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 ^OVA SCOT/4 
 
 PROVINCE HOUSE 
 
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 © 
 
 THE 
 
 GYPSUM OF NOVA SMIA. 
 
 By EDWIN GILPIN, A.M., F.G.S., Inspector op Mines. 
 
 BT PEBMIBBION 09 THS OOmrODU, 
 IZOBBPT MnrUTBS OF PEOCBEDnTOS OF THE KOETH OF miOLAXh _ ^nmTTB OF 
 WNnrO AND MEOHAinCAL BNOINICBRS. TOL. ZXX.. UMi 
 
 ANDBEW REID, PRINTING COUET BUILDINGS, AKBNSIDB HILL. 
 
 1881. 
 
 IThe right ofPuhUcatm and of Tranttatiim i$ rtmvedA 
 
. 
 
 f 
 
 THE GYPSUM OF NOVA SCOTIA. 
 
 l^ 
 
 By EDWIN GILPIN, A.M., F.G.S., Inspectou op Minks. 
 
 The writer ventures to lay before the Institute tlie luUowiuf? remarks 
 on the gypsum found in the Maritime Provinces of Canada, gathered 
 from his own notes as well as from the experience of others. 
 
 The beds of this mineral attain in these provinces, the Acadia of the 
 early writers, dimensions which arrest the attention of the geologist and 
 traveller. It contributes an important item to the little list of mineral 
 exports, and with its associated limestones and marls, gives to large 
 districts of Nova Scotia a fertility seldom surpassed in the northern part 
 of the tempei .te zone. 
 
 Rising in cliff's from fifty to one hundred and lifty feet in heigiit, it looks 
 down on the mud-laden tides of the Bay of Fundy, and the blue waters 
 of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, or forms a striking feature on the beautiful 
 Bras d'Or Lake, a little inland sea, ** running away into lovely bays and 
 lagoons, leaving slender tongues of land and pictures(iue islands, and 
 bringing into the recesses of the land the flavour of salt and the fishes 
 and molluscs of the briny sea." 
 
 The traveller meets it surrounded by dense growths of spruce and 
 hemlock shadowing some quiet pond in the woods, or standing like some 
 ruined castle of marble on the side of a lertile river valley. 
 
 AGE OF THE GYPSUM. 
 
 So far as the writer is aware, the gypsum deposits of Nova Scotia are the 
 largest and mcst extensive in the world, and the only ones occurring in 
 measures oi" the Carboniferous age. 
 
 Dr. Dawson in his classical work on " Acadian ( Jeulogy" has separated 
 the Carboniferous of the Maritime Provinces into five divisions: — 
 
 1. — The upper, or Permo-Carbonil'erous Coal-Measures, not holding 
 beds of workable coal. 
 
 2. — The true or productive Coal-iieasures. 
 
 3.— The Millstone Grit. 
 
 4. — The marine limestone or gypsiferous formation. 
 
 5, — Tho lower, or false Coal-Measures, holding many characteristic coal 
 fossils, but ilestitute of workable beds. 
 
8 
 
 THE GYPSUM OF NOVA HCOTIA. 
 
 In Ndva Scotia the <;ypsinn and associated strata were long considered 
 of Permian age from their resemblance to these rocks in other countries 
 and their somewhat obscure relations to the succeeding measures ; and 
 it was only by a careful study of sections, and a coiujiarisou of fossils that 
 the labours of Sir Charles Lyell, Dr. Dawson, and Mr. R. Brown, relegated 
 them to ^.heir true position as forming part of the Carboniferous marine 
 formation. Their stratigraphical ])osition is now undoubted, and 
 Davidson affirmed the fossils, especially the brachiopods, to be in many 
 cases identical with those of the Mountain liimestonc of England. De 
 Koninck stated " that the fauna completely recalled that of the Carboni- 
 ferous limestone of Vise in Jielgium." 
 
 Yet, as Dr. Dawson remarks, it is true that the rocks themselves, the 
 limestones, the red sandstones, the marls, and the gyjjsums, have much 
 the aspect of Permian strata, and the fossils, although Carboniferous, have, 
 especially in the upper beds, many forms common to the Carboniferous 
 and Permian, suggesting that there may have been here what M. Barrande 
 would have styled a " colony" of Permian forms in the Carboniferous age. 
 
 This formation in the Lower Provinces is made up of red and grey 
 sandstones, arenaceous and argillaceous shales, conglomerates, limestones, 
 gypsums, and marls; the various members predominating in different 
 districts. 
 
 The formation extends in an irregular form from the Tobique river, 
 in New Brunswick, through the northern and eastern jjarts of Nova Scotia 
 to the Sydney coal-field of Cape Breton. The gypsiferous deposits of 
 Newfoundland and the Magdalen Islands also belong to the same series 
 of rocks, and are isolated patches of the northern and eastern edges of 
 the great mass of Lower Carboniferous sediment which stretches under 
 Prince Edward's Island and great part of the gulf of St. Lawrence, over 
 an area of not less than 100,000 square miles. 
 
 ASSOCIATED STRATA. 
 
 The following section, measured by the writer, in Pictou county, shows 
 in a general manner the succession of these strata: — 
 
 Red fissile sha'.cc 
 Compact bluihb limestone 
 
 Gray marl, with nodules of limestone 
 
 Gray laminated sandstone ... 
 
 Gypsum, with a few layers of arenaceous matter ... 
 
 Brown marl, with veinlets and crystals of gypsum 
 
 Arenaceous limestone, f ossilif erous 
 
 Gypsum 
 
 Calcareous, fissile sandstones ... 
 
 Ft. 
 15 
 
 In 
 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 21 
 
 4 
 
 (i 
 
 
 
 17 
 
 3 
 
 30 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 5 
 
r 
 
 THE OYl'Sl'M OK NOVA SfOTIA. 
 
 3 
 
 vs 
 
 Tlioy follow no ro<;ular order, but it is rrc(iueiitly observed that the 
 gj'psum rests in the beds of marl, in other cases it rests on beds of dark 
 limestone, alternating with bods of <,'ypsMin and anhydrite. 
 
 The limestones and shales are characterised chiefly by numcrons 
 brachiopods, especially Prodiictus cora, Athyris subtilita, and Terobratula 
 Bufflata, with other marine invertebrates.* 
 
 The limestones present every shade of composition, varying from 
 arenaceous and argillaceous to the almost chenu"cally jmrc mineral, accord- 
 ing to the varied modes and conditions of its deposition. The thickness 
 of the beds varies from (! iiulies to oO feet; the gi-eatest continuous section 
 being about i'.UO feet. These limestones are very free from magnesia as a 
 general rule. Out of twenty limestones from this i'ormation in Pictou 
 county, that the writer has analysed, but two contiiined notable per- 
 centages of this mineral, viz., 10 and lO'D per cent, as carbonate of 
 magnesia, the average percentage being 2"'). Dr. IFow, of King's College, 
 Windsor, mentioned finding considerable traces of magnesia in a gypsum 
 deposit of that locality, and in one instance a large percentage in a lime- 
 stone contiguous to gypsum, but other limestones in this district are very 
 free from magnesia. The writer finds no mention of magnesian lime- 
 stones occurring in any other Nova Scotia district, except a memorandum, 
 perhaps not altogether reliable, of a bed one foot thick met in a chisel 
 borehole made in Antigonish county some years ago. Three limestones 
 associated with gyi)sum, near ilabou, in Cape Breton, gave but traces 
 of magnesia on (lualitative examination. Two limestones, however, 
 presented by Mr. Fletcher, of the Canadian Geological Survey, from the 
 vicinity of the gypsum beds of Judique, Cape Breton, gave la and 21 per 
 cent, of magnesia carbonate. In other parts of the island, according to 
 Mr. Fletcher, the limestones n''o non-magncsian. 
 
 The marls are, so far as thv writer has had opportunities of observing 
 them, made up of a siliceous or argillaceous base with limestone, gypsum, 
 bituminous and carbonaceous matter in various proportions. They are 
 frequently penetrated by veins and nodules of gypsum and limestone and 
 in some cases hold the f(jssils characterising the formation. 
 
 The sandstones are of the usual gray and reddish colours, generally 
 much broken by slaty cleavage. The conglomerates are composed 
 largely of the older rocks, and in some cases hold pebbles of the preced- 
 ing beds of the same formation. In many places they show marks of 
 metamorphisra, and occasionally are united by ferruginous cements, which, 
 through weathering, have formed deposits of bog ore. 
 
 * Dawson's " Acadian Geology." 
 
 .^.A. 
 
4 THR OYPaiTM OP NOVA HOOTIA. 
 
 TIIICKNKSS OF THK LOWKK CAUnONIKKHOUH MAUIXK 
 
 LIMESTONES. 
 
 The thi<;kncss of this formation varies in the different districtH. In 
 CuniherluiKi county, Sir W. Lof^an estimated the thickness of the npper 
 part at l/J.^H feet; adding the lower members, there would be a total thick- 
 ness of al)()iit 2, 500 feet. 
 
 In Pictou county no complete sections have been measured, and the 
 passage to the Millstone Grit is obscure ; the writer is inclined, however, 
 to consider it as somewhat greater than in Cumberland county, and 
 ventures to apjiroximate it at 3,000 feet. 
 
 In the Eastern parts of Cape Hreton the oflicera of the Geological 
 Survey, have, as the result of a careful and systematic survey, been 
 enabled to estimate its thickness at 4,(J;J7 feet. In these dimensions they 
 have included tlie great beds of conglomerate lying at the base of the 
 formation, part of which may belong to, or be an equivalent of, Dr. 
 Dawson's lowest or fifth division. 
 
 In Western Newfoundland, ^Ir. A. Murray, the chief of the Geological 
 Survey of that Island, estimates the thickness of the Lower Carboniferous 
 marine formation at 2,150 feet, not including 1,300 feet of coarse con- 
 glomerate, corresponding to that ibund at the same horizon in Eastern 
 Cape Breton. 
 
 is 
 
 ts',y^ 
 
 HORIZON OF THE GYPSUM. 
 
 The gypsum occurs in this great volume of measures, so far as is at 
 present known, at no fixed horizon. In the vicinity of Hillsboro, in 
 New Brunswick, Mr. G. Matthews states that the gypsum occurs with 
 regularly stratified bituminous limestones and marls directly overlaid by 
 the Millstone Grit. In this district, he marks the occurrence of a series 
 of limestones lower down in the measures, which do not appear to be 
 gypsilcrous. In Cumberland county it occurs about the middle of the 
 series. In Pictou county it is found in the lower part of the formation, 
 and frequently only a few yards from the Silurian strata, but does not form 
 as prominent a feature as in many other districts. 
 
 The researches of Mr. Fletcher in Cape Breton have shown that in 
 Sydney Harbour, it occurs a few feet below the Millstone Grit, and that on 
 Boularderie Island, the base of the Boisdale and St. Anne's Hills, it 
 occupies the same position, being " overlaid almost immediately by the 
 gray sandstones of the Millstone Grit, containing characteristic fossils." 
 About the Strait of Canso and near Baddeck, it occurs low down in the 
 Carboniferous Limestone. 
 
 ia**ilkHttiiilH 
 
 ^||_^ 
 
THE (iYPSUM OP NOVA SCOTIA. 
 
 On the western shore of Cape Breton, at Mabou and Broad Covo it is 
 found quite close to the coul beds, but this is evidently caused by faulting, 
 and affords no key to its proper position in the limestone formation. A 
 similar association occurs in the sections of the Little River coal-field of 
 Richmond county. 
 
 In Newfoundland, Mr. Murray (Rc[)ort of Progress, 1873, p. 15), 
 places the leading exposures of gypsum in the lower part of the limestone 
 formation, division B, and states that they are underlaid by over 1,000 
 feet of conglomerates corresponding to those already mentioned as occur- 
 ring at the base of the Sydney Carboniferous. The associated strata are 
 similar to those found in Cape Breton ; the limestones l)eing in many 
 cases crowded with characteristic fossils. At a higher horizon, a short 
 interval below measures which represent tin; Millstone (Jrit «)f Cape Breton, 
 Mr. ^Murray found smaller deposits of gypsum associated with magnesian 
 limestones, marls, and calcareous or dolomitic sandstones. 
 
 VA1UETIP2S OP THE GYPSUM. 
 
 The gypsum in this great series of deposits presents every variety of 
 colour and state of aggregation, and a corresponding difference in its 
 composition. 
 
 On the Tobique river, in New Brunswick, it may be characterised as 
 an impiu'e earthy gypsum of a red and greenish colour seamed with layers 
 of pure white and crystalline gypsum, and holding nodules of limestone in 
 the red coloured portions. 
 
 At Hillsboro it forms generally a pure white snowy alabaster ; other 
 portions are cream-coloured, or with a shade of blue, and are translucent. 
 At the works of the Albert Manufacturing Company there is a quarry face 
 composed of the last-mentioned varieties, 400 feet long and from 25 to 75 
 feet high. Selenite, though met in veins and small crystals, is rare. The 
 anhydrite occurs here in beds underlying the gypsum, and is of unknown 
 dimensions. 
 
 At Sussex, New Brunswick, selenite occurs as single and grouped 
 crystals containing symmetrically disseminated sand, and the process of 
 formation seems to be still going on. 
 
 In the Windsor district, three ranges of gypsum are worked, the most 
 northerly of which runs in an almost unbroken line to Maitland, 30 miles 
 distant. From the quarry in the town of Windsor, considerably over a 
 million of tons have been extracted, and the deposit shows no signs of 
 exhaustion. Here the gypsum is white and blue with large quantities of 
 selenite ; in some quarries small beds of limestone and anhydrite are 
 found in the gypsum. At some points in the district lai'ge deposits of 
 
 B 
 
 . 
 
•» THE OYl'SUM OF NOVA WCX)TIA. 
 
 transparent Hclcnitc are foinul in the qunrriefl, and on flcveral occaBlons 
 cart,'oe8 of it have boon shipped for 8f)0fial purpoHOH. 
 
 On the Shulxjnacadie river tiie gypHum occurs in beds 10 to 15 feet 
 in thickness, generally with anhydrite at the base, and in some cases dork 
 laminated limestones holding Conularia, Tercbratula, etc. 
 
 In Pictou county the gypsum is white and red, holding much anhy- 
 drite. Like some of the Bras d'Or gypsum it is associated with def)08it8 
 of spathic ore. In a paper read before tlie Ifalifax Institute of Natural 
 Science, in March, 1879, on the "Marine limestones of Pictou county," the 
 writer has noticed this point more fully. 
 
 In Antigonish a noted exposure consists of a beautiful white alabaster, 
 100 feet thick, with veins of fine-grained gypsum, and anhydrite and 
 crystals of calcspar. 
 
 At Plaster Cove, where an exposure is met, 80 feet thick, the mass is 
 for the gi'cater part an intimate mixture of gypsum and anhydrite in vary- 
 ing proportions. In some parts of the bod rounded grains of limestone 
 are found. 
 
 On the Bras d'Or Lake it is essentially white, but tinted and spotted 
 with red, blue, green, and other shades. The stratification of the gypsum 
 is frequently undistinguishable from weathering, but in many cases it 
 appears as a regular bed forming many thick and shaly layers in which 
 crystals of selenite are frequently found, of a dark colour, scattered through 
 the mass so as to give it a porphyroid appearance, or arranged in rude 
 star-shaped forms. In some cases wedges of sandstone are found pene- 
 trating it, and layers of earthy matter, especially on the planes of bedding. 
 
 Mr. Fox, collector of customs in the Magdalen Islands, has kindly 
 furnished the writer with much information relating to the gypsum of that 
 locality. It appears to underlie large areas at several points, especially on 
 Grindstone and Amherst Islands. The gypsum is white, red, and varie- 
 gated, associated with the usual marls and limestones, and presents the 
 same faces as that of the mainland. 
 
 The gypsum also occurs of varying degrees of hardness, from a crumb- 
 ling mass to blocks which can be carved for indoor ornamentation. The 
 gypsum is also found fibrous and granular in red and white colours, a 
 striped gypsum, and occasionally as black gypsum. The following analysis 
 of the latter is by Dr. How of Windsor : — 
 
 Gypsum 
 Anhydrite 
 Bituminous matter 
 Sand and clay 
 
 80-45 
 2-84 
 1-53 
 7-94 
 
 Carbonate of lime and magnesia, with alumina and protoxide of iron 7'23 
 
 99-99 
 
THB OYPHUM OF NOVA HOOTfA. 7 
 
 The anhydrite occurs in fibrous, lamellar, pranular, and impalpable 
 masses of irregular form, and as orthorhombic crystals. 
 
 The following analyses show generally the composition of the gypsum 
 and anhydrite found in these provinces, the state of aggregation being 
 due rather to the forces and modes of its deposition than to any decided 
 change in composition by mixture of foreign bodies : — 
 
 Otphum- 
 
 SO, 
 
 CaO 
 
 11,0 
 
 SiO, 
 
 A1,0, Fo.O, 
 
 flranular white . 
 
 . 44-16 
 
 33-83 
 
 2100 
 
 
 
 FibrouH „ 
 
 . 45-51 
 
 3210 
 
 29 96 
 
 3-21 
 
 
 Compact „ 
 
 . 45-76 
 
 31-87 
 
 19-90 
 
 2-80 
 
 -(50 
 
 Coin])act red 
 
 . 4650 
 
 31-99 
 
 2156 
 
 ... 
 
 ■45 
 
 Ahhtdbitb. 
 
 SO, 
 
 CaO 
 
 11,0 
 
 SiO, 
 
 A1,0, Fe,0, 
 
 Crystiillino 
 
 . 55-80 
 
 40-fi8 
 
 2-91 
 
 •23 
 
 ■25 
 
 Coarse 
 
 . 50-77 
 
 41-40 
 
 -94 
 
 -26 
 
 •08 
 
 Fine 
 
 . 5S-01 
 
 40-21 
 
 -65 
 
 •09 
 
 • •• 
 
 MINERALS ASSOCIATED WITH THE GYPSUM. 
 
 Among the more common may be mentioned Glauber salt, common 
 salt, calcspar, magnesia carbonate, and arragouite. The writer has also 
 observed carbonate of iron, limonite, and in one instance a few crystals 
 of silica, and at Cheverie inspissated bitumen. Sulphur also occurs in 
 small quantity in the gypsum of "Went worth, near Windsor, as crystals 
 associated with the mineral ulexite to be noticed below. Mr. U. Louis, 
 in a paper on " Additions to the Mineralogy of Nova Scotia," read before 
 the Nova Scotia Institute of Natural Science, mentioned finding crystals 
 of sulphur in a quantity of soft grayish gypsum, near Truro. The 
 quantity present, being small, was not considered of economic value. 
 
 Brine springs issue from many points in the Lower Carboniferous of 
 Nova Scotia, and from some of them salt of good quality has been manu- 
 factured to a small extent. These springs are frequently in the vicinity 
 of the gypsum deposits, but do not appear, as a rule, to be immediately 
 connected with them. The presence of these springs suggests the 
 possibility of beds of salt being found intercalated in these measures. 
 Their detection would be a very valuable discovery in a country which is 
 80 largely engaged in fishing, but no explorations have ever been made 
 for the purpose of settUng the question. When the extensive denudations 
 of the Nova Scotia marine limestones, and the changes of level incidental 
 to the great thickness of succeeding measures are considered, it is to be 
 
8 
 
 THE GYPSUM OF NOVA SCOTIA. 
 
 ,1 
 
 feared that ancient systems of drainage have dissolved out these deposits, 
 if they ever existed. But the matter can be settled only by proper 
 boring explorations, similar to those which disclosed the valuable salt 
 beds of Goderich, Ontario. 
 
 The late Dr. How made, some years ago, an interesting discovery of 
 compounds of borax in the gypsum and anhydrite of Windsor. 
 
 These minerals occur in crystals and nodules up to two inches in 
 diametc md in some cases form a considerable percentage of the rock. 
 The nodules are sometimes pearly white, compact, and hard ; in other 
 specimens they are made up of acicular tufts of prismatic crystals, colour- 
 less and transparent. 
 
 The following table shows the composition of these interesting 
 minerals, and also of another discovered by the same gentleman. The 
 latter appears to have been produced by alteration of the ulexite by 
 selenite, as it occurs partly and completely replaced by the selenite, re- 
 taining the same nodular form : — 
 
 In 
 
 t! 
 
 Component 
 Parts. 
 
 Natroboro Calcite. 
 Ulexite (Dana). 
 
 Crypto- 
 morpliite. 
 
 Silicoboro Calcite. 
 Uowlite (Dana). 
 
 Went- 
 wurtbite 
 
 Water 
 
 34-49 
 
 19-72 
 
 11-84 
 
 18-00 
 
 Limo 
 
 14-20 
 
 15-50 
 
 28-69 
 
 3114 
 
 Sulphuric acid 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 
 31-51 
 
 Silicic „ 
 
 ... 
 
 
 15-25 
 
 4-98 
 
 Boracic „ 
 
 44-10 
 
 5910 
 
 42-22 
 
 14-37 
 
 Soda 
 
 14-20 
 106-99 
 
 5-C8 
 
 98-00 
 
 ... 
 
 
 100-00 
 
 10000 
 
 it 
 
 f'M 
 
 The ulexite is a very pure form of the Peruvian boratetiza, which the 
 writer believes is found only in these two countries. It has been largely 
 exported from Peru into the United States for the raanutacture of borax, 
 and for glazing operations. Should hese Nova Scotia deposits be found 
 to occur in quantities of economic importance, they would form a valuable 
 article of export, and materially aid the output of the associated gypsum. 
 
 ORIGIN OF THE GYPSUM. *' 
 
 It is a comparatively easy task to account for the origin and mode of 
 formation of most of the sedimentary non-metamorphosed rocks. But 
 among the short list of those whose history is nov quite understood must 
 be placed Gypsum. 
 
 fomUnm 
 
THE GYPaUM OF NOVA SCOTIA. 
 
 9 
 
 Several theories have been advanced to account for its presence in the 
 geological sequence; none of these, however, are applicable to every con- 
 dition of its occurrence. 
 
 Dr. T. S. Hunt, in the report of the Geological Survey of Canada, 
 1857-58, gives a det?iled account of some interesting experiments made 
 with a view of throwing light on the formation of Canadian dolomites. 
 From these experiments, which may be considered an extension and 
 modification of the researches of Haidinger and Mitscherlich in this con- 
 nexion, he deduces the following views. First, that in lakes or sea 
 basins not having an outlet, the mutual decomi)osition of bicarbonate of 
 lime and sulphate of magnesia gives rise to carbonate of magnesia and 
 sulphate of lime, which are successively deposited on concentration ; 
 f^xplaining the constant association of magnesian rocks with stratified 
 gypsum. Secondly, that in sea basins the action of waters containing 
 bicarbonate of soda causes the separation of the lime as carbonate, and the 
 formation of a very soluble bicarbonate of magnesia, also deposited on 
 evaporation. This mixture wlien heated under pressure, readily forms 
 the double carbonate constituting dolomite. 
 
 This theory offers a means of accounting for the origin of the gypsum 
 of Ontario, thus described by Sir W. Logan, " Geology of Canada, 
 18G3 : " — In the Onondaga, Upper Silurian, measures of Ontario, between 
 the Niagara and Grand rivers, gypsum occurs as lenticular masses, 
 varying in horizontal diameter, from a few yards to a quarter of a mile, 
 and fi'om three to seven feet in thickness. The strata above them are 
 crushed and broken, while those beneath form a level floor. These 
 deposits are associated with dolomites and marls, and at Godorich, 
 Ontario, with beds of salt up to 60 feet in thickness. At various 
 points in this formation there are springs yielding from three to four 
 thousandths of free sulphuric acid ; but Sir "William Logan affirms the 
 gypsum to have been contemporaneous with the strata, and to be un- 
 connected with the acid springs of the present day: and also illustrates 
 the origin of the magnesian portion of the Newfoundland Lower 
 Carboniferous. 
 
 It does not, however, apply to the gypsiferous measures of the Lower 
 Provinces. These deposits as already described, occur as regular beds, 
 of enormous size, accompanied by measures abounding with the remains 
 of a vigorous marine fauna, and essentially non -magnesian. To meet 
 these differences of condition, Dr. Dawson, in his " Acadian Geology," has 
 proposed to account for their formation in the following manner : — 
 That volcnnoes in the I'rc-Carbonit'erous rocks, surrounding the ocean 
 
U-' 
 
 .■; 1 
 
 10 
 
 THE GYPSXIM OF NOVA SCOTIA. 
 
 in which the marine limestones were forming, poured out rivers of 
 sulphuric acid which, flowing into the sea, changed the limestone into 
 gypsum : the lessoned acidity of the waters, and the deposition of detritus 
 in some cases, allowing part of ihe gypsum to be mixed with the lime- 
 stones and marls, and at other points causing the total conversion of the 
 limestone. 
 
 There are some ohjections to this view, among which may be 
 mentioned the following : — The older rocks now present no traces of the 
 origin or action of the acid, nor do the marls, sandstones, and shales 
 associate with the gypsum, and it is evident that they must have 
 occasionally also been subjected to its action. It may be questioned how 
 long a stream of sulphuric acid would remain sufficiently undiluted to 
 allow of an uninterrupted action producing such enormous masses of the 
 mineral, and it is evident that over so vast an area the whole mass of 
 water could not have been acidulated to any degree. 
 
 Dr. Dawson quotes the cases )f several volcanoes of the present day 
 giving rise to sulphuric acid and forming gypsum by acting on beds of 
 limestone, but they appear trifling and local when compared wi*-h the 
 extent of the eflfect now under consideration, and are moreover sub-aerial. 
 
 When the great extent of the Acadian gypsiferous formation is 
 considered, it will almost appear that the two theories noticed above can 
 have acted only in isolated cases. The anomalous character of these 
 deposits and their associates opens a new field to the chemical geologist. 
 The writer is not aware of any other theories that have been advanced to 
 account for this abnormal local development of gypsum. There are, 
 however, two agencies that may have assisted in their formation. 
 
 Springs containing carbonate of lime and sulphate of magnesia, and 
 holding free carbonic acid would form sulphate of lime, which, when 
 escaping at the sea bottom and partially relieved from pressure, would lose 
 carbonic acid and deposit sulphate of lime. Similarly, springs holding 
 sulphuretted hydrogen, passing into water holding carbonate of lime and 
 free carbonic acid, will gradually form sulphate of lime in both fresh and 
 salt water. 
 
 Some of the Iceland gypoum is apparently deposited in the latter 
 manner, and the gypsums of Nova Scotia are in some instances connected 
 with springs yielding small percentages of sulphuretted hydrogen. Such 
 springs, when rising in comparatively undisturbed waters, would gradually 
 form large masses of gypsum of great purity. When, however, currents 
 prevailed, particles of the gypsum would be carried to one side and form 
 gypseous marls, and become mixed with the liraesLones. 
 
 i 
 
THR GYPSUM OF NOVA SCOTIA. 
 
 11 
 
 This force is perhaps justly considered unequal to the effects now 
 seen, but it must be remembered that it was synchronous with the slow 
 growth of the limestone beds of that period, and great masses of lime- 
 stone composed entirely of shells as at Windsor, Brookfield, Shubenacadie, 
 and other places, and that the springs issaing on lines of pre-existing 
 fractures would become shifted by the dynamic changes of pressure of 
 accumulating strata, and gradually traverse considerable areas. 
 
 This apparently insignificant power may thus have produced effects 
 similar to the fall of the leaf, which has preserved to our use masses of 
 vegetable matter now compressed into beds sometimes 30 to 40 feet in 
 thickness. 
 
 These deposits, however formed, were gradually buried by the succeed- 
 ing sediments, and under heat and pressure probably became aiihydrated. 
 In the march of time, when the strata were again exposed to the weather- 
 ing of the atmosphere, water, etc., the anhydrite once more became 
 hydrated. 
 
 This would appear from crystals of anhydrite occurring with their 
 edges converted into gypsum, and from the lenticular masses of anhydrite 
 embedded in the gypsum. Th's is also confirmed by the action of anhy- 
 drite from a deep boring at CJodcrich, Ontario, which, when placed in 
 fresh or salt water at ordinary temperatures, rapidly became hydrated. 
 Silliman found that the gypsum of the East River of Pictou, like that of 
 South Virginia, contained one atom of water to two of sulphate of lime, 
 and gave the following analysis : — 
 
 Sulphuric acid 
 
 Lime 
 
 Water 
 
 547 
 
 39-t 
 
 5-9 
 
 100-0 
 
 This compound may illustrate the transition stage. The writer believes 
 the gypsum forming marine boiler incrustations sometimes presents a 
 similar composition. 
 
 The veins and iiTegular masses of gypsum and selenite found in the 
 associated limestones and marls, and in the triassic sandstones, and«. 
 occurring as films and plates in the coal seams, are probably a later 
 deposit from aqueous solutions. . '■- 
 
 The broken and dislocated appearuixoe of the strata immediately 
 surrounding the gypsum was formerly considered a proof of their intru- 
 sive origin, and is now generally considered to be due to the expansion 
 caused by absorption of water by the gypsum. This disturbance of the 
 
12 
 
 THE GYrSUM OF NOVA SCOTIA. 
 
 strata may perhaps hi move readily explained by the action of water 
 which has dissolved or worn away portions of the gypsum, and allowed 
 the shales, etc., to occupy the cavities thus formed. The gypsum 
 frequently presents deep funnel-shaped holes, which contain w^.ter, and 
 on examination yield bones of deer and other animals. 
 
 The hydration of the gypsum a short disLancc below the surface 
 would be a comparatively slow o{)eration, even now not completed at its 
 outcrop, and the expansion would be spent more in binding the strata 
 than in its fracture. 
 
 ,^ 
 
 APPLICATION OF THE GYPSUM. 
 
 The uses to which gypsum is put are so much the same in every 
 country that a detailed list would merely express the information already 
 possessed by the members. The soft blue and white varieties are largely 
 exported, to be ground for agricultural purposes. It is considered in the 
 Southern States to be a valuable adjunct to the growth of cotton and 
 tobacco. It is also much used as a top dressing, in the Northern States 
 and the Provinces of Quebec and Ontario. 
 
 In Nova Scotia itself certain districts have been well served with this 
 enricher in a remarkable manner. In the Bay of Fundy, which separates 
 Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, the tides rise to a height of from 40 
 to 60 feet, and from the rapidity of their movements exert a powerfully 
 erosive effect on every stratum exposed to their action. 
 
 Great part of the Lower Carboniferous marine limestone formation of 
 Nova Scotia is penetrated by it, or drained by its tributaries ; thus large 
 quantities of the limestone, gypsum, and marl have been denuded and 
 re-arranged in large meadows covering many thousand acres. These have 
 been protected from inundation by large dykes, and present a soil of 
 unsurpassed fertility. Constant additions are being made to these 
 meadows by the unceasing denudation. 
 
 In addition to this, its dissemination, together with limestone and clay 
 through the overlying soils, have rendered large districts in Cumberland, 
 Pictou, Hants, and Antigonish, and parts of Cape Breton., capable of 
 producing, when efficiently worked, more than average crops of the more 
 common grains and roots. 
 
 The compact white gypsum and selenite is used for finishing walls, 
 for cornices, etc. No more suitable place than Nova Scotia could be 
 selected for the manufacture of those cements into which gypsum enters, 
 as the mineral is cheap and of every grade of quality. 
 
 ii 
 
TIIK GYPSUM OF XOVA Sf'OTIA. 
 
 18 
 
 There are iiuinerous gypsiiiu mills scattered thrnu<:li Cimada, and a 
 rapidly inereasiii<i: anioiint, wliieli cannot le readily ascertained, is annually 
 f^round for domestic use. A largo mill at Hillsboro, New liriinswick, has 
 been working ibr a number oi'years on the deposits of that locality, already 
 mentioned as being of the greatest purity. 
 
 The principles involved in the manufacture of gyjtsum are S(» well 
 known, that the chief interest centres in the comj.arison of < ost. At 
 this establishment, a forty-five horse-power engine furnishes the power 
 necessary for driving the stones, revolving pans, making barrels, etc. 
 Four cauldrons are used, eaeb ..olding IK.OOO lbs. ; in the course of n day 
 each boiler will yield three charges. At present this mill is working at 
 only one-fifth of its capacity. From what infonnation the writer has been 
 able to acquire, the cost of the calcined gypsum is about Ss. per barrel of 
 800 lbs., barrel and pajjcr lining included. This ])rice would of course be 
 materially reduced were the mill w<n-king up to its capacity. 
 
 The cost of quarrying the gypsum varies from Is. ud. to :?s. Od. jxt 
 ton ; the selling jirice on bcjard varies from 3s. C.d. to 4s. Dd., including a 
 short haulage, interest, etc. 
 
 The mineral is all held in ice simple, and pays no royalty to the 
 government, and is so abundant, that, as yet, operations have been con- 
 fined to the outcrops of the beds nearest to tlie available ship) ing points. 
 This, of course, materially reduces its price, and the cajiital charges of the 
 quarry owners. 
 
 The vessels employed in carrying the gypsum to the neighbouring 
 ports of the United States, are of small burden : up to 400 tons. When 
 shipping from the Bay of Fundy ports, they sail up with the flood tide, 
 and lie in the soi't mud at the wharvt • when the tide falls ; thus, alter- 
 nately afloat and aground, they receive their cargoes. 
 
 The term " inexhaustible " is seldom aj)plicablc to the treasures of the 
 earth, as they aj.pear in any one district ; but it may be justly enough 
 applied to those deposits as developed in Nova Scotia. The extent of the 
 trade, which, although connderable, lalls far short of the facilities nature 
 has ottered for its prosecution, may be gathered from the following 
 
 STATISTICS. 
 
 The town of AVindscr may be considered the head-quarters of the 
 gypsum trade, as three-filths of the total amount shipped is raised in the 
 surrounding quarries. The total amount shipped from "Windsor since 
 1833, is about 2,044,370 tons, of 2,240 lbs., valued at about 2,200,000 
 dollars. 
 
14 
 
 THE GYPSUM OF NOVA SCOTIA. 
 
 The following tabic will show the average volume of the total export 
 of the province, during the last twenty-five years: — 
 
 Year. 
 
 Tom. 
 
 Value. 
 DoUaii. 
 
 1855 
 
 95,.301 
 
 80,876 
 
 1860 
 
 105,431 
 
 85,936 
 
 1865 
 
 56,155 
 
 45,088 
 
 1870 
 
 98,050 
 
 75,650 
 
 1878 
 
 120,693 
 
 120,693 
 
 In 1877, year ending June 30, Canada exported 101,370 tons, valued 
 at 9fi,175 dollars ; of which Nova Scotia exported 96,440 tons, valued at 
 89,488 dollars. In 1878, Canada exported 100,134 tons ; of which Nova 
 Scotia exported 94,007 tons, valued at 85,049 dollars. In 1879, Nova 
 Scotia exported 95,120 tons, valued at 74,923 dollars. 
 
 The total exports from Nova Scotia since 1854, are about 2,300,000 
 tons, valued at about 1,900.000 dollars. 
 
 Very little "ground gypsum is exported from Nova Scotia, but about 
 5,000 tons, or 20,000 dollars worth, is annually exj)orted from New 
 Brunswick to the United States. The imports of raw and manufactured 
 gypsum into the western parts of Canada, from the United States, ». jf 
 an annual value of about 10,000 dollars. 
 
 The United States do not impose any duty on raw gypsum, but the 
 ground or calcined article is subjected to 20 per cent, duty, which is 
 ])ractically prohibitive. There is no duty on foreign gypsum coming into 
 (;)anada excejit when ground, then the duty is 20 per cent. ; or when 
 calcined, m which case it pays 15 cents per hundred pounds. 
 
 From the Provincial census of 1861 it would appear that 75,887 tons 
 were quamcd for domestic use. The Dominion census of 1871, gives only 
 the quantity exported, viz., 90,544 tons. It may, however, be assumed 
 that the quantity used for domestic purposes has not decreased. This 
 would make the total quantity quarried in Nova Scotia, in 1879, about 
 150,000 tons. Mr. Hunt gives the quantity raised in England, in 1878, 
 at 74,908 tons, valued at £22,472. 
 
 The writer thinks that the foregoing, necessarily imperfect, account 
 of an important Canadian mineral may prove of interest, and that, if of no 
 other value, it may indicate where unlimited quantities of a valuable 
 agricultural material can be procured, should at any time the progress of 
 invention and discovery allow its introduction into England. 
 
 hi 
 
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