which the authoritii's ()f Mexico were iiitlieting on Spai.ianls. They m-ted on the idea that Mexican priests wouhl soon come out to relit'v*' them, 1111(1 then they, the old S[)anish missionaries, would be e\|KHed without mercy. Previous to jumjiing into the hoiit that i'onveved them to the ship, thev ten the constitution of Mexico. It was for this reason tliat the father-prefect, Vicente Francisco de Sarri'a, wu-> imprisoned. 1^ I Hi 432 OCCUPATION AND INDUSTRIES. The Californians had a grcit lack (if entorpriso. As an example : Chiles and Baldridj^^e found an ad- mirable site for a mill on the Napa rivt>r, on Salva- dor Valleio's rancho. Thev offered to l)uv it. hut nothinjiif would induce Salvador to sell. Then tin y otfered to erectafine tlour-mill there, and give him an interest in it for the .site, but he refu.sed, sayin<^' tliat i\\v. mill would frighten his cattle. Sage Salvador! He had all he wanted ; how could the mill add to his hai)piness i Sir George Simpson expresses the opinion that in industry the Cahfornians wore perha[Ks the loa.st prom- ising coloni.sts in the world, being inferior to what tlu' savages had become under the training of tin priests, so that tht' sj>oliatlon «)f the nussions tend* <1 dirci'tly to stop civiliwition. There were once larj^c flocks of shi'i'p, but now in IS42 there were s r, .u'se cl(>th; and because the Californians were too 1 » \ lo wiave or spin, or even to clip and wash the raw ma- terial, sheep were destroyed, to make room for honn d cattle. Soap and leather used to be made in the iiii> sioiis, and also dairy products, but now, he says, nei- ther butt.-r, cheese, nor other preparation of milk is to be found in the province. The missions |>rodue< d amiuallv SO. 000 bushels of wln-at and maize, wliii Ii they cohverti'd into Hour: at }»resent the govi'rniin iit paid .i^JS a barrel for flour. Bi>ef was occasioiiMlly cured for exportation, yet now, though (juantities ef meat ari> destroved aimuallv, the authorities had to jtundiase salted salmon as .si'ii stores for a small vessel, and so on. l^ut the Hudson's Hay magnate. like iiianv another, thniwlng a ij;lunciMit tlie counti-v as lie pa>ses by or through it, tiiough he might sei' mU( 1:, lie could not see all. Tjcather was made to some oxtetit, but in no pi.t- portion to th«' demands or possibilitiea t)f tlu> count iv. At most of the missions some leather was tanned, ilio LEATHER-WORKS. ■jr>3 Santa IVubara iiive'iitory oC IH45 sliowini; a taiUKTy liiiiiso, five good vats, and otliir articKs iti |noj»oition. Hall savs tl u' nativt's "iiiai lo si UK'S tVoiii !«'atln'r taiitu'd l>y tlitinsilvcs, in a luiriied pro<«'ss; that is. a sham uroccss. Tl ley us» 'd to takt' a Ian If o\ -l.id. <^atlnr up its corni rs, hang it on a tvir or htaui raist-d with posts, then till tht; liidr with wati r and oak haik. ami place therein the skins to he tanned. In this niannur they pnjiared sole-lcatlur. The upjurs for shoes Were made from sin\ letting a stick run through sutticiently to pass a small ball through, aiul brought up with the same ■;tick. Of course their faiti'ic is ( oarse hut tl lev niaki it \ei'v durabli In IS4.") San .\ntonio had t Wo uiis, Santa Ines two, Santa Ixirbaia four laige looin? .1 dl Hid one small one. and s(> o >n. In I'etaluma. San .lose. Santa Clara, and in the more st)Uthern missions w. le Weaving factories, where striped scrapes with lila( k and white borders were made. (hi the 7th of tlune, IS.'!!. \'ietoria writes the min- ister .if I'elations that manufactiu'ing exists onl\ at the iiii>siiins, and is |ieit'ornie» 1 b liei i|ihyt( who make "nliiiaiy woollen ti-xtuies tor which part of the wool Imm their sheep is used. Some missiitns have woNfii Maitkets. scrapes, siickekith (sayal I. and pahet»'s. 'I'here arc also at the missions smit hs. catpenters, slmemakcrs. t.iiiiii rs, etc., though capable of greater perfection. Iliere is a lamentable carelessness, due in ^^reat part '" want (»f men. and the abundance of the actual neces- saries of lif(.. N"tliing was m i\o of stone, clay, gold, silver, iron, copper, iir leail; nor of hair, silk, feathers, uv bones. iM orrrpAiioNs and ixdustries. LratlitT and sdli-leather wore uiaile from liiJes, for sluM's uikI (ttlicr uses. Of wool were made blankets and seia[)eH — very coarse work. The inventory of San (Jahriel in 1834 includes one wct»»l\veavin<^ establishment with four looms; a brandy distillery with eiufht stills; a wine manufactory with three jiresses; a smithy, carpenter-shop, soap factory, and two grist-mills. The inventory of San Mijufuel in 1S;57 values the slituinaking shoj) with its implements in round figures at !?-4 ; carpenter-shop with imj>lenients ^114; tallow- melting, $40; soap-making, $170; mill, f(»r mule laimr and hen-house, $!>!>; tannery house, witii implements, 8300. At San Antonit> tlie weaving establishment was valued at $1,21 2. Wheat was ground on metates at first, and for a considerable time. In 183;5 th^re was an adobe grist- mill run by water at CajMstrano mission, wliicli wus destroved by an ovt'Hiow, a wooden one being aft* r- ward erected in its^ place. A water-mill at IV't.'dunia, belonging to Bell, in 1838 ground 100 pounds daily, Then there Mas the arrastra, .some of which liad t\V(» or tlinn) stones. smootli on one hide, the one above it being sccui' il with a ]>iecc t)f inni. In*!! pa.sa\c in a cirrh> round the stones. The year 1 M42 saw grist-mills in Santa Cruz county, otie built by Dodero, an Italian, and anotlier on tiie Potrero l)y oiie Weeks. T)ie str Sains('\ain in 1S44 erected a flour-mill on the (inndalupe Ki\er. in the San Jose valley. He n- 'I Frer^ch iiuhr-^^tones, andasilk boliin*j-cl(»th,aikilgr('UM.l sroAR-MAKixa. 4r.5 7') fanopfas of wheat a day. Soino Fit ndiiatMj liiul a suw-uiill near Santa Cruz in 1S44; tlun- was oiu' t rt'«'tt'(l at San (iahriol in 184G; and tlic tollowing vt ar Monterey had one. The Iu(Hans made surrar. and wliy sliould not thi' CihtoniiuMs ? A ncd whicli onw in the; Tuhirrswas «iit hy the natives when rijte. |»l;H\'d «»n nictates, and (ru-<]i('d. \Vhen the reliise was r« ino\ril, thcic w- 111,1 iiH.'d crystals <»t" tine Huvor. sonicthin'j: like a/iicar (audi, or rock candy, and of wliieii ta!uaU>s were inam lleetS. \ allejo was a man of progrcs.s. All his life he had spent in this far-awav wildernes-s, and there weic now 4riO (XCUPATIOX.S AND IXDUsTUIKS, iMnninix to tlioHo alioros so inaiiv stmn;j;t'rs with so many strain;*' taUs, idias now to Iilm, and tliinji^s lU'Vcr l)c'torc luaid (»t'. that lie was ready to bi'liove ahiiost aiiythiuL;. ludred, thcic was no n'{i>'()n wliy siiun! should not hi' tnaih' tVoni hi-t-ts, and jx'rhaps toa tVnm oak l(a\(S, and cortbr inmi luanainita iK-irifs. " 1 )oul>tl»'ss all is as you say," leniarked ValKjo. "but wlu'if are tlic luH'ts:"' "(flow thoni," r(>|>li('d ('ustot, " I haAi' no seed," said Vallt jo. "Send tor sonii>." answered ('ustot. Indeed, the eunniny; (Ktavio had all alonsf rookont'd on this . to M deserted s;iil(»r, was a fat country, with balmy ;iir and bea,utiful wo'ui'U. To his mayordonx! at j'et.'dumn, \'allejo finally m nt the f( * low. W I th orders to j»laci' at his dis|)osal \'><\\v yokt' of oxen, eij^ht Indians, jind a dwellin;^ and |ii di- visions. "C'iN ili/ation is indeed a bot»n,"' thought Oc- tavio. as ho lay muh-r a madrono smokiuLj his pipe, while the slow-steppiuLi' oxen furrowed Ibrty acres. Seed was found at Mazatlan. and when it came it was pi(»nounce<| of mnnl (Mialitv — verv u<>od tiualitv. "ihit," said Octavio, "nothinLj can b»> done now; it is too late to plant this season." So thei'e was notliiiiL; to bi' d(»?ie but to extend to 101 Azucarero liis iVee and easy livino' at j'ctaluma through the sunmiei'. .\t li'Uiith the rains came, tin- seed was put into the oround. the beets f su;j:ar from ( 'ustot to the sen«tra. \\h<> pi<' nounced it fine -very fine; c'lUiil to lit r h»af-siijar A HOUSE SHINfiLED. Hf lirouglit from Peru. "Here is an industry wortli liaviiij;." mused the inaster--''<)xen, Indian liil)»>r, un- limited lauds; wliv, I will have in luets millions of at I'es, ami presently ships eairvini^ hem-e the yreat staph' to t'Veiy (jtuirter of the tarth." l>ut what is this the senora says, as she r I'-oked indeed like civilization. A'..,'a:n the mechanic stood htfori' the mastei-, I) : t ;1 I 488 OfCLTATIOXS AND INPUSTKIES. "What shall I i^^ive you?" asked Vallojo. "I woiiltl like some land in Napa Valley, if you would h'lid me a few heifers so that I mijjht start a herd," said Yount. •' |[ow much land?" "Haifa lea .$10 each, acconhng to size and col<»r. Private persons wire; f •rl.iildcn to hecoine purchasers of furs. The friars ta\ovtd this project, which would attord an additional ininiiie to the nTissioas. The agent ohtained al)o\it ( V.U ) :'!• !' n IXL.VXI) TRADE AXT) COAST TRAFFIC. l,r»00 otter skins, returning' with tlii'in to Ari'xlm, wIhiu'c at ti»e eiul of I7H7 ho took tlicin to Manilii for lUTount of tiu' roval tnasurv. lirforo I7l)0 tlif iiuiiiIht of skins shi{>iM,7-0, at a total cost, inchi business, which was checked hv tin treaty entered into in October 17D0, between (ireat liritain and Spain, inhibitin<^ the subjects of tlif former power from killini; otter witliin thirty mili s of any part of the coast occupiet! by the latter, — tliat is, all of California below San Francisco, — and finm eiiu;a^ing in any trade with the Spanisli cstablisli nients. There wer»' several reasons why the trade in pel tries met with ill succes.s. First, the furs obtained in California were fewer in nundter than lian to China from the Northwest Coast. Thinl, the tariff of prices fixed by the *;overnment a«ijent at first was cnii- sidi-red excessive. The roval fur tradtra were \\<>t, satisfied with a fair ])rofit. Then, too, the Spaniauls did not know how either to prepare the skins orcon- n'\«'nt eoni- iiiunications of torii^Mi veHsels with tl»o n>untiv. tlioujili in casiH of distress sueli vessels were fui- nisl led stores and water. The laws prohiltitid trade ii't only with forei«;n vessels, and for for*'i}.'n t>;«Hnls. l)Ut with Sjumish vessels and for llispano-Anuriean uoods, if brought hv other than the re«'ular trans- |M.it.s. At first even the transports were not all r«'<|uire : horses, ^.'{ to ^1); asses, ^(I to i^7 : rahes, :?1.50; bulls, ^4 ; sheep, 75 cents to ^'J ; swhie $1 to ^4; nmles, ^1(1 to ^20; mares, ^IJ; c«»\vs, 5?4; cxrii, js^J; j^'oats. 7i) cents to 61 ; jerked bi-if. 75 cents I" r -5 IIks. ; fnsh beef, 1*5 cents per 25 lbs. ; hides, uiitainie«l, 37 cents; tiinned, ^li.25; wool 81.-5 to .$- ]•' r :]5 lbs; wluat, ^'J ]Mr fanega; barley, ^l pt-r tiiiitnja; maize .31.50 per faiiejLCa; beans, i^'l.bO per t'ain;^fa; tiour, $1.25 to .^'J per 25 lbs.; suj^ar. 25 cents |M r Ihs.; brandy, 75 cents per pint. The list was iiHidiHed some years later, with an increase in the juice of some articles; the nundier of article.^ was also tvrcatly au»jmented, including those of luxury, which in the earlier years hiul lu'ensevenly exchnh-d. I'larly iii the lUth cinturv American vessels beoan I" apprar at California |K)rts, under th»? pretext of iiitdiug supplies, their real object being to secure IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 I.I »" IIM 1 2.2 It i^ mil 2.0 1.8 1.25 u 1^ — — — ^ (," ► Photographic Sciences Corporation S: :0^ v #v %^ ^^ ^«,' ^.-^^ " A 462 INLAND TRADE AND COAST TRAFFIC. m otter skins, for which they had goods to give in ex- change, in which iUicit traffic they were somethncs successful. The Americans were not the only for- eigners poaching in the Spanish preserves of the Cali- fornias; the Russians also endeavored to establish commercial relations in some form. Joseph O'Cain, connnander of the ship O'Cain, persuaded Bardnof, chief of the Russo- American colonies, to let him have a number of Aleuts, with their bidarkas, to take otters on shares. O'Cain left Kadiak in October 1803, and did some trading on the coast of Alta California. He touched at San Diego in January 1804, for provisions, which were denied him. After hovering some time on the coast of Lower California, he returned to Kadiak in June with 1,100 otter slvins to be shared with the Russians. The same ship, and another American vessel under Russian auspices, visited the coast of Lower California in 1805 and 1806. These voyages yielded about 6,250 otter skins. The Russians allege that Bariinof forbade their hunt- ing on the California coast without special jxirmission from the Spanish authorities, but no such permission was either asked for or obtained. From this time on, for ten years or upwards, the Yankees with the aid of the skilful Aleuts, under contracts with the Rus- sians, had things their own way in California. Tiny disposed of their goods by barter with the friars, and even occasionally with the officials. The hunters, be- came more and more emboldened, until they actually came to take otter in the bay of San Francisco, under the very eyes of the Spanish authorities, who nmic powerless to prevent it. It is known tliat the Russo- Alaskan company thus obtained nearly 10,000 ottor skins as their share of the number taken by the con- tractors. It is believed that the latter were honest in rendering an account of the animals killed ; but in other respects they caused trouble and loss to the company by occasional sharp practice. The contract system was disconthmed about 1815. rezXnof's adventure. 463 In 1806 famine stalked in Alaska, owing to the wreck of a vessel with supplies, and the failure of an- other to arrive. Scurvy also made its appearance, Hunger, misery, despair, and death were fast reduc- ing the number of the colonists. The chamberlain, liczilnof, who had come to Sitka the previous year on a visit of inspection, loaded the ship Juno with such articles as were thought to be acceptable in Cali- fornia, and proceeded to the port of San Francisco, wliich he reached early in March, after a stormy pas- sage, in which the lives of all on board were repeat- edly in peril. Rezdnof well knew that trading with foreigners was forbidden in California, but he hoped to soften the hearts of the Spanish authorities to rdiove the pressing need of food. Possibly there might be a little business transacted in furs, if not with the permission of the officials, then through the connivance of the missionaries. But he had for a time to contend with Governor Arrillaga's regard for duty. While admitting that commerce would be beneficial to the people of California, the governor felt bound to comply with the strict orders he had from the crown and the viceroy of New Spain. The most he would permit was the purchase of cereals for casli ; no sales of goods from the ships, nor purchase of peltries should be allowed. But where di[)l()niacy faiK'd, love, all-conquering love, succeeded. Rezdnof won the heart of Concepcion Argilello, the coman- (Innte's daughter, and offered his hand to her in mar- riiio;o. Through this intermediary the comandante's inHuence was brouo-ht to favor the chamberlain's wislies. Arrillaga found himself at last unable to resist the pressure of the friars, the people, his own inclinations to favor the country, and the arguments of his friend of thirty years' standing. Captain Josd Diiri'o Argiiello. He yielded, and a complicated plan was devised, by which specie was made to appear as tli(! medium of purchase on both sides, Rez;lnofs name Hot appearing in the transactions. Pursuant to this !9 m'i !! 464 INLAND TRADE AND COAST TRAFFIC. arrangement the ship was soon loaded with w^hcat and flour, maize, barky, beans, oats, and pease; salt, soap, tallow, etc. The ship delivered goods, which had originally cost about $5,000. Rezdnof now delavid his departure as little as possible, and arrived safely at Sitka on the lOtli of June. The Russians after this determined to establish a settlement on the coast of California, the port of Bodega and the country back of it being the chosen spot. The Russian emperor gave his assent, witiioiit saying anything of Spanish opposition. The Russo- American company was simply authorized, as re- garded connnerce, to arrange the matter in their own way. The first attempt at Bodega in 1810 was un- successful. Meanwhile Captain Jonathan Winsliip, in the (/Cai)!, visited the California coast in 1810-11, under contract with the company, and returned to Alaska with 5,400 otter skins. His brother, Natlian Winship, in the Albatross, under a similar contract, took 1,120 skins. Several other ships were at tliis time engaged in the same traffic, namely, the Isahclla, Mcrcim/, Catherine, Amethyst, and Charon. The Rus- sians tinallv effected the desired settlement, com- meiiced agricultural operations, and made efforts to o})en a trade with California, but their overtures wtie unfavorably received, and they were ordered to quit the territory. While the revolutionary war raged iu ^Mexico, California was left without supplies. Fortu- nately a small trade with Peru began, two s]ii}».s coming from Callao with cloth and miscellaneous goods, to barter for tallow, hides, and other produn-. The American ^\n^ Mercury was captured on the coast with a cargo worth $16,000, which afforded consiil- erable relief. The Russians at Ross were after ;i time allowed to send to San Francisco, in bidarkas goods to the amount of $14,000. From this time commercial relations were rarely interrupted. In 1814 another Spanish vessel sold $16,000 wortli of goods for treasury drafts. A small amount of money BUSINESS WITH ALASKA AND LIMA. 465 was also obtained from two English vessels that visited Monterej'- and San Francisco. Lieutenant Moraga was sent a third time to Ross to t)rtler tlie Russians to depart ; but the officer in charge, Kuskof, found it convenient not to understand a messaj^e con- veyed to liim in Spanish, and despatched his clerk to San Francisco with the usual caro;o, which by the in- (luli^^ence of Captain Luis Arcfiiello, the coniandante, found a ready sale, and the Kussians met ever after with the same success, to the benefit of the troops and people of California, for they not only furnished iu'ot by the *j;ovcrnment. Of course there was smugijfling even tlien to some extent. Tiio missionaries claimed exemption from export ami import dues, but Governor Sola heeded them not, and tinallv they had to be content with the cold comfort of paying by a pro rata contrilmtion, a sum of money helieved to exceed the amount of duties demaiuled. The governor accused the friars of behig unserupuh>us, inasnmch as they bought goods on speculation, ]>re- tiiidiiig that they were for the missions, and shiitped liquor and other merchandise under the title of gifts, C.vi.. Past. 30 I :'3 4G6 INLAND TRADE AND COAST TRAFFIC. :it; Is ■IF w etc. He thought it needful to watch their proceed- ings, on behalf of the country's interests. In April, 1821, was published in California, a royal order of the preceding year, exempting from duties national products exported on Spanish bottoms to San Bias and the CaUfornias. But this order, con- nectod as it was with some commercial schemes wliicli had no eifect, brought no benefit to California. The rates of duties exacted in the last decade were now continued. Nine vessels entered California pons during this year, and in 1822 there were twenty on the coast, one being a government transport, and six wlialers which entered San Francisco for supplies. The rest traded goods for California produce. In 1823 there were seventeen vessels, three of them Russian men-of-war, five whalers, and the rest traders, purchasing tallow, hides and produce. The duties on imports and exports collected at Monterey, amounted to upwards of 17,500, which may or may not include $6,500 received at San Francisco and San Diego. The British subjects, Hugh McCuUoch and Wil- liam Edward Petty Hartnell, the latter becomini,' a permanent resident as well as a citizen, brought a cargo of goods in 1822, and proposed, both to the government and to the prefect of the missions, to enter for Begg and Company of Glasgow and Lima, into a contract to keep the province regularly supplied. Such a contract was actually concluded for three years, to begin from January 1, 1823. A scale of prices was arranged. Prefect Payeras saying that the times when hides and tallow where to be had for the askhig had passed. The following was the schedule fixed in the contract: hides, $1 each, large and small; wheat, $3 per fanega ; tallow, $2 per arroba of 2 J Ihs; suet, $3; lard, $i; soap, $16 per 100 lbs; beef in pickle, including bone, $4 per 100 lbs, without casks. Other articles were included without mentioning their prices ; such as horns, hair of horses and cattle, h'.uip. EXPORTS AND IMPORTS. 4G7 wine, brandy, saffron for dyeing, skins of bears, foxes, etc. The only article to be received in unlimited quantities was hides. Wheat m large quantities was to be taken only in the event of the wheat crop being sliort in Chili. The contractors were bound to Jes})atch at least one vessel every year, which was to touch at each harbor or roadstead, take all the hides ottVred, and at least 25,000 arrobas of tallow, and to pay for the same in money, or such goods as might be desired. There were a few other conditions which it is unnecessary to enumerate. In September 1824, a tax of ten per cent, on pro- ducts was decreed. The comandantes of presidios wt'ie instructed to facilitate the sale of products as much as possible; taxes on exports were repealed fmui January 1, 1825, but a duty of 25 per cent was imposed on all coin taken from the province. From this time it is unnecessary to detail the development of trade from year to year, under the }iilvll(ge of free intercourse, subject only to duties as i't(|uired elsewhere. The ever loan treasury could ill-afford to lose the amount the parties in interest Would contribute toward its relief Everv such con- triltution was a godsend. A. 'I'olony of foreign traders controlled the conmierce, and the system of exchanijinof hides and tallow for goods brouo-ht fn>m ahroad did not vary nmch between 1823 and 1840, Complete records of revenue exist for on r three vi ars, making the average $70,000 annually ; the receipts for about 1837 did not exceed $60,000 vrarly. Exports could not vary much in Nalue at Calit'ornia prices from imports. For three years the avirugc of exports from San Francisco was $83,000 ; the annual exports from California to Honolulu for tive years was $45,000. Sir James Douglas, of the Hudson's Bay Company, in 1841 estimated the total expvas requind to pay .$50 |H>r month fora license to enjj^a^e in the retail tradts This wjisconstituU^d a special fund to [)ay the guards placed on tlie vessels, and for the construction of a pier at Monteny. The traders objected to the presence of these watchmen, but not to the tax. The total revemie collected by the custom-house in 1845 was about $140,000. The records and otli.r sources apeak of sixty vessels havinjjj been in Califm-- uia in that year. A dozen names mentioned arc rather doubtful, many of them rcstiiisf on unreliahK- statements, and elj^lit were men-of-war, which, if not reorular traders, nuist have brou<]jht large supplies. The }fnf(tasurv $<>7,000, which far exceeded the amount ever i>aid l)efore bv anv one ship. Betw^een 1841 and 1845, 134 vess(>ls arrivid. Among tlnMU were 45 of American nationality, II British, 8 French, 7 German and Swedish, 5 ]lussiaii. 3 South American. In the case of 2!), — many of which W(>re smugglers and reticent, — no nationality appears in the records. Of the 1,'U, 43 were whalers and 'I'l ships of war or of scientific exploration. It mav be of interest to the o-cneml reader to l, $'2, ; wheat, 83 |x^r fanega; maize and pease, $1.75 a fa- ni>ga; beans, $2.50, oats, $1.50, a fanega; butter. S2 for 5 lbs; milch cows, $8 each; and hogs, $6; horse- skins, $1 in merchandise, and $.75 in money; ox-hides, $2 in merchandise, $1.50 In silver; deerskins, $.5i) to $1, according to size; beaver skhis, $3 per lb, ^loro PRICES fUKllKNT. 400 lliiin 3,000 skins were obtained each year. Otter skins became vt-rv scarce. Scarcely 100 wen; taktn ill I,S4'J; tl)('y wi-re worth in CaHfornia from $'.ij to s to, at Maaitian from ^r)0 to $;")."), and in Afcxico from .$00 to $70. Tliey were not rej^ularly exported to China after 1H40. The skins of fresh-water otters weie wortli only $2 to $'.]. Wild goat skins were Nvortli 25 ce'nts; skins of the hair seal, 75 cents; of tilt; fur seal, §3 to $4. Californians would pay for slioi's i^-\, bw $3 per arroba; passage, $200 to $120, according to agreement with the captain; time, 50 to ()0 (lavs. The fat from the weekly slaughter of cattle at the missions was dragged in on the hide, made into soap, or melted and put up in leather botas. The melting coppers were of iron, of 200 or more gallons capacity. Tlie hides were stretched on the ground, and held by sticks driven into the ends. When dry, they were stored for shipment. 470 INLAND TRADE AND COAST TRAFFIC. Sutter says tliat wlion lie first came to Califonun. "articies on tratliiiiij vessels were so high tluit ho wliu went on board with $100 hi money or hitles, couM cairy away his purchases in a pcx'ket handkerchiot." The trading ships, after entering their cargoes, and sui)plying the wants of Monterey, usually proceedt d to San Francisco, where, mooring off Yerba Butiia cove, they despatched boats to various points of tlie bay to bring the rancheros and tlieir families to tlie ship. Stearns was the first to export cattle horns on a large scale. There was usuallv, savs Davis, a considerable float- ing population, mostly made up of runaway sailors. disposed at all times to purchase goods on credit ; hut as they were men who spent as fast as they earned, the greater part of their earnings going for tobacot and drink, their credit was naturally below par. Tht sc remarks do not apply to permanently settled foreigners. nor to the hunters and trappers who came across tlie mountains and remained in California. Tluy were men of a different type, true, sober, and industrious. Most of them continued as hunters and trajipers lure, and were confidentlv trusted bv merchants and traders. Davis' father owned and commanded the ship Jennie, of Boston, and visited California with goods early iii this century. On one of his trips to California he went into Refugio, a rancho situated a few miles west of Santa Bdrbara. Many of the well-to-do Calit'er- nians, as well as the missionaries, visited the ship to make purchases, and as the captain had no use for hides or tallow, the rancheros and priests produced their Spanish doubloons to make payments, or tentlerod otter skins, which were then plentiful and acceptalilo. About 1823 was organized a company of otter- hunters. They were Kadiaks from Alaska. Tluir way was to pursue in their boats the otter in the hay of Monterev, and when the latter became tired out, kill them with arrows. The otter used to sleep on a bed of sea-weed, ojiposite the sand-banks of the hay. TPJCKS OF THE TIMES. 471 The Kailiak skin boats woukl take positions in line ; tlun from a largo boat several shots were fired; the tVi;j;htene(l otter would start on a run, and the boats pursued them with the utmost speed. Their boats wvro made of scal-skhis, the hair having been removed ; tlnv had a wooden frame inside, and they sounded like a drum; generally eat^h boat carried two or three Kiuliaks. In this manner were destroyed all the otter oil that part of the coast, and further down. The padres were the chief customers in those days, and spent freely from their well-filled coin-bags, or fiuiu their stores of otter-skins, which they aocunm- latod largely from the bay of San Francisco and along the coast. They were extremely jealous of the Rus- sians, who were making fortunes out of the business. The padres had become regular traders. The China troods thcv bought were not for their own use and enjoyment, but were resold to the rancheros at a profit. Tluy were shrewd traders, making their purchases with good judgment, and at lower prices than the rancheros. They frequently supplied the latter with goods from their stores, taking in payment hides and tallow, furs and cattle. Captahi Davis' vovages to tJiis coast on the Ear/Ic proved successful, realizing ahout $i!5,000 profit on each, in Spanish doubloons and otter skins, from his sales in California and the Ihissian settlements. He was among the first traders from Boston, and had everything pretty nmch his own way. John Meek, who in after years traded on this coast as master of the Don Quixote, was Davis' mate. On one of his first vovaijjes here on the Don (Quixote, ho received a present from Coniandante Ignacio ]\Iar- thu^z of three heifers and a young bull, which were carried to Honolulu. In 1871 Meek was livin^j; there, and owned a rancho about '25 or 30 miles froi.i tlie town. He then had between four and five thousand luad of cattle, and had been for years supplying for- eiL^Mi men-of-war and other vessels with beef cattle, all the offspring of the little band presented by Martinez. m 1 Mi t;; j!l 472 INL.VM) TRADE AND COAST TRAFFIC. There was considerable coinpctition in later years anioiiijj the traders on the coast, and tlicre were iiut wantinjjj instances of sharp practice in the collection of hides and tallow, e8i)ecially during tlie slauj^htoriuu; season. Merchants trusted the rancheros largily for the ijoods thev sold them, and the indebtedness was paid when the hides and tallow were prei)ared. Mi^st of the rancheros were in debt at the time. One of them, for instance, would promise the trader to supply hhu at a specified time with hides and tallow, but shoi-tly before the time so fixed another trader, to whom lie was also indebted, would come, and by imi-. sistent eftbrts and blandishments, so work upon liim as to secure for himself a good portion of the csqiiilnKis which had been promised to the first trtader. Wlnii the latter in due time presented himself, and demandc d the fulfilment of the ranchero's promise, such deniiiiul the poor man could not disregard. Then the seri>ii(l trader's claim had also to be attended to in some wa\', at least in a measure, and so, between debt and duty, the ranchero was pretty well pulled to pieces. Tlie hides were often received in a green state, and luul to be staked out and dried at Yerba Buena or San Dit^u. Davis often had them staked out in a meadow bv tlio waterside in Yerba Buena, between what are now Washington and California streets. It was con side it il legitimate among traders for th best to outstrip tlu! others in ''the race for precedence. Business was transacted in a straightforward manner between tlit^ merchants and the Califomians. The purchaser nc^ver had occasion to ask the price, the seller quietly nam- ing it at once, which was accepted or decUned with- out more ado. No advantage was taken. There were, of course, exceptions, but this was the rule. The merchant, Don Jose Antonio Aguiire, owner of the ship, Joven Guipuzcoana, once had a new sujxr- cargo, a young man, who was a stranger to and igno- rant of affairs in California. While the ship lay at San Pedro, Aguirre being absent on the shore, Agus- MACHADO'S BOND. 479 till ^Fachaclo, a well-to-do raiiclioro, antl a man of sti'rlin«r oliaracttr, but who could noitlu'r road nor Miitt', wont on boanl to niako purchases, his caits he- i;iLj at tiie landinjjf. After his !;;o()ds had hccn selected, us he was about havin*^ them placed in a launch to be carrieay- iiuiit, <»r some guaranty or note of hand. Machado !-tiired at him in great astonishment; at first he could iiitt comprehend what the man meant. Such a de- iiian a full understanding with the governor; and from what I was given to under- stand, if this be not secured, the traders are liable to exactions and vexations without number. The enor- mous duties, often amounting to 80 per cent, ad valorem, cause much dissatisfaction on the part of the consum- ers; the whole amount raised is about $200,000 per annum, which is found barely sufficient to pay tlie salaries of the officers and defray the expense of tlie government feasts, which are frequent and usually cost $1,000 each." The operation of curing hides is as follows: To soften the hides, thev are soaked for some davs in sea water. They are then stretched on the ground, and fastened with small stakes. All particles of flesli, which might decompose, are then carefully removed PEDLING VESSELS. 477 with a knife. Thoy are next placed on racks to dry. The inside part having been powdered with salt, tliey arc folded in their length, and loft with the luiir outward. Thoy are then pressed to flatten them, itnd packed in the ship with the aid of jack-screws. It was not unconnnon to see a brig of 100 tons l.)aded witli 14,000 hides, and a three-masted American sliip of 3r.O tons, with 30,000 hides. The Hudson's Bay Company's Simpson writes in 1842: " Few vessels visit San Francisco except such as are engaged in collecting hides or tallow, the tallow Uding to Peru, the hides to England or the United t^tatcs. Each ship has a supercargo or clerk, who in a decked launch carries an assortment of goods from farm to farm, collecting hides, and securing by his advances as many as possible against the next ma- tanza, which is generally in July and August. The current rate for a hide is i^'2 m fjoeds, or 81.50 in ppeeie, the difference arising from the circumstance that goods are held at a price sufficient to cover bad di-bts. The exports of hides do not exceed 00,000, Vet at present there are fully sixteen ships on the ceast scramlding for hides or tallow. Supposing half ti) he enijfa'jjed in the latter business, there remain ei ;;lit for such a number of hides as would take at l.ast three years to fill them. The Jkrt, belonging to one of the oldest houses in the trade, has spent Some 18 months on the coast, but is still al)out a third sliort of her full tale of 40,000. A vessel has to keep p' illing from one place to another, taking her chances ef l»ad weather and anchorage in all the ports from San I'ranelsco to San Dicjo. As the hides are all green, or nearly so, each vessel has to cure them for herself; and as the upper half of the coast, owing to the rains and fogs of the north-westers, is unsuitable, the hides have to be carried to the drier climate of the southern jwirts, particularly San Diego; and then the curing is a great loss of time." Evidently Sir George was not in love with Californians or their traffic. . i 478 INLAND TRADE AND COAST TRAFFIC. I Herewith I give a specimen of commercial corre- spondence of the period : Sax Francisco, Oct. 8, 1845. ^Ir James Watson: Dear Sir — I wish you would purchase for mc, payable next season or in the spriiiir, tliree bales of sugar, of Malarin, if he will kt y<>u have it, at six dollars the arroba. And if not, see if Don Manuel Diaz will let you have it at that price or less. Get two bales at any price you can, if you can- not get it at the price named, and deliver one to tln! Advance when she arrives in Monterev, and send thu other one or two, as may be, to San Francisco, m California. I want it for immediate ship's use, as I am borrowing sugar here for daily use. Yours truly, H. Mellus. In 1842 common calico paid a duty of ono eighth v.{ a dollar a vara. The ^Mexican tariff imposes a tax of \ .") per cent on 'artfculos pcrmitidos;' but in Callfornir., where no prohibition exists, articles in this category are admitted at 40 per cent ad valorem. Foreign ships pay $1.50 per ton for right of anchorage. Whalers pay a simple duty of $10 when it \a suppos((l they come ii merely to provision. If, however, tlu y sell any merchandise, they have to pay the regular duties. Ships that put in for safety p:.y no duties, but on condition that they sell nothing. ^Mexican ships bringing cargoes from ^lexican ports pay no duty. Monterey is the only port open to forei;^n ci>in- merce, and any ship which *il moins de relache pour avarie' runs a risk of being seized as a sumgirler. When once the ships have discharged their cargoes at the custom-house at Monterey, and have paid tlu ir duties, they are at liberty to take their merchaiulise on board again, and trade along the coast until tliey have disposed of their entire cargo. It may be imagined how easy was smuggling und> r such circumstances. The American and English ships sometimes landed merchandise at isolated points on the coast ; but they preferred to wait out at sea, or i GOVERNMENT REGULATIONS. 479 at an uninhabited island, for ships which had ah-eady ])aid their duties, to which they transferred their cargo. Some ships in this manner sold two or three times the value of their original cargo. Coin being scarce in California, captains, supercargoes, and mer- I hants paid part of the duties in merchandise at current prices. Thus we observe at difterent times diilerent regulations, though statements vary somewhat, as a matter of course. Governor !Michcltorena promulgated his dtcree on lii.les the 31st of December, 1843. At every jujrt an ngcnto do policia was to be appointed by the local authorities, who should inspect all hides exported in national vessels. Xo hide should be shipped without lieintj examined and marked bv this acfente. Hides ni)t bearing the owner's brand and sale-mark should lie confiscated by the alcaldes, and the buyer, or per- son in whose hanils thev are found, should be fined $5 t')r each hide. Every four months the agente should report to the local authorities for publication the num- h,T of hides exported, with a statement of tlieir marks of ownership. To the agente of San Francisco all vessels mu 't present themselves on entering or leav- ino- the bav. The aofentes to collect from those in- terested one real for each hide marked. Failing to attcMid to his duties, the agente should pay a fine of 84 each up to 10 hides exported without the proper marks; 35 each from 10 to 50 hides, and so on, increasing 61 per hide for each additional 50. For a second oficnce he should lose his position. Fines to be in three parts: the first to go to the informer, the second to the owner of the brand, and the third to the nmnicipal fund. Confisca^-xl hides to go to the owner if he prove he has not sold them. If he cannot prove this, the hides to be divided like the tines, between the informer and the municipal fund. From Monterey, on the 22d of March, 1845, Lar- kin writes: "The laws of Mexico are but Httle heeded here, only as they may suit the country. No atten- I I \l 480 INLAND TRADE AND COAST TRAFFIC. tion is paid to tiie Mexican tariff; every single article that can be brought to this country can be entered by paying about 30 per cent duties on its value in Monterey; there are no prohibitions whatever from foreign ports; there is even a law here prohibiting foreign goods being introduced from San Bias and Mazatlan, with guias, pases, unless the owners will pay the duties the same as if introduced from a foreign port. Any foreign vessel entering cargo, and paying duties at this custom-house, can carrv on tlie coastincr and retailing trade on board for two or three years, from San Francisco to San Dieii;o, having a store on board, with glasses and shelves; or on shore, selling a vara or bale of calico, and carrying freight up and down tlie coast as they please. Whalers are allowed to trade, paj'ing no tonnage, but duties on wliat they say they have sold, and $30 port charges." Again, January 4, 184(3, he says: "Monterey is the only port in this department where foreign vessels can enter to pay tlieir duties. A'esscls under the ^rexican Hag, direct from any other port of Mexico, can tourli at anv of the ports of California before arrivin'j; at Monterey; yet they must pay their duties here, which by tlie tariff of Mexico is about 15 per cent on the import duties, every time they are transported by land or water from one Mexican state to another; shipping dollars pay the enormous duty of 10 pere( iit from one state or department to another. The avrr- age duties of California for the last seven voars amount to $85,985 per year, of which 15 to 18 }>i'r cent is paid to the collector of the custom-house and his suboi'dinates; of the remainder, tlie treasurer pays about one third to the civil autlioritles, and the bal- ance to the military. The officers of the custom-house receive tlieir salaries in full; the civil and militarv r.^- ceive bv an avera'jje rate according to the amount I'f each entry, which is divided at the time it is received; tliev must then wait till the arrival of a new vess. 1, which may be one month or six. The rule of this CUSTOM-HOUSE METHODS. 481 custoin-liouse is to demand the duties in cash and liidos in 80, 130, and IGO davs. As the officers can- not wait so long a period, they in general take orders from the treasurer in sums of $j to $1,000 on the sni)ercargoes, who pay them at sight in goods, or the owner must wait the stipulated time for i>ayment." From the Larkin arcliives of 1845, 1 extract as fol- lows: The regular Boston traders generally have two vessels on the coast at the same time. After collect- ing in company for periods varying from 12 to IS months, one of them returns home, leaving the otliers until a fresh ship relieves her, tiius continually keep- iiiij the work of collectinj; iroing on. The hide-houses are in San Diego, to which place eaeh vessel proceeds two or three times during the year, to land such hides and tallow as may have been collected from nine or ten jjoi-ts between San Fran- cisco and San Dieg<\ the customer being expected to }iay a part of his debt in produce every time the ves- sel ancliors in port. There are no Mexican vessels in California owufd I'V ^[exicans or Californians; they belon*; to natural- ized foreiijners. The laws t)f ^Mexico are observed oulv M'hen they are for the interest of Californians. Little regard is paid to the tariff. The collector of ^Monterey imposes such duties on many articles as he considers requisite at the time. Althouti'h against the laws of Mexico, the governors and generals of California, since the independence, have idlowed the ct)asting trade from San Diego to San Francisco to all foreign vessels wliieh have pai a box or bag, and agaii from a yard of silk or calico to a bale. From Boston, cargoes consist of groceries, furni- ture, dry goods, crockery, hardware, etc., from wliich cargo the holder of the draft can choose the amount drawn from in his favor, or a part of it, taking- the supercargo's due-bill for the remainder, both (hafts and due-bills being negotiable; they aiv sometimes cashed at a discount of two per cent a montli. In many cases the supercargo has debts against the holiler of the draft, which is always accepted as })ay- ment for his or any other demand. The duties of the principal vessels amount to froin 85,000 to 825,000; they also pay one real per eadi large bale for storasjfc in the custom-house; half of that sum for wharfage; and have the use of tlie custom- house and warehouses for storage and sales until the arrival of the next vessel that may require the buikl- ings. Tonnage duties are 81.50 per ton to all foii iu'ii vessels, and all ^lexican vessels from foreign ports. There are no other port charges; no wharfage, julot- age, or light-house fees, nor any health or quarantine regulations. There is no article prohibited by the .'M FOREIGN IMPORTATIOX.'^. 4S3 fiistom-housc, no prohibition or restriction of any liind; no bounties or navigation acts; no drawbaclvs on shij)[)ing or their cargoes; no board of trade or other estaidishnient reUiting to commerce in Califor- nia. Coins, currency, weiglits, and measures of Eng- land and the United States are in common use in California. By long custom, whale-ships are allowed to enter ^fonterey and San Francisco on paynig from $slO to $"J0 port ciiarges, and a certain percentage on siirh matters as they may barter for supplies. The imports from San Bias, A[azatlan, and Aca- pulco consist of rice, sugar, panocha, nux vomica, sad- (IKay, silk and cotton rebozos, cotton and woollen Scrapes, sIhu'S, and some EngTish, American, and (nrman o-ornls. Imports from the I'nited States and elsewhere are domestics in very largo <|uantities; shoes, hats, furniture, and farming utensils, chietlv of >«ow lOugland manufacture; groceries, china goods, iron, liardware, and crockery, which are sold to the mer- cliants and farmers on the coast, on a credit of from one to two years, payable in hides, tallow, dried beef, IuuiIkt, soap, etc. The vessel obtains a coa.sting license to trade, and fdllcft produce until she is filled, which occupies from IJ to 24 months, the vessel's consort the next year takintj; the balance of the carryo and debt for collec- tion. The J^oston vessels return to that port with from 20,000 to 40,000 bullock-hides, the owner expecting about one hide for each dollar invested in e judged by the alcaldes, the price to be returned t»> the purchase i, and the value of the animal to its owner. No one should sell stock (bienes de campo) without putting on the sale-mark. Tliose who deal in hides should obtain a pass from the neares' authorities, when send ing them to any place, and present the pass to those in charge at the fort for inspection. Prefects, sub- prefects, and alcaldes were authorized to inspect liitli s and receive passes. This service should be regardc d as a public benefit. Hides inspect" 'd weekly as jk !• article 2 were marked with the national brand, and needed no pass. Hartnell, in the draught of a letter to H. C. WvHic in 1844, says that articles of English "manufacture best adapted to this market are brown and white cotton-. coarse and fine, for shirting, sheeting, etc.; prints ot' good quality and fast handsome colors; cotton and silk handkerchiefs of all descriptions; good stout vt 1- veteens, blue and black; fustian, principally brown; nmslin; cambric muslin; bishop's lawn ; cotton laoe of all descriptions; cloth of all kinds, prmcipally blue and black; cassimere; cassinet; flannel, principally red and white ; bayeta ; a very small assortment of linen goods, anions: which some of the finest Irish linen and cam- brie; cotton, woollen, and silk stockings; handsoiuo gown patterns; cashmere shawls; all kinds of hard- ware; tinware; earthenware; glassware; needles, most- ly very fine; cotton and linen thread; sewing-bdk; SHIP CAUOOES AND STOKE STOCKS. 485 Wvlli.' :"C best ?ott(ins. nuts (if .11(1 silk Lit V(l- .)ro\vii ; laoc cf lie and cvd ill id o-()arls; the finest and smallest bi-ads that can be pio- ( uii'd, of all colors, and needles to work them with; ireld and silver lace from \ to 2 inches wide; perfuni- try; iron pots and kettles; candlesticks; sickles; a fi'W (rood common silver huntinir-watches. A carijo of rt! wlunrvrr he .slani;htL'n'd. If tlio slaii^u^litor did not sutlico tt» |i;i\ a debt, the live-stock was j^iven, anil all store-kecju is hail herds, except Sjuar tSc Hinckley of San Francixo. A part of the small interior tradi' was that frnm tlu' Salinas lagoons, or salt ])t»nds. situated betw** ii the ocean sand-dunes and the Monterev Kivei;. Salt was here ohtaineil for the mission and the troo|i>. some Iteing sent to San l^las (Mi the king's ships its eailv as 1770. Salt being a roval monopolv. iio .sooner did men begin to make and move it than a guard was placed over it by order of the governnuiit. The conunander of the guard would bring Indians from Soledad and Carmelo, and gathering all the sih from the three lagoons into one pile, covered it with sticks and bnniches, to which they set tire, so as {>> melt the surface and foi'm a crust over the mass, wlii( h would protect it from the dampness of the contiguous ocean. When all was ready for its shipment, it wa^ brought to the warehouse at Montei-ey, and placed in d large of the habilitado, and sent away in tain ml leather bags br(»ught by the ship for that j)urpose. When Fremont wanted horses in I84r», he sent to the natives of the Tulare plains, and purchased I ^7 horses and nmles, paying for each animal one small butcher-knife and a string of beads. There was some traile with New ^[exico. Partit > were wont to come across the countiy with packs nt' blankets which they exchangt^d for mares, horses, ami nudes. Each party woidd take away from l.Oun to 2,000 animals. On several occasions those Xew Mi \i- cans weie really tin 'ves, and stole many head of sterk. The last considera!; -) robbery of this kind took plan' in 1844-0, when a \anadian, or Frenchman, naiiitl Charley Fou, got a ,iy with some 2,000 horses ami mules. An armed \ rty went fiom Angeles in I'ur- suit of the thieves, I it finding them superior in pi'int THE FIRST ATmiVAL 487 of numltors and wi'll ariiiod, retuiiii'd \vitlu)ut liuviiij^ U('t(»iii|tlislu'(l anythiii*^. Tlie Ainajavos, Cocluuios, and Yumas used ovory year at fcrtain times to biinsj; to Anj^eles antelope- •skiiis and tirutas — blankets wliieli tliey wove hy liand with i^ri'at peileetion, and which were very durahU , ill color white and Mack — made with the wool of the wild shet'p once tamo (l)orrei>'os cimarroni's), which they chased in Sonora. These tirutas were much .sought after l)y the rancheros, who used them an siiddle-cloths. In exchange for them, the Indians tnok mares and horses. These Indians wi're led l>y tht'ir capitanes, who were presented by the authorities with horses and cast-oti' cloth in*;. We may be sure that the arrival of the first foreii^ti vessel at .Nfonterev was an event. It was in 1^17. ]jieutenant Don Jose Maria Estudillo was comandanti? of the military post, and Don Vicente I'ablo tie Sola was ifovernor. On a soft sprin*; morninij^, while a 'gentle brci'ze was blowin*!^ in from the north-west, the look-out stationed at Punta de I*inos came rushiiii;' in on horsi'back through the presidio j.jate, and made straiii^ht for the comandante's house. ■'What is the matter .'"' asked Don Jose, eominj.,' to the door. "A sail! A stranue sail, far out at sea; it is verv far out, but it seems to have the intention of comiii;^' iu'ie," replied the look-out. "Ho, there! My jj^lass and trumpet," shouted tin- Commander; "and brin<4' my coat, the best one with the »4dld braid; and don't tbru'et my boots and liat. Where is mv sword .' and hunt me up that chart of the tla'_;s of all nations." Arrayed in his most iniposin*; hal)ilimcnts, the com- mander was ready to meet, the enemy. ••Xow sound the drum!" ho cried, "and let the infantry and artillery ap[)ear ; let all wlu) love their (luuitrv join witii me in her defence, prepared to sited our last drop of blood for God and the King!" 488 INLAND TRADE AND COAST TRAFFIC. Tlio drummers rcshoO forth, beatinof for dear life round the plaza, while the troops uiouuted their hors()s, and the artillerymen and militia repaired to the fort. The women made everything ready for flii^ht, and the old men and boys got out their old swoids and fire-locks, and scoured from thein tlie rust. At the fort the men heated some balls red hot, so as to dt) the fullest execution upon the ship. "Is it a pirate," they wondered, "or a Frenchman, or Yankee r' It did not matter: it was all one; it should see, whatever it was, that the country was not to be so easily wrested from its noble and brave de- fenders. Slowly and surely as an impending fate, the vessel approached, until distinctness marked its every out line, and the ever-broadening sails were loosened and allowed to Hap in the wind. The commandui planted himself at the foot of the fort. He clutched his big trumpet nervously; he gazed at frequent intervals through his glass, and studied attentively his flag pictures. Life was swiet, but his mind was made up. Life without honor was valueless; and better eyes dim in death than awake to see California sons slain, her daughters ravished, and the little children with their brains dashed out upon the rocks! By and by, after faithful study, applying to the mat- ter to the fullest extent the exercise of his astute intellect, the conunander pronounced the strange sail a schooner of 80 or 100 tons burden, but of wluit nation it was impossible to determine. The streaked and starred bunting flying at the mast-head was imt on his chart of the flags of all nations, which was fully fifty years old. It was evidently a private signal, and there was not a rea.sonable doubt of its being that of a corsair, the red streaks signifying rivers of blood, and the stars the number of cities taken. He thought he could discern warlike preparations on board; never- theless, he would play on her at once his old success- BRAVE DEFEXCE. 489 ful tactics, and raise a white flag. If lie could thus hire the enemy into his power, he might yet save the commonwealth. Presently the gallant comandante placed his trumpet to his lips and bellowed : ''Qudbuque?" "No sabe Espanol," was the re])ly which came back across the water as from another world. "Ship ahoy I Quebandera?" bravely persisted Don Jose, determined to know the truth, however unpalat- al )le. "Americana!" came from the schooner. If there were now only a boat at hand; if Spain, in tlie days of her grandeur, had only supj)lied the niet- ro])olitan seaport of Alta California with a boat wjiere- with to board shijis, he would show the world what ii brave man will do in the service of his country. But alas I there was none. And not without show of reason Ferdinand, Charles, Philip, might ask, why burden Spain with the expense of a small boat at the port of ^lonterey, which has no commerce? ^leanwhile the governor, who had tarried to mend some rips in his full-dress unifonn, ap])earetl upon the scone, attended by his officers, all with shoes blacked ami hair oiled. All on shore felt the dreaded moment approaching, as a l)oat was seen lowered from the vessel and making toward them. Fearlessly it approached the land, and as tlie bow touched the beach a man stepped forth, smirking, and nodded to the august assemblage. In- stantly he was surrounded by soldiers, and the meas- ure taken of his man-kiiiing capabilities. He was arrayed all in black, hi!'}i hat and swallow-tail coat — a jirivate disguised as a i)riest, it was whis[)ered. Fortunately for the peace of Cahfornia, the creature carried no weapon. He was wliolly in their |)ower. If, as they supposed him to be, he was the cajttaln of that great and villanous-looking craft, they had him in tlicir power. Leaving the army to guard the boat, lest some 480 INLAND TRADE AND COAST TRAFFIC. dariiij^ sailor should rush to the rescue of his captain, the Yankee skipper, for such was the quality of the invader, in the centre of a platoon of cavalry was con- ducted into tiie presence of the governor. Signifyinuf that he spoke only English, an interpreter was pro- cured in the person of a seaman from the boat. The Californians were now in a position to take the matter coolly, as did old Nestor, who, after feastin;j; and sacrificing with Telcmachus and his crew, turned and bluntly asked them if they were thieves or mur- derers, or what. The coniandante thought it safe enough at this juncture to charge the prisoner with being the spy of some enemy, and so he boldly said, though of wliat enemy, and why a spy, was not set forth in the com- plaint. The prisoner declared he was no spy, and was not an enemy. "Then tell me, sir," the governor demanded, "who you are, whence and why you came, whitlier bound, and what flag you sail under?" "I am an American," the captain replied; "I sail under the United States Haij; I am last from the Rus- sian possessions, and am bound for the Hawaiian Islands; I have stopi>ed to otler for sale some Chinese goods, of which I have a sui)ply on board." The governor thereupon retired to his house to hold a council with his otKcers, while the prisoners were conducted to the plaza, and placed in the centre, still closely guarded. While the council were discussing the matter, the sailor being minutely questioned apart i'nnn the cap- tiiin, the ])eople of the town, men, women, and childri n. congregated about the captain, and discussed his character and <|uality. "He is a Jew," said one. " You can tell by the tails of his coat." "He is a cannibal," remarked another; "for lie clu'ws tobacco, which is more filthy than eating hu- man flesh." MIXED RELIGION. 401 In any event, they all agreed that he was a sea- heathen, as they could see in every feature that he had never been baptized ; and this opinion was presently mure fully confirmed in their minds when the noon lull sounded for the Ave ^Earia, and the prisoner iK'itlier kneeled nor removed his hat like the others. •Down! down on your knees, barbarian I" the ouard exclaimed, as best thev were able to make themselves understood. The ski[)per turned pale, thinking his hour had come, and that he was thus to he sliot. "Hell!" said he, "vou wouldn't murder a man like wild Indians, would youf" But when he understood that they oidy wished him to pray a little, he put on the outward appearance of i)iety with thankful alaeritv. It was a picture for the tin-type man, truly, the soldii-r of mixed Spanish and Indian blood, clad in his Client, or yellow leather jacket, armed with long sword, lance, and bloody-looking knife, kneeling be- side a ship-master of Anglo-Saxon origin, in iHplo- iiiatic attire, the guard with bended heail, having one (ve on the beinsx ht; was pravint; to, and the other on the juisoner, while all around over the plaxa were the scattered populace down on their knees where the stroke of the noon bell had met them. '"Ask your master if he would not like to become a Christian," said the st)ldier to the sailor, as they iircsentlv wended their wav to the ijovernor's council- room, whither they had been sunnnoned. "He says he is a Christian,'' M'as the reply of tlie iiitei'preter. The ^lexican man of prayer could not 1" lieve such a thing possible of one so ignorant of the fouimonest intercourse with heaven, and charged tlu! sailor with lying. With the dust marks still upon his knees and on the tails of his diplomatic coat, tlu; ca))tain was nsliered into the august presence of the governor. " \Vii cannot find vou cruiltv of beinirate or a 492 rST.AXD TRADE AND COAST TRAFFIC. spy, for lack of evidence, thougli doubtless you are both. A storm might have blown you hither; and wanting water 3'ou may have said you liad Chini'so goods to sell. Neither can we prove your Hag pirati- cal, though it looks so, as indeed do you. You may have water; but you must be off within five hours or be hanged." We may be sure that the captain did not unneces- sarily delay his departure. Five months afterward an English man-of-war in like manner disturbed tlio serenity of the sleepy capital. From the boat sert ashore, in polite terms and good Spanish, the ofiicials were informed that the ship was on a voyage of observation round the world, and had called that the officers might pay their respects to the govenujr of California. As there were powder and shot hero wherewith to blow the town to atoms, and as the hioli responding parties were smoothed the right wa}'", the reply was as courteous as had been the announcement. CHAPTER XVI. A FUTILE FKIHT WITH ICNORANCE. Fur ignorance of ,iU things is an evil neither terrible nor excessive, nor yrt thi' greatest of all; hut great cleverness and mucli learning, if they ho accuiiijuiuiuil hy a had training, i:i a much greater niisfurtunu. — Plato. ()\viX(i to the very exci'ptioiial nature of etlucatioii iuiioiit;" tlio Calitorniaiis, it will l)u necessary, iu treat- ing of what little did exist, to enter somewhat into detail, and adhere strictly to the chronological order of a few meagre facts; for from the earliest settlement of the country until it became an integral part of the American republic, California had no well-established system of schools. All of the instruction imparted to her sons and daughters was due to the spasmodic and short-lived eflbrts of rulers, who, on coming into office, deemed it their duty to initiate reform, and yet lack(>d the a!»ility and power to overcome the obstacles which at e\ery step confronted them. These obstacles, we shall find, were ever alike in kind, although varying ill degree, and consisted in the chronic depletion of the public treasurv, and an inveterate unwilliiiLrness oil the part of the people, which was theirs bv iight I if inheritance from illiterati; ancestors, to give to their eliiklren an educati(m better than that which had fallen to their own lot. In all that pertains to the proper discipline and en- lightenment of the intellect, the Californians, com- [tared even with their brethren in many of the ^lexican states, were deficient. Almost without exception, the earlv settlers, men and women of mixed blood, drawn ( 493 ) 494 A FUTILE FIGHT WITH IGNORANCE. from the humbler ranks of Spanish colonial society, were unable either to read or to write. The alcalde of San Francisco in 1781 could not sii^n his name tt> a document conveying; the possession of land. Equally ignorant were the non-connnissionrd officers and pri- vates of the ])rcsidial companies; for these men wore chiefly jVfexican half-breeds, while the handful of Spaniards in tlieir ranks were of the unenlightened peasantry of the mother country; and not infrequently it was found necessary for the commanding officer at one garrison to request that there might be sent to him from some other presidio a man qualified to act as amanuensis. Out of fifty men cfmiprising the Monterey com[)any in 1785, but fourteen could write. Among the thirty men of the San Francisco com- pany, only seven could write. Thirteen years later but two out of twenty-eight men in this same coin- l)any could write. Again, in 1794, not a soldier of the company was able to read or write, and the com- manding officer asked that one so qualified should ' sent to him from Santa Barbara. The ct.mmissioned officers themselves possessed only that rudimentary education at the time consicKrcd sufficient for the Spaniard who, while yet scarcely more than a child in years, embraced the profession of arms; and few of them had the opportunity, even had they possessed the inclination, to inqmne their niinds during the years of hardship passed at a froii- tii>r post. Nor at a time when growing weakness at homo presaged the downfall of Spanish dominion in Aiuii- ica, did the education of the masses in a new and remote colony form any part of the policy of a gov- ernment whose aim it was in all its cisatlantic posses- sions to maintain its subjects in ignorance, in order that they might less murmuringly bear the increasing exactions of the crown. Not until children born in California had in their turn become parents was the least attempt made to POSITION OP WOMAN. m r4al)lish public schools in the country, and that child was fortu late indeed whose parents were able or will- iiiiT to instruct him to the extent of readinijf with hesitation, and writing the few misspelled worils that at rare intervals should serve to convey to others in u-raceless language the very primitive ideas of the writer. Occasionally some woman, fortunate among her sisters, with a mother's love imparted to her little OIK'S her own scant store of knowledge, while at times tlio amicja, as slie was significantly called, jierformed the same duty toward a neighl)or's child, or taught to the ambitious soldier the simple accomplishments necessaiy to his promotion. Jose Maria Amador says tluit in his childhood — and he was born in 1794 — there were no schools; and what little instruction he, as well as his brothers, acquired, he owed to his mother, Alalia liamona Noriega, who also instructed the chil- clreu of some of tlieir neighbors. She moreover taught to read and write a few soldiers desirous of heeoming corporals. To the count of Revilla Gigedo, second viceroy of tliat illustrious house, and by far the most liberal of all the viceregal rulers of New Spain, is due the suggestion which in 1793 caused a royal order to issue foiKorning education in California, by which schools weie to be established, not only for the children of mute de razon, but for the neophytes, w'ho were to be taught to read, write, and speak Spanish, the use of their own language to be in every way discouraged. The later portion of the royal order was communicated by (lovernor Borica to Father President Lasuen, and that most politic of Californian prelates hastened to Itroijiise his cooperation in a scheme of which neither he nor his subordinate friars at heart approved; for jireseiitly a want of funds was the extraordinary ex- ( use for non-coinj)liance, pleaded by men who avow- edly had dedicated their lives to the rescue of their iellow-creatures from the multiform degradation of savagism. 496 A FUTILE FIGHT WITH IGNORANCE. Borica did succeed, however, in establishing a sys- tem of pubUc schools, if system be the proi)er tenii for a })lan alike crude in conception and practically inefficient. In December 171)4, he inquired of the connuandants of the presidios and the comisionados of the pueblos, whether, in their respective jurisdictions, there were any persons who knew how to read and write, and were otherwise fitted to become instructors of children.^ He also desired information as to what ' In tho accompanying I give a list of the teachers of public scliools, placua at wiiich tliey taught, terma of service, ami salaries, from 1794 to 1846. Name. Maniii'l do Viirgas huiiKiii l.a.ssi) JIaiiui'l do Vi'irnas JiLso Miiiiiud Idea Manuel llnronda Jiisi? Ivodrinuez Josi'' Medina Jiso Alvarez Manuel cle Viirvras Kafaul Villavicencic. . . MiKnel Archuleta Antdiiio Jtiielna Kafaeldel Vnlle JoBciuin Jiuelna LabaMtida J()s6 Jierreye.sa .lose Antonio Romero... Luciano Vahlcs Antonio Menendez Josii5 1 iburcio Castro. .. Joaiitiin liotiller Vicente Morai;a Pablo do la o.-.sa. Cri.^toval Ai,'uilar Frnncisco I'antoja I'otronilo Uio.-; Jo.sC' Miiria .\(;nila . . . . Juan Ifiueia Johc do ln> Santos Avila. Victor I'nidon Isnaclo Coronel Mi(,Miel Avila iJoniingo Amador JliVrcos Jionilla JosC Maria Silva Jost^ Fernandez . . . Jos»'' Mariano Komero. . . Jo.se Zenon Keniaudez . Juan I'adilla Fliirencio Serrano Ii^naeio (Coronel A. A. de Miera y Norefla. Enriijue Canibur-ton . . JosiJ Maria C'anijiina . Asustin Hilvila. Jose I'eiia W. K. 1'. Hartnell Guadalujie .Medina. Franeisca (ioniez Luisa .\r!,'liello Unadalupe Mediua lioea Joru'u Allen Manuel (Jit'crrez Floreiicio Serrano . . . Plac«. San Jos^* San Jos»? San l)iepo Santa liarbara. San Francisco Monterey Santa l.i'irbara. San Franeise >. Santa liArbara. San Jos(5. j Monterey ... San Jos6 San Jos6. San Jos6 :San Jos^. San Francisco. San Jos4. Los Angeles. . San iJlego Monterey . . Los Angeles . Los Angeles. . Sta Gertriidis. . Los Angeles. . Los Angeles'. Monterey Monterey Monterey Uraneiforte. . . San Gabriel. . Sonoma Monterey S. Luis Obispo Santa lilirbara Santa (.'ruz . Santa (,'ruz . . . Monterey San Josi^ San Antonio. . Monterey Los Angeles. . San Jos(? Monterey ... I Monterey Santa ("ruz . jSanta Clara.. . Monterey . . Los Angeles, . ^Monterey Los Angeles . Los Angeles. . So'Muia Monterey . San Jo.vi^. ... Monterey Salary. Term of St-rvic 2'4 reales per child. . .fJIAO per annum .fl2.") per annum, raught gratuitously. f2 extra pay monthly Extra pay Extra pay. . *10 per month. iflS per month. if 15 per month. Taught gratuitously $10 per month. B'20 per month. r20 per month. ijjtlO per month. . $1000 per annum $1000 per annum. $1.') per month $1000 per aunum. |$1000 per annum $1200 per annum .$1000 per annum Kach child $2..')0 per m, ■'.0 per month. 1200 per annum WO per annum 10 per month M') per month. <.")00 per annum >I0 per month $1000 per annum .$.")00per annum Dee. 17'.M-June 1795. July 17U5-Mav 17jt). July 17ur>-l)ee. 179«. Oct. 17^.>-June 17.'7. May 1790-June 1797. May 179fi. June 1797-Dec. 179.'. July 1797. Jan. 1799. Oct. 1811. Jan. 181K-1S22 I -.Mar. IS'JO. lAprill820-l)ec. \>:'.0. Jan. lS21-June 1>-.J. IJuly 1822. Mar. iS2;{-oct. isi!. I April 182;i. IJan. 18-S-Xov. is:f0. (Aug. 182.H-l)ec. IWJ. Jan. 182.'. Dec. 1830-Dee. iNil. Jan. 1832. Jan. 18;i3. Jan. 18,'W. Feb. 18H8-Feb. Iftil. Feb. 18H:!. March 1884. June 1834. July 1834. jNov. 1834. Nov. 1834. iJan. 183. >. ,iJau. lS3->-Atig. l.«3.\ 1 April 183">. -Oct. i.^;«. jNov.isav iNov. 183.">-Nov. I.''*). JFeb. 1^3ti. April 183<). I Deo. 1830. July 1838-Sept. "MO. April 1840-l)ec. Ml. Aug. 1840-Jan. l>l'i. July lS41-May Im:!. I Dec. 1841. May l«V.'. iJune 1813-Feb. i^M. Aug. 184;5-,Iuly 1-11. IJune 1844-Apr. iMo. iJunel844. Ijan. 184.'i. 'Jan. 184.5. March ls4.5. Nov. ISI.VJulv l"^. Jan. 184(i-July !•""'• ACTION OF GOVERNORS. 4m I'. 1>-2J. compensation they would require, and from \vliat source this was to come. Masters supposed to l>e competent were found, and Borico repeatedly expressed liis satisfaction with the speedy success that had crowned his efforts. Not later than tlie I'lth of December, 17D4 — I am unable to establish the date more satisfactorily — Manuel de Vdrgas, a retired ser- ocaiit, t)pened in the public granary at San Josd the first primary school in California. Vjlrgas shortly afterward went to San Diego to open a school there, and Ramo in the now ilod to tion of tht-'ir V (lis- ;onous :n lot, iclthcr ho I'cw wn by tho few amonrr them capable of tlic task, and who made suih |)r(»fitless drudgery their business. Why, indot-d, should their children know more than they or thoir fathers knew? Reasoning thus, and with the jilausiblo inoteneo that tho services of their children were ntct'S saiv to the support of tho family, they gradually with- diow thenifrt)m tho schools. On their part the mastcis, conscious perhaps of their lack of qualifications for an othcc^ which had been in a measure forced upon them, as well as discontented because of their scant sahiiy and the difficulty of obtaining even that pittance, took hut slight pains to enforce the attendance of unwilling scholars. Thus it came to pass that some time before the ex- ))iiati()nof Bijrica's term t)f office, teachers were almost ciitiroly wanting, those who still pretended to tearh asstnihling their scholars but once a week; and the vouth of the country, instead of learning to read and wiite, and to stand before the king as that zeahjus ruler had hoped, were growing up to manhood as their fathers had done, without education save in horseman- ship, and the primitive agriculture then practised; tit for nothing but the unintellectual life of a ranchero, or enlistment in one of the presidial companies. A blight ft 11 upon education in California, similar to that which aftir t!ie death of Charlemagne paralyzed the schools of his empire. Another generation needed instruction before the •suhject of education was again taken up in earnest; tor during the long second term of Arrillaira the apathetic, nothing was done for the more permanent establishment of better schools. But his successor was a man of different mould. Shortly after his arrival at ^lonterey, Sola summoned to his presence the school- master and his pupils, the latter bringing with them tlioir cartridge paper and their books. After exam- ining these, the governor announced his intention of attending to thoir education more closely than his m A FUTILE FIGHT WITH KiNOUAXCE. predecessor had done. Thereupon, tlu.' wortliy poda- ^oLfiie, apparently considering this remark as a retlec- tion upon himself, and anxious moreover to basi< in tluf ravs of the rising sun, with much earnestness ami at ij^reat length, explained tiiat his pupils were uril read, though few of them eould read a word, for the lives of various saints and like yhostlv lore was at their tongue's end. Many of them were also especially lept in the singing of masses, for their voices liad heen carefuUv trained bv the neoidivtc Jose, choir- master at the nei';hhorinarded as the uolden a\v\ dirty everywhere, and in places dilapidated. Around its sides were ranged roughly made benches. Tlui" was a rude platform at one end, sometimes with a rail- ing, but more frequently without, on which was [ilacid a table covered with a dingy black cloth. Biliind tills table was seated, in a tjreasv dress of fantastic fashion, an old invalided soldier of ill-tempered visauo and ref)ulsive presence. As the scholars reluctantly entered its chilling atmosphere, each walked the length of the room, kneeled before the cross or saint, recited aloud the bendito, and crossed himself. His devotion": THE LUCKLESS SCHOOL-BOY, 503 finished, he, trembhng, approached the master, sayhig, 'La inano, Senor luaostro;" whereupon that grave t'unctionary, with a sort of grunt or bellow, gave hhn liis hand to kiss. The boy then put his hat on the luap formed hi a corner by those of his school-fellows, took his accustomed seat, and as soon as a larger boy jiiid sliown him his lesson, began to recite, in a high tone and with a vehemence that caused the veins of liis neck to swell, his allotted task of the caton, or primer. If learning to write, he placed some heavy l)l;ick lines, called a pauta, under the coarse paper, wliieh he ruled with a piece of lead, afterward taking the pa))er and his pen to the master, who, sharpening tlie latter with a knife, set him a copy according to liis ijrade, of which there were eiijfht, rans>ini:f from coarse marks and })ot-hooks to fine writing in the old- fashioned round hand. The sheet completed, the child took it to the master. "Here is a blot, you little rascal I" "Pardon, Sehor maestro, to-morrow 1 will do better." "J [old out vour hand, sirrah ! " and tlie necessary discipline, witliout which no educatit)n could lie achieved, was duly administered. During the time devoted to the examination of the copies, the fi>rule liad but little rest. ]^ut on the black cloth lay anotlier and far more terrible implement of torture — a luinptMi scourge with iron points — a nice invention, truly, for liilping little children to keej) from laughing aloud, running in the street, playing truant, spilling ink, or failing to know the lesson in the dreaded ilodriiia, the only lesson taught, ])ei'haps, because it was the only one the master could teach, this letter oftence being unpardonable. This very a[>propriate iiKpiisItorial implement was in daily use. One by one each little guilty wretch was stri[)ped of his ]>oor shirt, often his only garment, stretched i'ace downward uptui a bench, with a handkerchief thrust into his mouth as a gag, and lashed with a dozen or more blows, until the blood ran down fron ' e little lacerated back. Ah, heavenly J:'ather, what tools 1 and what innumerable follies civil- A FUilLE FIGHT WITH IGNORANCE. izatlon and Christianity have to answer for! It was held that while the children were at school their par- ents could not call upon God in their behalf, but that the master was alone answerable to him, as well as to the civil authorities and the church. Tiie master was also responsible for any want of ap[)lication on the part of his pupils; as a set-off, however, he was directed to counsel and warn the children, and to apply the tor- ture when deemed necessary, especially for siiortconi- ings concerning the doctrina cristiaiia, for which no excuse, as I have said, could be accepted. Moreover, the master's conduct was watched by the parents; ami if the children did not make satisfactory progress, com- plaint was made to the comisionado or alcalde. Six or tw(>lve months were devoted to the primcM-, or A B C book. A like time was given to tlio caton, which, though also a primer, was regarded as a second book, an incongruous mass of reading, obtuse, useless, corrupt, absurd; lessons of servility to tlie stupid alcalde; gross doctrines ill defined. After tliis the child entered upon the course of writing from tht- first to the eijj^hth ijrade, after which he learned the first four rules of arithmetic — this accomplishment, however, not being taught universally. Through the whole course ran the doctrina, the most accursed torment of all — the children reciting these sublime lessons of ignorance like parrots. Even in the same stdiool there was no uniformity in the reading-books. They were all religious works, chief among them being the famous Cak'cisnio de Rijtalda, after which ranked in imj)ortahco the (\ditii Crixtiano, a Novcna de la Vivgcn, in some one of Ik r many attributes, or the life and martyrdom of any of the innumerable Spanish saints. In conmiitting tluso to memory, each paragra[)h was associated with diio n»ental torments, the remembrance of each page indelibly fixed by the all-purifying scourge. Vallej(s to whom I am indebted for many facts connected with the subject of education, writing at a RELIGION IN EDUCATION. 80S time when upwards of lialf a century separated him fVoiu the occurrences which he rehites, says: "The catechism of Father Ripaldal Who among tlie sur- viving elders of the native Cahfornians is not ac- (juainted with Father Ripalda? Who among them jiossessed of a ghmmering of reason, and the kast desire for liberty of conscitnice, does not detest that lonstrous code of fanaticism, which, like some veno- mous serpent, entwining itself aliout the heart of youth, slowly devours it? — the while implanting in their innocent understanding principles of tyranny and superstition incompatible with our institutions — - 1 had almost said inimical to human dignity!" The Spanish government, while not prescribing V h;. J class of text-books should be used in the schools, t(.' ■ s[>ecial pains to prohibit certain political cate- thiii . and pamphlets published in Spain, and which St dlliously savored of other things than the divine right of kings. Among the prohibited text-books, which do not, however, appear to have made their w.ay to Calil'ornia, \/ere: "Catecismo polftico arreglado it la coiistitucion de la monarquia espauola para ihistracion (1(1 pueblo, instruccion de la juventud y uso de las es- ouelas de primeras letras; por ]3. J. C. en Cc'udoba, (11 la imprenta real de D. llafael Garcia Domingiu^z — anode 1812; Catecismo patritStico, 6 breve exi)()sicion do las obligaciones naturales, civiles y religiosas de un hucii Lspanol; onmipuesto por un parroco del arzobis- pado de To'j'lo; iVIadrid : Imprenta do Ibarra, 1813; Lccciones polftitas para el uso dc la juventud Espauola; por (£ Di. t). M;inu'^l Cupero, Cura del Sagrario de Sev'lla: ii.;pn a e". la mii,ina por 1). Jose Hidalgo — anode 1811? ; Caioeismo politico Espanol constitucional •jiu' it imitacion del de doctriiia cristiana compuesto por el Sr Keynoso, presenta al publico E. E. D. 0. N. En Malaga, en la oficina de 1). Luis Carreras, ano 1814; Catecismo cristiano politico compuesto por un magis- trado para la educacion de su hijo y dado it luz por el ayuntam ainful emotions, such bitter renu'ui- brances of the sad consequences due to the education which our masters gave us, that the mere recollection is absolutely painful. Recalling to mind these thiiius is like the dream of the escaped victim who sees aris- ing from the depths the spectre of his hated exreii- tioner. The old school should have been called the § YOUTHFUL DirLOMACY. 507 school of sorvilism, since it was tlie torture-chamber wherein was done to death tlie sentiment of digaity which perislied amid a thousaiul torments, jiiiysical and moral, encompassing' the martyrdom of the hody, and extinguish injjf tlie light of reason in the new-horn man." Such being the case, there was fully enough of education in pastoral California, after all. Not that the little Californians were angels, deserv- ing no discipline. They were like other scliool-boys of other times and countries in frequently infringing the rules laid down for their guidance, and were, in- deeil, if the truth must be told, som 'times found in ojjcn rebellion against the master. At Monterey, it was customary to allow the boys to go to the beach ill order to see the incon 'nir ships. On one of the.sc rari' occasions, the Pri)tccsa was si«>nalled in the olhnu", and the usual permission was given. The elder scholars had nearly completed a copy of the habili- tado's accounts, on which they had bestowed unusual care, as it was intended for transmission to Mexico, and were bidden by the master to carefully put away their manuscript, and to close as they went out the (jnttni, or hole cut in the door for the pa.ssage of the (at. Heedless of everything but the anticipated jikasure, these injunctions were forgotten, and the camr cliildren hurried to the »lK)re. There they met Sola, who received them l^indly, as was his wont, and wa^ well pleased witli their re[)ort of the progress made in the task which he liad allotted to them. In (hic time the shin anchored; the commander and pas- sengers came on shore, anil the lunvilUng lads returned sl(»\vly to school, to Hiid that, in conseijuence of their Higlect, a numbi'r of hens had invatled the classic j)re- ( inct, and overturning the ink-bottles, had ruined be- yond redemption their elaborate coj ties. Tiieir hearts ahiiost ceased to beat as thev tiiouuht of the iuioend- ing conseipiencc; for their [)receptor, whiK' miserly in the expiMiditure of cigarrillos, was nowise niggarilly in the use t)f the ferule, which, moreover, through long 001 A FUTILE FIGHT WITH IGNORANCE. practice, ho wielded with no mean skill. Their sus- pense was not long. The master entered, and taking in tlie situation at a glance, with a scowl more than usually demoniacal ordered the whole school into the torture-chamber, an inner apartment with no means of ogress save through the school-room. He was obe\ed in ominous silence. But when he ordered two of tlie elder boys to seize the first victim, they llatly refused. Encouraged by this bold stand, their com- rades closed the wooden shutter of the only window, and began discussing the advisability of laying out the pedagogue on the bench, and applying to his back the scourge. If well laid on, it might serve as a reminder to lessen their tortures, which presently it would be their turn to endure. When it fully came home to him —this amazing impudence — the school- master took to liis heels and reported the matter t(» the commanding officer of the presidio, who in turn informed tlie governor. A connnissioner was sent to investigate the matter, who pardoned the rebels, on the ground that their excessive joy at the arrival of the Princcsa so affected their minds for the moment as to render them irresponsible agents. Little learning as the boys got, far less was imparted to the girls; it was '\ot necessary or desirable that a woman should know anything beyond household duties. Besides plain cooking, plain sewing, sufficient for making plain clothes, unvaried in fashion, worn by themselves, their husbands, and their children, made up the sum of their accomplishments. Witli the exception of the single instance of a girl's school, to which I have alluded, there were none established until a much later day. In the towns, the daughteis of some of the prominent families assembled at the house of the mother of t)ne of them, who taught them to read and write, in the same way that the boys were taught, although not to the same extent. They also learned to weave in hand-looms the gaudy MISSION INSTRUCTION. 609 rnofs which, spread upon the floor of the church, served them as seats. Or seated on the floor of the school- room, or of the inner corridor of the house, each child with her hoop-like embroidery-frame upon her knees, tliey slowly wrought with the needle in cotton stuff not over fine the simple embroidery intended for the tinbellishment of valances, and the like, which ulti- mately were to form part, and frequently all, of the maker's dower. The simple ccwkery known to Cali- fornians, and the care of children, each girl learned at home. The friars took no part in public instruction, and this may well excite our wonder, for they were them- selves all men of good education, some of them deeply Irarned. But they taught, only i?i a desultory way and as if for pastime, their favorites among the sol- diers of the escoltas, or the few children de razon wlio lived at the missions. One enthusiastic religious w;^.s wont to arise at untimely hours of the night in order to instruct the sentry at his post, and with the ramrod of his pupil's musket trace in the ashes of the guard- house liearth the letters of the alphabet. A few tliere were who, mastermij: the tonaper — when in 1829 he reported to the supreme govertiment that there were in existence in the province eleven primary schools, with an attend- ance of 331) pupils. This report was dated at Sau Dieoro, May 19, 1829. The schools were as follows: one at San Josu pueblo with 30 scholars; one at San Miguel mission with three scholars; one at Santa Btirbara presidio with G7 scholars; one at Santa Barbara mission with 44 scholars; San Buenaventura had 30 scholars; Sau Fernando 20; Los Angeles pueblo Gl; San Diego presidio 18; San Gabriel mission 8; San Juan Ca})is- trano 17; San Luis Rey 35. It will be observed that the Monterey school was once more closed for want of a teaclier, and that of San Francisco had not been reopened. The governor added that the schools had been [)ar- alyzed by the lack of funds and the impossibility of obtaining suitable teachers. Municipalities and mis- sions were now prepared to pay cajiable teachers; for even at the schools for gente de razon only poor instruction was given in the doctrina cristiana, read- ing, and writing. At the mission schools the young neophytes learned only to sing the mass awkwartlly, to play wind and stringed instruments, and repeat the doctrina, while the attendance was small because of the necessary work afield. He therefore called on the supreme government for aid. But the enthusiasm of the subordinate authorities was short-lived, and Echeandia, unable to contend against the enmity of the friars, the indifference of the people, and the poverty of the treasury, accomplisliod no more than his predecessors had done. Reluctantly he abandoned the contest, and the cause of education again declined. The schools, few in number and pie- sided over by incapable teachers, were open only CASA DE EDUCACION. t» id four } show- to tho ience in attcml- at Sail tn Jose missi(jii presidio ion with irs; San I Dieu'o II Capis- ved that want of lot been teen par- ibihtv of and niis- lors; for ly poor la, road- e young wartlly, peat tho ause of d on the thorities iconteiul \e of tho liphshod [.ictantly lucation md pio- m only about one third of the time, at irregular intervals, and lor brief periods, according to tho condition of tlio treasury. Any circumstance was seized upon as a pictoxt for closing the schools. In March 18.S2, it coming to light that the assessor had introduced some a^niardiente without paying duty thereon, the mer- chants at Monterey also resisted payment on their introductions of liquor until the assessor should pay. Consequently the schools, which at the time were maintained by these funds, were closed. Some of the teachers of tlie mission scliools went so far as to enqiloy their pupils as servants about the house, or in uathering herbs which the master sold for his own jiroHt. During the period of anarchy which followed Echeandi'a's term of office, and even before the secu- larization of tho missions, these schools one by one had ceased to exist. At this juncture W. E. P. Hartnell, a Roman catholic Englishman of liberal education, and j)roH- cient as a linguist, who some years previously had married a woman of the country and engaged in trade at Monterey, in which he had not met with success, concluded to establish at Monterey a school for boys. For that purpose he associated himself with the Kev. Patrick Peter Short, a refugee priest from the French missions at the Hawaiian Islands. He also obtained the concurrence of the friars, and of the governor, Fi- tj:uei()a, who promised aid. Hartnell thereupon issued a prospectus. In this document, which is dated Dc- cond)cr 10, 18;].3, he announced that he would o[)en a 'casa de educacion' for a limited number of pupils, not under eight years of age. He counted upon the patronage of the government, and of a considerable number of honorable citizens and foreigners, who had already contributed liberally to the preliminary ex- penses of the undertaking. By the favor of God, the establishment would be opened at the beginniiig of the coming year; and as there were but limited ac- connuodations for pupils — the wilderness hereabout CaL. Past. 33 614 A FUTILE FIGHT WITH IGNORANCE. being narrow — early application should be made. In- struction would be given in reading and writing; Spun- isii grammar; French, English, German, and Latin; arithmetic and book-keeping ; mathematics and philos- ophy. Particular attention would be given to teach- ing the christian doctrine, and to the boys' habits and manners. For his board and lodging and educa- tion, each pupil should pay |200 yearly. They should furnish their own books and stationery, and hi'\nie to discharge the duties of fiscal in an alcalde's fi.urt. Of thirty ranchcros of San Antonio, San Pahlo, and elsewhere, who petitioned the governor that their properties might be separated from San Francisco and joined to San Josd, only eleven could sijrii their names. At first the alcaldes, urged thereto by the governor, threatened to punish the priests who did not comply i nt A FUTILE FIGKT WITH IGNORANCE. with the law; but these Jiaving Httle effect, educational matters were allowed to drift and decline. In February, 1835, Figueroa instructed the alcaldo of San Diego tliat parents need not be required to send their children to the school when this was not convenient. At the San Diego ex-niission the In- dians were excused from attending school because tluv did not like the master. Kind treatment or punisli- ment equally failed to prevent the schools from beiiij^ deserted; parents preferred to employ their chikhiii in labor, and when search was made for tljeni by some conscientious master — wiiich, however, was of rare oc- currence- -they concealed themselves. Nor was Alvarado, himself one of a handful of nativo Californians who in spite of all obstacles had acquin d Borne little education, a wlnt more successful in his persistent endeavor to advance the cause of learniiij,'. His first message to tlie so-called congress of Califoi- nia urged the necessity of public instruction, and he made other appeals to the same eflbci. But tlie treasury still remained in its normal empty condition, and save by the stereotyped reiteration of laws o«i tiio part of the ayuntamientos, nothing was accomplislud. Continuing his efforts, however, the governor visitrd frequently the schools at the capital, rewarding tlie meritorious and rebuking those deserving of censuic. But the government was powerless to render pecuniary aid, and the negligence of parents insurmountable. At Los Angeles, when Ignacio Coronel, a man of fair education and good ability, called a meeting of liis fellow-townsmen to select a suitable locality for the school of which he had charge, there was exhibited an almost entire lack of interest in the matter, and few of those present offered to contribute to the necessary expense. After four years, Alvarado, in another speech de- livered at the opening of the assembly, said that in the whole territory there was scarcely a single school. CALIFORNIANS AT THE ISLANDS. m Tliat tlie igHorance of the people was as great as ever, is evidenced by a mass of documents in my collection. At Santa Bdrbara there was no one qualified to act as secretary to the alcalde's court. At San Jose the jiit'Z de paz, as he himself informed the prefect, being uii.ible to write, appointed an amanuensis. Wliile it was so impossible to maintain in the terri- t tiy the necessary primary scliools, it was proposed lliiit a number of Nouuij Californians should be edu- c:ited at the military academy of Chapultepec. The lilaii was abandoned, however, on the ground that it was better to bring up Californians in their own coun- try, where their morals were less likely to be cor- rupted, and where they were less liable to be seduced into })articipation in revolutions. About this time the sons of several foreigners who liad married Californians, and had settled in the coun- try, were in need of education, and with a few of the sons "f native Californians, were sent to a school at the Hawaiian Islands, which had been for several yvixvH successfully taught l)y tlie missionaries. But tlie expense deterred many parents from sending their M)iis tliither. After they had been there some months, till' boys wrote to their parents asking for some horses and their ecjuipments. The first Sunday after receiv- ing,' tlie gifts they went out to anmse themselves, and I'tlier game being scarce, they lassoed and nearly killed three natives. The bovs were arrested and lodged in jail, heing liberated only at the intercession of the for- c'iiiii consuls. When Bishop Garcia-Diogo took possession of jiis (lioeese, lie signified in his first [)astoral his intention of attending to the primary scliocls; and in accord- ance with orders from Rome, he busied himself with tlic project of founding a seminary at Santa Barbara. But although he succeeded in obtainin«j from Michel- torejui a grant of eight square leagues of land, he was 818 A FUTILE FIGHT WITH IGNORANCE. unable to raise the money for building an episcopal residence. Micheltorena endeavored to adopt a new system tor the establishment of schools. He exhorted the mas- ters to be patient and kind, and sought by means ot' rewards to arouse in the childrejn a love of study. These he caused to bo distributed at an examination of the pupils of the Monterey schools, and nuidi' similar gifts at such times as he visited them unan- nounced. Among other reforms, he concluded tluit instead of two poor teachers for the normal school, at salaries of $1,000 and $1,200, one good one was betttr, and Hartnell was appointed with a salary of $1,200. He also stimulated to action the ayuntamiento of Los Angeles, although the corporatit)n wondered whore the necessary funds were to come from. The ayuntamiento, at its session of January 1 1 . 1844, claimed that there were no municipal funds which could be appropriated to the schools, for tluiv were none except such as arose from fines and land dues, and requested that Los Angeles might be put on an equal footing with Monterey, whose schools received an annual appropriation of $600. The gov- ernor replied that he was engaged in preparing ro<,ni- lations for the schools, and that meanwhile $500 |k r annum should be given to the schools of Los Anorlis. Micheltorena also agreed to purchase a suitable build- inu: for a school. The governor spent several weeks in perfecting Ins educational scheme, and finally issued a decree l>y which schools vvere reestablished at San Diego, l^ns Angeles, Santa Bdrbara, Monterey, San Jose, Sici Francisco, and Sonoma. The plan adopted, tlnuiL;!! but a slight improvement on the others, was perliaps the best that under the circumstantes could have l'< t ii devised. The decree was issued May 1, 1844, and contained the following articles; 1. Each scluxil as soon as opened should be located in the tean; h.id prevented the establishment of schools, he called upon the patriotism of otticials and people to support tlit'in. The proclamation elosed with the announcement tliat on the first Monday in June the schools should bo 820 A FUTILE FIGHT WITH IGNORANCE. opened with a solemn mass, and witli the concurrence of all the leading people. It does not appear that scliools were even opened at all of the places indicated by tlie governor, and at the places where they were estab- lished it was found to be impossible to raise money to pay 'Jie teachers. In the autumn of this year, another attempt was made by a few foreigners to secure an education for their sons, who had long since returned from the Is- lands; but the plan was never carried into effect. Nine men signed an agreement, whereby each was to pay annually for three years $100 to a school-master from the United States, who should be a Roman cath- olic, and bring with him satisfactory certificates as to ability and character. He should teach Spanisli and English grammar, writing, and mathematics for six hours daily during five days of the week. Each sub- scriber had the privilege of sending two boys to the school, and by the payment of an additional $50 was entitled to send a third ; but the number of pupils was never to be more than thirty-six. Each subscriber agreed to board the master for three months, either at his own house or some other, and each was to furnish the books and stationery used by his sons^^. At other hours than those specified, the master was at liberty to teach other pupils. A visionary proposition was made to the govern- ment by Henri Cambuston, a Frenchman who had been master of the Monterey school, but had been discharged on account of some trouble with the pre- fect. He oflered to teach more branches, from pri- mary instruction to the application of the sciences, than any four men could have taught properly; the offer was not accepted. Within a year after its adoption, the impracticability of Micheltorena's rejiulations for the schools had been abundantly shown, and he had but just left the coun- try when the assembly resolved to ask the supreiiip PROHIBITION OF BOOKS. 521 gdvemment to furnish five teachers of primary schools on the Lancasterian plan, and two professors competent to teach the higher branches and the two ))rincipal foreign languages. But when this request reached Mexico, other matters engaged the atten- tion oi' the government, and the request was not granted. Dining his brief term of office, Pico took steps for the establishment of schools similar to those attemi)ted by his predecessors, and encountered the same obsta- eli> — want of funds, lack of competent teachers, indif- fntMice on the part of parents — which rendered his titforts fruitless. Such is the brief history of the schools of Califor- nia under the dominion of Spain and Mexico. Theie wt'i'o, indei'd, none worthy of the name until a ditt'er- iiit race came into possession of this fair land, and l>r(»ke the spell that seems to bind every colt»ny of the Spaniards still ruled by their descendants. Tlie Cali- foruians of 1840 were scarcely nK)re learned than those of 17(»t); they hardly knew enough fully to realize their i>j;norance. In 1845 but eleven of twenty-five voters at San ])iego were able to write. In March 1845 Alcalde ijcese of Sonoma rej)orted to the governor that the }>ueblo contained upward of 100 inhabitants, but that aiiinng the civilians there were but two persons com- petent to serve as judges, for they were the only ones wlin could write. Two months later, Marcos J^aea, ersons referred to by Leese, recpiested the governor to excuse him from acting as judge, for he ccaild neither re.".d nor write, liiwa stated, more<»ver, tliat the judge should l»e removed from (»tlici', as he alx) was incapal)le. l*rivate letters and official docu- uii iits in my collection, in penmanshij) and in spelling, as well as in the crudity of the iileas expressed, bear testiniony to a lamentable condition of ignorance. Among such a people books were a superHuity; and A FUTILE BIGHT WITH IGNORANCE. only in later years were a few volumes collected by two or three individuals. During the early years of the missions, they had been furnished with certain approved religious and historical works. Among these were copies of Venegas and Palou's Vida de Jn- nipern Serra. But the Inquisition, which througliout Spain's wide domain was the ruler in all that related to the mental development of her subjects, prohibited the introduction into California of any but a certain stripe of books, and watch was kept on the luggage of the few foreigners who visited the country. In January 1797, the governor, writing to the viceroy, reported that Captain Dorr's French pilot had furnished him with the voyages of Biron, Car- taret, and Cook, and that he had given in return thu memoirs of Sully and the voyages of Tavanier, As these works were all in the French language they could not have worked great harm to people unable to read them. One would think that it was about time for nnnj to be emancipated in America, but one of the first acts of the church in Mexico was to insist upon the full rigor of the prohibition. Heretofore, indeed, the ban had been inoperative, because there were no transgressors; but now that trade with California w;is open to the world the case was different. The Bos- ton skippers and supercargoes indulged in little ven- tures of their own, which did not appear on the sliiji's manifest — among other things a fe'v books which tlu y bartered for hides and tallow to two or three Califor- nians athirst for knowledge. The friars were vigilant, Jiowever, and not infrequently detected tlie illicit traffic, and condemned the volumes, in all the sober- ness of mediaeval times, to be burned in the market- place. In 1831 some persons who had in this way come into possession of prohibited b(^oks were duly disciplined by the church. But in the lotos-eating days, few books were ac- quired, and except the collections of religious works LIBRARIES AND BOOK-BURNERS. 623 at the missions, which at the time of their seculariza- tion consisted in the aggregate of some 3,000 volumes valued in the inventories at about $4,800, there was no such thing as library, public or private, in Califor- nia, until the arrival of the Hfjar colonists, who l)rought with them a few books. While limited in number, these must also have been only such as the church permitted, for as late as 1838, at least, the supreme government ordered certain books to be taken away from their owners and destroyed. A list of works "contrarios d la religion que de pronta providencia se manda recoger e impedir su introduc- cion," is given in an order issuing from the dcpart- incMt of state, dated July 2, 1838. And this was only eleven years prior to the time when such a flood of infernal literature was poured into the country as should call Serra Salvatierra, and all the rest of them back to that dear old besotted book-burner, Zumarraija. Shakespeare, Smollett, and Shelley. Oh 1 Tom Paine and Luther, Bunyan and Byron, Voltaire and Victor Hugo, Eugene Sue, Paul de Kock, and Reynolds. Oh ! Oh ! Oh I If now the scions of California nobility could only read what delicious draughts of wickedness niii>:ht be theirs 1 There were in 1846 three or four libraries in Cali- fornia, other than those of the missions, being M. (x. Vallejo's, at Sonoma, Hartnell's, which had cost him a good sum, and from which he readily lent to his friends; Francisco Pacheco's collection was worthy of notice, consisting as it did of per'mdicos onpasfarhs, and books on Mexican history. Captaiii de la Guerra at Santa Bdrbara had a lot of scientific and religious hooks. None of these libraries remained long mi the original owner's possession, Vallejo's being burned ; Hartnell's divided among his descendants ; Pacheco's wvnt into the possession of his brother-in-law, Mariano ]\[alarin, of Santa Clara. De la Guerra's was jiroba- bly scattered among his sons and their descendants. m A FUTILE FIGHT WITH IGNORANCE. The padres, as I have inthnated, during the period of full sway over the consciences of the Californians, ' did all they could to check intellectual development, by preventing the circulation of books contiiiniuiu; modern philosophical ideas. A number of books rt-- ccived bv one of the Carrillos from the American bark ] 'Volunteer were bunied by the missionaries, who obtained after much exertion, the permission of the jcfe-politico, Echeandia. This was between tlio years 1825 and 1831. In the latter year on board <>t' the Mexican vessel Ijcnnor w^as a large collection of books of the class interdicted by the church. They were the property of the German merchant Virmond, and were not on the ship's manifest. A spiteful or fanatical sailor reported the matter to the padres at San Francisco. Vallejo, then comandante at this place, went on board, warned Virmond and Fitch, the commander of the Leonor, and offered to buv tlie books, which were sold to him for 400 hides and 1 skins of tallow. This was the best librarv in Call- fornia up to this time. By 5 o'clock the next moin- ing the books were safely in the purchaser's house. Jose Castro and Juan B. Alvarado, who became in later years so prominent in California, took some of these books to Monterey to read. Later, Castro's very pious chere amie, on confessing' her own and her lover's sins, told the padre that he and Alvarado hatl been reading Rousseau's and other prohibited works. About the same time Father Estenega at San Francisco surprised Vallejo reading' Tckmachis. The president of the missions demanded the surrender of the books, and due penitence, etc., and the demand not being complied with, the three were excomnmnicated, and the decree was duly pro- claimed at the several missions. Neither of them cared much for that, and went on with their readini>-, though the books were kept where they could nut be easily discovered. But their mothers, sisters, ami female friends were filled with terror at the fate A GAME OF EXC0MMUNICATI0?T. 836 awaiting them, both here and hereafter. A short time afterward, Alvarado had some money to pay to Frttlier Duran, the prelate of the missions and vicar- forain of the bishop of Sonora, and went to his resi- drnce : but before offering to dehver the money, told him that he was one of the excomnmnicated, and in- asmuch as he had heard Father Sarri'a say that it was sinful to hold any relations with an excommuni- cated person, he was sorry to be thus prevented from paying him the money. Thereupon he turned to o(i away. But the padre called him back, sayijig : •ListH!! Juanito; thou hast misunderstood what Padro Sarrfa said. What thou sayst applies oidy to persons under excomnmnication major, and not the iiiinoi'. I have power to annul the sentence, and to do nmch more. From now thou and thy companions aiv absolved, and I can give you permission to road jtrohibited books, even the protestant bible. Let us have the money, and we will still be friends, for I believe that the sons of the old settlers who suflered witli us in early times, will not permit the Mexican (jt)vernment to drive us out after so many years of toil, simply because our vows will not permit us to take tl le oath of allegiance demanded of us." Alvarado returned thanks and took lunch with the padre. I ^ CHAPTER XVII. C.UJFORNIANISMS. Wer ctwas Trefiliches leisten will, Hatt' gem was Oroszes geboren, Der sammle stillt und unersclilatft Ini kleiuaten I'unkte die hochste Kraft. —Schilhr. The inhabitants of California have retained in common use, since the annexation of the country to the United States, a considerable number of Sj)anisli, Mexican, and Hispano- American words and phrases. Among them are some which seem to be of })un'ly Californian origin. The able jurist, Ignacio Sepiilveda, remarks that though the Californian settlers did not preserve the Castilian language in its purity, yettlitv retained a great many memories of old Spain, witli many of the concise proverbs which the Moors brought to the peninsula, and many of its legends ami traditionary songs. , Begiiming with the word greaser, so commonly applied by Americans to their Mexican neighbois. Salvador Vallejo, in his Notas Ilistoricas gives a ver- sion which may be taken for what it is worth. Ho says that in 1844-5, when large numbers of immigrants were arriving overland, and most every one dro\ o a heavy ox team by which their aged relatives, tluir women and children, had accomplished the journey, the Caynameros, who for mother wit were the Irish- men of California, flocked around the wagons, from wh'ch came forth human beings with dirty faces ami greasy hands, the drivers pulling out greasy mat- tresses and with greasy hands spreading them on the (526) THE GREASER. Sty pfround. It made the savages smilo to see such greasy ( iv ilization, to see a people more greasy than them- silves, and so they called them mantecosos, greasy ones; and at the last it turned out that whenever a ( 'aynamero spoke of any one who had come over the jtlalns, he called him a mantecoso. The nick-name liavhig been afterward explained to the overland im- migrants, they turned the tables on the Indians:, angli- ci7A'd greaser, and applied it to them, and finally to all native Californians and Mexicans. In 1846 the word was also used in connection with the people of ^[atamoros, and all Mexicans with whom the Amer- ican army came in contact. Its use there is said to have originated as follows : The Americans did noi ospeolally fancj'' greasing the wheels of their wagons, and made the natives do it for them. Hence they, and presently all the Mexicans, came to be termed iireasers. Adobe. An unbumed, sun-dried large brick. Agnaje. The Mexicans and Californians apply this w«)rd to springs. In Spanish it has reference only to the sea. Alameda. A grove of trees. A Iforjas. Saddle-bags, commonly made of rawhides. Aliml. A grove of alisos, or alder trees. Ajiurejo. A pack-saddle, also applied to appurten- ances of machinery. Arrastra. An old-fashioned mill for crushing «)re. Arwyo. A brook ; also applied to the dry bed of one. Aijunte pronounced by the illiterate jayunte (hah- vulin-tav). The assemblinij: of the Indian single nun and grown-up boys, as well as their quarters in the mission. JicKjUcano. In Spanish it means an expert. In Spanish-America it is especially applied to one who knows well a country and its roads. Jkrruchi. A peculiar form of men's shoes in old times. Possibly it meant also the material the shoes Were made o£ I li i 028 CALIFOnNIANISMS. I Boiumzay and Jiorrasca in floa parlance moan rcspor- tively fair weather and storm. In nnnin«<^ tlie fonutr is opplicd to a mine that in yieldin^j well ; and the latttr to one that will not pay expenses. Jirca. Pitch ; al8o applied to tar. JJnscnn. A iK)or miner seeking for metal. i'ahallada. In California signifies the herd of broken liorses of an individual or of an armed force. Cacdsfc, or cacaxtle. A basket; also a footstool. Canada. A deep ravine, small canon, or narrow- valley with stecip sides. Canon. The original meaning in Spanish is a tube. It is applied also to a narrow, tunnel-like pa.ssage for a stream of water between high precipitous banks ; ii canyon. Carpa. Used in California for tents, or shelter. Cafmdor, like buscon, refers to a miner who is look- ing for metal. Ccdazo, a fine sieve; also a figure of the contre- dancc. Clia. The Californian term for tea. Chuhuixtlc. A disease of wheat caused by lonj,' drought- Chapapotc. A bitummous substance ; also applinl to tar. Chaparro. A short, thick-set man. Chapnlin and CliapuL Mexican for locust, and grasshopper. In Spanish langosta, salton, and grillo for different species. CJiichirjuo, as applied to sucking calves, and toruno to bull calves. Chichigua is applied to milch cows, and possibly, as in Central America, to wet nurses. Chinguirito. Rum distilled from the refuse , also called horrcf/add. A DKinada dc ycgvas is a herd of breeding maivs un
    iirrada. MidKjas. Bed-clothes and blankets. Mfcate. Mexican for rope. Mrsfn'io and Mostrniro. Live-stock without owin i-. Generally aj>plied to wild horses or cattle. Miljia. A field of Indian corn. Mniiillas, or MochillaK. Leatlu>rn flaps for covciiiii a saddle-tree. A soldier's mochila is his knapsack. Macho. Ap[)lied to a bull or cow with horns cut ofl'; also to any human being or animal that has lost a [)i('ce of a finger, thund), toe, ear, etc, Mo)ijrrl(). T\\v (juartcrs of the single Indian wn- men, or even young widows, in the missions. Xaraiija dc aqua. A measun^ of water of about tlic diameter of an orange, which is rather an indefinite measure. (h'ijaiuK lidi fhrcjaiia dr ficrro. Cattle marked <>n the ears, tliough not necessarily with an ir»»'i brand. Vaulno. An epithet applied to land suitalde tor any purpose. PdiKwlia for panoin- -fVn ear of millet or maize: applied to th<* Jisc-shapcd loaves of coarse sui;ar; otherwise called panela, and in Peru, chancaca. ; 4a MIXED SPANISH AND INDIAN WORDS. 6»1 Placer. A place wliere jjfohl is found in dirt, eitlu r nil drv land or in the bed of a stream. J*l(ii/a. The sea-beacli. Plaza. An open scjuarc in a town. Pozo. A sprinijf or well. Piichh. A chartered town. lidiH'lio. A. tract t)f land used almost wholly f"r |);istura«]jo. It rarely had, in Mexican times, less than t'our miles in extent; in most cases, not less than iiO. Since the American annexation, rancho, anji'Iiciz* d lanch, is applied even to snu/ll farms, and to sin*ile Ik. uses. The verb, to ranch, 1 as been coined in con- nection with farmlnsjj. It is bad forn> Ranchcro. A })erson owning a rancho. or living ill one. Pii iirhcria. An Indian village, or collectie.i ••(' Indian lodges. It may also be a place of scatters, huts. l!((il< (I to express a chain of mountains. Sovinjotc. As is ap})lied to the youngest child "»f a family; also to the lowest servant. Tdpulo. A shawl. (AIJFORXrANISMS, wit* htjiniictt. the j^'ari't't. d t .sc'(.l It) mean a <•«)( k-l..t't or room ovt i" Tiirdcdila. A march l)of('. A species of oNvl. T'ljiicqiiilc. A mineral .salt, cliicHy used m th imiK'S. Tciiuin. A task allotted to the niission neophvtes. after <(>m|;letiMi; which they were allowed to rest. TiCrrtix ill' f( mpoi'dl. Lands di'jteiidiiiLj entirely on raiiis for their cultivation ; posits df water to which cattle resoii. Tiilc. Watel--l'eeds. Tiihir. Field of tules. I'dllddo is used to si;j;nify a wide, deep trench, with the earth taken therefrom thrown up on oik^ si>|'ai! and some pai'ts of Spanish Ameru-a \allado means a kind of fence or wall of runnned earth suiMnomitid hy stones or rods, and planted on tlu' snnnnit with ma'^ues', <'actns, jtihuelas, hlackherry vini's, or soinr other thorny plant? (icinin. Neat cattlt HCIIN (Kino'o. ^' Spanish oi* Mevican origin, which have peculiar meanin>xs in C'alHornia. as for Instance : llrtl-riK'l:. l(oi*rowe ' rANlslI AND INDIAN' WOUliS. llinuJiirr. an i-'lo, wortliltss How, who earns iiothin;^, and lias no means ofsupimrt. lUditnuw) arotunl, playinLj tlie role t»f a hummer. Ciaiin. Tlie piece of ;j;roim«l measured out f'li' iiiinin'jf l)y a party or a company Tl lere are ar li;nik. liill, Hat, tunnel, claims; ako land clainb />/'/'// ////.s'. rir«)und where' oold is dutij for. Wvl Mi-i'^in'jfs aio on hank; or hars of streams of uater, 1 hy dl;j;!4in;js are in places whit h are dry at certain prrioils of the year. 7h ih'H Hj, .. a slan;j; jthrase, sij^nityin;.^ to sto]>, say in> more fail, o-i o away, tlisappear, etc To freeze out. I'sed hy mim-rs to cxjti-ess tliat certain stoclvliolders or others conceined in a mine lia\t' heen forced to .sell their shares or interest. dulrji. A ,u,ully. Iloodhim. Applied to youni:; va<:al)onds. especially nt' towns. '^I'he word does not nx]iausted it is .said to juive 'pctei'ed out. 1 nee hoth expressions are api >|>lieti to other affair: -M CALIFORNIANISMS. To 'profipcct. To hunt for ])laccs containing gold, silver, etc. ]*rospccl is the discovery niado after prospectin;^. When a prospector finds gold in one or more particles, he sa^ s he has f(»und the color. liocLcr or Cradle, an apparatus resembling a domes- tic cradle, used to wash tlie gold clear of tJie dirt. ^^luicc. A wooden trough used for washing dirt to separate the gold dust t)r nuggets. (iroutid Sluice. A trough or hole made in the uround for washin*' dirt. Tu'd-Slukr. A sluice placed below other sluici s from which it receives dirt and water. SI nice-Fork. A fork resembling one for stin-ing manure. The prongs are blunt, the width tlie same at pohit and lu'el. SI nice- J lead is the amount of water used in tlif sluice. Water is constantly running hito the sluier through an o))ening. Sltiiii is slimy dirt. Tofifrip. To clear tb'> pay-dirt of worthless cart li. Square uieal is a full and sutHcient meal eaten at table. Tailinf/a. A mining word, meaning the waste of a ain or Mexico and settled in one part of the state at one time Callfornians, and Europeans who ( amc from Enufland or the United States and settled in another [)art or the same part of the state at an- otlur time, Americans. Yet, after turninjj; the matter well over in mv mind, I see no other way than to fall in with fallacy, and drift with the tide into the sl»»UL!,h of inaccuracy. The words have become so idcntificil with the history of the times that it is now imjto.s.sihle to chant^e them; and even were this possible, it is (litlicult to find other words practicable to be used as sul)stitutes. The WO' ds 'Anyjlo- American' and ']fis- pano- American' are iimch more exact, but these are tno clumsy for ])opular use. All the more rcpunuant to me is this forced misuse of these words here, wlu ii. in aiiothi-r work, I have ap])lied them in a totally ilitfrreiit and the only correct sense; for thus I find iny.«;i'lf the histrument of an anomaly which in the same liti'rature applies to the same words ditli rent ]iu'anin svn<)nvm of fi'i-eness, tlusjmess, manliness, and enti'rprlse. it pleased the fincy of these adv, and In Asia — tluy have ju'oudly recorded tin ir names as Callforuian.s. Xor do I see any way to avoid this application of the word in this connec- 6M CALIFORXIANISMS. I turn. The present inliabitants of the country must have a name, and are justly entitled to the use of the word. But that makes the abnormity no less uii- pleiislnuc to the writer, who finds himself forced to apply to a proper name three several meanhijjjs, with nothiiiu^ but the connection and the intelligence of tlie reader to determine in each instance which is meant. In writiniL^ upon the aborij^ines of America and Cali- fornia, therefore, I call the natives Americans and Californians, respectively; in speaking of the events that transpired under and immediately subsetpient to Spanish and Mexican rule, I call the S()anish and ^le.xican occupants of the country Californians, in contradistinction to the people of the United States knvioii(1<>H<'r los HistnI•i,^(l(ll•l•s jmntualc-*, vcriluilcrns, y no n.ida !i|iassiiiiir vciiir. < i rrmi/i-i. Ik the tlirc'Cjijrcat pniiciitlt'sunderlyinjjjt'tliics, iiaiiii- ;i\v. L*'<.)Voniiii<'nt, aiK 1 rv\\\x un\, are proper cnteria o f I'lo^ri'ss, till' HispaMo-Califoriiiaiis were tlie iiidsf civ- ilize il (»f peoples. Law, datiiiij;' from S[iaiiiaii, "have a nmch better effect in the landscape than those of Santa Biirbara, or of (^difornia towns i>'enei'- allv. which are all of a (lii"t\ ;nud color; the red tihs of the roofs also contrast well with the white sides nf the houses, and with the brii^ht fresh yfreen of tlic lawn, upon which the dwellint;s, about a hundred in number, are dotti'd about irrcLJularly here and theiv. There arc^ not, in this or in any other town of C^dit'in- nia, either streets or fences, excei)t here and tht'ie a small patch fenced in for a i;anlen, so that the hou>i > bciuij^ l)laced at random on the green, and being all ef one story aiul of thi' cotta«j:e form, have a remarkaMv pretty eii'ect when seen from a distance. "Monterey is decidedly the pleasantest and niest civilized-looking place in California. In the centie et" the town is an o|)en square surroundi-d on the fmir sides by lines of one-storied plastereti l)uildings. hi the middk' of the scjuart' are some half-do/en caniieii, some mounted, others not. This is the presidio, er ibrt. lOvery town has a presidio in its centre, er rather, eve ry pr -'sidio has a town built round it, as the PASTORAL MONTKUKV, 599 fuitrt wero first built l»y tliu Mrxican ijovcrninont, and till' pLoplc then t'rt'fticl their (l\vi'lliii«;s round tlnin tni- i»i'i)ti'('tion. Tlu- prt'sidiol mi ion' is vu tiri'l y "'I R-n an< sfvrra I fortified. A short time back tliere wen (iiliecrs stationed liero, with lon;^ and soundinL,'' titles, and about eighty soldiers. These, however, wei'e very jiitorly jtaiti, tV'd, and clothed, and eonsevernnient. This ntlicer is ap}»ointed by the central L>'overinnent of Mexico, and is the chief civil an«^l military olH<'er. In addition to the o'eneral, each town has its coniandante, who is the chief niilitarv otHct'r of thc^ station, and has chart;'!' of the fort, and conducts all transactions with forei<;ners and foreii»n vessels. The civil officers consist of two or three alcakles and c(»rresjfidoi'es, who aie fleeted bv the inhal)itants. Of courts of law ;uid jurisprudence gt'uerally, tlu; iidiabitants \ui\v no knowledge whatevi'r. Small numicipal matteis are ie>-ulateliore unless he belonn's to sonii' vessel, so that any Ameri- c.iiis or JMiglish who intend to reside at Monterey are oimjielled t(J beconu- catholics." The only ranchos Lri^'eii as proju'rty to holders dur- iii'4 Spanish tinu' wer- those of the Xietos. \'erdiiL;os, l>ominguez, the Malin<» of Hartulo Tapia, and pi(ii»a- hly also la Ballona (»f the Zuhigas. I Ii re are some of the i>rdenan/.as municipales tor the ityiuitamientos for 18J3. One of the princiiKd [»re- '•>! ')»() LAW. COVKllN'.MKN'T, AND UKLIClON'. royativi s 'jfraiitrd l>v tlu; j-oiistitutlon to tlM> juuiita- III K'litos, itMituiiicil ill tlic Htli f'acultv tif aiticlt is tliat nf tonniiii;" tlic iiiuiiici|»al ordtiiaii/as ot' tli I IK •I.I. and |trcsrii liiiH' til (•III. a('cuiii|..i!iir(l l»y a r(|iMrt tliiou'^li tile (lijtiitacioM ttiTitorial tor approval. 'I'ln ordriiaii/.as slioiiM (-oiiipi'cIkmkI tl ic ol nlir t« S(i\(»| ill tlir intrnial i;o\rriiiiitiit of the ji\ uiita- iiiitiiio, and in what must lie ohstivcd hy the citi/i ii> as to |»oIicc, utility {roniniliilail), and health. 'The priii rijtli s o-ovcrniii!^ the intrrior alliiirs ot' i\\o ayiinta iiiii'iito can he ^tin'i'ali/rd ; hut as to cxtrrnal inattns, tlitsc will htj diH'citnt in tlu- dillciriit imchlos, Til put hi o siial have a lious( for tl It' use I .f tl aytintainiciito, with the iicccssai'V olliccs for the sccii taiv. tlu' arciiivos and accounts, as well as a warchou- for th ic ininlcincnt^ aiK 1 tooh .1 I s needed lo]- imi»iic Work and harracUs f()r tho national '>iiard when this he di uamze* This house shall i»e termed the casa coii- sistoii.ij. and the apartment wiieie the ayuntainieiifo iiieetiii'^s are held the sala capitular, >s soon installed, the ayuntamieiito shall hy a jilurality of votes a|i|»oint Ji s(>cretary. a \ irtuous and capahle jtersoii \\ h(»se ;ippointmi'nt shall he suhject to the a|tj)ld\al et the provincial deputacion.and who shall not he renio\ t (| excejtt hy consent of the same hody; a treasurer, nr (iii approved f»nly hy the ayiintaniient(»; a eontador tis(,il, whose duty shall he that of kceiiiiii^" the municip.il ac- counts, and authorizing' drafts inad»> hy the committ"e. such as come within his province; one or two pnrteis. who shall summon nn'inhers to mei'tinij^s, and iiiaki' themselves o'eilerally useful; a store-Ueepi'r, who sli ill S we taki' care of and keep in order the tools, etc., a the furniture and the standards of weij^hts and n Ules. ;is rM>- 4. The avuntamiento heiiiLT installed with th e solria- nities j)res( .) ■rihed hv the constitution, t>ii the first dav in Januarv, which is not a liolid. IV. an e\tra(»rdinai\' Si'ssioii .shall ho held for the purpose of the appi'Hit- MUNICIPAL rnOCEDURF.. Ml iiHiit of oonimitti't'H, acfonliiii; to artick' 3'_M of the (.-iistitutioii the srcntai'v Iiaviiiij^ previously ir;nl oidiiiaiici's J 111(1 tlu; aiticlo iiK'iitioiifil. StoailiiK / o f those ordiuaiuTs. f). Then' shall hf a|i))oiiitr(l. hcsidcs thrsc coimnit- n 'jLlJulol vs auxiliaics toa.Nslst the alcalde accoid 11^- to the st'foiid |>ai't of said article- in cariii'j foi' tl, tolK'C { Hid secunt\ o f th l»m l»los, this, if siitli- ii iitlv extensive heiiii; divided into euarteles l(»|tel th titl( illK wliile in session its ineiiihers shall ai lit himself deceiitlv. Militaiv men will wear tin ir uiiif >rms. -^. (Ordinary sessions sliall he held on Tuesdays :iii(l Tiiursdays of each week without any summons heini; 11' ecssary, hut he who will \)v unahle to attend will pie- \i'Ui>ly oivt. due notic«; to the |)rcsident. who shall he tliej(f(>-j>oli'tico, where there he«>ne, and in the following- mdrr the 1st and 'Jd alcald»>s and the senior re;jitl<»r. '.'. 'i'o constitute a »iuoruni al' vothin" nieinhers iinist iittt lid. hut this heinj:; hii|>ossihle, a numher. consist- iiii of otic more than half the whole, will suHiee. I". At the hour fixed u|>on, the porters sliall iiidi- <"i1f the saiiK! tt» tin- president, and tlu; niemhers sli.ill 'iiti r tli(^ sala capitular, and hv order of seiiioiitv in "tlice take theh" seats around the tahle with the presi- 'I' lit at the head. The secretary shall occupy a si ji- ■iijite tahle at the foot of the main tahlc. All shall "•i>iiili ictth lemsclves Ul haneb y and circums|)ectiy th Til l'"il.r shall heat hand outside of thi' sala, in onJei- t'l luiiie when called and keep outsiders from t'litering. 542 LAW. r.OVERNMENT, AND TIEUOIOX. 1 1. Slioukl a meinlxr arrive tiftrr tlio sittiii'^ 1m' opi'iu'd, he is to be received hy the (»tlierH staiidiir^. ai;(l tlie secretary must iiitonn him of wliat busiiu s.s has been done. 1'2. Tlie session will commence bv the secret;>iv r(^adiii floor shall be listened to attentively, and in it interrui)ted bj' others. After all (K'sirous of speak '\u\f have done so, the vote shall be taken — the junior members votin^j first. 1 .'). Should the sindico make any verbal propositi, ui, ho shall be attentivelv lu'ard before the mattcf In acted on; if in writiuLj it shall be discussed, but n-r resolvi'd until the next meetin*', or if a verv intricate matter, the meetini; thereafter. !v read slowly, and afterward ordered [)assed to thf al- calde for publication or execution — except where it lie referred It) a connnittee ^v ithin the coijjnizanci" of wliich it may come. The alcalde will, as ordered, cause tlif same to be .sent to the next ayuntamiento, and Ik' and the secretarv will acknowledife haviuij: receivnl and circulated the same. 17. Should any order be received from the juc- vincial diputacion, relative to economy in exjxiniiiiLr pro})ios y arbitrios, it nmst be connnunicated to tlic contador and tesi)rcro for their i»uidance, 18. Should the order or bando circular relate to a matter interesting to the juez (jf first in.stance, ercK - siastical juez, or other functionary, he ^^hall be officially notified in writing by the presiilent and set retary. 10. The discussion of business treated of being ti'i- ishcd, and — provided that the proceedings have Iikh lengthy — the minutes of the secretary signed by the MUNICIPAL PROCKDURE jiri'sidi'nt, that they may 1><' aftorwanl written out, tlif t'X|»'clit'iitt'S .shall ho ufiveii to the coiiimittt't's, that the same he examiiud (»r executed. •JO. Should the juez eelesiilstieo, and he of first iii- iiistaiice, have occasion toatttud a sittiiiij of tlujayuii- taiaiento, the former shall he seabd on the ri^ht hand olthe alcalde, and the latter on tlie left ; either wlieii iil'iiie shall 1h' seated on tiie rii^ht — as also tlie conian- (laiite militar — i»ut any other puhlic functionary must sit hflow the sindico. 2\. Should any diputacion of farmers, merchants, or aitisans [iresont itself to the ayuntamitnto, in order to treat of anything relatinjjf to their rosprct- ive trades, vie, or tlie imposition of contrihutions, tilt y sliall 1)0 .«eated on seats separated from those of the memhers of the ayuntamiento; hut any oni- eiti- ztii wlio may present himself individually sliall remain oil toot unless ho have some military o!" ci\ il l»li!jj('(l to In; rcticfiit; and •crt't shall \)v voted as wtak- ft'^. rs whoever di\ ulLjes tlie st iiriM(li!d. and he held respoiisihle for resultant daiiia-j; 2(1. What lias been detenniiied uitoii 1)V the a\ iiii- taiuieiito caimet he rovokorl without j^rave motives, m- without the j>revlous consent of the sindleo and tliu concuireuei; of all who [)rovi'>asly voted on tho ques- tion. 27. Shouhl tho serretarv ho ill or unavoidahlv ah- V t sent, the junior rei^idor shall lU't in his stead; if the reu,idor Ik; husy on some eonnnittee, a secretary ad interim shall he appointed hy a |)lurality of vot who shall deliver to the secretary, on his return, the minutes, etc., si^netl hv the mend)ei's. 28. In the same manner, the si'ndicc) shall he rc- |)lac(ul hy tht3 junior re^idor; the aleaKle hy the re^i- dores in order <»f seniority; when, however, theje he two alcaldes or two sindicos. one shall (ill the vacancy of the other, and only when both bo absent shall tliu above course In; taken. 2!). if on the day (>f any ordinary me(>tiii|4 any matter requiring- inimediato action should arise, mem- bers shall be citiil. 30. In case of special meetiiiLjs members sliall lie cited by means of notes signed by the presidi-nt ami secretaiT. .'M . 'I'he sfndico may ask that a special meetin-^' he called, and is not obliged t<» ^ive his reasons : any ot Ik r nicmbei' shall make a like reiiuc^t through and in iu- cord with tho sindico, informing him of the case that ho mav ask what is littint^, and that all the nuinh' is be cited they signing the citation and ivcurnii!'^ it to the |i(»i'tero for- a ivcord of their lia\ ing been <'iii d. 82. .\t stated as well a.s at I'xli'aoidinary mectinus mondters may request that their vote be nconled apart fi-om the rest in a book kept for the puip'»<', but this will not excuse them from signing' the minui'S accoriling to the will of thi' plurality. MUNK'irAL riUH'KDUUE. 848 nn. No individual vote sliall bo rcoordod, uides.s so ordciod l)y tliu [H'osidrut. 34. If tin- matter ilebiitc'd bo not uriifiMit, any ineni- Imt may sus|t('iid tbo takinj^ of a voti; until furtbor (liscussioM, providi'd tbat lio si,L,n>ify liis intt-ntidii of liiiiiuiii;4" forw.ii'd nrw arLfUuuMits. Xo business can lie thus sus[i('nih'd for uioro tban ;3 sittinj^s — on tbo 4lli the vot»* to bo takou. .!.'). Sbould a s[)ocial ujootin*:^ be called to consider sonic sealed eonuuunieation addressed to tlu' ayunta- iiiicnto, the secretary siiall not open the saiuo until oie iiinre than the half of tbo nu'iniicrs be present, win u., it' tiio matter be j^rave, there nmst Ik- uniinimity in vntin^'~in ease of ilisaifrooment ill the niemi)ers be- iiii; cited. :\i'>. No member wbile eni;a«jfed on a speei.d eom- iiiittt e may absent bimsei fun til its labors arc «'oiic!uded, and then only for eauso, and with perMiis.siou of tin- |iicsidcnt. ;)7. No auth(tritv may summon tbe ayuntMiniento a> a i>ody to appear before it; and should JUiy iiidivid- u- 11 tl member Ite cited, it must be bv an ollicia! cctinm iiic.ition. .is. ( 'omnuuncations to tbe ayuntamiento fimn the ililli relit authoriticH must be in writinij^, mid must be aii^wtrcd in the siime way; or if dceiiieil better, by a i'(Miiinittee (d' one or two. .'I'.'. Nor can the ayuntamicnto ^^ummon l>et'ore it aiiv public functionary. e\c«'|iL for consnltation or iiuieeiiieiit, which shall be done by Ml oflicial communi- • 'atlnll. I". Should thejud'^"e of lirst instance be obli'^ed to juii'^e civilly (»r criminally a member of tjie avuiita iiiiciito, be Hball, in a |tolite manner, yive oflicial com. iimiii< ;ition to the president, unless hi' be taken in the act, when it is neccNsary only t" ijeiained at the casa coiisistorial under the resjioii- c\i.. I'tsr. ;» I I .,1 i I w B46 LAW, OOVEIIXMEXT. AND llEI.HilOX. sil>ilitv of" tlu' president, (►r ono of tlie rcj^icloros, as li slioiiUl he III rus(; ot llilplisonmelit Dellij^ lU'ees.sai y, or tliere ha no l)«>n«lsnuiii u<'i'orut if sni- teiweil to death or eorporal puniishnient, lie must be deliven^d to the juez and ur<> to the jail. 42. JJurin*^ the trial, anl;ii i d at the disposition of the juez. 44. Siiould the '/ulpiit he the alcalde, the "id alcalde, or the .senior rci^idor, shall take his placf. 4."). Should the arrest he arbitrary or illeiial. ihr ayuntaniientt> shall, hy its sfndico, make a formal rmn- plaint to the juez of the nearest partido, accordiiii,' to law, for they should aid and honor one another as niemiicrs of till! .saiiK Dot Iv 4(i. If the oflence he committed hy a reiLjidor ;is reju'idor, tlu! alcalde cannot _ju(lL;"e it, l)Ut shall, tliroii.;li the si'iidico, formalize the accu.sation hejore the jui z d<' partido, and if it he foi- an infraction of the consti- tution, the same juez shall form tlu' sumaria, ami fur ward the .same throu^^h the [trovincial diputacion \,, the proper auth(»rity. 47. In accordance with article 4 -ut supra tin tv di I ted le I.I; an III- snall he appointed a juez di- ai;nas y de j.iaza spet'tor of cattle killiiin" and hakeries, a police jiiilui'. one of schools, and one or more of juihlic works, rnmls, forests, and jails, who shall act according to a sp( « lal ur«liiiaiice formed for that ohject. 4H. There shall al.so he a committee of ways !iii(i means (hacienda), composed of an alcalde aiibje«'t whatever, not even for the secre- t.iry's pay - as was deternnned by the decree of .July The i- "i rd of the ayuntamiento sessions of Angeles alloid little information as to rules and mode of pi-o- cnlure, besidis what tin; i"e;;lam«'nto prescribes. 'I'he pit'sideut as 1st alcahh', antl hence usually a man of moi'e inriuence and saL;a«'ity, as may be supposed, than lie ordinary reLfidort's, i(enei"ally propo.ses tin- moi-e im- ]"irtant projects. Tln.rea|>p«'ars to be no record of any motions bein^ formeily secon(le to when the government or assembly ha\e to be ii|'|icaled to, as of higher authority in the respective iiiiitti'rs. The a<'ts of a meetiui^ are re-read at the next uiH' to be apj)roved finally. Often a petition or meas- LAW, r.OVE?vXMi:NT, AXn RELIf;iON. '.'% uro is oxciiiptiMl from tlic usual roiitiiu? of sovf-ral vviu]- iujj^H and rt'[n»rt of a <()uiiiiitU;(', ami jtjisstxl tlic saiiu' at Previous to 1S23, the alcalde was electod at the lH'«.'iniin.-}M.litlco Chico is- sued the followiiiL!^ dec ree for the better eid'oicenieiit of the law of l)ecend)er 21), 1H.'};>: 1st, Cuerpos de seo'urulad y polici'a ti) he estait]ishe«l in the territory. 2d, Tliese cuerpos to 1)»; composed of jefe-politieo, sin- dicos of the ayuntamiento, and four comisarios of ]»(i- leia, chosen from the leadinj^ clti/ens, 'U\, Tl condsariosto ])e a])pr(»vt'd by the respect ive ayuMt.iiiii- eutos hv a i»lura]itv of votes durint' the first week in .Tanuarv. 4th, Four substitutes were also to Itc jip- pointed, nth. The ayuntamiento should notify men iheis <1 ot tlieir apjiomtnient. and also noL'y all encari;ados jok masters of hacierulas. fith. No one should beexcus((l from servility without just cause. 7th, The duti( s ef the njend>ers will !».•: 1st, to care for tin; public ti;iii- • piility at their place of resid<'nco; 2d, to ]»uj'sue and arrest evil-tloers, aii obey th(! orders of tiie alcalde eonstitucional. 8tli. llesidenis of all nmnieipalities are oblij^e*! to aid (lie ofHeers of policr with their ]>ersons, horses, lunis. ii'i.I uliat cuerpos acecii'dni'^ t<5 this decree. Idth, i)isobcro» isioiiul rules for the •mk- ployec s of the ofHct' of i^ovcrnor's seen'tary. |>rep:ui(l liy the chii'f eh ik and secretary ad interim Fruncixu Ar«-e, conformablv to |M)Wers coid'erred on him hv the law of March 20, t^.'57, and approved by Miiii'l- torena. JSccntarv's functiotis: Art. 1. T«) have cji; ir<:< RULES OF COVKIiNOrrs OFFICE. SM (Vtrytliliif^ counoctcil witli the (tffirc, lu'liinf rrspon- .siMr tor whatoviT tlocuiiiouts iiiav !)«' iiitrustrcl to liiiii l>y till' <,'ovt'r!ior. Art. 2. To sec that th«' employed (.iiiijily faitlifully with their duties, and tiiat they do not divulge nijitters taking place in the otiice. Art. :l. To sign all orders or documents sent him for that nlijcct hy the govi'rnor, and to scrietly comply with iiiid give speedy despatch to everything sent or in omineiul.Ml to him. Art. 4. To re{)ort immediately evt vy papei^ or doi'ument which may come into his ]i.i»es>ioii from other stances, and which may depend tor d»'spat<'h on tlu* governt»i''s decision. Moreover, li( >iiall, once »)r twice daily, re[>ort to the governor t'li orders. l!scril)ii'nti''s functions: Art. 1. To complv stri«*tlv wirli the present rules, and carrv out faithfuhv ail oidtrs givi'ii hy the seci-etaiy. Ait. "1. Shall «-o5n»,' to the ortice at H A. M.. and work till \'l m., conie again at il. and work till T. \\ m., except on the customary lii»li(!ays. Art. :{. Siiall he res[ionsil)le to the seere- taiy for any ecietary. \\ ith N'ictori.is arrival, tla^ otlicers already l»»gaii t'l li.ok upon the soldiers as infei-iors. Formerly, there I heeii no distiiK'tion, \\>\ otlir( is' and soldiers' fami- ii.'ii ite«i th It > treate anoiiter as etpiais. .liiM' Marfa Amador, writing of is::7, relates: ■".'vfter ten years and tivi> months ot servic«' in the WW Fiancisco comitany of cuera, T determiiii'd to ask "I iiiv dischaige. J went to Captain .Vrgtiello t' 11' II'IUUI tl le same He refused, aiu 1 otfered me a \ ron of seigeani i f 1 voulcl renwun ui tlie >er\ u-t- Tliis I refuse(i. sa\ ing tliat he had not favoi'ed me wh II pi'omotion Wo ulil jave l)een tim* no twith LAW, (iOVKllXMEXT, AND UKLIOIOK. I'Pi' w K standing my luMnj^ tlu- son of nn oftic-er, and liaviiin; uhvjivs (lone niv duty laithiullv. "All tlu.' acknoNvlc'd'cnK'Ut of mv servioes had In . u the title of soldatlo distinj^uido — a title wliuh \\;;s mine by ri^^ht. I ronfoss that, durini!; the time I was his siTvant, lie had fiiay in ad\anee. When told that there n<» money, wo refused ilatly tit do wiiat 'v".:!- was desire* Win ;: Sj>aniarils first hf«4;an eominji' to ('alifninia, ]tur>uant l"> a luvai urdt r thr i;o\ cnnnent furnislml to eaeh soldier of the *jurris(tiis a hroadsword, lauci-. i!U oval leathern shii-ld, a firelock, and j»istols. Tli sword had to li(> of the standard si/t' ; the laner-hraiU were ahoiit two feet in k'Hjj^tli, on(> and a half inci -- M'ide. Mill stl-enutlu'ned in the ei'utre, so that tin v formef"ls wa> "i one ounce; the hammers of the liuns were of the liiii>t tem[)ei', in order that they could stand the acti<»n ot't IK sun. Desides the troop.«; of the line, artillery ami ch\ ili'v. each presidio had a c(M'tain nundter of lisdian se-fN, who were urmed with pisti»l, shield, and spcai', Ik '1 ' MILITAUY MATrKUS. 5.-1 liavinuf tlu ir hows, and tlu ir (;uivi>r.s filled with arrows. Tlurt! was always an txtni supply of arms at ta« h jinst, ami thiy wm.' kept in pt-rftrt order. An aniiorer, who was also a private, to whom extra i)ay was allowed, had ehar<;o of the ainuiinent of his lom- ji.iiiy, and iiis duty wa.s to kei'p the same elean and in fond repair. Ivu'h soldier was allowed six horses, one ])ony, and one mule ; the eaptain of the presidio saw that the animals weic proi)erly eared for and feil. Kaeh man IS re(iuired to havi' one of his horses readv saddK'd w; and supphed with foraijo, day and night; the captains ;iiid otlieers Were lieM ii'Sjionsihlt! for the striet fulfil- ls nt of this oi(K'r; tin' safety of the })ort and (»f tiie settlements might (h'lund u[ton the troops heing in ri adiness to ^tart at a moment's notiee, and to jiut a Slop t<» tin' raids of the .savages. Tlie Indian scouts wei-i> also supplied with a sadro"s or cow- Ik rder's saddK-; it was jirovided with the u^ual ap- pendages of e.ipai'ison; long and wide leathein skins atr.iehi'd t<» the [lonunel to covei' tin- thighs ami legs, littli' eusliitins and closeil wooden stiri'ups; the u.se of iaige stirrujis was strictly foihiddeii. "Notwithstanding our privileges," continues Ama- 'l.'i'. "Captain Argiiello iVecpiently put us in the stocks, the culj>i'it lying on the ground, with no rest ftir the lu'ad. and exposeil to the sun. This puni>h- imnt the c.ij'tain termed the pina arhitraiia, and said that he inllicti'd it heeause, in i-efusing to assist in loa«l- ii)'4 niules and conducting them from Santa ( 'ru/ to the presidio, we gave a Itad example to the other sol- tliei's. Hut as soon as 1 )oiia iiafaela, wife of ("a|itain Argiiello saw us in the stoeks, she would m>ist that w> >li(tuld lie lilu'ratiul; many times coming pi rsonally til make tin. coi-poral of' the guard free us. I imagine tiiat she ami tin* captain had an iniderstanding ahuit this; for one day in his pr-scnee, and that of the olii- 555 LAW, COVr.IiXMFA'T. AXD REL1<;I0N. ccr of t]io ouanl, slic luTsrlf ojK-iu'd the .stocks and St t us at lilu'ity, at'ti-r ohtaiuiiiu^ piTuii^sion of the <»lHifssion may hv taken to siij^nily 'tnipty-iiatt'd Ic'llows;' htciallv, it is 'sack of azunihiv.) Justi (•(' was somewhat erratic: severe to-dav, la\ eiiouLjh to-morrow, M. tl e.Mcan thieves were so pit-nti U-nti tid in Is.'.S that Alvarado thoULjiit two jit least iniylit Well he spared, and under color Im' shot. •' I can assert." says Ai'na/, "that from IS-lOlo 1> I". perlect security tor jterson jtrevailed in ( "alifoi nia towns and highways, except iVom savages in reumtc localities, as at \A Xacimii'iito. Asuncion, l*a.so dc JloMes. and Las J*asitas. i-'iidv's was tlu' t)nly niiii- tlei' and rohhery I luai-d of." 'I'he alcaldi' was the justice, and all «lisputes and all suits Wire hrou^ht hefore him. Minoi- cases he (|i- cided himself, hut cases of yreat importance, and all d conmiei'cial cast's, wi re referri'd to tl le n'overnnicjit at the north. Aftei- the sup|iri'ssion of alcaldes and avuiitamientos, under the central regime, thei'e wi iv justa- if the pea«'e who exercised the judii'ial fun tions fornu'i'ly perl'oiineuhru', simi- JUDICIAL DISTRICTS. r.ri3 their (lutus wen' siinilar), for the purpose of antlicnti- catinn' all acts, judicial as wi-U as civil; and at ]»()ints wlicrc tlicro wi'ro no such officers, tliu juccts do i)az, iiidcd l»y two witnesses, wore enipowerecl to act in tlii'ir stead. On the su};})ression of the ayuntaniientos, j uces do })az were named, who pcrfornu^d the duties ot' the former alcaldes const itucionales, with this dif- frrence: that, wlicreas the 1st alcahle had heen pres- ident of the ayuntamiento and juez de I" instaneia, now the 1st jui'Z de paz possessed the powers of juez de I" instaneia who took cognizance of suits at law, and the suhstantiation of criminal <'auses. The 'Jd |u«/,de paz took charge of preliminary matters in crim- inal cases, and of conciliatory aiul verbal civil suits. The San Dieiio district in liS44 extended to Santa Margaiita, one league heyond San Luis ]vey. San .luaii ( 'ai»istrano e,\tended Irom Las Flores puehlitt), six leagues .south, to Uio Santa Ana. Santa jJarhara rxtended from raiK^ho Simi on the north slope- of Santa Siisana to the raneho Ivinji' half-wav Intwicn I'ui'i- sinia and San Luis Ohispo. Monterey extinded from San Luis()hispo to nea!' San Juan l^autista, though iud'hiallv it lu'ld swav farthei" noi'th. San .foso ex- t ■iidetl over Santa Clara and San Jose mission and lan> lies. I I ease o f a sale of real i'stat(\ the alealde acted a> notary. The protocol of terms was signed hy the }>ar- lii s, liy the jutlge, and two witnessis, and soiin-tiint'S liy two (ir three other witnesses called in>trumentales. The original ileed remained in the aiclii\e>, a eeiti- tifil copy lieing given to parties. The judge, elirks, "1 [laities would read the dociunent aloud to all. l''oi' \tivy:ra\e crimes, twentv-ti\c laches ilailv were i:ivrii for nine days, hut this si'Utenee was indulged ill niily liy iiiilitary eoinmandei's or the ^i»vt'rnmeiit. T\^intv-livo laslus were the most imi'osed hv the 1 'allies, 1 1 < hi one occasion Pio Pico came to Angeles fioiu k^aii Diego. Befori' reaching Anneles, he was inl'ornieil 6&4 LAW, COVERXMKXr. A\I) UKLHilOV. that tluf alcjiltlc would not let Iiiiu cut* r tlir plaof without ai passpoit. llaviii!;; iioin', he foryctl oiif — siuiiuiLj to it tlu' iianit' oftiu' ('oinaialaiitc of Sail ])i( ^o. This, on rcachiiii,^ Aiiiiclrs. he picsi'iitt'd. Tho alt-aldc, wlio did not know liow to icad, to(»k tlic pajur and jH'tlcnd.'d to read it. Tluicupon ho tx|>n'sscd hiin- s( ir as |nir((tly aatisfii'tl, and ii'tunu'd tin: ilocunuiii to Pico. In a Icttt'i" fVoni tlu> alcalde of ^[ont('I'cy to tin oovcnioi', under date of Dccrnihcr li>, I S IS, rcf'ci'cncc is niatic to the i-tu'losed \cij;i, lluerta del luy, or Canada taken to jirevent ohsirvation. Writing- to the lu^overnor from San .lose April I'l, IS'JJ, l'\-itlu'r Diiran, vi<-arit) fonineo, aeknowltd.;. - the summary of j»i'oceedini>s formed against Calm Cannto r>t)ronda, and Melit«tn Soto, civilian, for fiulit- i\\\X a duel near Santa liiiihaia, in which case h.' is asked to uive his opinion as regards the penalty i j)osi'(| l»y the church for the ofl'enco. The (hurdi. savs, caimot look with indiflerence on th(> almost t ni- tarn eternal damnation or tliose w f th ho d u> m a ( luel. rl'- aiii'. hasaccordinuly imposed the most terrihle punishment, namely, that of excoimmion mayor, //»>(» j'dch) incur- rcii (It iiy burial In consocratotl jjfrnund to tlio falhii. To this the Imll (loti'stuhllrm of Pope Hi'iudit-t XIV. u)l «!xcu.se was i;^noran«'o (»f tlie punlsliinent, but this plea was ranly admitted. TIr' absolution for the case waa termed speak truth wliich would l)rin«jj injury upt»n another — ^just as it is to-(hiy with reujai'd to our railway maujnates testifyin;;- where their interests are concerned; If there is no other way of !j;ettinL,' around it, their memory is sure to fail tlii-m. One certainly could not expect a fifty-inillion • lollar man to remember anything which it was clearly to Ills interests to forj^et. So it is with nine-tenths of those who are put ujum the witness stand in any country. Not all of them intend to swear falsely, but few speak or [»iactise the whole truth and nothinij else. It mav he bias of 111111(1 or bias of feeling, but it is a singular fact that thi' hias is always in favor of the alliant's intei-ests. JIt'U often in a court of justice do we hear witnesses ■(•b^ « .^^ X^ -%. <> ^^ o. IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 I.I IIM 12.5 T m M 12.2 12.0 1.8 1.25 1.4 1.6 ■• 6" ► Photograpliic Sciences Corporation \ V ''. <^ 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 872-4503 s^^ # 7a <> 556 LAW, GOVERNMENT, AND RELiaiON. swearing diametrically opposite to each other, so that it is impossible to say tliat one or both of them arc not perjuring themselves, and yet they can hardly be punished for purjury, as it is impossible to tell which, if either, is telling the truth. And so when a man swears he cannot remember ; there is no way of prov- ing that he is swearing falsely, or that he can and does remember, and would be very quick to give the desired imformation were it to his interest to do so. Hence, when we complain that a Mexican's word cannot be relied on, that his sense of honor as a rule, is not sufficiently strong to keep him honest, that as he suspects every one himself, he expects every one to suspect him, that as he believes to be true not more than half of what is told him, so he expects not more than half of what he says will be believed, and so on, — I say when we complain of the short-comings of the Hispano-American, let us not forget those of the Ano-lo- Amer ican. The ecclesiastical government in 1835 was arranged somewhat in this wise : The two Californias and So- nora together formed one diocese, under a bishop witli a stipend of $6,000. Until California should be erected into a bishopric, there was to be a vicar, appointed by the bishop of Sonora, as he was usually called, for each of the two California territories. The necessary curacies were established, each mission being sucli; and were the curate clergyman or friar, he could i.ot be a Spaniard. The curate must have sufficient means apportioned to him for the support of himself and his subordinates, collecting nothing from his parishioners, and making no charge for baptism. Curates were ecclesiastical judges, their acts to be before two wit- nesses, with appeal from their decisioas to the vicar. Curates should act fraternally, and settle matters amicably. The mission churches afforded asylum for political or military refugees, but were hardly sufficient to shield notorious criminals. The chapels of the pie- ECCLESIASTICAL AFFAIRS. 657 sidios, whose expenses were defrayed by the garrison, gave no such protection. Pontifical bulls being counterfeited at Rome, and also breves and rescriptos jn indulgences and other favors, the president decreed in 1833 that six months from date no buia or rescripto should be received which did not come provided with the visto bueno of the Mexi- can consul at Rome. The Angeles ayuntamiento in 1845 resolved that the present ecclesiastical authorities should set aside a place for Indians to hear mass, because they were too dirty to mix with gente de razon. Says Alvarado : " In California we have never had a bishop, and consequently the people do not desire one. Here the friars are in general looked upon with indif- ference, because every one is poor and devoted to agriculture. That is, there is no fanaticism, such tvS I have been told exists in other parts of the republic. Here we have no religious establishments." Father Mercado, of mission San Antonio, being called on, March 10, 183G, to ratify on oath what he had on the 28th of December, 1835, represented to the diputacion against the treatment of the Indians of San Antonio by the administrator, Ramirez, refused to do so, pleading his privilege as a priest, and his position as ecclesiastical authority in San Antonio ; he denied that the fiscal had any authority to demand testimony from him. The fiscal quoted the law of the nth of September, 1820, under which he claimed the right to interrogate the padre, and allowed him fiv(> liours within wiiich to come and testify. The five hours having elapsed without the padre appearing, the fiscal wrote him that for tlie last time lie suinmoned him to appear forthwith; otherwise, ho Would at once declare the charge against Ramirez false and calumnious. Still Mercado did not come; but on the same day he answered in writin*; that he would like the fiscal to show him the law under which he could declare 558 LAW, GOVERNMENT, AND RELIGION. |}l! 1 id M his charges false and calumnious, and that he pro- tested beforehand ajjainst such an illejjal action on tile fiscal's part. ]\Iercado finally appeared in person before the fis- cal, and took tlie oath 'in verbo saecrdotis,' and stated that the church canons forbid ecclesiastics to appear before secular judges, unless in self-defence, or in defence of the church, or of such persons as could not act for themselves. Ecclesiastical as well as civil laws, and the holy father's conmiand, and even under the ponalty of mortal sin, impose upon all the literate, and also upon the priests of Indians (pdrrocos de indios), to defend these unfortunate beings against any abuses they may be subjected to. There may be those who would like to know what the San Francisco chapel contained in the year of our Lord 18;51. There were six images on canvas of the virgin, San Diego, and St Dominick, one statue of St Francis, five complete ornaujents, two pluvials or ct)pes, rose and black, six stoles, five sets of altar limn (on which the conmmnion bread and wine are put to be consecrated), one set of embroidered linen, five ornaments of the altar, six albs, one surplice, one con- secrated stone of the altar, one silver chalice with patine and little spoon, one large silver cup, one pair of vessels for wine and water, silver saucer and tum- bler, one silver and one copper small bell, two incen- sories, two gilt wooden stands for the missal, one old wooden palabrer, two covers for the altar, two amices, one manotejo, thirteen purificatories, six silli embroidered blue ribbons for amices, two missals, one of them old, one ritual, one Christ crucified of wood with the inri of silver, one Christ crucified of copper, one old gilt niche, six copper candlesticks for wax tapers, one copper candlestick in pieces, two large bells, one copper letter, one tin box for commuiii"!! wafers, two small candlesticks, two parvapalias of front ornaments, one white linen cloth, two long cas- ■;! SOUL-SAVIXG MACniXERY. socks, one old useless carpet, one wooden bench, one arm-chair, two sets of red curtains in windows, one iiise for the ornaments, one wooden confessional, two old gilt screens, one small vial for the holy oil, one old trunk for the dry goods of the church, one old breviary, one old via crucis, and one iron implement for making communion wafers — machinery enough, if l)roperly fed with money, to save a hundred thousand souls. It was too much the fashion with foreigners to ma- lign all classes. The priests, they said, possessed little Karning or intelligejice, and this little they devoted to the crushing and plundering of their people. They were dissolute and unscriptural, fatherly in a too literal st'nse, briimiiigf too much of heaven to earth if of such is the kingdom of heaven; and loving eau-de-vie, the water of life, more than the bread of life. For the laity, they were the largest order of animals then known, as well as the dirtiest ; a people wholly l^'ing in wicked- ness, and lacking soap. They were supercilious, yet ignorant and superstitious, and full of beastly habits. That they were over-ridden by their clergy they con- sidered a benefit, if not to themselves, at least to their neighbors, for when the blind lead the blind both fall into the ditch. The Indians wore as wild and timid as the beasts of chase among which the}' existed, with the exception of a few slightly advanced by becomiiig ^Mexicans by connection with the missions. The ap- pearance of an inunigrant for the first time in a ranche- rfa of the natives produced an effect sickening and [)itiful, as intlicative of their treatment by the Californians. All capable of flight escaped, while the women a[»p(>ai'ed uailing for njercy, and endeavoring to a})pease sui»[)osed ferocity by otlerings of such food as they possessed. On the departure of the stranger, they made the place echo again with cries of surprise and joy. The gov- ernment was a rotten military despotism; and the eouits of so-called justice were run by hard bribery and hard swearing, legal and profane. 560 LAW, GOVERNMENT, AND REUOION. Sunday was the great gala-day, devoted to religion and amusement. After mass the young and fashion- able belle returned home and dressed for the ball-room. The waltz which followed so closely their worsliij) was all the more fantastic from the previous soml)r(j solemnities. The mind for the present was fretil from further anxiety, and the heart, relieved of its burden of sin, bounded lightly forth, a new creature Aboriginals, those who could obtain it, resorted to liquor as a panacea for their troubles. The ideal of the time and place was pleasure. Re- ligion was a power, wealth a blessing, and chastity comely; but religion, wealth, and chastity were made secondary to pleasure. The fathers saw this, and so made religion pleasurable; the rich men felt it, and so opened their houses to festive throngs; the humble, the poor, the good, and the wicked, whatever else might befall them, were not to be cheated of their round of pleasure. On Christmas night, 1837, while the families of San Diego were gathered at Pio Pico's house, the religious comedy of El diablo en la pastorela was performed. In the play appeared an angel, the devil, a hermit, and a Bartolo, in the persons of Guadalupe Estu- dillo, Felipe ^larron, Isidora Pico, and other girls. On each side of the scene were six little girls dressrd in white with red head-gear. During the represen- tation the women sauij hvmns of adoration to Jesus. The government demanded of all the fulfilment ot church precepts. All except the disabled had to as.sist at mass on Sundays and ordained days. If any one was noticed to fail in attendance for some time witliout just cause, the authorities sought him out and reprimanded him. In eastcr (pascua florida) all had to confess and take sacrament, and assist at doctrina. Each received a paper from the padre to show that he had compH( d with church duties that year. When one reached tlie age for confession, this was no 'onger requisite, or at INST^VNT IN PRAYER. 50 1 least was not compulsory. Still, they performed their duties in obedience to the wish of their parents, al- though the government did not meddle. Keligious education was carefully attended to. In every house, before dawn, an alal)ado was said and sung by the united family. At noon, prayers were again ( (tiered up. At the oracion— about 6 p. m. — and at night, before retiring, a rosarlo was recited, and an- other alabudo chanted in chorus. At a fandango (^r a ball, at 8 o'clock, the head of the fan;ily has l)een known to cause the diversion to cease while he recited the rosario, which occupies about a quarter of an hour, ill which all present were obliged to join, after which tlie festivities were resumed. Many times at rodeos, at the wonted hour for i)rayer, old men would cause labor to be suspended while they, and with them all the bystanders, offered up a prayer. Indeed, among the more pious life was one continuous petition, or series of petitions, to the almighty powers for favors desired, and calamities to be averti'd. The most insig- nifieantof every day affairs were n ferred to the man- agir of the universe, to be passed u[)oii and adjusted. It was an altoo-ether abnormal condition of all'ah's, so far as law, government, and religionwerecoiiec rm <'. Tin' natives, when let alone, were wholly natural; \\]\r\i imder the domination of foreign missionaiies, it was worse than artificial. There were no other ap[iH- ances for the debasement of intellect which Wt)uld c(iual these. For though the mind when left alone may fall into a thousand fantastic fanaticisms, win n lila\ ed U}»on and impressed by more skilled minds, the result is an intimidation of intellect painful to see. If missionaries, or others who Mould convert tlie whoh- World to one way of thinking in religious affairs, would hut observe how qui(dvly both body and mind wither uiidtr the malign influence of superiority, sa^■agesalld fliildren would be more let alone, wocld be less under rrstraint in tlic application of ancient traditions and meaningless formulas to the training of intellect. r.w.. Past. 36 502 LAW, GOVERNMENT, AND RELIGION. A godchilil, wherever ami whenever lie met his godfather or godmother, was obliged to take oti' his hat and offer a brief j)rayer, after which a benethctioii was bostowed by the sponsor. The obligations of the sponsors were such that in case of the godcliild be coming an orphan, the sponsors took the place of parents, and provided him with food and education. At all times it was the duty of the sponsor to give salutiirv counsels to the {godchild. The conipadrazgo was a bond of afHnity existing between the parents of the child on the one sidi', and the sponsors of the child on the other — that is, it was so lield by the church, but not by civil law. At a baptism the officiating })riest alwavs ex|)lai»ied tlif relations thus contracted. Compadro and c-omadre wtic the words used '\\\ speaking to or of the s[)onsors ot one's child — the same words being by them ai)plied to the parents of the child. The words menu literally co-father and co-mother. We have no kindred tciiii in English, unless it be the now obsolete— in that sense — gossip, a perfectly well-formed Saxon word, against the Retaining of which no ol>jection could be reasonably urged. About September 1847, two Indians wore con- demned to be hanged for murdering a foreigner. Tl:r cords were adjusted by the attending padres, but both knots slipped, and excej)t a slight choking they wcrr both uninjured. In a m(»ment one of the priests moujited a horse and galloped to the governor's, urg- ing a re[)rieve on the plea of a special disi)ensation of providence. Governor Mason refused, and tlio Indians were hanged. The robes of the paores were deemed by the In- dians sacred things, precious relics. In 1833 at the death of Padre Sanchez the women took fraj^ments of his dross, sewed them up in little silk or velvet bokillas, and wore them round their necks as bles-ed relics. It was the custom in California to give thanks to THE MILL OF TIIK C;ODS. r.03 riod at break of day, in a loud V(»i(o. One jravc tlie thread of till' prayer, the rest responding'. Men, wo- men, ehildren, all wei'e yood ( 'hiistiaiis at heart, .-d- iliout^di most knew nt)tiiing of the rudinieiits of their reii,t,non. It seemed hard on the poor j»adres in California, tliat after spending their whole lives to gain heaven, thev should he left to Hounder about in puriiatorv p>'rha]>s for a year or more, and all beeausi> there were iiono in certain times and jtlaees to give pronijit sufia- gies. Finally, it was agreed that for lack of (piality there should be <|uantity, every mission padre eele- hiating twentv masses everv time a brother piiest (hed. As there were then twentv-one missions, there would be 420 masses for every priest dying. Says Friar Juan Saneho, guardian of the college of S;tii Fernando de Mexico, writing to the vicenty, the Conde de (ialvez, in answer to tlu^ viceroy's despatch covering general royal order of Januaiy \\\, I7S4: " From the reports of the jtndns in chari;e of the ( 'ali- f iniia missions, which owe their being and advance tliii'tly to the efforts of Don dost'f \\v (lalvez each ft' the nine missions has its churcii well sui)plied with ornaments, vessels, etc., the .31.000 givt'u by the vici'- roy for the founding of each having been augmented liy what the padres have been able to economizi' in tlu'ir yearly stipends. '■ l*]ach mission has tlu^ buildings necessary for tlie padres' ur])osc by the j'riest. Each has barracks for the escolta. These Imildings, together with tlu' houses for married Indians, ci»inj)riso the pueblo, or mission. At each mission live its. children, at least the adults, for many little ones by re.ison of tender age live with their pagan parents, who take them almost everv day to the mission that II 10 priest may see them, and in order to receive food 664 LAW, COVKTINMKXT, AN'D KKIJMION'. for tlu'iii, until tin- age of four or Hvl-, after wliioli tlic child rciDuiiis at the misKioii. "At tlu' sound of the nioniiiiLC IhU, the IndiauH ljo to the church, where the priest recites prayers and doc- trina in Spanish. After hearing mass, they goto hr(;ak- fast. The same religious exercises ai'e repeated every al'ternoou. Although at almost each mission the na- tive dialect is ditl'erent, hy the padres' exertions most (»f the Indians speak Spanish, and some confess in this language. At the same time the j»riests have learned the liulian tongues. The chiUlren learn Spanisli easily. The efforts of the padres for the s])ii"itu;d amelioration of the natives are ceaseless. As the jtadres also look after the temjxti'al welfare of the natives, they instruct them in what jiertains to social and political life, and in all o[)erations connected with the cultivation of the land, the padres actually |)er- i'orming all these opei'ations that thiy may learn. Thus they have cli'ai'ed the best land near the mission>, and have hrou-'ht water to irri<«ate it. Each vear there is planted as much as is possible. Tlu' new ('hristians learn also to lie caipeiiteiN, masons, smiths. (piaiTymen, and the like, under the direction of tin ])adres. The Indians ])roduce everything that is pm- duced, and consume it. The ])agans that visit the nussions are given what then; is to give, the ])a(liv knowiiiix that thus thev are moreieadilv attra(,-ted te ii Christian mode of life. The padres also are j)hysi- cians and surgeons, making use of remedies sent from the college, and of hei'hs the virtues of which expe rience has shown thenj, " One affliction tlu' jKidres suffer — they cannot. a< they desire, clothe their neophytes. Of liis stipend of .$400, each padre spends the half in his own dress, chocolate, wine and wax for the church; and other things of less import — -such as medicines, triidvets lor the Indians, etc. It costs nearly $100 to conduct these things from Mexico to San Bias. The otlnr $100 is spent on blankets and coarse stuffs for clotli- SAINTS AM) SAVACKS. r,r>5 iiiLf — tliJit is, tlic balance Irt't ui'tvv tlir lu^rcssary jmr cliiistTs of tliiii'^s tor till' cliurcli and iiiipltim'iits ot" liushaiidrv. So there is not ciioul:;!! to liaif riot lie till- liul laMs. Alt: lou'jli iiearlv evei'v vcai- tlu-re is a ^ii|tcrai)mulaiu-e ot" grain and cattle, no advanta'^e can !)(' taken ot" it, lor there are no imvi'rs. Jt'th le i)a(lres Sell anything', it is (»nly losin^j it and nctt ri'ceiviny- its valut', the jtiirehase!' asserting" whin payment is asked that he Las no niont'V. Throii'^li the instruction of the padres, the Indians S( M ) n become skilled in tlu; jneehanic art.- Tl lev are (|uick at learning, and are docile, Though they woi'k AVi II when tho })adr(> is pri'sent, they will not other- wise apply tliemscKcs, which, considering the new- ness ot' <'ivilized lite to tlii-m, is not to he wondered at. Without tlu' continual care o[' the padres, they would rela[)se into harhaiism. 'I'his is the reason why the lands ha\ e not heen assigiuMl hy families, and why all cultivate them in common, and live ami cat tiigether. .\t present tlu^y are not capahle of living in any other way; many years must ela[tsi; hefore they will he. They are like children, and have yet to learn liow to live a political and civil life in ( 'hristiaii society. "At these missions, there arc no cofrailias, nor lier- n 1:1 IK lad es, nor an y )ran( ■h of commerce. ne at eiie or all of them, so it would seem that none are ehjigeil to go on with oidy one padre. Tiie king v roval order, shall be ob- Served punctually, J*aragraph (5, number 3, of these statutes, orders that no minister shall reside alone at LAW, GOVKRNMKNT, AND REI,niON. tho new missions. As the missions an; distant oni' from anotlior, anil the assaults of Siivai^vs may tak»' jtlacr at any time, a padn; livin;^ alono is ox|>oseil to lii-atli witliout receiving the saeraments — a contiiiij^cncy wiiich should l»y all means be avoided. Thereftnc, these padres bi'seieh tlu' vieeroy not to allow them to live alone, Imt to in()vide that they shall continue to reside two at a mission." (Jovcrnor !Nrirheltorena, in ]\i^ interview witli Hishop Diei^o, said that the eler;^y of California swam in luxury and lasciviousness, iiuvin*; al)andont!d tlu^ ways of the missionaries of old. The early |tadrcs slept on tlu^ jj^rouml with an adobe for a pillow, and a hide for a blanket; while nt)W tlu^ padiis ileal, Jimeno. Quijas, ^[ereado, Santillan, an.d others had luxurious beds adorned with curtains, and provided with good niat- tnsses. Formerly they punislu'd the padre who car- lied a silver watch, but to-ilay all the priests go with gold watches and chains. They engage in all maniu r of illicit pleasures, and all without hindrance from their bishop. The scandalous conduct of the clergy impelled all who cijuld afford it to send their childrt n abroad to be educated, and keep them from the per- nicious example of unchaste priests. So said the gov- ernor to the bishop. The Senoi-a Padilla once complained indignantly to the juez de paz, for herself, and in the name of other religiously inclined females accustomed to go to the chapel to say their prayers. On this occasion, they were about to commence their novenas and via crucis, when the sacristan, Mariano Quarte, would not serve them in the via crucis, saying that he diil not know how to luay the same, but he did know the novena, always supposing they would give him fivr reales ajnece, as jiad be»>n done formerly after finishing the novena by those women whom he had accom- panied in this exercise; and that coniplainant and tlu' others were also obliged to do this. No one woukl object to this were the sacristan not paid by the peo[ilc I'AY AND I'RAY. r.iiT tt> servo in all tlnnjnrs iHM'cssarv. Thoy lu'liovc tlwit tlit'v should \r.\y iiotliiiitj;, tor the puMic |>ays tho sac- ristan a salaiv, aiul Iir iloiH not do his duty as lie .should. Mr Hood of Yciha Hutiia, wlio.sc laniily had ln-eu insulted l)V a drunki'ii i>rii'st, Uv'uwx asked whv ho liad nut kntH'kod tlu' «lrunkard thnvii. answiMi'd that undrr tin- law if a liiynian struck a jnicst ho luul to sutl'or amputation of Iiis rii;ht luind in punishnn'nt. Tl 10 rai ly fatl lors W( ri' not rmiiirkahK' for their inti'llii^once.oj' thoir faculties for rcast)ninuf. " J -.a vcrito ot (|U(> cos hons poi'cs n'octaiont pas tU' grands ci-i- tl(|U I'S, avs liO CK-ro; and the niorf thev were like tlu i|iostles t]u> more siinph- were tluy Their writin^js Were like those of men who had nevei seen davliiiht, or lu'ard the roar of ocean, or smelt a violet. They conid neither receive nor conim .'.Icate striHi_;e truths, and childish crodulitv characterized their thoULihts Mid actions. Till' ( ulifornians, says (Jomez, had hoon led to ho- litxe that the fathei's (»t Zacatt'cas wen; trno apt)stK's, livinij^ models of virtue and t;oodness. Hut what w;'s their surprise when tlu\y canu^ hitlu^r to Had them (huiikards, advt'uturors, who saHiempanv in chariio at Verha Huena Cove. The priest, who had heeii tliinkin,i>- rather freely, diselosi'd a penchant for kiss- in.; the men after the fashion of the Latin lace. lliiiiitingor, who was a stranij^or, a rou_i;h man, and a iiLiid woinan-kisser, dech'u>d the fraternal embrace. 'Ju vam," says the captain, "wo tried to keep the 6G8 LAW, GOVERNMENT, AND RELIGION. priest quiet; but as he increased liis libations, so fvrcw his foolish persistence. Alaking a desperate etibrt to accomplish his purpose, most unexpectedly he came in C(>ntact with the back of the hunter's hand, which sent him sprawling across the room. 'Stranger,' said Er- mitinger, 'when I was in the llocky Mountains I swoic that I would never allow mvself to be hunifed l)y a Blackfoot Indian or a grizzly bear; but I would sull'cr the embraces of either in jireference to those of a drunken priest.'" In robbing the church, the government required no more plausible pretext than did the church in rol)- bing the people. War was a standing excuse; and here the people must not oidy pay, but come up and be shot. They are fine tilings, civilization, religion, and well worth paying and dying for, and all so neces- sary, for so religions and civilizations are establislied. It is interesting to follow the manipulations of the fondo piadoso in California. So firmly establislied in the Peninsula were the ramparts of Satan that thi^ hosts of the Lord could not ])revail against them - without money; with money all things are possible, the devil himself, from the earliest times in these regions to tlie present day, whether in legislative or cathedral halls, being unable to withstand its influenee. A royal junta, a})pointed in 1(581 to consider the mat- ter, ottered money, but not enough; even the Jesuits were not tempted by the advances of the government. Finally, in 1()1)7, fathers Salvatierra and Ugarte olfeied to undertake the work on their own account if the government would give them their own way, which it was very glad to do, for it was a shame tti give over to Beelzebub any portion of Christ's kin-4- dom, even so God-forsaken a sjiot as the Peninsula. But even these priests, ri[)e as they were for martyr- dom, and depending chiefly on s|)iritual weapons, must have money. It is wonderful how spirits even are wooed and won by the cold, impassive metal. THE PIOUS FUND. 5G9 , SO grew ett'ort to I came ill liich sent said Er- S I SWOl'C [red V)y a uld suffer losc of a required ch iu r«'^'- cuse; aii" more than a hut in heaven such as this sum would buy, with his wealthy wife put up liiilf a million dollars in lands and cattle. Others gave, until the pious fund aggregated a million dollars, and a board was a|)})oiiited to take cluirge of it, the government meanwhile eyeing it closely. Ten thou- sand dollars would found a mission in those days, and the establishments of Upper California were not with- out participation in the pious fund. From the Jesuits the pious fund passed to the junta (le temporalidades, and when this board was extin- guished, to the ministerio do hacienda, after which it went to the minister of relaciones. It was invested at this time in buildintjs occuiiied mostlv by the oov- trunient and paying no rent, which was equivalent to conHscation by the government. The gvjvernment divided the fund into three branches for its better administration: [>ort of tlieir missionaries and for their exterior pr-ogre.ss. ile foresees the most glowing results to the C'alifor- 570 LAW, GOVERNMENT, AND RELIGION. niaus in applying to its development the yearly fund revenue of 30,000 pesos or more. Says Carrillo: 'The people of California are well convinced that to the missions is due the little pros- perity hitherto attained by their country. They be- lieve that the government is bound to protect am! develop the missions. They well know that the in- come of the pious fund ought to be expended for that purpose, and that the missionaries have not been paid for years— and that the government treasury is in- debted to that fund some $500,000 principal and inter- est." In 1836 the Mexican government obtained from the pope the establishment of a bishopric in California, and gave the administration of the pious fund to the bishop. But this functionary was soc^n bankru})t, and the fund turned over to a government director to manage. The amount, yielding six per cent, was rujw $1,G98,745. That black angel, Santa Anna, pretending to a bet- ter care of these gifts of piety and charity, in 1842 ordered the fund, now amounting to a million and a half, to be swept into the government treasury-, or tliieves' strong-box. Upper California's declared jxtr- tion, after passing the ordeal of a joint commission, being finally declared to be $900,000. CHAPTER XIX. CRIMES AND COURTS, Li's rupubliquea fiuissent ][>ar le luxe; lea monarchies par la pauvret^. — It is not among a lazy, improvident people that we ^'o to look either for the greatest criminals or the strictest administration of justice. Few desired to kill: there was but little to steal; it was easier and iiKiii! ])rofitable to be satisfied with poverty on a full l)tlly than to enjoy a lean and hungry higher spiiere. Illicit hate was thus reduced to a minimum ; while illicit love was not driven into the thorny path marked out for it b}' the saintly and sentimental of the more fiiuid moralities. Governor Alvarado affirms, with pcriiaps a slight stretch of truth, and himself the lather of children born out of wedlock, that in pro- Aiiicrican times there were wo jirostitutes. Some women, indeed, may have given themselves up to their heart's desire, but it was through the heart's impulse, and not base passion, ^[oneyhad nothing to di) with it, until the Americans came —which would seem to say that the wicked ones from the United States paid the women tlu^y prostituted, while tlie j;tio{| Mexicans did not. The truth is, in lotos-eating lands lovi>s licit or illicit are not harshly denominatetl criiin's, but rather the effect of the weather. So with cattle-stealing, pn)l)al)ly the next great wickedness, it was rather a manly occupation, some- times a war measure, unlucky on the part of the pel soil caught at it, but not specially disgraceful even tlioii'^li it might be death. (W) X 572 CRIMES AND COURTS. Slciiuler was an offence. On the r2tli of ^raivli, 18-8. tlie governor, writing to the comandaiite at ^Monterey, orclerecl liini to exact reparation from ^faiia A'as(|nez for cahmiiiiating the honor of the wife < I' Ca})tain (Jonzalez. But hack in 1785 I find in tlu' state })a[)ers (Governor Fages writing from Monteirv to Diego (Jonzalez, desiring him to warn tlie heads of faniiHes to he i>erupuk)usly mindful to correct anum^- tliemselves all excess of hickering and discord, and to hold each responsihle for any disturhance they canst. In the archives of Santa Cruz, I find written in Alay 1835 that it is notorious that vagrancy is excessive in the puehlos. And the governor ordered that alcaldes should estahlish trihunales de vagos, or vagrants" courts, to hear and determine casrs against vagrants. conforming proceedings to the law of the 3d of March, 18-28. In Xovemher 1833, Governor Figueroa issued cii- culars to the comantiantes of the four presidios, tliat from each jn-esidio there should every month he sent out a military expedition wliich should visit the places of refuge and deposit of horse-thieves. Tlie missions and neighhors nearest at hand should suj)ply tlic necessary horses. Expetlitions should he made at any time during the month, to he commanded hv an otliit r. sergeant, or corporal, who should conform to the oidcis of the comandante of tlie presidio. All horses fcund in the possession of any one without the roita, that is to sav, sale mark, or other leLjal formalitv sho\\ inLi rightful possession, should he restored to the owiicis. Cattle Ibund at the tulares, and in other waste places. should he considered as stolen, and the actual posses- sors thieves; and they should he held rcsponsihle t'er damage done hv the jj^entiles whom they incite to steal the cattle. Alcaldes, comandantes, propiittois. owners of ranchos and estates, and their mavordonies, should aid in pursuing cattle-thieves, arresting those caught in the act, or where there might he proofs ol crime, and delivering them to the proper authority. CATTLE-STEALINOt. SfW Tlio monthly expedition slioukl take ])laco at tlio tiiiu- most convenient, and any liunters encountered, it' joreigners, were to be told tluit luii^ting is proliil)- itnl: and if Mexicans or naturali/.ed, that tliey must have jiermission from the government. All commerce should he carried on in tlie civilized districts, and on no account with the wild Inchans. who possess no property whatever; any one found carrying (HI a clandestine traftic should he deemed a snuiggler, lii> goods confiscated, and placed at the disposal of the indue, who should decide whether thev are to he for- fcitcd or not. The Inchans should i)e well treated, and he made to understand that if thev .stole stock they will in fu- tuic he brought by force to the ])residios for punisli- iiicnt; that all were under the obligation to inform a'iaiiist robbers, and if thev did not, thev too would 111' |iunished. Alcaldes as well as comandantes militares. proprie- tnr> of ranchos, haciendas, anditheii* mayordomos, wrre til pursue all stock-thieves, apprehen(\ who as (luicklv as jKissihle should sentence and punish. There were laws against gand)ling and against di inking: no special increase in the vices seems to have been noticed after the passages of these r(\gula- ti'iiis. The gente de razon, or jteople of reason, wei(> the oidy class the law allowed to drink at all, the wild u'ciitiK^s not havijio' anv reason to be affected bv fire- water, it were a waste oivinu" it to them. A wauer III! a game not forbidden by law was a K'gal contract ill ls.'!:{. On all the ranchos where there were shops, lie vanchero encouraged gambling among his labf)rei's. The games were of cards, and the plavei-s would lift hides, u\oney, and any article of (dothing. to their shirts. The nionev and hides sjeneralK' f\dl to the raiudiero, in exchange for aguardiente and other UKicJumdiso. Later, store-keepers allowing gambling CRIMES AND COURTS. were fined $6 for the first offence, $12 for the socoiid. antl for the third offence according to the decision of the judge. Bankers of games and monteros paid the same penalties, and those assisting $1 each. Echeandia, writing to tlie minister of justice in Mexico, in June 1829, says: "Formerly San Francisco, Monterey, San Diego, and Santa Biirbara were the four heads of departments, and the respective conian- dantes had cognizance of government and the admin- istration of justice according to the formulario do Colon, and in the graver cases sent the expedient's, or information, to the governor for his decision, or that of a court-martial, or for him to send to the viceroy. Since the independence, things have changed. The government, in order to have a rental, has opened commerce to foreigners, and there are many in tlie country. Civil population has increased, and the num- ber of military officers decreased. The alcalde of An- geles within liis limits, and on the neighboring farnis to a distance of nine or more loaijues, and the alcahK- of San Josd in liis jurisdiction, deteiinine civil causes nut exceeding $100 in value, and criminal matters wliere only reparation is to be made, or a light punishment inflicted." In matters of greater importance, they take the first depositions, which they remit to Echean- dia, who, according to the military system, determines the matter, or consults the nearest asesor, or hi^al adviser, who is at Sonora, or calls a court-martial, or sends the matter to the minister of justice, or war, or of the navv, as the case mav be. In his small juris- diction, the alcalde of Branciforte determines matters verbally, and in graver affairs sends the expediente to the comandante of Monterey, who proceeds in a military manner. The alcaldes of Monterey and Santa Biirbara, as well as the respective comandantes, take cognizance of civil matters not in excess of 3 1 00, and act — criminally — as the alcalde of Angeles, ex- cept that they refer proceedings to the comandantes. At the presidios of San Francisco and San Diego. THE ALCALDE'S AUTHORITY. tliG comandantes proceed in a military manner in minor matters, and in graver cases as the others. Tliere are therefore six districts for the administra- tion of justice. This itself is in a lamentable condition for want of a letrado, or ler^al adviser, which makes it impossible to proceed properly in military or other dt'i>ositions. Savage says that in 1826 there were no competent courts of law to try civil or criminal cases. The alcaldes of the towns were authorized to act as jueces coiiiisionados, or fiscales, in criminal cases, to make investigations, and suggest release or punishment of the accused ; but being ignorant of law, they could not even do this properly, and they often acknowledged tliiir ignorance in the dictamen fiscal. And as late as 1847 Bryant found no written statute law, the only law books being a digested code entitled Laws of ^^paiu and the Indies, published in Spain, a century before, and a small pamphlet defining the powers of various judicial officers, emanating from the Mexican noverinnent since the revolution. A late governor of California told a niafjistrate U administer the law "in accordance with the principles of natural right and justice;" and this was the foundation of Califor- nia jurisprudence — the true foundation, indeeil, of all justice. The local bandos or laws were enacted, adjudicated, and executed by the alcaldes. The altalde had jurisdiction in all nmnicipal matters, and ill cases for minor offences, and for debt in sums not over one hundred dollars. In cases of capital offences, the alcalde had simply power to examine, testimony being taken down in writing and transmitted to the jui'Z de primera instancia, or first judge of district before whom the case was tried. The trial by hom- bies buenos, to which any one that might demand it was entitled, differed from our trial by iurv onlv in tlk' number of the jurors, they having three or five, as ordered by the magistrate. With honest magistrates, the system of law in California operated well; but R7rt CRIMKS AXn COURTS. V'>. with corrupt mid isjriioraiit inaiijiHtniti^H, too frequently ill power, the <'ons('(|iU'ii<'('S were had. I find uinonuf tlie arcliives of the adiniiii.stration of justice, of IH-J4, th(^ foIh)\viiilic -and as no distrilnition of jiiirtidos has heen made, nor jueces de h^tras ajtpointcd for tlieni, as the alcaldes have no escrihanos, or otln r suhalicins, wlio miolit advise them, as it would not lie easv for tlieni in a short time to solve doubts arisin<>- - I have ileenied this cartilla necessaiT, in oi'dt-r that it he of' service to them, it heiuij; understood that my lahoi' has h(>en unollicial, and that as asesor of Cali- fornia I am not ohliu;ed to do it —whence it follows that it has the same autliority as would tlie |»roduc- tion of any individual lawyer who ilesirt's unifoiuiity of j)roceediii<4", and who has Jiekl strictly to the practico df and tornui he o- i>ni>ra,liv m use I. llavinoheen informed that an offence has heen connnit.ti'd, the jue/ shall di'aw up a docunproce.so, which must set forth theinformat'dii, andorderan in(juiry into the alleged offence. This must he siart of the aumaria, in order that twt> experts may verity its liaving caused the wounds; if the ak'alde be alone, he shoukl inako an examination of the locality where the crime was coiumitted f'OURT OP FIRST INSTANCE I'ROCEDURE. 577 n. After tukiiij^ declarations concerning the crime, 111- hIuiII talce that of tlie criminal liimHch, and there- art(;r take such proceedings as tlie case dem nd. [. Sliould the crime he proven even by circumstan- ces, the alcalde shall draw up the document called de l>i( H preso (that culprit is well held), endeavoring to do tills within the GO hours stipulated by article I'Jl of the irciural constitution. This he shall make known to the accused, and shall send a copy to him who acts as alcaide (jiiilcr), that he may comprehend his responsibility, if It be manifest that the accused be not delinquent, or that the crime is unimportant, the alcalde shall set him at liberty, or order the proceedings to be quaslied. 0. In case the prisoner should be guilty, and tliere lie no further documents to be made out, he shall be no- tified to name a defensor — or having none, or refusing to do so, the juez shall do so. In tlie presence of this (lel'eiisor, the culprit's confession shall be taken as to all of which he is in the sumaria accused, and he siiall be confronted with any or all of the witnesses, if this be considered convenient. G. At this stage, the sumaria is to be sent to the otl'ended party — if there be one — as is his right, and to till! defensor, that he may answer the charges made. The alcalde shall wait for this such time as appears well to him — even for the 80 days prescribed by law; the witn(;sses, except those who have been confronted with the accused and qualifying as acceptable, those of deceased witnesses or those who live at a distance, 7. The proofs or allegations of the offended party and of the defensor — or of tins latter alone when the proceeding has been do ofieio — having been rec(>ived, the same shall be made public, and after the prosecu- tion and the defence have pleaded de bien probado, the case shall bo sent to the asesor in order that he may pass upon the matter definitively, and i)ronounce sentence. S. The decision of the asesor being received, and being in conformity with the alcalde'^ opinion, sentence Cal. Past. 37 S78 CRIMEA AND COURTS. must bo passed within t'is not prescribe cori)oral punishment, sentence shall be executed by the alcalde; but if it be i(rave, the cause and the customary official connnunication si mil bo sent to tho supreme court after the time forapjxal lias jvissed, althou;^h neither party, being cited, ile- mands such nroceedin*;. 11. Jf tiie delinciuent bo an ecclesiastic, at what- ever sta<^e of the proceedings this fact appear, the matter nmst be transferred to his proper judge, ex- cept the crime be atrocious, in which case the civil and ecclesiastical judges shall sit jointly. 1 'J. If the criminal be a military man, ho nuiy i)o a|)prehen(led at once, the first steps in the sumaria he taken, and an account of the same, together with the testim»)nv, be ijiven to tho officer under whose cnm- inand the criminal is, and this latter placed at the dis- position of said officer — except that tho offences liavo been committed while the perpetrator was a deserter, in which case, or should delinquent be of that class which has K)st the fuero militar, tho alcaklo shall coii- tinuo to manaiio the case until difinito sonteiicf ho pronounced — this in accordance with decrees of Octo- ber 14, 1823, February 13 and April 12, 1824. 13. Should the criminal take sanctuar}', his delivery shall bo demanded of the ecclesiastical judge - this having been preceded by the caucion juratoria (Itoiul that ho be returned on demand) that no capital jmii- ishmcnt bo infiicted — and the case properly pre[iarotl shall 1)0 sent to the asesor. 14. Should tho asesor declare that the ofience is COURT OF FIRST INSTANCE PROCEDURK. Iffb not an cxccptetl ouo, or tluit tho proof is iiisuftlriont to take awjiy tlie immunity of tl»o culprit, lie shall l>t) coinK'mni'U por providencia (tt'm|H)rary rtsolution of jiu'z) as tlio ast'sor may rule — iK-lorc its I'xrcutioii the matter hv'i\\; decla- ration of the surgeon or surgeons; declaration of tho experts; declaration of the culprit; tho document i ERRATIC JrSTICE. called do bien preso; acccptauce of position by the di'fenaor, and his oath; contosion con cargos, of tlic criniiiuil ; confronting of witnesses and criminal ; docu- niont culled dc pnieba; ratification of his testimony hy witness; formality in case of dead or absent witness: definite sentence; form of edict for summoning absent culprits. Whenever a person was arrested for an}' offence of a serious character, he was imprisoned and fettered, and so held until his trial was concluded. SirShnpson thought the judicial system "rotten to the core." "In cases of real or fictitious importance," he says, "the alcalde reports to the prefect of his dis- trict, the prefect to the governor of the province, and the govenior to the central authorities of Mexico.'' Meanwhile, the accused endures in a dungeon a men- tal torture in most cases more than adequate to his alleged guilt. The ordinary result after the delay "is a receipt either for dismissing or for punishhig without trial — perhaps for punishing the innocent and for dis- missing the guilty. . . Frequently, however, the sult- ordinate functionaries, under the infiuence of jiersonal feelings, such as caprice, or vhidictiveness, or indigna- tion, or love of popularity, pronounce and execute jutlgment on their own responsibility. Thus, a j)refi ct of the name of Castro, being informed that a man liatl nmrdered his wife in a fit of jealousy, caused the of- fender to be instantly destroyed under this sentence: * Let him be taken out and shot before my blood cools.' A commandant named Garvaleta similarly disposed of a suspected murder, on the principle that he had before baen accused of a similar crime. Occasionally, the ^ ^vernment is unable to carry into effect its ideas of itice. In 1837, when the foreigners of Los Angiles ried before Alvarado some wretches who confessed c tc the murder of a German, they were told: 'I liave nc sufficient force to carry the law into execution ag Inst them, but if you have evidence of their crime. do as you consider right.' " SiRANCiEST OF STIlANlJE PLACES. A81 Tlio alcaUle c^PTUTally walked with a silver headed taiK', with it suiniiioiied partioa into court. Or a man hrariug the cane summoned a person; if ho disobeyed lie was sure to be fined. When the ])arties appeared ill court, each, if he wished, could sel ct a iiombre liuciio, arbitrator, or juryman. Then the alcalde made tlio parties tell their story and heard the witnesses, 11' any; after which the alcalde and arbitrators would (li'citle. Sometimes the alcalde decided the cases him- st'lf r4,t once." (Governor Chico, writing to the alcalde of Angeles on the 4th of May, 183(), orders him to arrest crimi- nals, for alcaldes priraeros are as jefes politicos in their jurisdiction. Thieves and murderers are to be given up to the comandr...Ge militar, according to the law of Uctol^er 29, 1835, which orders them to be tried by a military court; or he may try them himself, as sub- (Ick «;atc, which the law declares him to be. " As an instance of the way civil cases are disposed of in this strangest of strange places," writes the Huilsou's Bay Company's Dtmglas, in his journal, in 1S4(), "I may cite the example of a Mr. Stokes, who !>ununoned a farmer before the alcalde, to compel the payment of a debt which had been two years out- stamling, contrary to the previous stipulation between tliu }»arties. The justice, instead of meeting the case, rt'trrred it to arbitration. The case was going against tlitj farmer, who entreated for a further indulgence, as, if ODiiipelled to pay at that moment, he would be com- pelled to sell his cattle at a heavy sacrifice. 'Well,' says the justice, 'how long do you ask?' 'Why,' sa}'^ the farmer, * I promise to make the first instalment in twelve months hence.' 'Very well,' replied the jus- tice, with the utmost indifference, that will do;' and the case was dismissed without further proceedings." In 1834, Governor Figueroa published the text of the law passed by the Mexican congress, and approved by President Santa Anna, regulating the judiciary system of the republic. The parts particularly refer- 582 CRIMES AND COURTS. ring to California were that the state of Sonora and territory of Alta Cahfornia should form one circuit. Until a convenient division of the republic into tlis- tricts should be made, each of the twenty states should be considered one district. District jud«ris should have cognizance of causes and affairs aftectiiii,' the federation. There should be one district judge in the territory of the Californias. The seat of the dis- trict courts should be in the capitals of the states ami territories not on sea-coast, or in the principal port of those which are; the government might change tlie place when deemed expedient for the benefit of the federation. The district court should have a notary appointed by the government with a salary not exceeding $1,200, and no fees. In the absence of a notary, the judge should appoint one — if there wero none, the judge should collect the pay to reniunerato attorneys, witnesses, and a clerk. The district court should have a sheritf appointed by the judge, witli a salary of $200 or $300, and no fees. Flscals sliouki have a salary of $1,500, and no fees. The district judge of the Californias should have a salary of $3,000. His promotor fiscal's salary should be $2,000. As in the case of wages of common and skilkd labor, so with regard to salaries, they were about where they arc to-day in many parts of the United States. Hall states that "according to the leyes constitu- tional of December 30, 1836, each department was to bo provided with a superior tribunal. On the 23(1 of May, 1837, the Mexican congress }iassed a law mak- ing provisions for such a tribunal for California, out of which two courts were to be formed. This triliu- nal was to be ct)mposed of four ministros, or judyis. and one fiscal, or attorney-general. The three senior judges were to compose the first sala, or bench, and the junior one the second. The second bench was known as the court of the second instance, wliirli took cognizance of appeals from the court of first in- stance, and also original jurisdiction in certain cases. THE ALCALDES FUNCTIONS. 583 Tlie first bench was the court of third instance, with appellate powers. These courts were to sit at the capital of the department. There was to be a court of first instance at the chief town in each district, with original jTjeneral jurisdiction of all sums over one hundred dollars. No superior tribunal was ever es- tablished under this law in California; nor were there any judges of the court of first instance; certainly none in San Josd until 1841), when they were appointed by United States authority." The governor of the department, in his message to the assembly in 1840, expresses his regret that no superior tribunal existed, and that there were no judges e on which the two inferior courts had concurred. In a letter from Monterey, in May 1845, Larkiii writes of the condition of the laws as follows : " In California there is a large allowance of laws sent on by the supreme government, and as the paper is not very good to make paper segars, the law-books are laid on the shelf To make a thousand-dollar obliga- tion good, it is necessary to purchase from government an $8 stamped paper; and I have never seen an al- calde enforce the payment of the debt, although 88 was paid to make it legal. Sometimes the debtor pleads too much rain for his crops, at other times the Season is too dry, or he's too busy to attend to the debt; as the alcalde has neither sheriff nor constable, foes nor commission, and is forced to serve for one vear, nolens volens, collectin(>; debts is at the lowest stage. If a person with stolen property was brounjlit forward, and said he purchased the article from an Indian who had left for some other place, the trial might be put off until the Indian returned, or the sup- posed sheriff had time to look for him. Some people dislike prosecuting a man for stealing his horse, for fear he should be told that the man was only bringing UNCOMFORTABLE JAILS. S8S him home by a roundabout road, and demand a dol- lar for his trouble. If a person is really convicted of a crime, he is ordered to some other town, and is sure to go when he gets ready, and return when he has occasion. As some of the jails are uncomfortable, the prisoners are often kept outside; as the food is bad, they go home to get better, and always return to the prison door when ordered. There was one day a com- j)laint made to the alcalde by the person who lost tlie })roperty stolen, that the thief was every day out of prison and every day passed his house. The alcalde said he was very sorry, and in extenuation remarked that he had told the prisoner to take his forenoon and afternoon pasear on the other side of the town. On another complaint of the prisoner, after his trial, reaching the store where he had been stealing, before the merchant, the alcalde said : To-day is Saturday, to-mor- row is the sabbath, Monday is a feast-day, but on Tues- day or Wednesday the man sliall be informed that he is a prisoner, and dealt with accordingly. Sometimes the alcalde puts a few of the Indian prisoners to work on his own farm. When they become tired of the fare, they run away on his worship's horses, if they are fat; as the Indians eat these horses, they never steal poor ones. "The alcaldes pick up the drunken Indian cooks and stewards in the afternoons of feast-days, and discharge tliiin next morning in time to cook their masters' breakfasts. Some of the Monterey prisoners are lianished to San Diego; those of San Diego to Mon- terey — that's fair. If they commit a second offence, tli( V may be banished back again, and find their own horses on the road, which are easily borrowed with a lasso. So that the owners of a Monterey horse, which lias been stolen near home and then again at Sau Diego, may see the animal again, in bad condition it is true, but then he gets his horse, by giving the iiian who says he found him at San Diego a dollar or two; and that's cheap for bringing a broken-down horse 500 miles. " i 1 ii m 686 CRIMES AND COURTS. During Echeandfa's time, 1825-31, robberies were frequent. His successor, Victoria, made a vow that during his rule property should be safe left unguarded on the public highway. He published an edict that larceny to the value of two and a half dollars and upwards would be punished with death. It was not h >ng before he had occasion to put his sincerity to the test. Two servants of the San Cdrlos mission ob- tained the kej^s of the warehouse from an Indian boy who acted as a page of the priests, and robbed it. The men were convicted, and sentenced to deatli. The missionary came to Monterey, threw himself at Victoria's feet, and implored him to spare their lives; but he was inflexible, and the two men were shot. The boy was flogged almost to death. A little later, an Indian boy, of less than 20 years of age, stf)lc some buttons from the military stores, wliicli he gambled away. They were picked up, and valued at $2.50. The boy was tried, convicted, and shot. In that same year, 1831, one evening, at about six o'clock, an Indian entered the house of Venancio (ia- llndo and his wife, Romana Sanchez, and seized tluir two children, a boy and a girl. The former managed to escape. The Indian ravished the girl, and after- ward killed her. The little boy said that the coyote had seized his sister. On the strength of this, tlic soldier, Francisco Rubio, nicknamed Coyote, was ar- rested, i ried by court-martial, and sentenced to death. The evidence, it was alleged by many, did not justify such a finding; nevertheless, Victoria approved the sentence. The officers, M. G. Vallejo and Jose An- tonio Sanchez, and several others, including the priest who prepared him for the awful change, believiii*,' Rubio innocent, exerted themselves to save him, l)ut nothing availed, and he was shot. His innocence is said to have, been made evident some time after. Tlie Indian perpetrator of the crimes was captured, aiul being in a miserable condition from venereal disease, died in the prison before his trial was ended. MEXICAN MISCREANTS. m A fellow named Mariano Duarte, whose mother or grandmother was an Indian of the mission San An- tonio, was placed in charge of the public school of the town of San Jose. Some of the school-girls accused him of having assaulted them. He was taken to San Francisco, tried, and sentenced to hard labor in tlie public works. He was accordingly kept fettered, and put to breaking stones, sweeping the plaza, etc. At the expiration of his sentence he was released, and died shortly after. Another man, named Cornelio Rosalcs, for violat- ing his step-daughter, was kept a close prisoner in hons at the guard-house in San Francisco, working as a tailor, but he died after a little more than a year's imprisonment. An ex-soldier, named Diego Felix, who lived at the Huerta Vieja, about half a mile from Monterey, in IS 40, murdered his wife, inflictinulous how he obtained his hides, and for this reason, and l)ecause he nuist have them ((uickly. and at no advanced price, that the contractor ap[)lied to that particular man. "I cannot bring them in to-day," remonstrated the va(|uero. "I said to day," the ranchero replied. "But I have not the hides, and the nearest herd, exce])t your own, is four or five k'agues away." "Before 12 o'clock to-niiiht, bring me the hides I need. Now go." The job was done. The vaquero was praised and paid. But next day when the ranchero's Indian went for his master's cows, he found many of them missing. A chilling suspicion crept upon the owner of the raiieho. He mounted a hoi-se, rodi; forth, and after due s(>arch found the carcasses of his cows in the cha[)arral, in the upper end of a canon. }lv rode slowly back, his wrath rising meanwhile. "You villain, you slew my cows!" exclaimed the now furious owner t)f the rancho. "Certainly, sir, it was my only chance to fill your peremptory order." 502 CRIMES AND COURTS. The tricked ranchero was too shrewd not to know that lie had himself laid the trap in which he was causj;ht. He had to be content with cursiiiL^ aiul kicking the wily vaquero, the latter being only t<»(» hai)py to escape with such a mild punishment. (lovernor Alvarado, who was in Angeles in 18.'?7, fell in with a girl, and took a house for her use. Cas- tro, on observing him enter, ordered artillery salvos during his visit. Those who inquired why tln-o salvos were fired, were answered: "In honor of tlu; act of the governor." When this girl bore her Hist child, there was a ost- mortem examination. There is a maririnal iiott' to the entry, written by Padre Marquinez at some later Jme, stating that the circumstances attending the death were aijjain investiijated, when it was discovered that he was murdered by Christian Indians ot tins and Santa Clara missions. Inveigled into the gaidm to administer the sacrament to a dying man, he was thereupon smothered. Writing to Padre Marquinez on the 15th of Octo- ber, Don Josd Maria Estudillo says; "It is absolutely THE AFFAIR OF PADRE QUINTANA. 593 essential that Surgeon Manuel Quijanci make a |)Ost- iiitnteni examination of the body of J*atlre Quintana, who, according to coinnion report, died on the morn- ing of tlie 12th — the circumstances of his death Ite- iiig very suspicious. Estudillo has been ordered by Governor Arrillaga to make this inquiry, and be- seeches and enjoins the padre to permit the exhuma- tion of the body, which after examination sliall l)e reiiiterred." On the same date Padre jSIarquincz gives the desired permission. Oil the 23d, Lieutenant Estudillo rei)orts to (iov- triiur Arrillaga "that the j)ost-mortem examination of the body, and the investigations in relation to the death of Padre Quintana, were commenced on the Utli and terminated on the 22d. No evidence of violence was found. The padre was a valetudinarian, and unable even to dress himself" Time passes. In volume xliv. of the Provincial State Papers, we find recorded, under date of March 10, IBIG, that Governor Sola orders the murderers of Father Quintana, the Indians Lino, Antonino, Qufrico, Julian, and Fulgencio, of Santa Cruz, to receive each 200 lashes, azotes, except the one last named. The two Hrst are also to suffer ten years of presidio im- prisonment, the two next six, the last seven. On the 2ytli it was determined that they should suffer their sentence at Santa Bdrbara. Ivelerring again to the State Papers, we find that oil tlie 21st of March, 1820, at San Francisco, Ignacio Martinez, juez fiscal, certifies, "that by order of Co- inandante Arguello he took the declaration of the neo- phyte Alberto, of the mission of Santa Cruz, accused of Ijcing concerned, with seven other neophytes, in the murder of Father Quintana in 1 8 1 2. Alberto, being sworn, said that Qufrico invited him to join in the nmr- dir. (Jne night about dark Quirico called him into the garden, lie supposed to steal fruit, but was told by Quirie( ) that they were going to kill the padre. Alberto asked why. They went to the gardener's house and Cal. Pait^T. 3S CRIMES AND COURTS. found the others outsldo in a groiij). Andres tlun hpciko to Alberto, and told him they were going to kill the |)jidre. Alherto said ho would have nothinj,' to do with it; he left th(>ni at once, and went to his hoiiso ami to hed. On the foljowiii}; dav he heard tliat tliu padre was dead, and supposed that they killed liini. Alherto confessed that ho had done wronj^" in not jjjiviiiij^ notice to the guard or the luayordonio. He did wrong in running away to the woods, he said, l)ut did so Ijccause Jiis son told him that the others were Iniiig taken. He knew nothing of the matter until Quirico spoke to him as related. After a long interval, wo find again a relation given by Jjorenzo Asisara, ex-cantor of the mission of Santa Cruz, given at Watsonville, July 10, 1877. "The story I am about to tell," says the narrator. "was told to mc in 1818 by my fiithcr, who was a neophyte of Santa Cruz, one of its founders, and (Uic of the first who were baptized. His name was W- nancio Azar, and he was the gardener of the missidii. He witnessed all that hap[)ened at the time of tlu; death of Father Quintana. "The Indians came to<;ethcr at the house of Julian, also a gardener, and agreed to kill tlie padre. Doiiato. who worked inside the mission, had by the }) onlcr been chastised with a dlsciplina, the thongs o\ which had wire points, each blow cutting into tlir fiesli. Donato determined to revenge himself, and lie it was who called together the party of fourteen iikii, among them the padre's cook, Antonino, and his sir- van ts, Vicente and Miguel Antonio. "The fo'uteon Indians met at the house of Jul'ui, to consider in what way they might avoid the cruil punish mevii they suffered at the hand of Padre Quin- tana. Lino, the brightest of all, said that in his ser- mons the padre taught that God did not do that way. He asked what should be dime with him, since he could neither be driven away nor accused before^ the judge. Andres, father of Lino, said: 'Let us kill the fin(h-o, •Julian itf ' feign i Jiiiii, a wlieret vnvvv ii " J' a tdgethc Jiew ciKi ef wire, 'light \V( living. two tree must pa \vli(» app( and retu; ■'Jgi' tiiilec '''Ilowed -WitJ, tin' pudi lit'f t(» til ing jior I ''lit tbuiK 'liin. II ft the J ic 1( allowed ]) tin; coiispi; Julian all( ^vith wl'ic tJ'i' <"iuse ( ^'"^'J' did n<. """lice tlie] tlit-'i'e sJiou ["•'^■■>^t. Sh '"'f'"inpaniei terns precec ASISARA'S STORY. r.o:> jiiulio, unknown to any oxcopt those lioro pivscnt.' .lulian, the on all asscntetl to the ph.tu, anil jijj^recd to (•;uiv it into execution tlu' next Saturday ni<;ht. " Father Quintana had proposed t() hrinj; tht' people together in the }>laza on Sunday, in onler to tiy the ]\iW viiartahc had made, the })oints of the la.shcs hriui;' of wire. Accordingly, ahout (5 o'clock on Satunlay iiio'lit word was sent to the padre that the gardener >vns (l\ iiiLj. The Indians wvn) already in ainhusii hrhiiid two trees at tlie sides of the path hy which the padic iiuist pass. The padre went to the house of Julian, wlio apj)eared to he dyinuf, administered the .sacrament, jiiid returned to tlie mission unharmed, for their cour- age failed those in and)ush. The sup))osed dyini^ man l'n|li)\ved close upon the heels of the [)i'iest. ■■ Within an hour the wile of .Julian went to sunmiou tlie ])adre to her dying' hushand. lie accomjjanied liei- to the house in the fjarden, she crying and wriiit;- iiiu; her hands. The ])adre examined the man's pulse, l)Ut found he had ap))arently nothing' the matter with liim. However, he anointed him. When the jiadre lift the house, Julian rose, and washing off the sacred nil, followed the ])riest, but those in amhush again allowed him to pass. Wliile tlu? ])adre sat at sui)per, tilt! conspirators came togetlnT again at Julian's house, Julian alleged that the padre had poisoned the oil with which he had anointed him, 'echado yerha en Insoleos,' and that their faint-heartedness woukl pi'ovo tlio cause of his death. The wonian averred that if they did not carry out their agreement, she would de- nounce them. Thereupon, they all saiu that this time there should be no failure, and bade her fetch the priest. She found the padre at su{)j)er, and he at once n'vonipanied her. This time three servants with lan- terns preceded, and Lino came behind the priest. He 606 CRIMES AND COURTS. found Julian apparently very fur gone, and speechless. He recited the prayers for the dying, but did not aj>- ply the sacrament, and said to the woman: *Thy hus- band is now prepared to live or die; do not summon mo again.' The priest left the house, Julian foUow- minf I'.im. "As the padre reached the two trees where tlie cons[)irators were in hiding, Lino threw his anus around him, and said, 'Stop, padre! thou must con- verse a while.' The lantern-bearers turned around, and seeing the people sallying from behind the trees, turned and tied. The padre said to Lino, ' What art thou about to do to me, my son?' Lino replied, 'Those who wish to kill thee will answer.' 'What have I done to you, my children, that you should murder me?' Andres said, 'Why hast thou had a cuarta of iron made?' The priest said, 'My sons, un- hand me, for I nmst go this moment.' Andres then asked him why he had made the cuarta, and the priest said it was for those who were bad. Then several exclaimed, ' Well, thou art in the })ower of the !)ad ones. Remember thy God I' "Many of those present wept, and commiserated tlie priest, but cr)uld do nothing for him, as they Averc compromised. The padre begged for his life for some time, promising to leave the mission. One said, 'Th(»u art going to no part of the earth, padre; thou art i^o- inu" to heaven.' This was tlie end of the coIUkiuv. O It Those who had not been able to seize the padre found fault with the others, saying that the conversation had gone far enough ; that he should be killed at onee. They then umtiled the priest's head with his gown, and after he was smothered, in order that no siuiis (tf violence should be apparent, the}' squeezed one of liis testicles until he had apparently expired. Then tluv took him into his house and })ut him to bed. One of the two lantern-bearers who had run away wanted to inform the guard, but the other dissuaded him, say- insjf that it would bo the cause of their own death. all tilt Andrt savino party WaMt€'( i\\^' st took a I know "Th. quarter witJi ti Tliose r to the ]: there t( ASISARA'S STORY. 597 "When the priest was undrossetl and put to hvd, all the evil-doers, indudinij; Julian's wife, were present. Ainircs asked Lino for the kevs of the wareliouso, saying that tluy wanted money and beads. In tlu' party were three Indians from Santa Clara, who wanted to know wliat money there was. Lino opened the strong-box and showed tlieni. These Indians took a considerable sum ; what they could want it for, I know not. All the others took some of the moncv. "They then demanded the keys of the single women's (jiuuters, monjcrio, which Lino gave them, together with the key of the single men's quarters, ayunte. Tliose of both sexes went, without making any noise, to the lower part of the garden, and passed the night there together, until 2 o'clock in the morning. Lino had a girl in the sala of the mission. " During the night Lino went into the padre's roiini, and found him coming to his senses. He called his accomplices, and they destroyed the other testicle. This was done by Donato, and had the desired ett'ect. Dduato told Lino to close the chest containing the plata colorada, as the Indians called gold, and eight of tiiein, taking it to the garden, buried it there. The (itluTS knew nothing of this. After the men and women had retired to their quarters, the assassins assembled in order to receive instructions from jjino and Donato as to their future conduct. Some wanted to run away, but were dissuaded by the rest, who held tliat the matter would never come to light, as no one knew of it save tb* mselves. As Donato proposed, in order to be sure that the padre was dead the}' w«'nt into his room, when they found him cold and stitK Lino showed tliem the iron cuarta which was to liaxc hi'cii tried the next day, and assured them that it Would not now be used. Lino then riest and leai'n what ailed him. Lini> calli'd loiully but ineffectually, and the mayordomo, Carlos Ca^tin, told him to o})en the door. Lino excused himself t'miu entering. At this juncture the cori)oral, Xa/,; .le ( Jalindo, arrived, and they t»rdered liino to open tlh door. Although he had the kiy in his j)ocket, ' iii" went out to look lor a key; brought in a large hunt';, none of whii'h would o[)en the door; pretended tli;u the key he had belonged to the kitchen, and with it o[)en(>d tlie door of the jiriest's room, which opeunl into the plaza. l£e ojtem'cl the door into the sala ainl ( ame out sobbing, saying that the [irii-st was dead, ainl that he would uo and toll the bell. Only the corimia! and the mayordomo entered the room to satisfy t Imn- selvos that the padre was dead. The otlicr nii>si( i tn All 1. >.. tlu' t till' uaiy Volll ■..10 111. ■ llir llluii li it ■linl UIl'l ami Itdial liciu- w.rc written to, and Father Marquinez, who was at Montei(!y, was summoned. Some ot'the old neopliytes, and others, who suspected nothing, wept bitterly; Lino, within the house, bellowed above them all. " The priests came from Santa Clara and other missitms to bury Father Quintana. All believed that he had died a natural death, but not until the body had been opened anil the stomach examined with ri'i^ard to poison. Finally, by chance some one noticed tliac the testicles hud been destroyed, but though con- vinced tliat their conditit)n had somethinij: to do with the cause of his death, they ke[)t silence. "Several years after Fatiier Quintana's death, Kniiliana, wife of Lino, and Maria Tata, wife of An- tonino, had a quarrel. These women were seamstresses of the mission, and were at work behind a wall. The inayordomo, (Jarlos Castro, passing by overheard tluni, he understanding the Indian tongue. Each accused the husband of the other of being concerned ill the murder of the ])riest. Castro told Father Olbcs, and he informed Father ^rarijuinez, who sent liis servants to tell Julian and his accom[»lices to run away, if not they would be taken. Father Olbes sent for the two women, separately, and pretending that lie wanted them to cut and make some clothing, shut tliein nj) in separate rooms. The mayordonio, Castro, was acting in unison with the priest. After dinner tlu' jtriest examined each of the women si'[)arately, Mid apparently without nmch questioning each ac- ducd the husband of the other. The ])riest dismissed tiieui with a present; and then onlered Corporal (laiiMdo 1'> ai'rest the assassins, but without telling 'l.t'in why. The gardeners and the cook were taki'U, Aiitonino first, lie, when asked, denounced one of his comrades, who in turn denounced another, and so on. Finally, all were taken except Lino. " Lino, supposed to be viiy valiant as he was very ]Hi\verful, was taken by stratagem, by C;irlos ^ astro, liis compadre. Castro gave Lino a knife, and told m CRIMES AND COURTS. him to cut some hair from white mares and black mares, in order to make a gay head-stall for tlio padre's beast. Lino suspected something, and tlictc were hidoed two soldiers hidden behhid the conal. Lino said: 'Compadre, why are you deceiving iik f I know you are going to take me prisoner. Take j'our knife, compadre. What 1 thought would bo is already done; I'll pay you for it. Had I so wished on the night I killed the priest, I could have made an end of mayordomo, soldiers, and all.' All the accused and their accomplices were taken to San Francisco, mv father being one. The actual assassins were sen- tenced to receive each a novenario of 50 azotes, tliat lashes a day for nine days in succession, and to :.'■ n' on the public works ar. San Diego. The others, ineluding my father, were set at liberty, for tliev served as witnesses, and were not shown to have taken part in the assassination." But liowevcr lax may have been Echcandfa, or howsoever to the other extreme may have gone Yictoi ia and Alvarado, there was always present that gross favoritism which usually attends the administration of justice at the hands of the Lathi race. The juior stood little chance against the rich. It will be no- ticed that the severe and public examples were made for the most part of Llie friendless and ignorant, Indians, soldiers, and low trash of various shades of color. Within certain bounds, and with due regard to certain conventionalisms, the rich and intluential of all times and nations may commit all the crimes of the decalogue with impunity. As a rule, it was in California as in Mexico, there was little real prineiiik', little inherent honesty and integrity in high ])laees. And however primitive may have been the eondi- tion of Pastoral California down to the third decade of the present century, from that time for a brief period matters weie worse. Tho natives were in a state of insubordination; robaeries and other crimes were ])revalent, and little or nothing was done to CLASS HATRED. 601 )i'ia ■OSS "on luiol" Uli- !uK' lUlt, .(l.'S iud lot" of ill k. Ii\(li- |)n(t' n a IllH'S to check them, there was ill-feeling between the people of the north and south, and l)()th hated those from Mexico. The worst cancer was the plundorin*; and wasting of the public funds, until the bottom of the treasury chest may be said to have dropped oif. Eusebio Galindo, a pure white man born in California, in 1802, and descended from the first founders of the country, bewailing,in 1877,the sad conditi(m his country had been brought to by disunion and misgovornmcnt on the part of the men who ruled its destinies under the Mexican flag, said, " This California during the time she was ruled ')y the Spaniards was a perfect paradise, where all lived in peace, and had tlu> where- witlial r>r his or her support. Ho concluded with tlie folio Vug quotation: " Liiido })a(8, California, Prinuipio fue de mi vida, Herinoso paraiso ameno, Jardia de gloria eacoiulida." The animosity of the Hispano-Californians toward their Mexican fellow-citizens reached a climax in 1844 when the former resorted to lampoons couched in scurrilous language, and with obscene pictures, anony- mously insulting the officers of the Mexican battalion, stationed at Monterey, especially those who ha for the scrape, and costs of court $1.75, or labor on the public works. On another occasion, Thomas Joni.s complained that Pedro Mesa had stolen his horse — the defendant was fined $5, "and $9 for saddling the horse ; and costs of court, taxed at $4.75; $2 for the guard. ' Pico, in 1845, ordered it published by bando that it was connnon to see delinquents set at liberty, which was a scandalous outrage on private interests, and the right of the public to have crime punished — vindicta WORKSHOPS RECOMMENDED. fion ))ul»li('a — and was probably owing t(» the want of energy oil the part of the local authorities. The government jtn»|>(»seiesident of the tribunal of justice, a com- mission a[)[)ointed to visit the prisons of California n'[iorted in 1842 : That the Monterey [nison contained five persons, two dc razon and three neophytes. Tlu; cuiiiniission j)ut the usual questions to the two, and tiiey answered that from the time of their imprisomnent they had been given no food; the authorities did not know how they were to subsist. One of them during tlie first days begged of certain persons, until tiu; otlii'isat length jjave him some food that was brouirht from their house. Often thev asked for water, and were told there was no one to fetch it. From the situation (if the prison the sun could not enter it; and there Were other uiatters which the commission wished to mention, but there was no space for them in the report. Similar (piestions to tlie neopliytes elicited rei)lies tliat they were sentenced to (juarry stones for the jetty ; tliey were taken out to work at 8 a. m. and stoi)ped at .") 1'. m; the only food they got in the twenty-four iioui-s was a piece of raw meat at 9 a. m., and so small a.s to leave nothiijg for su})[)er. CVl.. I'AST. 3i) filO CRIMES AND COURTS. Tlie commission then inspected tlie calabozo, and were surprised at tlic picture it presented. It was without any iioor but the bare earth, and ho wet tliat a stick wouhl slide some distance into it. The walls were black, and so dark that an object could not be seen more than a yard ofF. There was neither liuht nor ventilation, except through two small skylights; it was very unhealthy, and the more so when many peoj)le had to sleep there in. They had to use a barrel as a privy, and the whole place was a sink-hole of iilth. The connnission severely denounced the condition ot' the prisons, and added that although criminals should be punished, they should still be afforded the accom- modations and comforts that reason and hunumity dictate. Sii-ned by Jose Antonio Estudiho, Antonio Maria Osio, and Jo ;e ^Earia Castanares. In reply, Jose Fernandez, judge of first instance, concerning the state of the i)ris(ms, ex])lains tliat the causes complahied of arise from lack of funds to meet expenses. The ])risoners can only be given meat suHi- cient fer their subsistence. They are not, however, as has been reprogonted, dying of hunger, or so wasteil away as co be unable to work. The prison has no jailer, nor any patio for the [uusoners to sun themstlvcs in; and it has not been deemed prudent to take tliem from the prison and ])lace them in tlu; plaza under care of tlK> troops, I'rom which they could esca})e jukI no one be I'esponsible. The meat is sup[)lied to tin in raw, because there arc not a sufficient numbi'r to pay for the cooking, neither is there a military escort to take them to a place of labor. CHAPTER XX. A VERY HEALTHY COUNTRY. Lasst, Vater, geniig seyn das grauaaiuo Spiel! — Scldller. Said Charon to Mercury, to whom was due from the Sty.x Kiver ferry-man certain monc}' for boat-tackle, following Lucian : "I cannot give it you now, but if war or pestilence should send souls iiither in paying iiuuibers, you can make the amount and more by clii'ating each one a little in tlie passage-money." Considering that California never had a war, nor any [K'stilcnce to speak of, there seems to have been con- siderable sickness for such a very healthy country ; and it is quite certain tb.at Charon found business better after the introduction of civilization than before. In physical appearance, the Californians were vastly superior to the people of the other Mexican states. Tall, muscular, and well favored, their complexion was neither sallow like that of some, nor swarthy as is the case of others. And they were probably as healthy and athletic as any people in the world. I'I'.ese characteristics were theirs by iidieritance; for in the instructions of the viceroy to C'aptain Rivera, it was ordered that the head of each family desiring to (migrate to California should be a hale country laborer, without blemish, physical or numd. Recruits tor the presidios, selected with (^ven greater care, Wire to bo of not less than eighteen nor more than tliiity years of age, at least two varas in height, and of In althy color and good presence, without marks of any kind on body or face. («U1) C12 A VERY HEALTHY COUNTRY. Like Kentucky, Missouri, and all virgin lands where there are present no counteracting causers, California bred a fine race, notwithstanding the many race intermixtures. Says Bayard Taylor in 184G: "The Californians, as a race, are vastly suj)erior to the Mexicans. Thev have laru;er frames, stronger muscle, and a fresli, ruddy comple^^ion, entirely dift'erent from the sallow skins of the tierra caliente, or the swarthy features of those Bedouins of the west, the Sonorians. The families of pure Castilian blood resemble in features and build the descendants of the Valencians in Chile and Mexico, whose original |)hy^ical superior- ity over the natives of the other provinces of Spain has not been obliterated by two hundred years of transplanting," The first settlers were generally — with the excep- tion t)f the governor, the missionaries, and a few of tlie officers, who were Spaniards — from Sonora, Sinaloa, and Xueva Vizcaya, and consequently of mixed race, those of pure Spanish blood being comparatively few. The child of Spanish blood born in America is a criollo; the offspring of Si)aniard and Indian, i\ mestizo ; that of Spaniard and negro, a mulato; that of free negroes, a moreno, and of free mulatos, a pardo; that of negro and Indian, a zamhahitjo, zamho, or camhujo; that of Spaniard and mestizo, ficiiarteron; that of Span- iard and nmlato, a In}>o. Coyote is a generic term a|) })Iied, when human beings are referred to, to an Indian born in New Spain. Even the non-commissioned officers were, to a con- siderable extent, of mixed lineage, and the wives of the soldieis were in many cases Indinns. Single men on arriving in the country took to themselves wives fnini among the neophytes, in the absence of women (f their own race, and their descendants continuing ti» intermarry, most of the geiite de razon, or sentient beinys -bv which liiuh-soundiniT desiu:nation tlit'^o people of mixed lineage loved to distinguish tli'i'i selves from their kinsmen among the neoph}'tes ami SMALL WOMEN. 613 the unconverted savages, even in the third generation — consisted of individuals of every conceivable gradation of mingled Spanish and Indian blood, at the same time taking great pride and comfort in considering them- selves of pure Spanish descent. Later, the class of immigrants from Mexico was, to a great extent, compi>sed of men and women of mixed race. About 1830 there began to arrive Americans and Europeans, chiefly from Great Britain, who married women of the country; the mixture of races 1)1 coming in this way still more complicated, although the traces of Indian linea<;e jrraduallv became less, until at the time of the American conquest they were scarcely {)erceptible. The women of California were rather small; they were brunettes with fine black hair, good teeth, and generally Avell favored. They were remarkably fecund, and marrying as they did at an early age, at thirty a woman was generally the mother of five or six ehil- »hen, while families of twelve, or even twenty, were not u iconimon, and in several instances this latter number was exceeded. In 1828 the births were to tlio dcatlis as three to one. Why should it not be so ? All else was fecund, while still the missionaries sanjjf "and onlv man is vile." The mothers could usually count their children; with tli(^ fathers the task was more difficult. Some essayed to distinguish them all ; others a part. Ignaf women not native to the soil has been the subject <»t' frequent remark. In 1848 there were born in Sono ma, then a hamlet consisting of some forty families, no less than nine pairs of twins and one set of triplets. This proliticness was by every one attributed to the climate, or to the virtues of some particular spiing. Women who for somt years had borne no childixMi on coming to California regained their fecunditv, and those hitherto childless became fruitful. W^hen Mrs Benjamin Hayes, who was an invaliil, came to Los Angeles in 1850, the native women ex- pressed surprise that she had no children. "But never mind," they said in their kind-hearted efforts to comfort her, "California es muy fertil. " And so the good woman soon found it to be. But while the mixed race thus multiplied, the abo- riginal lords of the land declined. Here as elsewhere those twin gifts of civilization to the red man, disca-e and di.stilled liquor, wrought their wonted ills; more- over, the Indian women, naturally not very fecund, sought to prevent childbirth by the use of the tlioi n- appTe, this custom, perhaps, bein^' also of comparatively recent introduction. LONG LIVED PEOPLR 615 The Californians were moreover a long-lived people; woll-authentioutid cases of great longevity were not at all infrequent among the Indians as well as among those of mixed race. Many individuals reached tlie age of eight} or ninety, while the years of not a few have excei'dod one hundred. Indeed, Father Martinez of San Miguel wrote that there were at that mission several Indian women of more tlian one hun- dred years of age. At Angeles Antonio Valdes died in 18j1) at the aire of ninetv-two, and in 1858 Guada- liipe Romero aged one hundred and fifteen. Marfa Iiiiuioia, an Indian woman, reached the asje of ninetv- six; Fernando and Placido, Indians, were at tlie time of their deatli, respectively, one hundred and two and one hundred and thirty-seven years old. A short time before his decease, the latter had danced at a fandango. Crisostoino Galindo was livin«»; in 1875 at the aije of one hundred and three. ^laria !Marcelina Dominguez, on whose land the famous grape-vine of Santa Biir- liuia grew, died in 1805 aged one hundred and seven. Ursula Madariaga, who was twelve years old when in 1 7 (>7 the Jesuits were expelled from Mexico, died at Monterey in 185G. Justiniano Roxas, an Indian who died at Santa Cruz in 1875, was ba[)tized at that mission in 179"J; and in the entry of his baptism, it is noted by the ofHciating jiriest that he was then at least forty years of age. Eulal a Perez, who died in 1878, at the time of dictating her recollections in December ls77, laid claim to one hundred and thirtv-nine vears, but did not present any proofs. I saw her in 1874, and she certaiidy did not appear so aged. From my own observation, as well as from a careful consideration of the evidence, I ain inclined to think that she was born not before 17G0. On the other hand, diseases of many kinds pre- vented a correspontling increase of population among the gente dt> razon, and ran riot among the neophytes. Of all these diseases, syphilis, in its many varied mani- testations, was the most wiiK'lv disseminated amonir GIG A VERY HEALTHY COUNTRY. all (lasses and b^th races. It is inipossiblV> to deter- mine whether or not in 17()i) the evil already existed here; for it might well have been brought hither by the sailors of Cabrillo and Vizcaino; its existence, at sonic of the missions at h^ast, dates fr«»m the arrival of Anza's expedition in 177(5. The disease sjmad with frightful rapidity, and as early as 1805, sypliilis. together with its legitimate offspring, scrofula and consumption, yearly caused the death of hundreds at the several missions, while the subsequent annual re- ports of the friars almost invariably give these diseases as the chief causes of death. "It is almost universal, both among Spaniards and Indians," says Langsdm If, "and occasions so much the greater devastation amoiitr them as they themselves resolutely reject all medical assistance for it." Karelv did a neophvte reach thf age of sixteen without showing signs of the disease, while frequently the symptoms were present at birth, in such children as mothers did not, owing to tluir own diseased condition, abort. Manv (»f the friars themselves, notably those of the college of GuadahiiH'. were contaminated, and many men of respectable jm^i- tion died of the effects of a disease by some considered incurable. Other diseases, never entirely absent from the set- tlements and the missions, and frequently vi'ry fatal at the latter, were dvsenterv, catarrhal fevers, ami pleurisy. These diseases, which seem to have hiiii more prevalent at the begiiming of the rainy siasmi and just after the rains ceased, were aggravati'd ly the want of cleaidiness among the neojthytes, as well as bv their gluttonv, added to a lack of care on tlio ]>art of their ignorant associates, and the dangerously slight knt>wle(li'e of medicine in almost all instaiuvs possessed by the friars, their only physicians. Epidemic diseases, liovvever, were not infrequent; and of these the most dreaded, although by no means the most fatal, was the small-pox. which on several occasions visited the country. In 1781 this disease is ON THE ALERT. 617 Wild to have made its appoaranoo among tlu; fliildron (if the immisjfrants who came with Captain Rivera I'rom Lori'to. Tlie party encamped about a lea<:;iie distant from the mission of San Gabriel, and remained tliere, presumably, until the disappearance of the symptoms, which, as they were confined to children, may have been like those of chicken-pox. Certainly the disease could not have been of an alarming type. But early in 17i)8 the authorities were on the alert, and on the i)th of ^fay the ship (\»i('ej)cio>i, with several cases of small-pox on board, arrived at Santa liiirbara. The governor immediately ordered the ves- sel to be disinfected, and the passengers placed in (juarantine for fort}' days. As the five sick ])ersons recovered, and the infection did not spread, the com- iiKiiidant of the town, some three weeks after the ves- srl's arrival, in disregard of the governor's onh-rs, released the passengers from quarantine. The gov- ernor was furious, and swore tliat shoukl the disease gain footing in the country the commandant shouM hang for it, and that the representation which, signed Ity tiie friars and others who had landed from the sliip as wtll as by the ofticers of the garrison, had been for- warded to the capital, would not suftice to shield him. llap|)ily for rJl, the infection did not spread. Kaily in May 1838, the small-pox, the appearance of wliieh had been for months anticipated with chead, wa-^ i»rought from Ross to Sonoma by one Miramontes, a negro corporal of cavalry, and spread with friglitful rajtidity among the wihl Indians, thousands of whom cru'i. It is estimated that fullv three fifths of tin; savage population of the Sacramento Valley were swipt awav. The infection does not seem to havi? «pnad south of Monterev, but evervwhere it was verv fatal among the Indians, while sparing the gente de razon. Again, in May 1844, the same scourge made its apinarance, brought from San l^las by the kanaka n\w of the California. One man was put ashore at CIS A VKRY HEALTHY COUNTUY. Capo Sail Lucas and died there; another died wliIlc tlie vessel lay at San Pedro, and a third died ut sea before reachintj ^Monterey. The other kanakas wtiv nearly well when the schooner arrived at tiie latter place, and no one of her many passengers caujjjht the infection. But the disease spread among the Indians at Monterey, it is said, from the clothing which Lai- kin, one of the passengers, gave to his servant to l)t' washed. Ahout one hundred Indians died, but only one ])erson de razon. Considerable alarm was felt throughout the southern country, particularly at San Gabriel, owing to a venereal eruption, and at other places because of a kind of itch; but the disease was confined to Monterey. A curious disease was that which afflicted many of the carlv missionaries. It was characterized by niel- ancholy, nervous prostration, and finally perturbatieii of the intellect. In 1799 two insane friars were allowed to retire to their college; and within a few years previous to that time there had been S("\< i;il similar cases. / ' sence from the country invariahly worked a cure. As late as 1830 the Californians regard' d consump- tion as contagious. When a person tlied of that (lis ease, his clothing and effects were burned, and the walls of the room scraped and whitewashed. On one occasion, while governor Pablo Vicente de Sola riileil the Californians, a wealthy Sj^aniard died, leaviuL;' tin- whole of his property to the fondo piad<*so do las Cali- fornias; but as he had been a consuujj)tive, his i'uriii- ture and clothing were consigned to the flames, and in the excitement the iewclry and nionev which he had will(>d to the fondo piadoso were lost or stolen. WIuii the case was re[)orted to Mexico, the president of tin college of San Fernando, who had been made adminis- trator of the property, began suit against tiic autiiori- ties of the then province of the Californias, from whom he claimed the full value of the property destroyed and stolen. The lawsuit lasted nearly twenty years, THK 1)I.SEASE LATIDO. CIO Uiicl was finally decided auj'aitist tho priesthood i;i 1843 liy (jiovtrnor Micheltorena, who impiovrd tlio oppor- tunity for the purpose of giving to Bisliop Garcia Diego, the first ecclesiastic who held that high office in this country, a lesson as to the loose manner in Avhicli the ministers of the altar .attended to their duties. In IS02, ahout the close of the rainy season, there ni)[)eared, notably at Montere}*, La Soledad, and San Luis Obispo, an epidemic, of whicli tiie symptoms were a cough, pains in various parts of the body, and later fover, accompanied in the majority of cases by a stric- ture of the throat. This disease, very fiital at La Siiledad but less so at other places, was attributed to a eiumge of temperature, and in the opinion of eccle- siastics and laymen alike, yielded to prayer rather than to human remedies. It is a ])ity that all di;;- lases will not yield to prayer, and death also, and all otlitr infelicities; but how then would heaven be peopled ? Langsdorff heard of a disease at San Jose called the hitldo, wliich was confined to adults. It bctjan bv a ]iulsation in the lower belly, which constantly in- civascd; pains were fi>lt in that region, and in the neck, as thouHi a strinsj were drawn tipeared at Anj^i l( s. and although not fatal, was so prevalent tliat it wa; necessary to postpone for simio three weeks a priiiiaiv election ordered to be held on the first Sunday in December; for meanwhile not only were the Imu' judj]jes of election unable to serve, but scarcely a vdti.r could leave his house. A person signing hiiiisrlf Trapper says that lie was in the Sacramento and San Joa(iuin valleys in 1832, when they were crowdid with Indians, and again in the following year, win ii a fearful visitation of remittent fever, more violent than anv^ recorded in their traditions, had caused the alnntst utter annihilation of these people. At the missions, and sometimes among the geutc dr razon, the greatest devastation was caused hy tin nuasles. In 180G this disease, hitherto unknown in the country, raged for many montiis, and carried dtl the neophytes by scores. Almost all the pregnant women affected by it miscarried, and nearly all tlio children at the more northern missions died. Tlir gento de razon who fell ill on this occasion alnmst invariably recovered, while the disease did not sjiitad among the gentiles. In 1827-8, however, the havoc wrought by this disease was more wide-spread, thonuh not as great. On this occasion many childri ii tie razon also were victims. At tlie missions, a variety of causes contributed t' a mortality among the Indians about this tiiin , pn- hapa unecjualled in any country. The followin;^ taUo of the death-rate among the neophytes, from the first occupation of the country until the secular! /.a timi of the missions, has been carefully made up fnun the statistical tables printed iu another part v( this series; V.ar Ad'lt iTiiii r>.rtr> 177n (J.l_> 1771 8.11 I77l' 8.0J I77;i (i.M 1771 7.03 177.". 0.1)7 177ii,'4.7L' 1777, (I.G.'i 177s ().!>:» J77li,().J.-) 17 so .j.L'.'J 17>si r>.84 I7VJ 4.4-t 17.S;i'4.46| 17m 4.24 17s.-> .•{..•}<) 17m; .■).l'o 1787 .'{.85 17vs .-».(>;} 17.S1I (!.02 I7!N) s.isl Fur GO ye ^Ttii a; tilt' India less genei sily 1)0 re .32 14.80 7.08 177n (J. I-' 14.28 7.21 IT'.hJ 0.42 10.01 7.85 1814 5.43 13.15 0.82 1771 8.U V.i.Vd 9.08 1793 3.99 12.77 0.77 1815 7.02 15.77 8.54 177J;8.0J 12.95 9.48 '1794 4.20 14.44 0.5(1 ,1810 0.10 10. 00 8.28 177:'. (5.11 10. G2 7.53 1795 5.18 19.41 8.44 ,1817 0.37 14.98 8.03 1771 7.0J 8.87 7.01 I7'.>0 0.27 19.74 9.10 1818 0.28 15.40 8.00 i:7.-. CUT 10. 57 8.09 1797 4.97 14.15 7.05 ;1819 5.37 14.10 7.13 177i;:4.72 0.13 5.17 1798 5.40 15.77 7.80 1820 5.50 12.07 0.98 1777 •>.(»."> 14.25 8.0() ;i799 5.15 20.81 9.05 1821 5.31 14.23 7.00 177> (l.'JL' i!).:i8 7.52 1800 7.12 l;i.82 9.13 1822 0.17 17.40 8.39 17711 »>.).■> 10.19 7.45 |18;)I 7.02 14.0.1 8.87 11823 5.01 15.0) 0.95 17 so r).'2;j 9.12 0.00 1802 8.97 15.00 10.45 1824 5.81 11.18 0.87 17s 1 ->.84 11.71 7.79 1803 5.71 15.46 7.84 1825 0.83 12.8.-. 7.97 17 v.- 4.44 10. (M 0.31 ;i804 0.28 20.00 9.01 1820 5.70 9.55 0.57 17«:i'4.4G 9.0? 0.10 il805 5.53 10.09 7.01 1827 0.05 15.50 7.95 17>si 4.24 7.12 5.10 ,18;h> 13.50 32.34 17.02 1828 7.17 21.37 9.87 17S.-. .S.3» 0.74 4.40 1807 5.91 14.01 7.54 1829 5.37 9.08 0.23 17Ni .■>.20 9.2(i 0.55 1808 5.05 14.53 7.31 1830 4.18 7.54 4.79 17S7 .-{.SS 8.14 5.31 1809 4.90 14.74 0.70 1831 5.38 7.48 5.79 17sN .">.<)3 9.41 0.07 ;1810 5.30 12.41 0.05 1832 7.10 7.70 7.23 17S'.I ti.O'J 8.93 7.05 l.Sll 5.92 15.57 7.04 18.33 0.01 10.93 7.07 17'.H) H.IS 7.97 8.09 1812 0.(H> 14.59 7.08 1834 5.02 9.37 5.98 For 00 years, average, adults 5.93%, c-liildruu 13.29%, both 7.00%. ^[eii and women, even of a people so aUjt^ct as were tilt' Indians of ( iilifornla, born to a freedom for count- lis.s L;'enerations enjoyed by their kindred, eannot ea- sily l)e reduced, without sufteriny; by it, to a eoiulition (if (juasi shivery, such as was in eH'ect tlie lot of the mission neophytes, whose very children were some- tliiiiL;' less than their kinsmen t)f the woods. En- ftcl tied also by unaccustomed labor and unwonted diet, at times insutticient, but not infre(|uently, because of till ir unbriilled gluttony, exces.sive, as well as by in- a(l(i|uately ventilated and unclean sU'i'[)ing apartnu'iits, tlicy fell an easy prey to di.seascs more fatal than any liitliorto known amtiHg them, and to which their nat- urally filthy personal hal)its and mode of living ren- iKii'd them highly susce[)til>le. Ign.>rance on the jKiit of mothers, added to a want of pro[H'r cure, at times becoming criminal inhumanity, tended to in- civase the mortality among children. Moreover, tlirio was, throughout the entire country, a lamen- taiilt' waiiL of medical aid, especially at the missions, while there was available only the empiric skill of the 622 A VERY HEALTHY COUNTRY. fiiars, or the equally daiit^orous practice of the nativ*^ iiU!dit'ine-ineii. Anioiig the iieophytt'S there Sfoiiis to have been a marked failure of female ottfs[)riiig, dui- t<< some natural law, or possibly, in great part, to the de- liberate intention of infanticidal mothers. At all tht- missions, the number of males was excessive, and raids similar to that recorded in Koman history were en- couraged by the ministers themselves for the purpose of su}>plying the needed wives. From the earliest times, the frightful mortality at the missions, esjK - cially those of the north, and notably San Francisco and Santa Clara, attracted the attention of.the author- ities, civil and ecclesiastic. The excess of deaths o> < r births was always great, and, as I have said, the (U li- cit was made good byconversions, sometimes by I'oici- ble abduction, among the neighboring free Indians. It is true that a surgeon accompanied an early expedition to Monterey; but he became demented on arriving, and was unable even to put proper labels on the packages of medicines which had been brought for di.stribution to the jifferent missions. Later tin i was a surgeon almost constantly under pa}', as < II as a phlebotomist, but they were attached to iIk Monteiey presidial company, and rarely absented themselves from the capital, at times absolutely it fusing to do so. Herewith I give a list of surgeons: Name. Uank. Term of Service l-f.9-1771 Pay. Kemark.-i. Pedro Prat .Surgeon Demented in 1770; died in Jltx. Poflro Castan. .Surtieon . 177;M774 Ad interim. Jdm'- liavila Suriteon .. 1774-17«3 Iti.-eharued. Klaniu'l Moreno Suriieon 178."i Ordered to Cnl. ; did not rdiiiiv J'eiiro Curbajal Surseou 17NV1787 .\<'ting at variouii time^. Pablo SoIiT. Surtjeoii 171.1-lNOO 11840 i!;{tio Uesigued. Josi' Ca.itillo Phlebotomist. 17^'J-1W8 Juan de l>io8 Moreluii. Surgeon 180()-1.S02 Kelieved. Manuel lorres surseon IWl'J-l.HOJi Ifti.'H) * iJlVH) Iiesi*;ned. Jose? Maria Itenites Surtreon . 1,S0:<-1807 Kxelianged with Quijano. Manuel ijuijano Surtieon. 1S07-1824 ifil.OOO l|(l,.')00 J. hvan. Perez de ',eon Surtreon . IH'iU A. Uonz. del Castillo Surueon 18;i0 Ordered to Cal.; did noi iniiu" Manuel de Alva. . Surgeon . IMl-1840 Ijil.nOO Retired ou sick certifieaio. tianuel Crespo I'lilebiitomitit l'^12 1 !*;o 11840 Kdward hale Surgeon 1840-1843 Kesigned. Fuuatiuo Muro 1844 4;i,4i3 * In 1S04 was increased to ,f l.OOO per annum. From 1771 until 1773, and acain from 1783 to 178:> there wua uo surgeon iu the service. NEED OF PHYSICIANS. 623 In 1804 tlic vicoroy, in view of the alarnrm«jf nior- tiility at the missions, increased tlie pay of tiie sur- ufon, with the understanding^ tliat he should each year make a tour of tiie country for the purpose of s('ii(iin'^ to Mexico a report concerning the diseases of the gente de razon, as well as those of the neophytes, tluir causes and treatment. These orders were re- jKtited in the follo\vin«( year, the bishop of Sonora also interesting himself in the matter, and Surgeon l^enitez made a tour of inspection to the northward of Monterey, and to the southward as far as San Luis Obispo. The results of his observations he eiid)odied ill ;i long and able report. No other extended tour stcius to have been made, cither by him or by his siuct'ssors; after two or three years, the custom ap- jit ars to h tve fallen into abeyance, and was never revived by the Mexican government, except on one occasion. Indeed, with the single exception of IJenitez, tlic surgeons appear to have possessed but little pro- fessional skill, while some of them lacked jn-oper liKilcssional titles. No man of parts seemed t») be williiio; to come to California, notwithstanding the jj^ovcinment's oft'er of additional pay, while not even nil increase of pay, amounting to more than fifty per cent, proved an inducement sufficient to retain compe- tent men. These men, moreover, constantly complained ed at various i)laces, and the surgeons of for- eign war vessels were frequently called upon. Fr.n- cisco Torres, a Mexican, was in practice at Monterey ill ' S;15 ; John Marsh obtahied a license to practise iiKihcineat Angeles, February 25, 183G; Nicholas Den was practising at Santa Barbara; Edward Bale, an Kiiglishman, came before 1837; Robert Mouey, a esA A VERY HEALTHY COUNTRY. Scdtohman, with no diploma or medical knowlodofo, pnu^tised medicine at Angeles in 1844. Hartnell, in a letter to Wyllie, 1844, says that a young Irish sur- geon had just settled at Angeles, and that a surgeon for the troops was about to arrive from Mexico, luit that tliere were no physicians or even apothecaries in tlie country. At Monterey, in March 184G, John Townsi'ud and Andres Castillero, the latter not a med- ical man, signed a certificate of ill health as 'profesons de medicina.' In June 184(5, Francisco de la Gueria writes from Santa Bilrbara to the governor, that for want of good medical men in the country he has been obliged to employ the surgeon of a British war vessel. The results of the practice of the frii rsat their mis- sions gave greater force to the time-honored cus- tom of the Indians, who almost invariably preferird their own medicine-men; so that not infrequently tlu' missionaries, with politic shrewdness, comprehendiiii; their own wtxikness, wisely abandoned their field to tlieir more successful fellow-practitioners whenover the treatment consisted in the employment of simjdcs, as was usually the case, severely punishing neverthe- less all cases of sorcery that came within tiioir knowledge. As late as 1828 the corporal of the guard at Santa Ines reported to his counnanding otticor at Santii liiirbara that three of the neo{)hytes of that mission mad(! a practice of danciiigin one of the houses ottho ranchen'a, and t)f bringing thither tho.se of their com radcs who were dangeriRisly sick; the latter Ikmml; in- formed that each one \vlu» had danced should contiihute beads or some other ottering, in order tluit the (huuv mi«'Iit find favor in the eves of the devil, and thrv in conse(pience be healed. The culprits were injpnsoned on a charge of sorcery, and admitting the cliaiyv, were S'Mitenced by their minister to be whipped and remolded to prison. The commandant onh'riiig an Investigation, it aj)peared that the dancing took |ihur on two several occasions, and that the sorcery co!isi>t»il in touching the sick witii feathers as our [>riests toncli SIMPLE REMEDIES. 623 persons with holy water, the medicine-men meanwliilo (lancing. On the second occasion, some of tlie by- standers ridiculed the proceed injjf.s, and one of the prisoners threatened to bring about the deatli of the sko[)tic8 by means of a coni[)osition of herbs. The prisoners were kept closely confined for some fourteen months, when it was ordered l)y the connnandant- gciicral, to whom the matter had been refenvd, that ill consideration of this fact, one of theni .should be released, while the others should, in the presence of the assembled neophytes, receive twenty-five blows each. In certain ca.ses, especially for the treatment of arrow- wounds, the gente de lazon depended almost entirely upon the skill of tluir Indian dependents. These men, conscious of their power, at times giving tluMr services only after n.uch entreaty, cured or kilK'd as it happened. Even as late as 1844 these Indian practitioners were 'k great demand, and were, no (h)ubt, for the most part as good as any. Drugs of various kindt^ for distribution amoni; the uiissions were brought by the surgeon who accom- piiiiied the first expedition, and afterward a fresh sui)ply was from time to time sent from Mexico ; some- times the stock on hand was excessive, but much more hvijuently there were scant supplies or none at all, wiiiio generally their quality was none of the best. The remedies most in vogue were the simples which grow in every garden in tlie land. Upon these they depended rather than upon the drugs of which the use was not well understood. A decoction of borage leaves was very efficacious in catarrh, inHuenza, and the like. In 1814 a tree resembling the cinchona was touiul in abundance at Quiniado, near San Antonio; the bark was used as a febrifuge, but being sent to Spain for examination, was found not to contain (pii- nino sufficient to make it valuable. For the itch, baths were given. The thermal waters of San Diego, Santa Hilrbara, and San Juan Capistrano w-jre frequently Cal. Past. 40 626 A VERY TfEALTHY COUNTRY. resorted to. Until they saw the Spaniards use these baths tlie Indians would not do so; for having seen in them dead birds and the like, they feared their effect. The virtues attributed to the water of the sprin;^ called Polin have already been alluded to, and are also spoken of by Sanchez. In various diseases, mint was a favorite remedy. Plenty of vegetable food was recommended by Surgeon Benites, In 1802, after an epidemic had raged unchecked for three months at Monterey, prayer proved an eftective remedy. In 1 8 GO a clove of garlic, applied by Mrs Estudillo to the third finger of the left hand of Judge Hayes, while causing pain and raising a blister, cured tlie toothach€\ In 1817 Father Suner had satisfied him- self that the chief cause of death among the neophytes was the weaving of woollen garments, for the sweat of these people, being very viscid, was with difficulty washed from them, and that the remedy lay in the cultivation of hem[) and flax. In 1823 Father Oil opined, with considerable reason, if the reports touch- ing his own condition were true, that for galico there was no other remedy than the providence of God. This opinion Father Abella supplemented by sayiiii^ that the Indians did not care for their health, but like every son of Adam, pined for freedom and women. Bleeding was resorted to in cases of pleurisy. The most extrat)rdinary remedies are those men- tioned in a little book called Jiotica General dc los I\C)H((h'os Kjrpcrimoitmlini, reprinted from the Ci'uliz eilition, and publi.shed, in all seriousness, by M. d. ValK'jo at Sonoma in 1838. Each remedy h.ad luon catefnlly tested by experience, many of them briiiui"g to mind those of the Chinese pharmacopa'ia, ^vili^' some apjuar to have been in vogue among birds, Tlif date of the publication is a sufficient comment on the condition of medical science in California at thattiiiK'. The last remedy of the li.st is not the least curious. It reads thus: For impaired eye-sight, do as the swallow does — bruise the leaves of swallow-wort and anoint tin' RED WINE AND ROSEMARY. 627 2se I ill 3Ct. in;j; [ilso was was r an .8 at 111 lo to ayes, I "the bim- hytes cat of [iculty ill the cr Oil itouch- ► there (;o(l. ayiuii; ut like ^ouieii. mcn- dc y CiUliz lI in'on riiviiiig \vhiK' Tho on tlio lit tiuH". lus. It l\vall"«' hint til'- eyes with the juice. For earache, fill the ears with 'orines propios calientes. ' For constipation, imitate the ibis, and use a clyster of salt water. An agreeable renied}'^ was a decoction of red wine and rosemary, which was prescribed for weakness, and was said to be very comforting, while as a wash, it preserved beauty and banished wrinkles. A glassful of sugar water, with the unimportant addition of a like quantity of aguardiente, whenever one felt inclined, gladdened the heart, purified the blood, was exceedingly good for the head and stomach, cleansed the spleen, and opened the appetite. The toothache was cured by canying ill the mouth the eye-tooth of a man, or that of a black dog. Cancer yielded to a wash distilled from wine in which rosemary leaves and flowers had been boiled. Pleurisy was cured by 'excremento del ca- ballo reciente,' dissolved in wine, and well strained : and the same liquor taken internally aided difficult j)arturition. A reme*^}' that should be recorded in letters of gold was the foHowing: Take a rad; put them in half a pint of white wine to which a few drops of lime-juice had been added, and leave tlicni there for twenty-four hours. This draught would dissolve a stone in the bladder, though it were as big as a lemon. Chicken stewed in wine cured catarrh, and CLTiis boiled in vinegar the dvsentcrv. That the colic may never return, drink for several successive davs a decoction of mint, and 1)0 l>hd at the wane of the moon in Mav, or drink dailv simie aguardiente with a fresh v<^[X in it. For the bh»t • Moission to do so was punished by a fine of twenty- five dollars; a second offence by a fine of double that amount, and banishment for two years to a distance of twenty leagues; a third transgression by a fine of one hundred dollars, and four years in the chain-gaiiLf. But this regulation fell into disuse. In fact, it seenicci to be the general (►pinion that the use of medicines was injurious rather than useful, their abuse tending I'Vcn to retard tlie desired increase of population. Tlic alcalde of Santa Barbara, in a report made to the gov- ernor, in July l.S;]4, thought that the empirical prac- tice of such physicians as were then in the country had shown that they were not i)nly unnecessary, hut prejudicial to the propagation of the human race. As is to this day generally the case in Spanish Anicr- ica, to be of Anglo-Saxon race was tantamount to l/ciiiLT a physician, and much evil was wrought in Califrouia by American and British prctendeis. A CRYING EVIL. C29 So prylnp^ an evil had tlie quackery of these men become, that in 1844 the governor decreed that any one pretending to practice medicine or surgery should, previous to receiving a license from an ayuntamiento or judge, produce documentary proof that he was what lie claimed to 1k'. The decree also regulated the price of the medicines furnished, and the amount of the fee which might be demanded. ])isobedience wns pun- ished b}^ fine, and continued transgression by ex[)ul- sion from the place where the culprit resided. From the earliest times the neophytes, seeing that tlie gente do razon possessed no knowl(>dge even of the diseases introduced by themselves, manifested great repugnance to the treatment prescribed at the missions, and in these eases, refusing to submit thereto, held to their ow!i traditional remedies in all coini)iaints of which they had a knowleilge. Their chief remedy for all ills was the temeseal, to the use of which the most strenuous objection was made b}- the civil authorities, as well as the missionarii'S, who often ordered the temescales to bi> destroyed; but the in- r drinking was clean; that only healthy cat- tK" were slaughtered for food; that all offal was re- moved from the precincts of the town, and that meat was kept in well- ventilated places; that no tavern- keeper should permit the assemblage of drunkards and vagabonds, under penalty of five dollars ibr the first ofllence, and double that amount for the second, while for the third his ))lace should be closed by the alcalde; that unripe fruit was not sold; that vessels arriving at San Pedro from infected places should be quarantined; that no infected person should come 632 A VERY HEALTHY COUNTRY. witliin four loajrucs of the town, and that other [ur- sons coming from infected places should be detained at a like distance for three days, and compelled to wasli their clothing; that citizens should be recommended to bathe frequently and keep their houses clean, to al»- stain from the use of chile and other stinmlating food, and to thoroughly wash corned beef before cookiiin' it; that all dwellings should be daily fumigated with sulphur or sprinkled with vinegar. This decrcu should be read at every dwelling in tlie place. Early in 1805 the president of the missions re- ceived from the bishop of Sonora an intimation to the effect that the king had sent to New Spain an expedi- tion under his physician, Balmis, for the purpose of introducing vaccination, and the friars were instructed to allay any unfounded prejudice against its use, hut no vac(;ine matter was sent to California. In ISOO cow-pox appeared in the cattle, and inoculation wa>< at first practised with considerable success, but exeiii|>- tion from danger soon produced carelessness. Yaeciiui- tion pro' ler does not seem to have been introduced until 1817, when some lymph was brought by a Spaniard named Jose Verdia, and a little later by the surgeon of a Russian war vessel. Again, in 1821, the surgeon of a Russian war vessel, the Kuiusoff, presented the governor with some vaccine matter which he had brought from Lima; but it had lost its virtue. In 1828 orders were sent from Mexico that vaccine lymph should be ])roperly preserved in vials, or that a constant succession of matter should at public ex- pense be maintained in hefilthy children. This decree, however, seems to have been inoperative, and a few- years later the governor ordered the commandants of the presidios to use every endeavor for the procure- ment of good matter, and wrote to the authorities of Tepic requesting that some might be sent to him. in 1829 the Russians, for the third time*, acted a neigh- borly part, and left at San Diego and Monterey some vials of lymph, which proved a timely gift. In later SANITARY MEASURES. 033 years there were periodical flutters of apprehension, as in 1840 and in 1844, regardin<( the sniall-pox, but there seems to have been no lack of vaccine matter. Sanitary mea.sures were taken also in 1833, when <(>nsiderable alarm was felt lest cholera-inorbus, which jiad appeared at Chiapas, should visit the territory. Ill December of that year the governor jmblishcd a circular issued l)y the secretary of state, which advo- < ated tlie wearing of a small plate or nudal of copper in'xt the skin as a guard against infection, and ordered that the precautions indicated by Surgeon Alva should he ()bserv(>d. Certain additional precautions were tle- cieed by the governor himself Cleanliness of houses, streets, and public buildings was made obligatory. ( emeteries were to bo established when necessary. At the missions the friars were to see that the order was ohi'ved. No one was to be out of doors after eit,dit o'clock at night, save in case of necessity; and tlK)se found at balls, or fn-quonting taverns and like resorts, should be condemned to four days' labor on the public works. Under a penalty of six dollars for disobedi- ence, liijuor could be sold (mly between the lumrs of eleven in the morning and three in the afternoon. Houses were to be fumigated, and bonfires lighted. Corpses were to be buried within twenty-four hours after death, but at the same tiiiie precautions against jinniature burial were to be observed. Graves were to l»e at least two varas and a half in depth. On the (It'cease of a person, no tolling of bells was to be allowed, nor any other noisy demonstrations. The use of fat meats and watery vegetables was prohib- iti'd. In Monterey patients who had no facilities for hcing treated at home were to l»e removed to the hos- liital. At Los Angeles the ayuntamiento was directed to take the necessary steps. The foll(>wing precau- tions ''ore adopted at the presidios: Cleanliness was ordered; floors when swept were to be but slightly sprinkled; the men were to be well protected by clothing; the sale of liquor and fruit at or near the G34 A VERY H£ALTHY COUNTRY. barracks was prohibited; food was to bo st-rvcd lit vessi'ls of clay; the rations were to b<< of rici-, btaiis, vcrmit'clh, inuttun, and veal; liino or chaii'oal to Im- tlirowii into the fc>inks; every ni^ht tlie ((uart»'rs to Itu funiiirated by burninij a mixture of sidt and ' inegai ; the men were warnetl a<{ainHt Hquor and worn -n. la 1844, when similar alarm was felt, thecouimaiwl- ant of Monterey caused some guns to be fired, then Ky meriting a reproof from the governor, who thouniit that, as the cholera did not actually exist in the coun- try, the precaution was needless. In 1847 the nyuii- tamienti} of Angeles ordered, as a sanitary measun , that all otial should be burned. Extraordinary sanitary precautions were practisnl at Monterey after the death of Commandant Sal in 1800. He died of phthisis, believed to be very ini'tM- tious; and by direction of Surgeon Morelos, steps were taken t() guard against any spreading of the dis- ease. The roof, doors, and windows of the house in which he died were burned; the bricks of the floor were removed, and the surface of the walls was cut awav. Four months after Sal's death the buildinLf *■' ._ was still in this condition. The greater part of the furniture and all clothing used by him were also burned. This does not seem, however, to have been at all an exceptional case, for a few months later, two women having died of phthisis at Santa Bdrbara, tlio governor directed that their clothing should be burnid, the walls picked, the lock and key of the door cleanxd by fire, and the places where they had slept fumigatrd. From time to time quarantines were established t'nr certain specific purposes. In 1781 Rivera's expeditinii from Loreto was compelled to remain for some time encamped at the distance of a league from t\w niissimi of San Gabriel, as it was feared that it might lia\e brought small-pox from Lower California. In this case, there seems to have been no cause for alunn. In May 1797, thirty-four persons sufl*ering from scurvy landed altlioug tinUs, t ethers, I initted. fVuiu M( .'IS to veg ff>ll(i\vin^pital si I'liise of t t;uT hospii <»'' tlie pi- ^'•••'Mid ela! pointed in t'» Iiave t\ llUI'ses was <'C(U/iii'd, ill May tvvry. (j„ •■''t'lhlish a ^"■'■dth c()ni "I' lilies for •'^"'"nitted i <"'"ii|)<)sed (> '«"ii. and tl ''}• wJiieJi th •^■•»ii.si.sted of sidrd over b ^^^'•n at a ni l»^'r«on was t HOSPITALS ESLVBUSHEa landed from the Princcsa at Santa Bdrbara, and ultliougli this disease is nt'ith(!r (Mintajjfious nor int'cc- tiims, tliey were lodged in a building apart from others, and no intercourse with the inhabitants pcr- iiiitted. In the autumn of that year, orders were sent from Mexico requiring a ((uarantine to be established its to vessels infected with small-pox, and early in the following year the Concepcion, which with small-pox on l»oard arrived at Santa lidrbara, was quarantined. At the missions hospitals for the use of the neo- jiliytes were early estaljlished, but do m»t apjtear to have answered the pur|M)se for which they were in- Uiided. Until 183;i there seem to have been no pub- lic hospitals in the country; but toward the close (jf that year, when it was fearetl that cholera morbus iiiii;Iit become epidemic, the governor, in accordance with orders from Mexico, decreed that a provisional liospital should be established at Montere}' at the ex- ])t use of the general government. In IH.')7 the mili- tary hospital at Monterey was reorganized by a decree of the president. This hospital was rated as of the stcond class. Its director was to be the surgeon ap- jioiiited in accordance with the law of 1H'J>, wlio was ti> have two assistant practitioners; the number of muses was to be proportionate to that of the beds occupied. Ill May 1844, the small-pox was brought to Mon- terey. ()ii the '2Hth the ayuntamiento determined to c>t,il»lish a hospital for poor patients. A boai\l of health composed of prominent citizens met and diew ii|» rules f(jr its government, which the nt.'xt day wiTo suhiiiitted to a meeting, called by the governor, and c'iiii|)(»sed of the ayuntixnuento, the officers of the gar- isuii, and the heads of families residing at the capital, hy which they were approved. This board of health ctiiisisted of Larkin, Spenee, Watson, and (^sio, pre- sided over by Serrano. A house in the outskirts was taken at a nunthly rental of eight dollars. Any poor person was to be admitted, and food and medicine to 636 A VERY HEALTHY COUNTRY. be distributed to those for whom there was no room. The caro ot" sailors who tni^iit be admitted was to he paid for by the master of the vessel or the respectivt; consul. Two nurses were appointed, and a corpoial and four men were to gfive burial to such patients as should die. There bein^ no physician, a ctmimittce was empowered to establish a rational mode of treat- ment. On motion of the governor, another committee was appointed to solicit pecuniary aid. The ayuiita- miento resolved to pay for the lighting of the Imiltl- ing, and to give boards and hides, no oetter mateiial being available, for beds. A committee appointed at the meeting referred to collected funds. The goveiii- ment agreed to give $125 monthly during the contin- uance of the epidemic; IMicheltorena individually gave twenty-five; the bishop, twenty-five; Larkin, tivf; anil twenty-eight others from one to four dollars (aeli — all on the same condition. Tiie total monthly amount promised was !?249. The residents of Mon- terey gave what betiding they were able to spare Tills hospital was visited at least twice a day lt\ u member of the board of health, and visits were al.st made by the governor and his wife. About tiiis same time a hospital had been established at Angeles, hut was soon found to be unnecessary. In 1845 the general government decreed that two per cent of the net yield of fines imposed upon sniu;.,'- glers, and of the amounts accruing fiom the sale of snmggled goods that were confiscated, should be set aside for ho.spitals of charity. After the death of an individual, whatever niii^lit have been his posliion, for a shroud the cor])se \va> clothed in a Franciscan habit — of greater merit were it an old one of one of the padre missionaries. While the patient was dying, this was spread over him as a coverlet, for it was believed that thus the mattd' I't indulgences would be facilitated. The relatives ainl friends of the dying man were, in great nunilitr!?. assembled in or near the house, and prayers were con- tinuous. .Shoi DISPOSITION OF THE CORPSE. 037 ftliortly after death the corpse was clotlicd in the Fraiicisean hahit, and laid on the floor witli a stone utidor tlu) head, and with four candles about it. Then ul! tlie town, with few exceptions, were obliged to pay a vi.sit to the corpse and take part in the players, wliich were continued at short intervals until the liurial took jtiaco, being also accompanied with sundry mournful alabudos shouted in chorus, which were ali>iie sufficient to inspire melancholy. The corpse was at the proper time placed on a till ill! covered with a black cloth, which was biaiie by four persons, who were from time to time relieved. The priest and his acolytes preceded the corpse, and at certain distances paused in order to chant the proper piirtions of the ritual. On reachuig the church, the proper mass was said or sung, according to the sum which the family chose to spend. This ceremony concluded, the cortege pro- ceeded, in the same order, to the cemetery, where thti hody was cncoffined, the coffin having hitherto beei.' (allied on in the rear. The padre recited the final jiiayers for the dead, and the coffin was placed in tiie srjmlchre. As the family of the deceased, as well as every miio else, including wonuui and children, accom- laiiied the deceased to his grave, the weeping and anienting was great. When the liead of a family died, its members, even those living at a distance, were obliged to take part ill tlu' ol)se(juie8. Occasionally, in order to await their arrival, the corpse was kept unburicd for two or three (lays. The death of a small child was an occasion for rrjoicing rather than one of mourning, and there was a l)all, accomi)anied by eating and drinking, rockets, and the firing of muskets; for it was thought that the souls of young children went directly to heaven. The little C(jrpse was dressed to represent an angel, usually tlie patron saint of the child. Jose de Jesus Vallcjo, dictating to Cemiti, says: " NVith reference to the appointment of Doctor Bale, G38 A VERY HEALTHY COUNTRY. ;: chief physician of the Cahforiiian arniv, I will say that those who criticised it showocl bad taste, becnusi} tlie northern part of New California was continually exposed to the attacks of the Indians, and wo had no other physician than the Indian Petronfo, who cured his friends and killed liis enemies. The scarcity of dtK'tors among us was so groat that, as far back as 1H44, when near my estate, a soldier named Francisco Soto accidentally shot himself, I sent two Indians to Sonoma to es(M)rt Doctor Petronio to San Jose; hut the proud infidel refusetl to acci'de to my request, and sent me word that he would not move one inch unKss Castro should come in person to solicit his assistaiu^ , Afy emissaries returned to San Jose, reported to Castro what l\'tronio had .said, atwl that officer without di- lay numjited his horse and rode to Sonoma to i»eg the Indian to come and cure his wounded soldier nnd rrlative. IVtronio at first refused, but after a wliilo he a(('0«led to his petition, and returned with him to San .Fost', where he restorcMJ his health to the wounded man by means of herbs whose virtue to him oidy was known." llijar states that when an adult t up the whole niijlit. In due time the* IkkIv was placed in a cotfin, and bonn' on the shouide'i's of nn-n to the church. ( )n placing the corpse in the grave, the priest took a handful '4' earth and threw it upon the coffin, an act which tlif neari'st relatives, and then the friends, followed. Tin- sexton thereupon filled up th(! grave. If the family had means, an old r(d»e was bought "f the patlres, at more than twice the price of a new out', and in this the body was envelo[)etl. Under otlitr circumstances, a rol)e of blue stufl* was made, it pinerty was extreme, the bod\' was interred without A CEMKTERY PRESENTED. V \v:i!< lo-llt^. \Vi IV ;h tli<' tluiS U-^\:\. Itollh' Mcin.; Till "\ Ii til.' II 111' lit -t ' Hill', itlii'V llMllt shroud or coffin. T!)o responses of the padre over the hndy had to ho paid tor, hence the poor received no prayers, Tlie city of T^os Anijele.s had constructed a cenu'tery at its own expi-nse, and presented it to tlie diurcli on the 2d of November, 1S44, on condition that tliero .slionld ho no charge for burial from AnL,'eIi's peopK'. Tlu' biali >p objected to a hamperinij clause, and claimed th.-it the property fell to the church by the act (if consecration. This was referred tcj the coniniitteo on i)olice, which said that it considered it wron;^ to (1« j»rive an owner of his pn pi-rty merely becaust> a i( liyittus rite is performed ov» i it. The bishojKS per- mission to erect the cemetery was not called for; it was a needc'd public measure. The ground and build- iii'fs havhij; been erected bvthe Angeleans, thev could fi\ a condition of exenn»ti(Mi fiom tax. What bad the (liiucli contributed i Tlie ayuntamiento of ATonteny in 1835 ap])oiiitn ;Ust of July, IS.'!'.), the cemetery at Mont<'rey wa-ronseera*^ 'd, having been in unc since I 77t>. It was ilii varas ^quat';; the wall was built by the convicts, ini(U'r till-' auspices of AKarado, and tlu' nmre im- 111 'cliati direction of Speiice, who obtained jterinission til scject a spot tor his tamily, and improve it, and it .siiould alwa\s \>v known as belomriunr to him. Tlie unventilated sl(>eping halls at tlie missions was <'iic «»f the causes of the enormous death rato. and thire were no remedies. One thi)*(| of the population ili'! in infancy, one third before jmberty, the last tiiird was lett in bad health. .i !> 040 A VERY HEALTHY COUNIUY. I saw a letter from J. Carrillo to JostS tie la Guerra, iiiforining liim when his wife's fui:eral was to take place. (Jii the margin of the letter was a narrow piece of black rihlxin, fastened with a wafer, signify- ing that the writer was in mourning. Red and black are the colors of the Devil and Death ; yet Death himself is white, and the Devil is not always so fiery red as he is painted. «L;iiiiist lllitugli l'"lite in «fx. fait) Jiis contj |'"<»r. pio »ii afK'c iiniiibcr ' i''(iii,.(J IX I'lisoii i.s ;:""t (■iii>uil;1i tliat tlu! knit^lit of the rt)a(l he wtH-lnrd. |M>Hti' in his (U'aHni^H witli men, diivalrons t«> the fair sex, faitiiful to liis associates in husinrss, tiiu' to all ills compacts with his customers, heiievoleiit to tin- ]iMuf, |)i(»usan(l penitent on all static 1 church occasions, an aiU'ctionate hushanil, kind father, ami useful iiiciiilK'r of society. It has lu-come the custom of oui' I vtiiifd and discrimlnatiiii^ civilization, when such a )Mrson is caught to kill him; for which I'easoii many .:""d men have heen kept out of the profession, an«l lia\c in consc(|Ui'n<'e fallen into evil ways. This is all the more singular whm there are tliii>U''hout the land so manv m«aner kinds of thi< \crv wliiih piopl(> seem to think little of It is nnan» r tlihvcry to hetrayatrust in friendship or husim ss ; to cli' at in (»nc's di'alin^s; to huy ^oods and not pay for tiMiii; to adulterate food, diink, or medieints; to till li a nei>4 hi tor's n'ood name; to hla«-kmail for pui- l"'>i s of i^ain or to Increase tin; ciri'ulation <»f a iicws- p.-qHT, Jt IS nu'aner thievery to «iive or at i cpt a ililir; to «iet control of the food supply and niakt llii poor pay an exorhitant piice for l>read : tt> Wuild it iJiilroad with tlu; peo[tlc's money, and then lun it (■ \i.. I'v«r. 41 (•41) ri2 BANDITTI. t I fiirtlicr ])1('('(1 the |»('(»|»1(', unjustly altli\' (•••iMiKstition, and rlosiiMj; all (»tli( r avi'iiurs (if a|>]troach. It is inraucr tliii^vory Wn- iiiani|nilat()rs of stocks to extract money tVotn people's pockets tlirout;li falst; re[)resentations and oliicanei'\ ; or for lawvei's to sell tlieir st-rvices to defeat the ends of just .i le<' o r for administrators to defraud widnw; and «>rplians hy means or the machnierv ot tlu' prohate court; or ft»r a judj^'c t(» he intluenced hy a unishment of the h-sser vil- lain should he lir of the law, heiihjr too cowai'dU to t.ikc the risk of la-eakinij^ it. And were it p»»ssihle to-il.iy to si-nd o;".t up<'U thekiUL^s }u_i;hway, tiieie to nitet their \ iitims and openly pro.secute their cailin<:s, all those who thus leL;iLima!ely ciieat their nei^hhors liy superior cunninj^ and jieiveithiu^ the rijj^hteous aetiui of the law. or who resort to the tlu)usand j^raiid .ind ]>etty ini'amics (ommoii in the s^reat and univer.i! sti'u^'^ie for riches, ther" the\ may 'it come f'liiian \\ayme? tlic past posed (» w ' re to ' ^tendii ti;ld aft the com >'>]\»\v t America "f sn(ith<' rapidly a l>rii;an >■''•-;■ .'Hid h ^pano-( 'iJitiuvs at sadin.r^ aj sliarj. pra, iii)!!stico o Ti... Cai toc;dl tliei -^h\ican ,':■ ti.Ji. .1,1 1 ■^viiipafjiy tn U>i\v nu "I/' rtahicd ti'i-'iutiiiii' .•] '■';"|<-il.'tJ|e 'ni;nsters '•'■^ih- M-asI)( ^'■'■i"llsj'enp, '■'""■■•IVc de, M'!. d tears '''•■II' achnira I'N'l-'iy pr,,v ' ••> darhiu;- ^■'lUcuccs ill THE IDKAL IIT(!H\VAY>rAN. 6M licoomo such, an (IcimIs (if liiast tlif pastoral days i>j'o|»rr; Imt tlii'V were lai-j^dy com- |"is{>d of .Hispano-Calif(»niians, and tlicir advcntui'cs were to a ^rcat t'xtcnt in soutlwrn California, though . \t('ndi!i«_c to the mines, which alfoi'ded them a rich tit'ld after t\\c discovery of ijjoid, and where, for the ronii)l«'tiou of the narrative, we are ohli<;'ed to tMlow them. Nor with the advent of in the nortlurn rei^ions. Ihii^.amla'L^e, wlien direrti'd aL!;ainst that encroacli- iii,;' and heretical nei;j;hl>o}', tlie insolent j4rin<.;"o, was a chivalric ideal <»f the ^Mexican, aiul >io less so of liis Hispano-Californian felhtw-citizen. It partook of tiie tiii'es at once of jiolitical ])rivate(^rin'j;', religious e!'u- hti«r, a)\d race reven''*'. Pecuiiiai-ilv it was th«' m:i Ml( «r sharp practice of the stttck operator, and the crusliin injustice of tho railway monopolist, comhined. Th(! (^difornios, as the ]lispano-Calif(»rnians loved til call thrmselves, like the cittv;«'ns of the oth^r Xorth- M'xican States, were peculiarly fitted for tliis vi»ca- ti 111. In the first jdace. liny fltcertaiM of the m'eded svDipatiiy of a considerahh^ jiortion of tliose helonn'in'^ til their race, which uavo tiiem assui'ance. They also niti itained the idea, however eri'oneous. that l»y con- trihutinii" a shai-e of their ill-gotten ^ains to the il'.urch, their nialofjietions would he dealt, with liy its 'iiiaisters as niei-e iirei(id;;rities, oj- as \ciiial sins The soul was n(»t, thelefol-e. in I'iisilv wa slu'd awav stiiiius jeopardy. Pri^iit eyes wort^ not lacking- to on- iii (I tears of sorrow if reverses l)(>fell the (ilijeets of tlit'ii' admiration and love. A passionate f mdness for ili^jilay |>r'ove(l an inrportant factttr; pride lent a reek- I'ss daiui!:;' : and superstition raised every tearofeon- >^^''[Uences into heroic stoicism. Unliridled [missions 6U BANDITTI. fi'd iiicri il«'ss srity, and no traninidod ronsoiciK c tin-'i'd i\u' tnud cniovnu'nt of illii'it cliasf. Add t.) tlu'«o, perfect liorscniaiisliip, tlic skilful use of aiiii.>, and an easy retreat, and we liavt; players in this i^iii;;.' of life and death uinnatelied hy any plaee or prop!,. Stune few of Aipjjlo-Saxon lineat^i' attemptt-tl tin prt)fessl()n of hij^lnvaynuin in Calilornia. i>ut tlnir 1 Iforts proved failures. It is not their proper v tion. T^'l't'y hu\i tlie rer. JJrfore ent» linji; theh' earet-r tluy wri^^h jiioh.'diihtic-. never afterward stt»|>j>iiit^ to tinu^ their speed (ow.inl the death !L;oaI. For their month or year of iiii;litrinus fame an( 1 riches many or few, they ilive that wIik thousands s^ive foi' twelve (»r twenty dollars Ji nmutl without the jxlorv, without even the i'j;nominious t';iiiii of tlu- I'ohher, n;nnely their life. In tli<' case of tin hiL!;hway rohl>er. in liis infernal eiiii()iii/.;iti'.>n, with t!,i atlvocatus diaholi Jippear-inL? on one siut in le^ali/ed stealinii; tl isjiothin^' maidv, notirm;.H)ut eowai'diee and nieai lis. ifiv III' Ijet me introduce .some of our most famous eetill men of the road, .>urel\ as much entitled to .1 I'lii" on tlio rohhini of all.' hoy, ,I( a na th- in Is-ii twenty hril)i;mi _\e;trs. terms h Jn tlio , ^vas ill t fl.at ]|,- 'h'a((uin iii.indiiio ^1 "Uriiiii- < »!' n7. Il ■• was '-'laecfiii lii;^h for* |'l<>\c(l I ••■|>e, kilK •'•llection, \vliile M \\ ''•M(| seiisi tl II on hi.v. •"^ilKV niou >lia\ (■(!. \eic(. sjly, ><> youth fi ^^liieh miH i"i|'res.sed IVs|„.,.t. Aiii;v|(.s, a 'li-^ hro|||,.| ''le murdf Sf.ltr.l tj,.,t ■'I'l'l others JOAQUIN MUHIKTA. MTi on tho panjos of liistory, as tlioso who horonio famous i(>ltViiiia(]uiii ^^ul•iL'ta, the Fia Diavoloof I*]) Dorado, a iiatlvt,' of Sonoi-ji, ^Vrcxico, wlio came to (.'ulifoniia ill 1S4'.). He was ])ut a few montlis monr tlian t\v»'iitv-oiie vcai's of h'W wl icn ho died, aiiress his ((ualities. Ill tlic cauoiis of California lie was what Napoleon w IS ill the citii's of I'^urope; unf i^cnius. .h>ii(|uiii would have hecn no more out of place com- iiKiiidiiionapart»' would iiavo hceii s. ouriiij^ the Salinas plains. ( M' medium height, and somewhat slender in fi^ur(\ he was extremely active and athletic, ante; l;il'4-e hlack eyes hla/in;jj with vindicti\«' pur- pnse, kindled with eiithus'iasm. or nieltiii;^ in tender iiileetion, «lis|i!ayed tlie earnestness t\\' his nature, while a well shaped mouth showed at once firmness iiiiil sensuality, lioni^ Howini.>' hah" of flossy hlack till on his shouldei's, and on his up|>er lip was a thin MlKN' nious tael le, as helon^i m>jf to one who had iie\ei' slias e( I. II IS manner was fran and coniia I: 1 lis \nice silvery and of generous utterance; and though SH y,,utliful ill appearance there was that ahout him whirhmade hhii Imth Iwxcd aiirotlier-in-law was anai^^iied with some others for tin murdei' of (Jeiieral IJean. and in his confession ^t.ited that the year hefore Nfurii ta had jnined him and others in a horse-stealing expl«»it, the hoi'ses (^o nAXMTTI, hfiriLr rrtakcn by a Ti'Jom cliicP. ^runcta on lioarin- this tied uikI bccaino an outlaw aniii(ied with tin? trnn r«'V()lutioii. lie had h«M'ii educated in the seliool of revohition in Mexie(», wiien^ the line h( - tweeii rrlirl, rohhrr, ))illaj4er, and i)atriot had Ix-en t«i a iireat »xtent ol>literati'tl. It is i-asv to see that lir rcLjarded himself ratlier as a ('hann»ion of hiscounliy than as an outlaw. Joa<|uin, when in liis seventeentli yoar, bceanic enamoured of the heautiful tiark-tyed liosita FeH\, who Mas of (Aistilian descent, and sweet Hixti-en; sin- n-'turned his j)assion with all the ardor of her >iatui( . Iler hard-i^rained old father on discoverin|L( this anmiii Hew Into a ra^'e, and would have vented it upon tin hoy had he not taken to tli'^ht. Jiosita f<»llowed In r lover to the northern wildei'iiess. assisted liim in Ins ellorts at honi'st livln«jf, attended him through all tin lietlls of his unlawful achievements, and finally, wlnii death so caily si-vered them, returneil to the land <>[ lur cliildhitod, and under the roof of Ids jiaiiiit> mouined her well-hcloxcd thiourili lon<^ drejiry yeais. liesides Ilosita there Were manv other female n ifiii- hcrs o f tl lis unnolv frati I'rintv wli(» waited on tlun' itrds with lovinii heai-ts. ( arm* •lit I. a vo hipti lulls heauty. the fascinatiiiLj l\*eyes l'\'li\ won from a jiack. i, and, hrinnin^ her on his hovse hehind him into camp oiK- eveiiin*^, tlrt)pped her in the midst of lii> associates with tlu^ laconic introduction "there is mv wif» And when later lirisei S e'ocs. Achill es WuepS, hut not for Hrlstis; rage wrin;j,s from him tears |{i>sita had h-ft a little hrother at her honn' in Sonora. Heyes Felix, who, when the fameof tlu' diisli- in»; hiiijfand reaclu'tl his oai", hurned with romniitii passion to join him. Not loip.j afterward his father died, and the liberated boy, th';ii liilccli years of a^i'. immcdi of ills I lants ol liaiiLjin* ^ ()ne' (Jarci'a finufcred diirlnLf ] hly he V tation w hraverv eus. if Mild po\v appejiraii societv". trank jr* f"»i-m froi iiis love < siiiii'c,.^ m uliat was nAnriA, rT.Aunio, and ooxzalez. (M7 iiiinictliatily souijlit tlic r()l)lH>r chu'f, aiul bccnnu' ono of Ills most ilt'vott'd followta's. Jiut alasl tlu- vi;j;i- lauts of Los Auiiclc's Hnallv nswardod liis iiitiits l>v liaMi;iM!4 lilm. ()ii(^ monster tluTc wjis in Joaquin's IkiikI, Manuel ( lareia liv name, tliou<'li conuaonlv known as Three- tin;j;eie(l Jack, from liavinsjf liaIy lie was the most sani^uinary of tliem all; liis re|)u- tiition was no less conspicuous for cruelty than for hiiiNcry ; eiuel men are not usually tin; most<<>uia;4e- ous. Iff was as ruiXu'ed in features as he was Ijiryc anil powerful in frame, and was so feroc'ious in his earan('i': that few of his assoi-iates enjoyed his society. His m the lithe ijraee of his master. To <>iatifv Ills love of human butchery he chose tlio most jnolllic soui'ce. and ado|»ted as a specialty of the profession what was known as stickinjj; Chinamen. How he i\o- li'^hted in seeiny till' tail and with a peculiar twist of his own iiiven- th'u throwm«j; up the chm so as to prese.it an iniol>- stnicted mark — that out of evtM'v ten, he us»(l to lioast. not more than five escaped. If there were iiioio than ton, of ccjurse the proportion was against I mil. Vet in all this, Garcia add(>d little to the iv^mta- tiou achieved while; Joa(|uin was yet at school in Soiiora. As far hack as 1 SKI we liiid him at t he head "f a hand Ixtween Sonora and l^odeoa with the two Americans. (\»wie and Fowler, stripped and hound to a Uee, while (Jarciu and Win associates were torturinL!" 018 KANDIiTI. tlM'in by tlirowiuiLj kiiivrH at tlu'ir bodies as at a tarstructionH with blo(MJ,nono were more forward tliaii Captain (Maut or for«j:av(! ! IN'dn) GonzaK'Z was |)rominent in Joacjuin's ass(»(ia- tion as an expert hors< '-thief; and wheri; a constant supply of fresh and fast horses was of sucb vital iin- poitance, he proved an invaluable adjunct. He did not delight in human blood likt; (larci'a, nor was lir a good counsellor such as Valenzuela, nor yet so dasli'mi; aner of liis band, called also, sometimes. .roatjuin, but never, unli ss bv mistake, Murieta. He was known also as Canilln, Botiller, and other aliasen. His true name was J > 'U- f|Min Vi j»(rs(»n, ,^'ive to in tlie n Tt wa "ihn ill ^^Inn'eta ^vitIl u-re, ^ 'denzu, da-^-e ill Cliief. w) C.frh'st ii mark able ;r'»ve|-|||||e ]»'ditions Claiice « l.'iw-ahjd liini. Jfa '"•••ists. J » f.'dl, stra, inn- eyes, ■sli'MjIders. '^|"niishc(ti| s' if Was 'rs ,r.|\ ^'h'seus on T<'Mij(s M l.iUi,|,.,| Cai; Andres Ai '^"''•dad iiiH HAIlllY I-OVK. TIIIKF lATCIIKR. fHiifi Valciizucla. It was tliis aiiMllaritv in naino and |M rsuii, as iiiucli as any otluT oircuinstaiu*', which ri;^ht hurn- iii'^' (>ves, anrl lon«.^ glftss^y ringlets fallinu^ over his sliy a Sjiiuiish count wh(tm he had rescuss aHonh'd him no further ]i|i;isure. Jle thouj^ht now he would like to kill .In.iiiu'm Murieta. Harry gn .atly enjoyed slaying liuni.ui Ixlngs, but he did 7t'> lik(> so well to be ]iiiii'4(Ml for it; so lie asked t'>' legislature at Sacra- iiiiiito if he might go out and kill Joa(|uin. The law- iiijikcrs ga\(' him permission; and, as doughty as Tluseus on his first journey to Athens, he set out. Toniils Marfa Carrillo, a soldier of the lately dis- l>aii(|i'(l Callfornian army, headed a ruttian gang, and Aidres Armijo, another. The coutitrv hctwcen Suli (lad and JSan Miguel in 1849 was infested by IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) .J" 1.0 I.I 1^ V" M IlilM m 2.2 1.8 . 1.25 1.4 1.6 ^ 6" ► PhotogK^hic Sciences Corporation \ S V ' ;\ \ <■« <1 0^ 23 WEST MAIN STREET rVEBSTER, NY. 14580 (716) 872-4503 1 ^J I 650 BANDITTI. roving bands of Sonorans and Californians, wlio sacked ranchos, and waylaid travellers. Tlie })()\vor of the alcaldes — the Mexican system still existiao' — backed by the provisional government under (jloncii.l Riley, was utterly inadequate to meet the present emergency. Salomon Pico, — whose near companions, Cccllco Mesa and William Otis held prominent positions, — was captain of a well-organized and formidable band of malefactors roaming: round Monterey duriiiix the spring of 1851. Little fear had Captain Pico of capture, in a region where the friends of his youtJi, and of his numerous relatives dwelt, and wluic, indeed, the very adobes of the ancient capitol trem- bled at the mention of his name. Among the ranch- eros, there were, however, foes, as well as friends. From the latter he received voluntary aid; from tlie former he took what he pleased of their goods. Neverth(}less, but for treachery, the inept town's ]k'(_)[i]o never would have dared to assail him. The Escohar rancho, situated six miles from Monterey, was tlnii in charge of an American named Josiah Swain, whoso death Salomon Pico and his com[)any had decided upon. But one of the band who would take no part in the proposed murder, fled to Monterey, exposed his confederates, and directed the citizens to tin ir capture. This was about the middle of April l^ol. Of the five brought into town, three, Pico, Mesa, and Otis, were tried by the people and sentenced to Ite hanged, but were lescued by the authorities. Tlie fate of Otis is given elsewhere. Mesa was discharged. Pico was bailed out, and he escaped from the coiintiy. He finally went to live in Lower California, near our frontier, and some years after for his share in some political squabble, was shot by order of local authoi Ity. Doctor Thomas J. Bell, from Alabama, by pi-ofes- sion physician, miner, gambler, and robber-capliin, was by far the most intelligent, acconi|)li.she(h and kind-hearted American geutleu^an who ever took the TOM BELL AND VAZQUEZ. 651 road in California. He flourished in the region of the San Joaquin, and north of it, during the summer of 1856. As compared wich Joaquin he was older, more intellectual, more humane, and fitted better to tliievc within the limits of the law; the Sonoran chief was of keener instincts, quicker movements, and pos- sessed of far greater administrative ability. Second only in name and achievements to Joaquin ]\rurieta, in the history of California highwaymen, stands Tiburcio Vazquez; but except in skill of horse- manship, and dexterity in catching and killing men, one was the o])i)oslte of the other. Joaquin was of Liciitle blood, and as handsome, and <;av, and chival- rous as any youthful knight-errant; Vazquez was a liybrid, half Indian, coarse, treacherous, brutish. His boyhood was spent in taming wild mustangs, (•uttiui»: flesh W'ith bowie-knives, and shootinu:, danchiij tlie bt)lero and fandango, and betraying young damsels. Indeed, he was a bedeviled Don Juan at love. Repulsive monster though he was, the dear creatures could not help following him. Tiburcio with difficulty finds an excuse for taking U]) tlie hatchet. " The Americans came hi and elbowed me at the dance," he complains. "They drew after tlicm the prettiest girls, so I killed them." Ol^taln- iiig his mother's blessing, and conniiendiug himself to the protection of the saints, he set out upon his pious pur])ose. Tliere were twenty years and more between the n'igns of Joaquin and Tiburcio, though tliere w^ere twenty years intervening between Til)urcio's first iimnler and his last. To realize htain Juan Soto, mustang stealer, and tutor to the apt sc-holar Til)urcio, and who sul)sequently served under his pupil, was a dashing horseman, wiio could hide bidiind his horse at full speed. Soto was a fa- vorite with the ladies. Brave deeds make dark c\ is sparkle. Then the horses he stole 1 The brass steal of Cambuscan, whicli in one day would carry its rider to any spot of earth by simply whispering the naiiio of the place in its ear and turning a pin, was scarce ly more fleet of foot. SANATE, MORENO, CHAVEZ. 653 Captain Sanate, with Moreno acting as lieutenant, roamed round Los Angeles. Sanate with his entire cf)ni[)any attended unbidden a ball once given in Los Angeles. Dashing up to the house, some stood guard while others entered, robbed the men, danced with tlie women wliether they would or no, ate ihe sup})er, drank the wine, and with a polite adieu vanished. Lucifer was alive hi them ; after attending this pleas- ure-party, they plundered some houses and captured a bevy of sehoritas, v.hich raised the town. The marshal pursuing, Sauate shot him dead. Moreno was a traitor. The night of the stolen dance he had secured, among other plunder, a valuable watch. A reward of ^1,500 having been offered for Sanate's head, Moreno shot him, killed Bulvia, who liad detected hhn, and carting both bodies to the jailer at Los Angeles, told a story of heroic daring, how he had been taken captive, and how he had killed his captors and carted them thither. Moreno was the idol of the hour; the brigands were such a boMier. Unfortunately, he showed the stolen watch to a jew- clli.'r, who recognized it, and Moreno was sent to San Quentin for fourteen years. The authorities deemed the .i? 1,500 sufficient payment for the nmrder, without the further expense of a hanghig. Clod(miiro Chavez was tlie tool of Vazquez. Before he knew the bandit chief, he lived an hone.st life in tlie vicinity of San Juan, where his younger days were s})ent. Shortly before the Tres Pinos tragedy, lie was in the service of Eatanislao Hernandez. Se- iluced by Vazquez, it S(H)n was his ambition to be a r()l)ber chief. But he lacked the cjualities of liis mas- ter. Physically he was a splendid specimen of a man, being over six feet in heiglit, weighing 250 jxtunds, iuid yet as lithe and strong as a tiger. His qualitications, for the career of a leader -of banditti stopped here. Vazquez was cumiing aiul reckless, and had always r('ad\', convlvialitv for his comrades, mo.iev for tliose 111 want, and a smile for everybody. His persoiial v.f ' :1 ..* 654 BANDITTI. masjnctism and influonco over others was somctliii'.jf woiidortul. Chavez, on the other hand, was intellect- ually dull, with a cold-blooded, lymphatic tenijiiia- nient, repelling rather than inviting friendship. Foj. lowers joined Vazquez because they could not stav away from lum. Chavez' band was composed of those wlio became robbers from necessity, and not lie- cause they h)ved their leader. Chavez was killid near Texas Hill, hi Arizona, in November 187;"), $2,000 having been oftered for his head. In the manuscripts of J. J. Vallejo and others, I find mentioned a Mexican Fra Diavolo, Vicente Gomez, who toward the close of the M<'xican vow for independence, connnanded a.banil of guerrilleins in the service of the republic. And of such weie hundreds. This man was noted for the savagery of his instincts. The Spaniard wlio fell into his clutches was castrated; this practice gaining for Gomez the title of El Capador, which was invariably appended to bis name. The victim was then usually sewn up in a fresh ox hide placed in the sun, and left to i)eris]i, attended by the most horrible sufferings, caused liy the contraction of the hide as it dried up. S[)anisli women met a still more horrible fate. The iidiumuni- ties of the monster shocked even his ruffian followers, who, incited thereto by their queridas, remonstrated ati^ainst such sanijuinarv measures. "Sanguinary 1" exclaimed Gomez. "You surely do not call me sanguhiary. Show me the man who, with as artistic torturings as mine, puts out life with less bloodshed." Gomez, for having taken part in a re- bellion, was sent by the Mexican governmentas an exilo to the Californias, and was shot dead by a lieutenant named llamirez, who, pleading that the deed had been accidental, was ac(|uitted at his trial. Gomez con- ducted himself quietly while in California. The unsettled condition of society in California, the abundance of money, the amount of travel, mostly THE ninilWAYMAX'S HEAVEN. 655 1)V troasurc-ladeii miners, on the lonely roads of the mountains and plains, the herds of fine horses graz- iii'j; everywhere within easy reach of the rohber, and tiiially, tlie soft and genial climate of the country, ivndered possible, developed, and conduci'd to the ] rosperity of the guild of highwaymen, mIio had for tlu ir field of operations a territory quite as extensive, and as I'ich in booty and stirring hazard as was the Spanish Main to the dreaded buccaneers, self- styled the ]^rotherhood of the Coast. Having briefly alluded to the chief men who won for tlieniselves a name in the career of crime, I will now proceed to relate some of the ex})l()its of him who deservedly stood head and shoulders over all other knights of the road in California, if not, indeed, siqu'rior to the most famous leaders of highwaymen recorded in the annals of other countries. Joa(|uin Murieta, the terror of the Stanislaus, has aliistorv, which thouoli crimson with nnirder, abounds ii\ chamatic interest. He Avas a Mexican of good Mootl, as I have said, born in the department of 8onora, and received an ordinary education in the scliools of his native country. In his youth he is snid to have been mild, affectionate, and genial In dis- position, the pet of the maestro, and a favorite among his fellows of the play-ground. Yet, while acknowl- edging the pulp3' sweetness of his boyhood, it is safe to pn'sume that there was a dash of bandit blood in tlie veins of Joaquin, which was eventually to fire his liciut with the madness for an outlaw life. As Joa- ver was then spreading oviT its wild ranges. Iri the memorable s})ring of IBoO we find him engaged as an honest miner anu/ng the Stanislaus placers, where he had a rich clah)i, and was fast amassing a competency, w^hen, one e\ ening, a party of some half dozen American desperadoes swaogrred into his little cabin where with liosita he was Hbting after a hard (lav's work. 1 :l 056 BANPITT "You don't know, I suppose, that groasors aro. not allowed to take gold from Aniericaii ground," Ixouu the leader insolently. "If you mean that 1 have no right to my elaiiii, in obtainhig wliich I have conformed to all tlie laws uf the district, I certahdy did not know it," answiird Joatjuin with quiet dignity. " Well, you may know it now. And you have not to go; so vamouse, git, and that instanter, and take that trumpery with you," jerking his thumh towanl Ilosita. "The women if anything are worse than the men." Joaquin stepped forward with clinched hand, wliile the hot blood mantled his face: " I will leave tluse parts if such be your wish, but speak one word against that woman, and though you were ten times an American, you shall rue it." Scarctdy were tliese words uttered when anotlier of the party reached over and struck Joa(]uin a severe blow in the face. The latter sprang for his bowie- knife, which he had thrown upon the bed on return- ing from his work, when Rosita, instinct with the danger such rashness threatened, threw herself befnre him, and seizing him in her arms, frantically luld him. For the intruders to thrust aside the woman and strike the unarmed man senseless was the work of a moment. When Joaquhi awoke to consciousnrss, it was to find Rosita prostrate, her face buried in lier clotlies, sobbing hysterically. Then he knew the worst. Fleeingf from liis outraged home on the Stanislaas. Joaquin and his devoted companion sought refuu*' on a modest little rancho, hid away hi the rugged sechi- sion of the Calaveras mountains. II's cream of peace was goon broken, however, by the sudden a[)i)arilion of two bearded missionaries, whose monosylhiliie warning, "Gitl" threw down hishop^sand household gods once more hito the dust. The hapless twain were driven out from the shadows of Calaveras, and once mn 'liid Joa .icings; b he finalh tioi) of ni time dec ^<\v of th( <'uts," am <'Ustoniers Tlie no young So '"■friend ]i into J J is e\ destined U wt^'ars. M horrowed a lanclio i fliiiining tl ^lurieta p] Tills, l](nv that tJie c Was diaro'e 'It'atJi. A and Murieti iiioney for ^""ling to J) ivgarcied. amid cries o 'lUiTJedJy ea ^^Iioin tiicy tlie branch ^tnpped, bou tilt) Jieavy h expression aj '■"1^' stamped tutors on the J'utionors ha( leaving him v J'lurieta regis CAL. i'Asl EVOLUTION OF A DEMON. 657 once more became fu-jritivos in tlie land. We next find Joacjuin working as a miner at Murpliy Dig- !j;inwever, availed him not. Indeed, it seems that the claim was a well-founded one, and jSIurieta was charged with the theft, tlie penalty whereof was (Katli. A half-drunken crowd soon gathered around, and Murieta's protestations of innocence, and offers of money for a respite until witnesses could be forth- coming to prove the truth of his statement, were dis- rc;j;arded. He was pulled down fr()m the saddle, and amid cries of " kill the thief 1 hang the greaser 1 " they hurriedly carried him to the rancJio of his brother, whom tliey summarily launched into eternity from the branch of a neighboring tree. Joacjuin was stri|)[)ed, bound to the same tree, and flogged. While the heavy lash was lacerating his back, a demoniac exjiression appeared upon his face; he looked around and stamped the features of each of his perse- cutors on the tal)lets of his memory. When the exe- cutioners had finished their work, they departed, loa\ ing him with his dead. It was then that Joaquin Murieta registered his oath of vengeance which he so i>" i Cal. Vast. 42 ,-♦' 658 B.\XT>irr:. rolontlcssly kept, rarely sparino^ oven tlio innocent. From tliat liour lie was the iniplaralde fue of eviiv American, and evenof every beinuj tliat bore the res< m- blanco of a grinujo. Lucifer had him now for jiis « w ii. Words have Ix-en put in ^lurieta's lips to the etl< < t that he had atone time felt a great an, which ravaged the country in everv direction, ll.is band consisted sometimes of twenty, and at other times of as many as eighty. The boy leader 'jave proof ever}"" day of possessing a peculiar genius for ( on- trolling the most accomplished scoundrels that had ever congregated in Christendom, He was th^ir PvULE.^ OF TilE R()imi:i<8. 650 master; his word was tlioir law, and woc^ bctldf liiiii \\\\n dared to disohi-y, wliilc to break faitli NvUli a li;llo\v-robl)er was (juiek deatli. A ineinl>er of tlio liand, perforated l>y four l»ull<'ts, was raptured iu l'\l)ruary 18r)3, at Los Muertos, near Los Anodes, lirou-'lit to San Andreas, tried, and haiii^ed hv tlio jieople. Ho was but an liund)le member of the ]»r<)fes- Miiii, and when he saw that d«'ath was certain, lie was iii(hieedto talk a Httle. He siiid tliatiu/ nuMnber of tlio fraternity was much res})ected who liad not killed h.is man, and each ranked in importance according" to tlio number that he liad slain. This was something- as it i; i:i the army. Every niend»er was bound uiidi'r iii')st solenni oaths, first, to obey liis superiors. ])is- (.'it'dience was punished with death. There was hardly one chance in a liundreline, were es- S'litial as well to their })er.sonal safety as to p(^cun'iary ^^u<■('ess. This Completeness of organization, coujiled wiih the awful power wielded by the header, enabled the band during; nearlv three vcars to carrv on its I I'll 'rations, and its boyish chief to Hit between towns and country. Hipping his fingers hi the face of pol'ce aixl peo[)le, while throughout th(; length and breadtli of tlie Californian valky, from Shasta to Tulare, and along the coast line of missions the country was wail- ing its dead and ringing with rewards. The modus ojtirandi to accompli.sh the purposes of the organiza- tion was as follows: Each sul^altern was restrictid ti) certain limits beyond which he tlare not step. He had to be at all time.« ready to receive an order from any captain or lieutenant of the band. His eyes and ear> were to be always open, and his mouth closed; passing events were to be narrowly observed, sucli as the yield of the various mining claims, the drift of I- I Eli i 'v\ li 4 (U'lO BANDITTI. tho mold (lust, wlu'io a coinpany k«'pt tlulr inonov. or i'l'itaiii Cliiiiaiiu'ii liiul irukltn tln'irs. It was, iiioic- <»vt'r. liis tlutv t«> slu'ltiT aiul piottct anv of tlic liiotlu'iluMKl iH'cdiijt^ liis as.sistaiicf; to wjini tliciii of Waller, aiul jirovuli! horses ami aid to cscaiH": and ir,.|i. t'lallv, to assist tlirm in all their undertakliiirs. Joaany well supplied with the host horses in the country. There were, also, nieiiihcis livin«; in towns, and amouj^ the peaceable inhabitants, pursuiiii; honest oceui>ations, wlio wire spies, and kept the ofHeers <»f the band advised of matters they wtie desirous of knowinj;. To relate the hundred of incidents in which Joa- < )ne ev ' '"LT at a liver, wl >;.'<)() tliat first time (lari'-devil •nid thrusi take tJie I the corfk-r <'"wn, sti-o lode away lii the f hnrses tJiro his retlB-u { Arroyode ( «iid the Tu I'lcvious to Los Angele 111(11 toward ^',^J't, iAfurie s<'l\(xl to roj victim happt 1II(;il\VAYMAX OALLANTUY, eei oftlu' white |»yraml»l ot'Sliastn, tlic IkukI nuiinod tiiany iiioiitlis rni;a'4r«l ill liorse-.st«'alin<4'. with now and tlicn u iiiuidti'. Oiirt' while two of the hainl wt'ic t;allo|)- iti;^ near tlie town of llaniiUon, an elk inslied past them hotiv pmsned hv ji heautiful d tln-m not to harm her, hut little t I>ivvious to this that thoy sojourned for a wliile in Los Aiiijcles ami vicinitv. Hidin«^ with some of his nun toward Sari Luis (ionzaga, and his ])Uise Icing lii;lit, IVEurii'ta, after the manner of Kobin Hood, re- siilvixl to r(»b the first man that came aloiiir T] le victim happened to be a young fellow named Albert Kudille, who was driving a wagon loaded with gro- ceries. Joafjuin requested the loa;> of what money lie had, promising to return it at an early opportunity. f-fi BANDITTI. Ruddle made a movement as if to draw a weapon. Ho was told to keep quiet or he would be killed, l)iit as he persisted, Joaquin witli a muttered impreoatioii, slashed him across the neck with his knife, almost severimx the head from the body. After riflino- the dead man's pockets tlie robbers rode off. While in Los Angeles for a few days, he lieard that Deputy Sheriff Wilscm of Santa Bjirbara was on liis trail, witli the avowed intention of taking him dead or alive. Hi' got up a sham fight between two Indians in fnmt of tlie hotel were Wilson was staying. The latter came <;ut to see the fight, when Joaquin ro(l(^ swiftly to him, and hissing his own terrible name in lils ear, drove a bullet throu«j;h his head and drove awav. Riding one day alone toward the town of ]^os H(n'nitos, the chief met young Joe Lake, a playmate of his boyhood. - In the course of their conversatinn Joacjuin revealed his present mode of living, and siiid, "Joe, you are the only American whose good oj)ini()ii I crave. Believe me my friend, I was driven to this by hellish wrongs." "Why don't you leave the conn- trv, and abandon vour criminal life ?" answered Jne. " Too late, Joe, I n\ust die now as I live, pistol in hand. Do not l)etray me; do not divulge having nut :nc here. If you do, I shall be very sorry," signifi- cantly tapping the stock of his revolver. Lake deemed it his duty to appraise the authoritiis of Murieta's presence, and the usual persecution l»('uaii. The next morning a portly ranchero came up to Lake, and saying, "You betrayed me, Joel" })lunged a knife into his breast, and rode away unharmed. One evenhig Joaquhi rode int(j a camp where abdut '25 mhiers were at supper, and sitting sideways on his horse entered hito conversation with them. It so liappened that a man who knew him by sight s(mii after came from the creek, and on seehig him ealito awful depths of the cafion below. A shower of bullets greeted liis reappearance, but none touched liini, as he daslied up and along that dizzy path, wav- ing his dagoer and shouting defiance. In the early part of March, 1853, Joaquin, un- attended, visited a large Mexican camp on Burns creek, about twenty miles from the town of Mariposa. Ife presented the appearance of a dashing cavalier, with plumed sombrero, gold laced cloak, and gayly (•a[)ans()ned steed, as he slowly rode down the principal thoroughfare of the camp, tinkling his spurs to the iiuasures of some livelv fandan<;o, and was the cvno- isurc of many admiring glances from the eyes of the seuoritas. Passing in front of a saloon he called for ji se canip.s, all of wliicli they desolated, the cries of their victims beinuf heard at Ion*; distances. Find- iiig themselves pursued by a party of Americans, they cahaly conthiued their devastation, until the pursuers Wort! within half a mile of them, when they mounted their steeds, and rode away with the speed of tlie wind. ■ > 664 BANDITTI. On one occasion, Murieta riding leisurely in disguise throu5/li Stockton, he saw tlie hand-bills otiLiin"' $1,000 for his capture. Taking from his pocket a pencil, he wrote on the margin beneath one of them, "I will give $5,000. Joaquhi," and quietly rode away. One night a cattle-dealer, whose name was Cocail- ouris, was camping with one Companion on the San Joaquin, when they were visited by several IMcxicaiis, splendidly mounted and gaily attired, wlio asked for supper and a place to sleep. Their occupation being quits evident, they were treated with much politeness, and their requests promptly complied with. In the morning the robber was cordially greeted by the cat- tle dealer : "And how does Senor Joaquin this morning?" "You know me, then," replied the robber. " I knew you the moment I saw you," said Cuca- riouris. "And why did you not kill me last night when I slept, and secure the reward?" demanded Joaquin. "I do not like to kill men: I do not care for tlic reward," replied the host. "Besides, you never in- jured me; you asked for food ; if every man deserving' to be hanged went supperless, there would be many an empty chair at more tables than mine." "True," replied Joaquin, meditatively, "and I will see that you lose nothing by your broad philosopliy." Cocariouris was often on the road with large lienls of stock, not one head of which was ever, to his knowledge, touched by any of Murieta's band. The audacity of this chief, united to his celerity of movement, at a time when the country had no eoni- munication by railway or telegra|»h, enabled liini and his men to effect the most remarkable escapes, as we have seen. He would show himself now here, now there, like an impish apparition which vanished at the approach of danger. In February 1853, Joaquin and his band swept througl: went, tlie gov( unme H ncss of • many tj scourge One e death, tl the Salii tliemselv J'olitely host that way to Si asked if i he repliet 1110 alive.' of the wr his. Ill lodging ai departed .' ^-■iras tJio '•ara, and ^^lurieta's nnd it was California. I have 1 tl)is faniouf the nnnied it sliould b< i^i'd fraten <^'ial liouten ("•I'c the to ill widely oanie so re ^vliilo over LOVE AND HATE. 680 through Calaveras, robbinir and slaughtering as tlioy wont. Again was a reward of a $1,000 offered by the governor for his capture. The people of !Mokel- unnie Hill and elsewhere were indiixnant at the small- ness of the amount, when they themselves liad spent many thousands in their fruitless attempts. The scourge continued, and gloom overspread the foothills. One evening in April 1853, shortly before Joa(|uin's death, three men rode up to the house of a ranclio on the Salinas plains and demanded refreshments for themselves and their horses, which were rcadilv and ])()litely served. After supper they informed tlieir host that they were from the upper country on tiicir way tr\vard Mack hi m the ] i'lg dow the fire, Joa(]uin into tlie f •ceded i] Captain borse, an "To L Turnin sajne que returned. "I conni tlien niovi J''.v tJie sa '^^as order f'x'ked ]\h cr ]je Avot •scornfully of Ills wra '•y tlie sic resting li^ ';f'»"d a litt '"r his ch J >y riles, Av "loved up, "p. called '"•st tJiey ( Ids cliargei tlie niounti CAPTURE OF THE BAND, CO" Thus tne toils which must inevitably sooner or later end such a career v/ere closiiig round Joa(ju'in. In the latter part of July, with eight of his rangers, Love came upon a party of Mexicans in camp iirar tlie Tejon pass. Six of them were seated round a small fire, where preparations for breakfast were going forward, while the seventh, he of the slender iigure, and graceful limbs, and larixe black eves, and 1( n'>- black hair, a perfect Apollo, richly dressed, blooming in the pride of health and manly beauty, was wasli- iiig down a superb bay horse, at a little distance from tlie fire, with some water which he held in a i)an. Joacpin was unknown to the rangers, who dashed into tlie camp before they were discovered, and suc- ceeded in cutting the robbers oft' from thtir horses. Captain Love rode up to the one standing by his horse, and encpiired whither they were going. "To Los Angeles," the chief replied. Turning to one of the others, the captain put the same question when an entirely dift'erent answer was rt turned. Joaquin bit his lip and sj)oke up angrily, "I connnand here; address yourself to me." He tlien moved a few steps toward the fire, around which lay the saddles, blankets, and arms of the party. He was ordered to stop, and when he did not heed, Love cocked his revolver upon him and told him to stand or he would shoot. The cliief tossed his hair back scornfully while his eyes blazed with the lightnings of his wrath, and stepping backward he stood a^ain l>y the sitle of his haiK.lsome steed, his jewelled liand restinu" liuhtlv on its mane. Three-Fino;ered .lack ';tood a little distance away, fully armed and waiting tor his chief. At this critii'al moment Lieut( nant ]>yrnes, with whom J()a(|uin was well ac(pi;iintcd, moved up, and Joaquin realizing that the game was ii]*, called out to his followers to save themseKcs tlie hest they could, and threw himsi>lf u[)on the back of ills charger without saddle or bridle, and s}»ed one inaklng his escape being wounded, and was captured •It PI til 670 BANDITTI. next da}'. Ho was scut to San Quentin for a tenu of years and afterward hanjxed. Second only to Joafjuiu Murieta's liand during the earlier days of higjiway robbery in California was that of Tom B(;ll, or Thomas J. Bell, as he subscrihrd his name. He was a native of Alabama, where In; received a medical education, came to California iu 1850, and at first worked honestly enough as aiiTnur, but finally took to gambling. Having unsuccessfully wooed the fickle goddess at the card-table, he became desperate, and going out upon the highway, he took her by the throat. Bell was six feet high, lithe, sin- ewy, sanguine in temperament, and quick inaction; of a sandy comj)lexion, with a light blue eye, wliicli, though ordinarily mild, would, when aroused by op- position, blaze with the intensity of his wrath. Ho had six or eight followers, and in the summer of 1 S,")0 they roamed the foothills from the Yubas to Granite cit}'. He was kind-hearted and magnanimous for a robb(T and nmrderer, and sometimes disgraced liis calling by acts that proved him to be possessed of a human heart. A traveller carrying a large sum of money was oiio afternoon riding along a shady mountahi road that Ird down to the valley, beguiled, maybe, by beautiful visions of the far-off home to which he was return in:;', and was just throwing back his head to attack tlie high part of ''The Girl I Left behind Me," a plaintive melody he had been devotedly whistling for half an hour, when he heard the clatter of horses' feet on the road behind him. Turning in his saddle, he saw three horsemen galloping rapidly after him, some fifty yards away, one of whom called to liim to stop. Beal- izing the true character and hnport of the invitation, the traveller put spurs to his horse, and soon pursuers and pursued were racing like the wind down tlie mountain. A shot from Bell's pistol struck the fugi- tive in the leg, and Ijrought him down. Having le- ADVENTURES OF BELL. en liovcd the man of his moncj', instead of (lcspatrhin|r liini with a knife, or leaving him to dit^ in tlie iojkI. of lieinorrhaire, tlie handit doetor in-occeded skilfullv and tend(!i'ly to take up tlie severed artery, and hind the wound. Just as he was finishintly done, the astonished individual hrought to a stand, ami dis- eiioumhered of his money. A hed was then hastily made in the hottom (jf the wagon, the woundrd man placed upon it, and the driver told to proceed, hut to (liiv(^ slowly and avoid the ruts. In aiiswer to the request of the traveller to tie his horse to the wagon, j^oll declined, but promised to turn it loost^ at that spot after strip})ing it of its gear, which he did. A singular tragedy occurred in connection with the attempted recapture of three of Bell's hand who had escaped from the Xevada.jail. Just afti'r dark. < >n the night of the 3d of November, 185C, the slieritf re- ceived intelliocting s<«nething wrong, hcdetermnied to wait there until the owner.s, whom he believed to be robbt^rs, should make their appearance. Presently the sheriff lieard a noise in the i)ushes near by. " Wh t's there?" he called out. "MonI^ and I'll shoot you," was the reply. Instantly there came a shot from the darkness, then two other shots, which were quirkly returned by tlic sheriff's party. The sherifl' was killed at the first fire, iind one of his men mortallv wounded. The men in the thicket then rushed up, and to tlie hcn-ror of all pn^sent learned that they had been firing on friends. It appears that two parties, each uid^nown to the other, had started out at the same time, from difi'erent places, in search of the robbers, who were evini then not far distant, whcu this calamitous encounter occurred. 672 BANDITTI. Five of Tom Boll's band wero captured and lodu'" <1 in Calaveras jail about the first of October. Bell was at that time of the party, but made his e.scape. In order to throw the otticers off tiie scent, one of tlio confederates reported that his chief was at a spot 200 miles distant, which rase ^ave him time to escape. Bell, however, was caught and executed on the uppi r San Joa(juin the 4th of October, 185G. Holcombe vallev, in Auijust 1851, was infested In* a band of desperadoes, havinij; as their leader one Johnson. Thev stole from Bear Vallev all the mildi cows and beef cattle, also horses, and whatever tlit v wanted. One dav Johnson entered a cl. They stopped at Coyote rancho, where Ricardo \v;h in charge, and bound him, compelling a surrender uf the best horses, food, etc. Ricardo complied; but <•:! being released next morning he got a band of Cahulhis to join him in an ambush, whence they slaughter.il every one of the robbers. The Indians remained iu ambush, while Ricardo rushed forward and became tlie avenger of his own wrongs. Ricardo wps no robh. r or gambler, but au honest fellow who loved fighting. In IS ^Vngeles • haraete 'Kiir th(! ••iikI M(>\ o(i C(if>iiii ti'UgJit, u tile Mvx h was a how niai; mortality niie a day miiiiber ol ;iii(| a *>-i-(.,. "f CalTfoj- Jilea.sure ; .SMMXK) a killed M-itli ^'looked i" tlie upj itiid here J •^Iioot a gi,. Ik' iiiUst'ke •^ix CJiHeiK ••^lashed fr.) ti.uhtei-, was tlir lowest way out wit ■^t<"ie(l, and ■"'"•■ft J 10 ga' \vJiere first a tlie eniptv r tuin(>d to "be ""•' \vas staL •'"•1 down tJ l'"Ii<'e toarre raiicho. <''ie of tl] and tried by UNHAPPY AN(;ELF,S. G73 111 1851-3 tluTo were more (h-sporadocs in Los Anu,(li'S tliaii in any place on tlu' coast. All had cliai-actcrs di*iv»n from tlio mines went tlien; to he mar the Mexican l)or'e lilt »rtal it V from fi<»lits and assassinatiitns in 18;)3 was (iiio a (lay. In this year California showed a greater munher of murders than all the Ignited States hesides, and a <.:;reater number in Angeles than in all the rest of California. SheriH's and marshals weri' killed at jilcasure ; and at one time the otlice of sheritf, worth SI (1.000 a yi'ar, went a begging. Twt) had been killed within the year. Crooked-nose Smith had killed his half dozen men ill the ui>})er country before he came to Angt^les, and here he promised n»)t to kill any one. but did .■^lioot a gi>.id)ler the day before leaving, pleading that lie must keep his hand in. Cherokee- Jjob had killed six Ch'ilenos in one tiiiht, ('(^mhit; out riddled and slashed from tlie conflict, llicardo Urivis, a noted tighter, was beset by a crowd in Calle de los Xegros, the lowest locality hi Los Angeles. He fout-ht his wav out with revolver and bowie knife altlioUL:]i shot, f^tiiiied, and slashed all over. At the end of the street he gained his horse and rode back to the sjiot where first attacked to fire his last shot. Armed with the emj)ty revolver he scatt^-red the peojile and re- turned to be bandaged. He had three bullet W(»unds, iiiKJ was stabbed in many })laces. He then rode up and down the main street for an hour, tiariiig the ]te!iee to arrest him, and then trotted off to his sisters' raiieho. Une of the Smiths was arrested at San Cabric and tried by a hastily constituted Ivnch-court for \i C.VL. r.vsT. 13 m BANDITTT. some crime. The sontonro was uistant lianf^innr; l.ut at tin' final nionicnt a man iiitorfiTcd and lie wjis j^dvon up to the constable. The lynch-court a«,'?iiii met an town and marched with his friends to his rancho. Sluritf Twiss i)ursued, but was defeated with the loss of two or three persons. Jack reached his rancho, fortified it. and nutunted a stove-pipe from his kitchen as a cannon. •lefvinjjf t lie sieg( time aft( lotainen finallv w iio had t There Angeles a 1 tout th after he 1 F'inte.s, C nino, and liad esca i'lrty stai wage in fr l''<»rtunat( '•lit the They visit b*ussian-l dered the liorses, anc tlie next ^'iughardt, the street ^vith them t'» Krasze\ many thin wherever i ahnut two i: I'obbers dei Fi )rster's a l^os Angele f^cndier 185 ^ix men, th( to go fartlu 1*^ miles fro ini>n — the o1 Iliad — going SOME VERY BAD MF.N. ATS San Juan C\i[>istrano. Fortunately for the man thev missed him on the road: Itiit the robbers c<>ntinued their way to Capistrano. Tliey visited the shop of one Miejiael Kraszi'wski. a l\ussian-Pole, wounded the owner's assistant, [)lun- (Icred the shop, and carried away the snoods on two liorses, and jiromised to return soon, wlTich they did the next day. They r()bbed the shop of (jreors^e Flu^'hardt, whom thev murdered, and threw into the street what thi'V iHd not care to take away with them. After that they made a second visit to Kraszewski's place, robbing it, and throwuig out many things. They also took horses and nmles wlicrever they found them. This affair lasted till about two in the morning. Two Americans, whom the lubbers demanded of John Forstir to kill them, with For.ster's aid escaped, and reported the niatter at Los An<'eles. All this was toward the end of De- C(inl>or 1856. Sheriff Barton came with a party of six men, though ho had been warned on tlu^ way not to go farther with so small a force. About 16 or IS miles from San Juan. Barton at the head of four men — the other two being from 50 to 100 yards be- liiud — going along on the road behind a knoll, was 676 BANDITTI. attacked by the highwaymen, the two men who wore behind ran away, gave information at Jose Sopiilvoda's rancho, and pursued their way to Los AngtKs. Barton and his four men were killed. The iiiiir- derers returned' to San Juan, wliere they talktd bravely, s-aying that they belonged to an organization of five hundred, and that the same night the principal houses of Los Angeles had been plundered, one nf them being that of W. Childs, wliose safe had been broken open. They stayed some hours, took ])r()vls- ions out of the shop of a Portuguese without l>ayiiig for them, ami departed. Another prfrty started uiidt r Tonuls Sanchez, from Los Angeles, against the male- factors, and saw them, but they did not C(jme to blows. Andres Pico also came out with anotlit r party of native Californians. Both parties liotly })ursued the robbers. Flores and two t)thers wt re cauLjht in a narrow canon. Juan Cai-tabo and anotlu r were finally taken and strung up on the spot now- known as the Canada de la Horca. Flores managed to get away, the other two were taken to Santa Ana, to the house of Teodosio Yorva, tied, laid down on the ground, and watched ; but they escaped. AfUr that a continual search was kept up by the people until Flores was recaptured, and taken to the jail from which he was removed only to be hanged. The re.st of the Manilas were captured at different places and killed, exce})ting the Chino Varelas, who was spared on account of his youth; and one who escaped to Lower California, and was killed there in some })oliti- cal emeute. The chief men of the Manilas had been Pancho Daniel and Flores. The former rare ly sliowed himself except during the ni*jht. VVlien Barton was killed a boot was found with a pistol Imle throufxh its leg, which was recognized as Dainels. It was proved against him afterward in Los Angelt s, and made part of the evidence which led to his Iteir,;,' hanged. The Manilas had a countersign, Tluv were accustomed to post guards who challenged per- sons api •• Jsia," i ^b'xican '^'cond c " ^fanila Tiie c i'< dated t z^'wski ]ii l')aced tai "iicJ, one Augi ^"g<> to til '^"<1 pil]ag(Mj outlaws wJk *'■""! tl- ) std ^yjta VnVit'ox Siin Luis H( l^"''! attemj. ^'"' ivnort b( ^'"' wildest I'l'cfino- ^v-jg ^^";'i-d.s, and ^vhich Were J ^vas never m{ 1: S.\N DIEGO FRKiHTENED. C77 pons approaching. "Quicii Vive ? " the answer being • Isla," alludhig, probably, to San Quentin, whicli the Mexicans and Californians often called La Isla. The second challenge was " Que gente ? " and the answer, " Manila." The occurrences at San Juan Capistrano were related to me together with many details by Kras- zt wski himself. For events in Los Anijeles I have placed faith on the narrative of Antonio Franco Cor- (>acl, one of the investigating committee in the matter of (jroneral Bean's murder. Much credit was due to Sheritt* Tomiis Sanchez for clearing the country of ciiminals. Being a man of ample means, and of great I'opularity among the Californians, he not only took an active part personally in the persecution, but had all the time at his command a force of n>en supported by hhuself, which he kept in co!istant motion. ThoSe wore difficult tunes, and Mexicans and Californians would have fared badly, because they were all unjustly suspected of sympathizing with the banditti, and ovon of riMidering them aid. Fortunatelv, a vounij American lawyer, of ability and uprightness, Joseph ]hont, who was esteemed by the whole community, acted as the mediator of the native Californians, and his wise counsels and offices averted many difficulties. In August 1858, a rumor was set afloat in San Dio^o to the c>ffect that the town was to be attacked and i)illaired bv the horde of fugitive niarauders and outlaws who had taken refuge on the southern border from tl- :; storm that had been raised aixainst them in Alta California. The week of the amuial feast at San Jjuis Key was designated as the time wlu'U the bold attempt was to be made, and, on investigation, tlio r(>port being found to be based on reliable data, tl;o wildest excitement prevailed in the town. A iiuctinu: was called at the armory of the San Diej^o (hiards, and measures taken to protect the town, wliich were kept up for many nights, but tlu^ attack was never made. The incident, however, aptly illus- Si I ■ I* ■In 678 BANDITTI. trates the anarchical condition of affairs in certain portions of the state at that time. Two years after the fall of Joaquin Murieta, Ti- burcio Vazquez began his career of crime. He was born at Monterey in 1839, and received a fair English education. He was of mixed Indian and Mexican blood, bold and cruel, alert and cautious. One night in 1854, young Yazquez attended a fandango in Mon- terey, and became involved in a quarrel with another Mexican about one of the girls in tlie room. A con- stable interfered to quiet the disturbance, when A^az- quez stabbed him to the heart. He becan;e an outhiw for a time, but the matter was misrepresented to the court, and the excitement blew over. In 1857, lie was convicted of horse-stealing, and sentenced tc> the stiite prison. He escaped from San Quentin in Juno 1859, but was ajjain convicted of horse-stcalinf; tlii! August following, and returned. Both terms expiivil in 1863, August 13th, and Vaz([uez walked forth a free but not a reformed man. In the latter i)art of 1804, an Italian butcher was nmrdered and robbeil at Enriquita. Vazquez acted as interpreter at the coro- ner's in(|uest. It was afterward discovered that he and a Mexican, named Fau.->lino Lorenzana, had com- mitted the deed; but they had in the meanwhile dis- appeared from that district. In 18G5, Vazquez elo[)ed with a young daughter of a ranchero living near the base of Blount Diablo, and took the road for Llvermore. Her fatlier overtook them, however, early next day, and a pistol figlit be- gan. Vazquez received a shot in the arm, and lied, while the daughter, also wounded, was left swooning in her father's arms. In 1867, for stealing cattle in Sonoma county, A az- quez was again thrust into San Qucjuthi, whenci' ho was discharged June 4, 1870. In the following au- tumn he united himself with two others, Procoplo. v]iic]i hot si lot, Vazq ^anti'ia cai Weary ( .)V;ct of roj him a few c Oilroy and They Were ten minute! foi'c they w Selves. About 7 two Mexico mines, rode dismounting, l^tzerath, i lode up ant Vazquez, i-e EXPLOITS OF VAZQUEZ. 679 and Alameda, stages being robbed, ranches plundered, and horses run off, in swift and startling succession. Juan Soto was soon afterward shot dead in a hand-to- hand battle with Sheriff Morse of Alameda, and the others fled to Mexico, but in a sliort time returned to San Francisco, where Procopio was arrested. Vaz- quez then, in company with two or three other despe- radoes, selected Cantija canon, a narrow defile in the mountains near the New Idria mines, as his retreat, and thence descended upon the neighboring regions. Tliey stopped the Visalia stage near Soap lake, robbed the passengers of everything, tied them, and laid them on their backs in a field, and drove the stage round the point of a hill, out of tlie view of passing teams. They then robbed three or four teamsters on the road to Hollister, and later the same day, Vazquez, being alone, stopped and robbed Thomas McMahon, later a leading merchant t)f Hollister, of $750 in gold. These outrages stirred up the country, and the con- stable of Santa Cruz, following hotly on the trail of Vaz(|uez, overtook him, and a fight took place, in .wliidi both were severely wounded. After he was si lot, Vazquez rode sixty miles to his hiding-jjlace hi Canti'ia canon, and nearly died from loss of blood. Weary of small game, Vazquez conceived the pro- ject of robbing a railway pay -car. Associating with liim a few determined men, he selected a point between (jiilroy and San Josd, and began to tear up the track. They were rather slow in their work, and the train, teu minutes ahead of time, came down upon them be- fore they were ready, whereupon they scattered them- selves. About 7 o'clock in the evening of August 20, 1873, two Mexicans, from the directit)n of the New Idria mines, rode up to Snyiler's store at Tres Pinos, and dismounting entered, and engaged the clerk, John Utzerath, m conversation. Presently, five otluirs rode up and dismounted. Three of them, one being ^'az(^uez, remained outside, while the four others eu- oiilll BANDITTI. tered the store, levelled their pistols at the inmates, six or seven in number, and compelled them to lie down on the floor, in which position they were tied, and robbed. The brigands then ransacked the store, taking all the cash, and considerable clothing, provi- sions, and tobacco. While these things were trans- piring within, Vazquez was holding a bloody carnival without. A Portuguese sheep-herder, who had just put up his flock, was entering the store, unconscious of what was going on, when Vazquez ordered hhn to stop. Not understanding him, he paid no attention to the command, whereupon Vazquez fired upon him, the ball taking efifect in his mouth, caushig him to fall, and as he attempted to rise, the robber fired again, killing him outright. Haley, a teamster who was on the road, was ordered to lie down, and on at- tempting to discuss the question, was knocked sense- less by a blow from Vazquez' pistol, in which condition he remained for some time. George Redford, a team- ster, was attending to his team, which stood in front of the store, when the shooting began. Vazquez or- dered him to lie down, but the poor fellow, hvm^ quite deaf, could only understand that he was in danger, turned and ran toward the stable, but was shot dead by Vazquez before he had reached the d( »or. Seller .^r, a blacksmith, was out in the road when tlie afffilr began, and ran toward Davidson's hotel, near the store. A shot from Vazquez' pistol whistled over his head as he gained the building, and rushed on up stairs. Davidson, his wife, and brother-in-law, were in the hotel, and Mrs Davidson coming forward to close the door, one of the robbers called out, "Close the door and keep it closed, and you shall not l)e harmed." She had nearly complied, when Vaz band, for which ijood fortune thev were hidebted to the rouLj;hness of the ground. Shortly after Julian and Sexgil were [)ardoned b}' the government on con- dition of their extirpating the horse thieves with which this region was infested; but proving worse in their depredations than the thieves tliey were sent to catch, they were finally transported to Mexico as convicts. Domingo Hernandez made killing foreigners a specialty. He was born at Monterey, and in IS 42 was a cavalry soldier. Of medium stature, bronze complexion, with large head and broad shouldiis. lie was at once active and strong. His mouth was enormous, and the teeth set wide apart, so that how- ever horrible miiiht be his frown, his laugh was worsr. In 1840 he deserted from Torres' force, and wltli Capistrano Lopez and others went to Nativitlad and engaged in stealing cattle. This Capistrano jjojuz was quite notorious. During the revolution of 1845 against Micheltorena, a soldier was despatched by the general with despatches from San Fernando to ^h^\\- terey, who, on his return, was waylaid on the edge of the woods opposite David Spence's rancho, by Capi- strano Lopez and his party, robbed of .$800 in ]\lr\i- can gold which the general's wife had placed in charge of the soldier to take to her husband, ami murdered. The body was left unburied, and the bones were still on the spot in 1848. If Californlan accounts are true, Lopez had been a traitor to liis country before the Americans seized it. They say that when Fremont was entrenched on the Gavilan, where a large Californian force under Castro was on the point of assailing him, Lopez was sent to s))y his movemeuts. He then visited the American camp and advii ^^■as rewji and Ills 11 in the la; '^el, Lark tlie liandf tage, Lo| plotted t( and i-esci have tjie Hi.lden and Ids fe tiiey imag he was w <'anada. ' and the Ik for the rob Hornaiu Serrano an lianged. . Biar party donionstrat tained ft-i under Capt Tiiere was lope, wliicl giounch T tilt, who Jia as tlio will < Si'horadel 1 I have a ful ft'rence with to take the liiin unguan t'apilla. Bo little good f svinpathizers iiigJit the fel Some one co lIKUN'ANDEiJ Tin: SPIXIAT^IsT. 6S5 and ailviHod Fremont of Castro's plan, whicli service was rrwardod witli six ^Icxican doubloons. Fremont ami his men that nijjfht slipped away. Another time, ill the latter part of 1S4(I, when the American con- sol, Larkin, was a prisoner at San Luis ()l)is]>o, in the hands of Francisco liico, who held him as a lios- tai^e, Lo})e/, with two others, Chavez and Esijinosa, jilotted to kill llico and Jose Antonio de la (iuerra, and rescue Larkin. liico escaped in the ni!L;ht. I liave the particulars of this affair from liico himself. Hitlden by the Cuesta de los l^inacates, Hernandez and his fellow-bandits would shoot passeni^ers whom thev imau;hied carried valuables. If anv one escaped, he was waylaid a second time at the mouth of the Canada. The bodies of the victims were left unburied, and the horses allowed to go with their saddhs on, fur the robbers did not want any tale-telling trumpery. Hernandez was at last cai)tured, tried by Judge Serrano and a jury at Monterey, and sentenced t<> be hanged. A number of sympathizers from among the Bear party men and the volunteers having made some demonstrations toward rescuing the prisoner, the judge obtained from General Kearnv a uuard of thirtv men, under Captain Bui"ton, to be present at the execution. There was nothing present for the purpose but a well rope, which broke, letting fall the prisoner to the ground. This was regarded bvthe Californians ]>res- cut, who had never seen any executions l)y the roj)e, as the will of (iod, and they shouted, *'Viva Nue.stra Senora del liefugio." The per}>lexed judge, from wh< »m 1 have a full account of this aftair, after a short con- ference with Captain Burton and the priest, resolved to take the prisoner back to the jail, where he left him unguarded in the room that had served him as caj)illa. Both judge and priest gave Hernandez no little good advice as to the way he should live, and sympathizers made up a purse for him. That same night the fellow slipped off. and on the following day some one complained to the judge that lleruaudcz 6S6 BANDITTI. had ])ut a wliilc before been ijjanibllivjr witli him in the cu.stITTI. two tlu- >h«'rifr (asily arrcsttd, l)ut on tlio urxt dnv tlu! iHoplu tuisuit, and found Xacho Avila, a nc>torious i-uMmt, at tlu' door of a cal)in. B('in«jf allowed to put on liis coat, ]»(»ots, and liat, tlio desperado suddenly fired ui>on tliu man nearest liim, and wounded liiiii. tliou'^h not fatally. , The robl»er was soon riddled, and finally a .^^liot-t^un br«)U<4ht him down dead. It is undt'rstood that Anastasio Garcfa acted for a time, durln«4 tlio period of hostilities between the Cal- ifornians and Americans, as a sj»y of tlie latter, about the rt.iiion of San Juan Bautista, and was well paid for his service. Later, ho waylaid aid murdered a ^Tr Wall, on tho Guadalupe rancho. Upon the news reaciiin-' Monterey, a brother of tho murdered man, late in the afternoon, came with a number of Aineii cans and Califoiniaiis, among whom was (a[)t;iiii Joaquin de la Torre, to the assassin's hut, where tlicy found him in comi>any with his wife. Tone a[)- proached tlio hut, and demanded that he should come out, but was answered, "Go away, Joaquhi, I haw- no trouble with you." But the captain insisting, tlie door >vas suddenly opened, and both men fired tin ir reyolvers simultaneously. Torre's bullet struck the woman's nrisx, but that of Garcia had entered Ture's chest, wJio fell to the ground dead. The assas^^ill rushed oi.t, and was met by Wall. Some fiiihtlnn" ensued, i>ut the assassin succeeded in escaping int* tho Sauzal w«»ods near tho hut. After further mlsdo- iii'j;, he was cauu«?lit, though passenjjfers were gen- erally rdievj'd of tlidr valuables at the Haiiio tiiiio. As a rule, life was never taken, except in case of re- sistance. It was a connnon occurrence on the staanditti, commanded by Francisco Garcfa, with his assistants, Indian Juan, Bias Angelino, and Sebastian Flores, infested the Santa Clara mountains. After accumulating considerable plunder, Indian Juan desired to retire from active service, when the others refuBt>d to pai-t with hin\, or to give him his share of the spoils. He threatened to bring suit against them, but his threat cost him his life, as Garcia and Ange- lino shot him. In 1856, Flores became dissatisfied, and delivering liimself to the authorities, turned state's evidence, thus causing the arrest of his connnander, Garcia, and his companion, Angelino. The latter was executed, but Garcia effected his escape, continued his career of crime farther south. Seventeen years later, he was arrested and tried at San Josd for the murder of Indian Juan, Flores behig a witness against him, but the evidence not being deemed sufficient, he v.as acquitted. I will mention a few stage robberies as illustrative of the traffic. On the 12th of August, 1856, the Com[»tonville coach, full of passengers, at the crossing of Dry creek, before reaching Marysville, was stopped by six mounted highwaymen, who demanded the sur- render of valuables. The passengers refused, and a fight ensued, about forty shots being fired. The stage was riddled, and a number of the passengers were seriously wounded, but the robbers, whose leader was Tom Bell, were driven away, and failed to captuie Cal. Pact. 44 Mi 60d BANDITTI. the ten thousand dollars in gold-dust which was on board the stage. On the Gclger grade, three miles from Virginia city, the stage was robbed of |7,000 by six men with Hcjiry rifles. The treasure-safe was blown open, shivering the body of the stage by the explosion. Six days previous $9,000 had been taken from t]i(i stage between San Juan and Nevada by three masked men, who blew open the treasure-safe. One of them took from a passenger his loaded revolver, removed the caps, and returned it to the owner ; no attempt was made to rob the passengers. This was at half- past four o'clock in the morning. Inmiediately the news reached Nevada. Sheriff Gentry with six men started out, and by noon the three robbers were killed and the money recovered. Port Neuf canon in Idaho, some thirty miles soutli of Fort Hall, was a favorite spot of banditti roaming the Montana and Utah road. For two years succeed- ing the opening of tlie mines of Idaho and Montana this was the rendezvous of road agents. Throu^li tlie canon the road in places was walled with tliick brush, and the whole region round seemed designed by tlie devil as tlie retreat of his special providence. Leisurely along up the canon came the stage one day in the middle of July 1805, when from the thick brush was heard the command to halt; and on tlic instant a human form with sooty face stood before tin; leaders. Six other human forms with sooty faces bearing shot guns in their hands then took their sta- tion round the stage. The passengers were l)rave, but liravery here was of no avail. After S(uiic funil»- ling two or three of them pointed their pistols out of the stage window and fired. As a matter of courses the robbers poured a volley of buckshot from tin ir guns into the coach. One of the passengers instantly sank dead; three otliers were killed in springing from the stage; two escaped into the bushes; the driver was wounded. There was a larije amount of treasure aboar lars t tween tlie p8 of the the loi three 1 peril I lives. treasu] from tl tlirou'r an esci grace t^ with til Sooty s guns in round J eitJier t( ened fn or to hU Stage trust- W( write on WiJiianii ceniber roI)l)ery. ambush; watched •"^I'eiid m, Jars abou had noth He w tween J)t overwhel: Ik' confef. ^fteen in In No\ near Virir DISOBEDIENT TRAVELLERS. 691 '** aboard, estimated by some at seventy thousand dol- lars this being one of the main lines of travel be- tween the new mines and the settlements. Doubtless the })assengers desired to keep their money. Some of them would have liked to retain their lives even at the loss of their gold. The foolish firing of two or three brought destruction on all, two only ' at groat peril and suljsequent hardship' escaping with their lives. The rol)bers taking from the dead men the treasure which tliey would have preferred to take from them while living, went their way. Travellers throuijjh a robber infested countrv should either take an escort stronyj enough to fijjfht, or submit with grace to have their pockets emptied, that is to .say, if with their money they do jiot wish to lose their li\ es. Sooty souls with sooty faces bearing buckshot-Ioadi-d guns in their hand? do not gather in a quirt canon round a stage contauiing seventy thousand dollars cither to sinp; love songs to the moon, or to be fright- ened from their purpf)se by a half dozen passengers, or to stand and be shot at by them. Stage-drivers, as a class, we find honest, sober, and trust- worthy ; but now and then 1 am ooligcd to writer one down a villain. Such a one was Frank Williams, hanged by the people of IMontana in J)e- ccmber 1805, for complicity in a Port Neuf canon rol>l)ery. It seems that Williams drove his load into ambush ; and being suspected, he was narrowly watched while at Salt Lake city, where he was seen to sp(>nd money freely, scattering several thousand dt>l- lars about the town when it was well known that he had nothing but his wages honestly to draw from. He was finally arrested at Godfrey'-i station, be- tween Denver and Juk'sburii:. At first he was so overwlu^lmed that he could scarcely s])eak ; afterward lie confessed, giving the names of his confederates, fifteen in all. In November 18(35, the overland stage was robbed near Virginia citv, in Six Mile canon below the Gould n I 692 BANDITTI. and Curry mill. There the driver found the road blockaded with some old sluice boxes and a broken wagon. Five masked men appeared and pointing three shot guns and two revolvers at the nhie passengers, ordered all hands up, which mandate was with alacrity obeyed. The express box and pockets of the passen- gers were then emptied of their treasures, whicli yielded the robbers about five hundred dollars each ; all were obliged to contribute save one, a woman, whom the highwaymen would not disturb. The Indians rifled one of Hill Beachy's stages on the Humboldt and Idaho road the 'Jth of November, 1866. This year was remarkable for stage robberies. Both Marker's and Lotta's stages were stopjeJ on the 8th of May; and the same day a liki o; ' 'je was ])erpetrated between Nevada and Sini Juan. In this latter adventure the only occupants ot the coach were Chinese, and the banditti reposed sucli confidence in the driver that when he gave his word that the treasure-box was empty, they did not blow it th a Chinaman was robbed on the trail betwe; ii Little York and Bear river; and six Chinamen were attacked by highwaymen near Bear river on the IStli. In tills last encounter the celestials resisted, killed two of the robbers, and drove away the rest. If through- out the coast there had been proportionate activity, a volume would soon be f Med with the record. Two express boxes were on thi' Boise stage passi; /, Point Neuf caiion one day in May 18G8, one coutai/i jngsr ite reti ordere( Jelm d and we ger the in curr had no S. A " I com 15th of summit on the I year, wl from M Rond va met sev( came sat which t getting a time I cc and flid them bel tlie 16th Grande, i for Forth States nu "On th short vac Walla Wj A found '. ({uainted \ having fir Point, on anxious to and so to( with liim i betwern $■ the storek< i:j AUSTIN'S STORY. 693 ing $1,800 and the other $10,000. Near their favor- ite retreat three masked liij^hwaymeii appeared and ordered the driver as usual to throw off the box. Jeliu dropped the one containing the lesser amount and went liio way with the other. From one passen- ger they obtained $850 in coin. Another with $300 in currency in his pocket swore so stoutly tliat he had no money tliat he was permitted to go unsearched. S. AuiAin, stage-driver, tells the following story : "I commenced driving stage for John Hailey on the 15th of October 1807, from Umatilla to Meacham's sunnnit of the Blue mountains. I continued driviiiif on the route until the 14th of November the same voar, when I was transferred to the mountain route from Meacham's to Union town, east side of Grand Rond vallev. I had driven but a few trips when I met several of these parties now arrested, and be- came satisfied in mv own mind from the manner in which they conducted themselves that they were getting a livelihood by unlawful means. From this time I commenced watching every move they made, and flid all I could when meeting them to make them believe; that I was friendly toward them. ( )ii the 16th of June 1808, J. F. Wheeler arrived in La Grande, in j)ursuit, as he said, of two thieves en route for Portland, representing himself as Deputy United States marshal from Boise city. "On the 15th of June 1808, I quit driving for a short vacation, and on the l7th went on a visit to Walla Walla. The second day after my arrival there I found Dr La Burr and wife. I had been ac- quainted with these people some nine or ten years, having first met them when they lived near Rock Point, on Rogue river, southern Oregon. I was anxious to have a private conversation with La Burr, and so took advantas^e of the first chance. I went with liim to a watch and jewelry store, where he sold betwern $400 an, s really getting desperate, and I told him that I was satisfied that the boys knew enough, and if they would only give me a few points I would soon be all right. Whereupon he told me to ask John — meaning J. F. Wheeler — when he came up, for a few l)oints, and he was satisfied that he would give them to me, as he liked me very much. " I then left hhn, and on the 28th of June, 1808, I again took charge of my stock. And on the same evening of my arrival at La Grande, I learned from !Melvin Bailey that Wheeler came up the trip before I returned, and had gone oo Dr La Burr's, his brother- in-law. Next morning I crossed over the mountain as usual, and on my return next day I met W^heeler in La Grande. After supper we took a walk round t«)wn, when he commenced talking of the conversation I had had with Dr La Burr at Walla Walla. He told me then that he wanted me to go in with them and become one of the band. I told him that was what I was on, but I did not like to go in with a man if he could not stand up to the work. He said I neid not be alarmed, for he had been in some tight places, and that he would be true to me to the last. I then accepted of the position, and was considered as be- lonjjinii to the band. " J^uring the talk ho told me L^ had taken part ui PLAYING TRAITER. Wi a great many highway robberies ; he was one of the band that robbed Wells, Fargo, & Co. near Virginia City, in the spring of '67, and in Montana in the fall of '67, and committed several other robberies of less importance. He then told me that his busi- ness down was to pick out a place to rob Wells, Fargo, & Co.'s express in the Blue mountains, and that the place they had chosen was a mile on the road from Pelican station towards Meachani's. He was going direct home to Boise city, and would send the boys right down ; rnd that they would be there in two weeks at furthest ; reporting themselves one at a time a Dr La Burr's rancho in the valley, when he would teil them that I was one of the band. The last thing he said as we parted was : 'Be careful, Doc, and look out that everything goes right.' I told hhn I would do so. Melvin Bailey, who was barkt'cper at * Our House ' in La Grande, informed me from time to time of the arrival of the bo^'S at La Burr's rancho ; who had all, four in number, arrived there by the 2 jth of July, Dave Johnson, having a lame back when he arrived at the rancho, got another man by the same name to take his place. The band, now composed of George Savage, John Billings, Tom Corey, and John- son, left the rancho and secreted themselves in the mountains near to the place that Wheeler had chosen for the robbery. ** About this time there was a great deal of travel- ling on the road, and a great many camping over night near the place that had been selected, so that tluy were compelled to change the place t(j two miles farther on toward Meachani's. Having learned, as I believed, what was necessary, I sent fin- Wells, Fargo & Co's division agent, Charles Woodward, and made him acquainted with all the facts. I suggested that the best way would be to let them go ahead with the robbery, and afterward go quietly to work and arrest the whole band, which course of action was agreed upon. On the 2d day of August, at about five 696 BANDITTI. o'clock in the morning, I saw some four or five dead limbs lying across the road, and as the stage passed over them, causing them to snap and break, the robbers, at this signal, jumped from their hidinuj places, and before I could put my foot on the brake, I was looking down the muzzle of a double-barreled shotgun, within six feet of me. The robbers cried out * halt 1 ' each one repeating it, which I did. They then ordered the messenger, J. Sheppard, to throw up his hands, which he did; then they told him to throw his gun down. He said he did not have his gun They told him the third time to throw it down, and also remarked that they would not tell him again, when I reached over and took his gun and threw it to one side of the road. They then ordered the mes- senger to get down, and the passengers, of whom there were three, to get out of the stage, and marched them, with their hands above their heads, to about twenty yards in front of the team, where two of the robbers stood guard over them. " I remained in my seat. One of the robbers told me to throw out the treasure-box, and then to throw out everything in the boot, which I did. I next heard them at work breaking open the treasure-box h. the rear of the stage, and as I knew there was nothiuij but rocks in it — Woodward took the treasure out at Uniontown — I was afraid that they miglit suspect that I had given some information, and if tJiey did, I had concluded my time had come; but, as luck would have it, they did not suspect anything was wrong. They then opened the mail, and the passengers' baggage, and took such things as they consid- ered valuable. Next, they went through the pas- sengers' pockets. After this I heard one of them remark that * this was the damnedest, poorest crowd he had ever struck.' They then took my leaders from me, and ordered me to drive up and let the pas- sengers get in, when they ordered all aboard and f >r me to drive on, and that no one should look back. AN EXTENSIVE CATTURB. 601 We had proceeded more than half a mile before any of them spoke, when one of them observed that he felt a little hungry. " From information that I gave, John Billings and Melvin Bailey were arrested at Walla Walla on the 2r)th of August. On the night of the 27th and m«>ming of the 28th, in Grand Kond valley, Dr La Burr, McFay, Dave Johnson, James Wheeler, and Johnson, wore arrested. On the evening of tlie 21>th I arrived at Boise city, and on the morning of the 30th I found there was no one of the party there but Jolm Wheeler. As soon as an opportunity otfored I took him out to the edge of the town to have a private talk. T informed him that Billings and an old friend of mine had robbed the Warren's express, fortv-five miles out from Lewiston, and that tliev had killed the expressman, and broke a merchant's thigh who was with him and attempted to esca})e; tliat they got $12,000 in treasure, and carried it about twenty miles and cached it in a clitF of rocks, that they had come back to Walla Walla valley, and were now at work in the harvest field. "This story I told for the purpose of finding out wlu^re the rest of the party were, and it was entirely without foundation. I then asked him where the rest of the boys were, and he told me they had gone to Silver City to make a raid on Beachey's safe ; that they would do it soon if they had not already. He then got to talking: about Billings, and he said tliat lie blamed Billings for being too fast; that if it liad not been for him Welch would not have been killed in the Lemhi robbery last fall. I asked him if he saw Welch killed. He said he did; that he was the tall one they spoke of being among the robbers. About ten minutes after this conversation with me he was arrested and taken to prison by parties who came with me from Umatilla for that purpose. In a short time we were on our way to Silver City in pursuit of the rest of the rt)bbers. We here arrested three. 1 ■! > ij;i||i ;"! M III BANDITTI. George Savage, Goodwin, and one young man whoso name I do not know, and brought them down to Boise, where we got Wheeler, and continued on our journey. When withhi a mile or two of La Grande, it bluing very dark and rainy, Savage and Wheekr made good their escape frym the stage. We contni- ucd on to town, and purchased horses and started in pursuit of the fugitives. On the second day, about tw.> o'clock, we captured Wheeler within about three miles of La Burr's house. All the other pris- oners arrived safe in Portland; Corey and Savage being tlie only two of the band at large." On the Elko road in September 1868 eight masked men armed with Henry rifles, shotguns, and pistols, near Cold Creek station, called to the stage driver to stop and dismount. " Take the horses by the bits then," said Faulks, for such was his name. "I have a frisky team to-night. " The robbers complied with this reasonable request, as horses were not to be brought to a stand by guns. Next the driver was told to unhitch and take charge of his team. Two of the five passengers were women, who were politely assured by the chief of the band that they should not be molested. "If we are attacked, it will be about here," remarked Mr Bichard to Shadrock Davis, the stage-agent, by whom he was seated on the box, with a slug-loaded shot-gun across his lap. It was on the Fort Yunui road, in November 1869, and the place was a ravine near Pilot Knob. Scarcely was the sentence uttered, when from the darkness the word "haltl" was heard, and two men appeared before the leaders. Bichard raised his gun and snapped the cap, but the charge did nob explode. He then fired the other barrel, when one of the robbers cried, "My God, I am shot!" and fell dead. Other banditti now can'e up, and a skirmish with the passengers, who were prepared for them, followed. Finally the robbers were driven ott", after they had killed one of the horses. Three of ARTISTIC WORK, C99 them were subsequently captured. The desert is a l)ad place for banditti. Water and provisions are scarce, and the places for obtainin^j them are wide apart, so that if tlie attempt prove unsuccessful, th«ir cajiture is almost certain. In this instance, one of tliem came into a station rather than die ui)<»n the desert. On Wednesday night, the 20th of October, 18G9, the moon shone brightlv as the stage trundled out of Angeles on the Santa Biirbara road. Seven passen- gers were inside; Clift'was the driver, and beside him sat the ex-postal agent and correspondent of tiie San Francisco Times. Quarter past six was the hour of departure, and the occupants of the coach were not yet comfortably seated when, reaching a point about a mile from the outskirts of the city, four men, wear- ing masks of black cloth, with eye-holes, and tiid round the neck, stepped forward from the road-side, wliere they had been .sitting. Two of them cauglit tlie leaders by th^ reins, and a third, apparently chief of the band, rushed up to the wheel, and presenting a pistol, hi a clear, authoritative, but not unpleasant, voice, cried, "Hold up there; put down that brake I" The driver obeyed. " Keep your horses quiet ; let that gentleman 1 nsidc you throw out the express boxes, and there will be no trouble." Then turning to the ex-postal man, he said, "Now, hurry up that express matter." Slowly the ex-postal man drew out one of the boxes, and dr<»p[ud it upon the road. "The other box, and be quick about it." Tliis was not spoken in a harsh or ungentlemanly tone, but tin re was that quiet, self-possessed determination in the voice that put an immediate end to the ex-postal man's meditations, and the second box lay beside the first. The ex-postal man, thinking his work done, now took his seat, when another order came. "Get down, and step to the rear of the coach." This was spoken iu a most afiable manner, as though 700 BAXDITTI. discipline now secured, the speaker could afford to l»o pleasant. At the spot indicated stood the fourth roh- ber, joined bv one from the front. "Have you any fire-arms?" he demanded of the ex- postal man, his new acquaintance. "Yes," was the reply, drawing from his breast a pistol. Proceeding to the stage door, the chief ad- dressed one of the passengers. " Step out, sir; you have a belt, I believe," and there- upon took from him one thousand dollars in money am I a derringer. The passenger was placed close to the ex- postal man, face to face, their noses almost touchiiiLf. The other passengers were then ordered out, their money and valual>le8 taken from them, after which they were arranged in pairs, in positif)n similar to tlic first. About two thousand five hundred dollai-s in all was thus secured, when the chief robVjer ordered tlie passengers in, and said to Clifl', "Drive on, now, ami be sure you don't come back." Often, on both the northern and southern overland stage routes, the stations were attacked, the inmates killed, the hr)uses robbed, and the stock driven oti'. The f(»llowing is but one of scores of like occurren- ces. On Christmas eve, hi 1870, three Mexicans rode up to the Mission Camp station on the Tucson road, thirty-six miles east of Arizona city, killed the inmat< s, three men and one woman, rifled the premises, and starting off were sfM»n over the line into Sonora. It is not (then we find a whole hotel seized by Ijan- ditti, as happened in the case of the Hoffman He, at Firebaugh's ferry, the 26th of February, l.s73. It was after supper, when the guests were seated rounil the fire chatting and smoking, that there suddenly appeared in their midst a band of armed men, who « r- dered ever}' one present to prostrate himself upon the flo*!r. face downward, if he did not wi.sh the a.s.sistanii«-.s was arrested as lie was entering Clover valley, In Plumas county, by a scouting party, and soon fan- citd his intirest lay in conducting his captors to the 8[M»t where he and Cockerill had planted tin ir .share of the plunder, some $7,000 or $8,000. One hy one the robbers were nearly all captured, and much dt' the treasure recovered. The name of the ringleader was J. Davis, formerly a mine superintendent at Yir- ixinia citv, Nevada, About this time an eastward bound passenj^cr train was robbed on the Union Pacific road. Bi<^ Springs, Nt-bras-ka, was a lonely telegraph station. If) "2 miles east of Cheyenne, at which the train sto})iM(l when signaled to do so. The train was due at 10.48 p. M, Al>out half past nine on the night of the IStli of Si'pttMnlier, 1877, thirteen masked men rode up to the station, cut the wires, demolished the telegraj)li instruments, and securing Barnhai-t, ^ keeper, oi- dert'd him to put out the red ligl id give the si'^nal tliat orders there awaited the tunn. Barnhart obeyed. Obedience is a cardinal virtuu in this region, and one very generally practised win u irt-nth-men of the road connnand. Barnhart did not want to die. The railway was not his religion; besides, thirty dollars a month wages did not include martyrdom. It is well enough to talk to poor nu n about being faithful, and dying at their post ; but, how faithful are rich men? how much sacrifice of sdf for othei*3 may we look for from a railway president or express manager? The train arrived on time and .stop[)ed. The engineer and fireman were soon secured, and a i^uard stationed at each door. The CdU- ductor on coming out upon the platform found his head between two revolvers. He was ordered to throw up his hands, which command he failed not to obey. From the express car was then taken $05,000 in coin and some in currency, and the passengers were relieved valuables robbers ( They m< Icavintr ; whif'h ha to force Before water on engineer ( George V lie manifc than any < sliutting to the .sigi tliat," ami si»rang th the f()()tboj tlie dome. guard. ^V pretended was ready of til e robb Charles '. d(deful sto] 'light, he f station he \ "gent's priv the window-, TJie robber; Weapons, br S(.nie .$400 i; They thei tion tlirougl Mni-k of the niid whose C( at Ogden, C a mined it att fucked pistol KXTKXSIVE OPERATTOXa. 703 relieved of their nu»ney, watrhos, tickets, and otlier valuables. Tlu- arrival of a frcljjflit train jiut tlio r(»l)bL'rs out a little, and hastened tluMr aituro of the robbtrs. Charles Miller, the express messenger, told a most) doleful storv. Xtver should he for!j;et that horrible night, he sjiid. As the train neared the captured station h«! was wakened from a })leasant sle(>p l»y the agent's privat*! signal. He arose and looked out of the window, saw the red light, and opened his door. The robbers sprang in, and eovi'ring hiin with their Weapons, broke open the way-safe and took from it Slime $400 in currency. They then directed their attention to the combina- tion through-safe, which was fastened to the iron- work of the car, under the messenger's foldiiiix berth, and whose combination was known only to the agents at Ogden, Cheyenne, and Omaha. The thieves ex- amined it attentively, w^liile one of them thrusting his cucked pistol in Miller's face ordered him to ojieu it. i-'i I 701 BANDITTI. " 1 cannot open it," said Miller instinctively pushino; Pciiclo the dangerous iron. "You will, will you?" oxclainied the robber jam - mini*' the weapon hito Miller's face and cutting his upper lip so that the blood flowed freely. This practice with the cocked pistol was continued for some time, until his head was badly bruised, when other terrorism was resorted to, as shoving him down upon tlie floor and jerking him up, throwing him over a chair, and like unpleasurable gymnastics. The mes- senger protested he could not open the safe, and begged for mercy, until at last, overcome with l)ahi, he implored the thieves to kill him and have done with it. The conductor, hearing tl;(; messenger's cries, assured the robbers that it was utterly beyond his power to open the safe, and ex})lained to them liow it was, so as finally to convince them. The arrival of the freight train before men- tioned put a stop to further proceeilings. As culler's tormentor turned from him to take his final de[)arture, he placed his revolver agahist his head and hissed, — "You dirty whelp; if I thought you knew that ccnnbination I would blow your brains out." After a detention of an hour, the cut wires were; lapped, the alarm was given, and the train moved on. The railway and express companies ofl'ered §5,000 each for the capture of the robbers and the recovery of the money. The robbers were pursued, and within a week, two of them were overtaken between Denv( r and Wallace. Showing fight they were killed, anil $liO,000 of the stolen money was recovered. But this is wandering far from our pastoral high- waymen. The examples here given, however, show quite a stride of progress in the profession, from tiio roatlwork of the dashing Murieta and Vazquez to robbing railway trains beside the wires speeding lightning intelligence 1 ' m CHAPTER XXII. FOUNDING OF THE GREAT METROPOLIS. Sell itum est in viscera te^ ral; Quasque recmdiderat, Stygiis(iue ailiuoverat uiubria, £tfoe forgotten that Pastoral California, vegetating between tlie points of time 176'.) and 1848, was the beginning of the end of man's intellectual encompassinent of the earth. Nor would it appear unnatur.il. that after a westwanl ijjlance at the seemin<;lv limitless ocean, the mind should turn backward to dwell for a moment CAL. I'AST. ii 706 FOUNDING OF THE OREAT METROPOLIS. on the ways by which this suprcino achievunient liad wrought itself out. From tb.e Armenian Garden, following orthodox mvtholou'v, or from the Bactriau as the (jlirmans have it; from Ethiopia, Egypt, or Arabia; from the rich and beautiful valleys of the Tigris and the Eu- l)]iratt'S, or from the Gobi desert; from ]^abylon's tnw- tr-top, or from the mounts of Caucasas, Altai, or Atlas — from the primordial centres of population, the hyi)othetical cradle of the human race, wherever or wliatever these may have been, thence men primeval looked to the east and to the wi'st. and taking ujudi them their several roles they l^egan their march of centuries, which was to end only on their reaching the ends of the earth. On every side of tliis geo- graj)]iieal centre — so runs the tale — primeval waters covered the earth, and as these waters recedi'd tlie limits of terrestrial life we'ri* extended, and the race dispersed; yetsome say that there was no on(^ comiiioii })riiuordial centre at all, but that every rc'gion sutli- cientl}' favored by nature liad its own centri' of pojm- lation, thus making men everywhere products of tlie soil. ICowever this may have been, certain it is that luu'o- pean civilization was, for many ages, confined t.; narrow- central limits within the tempei-ate zone, and that Ik- vond lliese li nits, as bevondthe limits of the knowaMe of every age and every belief, were the realms of faii(% , iiiliospitable dimes, and sup«'riiatural domains filled with creatures of the imagination, uncouth nionsti i-; ai)d beautiful faii'i«'S, seraphsand h(»bgobliiis,aiigelsaiMl di'vils. Jove reigned on ^r daily circuit over the head.s and before the eyes of men. 0[>inion was no less dogmatic tlu>n thaniiow, Strabo, tilt! Greek geographer, und«'rtook to delini' the boundaries of the then known world; after Imn the Pto Alexanc all the Works w staihlard say froi world ei Mediteri J^ed .sea. ward a I no man througli. Wert! cro Halls, wil to tlie no: blackened Hpparentlj migration' to .siy. ] 'nen of sc the true c^ to[» an 1 b( ^''"IS, O,! tl nnd these walls, a V \\as ab«»ve 'I'sli to att otlior, ther '•'niain <-oo "f latitude, niark out f< tlie Westwa enturies r( '•■•st (»ii tho • lid. that t(» « ■died flio S I'i'iT and mi I'l'ito had p I . r oiian L'^eocr ONE OF THE EARTH'S ENDS. 707 the Roman, Pompoiiius Mela, and later still the Alrxandrian, l*t<>K'niy, who enihodied in his systtni all the kno\\lt'd«4o of his prcdeeesscn's, aiiid and a fierv zone, that no man mi-jlit inhahit, nor even so much as juisa throu;^h. Nevertheless, somehow in due time men wen^ crowded throu«j;ii or over these fr(»st and fire walls. wiilin!j;ly or unwillingly it may have heen, f(trced to the nortii and to the south, and were hieached and hlackenef frost and a wall of tir^ II eaven was aijove and hell lu'iieatli: and hrinj;' unahle in tin; lltsh t<) attain th»! one, nnd unwillin;^; to exploie tlie • •tlnr, there was no help for tliese ancients hut to remain (••toped uj) within some thirty or forty dej^rees i)'( latitude, a!id from their ahoriLfinal centre slowly to mark out for themsflves jiaths to the eastuaretore Ptolemy, Plato had | plef tiie B[ "igh at tJi The fir.s America Kodrigo d 3)arien in iu 1513; ci MISTAKEN IDEAS. 700 But the end was not yet. The Spaniards by sail- ing west had reached no new western eartli's end, but only, as they supposed, the old east end. Instead of journeying eastward overland througli India, or fol- lowing the newer route of Prince Honry rt)und the cape of Good Hope, they had cut across from (>nd to end, and distanced Portugal and England, and all the World. But alas for tJie geography of Ptolemy, for the careful calculations of Columbus, for the measur- ings of worlds unknown, and of soas unsailed 1 So are fading giadually all the lines and angles of every ad- measurement of every beyond I The globe was larger bv one third than the fifteenth centurv measure: nevertheless, as the Genoese surmised, sailing fur enouijh in that direction would bring him in some way around to the other end. That is to say, but for America, which lay stretched out in mid ocean almost from pole to pole, and until every foot of it was surveyed, European navigators did not cease their attempts to find a passage through, and but for a mutinms crew that clamored loudly for land, Colum- bus might have reached India, might by sailing west have found the east; nay, he was sure he had found it. for he called the cimntry India West, the peo))le Indians, and straightway set about looking for tiie Grand Klian and the magnifi* ent cities of Marco Polo. Cul>a he knew to be Zii)ainju, that is to sav Japa!i, and he made his seamen swear that they had touched tlie coast of Asia. But .swearing that it was so, and dying in that belief, did not make it so; it was nmch the same, however, to tlie unconscious navigators who sailed to and fro as among tin- Islaiuls of the Blessed, fiuu ving themselves meanwhile well- nigli at their antipodes. TIk fir.st Spaniard to touch the continent of North America was the adventurous notary of Triana, Kodrigo de Bastidas, who sailed along the shores of l^arien in 1501; but not until Vasco Nunez de Balboa, in 151<3; crossed the Darieu isthmus, and stood upon t :i ' 710 FOUNDIXa OF TirE GREAT METROPCLrS. the border of the broad Pacific, was tlio ultimate of this western earth's end attainetl. Entcriiiijj the wat( i', he stood there knee deep In brine, ranting to tlu' winds and waves, clainiint; sovereignty over half H.v world, talking to luitions beneath his feet, to multi- tuples of savage islanders, talking to Kamtchatka, to China, to Australia, and to the two Americas, ten thousand miles of western S(>aboard, talking to the old otlier earth's end, talking westward to tlie east, liall- ing across half a hemisphere of ocean old-time migra- tors from the opposite direction. And, hideed, he was the first from the Gobi desert thus privileged so to talk. Next the licentiate, Gaspar de Espinosa, explored the shores of this new South Sea one hundred leagues northwestwardly, and after him Gil Gonzalez, a little farther; then Hernan Cortes, with his keen-scented band, despoiled ^Tontezuma the Second of his IMexican empire", and afterward surveyed the gulf of Cortes, now California, taking possession of all the lands he could hold on every side; I*ascual de Andagoya sailed southward from Pananul, and was followed by Fran- cisco Pizarro, who vietl successfully with all his bretli- ren in avarice and cruelty ; Nuno dv. Guzman penetrated northward from the city of Mexico, and Cabeza di' Vaca crossed frirate, Drake, sailed northward aloiiu the shores of California ; Moiialdo and Juan de Fue;i voynoffH Cook, 1 tinned t beyond; Hudson sians fn: ern eart What had l)('o desert t( eartli's c sevent.'i otlier m tlieir wai not of ti were * ivi Kelial, IK Besides i than tlie\ or to his"^ than was account. to and kil made a ii them tlie: lands thei either exti seventh p£ ^'nd of a : puritan, pi unholy eru despoilcrs and enjoyii '^t the flimi ^uch diubo tized,"eno( ^vay millioi riirist. "( Cort'Js to ]i STRANciE HUMANITY. 711 voyng(d to the iina;jjinary strait of Aiiian, and Captain Cook, Hoili'j^a V Quadra, Maurclk'. and Artca^a mn- tinut'd tlit^ survey of the coast to Mount St Klias and Ix'vond; French and Enroperly account for to their maker, or to his viceuferent of St Peti'r's, and had more Ljold than was jjjood for naked wild men k(^epin'k at the flimsy attempt at justification by elvili/atii'ii tor such lay, where, stri]>ped of many of tl ■ old-time prejudirevail. Into its lap are emptied the worM's ston- jiouse of knowledge, tlie accumulation of all humaa Latest horn of nations, all nati«»ns a-- exiurienc*' semlile at the hirth. At once the frontier and teriiii- nus of progress, it stands out in hold, infantih' higne--. l*]ssentiallv (-osmopolitan. ht)th theoreticallv anarts of • like the ] its hordei flow then ifs natur '■very oth and gold i the one orj under son the reniot this, there or lesser t the wando <()rds of ai piovuig iiii tliy enterp fossilizing • h-awinnf th i'< 'deem nig twined art: '^"Mietiiiies put aside o i>in, of fan, •hating hen (■< 'i-ners of f Xow, wit inghere hy iiietropolis, future of th course of h <'itainty he <' !• ' )ur Paei ii'ition or of tory ot' e(|Ui A C; LANCE FORV\'Amx T10 fi'ols tlic pulsations of jn'ospcritios aiul panics on the other side of the oontimnt onlv in a faint i^icixree. And as with CaHfoinia, so with the rest. Few jiarts of the world present such uniijue and varied in- terests as this western coast of North America. Few parts of the world ever so drew (»n every otlu r part; like the iirevailiin' winds and oci-anic currents alontr its borders, the intelliart; jjjrain from valleys and table-lands, and gold from rich gulches and metal-wined siirras, the one giving life to man, and the other to connnt^rce, under some one of tlu'ir several influences })enttrate the remotest channels of human intercourse, l^i'sides this, there are nund)erU'ss correlative cords of greater or lesser tension — cords of remembrance, that draw tlir wanderer ever toward his rarly home; opj)UgnMnt coi'ds of and)ition, avarice, which at the first were im- ]iro\ing industries, laudable activities, and j^raiscwor- tliy enterprise, but which later stiffen into shackle s, t'nssilizing the features, and steeling the heart, and (h'awinix the victim ever farther and farther from the ivdeeming memories of a jiun-r life; cords of Inter- twiuid affections, not without overstntchings, and sometimes snappings, but which will not 1)0 wholly |>ut aside or ujnooted ; cords of prejudice, of patriot- ism, of fanaticism, of numbcrh-ss loves and hates, ra- diating hence as from a connnon centre to the fartlu'st c'trners of Christendom and pagandom. Xow, without attempting the role of prophet, stand- in-' here bv Yerba ]^urna cove, on the site of the future iiietropolis, there are some things connected with the future of this Pacific domain wliicii, in the ordinary course of human events, may with some degree of ct itainty be anticipated. For example, we may claim f' r our Pacific empire, whether it be composed of one nation or of sevei'al, a unity found in no other terri- tory of e(i[ual importance and extent on the globe. f'la ( i I f.:^': 716 FOUXniXfi OF THE OREAT MEIROPOUS. First, tlio lM>undaries of this territory are well dofir^d ; not imaginary, nor hyijotlietically drawn, but fi\t(l and df'terniined as walls of adamant, and by nut mo lirrs^'lf On tlie one side is the continental axis, in the form of a 8erie» of continuous, irregularly-ternutd mountain ranges, which, as a mountain system, witli- out including that of South America, rightly belong- irig to it, is the longest and broadest line of ekvati d surfiice on the earth. And if this Rocky mouiititiii chain Ik^ not protection or Impediment enough, tlnre is yt't another higher, more sharply -defined, and pif- cipitous parallel range, w»th a nomenclature beginniiii^ at the north with the Alaskan mountains, continurj by tin* Cas<"ade range, the Sierra Nevada, ahd fin.illy suljsiding toward the southern extremity of Jjowi r California — an inner wall, giving to the country its cjimat*', and to the people their character: checkiii'^ the moisture-laden currents from the Japan sci, wrinirin<; from the clouds their fertili?in(X dew. and throwing it back up()n the western slope; meanwliile chfeking somewl at the arid Rocky mountain jv'- that Koinctinirs sweeps down from the treeless st''Opt" and elevated plains to the eastward; walling in warmth a!id humiditv, and walling out cold and dryness, tluis ijivintr to the Pacific coast a hltln'r bringing into nearness the inhahi- tants of the whoh' .sral»oar«l, and letting li'dit in from all the world, will shape the destiny of our futuic empire. Though continental, this western strip of Paclf'c 8eal»oard is essfntially oceanic. There will be liitli' n«'<'fl here of fighting for an outlet to p«'nt up inchn- tries. Our whole domain fronts on the world's lar^- st maritime Construct from thf border of thence .sc the Isthii Rio del will scare But 1 (I eni porti< nent nan last of wl tantalizinj mere thn Wiiat eloi exi.st b-tw Surelv M« exception central, no as this .sa washed by Convenient Kurope, to tlie natura ^^<>rld .sliou id ways in i u'lound of 1 lrdcrof the Ar^t'c ( )cean westward to Bcrinj^ .strait, thence soutliward alon<^ the Pacific to Panama, ae, to Asia, to Africa, and to Australia. It is tiie natural pivot upon which the coimnerce of the \\orld should turn; the balance of trade should be always in its favor. It should be the common fair- u'lound of nations for the interchaui^e <)f the- world's knowledges; of arts, of industries, and of science; of merchandise, money, and mind. Besides its magnifi- cent central situation, with the eyes of all continents and gri-at i.slands ever upon it, its interior is one of the m<»st lovelv and favorable retreats for man. There, indeed, the primitive' raci-s of America attained their hiijhest culture. Descondhig from tlu^ !iorth, the Rocky mountain chain as it etiters the h(»t and liuinid air of the tropics, rises into cooler and more lit-althful regions, and flattens out In a broad plateau, • ii' series of plateaux, delightful for the abode of man, whore reigns perpetual spring, and fruits and flowers »1 I t ^ Di l.hi'. ih! > '■'i.i I m 718 FOUXDINO OF THE GREAT METROPOLIS. Tun(T roaso to come and «»(>, — a lia}>pv Absynl.in Vnllev, lit for JMato'w llepulilic, or Morc's Utopia. Wliat, tlK'ii, in-cvt'iits tills fair doniain from asaeitiiiLT its sovereignty, and l)ecoining the new Venice ? Siniply tliis: it is walled up, shut in on every side hut ouf, and tliat openinjjj to the north and into the temperate Zone of our l*aeifie territory. T^ist this fair land should play the wanton with less favored spots, natuie surrounds her honlers with a miasmatic (irrra cal'n ii>i\ which renders the occupation of her shores inij)ossil Ik to any hut the acclimated. So deadly is tin; influeiite on Europeans of the swampy exhalations from the horder-lands of ^Fe.xico and Central America, tliat the oft-repeatetl attempts to found t leie larg<' cities has in evi'ry instance proved a disastrous failure. From the earliest times of which we have anv kn(»\vl- edge, the ahoriginal inhahitants of the highlands cnuld not live ujton the sea-coast. Now, JVIexlcaii nur- chants, of European origin, doing husiness in tlie sea- port towns, often have their ri'sidence in the hills or nittuntains hack, visiting their places of husinrss ,it intervals, and hasti'uing hack at the earliest jiossihle moment. I might cite twcMity examjiles when' tlie S|»aiiiai-ds have attempted to plant cities r»n either side of this land, and failed, at a cost of more than twlathway for tin; occupants of JMexicaii and Central American }tlateaux is northward alon.;' tlirlr tahle-laiids, and into the more nortlunly }tart nf our I'aciHe States domain. Let him who does nnt see the natural oneness of this n-gion, put two di' three lines of railways from Alaska to the isthnms uf Pananul so that intercomnumication, that prinu^ element of progress, can Ik; fri'e antic will not have long to wait f.r results. With a geneial average climate cold enough to INFLUENTIAL CAUSES. 718 stnnulatc to industr}', but not so cold as to inako c'oiiit'ort (.h'puucl on tho entire [)roilu(t of man's hilxir; warm enouuli to invite to reiininLi leisure, but not so liot as to enervate t)r saj tl le eueriru'S o f body or nuiu witli rail) enougli to warrant, for the most part, an abundant harvest but not sufficient — except aloni^' the borders of tho aforesaid southern jiart, insijjjnilicaiit in area as compared to the whole — to produce a ndun- (laut or uncontn ►liable vejjjetation, here are all the elements and stimulants of hieh cultun;. Imleed, that the advanced civilization of the Azt«cs, Mayas, and (Quiches, of the southern tal)le-lands, was not likewise f(>und in the e(|ually favorable parts to the northward, nmst 1 (^ attributed, not to soil or climate, hut to unkn(»"vii ineidiMital or "Xtrinsic causes, to wars and social C(Mivulsioiis, to tin turninjjjs and over-turn- iiiL>s ot the long unrecorded |)ast. So far as w«' can now see, there is nothing nere to jtrevent man from being master, nothing ^o prevent the complete suh- onlination of nature, and the complete devtlop- inent of mankind in perpetual unfoldings. Although e\t(Miding almost from pole to e<|uator. intersecting iiearlv all the northern latitudes, there are fewer extremes of climate in what may be; termed the habi- tahle portions of the l?acilie States than one at the tirst glance would suppose. And this frt'edom from extremes I hold to b(! the fundamental element of i>rogrt>ss, of perfect living, and hap]»y dying; this freedom is a fi'eedoin from the greatest curse human- ity is heir to, from indeed thti only evil, the iinpeison- iitioii of all evil, — extvcmes of o|»inion, of action; Xatu 11' extre(n<'s in religion, in )>o!ity, and in society, lierself teaches us the K s.son -. our very niotlur earth tor the highest perfecting of her cliildi'en nmst b(> UKHJerate, neither too nuieh g.'ntleness noi* too nuich li.irshness, neither sterilit\ ni»r rechmdancw neither i.'ji k hill.' s and barren plams, lest th leo 1 le sial'V^ iior an undue or superabundant vegetation, lest man r i . 910 FOUNDING OF THE GREAT METROPOLIS. bo ovcrwhelined, and swallowed up by It; for in citlicr case how shall he obtain the mastery over nuiterial things, still less over ignorance and superstition ? Along the shores of the Arctic ocean and the strait of Bering, the Eskimo, for three-fourths of tlie year, dozes torpidly In his den, and niust forever so doze, unless his dhnate changes. His three niontlis of nightless summer are an insufficient compi'nsat'Kii for his three nn)nth8 of sunless winter, and the six months of glinunering twilight. The lowlands (t Ce!itral America, under a vertical sun, which lifts un- ceasingly the waters from either ocean, and pours them on the land, covering the swanijiy soil with a dense dan>p foliage of hot-house growtli and decay, generating disease and death, is a fitti-r home for noxious reptiles and wild beasts than for clvili/td man. A. fringe of cold and heat at either end, and on the side dryness; for In-sides the ill-fated hyjur- borean and tropical man, the root and reptile-eating^ cav(!-dweller of the (Jreat Basin, between tlu^ Sitiia Nevada and the Rockv numntains, are e(|Uidlv unfor- tuiiate. There alternate' barren hills and treeless plains and rainless seas of sand, which afford cold comfort for man and beast. Thus we find the st'at of oui imiurial domain well-ni-'h eircumseiibtd bv ill- favored elements, while one of the fain'st portions nt eartli lies within, basking l«'fore the broad I'acifie sea. At either end ami on tiie western side are the extrt-nies, cold and he.at, and dryness, and these and all otli* r extremes men do w«Ti everywhere to shun — but the ill- favored borders as compan-d to the territory t'lulosrd is insignificant both in arra and im|M)rtancr. At tin- extn-nu* north and south rain falls often and abun dantly, while tlie portion intt-rmediate is watered iil ternat«'ly — tlu; noithern part in the so-call«'d wintrr months, and the southern part in the sununer. It were easy to show, likewise, that in the scarcity "t" ijreat naviixable rixirs, railwavs and the ocean will direct traffic, making one place almost as accessible ;is TlIE WOULD ENC()Ml'ASSi:i). 791 anoth»=r, throwiiitjf all into rontinuitv with less pri»- vinci.ilisin and claiiship than air fonnd in (iMrr sociotif.s. In the geological t'oiniation of tlir l^icifir (loii'ain, natun's ronvul.Nivi' tiirot s are evcrvwluit.' niMnili -t. Its origin is iunruus ratlur than a«jn((»us; fire is the aiiliitrit ot" its hills, and in place of large rivers, and inland seas, and hioad juaiiics that clun'.K tcii/c the eastern sIojk', there arc mighty mountain ranges thrown intn smdight from hclow, and covered with voloanii' ]n aks which stand like jthitonic snioki-stacks all along the seahoard from Saint Klijis to Xiciira^ua, while till- Seething ( «eyser-<-haldrons, and innnni* lahlo thermal and sul|thurie s|>i ings that form the safetN- valves of sul (terra ncan l ens Its In the ahsence of man\' extensi\e luirliors in ni ar !»r(»\imity to each otliei', ))o|inlatioii and eommeice will itc Concent I'ated ; there will he teWer large cities nil the Western than tlieie are on tlie eastein <'oast. The ]iii»icij»al indentations of the western <-oast are the open hay of Panama, the smaller parts of Xicoya i ud Fonsci-a, tin; great gulf of < 'alifoinia, the haxs of San Diego an«l Sa!i Francisco, the mouth of the < 'ohnnliia ri\er. and th ^oU nds in the vicinit\ of \ ancouver, CJueen Ciiarlotte and Kadiak islands. As if to make amends forth*' scarcity «»f gookilfid art and i'airest handiwoik. i ^'! Such Were the palls hy wlii FOUXI)IX(i OF iIIK CHEAT MKTllOTOIJS. eart!i we soo oncologic evidences of vast |»rii(»ds. now of Arctic winter, and now of tro[)ical sununer. Tluit wITkIi was once sea is now land, and wlicrc seas oikc r()lliil mountains n(»w point their sununits lieavi n- wai'd. So it is with men in their hopes and feiirs, their l)ehefs and hhnd imaginings, their hot desires, and mad and>itions. Immmeral)lo as are tlie secrets of tlie universe, they rev(>al themselves to man l>ut slowly. So itw.is when civilization crept from primeval centers seekin.^r uvw channels like tlu' melted snow sent hy the all- awakening sun down fnMU the mountain top upnn the arid plain. Cautiotisly the clouded int«'llect per|is from old-time surroun to make us uiulerstand, should he so backward to enlighten us wlien tliev ijfet to heaven and know as tlnv are known, none can tell. When in I7<)'.> the Franelstaii fathers went forth to spy out the land n(»rtliwar»l from San Diego hay, they marked the places fa\ni'. ahk^ to Iheir missions, and from the calendar of saints and angelsdrew nanu's to tell the .several spots. XJ FIIANCISCO n.\Y, TBS shoct, fiin<:f«Ml with verduro, dotted witli drccii isles, and tilled with noisy wat«'r-fowls, and riotous seals and sea-lions, while over tin; j^litteiint; wateis the soft sweet hazy ( 'alif'ornian air east its peeuliar ehanii, " Sunlv, " thi'V said, "this must he tiu" ha\ (»r San Fianeiseo." AikI so it was called. I Manned hv no ni<;jj^ai;iv is unsuipassec d In heautv and utilitv hv anv the sun shines U|K»n. Into it How the San J, tlit; I'residio of San Francisco, and on a ntcky euiinenee, at the naii'ctwest point of the (io|d«'n (late, J! fort. The niiniature l>av in front of It where all vessels th-n i4 I If 7M FOUXDIXC OF THE GRKAT MEIUOI'ULIS, anchortxl M'as called the port of San Francisco, aiiii the iiiisyioM, which was estahlisiied mnua four milt s away over the sand-hills toward the south, on a little •jfulf — or lake the father called it — that ran Up frtnii the l)ay, was at first called the mission of San Fran- cisco, l)ut afterward was often termed the n)issi<»ii of Doloi'es. There was then no town. A few so-calh d settlers conijfrejj^ated ahout the presidio, or took up their residence at the mission; hut all the peninsula, bay, mission, ])residio, and s(!ttlement were known only by the name of San Francisco. Yerl)a ]^U( ii.i cove was more sheltered than thtq)()rt of the presidio, so that vessels often lay at anchor there for trreater safety. It was likewise nearer to the mission, and a better landinuf for that point. Roads ran from Yerla Bui'na to the mission and to the presidio, and from the presidio to the fort, and to the mission. The first marriajyc celibrated in the churcli of the pri'sidio of San Francisco was on the 'JSth of Xn- vend)er, 177(5, between Francisco Antonio Cordrro. a S(;ldier of the jSIonterey company, and Juana Fran cisca l^into, daughter of Pablo Pinto, 'a solt' Jose Francisco Sinova, a soldier from Spain, anil ^iari'a Gi'rtri'idis Pohorcjues, of Sinaloa. On th(^ tenth day of August previous, Palou luid bajttized the first whiti^ ch.ild born in the ]>n'sidio of San Francisco, Francisco Soto, a son of the sohlii r Ignacit) Soto and his wife Maria i^arbaro de Lug" The first person buried in the presidio church Wii> Manuela Luz Munoz. On the ti'stimony of Juan Salvio Pachcco, wli > came from Monterey in 1810 as a soldier in the mi!i- tarv companv assi finislicd wln'ti lie left tlu* StTV ire fift (•fi» vcars lat IT. M issii>n Dol «»ros Wi IS Iti.ilt lu'fort' li aiiivcd. At tlint tiiiif, wlitii ^ffxicu was tlmtwiiij;; iLjovmuiK iit wvw. ill a sad state, and loyalty was purdiascd Ity tlic soldier at the pricf of his wa^cs. Tlic soldit-rs of the ]irc.sldi(» were faithful to Spain; Spain liad not whrrc- ith to pay thcni; {'ons«'ntly (h'opped there hy the sailors who used to land in this cove lon^j; hefoic tliei-e was any human liahitation. The people [)rized the I-, -i-h for its mediei- iial pi'o[»ertit's, and ;j;atiiei';'d and dried it for family use b]cheandia. the jefe-politicoand comandante i^eini'al, visited this j>lac(! in IS27. Leavin^j; mission Santa Clara on the mornin«jj of Atay LMitii, ju' reached tlio ]nisi«Jio of San Fran<-iseo at three o'clock the samo .iav Tl lere .s7/ ticimri'i Was recelVe(| hv the oHjccrs i'^naci<» AFai'tine/ an|»s, i\j)i('ssinLj his pleasui'e a it Ifi eir |>rofici(iic\ . and Ins •rr<»w that sucli hrave fellows should he in so ra'^i^rd ;i I'o n\t visited Veiha Uiieiia, ascended one of the se\-en hills, later known \\. ib T eienjraph iiil \\ hich o\erlooked the pi place, aiu ''■■f' 790 FOU\niN<; OF THE CREAT METROPOLTS. caiTU'd away by tlio ontliusiasm ovitkod by tlie ium^- nllitviit st'i'iio befbii' him, oxelainu'cl. " How btautit'ul 1 Tlvw NVdiuk-rful ! Mi'xico clofs not know what a jtwtl she [H>ssc'SJiit .scviial dawn draw- in*': i)laiis for the buildiiiy; of forts urar tlic outraiicc of tlio bay, takinjj; iioto als(j of tlio islands of Alca- tra/ aihl AnL;vh'S as [)v">iiits of dtfcnce. When ready t() return Echeanch'a made a speech to the i^arrison of the presidio, praising the men for the good services they had done to the cause of civili/a- tion, and assured them that lie would consider it a hiiih honor to lead them to the field of glorv. In conclusion he said *' Your officers have made me aware of one fact that you are displeased because the gov- ernment of Mi'xico has sent criminals to settle in the country that during s«) many years you have defendid with une<|ual bravery. I recognize the justict; of your iomplaints; and you may rest assured that I will s})are no eHbrts to hiduce the government of ^Mexico tv) change Us })urposc of colonizing California with convicts." One niiiht durin«'- the vi'ar 1840, a i'antlu>r, which had l)eeu observi'd for several days ])rowling about tlie settlement, si'ized and carried off an Lulian boy eiglit years old frt>m the yard of ^Ir Leese, where now is the corner of Clay and l)u}>ont streets. The boy was not rescued, nor ever afterward seen. During tlic same yearCaptain I'helps whose ship, the .ihrt, owned bv Brvant, Sturois & Co. of Bostt)n, then lav at Yerba Jiuena, sent his second otHcer with a boats cri'W to cut firewo(>d at Hincon point. IMacing the tirkin containing their provlsi«)ns in the fork of a tnc the sailors went to work. At noon, ongoing for tluir dinni'r, they found a female grizzly bear and her culs j)osted round the firkin tooly discussing its content >. Not relishing the air and manner of the matron, tin' sailors beat a hasty retreat, and ruhhing down to \]\>' buacli made for the ship as fast as possible. This soen»' (] Streit ) In I authori the pc, wiljino- direracticc i duties h.i toni-liou.>- I^^ranci.se* being alv of (allfn unchorini l<»ng tiin( or port, till ir car Jiri\ il(...,. d.| Castil eeiver of i T]m> ale the Yerba iiiii)ortanc loa to tr; ^''rinieisco ^^ Jestra h 1^'gitimate (}!n\ Oet(d itants and latter was aiid tlie p( THK llEOINXINO OF YEUHA HUKXA. soono (M'cumd not far from wlu're was plari;{4. (n'lici'al Jose Fi«^ut*roa, the chit f ei\il auth<»rity of ('ahf»»rnia. in acctud witli the \vi>h» s of thi' |K'o|»le of San Francisco presidio, wlio weie un- willini; to continue lony:o|)uhir election sliould he hi Id f<>ru niunicijud corimratii>n. 8ul>-lieutenant M. (J. \ alh jo. then conianthmte of the place, was orderi'd to r* move the pit'sidial i>r cavalry company to S«>nonia, and am]>le powei-s were t;iven him to form a colony there. Fiuuen»a was next asked t«) permit Verha Ihiena to trad«' with foreiijn vessels, whi«h hitherto had hren prohiMted, the law ri'Cjuirinjj; that vessels should lay almost under the jjjuns of the fort. This had !•« . n the practice from the earlust days of the pr«sklii>, althoni;h duties had luen paiil on ships and cargoes at tin- «us- »f Monteri'V, anf Califoinia, decreed that the fondeadeio. oi the anchorinv:;-j4n»unort, opi'ii to foiii>:;n vessels which had i nit led their car!Ljoes at the AFonterey custom-hou>f. this piivih^f iM'injjj al.-^n'Xtendi'd to whalin!.'" slii|i>. iN-dro d'l Castillo, an (»ld residi'ut, was tlun ai>point«d a n- celver of puhlic revenue, The aleald*', Fran tin K\^itimate name of the mission, and on Saint Fiancis day. Octolu'r 4th. was yearly celehnited hv tin- inhah- itants and missionaries with fea.sts and rej(»ieinu . the latter was looked upon as a patroness of the mission, and the people used to shorten the name, and from k'l tV} i U t' tli<- iiiis>i;iu Toa tiaiist'ernd tlu* iiiuiiicipalitv of San Franris«o to the mission ]>oloies, liiantin;^ to it jiiiis^li«tion ta. and even as far as that of Ijiis J*ul;j;as on the 8«»uth; all these places were thus put under the niunii-i|Kil •gov- ernment of San Francisco rcsidin*; in the mission Do- lores. At this time. Jose Joa<|uin Kstudillo, an «»ld military olHei'r of tin- |»resi<'Ii«» <»f San Franeis«o, was r«>idlnL; in C'onti"a CosUi with a larj^e family, and havin'j; no land of his own, he a«lsse.ssion of a lawyi'r in San Francisco when the revisin.: com- mission were examinin*^ I'nited States titles, and I was ((.nsulted upon its validity. I testiti«d that it had none for tl !«' rijisons aoove st ■t foith. The result was that Fi|4Ueroa issued a 1. holding the oftin- of insjuctorand ('oniniamlaMt nt'tlif rrvtiuic ijfuards. I was coniiMissionod l»\' the thief of said custom housi' to ins|te«-t the revi-nue eollcet- Inir otliee at San Fianrisc.*. anrl !<• report uixm tl lie state of tradii in the |)la«-e, paiticulaily ^^ith referort evei-y year t<» procuic fresli stores, and j»ass tlio winter, information liaxint^ l»een re<'ei\('d that they wi're carrylui,' on a larjjjt,' ct)ntral>an«l trade hy landinij; ;j,()ods, or transt'eriin*^ tjiem to otln-r v«'ssels that had heen alieadv tlespatejied at the ^^onterev custom- liouse with tlieii- duties settled for, a practice most detrinu'iifal to the Interests of tlu' jtuhlic ti'easury. After a thoi'oU'ih invest i|j;at ion. I hecame convinced that some measure should he at s a do/en houses, represen ra])id pi<)*;i-ess in traital, 1 lai«l the facts hefore the collector <»f customs. "In the following: v-ar, IH.'UI, svmptoms of revolu- tion were notice«l in the coimtiv. arisin>jj from the y th<' dillt r- ences of opinion between the inhahitants of the south and tlu' north, and duriiii^^ which period Yerha J^uena atliiirs remaine mission I)olor»'s. The sul>-])ref'ect's name was Don Francisco (Juerrero. to whom 1 uena. measurinij, fii->t a pul»lic plaza, and to divide the rest of the level jj-ruund into stniets, 1 i II ( ll iiiii 730 FOUNDING OF THE OREAT MKTUUPOLIS. tlius ;»'ivlMp; t«» tlio placo tlu' cliararttT and form of ;. ifv;ular t«»w»!. (iufin TO a|>|> Yeiha iiuena was a newly created town, tlui Mexieaii auth irities ]\iu\ not tim<> to organize and ineorporati it. so that all that it lawfully »)ccu|»ied was the M;ruuii(l hiid out in streets and plazas under ]^io(h»'s plan. DurinLT Alvarado's adminisNation, hy reolnted a justice of the peace, who had his r( sidenc i on the raneho San Lorenzo. Thus came ahout the hej^inniniLj of Yerha liuenn, wiiich was. indeed, the hc^innin;^ of the i^reat nietio polis. thoU'^h the site of th»' latter Was not yet deter mined. Indee^l, few trouhled themselves ahout tin future ixreatniss of the coimtry, though there wt iv pome wiios*' minds (M'casionally were accustomc*! t" dwell thereon — men of Jiealthy imain]M)nuin. Ami liaviii«4 looked ahout tliciii \\>v tin' lust |>la<'0, and liavluj^ tuuinl it, N'alicjo said to tlu- otlic r.s, 'N'oii Kliali .s< •l<«t tin; site, and I will funiisli vou sikIi liind as you r»'«|uin', tu'iy your |irivat nty sliall Ixar tli* iia'iif o if Miv lulovcd wit'r, Fiancisi a. 1'l lis was III tlu' autumn of IS4f;. Tin* two inm who tlu'i(U|>ou UfiTptcd this trust, in practic'al sii'^atity, husjnt ss al»il- itv, wealth, and iiol'itital inHuinco coinhincd. wcic Hc'cond X't none then upon tlm <*oast. M(»ri "(Vt r, they Were honest men, som»'thin«i[ akin t() patriots; and al- thou»^h ni»t ahove the <'onsideiation of mon< y in the premises, yet, while thinkin;^ to do the hest fur them- seKi s, they tliou;4ht to do the hest for the present puhlie. and for iHjsterity. (Jlaiiee round the hay; for it is not noressary to Consider if hv the' hav of San Fraixiseo, or at some orht-r |M»lnt, the metropolitan city of the west coast of Xorth America should he planted ; from j'aiianiii t Sitka there is no other place. (Glance round it then, and pla«'e your Hn<^t'r if yeu can on another s[Ktt so SU'tahle as the on«' selecti'd hy these thr»'e wise Kieii, Kasy enou^^h of ae<'ess to the ocean, easy of access to the j^reat valley of California, with deep waters, j^uod anehora«;e. hluif hanks, and soft healthful aiis, round all the i^lohe nature nowhere laid out tin; iLjrounds uf a larLje city more heautifully or with L,'reater care. An im|Mrial pla<'e men could liavt; made of it. Fi'oiit- uvj^ 0:1 e'ltluT sidi' of the strait of Carijuine/, and e\- tendini,' hjU'kward and eastward as far as they rni^lit I'hoosi* to f^o, there Would he iio restriction, ntillieriii land nor water faeilities. With natuic! seconded, and not wh<»lly suImIuiiI, in laying' <»ut i city there, the streets wlndin|4 nra«-efully ov.r and ahout the sn\ooth round hill.s, and not pitch«-d at them in straiijht lines and anj^lcs, as tht; mad hull jLf«>cs; with spacious urhan parks, and suhurhan homestead plats measured not l»y inches hut hy aeres; with the stiait and river sj)Mniied by cuatly ami subsiantial hridges, the whole takhiij in ( ' 11 I' I 732 FOUXI)INTi OF lUr. <;Rr.AT MKTUOPOFJS. \vl'j)t now <'(iiiniiis)'s J^ciilcia, ]\raiti»ii'z, A'allijo, and I\Ijiit' Island, Collinsvillc and Antiocli, and as nnitli niuic as ix.ij^lit !)(' i»'(|uii»'d, I vcnturi' onco moif to assrj't, that taken as a wliitlc there is no sjiot on e.iit h su|H)ini- to it. Well anlae«' woidwn. and fo>4--soaked |teninsuja on which the city of San Francisco is actually jtlaced, A\as ah(»ut as ill-chosm as possihle. And for it let the names of those who thwarted the purposes of hetter nit ii ht- anathematized, I repaid it a hase act, hrside whicli oioii milHoiis of men for piol>;d»ly thousands pntceed at once to Henicia. and there remain until a-^ain re([uired for service, and that the I'nlted Static estahlished in the .same placi its v a na\ v-vard, assuredlv were itroots FRAXCISCA BKNICtA. ;« suftiolcnt as to the ri'lativo natural advaiitaojcs of the V •iiiiisula of San Franci.sco and tlu' sstrait of Car (jUlIU'/. An oxrccdiiinly hrllliaiit strok«' of ciicunivcntion tlic lot JioUlcrs of tlu; (\tv(! tliouj.dit it, and it |»lias«'d tlit'iM npiii' tiHi less lu'cauHi^ it displeased Sniijilc, IjjirUin. and Vallcjo, to clianm' tlio unknown, loral, and villai^c name of Yerha l^uena to th<' world re- Vessels now nrd apjH'llation oT r»an r rancisco that eltiuinn' fi'itni foreign )iorts, as was tlieir custom, to Sun Francisco hay, local names heinij^ to distant parts miKnown, on arrival tl ler- 111 Yerha -Huena cove was Siin Francisco town. That settled the matter. The place wi's convenient to shi])-niasters, Iiowcmt incon- Ni'nicntto Californians; it suited those who possi^ssid the pow«'r to make the chaiii^e ; imd n<»\v throui;liout id! time, wIiiK- moulder the h'tnes of liai-tlett iind F..l> som, the {Mojilc may sit U) whistle for a remedv >n the fel I th ice an< hev niav simikI thousant I (Is of yenrs, and millions upon millions of money in a. useless !Uid «'nforced crossing' and it(!i»ssiii^- of the liay for an infinilelv worse spot than was tlier*- awaiting tlu-ni on the other side. It was in Jaiuuny, IH47, that hy the alcnlde's order tin' name Verha Ihiena waschaiii^ed to S.ni l''i:inci,sco, too nearlv like Francisca for hoth to reiiuiin ; and the liitter heiiiin' not yet laid out, while the former was iilready a hamlet of lively pretensions, (\ir«|uiiiez stinit !'K Vlt Id d th nul the saiKiy peninsula pte\jii Thus ti,e three wise men Were thrown Itack upon the otl r name of Mrs V'allejo. Jieiiicln, hy which to c.-dl their now doomed metropolis. Anait of .in editorial writti-n while the name Verha Huena vet •jjraeed the head of its eolunnii lS a lit enirv <'oiii- j)()sitlon it does not eoiii|)are v<'iy favoialtlv with our ''ditorials of the present day: inde<'d. it would seaioly take a preniiuni in one of our ('hint se selmols; ut \( r theless. it is worth as much to us as nnv of tin stanzas of CI lilde Harold. I ^ive it verhatim; oitlin<^- raphv, syntax, and punctuation. *' Yerha Hueiia. tin.' name df our town which mraiis fioon MKHIJS, is situated on tin- southwest side (»f thr )>rlnciple arm of San Francisco hay, ahout five nilK s fi-om the ocean, on a nariuw i»eck of land varying from four to ten miles in width. The naiiowest jdarc heill'^ sixteen miles south West of the t<»wn. It i in latitude '\7' 4;V north. This narrow slip littlc> island is ahout thn-e miles from tin' shore. Between it and the town is the [►rin«li)le anchorage. Sl'KClMKN OF KAHI.Y LirKKATUKK. XI Here tlic vrsstls «it' all iiatioiiH rest in saftly and 1»u>int ss part of tin* town, is sin Ivinv;; luit if will no doul)t in a short time Itti-onir tilltd up and licconu; tlu' most valualiK' j>art ot tlu- placr. **Tlic climatr lure is, in the winter, wlii<'h is tlie miny season, dam|) ami e]iill\. l)uriii!L^ the halanee oil the whole coast of the I'acilic. Sickness (tf aii\ kind is rarely known anioiij.; us. The saluhrity of the cli- inatt- heauty of the site of the town its conti'^uity to the iiioutli of the hay the liiiest liaihor on the whole co;ist in fioiit -tlie I'icli and heautiful country around it. all conspii-e to render it i»ne of the hot C'omnn rcial points in the world. "The town is new, haviii'Lj heeii laid oil' in l^;i!t hy Cajitain John \ io;4et; and iioiwithstandinL; all tin' tri>uliles ill the i'ountiy, has yradualU iiaieased in Hi/e and importance It now contains a population of ahoiit ti\e hundred permanent citi/ens. Tsvo^rars a<:o tin re were hut ahoiu t\\r the supply of the citizelisthe In'Stof We ater is ohtaiiied in cMiy j»ait of the town hy hoiin-jf the distance of forty feet. " In l^oin^ ^K'Uth fVoiii ^^lltM l^ieiia. the trav.llei- passes oyer this narrow neck of |:ind ; a most di li'^ht- lul leyiou iulerspi rjicd with hills, yalleys, uiid iiiouu- 736 FOUNDING OF THE (illF.AT MKTKOI'OLIS. tains - the valk-ys lidi mikI hrautiTul — tin- liillscovnvd with tall |tiln•^4, red-wood and ceder that luive witli- stood tht tests aiid whii 1 \\ iiids of a ceiituiy, and th<' I IK mil tains risiii<'- in niaiestic !j:i'andeur to tiie clouds. In ]»as.-in<4 out, the va'dey of San Jose o|tens to thr \ie\s in ail tlie lov«'lines8 of the (liniat<' of Italy and InautN' of the tioit'ics, 'I'his vallev is aliout sixt\ iiiil\' the contluence of tin Sacramento and San .Joii (juin i livers, from that of San l*ahl«». Jli-re it s»t ni.^ that the aceumulated waters of a thonsatid yi ars had suddenly nnt the opposin*^ mountain asund»r and fiowi d with tr<-mendous force to tlie j^reat hasin of tiu' dt< p. " ( >n the north side of tlie hay frorii the straits to Sousilito is on«' of the iiiu'.st districtB of countrv in all upper Calitornia. ■■ Next to N'orha Hu("i\a. Sousilito is tlu' hest jioint on tlu' wiiole !)ay for j commercial town, Itis-^<\rn miles a little eaisi of north from this pla<<' on tlif opposite sitle of the hay, and has lon^j Uei-n a watei' lu'H point for ves.sels, "An attiinpt, has rcc«>ntly heen mawn at the Htiuilf to supersede the tW" last mentioned j^laces. 1^, will no iloul.t, jiowuvei' Ix an entire failure. "San ['raneisj'o hay hcitijj; the safest and mogt conunodimis harhor on th«' entire coast of tlif VaciKc, some point on it must i)e tlu oreat mart of the wtst- ern world. We heliev Verha Hu iia is the ]Mttnt. eommandmt Inen disc. »\cn'd, tlu' vallov of California was uuscttlod; anv distam-o hack fr(»in tht.; shoros of San Franoisoo hay, oxoopt in tilt! dirootion of San J)ioi;;o, sccinod almost out of tho world. W lull thoroforo it was propositi to plant tho nu'trujiolis (»n tho straits (»f Cartjuin*/ and Suisun hay, it sr< uumI like jijolnj^ fnr oui, of tho way. To select a site ooiiNcniont Uf sliipa was then much more thounht of than tho ooiivenitJiioo «'f an interior popu- lation. When tho valley of (alifornla hi'i^an to swarm with jjjold-seekers, and travellers tJienoe from San Fianeiseo must thither ^j^'o south sixty miles to clear tlu; hay hefore «.',oin;4 north, or el.st; cro.ss tho hay ill a har^'e, some San Franciscans saw their mistako, thou^^h few of them, Jiaviiijjf tlu-ir lUarost interests at Mtako, would ever aoknowledj^e it. In the I'levciith iiumher of its issue, which was on t!ie 'JOth of March or this .'•aiiie year, the diUhniin Sfnr took down tho nainoof Y«rha Uueiiaand lioi.stod that of San Fram-isco. "Our nadors will pen I'ivo that in our present nunihor, sa) s tl U! eillt(»l lit. W(; havo coiiforniod to tho change recently made in tho 3'Li i Cajl. I'akt. 47 788 FOUXDIXC OF THE fJRKAT M FTIK >roi.IS. n.imo (tf our town, l)v pl.'uinti: '"^t was first att('ni|itel;i(r wn^ ('.'died San Pi.-ineisco in soiik; old Spanish paper, wjiieh he profess( d t(» liaA'e in his possession."' I^et us j^lanee now at the business pretentions of the new town. In the sam<^ iournal of Aj>ril 17th f >llowin;i'. W. A. Leidesdorif advertises lumlMi-from the i^. 'dro;! steam-iiiills; Ward and Snnth otl'er for sjdi tlse .schooner Cniiuiitxltin Shiiln'ivl-: Stout, Sirrin*', and Mender n-^ree to fill ortlei's foi' Santa ( 'ru/. hnnhei' : \\. W. Huel!' (juiciv^Usi r froin ('alifornia: Ward and Smith desire to sell ten thou- sami iiounc Isfi ne na\\ luead, al.so dj-v^oods, ijfnx'eiMi and ('ahfoinia wines an-i ness firms of ( {citron and ( 'otnpanv . luilx-rl .\. I 'ark" i adoJH store. Dickson and Hay, Melius and Howard William H. Davis, I'earsoii l». Shelly, and Slie!i\ and Noj'ris appeal- in the columns of tlie ('(il!l'nrin' hou>e and siu'n painter. L. lOverhait as tailor, aii'l .1 (Sltev OK trre js civil en'iinecr and survexor Jol III (^)usens informs /ill persons that the sheep on N'erha l^uena island heloni^ to him. and that they nnist i>"t iie molested. Iv J*, .lones. lawyer and late editor < t' the Sf/tr. in Au'..;ust, assumes the mana!.';ement of th' l*ortsmouth lionsi , now etilaru'ed ,'md havin;.; a h.n and a hiUiard tahl e. ( I CO !•''■•' M I*: \ans, I it th hou- TTvE-AUniFKUOUs M'SlNKss MKN. :i'.» of If. Ifanis, aUovc tin- slauiiilitcr lioiist of ('«ms» ns. •says ill St|iti'iiil)«T that Iir will to «inl» r iniii%c adolns for liousrs. cliiiiiiit ys, and ovens. I'ldwanl F. Kol^t r, corner Mont-'oinrrv and \Vasliin<'toii .streets, jidv« r tises tlie hark WJiittmi, \{. (Itifroii master, (o .sail t'oi I'ananiil the 1st of Octohcr. ('. Ji. I e •.->.■>, Colin I ot \\'ashin;j;t> iV.-ni Sonoma. \V. II. Das is h.i.s »i<^ht \ -om- thou.sand ft et or()n"4ou iumher laiidmu' iVoiii the h.irk .luml. I I < iSl ' and loyiiolds want .sun <■ nu n to di'^^ a toitiidiition and rai'c for a mill in Xapa \allt\. 'I'hf Imildin^'. and ot lior ini|ii'o\ ( ini-nts at th« junction of tlic San .loauin<' llu' niaiia''( ni« n t of I How II S liot'l, clian'4iii!L;' iho inanir to that o f l'it\ liot> I. .1, An \'io'4«t oll'i'is for s.dc tho PoilsnaMit h houx drew I loeiijii ii'i' has a warm sprini; our milo fiwin SoiKiiiia that will euro rheumatism. Su«-li wirrsoinr iA' tin' I'lisuiiss iinlieatioiis at San l^'ianeisro during ( hr ytar I > 17. This year, on tlir "Jot h of ( tetohcr, and ilioiil llh' ;,iini' time i'(.|' oh< It Simple (stahlislMs a f 1 1 y aero.^.s ( 'aifpiiiit /. >trait in M, IV 11 e aniloUlM ( s his Uvw \vv\\ hou>e .t j ifiiK la in t\*o notices in the olio i iinii ;a fit \ , Sepit I nlier ( 'iihfni-iiniii. dat in*^ [7. ' In this liist notice he .slatfs that he i.s then " huildin^ a house on tile o|ijtositi' sido of tho strait, fide to avoid d> t«'niion, and harley and corn woiild ho found 1 lure for sale I'dr cro,-.siir^f. jioiscs iniisl pay I'lH' dollar, men lifty ctHt.s, horse and man tuie doll.ir There w« re ijood loads from lieiiicia citv to Santa a I a, li .\ iiiaoor s I'anclio. am I to N eW li elvetia. 111 It will he perceixi il," colicluoes t hf propiiitiU', "that IS IS tho nearest and mm h tl io Ixst lead from Saul. < 'lata to New lit Ivetia, and tVoin Santa C'ru/, t o 740 POUNDINO OF THE P.REAT METROI'OLrS. Bodi'ga." Before the travel to the mines, the fiiry paid a profit of one liuinlretl atid fifty dollars a month, and was deenied ont^ of the h(!st proptities of the kind hi California. With high magnanimity tlie pro- ietors donated the whole imHi'ecU, to»rcthi'r witli pr several lots, for the henefit of schools, whi«'h conduct was in marked contrast to the slow and narrow iM)licy pnivailing at San Francisco. For many years prior to Aiighi-Anu^rican occupa- tion, war and trading vessels entered tiie hay of San Francisco, whalers lay in Sauwilit<» hay, and ships of cii'iMinmaviuration anchored off th(^ presi«li io. T\ lere was no inland conmierce, for W(! can hardlv call Sut- t,507.r)M, of which )ii;:{0,l},').'i.H3 were for pnuhiets of CalifomiM, shipped ,^.'{20 to the Islands, .S-JI,4 IH.af) to rem. $:.f;o to Ma/atlaii, i?7,2H.').r)0 to Sitka, and .^700 to Tahiti. Of the $ll),a4;{.r.,S foreign products, .«!-.»,0(;o wc.rtii went to the United States, .$! •_»,44lMH, of whic h )?l 1.- .'UO wei'c gold and silvei' coin, went to tlie Hawaiian Islands, and $4.H.'n.r)0 io Afaaatlan. The imports wen' .$.').'{, 581). 7:{, of which .^n,7l)0..')4 came from tin- United States, 37, 701. 5'.) from ()reg(.n, !?M.fi7\v a «lisfi«paiH'V of 8100 in one |)liM'«>, $40 in another, $10 in anotlii-r, ami i<>'> in an- otlur. (>!i tin' 1st of .Fanuarv, IH4S, was Htai-titl a so rallt aiir|Nf«<- Hn- niaiuiiXrincnt rniployrtl the sloop SlncUmi. Uii-^us. nastci', a}4«nt at Sonoma, A. Hot |>p»n»r. havin-.' San ran4'is4-u o n MontlaA's. ami Sonoma on Wedn* >«tMr<'n tlir Napa t inl>ar«a«lt'ro and San Franrixit. Nvla-n, on the 1st »d' F«'l>niarv, tin* t-lipprr-hnjlt pii/.c stho(MH'r, MnJfk A'lJul, crosscfl San PaWlo hay. and entt'rin<4 Xapa eri-ck, amhorcd in fonr and a half fathoms of \vat» rat half tide. T. Cordna «;i\i^ n<>tirr in tin- ('nUfnfninn of A|>ril '_M'», |S4f^, that he will nm a monthly lauiuh fiom San Kranrisco to New M« < k- Irnl mriif, ill the Sacramento \ alley, toui'hinvf at N ieho- las. Algeirs. the endtarca«lero of Jie.ir ra/,-'iia, ^[onte/uina, and Heniual p.iia- |>hernalia of connneicial industiy. Hartrcs with white sails skirted the hav for hides and tallow, and as- ceudcd the s»t eanLs with ••oods. Whalers, and ( )re.;< >n m 742 FOl'XPINV; OF THE OIlEAT MFTF:orOLI>. iukI Calit'nniia roast 'm<4 ViSsclH. «^nton't»t*.s was onlrml l»v the town authorities. X foilowi'd hy a jM-riod of eoniparative «jui t. So full ot enei-^y w»ie the |n'oj»1(.«, »» eai.;*'!- to iN-eonte iinnudi- nf< ly lieh. that in re;j;aid to increase in values and Volume of husiiiess. the future was antiei|iated: if iiiij-es douhh <|, thev uiust douhle a'^aiii .-hoiilv, and when the leaition came, which event was certain, i»eo|»lc cnmplain«d. During the Mexican war |Mri«Ml. husiness had hei'U Ljood. Troops had Im en lamli-d. hiimii^rants hy .sea had arri\ed, Jind town l««ts had r;i|»idly ailvanced. In the ahsence of the>e stiniulaiit>, the year l^4H o|K-ned dull, and tin' citizens deenuil it iidvis;il)le to make hetter known to the jnople of the eastern states the capahilities and pros|H «ts <»f Cali- fornia. To this end the ( 'tili'luniin >7"r was euLja^ed to jirmt an a<-co un t of the resources of the ««iuntrv, to ti' written i.v y. J. K our'4eau( It will \h: remembered that the governor. Juan 1] Alvarado. in Ib'-^'J dincted tlu: alcalde of Y< rl i:i ] )Ueiia. f raneist-oii le II u< », tol iav( theC ovo surve\ It M» that the lots which were tlieii heiri'_' triven to any who Would huild on tlu'm should not In v:ianttd ai rand om, am I tl ns worl was «ri\en t<» J ean lo'^et. In IH4 I cam*' »ttlicers and servants of the 'jreat Hud- son's 1>ay ('onipany, and added its intluenee u|h»ii tin haiidet. After a hrief hi'eathin<.j sjmII. ap|M aied upoii the plaza the sjiiiit of I77'». in the form of the .\nui- icaii tla;4. waft«-d thitlnroversuhdued Mexican domain, and s«'t up in 1S40 hy John H. Mont.ir»merv. <-"ni niandcr of the sloop Inrh-iuuudi, who ai»[»oiated Wash- i Hilton Yorha s(juare street. for iLjo Jhieua M0L'TII SHIP AND SQL'AIIK. 74t iii'^ton A. liiirtl«tt, oiu' of liis lioutciuiiits, nlcaldf of YciIki Jiuiiiu ; till- iiuiii*' of tlic .ship was i^ivni lo tin- s(|uai'c, and tliat of the coiiiiiiaiKlcr to tlic {ti'iiK-ipal strt'i't. liaitlitt likfwis*! sliowi'd dtsi^ii, and that not foi" tj;ood, winii hf i-haui^fd thr iianu' fioin Yiiha Jiiii'iia to San Fiain-is«-o, as did also Folsnm. tht' (|uait«'rinast« r, \vh»ii lie sil«(toai'ty in Fehruary IS47. Tht> "JSth of ^fav. the town was illuminated in honoi' of Taylor's victory at J^ueiia \'ista. And p.itrlotic was the villa'^e withal. p]vt ly tenement pi'ctendiiiL,' to the dignity of dwellin-j;, whethei- of cloth, mud, or hoards, was ]i^;htf the kind occuri'i'd the follow- ino' 'I'ld of Fehruary. T. W. l\'rry, house and si^n paint* r. coriui- of ^[ont;^olJlery and Jackson streets, furnlslu'd tlie masks. Urescntly times in'came thill, some of the merchants baid, and the depression, indeed, must have been seri- IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-S) ^ 1.0 I.I m _ ^ IIIIIM "■" m II 4 2.2 12.0 1.8 1.25 1.4 1.6 .4 6" — ► Photographic Sciences Corporation S ^ \ X '^^ o <■ ^ ^ <■-*■ 6^ <^ 23 V\ EST MmlN St'RrET WEBSUR, X.Y. H580 (7161 872-4SC3 lf in the leather business at San Francisco, his tan- nery and shop being on the corner of Shubrick and Yallojo streets. The CaJ/'fomian of April 5th coui- plaiiis that John Couzens, the butcher, — Cozens he should have written it — had left town without paying his advertising and subscription bill. By the 26th of April Jacob Harlan had established "a livery stable and horse bazar" near Was] ihigton Square; house and s]h[) carpenters, corner of Kearny and Pacific streets, were Hood and Wilson. The Shades Tavern, by T. and H. Smith, corner of Pacific and Stockton streets, advertised the 12th of April, shows how the business portion of the town was extending in that direction. Oliver Mao-nent wishes to sell his new flourinij mill near the San Jose embarcadero. Dickson and Hay advertises in the CaJifomian of April 26th one case of stationery for sale. T. Cordua offers to supply overland travellers to the east at San Francisco })rices, with good flour, hams, bacon, and smoked beef; also working and beef cattle ; all at his farm, New Mecklen- burg, centre of the Sacramento valley, and near where the road branches off to the United States. So C. C. Smith, at New Helvetia, offers to supply persons wish- ing to return to the States with horses, nmles, pack- saddles, picket-ropes, and provisions. Over Mr Parker's new meat and vegetable stand, called Washington market, George Eggleston, this same month, set up a new sign, the sign of the bleed- ing pig ; and it bled so perfectly in the picture that the editor of the Califomian, who had been asked to drink on the occasion, and who had drank several times at the expense of Eggleston, p,s he was about to retire to his home, turned, and regarding the work of art attentively for a time, at length exclaimed : — *• I am so damned deaf that I cannot hear it squeal." A more complete list of the principal business bss MORE BUSINESS HOUSES. W7 houses in San Francisco during the winter of 1848-9 would embrace C. L. Ross; Melius and Howard; Dickson and Hay ; Ward and Smith, No. 3 ^Fdiit- gomer}'- street; J. Bawden, wholesale connnissiou merchant, foot of Broadway; Sherman and Kut^kel, general connnisslon merchants, comer Clay and !Mont- goniery streets; Starkey, Janion, and Company, commission merchants; A. J. Grayson, general mer- chandise, north-east corner of City Hotel building; Davis and Carter, general merchants, corner Clav and Montgomery streets ; William S. Clark, auction and connnission, at the ship wharf, foot of Broatlway ; K. A. Parker, general merchant, Clay street; I. ^Tont- gomery, keeper of the Shades tavern and bowling alleys, corner of Pacific and Stockton streets, and dealer in general merchandise ; De Witt and Ifarrison, Sansomc street ; Finley, Johnson and Co., commission merchants, Portsmouth House, Clay street ; Wet- more and Oilman, jobbing and commission; Cross, Hobson and Co., commission merchants; Leighton, Swasey, and Co., general merchants. Clay street ; Robert Wells and Co., dry-goods and groceries; J. Angelo, varieties, opposite the Shades ; beside V>. R. Buckelew's shop, George Storey established hiuisclf as a watch-maker at C. Russ' corner ]\r(mtgonKiy and Pine streets. Candy men were E. Welder and Schlotthauer. Anthony Welter made boots and shoes. Naglee and Sintoii advertise town lots. Dring kept the adobe store. There was the firm of E. and H. Grimes, dissolved by the death of the senior part- ner. C. V. Gillespie was notary })ublic; and bouglit gold-dust. Among the attorne3's were L. AV. IJas- ititigs; T. R. Per Lee; E. P. Jones; and Francis J. Lippitt. The name of J. H(>nry Poett was added to tlie })hysicians ; also K. D. Noel. On the soutli side of Portsmouth square stood the City Hotel, kept by J. H. Brown. On the corner of Pacific and Sansome streets, opposite the ship anchorage was a public house kept by George Denecke. Beside the Wash- |;,'irl iibii^ WW 748 FOUNDING OF THE GREAT METROPOLIS. ington market of George W. Eggleston and Co., there was the Central market of which Edmonson and Anderson were proprietors ; for sale there were meat and vegetables, and a schooner was kept constantly plying to all parts of the bay for supplies. Later the firm was dissolved, Edmonson continuing. Karl Shlottour kept a bakery in the rear of Washington market ; one was kept by John Bowden, on Broadway near the ship wharf. Willliam Hood and Charles Wilson were house and ship carpenters. John Weyland, Clay street, furnished tents for the gold mines. N. K. Benton joined C. L. Ross the 1st of January under the firm name Ross, Benton, and Co. In the new cream-colored house of Mr Wetmore, just above the quatermaster's office, Richard Carr took daguerreo- type portraits. The Shades tavern was burned the loth of January. Sales by auction began early, and later as- sumed large proportions. Dickson and Hay adver- tised in the California Star, Febuary 6, 1847, an auction sale of a variety of merchandise by the schooner Currcnnj Lass from the Hawaiian Islands. Howard and Melius the 1st of March sold the prize g0(xls of the U. S. ship Cyane, consisting of dr}''-goods, liardware, and groceries. The Sarmiento, a vessel of twenty tons, was sold by Ward and Smith, Mont- gomery street, the 4th of September. William R. Grariier offered the brig Primavera at auction the 9tli of November. Wm McDonald gave notice to sell by auction part of the cargo of the Chilian ship Con fed- cracion, consisting of dry-goods, provisions, and liquors, the 10th of November. In January 1848 McDonald and Buchanan formed a copartnership, and opened an auction and commis- sion business at the north-east corner of Portsmouth Square. W. M. Smith offered miscellaneous mer- chandise at auction the 22nd. The seizure of tlie cargo of the schooner Marj/ Ann for breach of cus- toms regulations gave McDonald and Buchanan a THE MORMONS. 749 sale the 4tli of February. A double-planked, cedar- built and copper-fastened launch was sold at auction by W. S. Clark at the foot of Clay street wharf the 22nd of February. McDonald and Buchanan held an auction sale of general merchandise the 2Gth of February. In the Califomian of March 15th, Wil- liam S. Clark announces himself established as a com- mission merchant and general auctioneer, near the ship anchorage foot of Broadway. Religions become somewhat entangled in the new community, a» well as nationalities. The catholic of course was the orthodox creed, the best for business, as well as for social and spiritual advancement ; yet Samuel Brannan made Mormonism pay, as long as he could secure for lumself a tenth of all the earnings of tlie saints. In his manipulations of piety and property which followed, Sam well understood the power of printer's ink. He had brought out with him, on the Brooklyn, a printing press, and material for a news- paper, which he started, calling it the f^tar. This journal being accused of Mormon proclivities, the Califomian of April 26, 1848, would like to know whether headlong fanaticism, urged by designing leaders, may not endanger the peace of communities ; and that wiien the doctrines of any sect or society in- terfere with the wholesome operation of the laws under wliich they live, if means should not be taken for the suppression of such pretended religion. Thus early at the Cove the sects begin to snarl. It may truthfully be said, however, that when the times, the trials, the discomforts, the harassing anx- iety and oftentimes suffering are taken into account there was wonderfully little snarling either among saints or ainners. It speaks volumes for humanity, for the young and adventurous humanity here con- gregated in particular, that there was so little fighting, so few murders or robberies in California during the first flush of the gold discovery, or until professional cut-throats had arrived from the British penal colonies. m FOUNDING OF THE GREAT METROPOLIS. I will rest here with my narrative of the progress of the young metropolis, to be taken up again in my Inter Pacula, as v/hat follows properly belongs to the goltl-digghig era. At tlie close of Hcsiod's golden age, the men then livhig were made demons or genii; some became angels, and moved invisibly in air. Thus it was when the Age of Gold terminated the Golden Age of Cali- fornia, the missionaries, their associates, and convicts, rapidly were sublimated; some of them became angils, more of them became demons, a few remain to this day as they were before the fall — manly men. CHAPTER XXIII. BrBLIOTxRAPHY OF PASTORAL CALIFORNIA. Car roecasioii a toua ses chevcux A front; quand olio est oultre passee, vom lit! la i)f)uvez plus revocijuer; elle est cliauve par lo derricro di; la teste, et jamais plus ne retourne. — Jialitldi.i. For a country and a period so little known as Pas- toral California, notliiniX ran bo of ijrcatcT int(^r(>st to a lover of literature tlian a description of tlie books and manuscripts containing information upon tlie sub- ject. Particularly is this the case when so few of the sources of information are in print, or are known to students of history. It is safe to say that of the six volumes of this series devoted to Pastoral Cali- fornia, not more than one tenth of tlie information contained in them was ever before in print, or even in the EnLjlish lanijuaore. Mission and government archives, and state and family papers furnished some material; but more than Jialf of all that has been gathered relating to this interesting epoch, or which is now in existence concernlntj it, Avas taki^i bv Uie or by my agents from the mouths of living witnesses. The bibliography of California is naturally divided into two periods by the change fi'om ]\I(!xican to Anglo-American occupation, which was effected almost simultaneously with the gold discovery. Th»! first period has somethhig over 1,G00 titles, and the latter, which is constantly increasing hi immber, some 2,100. The authorities given in the list at the beginning of the first volume of my Tf/.sfon/ of CaJifmiiia contain vir- tually the history of California from the earliest days of its settlement to the present time. Ever}" scrap (751) 762 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF PASTORAL CALIFORNIA. of paper existing in the public archives, secular or ecclesiastical, or in private hands, to within the last twenty years, is in the list; the papers being either original, or copied, or in the form of an epitome of the original ; to which nmst be added the recollec- tions of Califoriiians, Mexicans, or foreigners who lived in the country prior to its becoming a part of tlic United States. The first bibliographical period of California, being that of California Pastoral, may be again divided into two parts, one being before and the other after Spanish occupation in 1769. What is known of the country before this date is mostly in printed form ; on Alta California between the years 1769 and 1848 I have over eleven hundred manuscripts, not to men- tion many thousand papers and documents of from one to several pages each, which have no distinguish- ing titles, and are not quoted separately in the history. For the period preceding 1769, California is not the exclusive nor even the chief subject of any book; and yet, no less than fifty-six treat of this distant region, and of the voyages hither. This number might be augmented or lessened without laying my- self open to the charge of inaccuracy. Four of them, namely, Acosta, Hlstoria Natural y Moral ; Apostolicos Afancs de la Compania de Jesus ; Bemal Diaz del Cas- tillo, Hlstoria Verdadera de la Conquista de Nueva Espana; and Villasenor, TJieatro Americano, merely allude to California as a part of the vast dominions of the Spanish crown in America ; and one, Sergas of Esplayidian, is a romance giving the name California to the province before this region was discovered. A large number of the books are cosmographical, or once popular collections of voyages and travels. There are eight works of voyages. Cabrera Bucno, Drake, Hakluyt, Herrera, LimcJwten, Purchas, Torque- mada, and Venegas, whose books contain the actual knowledge then existing in print. The rest were of interest chiefly because of their quaint cosmographical V(")YA(;ES and COSMOriPvArHTES. 7.-3 notions or conjocturcs on tlic name of California. Tlicru wore sixteen deseriptive t'osinolarn, JfArift/, Gotffricdt, Hcjihjn, Lac f, Loir, Lnyf, Mcrcator, M(»i(ainis, MorclU, 0(jUhy, ()rtclii(s, Wed Iiidhchc Spicfjhcl, and Wi/flUct. To thc^se mav be added four ]']n'j;lisli records of a somewhat dilFerent class, Camdcii, Cuiii])- hcU, (.'oxc, and Davis, Tlieii there are sixti>en of the once popular collections of voyages and travels, of which via, Hacke, Harris, Samrnhmrj, Itainimo, and Voyages are the most notable. We nmst notic(\ be- sides, six works which treat of voyages— none of them actually to California — or the lives of es[)eciid navi- gators, the authors being, Burton, Clark, Ddiiijilcr, Rof/crs, ShcJvockc, and Ulloa. To these may b(3 addi'd a number of important documents relating to this primitive epoch, which appeared in print only in mod- ern times; they are to be found in yiscoislon, Cahrllln, Cardnia, Dcmarcaclon, Lvavs, Kiel, and Salmcron. California, as I said before, was l)ut incidentally al- luded to in such books, a few of which contain what visitors had ascertained regarding this coast. The rest are full .of errors, and of superficial repetitions, drawn out of the writers' brains upon the mythical strait of Anian. And there may be other mhior documents which mtnition California in connection with the Northern Mystery. Between 1701) and 1824 was the period of inland exploration, and of the establishment of Spanish domination in California, which was effected by means of missions, and mili- tary posts, called presidios, and a little later of pue- blos or incorporated towns. For this epoch I Jiave four hundred titles, sixty of the works being in ])rint. Among the latter are three which treat exclusively of California; two Costans6, Dlarlo Historlco de los llafjcs de Mar y Tlcrra hechos al rtorfe de Callfonila, and Monterey, Exfracfo de Noticias, Mexico, 1770, fur- nishing important records of the first expeditions to San Diego and Monterey in l76*J-70; the third, Cal. Past. 48 7o4 BinLIOCJRArilY OF PASTOIIAL CALIFOUN'IA. Palo'i, Vkla ik Junipero Scrra, being the standard history of California down to 1784. Miguel Costanso, an alferez, or sub-licutcnant of royal engineers, was the cosniograplier of the first expedition despatched from Mexico to California, and his Dlario Jlistorico was published in Mexleo in 1776. In later years he acquind distinction as an engineer, and liis reports of 17U4-5 on defences of California, fortifications of Vera Cruz, and drainage of the valley of ^lexico, stamped him as an accomplished ofSc r. It is satisfactory to know that his merits W( r(! both ap[)reciated and rewarded. In 1811 ho was still liv- ing as a mariscal de campo, or major-general, a rank mon^ sparingly bestowed at that time than at present, and therefore more significant of merit. Francisco Palou, a Franciscan friar of the colleije of San Fernando, in Mexico, is a prominent figure in connection with the first fifteen years of California historj'. He was the senior priest, next to the fatiier- president, Junipero Serra, and during a temporjuy absence of the latter in Mexico, held the position for a few months during 1773 and 1774 of acting presi- dent, which he reluctantly accepted, in, deference to the unanimous wish of his com])anions, and the request of the commandant of the new settlements. Father Palou was a native of Palma, in the Balearic island of ^[allorca, and born ■ robably about 1722. In 1740 h«- became a pupil of . 'ather Serra, with whom, and with Father Juan Cresjti, another Californian priest, he contracted a life-long friendship, forming a saintly trinity who devoted all their powers, physical and mental, to the apostolic work of converting and civilizing the natives. Palou came to Mexico witli Seri'a, joined the college of San Fernando, antl beiii^ assigned to the Sierra Ciiorda missions, served there from 1750 to 1750, after which he resided several years at his college. After the expulsion of the Jes- uits from New Spain, the missions of Lower California being eutrusteil to tlie priests of San Fernando, Palou works; of franci.^co palou. was sent there under President S«rra, and in 1708 took eliarge of San Franeisco Javier. Under a Hul)SO(ju<'nt arrangement with the Dominicans, the Lower California missions wiTO transfcrnd to that order. President Serra departed for Upper ( ahfor- nia hi 1709, and Palou, as acting president, made the formal delivery of the missions in 1773, and started for San Diego and Monterey. After sening some thne in the San Cilrlos, he went to found the San Francisco hav establishments. Finallv, ill health compelled him to ask for permission to return to his college, which was granted him in a royal order of October 1784. Meanwhile, Serra havin*; died in August of the same year, Palou succeed' ^ him ad interim in the presidency, and acted until i^^ither Lasuen was appointed to the office, in S'ptemher 1785. He was now free to leave Califo' ia, and did so, arriving at his college in Feliruar^' iVod. Iii July he was cliosen guardian of his college, his br -thren thus siiowmg their great regard for him. His death oppurred probably in 1790, altheugh soine assert it was a few years later. Palou's memory should always .stand high in Cali- fornia. He was not only a founder f>f missions, .an exemplary priest, and a man with a liberal mind and of broad practical views, but to him we owe the first history of Alta California. His fame will live through his VUla (k Jmdpcro Serra, and Not icias dc Califoniias. In the preface of the former, issued in Mexico in 1787, he solennily declares that all his statements are truthful. "Como el alma de la Historia es la verdad scncilla, puedes tener el consuelo, ({ue casi todo lo (jue refiero lo he presenciado, y lo que no, me lo ban re- ferido otros padres misioneros mis companems dignos de fe." The other work, bearhnx the title yi.tin'aa de la {Aiitifjua y) Nueva Califomiia, in two volumes, was concluded in 1783, this being the last year mentioned therein. There is good reason to iKslievo that some portion of it was written as early as 1773, at San Ciir- 766 BIBLIOGRAPHY OP PASTORAL CALIFORNIA. los mission. His original manuscript at the college of Sau Fernando has disappeared, but under a royal order of 1790 a cop}' was prepared in 1792, the accu- racy of which was duly attested. This work is divided into four parts. Part I. gives the annals of Lower California under the Franciscans, from 1768 to 1773, and forms forty chapters of the first volume ; part II. describes the expedition to Monterey, and the foun- dation of the first five missi(ms, covering the period from 1769 to 1773, e.nd occupying fifty chapters of the same volume; part III. is a collection of docu- ments — not {:vrranged in chapters — on events of 1773- 4 ; and part IV. continues in forty-one chapters the narrative from 1775 to 1783. The author clearly in- dicates, in a preface headed Jesus, Maria, y Jose, his object in undertaking this laborious task, namely, to provide a full record, for tlie future use of the chroni- cler of his religious order, of tlio apostolic labors of the priests of San Fernando college in the two Cali- fornias which had passed under his observation, with- out suppressing any facts, not even those which pru- dence and religious piety would counsel the clironicler "dejar para el secreto del archivo, las que solo se es- criben para lo que pueda convenir para tapar la boca it los emulos del ministerlo apost61ico." He concludes with the following assurance as to the manner he in- tended to narrate events, " todo lo cual con toda sin- ceridad y verdad rcferire en esta recopilacion." Next in Importance to tlie writings of Palou come the works of navigators who visited California and other parts of the western coast, and gave descrii)tions of these countries. Such were Chamisso, Choris, Kot- zchiic, Langsdorff, La Pcrouse, Marchand, Maurelle, Roqucfeu'il, Rdacum del Vlage hecho por las goletas Sutil y Mcxicana, and Vancouver. La Perouse, Van- couver, and a few others do not confine themselves to their own personal observations, but furnish other ma- terial on the earliest history of tiie country, wliicli thus became known to the world for the first time. SPANISH AND ENGLISH WORKS. 757 Fleurieu and Navarrete, competent editors, added to two of the voyage-narratives many data on earlier ex- plorations. There are, moreover, the general works on America of Alcedo, Aiiqaetil, Bonnycadle, Birney, Forster, Humboldt, and Raynal; a number of Mexican works, Arricivita, Clavigero, Cortes, Giiia, Presidios, and Rosignon, which contain matter on California; and as many collections of voyages and travels, such as those of Berenyer, Kerr, Laharpe, Pinkertnn, Viagero Universal, and Voyages, furnish some information on the country for that period. The Gaceta de Mexico is the only Mexican newspaper for this period which calls for mention here. There are only seven printed documents or articles of the Spanish government on the subject, though possibly many documents mention California as a province of New Spahi. Two essays appear with the books of voyages already named, which were contributed by visitors. William Shaler, a shipmaster, was the first American visitor whoso narrative appeared in print in tlie United States. This man was later Unitetl States consul in one of the Barbary states, and afterward at Habana, where he died of cholera in 1834. Sola, the last Spanish governor, made a re})ort on California, which was printed in Mexico, and was the basis of another- by Deputy M. M. Castanares, toward the end of the Mexican domination. Two instructions for Californians were put in type ; one of the Spanish vovaixe-collections Grave an account of the historv and condition in reference to afl'airs of the peninsula. Some papers of tliis time, not printed till many years later, are quite impt)rtant, especially those given in Palou, Xoticias, and the Documcntos para hi Uistoria de Mexico. There are some nineteen titles of this class. The period from 1824 to 1848 embraces the Mexican rule till 1840. and the conquest and military rule of the United States to the gold discovorv. This might properly be made a division, historically, but bibliographicaily it would be inconvenient, for 763 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF PASTORAL CALIFORNIA. which reason I treat it all as one epoch. My list presents seven hundred titles. With reference to history, we have the narratives of fifteen voyagers who visited this coast: Beachy, Belcher, Cleveland, Coni- fer, Dana, DuhauUCiUy, Huish (not a visitor), Kotze- hue, Laplace, Mofras, Morrell, Petit-Tliouars, Ruschen- herger, ^Simpson, and Wilkes. For the merits of the productions I would place Petit-Thouars at the head of the list, and Coulter at the foot. Mofras and Wilkes are pretentious, but by no means the most valuable. We must add some scientific works, which resulted from some of these voyages, — Hinds, Ricliard- son, and several productions in United States Exjdori'nf/ Expedition, — two official accounts of exploring jour- neys across the continent, — Emory and Fremont; with these may be classed several accounts of California by different persons, namely, Bidivell, Bilson, Boscana, Bryant, Fandiam, Kellcy, Pattie, and Rohinson, gener- ally furnishing also a narrative of the trip by land or soa. There are four compiled historical accounts by foreigners who had not visited the country, Cidttt, Forhca, Grcenhow, and Hughes; that of Forbes deserves the credit it has always enjo^^ed as a standard work. Forbes obtained nmch of his information from resi- dents of California whose original manuscripts have been for several years past on the shelves of my library. Then there were half a dozen or more works on Oregon which brietly mention California, and sev- eral speeches in the United States congress or else- where in pamphlet form, among which are notably those of Clark, Hall, TJiompson, and Webster. This number might be greatly increased by taking in every printed paper in which California is mentioned in connection with the Oregon question or the Mexican war. To all such titles may be added those of the general works of Beyer, Blagdon, Barrow, Comhier. IfOrhigny, Irving, Ijafond, Lardner, Murray, and Tytlcr, which contain allusions to the province of California. FIRST PRINTIXG IN CALIFORNIA. m Among the Spanish works for this period six hold the first position. Tlieir titles are Boiica, FUjueroa, Rcglamcrdo, Ripalda, liomero, and Vallejo. These are the first books printed in California, and most of them were entirely unknown until I alluded to them in my first volume on Cahfornia. Historically speak- ing Figueroa's Ma7iiJiesto is the only impoi-tant one of them. The RegJamentn contains the by-laws of the territorial deputation or legislature of California, and was printed in Monterey in 1834. This copy was kindly presented me by Carlos Olvera of Monterey county, whose father had been a member of the Cali- fornia assembly. I know of no other copy in exist- ence. There may be named in connection with these books several pamphlets, printed in Mexico, but treat- inor of California affairs. There titles are VarriUo (Carlos Antonio), Castanarcs (Manuel), Fondo Piailoso, Garcia Diego (first bishop of the Californias), Junta de Fomeido, and San Miguel. There are, moreover, sixteen documents of the Mexican government, under the heading of Mexico, which give valuable data on California, and if those in wjiich the province or de- partment is merely mentioned are also reckoned, the number would be greatly enlarged. Finally, I have thirtv-five general works on ^lexico, all of which I/O ' have information, often very valuable; such are those of Alaman, Ayala, Bcnnudcz, Bmtamante, Cancckida, Fscudcro, Fonscca, Guerrero^ Iriartc, Muhienpfordt, Oajaca, Rejon, Riesgo, Salci, San Miguel, Scmhkiiizai<, Tlioitipso)!, Uhzueta, and UlUie; about one dozen of these are the writings of Ciirlos Maria Bustaniante, which I have still more comj)lete in the original authograph manuscript. Proceeding now to speak of documents, the pro- ducti(ms of the California press are entitled to the first place. There are fifty -five of them separately printed; some titles he'mg Alrarado, California, Ca.stro, Cliico, Diputacion, Doctri)ia, Figueroa, Gutierrez, Ifijor, Mason, Micheltorcna, Fla)!, Pronunciamienio, Riley ^ 760 BIBLIOGRAPHY OP PASTORAL CALIFORNIA. ShuhrkJc, Valkjo, and Zamorano. Three or four of these are proclamations of United States officials, one is a commercial paper, one a poetical effusion, and an- other an advertisement; the great mass of them, however, are documents which emanated from the Hispano-Californian government. I next take note of a series of documents of the Mexican jtrovernment in collections or newspapers, and seven semi-official ones. Some of the titles are Ayuntamiento, Compaiiki, Dccrd!), Didamen, Iniciatlva, Jones, Mexico, Plan, llan- dini, ' C,' Castanares, Chico, Flores, Iniestra, and ^Sina- loa. There are seventeen topic collections or sepa- rate reports emanating from United States officers, most of which relate to tlie acquisition of California and jn'inted by tluur government. They appear inider the following titles: California a7id New Mexico, Con- quest, Cooke, Exindsum, Fremont, Johison, Jones, Kearny, Kelley, Marcy, ]\[ason, Monterey, Slmhrick, Slaciun, Sloat, Stocktmi, War with Mexico. Some of these are the president's messages with documents containing a large number of important papers. Three titles refer to matters inserted in the bookt: of nc igators already named, Botta, Documens, and ISan- chcz ; six to articles or documents appearing in the Nouvelles Annates des Voyages, to wit, Fages, Galit- zin, hi Netrel, Morineau, Scala, and Smith ; and twelve are articles in American or English periodicals, such being Americans, Campaign, Coulter, Evans, W'ar ]Vest, Fonrgeaud, History of the Bear Flag, Larkin, Peirce, Reynolds, Squier, and Warner. I have in my library about twenty periodicals or publications containing information about California before 1848 ; namely, American Quarterly Register, American Quarterly- Review, American Review, Ameri- can kState Papers, Annals of Congress, Arrillaga, Colo- nial Magazine, Congressional Debates, Congressiwml Globe, Edinhnrgk Review, Hansard's Parliamentary De- hates, Home Missionarii, Hunt's 3ferchants' Magazine, London Mechanics' Magazine, North American Review, PERIODICALS. NouveUes Annales cks Voyages, Quarterly Review, Ixevisfa Sck'iit'Jlra, and Sonthcm Qnarfcrli/ Rcvieir. ^[y rata l()'jU(^ si lows about seventy newspapers, of wliieli forty arc }>rhited in Mexico ; a much larger number con- tained mention of California at some time. I <;ive here the names of only those which are valuable sources of information. In California, the Mmdcri'i) ('ah'forviau, San Francisco Californian, ^Sa)l Francisco Sfa,', and San Francisco Star and Californian ; in Hoiiolulu, the Friend, Hawaiian Spectator, Sandwich Isla)id dazettc. Sandwich Island News, and Dilipiesian ; in Oregon, the Spectator. Niles^ Register has been found most useful among the eastern periodicals. I have about one hundred and fifty titles of books, documents, and articles relating to Californian history prior to 1848, though printed later. Of this number, seventy-five are in book form, and include some im- portant monographs on early aflairs of the country, several collections of documents, reprints and transla- tions of early works, treatises on Mexican law affect- ing California, many briefs in land cases, oflicial papers of the United States government on the conquest and U)llitary rule, but printed after 1848, Russian papers on tlie Ross and Bodega colony, .several narratives t>f visitors, and si^veral works on the Mexican war. Some of tlu'se in alphabetical order are, Ah})ott,Hiitory of California, which were printed after 1848, but containing attempts at historical research em- bracing the periods prior and subsequent to that year, there are two of a general nature entitled to especial consideration. I refer to Tuth iWs History of California, San Francisco, 1866, 8vo, xvi., 657 pages, and Glee- son s History of the Catholic Church in California, San Francisco, 1872, Svo, 2 vol., xv., 446, 351 pages. Tlio former is the work of a clever and honest writer, ond dosarves more credit than the public has awarded it. Without claims to exhaustive research, it has been intelligently prepared, and is certainly a good popular history. About one third of it treats of the period preceding the gold discovery. The author was a journalist, and died shortly after the publication of his book. Gleeson, a less able writer than Tuthill, and religiously biassed, was not wholly free from in- accuracies. As a catholic priest, he had facilities for consulting authorities, which he did as appears in his many details. He had also free access to my library. His picture of mission life and annals is pleasant, and tolerabl}" accurate. Sketches found under the head- ings of Capron, Cronise, Frost, and Haiitings contain no original material, and their authors made only an in- adequate and partial use of that which was easily accessible to them. LOCAL ANNALS. 768 y 10 In- h My list contains some seventy titles of local histo- ries, which possess considerable hnportance. Some of them are the centennial sketches prepared at the suggestion of the United States government, such as those of Los Angeles, by Warner and Hayes, and of San Francisco, by John S. Hittell. The latter is in- cidentally a history of California, and like tlie earlier Amials of San Francisco, by Soule and others, lias much merit. Hall's History of San Jos4 is also a cretl- itable work. There are likewise many county histo- ries, several of them in atlas form, copiously illustrated with portraits, maps, and views, each containing a preliminary sketch of California history, with more details respecting the county which is the subject of the work. Most of these books have been prepared mainly as a speculation, but in some of them good material was furnished. Few are reliable on matters of early history, but aiford in the aggregate consider- able data on local annals after 1840, as well as bio- graphical details. Without being properly history, they supply some useful material for history. I will now proceed to speak of the thousand and more remaining titles of manuscript authorities in my collection, from which alone the history of Cali- fornia could be written more completely than from all other sources combined. These authorities have, for the most part, never been consulted by any other writer, and essentially exist only on my shelves. First : Thirteen collections of Californian public archives, the originals of which are about 350 bound volumes of from 300 to 1,000 documents each, and an immense quantity of unbound papers from San Fran- cisco, Los Angeles, Salinas, San Jose, Santa Cruz, San Luis Obispo, Santa Bilrbara, and Sacramento, all of which have been transferred in full or epitomized copies to my library. These copies or extracts are more useful for historical purposes than the originals, because they are more legible, and free from repeti- 764 BrBUor.nAriiY of pastoral California. tions and verbiage. As to the nature of these docu- iMitits, it is enoutjjli to say that tliey are the originals, blotters, or certified copies of the records of the Span- ish and Mexican govcninients for the respective period of their domination over California, national, provin- cial, territorial, departmental, as well as municipal. Among them are many for the time the country was under military rule, after its occupation by the United States. They embrace from the year 1768 to that of 1850. In these collections, containing over 250,000 documents, about 200 have been quoted in my history under distinct titles. Second : In the nature of public archives, we have also tlie missionary records. As the missions became secularized, their records of baptisms, marria<;es, and intiTHients naturally went into the possession of the secular priesto in charge of the several parishes. Other mission pi.,pers, gathered in collections, are held by the archbishop of San Francisco, the bishop of Monterey and Los Angeles, and the Franciscan con- vent at Santa Barbara, the last named behig much the largest. All these papers, as well as the old mis- sion records, have been at my disposal for taking extracts, by the courtesy of the respective ecclesiastical authorities, and of the parish priests having the records in charge. Third: I have seven collections of public archives, similar to those above named, with this difference: that they are originals collected by me from private persons. Fourth : Some scattering papers which were found at a few of the missions, yielded me a volume of ex- tracts and statistics ; and from private sources I ob- tainixl fifteen originals of similar nature. Neither the secular nor mission archives are com- plete. Large numbers of the former had been de- stroyed, even before the last change of flag, and many others had not been surrendered to the United States' authorities, or to those of the catholic church, and re- MANUSCRIPT ARCniVKS. 765 mainecl in private hands. My efforts to gather these scattered papers were rewarded beyond my most san- guine expectations, the results being shown in : — Fifth: fifty collections of Donunentos para la His- toria 8 Angeles, and San Francisco, con- tain almost all tliat was worth recording of the coun- try's iK)liticai, social, connn(>rcial, and industrial atliiirs in those years and several preceding ones, Tjarkin was also intimate with the masters of vessels trading on the coast, and with merchants at the Ifawaiian islands. This collection contains hitters from Frdmont, Sutter, Sloat, and other prominent actors in the events 768 BinLIOGRArHY OF PASTORAL CALIFOIlNTA. of California, not to speak of tlio despatches t<» and froni the United States jjjoverninent, and comnumders of war sliips. Tlien^ arc, from tlie same source, a lar^o mass of commercial papcu's, which have supjdied mo with pioneers' names, dates, and prices ofconnnodities. Seventh : I have in my list five hundred and iifty tith'S of separate manuscrii)t documents, and could properly extend their nund)er to thousands; hut jios- sessiuL? such vast material, I have found much con- venience in condensation. Of diaries, journals, and loor-hooks of expeditions by sea and land, there are no less than eijj;hty which I i)laco in the first class. The second class is composed of government documents, immberinjjf 1(53, of which 27 are orders, instructions, and reports emanating from Si>anish or Mexican offi- cials in Mexico; 75 arc similar parts from high authorities In California, 34 like documents from commandants and other inferior officers in California, and 27 are Mexican and Californian rrfilanifufos, pro- vincial and nmnicipal. The third class consists of 104 mission documents of various kinds, emanating from the guardians of the San Fernando college, and from otlier high ecclesiastical authorities iti S[»ain and Mexico; 52 arc papers from mission presidents and piefects, and from the bishop, and 47 reports, letters, etc., of the missionary fiithers. The fourth and last class is composed of iiiiscollanoous papers, numbering nearly 200 titles, which are very important, but too numerously subdivided to be detailed here ; some of them are old diaries, narratives, personal records, ac- counts of battles, treaties, papers connected with civil and criminal trials, with the Ilussian settlement at Ross, etc. Eighth : ' he scattered correspondence of about two hundred of le most prominent men, forming a like number of ti es. The author's name is followed by some word s ;nificant of the document's character, such as carta, 'orrcspondcncki, cscritos, etc. Seventy of these were luen who wrote prior to 1824, iind 130 MANUSfRIPT DOCUMENTS. m flourished later. Of the whole number, 20 were Span- Ibh or Mtixican officials who wrote out of California, 20 wore Franciscan friars of the Californian niia.si«)ns, 48 foreign pioneer residents in California, and 1 1 1 were native, Mexican, or Spanish citizens and officials of California. Several of these collections in each class would form singly a thick volume. Ninth : There is still one more class of manuscript material to be noticed, namely, the recollections I have taken cf men living at the time I began my re- searches, which in many cases include those of their fathers; altogether covering the history of California from its settlement. Besides those contained in other volumes, I have the reminiscences of 1 60 old residtnits, half of whom were natives or of Spanish blood, and the other half foreign pio.ieers who came to the coun- try prior to 1848. Of the former class a considera- ble number occupied prominent public positions equally divided between the north and south. Treat- ing of these men in alphabetical order, I begin by Jose Al)reiio, a Mexican who came to California in 1834. Being young, intelligent, and of good charac- ter, as well as of attractive manners, he soon attained influence among all classes, leading to his preferment in political life, and his holding offices of trust con- tinuously from 1836 to the end of the Mexican domi- nation, notably that of treasurer of the department from 1839 to 1846. No man was more highly re- spected, or had better opportunities to be posted on the aff'airs of California than Abrego. Of Juan Bautista Alvarado, governor of California from 1836 to the end of 1842, I need give here no biographical details, as I have done so elsewhere. Suffice it to say that he possessed the brightest mind of any Californi",n of his time. He has been accused, mainly through church influence, of having plundered the missions. He was responsible for their destruc- tion simply because he was the governor ; but no one could justly charge him with having appropriated Cal. Past. 49 m 770 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF PASTORAL CALIFORXIA. to his private uses any portion of the mission prop- erty. Other accusations, chiefly that of hostihty to foreigners, wore greatly exaggerated, and in the main, false. In my list of authorities are many of Alvara- do's writings. His original letters from 1836 to 1842 arc extremely interesting, and reliable, as well as the best authority extant on the history of those years. Indeed, they alone furnish the true inwardness of that eventful period. Alvarado also dictated for my use in 1876 an Historia de California in five volumes, wliich in tlie preface he calls Califnnna mites del '48. "Civilization down to the preceding century," he writes, "recognized only the rights of the stronger and more cunning. The Indians were more numer- ous than the Spaniards, but the latter W(^re artful, and by crafty means subjugated the natives. The poor natives were reduced by the friars to such a state of servility that they dared not entertain even a thought without the consent of the priest. Mofrjls, Gleepon, and others have tried to throw a stain upon my name, and to misrepresent my executive acts, because I struck the death-blow to the worm-eaten system of education which the friars practised toward the In- dians. But I want the church and the world to know that, prompted by motives of humanity, I resolved to free tlie Indians from that thraldom. My rcipublican education revolted against their being any longer made the victims of men whose gowns and cowls were gray, but whose souls were black, and insensible to the sufferings of thousands of unfortunates, who, deprived of their freedom, were mere puppets in the hands of those coarse priests, who, while preaching purity of soul and body, were steeped in every species of vice. ... I am satisfied of having done my duty, have faith in divine justice, and am ready to render an account to my creator of my acts in the premises," Alvarado in this diatribe refers not only to the sys- tem, but to some of the friars, whom he names, whose conduct was anything but praiseworthy. MANUSCRIPT HISTORIES. There was a peculiar vein of generosity in Alva- rado's ciiaracter. He was not rancorous toward his op[)onents, nor did ho visit upon their faniiUes any rosponsibihty for hostile acts. Very often, while his political oi>ponents were workins^ in the south to oust him from power, he was protecting and providing for their families in the north. One of these rnen, a prominent officer, noted for his bitter h(JstiHty to Governor Alvarado, left his family in Monterey witli- out provisions. His party having been defeated, he preferred to abandon California; and had it not been that Alvarado, through a third party, provided for the wife and children during two years, they would have suffered for the necessaries of life. I have also a manuscript by Alvarado entitled Prlin'dko Ihsriihrl- tuicido, which is an interesting account of the discov- ery of gold placers in the San Fernando valley in 1841. Joso Antonio Alviso gave me at Salinas his inter- esting Ciunpana de Nailvidad. Valentin Alviso, edu- cated in Massachusetts, and who has occupied several local offices in Livermo''e, furnished me valuable Doc It) lie idos 'para laJIii^torla, forming the Alviso family records; he has also rendered me aid hi other ways, besides contributing to the Livermore papers. Jose Maria Amador, a son of l*edro Amador, one of the first soldiers that came to California, was also during many years of his life a soldier, first in the artillery, and next In tlie presidial company of San Francisco. After liim was naiiuxl Amador countv in California, aii'l lie lias been credited, though this is d:)ubtful, with the naming of IMount Dialjlo in 1814. There have been few men in California al)out whom so many stories liave been told by the newsi)a[)ers as this old Californian. He was often s[>oken of as a centenarian, a Si)anish officer, the first child born in San Francisco, founder of Sonoma, etc., all of which were untrue. Even he had come to represent him- self as older than he really was, saying that he was I I 772 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF PASTORAL CALIFORNIA. born in 1781, when his birthday was the 18th of December, 1794. In 1877 he was living in pov- erty, and a cripple, with his youngest daughter, near Watscmville ; but his memory was unimpaired, and he clieerfully dictated for my use, within about a week, some two hundred pages of his recollections of early times. His Memorias contain a fund of anec- dotes on events and men, as well as information on the manners and customs of Californians from his youth, followed by his experiences in the gold placers after 1848. Some of his stories must be taken with allow- ance, for like most old soldiers he was a little given to exaixoreration. Nevertheless, the book is both use- ful and entertaining. I will insert some examples. E elating how his father brought his family to Call- fornia, he said, that the sergeant had three children of his second marriage when he was assigned to the San Francisco company : " los condujo en alforjas, dos en una. y otro en la otra alforja, y para emparejar el peso, puso una piedra en la liltima. Mi madre arreaba la niula en que venian los nifios, y mi padre la tiraba." Oiioo in 1837 a party of Cosumnes raided his rancho, San Ramon, and carried away about one hundreil animals. In the attempt to recover the property', he, the alferez Prado Mesa, and two Englishmen, Robert Livormore and another, were wounded, Amador re- ceiving four flints in his body, which were afterward extracted. A i expedition of 70 soldiers and citizens, with 200 auxiliary Mokelumnes, started out to avenge the outrage. About 200 C6sumnes, half of them Christian Indians and the other half gentiles, were captured by treachery at the Stanislaus, and brought away in a collera. Tiie auxiliaries demanded the sur- renclcr to them of the Christian prisoners, to be put to death, and the demand was granted. At intervals of a mile or so, six of the Christians were made to kneel, and after a prayer were shot with arrows. Then it was resolved to kill the gentiles, after baptizing them. Says Amador: "I ordered Nazario Galindo to take a MANUSCRIPT MEMOIRS. 773 bottle with water; I took another; he began at one end of the collera, and I at the other. We baptized all the Indians, and they were afterward shot through the back. One of the men escaped, and swam aoioss the river. He was, however, killed the next day together with some 23 other men, in an assault against his rancheria by the Mokelumnes; when thty captured the women and children, abt)ut 100 in num- ber, all of whom were brought to the mission San Jose and baptized." Captain Jose de Jesus Vallejo reprimanded Mesa for the execution of the Indians. Mesa laid the blame on Amador, from whom A^allejo demanded an explanation, receiving for an answer that "las tortillas sabrosas se comen en la casa, y las amarijas en la sierra." With Amadors McmoriuH are several pages contributed by Asisara, an ex- neophyte of Santa Cruz on important events and matters connected with that mission. Francisco Arce, a native of Loreto, came to this Califoraia when a boy, and held office during many 3'ears, his last positions, prior to the American annex- ation, having been chief clerk in the office of the government secretary, and lastly secretary ad interim of Comandante-general Castro. He thus had every opportunity to be hiformed on the inwardness of public affairs. Being also a lieutenant of auxiliary militia, he was captured with a lot of horses for the Califomian cavalry, by a squad of the Bear party, at the beginning of their revolt in 1846. He went with Castro to Mexico, and served in the Mexican valley against the United States forces, part of the tune in the San Patricio legion of Irish deserters. Taken prisoner, he barely escaped being shot owing to his resemblance to O'Leary, a deserter from the American army. He finally abandoned the service, and returned in 1848 to Lower California, and in the next year to Monterey. In 1877 I obtained from him a collection of historical documents, and a dicta- tion of seventy-one pages of his Mcmorias Hisforicas. m BIBLIOCJRAPHY OF PASTORAL CALIFORNIA. Arce states that Juan Caballo, a soldier thus named because of his horse-hke features, had stolen some poultry from a woman, whereupon tlie general caused him to appear and answer to the complaint. Striking- a military attitude, the man said : " It was not I, my general, but my gossip Coyote " — another soldier, who for his resemblance to a fox was nicknamed Coyote- - "que hace algun tiempo que le ha dado por la pluma" (who for some time past has taken to the pluma, which word means both feather and pen). The general re- plied "Get out of here, you knave;" and laughing wondered if Coyote was writing a book; he paid the woman for her poultry. Arce added that these things were of daily occurrence, and the general never was out of humor. His wife, however, complained, sa^'ing that she did not like to see her husband penni- less because of the rascal it'ics of his soldiers. Jose Arnaz, a native of Spain, came to California as the supercargo of a Mexican trading vessel in 1840, and pursued the same occupation for about three years, when he retired and went into business for himself at Los Angeles. His name has appeared ill the events in connection with the ex-mission of San Buenaventura, which he claimed to have purchased in 1846. In 1877 I found him to be a genial, intelligent person in comfortable circumstances, and with an in- teresting family living at his rancho Santa Ana near San Buenaventura In 1878 he furnished me one hundred pages of his valuable Recuerdos, mainly on the life and customs of the traders and rancheros of California in the fourth decade of the present century. His information on the mode of carrying on trade on the coast of California at this period is extremely in- teresting. He also has supplied much important in- formation on social customs at Los Angeles, Mon- terey and San Francisco early in the forties. Of the Polin spring, at the presidio of San Francisco, then famous for its supposed effects on barren women, he says : "Women used to come from all parts of the MANUSCRIPT BOOKS AND PAPERS. 775 11- n- n, le coast to drink of and bathe in the Polin water. The wife of Captain Spear, who was a native of the Hawaiian Islands, after several years' marriagu, had no children. One day Juana Briones, a laundress, asked the captain if he would like offspring, and be- ing answered affirmatively, guaranteed that if Mrs Spear were entrusted to her care, he should have his desire. "Take her," said Spear, whereupon the two women marched off together. In one year from that day Mrs Spear had twins, all owing to a free use of the Polin water. Jose and Juan Bandini were father and son. The former, a Spanish master mariner, came the first time to California in 1819, with military rcenforccments and supplies, and after taking the oath of allegiance to hidependent Mexico, settled with his son Juan, a Peruvian by birth, soon after 1822, at San Diego. In 1827 he wrote a long Carta Historicay Descriptlva de California for Eustace Barron, of which I have the i blotter copy. I have also a manuscript Historia de California, left by Juan Bandini at his death, together with many of his original letters and other papers. Nearly all the papers, as well as the two long writings were placed in my librarj'^ several years ago by Don Juan's widow, then residing at Los Angeles. These writings, being full of data on the affairs of California, have been thoroughly utilized in my history. For biographical sketches of these two important men of southern California, the reader is referred to the Pioneer Register, volume II of my History of Cali- fornia. Narciso Botello, a Sonoran b} birth, came to Cali- fornia in 1833. Being a man of good abilities and fair education, his services were soon in demand in various quarters. He became secretary of the ayun- tamiento of Los Angeles, and clerk of the court of first instance. Later he occupied a seat in the de- partmental assembly. In the political dissensions be- tween Mexicans and Califomians, he invariably sided 776 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF PASTORAL CALIFORNIA. with the former, and in the difficulties between the southern and northern Californians, his sympathies were with the south. He was well acquainted with the affairs that agitated the country, and no one was better informed than he apon every event which oc- curred in the southern section. The value of his Aiiales del &ur, dictated for me in San Diego in Janu- ary 1878, is a narrative of the political and other com- plications of California from 1836 to 1847, in most of which he was personally concerned. His experiences are related with clearness and precision, though not always without bias. That portion which touches upon events resulting from the American occupation in 1846-7, is full of interesting details. Other valua- ble parts of the Anales are those referring to social customs, public instruction, and the administration of justice. After the annexation of California to the United States became a fixed fact, Botello was for a time a justice of the peace in 1858-9, anH a notary public in Los Angeles. At the time he dictated the Armies he was in poor circumstances, and living in the Santa Maria ranclio near San Diego. The next in the list of my original authorities en- titled to more than a passing notice, is Manuel de J. Castro. This able Hispano-Califomian played an im- portant, and sometimes an honorable part in Californian affairs, during the latter part of Mexican domination. Fully informed, both on the events that passed before him, and on the men who figured in them, his testi- mony, when not driven by necessity from the truth, is of the highest importance. From him, in 1875, I was able to secure three volumes of Documeutos jyara la Ifistoria de California, a most important collection of original papers. A few years later I managed to get — how, is told in my Literary Industries — another col- lection of similar documents, together with valuable Lower California material. And finally I obtained his Relacion de la Alta California, which was dictated to a copyist in my service. This narrative, whatever MORE ORIGINAL DOCUMENTS. Tli the personal character of the author may bo, I place among my most valuable material, down to the time when were healed the dissensions between Governor Pico and Comandante-general Castro, innnod lately after the revolt of the so-called Bear party. In con- nection with this revolt he eloquently speaks of the execution of old Serj^eant Berreyesa and the Haro twins, near San Rafael, and of the effect such an event had on the Californians. " This news filhd with consternation our whole camp," he writes. " It was a night of profound meditation. It was till then unknown whether the Californians would have to struggle against savage hordes organized under the bear flag which the foreign rebels had adopted, or whether, in the event of a declaration of war between Mexico and the United States, they would have to figlit against civilized soldiers ; hiasmuch as Captain Fremont, an officer of the regular army, and under the protection of the United States government, had become the leader of an invading band of adventurers or pirates." In regard to the reconciliation b« it ween the two chief authorities of the department, he says : " Prefect Castro," — that is himself — "had the satis- faction of mediating at the private interview of Coinandante-general Castro and Governor Pico, which took place on the arroyo of the Santa Margarita rancho, and of prevailing on the two rulers, to warm- ly embrace one another as an earnest of their sincere reconciliation, and of their desire to work in unison in the defence of their country." Don Manuel, I believe, h«)lds rank in the Mexican military service, never having discarded his original allegiance, though he has lived in California many years since the country became a part of the American union. Another authority which I consider of the highest value is Antonio Franco Coronel's Cosas de ('alifornia. The author came with his parents to this distant territory of Mexico when a lad, in 18;U. His father, Ignacio Coronel, had been a soldier, first of the Span- 778 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF PASTORAI, CALIFORNIA. ish army in Mexico, and later served under Iturbide. He came with the colony of Hijar and Padres enjjjaged as a public instructor, a position that he did not finally obtain because of the failure of the colon}'. He was in subsequent years occupied most of the time as the principal of a school in Los Angeles, and also con- nected with the city council, and the courts. Botello, on speaking of public instruction in Los Angeles, fur- nishes the following testimony respecting him: " Don Ignacio Coronel was a man of sound judgment, and of fair education, and without doubt the town of xjos Angeles is indebted to him for much good service in this branch, to which he devoted himself with great earnestness, aided by his elder daughter Josefa, and even at time? by his wife. His was the only school existing in the town." Antonio, his son, held several positions of trust under Mexican rule. During the military opera- tions in the south in 1846-7, he contributed his ser- vices against the American invaders, and while on his way to Mexico with despatches and a flag taken from Conniiander Mervine at San Pedro, narrowly escaped capture by General Kearny's troops. After Califor- nia became a rtortion of the American union, Coronel accepted the situation in good faith, and afterward held a respectable standing both socially and politi- cally in Los Angeles, near which city he has a vine- yard and orange orchard. He held the positions as an American citizen of county assessor, mayor, member of the city council, and state treasurer, and was placed on the board of agriculture. He is a man of ac- knowledged ability, as well as a useful citizen. From him I obtained several valuable papers regarding his father and himself, and in 1877 he dictated for me his Cosas de California. This is a folio volume of 205 pages, full of valuable material. The first 140 pages treat of historical events in California, and biographi- cal notes on men who took part in them from early in the third decade of the present century to the consoli- COS AS DE CALIFORNIA 779 dation of American power. The next 4G pages con- tain the autlior's exj)erienco8 in the gold i)lacers, witli many interesting anecdotes wliicli I liave utili/iC>d In another volume. Following are several pages on re- lations with the Indians of the frontier. The narra- tive is full of interest. There are several pages devoted to the annals of crhne in the vicinity of Los Angeles during the four or five years which imme- diately succeeded the discovery of gold in California. From page 211 to the end the narrative furnishes copious infonnation on missions, population, pul)lic instruction, mode of life, occupations, food, dress, and amusements of the Californians. The whole book is full of valuable matter related in a clear and pleasant styk;, free from exaggeration or bias. Another voluminous and most valuable contribu- tion is that of Victor E- A. Janssens, a resident of Santa Edrbara, under the title of ] 'ida y Aventuras en California, dictated by him for my use in 1878. A Belgian by birth, Janssens, while still a lad came from Mexico with the Hijar and Padres colony in 1834. It is unnecessary to detail here his career, which has been set forth in the Pioneer Register of the fourth volume of the History of Califontia, this scries. He had good opportunities for observation, and seems to liave improved them. He was well informed regarding everything that took place before and after the American annexation; his statements are entitled to high consideration. The book begins with an ex- cellent narrative of colony aftairs, which is followed by a detailed and clear account of later events, namely, political disturbances almost from the beginning of Colonel Chico's rule to the end of tlie war between the factions of Alvarado and Carrillo in 1838. In continuation are several pages giving a vivid account of Indian raids and other troubles on the frontier of Lower California and at San Diego. There is also valuable information on mission affairs, agriculture and other industries, social matters, etc. He next 780 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF PASTOUAL CAIJFORNIA. nslatcs the trouble botweed Pico and Castro, and the inilitJiry operations of the Californians and Anuri- oans durin«jj the war of 1840-7; liis adventures and Huoccssea in the p)ld di«j;«jfinij;H, Indian assaults aijjalnst his rancho, criminal annals and other matters of ^reat interest. The whole forms a folio of two hundred and twenty-thret; pat;es, evt^ry one of which atfords both ontertainin<4 and instructive readln*;. Besides this, I liad copied for my library liis collection of Jhiininuv- tos jKtra la Ifistorin de California, containing several important records. As a specimen of the author's descriptive powers, I will insert here the manner in which the Coronel and Olvera families were treated in 1836, sinjply because they were from Mexico. This affair took place immediately after the revolution which drove out of the country Comandante-Dfeneral (Gutierrez. Janssens was in the conipany of tliose families at the time. "On ruachinj^ the rancho of the Verdugos, almost opposite Cahuenga, near l^os Angeles, they saw a gathering of people as if for a ball. Opposite the large mansion was a small adobe house occupied by an old woman who kindly afforded shelter to the wearied travellers. Many persons at the large house were drinking liquor, and evi^ry now and then was heard the cry 'Down with Mexico!' 'Death to the Mexicans 1' This state of things grew more and more al.'irming as the night advanccHl. i)no of the hostile Californians came to me and asked who I was. Not liking his looks I represented myself to be a Frenchman. At every moment wjis heard the same cry of * Mueran los Mejicanosl' ])on Ignacio Coronel and his family, and the rest of the party, in- cluding myself, Rojas, and Ortiz, became greatly alarmed, and there was good reason for it.'' He goes on detailing the continued insults they were the ob- jects of during that night, and concludes the nar- rative as follows: * On the next morning we started for San Gabriel. These infamous people, not satisfied with the injury and insults they had inflicted, followed , JANRSENS, ORD, AND OSIO. 781 aftor us, lassoed a wilull, and on pasHln*^ tho Arroyo Scro, alnumt opposite tho town of I^oh An- jjfclcH, tlu!}' let tlio brute loose. It ruslied madly upon us, and attjickod the cart. The men in rhar«;e of th«! cart Huccecded in (h'iving thi^ bull away, and we pasaes, wliicli is beyond a doubt one of tho most rc^H- able and foscinating narratives in my collection, treat- ing as it does not oidy of political affairs, about wliich she was fully informed, but of social life and the missions. Antonio Maria Osio's Hhforia de California manu- scri[)t, a c«)py of which I obtained through the cour- tesy of John T. Doyle, is a work of much merit, and with those of Vallejo, Alvarado, and Bandini, makes tho collection for this period most complc^te. Jjiko the others, howt^ver, it is very uneven as a record of facts, and could not be held as a safe guide in tho ab- J» Bir.Lio;;uAi'iiY or pa.storal californta. senco of tlu) Driginul records. A bioirraphlcal sketch y Eulalia Perez, Widow Marine, tlie famous centenarian of San Gabriel, and Mlii( li is full of interestin*' items, ])articularlv on mission life and daily routine. The last Mexican govirnor of California, Pio Pico, dictated for me in 1878 some of his recollections wliich apptnir on my shi'lves entitled Jfi.'^foria dc Cali- fornia. In interest and accuracy this contribution favorably compares w'iSa other statements by pioneers. Don Pio also jfave me at the same time two volumes of original DoniiiicHtos jxira la Ifisforia. dc (California, ^vhich contain many important ])apers. His relative, Ilanion Pico, addi'd to my collection three volumes of Jhrumnifos 2'ara la JIis(ori(t dc Ca I iforiiia which ho- longed to his late father Antonio Afaria Pico, who was a prominent man both before and after the ac- quisition of this country by the United States. Joso de Jesus Pico of San Luis Obispo, in Avontccimiados en California, sevent^'-eight pages, has given his personal expt^riences, which seem to be pretty well authenticated bv official records. To this narrative he appended two original documents of the highest impoiiance. Three others of tlie citizens of California, Rafael Pinto, Florencio Serrano and Estevan de la Torre, residing here previous to the American occupation, have contributed very extensive and varied data of the most desirable kind about the country. Pinto, a native Californian, and tax honorable man, in liis A'puntacioncs parala HiJo.ia de Cal if or)na, one hun- dred and six folio pages, dictated for me at HoUistcr in 1878, furnished a narration of political events both north and south, in most of which he was a partici- pant as a military officer. Here, as well as in the OUIOINAl CUSTOMS UECORPS. 783 description of social customs, his narrative is trutliful and I'utrrtaininu^. Val)l() do la (Jruerra was collector of customs ad in- terim in ^ronterey, and the sujurior othei'r of l*int*>, who was receiver of revenue at San Francisco. The former ordered the latter to present himself in ^fon- terev, but tlie order was not oheved. The two otH- cers were friends, hut duty must he placed hiforc friendship anionu;- honorable men. llence it was when the tardy Pnito at leiiijfth appearr-d at Mon- terey, the suj)orior Pablo frowneil. " How now, sir," he said, ''whose time is this you squander ? " " I was ill," replied Phito. "Ill, were youI"I have heard of such sickness, and have a sure cure for it, — fifteen davs' confinement under arrest." Pinto went dolefully to prison, thouo^h not un- ha[)py at heart ; for he carried there the inia*jfe of tlie youn*.^ wife for whose sweet society he had postponed his go'incf. Pablo knew all about it, and went every da}' to visit his friend in prison. Pinto's penitence so worked upon him, that on th'> fifth day the prisoner vv'as five. Ajj;ain among his comrades, Pinto turned t ) his .superior, and said : "Sir, I impeach you for de- reliction of duty, and as I cannot commit you, I im- pose a fine; a bottle of champagne." "How is that?" asked Pablo, as he ordered the wine brought on. "Did not your love for me cheat justice out often of the fifteen days demanded for my disobedience?" asked Pinto. From the same source I received the original records of the San Francisco custom-house down to 1846, which were still in Pint( )'s pos.sessi< m. Why they had not fallen with California and her heuls and sj;old — all for fifteen millions — into the hands of tlie United States oflUccrs, when the American flars that had l)elonged to his father, the first collector of customs of Monterey. Rafael Gonzalez, of Santa Btlrbara, in his Kxpcriaivias relates what passed before him, hi most of which he was a partici- pant. William Edward Petty Hartnell was a highly cdu- i.iU'A and honorable Enijlishman, who resided in Ca'i^unia since 1822, and married Senorita Teresa de lluerra. A detailed account of his career is ' n In the Pione«>r lii!gi.ster, volume III, of my ji:',' r*, nf Cali/orm'a. I posses.s hundreds of letters and jmpers whi*ii emanated from or belonged to him. IndiH^d, his family documents form more than one volume of the Vallejo collection, and should be under his own name. Among these were the original records t)f the Convention of '^/.O, and the valuable Diario del Vmtador General de Misiones, 183U-40. 1-. 788 BrBI-IOCxRAPHY OP PASTORAL CALIFORNIA. C^rloe N. Hijar's California en '34 contains mainly data on the colony of Hfjar and Prdres. The author came with his uncle Josd M. Hijar, who had a com- mission as jefe-politico and director of colonization of California. Julio Cdsar, an intelligent ex-neophyte of San Luis Rey living at Tres Pinoain 1878, dictated to my secretary Cosas de Indias, a really good account of mission affairs. Cayetano Juarez, a soldier of the San Francisco company in 1828, alcalde of Sonoma in 1845, and in later years a wealthy ranchcro of Napa county, gave in some rambling Notas. This is the man who planned the resc'o of the Sonoma prisoners in 1846 from the Beai > and swam about nine miles to escape capture. Justo Larioo, Convulsiones de Calif orrJa . is an in- teresting account of the political disturbances. Esto- lano Larios, gives Vida y AventuraSy not of himself but of his father, a famous bsar hunter. Of Jacob P. Leese, pioneer of 1833, I have a biographical sketch, and the Bear Flag Revolt, which is the best narrative on the subject extant. His wife furnished me an Historia de las Osos to which I ascribe no special value. Apolinaria Lorenzana was one of the foundling children sent to California by the \ Iceroy of Mexico in 1800, and who were here distributed, as she ex- pressed it " como perritos, entre las familas." Living at Santa B.irbara in 1878, blind and indigent, she related in a volume entitled Memorias de la Beata many interesting items on early times, especially in regard to San Diego. Jose del C Lugo, of Los Angeles, who at one time was in affluent circumstances, and occupied a promi- nent position, in Vida de un Ranchero treats of political and other events, manners and customs, etc., in the years preceding and immediately succeeding the American annexation. OTHER MANUSCRIPTS. 789 time )mi- tical the Ithe Then we have by Juana Machado Ridington, of San Diego, Tiempos Pasados de California; by Felipa Osuna Marron, also of San Diego, Recuerdos, and the Papeles Originaks of her late father, an old alcalde of that town and mission administrator. Juan B. Moreno's Vida Militar consists of a few facts on military operations during the American war. Francisco Palomares' Meinorias are chiefly his adventures as an Indian fighter, which are supposed to be truthfully related. Manuel Torres* Peripedas de la Vida en California is a readable manuscript, de' oted to manners of life, and remarks on early men, rather than a narrative of events. The author, a Peruviian, and at one time a member of the ^.Ste legislature, came to California in 1843. Ignacio del Valle, a native of Mexico and a mili- tary officer, figured largely in the political aftairs of California. After the American occupation he held several offices of honor, and served also in the state legislature in 1852. His record has been that of a good officer and honorable citizen. In 1877 he con- tributed with the title of I/) Pamdo de California a few pages of his recollections, which are quite inter- esting, and also presented me a number of documents, among which are some important ones. They appear on my shelves Vi his name as : Valle, Documentor para la Historia de California. I may mention further, Victoriano Vega, Vida Califomiana, 62 pages. Pablo Vejar, Recuerdos de un Viejo, 90 pages. Vejar led an adventurous life, and vividly records it. He was the only prisoner taken by Kearny's army at San Pascual. To the above array of original authorities I might add many t)ther contributors, whose narratives, though less voluminous, are not on this account less worthy of being quoted in my work on California. Their names have been duly presented in its pages. Of the foreign pioneers who have given their tes- 7!0 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF PASTORAL CALIFORNIA. tirnony upon Californian affairs, prior to 1848, being 87 in number, 12 wrote on particular subjects; 20 were residents of California earlier than 1840; 35 came overland as emigrants, hunters, soldiers, and settled previous to 1845-8, and 20 over the seas, as traders or sea-faring men. Of these numerous contributors, the followintr are entitled to hijjjh commendation, the first place belonging b}- all rights to William Heath Davis' Glimpses of the Past, which furnish most de- tailed and accurate records of early events and men. Davis first came to California when a boy, again in 1833, and a third time in 1838, from which year he has been a permanent resident here, and engaged in commercial enterprises. These facts are mentioned only to make patent the favorable opportunities he has had, making use of his naturally bright in- tellect (lal powers, to acquaint himself with and retain in his memory all events, and traits of personal char- acter which were brought under his observation. A biographical sketch of him may be seen in the the Pioneer Register of volume IT. of my History of California. His GUmpscs of the Past cover hun- dreds of pages containing not only his personal expe- riences, but thousands of items of early men and times, especially on commerce, and the customs of the nativto and foreign pioneers. His memory is fresh, but his recollections are, in many instances, based on memoranda made years ago. Other foreign contributors deserving especial men- tion are the following : William Baldridge, a pioneer of 1843, for his Days of '46, written in 1877, and for several papers given by him at various times for newspapers and books, which are noted for their com- mendable accuracy. Josiali Belden, Historical State- ment, of 70 pages ; a narrative such as a man of his clear head would produce. I have also a number of his letters. John Bidwcll of Chico. His printed Journey to California is now among rare books. For the particulars of Bidwell's early life I must refer to PIONEER MANUSCKIPTS. 791 20 ^y men- jiiecr d for for coiu- State- f his er of intecl For 'er to the Pioneer Register in vol. II. of ray History of (kiJi- foniki, and confine uiy remarks here to his California in 1841-8, a manuscript of 233 pages dictated by hin: for me, and which I regard as one of the most valuable in my collection of pioneer reminiscences. Aside from that I have many of his letters, and other [)apers, throwing light on California events. Henry W. Big- ler. Diary of a Mormon, an excellent narrative of the march of the Mormon battalion to California in 1847, as well as on details of the gold discovery in 1848. Joseph B. Chiles, Visit to California in '41. This person made several overland journeys to this country after that year. John Forster, Pioneer Data, besides other contributions respecting his experiences since he first came to California early in the thirties. Walter Murray's Narrative of a California Volunteer is a copy of his original diary, which his widow placed at my disposal. It is one of the best authorities on the history of Stevenson's regiment, to which the author belonged, especially on the operations of the .same in Lower California, in which Murray par- ticipated. It will be well to observe that Murray was afterward a lawyer, journalist, and district judge, having also served as a member of the legislature. It is said of George Nidever, a Tennessean hunter who came to California in 1833, that he killed 200 grizzly bears. His Life and Adventures is a long and most valuable narrative. In 1878, at the age of 76, he put into a tarscet three rifle-balls in succession within the space of a square inch at the distance of sixty paces. Nidever died at Santa Bdrbara in 1883. C3f John Augustus Sutter I give an extensive biographical notice in the Pioneer Register of vol. V. of the History of California. His Personal Recollections I took from his lips at his home in Pennsylvania. Jonathan T. Warner, a pioneer of 1831, and one of the men most conspicuous in California since the American annexation, contributed to newspapers and to diflerent parties important items on early history 702 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF PASTORAL CALIFORNIA. of this country, which have been made known to the public by the press. His contributions to the cen- tennial history of Los Angeles is of great value. He has furnished me a brief Biographical Sketch, and a more extended book of Reminiscences, which I have often quoted in the History of California. He is recognized as one of the best authorities. Benjamin Davis Wilson, a Tennessean trapper and trader who came to California in 1841, and who occu- pied a position of prominence before and after the United States' acquisition of California, in his Ohscrca- tions, dictated late in 1877, a few months before his death, at his estate called Lake Vineyard, near San Gabriel, has contributed data on historical events of considerable value, but in some parts inaccurate. The testimony of foreigners, taken all in all, 1 re- gard as of less value than that of the native Califor- nians ; for although the latter may be the superior of the former in native mendacity, foreigners have in many cases taken but little interest in the subject. As might be expected, while the contributions of both native and foreign pioneers have been in the ag- gregate of much value, I have found in many cases, as the result of defective memorj^ a strange and often inexplicable mixture of truth and fiction. Fortu- nately I have not been put to the necessity of basing the history of California wholly on this kind of evi- dence. Original documents have been at hand in abundance to guard, corroborate, and correct. GLOSSARY. For the benefit of those among my American and English readers wlio may not be conversant with the Spanish language, I append a list of the m >rc common words used in Mexico and Hispano-California, and con- tained in my HUtonj of CaUforn'm and in this volume, together with their corresponding significations in our vernacular. Abadesa. Abbess. Abajefios. Inhabitants of sonthern California. Abisuio. Bottomless pit. A boca Uena. Perspicuously, openly. Abortos del iutieruo. Hellish abor- tions. Abilrrido. Disgusted. Acontecimiento. Event. Acuerdos. Decisions. Acusador. Accuser. Agiotistas. Money-changers, stock- l)roker8, bill-brokirs, (Uscouuters of govt warrants. Agregados. Attaches, added. Agugenw. Holes. Aial)ado. Praised be. Alauieda. Grove of trees. Alual)ala. Excise; also customs du- ties. Alcaldadas. Alcalde's blunders. Alcalde mayor. Magistrate of a dis- trict inferior to a governor's. Alcahueteria. Bawdry, trickery, concealment. Alcatraz. Pelican. Almud. Twelfth of a fanega, q. v. Almuerzo. Breakfast (usually a sec- ond one). Alocucion. Address. A medias pivlabras. With mere hints. Ameno. Agreeable, enchanting. Amigas. Primary schools. Aino. Master, owner. Amor patrio. Love of country. Auata. Annats. (793) Aprehensor. Captor. Apuntes. Notes, memoranda. Aranoel. Tariflf. Arbitrios. Means, resources. Archivo. Record office; in plural, archives. Ardilla. Scpiirrel. Arete. Earring. Arreglo. Arrangement. Arribeflos. Inhabitants of northern California. Arriero. Muleteer. Arroba. Twenty-five pounds. Arroyo. Rivulet, or current. Asamblea. Assembly. Asistencia. Assistance; branch of a mission. Atentado escandalosfsimo. Most scandalous outrage. Audiencia. Supremo court; in Mex- ico, together with tl>e viceroy, it was also a royal council. Auto-de-fe. Sentence by tlie inquisi- tion. Auto de posesion. Act of possession. Averia. Average, damage. Averiguacion. Investigation. Ayuntamiento. Municipal council. Azotes. Lashea. % Balila rcdonda. Round bay. Banda. Side, scarf. Bando. Edict. Bando econdmico. Financial edict. Barranca. Ravine, precipice. Basquiiia. Upper petticoat. 794 GLOSSARY. Beato, a. Devout. Buiieinurito de la patria. Deserving well of the country. Bidarka. Skin boat. Bienea. Property. linhiH do plata. Silver balls. Bolcto de duseuibarco. Landing per- mit. Bolsilla. Little purse. Bolsillo. Pocket. Borrador. Blotter-copy. Borregada. A Hock of sheep. Borrego. .Sheep; also name of a Cal. danuu. Brazodo mar. See 'Estero.' Brazos fuertes. Powerful or strong arms. Brea. Rosin, pitch. Breves, Papal briefs. Bronco. Unbroken horse. Buenos diaa. Good morning. Bulas. Papal bulls. Burla. Mockery. Caballar. Belonging to or resembling horses. Caballo. Horse. Muy de & caballo. An accomplished horseman. Cabeccra. Head town of a district; source of a river. Cabeza. Head. Cal>eza de proceso. Head of a criminal proceedmg, Cal)o de Homos. Cape Horn. Cabotage. Coasting trade. Cacaiste. Mexican, a sort of bench. Calabozo. Calaboose, prison. Calzada. Causeway, paved highway, high-road. Campafia. Campaign. Campo. Field. Caflada. ( Uon or dale between moun- tains; dale. Ca&on. Cannon. Caflouoito. Small cannon. Candnigo. Canon. Cantait's a la Virgen. Canticles to tlie Virgin. Capadoi-. Gelder or castrator. Capataz. Boss. Capitan de armas. Commander of troops. Capitana. Flag-ship. Capitanejo. Petty chief. Carrera de baqueta. Running the gauntlet. Carta. Letter, chart. Carta de naturaleza. Certificate of naturalization. Carta de seguridad. Passport, or permit to reside. Casa conaistorial. Municipal hall. Casas Grandes. Liirge liouaes. Casas reales. Builduigs of tlie crown, Castigo de sangre. Punishment drawing blood, Catorce. Fourteen. Caucion juratoria. A person's own recognizance. Cayuco. Dug-out. Cedula. Letter. Celador. Watcliman. Celuberrima. Most celebrated, or il- lustrious. Cepos. Stocks for punishment. Corro. Hill. Cliahuistle. Rust. Chancaca. See 'Panocha.' Cliapeton. One of noble birth who never was of any use; one wlio came to America without a royal pass- port. Chapulin. Locust. Cimarrones, Runaways or deserters. Clerigo. Clergyman, Comandante de cscuadron. Major of cavalry. Comandante superior politico y njili- tar. Superior civil and military connnandant. Comendador. Knight commander. Comilitona. See 'Comilona, ' Comilona. edibles. Comisario. official. Comision. A feast witli plenty of Commissary, a treasury Commission, trust. Co- Secret commis- niision reservada. sion. Compaflero. Companion, comrade, chum. Compaflia de honor. Company of honor. Canipafifa extrangera. Company of foreigners. Comodidad. Comfort, utility. Compadre, comadre, gossips. Compadrazgo, Bond of affinity l)e- tween the parents of a child on one side, and the sponsors of the child on the other. CompaAia franca. Privileged com- pany. Condiciones convenidas. Conditions agreed upon. Cdngrua. Stipend. Congreso constituyente. Constituent congress. Couuunistro. Assistant minister. GIaTSSARY. 996 Connuiatado, a, os, aa. Conrjuercd, subjugated. CoiKiuiMtar. To uonqucr. CoiiMcjo. Council. Conse jo-general lie puoMo!) uuidos. Council-general of nnituil town.s, or peopli'. Consiileracion nomenor. Of not le»H consideration. Contiidor. Accountant, auditor. Contestacion. Answer. Contribucion forzoaa. Forced loan. Coutorno. In circuit. Convenio. Convention, agreonient. Corbeta. Corvette, or sloop-of-war. Cordilleras, Messages from place to place. Corina. Species of fetters. Corral. A pen for live-stock, and even for poultry. Coyote. A small California wolf. Cuadrilla. Gang. Cuarta. A whip. Ciiarto dc las solteras. Single wo- men's quarters. Culto. Cult, worship, cultured. Cu.jtodia. Number of convents, not enough for a proviucia; remon- strance. Cuero. Hide of cattle or horses. Cuerpo. The body. Cuerpo del delito. Corpus delicti. D De entilo. Usual. Detinii lores. The councillors of a custodia. Delitos de sangre. Crimes with l)k)odslied. Derechos. Duties. Derrochador. Squanderer. Derrotero. Directions for sailing. iJesagiie. Drainage. Desaliogo. Relief. De.sayuno. Breakfast. Descubridor. Discoverer, or detector. Desesperado. Desperado. Destierro. Banishment. Diablo. Devil. Dia de fiesta. Feast-day. Dia del juicio. Day of judgment. Dictamen. Report, opinion. Dieta. Daily pay. Diezmos. Tithes. Dirdn y Diremos. They will say, and so shall we. Discretorio. Council of a head con- vent. Dispeusa. Pantry-room. Divertirde. To amuse oueaelf. Doctrina. Doctrine; ouracy held by friars. Doctrineros. Friam in charge of parishes. Donativos. Donations, gifts. Ethado. Past x)articiple of echar, to throw, or put in. Kcliado yer))a en los dlcos. Had put poison iu the sacred oil. Echar con cajas destempladas. To dismiss unceremoniously. Economia de sangre. Saving of bloodslied. El capitan fraile tenia mas maflas ^ue un burro do aguador. The fria/ captain iiad more tricks titan the donkey of a water-carrier. Embarcadoro. I.Andiiig-place. Emigrados. Emigrants, immigrants. Kmpa.-ttados. Bound. Eneliilada. Stutt'ed peppers. Enfermo. Sick. Enramaramiento. Appointment. Niivenario du azotes. Daily flogging for nine days. Novia. Sweetheart, bride. Nuqueador. One who broke the necks of cattle. Nutria. Otter. Obispado. Bishopric. Obras piadosas. Benevolent institu- tions. Oleo. The sacred oil. Onza. Gold coin worth sixteen silver dollars. Orden. Order, command. Ordenan/as. Ordinances. Orejauo. Wild. Res orejana de tierro. Cattle marked on the ears. OrguUo. Pride. Ost). Bear. Otro, a, OS, as. Other. Nada mas. N Nothing more. » Facotilla. Small trading venture. Padre. Fatlier. Padrino. Godfather, or sponsor. Patlron. Census. Pais. Country. Paisanos. Civilians, fellow-country- men. Palabra de esponsales. Bctrotlial. Palos. Sticks, Idows with a bludgeon or cudgel. Matar a [mlos. To kill with blows. Panela. See 'Panocha.' Panocha. An ear of millet or maize; applied to the disc-shaped loaves of coarse sugar. l*apel. Paper, writing. Papel de Iglesia. (.^urch asylum certificate. Papeleta. Clieque, or ticket. Paquete mercantc. Merchant packet- .sliip. Parages. Places, or regions. Paraiao. Paradise. Parecer. Opinion, or report. Parroe. Placer. Place where gold is found in dirt, either on dryland or in the l>ed of a stream. Pliitica. Discourse, colloquy; also pratique. Play a. 8ea-ljeach. Plaza. Open square in a town. Pliego. Hneet of paper. P()l)liulores. Settlers or fountlers of a town or country. Poder ejecutivo. Executive author- ity. Policia. Police. Politicos arbitristas. Scheming poli- ticians. Populachero. One wLo cov.i-ts the rabble. Portero. Door-keeper. Pozo. Spring or well. Pozolera. Pozole pot. PrelHjndado. Prebenilary, canon. Prefereucia. Preference. De profer- encia. In preference. Presliitero. Presbyter, clergyman. Presidiarios. Convicts. IVesidio. Frontier post, penal place. Prest. A soldier's pay. Prestamo. Loiii. Protosto. Pretext. Prevenciones. Instructions. Priinicias. First fruits. Principio. Begirning. Proccder. Proceeding. I'roclaiiia. Proclamation. Promovedor. Promoter. Propitidiid. Proprietorship, property, propriety. Propios. Town lands. Provincia. Province. Proyecto. Project. Proyecto de ley. Bill or draft of a law. Pueblo. ( 'bartered town ; also people. Puebl(i.< do visita. Indian towns vis- ited from a di>4tant convent. Puerto de calratage. Port open to coast'ng trade. Puerto hiutilitailo. Port open to om- merce. Puerto de eacala. Way port. Pulpa. The meet solid part of tha desh. Puflado de advenedi/os. Handful of upstarts. Quejas. Complaints, grievances. Quintema. Five nommees. Racion. Ration. Rancherfa. Indian village. Ranchero. A person owning a rancho or living in one. Rancho. Tract of land used almost wholly for pasturage. Since the American annexation, it has been anglicized ranch, and applied to even small farms and single houses. Real. Royal, real, a silver coin, a royal camp or tent. In Spanish times, a mming district. Realistas. Royalists. Reata. A rope of rawhide for lasso ing animals. Reatazo. A lash with a reata or lariat. Recogida. A gathering of Iiorses. RcconocimiPTito. Recognition, ac* know lodgment. Kecuerdos. Recollections. Reilucido, os. Reduced. Regidor. Alderman. ReglamentoB. Regulations, ov by- laws. Reintegro. Reimbursement, or re< payment. Remlicion. Surrender. Reo. An indicted person. Rt'partimientos. Apportionments. Res. A head of neat cattle. Reservado, a. Reserved, or confiden- tial. Revolncionario. Revolutionist. Ritleros. Riflemen. R4)l)le. Oak tree. Rmleo. Rounding up cattle. Romancero del Cid. Collection of romances or ballads of tLe Cid) also the singer of such. Ronda de cabrones. Patrol of cuck- olds. Ropa. Clothing. Roenito. Garment woni bjr the penit<»nt convicts of the in.jmsition. Santa Oljcdicncia. Sacred obedience. Sauz. Willow. Sauzal. Willow grove. Sauzalito. Small grove of willows. Segurida syncMl. Sitio. Small stock range. Situado. Appropriation. Socoyote. Applied to the youngest clnld of a family, and also the low- est servant. Soldiulo. Soldier. Soldado distinguido. Private soldier of gentle birth. Sombrero. Hat. Sublcviulo, a, OS, as. Rebelled, rebel- lious. Sucesos. Events, occurrences, suc- cesses. Sumaria. The first proceeding in a trial. Suplcntc. Substitute. T Tamal. Indian meal dumpling stuffed with minced meat, chicken, etc. Tipab>. .\ shawl. Tapanoo. C'ot.-k-loft, or room over the garret. Tnrdcada. March begun late in the day. Tasajii. .Terked l)eef. Tasjvjero. One who prepares ji;rked beef. Tecolero. Masttu' of ceremonies at a ball. Tecolote. Sjiecies of owl. Temblor. Shake. Temblor de tierra, or terremoto. Eartluiuake. Tescallis. Aztec temples. Tequezqnite. Mineral salt used chiefly in mines. Tetjuio. Task allotted to the mission neophytes. Tema, tern. Compoaed of three. Terrene. Ground. Testigo. Witness. Tierras. Lauds De temporal; T^ands depending entirely on rains. De regadio; Irrigated land.s. De abrevancro; Land < having deposits of water to which aniiiial-, resort. Tierra de guerra. Hiutile country. Tierra de paz. Land a> peace. Tierra tirme. Main land. Tierra incognita. Unknown land. Tocante. Couccming. about. Toison de oro. Golilen fleece. Tomista. Liquor-drinker. Tonto. Stupid, ftMiIish. Trabajadores. Laborers. Tratado. Treaty, convention, agree- ment. Tratamiento. ComiHjUation. Tule. Water-reed. Tular. A field of tules. Usia. Contraction of vuestra seftorf a, your lordship, or worship, or liouor. Vacuna. Vaccination, and also the vaccine virus. Vacuno ((iar.ado). Xcav; cattle. Valgame Dios. God jirotect me. Vallailo. A wide, durp tivnch; also a kind of fence or wall with thorny plants on top. Vatjuero. A covr-herder. Vara iuent, 126-7; ori^n of races, 127-8. Americans, encroachments of, 461-2. Amords, J., inang. of Sola, 1816, 425; mention of, 218. Amorrio, G., mention of, 188. Amiuementa, descript. of, 406-36. Aroe, F., manuscript of, 773. Aigllello, C. M., loventory of, 331 2. Argitello, Gov., inatis. of Sola, 1810 421; education in CoL, 510. CAb. I'ART. 51 Argiiello, A. J. D., mention of, 251. ArgUello, C, mention of, 463. Arguello, J. D., interce-33; marriage and divorce in, .307-21; immorality in, 321-3, 33;i-4, 405; customs and amusements, 323 9; dress, 326-7, 332-3, 362, 373-400; stock-raising in, .33,")-47; droughts, 337-8; agric, 347-59, 445-6; fo20. Caniotes, dance, descript. ot, 411. Cartpiinez, strait of, site for a city, 731-2. Carrillo, J., story of, 427-8. Carrillo, Mrs, documents, 785. Carrillo, T. M., bandit, (U9. Castillo, M. C, divorce of, 314-15. Castro, Alcalde, dress of, 1835, 396. Castro, J., story of, 1104; mention oi, 318; excommunication of, 524-5. Castro, M. J., manuscript of, 776. Catalan V'olunteers, co. of, 296. Caynameros, story of the, .526-7. Chal)olla, P., story of, IVil-'l Chand)crlain, J., stati^ment of, 438. Chavez, C, bandit, 6.J3. Chavez, J. A., story f, 9-17. Cludula, pyramid, doscript. of, 113. Churcli, influence of, 26-45, 80-2. Civilization, comments on, 1-56; effects of, 267-8. Claudio, robber-chief, description of, ()48; death, 6(59. Clymer, (quotation from, .340, 453. Coin, scarcity of, 18-40, 485. Colonization, hist, of, 57 96. Commerce, descript. of, 4.59-87. Contradanza, dance, descript. of, 412. (^oronel, A. F., manuscript of, 777-8. Crespl, J., mention of, 185, 205. Coronel, J., on Cal. iiiis.sions, 2;?4-7: remarks on dress, .392-3; ball de- scribed by, 408-9; education in Cal., 510. Coriina, J. G. de la, pamphlet of, 288. Costromitinoff, \ 'sit to 8an Francisco, 1842, 425. Cotton, raising of, 351; numufacture of, 449. Cucrnavaca, Humboldt at, 1803, 102. Custot, O., story of, 1838-9, 455-7. D l)anceH, descript. of. 406-20. Daniel, P., bandit traitor, 666; men- tion, 675. Davis, .1., schooner built by, 439-40: statement of, 470. Davis, ('apt., voyages of, 471. Davis, W. H., manuscript of, 790. Diego, G., mention of, 20*.t; bishop of Cal., 229. Dolores, mission, tragedy near, 284-5. i)ouglas, J., quotation from. 322. Drama, the, descrij'.i,. ol, 42l>. J INDEX. 808 n7-S. 'iu-7: ill do- ()U in 3, 10-2. )5-7. ; men- :W-40: K'84-o. Dress, deacript. of, 326-7, 332-3, 362, .•i7:<-400. Ducarte, horse-race of, 430. Diiiiaut-C'illy, reinat-ks on dress, 379- 8(); description of ilaiice, 419. Dunictz, F., mention of, 185. Duran, Father, mention of, 213; mention of, 2.'W; aguardiente made liy, 371; liquors manufact. by, 449; 8tf>ry of, 625. Dwellings, ye, desoript. of ball-room customs, 416. E Earth's end, 706-21. Edit!. India, .Fcfe, order of, 240. Eulu-andia, Gov., education in Cal., .■||() 12. Education, condition, etc. of, 493- .V.M. England, colonies of, (iO-5; commerce with. 4S4 5. Escobar, A., manuscript, 785. Ksioltfis, dcscript. of, 23S-40. 1''s]iinola, Scflora 1*., mention of, 309. Espinosa, E., manuscript, 7H5. Es])inosa, S., mention o*', 238-9 Espinosa, F., mention of, 30(5. . Estudillo, .T. M., mention of, 187; stories related by, 47'- -4; story of, 1817, 487-92; manuscript, 786. E/.ipier, I., manuscript, 786. Faj;cs, fJov., lanil policy of, 2.i7; let- ter of, 307. Fandango, dance, descript. of, 411- 12. 416. Felix, Jv., mention, (546. Fernandc/, .1., manuscript, 7St>. Figucroa, (lov., letter ol^, 343; report of, 441; education in Cal.. ril4, ."iKi. Florencio, Father, nuntinu of, 429. Kliircs, M., manuscript, 786. Flour, manfact. of, 454. F^n'-t.-r, .1. manuscript, 791. 1 raneiseans, in Cal., 24(5, Fuiter, Father, mention of, 185, 189, 199. Feudalism, 8preat, 787. (ioumz, remarks on dress, 392; re- marks of, 44(5-7. fiomez, v., bandit, 654. (Jonzalez, Father, mention of, 318; opposed to prote-it. marriage, .'IJIO- 1. Gonzjilez, T. and M., manuscripts, 787. Gonzalez, P., horse-thief, 648. (ionzalez, K., story of, 207-8; men- tion of, 229. fJonzalez, M. A., divorce of, 31.5-16. (iuanajuato, iiundxildt's visit to, 180.3, 108. Guerra, (.'apt. de la, story of, .300; ordin's of, 375 (5; library of, .52.'{; documents and characteristics, 7('(>. Guijarros, Point, fortifications at, 'J9(5. (iutierrez. mail regulations nf, 44.'{. » FIabilita84-6. Ilartnell, \V. E. P., contract, etc., of, 4(t(»-7; letter of, 48-1 5; school es- tabl'd l)y, 513 14; library of, .523; ilcicumeuts, 787. Haves, .luilge, remarks of, 'J81 -2; :VJ(). Herrera, Comisario, interference of, '_'2.'«. lliguera, M. N., marriage of, 318-1'.). llitUs, export of, 467, 479; e.illectiiri, etc. f)f, 472 7; curing, 47(5-7; sale of, 484. Hijar, C. N., maiuiscript, 788. Hor.-ieuianship, ile.script. of, 446 8. Horse-racing, descript. of, 4'J9-31. 804 INDEX. I Humboldt, A. von, travels, etc., of, 1799-1804, 97-1 1<>; character, 97, 106, 132; biog., 97-«, 131-5; sui-veys of, 116; interoc. communi- cation, 1*22; theories of, 126-30; re- search and learning, 132-3; habits, 133; death, 1859, 134. Ibaflez, Father, story of, 450-1. Indians, condition, etc., of, in Mex., 124-6; Indians of Cal., 151-61; mission management, etc., of, 220- 46; amusements of, 435-6; con- dition of, 4.37-9; traffic with, 487. Inquisition, workings of the, 44-0. Irrigation, regulations for, 355-0. Irvin, J., bandit, 672. Jalapa, Humboldt's visit to, 180.1, 114. Janssens, £. A., statement of, 450; manuscript of, 779. Jaral)c, dance, descript. of, 412, 415- 16. Jauine, Friar, mention of, 185. Jimeno, Father A., mention of, 198. .Tones, Commodore, mention of, 428. .JoruUo, volcano, tlescript. of, lll-12. Jota, dance, descript. ot, 412^15. Journals, 'The Califomian,' 443-4. Juarez, C, manuscript, 7S8. Jurisprudence, mediasval, 18-19. K Kuskof, at Ross Colony, 465. L Land-tenure, in Cal., 256-8, 357. Laplace, remarks of, 280; statement of, 474. Larios, M., bear story of, 434-5. Larios, J. and E., manuscripts, 788. Larkin, letter to Parrott, 282-3; cost of ball given by, 426; romarks of, 479-81; documents and biography, 767. Las Flores, pueblo of, 259. Lasucn, Father, mention of, 199; mention of, 206, 210; education in CaL, 495. Leather, manufact. of, 448, 452-4. Leesc, J. P., manuscript, 788. Leeso, Alcalde, report of, 521. Ijciva, bandit, 652. Libraries, meutiou of, 521-4. Literature, spread of, 19-29; of pas- toral Cal., see last cliapter. Lopez, Friar, mention of, 208; horse- manship of, 448. Lorenzana, A., manuscript, 788. Los Angeles, city of founded, etc., 251-2; site of transferred, 252; capi- tal of CaL, 259; society, etc., at, 278; wedding at, 310-11; munic. regulations, M5, 355-6, 442; pueblo of, .354; dress in, 379-80; horse-rac- ing at, 430-1; mail-service of, 444; education at, 515-16, 518. Love, H., description, 619; captures Murieta, 666-7. Lugo, J. del C, remarks on dress, 378-9, 388-9; manuscript, 788. M Machado, A., stories of, 378; 472-4. Madariaga, J. , complaint of, 307. Mails, descript. of, 442-4. Manilas, The, bandits, 676. Manojo, C, anecdote of, 198-9. Manufactures, of Mex., 117-20; of Cal., 448-57. Manuscripts, classes of, 767-9. Markhoff, quotation from, 367; des- cript. of dress, 395-6; pay of Ind. laborers, 438; quotations from, 441-2. Marron, P. 0., manuscript, 789. Martierena, J. M. de, mention of, 210. Martinez, L., biog., etc., 199-201. Martinez, P. A., mention of, 210. Martinez, Father, mention of, 450. Mason, Gov., mention of, 314; order of, 331. Maxwell, Dr, ball described by, 418; quotation from, 448. Mazatlan, commerce with, 483. McCuUoch, H., contract, of, 466-7. Meek, Capt. J., voyages, etc., of, 471. Melius, H., specimen letter of, 478. Menendez, Father, mention of, 197. Mercado, Father, mention of, 204. Merino, Father, mention of, 213. Mexicans, characteristics, etc., of, 260-93; amusements of. 406-.35; education of in Civl., 493-521; col- lo<][uial phraseol., 526. Mexico Valley, descript. of, 105-6. Mexico City, Humlwldt at, 402-8; descript. of, 103-4. Mexico, Humlmldt's travels in, 180.3- 4, 101-116; mines of, 108-11; cli. mate and soil, 116-17; manufact. 117-20; couimerce, 120-1; cum- C C INDEX. 806 Drder 418; -7. 1471. 197. of, 35; col- 93- oli. [act. lum* mnnication, 121-2; govt, 123-4; Indians of, 124-6; origin of races, 127-8; hieroglyphics, 128-9; lan- guages, 129^-:{0. Micheltorena, Gov., in Cal., 271-2; story of, 281 ; wedding attended by, 310-11; CO. formed by, 440; decree of, 479; tax levied by, 481; educa- tion in Cal., 517-20. Military system of Cal., 294-304. Missions of CaL, 184-246, 256-7, 274-6. Mohammedanism, fall of, 7-13. Montero, M. C, mention of, 317-18. Monterey, a presidio, 258; a .town, 258-9; a city, 259; society in, 288-90; presidio at, 294; fortifi- cations of, 296, 303; garrison, 303; district, agric. in, 337; munic. reg- ulations, 369; amusements at, 406-7; ball at, 418; inaug. of Gov. Sola, 421-5; ship-buildine at, 439; pier built at, 441 ; mail- service of, 443-4; saw-mill at, 455; commerce of, 460-70; otter-hunting at, 470-1; commerce of, 478-80; foreign vessels at, 487-92; educa- tion at, 497-502, 507-8, 512-14; ed- ucation at, 515; education at, 518. Mora, Dr, mention of, 282. Moraga, Lieut J., founding of San Jose, 251. Moraga, G., founding of Santa Cruz, 254-5. Morineau, remarks of, 279; quota- tions from, 342. Moreno, J. B., manuscript of, 789. Moreno, Mrs P. L., documents, 781. Mugartegui, Father, mention of, 188. Murgufa, mention of, 211. Murieta, J., descript. of, 645; history, 655-8; achievements, 659-67; death, 6<)8. Murray, W., manuscript of, 791. N Neve, Gov., pueblo founded by, 248; regulation of, 249-50, 294. New Mexico, traffic with, 486. New Spain, effect of revolution in, 300-2. Nidever, G., manuscript of, 791. Nievos, M. de las, story of, 306. Obregon, mine worked by, 108. O'Cam, J., voyage of, 462. Olbes, Father, cruelty of, 209-10. Oliva, Father, mention of, 186-7. Or5. Rezanof, Count, love story, 332; voy- age, etc., of, 4(j;{— 4. Rico, F., journey of, 358. Ridington, J. M., manuscript of, 789. Rios, C". A. de, manuscript, 785. Rivera y Moncada, Capt., mention of, 250-1. Robheries of railway trains, 700-4. Robinson, quotation from, 326; re- marks on dress, 391; fandango, described by, 416. Roclia, A. J., mention of, 437. Rodeos, descript. of, 340-1, Rodriqucz, J., mention of, 429. Romeu, mention of, 206. Ross Colony, mention of, 464-5. Ruiz, XI., (lei A., marriage of, 330-1. Ruiz, Comandante, story of, 428. Russians, encroachmenta of, 401-5. S Sainsevan, P., flour mill of, 454-5. Salazar, Friar, menti<»n of, 208; founding of Santa Cruz, 255; report of, 303. Salt, royal monopoly, etc., of, 486. .San Antonio de Padua, mission of, 202-4. San Bias, supplies obtained from, 297; commerce with, 459, 480, 483. iSaint Ronaventnra, Bishop, mention of, 193. San Buenaventura, mention of, 193- -4; education at, 512. Sani.a Barl)ara, mission of, 194-7; a town, 259; society, etc., at, 278; presidio at, 294, dress at, 396, 399; morals, etc., of, 400; party at, 417- 18; nuiuic. regulations at, 420; mail-service of, 44Ii-4; education at, 490-7, 512-14, 518; Umnery at, 4.-)3. San Carlos, mission of, 204-7. S.incho, .1. B., mention of, 203. San !)iegi!, mission of, 1S4; hist, of, 184-8; presidio at, 294; fortifica- tions, etc., of, 303; nuinic. regula- tions, 393; cntertiiinments at, 4015; mail-service, 442-4; education at; 490-7, 512; education at, 516, 518, rumored bandit invasion, 677-8. San Dieguito, pueblo of, 259. San Fernando, mission of, 192-3; edu- cation at, 496, 512. San Francisco Solano, mention of, 218-19. San Francisco, mission of, 215-18: a pueblo, 259; presidio at, 294; fortifications of, 29G-7; garrison of, .303; mail-ser\-ice, 442-4; com- merce of, 4()0-7O; otter-hunting at, 462; commerce of, 477; edu- cation at, 490-7, 512, 518; dis- covery of bay, 722-3; founding of city, 72.3-50; bay, 731, 7.36; site, 7.32; naming, 733; early business houses, 744-9. San Oabriel Arcdngel, mission of, 190-2; mission of, 2;J0, 232;agric. at, .347; mail-service of, 443; manuf.ict. at, 448, 454-5; education at, 490, 512. San Jose, mission of, 212-14, 225; city of founded, etc., 248-52; mission of, 291; munic. regulations, .344, 42(); colonists of, 349-50; condition of, .354; manufact. at, 449-50; educa- tion at, 490-7, 512, 518. San Juan de Argiiello, pueblo of, 2.">9. San Juan Bautista, mention of, 210- 11. San .Tuan Capistrano, mission nf. 188- 90; e(hication at, 512. San Juan de Castro; pueblo of, 259. San Luis Obispo, mission of, 199-201; manufac. at, 449-50. San Luis Rey, mission of, 188; mail- service of, 443; education at, 512. San Miguel, mission of, 202; manu- fac. at, 4.>t; education at, 512. San Pascual, pueblo of, 259. San Rafael, mission of, 216-18. San Pedro, 8hip-l)uilding at, 4.39. Santa Clara, mission ofj 211-12, 215. Santa Cruz, mission of, 208-10; city of founded, etc., 252-5; ship-buihl- ing at, 439; Santa Cruz county, grist-mills ui, 454. Santa Ines, mission of, 198-9. Sarria, V. F. de, mention of, 20.3, 421. Semple, R., Carquinez ferry, 739. Sepiilveda, (tov., remarks of, 282; quotation from, 328-9; law-suit against, 430-1; remarks of, 440. Sepiilveda, I., remarks of, 526. Serra, Father, biog., etc., of, 168-76; mention of, 184-5, 188, 190, 193, 200, 206-7,211. Serrano, .F., mention of, 204; re- marks on dress, 381; manuscript, 782, 784. INPEX. 807 it K). Ship-lmilding, desmpt. of, 439-40. .Sliilipinj^, statist, of, 4t)8; duea, 478. Witjar, li., mention of, 202-3. .Simpson, (i., remarks on drcsa, 396; remarks of, 440; letter of, 477. Smiths, the, bandits, 673-4. Soap, manuiact. of, 448-9. Soberanoi, M., mention of, 204. Sola, (Jov., mention of, 239; stories of, 301-2; remarks on dress, 377; inaug., etc., of, 421-.'); treatment of missionaries, 46.')-6; educatiou in Cal, 4'.W-502, 507, 510. Soledad, mission of, 201-2. Soiiicra, Fatlier, mention of, 190. Sonoma, pueblo of, 259; education ac, 518. Sotelo, S., bandit, 681. Soto, J., l>au