IMAGE EVALUATION
TEST TARGET (MT-3)
1.0
■tt lAi |22
2.0
lU
140
I.I
.^
^>'
V
4>> -""^
Fhotographic
Sciences
Corporation
4^
^
^.
V
<«^
29 Wn? MAM ITRMT
WMim.N.V. 14IM
(71«)I73-4»01
4^
i\
/j
\
CIHM/ICMH
Microfiche
Series.
CIHM/ICMH
Collection de
microfiches.
Canadian Inatituta fpr Historical IMiororaproductiont / Inatitut Canadian da microraproductiont hiatoriquaa
Technical and Bibliographic Notes/Notes tachniquaa at bibiiographiquaa
The Instituta has attamptad to obtain tha bast
original copy availabia for filming. Faaturas of thia
copy which may ba bibliographically uniqua,
which may altar any of tha imagat in tha
raproduction, or which may significantly changa
tha usual mathod of filming, ara chackad balow.
D
D
D
D
D
Colourad covars/
Couvartura da coulaur
nn Covars damagad/
Couvartura andommagAa
Covars rastorad and/or laminatad/
Couvartura rastaurte at/ou paliicuMa
I I Covar titia missing/
La titra da couvartura manqua
Colourad maps/
Cartas giographiquaa an coulaur
□ Colourad ink (i.a. othar than blua or black)/
Encra da coulaur (i.a. autra qua blaua ou noira)
I I Colourad plataa and/or illustrations/
Planchas at/ou illuatrations an coulaur
Bound with othar material/
Ralli avac d'autras documanta
Tight binding may causa shadowa or distortion
along intanor margin/
La rm liura sarrAa paut causar da I'ombra ou da la
diatortion la long da la marga IntAriaura
Blank laavaa addad during restoration may
appeer within the text. Whenever poaaible, theee
have been omitted from filming/
II se peut que certalnes pagea blanches ajoutiae
lore d'une restauration apparaissent dans la texte,
mais, lorsque oela Atait possible, ces pat^ n'ont
pas 4t« fiimAas.
AdditionsI comments:/
Commentalree supplAmenteiree:
L'Instltut a microfilm^ la meilleur exemplaire
qu'il lui a St6 possible de se procurer. L^s d^aiis
da cat exemplaire qui sent peut-Atre uniques du
point de vue bibliographique. qui peuvent modifier
une image reproduite, ou qui peuvent exiger une
modification dans la mithoda normale de f ilmage
sont indiqute ci-dessous.
□ Coloured pages/
Pagea de couleur
D
D
D
D
Pages damaged/
Pagea endommagtes
Pagea restored and/or laminated/
Pagea restaur^es et/ou pellicuMes
Pages discoloured, stained or foxed/
Pagea dteolorAes, tachettea ou piquAea
Pages detached/
Pagea ditach^wi
r^ Showthrough/
Tranaparance
Quality of prir
QualitA InAgala de I'lmpreaaion
Includes supplementary materii
Comprend du matirlel suppMmentaire
Only edition aveilable/
Seule MMon diaponible
r~7| Quality of print variea/
|~n Includes supplementary materiel/
rn Only edition aveilable/
Pagee wholly or partially obacured by errata
slips, tissuee, etc., have been refllmed to
ensure the best possible image/
Lee pages totalement ou partiellement
obacurolae par un feulHet d'errata, une pelure,
etc., ont *ti fllmAaa i nouveau de fa^on A
obtenir la meilleure image poaaible.
This item is filmed at the reduction retio cheeked below/
Ce document eat filmA au taux de rMuotlon indlquA ol-deeaoua.
10X 14X 18X
MX
30X
Y
12X
IfX
20X
24X
32X
laira
I detail*
|UM du
it modifier
ig«r una
• filmaga
1/
u4aa
Tha copy flimad hara haa baan raproduead thanlta
to tha ganaroaity of:
Seminary of QualMc
Librwry
Tha imagaa appaaring hara ara tha baat quaiity
poaaibia eonaidaring tha condition and iagibiiity
of tha originai copy and in icaaping with tha
Aiming contract apaciflcationa.
Original eopiaa in printad papar covara ara fiimad
beginning with tha front covar and anding on
tha iaat paga with a printad or illuatratad impraa-
•ion, or tha bacic covar whan appropriate. Ali
othar original coplaa ara flimad beginning on tha
firat page with a printed or illuatratad impraa-
aion, and anding on the Iaat page with a printad
or illuatratad impraaaion.
Tha Iaat recorded frame on each microfiche
ahali contain the aymbol — »> (meening "CON-
TINUED"), or the aymbol y (meaning "END"),
whichever appliea.
L'axemplaira film* fut raproduit grice A la
ginAroaitA da:
Siminaira de Qirfboc
Bib(ioth«que
Lea imagpa auh/antaa ont 4tA raproduitea avac la
piua grand soin, eompte tenu de la condition at
da la nattet* de i'axamplaira film*, at an
conformit* avac lea conditions du contrat da
filmaga.
Lea axempleirea originaux dent la couvartura en
papier eat imprim4e sent filmta en commenpant
par la premier plat at an tarminant aoit par la
darniira pege qui compofte une empreinta
d'impraaaion ou d'iiiuatration, soit par la second
plat, aaion le caa. Tous las autras exempiairas
originaux sent fllmte an commenpant par la
pramlAra page qui comporte une empreinta
d'impraaaion ou d'illustration at an tarminant par
la damlAra pege qui comporte une telle
empreinte.
Un dee aymbolae suivants apparaltra sur la
damMra imege de cheque microfiche, selon le
caa: la symbole -^ signifie "A 8UIVRE", le
symbola y signifie "FIN".
ire
Meps. pletes. charta. etc.. may be filmed at
different reduction ratloa. Thoae too large to be
entirely included In one expoauro ara filmed
beginning in the upper left hand corner, left to
right end top to bottom, aa many framae aa
required. The following diagrama iliuatrata the
method:
Lea cartas, planchea. tableaux, etc.. pauvent Atra
fiimAa i dee taux da rMuction diffirenta.
Loraqua la document eat trap grand pour Atra
raproidult en un seul cllchA. il est fiimA A partir
de I'angia aupArlaur geuche, de gauche A droite,
et de haut en bea, an pranant la nombra
d'imegea nAcaesaira. Lee diegrammea suivants
illuatrent le mAthode.
»y erreta
edto
int
no peluro,
I90n A
1 2 3
a2x
1
2
3
4
8
6
-^ji^y AN ABRIDGMENT
OF
MimRAY'S
ENGLISH GRAMMAR,
AND
EXERCISE ;
WITH QUESTIONS, ADAPTED TO THE USE OF
SCHOOLS AND ACi
\ytLSO
AN APPEI
CONTAINING RULES AND OftSSftlUTIONJ
WRITING WITH PERSPICUITY Axf"
BY M. J. KERNEY,
AUTHOR OF COMPENDIUM OF ANCIENT AND MODERN HISTORY.
MONTREAL: ARMOUR & RAMSAY.
KINGSTON: KAMSAYj ARMOUR AND CO. /^^ *^^^
HAMILTON: RAMSAY AND M^K £ N D R m^ ^^
11347.
•jf '
^
V.
» 5,"
I
\ ■ ,' 1
V.
■il f
!VI N T It K A L.
:?KlM'tU 13 Y AKMOUB AND HAMSAY.
S^ Ff'.mgois Xavier StieeL
mS
. ■?
PREFACE.
Thk long cstablisliod reputation of Murray's Eng-
lish Grammar rondors it uiiiiccossary at the present time
to add any comment on its merits. The large Gram-
mar, however, has been generally found too prolix to
render it a suitable text-book for the younger class of
learners ; but on the other hand the abridgments, that
have already ai)pearcd, are in many respects too con-
(?ise to meet the ends fo*' which tliev were designed.
The pi'incipal object, therefore, of the pres^ent abridge-
ment is to obviate tho objection urged against the former,
and to supply the deficiency of tlio latter. All experi-
onc<? proves that no system of teaching is so well cal-
cuiatod to ensure success as that which is accompani-
<3<1 by explicit and api)ropriate illustrations of the prin-
ciples inculcated. A short example often gives a clearer
(jonception of a pn.'cept than the most explicit words
i'ould convey. For this reason it has been thought
pro])er to condnne the Grammar and Exercise, to adapt
•Ml exercise to each chapter and section throughout the
work, so that the pupil at every stage of his progress
may have a practical illustration of the portion under his
immediate study. By this arrangement, it is believed,
that the present abridgment will in a great measure
supersede the use of the Exercise heretofore used iii
connection with the Grammar, as it contains the most
imi)ortant portions of that Exercise. Tiiose, however,
wiio may think proper to make use of Murray's Exercise
and Key, will find this abridgment to correspond in
general with the arrangement of these works. The
Questions, arranged at the bottom of each [)age, it is
hoped, will give a value to the work, and i)rove useful
both to teachers and pu})ils. Some slight deviation will
be found in ihe arrangement of the Rules of Syntax ; but
in gencriil th(^ language of the Orujitial has been carefully
preserved.
M. J. K.
CONTENTS.
PAGE
ORTHOGRAPHY.— Chapter I, 5
Chapter ii Of Syllables and Words, .... 9
ETYMOLOGY.— Chapter I.— Parts of Speech, . 11
Chapter ii Of the Articles, 13
Chapter m. — Of the Noun, 14
Chapter iv. — Of Adjectives, 17
Chapter v. — Of Pronouns, 19
Chapter VI.— Of the Verb, 23
Chapter vi Of the Adverb, 46
Chapter vii. — Of Prepositions, 47
Chapter viii. — Of Conjunctions, 47
Chapter ix. — Of Interjections, 49
Parsing, 49
Directions for Parsing, .... 49
SYNTAX, 52
Rules for Syntax, 54
PROSODY.— Accent, 78
Quantity, Emphasis, 79
Pause, Tone, Versification^ ... 80
Punctuation, Comma, . . , . 83
Rules for the Comma, 83
Semicolon, 85
Colon, Period, 86
Exercise in Punctuation, ... 88
Promiscuous Exercises, .... 92
APPENDIX.— Perspicuity, ....... 99
Figures of Speech, 104
Logic, 107
Oratory, 109
Gender, 110
Number, Ill
. Rules for Spelling, 112
Elliptical Phrases, 115
Latin Phrases, ,.,.,.. 116-
sounJ
orgaij
2.1
Av(|
utterl
The
fV
syllal
A of
perftf
Mi
1.
Orthd
Whal
2.
PAGE
. 5
• J
9
11
13
14
17
19
23
46
47
47
49
, 49
49
. 62
54
. 78
79
. 80
83
. 83
85
. 86
88
. 92
99
104
107
109
. 110
111
. 112
115
. iia
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
English Grammar is the art of speaking and writ-
ing the English language with propriety.
It ia divided into four parts, viz. Obthografht,
Ettmology, Syntax, and Prosodt.
ORTHOGRAPHY.
CHAPTER I.
1. Orthography, the first part of grammar, treats of the
nature and powers of letters, and the proper method of
spelling words. A letter is the first principle, or least
part of a word.
The letters of the English language, called the Alpha-
bet, are twenty-six in number.
These letters are the representatives of certain articu-
late sounds, the elements of the language* An articulate
sound is a sound of the human voice formed by the
organs of speech.
2. Letters are divided into vowels and consonantt.
A vowel is an articulate sound, that can be perfectly
uttered by itself without the aid of any other sound.
The vowels are a, 0, t, 0, t£, and sometimes w and y.
fV and y are consonants when they begin a word or
syllable ; but in every other situation they are vowels*
A consonant is an articulate sound, which cannot be
perfectly uttered without the aid of a vowel : as, i, d,
,/, /, which require vowels to express them fully.
1. What is Engliih Grammar'? How is it diridedl Of what does
Orthography treat 1 What ia a letter 1 What are they called T
What are these letters T What is an articulate sound 1
2. How are letters divided 1 What u a vowel 1 What is said ol
vt and y / What is a consonant ?
6 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Note.— The following is a Ibt of the Roman, Italie, and OM
English characters, both Capital and Small.
;
Cap.
Small.
Cap.
Small.
Cap.
Small.
1
1
A
a
^
a
^
a
ai.
B
b
B
b
is
h
bee.
1
C
c
C
c
c
t
see.
'
D
d
D
d
m
n
dee.
i
£
e
E
e
s
C
ee.
F
f
F
f
ff
t
ef.
G
g
G
g
^
a
jee.
H
h
H
h
H^
h
ailch
I
i
I
•
t
K
(
i or eye-'
'-
J
•
J
•
J
3
f
joy.
K
k
K
k
U
u
kay.
L
1
L
I
JL
I
el.
M
m
M
m
■jrvir
m
em.
N
n
K
n
N
tt
en.
^
0.
P
P
P
P
W
9
pee.
Q
q
Q
9
a
q
cue.
R
r
R
r
21
r
ar.
S
8
S
s
Sb
s
ess.
T
t
T
t
IE
t
tee.
U
U
U
u
m
u
u or you
t
V
V
V
V
m
ti
vee.
;
W
w
W
w
m
)D
double t/r
X
X
X
X
X
V
eks.
*
y
y
Y
y
Y
S
wy.
z
*
Z
z
z
!
ud or zee
ORTHOGRAPHT.
«IiC| and OM
at,
bee,
see.
dee.
ee,
ef.
jee.
aitch
i or eye*
kay.
el.
em.
en.
o.
pee.
cue.
ar,
eis.
tee.
u or you
vee,
double t/r
eks.
wy.
zed or zee.
A perfect alphabet of any language would eontain a number of
letters precisely equal to the number of simple articulate sounds be-
longing to the language, and each simple Eound would be represented
by its own distinct character. This, however, b far from being the
state of the English alphabet 9 it has more original souads than
<dbtinct significant letters. But to obviate the inconvenience that
would naturally arbe, many of these letters are made to represent
■not only one, but several sounds.
The following tables represents the number of vowel sounds :
Words containing the
nmpletoundi.
o, as in /of e, paper,
a, as in /ar, father,
a, as in /u//, water.
a, as in/uf, mat, marry.
•«, as in me, here, metre,
c, as in met, let, get
«, as in pinty tile.
«, as in jptn, sin.
0, as in no, note, notice,
o, as in move, prove.
«, as in nor, for, or.
4, as in not, got.
tt, as in tube, curate.
u, as in tub, cub.
tt, asin/uW, pull.
By this) table it appears that there are in the English langui^e
fifteen simple vowel sounds, which are represented by only five distinct
•characters. The simple consonant sounds are twenty-two : as B,
^beard in 6ay, tub; D, in day, sad; F, in off, for, &c.
3. Consonants are divided into mutes and semi-voweis.
The mutes cannot be sounded at all without the aid of a
vowel. They are 6, p, d, <, k, with c and g hard. The
«emi-vowels have an imperfect sound of themselves.
They are/, /, m, n, r, *, v, y, «, with c and g soft.
Four of the semi-vowels, namely /, m, n, r, are also
distinguished by the name of liquids^ from their readily
uniting with other consonants, and flowing, as it were,
into their sounds.
3. How are eonsunants divided t What is said of the mutes and
what are they % What have the semi-vowels, and what are they 1
How are four of the semi-vowels distinguished, and why t
Letters denoting the
simple sounds.
A has four simple sounds.
1. The long slender English
2. The long Italian
3. The broad German
4. The short sound of the Italian
£ has two sounds.
1. The long
f 2. The short
I, has two sounds-
1 . The long
2. The short
O has four sounds.
1 . The long open
2. The long closed
3. The long broad
4. The short broad
V has three sounds.
1 . The long diphthongal
2. The short
3. The middle
8 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
4. A diphthong is the union of two vowels, pronounced
by a single impulse of the voice : as, ea in beat, ou in
sound. A triphthong is the union of three vowels, pro-
nounced in like manner: as, eau in beauty, tew in view.
A proper diphthong is that in which both the vowels are
sounded: as, oi in voice, ou in ounce. An improper
diphthong has but one of the vowels sounded : as, the e of
ea in eagle, the o of oa in boat.
Note. — A more exact definition of a vowel and consonant may be
given in the following words. A rowel is a simple articulate sound,
perfect in itself, and formed by a continual effusion of the breath
without any alteration in the position of the mouth or any motion
of the organs of speech from the moment the vocal sound begins
until it ends.
A consonant is a simple articulate sound, imperfect in itself, but
which, joined to a vowel, forms a complete sound by a particular
motion of the organs of speech. That to and y are consonants, when
used as initials, appears evident from their not admitting the in-
definite article an before them; as it would be improper to say,
an walnut, an yard; and from their following a vowel without
any difficulty of utterance ; as, frosty winter, rosy youth. That they
are vowels in other situations is evident from their regularly taking
the sound of other vowels ; as w has the exact sound of u in saw, few,
new, &c., and y that of i in hymn, fly, &c. Consonants are. distin-
gubhcd by the organs of speech employed in pronouncing them
into labial, dental, guttural, and nasal. The labials are those formed
by the lips ; as, b, p,f, v. The dentals are formed by the teeth; as,
/, d, s, X and g soft. The gutturals are formed from the throat; as,
k, q, c. The nasals are pronounced through tiie nose ; as, m, «. The
mutes are divided into fure and impure. The pure are those whose
sounds cannot be at all prolonged ; as, k, p, t. The impure are those
whose sounds may be continued, though for a very short space ; as, b,
d, g. The semi-vowels may be subdivided into vocal and atpiraied.
The vocal are those formed by the voice, and are /, m, n, r, v, w, y,
z; the aspirated are formed by the breath, and are/, h, t, tk and th.
The sound of c is hard before a, o, u, r, t, and I: as, cart, cottage,
curious, craft, tract, cloth, &c., and when it ends a syllable ; as,
victim, &c. It has the soft sound before e, i, and y, as face, civil,
cymbal, mercy, &c. G is hard before a, o, u, I and r; as, game,
gone, gull, glory, grandeur; and also at the end of wordis ; as, bag,
nag, dog. But it has generally the soft sound before e, t and y ; as,
genius, ginger, Egypt.
4. What b a diphthong t What is a triphthong ? What is a pro>
per diphthong ? What is an improper diphthong '/
3.
ils, pronounced
in beat, ou in
se vowels, pro-
y, tew in yiew.
the vowels are
An improper
ed : as, the e of
consonant may be
e articulate sound,
lion of the breath
ith or any motion
ocal sound begins
rfectin itself, but
)d by a particular
! consonants, if hen
admitting the in-*
improper to say,
a vowel without
youth. That they
ir regularly taking
dofu in saw, few,
sonants are distin-
pronouncing them
s are those formed
1 by the teeth ; as,
)m the throat j as,
le ; as, m, n. The
re are those whose
e impure are thos(?
short space ; as, b,
cal and aspirattd.
!, m, n, r, t>, w, y,
:/, A, s, th and th.
: as, cart, cottage,
is a syllable; as,
i y, as face, civil,
andr,' as, game,
)f words ; as, bag,
re e, t and y ; as,
; ? What is a pro-
ORTHOGRAPHY.
EXERCISE.
1. Full many a gem of purest ray serene,
The dark unfathomed caves of ocean bear ;
Full many a flower is born to blush unseen,
And waste its sweetness in the desert air.
Down by yon woods where oaks llieir branches wave.
The bloom of youth fades with advancing years.
2. Vital spark of heavenly flame,
Quit, oh ! quit this mortal frame,
Trembling, hoping, lingeiing, flying.
Oh ! the pain, the bliss of dying.
Exalt the brave and idolize success.
The zealous mind is ever anxious to improve.
3. Earth, tear, boil, read, toil, pain, day.
Beauty, people, oil, new, always, react, die.
Guess, heroic, sound, taught, aunt, joy.
Coal, violet, bilious, adieu, poniard, coil.
Factious, lieu, speak, situation, down,
Foe, doubt, precimis, buy, dew, deceit.
CHAPTER II.
OF SYLLABLES AND WORDS.
1. A syllable is a sound, either simple or compound,
pronounced by a single impulse of the voice, and constitu-
ting a word, or part of a word ; as, a, an, ont. Spelling
is the art of rightly dividing words into their syllables, or
of expressing a word by its proper letters.
2. Words are articulate sounds used by common con-
flent as signs of our ideas. A word of one syllable is
termed a Monosyllable ; a word of two syllables, a
Dissyllable ; a word of three syllables, a Trisyllable ;
and a word of four or more syllables, a Polysyllable.
3. All words are either primitive or derivative. A
1 . Point out the vowels t Point out the consonants ? Point out the
words in which w and y, are vowels 1 In what words are they con«
sonants t And why f 2. Point out the mutes f Point out the
jemi-vowels and liquids 1 3. Point out the diphthongs in the abort
words 1 Point out tiie triphthongs 1 What are the words in which
two vowels come together, but do not form a diphthong 1
1. What is a syllable 1 What is spelling 1 2. What are words f
What is a monosyllable ? a dissyllable ? a trisyllable? a polysyllable t
3. What are all words ? What is a primitive word 1 What is a deri-
vative word 3
; /
10
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
If
'■?■
i- 1
n I
i
! I
primitive word h that which cannot be reduced to any
simpler word in the language ; as, man, gcodf content, A
derivative word is t*^at which mav be reduced to another
word in English of greater simplicity ; as, handful ^ good'
ness, conienimemt.
Note. — A primitive word is the simplest form to which a word can
be reduced ; as, pen, tea, man. A derivative is a word compounded
of two or more primitive words, or derived from a primitive word ;
as, pen-knife, tea-cup, manly. Words are derived from each other
in various ways, viz. ; nouns arc derived from verbs ;,as, from to lovey
comes loecr ; to visit, visitor ; to survive, survivor y to act, aetor.
Verbs are derived from nouns ; as, from salt, to salt ; also from
adjectives and adverbs ; as, length, to lengthen ; short, to shorten ;
forward, to forward. Nouns are derived from adjectives ; as, from
white, whiteness ; good, qoodncss. Adjectives are derived from nouns ;
as, from health, healthy ; joy, joyful ; care, careless. Nouns are
also derived from other nouns ; us, from king, kingdom'f\aiw, lawyer ;
senate, senator. Adverbs arc derived from aidjecUves; as, from
slow, slowlit ; base, basely ; able, ably.
r
EXERCISE.
1. Lo, the poor Indian ! whose untutored mind
Sees (»od in clouds, or hears him in the wind.
His soul proud science never taught lo stray
Far as the solar walk or milky-way.
2. And thou, who, mindful of the unhonored dead,
Dost in these lines their artless tale relate.
By night and lonely contemplation led
To wander in the gloomy walks of fate.
Hark ! how the sacred calm, that breathes around,.
Bids every fierce tumultuous passion cease.
3. Man, earth, healthy, oak, manhood, earthly.
Toil, careless, child, toilsome, joyful, fruit,
Joy, manful, childii::h, childhood, sin, kind,
Sinful, lover, kindness, white, fruitful, oaken*
Worth, whiteness, freedom, kingdom, beautiful,
Salt, shortness, saltish, good, goodness.
1. Point out the words containing but one syllable 1 What woitta
contain two or more syllables { 2. Point nut the monosyllables 7 the
dissyllables 7 the trisyllables 7 the polysyllables 1 3. Point out the
primitive words in the above section '( Point out the derivatiTt
words 7 From what are they derived 1
ORTHOGRAPHY^
m
jduced to any
dy conienU A
ced to another
kandful, good'
rhich a word can
vord compounded
I primitive word ;
I from each other
;.as, from to love^
»r } to act, aetor.
salt; also from
lort, to shorten f
ectires ; as, from
rived from nouns ;
?ss. Nouns are
cm ; law, lawyer ;
ectives', as, froia
mind
wind,
stray
•red dead,
tte,
ihcs aroundf
ase.
irthly,.
liitf
ind,.
oaken«
)eaiitiful»
We 1 What word*
monosyllables 1 the
3. Point out the
out the derivatiTt
PART 11.
ETYMOLOGY.
CHAPTfiR I.
The Parts of Spi
1 . The second part of Grammar i^
treats of the different sorts of words,
cations, and their derivation. There^
sorts of words, or, as they are commonlv^'li ybjfl p rgto Btf'^F
Speech ; namely, the Article, the StUnianitt^t^oun,
the Adjective, the Pronoun, the Verb, the Adverb, the
Preposition, the Conjunction, and the Interjection,
1. An Article is a word prefixed to nouns io point
them out and show how far their signification extends;
as, a field, a house, an eagle, the woman.
2. The Substantive or Noun is the name of any thing
that exists, or of which, we l^ave any notion ; as, London,
man, virtue.
Note. — Whatever has a name is a noun. A noun, therefore, may
be known by asking the question. Is it the name of a thing t *1 he word
noun is more appropriate than substantive, because it is much more
general in its application; the latter in' its literal sense signifies something
that has tubstnnce. The words, idea, thought, tpirit, angel, be,
are not properly substantives, because they contain no substance,
nothing that we can hear, taste, feci ; but they arc nouns, because
they arc the names of certain things.
3. An Adjei'tive is a word added to a noun to express
its quality ; as, An industrious man ; a viituous woman.
Note.—'\n adjective simply expresses quality, and may be known
by its making sense witli the addition of the word thing ; as, a good
thing, a bad thinn; ; or of uny particular noun ; as, a wise man, an
hufi^le mind ; or by answering tu the question, Whatis^thc quality of
the noun ? as, ^ sweet apple ; What is the quality of the apple ? the
answer is sweet.
4. A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun to
avoid the too frequent repetition of the same word ; as,
*^ The man is happy, he is virtuous, he is benevolent, he
\s useful."
Note. — In the above example tlie pronoun he voids the repetition
of the phrase tht man. Tl»c iidlowing are a few of the principal pro-
nouns ; /, thou, he, she, it, we, you, they, him, her, them, who.
1. What is the second part of Grammar, and of whsA does it treat 1
In English how many parts of speech, and what are they 1
I
1. What is an article 1 2. What
•djective 1 4. What ii a pronoun 1
is a noun 1 3. What is to
T/.
12
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
: t
!i^'
!l t
5. A Verb is a word, which signifies, to be, to do, or to
»uffet ; as, I am, 1 rule, I am ruled.
Note. — A Verb may be more fully defined a word which exprcssea,
first, a state of being ^ as, to be, to live ; or, secondly, an action per-
formed by «pjne agent ; as, " Washington liberated his country ;"
^ or, thirdly, tnejpeceiving of an action ; as, " Washington was loved
by his countryinen.'' A verb may be known by asking the question,
^ Does the word express being, action, or the receiving of an action ;'*
if so, it is a verb.
6. An Adverb is a part of speech joined to a verb, an
adjective, and sometimes another adverb, to express
some quality or circumstance respecting them ; as, He
reads well ; a tntly good man ; he writes veri^ correctly.
iVo/ff.— The adverb may be generally known by its answering to
the question, how '{ as, he reads correctly ; how does he read 1 the
answer is correctly. The words, here, there, no, not, how, now,
often, justly, yes, why, more, most, are adverbs
7. Prepositions serve to connect words with one another,
and to show the relation between them ; as, " He went
from London to York," *« She is above disguise," " Thejr
are supported d^ industry."
ffote. — Any word, which shows the relative position of two oMects
is a preposition ; as, " The man descended into the well," " lie is
fttar the bottom," " Place the book m the table." Prepositions
nay be generally known by making sense with any of the personal
pronouns in the objective case aderthem : as, " with him, /or her,
by them, to you, in you, after them, on it, againat me," &c.
8. A Conjunction is a part of speech chiefly used to
connect sentences, so as out of two or more to malce
but one. It sometimes connects only words ; as, ** Tliou
and he are happy, because you are good ;" " Two and
tliree are five."
9. An Interjection is a word used to express some
passion or emotion of the speaker ; as, " O virtue ! how
amiable thou art !" " Jllas ! I fear ;" " ^A me !
EXERCISE.
1. The man, a boy, an apple, the book, the pen.
2. Men, the city, nation, the sun, an eagle, the moon,
virtue* fame, the night, a king.
.'). What is a verb 1 6. What is an adverb ?
7. What is a preposition 1 8. What is a coi^junction 1 9. What
ia an interjection 1
Qutttiont on the Exergue. — 1. Point out the ariiclct t 2. Point
out the nouns f
STTMOLOCTr
10
, to be, to dOf or to
word which expressei,
condly, an action per-
)erated his country j"
Washington was loved
)y askuig the question,
Bceiving of an action ;'*
nined to a verb, an
dverb, to express
ing them ; as, He
ites very correctly.
ivn by its answering to
low does he read 1 the
e, nOy not, how, now,
bs
is with one another,
m ; as, " He went
e disguise," " Thev
position of two oMeeta
nto the well," " He is
table." Prepositions
ith any of the pereonal
s, " with him, /or her,
ainat me," &c.
;ch chiefly used to
I or more to moke
words ; as, " Thou
;ood}" "Two and
d to express some
?, « O virtue ! how
" M me !
ook, the pen,
on eagle, the moon^
:oi\iunctiQn *? 9. What
the articles t 2. Point
3. A good man, a virtuous child, an humble mind, the
diligent scholar, a faithful friend.
4. He is the person, of whom I spoke ; we saw them ;
they were with you j she said it.
5. I love to read, he knows his lesson, they arrived,
John writes, the grass grows, the bird sings.
6. He acted wisely and prudently j does he read well t
No, not very well ; how seldom he comes !
7. In the city, he gained it by labor, not for me, with
it and without it, he sold it to the man, on the table, from
his friend.
8. But, if you and your friend will go, I will also ; as
neither you nor I can perform it, yet he or his friend may
be able to do so.
9. Ah ! Alas! I fear for life ; virtue ! hark !
CHAPTER II.
Of the Articles.
1. An Article is a word prefixed to a noun to point
it out and show how far its signification extends j as, a
fander, an eagle, the woman. Jn English there are but
two articles, a and the : a becomes an before a vowel,
and silent A ; as, an acorn, an hour ; but if the A be
■ounded, the a only is used ; as, a hand, a heart, a high-
way.
2. Jl or an is styled the indefinite article, because it is
used in a vague sense to point out one single thing of the
kind ; as, " Give me a book ;" " Bring me an apple."
The is called the definite article, because it ascertains
what particular thing or things are meant ; as, " Give
Die the book ;" " Bring me the apples ;" meaning some
particular book or apples referred to. A noun without
ftn article to limit it is generally taken in its widest
lense ; as, " A candid temper is proper for man ;" that
kl, lor all mankind.
Quettiont on the Exercise. — 3. Point out the adjectives 1 4. Point
out the pronouns 1 5. Point out the pronouns, Tcrbs, and nouns 1 6.
Point out the adverbs t 7. Point out the prepositions and nouns Y 8.
feint out the conjunctions t 9. And interjections ?
Quettiont on tht Jirtkla. — 1. What is an article? In English
llpw many articles 1 What does a become before a vowel or siltnt h t
If the A is sounded, what is used ? 2. What is « or an atjltd 1 What
if Uu oalled 1 How ia a noun without an artida takan 1
A2
I
i
1^
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
CHAPTER Illi '
Of the JSfoun.
1. A Substantive or Noun is the name of any
thing that exists, or of which we have any notion : as,
Citifi Virtue^ Fame. Nouns are of two. kinds,, either
proper or common.
2, Proper nouns are names appropriated to indivi*
duals : as, George,. London, Thames. Common nouns
are names which stand for species or kinds containing
many- sorts, or for sorts containing many individuals under
them : as, animal^ marif free. Nouns have a gender f
number, and case ; they are all of the second person
when spoken to, and of the third person when spoken of :
" John, recite your lesson ;" " I saw the man."
Note. — Proper nouns are names appropriated to individual persons
and particular places or things, which are not common to any particu-
lar class : as, John, James, Bostorii Paris. Common nouns are
those which comprehend various kinds under one particnlar. class ;
the word man is a common noun, because under that term Tarious
species or kinds are comprehended, and it is common to the whole
class of men. The noun tree is common, because there are many
kinds of trees ; animal .ia common for the same reason. When pro-
per nouns have an article annexed to them, they are used as com-
mon nonns : as, " He is the Cicero of his age ;" <' he is a Wathing^
tort." When a common noun is particularly distinguished by aa
article or pronoun, it may be used to signify an individual : u, **tk»
boy is studious ;" " that girl is discreet.^' Some nouns are thus
distinguished : 1st. Collective nouns, or nouns of multitude : as, the
people, the parliament, the fled, the army. 2d. .^bttraet nouns : as,
tvhiteneas, goodness, knowledge. 3d. Verbal or participiaL nouns:
as, be^nning, ending, writing.
EXERCISE.
1. A flower, a tree, an apple, an orange, the field, vir-
tue, temperance, a prince, the laws, beauty.
2. Washington, Europe, wisdom, America, the sun,
Boston, street, house, Baltimore, winter, heart, Gregory,
a volume, the stars, a book, Mary, Delaware, city,
animal, a country, Bristol.
Questions on th* Abtiiu.— 1. What is • noun t How many kinds
of nouns 1
2. What are proper nounet What are common nouns t What
have nouns F
Qutstions on Ksercise.-'l . Point out the articles and nouns 1 S.
Point out the proper and common nouns 1 '
ETTMOLOGT.
15
lame of anjr
y notion r as,
kinds,, either
ii\ to indivi-
>mnion nouns
/s containing^
viduals under
^e a gendcff
Bcond person
n spoken of:
dividual person*
1 to any particu-
mon nouns are
articular class ;
at term various
)n to the whole
there are many
n. When pro-
! used as com-
! is a Wa$hing'
nguished by aa
ilual : as, ** tht
nouns are thus
Ititude : as, the
raet nouns : as,
icipiai nouns :
he field, vir-
ca, the sun,
irt, Gregorj,
iware, city,
>w many. I
DOOM t Wbat
d nouMl S.
4
SECTION II. — Gender.
1. Gender is the distinction of nouns with regard to
sex. There are three genders, the Masculine, Feminine
and JiTevter,
2. The Masculine Gender denotes animals of the
male kind : as, a man, a horse, a king. The Feminine
Gender signifies animals of the female kind : as, a
woman, a qveen, a htn. The Neuter Gender denotes
objects whif h are neither males nor females : as, a field,
a house, a garden. Some nouns, naturally neuter, are
by a figure of speech converted into the masculine or
feminine gender: as, when we say of the sun, he is
setting ; and of a ship, she sails well.
NoU. — Nouns, which signify either males or femaleSf hate, what
is usually termed, the Common Gender ; because their,gender is co^i-.
jnon to both sexca ; as, parent, friend, servant, cousin. Figuratively
in English the Masculine Gender is given to noups which are con-
■spicuous for their attributes of imparting or communicating, or which
are naturally strong and eflicacious. Those again are mads feminine,
which are conspicuous for their attributes of containing or bringing
forth, or which arc peculiarly beautiful or amiable. On these prin-
ciples the sun and timt arc said to be in the masculine gender;
whUe the moon, the earth, a ship, a city, a country, and virtue are
in the feminine genden
EXERCISR.
1. Mother, table, book, desk, woodj boy, wife, king,
lady, husband, tree, knife, cup, sea, lion, son, daughter,
lioness, fear, axe, aunt.
2. Parent, child, friend, servant, the earth, the sun,
the moon, virtue, Boston, France, Asia, Paris, spairow,
dove, face.
SECTION uu— of dumber.
1. Number is the consideration of an object as one or
more. Nouns have two numbers, the singular and the
plural. The iiingular number expresses but one object:
aa, a chair, a table. The plural number signifies more
objects than one : as, chairs, tables.
Question* on Gender.— 1. What is gender t How many genders
2. What is the masculine gender 1 The feminine 1 The neuter 1 Whi
is said of some nouns naturally neuter 1
Q}iestions on.Ex€reise.—l. What is the gender of the nouni ia
paragraph 1st. 2. What is the gender of parent, &c.
Qiustiont on Number.— 1 . What is number '( How many numbers
have nouns 1 What b the singular number 1 What is the plural
number ?
t
What
r
16
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
I !
II
Ml
2. Some nouns, from the nature of the things which
they express, are used only in the singular form : as,
wheat i goldf sloth, pride, &c. ; others only in the plural
form ; as, bellows, scissors, ashes, riches, &c. ; some are
the same in both numbers, as deer, sheep, swine.
3. The plural number of nouns is generally formed by
adding s to the singular: as, dove, doves ; face, faces j pen,
pens. But, when the singular ends in x, ch soft, sh,ss, or
s,ihe noun takes es in the plural : as, box, boxes ; church,
churches ; lash, lashes ; kiss, kisses ; chorus, choruses. If tho
noun ends in ch hard, the plural is formed by adding s :
9S monarch, monarchs.
4. Nouns endmg in / or fe are rendered plural by the
change of these terminations into ves ;"as, half, halves ;
loaf, loaves ; knife, knives ; except grief, relief, and some
others which have s ; those in ^ have s: as, muff, muffs.
Noun, swhich have y in the singular with no other vowel
in the syllable, change it into ies in the plural : as, beauty,
beauties ; fly, flies ; but the y is not changed when there is
another vowel in tne syllable : as,key, Arcys ; delay, delays.
Note. — Some nouns are rendered plural by the change of a into #,
man, men ; woman, women ; others by the change of oo into ee ;^ai,
foot, feet ; goose, geese ; ox and child, oxen and children. The
word news lis considered singular, and the noun means ii uied
bothnumbers.
EXERCISE.
1* Book, table, gloves, dollar, nail, trees, pen, canes,
horse, farms, river, cities, bank, streets, parent.
2. Box, foot, man, fly, goose, wife, ruff, calf, faith,
piety, temple, spy, deer, alms, pride, bird, house, flower,
poet, boy.
SECTION IV. — Case.
1. In English nouns have three cases, the .N'ominO'
tive, the Possessive, and t' e Objective. The nominative
Questions on^Number. — 2. How are some nounn used ? 3. How
ii the plural number of nouns formed ? When do nouns take tain the
plural ? 4. How are nouns ending inforfe rendered plural 1 What
are the exceptions t Nouns in y t
Questions on Exercise. — 1 . What is the number of the nouna in
paragraph Ist 1 2. Write the plural of the nouns in the 2d 1
Questions on Case. — 1. How many casei have nouiui? What \§
the nominatire caac 1
;«he
ETTM0L06T.
n
he things which
igular form : as,
ily in the plural
, &c. ; some are
swine.
erally formed by
face, faces ; pen,
ch soft, «A ,55, or
, boxes ; church,
, choruses. If tho
ed by adding s :
red plural by the
as, half, halvet ;
relief, and some
as, muff, muffs.
1 no other vowel
ural : as, beauty,
pd when there is
If ; delay, delays,
change of a into «,
gc of 00 into ee ;J|af ,
and children. Tht
lun mtant is uied
'ees, pen, canes,
arent.
ruflT, calf, faith,
I, house, flower,
3, the J^omina-
The nominative
IS used 7 3. How
louns take <«in the
ercd plural % What
ter of the nouni in
in the 2d %
) nouiui? What if
ffcase simply expresses the name of a thing, or the subject
|of the verb : as, " The boy plays," " the girls learn.'*
i 2. The possessive case expresses the relation of proper-
|ty or possession, and may be known by having generally
fan apostrophe with the letter s coming after it : as, " My
'^father's house," " the scholar's duty." When the plural
ends in «, the other s is omitted, but the apostrophe is
retained : as, " On eagles' wings," " the drapers'' com-
pany." When the singular ends in ss or *, the apostro-
'phic s is oftenomitted : as, " For goodness^ sake,"" James^
book," " Thomas'' hat."
3. The objective case expresses the object of an action
or of a relation, and generally follows a verb active or a
preposition: as, "John assists Charles,* "they live in
London.**
Note. — Nouns in English are thus declined :
Singular. Plural.
Nominative. A mother. Mothers.
Possessive. A mother's, Mothers'.
Objective. A mother, Mothers.
Nominative. Tho man, Men.
Possessive. The man's Men's.
Objective. The man, Men.
Exercise on Case.
1. Charles reads his lesson. The cars have arrived in
^he city. John lost his brother's cap. The wrath of
Peleus* son. The author wrote a book. The child tore
the book. The boy plays with a ball. Thomas broke
John's cane. Peace of mind is virtue's reward. The
president's chair. Virtue rewards her followers. Csisar
fonquered Pompey.
i
CHAPTER IV.
Of the Jldjective.
1. An Adjective is a word added to a noun to expreii
Ha quality : as, An industrious man, a benevolent mind.
In English the adjective is not varied on account of gen-
der, number, or case : as, a careless boy, careless girls.
The only variation, which it admits, is that of the degrees
Quesf tons on Case. — 2. What is the posBessive t When is the'other
t omitted ? 3. What is the objective case 1 Decline mother t man 1
QtMsfio/w on Exeiciae. — 1. Point out the nominative caies t Tht
poHeuive cases 1 The objective cases '{
i
C:]
t !
H
■' if
li !
t8
INGUSH GKAMtf AR.
of comparison. There are commonly reckoned three
degrees of comparison, namely, the Pcsitive^ Comparativcy
and Super Iniive,
2. The Positive state expresses the quality of an object
without any increase or diminution : as, good, wise, great-
The comparative degree increases or lessens the positive
in signification : as, wiser, greater, less wise. The super-
lative increases or lessens the positive to the highest or
lowest degree : as, wisest, greatest, least raise.
3. The Comparative is formed by adding r or er to the
positive : as, wise, wiser ; great, grea/cr ; aad the eui^crla-
tive by adding stor est : as, wise, wisest ; great, greatest.
The adverbs more and most, placed before the adjective,
have the same eifect : as, more wise, most wise.
4. Monosyllables, for the most, are compared by er and
est ; and dissyllables by more aod most : as, mild, milder,
mildest ; frugal, tnore frugal, most frugal. Some words
have an irregular comparison : as, good, belter, best; bad,
worse, worst;. Utile, less, leait; much, or many, more,
most ; and a few others. When an adjective, with the
definite article before it, is used without a noun, it is taken
as a noun : as. The virtuous are always happy j Provid-
ence rewards the good and punishes the bad.
Note. — The termination ish is sometimes employed as a degree of
comparison, and tends to diminish the signification below the positive:
n$, black, blackish. ; salt, saltish. The word rather expresses a sma^
degree, or excess of quality : as, '' She is rather profuse in her ex-
penses." In comparing two things the superlative should never be
employed; these expressions, <' the wisest of the two;" " the eldett,
the best of the two," he. are improper ; it should be '' the tviter, the
elder, and the better of the two." The same noun may be qualified
by several adjectives in the same sentence : as, << a true, vtr/uout, and
benevolent man. Adjectives that have in thamselves a superlative
■ignification do not admit of the degrees of comparison : as chief,
extreme, supreme, right : chiefest, extremest, rightest, be., are im-
proper. Various nouns placed before other nouns express some
quality, and may be considered as adjectives in that position : as, se^
fiih, icftTM-vessel, uiindoto-glasa, ^nrpowder, corn-field, lie. Ad-
Quettioni on the Adjective. — 1 . What is an adjective t In Eng^ih
what is said of the adjective 1 What variation does it admit 1 2. Wh«i
is the positive 1 the comparative 1 the superlative Y 3. How ii this
comparative^formed 1 How is the superlative formed 1 Whet effect
kave mere and most f 4. How are monosyllables and diasylleblef
compared t What worde have en irregular comperiionl /Wfacn ji ap. ,
•Elective takon u e noun 7
BTVMOLOGT.
19
reckoned three
'e^ Comparativct
lity of an object
oodf wise, great .
ens the positive
ise. The super-
the highest or
wise,
ngr or er to the
aadthe 8U])eria-
great, greatest.
•e the adjective,
t wise.
ipared by rrand
as, mild, milder,
. Some words
elttr, bests bad,
or many, more,
ective, with the
noun,it is taken
happy J Provid-
oyed as a degree of
below the positive :
'.r expresses a sma|l
profuse in her ei-
ve should never be
wo j'» " the eUett,
be " the wiser, the
n may be qualified
itise, virtuous, tni
elves a superlative
(iparison: as chief,
itest, file., are im-
luns express some
t position : as, Hf^~
-n^field, lie. Ad-
ectivel InEngysh
it admit 7 2. Wh^
t 3. How is ths
ned? What effect
les and dissyllablef
risonl \S^heii|iap..
•a:
jectives expressing number are called numeral abjcctives, of wfaidi
there are two kinds ; the cardinal : as, two, three, four, &c. ; and the
ordinal: as, first, second, third, &c. Adjectives derived from parti-
ciples are called participial adjectives : as, " a loifijig child," " a
htated imagination."
Exercise on the Adjective.
1. A sweet apple, A good and wise man, A strong
body. Verdant fields, A happy parent, A peaceful mind;
A mutual agreement, A rapid and limpid stream, A senr
Bualmind, An obdurate heart, Tender feelings. Composed
thoughts, A woman amiable, A better world. An obedient
son, Shady trees, A fragrant flower,. Steamboat, An ap-
ple pie, A wine glass.
2. High, Wise, Sweet, Happy, Noble, Short, Elegant,
Magnificent, Candid, Unfortunate, Good, Little, Bad,
Chief, Extreme, Thin, Full, Proper, Disastrous, Cooling,
Two, Three, Six, Nine, Firtjt, Second.
CHAPTER V.
Of Pronouns.
1; A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun to
avoid the too frequent repetition of the same word : as,
" The man is happy, Ae is benevolent, he is useful."
There are three kinds of pronouns, namely the Personal,
the Relative, and the Jldjedive Pronoun,
SECTION i. — Of Personal Pronoun9,
1 . There are three Personal Pronouns, namely, /; thou ;
he, she, or it ; with their plurals we ', ye or you ; they.
2. Personal pronouns admit o( person, number, gender,
and ease. The persons are three in each number, namely :
/, is the first person,
Thou, is the second person.
He, she, or it, is the third person.
We, is the first person.
Ye or you, is the second person. ^ Plural.
Thev, is the third person.
3. Pronouns have two numbers, the singular and p|u-
(iuestioM on Exercise. — 1.. Point out the adjectives, and tell wliai
nouns they qualify 1 2. Compare the above adjectives 1 What adj«e-
tives are net compared 1 ^
Questions on Pronouni.— What is a pronoun ? How many Mud*
of proDounel
isi
Singular,
i!
•I
!
1
''( I
11
^ .
I .
,| i;
I
h
'it ]
'■
; * i
1 L
J
1*^,
10
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
ral J as, /, Mow, he, we, ye or you, they. Gender hat
respect only to the third person singular : as, he^ she, it.
He is masculine, she is femine, and it is neuter.
4. Personal pronouns have three cases — the nomina
tive, possessive, and objective : they are thus declined :
Person.
Case.
Singular.
Plural.
FirsU
J^om,
I.
We.
Poss.
Mine.
Ours.
Obj.
Me.
Us.
Second,
J^om,
Thou
Ye or you.
Poss,
Thine.
Yours.
Obj,
Thee.
You.
Third
JN'om,
He.
They.
Masc.
Poss.
His.
Theirs.
Obj.
Him
Them.
Third
J^om,
She.
They.
Fern,
Poss,
Hers.
Theirs.
Obj,
Her.
Then.
Third
Jfom.
It.
They.
Jfeut,
Poss,
Its.
Theirs.
Obj.
It.
Thera.
Note. — The objective of the pronoun has in general a form different
from that of the nominative or possessive case. Personal pronouns,
compounded with the word self, arc called compound personal pro-
nouns; they are employed to denote emphasis, or distinction, and they
are used either in the nominative or objective cases only : as, " he came
himself;*' " I saw the person himself;'' "she herself -nxW doit;"
« this is the book itself;'^ and in the plural, " they themselves per-
formed it," we heard from the men themselves."
SECTION 11 — Of Relative Pronouns .
1. Relative Pronouns are such as relate in general to
some word or phrase going before, which is thence called
the antecedent ; they are who, which, and that: as, " The
man is happy who lives virtuously."
Questions on Personal Pronouns. — 1. How many personal pro-
nouns 1 2. Of what do they admit t How many are the persons, asd
what are they 1 3. How many numbers have pronouns 1 What is stid
of gender? 4. How many cases have pronouns ? Decline tb* pro-
nouns in both numbers '{
Quations on Relaiive Pronouns. — 1 . What are relative pronovm f
y;
ITTM0L06T.
31
ly. Gender has
: as, he, she, it.
neuter.
s — the nomina
thus declined :
Plural.
IVe.
Durs.
Us.
Jfe or you.
ifouii.
You.
They.
Theirs.
rhem.
rhey.
rheirs.
'hPii.
;hey.
'heirs.
'hem.
Tal a Torm differeot
*ersonal pronouns,
tnd personal pro-
istinction, and thej '
nly : as, " he came
iraelfmW doil;»»
|r thenuelvti p«r-
! in general to
3 thence called
ifl/.-as, « The
ny personal pro-
! the persons, asd
nslWhatissttd
Decline tfaa pro-
ilativepronoms f
What is a kind of compound relative including both
;]the antecedent and the relative, and is mostly equivalent
|to that which : as, " This is what I wanted ;" that is to
Isay, the thing which I wanted."
2. Who is applied to persons, which to animals and in-
animate things : as, " He ha. friend, who is faithful in
^adversity :" *' The bird, which sung so sweetly, is flown ;"
I " This is the treCt which produces no fruit."
That, as a relative, is often used to prevent the too
frequent repetition of who and which. It is applied to
both persons and things : as, " He that acts wisely de-
i ■ deserves praise :" " Modesty is a qxiality that highly adorns
a woman."
3. Who is of bo*h numbers, and is thus declined :
Singular and Plural.
J^ominative, Who.
Possessive. < Whose.
Objective. Whom.
Who, which, and what are called Interrogatives, when
they areused in asking questions : as, " Who is he ?"
" Which is the book ?" « What are you doing?"
SECTION in. — Of Mjective Pronouns.
1. Adjective Pronouns are of a mixed nature, partici-
pating of the properties both of pronouns and adjectives.
The adjective pronouns may be subdivided into four
sorts ; namely, the possessive, tiie distributive, the de-
monstrative, and the indefinite.
The possessive are those which relate to possession or
property.
There are seven of them, viz., my, thy, his, her, oxtr,
your, their.
Mine and thine, instead of my and thy, were formerly
used before a substantive or adjective beginning with a
vowel or a silent h : as, " Blot out all mine iniquities.'*
Questions on Relative Pronouns. — 2. What is said of what f
To what are who and which applied 1 What is said oC that t 3*
What number is who 7 Decline it '{ What are who, which, and wha^
ealled when used in asking questions ?
Questions on Mjective Pronouns. — 1. What are a(\jective pro-
nouns ? How are thiey divided 1 What are the possessive ?
' i
[T
.} i-i
\ I
i-'^t
22
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
2. The di&tributive are those which denote the per-
sons or tilings that make up a number, as taken separ-
ately and singly. They are each^ every, either: as,
*< Each of his brothers is in a favorable situation ;"
" Every man must account for himself j" " I have not
seen either of them."
3. The demonstrative are those which precisely point
out the subjects to wliicli they relate : Mm and thaty
these and thoscf are of this class : as, " This is true
charity, that is only its image."
This refers to the nearer person or thing, and thai to
xhe more distant: as, " This man is more intelligent
than ihat?^ This indicates the latter, or last mentioned ;
ihaii the former, or first mentioned ; as, Wealth and pover-
ty are both temptations ; that tends to excite pride, this^
discontent."
4. The indefinite are those which express their sub-
jects in an indefinite or general manner. The following
are of this kind : *o7we, otheTy anyy one, all, suchf &c.
Other and one are declined in the following manner :,
Singular. Flural. Singular. Plural.
Nom. other. others. one. ones.
Poss. other's. others.' one's, • nes'.
Obj. other, others. one. ones.
Note. — 1 he words ovm and self are frequently added to the posset-,
•ive adjective pronouns ; tlicy are used to express emphasis or opposi-
tion : as, " I live in my own house ;" that is, the house belongs to
me, not a hired house ; " 1 myself will do it ;'* that is, " no other,
person j" * We may blame ourselves^* " It is her cum book/' " It
IS their own fault," kc. ; these are called compound adjective pronouna.
The words former and latter may be properly ranked among the
demonstrative pronouns : as, " John and Thomas are rival class-
mates ; the former possesses the better judgement, the latter, the better
memory."
EXERCISE — On Pronouns.
1. I wrote to him ; You know that we sent it to them ;
They told her ; She gave it to me ; 1 hey sold it for more
^an, its. value ; He read his lesson to us; Ye should learn.
QuetHons on Mjective Pronouns. — 2. What arc the distributiTe
pronouns 1 3. AVhat are the demonstrative 1 4. What are the inde-
finite 1 Decline other and one. ■
Questions on Exercise. — 1 . Point out the[penonal pronouju, an4
tell their number uud case 111 '
I
jloni
je CO
iatf(
le?
3.
Iiouse
t>vvn
fell';
This
and a
flBN^.1
I denote the per-
38 taken separ-
'ery^ either: as,
rable situation ;"
fj" «1 have not
h precisely point
this and ihat^
" This is true
ling, and thai to
more intelligent
last mentioned ;
'^ealth and pover-
Jxcite pride, Mw,
cpress their sub-
The following
z//, such, &c.
owing manner :;
lar. Plural.
ones.
• nes'.
ones.
added to the posset-
emphasis or opposi-
he house belongs to
* that is, " no other
T own book,'* « It
adjective pron&unt.
ranked among the
as are rival class<
the latter, the better
sent it to them ;
sold it for more
life should learn.
arc the distributive
What are the inde-
)nal pronouns, an<)
ETYMOLOGY.
2. The man who sent it ; The person to whom it
jlongs ; The book which 1 sent ; The lady whose name
je could not recollect ; The hoy that brought it; The house
lat fell down ; He has brought what I wanted ; Who i»
ie? What is that ? Which is the way?
3. My book j His lesson ; Thy hat ; Her desk ; Our
jhouse ; Your duty ; Their farm ; My own hat ; It is their
!>wn business ; We ourselves will go ; I will bring it my-
lelf; Her task is performed ; My cane is at your house ;
This man ; That book ; These boys ; Those apples ; One
and all must go ; Some person ; No thing.
CHAPTER VI.
Of the Verb.
SECTION 1 — Of the nature of Verbs.
1. A Verb is a word which signifies, to be, to i/o^
or to suffer: as, I «m, I rule, I am ruled. Verbs are of
three kinds ; namely, jJctive, Passive, and Neuter. Tiiey
ire also divided into Regular, Irregular, and Defective.
2. A Verb Active expresses action, and always implies
an agent, and generally an object acted upon : as, lotovef
«* I love my parents ;" " John recites his lesson." Tho
active verb is either transitive or intransitive.
An active-transitive verb expresses action which passes
from the agent over to some other object : as, ** The
tutor instructs his pupils ;" " I esteem the man i*'*
** Emily loves her mother.'''^
An active-intransitive verb expresses an action whicf^
is confined to the agent, and has no effect upon any ex-
ternal object : as, to walk, to run, to fly ; " the man walks ;'*
the boy runs ;" the birds j/?y."
3. A Verb Passive expresses passion, or the receiving
of some action or impression by the nominative or agent ;
Qnestions on Exercise. — 2. Point out the Relative prenoun& and the
nouns to which they relate 1 Point out the interro^atives ? 3. Point
out the possessive pronouns ? Point out the compound adjective pru'*
nouns 1 Point out the demonstrative 1 and the indefinite t
Questions on the Verb^ — 1. What is. a. verb'? How many kinds of
rerbs, and how are they divided I 2. What is a verb active 1 What .is
•aid of the \erbi active '{ What does an active-transitive verb express t
What does w. activ^-intraiiaitiyQ verl» express ? 3. Wbat i« « \^f:h
passive t
m
M
1l
2i
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
as, to be loved ; " Emily is loved by her mother j" *' the
man was discharged.'**
4. A Verb Neuter expresses neither action nor passion,
but simply being, or a state of being : as, I a»i, I sleep, I
fit.
Auxiliary Verbs are those by the aid of which the
other English verbs are principally conjugated ; they are
do, be, have, shall, will, may, and can, with their varia-
tions ; and let, when used as an auxiliary, and must,
which have no variation.
Note. — The above division appears to be the most consistent with
the definition and nature of the verb. An active verb expresses action,
and conveys to the mind the idea of motion ; the passive verb ex-
presses passion or the receiving of some action or impression by tho
nominative ; but the neuter expresses neither action nor the receiving
of an action ; therefore, to call the verbs, to walk, to run, to fly, to
•wim, Sec, neuter, would seem to be contrary to the deflnition of.a
neuter verb, because they give the idea of action or motion. They ex-
press action, but do not generally admit after them the objective ca«c ;
they are denominated intrantitive, to distinguish them from those verbs
which admit an object after them. An active-transitive verb, that has
no immediate object after it, may be taken as intransitive : as, " he
mCoes the book ;" the verb is transitive ; *' he moves forward ;" the
rerb is intransitive. An active-transitive verb n»ay be known by
observing that the action always passes from Uie nominative to some
object : as, " John assists Charles." The intransitive may be known
by the action being always confined to its nominative, without aflccting
any object: as, *• John walks." The passive may be known by the
action always passing from some other object to the nominattve ; as,
*' John is assisted by Charles ;" and tjjc neuter verb, by expressing
limply a state of being without action or motion ; as, " John stands.*'
EXERCISE — On Verbs,
1. ^c/. Trans. Verb. Virtue rewards her followers ;
Sarah loves her parents; She wrote a letter; Charles
nbuses Saiuuel ; The man assists me ; I removed the
books; John sold tho knife ; James bought it ; Send them
tome; The trees bear apples; Caisar conquered Pom-
pey.
2. Jld. Intrans. Verbs. The ship sails ; the fish
Nvvim ; the boy runs ; the birds fly ; the man walks ; tho
rain falls ; the enrth revolves; he reflects.
Questions on the Verb. — 4. AVhat is a verb neuter 7 What are
auxiliary verbs, and what are they '{
Q*i*stions on the Exercise. — 1. Point nut the verbs, and tell their
nominatiioa and^the object after them t 2. Point out the iutrantitire
verbs i
3.
JjvritU
frere
een
|hey
■'? 5.
^''-K
ETTlfOLOGT.
t5
er mother j" *' the
action nor passion,
IS, I am, I sleep, I
fiid of which the
jugated ; they are
with their varia-
ciliary, and must,
most consistent with
verb expresses action,
the passive verb cx-
or impression by tho
ition nor the receiving
vallc, to run, to fly, lo
to the definition of.n
or motion. They ex-
Em the objective ca«» ;
them from those verbs
ansitive verb, that has
intransitive : as, "he
moves forward ;" the
b may be known by
ic nominative to some
nsitivc may be known
itivc, without aflTecting
lay be known by the
> the nominattve ; as,
r verb, by expressing
; as, " John stands."
•
rds her followers ;
a letter; Charles
; I removed the
ght it ; Send thoni
conquered Pom-
p sails ; the fish
e man walks ; tho
;ts.
rb neuter 7 What are
e verbs, and tell their
lit out the iatranutir*
First Person.
Second Person.
Thud Person.
3. Passive Verbs, Sarah is loved ; the letter was
|«rritten j Charles is abused ; I am assisted ; the books
Jfvere removed ; the slate was ; broken the knives have
seen sold ; Pompcy was conquered.
I 4. J^euter Verbs. I am j he stands ; the men sleep j
Jpey lie ; she sits; they seem.
• 5. Promiscuous. They know him ; the glass is bro-
ken ; Henry stands ; he struck the horse ; the boy goes
:home ; he runs j Emily is loved ; pay the boy j they sit ;
tlie child sleeps.
SECTION II — OfJ^vmber and Verson,
1. Verbs have two numbers, the Singular and Plural:
as, "I run, we run." In each number there are three
persons: as,
Sin^lar. Plural.
1 love. We lore.
Thou lovest. Ye or You love.
He, she, or it lovesThey love.
Note. — The verb in the three persons plural has, in general, the
Mune termination as the iirst person singular ; the second and third
p^sons singular only vary in termination.
SFXTioN III — Of Moods and Paiticiples.
1. Mood or Mode is a particular form of the verb,
•hovving the manner in which the being, action,or passion,
ii represented.
• There are five moods of verbs, viz. the Indicative, the
Imperative, tho Potential, the Subjunctive, and the
Injiniiive.
•. Tiio Indicative Mood simply indicates or declares a
thing: as, " Ho loves ; he is loved ;" or it asks a question ;
IS, '• Docs 1)0 love ? Is ho loved 1"
The Imperative Mood is used for commanding, exhort-
ing, entreating, or permitting; as, " Depart thou; mind
Vj ; let us stay ; go in peace."
The Potential Mood implies possibility or liberty, power,
Qucsliom on the Exercise. — 8. Point out the passive verbs ^ 4^
The neuter verbs ? 5. Point out th(^ active, passive, and neuter verbs 1
Qui'stiont on Number.— I. What have verbs » How many persona ?
• (^stions on Mood. — 1. What is mood? What is the number of
the moods • 2 AVhat is Uic indicative mood ^ The imperative ? The
^Veutial <
^ii
H
26
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
will, or obligation ; as, " It may rain ; he may go or
ttay ; I can ride ; he would walk ; they should learn."
3. The Subjunctive Mood represents a thing under a
condition, motive, wish, supposition, &c. ; and is preceded
by a conjunction expressed or understood, and attended
by another verb : as, " I will respect him, though he chide
me ;" " Were he good, he would be happy :" that is, " t/
he were good."
The Infinitive Mood expresses a thing in a general and
unlimited manner without any distinction of number or
person : as, " to act, to speak, to be feared."
The participle is a certain form of the verb, and de-
rives its name from its not only participating, the proper
ties of a verb, but also those of an adjective : as, " i air
desirous of knowing hi in ;" " Mmired and applauded.
he became vain ;" " Having finished\m work, he submit-
tedit ;'* &.c.
There are three Partiri[)les, the Present or Active, the
Perfect or Passive, and the compound Perfect ; or »* lov
jng, loved, having loved."
NoU. — The imperative mood in its literal sense implies a com-
mand ; it must, however, be employed on occasions cf a very diflercnt
nature, oflen to express ihc humblest supplication of an inferior bein^
to one who is intinitely his superior ; as, " Give us this day ou;
daily bread ; txixA forgive us our trespasses."
Participles convey un iiloii of lime, nnd also signify action ; but, if
from the participles wv tnUc iuvay the idea of time, they simply ezpresi
quality, and are called partici|)ial adjeetivrs ; us, " Writing to a friend ;
moving' in haste ; heated with wine ;" here the words writing, moving.
and lieated, are participles, caiivcyiiiK a reference to the time at which
the actions were performed ; but in the following sentences they arr
adjectives; *' toritine; pa|)cr ; a lauvi'r)? spectacle ; a /ica/ctf imagina-
tion." Every present participle in English ends in ing : as, reading,
doing, flying, &lc.
SECTION IV — Of Tense.
1. Tense, being the distinction of time, might seem to
ndmit only of the present, past, and future ; but, to mark
it more accurately, it is made to consist of six variations;
viz, the Present^ the Impeifedy the Perfect, the Pluper-
fect, and the First and Second Future Tenses,
Qntttioni on Mood. — 3. What is the subjunctive ^ The infinitife*
What is a participle 1 Their number ?
Quutiofu on Tenat.—l . What is said of tense, and what on; tbej '
ETYMOLOGY.
ft7
n ; he may go or
ey should learn."
\\s a thing under a
,c. ; and is preceded
itood, and attended
[n, though he chido
lappy :" that is, " i}
ng in a general and
'lion of number or
a red."
■ the verb, and de-
ipating, the proper
eclive : as, *' I a in
ed and applauded.
is work, he submit
isent or Active, the
Perfect : or '* !ov
sense implies a cnm-
sions cf a very different
inn of an inferior bein^'
Give us this day our
I signify action ; but, if
ine, they simply express
" Writing to a friend ;
vf)rd8 Writing, moving.
CO tu the time nt which
iiig sentences thry arc
■!c ; a healed imagina-
i\$ in ing : as, reading,
se,
me, might seem to
itiirc ; but, to mark
t of Kix variations ;
effect, the Pluper
' Tenses,
ictivc ' The infinitive *
ise, and what arc tbej '
' 2. The Present Tense represent an action or event as
f issing at the time in which it is mentioned : as, *' I rule }
am ruled; I think; I fear."
I The Imperfect Tense represents the action or event*
fither as past and finished, or as remaining unfinished at a
pertain time past : as, " I loved her for her modesty and
firtue ;" " They were travelling post when he met them."
3. The perfect Tense not only refers to what is past,
but also conveys an allusion to the present time : as, " I
have finished my letter ;" " I have seen the person that
was recommended to me."
The Pluperfect Tense represents a thing not only as
past, but also as prior to some other point of time specified
in the sentence ; as, " I had finished my letter before he
arrived."
4. The first Future Tense represents the action as yet
to come, either with or without respect to the precise time
when : as, " The sun will rise tomorrow ;" " I shall see
them again."
The second Future intimates that the action will be
fully accomplished at or before the time of another
ftiture action or event: as,*'*! shall have dined at one
o^clock ;" " The two houses will have finished their
business when the king comes (o prorogue them."
Note', — The presunt tense is sometimes used in reference to person*
long since dead, whose writings arc still extant at the present time :
•B, " Seneca reusom and moralizes well," " Job sj)ealc» feelingly in hia
afflictions." The present tcns<; preceded by the words, when, beforty
m soon as, Sic, is soniotimos used to point out the relative time of a
ftlturc action : as, '•' W/ien he arrives he will hear the news ;" " He
Will hear the news before he arrives, or as toon as he arrives." In
animated historical narrations thi» tense \h sometimes used for the
imperfect: as, ''lie enters the territory of his enemies, yigA<« and
. conquers, takes an iniin<!nse booty, and returns to enjoy a triumph."
The imperfect and perfect tenses both den')te past actions ; but they
iUTer from rach other with rej^urd to th*; time in which the actions
were performed. The imperfect denotes the action performed within
• period of time, which haw entirely passed aw.iy, without any regard
to the length of the period: a.s, "The ancient philosophers vnot%
learnedly on many subject.'?. The philosophers of the last century
made great discoveries ; I wrote lost year ; I taw the man last week \
he went yesterday."
Qfiestiont on Tense.— 2. What is the pit-sent tense ? the imperfect %
8. What is the perfect ? the pluperfect i 4. What is the first future
kiuo '{ the second future 1
2$
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
,' 1,1
The perfect tense denotes the action performed within a period of
time, of which period there is still a portion to pass away : as,
" Modem philosophers have tvritten more extensively ; the philosopher!
of the present age have made still greater discoveries ; I have written
this year ; I have seen the man this weeA; ; he has returned to-day.'*
SECTION V — Of the Conjugation of the Verb,
1. The conjugation of the verb is the regular combin-
ation and arrangement of its several numbers, persons,
moods, and tenses.
The conjugation of the active verb is styled the ,^ctive
Voice ; and that of the passive verb, the Passive Voice.
Note. — The present and imperfect tenses in the active voice are
called simple tenses, because they are seldom compounded with
any of tlie auxiliary verbs, unless for the sake of emphasis : as, " I
do love, he did write,^' 8tc.
The auxiliary verbs may be used as signs to point out the moods
and tenses of the principal verbs. The sign of the present tense indi-
cative, when used emphatically, is do, and of the imperfect did : as,
" I do love ; I did write." The sign of the perfect is have : as, I havt
written. The sign of the pluperfect is had: as, I had written." The
sign of the first future is shall or will, and of tlie second future shall or
will have ; as, " I shall or will write, I shall or will have written."
The sing of the potential mood, present tense, is Tnay or can ; as, *' I
may or can write." The sign of the imperfect is might, could, shonld,
or would ; as, I might, could, should, or would write." The sign of
the perftH't is tnay or can have ; as, " I may or can have written."
The sign of the pluperfect is might, could, should, or would have ;
as, " 1 might, could, should, or would have written."
The sign of the infinitive mood is to : as, to read, to write ; and the
sign of the subjunctive mood is, if, thmigh, unless, or some other
conjunction implying doubt or contingency. By learning the above
signs the pupil may be easily taught to conjugate any verb in the
English language.
The auxiliary and active verb To have is conjugated
in the following manner :
TO HJIVE.
Indicative Mood.
Present Tense,
Singular. Plural.
1 . Pers. 1 have. 1 . \Vc have.
2. Pers. 'I hou hast. 2. Yc or you have.
3. Pen Ho, she, or it, I „ , .
hatliorhas. S 1 hey nave.
1 . W hat is the conjugulion of a verb > What is the conjugation ol
the active and passive voice styled ? In the Note what tenses arr
called simple 7 What are the signs of the moods and tenses 1
#
ETYMOLOGY.
29
ed ivithin a period of
m to pass away : ts,
irely ; the philosopher!
eries ; I have written
I returned to-day."
of the Verb,
s regular combin-
lUmbers, persons,
styled the Active
3 Passive Voice.
the active Toice are
a compounded with
of emphasis : as, " I
point out the moods
he present tense indi-
te imperfect did : as,
;ct is have : as, I havt
1 had written." The
second future shall or
■ will have written."
I may or can
((
I
might, could, thonld,
write." The sign of
>r can have written."
mid, or would Aavs ,'
:ten."
ad, to write ; and the
mless, or some other
y learning the above
gate any verb in the
ve is conjugated
1.
have.
tr you have.
have.
I the conjugation oi
)te what tenses arr
Bind tenses 1
Singular.
1. I have had.
i. Thou hast had.
3. He, &.C., has had.
1.
3.
Singular.
I had had.
Thou hadst had.
He, &c., had had.
1.
Imperfect Tense,
Singular. Plural.
i. 1 had. 1. Wc had.
. Thou hadst. 2. Ye or you had.
. He, &c., had. 3. They had.
Perfect Tense,
Plural.
1. We have had.
2. Ye or you have had.
3. They have had.
Pluperfect Tense,
Plural.
1. We had had.
2. Ye or you had had.
3. They hud had.
First Future Tense,
Singular. Plural.
I shall or will have. 1 . Wc shall or will have.
2. Thou shalt or r/ilt have. 2. Ye or you shall or will have.
3. He, &c., shall or will have. 3. They shall or will iiave.
Second Future Tense,
Singular. Plural.
1. I shall, &c., have had. 1. Wc shall or will have had.
2. Thou shalt or will have had. 2. Ye or you shall or will have
He, 6ic. shall or will have had.
had. 3. They shall or will have hail.
Imperative IMood.
Singular. Plural.
Let me have. 1 . Let us have.
Have, or have tliou, or do 2. Have, or have yc or you, or do
thou liavc. ye or you have.
3. Let him, her, or it, have. 3. Let thcui ha\e.
Or, without the auxiliaries.
Singular. Plural.
2. HavCj &c., Ihdu. 2. Have, or liavc yc or you.
Noli'. — The iuiponilivc mood is not properly enlitliul to ilinr per-
aons. Tlie cdinniiiini, eutnaly, (ir pcriniission (expressed by the im-
perative mooil, is always made to the second person, but never to the
jirsl or third. The word /^r^ is one of those verbs uliieh have the
infinitive n\ood after Ihcm without tlic siii;n io. and seems to be cijiiiv-
alent to the word permit or allow ; as, '' Let mc have," that if,
" I^ct mc to have," or, *' permit or allow mc lo buvt; ;" /(/ bciiiir in
the second person iuiporativ(! niootl, atul /tavc in the intliiitivc uiood,
tlic sign to i)eiiig understood. The phrases, *' Let .lohn go ; let them
tpeak; li!t James rend," he, must be analysed in tiic same munner
"ihttt tlicy may be properly parsed.
B
3.
1.
2.
urn
[ i
' I
.!!,•
30
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Potential Mood.
Present Tense.
Singular.
1 . I may or can have.
2. Thou mayst or canst have.
3. He, &c., may or can have.
Plural.
1 . We may or can have,
il. Ye or you may or can haye.
3. They may or can have.
Imperfect Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1. I might, could, should, or 1. We might, could, should, or
would have. "would have.
2. Thou mightst, couldst, 2. Ye or you might, could, should,
shouldst, or wouldst have. or ivould have.
3. He, he, might, could, should, 3. They n.ight, could, should, or
or would have. would have.
Perfect Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1 . I may or can have had. 1 • We may or can have had
2. Thou mayst or canst have 2. Ye or you may or can have
had. l>atl.
3. He, &c., may or can have had. 3. They may or can have had.
Pluperfect Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1. I might, could, should, or 1. We might, could, ehould, or
would have had. would luive had.
2. Thou ml:,'htst, couldst,shouldst, 2. Ye or you might, could, shouUlj
or wouldst have had. or would have had.
3. He, &c., might, could, should, 3. They nught, could, should, or
or would have had. would liavc had.
Subjunctive MooJ.
Present Tense.
Singular.
1 . If I have.
2. If thou have.
3. If he, &.C., liavc.
Singular.
1. If I had.
2. If thou hadst.
3. If he, &c., had.
Singular.
1. If I have had.
2. If thou hast had.
3. If he, hi'., has had.
Plural.
1. If we have.
2. If ye or you have.
3. If tlicy iiave.
Imperfect Tense.
Plural.
1. If we had.
2. If yc or you had.
3. If they had.
Perfect Tense.
Plural.
1. If we have had.
2. If ye or you hav iiad'
3. If they have had.
1.1
«. I
8. If
*^iKu.,
ETYMOLOGY.
31
Pluperfect Tense,
Plural.
r can have,
may or can haye.
or can have.
, could, should, or
<c.
might, could, should,
Imve.
ht, could, should, or
ve.
il.
or can have had
I may or can have
or can have had.
Plural.
t, could, should, or
c had.
might, could, shoulil;
uivc had.
it, could, should, or
vc had.
III have.
Vf.
al.
)U had.
J.
111.
li had.
)u liavr- had
vc had.
■^
Singular.
.|. If I had had
«. If tliou hadst had.
>i. If he, &c. had had.
First Future Tense.
Plural.
1 . If we had had.
2. If ye or you had had.
3. If they had had.
Singular.
1. If I shall or will iiavc.
j2. If thou shalt or wilt have.
•3. If ho, &c., shall or will have.
Plural.
1 . If we shall or will have.
2. If ye or you shall or will have.
3. If they shall or will have.
Second Future Tense.
Singulur.
1. If I shall or will have had. 1.
2. If thou shalt or wilt have had. 2.
3. If he, &c., shall or will have 3.
had.
Plural.
If wc shall or will have had.
If ye or you shall or will have
had.
If they shall or will have had.
Note. — The indicative mood is converted into the subjunctive wiiCM-
ercr a condition, motion, wish, or supposition is implied ; so tht
potential mood may in tlic same manner be turned into the sub-
junctive ; as, "' If I could dutrivc him, I would not j" " Though lie
ahould iuci'eusc his wealth ;" Stc. It is not necessary that the coh-
junction, wiiich accompanies the subjunctive mood, should be ahva)!.*
expressed ; it is frequently undcrstcjud, as, Were I to go, he would
not follow j" " Had he known me, lie would have treated me difl'cr-
ently ;" that is, "Ifl were to go ; If he had known ;" &c.
It should be observed that the present subjunctive often points oul
the relative time of a future action ; <•' If they arrive to-morrow, I will
■ec tlieni ;" '' If I send the note this evening, he will receive it."
The auxiliaries should and would are used to express the present and
Alture, as well as the jinst ; so tliat the precise time of the verb in
the subjunctive mood must often bo doterniiiicd by the nature niul
drift of the sentoiiee ; as, "It is my desire tiiat he should or would
come n()w or to-morrow j" "It was my desire that he should <'i
W<juld come last week."
^|b Infinitive MooJ.
Present. To have. Perfect. To have had.
Participles.
'■A
Present or Adivc.
Perfect or Passive.
Compound Perfect.
Having.
Had. '
Havinn; had.
The auxiliary and neuter verb, To be, is conjugated ae
.rollovvs j
32
Singular.
1. I am.
2. Thou art.
3. He, she, 07' it, is.
Singular^
1. I was.
2. Thou wast.
3. He,[,8cc., was.
ENGLISH GRAMMARt
TO BE.
Indicative Mood.
Present Tense.
Plural.
1 . We are.
2. Ye or you are.
3. They are.
Imperfect Tense,
Plural.
1 . We were.
2. Ye or you were.
3. They were.
Perfect Tertse,
Singular.
1 . I have been.
2. Thou hast been.
3. He, &c., has or hath been.
Plural.
1 . We have been.
2. Ye or you have been.
3. They have been.
Pluperfect Tense,
Singular.
1 . I had been.
2. Thou hadst been.
3. He, See., had been.
Plural.
1. We had been.
2. Ye or you had been .
3. They had been.
First Future Tense,
Singular.
1 . I shall or will be.
2. Thou shalt or wilt be.
3. He, &c. shall or will be.
Plural.
1 . Wc shall oj' will be.
2. Ye or you shall or will be.
3. They shall or will be.
-^
Second Future Tense,
Singular. Plural.
1. I shall or will have been. 1. We shall or will haTc been.
2. Thou shalt or wilt have been. 2. Ye or you shall or will hav
been.
3. He, Sec., shall or will have 3. They shall or will have been,
been.
^Imperative Mood.
Singular. Plural.
1. Let inc be. 1. Let us be.
2. Be, or be thou, or do thou be. 2. Be, or be yc'or you, or do yc i*
you bo.
3. Let lum, her, or it, be. 3. Let tlicm be.
WV^XOliOli y •
33
are.
u were,
re.
I been.
)u have been.
ive been.
been.
)u had been.
d been.
II or will be.
ou shall or \vill be.
all or will be.
m
II or will have been.
you shall or will hav
lall or will have been.
1.
he.
be yc'or you, w io yc c
:m be.
2.
I.
Potential Mood.
Present Tense.
Singular. Plural.
I may or can be. 4 ^ • ^® ""^y <"' ^^" ^®'
Thou mayst or canst be. " 2. Ye or you may or can be.
He, &c., may or can be. ^ 3. They may or can be.
Imperfect Tense,
Singular. Plural.
i. I might, could, should, or 1. We might, could, should, or
would be. would be.
Thou mightst, couldst, 2. Ye or you might, could, should,
shouldst, or wouldst be. or would be.
He, &c., might, could, should, 3. They might, could, should, or
,. _ 01- would be. would be.
I Perfect Tense,
■p Singular. Plural.
). I may or can have been. 1. We may cr can have been.
2. Thou mayst or canst have 2. Yc or you may or can have
been. been.
8. He, &c., may or can have been. 3. They may or can have been.
Pluperfect Tense,
Singular. Plural.
1. I might, could, should, or 1. VVc might, could, should, or
would have been. would have been.
2. Thou mightst, couldst, shouldst, 2. Yc or you might, could, should,
or wouldst have been. or would have been.
3. He, &c., might, could, should, 3. They might, could, should, or
^ or would have been. would have been.
Subjunctive Mood,
'» Present Tense,
Plural.
1. If we be.
2. If ye or you be.
3. If they be.
' Imperfect Tense,
Plural.
1 . If wc were.
2. If ye or you were.
3. If they were.
Perfect Tense,'
Plural.
1. If we have been.
2. If ye or you have been.
Singular.
1. If I be.
2* If tliou be.
9. Ifhc, &c., be.
■ Singular.
1. If I were.
2. Ifthou wcrt.
3. If he. Sec, were.
Singular.
1. If I have been.
2. If thou hast been.
I. If he, &c., haa or hath been. 3. If they have been.
J I
^' i
M
34
BMOI.IOU CPA^MMAR.
Singular.
Pluperfect Tense.
Plural.
1. If I had been. 1. If we had been,
'i. If thou hadst been. 2. If ye o/- you had been.
3. If he, &c., had been. 3. If they had been.
First Future Tense,
Singular. Plural.
1. If I shall or will be. 1. If we shall or will be.
2. If thou shalt or wilt be. 2. If ye or you shall or will be.
3. If he, &c., shall or %vill be. 3. If they shall or will be.
Second Future Tense.
Singular. Plural.
J. If I shall or will have been. 1. If we shall or will have been.
2. IfUiou shalt or wilt have been. 2. Ifye or you shall or will have
been.
3. If he, &c., shall or will have 3. If tliey shall or will have been,
been.
Infinitive Mood,
Present Tense, To be. Perfect, To have been.
Participles.
Present. Being. Perfect. Been.
Compound Perfect. Having been
' SECTION VI. — The Conjunction of Regular Verbs.
ACTIVE.
I. Verbs Active are called Regular when they form
their imperfect tense of the indicative mood, and their
perfect participle, by adding to the verb ed, or d only
when the verb ends in e ; as,
Present. Imperfect. Perfect Participle.
I favour. 1 favoured. Favoured.
I love. I loved. Loved.
Question. — 1. When is a verb called regular] Conjugate tlw
verb to love.
A Regular Active Verb is conjugated in the following
manner :
TO LOVE.
Indicative Mood.
Present Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1. I love. 1. We love.
2. Thou lovcst. 2. Ye or you love.
3. He, she, or it, loves or ( 3. They love.
^ loveth. ^
|t>'
»*^v~<.
ETYMOLOGY.
88
been.
u had been.
, been.
1 or will be.
)u shall or will be.
ill or will be.
[ or will have been.
M shall or will have
ill or will have been.
To have been.
Perfect. Been,
laving been
Regular Verbs.
\r when they form
; mood, and their
rerb erf, or d only
Perfect Participle,
Favoured.
Loved,
ularl Conjugate tte
Led in the following
I.
>a love,
vc.
Singular.
I loved.
Thou lovedst.
He, &c., loved.
Singular.
I have loved.
Thou hast loved.
Imperfect Tense.
Plural.
1. We loved.
2. Ye or you loved.
3. They loved.
Perfect Tense.
Plural.
if. I have loved. 1. We have loved. '
i. Thou hast loved. 2. Ye or you have loved.
9. He, &,€., has or hath loved. 3. They have loved.
Plvperject Tense.
Singular. Plural.
It I had loved. 1. We had loved.
2. Thou hadst loved. 2. Ye or you had loved.
3* He, &c., had loved. 3. They had loved.
First Future Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1. I shall or will love. 1. We shall or will love.
2. Thou shalt or wilt love. 2. Ye or you shall or will love.
S. He, &c., shall or will love. 3. They shall w will love.
Second Future Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1. I shall or will have loved. 1. We shall or will have loved.
2. Thou shalt or wilt have loved. 2. Ye or you shall or will have
loved.
3. He, &c., shall or will have 3. They shall or will have loved.
loved.
Note. — The following forms are used in present and imperfect
tenses when emphasis or positiveness is expressed, and when a quea-
tSon is asked.
Present Tense Emphatic.
Singular. Plural.
1. I do love. I. We do love.
2. Thou dost love. 2. Ye or you do love.
3. He, &,c., docs or doth love. 3. They do love.
Imperfect Tense Emphatic.
Singular. Plural.
1. I did love. 1. We did love.
2. Thou didst- love. 2. Ye or you did love. ]
3. He, ikc.,^did love. 3. They did love.
M" Present Tense Emphatic and Interrogative.
Singular. Plural.
1. Do 1 love 1 1. Do we love ?
2. Dost thou love ? 2. Do ye or you love^t
3. Does or doth he, &c., love 1 3. Do they love 1
<..
36
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
'! i
i( i
.' ^f
liif
!<
! I . 1
ft I
Imperfect Tense Emphatic and Inferrogative*
Singular. Plural.
1 . Did I love 7 1 . Did we love 1
2. Didst thou love ? 2. Did ye or you love 1
3. Did he, &c., love. 3. Did they love 1
Imperative Mood.
Singular. Plural.
1. Let me love. 1. Let us love.
2. Love, or love thou, or do thou 2. Love, or love ye or you, or do
love. ye or you love.
3. Let him, her, or it, love. 3. Let them love.
Or, without the Auxiliaries.
Singular. Plural.
2. Love, Or love thou. 2, Love, or love ye or you.
Potential Mood.
Present Tense,
Singular. Plural.
1. I may or can love. 1. Wc may or can love.
2. Thou mayst or canst love. 2. Ye or you may or can love.
3. He, &c., may or can love. 3. They may or can love.
Imperfect Tense,
Singular. Plural.
1. I might, could, should, or would 1. Wc'j might, could, should, f
love. would love-
2. Thou mightst, couldst, shouldst, 2. Ye or you might, could, shouk
or wouldst love. or would love.
3. He, &,c., might, could, should, 3. They might, could, should, c
or would love. %vould love.
Perfect Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1. I may or can have loved. 1 . We may or can have loved.
2. Thou mayst or canst have 2. Ye or you may or can ba^
loved. loved.
3. He, &c., may or can have 3. Tijey may or can have loved,
loved.
Pluperfect Tense,
Singular. Plural.
1. 1 might, could, should, or 1. Wc might, could, should, c
would have loved.1 would have loved.
2. Thou miglitst, couldst,shouldat, 2. Ye or you might, could, shouli
or wouldst have loved. or would have loved.
3. He, kc, might, could, should, 3. They might, could, should, c
or would have loved. would have loved.
Subjunctive Mood.
Present Tense.
Singular. Plural
J. If I love. 1. If we love.
2. If thou love. 2. If ye or you love.
i. If he, &c., love. 3. If they love
'm
Not
its pre
all its
is teac
teniin
1.
their
the ^
the p
lovedj
I'JIW* ...
R*
ETYMOLOGY.
37
Inierrogaiive*
lural.
love %
or you love \ [
jy love %
I.
Mural.
love.
or love ye or you, or d;
rou love.
jm love.
anes.
?lural.
, or love ye or you.
1.
ay or can love,
you may or can love,
nay or can love.
?.
ural.
night, could, should, c
love.
you might, could, shouli
lid love.
might, could, should, c
I love.
ural.
lay or can have loved.
r you may or can hav
•
may or can have loved.
ural.
might, could, should, c
X have loved.
you might, could, shoul
ould have loved.
might, could, should, ^
have loved.
0(1.
Plural
love.
or you love.
y love
Singular.
ir I loved.
If thou lovedst.
If he, &c., loved.
Imperfect Tense*
Plural.
1 . If we loved.
2. If ye or you loved. ,
3. If they loved.
Perfect Tense,
Singular. Plural.
1. If I have loved. 1. If we have loved.
% If thou hast loved. ^ 2. !f ye or you have loved.
8. If he, &c., has or hath luved. 3. If they have loved.
lH Pluperfect Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1. If I had loved. 1. If we had loved.
2. If thou hadst loved. 2. If ye or you had loved.
3. If he, &c., had loved. 3. If they had loved.
First Future Tense,
Singular. Plural. ?
1. If I shall or will love. 1. If we shall or will love.
2. If thou shall or wilt love. 2. If ye or you siiall or will love.
3. If he, &c., shall or will love. 3. If they shall or will love.
Second Future Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1. If I shall or will have loved. 1. If we shall or will have (loved.
2. Ifthoushalt or wilt have loved.2. If yc or you shall or will have
loved.
3. If he, &c., shall or will have 3. If tliey shall or will have loved,
loved.
Infinitive Mood.
Pnsent. To love. Perfect. To have loved.
Participles.
Present. Loving. Perfect. Loved,
Compound Perfect. Having loved.
Note. — The active verb may be conjugated differently by adding
its present or active participle to the auxiliary verb to be through
all fts moods and tenses j as, instead of " I teach, tliou teachest, he
ttiVhes, &c., wc may say, " I am teacliing ; thou art teaching ; he
is teaching ; he was teacliing ; I have been teaching," &c. The
toMinations, st and etfi, are only used on grave subjects.
PASSIVE.
1. Verbs passive are called regular wlien they form
their perfect participle by the addition of d or eel to
the
the
verb : as, from
passive,
loved, &c."
«I
am
the verb, "to
loved, 1 was
B2
love," is formed
loved| I shall be
38
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
t i
: iili
'.lite.::
U
'
'IB
11 ■
■■<!
■Hi
r
|i 'I
Singular.
1 . I am loved.
2. Thou art loved.
3. He, &c., is loved.
Singular.
1. I was loved.
2. Thou wast loved.
3. He, &,c., was lovedi
A passive verb is conjugated by adding the perfect
participle to tlie auxiliary, to ie, through all its changes
of number, person, mood, and tense, in the following
manner:
Question. — 1. When are passive verbs called regular? How is
the passive verb conjugated 1 Conjugate the verb to be loved.
TO BE LOVED,
Indicative Mood,
Present Tense.
Plural.
1. We are loved.
2. Ye or you arc loved.
3. They are loved.
Imperfect Tense.
Plural.
1. Wc were loved,
2. Ye or you were loved.
3. Tlioy were loved.
Perfect Tense,
Singular. Plural.
1. I have been loved. 1. Wc have been loved.
2. Thou hast been loved. 2. Ye or you have been loTCd.
3. He, &c., has or hath been 3. Tlicy jiave been loved.
loved.
Pluperfect Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1. 1 had been loved. 1. W^c had been loved.
2. Thou hadst been loved. 2. Yc o?- you had bren loved.
.?. He, &c., had been hned. 3. They had been loved.
First Future Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1. I shall or will be loved. 1. Wo sliall or will be lorcd.
2. Thou shalt or wilt be loved. 2. Ye or you shall or will If
loved.
3. He, Sic, shall or will bo loved. 3. Th(\v shall or will be loved.
Second Future Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1. I shall or will have been loved. 1. Wc shall or will Imv) beer
loved.
2. Thou'shalt or wilt have been 2. Yc or you shall or will hati
loved. been loved.
3. He, he, will liave been loved. 3. They lic, will have been I OTcd
Imperative Mood.
Singular. Plural.
1. Lctnic he loved. 1. Let us be loved.
2. Be l'iv( d, or he lliou loved, or 2, Be lovrd,or be ye or you loved
do fliou be loved. or do yc or you be lovcd»
3. Let liiui, her, or it be loved. 3. Let tlicm be loved»
• i u
ETTMOLOGT*
39
dding the perfect
gh all its changed
, in the following
sd regular? How is
crb to be loved*
lural.
ncd.
u arc loved,
loved.
hural.
! loved,
u were loved.
re loved.
Plural.
: been loved.
u have been loved.
ve been loved.
e.
ural.
been loved,
ou liad been loved,
d been loved.
•
Plural.
II or will be lorcd.
yoxi shall or will br
lall or will be loved.
se.
Plural,
ill or will hav^ beer
Fou shall or will har
lod.
.0., ^vill have been lovod
Plural.
Jc luvcd.
i\,or be ye or you lore^i
(; cr you ho loved,
ra be loved.
2.
3.
1.
2-
3.
1.
2.
S.
1.
t
8.
1.
2.
3.
1.
2.
3.
Potential Mood.
Present Tense.
Singular. Plural.
I may or can be loved. 1 . We may or can be loved.
Thou mayst or canst be loved. 2. Ye or you may or can be
loved.
He, &c., may or can be loved. 3. They may or. can be loved.
Imperfect Tense*
Singular. Plural.
Imight, could, should, or would 1. We might, could, should or
be lovod. would be loved.
Thou niightst, couldst, shouldst, 2. Ye or you might,could, should,
or M'ouldst be loved. or would be loved .
He, &tc., might, could, should, 3. They might, could, should, or
or would be loved. would be loved.
Perfect Tense.
SingiUar. Plural.
I may or can have been loved. 1. We may or can have been
loved.
Thou mayst or canst have been 2. Ye or you may or can have
loved. been loved.
He, 8tc.,may or can have been 3. They may or can have been
loved. loved.
Pluperfect Tense.
Singular. Plural.
Imiglil.cnnld, should, or would 1. We miglit, could, should, or
have lucii loved. would have been loved.
Tliou mi^litst, couldst, shouldst, 2. Yc or you might, could, should,
or wouldst have been loved. or would have been loved.
He, &e., might, could, should, 3. They might, could, should, or
or would ijdvc been loved. would have been loved.
Subjunctive Mood.
Present Tense.
Plural.
1 . If wc be loved.
2. If ye or you l>e loved, ,
3. If they be loved.
Imperfect Tense,
Plural.
1. If wc were loved.
2. If yc or you w( n- loved.
If he. kc, i\<rc loved. 3. If they were loved.
Perfect Tense.
Singula. Plural.
If I liave iPi'( n loved. 1. If wc have been loved.
If Uiou \vi)*\ be.'u loved. 2. If ye or you have been loved.
If he, fitc. lias or hall) been
lovcU. 3. If tliey have been loved.
Singular.
If I l)eloved.
If thou be loved.
If he, &,c., beloved.
Singular.
If I were lovftd.
If thou M'Tt loved.
TiH'^
^
40
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Pluperfect Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1 . If I had been loved. 1 . If we had been loved.
2. If thou hadst been loved. 2. If ye or you had been loved.
3. If be, &c.j had been loved. 3. If they had been loved.
First Future^ Tense,
Singular* Plural.
1 . If I shall or will be loved. 1. If we shall or will be loved.
:i. If thou shalt or wilt be loved. 2. If ye or you shall or will Iw
loved.
3. If he, &C.2 shall or will be 3. If they shall or will be loved,
loved.
Second Future Tensed
Singular. " Plural.
1. If I shall or will have been 1. If we shall or will have been
lovtd. loved.
J. If thou shalt or wilt have been 2. If ye or you shall or will
loved. have been loved.
3. If he, &c., shall or will have 3. If they shall or will have beei.
been loved. loved.
Infinitive Mood.
Present Tense. Perfect.
To be loved. To have been loved.
Participles.
Present. Being loved. Perfect or Passive. Been loved.
Compound Perfect, Having been loved.
IRREGULAR VERDS.
Irregular verbs are those which do not form their im-
perfect tense and perfect participle by the addition of c
or ed to the verb ; as,
Present, Imperfect. Perfect Participle.
I begin I began begun
1 kut'w I knew known
Irregular verbs are of various sorts*
1. Such as have the present and imperfect tenses, ami
clie perfect participle, the same j as,
Present.
Burst
Cai<t.
Cost
Cut
Hit
Hurt
Knit
Let
QHce/i'an.— What arc irregular vcrbi?
Imperfect,
burst
Perfect ParticipU.
burst
cast
cast
cost
cost
cut
Ml
hurt
cut
hit
hurt
knit or knitted
let
knit or knitted
let
L.
ETYMOLOGY,
41
Phsent,
Imperfect
Perfect Participle.
Plural.
Lift
lifted or lift
lifted or lift
d been loved.
put
put
you had been loTed.
Mkit
quit or quitted
quit or quitted
ad been loved.
Md
rid
rid
AM
set
set
?•
fliked
shed
shed
Plural.
Slircd
shred
shred
all or will be loved.
Shut
shut
shut
you shall or will be
SUt
slit or slitted
slit or slitted
Split
split or splitted
split or splitted
hall or will be loved.
Spread
Tnrust
spread
spred
Plural.
thrust
thrust
2. Such as liave the imperlect tense and perfect pj
lall or will have been
ticiple the some;
ns,
f" you shall or will
Pnsent.
Imperfect.
Perfect Participle.
en loved.
Abide
abode
abode
hall or will have beei
Bake
baked
baked or baken
Bend
bent or bended
bent or bended
Borcave
bereft or bereaved
bereft or bereaved
Perfect.
lavc been loved.
Bcfcecli
besought
besought
Bind!
bound
bound
Bleed
bled
bled
Bleu*
blessed or blest
blessed or blest
jssivc. Been loved.
Breed
bred
bred
i been loved.
Bring
brought
brought
3
Build
built or buildcd
built or builded
Bum
burnt or burned
burnt or burned
not form their im-
Buy
bought
bought
r the addition of c
Catcii
Cleave, lo adhere
caught or catched
clave or cleaved
caught or catched
cleaved
Cleavoj to split
clove, clave, o^- cleft
cloven or cleft
rfed Participle,
CUng
clung
clung
)cgun
Climb
climbed or clomb
climbed
mown
Crvjep
crept
crept
IS sorts.
Deal
dealt or dcaled
dealt or dealcd
*w 0\*i 99 V
Dig
dug or digged
dug or digged
perfect tenses, anu
Dwell
dwelt or dwelled
dwelt or dwelled
Feel
felt
felt
Perfect ParticipU.
Fight
Fittd
fought
found
fought
found
'UIom
Flee
fled
fled
151
ost
Fling
flung
flung
ut
Get
got or gat
gotten or got
il
Gild
gilt or gilded'
gilt or gilded
lift
Gird
girt or girded
girt or girded
nit or knitted
Grind
Hang
ground
hung or hanged
ground
hung or hanged
t%
Have
had"
hnd
U«iir
Iteurd
heard
/,
n
I:i
if*
I
t '■
■! ,,i:!
ii
I
I i
I'.
i'k
w
42
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Present.
Heare
Imperfect.
heaved or hove
Perfect PariicipU.
heaved or hoven
Help
Hold
helped
held
helped or holpcn
held or holdeu
Keep
Kneel
kept
knelt
kept
knelt
Lay
Lead
laid
led
laid
led
Learo
learned or learnt
learned or learnt
Leave
lea
left
Lend
lent
lent
Light
Lose
lighted or lit
lost
lighted or lit
lost
Make
made
made
Mean
meant or meancd
meant or meancd
Meet
met
met
Melt
melted
melted or molten
Pay
Pen, to shut tip
Rap
Kead
paid
pent ''
rapped or rapt
read
paid
pent
rapped or rapt
read
Rend
rent
rent
Ride
rode or rid
ridden or rid
Rot
rotted
rotted or rotten
Say
said
said
Seek
Sell
sought
sold
souyht
sold
Send
sent
sent
Shape
Shave
shaped
sliaved
shaped or slmpcn
shaved or shaven
Shine
shone or sliired
shone or shincd ,
Shoe
shod
shod
Shoot
shot
shot
Shrink
shrunk or shrank
shrunk
Shrive
shrived or slu"Ovo
shrived or shriven
Sit
sat
sat or sitten
Sleep
Slinu;
Slink
slept
slung 07' slang
slunk or slank
slept
slung
tlunk
Smell
smelled or smelt
smelled or smelt
Speed"
Spell
Spend
Spill
sped
spelled or spdt
spent
spilt or spilled
sped
spelled or spelt
spent
spill or spilled
Spin
Stand
!<pun or span
stood
spun
stood
StaTc
StOTC
slaved or stovo
»tick
stuck
stuck
Stini;
Stink
slung
stunk or stank
stung
stunk
Strew or strew ]■
strewed or slrowcd
^ strewn or strowH./
^ strewed or elrowtil*
Strike
vlruck
struck or itrickcQ
Perfect Pariiciplt.
heaved or hovcn
helped or h()l|)cu
held or holdcu
kept
knelt
laid
led
learned or learnt
left
lent
lighted or lit
lust
made
meant or meancd
met
melted or molten
paid
pent
rapped or rapt
read
rent
ridden or rid
rotted or rotten
said
souL;ht
sold
sent
shaped or sl^pcn
shaved or shaven
shone or shincd ,
shod
shot
shrunk
shrived or shriveii
sat or sittcn
slept
slung
&!unk
smellcd or smcU
sped
spelled or spelt
spent
ppilt or .spilled
spun
stood
.slaved or stovo
stuck
stung
stunk
strewn or slrowii. i
Bircncd or siroweih
struck or stricken
ETYMOLOGY.
4
Pruentr
Imperfect,
Perfect Participle.
Strii^g
strung
strung
^eat
sweated or swet
sweated or swet
|»eop
swept
swept
awing
swung or swang
swung
fS.""
taught
told
taught
told
•WWnk
thought
thought
Toss
tossed or tost
tossed or tost
Weep
wept
wept
Wet
wetted or wet
wetted or wet ]
Win
ivon
won
Wind
wound or winded
wound »
Work
wrought or ^vorked
wrought or worked
Wrap
wrapped or wrapt
wrapped or wrapt
Wring
wrung or wringed
wrung or wringed
Writhe
writhed
writhcn or writhed
3. Stich -IS iiave the imperfect tense and perfect pa
ticiple uillerent ;
as,
Prtsent.
Imperfect.
Perfect Participle.
Am
was
been
Arise
arose
arisen
Awake
awoke or awaked
awaked
Bear, to bring forth
bare or bore
born
Bear, to carry
bore or bare
borne
Beat
beat
beat or beaten
iff'"
began
begun
bade or bid
bid or bidden
Biiie
bit
bitten or bit
Blow
blew
blown
Break
broke or brake
broken
Chide
chid or chode
chidden or chid
Choose
chose
chosen
Cleave, to split
clove, clave, or cleft
cleft or cloven
Clothe
clothed or clad
cloliied or clad
Come
came
come
Crow
crew
crowed
Dare, to venture
durst or dared
dared
Do
did
done
Draw
drew
drawn ■
Drive
drove
driven
Drink
drank
drunk
Sat
cat or ate
eaten or cat
Fall
fell
fallen
reed
fed
fed
l^J
flew
flown
Forget
forgot or forgat
forgotten or forgot
Forsake
forsook
forsaken
Freeze
froze
frozen
Give
gave
given
Co
went
Kono
I
'Wr**.).
■' !:!■
• I
i
Mi
'■I
H
44
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Present.
Imperfect.
Perfect Participle.
Dbia
Grave
graved
graven or graved
XT*
Grow
grew
, grown
Hew
hewed
hewn or hewed
^8y«
Hide
hid
hidden or hid
Know
knew
known
Lade
laded
laden
Lie, to lie down
lay
lain or lien
Load
loaded
laden or loaded'
Mow
mowed
mown or mowed
WIS
Wit
Ring
rang or rung
rung
TYll
Rise
rose
risen
Rivd !
rived
riven
■
Run
ran
run
. •
Saw
sawed
sawn or sawed
bin
See
saw
seen
ne\
Seethe
seethed or sod
sodden
•
Out
Shake
shook
shaken
Aim
Shear
sheared or shore
shorn
aro
Shew or show
shewed or showed
shewn or shown
son
Sing
sung 07' sang
sung
All
Sink
sunk or sank
sunk
Yo
Slay
slew
slain
• He
Slide
slid
slidden or slid
Smite
smote
smitten or smit
COl
Sow
sowed
sown or sowed
Yo
Speak
spoke or spake
spoken
pie
16
Spit
spit or spat
spit or spitten
Spring
sprung or sprang
sprung
TU
Steal
stole
stolen
Tn
Stride
strode or strid
stridden
W
Strive
strove
striven
Swear
su'ore or swarc
sworn
nlM
Swell
swelled
swollen or swelled
are
Swim
Bwum or swam
swum
Tn
Take
took
taken
Jol
Tear
tore or tare
torn
mi
Thrive
throve or thrived
thriven
IMIt
Throw
threw
thrown
Tread
trod or trode
trodden
Th
Wax
waxed
waxen ,
ftn
Wear
wore
worn
If
Weave
wove
woven
VWk
Write
wrote or writ
written or writ
po
DEFECTIVE VERBS.
Defective Verbs are those which are used only in some
of tlieir moods and tenses; as, am, waSf been; can,
could J may J might ; shallf should ; will, wouldj Sfc,
Note. — The whole number of Tcrbs in the English language it
about '1,300, including irregular and defcctiTC verbs, which amount
to about 200.
■t -i-.
IfB^'-
Perfect Participle.
graven or graved
grown
hewn or hewed
hidden or hid
known
laden
lain or lien
laden or loaded'
mown or mowed
rung
risen
riven
run
sawn or sawed
seen
sodden
shaken
shorn
shewn or shown
sung
sunk
slain
slidden or slid
smitten or smit
sown or sowed
spoken
spit or spitten
sprung
stolen
stridden
striven
sworn
swollen or swelled
3wum
taken
orn
iriven
irown
rodden
traxcn J
irorn
oven
ritten or writ
used only in some
was^ been; can,
7, wouldi Sec
English language i<
I'crbs, wbich Amount
JPnsent.
ETYMOLOGY.
Imperfect.
could
might
must
ought
quoth
should
would
wist
wot
EXERCISE — On
45
Perfect Participle,
(wanting.)
the Verbs,
1. I write. John loves to read. The boy killed the
bird. He committed a fault. We completed our jour-
ney. They have deceived me. He had resiffp©<l the
office. I will submit. They will have din-J before he
amves. He will have determined. Frepare your les-
son. Know yourselves. Lp* '""i consider. Pardon.
Allow me to speak. T can forgive. They may offend.
Yoli may go. Ho may overtake us. He would go.
He may hav^ resigned. They might have sold it. He
could have gone. I may be there. If they sell it.
You will receive it if they come. To see the sun is
pleasant, if I should write. Can we trust himl Is
he to be trusted 1 To have been admired avnils him not.
They ought to avoid bad company. Having a book.
Writing a letter. Moving slowly.
2. He is admired. The man was condemned. You
are loved. They are deceived. He has been honoured.
They have been forgiven. He had been convicted.
John was abused. Virtue will be rewarded. If I be ad-
mitteil. If they were loved. Charles may be admired.
He might be convinced. The boy may have been there.
The person will have been executed before the pardon
arrives. The book is now his, it was mine formerly.
If I may be allowed to speak. Be thou a friend to the
poor. Allow me to be your friend. The letter was
written. He is paid. He has been forsaken. Thou
Qucs/ton. — What arc defective verbs 1
Qutisl'wns on Exercise. — 1. Point out the verbs. Are they regu-
Itr, irregular, or defect' vc ; active, passive, or neuter 1 In what mood
and tense, number and person, arc they '{ Pqint out the participles.
f . Arc the above verba active, passive, or neuter 1 Tell their mood,
Unsc, number, and person. Point out tlic participleSj and tell what
kind they arc.
■ l( (
I'
ill j|.
h '('
I I
i f
il
xi
m
•f
U. I
! t
mi
;' ;Mi'
'^ i =1
ip
1 1.
46
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
mayst be loved. Ridiculed, persecuted and despised, he
still maintained his principles. L^'jing reviled we bless.
Having been deserted he became discouraged. The
sight being now, he was startled.
3. Learn, call, begin, hate, come, do, go, perceive,
write, need, move, know, see, remember, permit, blow,
regard.
CHAPTER VI.
Of Adverbs.
1. An Adverb is a part of speech joined to a verb, an
adjective, and sometimes to another adverb, to express
sonic quality or circumstances respecting it: as, "He
reads well ,- " « A truli/ good man ;" " He writes vm
correctly." Some twl verbs are compared by er and est:
as, "Soon, sooner, soonest; often, oftener, oftenest;
those ending in ly are compared by more and most : as,
Wisely, more wisely, most wisely.
Note. — A short expression of two or more words frequently pc;
forms llie ofBce of an adverb, and is called an adverbial phrase
3uch as, " In fine, in general, at most, at least, by no means, nv
at all," &c.
Adverbs may be reduced to the following classes :—
1. Of number : as, " Once, twice, thrice," &c.
2. Of order: as, "Firstly, secondly, thirdly, lastlv,
finally," &c.
3. Of place : as, " Here, there, where, nowhere, any-
where, forward, backward, hence, thence," &c.
4. Of time* Of time present : as, " Now, today," &c
Of time past : as, " Already, before, lately, hitherto, lor.
since, long ago." Of time to come : as, " To-morrow, no
yet, hereafter, instantly, presently, by and by," &c. Oi
time indefinite : as, " Often, soon, seldom, daily, yearly,
always, when, then, ever, never, again," &c.
5. Of </wanf%; as, "Much, sufficiently, abundantly,"&c
Questions on Exercise.— 3. What verbs in paragraph the third an
regular 1 What irregular, and why 1 Conjugate them in the pres
ent tense 1 What is the imperfect tense of each ? The perfect '
Pluperfect, &c. What is the imperative mood ? The potential !
The subjunctive 1 The infinitive 1 The participles 1 Conjugate
them in the passive voice through all their mood;:< and tenses.
Questions on Adverbs. — 1. What is an adverb i How are Km
adverbs compared 1
i.
R.
ETYMOLOGY.
47
ited and despised, he
ig reviled we bless.
The
discouraged.
le, do, go, perceive,
ember, permit, blow.
1 joined to a verb, an
r adverb, to expresj
meeting it : as, " He
;" " He writes vct',
lared by er and est:
, oftener, oftenest;
more and most : as,
ire words frf^quently pci
ed an adverbial jihrau
\ least, by no means, ik
bllowing classes \—
!, thrice," &c.
)ndly, thirdly, lastly,
vhere, nowhere, anv'
hence," &c.
" Now, today," &r
lately, iiitherto, lor.
as, " To-morrow, no
)y and by," &c. Oi
eldom, daily, yearly,
lin," &c.
itly, abundantly,"&c
n paragraph the third an
njugate them in the pres
of each ? The perfect '
mood ? The potential '
participles % Conjugate
\wqC\» and tenses.
idverb i How are vom
'6. 0( manner or quality : as, « Wisely, justly, quickly,
ijlljitvly, badly, ably," &c.
'• ^^ doubt: as, " Perhaps, perchance, possibly," &c.
8. Of «jfi/;,.^4,-^„. as, « Verily, truly, yea, yes, indeed,
.ilirely," &c.
r,i,i9. Of negation: as, "Nay, no, .^t. not at all," &c.
' 10. Of interrogation : as, " How, wliy, ^Uorefore, &c.
11. Of comparison : as, " More, most, better, \»ost,
almost, alike," See.
CHAPTER VII.
Of Prepositions.
' 1, Prepositionsservetoconnectwords with one another,
and to show the relation between them. They are for
the most part set before nouns and pronouns : as, " He
went from London to York ;" " She is above disguise ;"
*f They are f='jpported by industry."
■ 2. The following is a list of the principal prepositions :
nigh
of
off
on
over
round.
About
amid
before
between
except
Above
amidst
behind
betwixt
for
Aeross
among
below
beyond
from
After
amongst
beneath
but
in
Against
Along
around
beside
by
into
at
besides
down
near
Save
underneath
through
up
throughout
upon
to
with
towards
within
undet
without
CHAPTER VIII.
Of Conjunctions.
1. A Conjunction is a part of speech that is chiefly used
to connect sentences ; so as, out of two or more sentences,
to make but one. It sometimes connects only words.
'Conjunctions are principally divided into two sorts, the
(Mpulative and Disjunctive.
The Conjunction Copulative serves to connect or to
continue a sentence by expressing an addition, a sup-
Qucstions on Prepoxilions. — t. What is a preposition 1 2, Recite
the list of tlie principal propositions.
Questions on Conjunctions. — 1. What is a conjunction 1 How arc
Ihey divided '< What is the copulative conjunction 1
:ii
'^3
■ 'i! n
I
li:
ill!!
48
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
position, a cause, &c. : as, " He and his brother resii
in London;'* '* I will go if he will accompany me;'
" You are happy because you are good."
2. The Conjunction Disjunctive serv^^ --•• ^"^X ^^ ^^'^'
nect and continue the senlon'-^ "Ut also to express op.
position of meaning =- ^lUerent degrees: as, « Thmi^;
he was frni-'^'^^'y reproved, t/c^ he did not reform ;
i( They came with her, hut went away without her."
The following is a list of the principal conjunctions:
The Copulative. And, that, both, for, therefore, i:
then, since, because, wherefore.
The Disjunctive. But, than, though, either, or, as, ur
less, neither, nor, lest, yet, notwithstanding.
Note. — The same word is occasionally used as a conjunction an
an adverb, and sometimes as a preposition : as, " I rest then upo
this argument;" " He arrived Meji, and not before;" in the first ser
tence then is a conjunction, in the second it is an adverb. " I sui
mitted, /or it was vain to contend ;" "He contended /or glory;";
the first sentence, for is a conjunction ; in the second it is a prepos
tion.
EXERCISE. — Onthe Adverb, Prepositioni and Conjunction
1. I have seen him once, and perhaps twice. ThirJ!
and lastly, I will conclude. The task is already perforn:
ed. We could not serve him then, but will hereafle;
They travelled in haste through France towards Ita!-
From virtue to vice the progress is gradual. We oiu
resolve, but seldom perform. We are wisely and happi
directed. How sweetly the birds sing ! Why art the
so heedless ? When will he arrive ^ Where shall u
stop? Mentally and morally we arc afllicted. He livt
within his income. The house was sold at a great pric
and above its value.
2. By diligence and frugality we arrive at competent
We are often below our wishes, and above our deser
Without the aid of charity he supported himself wk
credit. Though often advised, yet he does not reforn
We must live temperately if we would be health;
Question on Conjunctions. — Recite Ihelists of conjunctions.
Queslionit on Exercise. — 1. Point out the adverbs in the abr'
exercise. 2. Point out the prepositions. The conjunctions. \^li.
parts of speech arc all the other words 1
Questions on Conjunctions. — 2. What is the disjunctive ? i
lARi
ETYMOLOGY.
49
nd h\s brother resii
ill accompany mej
.od.»
3j.^pc. — - only to con
t also to express op.
'grees : as, " TAomj;
le did not reform ;
i'ay without her."
cipal conjunctions :
•th, for, therefore, i:
ugh, either, or, as, ur,
landing.
ised as a conjunction an
n : as, " I rest then upo
L before ;" in the first ser
it is an adverb. " I sut
contended for glory ;" ;
the second it is a prepos
tion, and Conjunctior
rhaps twice. ThirJ!
isk is already perforn,
1, but will hereafte:
i'rancc towards Ita!-
s gradual. We ofte
ire wisely and happi
sing ! Why art the
^e ? Where shall v
re afflicted. He livt
s sold at a great pric;
arrive at competenc;
and above our deser
upported himself wk
t he does not reforn
3 would be health)
! lists of conjunctions.
; the adverbs in the abf
The conjunctions. Wli
i is the disjunctive ?
Hc^roof either softens or hardens its object* Neither
jpaiipiperity nor adversity has improved him. Charles is
eipemed, because he is both discreet and benevolent. John
iMIbe sooner than James. He is as old as his class-mate,
but not so learned. If thou wert his superior, thou shouldst
BjQt have boasted. One may easily deceive one's self.
CHAPTER IX.
Of Interjections.
1. Interjections are words thrown in between the parts
of a sentence to express the passions or emotions of the
speaker : as, Oh ! I have alienated my friend j Alas ! I
fear for life."
2^ Interjections are of various kinds : First ; of Sur-
jtfite ; as, Really ! sure ! strange ! Second ; of Grief or
earnestness : as, Ah ! alas ! O ! on ! Third ; of Con-
tempt : as, Pho ! fie ! fudge ! Fourth ; of Calling : as,
Lo ! behold I hark ! holloa ! ho ! Fifth ; o£ Saluting : as,
Welcome ! hail ! all hail !
Questions on Interjections. — What is an interjection 1 2. What
are the various kinds of interjections 1
PARSING.
Parsing is usually denominated Etymological and Syntactical.
By the former tiic Etymology of the parts of speech is given ; by
the latter the rules of Syntax for the agreement, government or
pocition of words in a sentence, are shown. After the pupils have
carefully examined the foliowiiig table of parsing, which embraces
both the Etymological and Syntactical system, and the specimens
und(6r it, they may be employed in parsing with great advantage. It
18 by no means necessary that they should commit to memory all
the rules of Syntax before they proceed to this exercise ; but, hav-
ing learned the first rule, they should be obliged to correct and parse
the exercise under it, and taught to apply the rule ; and, as they ad-
Vmee, the same method should be observed, requiring Ihem at the
MUito time, if necessary, to apply the rules, wliich they hare already
coiliiittcd lo memory.
P
DmECTlONS FOR PARSING.
First determine what part of speech the word is, then
give all its attributes, according to the following system :
Article. Tell whether it is dclinite cr indefinite.
Noun. Tell whether it is proper or common, give its gen-
, der, number, and case ; if nominative case, point out
11;
ill
i<\'
'fSfffiii.
!; !^(
■l: IM
i;i
'!«
i
-:%i
50
ENGLISH tiRA^MAR.
the verb to which it is nominative ; or if nominativ; \\^pi
to no verb, tell what kind of nominative it is ; if it b(
• in the possessive or objective case, point the word h\
which it is governed, and repeat the rule of Syntax fo
such government.
Adjective. Tell what degree of comparison, and wha;
word it qualifies.
Prmoun. Tell what kind ; if personal, tell its gender,
number, and case, and why it is in such case.
Ve)'h. Tell whether it is active, passive, or neuter ; regu-
lar, irregular, or defective ; tell its number, persdr
tive
in tl
poss
mon
and
cord
mood, and tense : what nominative it
agrees
wi
and give the rule of Syntax for such government.
Adverb. Tell whatkind, and what word it serves to qualify
Preposition. Tell the word it goveins.
Conjunction. Tell whether copulative or disjunctive, ar
point out the words or sentences it connects.
Intetjection. Tell the kind.
B
third
walk
thei
lar n
Bule
objec
articl
third
govei
Ci
SPECIMENS OF PARSING.
*' A virtuous son delights his fatlier's heart."
A is an indefinite article. Virtuous is an adjective
the positive degree and qualifies son. Son is a noi
common of the masculine gender, third person, singiil:
number, and nominative case to the verb delights, m P^fso
cording to Note 3, under Rule I, which says, &c. J)
lights is a regular active transitive verb, in the indicatii
mood, present tense, third person, singular number,
agree with its nominative case son, according to Rule
which says, See. ; and governs heart in the objective cas-
according to Rule IV. His is a possessive adjective pr
noun. Fathers is a noun common, of the masculine gcr
der, third person, singular number, and in the possessiv
case governed by the word heart, according to Rule V
Heart is a noun common, of the neuter gender, thir
The
then
in th<
toRu
tive
to an
l.A
then
the
Hide
person, singular number, in the objective case, nr ^"JJj®
governed by the active- transitive verb delights, accordir J®®^^
to Rule IV ; and governs father'' s in the possessive Cl^^: .
according to Rule VII. P
a
ura
prepo
" Vutue will reward her followers." ^
Virtue is a noun common, of the feminine gende ^
3BTTM0L0GY.
^1
e;
Tiparison, and wha: in the objective case, according to Rule IV.
DOBsessive adiective pronoun. Folloivers is a i
ative it agrees witli
icli government
or if nominativ? (i^ person, singular number, and nominative case to
native it is ; if it bf i^jp reward. Will reivard is a regular active-transitive
!, point the word hj l|l^, of the indicative mood, first future tense, and in the
lie rule of Syntax fo ^wd person, singular number, to agree with its nomina-
tive case virtue, according to Rule I, and governs followers
Her is a
possessive adjective pronoun. Folloivers is a noun com-
jnal, tell its gender, mon, of die common gender, third j»erson, plural number,
in sucli case. and in the objective case governed by will reward) ac-
;ivc, or neuter ; rcgii' cording to Rule IV.
its number, persor ''lie walked into the garden."
Se is a personal pronoun, of the masculine gender,
third pei-son, singular number, and nominative case to
)rdit serves to qualify yf^JJ^ed. TFrt?^-eo? is a regular active -intransitive verb, of
IS. the indicative mood, imperfect tense, third person, singu-
ve or disjunctive, ar. \^j number, to agree with its nominative he, acrording to
es it connects. Rule I. Into is a preposition, and governs garden in the
objective case, according to Rule V. The is a definite
article. Garden is a noun common, of the neuter gender,
third person, singular number, and in the objective case
governed by the preposition into, according to Rule V,
*' Cicero, the orator, was a man of superior talents."
■ Cicero is a noun proper, of the masculine gender, third
person, slnguku' number, and nominative case to was.
Thei& a definite article. Orator
erh in "the Tndicath *^® masculine gender, third person, singular nun
^..nmilnr numbpr ^^ ^^® nominative case, in apposition to Cicero, according
to Rule X. Was is an irregular neuter verb, of the indica-
tive mood, imperfect tense, third person, singular number,
;siNG.
atlier's heart."
mis is an adjective
son. Son is a noi
third person, singuk
die verb delights, a:
hich says, &c. D
rb, in the ind
singular number,
according to Rule
is a noun common, of
imber, and
t in the objective ca?-
ssessive adjective pr
to agree with its nominative case Cicero, according to Rule
I. A is an indefinite article. 3Ian is a noun comrijon, of
' ^ , . , T,j^ the masculine gender, third person, singular number, and
^" '" 4 D "i. VI the nominative case after the verb vms, according to
iccording to Kule V ^^ ^^ ^^.^ ^ preposition, and governs talents in the
; neuter genaer, u. ^^^^^ ^,^^^^^ according to Rule V. Siiperior is an ad-
objective case, . _ ^^^^^^ -^ ^,^^ ^^^.^.^^ j^^^,^^^ qualifying talents. TalenU
erb rfcii:7/«f5,^accor^ui jg ^ ^^^^^ common, of the neuter gender, third person,
in the possessiv ' pjuj^l number, and in the objective case governed by the
preposition of, according to Rule V.
rollowcrs." « jl^g ^^^^ ^yjjg Ijy^g virtuously, will be rewarded."
f the feminine genUe ^^ .^ ^ ^.^j^^.^^ pronoun, and has wan for its antece-
I-
i ! '''
f r I"!..
i '-i!
•'!* \
1 .':'.;
^1
52
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
aOi
dent. Lives is a regular neuter verb, in the indicativt
mood, present tense, third person, singular number, t
agree with its nominative who, according to Rule XII
Virtuously is an adverb of manner o" quality. Will h
rewarded, is a regular passive verb, in the indicative moot
first future tense, and third person singular, agreeing wi;
its nominative man, according to Rule I.
"To err is human."
To err is a verb in the infinitive mood. Is is ;
irregular neuter verb, of the indicative mood, present tcn^
third person singular, to agree with its nominative to cr
according to Note under Rule I. Human is an adjectiv:
qualifying nature understood, according to Rule XVII.
*' Let mc go."
Let is an irregular active-transitive verb, in the inipc:
tive mood, second person singular or plural, to agree n
its nominative thou, or i/e ox you understood, and govei
me in the objective case, according to Rule IV, and ;i
governs r^o in the infinitive mood, according to Rule^VI! ment
Me is a personal pronoun, of the first person singui: anotli
common gender, and in the objective case governe
mi
2
the
chie
ord
actii
goes
dene
gove
g<ne\
objei
3.
and I
Cc
anoti:
let, according to Rule IV. Go is an irregular activ
intransitive verb, in the infinitive mood, present ten
the sign to being understood, and governed by let, accoi
ing to Rule VIH.
J
No
pound
Impfr
"I «
trailoi
To
and pi
PART III.
SYNTAX. Anoli
1. The third part of Grammar is Syntax, which Iro
of the agreement and construction of words in a scntciK Ml
A sentence is an assemblage of words, forming a conipi will
sense. Sentences are of two kinds, simple and compot; pr
A simple sentence has in it but one suijjectand one fiiliarjr
verb ; as, " Life is short." A compound sentence rrendej
8ists of two or more simple sentences connected togetlr^udesr
QfXM/ion on Sijntax. — 1. Wliat is the lliird part of grammar. <^ue\
of what d(K;H it treat 1 What is a «cntoiic<; I IIoav many kiiul-'entoB
sienlcnccs ? What in a simple sentence 1 Compound sentence '•id o
phrusc '{ )Vhit i
lR.
SYNTAX.
53
rb, in the indicativi
singular number, t
ording to Rule XII
0" quality. Will '<
I the indicative niooc
ingular, agreeing wr:
lie I.
ve mood. Is is
e mood, present tony
its nominative to cr
Life is short, and art is long," A phrase is two or
words, fornning generally a part of a sentence, and
itimes a whole sentence ; as, " He endeavoured in a
Hcular manner, to show his friendship." "It is fey
'tifi means just."
2. Principal parts of a simple sentence are the suhjecf,
th0 attribute, and the object. The subject is the thing
chiefly spoken of; the attribute is thethingoraction affirmed
OP denied of it ; and the object the thing afiected by such
action. The nominative denotes the subject, and usually
1 TO " 8<*®8 before the verb or attribute ; and tlu3 word or phrase,
"i- t-' denotiniT the ol)iect, follows the verb ; as, " A wise man
-fwinan IS an auiectu: t> j 5 . • .i i- ^
lumuib'^ XVII governs his j)assions. Here, a rvise man, la the subject;
Jmg to liU • g(jfiD^fns^ tjie attribute, or thing affirmed ; and pamons, the
object.
,'e verb, in the impcr $4 Syntax principally consists of two parts, ConcorLl
3r plural, to agree \v and Government.
ndcrstood,and govei Concord is the agreement, which one word has with
; to Rule IV, and n another, in gender, luunber, case, or person. Govern-
ccording to Rule^Vl. ment'. is that power, which one part of speech has over
first person singiii another, in directing its niooti, tense, or case,
live case governeu 2Vbte. — Hesides tlic division of sentences into simple and com-
is an irregular activ pound they an; also divided into Explicative, Intcrro^^ative, and
By tiie lii?l something is declared or cxpliiined ; as,
I mood, present ten Impet»tive. By the ih^i somd
1 1 7 .# ^npnt » write; he is loved;" by tl
overned by Id, accoi ,, ^^^ .^ j^^l^^^ ^„ ^^ ^^^^ ^^^^^^ ^^
traitor.'
le second ii question is asked ; as,
command is given ; as^ '' liu, thou
To analyse a conipound sentence is to show the yimplc sentences
and phrases of >vhich it comMsts.
EXERCISE.
Analyse the foVowhi<j .sottcnres, and thoio the aimple
is Syntax, which tro senfoio's of whkh fhei/ conaist.
I of words in a scntcn' Many are tlie trials of the virtiiou;?, but their reward
ords forming a coin]i will bo grenl. It is iin important truth, that religion,
s s"imple and compo\: pra(|ft8ed witii sincerity, is the most powerful auxi-
le Bimiecl and one fiil'Mf of reason in promotini^r that peace of mind which
ompound sentence i renders ns traiuiuil and haj)i)y under all the vicissi-
K'cs connected togetli'ndea of life. A virtuous son loves his mother, venerates
ir third part of grammnr, iiiUttions on Syntax.— 2. What arc llic prinripa' parts of a simple
It-nee { llow many kiiiil-'®*'*^*** ^ ^^'"'t '» "if^ subject 1 Attribute '( The olijert 'I What is
[•el Compound sentence '•*<* of the nominative, &c. '{ :i. Of iviiat docs Syntax conslit '<
^ ' »Vhgti» concord { What ■< u;ovcrnmcnt '<
f t
.11
':§
:i i i
ijr i;(
im
I "I
i'l'i^l
54
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
his father, and hearkens to their admonitions ; he is at ail
times condescending to iiis fnend>:, respectful to strangers,
and obedient to his siiperiors. No man can serve two
masters : for he will either despise the one, and cling t.
ihc other ; or serve the one, and despise the other.
RULE I.
A Verb must agree with its nominative case in nunihc
and person ; as, " I leaniy" " Thou art improved," " The
birds .<f2;?7."
Note 1. — Tlif infinitive mnod, or part of a sentcnco, is somcfiiDs
put UK nDitiinativc c :is<» (o the verb ; as, " ^1 dr.>iire to excel others ;
virtue and Irarnin^^ is oommondablc." The infinitive inood mr
also be t;tl<(Mi as llie objective case after an active verb; as, " T
Ixjvs love, to jilay ;" '' The }!,irls love lo wor/c." Tlie infinitive nii-
in Itotb the aiiovc instances has much the nature of a substantiv
eyprtssiii'j; the action itself wliich the verb signified ; for the sentenc*
"The iiovs love to play,*' is Uie same as, "The boys love y*/(/;,
the girls love work" &c.
y.ilc •?. — Every fjrm of the verb, except the infinitive mooi!
parlicip'e, f)u;^ht to have a nominative case either expressed or in
jtlied ; as, •• Awake ; arise ;" that is, " Awake rje, uiise j/f."
Note []. — Every nominative case, except the case absolute, ni
wluMi an address is made to a person, should belong; to some vc
eilher ex!)r<'-ised or itnplied ; as, " Who wrote this book i"' " John.
that is, •• Jnhii wrote it."
Nitc 1. — When a verb comes between two nntiiis, cither of whir
may bii understood as the subject of the aHirnuition, it may np
with eitlier of them, but most generally with that which stmi
nearer to it; as, " Hi.>nneut was locusts and «ild honey;" "T
wa}!;es of sill ts death."
Not"i). — When tlie nominative case has no personal tense of i
vrrlt, but is phie( d bcftjre a participle, independent of tiie rest of '
senleii'-(\ ii i-t called the ease ab>>olut-! ; us, " S/iame beinj>; lost,
virtue is lostt"
Not' ('.. — The nominative case is generally placed before the vcr
bill it is sometiMies pit iif;( r the verb in a simple tense, and betwi
the verb i r p.nticiplc in a roinpound tense. Th(i folluwiiiiij are i
priiu'iiK.i eases n whi^ii t!w verb precedes the nominative ; —
Flr'.l. — W lu ii a iiiu<*i,in is asked, a command iriven. or a ^^
expn' x'll : its, •' Confided t'.iou in iiie '. Head lliou : Long liv( ;
queen."
Sc.^nml — Wi^n a pup insit'on ii made without the pnnjunr'i
}/■; as, '• w. r.' .i not t i llii.-.," '* Hud I been ihere."
Third, — Wli"i llio urb it .im-eded by tlm adverbs here, tfn
Ihcii, th\ <, ke. ; ««, " Here a n I ; There was he Bluin ; Then >
ty.,K. of II -■ t>ve!v • } I'll i: elide! .hi; aiiair."
our
tis,
ilUR
Th
I,
SYNTAX.
55
)nitions ; he is at aii
spectful to stranger?,
man can serve two
le one, and cling t>
pise the other.
alive case in niinilu
rrf improvvw,
-d " " 'W
a sentence, is sonictin)-
1 dcfiire to excel others :
rhc infinitive mood ms
» active verb; as, "T-
/r." Theitifinitivciiii'
niitiire of a subslaiitiv
fi^iiilit'd ; for the senttiio
!, •' The boys love plui
>pt Ibc infinitive mooil
[! «'ith(T cxi)n'sfse(l j)r in.
wake rje, uiise i/r."
pt the rase absolute, ni
)ul(l bclnnnj to some vf
ote this book /" " John.
wo iKunis, cither of whir
afiirmation, it may ngr
\\M\ that which slim
mid wild honey;" "T
IS no persotiiil tense of'
cpendciit of the rest of '
s, " Shame \m\\^ lost,
ally pbired before the v.t
siiiiple tense, and betW'
'. The f()lluwin}j; are i
s the uoniiiiative ; —
CMtinniind i;iven. or a v
Head thou : Long live i
e willvMit the coiijnnc'
been iliere."
»y tlie adverbs here, lh<
•(• was he slain ; Theti * '
^hsirtKilion. — The phrases, as follows, as appears, Stc, are
etimcs called impersonal verbs, and should be confined to the
ular number, and such as follow, auch as appear, to the plural ;
have the following construction; "as it follows ; as it appears;
arguments Avere'sucA as follow,''* &c. The expressions, mcthinks
7nelhousht, av.em to be exceptions to Rule I; as, " 3Iethink8
ar ;" " Methought that all was lost." The pronoun in the first
person singular, and in the objective case, is taken as nominative to
tKe verb in the tliird person singular. These anomalies in the
l^inguage are fcAV, and seem to Avcar in some respects the character
of adverbial phrases.
N. B. — The pupils may be required to correct the exercises tliat
filllow the rules, either in writing or verbally, at the discretion of
the Teacher ; it would, however, be better to allow the scholars,
ifhile they are studying the grammar for the first time, to correct the
exercises verbally, and afterwards to furnish a written correction of
the same. The numbers to the exercises correspond with the num-
bers attaclied to the notes under the respective rule. As the rules
of Syntax arc generally short, questions on them have been dispensed
with.
EXERCISE — For Correction.
The school of experience tench many useful lessons.
Disappointments sinks the heart of man, hnt the renevN nl
of hope give cojisolation. The fame of this person and
of his actirns were dilTused throughout the country. The
inquisit;.'- "^ "•f^nerally talkative.' What signifies good
opinions .! ^ rjr conduct is had? We may suppose
there was n ^ impostors than one. I have considered
what have hoen said on hoth sides. If thou would be
healthy, live temperately. lie canst not Ijjamo me. He
shonldst have written before this time. A variety of
blenings liavc been conferred upon us. In ])ioty and
virtue consist the linppiness of man.
1* To live so!)erly and piously are required of all men.
To restrain their jta<sions are their delight ; fo conijuer
evil habits are their glory. To he temperate in eating
and drinking, to take exercise in the open air, and t«)pre-
setVP the niuid fwe from tutnnlluous emotions, is the best
preaervativ(s of be:'lth. That it is our duty to [iromoto
the purity of our minds and hoihes, to he just an*' kind to
our felUnv crcatuivs, and to he faithl'ul :o Him that made
us, admit tiot of any doubt in a rali^nrl mind. The in-
duitrious hve to work. Tho v.iin lo\e tj be admired.
The fctiidious desire to imnrove.
56
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
2. If the privileges, whicli he lias long enjoyed, shoiiii;
now be wrested from him, would be a flagrant injustice, ^
These articles we imported from China, and arc similar tc ^
those which we brought from Africa. ™
WE
3. Virtue, however it may be neglected for a lime
men are so constituted as ultimately to acknovvledi'i. ^,
the
ccnume merit,
'^ ©HI
4<. The crown of virtue is peace and honour. Hi:
chief occupation and emi)loymcnt were controversy.
5. Him being destroyed, the j)lacc may be easily taken }
The l)usiness being concluded, the Senate adjourned, noi
The cloth being removed from the table, he desired the
servant to bring in the wine. Charles being absoii;
Henry was unable to perform the task.
Sole. — In llie thice last seiitciifcs no errors will be found; t:
^vj^iil is only required to point out the case ubsolule.
RULE II.
Two or more nouns, or a noun and pronoun, in tl.
.^iii-mlar number, connected by a copulative coniiinctit^
cxjncssed or undorstooa, nuist nave verbs, nouns, an noun
pronoum, agreeing with them in tlie plural number ; a- them
*' Socrates and Plato atr.ro wise : t/ici/ ivcre the nic- P""®"*
eminent )>h'dosopli(jrs ol b recce. '
Note — Ifllio singular nouns and pronouns, which arc conncft(
by a copulative conjunction, be of several persons, in niakinj; I:
plural pronoun agree witii them, in person the second takes place
the tliird, and the first of both ; as, " Tliou and he may slian
between i/ou;" " James, and thou, and I, arc tttlacltcd to v
country."
Obscrvalion. — When liio nouns arc nearly related, or scarcely i!.
tinguisluible in seii«e, and t;;^nietinies even wiien Ihcy are very dill(
I lit, .sonic authors have tiiougiil it allowable to put tlic verbs, noui
and pronouns in t!ie singular nunilier ; as, " Tranquillity and peU' pro^
dwclh liere." 'llicv support the above construction by saying i tlje^^
the v( rlt tn.iy be umierituod ; as, " TrarKiuillily dwells here and pt :ii
dwells here;" but it is evidently contrary to the first principlcb . *l
^raniinar to consider two disthicl ideas us one. per
Exi;RciSE — For Correction. ^vrit
The prince and the people was to blame. Virtiif 2'
honoiii', nay, even self-interest, conspires to recoinnici pres
the incasiire. Tiio ship ;uui all the cargo was dcstroyc tainl
Tranciuillity and peace dwells here. In unity consists ti care
■wclfiiro and security of every society. Timo and li' pror
SYNTAX.
57
3ng enjoyed, shoiiiu
a flagrant injustice,
1, and arc similar to
TJccted for a lime
'iv to acknovvledgi
e and honour. Hi;
ere controversy,
may be easily taken
B Senate adjouriicii.
able, he desired the
liarlea being absoiu
errors willbc found; t:
•ibsohUc,
and pronoun, in tl
lits for no man. Patience and diligence, like faifh,
overf mountains. Ignorance and negligence has caused
mibtake. Washington and Jellersoii was patriots, they
s devoted to his country.
1. Thou, the gardener, and the huntsman, may share
blanio hotwoea them. Henry, John, and I, are daily
employed at their respective occupations.
RULE iir.
■When a disjunctive conjunction occurs between two
nouns or pronouns, the verl), nuiai, or pronoun referring
to them, must he in the singuhu* munber ; as, " Ignorance
of negngeiice haa caused this mistake ;" " John, James,
or Joseph iulemls to accompany me."
Note 1. — When .singular nciuus, or a noun and pronoun, of dif-
ferent ponidii:;, iirc disjunctively connected, tlie verb must iis;,rce witli
that jjcrsou niiicli is placed ncurc.«t tu it; as, "1 or thou art to
blame;" " Tliou or 1 urn in I'uult."
Note -. — Wiion a disjunctive occiu's b(!t»ccn a singular noun (t
opulative conjunciio pronoun, ;ind a plural one, the Acrb must agree ivilli the plural
v'c verbs f nouns, an
le plural number ; a-
; tliei/ loere the nic^
)un8, which arc connccti
il persons, in making i:
n the second takes place
riiou and he may shan
d I, arc uUadicd to u
noun or pnjn(;un ; a.s, *' Neither poverty nor riches were injurious tu
them}" " I or they were otleMded i)y it." but the, plural noun or
pronoun, ivhen it can be conveniently done, should be placed next
to the verb.
EX K Rc IS E . — For Corredloii.
Man's 1) ppmess or misery are in a great measure
placed in hi« own hands. In many minds there are
neither kiiuwiedge nor mulerstanding. Speaking impa-
tiently, or any thing that hetrays iMattt-ntion oi' lil-hmnour,
are certainly criminal. VViien sickness, inlirmity, or
reverse i»f fortune alUict us, the sincerity of Iriendshij) is
Death, or somj worse misfortune, soon separate
I or thou am tiie
(Jeoi'^e or I has
irly related, or scarcely i!
\ when they arc very dilli
ble to put the verbs, noui
s, " Tranrpiillity and pen provec
construction by saying i: theOi*
"'":'^:l;''r«rn?iuc!lr' i* ^^i^''^'- ^l'<>" '^i- I «''t mistaken.
irv to Ihc tirat pnncipitii ^ '^
yuj,^ pefior:. 1 hou or lie art the man.
.. ^ written.
jrrcctwn.
as to blame. VirUK 2. l^oth of the scholars, or one of them at least, was
)nspireH to recomnici present. The ship was recovered, bnt neither the cap-
he cargo was destroyt'> tain nor >ailors saveti. The deceitl\ilness of riches or the
J. In unity consists 11 cares ol" lift' inis choked the seeds vi' virtue in many a
locietv. Time and H' promisijig mind.
58
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
V i
RULE IV.
Active-transilive verbs govern the objective case ; as,
** Truth ennobles her;" " Slie comforts me ;" " He closed
the book;" " Virtue rewards her follower s.^^
Note. — Neuter verbs of motion and change are varied like the
active, and also admit the . 'ssive form, retaining still the neuter
signification ; as, " I come, 'ihou comest, lie comes, I go, he goes ;"
iic. Passive form, '• 1 am come, Thuu art come, He is come, I
am gone, lie is gone," &,c.
Observation. — Sometimes a part of a sentence is taken as the
objective case after an attive-transilivo vcib ; as, '' Let us consider
how pleasing is the practice of virtue, and how great will be the
reward."
Neuter verbs never act npon or govern an objective case ; but
certain aclivc-intiansitivc verbs admit after them in some few in-
•tunces an object, and may in those cases be taken as active-transi-
live ; as, "To dream a dream; He runs a race; He walks the
horse; She danced the child." Active-transitive verbs are some-
times improperly made intransitive ; •' He thinks to ingratiate wiUi
him by calumniating me;" ii should bo, " to ingratiate himself.
E X E Rc IS E — For Correction .
They, who opulence lias made proud, and who luxury-
has corrupted, cannot relish the simple pleasures of
nature. He and they we know. Tlie man, who he
raised from obscurity, is dead. Who did they entertain
ao iVeely ? That is the irieod, who you should receive.
He invited niv brother and I to see him. He, who
committed the ollence, you should correct, and not I who
am innocent. They, who he had most injured, he had
the greatest reason to love.
1. ITsuch maxims and such practices prevail, what
has become of decency and virtue ? Tlie whole obliga*
tion of that law and covenant has also ceased. The
mighty rivals are now at length agreed. He was enter-
ed into tlic connection before the consequences were
considered.
RULE V.
Prepositions govern the objective case ; as, " I havo
heard a iiood cliaracler o//<er ;" ^^ From him, that is
needy, turn not away."
Note 1. — Theprt'pi)siiinns,/o,/t)r, and /Vo//i, are often understood,
chielly be(or(^ pronduns; as, *• liivc mc tiie bciokj (Jet mc tiic
paper;" that is, '* to uic^for me."
SYNTAX.
59
lan, who he
Note 2. — The preposition is often improperly separated from tlie.
relative which it governs ; as, " Whom will I give it to V instead of
*' To whom will 1 give it i"
Observation. — Participles are sometimes used as prepositions,
such as excepting, respecting, concerning, &tc. ; as, '"lie saiii
notliing concerning my friend." Diilerenl relations, and ditlereni
senses, niust ho cxj)ressed hy different prcp(jsitions ; Thus we may
say, '• He conversed with a person ujion Uic suhject in a ccrtuiit
iiousc."
An accurate and appropriate use of the prepositions is cf great
importance. Fast. The preposition of is often improperly useii
lor on, in, Itc. ; as, " llu is resolved of going to luc city ;"
'* on going." " He was dependent o/the crown ;'' " on the crown."
'' He w as eager of reeonnnending ii ;" " in reconnnendiiig it."
Second. 'To and y or are often incorrectly used fur other prepusiuons ;
as, *' Vou have bestowcJ yuur favours /y tlie most deserving person j"
" upon the mtjst" &,c. "• He was accused for betraying tne interests
of the country ;" " of betraying" Sic. " In compliance to Ihe
declaration ;" " witli,'^ iStc. 'Tnird. With respect to the preposi-
tions wit/i., on, upon, in, from, &c., they are frequently misuppiitU ,
as, " He reconciled himself iiJt//t the khig;" " to ihe king;" " Hau
I thought on it, 1 would have done it;" '* thought of it;" " They
should be informed t/i some purLs el his character;' ubuut or Con-
' H« look them into his ciiary;e," "• under lii-t
O^i
ccrning some parts.'
charge." *' The variety of factions into which the country is
engaged ;" " in which." " He should profit from experience ;"
" ^^ experience." The preposition /o is put before nouns of place
when preceded by verbs of motion ; as, " 1 went to the city."
EX.EUC liSK — i« or Correction.
We ai'C all accouiitablo civatuiocs, each for his-self.
To who will I give it ? It is not willi 1 thai lie iseiigagea.
They willingly and t)l' theiisielves ondeavouieil l4) take up
iho tlelence. He laid the «iisj)icion ii[)on sonnsbody, i
know not who, in tiie company, fie is u liiend, u lio i
am highly indebted to. Who do yon s^peak to i
1. L^'nd me youi' hat. Give John the book. Gel
him the j)aper. He was banished lite country.
'2, To have no friend, vviiom we heartily uisii well to,
anil whom we are warmly concerned for, is a deplorable
stale. Whom did you receive it from i*
IILLE VI.
rarticiple.s, derived from active-transitive verbs, govern
the ol)jeclive » asc ; as, '» Seeing his/WtW in distress, he
assisted him." "Having finished ihe lettct', ho sent ii
to the ollice." " Having finished ina work, he subauUcd
m'
i ■
'4
' >
• Ii
r
60
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
V'h
Note 1. — Wlicn the perfect participle ami imperfect tense are dif .
fcrent in form, the latter must not be used for llie former ; as, ii is
irapropcr to say ; " lie befiun ; lie nta ; Tlu'y come ; Charles
done it ;" it sliould be ; " lie bcqan ; lie ran ; They came ; Charles
did it."
Observation. — When a participle is taken as tlie subject of the verb,
or tiie object of an action or of a iciaiion, it becomes a noun, and is
called a, participial noun ; as, '^'Reading is useful ;" lie commenced
at the bci^inning ; "•' iMucli depends on the rule's being observed.. A
[tarticipial noun may govern Ihe objective case; as, ''John was sent
to prepare the ivay by preaching repentance.''' *' Her employmciil
is drau'ing maps." *'.\lucli dciiends on their observing the rule."
In these cases, houcver, it is better to insert the ailicle, and preposi-
tion o/", after tne pari icipial noun, by wliich all anibiguhy respecting
the govenimeiit will be avoided ; as, ''the preacliing o/" repentance j"
'•' the (observing o/"tlie rule j" " tiie drawing cf maps.-' The partici-
ple is sometimes used witiiout relVrence to any noun ; as, " Generally
speaking, his conduct uas good."
i:.vt:i{(:isE — For Currecllon.
Esfociniiig tlioirscMves wise, they became fools. I
cuuiil iiDt avoid considering tliey in some tiegroe as
enenues to nie. Siispectini;; not only tliou, but tiiuy also,
I have avoiiled all intercoinse.
1. By beina; too easier in the pin'suit he run a great risk
of belli;: disappointed, lie was greatly heated, and drunk
\vith avidity. He boj^un the work early. They have
format it. He has mistook his true interest, and he now
funis himself Ibisook bv former friends. The coat had
lu) se;mi, but it was wove thronu'liout. He would
have went wiiii us, had lie been iiivitnl. They, who
have bore a [>art of the labour, shall share the reward.
The niK's have been broke. The French language is
much spoke.
RULE VII.
One noun <iovcrns anotliei', siiiififying a dilferent thing,
in the possessivt^ or L^enitive case ; as, " My father's
house j" " \'irtti>'''s rewanl ;" " .V(//i',v hapi)iness."
Pronouns in the possessive case arc also governed by the
noims which follow them ; as, " Every tree is known
by its fruit."
>4»-Vo/o 1. — Wiien several nouns come togtther in the possessive
case, tlie 'ipostrophc uitii the h I'er s is annexed t» tiie last and un-
derstood to the rest j as, '• John and i:.7u«'4 books;" "This is my
SYNTAX.
Ci
father, mother, and uncle^s advice." But, if any words intervene,
it is proper that the si*n of the possessive shonld be annexed to
each ; as, " They arc Jb/ni's, as well as Eliza^s, books."
Note 2. — In poetry the additional s is frequently omitted, but the
apostrophe retained; as, "The wrath of i\'/c(ts' son." Some-
times, also, the apostrophic s is omitted even iti prose, particularly
whun it occiisijns a hissing sound, or a dillieulty of pronunciation ;
as, " For conscience^ sake;" '•' For goodness^ sake."
Note 3. — Little explanatory circumstances shoidd nf)t be used
between the possessive case, and the words which follow it ; as,
*' S!ic extolled her friend's excellent work, as she called him ;" or
better, *• the excellent work of her frietid."
Xotc 1. — When a sentence consists of terms signifying; a name
and an otfice, that which signllics the name of the person sliould be
put in the possessive case; as, "I left llie parcel at Sinilh''s the
bookseller." A phrase, in which the words are so closely eoimectcd
as to admit of no pause before the conclusion, requires the possessive
;5ign at or near the end of tlie phrase : as, " Whose prerogative is
it ? It is the queen of Great Britatii^s;^' "The lord mayor of Zon-
(lon^s authority." Nouns in appttsition, which follow eacli other hi
quick suorcssion, have also the po.«sessive sign ; as, " The emperor
Leopold^ s ;^' " For David my scrvunt^s sake."
Note 5. — If tlie application of the possi.'ssive case should occasion
;iii unpleasant sound, the particle of, whidi expresses t!ie same rela-
tion, should be used in its place; as, '• The general in lli<' (ninifa
name ;" it should be, " in the name of the army :" " Tlie Cuin-
mons' vote:" '•' O/' tlie Commons;" " Tiic counlnfs eoiiclilion ;"
'• 0/the country ;" ''The king in parliament's name;" " in the
name of parliament."
Note G. — In some cases both the possessive termination and the
prepositioTi uf may be used ; as, " It is a discovery of Sir Isaac
Newton^ s.**
Observation. — The pronoim /a'.s, when used apart from the noun
to which it rehitf's, is to be considered as the posst3si\t! case of the
personal pronoun; but when united with a noun, as a possessive
adjective pronoun: as, '"'Tlie bock is not mine, but //is;" "This
composition is ///s ;" '• Ills house ; his hat,"
When an entire clause of a sentence, beginning v.'ith a present
participle, is used as one name, or to express an idea or circum-
stance, the noun, on which it <lepend«, mav he put in tl
case; as, "' Much will ilepi'iid (lu liic; ynf/zi'/'s cumpusii
on his reading frequently.''
E X E RC [s n — For Cotre^flon.
My ancestors virtue i^; n )t ih'iik}.
will not condemn liini. I will not
ton sake'.s. A muliicrrj t^M^]crn(.•^^s'
are natin'e.-^ iriri:^' for niarihs ;i(JvanlaL"'
■ posiiesMve
,:,', Imt more
His hrotiK i-s oniMice
dt'stroy the city lor
ami a lailiors caro
A mans manner'?^
.'Hi
C 2
nr
•'i
6S
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
.1 f^
frequently influence his fortune. Wisdoms precept^
form the good mans interest.
1. It was the men's, women's, and children's lot to
suffer. Peter's, John's, and Andrew's occupation was
that of fishermen.
2. And he cast himself down at Jesus feet. Mosea
rod was turned into a serpent. For Herodias sake, his
brother Philips wife.
3. They condemned the prodigal's, as he was called,
extravagant conduct. They obeyed the protector's, as
they styled him, imperious mandates.
4. I bought the paper at Moore's, the bookseller's.
The silk was purchased at Brown's, the mercer's. This
palace had been the grand sultan's Mahomet's. I will
not for David's thy father's sake.
5. The world'a government is not left to chance. She
married my son's wife's brother. It is not necessary to
have the physician's and surgeon's advice.
6. This picture of the king's does not much resemble
him. The estate of the corporation's is much encumbered.
What can be the cause of parliament neglecting the
business ? Much depends on the rule being observed.
The lime of William making the experiment arrived.
RULE vni.
One verb governs another, that follows it, or depends
upon it, in the infinitive mood ; as, " Cease to do evil ;"
" Learn to do well ;'' " We ought to love our enemies."
Note 1. — VVIien the infinitive mood is preceded by the verba bid^
dare, need, sec, make, hear, feel, and let, the sign to is generally
omittt'd ; as, " I bade him do it ; You dare not strike him ; They
need not proceed ; I saw him doit ; I heard him say it ; Let Charles
read.''
Note 2. — The infinitive mood is frequently governed by adjectives,
nouns, and participlua ; as, " He is eager to learn;" They have a
desire to improve •," " Endeavouring to persuade*"
Observation.— The infinitive mood is sometimes made absolute, or
independent of the rest of the sentence ; as, " To confess the truth, I
was in fault." '' To speak candidly, I do not know." The infini-
tive mood is occasionally put after the word as in the following man-
ner'; " Since lie was so candid as to acknowledi;e his fault, I will.
I^ardon bim." '* Fear notliing so much aa to commit a fault."
N(
SrWTAX.
6a
enemies.'
EXERCISE — For Correction.
1. I dare not to proceed so hastily lest I should give
offence. He bade his friend to receive the favour. We
have seen him to go into the house. They heard the bird
to sing. Let the boy to read. He made me to do it. I
bid him to say it. The multitude wondered when they
saw the lame to walk and the blind to see. Charles
saw him to commit the fault. Let the bird to go.
RULE IX.
The verb To he through all its variations has the same
case after it as before it ; as, ",/ am he ;" " Idleness is the
parent of many vices ;" '* We at first took itio be Ae*'."
Note 1. — When the verb to be is understood, it has also the same
case before and after it ; as, '* He seems the leader of the party ;"
that is, " to he the leader," &c.
Note 2. — Passive verbs, which signify naming, cilling, &c., and
certain neuter verbs, have the same case before and after them ; as,
" He was called Camr ;" " Slie was named il/rtry ;" " The general
was saluted empcrur;" Homer is styled tlie prince of poets i" " He
became my friend."
EXERCISE — For Correction.
You may be afraid, it is him indeed. Be composed,
it is me. I would act the same part if I were him. He
so much resembled my brother that at first sight I took it
to be he. After all tlieir professions can it be them 1 If
it were not him, who do you imagine it to have been ?
Whom do you think he to be ?
RULE X.
Nouns, which signify the same thing, are put 6y
apposition in the same case ; as, '• Johnson, the Senator,
has arrived ;" " Cicero, the orator ;'' " I consulted Wil-
liams, the lawjjer.""
Note 1. — Nouns, which are placed by apposition in the same case,
always agree in number and person ; as, " I, Paul the Apostle, write
to you ;" •* We, the representatives of the people."
Note 2. — Nouns are frequently put in apposition to pronouns, and
sometimes to sentences, or parts of a sentence ; as, '' /, the president
of the association." "Can matter exist and not exist at the same
time 1 an absurdity too gross to be confuted."
Note 3. — When an address is made, the person or thing addressc^^d
is the nominative in apposition to thou, ye,, or you, generally under-
stood ; as, " John, assist me," that is, " thou jfohn ;" " Gcntlemeu.
of the jury ;" " j/c or you gentlemen."
Me-,
•-*•
64<
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
■»'
.ill
1
■ "■' • y
■ i
^1 ..:
^f'^^'l
A'^o/e 4. — Nouns, used to describe other nouns, stand iri apposition
*o the nouns tlicy describe ; as, "John Hickman, o( Baltimore city,
sold the booli ;" " Williain Henry Harrison was president."
Observation. — Nouns in apposition appear to be thus situated
merely for the sake of brevity ; the interposition of the relative and
the verb, will generally break the construction : as, "George I. king
of Great Britain ;" that is, " Ger^rgc I, iclio teas king," &c. ; " Cicero,
ivho is styled the orator. The words king and orator in the latter
sentences, are in the nominative case, according to Rule IX.
EXERCISE — Fo7' Correction.
1. Johnson, tlie senators, will propose the ineasiire. I,
James the first, kings of England. I sent it to yc, the
printer. Taylor, the generals of the army, sends this or-
der to Hamilton, the commanders of the fort. I, Ca3sar,
the consuls, issue the proclamation. We, the representa-
tive of the people in congress assembled, assimie the re-
sponsibility that may follow from tliis measure.
RULE xr.
Pronouns must always agree with their antecedents,
and nouns for which they stand, in gender and number;
as, " This is the friend ivJiom I love ," " That is the vice
tvhich I hate j" " The king and the queen have put on
their robes.
The relative is of the same person as the antecedent,
and the verb agrees with it accordingly ; as, " Thou who
lorest wisdom ,•" " I who speak from experience."
Note 1. — Personal pronoinis, being used to supply the place of the
noun, are not employed in flie same part of a sentence as the noun
wliich they represent ; as, '•' The king, he is just ;" " I saw her tlie
queen ;" it should be, " Tlie king is just ;" " I saw the queen."
Note 2. — The pronoun that is frequently applied to persons, as
well as to 11iini;s, l)u1, after an adjective in the superlative degree,
and the word same, it is generally used in preference to toho or which ;
as ; " Catiline's .'ollowers were the most prolligate that could be
found in any city;"' '•' He is the same man that I saw before." There
are cases in whieh we cannot conveniently dispense with this relative ;
First; after irho. nhcn used as an interrogative j as, "Who, that
has any sense of religion, would have argued thus ?" Sc€ondly ;
When persons make up a part of the antecedent ; as, " The woman,
and the estafe, that became his fortune, were too much for his
consideration."
Note 3. — The pronouns whichxoever and whosoever, &c. are
elegantly divided by the interposition of the corresponding noun ; as,
" On which side soever he cast his eyes."
as.
as,
((
languf
noun
I."
say;
neuter
subjec
day;'
tion
theth
sidere
" Tht
in the
of it
inutal
SYNTAX.
65
antecedents,
10 much for his
iVb/c 4. — The objective case of the personal pronouns is often im-
properly put for tkc&c and Iho&e. : as, '' Give me them books ;" instead
of*' those books." The nominative case, howevf'r, is generally used
ill the preference to those ; as, " 27ic?/ who weep ;" instead of" Those
who weep."
Note 5. — The word ichat is sometimes improperly used for that ;
as, " They will not believe, but what I have been entirely to blame."
Note 6. — The pronoun relative who should be confined to the prop-
crnames of persons, or to the general terms of men, women, &c.,
except when a term directly implies persons. The following ex-
amples arc therefore incorrect ; " The faction tuho ; France who ;
the court who;" which should be used.
Note 7. — The application of the relative «'//o fo very young children
seems to carry with it a harshness ; as, '" The child «."/;o." It is still
more improperly applied to animals ; as, '*' The fowl ichom nature
has taught."
Note 8. — When the name of a person is U3cd merely as a name,
and does not refer to the person, the relative who ought not to bo
applied; as, " It is no wonder if such a man did not shine at court ;
who w^as but unolher name for prudence and economy." Better thus,
"whose name was," &.c.
Noted. — The interjections O! Oh! and .^// .' require the objec-
tive cases of a pronoun in the first person after tlicm ; as, " O me !
Oh me ! Ah me I" but the nominative case of the second person ;
as, " O thou persecutor ! Oh ye hypocrites !"
Note 10. — It is and it icon are often used in a plural construction;
as, " Jt is a few gi'eat men who decide." '* // urts the heretics
that first began to rail."
Observation. — Every relative ought to have an antecedent to
which it refers, expressed or implied ; as, " who is fatal to (tthcrs, is
so to himseil;" that is, ''the man who."" The relative sometimes
refers to a whole or part of a sentence; as, " The resolution was
offered and adopted ivithout due consideration, ichich produced great
dissatisfaction."
The neuter pronoun, it by an idiom peculiar to the English
language is frcqutiilly joined in the oxpluuatory sentence with a
noun or pronoun of tin; masculine or feminine gender ; as, " It was
I." " // was ii man or woman." It is often omitteil ; thus we
say ; " As appears ; as follows :" for " As it appears;" &c. The
neuter proiioim it is sometimes employed to express; First; the
subjectofadiseuur.se or inquiry; as, " It happened on a summer's
day;" " Who is .7 that calls me 1" Sccuvd ; the state or condi-
tion of any p(;rson or thing ; as, " How is it with you ?" Third ;
the thing that is the cause of any efh et or event, or any person con-
sidered merely as the cause ; as, " A\e heard hpr say it was not he."
" The truth is, it was I that sent the note."' (Ja e f^hould be taken
in the position of the relative Hint no i inbii^nity ni; y arise in the use
of it ; as, .vhen we say, " The disciples of (/'hrisl whom wc-
imitate ;" \\ e may mean the imiuition of CI, rist or ol his disciples
-ir r
v»
66
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
4
I
'^
%■■■
'I
EXERCISE — For Corrcciion.
They, which seek wisdom, will certainly find her. The
male among birds seem to discover no beauty but in the
colour of its species. Rebecca took goodly raiment which
were with her in the house and put them upon Jacob.
The wheel killed another man, which is the sixth which
lost their lives by this means. The fair sex, whose task
is not to mingle in the labours of public life, has its own
part to act.
1 do not think that any one should incur censure for
being careful of their reputation. Thou, who has been
a witness of the fact, can give an account of it. The
miml of man cannot be long without some food to
nourish the activity of his thoughts. The exercise of
reason appears as little in these sportsmen as in the beasts
whom they hunt, and by whom they are sometimes hunted.
1. Whoever entertains such an opinion, he judges
eiToneously. The cares of this world, they often choko
the growth of virtue. Disappointments and alllictions,
they often improve us.
2. Moses was the meekest man whom we read of in
the Old Testament. Humility is one of the most amia-
ble virtues which we can possess. They arc the same
persons who assisted us yesterday.
3. Howsoever beautiful they appear, they have no
real merit. On whichsoever side they are contemplated,
4). Which of them two persons has most distinguished
himself. None suller injuries more impatiently than
those that are most forwiinl in committing them,
5. He would not be persuaded but what I was in
fault.
6. [le instructed and fed the crowds who surrounded
him. The courts, who gives currency to manners, ought
to be exemplary. He was the ablest minister which
James possessed. I am happy in the friend which I
have long proved.
7. The ciiild whom you have just seen. He is 'ike a
beast of |)rey who destroys without pity.
8. Having once di^gusted him, he could never regain
llie favour of Nero, who was another name of cruelty.
Flattery, whose nature is to deceive, sliould bo avoided,.
I her. The
but in tbo
ent which
on Jacob,
xth which
v'hose task
IS its own
ensure for
) has been
fit. The
le food to
xercise of
the beasts
les hunted,
he judges
ften choko
allhclions,
read of in
nost amia-
thc same
' liave no
ilemplated.
stinguished
3ntly tlian
11.
I was in
surrounded
Iters, ought
iter which
d which I
[e is 'ike a
jver regain
of cruelty*
avoided*.
SYNTAX.
67
9. Ah ? unhappy thou. Oh ! happy we, surrounded
by 80 many blessings.
10. It is remarkable his continual endeavours to serve
us after our ingratitude towards him.
RULE XU.
The relative is the nominative case to the verb, when
no nominative comes between it and the verb ; as, " The
master wlio taught us." " Tlic trees lohich were planted."
When a nominative comes between the relative and
the verb, the relative is governed by some word in its own
member of the sentence ; as, " He, who preserves me, to
wlima I owe my being, and ivhom I serve, is eternal."
^ole. — When a question is asked, the noun or pronoun, containing
the answer, must bo in the same case as that >vhich conlaiiia the quet>-
Uon; as, " Whose hooks arc these'?" "They are Jo/i/i's." ''Of
whom did he buy them i"' Of the bookseller."
Observation. — When tlic antecedent and relative both become
nominatives, each to different verbs, the relative is nominative to the
former, and the antecedent to the latter verb ; as, " True Philosophy
uhick is tiie ornament of our nature, consists in tlic love of our duty."
Exr.RCiSE — jfor Correction,
We arc dependent on each other's assistance ; whom
can subsist by himself? If he will not hear his l)est
friend, whom will be sent to admonish him ? The per-
Bons, who conscience and virtue support, may smile at tho
caprices of fortune. That is the student, to who I gavo
the book, and whom, I am persuaded, deserved it. Who
was the money paid to ?•
RULE xiir.
When the relative is preceded by two nominatives of
different jiersons, the relative and the verb may agree in
persoi. with either according to the sense ; as, '* I am the
man who command you j" or, I am the man who oom-
fnaads you ;"
Obterwatioiu — When the relative and the verb have been deter-
mined to a^rcc with either of tlie preceding nominatives, that agree-
ment must be preserved thriiii;<;hout the sentenco ; as, "1 am th«
Lord, who vmlitth all things and stre.tcheih forth tlic ticavcns," Sic.
EXERCISE — Fnr Correction.
I am the teacher, who adopt that sentiment, and niain-
(ainii tliC propriety of sucli lucasurcu. Thou art the man.
4
•.-'?
68
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
who hast often relieved me, and who lias not doscrtcci mo
in the liour ofneed. 1 am the man who approves, and
recommend the measure.
RULE XIV.
' A collective noun, or a noun of multitude, may have a
verb or pronoun nLn-eeint!; with it eitlier in the singular or
plural numhor, accordiiiii; to the unity or plurality of the
idea which it conveys j as, '* The meetina 2ms large ;"
'< The conunitloe irrre divided in their opinions ;" ** 'i'he
nation is pourrlul ;'' " JMy people tlo not consider, tJicy
have not known me."
Exr.nciSK — For Correction.
The people rejoices in that which should give it sorrow.
The Hock, and not the fleece, are the oi)jecls of the shep-
herd's care. The crowd were great. Tiie British parlia-
ment are composed of a kintrorcjueen, lords, and commons.
When a inlion complain, the rulers shouKJ listen to their
voice. VVhy do this geneiatlon look for greater evidence?
RULE XV.
Conjunctions connect the same moods and tenses of
verbs, and cases of nouns and pronouns ; as, " Candour
is to be ajiprored and jirtietisei/ :^' *' I re.^-pei'f and revcra
the man ;" "Jf»/,M and Fri/ncis were school-lt'llows."
xV*/c.— -CDiijuiK'tions arc somctiiiu' miido to roiiticct ditTcrcnt mooda
and t(;ii.ics of vf.'rl)s, Iml in tlioso inslaiicr.o llu; noiiiiiiiilivc shnuld bo
generally reiitatcd ; as, " lie is dniii^croii^'y ill, but lie may rccuver."
E\ rucisE — For ( 'orrcetlon.
Professing reiiard, and to act diflorcntly. discover a base
mind. My brother and hiui are well. You and us en-
joy 'many privllcL'cs. Sh(^ and him are very ujdiappily
connected. To be moderate in our views, and proceed-
ing moderately in the piu'suit of tlieni, is the best way to
ensure success, l»etwi'en I and him there is some dis-
parity of years.
RULE XVI.
Somcconjunciions require the indicative, and othersthe
subjunctive mood afiop them. It is a general rule that,
when any thiuL' contingent or doubtful is inipliudjtbe snb-
junclivesiioiiI(lb(Mis('d; as," //'I ?r< /v; to unlc, lie would
not regard it}" " IJu will not be pardoned unh;:s ho
repent.'*
SYNTAX.
69
m
}scrtcd mc
roves, and
lay have a
singulnr or
ality of tho
ms large ;"
' <*'i'he
isider, tJwT/
e it sorrow.
Dfllie shep-
itisli parlia-
l commons,
ten to their
r evidence?
d tcns«:'s of
" Candour
f and rcvero
•Hows."
lifTcrcnt moods
itivc slioulil bo
may recover.**
:ovcr a base
and lis en-
' mdiappily
lid procecd-
l)csl way to
s some dis-
1(1 othersthe
1 1 rule that,
ud, tlie biil)-
*, ho would
I nuhvs lie
Conjunctions, that are of a positive andabsolute nature,
require the indicative mood ; " As virtue advances, 50
vice recedes," " He is healtiiy, hecauso he is temperate.''
Notel. — The cnnjuiictinns if, thous;h, unices, except, whether.
Sec, generally require the subjunctive mo(xl iii'ler them ; also lest aud
ihut, when annexed to a cunnnand ,* as, " Love not sleep, lest tliou
come to poverty ;" " Take heed that thou speak not to Jacob."
Note 2. — Bolli the indicativi! and subjunctive are somellnics im-
pioperly put afler the siimc conjunction in llie same sentence, and
under similar circiimstanccs; as, " IfWvrelte hut one body of hgis-
Litors, it is no iH'llcr tlian a tyranny ; (/'there arc two, there will be
acastuig voice ;" it should be, " if there be two," &.c.
Xutc 3. — An ellipsis in the conjunctive form of speech often creates
irregularities in construction of sentences ; as, " We shall overtake
iiiia though he run ;" that is, '•' though he lihould m/;i."
Nutc 1. — The auxiliary have in th(! perfect tense of the subjunctive
mood is soinetinifs improperly used instead {>{' hast and has ; as, "If
liiiiu /((U'C di'tcrmined, we nm.st subnul ;" "Unless he have consent-
ed ;" it should be, " hiisl iletennined ; lias CDnscated."'
Note J. — The auxiliaries had, shall, and will, arc sometimes im-
properly usetl in the ]ilui)erft'ct and future tenses iX tiie suiijiuicti>e
mood, instead ol' hailst, shult, iiwd wilt ; as, " If thou /iOfi applieil
tliysell';" '' Unless thou *//(«// speak the truth;'' '* If thou will under-
take the business."
Nate (!. — The auxiliaries of the potential mood, when npplicd to
the subjunctive, do njt change the terminatic/n of the second person
siiigidar. We properly say ; '• If thou mayst or canst go ;" " Though
tliou ?/jji,''///.sMiV(',"' iie. hut the second person singular of the im-
jierfect tense in the' subjunctive is sometimes inipro^jrly used ; as,
" If thou loved him truly." '"' Tliou-jh thou ilidan\i\)rnu" Tlie verbs
should be lovedsl and itidst/''
Note 7. — Some conjunctions haye rorresponding conjunctions
belonging to them, either expressed or understood; uj,
1. Tho\n;k — yet, itei\rthclvss, '" Though he was rich, yrf he be-
came poor."
2. Wluthir — or ; a-*, *' Whether he will 0/* not, I cannot tell."
II. Ncillnr-~nin' ; as, '* Keithi r he nor I am in fault."
•1. .>^s" — as, and <(s'— S" ; expre?<!»ing a comparison of e(|ualily ; as,
'' Slie is ((.s- uiniible as her sister."' " ./Js the stars, no shall thy seed
be."
0. .7s — so, and so — as ; expressing a comparison of (piality ; as,
" Js one tlicth, Ml dieth the other." " To see thy glory .so us I lu\c
4
seen.
&c.
7. So— as ; with a negativi- and adjective, e\|»ressing a rnijipnri-
son of (piality ; as, *' I'onipe) uas nut so griat a geiiluinan (i$
Ca>sar.*'
N.^.V,< — lha> ; expressing a conseipience ; as, ''lle'was^^o
falijjutd that he could scarcely inuvt."
70
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Observation. — Contii,geiicy nwd futurity both concur in the prci)er
use ol' the subjuncUve n.uud ; thercrore, Avhenever conlingeiicy unj
I'uturity are not cxprtisscil, it is not proper to turn tlie verb IVoni its sig-
nilicutioa of present time, or to vary its form or termination. If the
person or thing, wliich forms the subject of discourse, is represented in
a certain slate or condition, or in the act of performing soma action
ut tlie present time, the verb sliould be in tiie indicativu mood,
although preceded by a conjunction implying contingency j as,
" Thuui^h he is sirk, lie may recover." " If lie thinks as he Bpeaks,
ho may be trusted." In the above examples contingency is express-
ed witiiout futurity ; in the following contingency and futurity are
both implied, and the use of the subjunctive is proper ; as, " He will
not b': pardoned unless he repent'^' "If thou iwj'u re another, thou
■vvilt injure thyself." If, with but following it, when futurity is de-
noted, requires the subjunctive mood; as, *■ If he do but touch the
hills, tiiey shall smoke." Tne particle as after the words suc/i and
tnany has the I'orce of a relative pronoun ; as, *' Lcl«uc/t usprcsuiue."
*• vc/s many as were ordained."
EXERCISE — For Correction.
ir he ac(juires ticlies, they will corrupt his iniiid.
Tliough lie urges me yet more eaniestly, I shall Jiot com-
ply ufilesd he atlvaiices more loivihle reasons. 1 shall
walk ill the lieUls today unless it rains. As the teacher
were present, the pupils behaved properly. She disap-
proved the ineasinv, heeause it were very improper.
Though he be her iViend, he does not attempt to justify
her conduct,
1. I will submit if he convinces me of my error. Un-
less I am present, he will not succeed. It' Ji»hn was to
accompany nie, 1 would feel sale. Despise no condition
of lile, lest it happens to he yom- own. Let him, that is
sanguine, take heed lest he miscarries. Take care thai
thou brcakest not the rules. If he does but intimate his
desire, it will be sutlicient.
•J. If one man [)relor a life of industry, it is becauao
he has an iilea of comfort in wealth; if another prefers
a life of gaiety, it is from a like idea concerning pleasure.
IS'o man engages in that business urdess he aim at repu-
tation, or hopes for some advantage.
3. Unless he karns faster, he will be no scholar.
Though he falls, he shall not be ulti'rly cast down. On
condition that he comes, I will consent to stay. Till it>-
peniance composes his mind, he will be a stranger to
peace. Though virtue ajtpear severe, she is truly amia-
' in the prq)er
lingeiicy und
fVuiii its sig-
Ltioii. If tite
eprescnled ia
»oiiitt action
ciitivu luood,
iigency; us,
ati tic epeaks,
•y is exprcss-
futuriiy arc
as, "• lie will
another, thou
futurity is dc-
bnt touch tlio
urds such and
usprcsuuic."
L his iiiinJ.
ill jiot com-
iis. 1 shull
the teacher
She disap-
r improper.
ipl to jujilify
error. Un-
ohn was to
MO coialitiou
him, that is
Ivo care that
intimate ins
is bee a 1180
)ther prefers
ii;; pleasure,
lim at repu-
no scholar,
down. Oil
y. Till ro-
stra 11 ger to
truly uiiiiu-
SYNTAX.
71
ble. Unless the account deceive me, my estate is con-
siderably improved. Though the ascent to the temple of
virture apjiears craggy, be not discouraged.
■i. It' thou luive promised, be faithful to thy engage-
ments. Tiiough he have proved his right, he will not
exact it. Utdess lie liave improved, he is unfit for tlio
oflice.
5. Unless thou shall see the propriety of the measure,
we shall not desire thy support. Though thou will not
acknowledge it, thou canst not deny the fact. If thou
had succeeded in tlu^ nicasiu'e.
t). If thou may share the labour. Unless thou can
support the cause, give it up. Though thou might havo
foreseen the danger, thou couldst not have avoided it.
If thou could convince him.
7. Neither hunger or cold could weaken his resolution.
He is not as learned as his brother. He was so fatigued
as lie could scarcely luove. Charles would not eat it,
nor sull'er John to do so. lie is not as eminent and as
nmcli esteemed as he thinks. I will present it myself,
or direct it to be given to him. I must be so candid to
own the fault. Be ready to succour such persons who
need assistance. Germany ran the same risk as Italy
had.
RULE XVII.
Every adjective, and every adjective pronoun, belongs
to some novm expressed or undor.stood ; as, " He is a
ffoodi as well as a wise man." '* Faw are happi/ ;" that
is " jH'mons.''^
Atljective j)ronoims must agree in nundjer with tl>e
nouns to which they relate ; as " 7'A/.v book ;" " thiya
books ;" " tliat book j" " thoac books ;" »' another road }"
*' other roads."
N^otc I. — The phrases tliis means and tliot mranx am n»rd only in
reference to tlic 8irr;;ular nuiiiltrr, and tlusc mvdnn and those iniuiis,
to the plural ; as, " \iy this iiicnns Ihry tscaped.'' " By //<(// iiuuns
hu gained iiis point." '' Thr piijiiis nere attentive, indu8triuu»,
aud ol)cdiehl; and l;y these means they acquired i\no>vledgc."
Nutc 2. — Wiien two persons or lhinj!;s are spoken of in a sentence,
that iTicm to t lie former and tins to liie latter; us, *' liotii wealth
and poverty arc tcniplutiuns) thai tends to excite pride, this, dii-
coutcnt."
'4
:A
'.f
I
:i^
72
ENGLISH GRAMMAH.
Xote 3. — The tllstribntivo adjective prr.iouiis each, cccnj, ciilur,
agree with nouns, pronouns, and vcib.-j, of the singular luimboi
only; as, '" Eurlt oi' the worlciiion received his wa^eo." '' Evcnj
tree is known by its rruit." " Eilhcr oftlie two is eligible.''
Note 4. — \djeclives arc scniidinies iiiiproperly ajiplicd as adverbs ;
as, ''•' //i(^'//t'ri'JU honest ; cxcelloit well,'" &e. : lor ^^ Indifferent I ij
honest; excellent Itj ^yK^\',''- and adverbs again arc often Jiii[)ropcriy
used for adjectives ; as, "' Tlie tutor addressed him in terms ratl.ei-
warm, but suitabbj to iiis (.ii'euce ;•' " suitable.''
Xotc 5. — Double conijiaratives and superlatives should be avoid-
ed ; '•as, A worscr conduct;"' "A mure surciicr temper," " '1 he
must strictest ticct ;'■ it sliould be, '' irursc conduct; more serene ;
strictest ;"' ik.c.
Note {]. — In some casos the adjective thculd not be separated
from Iho noun f;) wh eh it belongs ; as, ''•' A large cnougii nuinber ;"'
it should l)e, "'A lujinljer large euouih."
Kote 7. — The adjective in Knglish is usually placed before tlr;
noun; as, '• A yt/d /■,;(;> man;'" but it is sometimes put after ti.e
ncun :
1. When something depends upni ihc adjective, or when it gives
abetter bomid ; as, •' A man i,e(Hi\;us to iiis ciiemies ;" '"A tree
three feet ////e/,-."'
2, \Mi.;n 1l;e adjective is en.phatical ; as, '''Alexander the
Great ;■' " Louis the BoliL''
'.L \\'hen several adieetives belong to the same noun ;
as.
A
man J!<s/, icisi . and citiirituhlc,"'
4. W hen the verb /<> l)e, in any of its ferms, conies between a
noun antl an ailj.cli\t', t'ne ailjettnc; nuiy eillu r precede or foUov/
the ncun ; " The man is /((/;)/*;/, or luiiipy is the nuin, who lives
virtuously.''
0. When the adjective is preced<d by an adverb/, cr expresses
some circumstance cl' a noun placed after an active verb; as, "A
boy reguhuly yttuliotts.'' "" \anity olten rentiers its pcssessor
despicJAc."'
Observdt: n. — Adjective pronouns in the plural number will
sometimes pro|>crly associate with a singe.lar ncun ; as, " Our desire
is tliat you acei pt llie faveur.'' " We received their resignation."'
The adjective nutnij, uitii the indefinite article (( nf'er it, is seine-
times used v.itli a nam in the singular inimber; us, ^^ Many a
gem.'' " iV(ni(/ a llowcr," kc. These phrases refer to J/KWfJ/ i,'emji
and many Jh>u\rs considered separately and not collectively.
F.XKUCisi: — For Con'cdion.
These kind of iinUiIiicncos soften and iiijufc the mind.
Instetid (d" iinvifuvi!'!!; vonrsclves vou iiuvc been pltivinu
this tv\() hours. Those soil ol" lavoiir.s ihd iv:d injury.
Tliu hoard is liiive loot hrt^ad. IIow ninny .sorrows
sliould we nvoid, il'ue were not iiidnf^iioiiij to make it.
1. Cha
noor. H
the mean
2. Keli
him bene:
pitiable s
prospect 1
3. Kac
whicli thi
llieir static
ligion. 1
lilb. Nt
opinions ;
4. She
i-ate. H(
near exiit
may reasi
came a;j:i
:iii:tal)!e
uxcellent
rite stud;
ttialit)!!.
5. Iti:^
lain oiu?.
the {irove
iS iiiore 1.
;s the nic
G. Ho
1V llic \v
:;loves ; 1
the row j
1 wo n
an ullirm
<vd ;" ih
aothlmj;
Neithc
liiings, I'c
'annot b
SYNTAX.
73
Aloxamlor tho
noun ; ;is, " A
1. Cliarles was extravagant, antl by this mean became
poor. He obtained liis eml by that mean. Industry is
the mean of detaining competency.
2. Keligion rait>es5 man above liimself ; irreligion sinks
him beneath the brutes ; tliat binds him down to a poor
pitiable speck of perishable earth; this opens for him a
prospe
ct to the skies.
3. Each of them in their turn receive the benefits to
which they are entitled. Every person, whatever be
ihoir station, are liound by tiie duties of morality and re-
liirion. Every leaf, and every drop of water, teem with
lite. Neither of those men liave an idea that their
opinions arc ill-fouiuled. On either sides of the river.
4. She reads proper, writes neat, and conij)oses accu-
rate, lie was exii'eme prodigal, and his properly is now
near exhausted. They live coniormable to the rules. VVc
inay reason very clear. lie was exceeding beloved. He
came agreeable to iiis promise, and conducted himself
:3ii":tal)!e to the occasion, lie speaks fluent, and reads
uxcellcnt. lie lived agreeable to the dictates of reason.
The study of Syntax should bo previously to thatof punc-
;iiaru)n. They were left solitarily and distressed.
5. It is more easier to build two chinmies than to main-
lain one. The nitihtinjiale has the most sweetest voice in
tlie grove. That is the elegantest tree on the farm. She
iS more beautit'uler than her sii>ter. The Suj)remc Eeing
s the HU)st wisest and nmst best of beings.
6. lie spoke in a distinct enough manner to 1)0 licard
w the whole assembly. Thomas received a new pair of
:loves ; he li\c's with a old rich man. Tiic two fust in
ihc row are cherry-trees, the two others are pear-trees.
RALK XVIir.
Two negatives in the same sentence are C(juivalent to
an allirmative ; a.--, "ilis laiiguago was not mKjrmamati''
nl ;" tliat is, " it was 'jmniniaticaiy " He need not do
nothhuj; that is, " he should do somdhbuj.''^
EXERCISE — For Co r red ion.
Neither riches, nor honours, nor no such perishable
ihings, can satisfy the desires of an inunortal spirit. There,
•annot be nothing more Insignificant than vanity. They
1-
74
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
■ ^ ■ '•
'i-'i
tVid not receive no letter. I am resolved not to comply
with no proposals they may ofler. Nor did they not
perceive him.
RULE XIX.
The indefinite article agrees with nouns in the singular
mimher only, individually or collectively ; as, " A Chris-
tian ;" " An infidel ;" " A score ;" " A thousand."
The definite article may agree with nouns either in the
singular or plural number j as, " The garden ;" " the
house ;" " t?io stars."
Note\. — The articlt'9 are often properly omitted; whfn used
they should be justly applied according to their distinct nature ; as,
•* Charity is a Tirtue." " Tlie sea is green." " .j1 lion is bold."
Note 2. — It may in general be sulTicierit to prefix the article to the
former of two words in the same sentence, uulcss for tlie sake of
emphasis ; as, " He sold the hou?e and farm." " It was for the
benefit of the widow and the orphans.
Observation. — A nice distinction of the r ise is sometimes made
by the use or omission of the article n ; If say, " He behaved with
a little reverence ;" the meaning is positive ; but if I say, " He be-
haved with little reverence ;" the moaning- is negative. In common
conversation or in familiar style, we frequently omit tlie articles
which might be inserted in writing, especially a grave style ; as,
"At %vorst, time might be gained by this expedient." "At the
worst." Give me here John Baptist's head." " John the Baptist's.'"
EXF.RCiSE — For Correction.
A Christian countries. An enemies in the field. A
brothers of my uncle. A j^artncrs of my father. A
virtuou!* boys.
1. The fire, the air, tlie earth, and the water are ftiur
elements of the philosophers. The reason was given to
man to control his passicins. A man is the noblest work
of the creation. Wisest and best men sometimes com-
mit errors. King conferred on him the title of the duke.
2. He bought tiie house and the g;irden. He paid for
the hat and the coat. The fc;u' of shame and »lesire of
approbation prevent mnny bnd actions. He was influenc-
ed by a just and generous p"inciple.
RULE XX.
Tn the use of words and phr ises, which if: point of time
relate to each oilier, a du.^ iv^nid to that rc!ati(Hi should
be observed I as, " Tho L'>rd hith [/'ncii, and the Lord
SYNTAX
ID
'.'*!)■
Itath taken away ;" it should be, " Tlie Lord gave and the
Lord hath taken away,"
Note 1 . — Verbs that express Jesire, liope, intention, or command,
must invariably be followed by the present, and not tlic perfect of the
infinitive mood ; as, " It is now a long time since I commanded him
to have done it ;" it should be, " to do it."
Observation. — When the action or event, signified by the verb in
the infinitive mood, is tontemporanj or future with respect to the
verb to which it i" chiefly related, the present of the infinitive should
be used ; as, " Last week 1 intended to write ;" but, when the ac-
tion or event is neither contemporary nor future, the perfect infinitive
should be employed ; as, " It would have atibrded me great, pleas ire,
as often as I reflected upon it, to liavcbeen the messenger of such in-
telligence." If the thing asserted be at all times immutably the same,
or supposed to be so, the present tense must be used ; as, " \'irtue is
commendable at any season of life." But, if a declaration be made
relative to something that is not always the same, or supposed to be
so, the past tense should be applied ; as, " The judge said he that
xcas in favour of the measure."
It is not easy to give particular rules for the management of the
moods and tenses of verbs with respect to one another, so that they
may be proper and consistent. The best rule that can be given is this
▼ery general one ; " To observe what the sense necessarily requires."
EXERCISE — For Ciyrrcnfion.
The next new year's day I shall ho at fcIiooI xhrcc
vears. He, that was dead, snt up and hcrrsxn to speak.
i should be obliged to him if he will gratify ine in that
particular. I have compassion on the multitude because
they continue with me now three days. Jolin will earn his
wages when his service is completed. I?e tliat ns it will,
he cannot justify his conduct. After we visited London,
we returned to our peaceful home. I have been at Lon-
don a 5'ear, and seen tiie king last summer.
1. I pro])ose to go to York in a few months, and, after
I shall finish my business there, toprocced to America. From
the little conversation I had with him, he appeared to have
i)een a man of letters. I always intended to have reward-
ed my son accordinij; to his nu'rits. We done no more
than it was our duty t(» iiave done. TiiO'^e proscriptions
fKX^m to be the most inicpiltous measures pursued at that
time.
KUI.E XXI.
' Wheti the qualities of diniveM' ihlnL'^ are compnn'd,
the latter noun or pronoun agrees witii the verb, or is
4.
a''
•i:
Hi
16
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
jroverned by tlie verb or preposition expressed or uniler-
r-itood as, " Thou art wiser than I ;" that is, " than I am."
*' They love him more than me ;" that is, " more than
they love me."
Observation. — The relative «7/o seems to form an exception to this
rule : it sometimes follows tliati in the objective case ; as. " Alfred than
whom a greater king never reigned." The phrase tlutn uhom is,
however, avoided by the best modern writers . The above sentence
might bo rendered much better by changing it in the follovving man-
ner ; '• A greater king tiian Alfred never reigned.'*
EXERCISE — For Correction.
They are much greater gainers than me. The under-
taking was much better executed by liis brotlier than he.
In some respects we have had as many advantages as
them ; l)ut they liave had a greater privilege tlian us.
Thev \\\\o\v how to write as well as him : l)ut he is a bet-
ter graniinarian than them. Who wrote this 1 Not me.
Who revealed the secrets ? Not him. WHio said so ? Not
us. You know the difficulty belter than me. There is
but one in fault, and that is me.
RULE XXII,
To avoid disagreea])le repetitions, and to express our
ideas in lew words, an ellipsis, or omission of some words,
is frequently admitted ; as, " He was a learned, wise, and
good man ;" instead of, " He "was a learned man, he was
a wise man, and he was a good man."
But, if the omission of words would obscure the sentence,
weaken its force, or be attended with any other impro-
priety, they must be expressed ; as, " We are apt to love,
who love us ;" the word them should be supplied.
Note. — Every compound sentence is more or less elliptical ; the
following examples will show the ellipsis of the difl'erent parts of
speech :
1. Of t!ie article ; as, " A man, woman, and child ;'^ that is, '' A
man, a woman, and a child."
2. Of the noun ; as, '* The laws cf God and man :" that is, " The
laws of God and the laws of man."
3. Of the adjective ; as, " A delightful garden and orchard j" that
is, *• A delighlful garden and <t deli'j^htfuL orchard."'
4. Of 1h(; pronoun ; as, '* I love and respect him ;" that is, " I love
him and I respect him."
5. Of the verb : as, *« The man was old and crafty ;" tlial iS) « TliB
man was old and the man was crafty."
SYNTAX.
77
The auxiliaries do, did, have, had, shall, loill, may, might, &c.,
rxre frequently used alona to spare the repetition of the verb j as, " He
loves intemperance, but I do not ;" that is, " I do not love," &c.
'• We succeeded, but he did not ;" that is, he did not succeed,"
6. Of the adverb ; as, " He spoke and acted wisely ;" that is)
" He spoke wisely, and acted wisely."
7 . Of the preposition ; as, " He spoke to every man and woman ;"
that is " to every woman." " This day last year," that is, *' on this
day in last year."
8. Of the conjunction ; as, " I confess the power, wisdom, and
love of the Creator ;" that is, " the power, and wisdom and love,"
kc.
9. Of the interjection ; as, " Oh ! pity and shame !" that is " Oh
pity ! Oh shame !"
Obseitalion. — When the omission of words would obscure the
sentence or weaken its furco, tlicy should be supplied ; and on the
other hand, when the rcjjctition of the words becomes disagreeable
cr tedious, or is altcisdcd with any impropriety, they should be
omitted. The repetition of words for the sake of emphasis is often
proper ; as, " I liave seen liim, and I have heard him too." In
elhptical expressions care sliould be taken that the adjective have
exactly the same signiftcalioii, and be quite as proper when joined
to the latter noun as to thcfoiinor; otherwise the ellipsis should
not be admitted ; as, " A beautiful iicld and trees ;" it should be,
' A beautiful field am\ fine trees."
EXERCISE — For Correction.
I gladly shunned who gladly lied from me. What is
it men mean by dislributive justice ? His lionour, interest,
and religion are all onibarked in this undertaking. The
fear of death, nor hope of life, could make him submit to
.1 dishonest action. An eloyant house and furniture by
ihis event was lost to the ovvner.
RULE XXIII.
Adverbs, though they have no government of case,
tense, &,c., require an appropriate situation in the sentence;
for the most part before adjectives, after ver])S active and
neuter, and frequently between the auxiliary and the verb ;
as, " He matle a vcri/ sensible discourse ; he spoke
forcibhf^ and was attentivelj/ heardby the whole assembly."
Note 1. — The adverb never generally precedes the verb, or is
placed between the auxiliary and the verb ; as, " I never was
there." " He was never seen to laugh." Ever is sometimes im-
properly used for never ; as, " I seldom or ever see him j" for, " I
seldom or never sec him."
Observatiun. — Some adverbs arc improperly used for nouns and
1)
,1^
n
-n.
78
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
■Im
relative pronouns; "In 16S7 the company was chartered, since
«)/!C?i it began to prosper ;" that is, "Since which time.'^ "They
framed a protestation where they repeated all their former claims ;''
that is, "in which," &cc. " It is worth their while;" that is,
" their time and pains."
Tlic adverbs here, there, and where are often improperly applied to
verbs signifying motion instead o( hither, thither, ivhither ; as, "He
came here hastily." " They rode there ;" " Where are you
going V Tluy sIiouUl be ; " He came hither ;" " They rode
i hither ;" " Whither avc you going 7" The latter form of expres-
sion is nearly obsolete, unless in grave style ; the sentences, " hi
arrived here to-day ;" " they went there last week ;" " whei'c wiil
you go," &.C. are now used by the best modern writers.
EXERCis E—For Correction.
He was pleased not often because he was vain. Wil-
liam nobly acted. A\'e may happily live though poor.
We may expect reasonably that he will come. It can-
not be imppi'lincnt therefore to remonstrate. We alwayh
should prefer our duty to our pleasure. It is impossible
continually to be at work. These things should be nevei
separated. So well educated a boy gives great hopes to
his friends.
1 . They could not persuade him though they were
never so eloquent. He comes never at a proper time. Ho
was seen to enter the house never again.
— a=>l«|®ll«>l«l<=— ■
PART IV.
PROSODY.
Prosody consists of two parts : the former teaches tlu'
true pronunciation of words, comprising accent, quan-
tity, EMPHASIS, PAUSE, and TONE ; and the latter tlu
laws of VERSIFICATION.
ACCENT.
Accent is the laying of a peculiar stress of tlie voice oii
a certain letter or syllal)le in a word, that it may bebettei
heard than the rest, as distinguished from them ; as in the
word jyrcsihne the stress of the voice mui^t be on the letter
u and second syllable aume, which take the accent.
Note. — Every word in the laiignnge of more than one syllabic
has one of them distinguished I'roni the rest by accent. Words oi
ihartered, since
imc." " They
)rmcr claims ;''
Mle ;" that is,
)perly applied to
ither ; as, "He
Where are you
'• They rode
form of expres-
sentences, " ht
;" " where will
rs.
3 vain. Wil-
tliough poor,
me. It can-
Wc always
; is impossible
lould he nevei
great hopes to
gh they wert^
bper time. Ho
it.
PROSODY,
79
ler teaches tlu'
[;CENT, Q,UAN-
1 the latter tlu
of the voice oii
t may hebettei
lieni ; as in the
1)0 on tlie letter
e accent.
than one syllabk
:cenl. Words oi
two syllables have necessarily one of them accented, and but one ;
unless for the sake of empiiasis wo sometimes lay an equal stress
upon two successive syllables ; as, "Dt-/<Jc^" For the accent of
dissyllables no general rule can be given. Trisyllables and poly-
syllables generally follow the accent of the word from which they
are derived ; as, "Loveliness;" " continency."
QUANTITY.
The quantity of a syllable is that time which is
occupied in pronouncing it. It is considered as long or
short.
A vowel or syllable is long when the accent is on
the vowel which occasions it to be slowly joined in pro-
nunciation to the following letter or letters ; as, " Fall,
Ijfile, nindd, house, feature."
A syllable is short when the accent is on the consonant,
which occasions the vowel to be quickly joined to the
succeeding letter ; as, "an't, bon'net, hun'ger."
A long syllable requires double the tijue of a short one
la pronouncing it ; thus " iMfito and " Note" should be
pronounced as slowly again as " Mat" and " Not."
EMPHASIS.
By emphasis is meant a stronger aiul fuller soiimi of
voice, by which we distinguish some word or woriLs on
which we design to lay i)articular stress, and to show how-
it affects the rest of the sciiieiice. Sometimes the emphat-
ic words must bedistiiiguished by a particular toneof voice
;is well as by a greater stress.
Questions. — Wiuit is prosody ? What is accent 1 What is quan-
lity 1 U'lion is a vowel long 1 Wiien is a syllable short ? What
(Iocs a long syllable require .'' What is emphasis 1
Note. — On the ri;j,lit. nKinagoiiieiil of the empiiasis uciiciul.-: tiir
life of proiuuiciiition. If no en'.i)li;it.is bo placed on any words, not
only will discourse bo rendered heavy and lifeless, but the meaning
often left ambij^uous. If llio omplia.sis bi; placed wrong, we shall
pervert and conlbund the meaning wholly. To give a common
instance ; such a simple qucslioii as this, '' Do you ride to town to-
day V is capable of no fewer than four ditlereiil acceptations ac-
cording as the cmplmsii is dill'i leiitly placed on the words. If it be
pronounced thus ; •■• Do yvu ride to toivii to-day V the answer may
iiuturally lie, "No, we send a servant in our stead.', If thus:
" Do you ride to town to-diiy 1" answer, " No, we intend to walk.""
'' Do you ride <(> /owu to-day ?■' "'No, we ride into the country."
" Do you rido to town to-day /'' " No, biil we shall to-morrow." In
like manner in solemn discourse the whole force and beauty of aii
expression often depc.id on the c: 'phaVic word.
%
80
ENGLISH GRAfllMAR.
IS M
PAUSES.
Pauses or rests in speaking and reading are a total ces-
sation of tiie voice during a perceptible, and, in many
cases, a measurable space of time.
TONES.
Tones are different both from emphasis and pauses,
consisting in the modulation of the voice, the notes oi
variations of sound which we employ in the expression
of our sentiments.
Note. — Emphasis affects particular words and phrases with a dc-
'^ree of tone ur inflection of the voice, but tones, peculiarly so called
affect sentences, paragraphs, and sometimes even tlic whole of a dis-
course.
To show the use and necessity of tones, wc need only observe that
the mind, in ccmimunicating its ideas, is in a continual state of activ-
ity, emotion, or agitation, Irom the different effects which those idea-
produce in the speaker.
VERSIFICATION.
nation is tht
lumbei
rrangement of a certnii
and variety of syllables according to certain laws.
Bhynic is the correspondence of the last sound of one
verso to the last sound or syllable of another.
Note. — Poetical Feet. — A certain number of syllables con-
nected togetlier form a for)t. They are called /c^/, because it is bj
their aiil tliat the voice, as it were, Mt(>ps along through the verse in a
measured i'pacc of time. All feet u^vd in poetry consist either ol
hvo or three syliahjes ; they are n'ducible to eight kinds; four of
two syllables, and four of three. In the following table the straight
line over a syllable shows th;it the syllablo is ierig, or accented ; am*
•he curve line, ihat tlie syllable is slir/rf, or unaccented.
DISSYLLABLE.
A Trochee - ./ ; a»», Hateful.
An lanilj >' - ; '* Hotn'iy.
A Spondee - - ; '■* Tiile Moon.
A Pyrrhic o o ; " On Ihu.
TRISV'LLABLE.
A Dactyl - i, ..
An Amphibrach .. - o
An Anapest o o -
A Tribrach .. o u
as
Labourer.
Delightful.
Coiitriivcne.
Nunierjible.
Qitcsfion*. — What is a pauic ? What is a lone 1 What is »trsi
t'lcation 1
QMCition, — What is rhyme 1
■mi
PROSODY.
81
1 What is »trsi
The Iambic, Trochaic, Dactylic, and Anapestic,
lire called the principal feet, as poetical compositions
consist chiefly of them ; the other feet, called secondary y
are introduced to diversify the numbers, and to improve
the verse. English verse may be divided into several
species, according to the number of feet or syllables of
vvhich it is composed.
Iambic. — The Iambic verse consists of several kinds.
I. The first form consists of one Iamb and a shor(.
yllable ; as,
Disdaining,
Compliiining.
'2. The second of two Iambs ; as.
To me tlu"; rose
No longer grows.
It may sometimes take an additional syllabic.
3. The third consists of three Iambs ; as,
In palci'S filr (ir nrar,
Or lanKius, or obscure
4. The fourth consists of tour Iambs ; as,
And may iit lust my Avt'ary s'lge,
Find out ii peaceful hermitage.
5. The fifth, called the Ileroh measure, consists nf
five ; as,
A heap of dust iiloiic remains (if tiie-c ;
'Tis iill thou art, and iill tiiii proud shali be.
6. The sixth form is called the Alcvandrine moasuri' ;
:\s,
Tor thou iirt but Of diist, be huniblC' and lit: who.
7. The seventh form consists of seven Tainhs, ^onoi-
ally written in two lines j the fust containing four, and
♦he second three feet ; as,
Wlit-n all Ihv niorcics, O m\' God !
My rising ^oiil siirveyw ,
Triinsporird with ihC' view I'm lost
In wonder, love, and praise.
Trochaic. — The Trochaic verse is also of several
kinds.
1. The first consists of one Trochee and a loin»
'yllable j as,
Tfmullt cease,
Sink to peace.
4
% l|
f
S-2
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
h L
2. The second, of two, and sometimes a long syllable ;
as,
On th6 mount&in
By li roi'intain.
In thr days of old
Fables plainly told.
3. The third, of three, and sometimes an additional lone
fsyllable j as,
When our hearts are mourning.
HtlsUess mortals tnil for nouLclit,
IJUss in vain from tiirth is sought.
4. The foiirtl), of four Trocliecs ; as,
Houiul lis roars the temi'est loudCr.
f). The fifth, of five; but very seldom used ; as,
All thill walk on loot or ride in chariots,
All that dwell in palact's or garrets.
G. Tiie sixth I'orni con:*ibts of six Trochees; as,
On ii inouiilain stretched beneath a hoarjT «ill6w.
Dactylic. — Tliis measure is very uncommon; as,
From the low jileasiires 6t this fiillen niiture
IJlse ye to higher.
Anapestic Of this measure there are several kinds •
I. The siioriest form consists of the Anapest; as.
Bill in vain
They conii)laiii.
This form is nui!iiL''uous ; lor by laying the stress of tht
voice on the first ruui third byljahle it Ix'coines a Trochaic;
therefore the siiiiplesi form of the Anapestic ver?e con
>isl«< of two Annpi'sts; as,
Bill liis courii'j,e 't;iin fail.
For ii(> arts cmilil avail.
2,, Tiie secoiiil form consists of three; as,
y^ woods, spn'nd your branches lipacc ;
'I'o vnir d( epi'.st recess I ll\ ;
1 wniiid liidc' Irom the bciists of IhO chase,
I wm'tld vani:^h from ever; eye.
.'?. The thinl species consists of four Annpests ; as,
May I go. (Til ni\' passioiifl wil!i abifoliitc sway,
And grow wiser and better as life wears awiiy.
POETICAL PAUSES.
There are two kinds of pauses in poetry, called tht
PUNCTUATION.
83
long syllable
idditional loni'
[?d ; as,
its,
cs ; as,
niow.
mnioii ; as,
several kinil? ■
pesl ; as,
e stress of tin
?s a Trochaic ;
lie verse con
c ;
S«'
pests ; as,
uy.
y, called th<
mitential and harmonic. The sentential takes place
after the comma, semicolon, &c., as the sense may re-
quire ; the harmonic, which tends to preserve the melody
of the verse,ij divided into the final and the caesural pauses.
The final pause takes place at the end of every line,
although the sense may not require it ; it also marks the
difference on many occasions between prose and verso.
The caesural pause divides the line into equal or unequal
parts ; as.
Round broken columns" clas])ini; ivy tnincd,
O'er heaps of ruin" stalked tlie stately hind.
PUNCTUATION
Is the art of dividing a written) composition into
sentences, or parts of sentences, by points or stoj^s for the
purpose of marking the dillbrent pauses which the sense
and an accurate pronunciation require.
The Comma represents the shortest pause ; the Semi-
colon, a pause double that of the comma ; the Colmi,
double that of the semicolon ; and the Period double that
of the colon.
The points are marked in the following manner ;
The Conuna , The Colon :
The Semicolon j The Period .
COMMA.
The Comma usually separates those parts of a sen-
tence, which, though very <'Iosely conm-cted in sense,
require a j)ause between them; as, " 1 rcnuMubor, with
gratitude, his love and services." " Charles is beloved,
esteemed, and resi)ecled."
UULMS FOR THE COMMA.
Rule I. A biiuple sentence in general re(iuii'es no point
oxcejH a full stop at the end ; as, " Vir(u(! refiies ilic
affections." But, when a sinijile sentence is long, and
the nominative separated from the verb by some interven-
ing wonls, a conuna should be inserted iniuieibiUi'ly be-
fore the verb ; as, "The good taste of the present a-je,
hn^ not allowed us to neglect the eultivaliori i>f the En-
glish langur>. e."
i^neiAions. — What is iniiictiintion % What do tlie ('iMiima. Coloii ,
Ite. rcprestntt How arc the points uiurked i \Miut doivx ttm
(''jintnu 81'purate {
u
ENGLISH GRAMMAH.
3ii
n
it
Rule II. W\ en the connection of tlie different parts of
a sentence is interrupted by an imperfect phrase, a com-
ma is usually introduced at the beginning and end of this
phrase : as " I remember, zvith (jratitudei his kindness
to me."
Huh III. When two or more parts of speech occur in
the same construction without a conjunction between
them, they should be parted by a comma ; as, " Truths
justice^ and mercy dwell here." " Plain, honest truth
wants no artificial covering." " David was a iyave^
un.<ie,just, and pious man." " In a letter we may advise,
exhort., comfort., request, and discuss." " He lived esteem-
ed, respected, and loved by all." " tie nvXcd priidcntli/,
steadili/, and vi^'orously." Dul, when two parts of speech
are immediately connected by a conjunction, the comma
should not be introduced ; as, " How great the contrast
between virtue and vice, wisiloni ond folly." " He is
just and iionest." " Study expands and elevates the
mind."
Rule IV. Participles, followed by something that de-
jx'iuls on them, are generally separated from the rest of
the sentence by commas ; as, " The king, approvinij/ of
the plan, put it in execution."
RuJc v. When a conjunction is separated from the
word to which it belongs, the intervening j)hrnse shouKl
have a comma at each exlreniily ; as, '* They set out
early, and, before eveniiiii, arnv(nl at the d(\slined place."
Rule VI. Expressions, in direct address, are followed
by a comma ; as, " Jfif sonn give irie thy heart ;" " I am
i»l)liured to yon, mjf friends, for your many favours."
/I'u/c' vii. The case absolute, and the infinitive mood
absolute, should Ix* separated from tlie rest ol'the sentence
by commas ; as, '" His fit/ier </i/i>f</, he succeeded to the
estate." '" To confes.7 the truth, I was much in fault."
Rule VIII. Nouns in ap[)osition, when something is
;i(ided by way of explanation, should be set oil' by com-
mas ; as, " Paul, the Apostle of the Gentiles ;" but if
s«ich nouns are single, tliey are not separated : as, " Paul
the Apostle." "The emperor Antoninus."'
Ride IX. Simple members of sentenres, connected by
comparatives, arc generally distinguisln>d by commas, un-
PUNCTUATION.
85
3i'ent parts ot
rase, a com-
d end of this
his kindness
ech occur in
on between
as, " Truth,
honest trutli
as a irave,
may advise,
lived esteem-
d prudently,
its of speech
, the comma
the contrast
." " He is
elevates the
ing that de-
1 tiic rest of
ipproving of
?d from the
n-a(<e should
'iley set out
iiieil place.*'
ijv followed
rt ;" " I am
ours."
iiitivo mood
the sentence
-x^dod to the
in fault."
omethlng is
oil' by com-
les ;" but if
: as, " Paul
)nnectod by
ommas, un-
less the sentences are veryshort; as, ^^As the heart panteth
after the water, so my soul panteth after Thee." " It is
hetter to acquire wisdom than gold."
Rule X. A remarkable expression, a short observation,
or a quotation, may be properly marked by a comma; as,
" He often made use of these words, Kncno thyself.^''
" Plutarch calls lying, tliQ vice of slaves^
Rule XI. Relative pronouns, being connective words,
generally admit a comma before them ; as, " He preaches
sublimely, who lives virtuously." " This is the tree, which
produces no fruit." But,' if the relative is followed by a
})hrase tending to confine the antecedent to some particu-
lar sense, the comma should be omitted before the rela-
tive ; as, "A man w/to deviates from the truth, will not
be credited.''
Rule xn. The verb to ho, when followed by the infin-
itive mood, or the particle that, should have a comma
after it ; as, " The most prudent course is, to withdraw
from the country." " My desire w, that you go immedi-
ately."
Rule XIII. When a verb or another part of speech is
understood, a comma should be introduced in its place ;
as, " From law ariscc security ; from security, curiosity ;
from curiosity, knowledge."
Rule XIV. The words may, so, hencc^ ajain, firsts
tecondly, now, lastly, once more, in short, Stc, should be
generally 'separated from the context by commas ; as,
" He is my friend •, formerly, the supporter of my infancy ;
i%ow, the guardian of my youth."
Rule XV. The simple sentences and cxpla*iatory
phrases that make up a compound sentence, shouUl be
generally separated from each other by commas; as,
" Very often, wliilc we are complaining of the vanity and
the evils of human life, we make that vanity, and increase
those evils."
Observation. — It is not cosy to give rules] that will apply in every
case for the insertion of commas. As tlicy arc generally used to
distinguish the sense, their introduction v/i\\ greatly depend on the
meaning of tbe sentence.
SEMICOLON.
The Semicolon is used for dividing compound sentence*
D2
86
ENGLISH GRAMMAR!
into two or more parts not so flosoly connected as those
which are separated by a comma, nor yet so little depen-
dent on eacii other as those which are distin^iuished by
a colon ; as, " Straws swim upon the surface ; but pearls
lie at the bottom."
Note— The Semicolon is scmetinies used, ivIkmi the preceding
member of tlie sentence does not of ii'dC jiive a complete sense, but
depends on tlie fullowin;^ <•l,lu^:e : iiiid snnK'times. \'b(iD tlie sense of
that menil)cr would l)(; eoniplete williout, the eoiiclndini!; one; as,
'•' Homer was tlie f>;rc;ittir genius ; \ irgil, the better artist ; in the
one we more admire tiie man : in the ((tluM-, the \\(irk." " Heligion
does not require th;it man slu/uld n.lreat from ■worldly atfuirs 5 mucl>
less, that he should neglect I' ri.> "'
OF,0N.
The Colon is u^:o(l to divide a sentence into two or
more parts less connected than those uhich are separated
by a semicoh)n ; but not st) indei)endent as separate,
distinct sentences.
Nolr. — The Cnlon may be applied in tlie fdUowinp; eases ; —
1. When a mrnibimf a senteiuc iscoinplit(> in itstil'. but followed
by siiinc sui)i)lemental remark, or further illnstratidn ol the sniiject ;
as, '• Nature f.'lt her iiial)ilily to extricate herself fri»m the conse-
quences of guilt : the gospel reveals the plan of Divine interposition
and .lid/^ "
2. >Vhen several semicolons have preceded, and a still greater
pause is necessary, in order to make the concluding- sentiment; as,
" Religion sanctions it ; reason Jipprovcs it ; justice demands it :
these are C!)nsi(lM-atioii.'i wliich (iuglit to have the greatest weight in
your decision. "-■
3. I he Colon is commoMly use 1 when an example, a quotation,
&o., is introduerd : as, '■ 'i'h(! Scripture gives us an amiable repre-
sentation of the Deity in tliese words: ' (iod is love.' " '' lie was
heard to say: ' I have done with liip world.""' And sometimes
when a conjunction is understood: as, ''Do not deceive yourselves
longer : there is no room for hope."
PKIUOD.
When a sentence is complete and independent, and
not connected in construction with die luUowing sentence,
it is marked with a period.
Note. — Sf)me sentiiRu s are independent of each other both in
their sense and construction ; as, " Fear (!od. Honour the king.
Have charity towards all men." Others are independent only in
their grammatical constructi(;n; as, "The Supreme Being changes
not, either in His d( sire to promote our happiness, or in llie plan of
His administration. One light always shines upon us from above.
One clear at>d direct path is pointed out to man."
The period shouhl be used after every abbreviated word ; as,
" M. S. P. S. N. B. A. D. O. S. N. S." kc.
Questions. — For whiit is Uic Semicolon used 1 What is a Colon ?
VVhul ib a I'cjioa 1
ted as those
little depen-
iguished by
; but pearls
the preceding
Itite sonsCj but
i tlie sense of
ilin
X one ; as.
artist ; in the
' " lleligion
ulFairs 3 much
into two or
e separated
s separate,
nsrs ; —
", lint followed
: the subject ;
m the eonse-
iiitcrjinsitioii
still greater
ntimeiitj as,
dcniiuids it :
est weight iii
a quotation,
liiahle rcpre-
'' lie was
d sometimes
ve yourselves
lulent, and
l; sentence,
ther both in
iir the king,
lent only in
eing changes
n the plan of
from above.
I word ; as,
is a Colon ?
PUNCTUATION.
87
Besides the points which mark the pauses in discourse, there are
others that denote a diflereiit modulation of voice in correspondence
to the sense. These are, ^
The Interrogative point ?
The Exclanintion point !
The Parenthesis () ;
as, " Are vou sincere ?"
" How excclleni is a grateful heart !''
" Know then this truth, (enough for man to know)
'■■' Virtue alone is hiipjiiiioss below."
The following characters are also frequently used in
•composition.
An Apostrophe, marked thus ' ; as, " tho', judg'd."
am
A Caret, marked thus a ; as, " I a dilip;ent."
A Hyphen, wiiich is marked - ; as^, " Lap-dog, to-
morrow.''
The Acute Accent, marked thus'; as, " Faii'cy."
The Grave Accent, tiius ' ; as, " Fa'voiir."
The pro]HM' mnrk to distinguish a long syllable is
this - ; as, Ro; y," ami a short one, thus i- ; as, " Folly.'*
Tills last mark is called a Bieve. The Broad Accent is
marked with a Circumllex ; as, in "Hall."'
A Diaeresis, thus marked • , shows that two vowels
form separate syllables ; as, '• Crciitor."
A Section is thus marked §.
A Paragraph, thus IF.
A Quotation has two inverted commas at the be-
ginning, and two direct ones at the end of a phrase or
|)assage ; as,
'• The proper study of mankind is man."
Crotciiets or Brackets serve to enclose a particular
word or setuencc. 'I'hey arc marked thus, [].
An Index or Hand {^ points out a remarkable
passage.
A Brace / unites three poetical lines ; or connects a
number of words in ))rose with one common termc
An /.sterisk or little star* directs the redder to some
note in the margin, or at foot of the page.
8S
ENGLISH GRAM&TAR.
;fl
An Ellipsis is thus marked-
ibr King.
as, « K g,
'5
An Obelisk, which is marked thus f, Double'.Obelisk,
thus f , and Parallels, thus 1|, together with the letters of
the alphabet, and figures, are used as references to the
margin.
CAPITALS.
The following words should begin with capitals ;
1. The first word of every book, chapter, letter,
paragraph, &c.
2. The first word after a period, and frequently after
the notes of interrogation and exclamation.
3. The names of the Deity ; ac, God, Jehovah, the
Supreme Being, &c.
4. Proper names of persons, places, ships, &c,
5. Adjectives derived from the proper names of places ;
as, Grecian, Roman, English, &c.
6. The first word of an example, and of a quotation in
a direct form ; as, " Always remember this ancien';
niaxini ;" " Know thyself."
7. The first word of every line in poetry.
8. The pronoun /, and the interjection 0!
^K Words of particular importance j as, the Reforma-
tion, the Restoration, the Revolution.
10. Words contracted j as, Mr., Mrs., Dr., Cr., A.
D., P. S., Esq., &c.
EXERCISES IN PUNCTUATION.
SECTION I. — Containing sentences that require the inser-
tion of the comma according to the Rides.
Rule I. The tear of repentance brings its own relief.
Idleness is the great fomenter of all corruptions in the hu-
man^heart. All finery is a sign of littleness. Many of the
[)retended friendships of youth are mere combinations in
pleasure. The indulgence of harsh dispositions is the in-
troduction of future misery.
Rule II. Gentleness is in truth the great avenue to
mutuu! enjoyment. Charity like the sun brightens all its
objects. Trials in this stage of being are the lot of
man.
R'Ale III. Reason virtue answer one great aim. The
husband wife and children suffered extremely. Health
PUNCTUATION.
89
*K g,
')
)le;Obelisk,
\G letters of
ices to the
itals ;
iter, letter,
uently after
3hovah, the
&c.
;s of places;
quotation in
this ancien';
16 Reforma-
)r., Cr., A.
re the inser-
ies.
own relief.
IS in the hu-
Many of the
ibinations in
ms is tiie in-
t avenue to
ghtens all its
} the lot of
aim. The
sly. Health
peace a moderate fortune and a few friends make up the
sum of temporal felicity. Temperance, and industry
will gain competency. A religious sensible and well
educated woman. He advised exhorted reasoned and
entreated his friend. Virtue supports in adversity moder-
ates in prosperity. He reads and writes well. A man
fearing serving and loving his Creator. To live soberly
and piously comprehends the whole duty of man.
Rule IV. His talents formed for great enterprises could
not fail of rendering him conspicuous. All mankind
compose one family assembled under the eye of one
commoh father.
Rule V. He may rest assured that by the steady pur-
suit of virtue we shall obtain our end. If from any exter-
nal cause a man's mind be disturbed.
Rule VI. Continue my child to practise virtue. To
you my respected friends I am much indebted.
Rule vii. Peace of mind being restored we may smile
at misfortune. Charles being absent the business was
concluded without him. To enjoy present pleasure he
sacrificed his future ease. To confess the truth I am to
blame.
Rule viii. Hope the balm of life soothes us under
every misfortune. Contentment the oiTspring of virtue
dwells in retirement. Joseph the patriarch is an iRustrious
example of chastity and resignation.
Ride IX. The more a man speaks of himself the less he
likes to hear others spoken of. Nothing more strongly
inculcates resignation than the experience of our own in-
ability to guide ourselves.
Ruh X. One of the noblest of the Christian virtues
is "to love our enemies." Remember this proverb
" Know thyself."
■ ' IS
which reflects every object in its just proportions. Beware
of those connections which may load you with dishonour.
They who raise envy will easily incur censure.
Rule XII. The greatest misery is to be condemned by
our own hearts. His highest enjoyment was to relieve
the distressed and good. It is a fact that we must die.
Rv^Q XIII. Intemperance leads to want, from want to
Rule XI. The gentle mind is like the smooth stream
u
90
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
misery from misery to sickness and from sickness to death.
He led forth his army figlits conquers and returns in
triumph.
Rule XIV. Be assured then tliat order shall prevail. I
will |)r()ceed secondly to point out our position. Finally,
I will repeat what I have ah'eady said.
Rule XV. To improve time while we arc blessed with
health will soothe the bed of sickness. Very often while
we are complaining of the vanity and evils of life we make
that vanity and increase those evils. If vouth be triiled
away without improvement riper years may be contemp-
tible and old age miserable.
SECTION II. — Sentences rrqidrin^/ the Sc.nicolon and
Comma,
The path of truth is plain and safe the path of falsehood
is a perplexing maxe. The passions are the chief de-
stroyers (.)f our peace the storms and tempests of the
moral worlil. Heaven is the region of gentleness and
peace e;irt!i a place of trial and \t\\ation. Levity is fre-
quently the forced i)roducti()u of lolly or vice cheerfulness
the natural olVspring of wisdom ami viitue.
SECTION 111. — Se)it('ncc,'! reqinrhnj the Colon, cVc.
The tliree great enemies to tranquillity are vice super-
stition and idleness vice which poisons and disturbs the
mind with bad jjassions superstition which fills it with
imaginary terrors idleness which loads it with tediousness
and distrust.
A mctajihor is a comparison expressed in an abridged
form but without any of the words that denote compari-
son as " To the upright there urisetli light in darkness.''
SECTION IV. — Sentences- rcquirhiff the insertion of the
Period, ^-c.
The absence of evil is real good Worldly pleasures
when too eagerly sought after tend to corruj)t the heart
Feeding the iiungry clothing the naked and comforting the
afili(.A(l afibrd true pleasure to the virtuous mind. If wo
look around us we shall see that the whole universe is
fuil of a(^tive power Remember thy Creator in the days
of thy youth I know this my friend that I have com-
mitted an error.
PUNCTUATION.
91
3 to death,
returns in
rcvail. I
Finally,
^sscd with
(ten while
we make
be trifled
contenip-
olon and
falsehood
chief de-
;sts of the
eness and
,-itv is fre-
icei'fulness
n, S,r.
ice super-
stuibs the
lis it with
idiousness
abridged
compari-
larivness."
on of the
pleasures
tlie heart
fortinn; the
I If wo
niverse is
ihe days
avc com-
>/
SECTION V. — Sentences requirmg the Capitals, poin
Interrogation, c^-c.
Histoi-y informs us That Constantino The groat, After
his advancement to Sole DoMiinion of the roman worid,
openly professed The christian faith, you know, that i
Wish to cultivate your Ac(iuaintance. solomon, the Son
of david, built the Temple of Jerusalem ; he was the
richest Monarch of the jews. Of whom were the Arti-
cles bou«rht. To wiio*n was the money i)aid. Who
counted It. Ah me. What folly.
regard the World with cautious eye,
nor Raise your expectations high.
Bee That the Balanced scales be such,
you neither fear nor ho})e too much.
SECTION VI. — Proiuiscuons exomples of de feci Ive Punctu-
ation, misapiUkation of Capitals, S^c.
W^hen Socrates was asked what man approached the
nearest to perfect iuip[)iness he answered That JMan who
has the lowest wants
She who studies her Glass neglects her lieart
Between Passion and Lying there is not a Finger's
breailth
The Freer we feel ourselves in the Presence of others
the more free are they he who is free makes free
Addison has remarked with equal Piety and Truth
that the Creation is a perpetual Feast to the Mind of a
Good Man
He who shuts out all evasion when he promises loves
truth
Tlie laurels of the Warrior arc dyed in Blood and
bedewed with Tears of the Widow and the Orphan
Between Fame and true Honour a Distinction is to be
made The former is a loud and noisy Applause the latter
a more silent and internal Homage Fame floats on the
Breath of the Multitude Honour rests on the Judgement
of the Thinking Fame May give Praise while it withholds
esteem true Honour implies Esteem mingled with respect
The one regards Particular distinguished Talents the
other looks up to the whole character.
«>.
ia^ ":^a>
IMAGE EVALUATION
TEST TARGET (MT-3)
1.25
121 115
*^ lU 12.2
!!f 144 ■"
2.0
us
Itt
ml]
U£ I
MUi.
• 1
p^
*»
■^
FhologFaphic
Sciences
Corporalion
^.
>
3
33 WIIT MAIN STRUT
WIUTM.N.Y. USM
('U)I73>4S03
6^
v..
\
\
>
\
92
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
If I am right thy grace impart
Still in the right to stay
Jf I am wrong O teach my heart
To find that better way
Save me alike from foolish pride
Or impious discontent
At aught thy wisdom has denied.
Or aught thy goodness lent
lost to virtue lost to manly thought
Lost to the noble sallies of the soul
"Who think it solitude to be alone
Communion sweet communion iai^e and high
Our reason guardian angel and our God
Then nearest these when others most remote
And all ere long shall be remote but these
Know then this truth enough for man to know
Virtue alone is happiness below
The only point where human bliss stands still
And tastes the good without the fall to ill
Where only merit constant pay receives
Is blest in what it takes and what it gives
The joy unequall d if its end it gain
And if it lose attended with no pain
Without satiety tho e er so blest
And but more relish d as the more distress d
EXERCISE.
Containing inttances of false Syntax promitcftouily
Though great has been his disobedience and his folly,
yet if he sincerely acknowledges his misconduct, he will
be forgiven.
On these causes depend all the happiness or misery,
which exist among men.
The property of James, I mean his books and furni-
ture, were wholly destroyed.
This prodigy of learning, this scholar, critic, and anti-
quarian, ivere entirely destitute of breeding and civility.
PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES.
93
That writer has given an account of the manner in
which Christianity has formerly been propagated among
the heathens.
We adore the Divine Being, he who is from eternity to
eternity.
Thou, Lord, who hath permitted affliction to come up-
on us, shall deliver us from it in due time.
In this place there were not only security, but an
abundance of provisions.
By these attainments are the master honoured, and the
scholars encouraged.
The sea appeared to be more than usually agitated.
Not one in fifty of those who call themselves deists
understand the nature of the religion they reject.
Virtue and mutual confidence is the soul of friendship.
Where these are wanting, disgust or hatred often follow
little differences.
I'ime and chance happeneth to all men j hut every
person do not consider who govern those powerful causes.
The active mind of man never or seldom rests satisfied
with their present condition, however prosperous.
Habits must be acquired of temperance and of self-
denial, that we may be able to resist pleasure, and to
endure pain, when either o( them interfere with our duty.
The error of resting wholly on faith, or on works, is
one of those seductions which nioj-t easily misleads men;
under the semblance of piety, on the one hanil, and of
virtue on the other hand.
It was no exaggerated tale ; for she was really in that
sad condition that her friend represented her.
An army present a painful sight to a feeling mind.
The enemies who wo have most fear, are those of our
own hearts.
Thou art the Messiah, the Son of God, who was to
come into the world, and has been so long promised
and desired.
Thomas disposition is l)etter than his brothers ; and he
appears to bo the happiest man : but some degree of trou-
ble is all mens portion.
Though remorse sleep sometimes during prosperity, it
will a^vake surely in adversity.
94.
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
It is an invariable law to our present condition thatevery
pleasure that are pursued to excess, convert themselves
into poison.
If a man brings into the solitary retreat of age a vacant
and unimproved mind, where no knowledge dawns, no
ideas rise, which within itself has nothing to feed upon,
many a heavy and many a comfortless day he must
necessarily pass.
I cannot yield to such dishonourable conduct, neither
at the present moment of difficulty, nor, I trust, under no
circumstance whatever.
He resembles one of those solitary animals that has
been forced from its forest to gratify human curiosity.
There is not, nor ought not to be, such a thing as con-
structive treason .
He is a new created knight, and his dignity sits awk-
ward on him.
Hatred or revenge are things deserving of censure
wherever they are found to exist.
If you please to employ your thoughts on that subject,
you would easily conceive our miserable condition.
. His speech contains one of the grossest and infamous-
est calumnies which ever was uttered.
A too great variety of studies dissipate and weaken
the mind.
Those two authors have each of them their merit.
James was resolved to not indulge himself in such a
cruel amusement.
Tlie not attending to this rule is the source of a very
common error.
Calumny and detraction are sparks, which if you do
not blow, they will go out of themselves.
Clelia is a vain woman, whom if we do not flatter,
she will be disgusted.
That celebrated work was nearly ten years published
before its importance was at all understood.
Ambition is so insatiable that it will make any sacri-
fice to attain its objects.
A great mass of rocks thrown together by the hand of
nature with wildness and confusion strike the mind
with more grandeur than if they were adjusted to one
another with the accuratest symmetry.
PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES.
9$
\thatevery
themselves
e a vacant
dawns, no
feed upon,
f he must
ict, neither
;, under no
Is that has
iriosity.
ing as con-
sits avvk-
of censure
lat subject,
lition.
infamous-
nd weaken
merit.
in sucli a
I of a very
I if you do
not flatter,
3 published
any sacri-
hc hand of
the mind
ited to one
They that honour me, I will honour j and them, that
despise me, shall be lightly esteemed.
Reason's whole pleasure, all the joys of sense,
Lies in three words, health, peace, and competence.
Having thus began to throw off the restraints of reason,
he was soon hurried into deplorable excesses.
These arts have enlightened, and will enlighten, every
l>erson who shall attentively study them.
When we succeed in our plans, it is not to be attributed
always to ourselves ; the aid of others often promote the
end, and claim our acknowledgment.
Their intention were good ; but wanting prudence,
they missed the mark for which they aimed.
1 have not, nor shall not consent to a proposal so unjust.
We have subjected ourselves to much expense that
thou may be well educated.
This treaty was made at Earl Moreton the Governor's
castle.
Be especially careful that thou givest no offence to the
aged or helpless.
The business was no sooner opened, but it was cordially
acquiesced in.
As to his general conduct, he deserved punishment as
much, or more than his companion. He left a son of a
singular character, and behaved so ill that he was put in
])rison.
If he docs but approve my endeavours, it will be an
ample reward.
1 beg the favour of your acceptance of a copy of a
view of the manufactories of the West Riding of tlio
coimty of York.
I intended to have written the letter before he urged
me to it ; and, therefore, he has not all the merit of it.
All the power of riilicule, aided by the desertion of
friends, and the diminution of his estate, were not able
to shake his principles.
No human happiness is so complete as does not con-
tain some imperfection.
His father cannot hope for this success unless his son
gives better proofs of genius, or applies himself with inde-
fatigable labour.
96
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
The house framed a remonstrance where they spoke
with great freedom of the king's prerogative.
The conduct, which has been mentioned, is one of
those artifices which seduces men most easily under ap-
pearance of benevolence.
This is the person, who we are so much obliged to,
and who we expected to have seen, when the favour
was conferred.
He is a person of great proptirty, but does not possess
the esteem of his neighbours.
They were solicitous to ingratiate with those, who it
was dishonourable to favour.
The great diversity, which takes place among men, is
not owing to a distinction that nature made in their orig-
inal powers, as much as to the superior diligence with
which some have improved those powers beyond others.
While we are unoccupied in what is good, evil is at
hand continually.
Not a creature is there that moves, nor a vegetable
grows, but what, when minutely examined, furnished
materials of pious admiration.
What can be the reason of the committee having de-
layed this business ?
I know not whether Charles was the author, but I un-
derstood it to be he.
A good and well cultivated mind is far more preferable
than rank or riches.
Neither flatter nor contemn the rich or the great.
He has travelled much, and passed tiuough many
stormy seas and lands.
You must be sensible that there is, and can be, no
other person but me who could give the imformati«)n
desired.
To be patient, resigned, and thankful, under atllictions
and disappointments, demonstrate genuine piety.
Alvarez was a man of corrupt principles, and of de-
testable conduct ; and, what is still worse, gloried in his
shame.
As soon as the sense of the Supreme Being is lost so
soon the great check is taken off which keep under re-
:itraint the passions of men. Mean desires, low pleas*
l>ROMtSCUOUS EXERCISES.
m
ey spoke
is one of
inder ap-
bliged to,
le favour
>t possess
(, who it
; men, is
leir orig-
nce with
d others,
evil is at
vegetable
furnished
ving de-
jut I un-
referable
at.
h many
n be, no
jrmation
mictions
1 of de-
d in his
s lost so
ider re-
r pleas-
ures, take place of the greater and the nobler sentiments
which reason and religion inspires.
We should be careful not to follow the example of
many persons, to censure the opinions, manners, and
customs of others, merely because they are foreign to us.
Steady application, as well as genius and abilities, are
necessary to produce eminence.
There is in that seminary several students considera-
bly skilled in mathematical knowledge.
If Providence clothe the grass of the field, and shelters
and adorns the flowers that every where grows wild
amongst it, will he not clothe and protect his servants
and children much more ?
We are too often hurried with the violence of passion,
or with the allurements of pleasure.
High hopes and florid views is a great enemy to
tranquillity.
Year after year steal something from us till the decay-
ing fabric totters of itself, and crumbles at length into dust.
I intended to have finished the letter before the bearer
called, that he might not have been detained j but I was
prevented by company.
EXERCISE. — A few instances of the same words constitut-
ing several oftJie parts of speech.
Calm was the day, and the scene (Jelightful.
We may expect a calm after a storm.
To prevent passion is easier than to calm it.
Better is a little with content, than a great deal with
anxiety.
Tile gay and dissolute think little of the miseries which
are stealing softly after them.
A little attention will rectify some errors.
Though he is out of danger, he is still afraid.
He laboured to still the tumult.
The few and the many have their prepossessions.
Few (lays pass without some clouds.
Much money is corrupting.
Think much, and speak little.
He has seen much of the world, and been much
caressed.
'i ■ ■
: ' i
i-<i^
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
His years are more than hers ; but he has not more
knowledge.
The more we are blessed, the more grateful we should
be.
The desire of getting more is rarely satisfied.
He has equal knowledge, but inferior judgment.
She is his inferior in sense, but his equal in prudence.
We must make like space between the lines.
Still waters are commonly deepest.
Damp air is unwholesome.
Guilt often casts a damp over our sprightliest hours.
Soft bodies damp the sound much more than hard
ones.
Though she is rich and fair, yet she is not amiable.
They are yet young, and must suspend their judgment
yet awhile.
Many persons are letter Ihan we suppose them to be.
Every thing loves its like.
Behave yourselves like men.
We are too apt to like pernicious company.
He may go or stay as be likes.
They strive to learn.
He goes to and fro.
To his wisdom we owe our privilege.
The proportion is ten lo one.
He served with his utmost ability.
When we do our utmost, no more is required.
I will submit, for submission brings peace.
It is for our health to be temperate.
! for better times.
1 have a regard for him.
He is esteemed, both on his own account, and on thoi
of his parents.
Both of them deserve praise.
APPENDIX.
99
not more
we should
;nt.
prudence.
5t hours,
than hard
miable.
: judgment
lem to be.
ed.
and on thai
APPENDIX.
Containing Rules for assisting young persons to write
with perspicuity and accuracy.
PERSPICUITY.
Perspicuity or clearness is the fundamental quality of style : a
quality so essential in every kind of writing that for the want of it
nothing can atone. Wc arc pleased with an author, who frees us
from the fatigue of searching for his meaning ; who carries us through
his subject without any embarrassment or confusion j whose style
flows like a limpid stream, through wiiich we see the very bottom.
CHAPTER I.
Of Perspicuity and Accuracy of expression withrespect to
single ivords and phrases.
These qualities of style require the following properties :
PuiiiTY, PuopuiETY, and Precision.
si:cTiox I — Of Purity.
Purity of style consist^ in the use of such words and phrases as
belong to tlie idiom of the language wliich we speak ; in opposition
to words and phras s that arc taken from other languages, or that
are ungrammalical, obsolete, new-coined, &,c. All such words and
phrases as tlic fnlljwing should be avoided ; Quoth he ; Iwist not ;
crewhile ; hauteur for haughtiness ; politesse for politeness, &c.
SECTION n — Of Propriety.
Propriety of hinguagc consists in the selection of such words as the
best usago has approprink'd to those ideas which we intend to ex-
press by them. 'I'iic loUowing are the rules for propriety :
Rah:: I. Avoid loiv expressions; such as, topsy-turvy,
hurly-hurly, pdl-mell, currying favour, left to shift for
thamsdvcs, &.c.
Rule II. In the same sentence be carefid not to use the
same tcord too frequently, nor in different senses; as, " A
person may luivo an air .(/;/iiWt proceeds from a knowledge
of the matter heforo him, which may naturally produce
some motion of head or body, which might become tiie
bench better than the bar.
The repetition of llio pronoun which throws obscurity over the
%vhole sentence. " Ciiai ity expands our hearts in love to God and
man : it is by the virtu': of charily that the rich are blessed, and
the poor supplied." The word charity is improperly used tn two
different senses ; for the highest benevolence, and for almsgiving.
''««
ioo
At>PENDtX.
Rule m. Avoid the injudicious use of technical terms.
Technical terms being used only by a peculiar class, we should
never employ them but when we know they will be understood. To
say, " We tacked to the larboard, and stood off to sea," would be
expressing ourselves very obscurely to those who do not understand
sea-phrases.
Rule rv. Avmd equivocal or ambiguous words; <w,
" He aimed at nothing less than the crown.''
This sentence may denote either, " Nothing inferior to the crown
could satisfy his ambition ;" or, '< That the obtaining of the crown
was the least of his ambition : and so for the expression ; "I will
have mercy, and not sacrifice :"
Rule y. Avoid unintelligible and inconsistent words or
phrases ; as, " This temper of mind keeps our understand-
ing tight about us."
It is not easy to determine the meaning of this sentence, or
whether it has any meaning whatever.
Rule VI. Avoid all those words and phrases which are
not adapted to the ideas toe mean to communicate, or which
are less significant than others of those ideas ; as,
" He feels all the sorrow that can arrive at jman ; it should be
" happen to man." " We assent to the beauty of the objects, and
we acknowledge the truth of the proposition," better, *' We aclcnowl'
edge the beauty and assent to the truth." ** A traveller observes
the most striking objects ; a general remarks all the motions of the
enemy j" better thus, " A general observes ; a traveller remarks."
SECTION III. — Of Precision,
Precision in writing consists in retrenching superfluities, and in
pruning the expression, so as to exhibit neither more nor less than an
exact copy of the person's idea who uses it. The following are the
most general rules for precision j
Rule I. The words iised should exactly express the
idea which the author intends.
Rule II. 27iey should express that idea fuUy and com-
pletely.
Rule in. Thei/ should express the idea, and nothing
more.
The human mind never can view clearly and distinctly more than
one object at the same time. If it must look at two or three togeth-
er, especially objects that bear resemblance or connection, it finds
itself confused and embarrassed. It cannot clearly perceive in what
they agree and in what they differ. All subjects do not require an
equal degree of precision. In those of a well known and familiar
kind we are at no hazard of mistaking the sense of the author,
though every word is not precise and exact.
A great source of loose style arises from the injudicious use of
APPENDIX.
101
Ht!(-.
il terms.
, we should
rstood. To
' would be
understand
ords ; of,
»the crown
r the crowii
ij «I will
words or
iderstand-
entencej or
which are
!, or iohich
Si
t should be
objects, and
'^e acJcnowl-
ler observes
itions of the
emarks."
les, and in
ess than an
ing are the
vpress the
and com-
d nothing
r more than
iree togeth-
Lion, it finds
ive in what
require an
ind familiar
the author,
;iou8 use of
■tvords which arc improperly termed synonymonsj They agree in ex-
pressing one principal idea ; but thoy mfjst generally express it with
some diversity of circumstance. The ibllon-ing are instances which
will show the difference in the meaning of words reputed synonymous.
Custom, habit. — By custom we mean the frequent repetition of the
same act ; by habit, the effect which that rcpctiUon produces on the
mitid or body. By the ciistojn of walking the streets a person ac-
quires the hitbit of idleness.
Pride, vanity. — Pride makes us esteem ourselves, Tanily makes us
desire the esteem of others.
Haughtiness, disdain. — Haughtiness is founded on the high opin-
ion we entertain of ourselves ; disdain, on the low opinion we have
of others.
Wisdom, prudence. — Wisdom leads us to speak and do ivhat is
most proper ; prudence prevents us from speaking or acting improperly.
Tranquillity, peace, culm. — Tranquillity represents a situation free
from trouble ; peace, the same situation with respect to any cause
that might interrupt it ; culm, with regard to a disturbed situation
going before or following it.
CHAPTER II.
Of Perspimiti/, Accurmj/ of expression ivith respect to
the construction of sentences.
Sentences in general slioukl ncillier be very long, nor
very short: long sentences require close attention to
make us clearly perceive the connection of the
several parts ; and short ones are apt to break the sense
and weaken the connection of thought. A succession of
either long or short sentences should be avoided ; but by
a proper mixture of both the ear will be gratified, and
animation given to style. The things most essential in an
accurate and perfect sentence are Clearness ; Unity ;
Strength, and A Judicious use of the Figures op
Speech.
SKCTioN I. — Of the Clearness of a Sentence,
Whatever leaves the mind in suspense as to the meaning should be
avoided. Obscurity arises from two causes ; either from a wrong
choice of words, or from the arrangement of them. The following
rules may serve in some degree to direct the learner ^vith regard to
the proper disposition of words in a sentence.
Rule I. Let those words or memherSf rcMch arc clearly
related, he placed in the sentence as near to each other as
possible, so that their nmtual relation mm) clearhj appear.
Rule H. Never crowd too mawf circumstances together^
hut rather intersperse them in different parts of the sen-
tmice, joined ivith the prhmpal imrds on which thy
dapend.
K
. 1
102
APPENDIX.
Obscurity frequently arises from a wrong position of the adverbs,
relative pronouna, and particles that express the connection of differ-
ent parts of speech ; as in the following examples ; •' The Romans
understood liberty at least as well as we." The words are capable
of two different meanings according as the emphasis in reading
them is laid upon liberty, or at least. The construction should be,
" The Romans understood liberty as well at least as we." " This
kind of wit among oi\r con ninjmm about a century ago was very
much in vogue, who did not use it for any other purpose than purely
for the sake of being witty :" it shou'd be, " This kind of wit about
a century ago was very much in vogue among cur countryvicn,
who," &,c. The relative should generally be placed immediately
after its antecedent.
Much obscurity sometimes arises from the too frequent use of the
pronouns ; as," Men look with an evil eye upon the virtues of others,
and think that their reputation obscures than, and their commenda-
ble qualities stand in their light ; andtherel\re they do ^vhat they can
to cast a cloud over them, that the bright shining of their virtues may
not obscure them," This is altogctiicr careless writing, and should
be avoided.
SECTION II — Of the nn'di) of a sentence.
To preserve Die unity of a sentence the fallowing rules should be
observed.
Rule J. During the course of a sentence let the scene he
changed as little as possible.
We shDuld not be hurried from person to person, or from object to
object. There is commonly in every rcntence some person or thing
which is the governing word ; this should be continued, if possible,
from the beginning to the end.
Rule II. Neccr crowd into one sentence things that have
so little conneclion that they could hear to he divided into
two or three sentences.
Tlie violation of this rule tends so much to pcrjilex and obscure the
sense, that it is safer to err by too many short sentences than by one
that is overliided and embarrassed. For instiuiec, an author tells us ;
" Archbishop Tillotson died in the last year, lie was exceedingly
beloved by King William and Mary, who nominated Dr. Tennison,
bishop of Lhicoln, to succeed )iim." ^Vlio would expect the latter
part of the sentence to follow as a consequence if the former 7
Rule in. Avoid all unnecessary paradheses.
On some occasions, uhen the sentc is not too long suspended by
them, and when ihey are introduced in a prcpcr place, they may add
both to the vivacity and ^o the energy of (i.o sciitcnec. But for the
most part their effect is bad ; they are wheclo within wheels ; sen-
tences in the miclHl. of sentences ; a perplexed method of disposing of
some thought, whieh th'; writer for the want of judgement did not in-
4,roduce in its preper ])lace.
The parenthesis in this sentence is striKinp; and proper;
*' And v.'as the ransoiri pnid 1 It uas ; tnid j-aid
" (VVliat can exalt the bounty more •.) hi' thee."
APPENDIX.
103
the adverbs,
tion of differ-
The Romans
are capable
8 in reading
)n should be,
^e." " ThU
go was very
e than purely
, of wit about
countnjmen,
immediately
snt use of the
;ues of others,
r commenda-
what they can
ir virtues may
r, and should
ce.
les should be
the scene be
from object to
erson or thing
id, if possible,
rjs that have
Uvidcd into
id obscure tiic
cs than by one
illinr tells us ;
exceedingly
Dr. Tennison,
)ect the latter
brmcr ']
•
suspended by
they may add
. But for the
wheels ; scn-
cf disposing of
cat did not in-
icr :
But in the following sentence we become sensible of an impro-
priety in the use of it. " If your hearts secretly reproach you for the
wrong choice you have made (as there is tiinc for repentance and re-
treat ; and a return to wisd )in is always honourable) bethink your-
selves that the evil is not irreparable."
The following very general rule may be given for the unity of a
sentence :
Make all the parts of a sentence correspond to cacli
other, and preserve a regular and dependent construction
throughout.
The following sentence is therefore inaccurate ; " He was more
beloved, but not so much admired as Cinthio ;" it should be, '' He
was more beloved than Cinthio, but not so mucli admired."
SECTION lit — Oftho strength of a sentence.
By strengtli of a sentence is meant such a disposition and manage-
ment oftho several words and members as shall bring out the sense
to the best advaiita|j;c, and give to every word, every member, its due
weight and forec. To promote the strength of a sentence the follow-
ing rules should be observed.
Rule I. The sentence should he primed of all redundant
words and mcmhers.
It is a general maxim that any word, which does not add some im-
portance to the meaiuiig of a sentence, always injures it. Care should
therefore be taken to avoid synonymous words, circumlocutions,
tautologies, and the expression of unnecessary circumstances.
The f, llowin;;; sentences an; faulty ; '• In the Attic conimonwealth
it was the privilege uiid birthright of every citizen and poet to read
aloud and m public." Cotter thus, " In tin Attic commoiiwealtli
it was the privilege of every citizen to read in public." " They
returned back again to the same city from which they came forth';"
better, " 'I'hey returned to the city whence they came." The words
back, again, same, from, \xw\foiih, art all uimccessary.
Ride II. The second rule is to attend partimlarly to
the use of copulatlcesj Q'elatives, and all particles employed
for tramition and, conneHimi.
The little words but, and, if, by, of, or, then, lohich, tvhosc, &c.,
are frequently the most important Avords in a sciitct\ce. They are
the joints or hingt^s upon wiiich the sentence turns ; and of course
much of its strength will depend on these particles. The various
forms, in which they are used, arc so numerous that no j)articular
system of rules respeeting them can be given. AA'ilh regard to tlie
particle and, honever, it may be observed that tlie unnecessary repeti-
tion of it tends to eiiCecble style; and on some occasions, wiicn the
connection is clear Avithout it, the expression is more forcible and
rapid than if the particle iiad been used ; as, " I came, I saw, I
conquered."
Rale III. The third rule is to dispose of the capital
word or words so that they may make the greatest impreS'
sion.
104
APPENDIX.
The important words for the most part are placed in the beginning
of the sentence ; as in the following examples ; " Silver and gold I
have none; but what I have I will give you." " Your ^fathers,
where are they V
Rule IV. The fourth rule is that a weaker assertion or
proposition sho^lld 'never come after a stronger one ; and
that, ivhen the sentence consists of tico members, the lon-
ger should generally he the concluding one»
In general it is agreeable to find a sentence rising in its progress
and importance to ttie very last word, when this constructton can be
managed without atl'ectation.
Rtde V. A sentence should never he concluded loith an
adverb, a preposition y or any inconsiderable word.
Thefcjllowing sentences are therefore inaccurate ; " Avarice is a
crime which wise men are often guilty of;" it should be '• 0/ which
wise men,'" &.c. " He may have been unfortunate in his business,
but he failed through his own neglect, to say no toor.sc." The last
phrase, t^ ^ay no ivorse, has a bad effect at the end of the sentence.
Care sliould be taken not to conclude a sentence with the words of,
to, with, by, it, about, &,c.
sr.CTioN III. — Tropes or Figures of Speech.
The fourth requisite of a perfect sentence is a judicious use of the
Figures of Speech.
In general Figures of Speech imply some departure from simplicity
of expression ; tlic idea, which we mean to convey, is expressed in a
particuhxr manner, and with some circumstance added, which is
designed to render I he impression more strung and vivid. When we
say " A good man enjoys comfort in the midst of adversity ;" we ex-
press our thouj;hts in tlie simplest manner ; but, wiien we say " To
the iiprigiit tliere ariacth a li^lit in tlii; hour of darkness," the same
sentiment is expressed in a figurative style ; light is put for comfort
and darlciicss fur adverhity.
The principal advantast s of the figures of speech are the followuig ;
First. Tluy enr'ch language, and render it more copious. Secoml,
Th(.y frequently give us a much clearer and more striking view of the
principal olijcct than we could have, il' it were expressed in simpli
terms, and liivested of ils acccssury idea.
The i'ollowiu!^' art tlie principal, viz ;
Mctiiplior, SyiK'cddolio,
Alk'giny, i'r'rsoiiifu'jitiou,
Coiiniarison, Apostrophe,
Mctoiiyiiiy, AntitliosLs,
A Mdiphor is ariufurt; Ibimdoileiitiivlyoii tlu? rosom
blaiit'o ^vllU'h one thine: iK.ars to imutlior ; as, wljen wc
say of a ;?ivat ijian, " Ifo i^^ tho pillar of the* Stato."
The following rules should lieobservdl in the use of the metaphor.
Huie I. Thi!y should not bu used too [)rolus<'ly, and
iryjK'fholo,
Ex<'hiuiation,
Irony,
Cliiuax.
he beginning
r and gold I
'our ^fathera,
ssertion or
one; and
rs, the lon-
\ its progress
ictton can be
'ed with an
3rd.
' Avarice is a
)e '* of which
his business,
." The last
the sentence,
the words of,
H;ech.
ous use of the
rum simplicity
expressed in a
ded, which is
id. When we
•sily ;" we ex-
1 wc say " To
:3S," the same
)ut for comfort
the following ;
iouH. Secoiul,
iiif^ view of tht
hissed in sinipk
l)olo,
iati«)ii,
I tin' roseni
as, when \vi'
State."
' tli(! mclnphor.
uluscly, and
APPENDIX.
105
m
should always be such as accord with the strain of our
sentiment.
Rule II. Care shoidd be taken that the resemblance,
which is the foundation of nictaplior, bo clear and per-
spicuous, not ftir-fetchod nor difficult to discover.
Rule III. Metaphorical and plain language sliould
never bo jumbled together.
Rule IV. Two inconsistent metaphors should never
meet ,on one subject ; as,
I bridle in my strugi^ling muse with pain
That longs to launch iulc» a bolder strain.
The muse, flgureJ as a horse, may be bridled ; but, when we speak
of liunching, wc make it a ship ; und by no force f)f imagination can
it be supposed both a horse and a ship at the same moment.
AUcyorij. — An alh^^'ory may bo rogiirdod as a meta-
phor continued through a series of sentences. Tlio rules
for the metaphor may in general be ai)plied to allajory :
indeed the <inly material diflerenco between the two
figures is, that a metai)hor always oxjilains itself by
words that are connected with it in their propoi* mean-
ing ; as, " Achilles was a lion in battle ;'' liei'o the word
lion is sutlieiently interpreted by tin* mention of Aehilles.
The Scriptures contain many beautiful examples ofalbgory ; wo
shall select one from the SOtli I'salm, wliere the people cf hracl are
rcprescnled under the iniaj;e of a vine ;
" Thou hast brought a vine out of T.gypt: Thou hast cast out the
heathen and planted it. TIjuu prepanMlst. room before it ; and didst
cause it to take deep root, and it filled the land, TI»e hills were
covered with the shadow of it : and tlie boughs lhcre(;( were like the
goodly cedars. She sent out her boughs unto tlic sea, nnd her
brauelies unto the river, WhyliastTliou broken down her hedges, so
that all they, wiiieh pasa by the way, do jduek her ? The In ur out of
the wo.d doth wasto it, and the wild beast of the field di/lli devour
it. Ueturn, wo boseeeh'fliee, (Jodof Hosts, look down from heaven,
and behold, and visit this \\\w. !"
Comparison or iSiinilc. — Com[)arison, or Simile, is the
resend>lance between two objects (>jcpressed in form, and
generally piu'sueil more fully than the uiiture of tlie met-
aphor admits ; as, •' True virtue is like (joJd in the
furnaee : the more it is heated, the brighter it chines."
" As the mountains are about Jerusalem, so the Lord is
round about His peo|>le."
Mdoiufini/. — Metonymy is the substitution of the name
of the cauM for the elleot, the cniifniner for the eoutained.
the si^n for the thing signilled ; as, " lie read Milton ;"
106
APPENDIX,
tliat is, " Milton's works.'* " Gray hairs should bo
respected ;" " gray hairs" arc put for " old ago." "The
kettle boils ;" " kettle," for water.
Si/nccdoche. — By Synecdoche is meant the substitu-
tion of a part for the wliole, or a whole for a part ; as,
"A fleet of twenty mil." Sail, for ships; and when
we use the head for the person ; ivaves for the sea, &c.
Personification. — Personification is that figure by
which we attribute life and action- to inanimate objects ;
as, " The earth smiles with plenty ;'' Historr/ informs
lis ;" " The desert shall rejoice and bloom as the rose.''
Apostrophe. — Apostrophe is a turning off from the
regular subject to address some absent person or thing ;
as, "Death is swallowed up in victory. O death!
where is thy sting ? O grave ! where is thy victory?"
Antithesis. — Antithesis is a figure which strengthens
the language and heiglitens the eftect by contrasting
objects of opposite characters; as, "If you wish to en-
rich a man, study not to increase his stores, but to
diminish his desires." " Though deep, yet clear ; though
gentle, yet not dull."
Hi/perhole. — The Hyperbole consists in magnifying an
object beyond its natural bounds ; as, when we say,
" As swift as the ivind ;" " As quick as liyhtning ;"
*' White as snow.'''
Hyperboles arc of two kinds ; cither such ns arc rtnplnyed in dc-
scription, or such us art! siii!;'j;estcd hy the warmth of passion. All
passions without exception, love, terror, amazement, indignation, and
oven ^rief, throw tlic mind into confusion, ug;>;rnvate their object!,
and of course prompt a hyperbolical style. Hence the following
sentiments of Satan in Milton, as strongly as they are described, con-
tain nothing; but whnt is natural and proper ; exhibiting the picture
uf a mind agitated uith rage and despair.
Me miserable ! which way shall I fly
Inlinite wruth, and inflnitfc despair i
Which way I fly is Hell, myself am Hell ;
And in the lowest depth a lower deep,
Still threatening to devour mc, opens wide,
To which the Hell I sufl'er seems a Heaven.
The fear of an enemy augments the conceptions of the size of their
leader. "I saw their chief,*' says the scout of Ossian, " tall as a
rock of ice; his spear, the blasted fir; his shield, the rising muon ;
he sat on the shore, like a cloud of mist on the hill."
E.nlamation. — Ivxdanmtion is an expression of some
sf'ntinieut produced by strong emotions of the mind ;
APPENDIX.
107
loiild bo
"The
ubstitu-
)art ; as,
id when
?<?a, &c.
?iire by
objects ;
informs
i rose/'
rom the
r thing ;
) death!
?tory?"
Dngthens
iitrasting
h to en-
but to
; though
ifying an
we say,
htning ;"
lycd in dp-
ision. All
lation, and
ir objectf,
following
ribcd, con-
lie picture
zc of their
' tall us a
ig muon;
[)f some
! mind ;
such as those of surprise, admiration, joy, grief, &c., as,
*' O wretched man that I am !" " Ah me miserable !"
Irony. — Irony is a figure whieli consists in expressing
ourselves in a manner contrary to our thoughts, not
however with a view to deceive, but to add force to our
observations; as, when wo reprove a person for negli-
gence, by saying, " You have taken great care indeed."'
Ironical language has cllen a very strong cH'cct j particularly
when used by way of an exhoitation ; as for instance, when a person
has set forth the inconsistency ( f a thing, lie concludes with a feigned
encouragement to pursue it. Exclamation and Irony are sometimes
united ; as in Cicero's oration lor Balbus, where he derides his
accuser by saying, " O excellent interpreter of tiie law ! master of
antiquity ! corrector and amciuler (jf our constitution !"
(Jlimax. — Climax consi^sts in heightening all the cir-
cumstances of an object or action which we desire to
place in a strong light.
Cicero gives a lively instance of this figure when he says ; " It is a
crime to put a IJoman citizen in bonds ; it is tlie height of guilt to
scourge him : little less than parricide to put him to death: what
name then shall I give to the act of crucifying him '!"
There arc several other figures, such as P^.s/o/i, or Imagery, which
represents absent objects as actually jTc^sent; and Interrogation,
when a question is asked with the design of gaining information, but
for the purpose of defying contradiction to something already stated.
Balaam addressing himself to Balak says, '' The Lord is not a man
that He should lie, neither is He the sen of a man that He should re-
pent. Hath He said it 1 and shall He not do it '{ Hath He spoken
it ? and shall He not make it good %
Loc.rc.
Logic in its extensive sense may be considered as the sckncf, and
tlie art of reasoning.
It investigate!" the principles on which argumentation is deduced,
and furnishes rides to secure the mind from error in its deductions.
As it institutes an analysis of the process oi \\\v mind in reas(ming,
it is strictly a scicurr ; but, considered in reference! to the practical
rules above mentioned, it may be called tiie art of rcasdiiing.
SECTION I — Of tin; Opi^rations of the Mind.
In every argument there are three operations of the mind inunrdi-
ately concerned ; namely, Simple Jlpprc/icnsiun ; Judgment ; and
Reasoninf^.
Simple Apprehension is the conception of an object in tlie mind
analogous to the pereep ion of tlie senses. Judgment is the com-
paring together in tlie mind of two of the ideas wliieh are the objects
of apprehension. Keasonitig is the act of proceeding from one judg-
ment to another founded on the preceding one, or the result of it.
Hi;(;TioN II — (>/' iSi/llo(jltiitiJ>.
An act of apprehension expressed in language is culled a term ;
108
APPENDIX.
an act of judgment a proposition ; and an act of reasoning an
argument. An argument, regularly expressed, is called a Syllogism.
A Syllogism therefore is an argument consisting of
three tei-ms so arranged that the conclusion, or third
term, necessarily follows from the other two ; as,
Every virtue is commendable.
Diligence is a virtue ;
Therefore diligence is commendable.
Every Syllogism has three ternis ; viz. the major, the minor, anu
the middle term, or, as they are sometimes called, the major and
minor extremes, and tlic niiddlc term. The major term is the attri-
bute of the conclusion ; the minor term, the subject of the conclusion :
and the middle term is tliat with wliieh the other two terms are com-
pared in order to judge of their agreement or disagreement. Every
syllogism moreovcrhiis three prepositions ; viz. the major proposi-
tion ; the minor proposition ; and the conclusion. The major pro-
position contains the major extreme and the middle term ; as, in the
above exa.m^\c, '' Every virtue is commendable." The minor pro-
position contains the minor extreme and the middle term; as,
'■' Diligence is a virtue.*^ The conclusion contains the major and
minor terms or extremes ; as, " The re fore diligence is corninendable.^*
In forming a Syllogism its validity may be tested by the following
rules :
Ruh I. If two torm^ agree with one and the same
third, they will agree Avith each other ; as,
A is equal to B,
And C is equal to B ;
Tliereforo A is equal to C.
Bale II. If one term agrees, and another disagrees
with one and the same third, these two will <lisagrcc
with each other. On the former of these rules rests tlu-
validity of affirmative conclusions ; on the latter, of
tuigatke. The major proposition of every Syllogism
sliuuld be universal, and ineontestably true. The fol-
lowing Syllogism is thei'elbre incorrect.
Some men arc intemperate ;
John is a man ;
Therefore he is intemperate.
But if we say ; All met) siiall die,
.lohn is a man ;
Therefore lie shall die ; it is correct.
Fioiu an ambiguous middle no defmite conulusion
can )Ki drawn ; as,
Light is contrary to dark»css ; •;
I'eathcrs are light ; therefore
Feathers arc contrary to darkness.
From uegatiNe j)remises nothing can bo inferred ; as,
A ti.Hh is not a quadruped ;
A bird is not a quadruped, proveM nothing.
APPENDLX.
109
oning an
Syllogism.
tiiig of
[)r third
tnor, anu
najor and
I the altri-
)nclusion :
1 are com-
it . Every
r proposi-
najor prc-
as, in the
niiior pro-
term ; as,
major and
lendable."
following
he same
lisagrees
<lisagrue
rests the
ittor, of
yllogiam
Tho fol-
udusioi'.
re<l ; as,
ing.
SECTION III — Of the Dilemma.
A Dilemma ig a conditional Syllogism with several antecedents
in the major and a disjunctive minor term. The beauty of the .
dilemma consists chiefly in this, thatHhe truth of the proposition is in-
disputably established from either of its premises ; the opponent is
left no alternative, but forced to admit the inference.
Example. — " If that man were wise, he would not
speak irreverently of Scripture in a jest ; and, if he were
virtuous, ho would nut do so in earnest ; but he does it
either in jest or earnest ; therefore he is either umcisa
or mdous." Demosthenes in his Oration for the Crown
says ; "If iEschines joined in the public reioicings, he is
inconsistent ; if he did not, he is unpatriotic ; but ho
cither joined in the public rejoicings, or did not ; there-
fore he is either hicomistent or unpatnotic."
SECTION IV. — Of the Enthymeme and Sorites.
The Enthymcme is a kind of Syllogism with one premise oxpreysed
and the other understood. It is the ordinary form of speaking and
writing ; as,
" Ciesar was a tyrant ; therefore ho doscrxed death."'
" A free peoi)le are happy ; therefore the liritish are
hai)py."
VVIicn we have a series of Syllogisms in Avhich the conclusion of
the first is made the premise of the second, and so on, till we arrive
at the ultimate conclusion, it is called a Sorites ; as,
" Tile British are a brave people : ii brave ])eo})le are
free ; a free people arn happy ; therefore the IBritisli ai o
happy."
SECTION V — Of Omtonj.
Oratory is tho art of speaking justly, metliodically,
and elegantly upon any subject, so as to please, persuade,
and uistriict. A sj)eech, nia-le or delivert'd accoi'ding to
the ruk's of this art, is called an oration, and the
speaker, an orator.
An Oration has live parts, viz, the Exordium, Narra-
tion, Coiilinniition, Urlutation, and IVroration.
The E.vordium, or Preamble, is the beginning of the
Oratiim, designed to secure the attention of tlie hearers,
gain their good opinion, and giw them a general idea
of the subject. It should be brief, modest, and per-
s[)icnous.
The Narration is a n-cital of facts as they occiured, or
su[)p()sed to liave occurred. It shoidd be ma<l(! as pro-
bable, perspicuous, interesting, and concise as })ossil)l('
E2
110
APPENDIX.
The Confirmation is the establishing of the truth, or
proposition, as advanced in the Narration.
The Refutation, which should ever be lively and
pungent, is the repelling of the arguments of the oppos-
ing party by showing them to be false, unsound, or in-
conclusive.
The Peroration, or Conclusion, recapitulates the prin-
cipal arguments in a concise, forcible, and impressive
manner, so as to excite the feelings, and awaken love,
pity, or hatred.
GENDER.
There are in the English language many words which require a
different termination in order to distinguish the sex ; for, when we say
of a M'oman, she is a philosopher, an astronomer, an actor, a builder,
SiC, we perceive an impropriety in the termination ; hence arises the
necessity of a difference in form or^termination in order to point out
the proper distinction.
Our language has three methods of distinguishing the
sex.
1 . By different words j
Masculine.
Feminine.
Masculine.
Feminine. ,
Bachelor,
maid.
King,
queen.
Boar,
sow.
Lad,
lass.
Boy,
girl.
Lord,
lady.
Brother,
sister.
Man,
woman.
Buck,
doc.
Master,
mistreis.
Bull,
cow.
Milter,
■pawner.
Cock,
hen.
Nephew,
niece.
Dog,
bitch, slut.
Ram,
ewe. [singer
Drake,
duck.
Singer,
songstreu, or
Earl,
countess.
Sir,
madam.
Father,
motlier.
Sloven,
slut.
Friar,
nun.
Son,
daughter.
Gander,
goose.
Stag,
hind.
Hart,
roe.
Steer,
heifer.
Horse,
mare.
Uncle,
aunt.
Huisband,
wife.
Wizard,
witch.
2. By a terminational difference
•
Abbot,
abbesa.
Bridegroom,
bride.
Actor,
actress.
Caterer,
cateress.
Administrator,
administratrix.
Chanter,
chantrcss.
Adulterer,
adulteress.
Conductor,
conductress-
Ambassador,
ambassadress.
Count,
countess.
Arbiter,
arbitress.
Czar,
czarina.
Auditor,
auditroHH.
Deacon,
deaconess.
Author,
authoress.
Director,
directress.
Uaron,
baroness.
Duke,
duchess.
Bono^aclor,
bencfuclrcss.
Elector,
electrcia.
ruth, or
ely and
e oppos-
d, or in-
he prin-
ipressive
en love,
require a
len we Bay
a builder,
arises the
I point out
ihlng the
\ne.
fi.
IS.
er.
[singer.
ress, or
n.
«r.
IS.
tress.
ss.
1.
ICSS.
CSS.
8.
■s.
•
APPENDIX.
Ill
Masculine.
Feminine.
Masculine.
Feminine.
Emperor,
empress.
Lion,
lioness.
£nclianter,
enchantress.
Marquis,
marchioness*
Executor,
executrix.
Mayor,
mayoress.
Fornicator,
fornicatress.
Patron,
patroness. ,j
God,
goddess,
Peer,
peeress.
Governor,
governess.
Poet,
poetess.
Heir,
heiress.
Priest,
priestess.
Hero,
heroine.
Prince,
princess.
Host,
hostess.
Prior,
prioress.
Hunter,
huntress.
Prophet,
prophetess.
Iniieritor,
inheritress.
Proprietor,
proprietress.
Instructor,
instructress.
Protector,
protectress.
Jew,
Jewess.
Shepherd,
shepherdess.
Tutor,
tutoress.
Songster,
songstress.
Tyrant,
tyranness.
Sorcerer,
sorceress.
Victor,
victress.
Sultan,
sultana.
Viscount,
viscountess.
Tiger,
tigress.
Votary,
votaress.
Testator,
testatrix.
Widower,
widow.
Traitor,
traitress.
.3. By prefixing another word : as
A cock-f
parrow,
a hen-sparrow.
A he-bear
a she-bear.
" A he-goat,
a she-goat.
A male-child,
a female-child.
Male descendants.
female descendants.
A man-servant,
a maid-servant.
NUMBER.
The following
C table exhibits tlie method of forming the plural of
those nouns which have been
adopted from the Hebrew, Greek, and
Latin languages
.
Singular.
■
riural.
Cherub.
(^horubim.
Seraph.
Sorapliim.
Appendix.
\ Appendices or,
} Appendixes.
Antithesis.
Antitheses.
Automaton.
Automata.
Basis.
Bases.
Crisis.
Crimes.
Criterion.
Criteria.
Diaeresis.
Diaereses.
Ellipsis.
Ellljines.
Emphasis.
Kiiil-hases.
Hypothesis.
llyjKJtheses.
Metamorphosis.
Metamorphose*. .
rhenomcnon<
Phenouiona.
- i
112
APPENMX.
Shigidar.
Arcanum.
Axis.
Calx.
Datiini.
Effluvium.
Encomium.
Erratum.
Genius.
Gonus.
Index.
Lamina.
Medium.
Magus.
Memorandum.
Radius.
Stamen.
Stratum.
Vortex.
Plural,
Arcana.
Axes.
Calces.
Data.
Effluvia.
\ Encomia or
{ Encomiums.
Errata.
Genii or GeniuseKS.
Genera.
(Indices or
\ Indexes.
Lamime.
Media.
Magi.
(Memoranda (^
\ Memorandums.
Radii.
Stamina.
Strata.
Vortices.
Some words, derived from the learned languages, are confined tu
the pluial number ; as, antipodes, credenda, literati, minutiae.
The following nouns, being in Latin both singular and plural, art
used in the same manner when adopted into our tongue ; hiatus, ap-
paratus, series, species.
Rules ofSpellbu/ and Exercisea hi false Orthograj)hy.
Rule 1.— IVIonosyilablea ending with f, 1, or s, preceded by a single
vowel, double (he linal consonant ; as, staff, mill, pass, kc. The
only exceptions are, of, if, as, is, has, was, yts, his, this, us, aiid thus.
It is no great merit to spel properly ; but a great
defect to do it incorrectly.
Jacob worsliiped his Creator leaning on tho top of
his staf.
We may j)1aco too little, as well as too much stn-s
upon dreams.
Our manner should bo neither gros, nor excessively
rclinod.
Rule 2. — Monofiyllables ending with any consonant but f, I, f)r s,
and pn-cedcd by a single vowel, never double the final consonant ;
excepting only, add, cbl), butt, egg, odd, err, inn, bunn, purr,and buzz .
A carr siguifiea a chariot of war, or a small carriage
of burden.
APPENDIX.
113
onlincd lu
iae.
plural, art
iiutus, ap-
ra/phy.
by a single
&c. The
, aiid thu^.
a grout
D top of
ich str«'»
[;«?ssivel}-
; f, I, nr s,
onsonunt ;
,arid Im/z .
carriage
In the names of druggs and plants the mistake in a
word may endanger life.
The finn of a lish is the limb by which he balances
his body and moves in the water.
Many a trapp is laid to insnare the feet of youth.
Rule 3. — Words ending with y, preceded by a consonant, form the
plurals of nouns, the persons of verbs, verbal nouns, past participles,
comparatives, and superlatives, by changing y into i ; as spy, spies ;
I carry, thou carriest ; he carrieth or carries ; carried ; happier,
happiest.
The present participle in ing retains the y, that i may not be
doubled ; as carry, carrying ; burying, &c.
But y, preceded by a vowel, in such instances as the above, is not
changed ; as, boy, boys ; I cloy, he cloys, cloyed, &c. ; except in
lay, pay, and say ; from which are formed, laid, paid, and said ; and
their compounds, unlaid, unsaid, &c.
We should subject our fancys to the government of
reason.
If thou .art seeking for the living amongst the dead,
thou wearyest thyself in vain.
If wo have denyed ourselves sinful pleasures, wo shall
bo great gainers in the end.
Rule -X. — Words ending with y, preceded by a consonant, upon
assuming an additional syllable heninning with a consonant, com-
monly change y into i ; as happy, happily, happiness. Dut when y is
preceded by a vowel, it is vt ry rarely changed in the additional sylla-
ble ; as, coy, coyly ; boy, boyish, boyhood j annoy, annoyed, annoy-
ance ; joy, joyless, joyful, &c.
It is a gi-cat blo^sing to have a sound mind, uninflu-
enced by fanciful huiuours.
Comniori calamities, and common blessings, fjill heav-
ily upon the envious.
The coiiiclynoss of youth are modesty and frankness ;
of age, condescension and dignity.
When wo act against conscience, we become the
destroiers of our pi'ace.
Rule 5. — Mon');<ylliibles, nnd words accented (in the last syllable,
ending willi a siiiL';!*' consonant preceded by a single vowel, double
that consonant, when flicy take anotiier syllable beginning with a
vowel; as Avit,, witty; thin, thiniiish; to abet, an abettor; to
begin, a beginner.
But, if a diphtliong precedes, or the aeeetit is on the preceding syl-
lable, the consonant, remains siisglo ; as, to toil, l(;iling, to otfer, an
olfering, maid, maiden, &,c.
When wo bring the lawmaker into contempt, we have
in effect annuled his lay.'s,
114
APPENDIX.
By defying our repentance wc accumulate our sorrows.
The pupils should bo permited to ask questions.
We all have many faiUings and lapses to lament and
recover.
The Christian Lawgiver has prohibitted many things,
which the heathen philosophers allowed.
Rule 6. — Words ending with any double letter but 1, and taking
ness, less, ly, or ful, after them, preserve the letter double ; as, harm-
lessness, carelessness, carelessly, stiffly, successful, distressful, &c.
But those words which end with double 1, and take ness, less, ly, or
ful, after them, generally omit one 1, as fulness, skilless, fully, slulful,
&c.
Kestlesness of mind disqualifies us for the enjoyment
of peace.
The road to the blisful regions is open to all.
A chilnes or shivering of the body generally precedes
a fever.
To recommend virtue to others, our lights must shine
brightly, not dully.
Rule 7. — Ness, less, ly, md ful, added to words ending with silent
e, do not cut it off; as, paleness, guileless, closely, peaceful, except
in a few words ; as, duly, awful.
The warmth of disputation destroys that sedatness of
mind which is necessary to discover truth.
In all our reasonings our minds should be sincerly em-
ployed in the pursuit of truth.
The true worship of God is an important and awefiil
service.
Rule 8. — Ment, added to words ending with silent e, generally pre-
serves the e from elision ; as, abatement, chastisement, incitement,
Sic.
Like other terminations it changes y into i, when preceded by a
consonant ; as, accompany, accompaniment ; merry, merriment.
The study of the English language is making daily
advancment.
A judicious arrangment of studies facilitates improve-
ment.
Rule 9. — Able and ible, when incorporated into words ending
with silent e, almost always cut it off; as, blame, blamable; cjrc,
curable ; sense, sensible, &,c. ; but if c or g soft comes before e in
the original word, the e is then preserved in words compounded with
able ; as, change, changeable ; peace, peaceable, &c.
Every person and thing connected with self is apt to
appear good and desirable in our eyes.
The divine laws are not revcrseible by those of men.
APPENDIX.
115
orrows.
IS.
»nt and
things,
id taking
as, harm-
Bful, &c.
ss, ly, or
Ji skilful,
oyment
)recedes
St shine
irith silent
il, except
itness of
erly em-
1 aweftil
Drally pre-
[icitement,
cded by a
iment.
ng daily
mprove-
Is ending
ble ; c jre,
lefore e in
nded with
S apt to
of men.
Gratitude is a forceible and active principle in gener-
ous minds.
Our natural defects of body are not chargable upon us.
Rule 10. — When ing or ish is added to words ending with silent c,
the e is almost universally omitted ; as, place, placing ; lodge, lodg-
ing ; slave, slavish ; prude, prudish.
An obligoing and humble disposition is totally uncon-
nected with a servile and cringing humour.
By solaceing the sorrows of others the heart is improv-
ed, at the same time that our duty is performed.
Labour and expense are lost upon a droneish spirit.
The inadvertencies of youth may be excused, but
knaveish tricks should meet with severe reproof.
Ride 11.— Words taken into composition often drop those letters
which were superfluous in tiieir simples as, handful, dunghil, withal,
also, chilblain, foretcl.
Love worketh no ill to our neighbour, and is the full-
filling of the law.
That which is sometimes expedient, is not allways so.
We may be hurtfull to others by our example as well
as by personal injuries.
Where diligence opens the door of the understanding,
and impartiality keeps it, truth finds an entrance and a
wellcome too.
ELLIPTICAL PHRASES.
Tne following table contains a few examples of contracted words,
which are frequently made use of, both in writing and conversation ;
they should however be avoided in dignified style, and even in familiar
discourse.
for I have known him.
" You are speaking again.
He has been out.
She has gone.
He is well.
We have recited.
They have gone,
I am going.
I will not offend.
He will not please.
It is true.
Who will hear him.
I cannot bear it.
I do not know.
I've known him,
You're speaking again.
He's been out,
She's gone,
He's well.
We've recited,
They've gone,
I'm going,
I'll not offend,
He'll not please,
'Tis true.
Who'll hear him,
I can't bear it,
I don't know,
u
((
<;
<(
((
<(
^i
a
116
APPENDIX*
He couldn't go,
She won't speak,
I did'nt do it.
You wouldn't,
I a'nt well,
He isn't at home,
for He could not go.
She will not speak.
I did not do it.
You would not.
I am not well.
He is not at home.
The following contractions are proper in poetry.
Fix'd, for Fixed.
Ling'ring, " Lingering.
He's dead, " He is dead.
'Tvvas, " It was.
O'er, " Over.
LATIN TERMS AND PHRASES WITH THE LITERAL'
TRANSLATION.
With stronger reason.
<i
((
<(
jl fortiori.
j2 posteriori.
A priori.
jib initio.
jld infinilum.
Ad valorem.
Alma mater.
Alias.
Alibi.
Anno Domini.
Anno Mundi.
Bona fide.
Cacoethos scribendi.
Caput mortuum.
Compos inentis.
De facto.
De jure.
Del gratid.
E pluribus unum.
Esto perpeiua.
Ex necessitate.
Ex officio.
Ex parte.
Ex tempore.
Fac simile.
Fiat justitia.
Ibidem.
Id est.
Ignis fatuus.
Imprimis.
In loco parentis.
lu propria persona.
In statu quo.
In terrorcm.
Ipse dixit.
From behind.
From before.
From the beginning.
Without limit.
According to value.
Cherishing mother.
Otherwise.
Elsewhere.
A. D., in the Tear of our Lord.
A. M., in the Year of the World.
In good faith.
Itch for writing. ^
Dead head.
Of sound mind. .'
From the fact.
From the law.
By the grace of God. i
One of more.
May it be perpetual. J
From necessity.
From virtue of office.
On one side.
Without premeditation.
Exact resemblance.
Let justice be done.
In the same place.
i. e. that is.
Foolish fire, will-o'-the-wisp. "
In the first place.
In place of a parent, j
In his own person.
In the former state.
As, a warning.
Naked assertion. >
APPENDIX.
117
^ERAL
r Lord,
e World.
vup.
Ipso facto.
Jure divino.
Labor omnia vincit.
LapsM lingua.
Magna charta.
Memento mori.
Meum et tuum.
Modus operandi.
Multum in parvo.
Ne plus ultra.
Nemine contradicente»
Nolens volens.
Non compos mentis.
O tempora ! O mores !
Omis probandi.
Per.
Per se.
Posse comitatiis.
Post mortem.
Prima facie.
Primum mobile.
Pro bono publico.
Pro confesso.
Pro et con.
Quid ])ro quo.
Quantuin sufficit.
Rex.
Regina.
Sanctum Sanctorum.
Secundem artem.
Sine die.
Sine qua non.
Sub rosa.
Sub silentio.
Sui generis.
Sujnmum bonum.
Terra firma.
Utile dulri.
Vade mecum.
Vale.
Verbatim.
Veni, vldif vici.
Versus,
Veto.
Vi et armis.
Via.
Vice versa.
Viva voce.
Vox JJci.
Vox popnii.
By the fact. '
By divine right.
Labor surmounts all.
A slip of the tongue.
The great charter.
Remember death.
Mine and thine.
Mode of operation.
Much in little.
Nothing more beyond.
None opposing.
Unwilling or willing.
Not of sound mind.
Oh the times ! Oh the manners !
Burden of proof. •
By, for.
By itself.
Power of the county.
After death.
At first sight.
First cause of motion.
For public good.
As il" conceded.
For and against.
Mutual consideration.
Sufficient quantity.
King.
Queen.
The Holy of Holies.
According to art.
Without a day, indefinitely.
Indispensable, requisite.
Under the rose.
In silence.
Peculiar to itself.
Tlie chief good.
The solid earth*
The useful with the pleasant.
Constant componion.
Farewell.
Word for word.
I came, I saw, I conquered.
Vs., against.
I rGri)id it.
By force and arms.
By the way of.
Tiic reverse.
By the living voice.
Voice of God.
Voice of the people-
THE END.