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i' 
 
 
 THE SCIENCE AND ART 
 
 'n-r 
 
 or 
 
 TEACHING: 
 
 OR, THC 
 
 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 B7 
 
 GEORGE VICTOR LE VAUX, 
 
 Mttmher of the Royal College of Preceptors, London, England', Aitttuir of 
 " The Twin Records of Creation," ^c, ia*c. 
 
 WITH AN 
 
 INTRODUCTORY ETHNOLOGICAL ESSAY, 
 
 THE REV. GEORGE BELL, LL.D. 
 
 Queen's University, Kingston, 
 
 TORONTO: 
 <Jopp, Clark & Co., 47 Front Strkit. 
 
 1875, 
 
 I 
 
wSm 
 
 Entered according to Act of tlie Parliament of Canada, in the year one thousand eight 
 hundred and seventy-five, by Georok Victor Le Vaux, Clifton, Ontario, in the Office 
 of the Minister of Agriculture. 
 
 17120 
 
 f 
 
1 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 fiur design in preparing the following work was to furnish 
 Student-Teachers, and others engaged in education, with a Manual 
 containing a comprehensive resume, within a moderate ompass, 
 of all the more important principles and details of their Profession. 
 In the execution of this task we have endeavoured to combine 
 brevity with clearness, so that our mode of expression might be 
 as simple and direct as was consistent with the nature of the 
 subject. 
 
 Several of the succeeding chapters have appeared from time to 
 time in the English and Irish Educational Papers, some in the 
 Amencati Educational Mont/ily, and some in the Ontario yotirnal 
 of Education. Those published in the old country, having secured 
 the kind commendations of the London press, were reproduced in 
 the Journal of Education for the Province of Victoria (Australia) 
 and received with much favour by our fellow-labourers in the 
 antipodes. These chapters (with others which appear in print for 
 the first time) are now presented in book form, with the hope 
 that they may to some extent fill a place, hitherto void, in our 
 native educational literature, and thereby help to promote the 
 interests of the young by reflecting me'ital light and youthful 
 happiness into some of the darker and less attractive shades of the 
 school-room. In years to come we hope to see the prejudices and 
 moral weaknesses of present educational systems supplanted by 
 the reign of light, love, and intelligence ; so that children, at home 
 and abroad, may be emancipated from the thraldom of fear, and 
 educated according to the teachings of Nature and the laws of 
 their being. 
 
 Believing it to be the duty of all who write for others to ascertain 
 what their predecessors have thought and said on the same or 
 similar subjects, we have perused with interest, in this and other 
 lands, such educational works as have stood the test of time and 
 popular criticism; so that while advancing our own theories by the 
 force of concurrent sentiments, we have been enabled to present 
 
ir 
 
 PREPACK. 
 
 our readers with radiant gems from many authors. In some cases 
 we have adopted the thoughts of others, diverting them into more 
 practical channels, 'uut in no instance have we recommended any- 
 thing not authorized by experience — personal or otherwise. If we 
 have receded in any point from that which is generally received 
 and believed, it has been done in a spirit of amendment and in 
 accordance with the advancement of modern science — not for the 
 purpose of novelty or change. We might therefore say, in the 
 words of Lord Bacon, that " we could not be true or constant to 
 the subject we handle were we not willing to go beyond others; 
 but yet not more willing than to have others go beyond us again." 
 
 The intelligent practice of the Art of Teaching must be founded 
 on, and inferred from, experimental science — mental and physical. 
 Keeping this in view we have based our conclusions on the laws 
 of mental development (as we understand them), endeavouring, so 
 far as our limits would permit, to evolve guiding principles from 
 the latest science. We are conscious ihat many generations must 
 elapse ere the philosophy of mind is so thoroughly understood as 
 to ensure a rich professional success to every teacher who seeks it ; 
 nevertheless, each of us can give more attention to the laws of 
 psychology aiid the right interpretation of Nature, and thus help to 
 introduce and make perfect such a scheme of culture as will hasten 
 the advent of light, and finally establish the Profession on a broad, 
 scientific, and ever enduring basis. 
 
 In conclusion, we respectfully beg to submit our views on these 
 matters to the kind and courteous consideration of the Profession 
 and general public, hoping that their publication may not be alto- 
 gether fruitless nor profitless. 
 
 The Author avails himself of this opportunity of recording his 
 grateful sense of the valuable aid given him, in the revision of this 
 work, by his esteemed friend. Miss Jane S. Chadwick — a lady 
 whose educational labour?, extending over more than quarter of a 
 century, have reflected honour and dignity on the profession, whilst 
 affording such an example of zeal, skill, and ability, as justly to 
 entitle her to rank as one of the premier teachers of the Province, 
 
 G. V. L. 
 
 Clifton, Niagara Falls, 
 30th October^ j8j^. 
 
ANALYTICAL TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 PART I.— FIRST TRINCIPLES. 
 
 INTRODUCTORY ETHNOLOaiCAL ESSAY. 
 
 The Human Being, 9. Birth-place of Primeval Man, 10. Race — Sub- 
 divisions — Characteristics, 10. The Negro, Mongolian, and Cau- 
 casian or Iiido-Germanic Races, 10. Progress of Education amongst 
 the Shemitic Races, Mexicans, Peruvians, &c,, 12. Progress of 
 Education amongst the Indo-(iermanic Races, 15. Mythology — 
 Ancient (Jreece and Rome, IG. The Crusades, 17. Discovery of 
 America, 17. Era of Colcmization, 17. E<hication in England, 
 Scotland, Ireland, Spain, Prussia, &c., 18. Mixture and amalga- 
 mation of races, 20. Development of Language and Religion in 
 Ancient and Modern Times, 20. Christianity, the highest fruitage 
 of Education and Religion, 21. Effects of Education on future 
 Civilization, 22. A Commendation, 22. 
 
 CHAPTER 1. 
 
 PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 Anecdotes of Napoleon and Lincoln, 23. Good Mothers and efHcient 
 Teachers, 24. First Lessons, 24. Mothers, the first Teachers, 25. 
 The Parental Substitute, 26. Mutual duties, 26. Education, a 
 noble work, 27. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 RESPONSIBILITIES OF THE TEACHER. 
 
 Teachers form the character of their generation, 28. Responsibilities, 
 29. The early habits of pupils an index to their future career, 29, 
 I Power of example and of yoathf ul impressions^Sp, How to make 
 right impressions, 31. Teachers to sympaLlillic with their pupik 
 and seek their love, 32. To cultivate mutual affection, 33. To 
 tfeach by example as well as by precept, 34. 
 
 -y<3,^^ 
 
ANALYTICAL TABLE OP CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER in. 
 SPIRIT AND HABITS OF THE TEACHER. 
 
 Things necessary to make a good Teacher, S.*). To have a right perccp* 
 tiou of hi8 work, 3»). Candidates for " Teacherships " to look well 
 to their motives, 'Mi. Ignorance, no excuse for professional mis- 
 takes, 37. Physical Education, .38. Science of National and Self- 
 Government, 38. To l)egin each day aright, 39. An important 
 question, 39. Who can be a Teacher, 40. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE GOOD TEACHER. 
 
 To be a judge of human nature, 41. Aptitude for teaching, 42. Pnpila 
 should be le<l to do eve rvtltin^ for themselves. 42. Courtesy oT 
 
 manner ann-nrlier^characturistics of the Teacher, 43. Youth to 
 honour age, 44. An anecdote — A Grecian legend, 44. Sjiartan 
 courtesy, 45. Courtesy recognized, 45. Amiability of disposition, 
 46. Not to ui)braid pupils with their mental or physical defects, 47. 
 Absence of jicrsonal kindness, 48. To be honest, just and true, 49. 
 Regularity aiwl punctuality, 49. Lord Palnierston's opinion of 
 
 / Teachers' (pialifications, 50. Teachers to lead in the march of 
 
 \ intellect, 51. To beware of pride and vanity, 51. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 KNOWLEDGE TO BE REPLENISHED. 
 
 Teachers to study continually, 53. Temptations incident to the Pro- 
 fession, 54. Doing two things at the same time, 55. To turn 
 spare moments to good account, 55. Sir Walter Raleigh's advice, 
 56. Precepts by Pythagoras, 56. 
 
 CHAPTER VL 
 
 MUTUAL DUTIES OF THE PROFESSION AND THE PUBLIC. 
 
 We are all indebted to our profession, 57. Adequate remuneration, 57. 
 Good services, good pay, 58. Test of civilization, 58. A cause 
 and consequence, 59. The rich fool's argument considered, 69. 
 An International Association of Teachers, 61. 
 
 If 
 
ANALYTICAL TABLE OP CONTENTS. 
 
 ▼u 
 
 CHAPTER Vir. 
 
 RIGHT CONCEPTIONS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 The Kindergarten system considered, 62. ATeaning of Education, 63. 
 The best Teacher, 04. Special j)rei)arati()ii necessary, 64. To have 
 a beau ideal, 05. Future reward, 0(5. A perfect man — Unison 
 of culture, 00. Formation of character, 07 First principles of 
 education, 07. 
 
 en AFTER VIII 
 
 PUBLIC AND PRIVATE EDUCATION CONTRASTED. 
 
 Imprudtaice of raising children in seclusion, 68. A Public School course 
 the best preparation for the duties of after life, 09. Elements of 
 success, 7<). Selt-decej»tion, 71. Union of public and private 
 systems commendable, 72, Necessity of a national provision for 
 Education, 72. Compulsorj'^ Education, 73. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 NATURAL ORDER OF DEVELOPMENT OF THE RESPECTIVE 
 
 FACULTIES. 
 
 Fundamental principles, 74. Development of the faculties, 74. Order 
 of sequence, 74. 
 
 Section 1. ATTENTION. 
 
 Continuity of Attention essential, 75. Cultivate habits of ibservation 1; 
 and reflection, 76. Happiness of childhood, 77. Mutual afiection, li 
 77. How to secure attention, 78. Not to discourage, 78. Causel{ 
 and cure of certain eccentricities, 79. Coacentration of attention, I* 
 79. Natural disposition, 80. How to sweeten labour and ensure}; 
 progress, 80. Self-reliance to be encouraged, 81. Abstraction, 82,1' 
 
 Section 2. MEMORY. 
 
 Memory and Retention 83. Mental store-house, 83. Visible illustra- 
 tions, 84. Two varieties of Memory, 84. Invention, 85. Utility 
 of Memory to the public speaker, 85. Conditions of efficiency, 85. 
 
 Section 3. IMAGINATION. 
 
 Imagination, what it is, 80. Connection with the sublime, 86. 
 counteracts certain mental defeccs, 87* 
 
 It 
 
1[ 
 
 vui 
 
 ANALYTICAL TABLE OF CONTEJfTfl. 
 
 II f 
 
 Bectiow 4. REFLECTION AND REASON 
 
 Reflection a creative faculty, 88. Reason, its utility and importance, 88. 
 Art of Reasoning considered, 89. 'i'eacher, to ascertain motives of 
 at;tion, how and why, 90. Different callings in life more or less 
 indebted to Imagination, 91. 
 
 Skctjon 5. THE JUDGMENT. 
 
 The key-stono of the intellectual arch, 92. A compound faculty, 92. 
 Inference, 92. 
 
 Sectiom 0. INTEGRITY. 
 
 IJ^leasure of beinc tnisted, 93. Teachers not to wear maskj, 93. CJour- 
 tesy to children, 94. Praise in proportion to merit, 94. 
 
 Section 
 
 PRUDENCE. 
 
 Elements of Prudence, 95. Certain impressions to be rectified, 95. 
 H»)w to correct false ideas and objectionable habits, 95. 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 POWER AND EFFECTS OF SYMPATHY. 
 
 Sympathy, 96. EflFects of associated affection, 97. Fellowship with 
 companions, 97. Management of sensibility, 98. PriuciiJes of 
 happiness, 99. 
 
 PAKT It.— SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 ■A 
 
 if! 
 
 CHAPTER L 
 
 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SCHOOL. 
 
 (iood order essential, 100. Necessity of Time Table, 100. Effects of 
 good order, 101. A time and place for everything, 101. Apian 
 of study necessary, 102. Guidance of youthful activity, 102. Un- 
 fortunate professional coimections, 103. A hint to parents and 
 guardians, 104. A Canadian village school, 104. Eifects of exterior 
 intiuences, \06. Personal neatness indispensable, 107. Manner of 
 pupils in fachools, 107. Teacher to be animated, 107. Brevity a 
 
AHALTTICAL TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 \X 
 
 characteristic of a good gchool, 108. Urbanity ainl Buavity, 108. / 
 Pupils to do their duty, 108. To lovo their tcacherft and be zualoua 
 of the honour of their school, 109. How to study aright, 10J>. 
 Quality and quantity, 110. l^anguage to he pure and siuipic, 110. 
 [iUcid explanations, 111. Recitations of lessons to be prompt and 
 accurate, 111. 
 
 CHArXEIl II. 
 
 HOW TO MAKE STUDY ATTRACTIVE. 
 
 Child-tature, 112. Pleasure to bo associated with instruction, 113. 
 The happiness principle, 11.3. Guiding principles, 114. How to 
 cuhivate the love of study, 114. When a lesson shouhl cease, 1 15. 
 Solt-instrut tion the best, 115. Sufficient physical recreation, 116, 
 Exercise without fatigue, 116. Nature's mode of ciUture, 117. 
 How Nature teaches, US. When Nature dismisses her school, 118> 
 
 ' CUAPTER III. 
 
 INCENTIVES TO STUDIOUS HABITS. 
 
 Noblest incentives of action, 119. Regulation and cultivation of 
 curiosity, 119. The desire of acq viisi tion, 120. The love of appro- 
 bation, 120. The prize system cozisidered, 121. Prizes by ignoble 
 means, 122. When they stimulate only a few, 123. Uniformity 
 of mental capacity, 123. The reward system, 123. The merit card 
 system, 124. How cards are used, 125. The roll of merit, 125. 
 Abuse possible, 126. Power and effects of the system, 126. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 ELEME NTS OF GENERAL ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 Teachers should respect their own authority, 127. Decision of char- 
 acter, 128. llequests versus Commands, 128. Force as an clement 
 in government, 128. Abbott's maxims, 129. Self-reliance, 130, 
 Fretfulness and frivolity to be avoided, 130. Teacher to commence 
 as he would continue, 130. Not M'ise to exliibit suspicion, 131. 
 To look on both sides of a boy's character, 131. Pupils not to 
 be contrasted with each other, 132. Children to be encouraged, 
 133. Oifendera to be considered innocent until proved guilty, 133. 
 Teachers to maintain proper discipline, 134. A time for everything 
 and everything in its time, 134. IniYjrudence of dividing the 
 attention, *135. Not to allow interruptions, 1.35. A time for in- 
 vestigating irregularities, 136. Certain variations commendable, 
 
 \ 
 
ANALYTICAL TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 137. Music in Schools, 137. Military education, 138. Quality 
 preferable to (juantity, 138. Prejjaration of lessons at home, 139. 
 Perfect recitations required, 139. The alternate system, 140. 
 Reviewing and grinding, 141. Loitering, &c., on the way to or 
 from School, 142. .Suspension of privileges, 142. The IJegistration 
 system, 143. How applied in Upper Canada College, 143. Aver- 
 age standing, how found, 145, Private report book, 145. The 
 demerit b(K)k, 146. American system of registration, 140, Monthly 
 Boll of Honour, 147. Value of marks and time of entry, 14& A 
 word to trustees, 1 48, 
 
 
 r i 
 
 ill 
 
 jl 
 
 I 
 
 n 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 , SCHOOL GOVER NMENT . 
 
 Effects of associated pleasure or pain, 149, Natural consequences, 150. 
 Obedieuco and how to secure it, 150, The father of the scliool, 15L 
 Legislation concerning corporal punishment, 151. 
 
 Section 1, THE MINOR PUNISHMENTS. 
 
 Objects of punishment, 152. Censure faults, not persons, 153. Soli- 
 tary contin( uiont, 153, Admonition and advice, 154. Ridicule 
 and reproach, 154. Humiliation considered as a punishment, 166. 
 Quickness of apprehension in children, 156. Courtesy to juveniles, 
 156. Children not to be rebuked in an^er, 156. The end of 
 Education, 157. How to make study pleasant, 157. Natural 
 tendencies of children, 158. Personal recriminations not to be 
 countenanced, 158. The practice of sundry virtues eonmiended, 
 159. Certain shortcomings to be treated with forbearxnce, 169. 
 
 Sectiom 2. CORPORAL PUNISHMENT. 
 
 Object of punishment, 159. Shame as a punishment, 159. Corporal 
 punishment justifiable, 160, The probable origin of Public Schools, 
 161. The Teacher's commission, 162. Never to threaten pupils, 
 163, Corporal punishment to be inflicted publicly, 164, Teachers 
 to establish their authority by force if necessary, 164, I'unish- 
 ment to be maile effectual, 166. A supplementary duty, lb7. The 
 Teacher to be free from anger when inflicting pimishment, 168. 
 Teacher not to indulge himself in what he would deny to otherti, 
 169. Seneca's remarks on the education of children, 169. 
 
 Section 3, MUTUAL DUTIES AND RECIPROCAL RELATIONS OF 
 
 TEACHERS. 
 
 Powers and duties of principals, 170, Uniformity of discipline in several 
 divisions of same school, 171, Powers and duties of assistants, 171. 
 Teachers to keep a record of punishments, 171. Proper channel of 
 inter-communication, 172, Notes from parents or guardians to bear 
 signature, 172, Local supremacy of "Teachers of Division," 172. 
 Assistant Teachers to report cause of absence to principd, 172, 
 Geueral supervision, 173. 
 
 IIP 
 
ANALYTICAL TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 XI 
 
 PART III.— METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 HINTS ON THE GENERAL ORGANIZATION OP SCHOOLS. 
 
 Moreau's plan the best for Moreau, 174. Each Teacher to follow a 
 general plan modified by original expedients, 175. The school- 
 room and its decorations, 17<>. Plan of class-rooms, 177. Isolation 
 and arrangements of desks, 179. The play-grounds and cloak- 
 rooms, 180. Exercises to be conducted with military precision, 
 
 181. Calling and dismissing school, 181. Classification of pupils, 
 
 182. Test subjects, 182, Suggestions on the grading of schools, 
 
 183. How to secure uniformity of progress, 184, Subjects of 
 study to be adapted to mental capacity, 185, Systems of Teaching, 
 185. Order of development, 185. Natural and logical order of 
 study, 187. 
 
 CHAPTER n. 
 COLLECTIVE TEACHING. 
 
 Sundry observations, 1S8, The elliptical method of teaching, 189. 
 Same class — same capacity, 189. Arrangement of lesson in its 
 natural order of sequence, 190. Recapitulation, 190, Character- 
 istics of good Teaching, 191, The object and utility of the intro- 
 duction to lessons, 191. Lessons should have a practical applica- 
 tion, 192. 
 
 Section 2. THE ART OF CATECHIZING, 
 
 Socratic method, 192, Tentative and examination questions, 193. 
 Questions should be addressed to the whole class, 193, Character- 
 istics of good answering, 194. Correction of errors, 194, 
 
 CHAPTER IIL 
 
 SPELLING. 
 
 Methods of teaching should be based on scientific principles, 195. 
 Spelling a^' ^ how to teach it, 195, Spelling machine, 196, Reading 
 machine, 197. Reading should precede spelling, 198, The si)ell- 
 ing stick, 199. How the higher classes should be taught spelling, 
 200. Order of merit, 200, How errors should be corrected, 201. 
 Field days in spelling, 201. 
 
v« 
 
 
 XU AKALTTICAL TABLE OF CONTEKTS. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 READING. 
 
 Reading, and how to teach it, 202. Precedence according to merit, 20.t- 
 Certain questions to precede lessons so as to ascertain amount of 
 individual knowledge, 203. Pupils to be required to give a sum- 
 mary of the lesson at its close, 204. To question each other, 204 
 Certain things to be observed, 204. Lessons to be of moderate 
 length, 204. How to correct and improve style, 205. The concert 
 method, 205. Pupils to ascertain the position of places mentioned 
 in their lessons, 206. A substitute for the Register of Progress, 207. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 WRITING. 
 
 Writing to be taught at an early age, 208. How to teach it, 209. First 
 lessons, 208. Working arrangements, 209. Primary classes, 210. 
 Supervision and correction, 210. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 ARITHMETIC AND ALGEBRA. 
 
 Arithmetic as a mental exercise, 211. First ideas of numbers, 211. 
 Written Arithmetic, 212. Rapidity and accuracy, 212. A more 
 approved method of teaching Algebra and Arithmetic, 213. Pupils 
 to be well grounded in tables, 215. Mental Arithmetic, 215. Prin- 
 ciples before rules, 215. How to ensure the acquisition of know- 
 ledge, 216. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Hints on the study of Geography, 21G. Boxing the compass, 217. 
 Latitude and Longitude, how to teach them, 217. Rotation of the 
 earth and differences of time, 218. Hints on the use of maps and 
 charts, 218. Order of teaching Geography, 219. Geographical 
 summary, 219. Weekly reviews, 220. 
 
 I! 
 
ANALYTICAL TABLE OP CONTENTS. 
 
 XUl 
 
 CHAPTER VIIL 
 ACQUISITION OF LANGUAGE. 
 
 How Nature teaches the lanffuages, 220. Mental conceptions to pre- 
 cede words, 221. Nature s method of Teaching, 221. Acquisition 
 made easy, 222. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION. 
 
 Composition should accompany the study of Grammar, 222. How to 
 teach Grammar to junior pupils, 223. Construction and classi- 
 fication, 224. Inflections, &c., 224. Grammar to be made inter- 
 esting, 224. An observation, 225. The Grammatical variations, 
 225. Composition — secondary and original. How to teach it, 226. 
 The best teacher of Grammar and Composition, 226. Importance 
 and utility of correspondence considered, 227. Reading and pars- 
 ing machine, 228. 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 HISTORY. 
 
 Methods of teaching History, 229. Incidental questions, 229. General 
 recapitulation, 230. Pupils to prepare a sketch of lesson, 230. 
 How to study History aright, 230. 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 GEOMETRY. 
 
 Excellency of Geometry as a mental exercise, 231. A common method 
 of teaching Euclid, 232. A change of system, 233. The more 
 excellent method, 233. To use diagrams without letters, 234. 
 Solution in general terms, 2.34, Connection of Geometry with the 
 kindred sciences to be noted, 235. 
 
XIV 
 
 ANALYTICAL TABLE OP CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER XIL 
 A SCIENTIFIC HABIT. 
 Ouli;ivfttioa of a acientific habit desirable, 235. Natural History, 236. 
 
 
 
 CHAPTER Xin. 
 BOTANY. 
 
 Children's love of flowers, 237. This love to be turned to account in the 
 acquisition of Botanical knowledge, 237. Characteristics of parts 
 of plants and flowers, 238. Arrangement of parts of flowers on 
 stem, 238. Adaptation of plants to surrounding circumstances, 238. 
 Season rings, 238. Classification of plants, 239. 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
 Children to be taught as far as practicable through the medium of the 
 eye, 239. Lessons about birds, 240. Lessons about fishes, 240. 
 Human Physiology, 240. 
 
 ' 
 
 '! 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 ELEMENTARY GEOLOGY. 
 
 First lessons in Geology, 241. Formation of soils, 241. Peculiaritiea 
 of location, 242. Utility of Geological knowledge, 242. 
 
 I ; 
 
 1 
 
 CHAPTER i^L 
 
 :.TURAL CHEMI 
 Chemiatrv. 243.* 
 
 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. 
 
 Importance of Agricultural Chemistry, 243.' Different kinds of sub- 
 stances, 243. Rotation of crops, 244. Supply of complementary 
 elements, 244. Absorption and assimilation, 245. Utility of 
 Agricultural Chemistry to the stock raiser, 245. Influences of 
 heat, light, &c., on Agriculture, 246. 
 
 ^S■^|.|^ . 
 
ANALYTICAL TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 XV 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. / 
 
 NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 
 
 Elements of Natural Philosophy to be taught at School, 246. First 
 lessons, 247. Subject to ])e taught by simple practical experiments, 
 247. The pupils to conduct the experiments under the teacher's 
 guidance, 248. A series of practical experiments with suggestions, 
 249. Effects of heat, 250. Construction of thermometer, 250. 
 Pro])erties of water, 250. When the text-book should be intro- 
 duced, 250. 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. 
 MECHANICS. 
 
 Introductory lessons on Mechanics, 251. Virtual velocities, 252. The 
 Mechanical powers, 252. Formulie, and practical hints on the 
 application, of each power, 252. Hydrostatics and Dynamics, 254. 
 Philosophy of falling bodies, 254. Sundry observations, 255. 
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 PUBLIC EXAMINATIONS. 
 
 Public examinations desirable at certain intervals, 257. The school to 
 be exhibited as it really is, 257. Results unreliable, 257. A 
 superior private school, 258. Excellency of discipline and arrange- 
 ments, 259. Defects of the system, 200, The memory system, 
 261. The system of the future, 261. When examinations reflect 
 credit on the teacher and taiight, 262. Quarterly examinations, 
 263. Parents to l)e apprized of the promotion of their children, 
 263. Periodical evening examinations, 264. Official books, 264. 
 
 ( 
 
XVI 
 
 ANALYTICAL TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 PAKT IV. 
 
 CHAPTER XX. 
 
 CONCLUDING REMARKS. 
 
 Teacher's intercourse — its characteristics — 266, Teachers to avoid 
 professional or other dissensions, 267. To cultivate a fraternal dis- 
 position, 268. Absence of professional enthusiasm, 268. Its cause, 
 268. How to remove the evil, 269. Apprenticeship to the pro- 
 fession, 270. The best remedies, 271. Advantages of experience, 
 271. The best use of wealth, 272. No excuse for want of books, 
 273. The great requisite of the age, 273. The laws of life and 
 the order of mental evolution to be constant themes of study, 274. 
 ^.,The science of mind considered, 275. Conditions of professional 
 success, 275. How to secure it, 276. Nature's book on teaching, 
 276. The koy to successful teaching, 277. The doctrine of natural 
 re-actions considered, 277. Provision for public education, 279. 
 Public School Boards, 280. Europe and America compared from 
 an educational standpoint, 281. Higher education, 283. Popular 
 education, 283. Provision for adult education, 285. Influences of 
 age on education, 286. Necessary supidements to our public school 
 system, 287. Sorrows and joys of life, the common property of 
 all, 289. Dawn of the age of intellect, 289. Growth of mind, 
 290. Important public duties, 291. Conclusion, 292. 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Notice to parents and guardians, 293. Daily register of progress, 
 (U.C. College) 295. Summary of pupil's report, 296. Results for 
 session, 297. Standard of classification, 298. Clifton School — 
 daily record of progress, 299. Sample of a more approved system, 
 300. Form of Monthly Report for a Public School pupil, 301. 
 Time table, or plan of work, for a graded school, 302. 
 
INTRODUCTORY ETHNOLOGICAL ESSAY. 
 
 To appreciate the real significance of questions of education, 
 attention must be turned to the material to be acted upon — 
 namely, the human being. To educate a human being is to 
 draw out or develop all his powers or faculties. To ascertain 
 what these are in our own race of the human species, we require 
 to make a comparison between it and other races. As man is 
 found in races differing so much in bodily peculiarities and 
 mental powers, many questions have arisen both as to his origin 
 and his history. Into the question of unity or plurality of origin 
 I do not enter; but to another question, whether man's history, 
 in civilization, has been an ascent or a descent, we must give a 
 passing notice. All nations have certain traditions as to their 
 early condition, and scientific inquiry brings out many impor- 
 tant suggestions. Two pictures of primeval man are drawn, 
 differing very materially. One is of a being pure, happy, simple 
 in his tastes, but free from the degradations usually found in 
 savage life. By many this is regarded only as a dream of 
 poetry, or a beautiful myth, or, it may be, the mere yearning of 
 the human soul for something better than is already possessed, 
 reflected back into the dim mythical region of pre-historic time. 
 The other is of a coarse and filthy savage, gross in tastes and 
 habit?, warring with the wild animals, tearing their flesh and 
 cracking their bones, dwelling in caves, and little advanced 
 above the lower animals, except in the superiority which the 
 possession of hands gave him. While the superior weight of 
 evidence, at present, is certainly on the side of man's descent to 
 barbarism, much may be urged on the other side, and doubtless 
 some portions of both pictures are true. Scripture, tradition and 
 2 
 
10 
 
 INTBODUCTORY ETH50LOOICAL ESSAY. 
 
 M 
 
 f 
 
 science all point to the origin of man at a central part of the 
 land of the eastern hemisphere, whence successive waves of 
 population have been continually flowing towards the distant 
 portions of the earth, the more debased races occupying the 
 positions more distant from the centre, and the debased races 
 being gradually and continuously exterminated before the suc- 
 ceeding waves of a superior race. 
 
 Without noticing minutely the many subdivisions of races, 
 ■we may observe that there are three great divisions plainly 
 distinguishable, popularly known as the white, yellow, and black 
 races. The black or negro race, comprising the Negroes proper, 
 the Bushmen, the Hottentots, and the Papuans, differ among 
 themselves, but in their native countries have always remained 
 barbarous, displaying little tendency to improvement, and very 
 little educational capacity. Wanting in energy and persever- 
 ance, they show great sensitiveness. Below the white race in 
 intellect, they are superior in imagination, and, when brought 
 into contact with elevating influences, they will doubtless awake 
 to a life of superior sentimental and imaginative power. 
 
 The yellow or Mongolian race has shown peculiar powers 
 in the way of overrunning the territories of other peoples, 
 founding great empires, developing an early civilization which 
 reaches a medium stage and then becomes stationary. The 
 names of Attila, Tamerlane, and Genghis Khan, will at once 
 suggest their warlike roving habits, while the condition of 
 Japan, China, Siam and the American Indians will indicate 
 their unprogressive nature. This race, although so capable of 
 conquest, and of founding mighty empires, is singularly devoid 
 of inventive genius and improvement. They have depopulated 
 fair and flourishing lands, but have not re-peopled them. They 
 have servilely copied the architecture of their forefathers, or 
 of the people they have conquered. The history of their pro- 
 gress has been ever the same ; the Scythian invasion recorded 
 by Herodotus, or the march of Tamerlane, alike leaves traces of 
 bloodsh<ed ajad devastation in a desert, without any great work 
 
INTRODUCTORY ETHNOLOGICAL ESSAY. 
 
 11 
 
 of any kind as a monument of their power or skill. Were the 
 Mongolian race swept from the face of the earth, they would 
 leave but faint traces of their former existence, having no laws, 
 no lit<!rature, no art to which, particularly, their name has 
 
 been attached. 
 
 As they are in civilization, so are they in educational pecu- 
 liarities. China well illustrates this similarity. At a very 
 early period this country appeara to have risen to a certain 
 stage in education, and then to have remained stationary in the 
 use of an artificial and stereotyped system. The regulations,, 
 not originally devised by Confucius twenty-four centuries ago, 
 but, as he himself states, only revised from ancient ages, and 
 formally reduced to system, were admirable for the age in 
 which he lived, but they are unsuitable for the present time ;. 
 yet they are rigidly adhered to. The education obtained has a 
 great many grades, the higher grades opening the way to the 
 possession of the civil oflSces of the Government. Throughout, 
 the instruction in schools and colleges consists, to a large 
 extent, of reading, wiiting, a little arithmetic, and a great deal 
 of memoidsing of lists of names and events, and recitation and 
 chanting of long passages from text books, the sense of which 
 is little understood by the student. 
 
 The Caucasian or white race is that in which the highest 
 development has taken place, both intellectually and education- 
 ally. The name Caucasian not being considered distinctive 
 enough, that of Iranian has been applied to it, as Turanian to 
 the Mongolian race. The Caucasian race occupies the central 
 part of the old world. Western Asia extending as far as Hin- 
 dostan, Northern Africa, the whole of Europe, and a consider- 
 able portion of America. The complexion is fair in the tem- 
 perate and cold regions, becoming brown in those which are 
 hot ; and the cheeks are tinged with red ; while greater variety 
 of features prevails in this race than in any other. This race 
 embraces many subdivisions, differing materially from each 
 other. These may primarily be divided into two groups, sepa- 
 
12 
 
 INTBODUCTORY ETHNOLOGICAL ESSAY. 
 
 ^ ! 
 
 rated by marketl peculiarities, known as the Shcmitic and Indo- 
 Euroj^ean races. The name Syro-Arabian has })een suggested 
 as an improvement on Shorn itic, and the name Aryan Is no^ 
 very properly applied as the designation of those branches of 
 the Caucasian race formerly called ludo-Europecni, or Indo- 
 ■Germanic. 
 
 The Syro-Arabian or Shemitic race of men are distinguished 
 for brilliant imagination, ready conceiition of idea, and repug- 
 nance to any constraint, whether of intellect or of person. They 
 ;posses3 imagination in the highest degree. They have an in- 
 tuitive conception of the beautiful, whether in idea or in mate- 
 rial form, but have no idea of natural l)eauty being suly'ected 
 to constraining rules. Their poetry is distinguished by spon- 
 taneous, beautiful figures ; and in their mechanical works they 
 naturally produce the most beautiful forms. The poor and 
 ignorant Arab, who never heard of a iiile or standard of beauty, 
 moulds an earthenware jar for a drinking vessel in a form in 
 which may be traced the most elegant vases of Greece and 
 Rome, and identical with that sculptured by his refined and 
 luxurious ancestors on the monuments of Nineveh three thou- 
 sand years ago ; and his speech consists of glowing words, 
 expressing fanciful but appropriate figures. These qualities 
 ;are innate, and not the result of cultivation. 
 
 The Aryan race do not possess the power in a high degree of 
 'Conceiving beautiful forms, but they readily perceive the beauty 
 •of that which is presented to them. They readily adopt from 
 others those beauties which they have never themselves invented. 
 They investigate the cause of the idea of beauty, and by analysis 
 and reasoning reduce it to first principles, on which they found 
 Tules. Then by the application of these rules, they modify and 
 improve what they have borrowed from others. Deficient in 
 imagination as compared with the Shemitic nfce, they are 
 vastly superior in reasoning powers ; hence their superiority 
 l)oth in a national point of view and in the advancement of art. 
 One of the Shemitic race invents, or rather intuitively conceives, 
 
INTRODUCTORY ETHNOLOGICAL ESSAY. 
 
 IS 
 
 a beautiful architectural ornament, and there stops. The Greek 
 takes up the ornament so fuinishod, and which ho would not 
 have invented ; he investigates the reason why it is beautiful ; 
 and stops not until he has developed a system of beauty in 
 architectural structure and ornament, which, commending itself 
 to the ajsthotic sense of mankind, must continue for ever to be 
 pleasing. 
 
 From the peculiar characteristics of tlie Shemitic branches 
 of the human family, wo may naturally infer that they would 
 be earnestly desirous of education, not perhaps for the highest 
 intellectual development, but for the culture of imagination 
 and the develoimieiit of a taste for the fine ai-ts, in a somewhat 
 rude and primitive form. Such, as history informs us, was 
 actually the caso. On the fertile plains watered by the Tigris, 
 the Euphrates and the Nile, the very dawn of history shows us 
 wealthy and prosperous empires in the full possession of a 
 written language, a class of men devoted to the cultivation and 
 advancement of literature and science, and already an extensive 
 knowledge of astronomy, geometry, chemistry, medicine, archi- 
 tecture, painting, scul[)ture and other decorative arts, music, 
 the working of metals, gems and ivory, and the api)lication of 
 many of these arts to the uses of public and domestic life. 
 Commerce and navigation soon followed the development of 
 home art. In later days, e.sp3cially in the times of the Ptole- 
 mies, Egypt was renowned for its schools of science, philosophy 
 and literature, and for the formation of vast libraries. 
 
 The Hebrew nation, although comparatively small as a 
 branch of the Shemitic race, has fillo.l a very large place in 
 history. Under special favouring circumstances of Divine 
 Providence they attained to a high place in literature and 
 science. No literature of any age or nation can compare, for 
 beauty and grandeur, with the boak of Ps ilms, and many parts 
 of the books of the Prophets. Solomon, apparently without 
 the addition to his education of foreign travel, was yet a pro- 
 digy of learning. Science and the useful arts flourished in a 
 
 "Wi^' 
 
u 
 
 INTRODUCTORY ETHNOLOOICAL B88AT. 
 
 -.*«*. 
 
 high degree during the time of the Hebrew monarchy; the 
 cesthetic and moral, however, being preferred to the intelleo* 
 tual in their training. For the higher training of those who 
 were to fill the important civil and ecclesiastical offices, colle- 
 giate schools were provided, under the name of " Schools of 
 the Prophets." At a later period the Rabbinical schools, in 
 both east and west, exerted a |>owerful influence on the world 
 during several centuries after the Christian era. 
 
 Among the Arabs, in early days, education of an intellectual 
 kind had made little [)rogress, but poetry was highly cultivated ; 
 and their history was embalmed in a rude but highly picturesque 
 poetry, which was chanted by their bards. From the days of 
 Mohammed a new impulse wa« given to the Arab mind, which 
 made it for the next six centuries the leading intellect of the 
 world, and which exerted powerful influences of an educational 
 kind both on that people and also on many other peoples, 
 especially the western nations of Europe. No sooner had 
 the first warlike fervour of the Saracens passed by, and 
 Arabia, Palestine, Persia, part of India, Egypt and Northern 
 Africa been subjected to the faith of Islam, than attention was 
 turned to education. Thousands of schools were opened for 
 elementary instruction, that the Koran might be read by all ; 
 and higher schools were instituted for the critical study of the 
 sacred book. Greek and Oriental learning was called in and 
 extensively cultivated, and magnificent libraries were collected 
 at Bagdad, Damascus and other cities. In mathematics — espe- 
 cially algebra and arithmetic — astronomy, grammar, poetry, 
 philosophy, medicine, jurisprudence and natural science, they 
 attained an eminence probably never before reached. During 
 the seven centuries of Moslem power under the Moors of Spain, 
 along with the display of beautiful art in architecture, schools 
 and universities, with rich endowments, able professors, and 
 large and valuable libraries, had sprung up. It is noted that 
 in the reign of Ab-der-rahman III., in the tenth century, there 
 \were in Spain seventeen universities and sixty-six public libra* 
 
 4i. 
 
 9^ 
 
DTTBODUCrrORT ITHNOLOOICAL E88AT. 
 
 1» 
 
 lies, the colebrated univendt/ of Cordova having a libr&rj ol 
 600,000 volumes. 
 
 In the Oriental oolonistii of America wo find the same peeu* 
 liarities which are distinctive of the Shomitic race in the old 
 world. Without entering on the dispute<l question whether 
 the ar cient Mexicans were of Phcenician, Hebrew or other 
 orig! 1, there is no doubt of their belonging to the Shemitio 
 race, au<l, as such, quite distinct from the wandering Indians of 
 Mongolian origin. America had been known to China and 
 Japan, as Fu-sang, thirteen centuries ago ; the Atlantis of Plato, 
 the Satumian contitiont of Plutarch, and the Moropia of Elian, 
 were not pure myths ; there is probably some truth in the 
 accounts of the commerce and colonizing of the Northmen in 
 early times, and of the Welsh colony under Prince Madog, 
 who either originated the Tuscarora tribe or became incor- 
 porated with it ; but, after all, the western world was practically 
 unknown to the eastern until the time of Columbus. Then, aa 
 a new and unknown people, the Mexicans were found in the 
 use of a written hieroglyphic language, with high attainments 
 in mathematics, architecture, <fec., and a superior mental culture. 
 With revolting religious rites there coexisted much refine- 
 ment of manners, sublimity in the forma of worship, and a 
 strict system of morals. An extraordinary institution among 
 them was a tribunal, called the Council of Music, which had 
 jurisdiction over all matters of science and art, and under 
 whose supervision the whole education of the country appears 
 to have been placed. The Peruvians resembled the Mexicans 
 in many respects, but were not so far advanced in education. 
 
 The Aryan race (called also Indo-European and lndo-(Jer- 
 manic) is widely diffused in different parts of the world. It 
 established itself in Hindostan three thousand years ago ; 
 very early occupied Persia and Europe, and is in modern times 
 planting itself by colonization in all parts of the world. If we 
 compare the national peculiarities, the religion and the poetry 
 of the ancient Greeks and Romans, the ancient and modem 
 
16 
 
 INTRODUCTORY ETHNOLOGICAL ESSAY. 
 
 I 
 
 Teutonic and Celtic nations, the Hindoos and Persians, thej* 
 may, to a superficial observer, present no similarities, or even 
 very close analogies. But the profound researches of the last 
 few years, especially in the field of comparative philology and 
 ethnology, have clearly sliown their identity of origui and close 
 relation in distinctive characteristics. Not only do they all 
 possess, in •ommon, the mental and physical peculiarities which 
 distinguish them from the Shemitic rt* vie, but their traditions 
 all spring from the same root. There is a grand parallelism in 
 ihe myths of all, and the epic poems of India, Persia, Greece, 
 Bome, Germany, England and Norseland, with their variety 
 of life, heroes, wars and conquests, are in reality different 
 versions of the same story ; and varied as these versions are by 
 difierences of climate and individual national circumstances, 
 the origin of this story is to be found in the natural phenomena 
 of the world, the course of the seasons of the year,, and the 
 alternations of darkness, dawn, light and twilight of the day* 
 The mythology of the Vedic and Homerio poems contains the 
 germs of tLe stories of Teutonic, Celtic, and Scandinavian folk- 
 lore. Among; the infinite variety of shapes into which this 
 material has been moulded by the poets and story-tellers of 
 Greeks and Latins, Persians and Englishmen, Hindoos, Ger- 
 mans and Norwegians, Icelanders and Danes, Frenchmen and 
 Spaniards, the same common stock may be traced, even to the 
 subtle distinctions of feature and character in the actors and 
 scenes of the great drama of the powers of Nature, which is 
 the theme of all Aryan national poetry. Distinguished for in- 
 tellectual power and enterprise, this race are the great builders, 
 manufacturers and merchants of the world. Their educational 
 characteristics are in accordance with the natural. Less ima- 
 ginative than the Shemitic race, their education has less of the 
 aesthetic and poetic, and more of the intellectual development 
 and solid acquirement. 
 
 In ancient Greece considerable attention was paid to educa- 
 tion, but generally it was more in the way of physical develop- 
 
IHTEODUCTORY ETHNOLOQICAt ESSAY. 
 
 IT 
 
 ment than intellectual culture. At Athens more attention was 
 paid to intellectual and scientific attainments than at other 
 places. In later days aesthetic and philosophic education 
 became veiy popular ; while under the influence of Socrates, 
 Plato and Aristotle, a groat advance was made in rhetoric, 
 logic, ethics and mathematics. In these the schools of Athens 
 and Alexaixdria became pre-eminent. 
 
 In ancient Rome the education, so far as it went, was princi- 
 pally moral and physical, until it came under the influence of 
 the Greek system, which then prevailed, but not so generally as 
 in Greece itself. 
 
 As the several nations of Europe emerged from the chaos of 
 the ruins of the Westei*n Empire, schools and colleges began to 
 be founded, and attention Avas paid to the scholastic philosophy, 
 but there was such profound, general ignorance spread like a 
 dark cloud over society, that little progress was made for some 
 ages. But years rolled on. The awaking time of the Crusades 
 had conie and gone, leaving a thirst for new developments of 
 society. There were Oriental visions and longings which in- 
 creased the vitality of the already awakened spirit of commerce 
 and enterprise. The people of Europe were waking up from 
 the night of the dark ages. The revival of learning was in 
 progress, to which an immense impetus was given by the inven- 
 tion of printing from movable types, and thence proceeded 
 what may be called the modern epoch of progress and develop- 
 ment. To the awakening of Europe succeeded the founding of 
 an English-speaking nation in America. There could not have 
 been a better time for such an event than that in which it took 
 place. The seventeenth century was exceedingly rich in moral 
 and intellectual power in England. The Puritan founders of 
 New England were men of gigantic intellect, great learning, 
 deep religious fervour, inflexible moi*al principle, and quench- 
 less love of liberty, and the deep impress of these elements of 
 national life were inwrought into the early life of the young 
 nation. Hence, freed from many hinderancea in the way of 
 
18 
 
 INTBODUCTORT ETHNOLOGICAL ESSAT. 
 
 m 
 
 progress which were inevitable in Old England, education 
 speedily blossomed and bore abundant fruit in the new. Before 
 the early colonists had comfortable homes to shelter themselves, 
 they reared the church and school-house in each town, that 
 provision for the wants of their spiritual and intellectual life 
 might be in advance of that for their physical life. With 
 extraordinary munificence, in their circumstances, support was 
 provided for free common schools, grammar schools and higher 
 seminaries of learning. 
 
 Scotland was the first country in Europe to establish a complete 
 system of parish schools for general instruction, on the principle 
 of the property of all being liable to taxation for the erection of 
 a school-house and teacher's dwelling. It has ample provision 
 for obtaining a superior education, but not for carrying it on to 
 such an extent as can be done in the universities of England. 
 In England, at the present time, the means are ample in the 
 universities and great endowed schools, for acquiring the highest 
 grade of education. Owing to ecclesiastical difficulties, England 
 is far behind some other countries in Europe in provision for 
 the education of the masses ; but its prospects are improving. 
 Ireland is rapidly progressing under the influence of its national 
 system of education, which has outlived the violent opposition 
 of extreme men among both Protestants and Roman Catholics. 
 Established in 1831, it has had the honour of being the ^>asis 
 of our Ontario Public School system, and of furnishing us with 
 masters and other officers for our Provincial Normal School.* 
 Under its influence, the people of Ireland have made rapid pro- 
 gress in education and general intelligence. In France, ample 
 provision is made for superior education. If inferior to Ger- 
 many in classical knowledge, it is superior in mathematical and 
 physical science. Primary education was much neglected until 
 about half a century ago. The efforts of Louis Philippe and 
 Guizot, followed by those of succeeding rulers, have recently 
 
 * T. J. Robertson, Esq., First Head Bfaster, Provincial Normal School, Toronto; 
 J. G. Hodgins, EiSq,. LL.O., Dep. Superiut of Education for Province of Ontario, &c. 
 
INTBODUCTORT ETHNOLOGICAL E8SAT. 
 
 19 
 
 developed a very thorough and e£5cient system of public schools 
 connected with the municipal organization of the country. In 
 Spain and Fortitgal, harassed by internal discord, the glory of 
 ancient universities has passed away, and there is no system of 
 public schools of any practical value in o^istence. In Italy, 
 the former States of the Church have ample means of superior 
 education, but are deficient in the elementary department. 
 The former kingdom of Naples is at a low ebb. Sardinia has 
 been since 1848 rapidly advancing so as to occupy a very 
 respectable position. The whole of Italy is likely now to 
 advance with rapid strides in education. Greece has, since its 
 independence, made zealous efforts to improve, and has pro- 
 vided a university, superior and primary schools. Denmark 
 has for many years maintained a high standard of education. 
 All grades of schools are provided, and the people are well 
 educated. In Sweden and Norway the sparseness of the popu- 
 lation presents a serious difficulty ; yet education is general and 
 well conducted. Germany in all its States occupies a high 
 educational position, although there is a great difference among 
 them. Prussia, Saocony and Wurtemberg are celebrated for the 
 thorough organization and general practical usefulness of their 
 systems. Austria is somewhat behind Prussia, but is making 
 advancement. Bavaria, Mecklenburg and some of the smaller 
 States are not so far advanced. 
 
 In the United States of America a great difference exists 
 between the Northern and Southern portions, the latter being 
 much inferior to the former. Ample provision has been made 
 for superior education, but as yet it has not reached the high 
 standard of that of Europe. In common and grammar schools 
 the Eastern, Middle and Western States occupy a distinguished 
 position, both in the wide diffusion of elementary education, 
 and in the development of intellectual activity. In Canada, 
 we have in Ontario an organization, of which an American 
 writer says that " it is unsurpassed in it3 results, for attendance 
 
80 
 
 inthoductory ethnological essay. 
 
 and intellectual progi'ess, by any in the world." The other 
 Provinces are behind Ontario, but are rapidly improving. 
 
 We cannot par oicularize further, and must turn to some 
 general considerations. Among all the various branches of 
 the Aryan race, there is much mingling of sub-varieties. The 
 result of this is often the production of a character highly con- 
 ducive to improvement and advancement. For example, the 
 British race, at home, in the colonies, and in the United 
 States of America, mingles the patient enduring spirit of the 
 ^ Saxon, the refined moral perception, grace and politeness of the 
 Norman, and the fortitude, perseverance and impulsiveness of 
 the Celt, together with many other peculiarities derived from the 
 smaller intermingling of Phoenician, Roman, Danish and other 
 elements. Such a race is pre-eminently fitted for overcoming 
 difliculties, advancing enterprise, commerce and agriculture, 
 making improvements, cultivating art and science, and attain- 
 ing the highest intellectual position which education can aid 
 — in producing. 
 
 Closely connected with education are questions of language 
 and religion. Tracing back language to its earliest records, we 
 find in the vast drifting desert of human speech, three oases 
 which have been early formed, and in which, before history 
 began, language assumed a more stable form. These were the 
 Turanian, Shemitic and Aryan. In these, language was arrested 
 and became solid and petrified. In the first it assumed a form 
 mono-syllabic and agglutinate; in the second, radical; and 
 in the third, inflectional. And concomitantly with this fixing 
 of anguage was the fixing of three independent settlements 
 of religion. In China, where we have the earliest record of 
 Tui'anian speech, we find an ancient, colourless and unpoetical 
 religion, which may be called mono-syllabic, consisting of the 
 worship of single spirits, representing the sky, the sun, storms 
 and lightnings, mountains and rivers, standing side by side, with 
 nothing to bind them together; also the worship of ancestral 
 spirits : while above all there towers a lofty range of half reli- 
 
other 
 
 IJJTRODUCTORY ETHNOLOOrCAL ESSAY. 
 
 it 
 
 gious, half philosophical faith, a belief in two powers, variously" 
 applied, but originally meaning heaven and earth. In the 
 ancient worship of the Sheraitic races we find names of God, 
 which appear in the polytheistic religions of the Babylonians, 
 Phoenicians, and Carthaginians, as well as in the mono-theistic 
 creeds of Jews, Christians and Mohammedans. The worship 
 of these nations is a worship of God in history — that is, as 
 wielding the destinies of men, races and nations, rather than of 
 the powers of nature. The names applied to Gbd are generally 
 expressive of moral qualities, such as Strong, Exalted, Lord, 
 King. In the ancient worship of the Aryan race, can'ied to 
 all parts of the earth by its adventurous sons, and which may 
 be easily recognized in the classic remains of Greece and Rome, 
 the valleys of India, or the forests of Gennany, by the common 
 names of the Divine Being, these names are expressive of the 
 powers of nature. Their worship is, however, not a worahip of 
 nature, but of God in nature, as God hidden behind the veil of 
 nature, rather than behind the veil of the human heart. As 
 the races spread, and the true meaning of words was gradually 
 lost, eiTors crept in ; figurative language came to be understood 
 literally; the Divine powers were transferred into many objects 
 of worship; and widespread systems of idolatry gradually 
 became developed. The early worshippers of India, who wor- 
 shipped the Great Father in heaven, and the supreme power in 
 nature, and even the writers of the Rig- Veda, who were begin^ 
 ning to lose their hold on the Divine, by the multiplication of 
 epithets and names, would be astounded were they to witness 
 the horrors of the durga pujah, the great festival of the goddess 
 Kali, or contemplate the gigantic system of mythology of modem 
 India, the most gorgeously developed and elaborated which the 
 world has seen, with its 330,000,000 idols. 
 
 Christianity, by birth a Shemitic religion, has spread most 
 widely among the Aryan race. In Christianity, therefore, we 
 have now the highest blossoming, or rather fruitage, of the 
 whole religious idea or life of both of the great branches of the 
 
as 
 
 IKTRODUCTORT ETHNOLOGICAL ESSAY. 
 
 Caucasian stock, and the mightiest power on earth for the 
 development of the highest faculties of man. The human 
 mind held by such a power, anchored to communion with its 
 Father in heaven, and thoroughly awakened to research, will 
 speedily overturn and sweep away_old superatitions, and build 
 up a solid and enduring structure of religion and learning. 
 Effete creeds, whether religious, scientific or educational, must 
 pass away; and nothing will stand which cannot bear the 
 fullest blaze of light. Our branch of the human race is des- 
 tined to higher and higher developments, to mightier achieve- 
 ments than the world has yet witnessed, and the highest develop- 
 ing power of education is required that we may fill our destined 
 place on the arena of the wcrld. 
 
 The following work has been prepared by an experienced 
 and successful Teacher, and as such, its conclusions are not 
 to be regarded as merely theoretical, but as the results of 
 actual experiment and practice. Mr. Le Vaux has made educa- 
 tion, both theoretical and practical, the great study of his life. 
 He has devoted to it the resources of a mind thoroughly trained 
 in a wide range of general scientific knowledge, and a rich 
 acquaintance with human life, derived from extensive travel 
 and observation ; to all which he has added the practice of his 
 theories in the actual organization and government of various 
 grades of schools. I can with much pleasure, as well as with 
 much confidence in the soundness of the principles and practice 
 laid down in the book, cordially commend it to the reading 
 public as a valuable addition to the educational literature of 
 the day. 
 
 GEORGE BELL, LL.D. 
 
THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 PART I.-~FIRST PRINCIPLES. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 Napoleon Bonaparte, while in ezile at Elba, was asked Anecdotes 
 by one of the ladies of his miniature Court if he would be and Lincoln, 
 pleased to favour her with his opinion as to ** What France 
 needed most 1 " Placing one hand in his bosom and the ■ 
 other behind his back, the Emperor reflected for a moment, 
 and then, looking earnestly at his fair companion, he replied — 
 in his usual grave and emphatic style — " Mothers.'* Abra- 
 ham Lincoln's answer to a similar question, though not so 
 laconic, was equally suggestive. An English friend who 
 had an interview with Mr. Lincoln the day preceding his 
 assassination, after congratulating him on the apparent 
 advent of peace, took the liberty of asking " What he conr 
 ceived to be the best prescription for restoring order and 
 prosperity in the prostrate South ] " No threatening words 
 or angiy reproaches escaped the lips of the venerable Presi- 
 dent. The loving parent of a disobedient family, he was- 
 ever ready "to kill the fatted calf" and to receive "the 
 penitent prodigal" to his bosom. While the question was 
 being proposed, he approached one of the windows : feelings 
 of sorrow seemed to agitate his heart ; but after looking out 
 on the clear blue sky for a moment, his mind was cheered 
 with more pleasant ideas, and a smile of benevolence lighted 
 
24 
 
 THE SCIENCE AND ART OP TEACIIINQ. 
 
 Good mo- 
 thers and 
 eflflcient 
 teachers. 
 
 First 
 lessons. 
 
 Up his countenance, 
 you pro[)ose is 
 
 " Mr. B ," said he, " the query 
 
 natural under the circumstances. It has 
 engrossed my attention for some time. We must proclaim 
 a liberal amnesty and establish good schools, and then ths 
 heat prescription we can offer the South will be efficient 
 teachers.^* 
 
 Both Napoleon and Lincoln were right. Their conclu- 
 sion, judged by the light of after events, proves that they 
 thoroughly understood " the situation," and were fully con- 
 scious of the great wants of their respective countries. But 
 what was true of France and the Southern States is, to some 
 ^extent, true of the whole world. Every race and nation 
 need good mothers, and every people, whether civilized or 
 barbarous, require efficient teachers. Upon these benefac 
 tors — mothers and teachers — depend the temporal and 
 spiritual welfare of the present and all future generations. 
 History tells us that all the great nations of antiquity had 
 great mothers and great teachei-s. Every student knows 
 that those States which had the best mothers and most 
 efficient teachers, always subdued or annexed their less in- 
 telligent or less worthy rivals. Recent events in Europe 
 and America point to the same fact. The North overcame 
 the South, because it had more excellent teachers than its 
 rival ; or, rather, the South over-indulged its selfish pro- 
 pensities, and rushed into a fratricidal contest, because its 
 people were not sufficiently educated to know their own 
 interests. Then, again, Germany has dismembered France, 
 because the women of "Vaterland" were more excellent 
 •wives and mothers than those of Gaul. We feel assured, 
 moreover, that there would have been no war in either case 
 had the mothers and teachers on both sides been equally 
 worthy. ' .' 
 
 A child's education commences when it first smiles in 
 response to its mother's caresses. It unconsciously receives 
 xnai^ lessons from those who listen to or applaud its first 
 
THE BCIEKCf AND ART Or TEACHIITO. 25 
 
 efforts to ipeak. Children acquire a knowledge of men's 
 character and disposition by indulgence in a natural impulse 
 which impels them to study the human face. They shrink 
 from the clouded brow, but experience much delight when 
 they perceive by the countenance that they have succeeded 
 in exciting expressions of pleasure in the hearts of their 
 friends. Feelings of kindness, and perhaps self-satisfaction, 
 induce them to repeat what they believe to have given, 
 pleasure. Though this desire to please is an amiable and 
 praiseworthy quality, it is, nevertheless, liable to many 
 abases, and should therefore be guided by reason and culti- 
 vated with caution. While giving the child its due meed of 
 praise or approval, wo should occasionally direct attention 
 to his errors, and be careful to check egotistical displays. 
 
 During the days of infancy, the mother, by her *' teachings Mothers 
 and influence," instils into the heart or incites in the mind t««eh«n. 
 of the child the germs of those characteristics which, in time 
 to come, will distinguish him (or her) from all the world 
 besides. In after years it becomes the teacher's peculiar 
 province to invigorate those characteristics, and so develop 
 the mental, moral and physical powers £is to fix indelibly 
 the noble impressions first made by the dearest and kindest 
 of earthly friends. It is from mothers alone that children 
 will learn as if by instinct, and in early childhood they are 
 therefore the best of all teachers. But as time rolls on, and 
 the child merges into the boy, or the boy into the man, the 
 nature of our institutions (in conjunction with domestic or 
 public duties and the want of special teaching skUl) compel 
 the parent to delegate his (or her) educational poweiti and 
 privileges to another. That other — the teacher, tutor or 
 preceptor — ^is thus constituted the locum tenent of the parent, 
 and becomes forthwith his ri^presentative in all scholastic 
 matters; not the representative of one particular parent, 
 but oi aU the pwrentt whose children are committed to his 
 charge. 
 
 3 
 
T 
 
 26 
 
 THE SCIENCE AND ART OP TEACHINQ. 
 
 ThcfMirental It will be Hccn that tho teacher, by reason of his special 
 •ubttltut*. 
 
 training and experience, must be far more skilful as an 
 educator than each individual parent could possibly be. In 
 the division of labour of his little community, the educational 
 interests have been committed to his care. He is, for the 
 time being, the common parent of his pupils, and will treat 
 them as if they were really his own children. To be nae- 
 cessful in his calling, he must perfectly understand the 
 nature of the materials on which he is to act ; he must be 
 acquainted with all the best and most approved methods of 
 teaching, and be expert and skilful in using them ; he must 
 sympathize with humanity, and enthusiastically devote him- 
 self to his work. His responsibility is much greater than 
 that of any ii^ dividual parent, inasmuch as his " collective 
 family" is much larger than that of any particular '* home 
 circle." 
 
 The authority of the parent and teacher are patriarchal, 
 and to some extent inseparable. It is the bounden duty of 
 the one to uphold and extend the influence of the other. 
 Their interests are mutual and their hopes similar, if not 
 identical. Children are easily managed when they feel that 
 their parents and teachers understand each other, and work 
 together in harmony and unity for their individual welfare. 
 There should be no "clashing of authority;" parents and 
 teachers must support each other. Anything like antagonism, 
 or doubts and fears, would nullify the labours of both, and 
 engender a tendency to rebellion and obstinacy. This would 
 injure the pupils for time — perhaps for eternity — and pre- 
 vent them from becoming amiable men and women, good 
 and worthy citizens. Amongst the Greeks and Bomanaf 
 there was no profession so highly honoured as that of the 
 educators of youth; and we understand that the modern 
 Dutch and Germans exhibit a similar appreciation of tiutt 
 useful calling. It will soon be so in every civilized com- 
 munity. Parents are becoming conscious of the fact iSuLt if 
 
 Mutual 
 duties. 
 
THB SCIEVCl AND ART OP TKAOBIKO. 
 
 V 
 
 thej wish their children to m&ke " the largest amount of 
 progress in the shortcut space of time/' they must teach 
 them by example to love education and revere educators. 
 "The great mind of the people," says Canning, "is becom- 
 ing impressed with the idea that no office can compare 
 in dignity, solemnity and public importance with that of 
 the trainer and educator of youth ; that skill to fashion the 
 intellects of the young, and ability to lead them in the paths 
 of truth and virtue are worth more than the knowledge of 
 all other arts and sciences together, and that the encourage- 
 ment of accomplished teachers is therefore the first and 
 noblest duty of every intelligent community." The teacher 
 is the life of the school. Its value, its efficiency, its success, 
 depends on his personal character and professional qualifica- 
 tions. Commissioners and School Corporations may erect 
 beautiful and commodious schools, furnishing them in the 
 most approved style, but such labours will be comparatively 
 fruitless unless the teachers employed be worthy of their 
 vocation. Many of our Public Schools possess well stocked 
 libraries, museums and philosophical apparatus, but these 
 are lifeless and comparatively useless unless made effiectual 
 through the living agency of mind ; the direct intervention 
 of men, apt to teach, skilful in illustrations and happy in 
 Application. A few teachers, eminent in profiessicmal know- 
 ledge, skilful to understand, quicken, and direct the pupils' 
 minds, are worth more than a whole army of unskilled 
 and inexperienced men, even though favoured with every 
 desirable extraneous aid 
 
 The banker, the merchant, the farmer and the mechanic Education, • 
 work on earthly and perishable materials, and by fair means °°**^® ^^'^' 
 or foul, endeavour to secure a competency, if aot to accumu- 
 Ute wealth. How different is the work of the teacher 1 
 He works upon the living principle — %hfi immortal xniia,^, 
 •od his wealth is seldom of this world. It is his province 
 Mid priyilege to excite, draw out, cherish, develop and Ipuild 
 
28 
 
 ill 
 
 Tetchert 
 fonn the 
 characteics 
 of their 
 geooratioo. 
 
 TBI 8CIKNCC AND ABT Of TZJLCRUXQ, 
 
 up the dirine fabric of the intellect ; to cultirate the iSner 
 feelings of the heart ; to influence the morals of his generation ; 
 to promote peace and proclaim the rights of man. His pro- 
 fession is connected with tlnie and eternity — with the present, 
 past and future ; its results are everlasting, its effects indeli- 
 ble. Teachin^^ is a noble work, worthy of the holiest charac- 
 ter, of the highest intellect, and of the greatest skill. Ever 
 foremost in wisdom, piety, and virtue, the literary and other 
 qualifications of the educator should always be in advance 
 of the age in which he lives, for great inr^**" l are his responsi- 
 bilities. He who spake as man never spake, even the Prince 
 of Life, lived and died as a teacher, and His last words, 
 *' Qo and teach all nations," are still ringing in our ears. 
 The soul, the mind, the materials on which the teacher 
 labours are everlasting, and said to be the express image of 
 the Creator. His work is therefore the noblest in which 
 man can be engaged. Much is required of teachers, but in 
 the midst of their trials and annoyances let them consider 
 the dignity and public utility of their calling, and remember 
 that, unlike the ','eneraaty of men, they can lift up their 
 heads at any time and say, ** We follow the profession of 
 the Great Teacher. We also are apostles- and co-labourers 
 with Him who said, 'Suffer little children to come unto 
 Me and forbid them not, for of such is the kingdom oi 
 God.'" 
 
 CHAPTER IL 
 
 RESPONSIBILITIES OF THE TEACHER. 
 
 Teachers form the character of each succeeding generation. 
 They cannot fail to transmit their Dharacteristics. They are 
 sure to leave their impression on the plastic minds of their 
 pupils. The teacher can move the hearts of the young for 
 good or evil, just as the evening zephyrs move the leaves of 
 
THE SCTINOB AND ART OF TKACHINO. 
 
 20 
 
 the foivHt treeH. Hjh acts and wohIh, uIooh and precrptH, 
 are iinpiinted on their little hearts, a« faithfully an tho 
 impression of a seal on softened wax. Neither time nor 
 eternity can ever efface these mental impressions. Once 
 made, they remain a blessing or a curse for ever. Accord- 
 ing as these impressions are gooil or evil, the pupils in after 
 yeara emblazon or dim theii' country's fame, causing it to 
 shine with the brightness of tho mid-day sun, or to hide 
 its head in a gloom blacker than Egyptian darkneas. Tho 
 influence of such youthful imj)res8ion8 is exi)erience«l 
 home and abroad i*' nil tho events of existence, and — after 
 inciting, encouraging or restraining the child, the youth and 
 the man, through all the varied and transitory scenes of 
 life — they probably accompany the enfranchised spirit into 
 the world beyond the grave, clothing ii with peculiar char- 
 acteristics through all the countless ages of eternity. 
 
 In all the avocations of life, there is probably no position Re«poaii- 
 in which the responsibilities are so great, nor is there any 
 in which so much real permanent good, or enduring evil, 
 can be done, as in that of the teacher. It is an old and tme 
 saying that " example is better than precept." They labour 
 in vain who teach by precept and not by example. As a 
 rule, example should always precede, or accompany precept. * 
 The precept should be the expression of the example, as the 
 rule in mathematics is the expression of the principle. The 
 person who does not teach by example is not an educator, 
 and does not deserve success. "Do as I say but not as I 
 do," should never be the motto of the teacher, for of all the 
 powers at his command, that of example (or of setting 
 examples) is the most influential. 
 
 The habits acquired in school are those which generally The habitH 
 characterize the pupils in after life. These characteristics, fudex^"' *" 
 taken collectively, indicate what the prestige of the nation {J^"^ ^^^^^ 
 will be in years to come. In the public school we may see 
 the character of the future nation in embryo, and send it 
 
30 
 
 THE SCIEKCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 Power of 
 example, 
 and of 
 youthful 
 impressions. 
 
 down to posterity stamped with our imprimatur. How 
 anxiously should we endeavour to fashion it so that it may 
 be admired of man and commended by God. The germs of 
 some characteristics are bom with the child ; others are in- 
 stilled into his mind duiing the days of infancy. When he is 
 tmnsfen-ed to the care of the public teacher they are still in 
 a crude state — ready for training, ripe for extensive develop- 
 ment, and it becomes the bounden duty of the educator to 
 cultivate them to their utmost capacity, eliminating the evil, 
 strengthening the good, and faithfully performing every duty 
 to the best of his ability. Successful teaching, like successful 
 preaching, is always accompanied by example. If desirous 
 of success the teacher, like the early preachers of the Gospel, 
 must be a living model of the doctrines he inculcates. There 
 must be no hypocrisy about him — he must be thoroughly in 
 earnest. Every word, deed, and even the exprsssion of his 
 face have their effect for good or evil on the imitative beings 
 committed to his charge. 
 
 Example is infectious. It reigns supreme in early youth 
 and childhood, as the imitative powers are then far stronger 
 than reason or judgment. Benjamin West declared that a 
 kiss from his mother had made him a painter ; an approving 
 ^ smile from Madame Bonaparte made her illustrious son a 
 soldier and an emperor; a story related by his teacher made 
 Livingston a traveller. So is it in every stage of life ; a 
 look, a word, an act, a smile, or a frown, from those we love — 
 from teacher, parent, or friend — may influence our destiny for 
 time and eternity. " A pebble or a few grains of sand often 
 decide whether the rain-drops falling on the crest of the 
 Rocky Mountains shall flow westward to the Pacific Ocean 
 or eastward to the Atlantic."* So is it in life ; the most 
 insignificant circumstance affects individual character, and 
 often originates events which decide Whether the innocent 
 child is to be a patriotic hero or a " worthless sot" — an angel 
 
 * Rev. Geoiie Bell, LL.D. 
 
TSJB SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHINO. 
 
 31 
 
 ^r a demon. The influence of youthful impressions being 
 immortal and indelible, it i» impossible to calculate the result 
 of their prospective or immediate efiects. It is the teacher's 
 peculiar province to make such enduring impressions. Next 
 to parents, no other human being possesses such power 
 for good or evil over the youthful mind. How extremely 
 careful should he be therefore that they may be such as shall 
 be conducive to the welfare of the immortal beings entrusted 
 to his care. " Life is such as we take it and make it, or 
 rather, as it is taken hold of and made for us by those to 
 whom the care of our youthful days is entrusted."* The 
 children of the present will be the fathers, mothers, teachers, 
 authors, lawgivers and rulers of the future. Their character 
 depends on their education, and that depends on our modem 
 educators. Let our teachers then "be up and doing," remem- 
 bering that they labour for posterity. Becognizing "no 
 standard of superior worth but wisdom, truth, and nobleness 
 of soul," let them commence the exercise of their influence 
 over the young by looking well to their personal example, 
 manner, and general temper — by becoming the right kind of 
 men themselves ; not indolent, cold, selfish, cruel or irreve- 
 rent, but brave, faithful, gentle and self-sacrificing : all the How to 
 powers of their intellect, all the energies of their hearts and impnsjfons, 
 souls being consecrated to their work. Under the light and 
 influence of these aspirations the teacher'ft enthusiasm will 
 be caught up by his pupils. It is sure to impel them to 
 make such efforts as will deserve, even if they do not ensure, 
 success. Having chosen his sphere, and engendered this laud- 
 able spirit amongst his pupils, let him pursue a straight- 
 forward course, not deviating therefrom to the i ight hand 
 or the left, and ere many years elapse he will be sure to 
 discover t^at there are grander objects of ambition than 
 worldly prosperity or individual wealth. Though his road 
 be dark and slippery at first, it will gradually brighten, and^ 
 
 * Natbaniel Sands. 
 
 0' 
 
32 
 
 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 To sympa- 
 thize with 
 the pupils, 
 and to seek 
 their love. 
 
 at the further end he shall be met by One who (when his 
 race is run) will welcome him and say — " Well done, thou 
 good and faithful servant. Enter thou into the joy of thy 
 Lord." 
 
 When a teacher takes charge of a school, his first object 
 should be to win the affectionate co-operation of the respec- 
 tive pupils. Should he understand his work and be a good 
 judge of human nature, he will doubtless succeed in doing 
 so at once — otherwise, time will be necessary. In some 
 exceptional cases time will always be requisite. Unless he 
 possess the natural tact or ability to gain their esteem, 
 confidence and affectionate regard, his success, if at all 
 possible, will be very uncertain. If he really loves the 
 children, and be desirous of deserving and winning their 
 confidence and friendship, they will soon reciprocate his 
 feelings. But, as a rule, he mutt 1 ' them ere they love 
 him. They will become conscious of the affectionate interest 
 he takes in their welfare by the kindness of his actions, the 
 urbanity, suavity and earnestness of his manner, the bright- 
 ness of his looks and the geniality of his disposition towards 
 them in school and out of school. Self-sustaining patience, 
 cheerful perseverance, dignified self-control, warm sympathy 
 and a real eaitiest abiding love for children are essentially 
 necessary in acquiring the love of youthful hearts. When 
 the teacher has won his pupils' love, his ascendancy is estab- 
 lished on a sure and lasting foundation. • uey will feel 
 honoured in receiving his commands, and c' ■■; while he is 
 yet speaking. Disobedience will be regarded as i heinous" 
 offence, and a prompt;, cheerful compliance with the teacher's 
 instructions or commands will be considered a high honour — 
 a distinction which each and all will endeavour to acquire. 
 Under such circumstances tbe work of education is no longer 
 irksome to the teacher or the taught. Teaching becomes a 
 god-like exercise when the pupils of a class, like little birds , 
 in a nest, aroused to a just sense of their wants, stretch out 
 
THE 8CIE}!CE AND ART OF TEACHING. 33 
 
 their necks, beDd foi-ward their heads, and open wide their 
 mouths to receive what their good friend has provided; 
 when the skilful teacher like a parent bird stands over his 
 little flock, sympathizing with their weakness, carefully 
 dividing his provisions, and feeding them with the same until 
 all their wants are supplied. Win the hearts of your pupils, 
 and you win their prompt and cheerful obedience to all your 
 commands, and their enthusiastic co-operation with all your 
 designs ; your rule over their minds will be absolute. You 
 can then say to this one, " Go, and he goeth ; to that one, 
 come, and he cometh; and to another, do this, and he 
 doeth it." 
 
 It has been well said that " a teacher who would com- Teache™. 
 mand success must be an enthusiast in his profession ;" and pupils, 
 we would say in addition that he must love his pupils and, 
 in turn, be loved by them. The teacher and the taught 
 must be bound together in bonds of mutual affection. Man 
 is a creature desirous of love and esteem, and therefore finds 
 the greatest charm of existence in the affectionate regard of 
 those around him, whom ho has reason to admire for their 
 possession of ordinary and extraordinary qualities, such as 
 gentleness, kindness, honour, truth, sincerity, devotion, 
 prudence, heroism, or forgetfulness of self for the good 
 of others. Be a friend and protector, not a tyrant or task- 
 master, and remember that " No empire is safe, unless it 
 has affection for its basis."* As anger begets anger, so love 
 begets love, and the hearts of the young never fail to reci- 
 procate this god-like feeling. It is not necessary, nor indeed 
 would it be prudent, on the part of the teacher to announce 
 in words the existence of this affection — instinct will inform 
 them of the fact. Teacher, they will read it in your face, 
 and have the assurance of it in the tone of your voice, in 
 your smile, in your manner and in your actions — all of 
 which speak "louder than words." Let your pupils feel 
 
 Racine. 
 
 ,?* 
 
34 
 
 THE SCIENCE AST) ART OP TEACHING. 
 
 that you recMy care for thorn, that you take a lively interest 
 in all that concerns them, that you are their sincere and 
 unselfish friend, that you sympathize with tiiem in all \hxxc 
 little sorrows, and would gladly share all their little joys ; 
 then you will have found the true key to their hearts. 
 Frowns cliill the sensitive little hearts of the young, and are 
 frequently reflected back on their source. Those who smile 
 on the innocent face of a child are sure to receive back an 
 " answering smile ;" the happy response being an enlarged 
 and improved reflection of the original beaming glaace. 
 Smiles are like happy voices in a wooded vale. Their meny 
 musical tones are sure to be reflected back with increased 
 sweetness on those who uttered them. Let us always try 
 to promote the present happiness, as well as the future 
 interests, of our youthful friends. 
 To teach by Befoi-e concluding this chapter we will take the liberty 
 weii"M pre- once more of alluding to the influence of example as an 
 auxiliary in training pupils to act well their parts in the 
 respective ^>heres of life, so that at last they may become 
 worthy citizens of that bright world beyond the grave. 
 
 Educators should always remember that it is impera- 
 tively incumbent on them to teach by example. Precept 
 without example has no more efiect on the heart of the young 
 than evening zephyrs on the tall grass of the prairie. They 
 may bend their heads for a moment before it, but when the 
 breeze has passed — ^when the living voice has ceased to 
 speak — its influence is sure to vanish. Example should be 
 the forerunner of precept, and, as a rule, the latter should 
 be deduced from the former. This important principle 
 should be engraven on the hearts of teachers, as their success 
 in a great measure depends on its observance. Tf, for in- 
 stance, the teacher be desirous that his pupUs should attend 
 to their business in school or elsewhere, he must set them 
 the example by attending to his. And here we may remark, 
 that as a public officer he is bound to devote his school hours 
 
 cept. 
 
 III n 
 >iit 
 
 1 
 
THB K0IS5CI AVD ABT OF TmkOanHt. 
 
 exclusively to school work. Never should he forget himself 
 so far as to transact extraneous business) during those hours 
 which are supposed to be occupied in the discharge of his 
 official duties. Any personal indulgence in this respect is a 
 direct violation of the principles of right and wrong which 
 he, of all Others, should never forget or infringe. 
 
 CHAPTER lU. 
 
 THE SPIRIT AND HABITS OF THE TEACHER. 
 
 It is the teacher's province to train the finer feelings of Things ne- 
 the human heart, to develop the latent faculties of immortal SaST^od 
 beings, to strengthen their weakness, to remove their ignor- '***^****'* 
 ance; being always careful to equip them with the armour 
 of knowledge and sword of intelligence, that they may be 
 able to hold their own in the great battle of life. It requires 
 time, talent, energy, considerable skill and much experience 
 to make a really good and skilful teacher. Nor are these 
 sufficient. In addition, he must be " a man after God's own 
 heart," kind and affectionate. He must be meek as Moses, 
 patient as Job, zealous as Paul, alow to anger and apt to 
 teach. He must have a spirit in him worthy of his noble 
 and useful vocation. In every child, in every human being, 
 he should recognize the hiindiwork and image of Jehovah. 
 Always alive to the responsibilities of his position, he should 
 possess a soul to which wisdom and science are as the sun 
 and moon. Happen what may, he must cleave to what is 
 right, and abhor everything low, mean, or selfish. In ihe 
 nature of things, he will be an angel of light, elevating 
 immortal beings to heaven, or an angel of darkness, sinking 
 i them to hell. He is a " light set on a hill and cannot be ^ 
 fhid." He that w;ould be a good teacher must aim high in 
 profession. 
 
 i 
 
mm 
 
 
 86 
 
 To have a 
 right per- 
 ception of 
 his work. 
 
 in f I 
 
 II 
 
 Candidates 
 for "Teach- 
 erships " to 
 look well to 
 their mo- 
 tives. 
 
 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHINO. 
 
 The great object of the teacher should be to engrave such 
 impressions on the youthful minds of his pupils as will 
 ensure them a happy and useful life. He should have a 
 correct perception of his calling and of the various duties it 
 entails. He must have a thorough knowledge of the logical 
 ability and other requirements necessary for the skilful 
 execution of its obligations, and be duly impressed by its 
 capabilities for good. Otherwise he cannot have a clear 
 conscience nor be possessed of the right teaching spirit. 
 The faithful teacher vnll always endeavour to adapt his 
 teachings to the nature and disposition of the innocent 
 creatures committed to his charge — having an eye to their 
 temporal welfare and eternal happiness. Of course he 
 cannot absolutely command success ; but much ^vill depend 
 on his judgment and personal skill in fashioning their 
 " opening minds " — much also on the quality of the tools 
 employed for that purpose, and the intelligent persistency 
 with which he wields them. Mind is the subject of the 
 teacher. His business is to educate. That he may do so 
 effectually he should be perfectly acquainted with the dispo- 
 sition, nature and "surroundings" of his "subject." As a 
 " mental physician," he must have a right conception of the 
 object to be attained in education, and of the best, means to 
 be employed to effect his purpose. He must study man 
 before he can teach him — he must thoroughly understand 
 and wholly sympathise with children before he can educate 
 them. Bonds of paternal love and brotherly affection should 
 rule in school and out of school, so that, if necessary, every 
 pupil will glory in sacrificing liimself to serve his com- 
 panions. 
 
 Teaching being one of the most important of the profes- 
 sions, no one should enter it lightly or without due prepara- 
 tion. Candidates for admission should look well to their 
 motives. I^o one is justified in adopting it as a chance 
 vocation — as a mere temporary calling. Let those who 
 
THE SCIENCE AND ART OP TEACHING. 
 
 37 
 
 [would enter it with a view to making it a stepping stone to 
 nomething else, halt whUe yet on the threshhold, and not 
 liraitate Balaam of old by perserering in a course they know 
 [to be wrong. Let them ponder well over the awful responsi- 
 bilities they would undertake, remembering that every word 
 passing their lips, and eveiy act performed in school may 
 influence their pupils, individually or collectively, for better 
 I or worse, for time and eternity. Let them bear in mind that 
 i a time will come when they must " give an account of their 
 stewardship," and not forget that the school is heaven's 
 nursery as well as the world's cradle, and that the teacher's 
 soul — like Jacob's ladder, while esting on the earth and 
 piercing the skies — should lead the minds of the young to 
 comprehend the things of this world and, if possible, guide 
 their hearts to contemplate the glories of the next. 
 
 The teacher, being fully impressed with the almost over^ ignorance 
 
 whelming importance of his work, should thoroughly under- for profes- 
 
 stand how his respective duties ought to be performed. His jjkes! '"'*' 
 
 mistakes, be they ever so simple or insignificant, may injure 
 
 his pupils individually and collectively for all time to come. 
 
 Ignorance would be no palliation of his blunders. Such a plea 
 
 would only add to his crime. The mental and moi*al facul- 
 
 [ties of "even little children" are too sacred and too precious 
 
 to be " tampered with" by ignorant peraons. Who would 
 
 [accept a plea of ignorance from a physician who, through in- 
 
 I competency or carelessness, had poisoned one of his patients? 
 
 If such a medical man escaped capital punishment, he would 
 
 ^be expelled from society, and no one would ever engage his 
 
 [services again. There are "mental and moral quacks" as 
 
 [well as medical ones. From year to year these gentry con- 
 
 [iir.ue to murder their pupils* intellects, yet the public do 
 
 [liot interfere : miserly school trustees engage their services, 
 
 md illiterate people "believe in cheap teachers." Such 
 
 'instructors'* may of course do infinitely more mischief 
 
 Lhan the unskilled or careless physician, inasmuch as the 
 
38 
 
 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TBAOHINO. 
 
 i 
 
 &SS. 
 
 heart and soul, to which thej administer, are of far more 
 yalne than the body which must ultimately perish. The 
 errors of the physician affect his patients in this world only, 
 but the errors of the blundering teacher will continue to 
 affect his pupils for all eternity. It is the duty of every 
 civilized government to pass a law prohibiting untrained, 
 luicertificated, and unqualified men from practising the pro- 
 fession of teaching, and restraining public school trustees 
 from employing them. This would have boen done long ago 
 were it not that such teachers' blunders and shortcomings — 
 unlike those of the physician — seldom produce immediate 
 effects. It is true they may not be visible — they may 
 slumber, or like seed cast into the ground by the sower, 
 they may require time to grow and ripen — but a day will 
 come, in the far distant future perhaps, when the results of 
 unskilful teaching will be clearly manifest. The effects of 
 such teaching are the more pernicious because of uncertain 
 or slow development ; and this is why far-seeing people are 
 often more careful in selecting a family teacher than in 
 appointing a family physician. 
 
 On the teacher, to a great extent, devolves the i^esponsi- 
 bility of promoting the physical development and of preser- 
 ving the health of those little ones who are the joy of the 
 present and the hope of the future. It has been said that more 
 than half the deaths occurring between the ages of seven 
 and twenty-one arise from transgrossions of the natural laws 
 of health. The seeds of many a lingering disease have cer- 
 tainly been sown at school, and if the teacher would have 
 his pupils enjioy through life "Sound minds in sound bodies," 
 he must see that their physical education is not neglected. 
 
 One of the great objects of education is to prepare the 
 
 nsing generation to be good and patriotic citizens. They 
 
 government, ^ould, thei"efore, be instructed in the science of national as 
 
 ^ well as self-government. The youth of the country should 
 
 J^ not be left in total ignorance of the duties which will 
 
 PhyBical 
 «ducation. 
 
 ■ficience of 
 national 
 and aelf- 
 
 ..« 
 
THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 |«yolvG on them when they come to man's cfitate. They 
 lould, at least, be well acquainted with the provision made 
 their nation for the election of its legislative, jndioial 
 executive officers, and be ever willing cordially to sub- 
 lit to la irful auUiority. Submission to the laws is one of 
 le primary attributes of good citizenship. Both parents 
 id teachers should carefully "initiate th» child into the 
 ky stories of obedience." 
 The teacher, desirous of beinff successful in the practice of To heain 
 
 each ilay 
 
 is profession, must bo sure to begin each day aright. He aright. 
 
 lust remember that there is no personal chai'acteiistic so 
 
 ^tractive as an open countenance, and no quality so amiable 
 good humour or evenness of disposition. Before entering 
 
 le school-room ho should so regulate hi» temper and spirit 
 to be proof against whatever disturbing or disagreeable 
 tuences may greet his arrival or come under his notice 
 ring the day. Having control over himself he can the 
 
 lore easily control his pupils. Firm in command, strong 
 will, and pleasant in disposition, he can smile upon his 
 
 ipils and enter cheerfully on his important work. He will 
 id " the little labourers" instead o di-iving them, and 
 iconsciously induce them to feel that tlieir work is a plea- 
 it duty and not a disagreeable task. Under the influences 
 a genial nature, he will thus "allure them" to pursue 
 
 leir studies with prolfit, aotd bring them to sympathize with 
 
 iself and with each othei*. Under such cireumsta&eet 
 
 3y will prefer the society of the class-room to that of tha 
 
 iwing-r jom ; the school will be surrounded with hallowed 
 
 itionS) and " learning lessons" will become a pleasant, 
 
 not a delightful duty. Let them be encouraged to grai^ 
 
 te living fn^esent with all its ^lergies, fulness and dev^op- 
 3nt, and be made familiar with the idea that labour is not 
 ly the souree of subsistence but the fountain of comfort, 
 
 1th and happiness. 
 After reading this chapter some may ask perhaps, wheth^ An impor 
 
 le public can honestly expect so much from men in return 
 
 tantqueiy. ^ 
 
40 
 
 THE SCIENCE AND \RT OF TEACHING. 
 
 Who can be 
 a t«acher? 
 
 for a salary of a few hundred dollars a yearl — whether we 
 can hope to find such rare moral and intellectual qualifica- 
 tions in parties who (as the world goes) have to lire on 
 " starvation wages V* We will revert to the subject of re- 
 muneration in another place, but in the meantime may be 
 permitted to say that, the teacher is a mind-builder or a mind- 
 destroyer whether paid five thousand a year or only five 
 hundred. If he does not understand the science and art of 
 his calling he is no more capable of educating one child than 
 he would be to educate one hundred or more. Of course 
 there would be a difference in the amount of labour, but 
 the moral and intellectual qualifications would be the same. 
 A physician has to spend years in studying his art before 
 receiving his diploma. This he must do even though he 
 were afterwards to extend his services to only one patient. 
 The mental and moral qualifications of teachers should be 
 equal to, or rather in advance of, those of other professional 
 men, and thoy should be paid in proportion to their respon- 
 sibility, competency, and skill. 
 
 Others may ask, perhaps, " If tliese things be so, and that 
 the responsibilities are so great as you point out, who then 
 can be a teacher?" Very few indeed can be really good and 
 great teachers. Nevertheless if a man feel that he has the 
 right spirit within him, if he be desirous of being instru- 
 mental in promoting in the highest degree the welfare of 
 the rising generation — by elevating and enlarging the capa- 
 bilities of the human soul, by moulding the feeblest and most 
 innocent of God's creatures into intelligent and benevolent 
 "sovereigns of creation" — then, his motives being pure, let 
 him assume the duties of the office, and enthusiastically 
 devote his sole attention to his chosen profession. It is 
 necessary that at all times and seasons he should be in 
 sympathy with his work, and all that pertains to it. For 
 without devotion, enthusiasm, and professional sympathy, 
 though he may be a "school keeper," and be called a "school 
 
THE SCIENCE AND ART OP TEACHING. 
 
 :hcr," yet he never can be a suoccssful educator — at best 
 le will be but a mere machine. If a man enter the profes- 
 sion, and finds after due trial that he does not possess the 
 I qualifications essentially necessary — that in fact he has mis- 
 taken his vocation — then for his own sake, and the interests 
 of those committed to his charge, he sliould immediately 
 "got out of harness" and seek some other calling. If, on 
 Ithe contrary, ho have reason to believe that he jwssesses the 
 lessential mental and professional qualifications, then let him 
 jrsevere unto the end. Let him steer a straightforward 
 sourse, and having put his hands to the plough, never look 
 )ack. His devotion will be acceptable to his Creator and 
 lis country, and in days to come his reward will be more 
 raluable than any which silver and gold can purchase. Even 
 thLs world, he shall have his reward. Superior worth — 
 specially superior knowledge — is always honoured. People 
 tnnot long withhold their love and affectionate apprecia- 
 ion from those faithful citizens who devote themselves to 
 le service of humanity, and are ever willing to sacrifice 
 leir worldly prospects on the high altar of education. 
 
 ^1 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE GOOD TEACHER. 
 
 Any person desirous of becoming a successful teacher To be a 
 lUst possess an extensive knowledge of human nature, more ^Imln 
 specially that branch of it which relates to children. ^^*"'*' 
 Jautious and sensible, he must know when to censure and 
 rhen to praise ; when to rule their passions ; when to guide 
 leir afiections ; when to repress their animal spirits ; when 
 
 direct their attention, and when to govern their ambition. 
 )urtesy of manner, kindness of disposition, and sympathy 
 
 feeling, will enable him to rule with almost despotic 
 ithority through the influence of mutual esteem and affec- 
 
rr 
 
 41 
 
 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF T 
 
 TING. 
 
 Aptitude for 
 teaching. 
 
 
 Pupll»7 
 should be 
 led to do 
 crenrthing 
 for them- 
 selves. 
 
 tion. Let him therefore lje careful to cultivate these noble 
 and pleanant characteristics. If not endowed with the power 
 of building " a royal road to the temples of learning," (and 
 few ever were,) he ought, at least, to be able to strew the 
 way with flowers, and competent to relate the history of 
 every scene along the route. His mind should abound with 
 apt illustrations. He should be able to awaken the youpg 
 idea to a full consciousness of its wants, capabilities and 
 responsibilities, so that he may stir up or incite to activity 
 eveiy worthy feeling of the human heart. To do so effectually 
 he must be a good judge of child nature, have a chorongh 
 knowledge of the workings of mind under different influences, 
 and of its expansion and growth under different systems of 
 training. An acquaintance with the writings of ancient 
 philosophers, and with the most approved modem works on 
 education, will assist him materially in this resjMjct ; but, as 
 s rule, he must rely for success on his own observation and 
 professional genius or aptitude. 
 
 From what has been said. will be seen that it is a very 
 difficult thing to be a good tv...^xier ; and we have the highest 
 authority for stating that without being apt to teach, it is 
 impossible to be a successful one. Integrity of character 
 and literary or intellectual attainments, though essential, 
 are as nothing without this divine quality. Of course these 
 accomplishments add to the worth of the individual posses- 
 sing them, but without being apt to tea^h, he cannot efficiently 
 or effectually transfer them to others — he cannot develop 
 the mental capacity of pupils, nor impart to them the know- 
 ledge accumulated in his mind. In some persons this aptness 
 to teach is the gift of nature ; but in the majority of cases 
 it is an acqaii'ed power — the result of a careful study of 
 humanity, and of the young heart in particular. | 
 
 "We may here remark that a good teacher will never 
 decline to lend a helping hand to bis pupils when such 
 assistance is necessary; but, on the other hand, he should 
 
THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACRIKO. 
 
 43 
 
 carefully avoid doing too much for thorn. It in said that 
 young teachers have a tendency to do this from feelings of 
 mitituken kiudness, or through ignorance of the child's 
 capacity. A teacher should 1)0 careful also not to say more 
 than is necessary on any subject, for, as Kossuth observes, 
 "an unnecessary word is a word too much." Too much 
 may be done /or, and too much may bo said to, the pupil. 
 Both must l>e avoided. Milk is fit food for bal)es, and beef 
 for older people. The former are fed with the spoon, but 
 who would attempt to feed the latter in the samo wayl 
 What man, enjoying the use of his hands, would accept such 
 infantile civilities 1 None. So is it with the teacher and 
 the taught. There should be no unuecessury nursing — no 
 literary dandling — in the public school or private study. . , 
 Too much aid is as bad as too little. Pupils should be 
 taught to exercise their own faculties — to depend on their 
 own resources ; and, as a rule, the teacher should never do 
 anything fw Item that they themselves could do vnthout hia 
 assistance. His great object should be to lead them to do 
 everything for themselves. By such prtictice their intellect 
 will be expanded, their various faculties strengthened, and 
 their self-reliance increased, and they shall grow up to be 
 men and women in the true sense of the word — " sturdy 
 trees," defying the battle and the breeze of life. They will 
 us learn at an early age that " whatsoever is worth having 
 i«an only be had by climbing ;" that knowledge ctin only be 
 uired through honest, well sustained, well directed, per- 
 sonal efforts. 
 
 Real courtesy should be a leading characteristic of every Conrtesy of 
 her — we mean true politeness — that genuine solicitude ^her chur" 
 d' earnest attention which spring from benevolence and SJ^the*^"^*' 
 le well-meaning kindness of a noble heart. This is indis- *^*'*^'''- 
 sns&bly necessary to his success. Being cheerful in dis- 
 )sition, kind and courteous towards friends and enemies, 
 le cannot possibly fail in due time to obtain and retain the 
 
44 
 
 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 
 J 
 
 Touth to 
 ihonour a^e. 
 
 An anecdote 
 —a Grecian 
 Je>?end. 
 
 :i 
 
 esteem and good-will of all — both intelligent and ignorant. 
 In his walks abroad should he meet his pupils (or any of 
 them), he should recognize them courteously — with smiles, 
 not with frowns ; with kind and affectionate looks, not with 
 a cold, stern countenance. He should take the earliest 
 opportunity to make the acquaintance of their parents. He 
 cannot cultivate the friendship of all, but he should be sure 
 to greet them cordially whenever he meets them. In 
 public or in private, he should be careful to act so as to 
 merit their esteem. He will thus obtain " a good name," 
 which " is more desirable than great riches." At all events 
 the experiment will cost him nothing; let him give it a 
 trial. It is his duty to teach his pupils politeness by 
 example as well as by precept. 
 
 Whilst impressing on their minds the respective claims 
 of superior worth, and pointing out the duties they owe to 
 humanity in general, he should never forget to claim their 
 filial reverence for old age in particular. Let it be a point 
 of et iquette with them — nay, let it be the rule of their daily 
 life — to " rise up before the hoary head and honour the face 
 of the old man." 
 
 We may be excused if we digress for a moment to relate 
 an anecdote which will illustrate the spirit of the foregoing 
 quotation — an anecdote exhibiting clearly what we mean by 
 true politeness, whilst it affords an example worthy of*' 
 imitation by the youth of all generations. On a certain 
 piemorable occasion, in days gone by, a number of Greeks 
 assembled at an Athenian theatre to see the performance 
 of " a star" — a primitive Shakspeare doubtless. The actor 
 was popular and "drew a crowded house." The Spartan 
 ambassador and his suite happened to be present. They 
 occupied seats opi)Osite those allotted to, or engaged by, the 
 Athenian aristocracy. Before the play commenced, or dur- 
 ing one of the intermissions, it happened that an old man — 
 a citizen of Athens — came in. He surveyed the audience 
 
THE SCIENCE AND ART OP TEACHING. 45 
 
 for a moment, but though his head was white with the 
 snows of age, and a staff supported his feeble form, yet no 
 one offered him a seat — in truth, there seemed to be no seats 
 vacant. However, the young Athenian aristocrats, seeing 
 his position, resolved to have a j oke at his expense. They 
 therefore pretended to make place for him, and made signs 
 inviting him to come amongst them and be seated. He 
 bowed in reply, and walked to the place indicated, but when 
 about to sit down, "the wags" closed on either side and re- 
 occupied the vacant space. They then winked at each other 
 and laughed at the chagrin of the old man. The cheeks of 
 the gallant young Spartans burned with shame and indig- 
 nation as they observed this rudo and insolent "performance," 
 For a moment they gazed at each other in amazement, and 8p«rtan 
 then, as if moved by one will, every man of them rose and 
 remained standing whilst one of their number went over to 
 the old gentleman, and, bowing reverently, begged permis- 
 sion to conduct him to a seat. The old man complied, and, 
 leaning on the arm of the noble youth, crossed to the other 
 side of the house, where he was cordially received by the 
 ambassador and requested to take the moat honoui-ahle seat. 
 The comfort of the old patriarch being thus secured, the 
 Spartans quietly resumed their seats and turned their atten- 
 tion to the stage. 
 
 After a moment's silence, a mighty cheer shook the foun- conrtesy 
 dation of the theatre. The audience " were struck by the "'^««'"^^<*- 
 little adventure," and took this method of showing their 
 appreciation of such noble conduct. The gallant Spartans 
 smiled with inward satisfaction, but the rude Athenians, 
 now blushing at their own behaviour, held down their heads 
 with shame. Both parties had received their reward — 
 remorse was the lot of the one, and an approving conscience 
 the glory of the other. 
 
 When the cheers had died away, the worthy old gentleman 
 arose and, after thanking the kind "foreigners" for their 
 
 '^ 
 
, •) 
 
 ;i 
 
 46 THE SCIENCE AND ART OP TEACHING. 
 
 attention and example, expressed his regret that his fellow- 
 citizens knowing what was right, did what was wrong ; but 
 that nevertheless, he was glad to find "the Spartans practised 
 what the Athenians knew." Thenceforth Lacedsemonian 
 courtesy was praised in the patriot homes of Greece, and 
 every citizen felt proud of his Spartan countrymen. By 
 that one act these young Spartans set a worthy example to 
 the youth of every generation, and made the world their 
 debtors for time and eternity. Young friends do you approve 
 of their conduct? If so, " Go, and do likewise." Macaulay, 
 referring to this anecdote, writes as follows : 
 
 * In Athens, ere its sun of fame had set, 
 'Midst pomp and show the gazing crowds were met. 
 Intent for ever upon something new — 
 The mimic wonders of tlie stage to view, 
 The seats were filled, but ere the show began, 
 A stranger entered — 'twas an aged man. 
 Awhile he sought a place with aspect mild, — 
 The young Atheniacs sat and smiled. 
 How poor the produce of fair learning's tree, 
 Tliat bears no fruit of sweet humility. 
 The Spartan youths had their appointed place 
 Apart from Athen's more distinguished race. 
 And rose with one accord, intent to prove 
 To honoured age their duty and their love ; 
 Nor did a Spartan youth his seat resume 
 Till the old man found due and fitting room. 
 Then came the sentence of reproof and praise. 
 Stamped with the sternness of ancient days ; 
 For, standing full amidst the assembled crowd. 
 The venerable stranger cried aloud ; 
 " The Athenians learn their duty well ; but lo I 
 The Spartans practise what the Athenians know." 
 The words were good, and in a virtuous cause — 
 They quickly earned a nation's glad applause 
 But we have surer words of precept given 
 In God's own Book — the words that came from Heaven : 
 " Be kind, be courteous, be all honour shown — 
 Seek others' welfare rather than thine own." 
 
 Amiability The teacher's face, like the full moon in an azure sky, 
 
 tk)ni^^°'* should, if possible, be always bright and pleasant-looking. 
 
 Smiles, like sunbeams, should light up his countenance so 
 
 * Condensed from original. 
 
 !*!»%; 
 
THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 47 
 
 [that all with whom he comes in contact may, for the time 
 [being at least, be made to feel comfortable and happy. His 
 kim should be to "Attract all and repel none." He must 
 [remember that to teach self-control by example, it is neces- 
 iry that he should not allow the trials incident to life, and , 
 
 his profession, to ruffle his coujitenance or influence his 
 jtions. An amiable disposition, a smiling countenance, and 
 m engaging manner, never fail to warm into life the generous 
 fections of the human heart, whilst they dispel the moonless 
 jloom which so frequently besets the paths of both young 
 id old. For these reasons, and others too numerous to men- 
 tion, we should carefully cultivate those agreeable personal 
 laracteristics. 
 
 Teachers should be particularly careful never to upbraid Not to up- 
 pupil with his (or her) mental or physical defects. It is with the& 
 lot consistent with refined feeling or Christian piinciple to physical 
 lo so. On the contrary, his interest in and kindness towards * "'^ ' 
 ich parties should be the more marked in consequence of 
 lese defects. Children, naturally irritable, selfish or obsti- 
 ite, like those who are blind and deformed, are objects of 
 pity and compassion. They are unfortunate in being subject 
 infirmities and misfortunes which can only be overcome 
 |)jy peculiar mat ngement, aided by sympathy and encourage- 
 lent. Mental or physical deformities are heavy burdens, 
 id perpetual censure (besides being useless in itself) only 
 Ids to the crushing weight of these afflictions. Let children 
 assisted in overcoming unpleasant natural peculiarities, 
 id not abused for the misfortune of having inherited them, 
 liey are naturally weak, and should be treated with extreme 
 snderness. Mental defects and the singularities of manner 
 3culiar to any pupil should be mentioned to him in private, 
 id they never should be alluded to in the presence of his 
 )mpanionfl. When addressing a pupil the teacher should 
 lot gaze on, or appear to notice, any physical defects with 
 rhich he may be afflicted. To do so would be inconsistent 
 
48 
 
 Absence of 
 
 persoDal 
 
 kiaduesii. 
 
 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 with gentlemanly feeling, and might be the cause of unneces- 
 sary pain. No vulgar jests, no coarseness of language, no 
 disagreeable epithets, and no profanity should ever stain 
 the lips of the teacher. His language should always be 
 pure, accurate and chaste — a model worthy of adoption 
 and imitation by the innocent beings committed to his 
 charge. 
 
 It has been well said that " Children's happiness depends on 
 the attitude assumed towards them by their comrades more 
 than on anything else in the school, and a great part of the 
 misery which they have to endure is what they inflict on 
 each other. ..... The chief violations of the spirit 
 
 of kindness which will come under the teaclier's notice are 
 these : a selfish want of sympathy in the misfortunes that 
 befal others; a disobliging spirit, which churlishly refuses 
 to accommodate others . . . want of courtesy in speech 
 and manner; nick-naming, which wounds the feelings of 
 others ; the playing of practical jokes to their detriment or 
 inconvenience ; tyranny on the part of the strong towards 
 the weak ; ridicule of the poor or deformed ; and cruelty to 
 animals. Much apparent unkindness amongst children arises 
 from thoughtlessness ; they do not consider the consequences 
 of their words or actions, or they have not imagination 
 enough to realize them. . . . The training to kindness 
 
 consists in the training to considerateness."* The teacher 
 should gradually seek to foster in them the disposition to 
 do good to others independent of its direct consequence to 
 themselves — to do good for the love of doing it ; and though 
 he cannot force the development of kindness, he can and 
 should restrain oppression. Pupils should be led to see 
 that the duties o*" life are mutual, that they should bear 
 with each other's infirmities, and be guided in all things by 
 the word of Him who said: ** Whatsoever ye would that 
 men should do unto you even so do unto them." 
 
 • Currie. 
 
THE SCIENCE AND ART OP TEACHING. 
 
 49 
 
 jonsequences 
 
 Aristides "the Just," and "Honest" Old Abe of the West, To be 
 
 ' . honest, just 
 
 have become houschokl names. The former title speaks to and tru«. 
 
 us of Grecian worth and gratitude ; the latter quaint cogno- 
 men expresses the aflectionate regard of a great nation for 
 one of her noblest sons. These are two of the most noble 
 titles that can designate a human being — two of which every 
 teacher should endeavour to be worthy. Every man and 
 woman should cultivate, and endeavour to unite in them- 
 selves, these two characteristics ; but in no pci-sou is their 
 combination so necessary as in the teacher. Strictly just 
 and honest in all his dealings, he should always use the 
 words of truth and soberness ; for if honour, truth and 
 [ justice were banished from all the world besides, they should 
 find refuge in the heart of the teacher. It has been said 
 that people gradually grow into the likeness of that upon 
 which they constantly gaze — mental or physical. For this 
 [reason, if for no other, thoy should carefully foster all the 
 nobler sentiments of the heart by the daily practice of bene- 
 volent deeds. Followinsr the higher instincts of their nature 
 they should surround themselves, so far as possible, with 
 objects calculated to cultivate the taste, elevate the mind, 
 and excite good and pleasurable emotions. If there be any 
 truth in the foregoing statements (and there is) it follows 
 that the constant " worship" of honesty and justice will 
 secure our happiness in early youth, and crown our old age 
 with wreaths of purity and peace. 
 
 " There is (says a learned writer) something very admoni- Regularity 
 .... . . .and punc- 
 
 tory and awe-inspiring in the punctuality of God in His tuaiuy. 
 
 universe and in His providence. The laughing stars know 
 
 their courses and rejoice to run them. The moon, ever true 
 
 to her seasons, duly observes her time to wax and her time 
 
 to wane. The great aun himself never forgets his time to 
 
 rise, nor his time to set." Onwards for ever roll the heavenly 
 
 orbs on high, never a moment late in fulfilling their appointed 
 
 courses. Teachers, parents, pupils, friends, let 113 take a 
 
50 
 
 
 Lord Pftl- 
 iiierston's 
 opinion. 
 
 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 lesson from the works of Nature, and make " Punctuality 
 and Regularity" the rule of our Uvea. It has been well 
 said that " the standard of a school depends sensitively on 
 the regularity and punctuality of every person in it — but 
 more especially on the regularity and punctuality of its 
 teachers."* A teacher should be regular and punctual in 
 all his dealings and undertakings, no matter what others 
 may be. It behoves him to be a bright example of these 
 virtues not for his own sake alone, but for the sake of those 
 imitative beings committed to his charge. Unless his actions 
 exemplify his precepts, he cannot with propriety insist on 
 their observance by others. He who neglects to practice 
 what he teaches or preaches is, at best, but a recruiting 
 agent for the already numerous army of hypocrites. His 
 tongue says one thing and his actions say another of opposite 
 or different import, so that he is divided against himself, 
 and therefore his teaching "cannot stand." The rules a 
 teacher makes, and the precepts he utters, are as binding on 
 himself as they are on the pupils. The teacher, as well as 
 the taught, must be subject to the common law of the school. 
 If possible he should never be late in his attendance. As a 
 rule, he should arrive at least ten minutes before the time 
 fixed for the commencement of business, and he should dis- 
 miss the pupils punctually "when their time is up." If he 
 be not regular and punctual himself, how can he insist on 
 others being sol especially when these others are little 
 children. " Method is the hinge of business," and there can 
 be no method without punctuality, and no progress without 
 regularity and continuity of application. 
 
 The late Yiscount Palmerston stated on one occasion to a 
 deputation, comprising some members of the Royal College 
 of Preceptors, that "if there were any class of men who 
 could or should know everything, that class were teachers ; 
 for (continued he) they can never know too much." No 
 
 ♦Itev. Dr. Ryerson, 
 
THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 51 
 
 casion to a 
 
 lan has known, or ever can know, all the branches of 
 
 lowledge — at least not in this world. A teacher must be 
 
 ^ver on the qui vive, always learning, always studying — he 
 
 m never know enough ; or as Palmerston said, ** he can 
 lever know too much." The first-class teacher should know, 
 ^r endeavour to know, the whole circle of knowledge ; but 
 
 lore especially those branches which are of daily use in his 
 location. In the grand march of intellect and science, he Teachers to 
 
 ° lead m the 
 
 ould lead instead of being led. Fixing his eve on the march of 
 ir of his country, his great and paramount object should 
 
 to train up the youth of his fold, so that they may be 
 
 )d and worthy citizens — an honour to him and a credit to 
 lemselves during the long years to come. Such a teacher 
 
 II be affectionately remembered when lying in his grave, 
 le teachor should always recollect that if he be acquainted 
 ith all the branches of knowledge except one which he 
 
 lid know, he may be said to be an ignorant man. In 
 order that an edifice may be substantial, the foundation 
 aiust be sound. A teacher's knowledge of the higher and 
 lore advanced subjects may, in many cases, be regarded as 
 
 accomplishment ; but, in all cases, a thorough knowledge 
 
 the elementary branches is absolutely necessary. How- 
 rer, learning alone will not make an efficient teacher, nor 
 lable him to overcome the many difficulties peculiar to his 
 )sition. As already pointed out, there are sundry other 
 
 [uisites of a personal nature, which, if he does not naturally 
 )S8ess, he must endeavour to acquire — amongst these we 
 lust give a prominent place to good sound common sense ; 
 quality which implies the power of looking at things in 
 leir ordinary nature and relations, irrespective of their 
 )nnections or associations with ourselves or our interests. 
 
 Sir Isaac Newton was one of the greatest scholars ever To beware 
 
 111 11 1 • 1 °' P"^® *^<* 
 
 bngland or any other country produced, yet, durmg the vanity. 
 
 rening of his life, he repeatedly stated that he appeared to 
 
 limself as a little child picking pebbles on the shore, whilst 
 
 
52 
 
 I 
 
 THE SCIENCE AND ART OP TEACHING. 
 
 the great and boundless ocean of knowledge and truth spread 
 out unexplored before him. These were the sentiments of 
 a philosopher — of a true christian — of a great and noble, yet 
 a meek and humble, man. Sir Isaac, notwithstanding all 
 his learning, was a mere child in his own eyes — ever ready 
 and anxious to learn more. This should be the spirit of the 
 true teacher, and with the false ones we would have no com- 
 munication. The teacher should avoid self-sufficiency and 
 false pride as he would avoid Satan, and, like Sir Isaac, be 
 ever ready to learn sometliing new — something useful. The 
 wisest man that ever lived — even Solomon himself — was but 
 a mere cadet in knowledge. How therefore can any sensible 
 man be a pedant? too proud to learn more — too vain to 
 profit by the experience of others. Teachera, as a class, 
 should certainly be the best scholars of the age ; but if, in 
 consequence of their superior knowledge, they (or any of 
 them) be puffed up with vanity, pedantry, false pride and 
 self-conceit, they are unfit for their calling — unworthy of 
 the name of educators. We cannot see how any human 
 being, not the victim of a diseased imagination, can be guilty 
 of such follies. A teacher should possess a sound mind and 
 a sound body, and by practising such vanities, or pursuing 
 such bubbles, he unintentionally indicates that he is per- 
 sonally conscious of the existence of a defect or imperfection 
 in one or both — whilst he, unconsciously perhaps, degrades 
 himself in the estimation of his fellow-men, and thereby 
 brings contempt on his profession. Learning always endows 
 those who possess it with a certain superiority above their 
 fellows — a superiority which will be duly acknowledged by 
 people in every rank in life, provided it be accompanied 
 with no absurd pretensions or ridiculous airs. Modesty 
 seldom fails to charm. We should never allow self-deception 
 to swamp the faculties of reason and judgment. Be we ever 
 so good or great, still there is ample space for improvement. 
 There is no real or genuine comfort in considering ourselves 
 better than we really are. Let us be blind to our own 
 
 -^\N 
 
THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHINO. 
 
 lerits, and leave the perception and appreciation of them 
 others. All men, at beat, are but dust and ashes. In 
 le sense, all had the same beginning, and all will have the 
 imo end. It has been well said that " the greatest and 
 jst men mentioned in history were the most humble" — the 
 lost forgetful of self, and the least given to foolish parade, 
 it has been, and will be in every age. Humility and 
 jrsonal worth are inseparable. 
 
 5a 
 
 CHAPTKR V. 
 KNOWLEDGE TO BE REPLENISHED. 
 
 The Falls of Niagara would soon cease to exist were the Tenrhers i^^ 
 
 imense lakes abovo them not regularly replenished by the minify. 
 
 lows of winter and the surplus waters of the various foun- 
 
 is, streams and rivers of tlio adjoining countries. Were 
 
 lese supplies suspended, or directed into another channel, 
 
 many yeara would elapse boys might explore the empty 
 
 tves of Niagara's tide, and reptiles gambol in the pul- 
 
 srized dust on the bed of the once mighty river. Not 
 
 [drop of water would remain even in the great lakes — all 
 
 )uld disappear from the effects of evaporation. So is it 
 
 ith the teacher's mind. He must study continually — he 
 
 ^iist keep adding to his stock of knowledge. He must 
 
 irsue a regular plan of study. In the nature of things 
 
 learning will increase or decrease — there is nothing 
 
 itionary in this world. In knowledge, as in everything 
 
 5e, we must either advance or retrograde. It behoves us 
 
 )t only to perform some good work every day, but also to 
 
 irn something new. If we do not draw a regular supply 
 
 information from the fountains of knowledge, they will 
 
 !0 far as concerns us) gradually dry up, and our learning 
 
 dll evaporate or become uncertain and indistinct, like the 
 
 it remembrance of the dreams of childhood. If we do 
 
 )t keep on the qui vive, and endeavour to expand and 
 
64 
 
 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHINO. 
 
 <l! 
 
 Temptations 
 incident to 
 the profei- 
 Mioa. 
 
 strengthen our mintls by continual acquinition and reflection, 
 our faculties will certainly stagnate to a greater or less 
 degree, according to the quality and extent of our previous 
 education. Every man, and the teacher especiiilly, should 
 occasionally refresh his memory by taking a tour through 
 the various fields of kmjwledgo. He should add somt'thing to 
 the furniture of his mind — to his luontal accomjdiHhinents — 
 every day. Necessity will compel hira regularly to replenish 
 his " capital in trade ;" reflection will suggest the propriety 
 of systematically exploring the sources of knowledge, so that 
 he may sip freely of their crystal waters. By so doing his 
 mind will become a well stocked treasury from which he 
 can draw as he has need. In this respect, as in others, a j 
 little forgetfulness or neglect will l)e sui'e to breed more or 
 less mischief Intelligent teachers periodically pursue a 
 course of professional study, and diligently labour to cultivate I 
 their various faculties. Teacliers should be as hard students | 
 as any of their pupils. They are expecte<l to be educators, I 
 and should not content themselves with being mere " lesson 1 
 hearers." Considering the public utility of their work, and I 
 having higher and holier aims than the accumulation of I 
 money, " let them exalt the dignity of their profession by | 
 adding daily to their mental accomplishments and by indivi- 1 
 dual growth in pei-sonal worth."* They will thus keep ahead 
 of the age in which they live, and grow in grace with God 
 and man. Let it be remembered, however, that though 
 reading may sow the seed of knowledge, reflection alone can 
 ripen the fruit. 
 
 It has often been observed of individual teachers on both 
 sides of the Atlantic, that the schools they first taught were 
 their best — ^that in after life they retrograde in efficiency 
 instead of advancing. Indeed it is a matter of notoriety 
 that many young persons practice the profession frr years, 
 and in the end are more backward in intellectual ability and 
 more deficient in the science of teaching than when they 
 
 •Rev. E. Ryeraon, D.D. 
 
THE SCIENCE AlfD ART OP TEACHING. 
 
 commenced. Tlicse effects are the results of many cauBes 
 (too nuniorous to mention here) ; but when they prevail to 
 [any great extent, it is evident the delinquents are unfit /or, 
 itLixd have mistaken, their calling. It must be borne in mind, 
 [bowcver, that there are many peculiar temptations incidental 
 the profession wfiich tend to make the teacher a back- 
 llider. For instance, few men do (or can do) more than one 
 hing at one and the same time. Still, in the nature of 
 lings, this is just what the teacher has to do. He is com- 
 jUed to do two things — to teach and to govern — at one and 
 le same moment. This double duty — requiring the con- 
 sentration of all his faoulties — continues not for a day or 
 |wo, but week after week, tirm after term, and year after 
 fear ; so that after his daily work is over he is coninietely 
 Itigucd, and therefore, instead of devoting his spai-e hours 
 his own private studies or mental acconiplishmonts, he is Doing tw© 
 
 , , 1 . , things at 
 
 ipted to rush away to the nearest and most convenient place tiie sam* 
 
 recreation.* This feeling of weariness is strengthened, 
 
 id not unfrequcntly produced, by a press r.f business, by 
 
 le inconsideration or thoughtlessness of pupils, by want of 
 
 ssh air, by the insufl&ciency of his remuneration, and the 
 
 ion of other anxieties incident to his position. However, 
 
 the teacher can only strive resolutely against these things, 
 
 will triumph in the end. If he resist these anxieties 
 
 ley will flee from him. Remembering that spare moments 
 
 "the gold dust of time," let him not fritter away his 
 
 lious moments on insignificant matters, nor yield to 
 
 )ression of spirit ; and then, indolence — consequent on 
 
 biguc — will keep at a respectful distance. Hope, energy 
 
 pt-rseverance conquer all difficulties. Let him, at least, 
 
 rote one hour out of the twenty-four to sweet communion 
 
 ith the educators and philosophers of other ages. From 
 
 3ir writings and his own observation he will be sure to To turn 
 
 [uire the insti-uction and experience, if not the peculiar Se^ts'tr 
 
 ;t, necessary to his professional success. 
 
 I 
 
 good 
 account. 
 
 * David Page. 
 
66 
 
 ^!l 
 
 8lrW. 
 
 fialeigh's 
 
 advice. 
 
 Precepts by 
 Pytbagoiaa. 
 
 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 The culture of the intellect will improve the natural diH- 
 position, enli«j;hten the conscience, feed the flame' of geiieroua 
 sentiment, enhance our perceptions of the dignity, utility, 
 and obligations of life, whilst making us founttiins of happi- 
 ness and centres of holy inlluonce in our rcsjKjctive spheres 
 of usefulness. 
 
 Before concluding this chapter we would beg to direct the 
 attention of pupils and younger teachers to the following 
 words of Sir Walter Ruleigh : " Bestow thy youth (says he) 
 so that thou mayest have comfort to remember it when it 
 has fors.iken thee — so that when old thou mayest not have 
 cause to sigh and grieve at the account thereof Whilst 
 young thou wilt think thy youth will never have an end ; 
 but behold the longest day hath a/i evening — thou wilt enjoy 
 it but once and it will never return. Use it therefore as 
 the spring time, which soon dej)arteth, and wherein thou 
 oughtest to plant and sow all i)rovisions necessary for a 
 long and happy life." I 
 
 Before retiring to rest we should carefully review the | 
 various transactions of the past day. The great teacher ' 
 Pythagoras made a rule to this effect for his own personal 
 guidance. His modern admirers should follow so worthy 
 an example. How dasii'able that young and old before 
 r( gning themselves to sleep should take stock of the day's; 
 doings and, in the words of the Grecian sage, exclaim:; 
 " The day is past ; where have I turned aside from my recti! 
 tude? what have I been doing] what have I left undone; 
 which I ought to have done "? . . . . Begin thus from 
 the first act and proceed to the last (says the philosopher), 
 and, in conclusion, be troubled at the ill thou hast done and 
 rejoice for the good." 
 
 " still in the paths of honour persevere. 
 And not from past or present ills despair ; 
 For blessings ever wait on virtuous deeds, 
 And, though a late, a sure reward succeeds."* 
 
 • Congrcve. 
 
THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACniNO. 
 
 57 
 
 CHAPTBS VI. 
 
 MUTUAL DUTIES OF THE PROFESSION AND TIIE 
 
 PUBLIC. 
 
 It has been well said that " every man om'cs a debt to his Wo are all 
 
 • 11 I'll in<lpl»UKl to 
 
 profession." This observation la 8|)ecially applicable to the .)ur|»r..fea. 
 
 teacher and hi« vocation. How are teachers to discharge 
 
 the debt, admitting its existence 1 In many ways, but 
 
 chiefly by arousing the public to a just sense of duty 
 
 in re8|)ect to education — by doing all in their power to 
 
 j magnify the real importance of their profession — by making 
 
 it moi-e and more honourable as a result of their profound 
 
 [learning, intelligence, character, and general merit. 
 
 Skilful teachers can only be formed by several concurrent Adiqimto 
 
 . lint 1 remuniir«» 
 
 |ualincations, such as a naiunil love for the work, natural tiun. 
 I pulse, and individual fitness or professional aptness ; but 
 iese must be efliciently seconded by adequate remuneration. 
 If etlucation be worth having, it is worth paying for. The 
 sachers* salary should bear some proportion to his resj)onsi- 
 jilities, qualifications and success. " The labourer is worthy 
 his hire ;" and no people should be so mean, or so forgei> 
 il of their children's interests, as to only half pay for their 
 3her's services. So useful, so important is the faithful • 
 iher's work that he can never be fully paid for it in this 
 rorld. What are the paltry few hundred dollars which he 
 mally receives, compared with the value of the services 
 sndered? An intelligent community should blush at the 
 lea of paying teachers starvation wagea^ — in fact an intelli- 
 snt community won't do it — they will have a oettor appre- 
 teation of their own and their children's interest. Besides, 
 itelligent people have too much honour and discrimination 
 ofier half a year's pay for a full year's work. " Every 
 lember of society (says Goklsmith) should be paid in pro- 
 )rtion as he is necessary; and I will be bold enough to say 
 
Test of 
 civilization. 
 
 THE SGIENOB AND AKT OP TEACHING. 
 
 that schoolmasters in a state are more necessary than clergy- 
 men, as children are in more need of instmction than their 
 parents. ... Of all professions in society. I do not 
 know a more useful or a more honourable one than that of a 
 schoolmaster, at the same time I do not sec any . 
 whose talents are so ill-rewarded. ... I would make 
 the business of a schoolmaster every way more respectable 
 by increasing teachers' salaries, and admitting only men (or 
 women) of proper abilities. . . . Masters and teachers, 
 when they are men of learning, reputation, and assiduity, 
 cannot be sufficiently prized in a state." 
 
 It is pleasant to know that at the present moment the 
 public, in all civilized lands, are awakening from their 
 political lethargy and indifference about educational matters. 
 The rostrum, the pulpit, and the press, are astir in favour of 
 education and educators. The public press — the angel flying 
 in the midst of heaven — has done much for the teacher, and 
 will doubtless continue its favours. The people may rest 
 assured that his efiiciency and devotion wUl increase in pro- 
 portion to the increase of his remunei*ation. The great mass 
 of the people are of opinion that the time is at hand when 
 the pay and position of the teacher must be improved ; for 
 all feel that " good hands should receive good hire." High 
 accomplishments secure esteem, and better services command 
 better pay. The liberality of employers will never fail to 
 stimulate the faithful teacher to still greater exertions in 
 discharge of his duties, and still higher attainments in the 
 various departments of knowledge. Hence, the action of 
 the profession and the public should be mutual. The former 
 must equal, if not surpass, the other learned professions in 
 knowledge and " business tact." and the latter (the public) 
 must duly appreciate the labours of the teacher, and, in 
 addition, pay well for his services. In fact, they will have 
 to do so, whether they will or not, ere many years elapse. 
 
 If we look abroad upon the modern history of the world, 
 we will observe that wherever education is prized above 
 
THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 59 
 
 I wealth, and the educator preferred to the money maker, 
 [there, and there only, are the people truly refined, happy 
 land enlightened — there are those who lead the world in the 
 [march of civilization — there the golden rule is observed, and 
 len " do unto others as they would have others do unto 
 lem." In such a country every man follows some useful 
 dling — thero are no fops, no idlers, no ** place hunters " or 
 \* hangers on," and but few cases on the criminal calendar. 
 Jood an 1 learned teachei*s are the cause and consequence of 
 learned national character. It is therefore generai'7 con- A cause 
 ded that the esteem in which they are held is a iu< ire quence. 
 the intelligence and civilization of the people. Tij' re< jnt 
 ictories of Prussia and the United States may be directly 
 ced to the superiority of these nations over their opponents 
 the matter of education. In no other countries of the 
 orld (except Holland) ai*e teachers so highly respected, 
 id in none are they so well i)aid as in gallant Prussia and 
 America. Great and enlightened nations appreciate 
 eir teachers, and the teachers in such nations — considering 
 le obligations mutual — render themselves more and more 
 •rthy of public regard, as scholars, patnots, citizens — 
 doing whatsoever they find to do with all their might." 
 en teachers, as a class, duly honour and appreciate their 
 lofession, and the law of the land prevents parties entering 
 who are not thoroughly qualified, the people will, and 
 tost, liberally remunerate and properly esteem those who 
 qualified and in successful practice. When the teachers 
 d the laws work together to this end, the emoluments and 
 blic appreciation of the educational profession will be 
 ual to its importance, and its most successful sons will be 
 more attracted from its ranks by the moie lucrative 
 ducements of other callings. 
 
 The low estimation of our ancestors for the profession of The rich 
 hing arose decidedly from their personal ignorance and the ment c^ 
 
 le value they placed on education itself. Some amongst 
 
 Bidered. 
 
60 
 
 THE SCIENCE AND ART OP TEACHING. 
 
 US who received little or no education in their early days 
 may still inherit this spirit, and be induced thereby to 
 undervalue the advantages of learning and the merits of the 
 teacher. These people, or any of them, may perhaps speak 
 on this wise — " Oh ! I have got along pretty well in the 
 world — made an independent fortune — and yet I have had 
 very little book knowledge. I spent only six months at 
 school. Many of my acquaintances who received a college 
 education could never succeed at anything. I wish my 
 children to follow my example in all things." By entrench- 
 ing themselves behind such arguments these anti-education 
 people only exhibit their inherent folly, vanity, and utter 
 ignorance. If they got on so well in the world with so little 
 " book knowledge," how much better would they have got 
 on had they been favoured with a good, sound, liberal educa- 
 tion? Might not their educated (?) acquaintances have been 
 equally unsuccessful even though they had never entered a 
 college? In that case perhaps their fate would be worse 
 than mere failure in business. Was extensive learning and 
 profound knowledge the real cause of their want of success 
 in life? Are you sure, dear parent, should your children 
 grow up uneducated, that they (like you) will be successful 
 in amassing a fortune, or even a mere competency ? Was 
 not your success as an uneducated man an exception, rather 
 than a general rule ? Does ignorance really elevate a man, 
 enabling him to become a better individual and a more use- 
 ful citizen? In your intercourse with the world did not 
 you yourself acquii'e an education before you acquired a 
 fortune ? Answer these queries honestly, and abide by the 
 result; but remember always that God and your country 
 expect you to do your duty. Why should men, otherwise 
 respectable, be advocates of darkness and enemies of pro- 
 gress? Without education and without teachers to impart 
 it, man, in the course of a few generations, would, in all 
 probability, retrograde into a state of barbarism. We 
 
THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 61 
 
 • early days 
 thereby to 
 lerits of the 
 rhaps speak 
 well in the 
 [ have had 
 : months at 
 ed a college 
 I wish my 
 iy entrench- 
 iti-education 
 ,y, and utter 
 with so little 
 ley have got 
 iberal educa- 
 jes have been 
 er entered a 
 uld be worse 
 I learning and 
 Qt of success 
 our children 
 36 successful 
 fency ] Was 
 )tion, rather 
 ivate a man, 
 i a more use- 
 [TOfld did not 
 acquired a 
 abide by the 
 yovLV country 
 en, otherwise 
 mies of pro- 
 ers to impart 
 would, in all 
 )arism. We 
 
 earnestly hope that the time is at hand when none of our 
 citizens will be so ignorant as to exhibit such ignorance, 
 and when every man will gladly aid in promoting the intel- 
 lectual, moral and physical welfare of his fellow-men. O 
 
 In some of the foregoing pages we have taken the liberty •^"J"**^ 
 
 of impressing on teachers that they should embrace every association 
 , » , . . . ofteachere. 
 
 opportunity of domg good and of acquiring knowledge, so 
 
 that while improving the faculties of others, their own may 
 
 not remain stationary or decay. We would now say that their 
 
 personal welfare and the interests of education materially 
 
 Buffer from the want of a more extensive and effective pro- 
 
 lessional union than any which has hitherto existed. With- 
 
 tut combination, teachers are like little stars scattered over 
 
 e firmanent — united, they would be as the mid-day sun. 
 
 Isolated or divided, teachera are comparatively powerless, 
 
 but united they would feel their strength and could use it 
 
 too, to their own advantage and the nation's welfare. Let 
 
 ^e teachers of every county or district unite and form local 
 
 |U3Sociations, based on the principles of mutual instruction, 
 
 jnutual aid, mutual sympathy, and mutual interest. Let 
 
 ese county " unions " unite and form provincial or national 
 
 sociations. Let these again unite and form an inter- 
 
 tional association. Then will teachers be "a power "in 
 
 eir respective states — they will receive sufficient remunera- 
 
 ,on for their services, and education will be honoured as it 
 
 lUght. Teachers, awake from your lethargy. A moment's 
 
 flet ion will convince you that mutual welfare and common 
 
 interests require you to form a universal brotherhood, embrac- 
 
 g teachers of all denominations, climes and nationalities. 
 
 ise then in the interests of posterity. "Be up and 
 
 ioing "—lose no time in organizing these unions and " the 
 
 ion of unions " — a Teacher's International Institute. 
 
THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 r 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 RIGHT CONCEPTIONS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 i 
 
 The kinder- 
 gartAU 
 
 system. 
 
 The teacher's duties towards his pupils are somewhat 
 analagous to those which characterize a gardener skilful in 
 the management of " little nurslings." " Indeed," as a 
 learned teacher remarks, "the public school may be regarded 
 as a garden or 'nursery,' in which children are the plants 
 and the teacher the gardener."* "We will become more 
 impressed with the resemblance if we remember that, in 
 addition to the elimination or amputation of diseased or 
 unfruitful members, both have to remove hindrances and 
 strengthen favouring circumstances; so that their little 
 "flock" may have sufficient room and opportunities for 
 development in their respective spheres, according to the 
 laws of their organization. It must have been some such 
 ideas as these which induced the Germans to found their 
 Kindergofl'tena. The term Kindergarten means "garden of 
 children," and may be regarded as a school in which the 
 "little plants of humanity" are trained and developed m 
 accordance with the laws of their being and " the teachings" 
 or promptings of child-nature. Like Pestalozzi, Froebel, 
 the founder of the system, was the most eminent teacher of 
 his time — his special province being "the culture of the 
 young." After spending more than forty years in studying 
 the science and in practising the' art of teaching, he pro- 
 claimed "the Kindergarten;" and, if we mistake not, the 
 system will make his name immortal. It has beeif intro- 
 duced (though in a modified form) into many of ^v best 
 schools, and has been received with much favour. In 
 philosophy of method it may be justly regarded as the 
 most scientific of our educational systems. As might be 
 
 ♦ Froebel 
 
THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHINQ. 
 
 63 
 
 expected, it is peculiarly successful in primary schools ; 
 but the principles on which it is founded are common to all 
 children, and applicable to all "learners;" so that, with a 
 few judicious alterations or additions, the system may be 
 adapted to schools of all grades. The essential character- 
 istics of the system are^ that instead of repressing the pupil's 
 spirit with the view of " making him good," and instead of 
 attempting to paralyze his natural activity with the view of 
 " keeping him quiet," it encourages the development of these 
 things by organizing play itself into educating media. This 
 is so literally true of the system, that children under its 
 influence gradually come to regard play as work, and study 
 as recreation. Such a system begins at " the right end." 
 It does not encourage the indolent practice of looking at 
 things through the eye-glasses of others. On the contrary* 
 it induces the pupils to make the most of their precious 
 time, and, by encouraging personal investigation, it impels 
 them to exercise their respective faculties. But to practice 
 this, or any other system successfully, the teacher must 
 carefully study the peculiar propensities or natural chai- 
 acteristics of children, and be sure to make child-nature 
 his ally in the pursuit of knowledge. 
 
 Mere knowledge is not education, but education includes Meaniiig of 
 knowledge. To teach is not to educate, but education 
 implies the intervention of teaching. To teach means to 
 " cram in," and to educate means to " draw out," or lead 
 forth. It is obvious, therefore, that the two terms are far 
 from being synonymous. The term education is derived 
 frona^e or ex (out), and duco (I lead), and, in the sense in 
 wMMl we use it, signifies the expansion, unfolding, training 
 and "strengthening of all the human powei-s — of the entire 
 man: not of the mind alone or of the body alone, but of both 
 together. An educated mind in a well-trained body, sub- 
 ject to the direction of superior moral sentiments, is the 
 surest guarantee of present and future happiness. Educa. 
 
■miipi 
 
 04 
 
 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 The lMi»t 
 teaclnr. 
 
 preparation 
 itecessary. 
 
 tion excites the mind to thirst after knowledge, whilst it 
 endows our faculties with strength to acquire sufficient 
 supplies of mental food. It enlarges the intellectual capa- 
 cities, whilst it cultivates, elevates and refines all the feel- 
 ings of the human heart. It may, in fact, be regarded 
 as an absorption of surrounding elements into the mind 
 and body — an assimilation of the substances, qualities, 
 and relations of things, whereby they become a part of our 
 being, mental or physical — a new supply of faculty upon 
 which we can draw as we have need. Education enables us 
 to acquire and use knowledge. Hence, in a civilized commu- 
 nity the Art of Teaching may be justly regarded as the most 
 important of all arts, as well as the basis of all the sciences. 
 
 The best educator is not the man who can " cram in" the 
 most information, but he who can most successfully stir up 
 or inspire the human mind to think, observe, reflect, analyze, 
 combine, and execute, without doing any or either of these 
 things for it. The best teaclier is not he who can pack into 
 the pupils' minds the greatest number of facts, but he who 
 can thoroughly discipline the mental faculties, and thereby 
 enable his pupils to educate themselves. The efficient dis- 
 cipline of the mind and proper training of the heart are 
 things to be desired far more than the mere acquisition o^ 
 information. It is, however, a reliable axiom that know- 
 ledge is the twin sister, if not the ofispring, of educatioS^- 
 no human being can really educate his heart or mind with- 
 out acquiring knowledge. The latter always accompanies 
 the former; but unfortunately the former does not always 
 go hand in hand with the latter. 
 
 To be successful in any of the callings of life menlBk^st 
 be educated in that particular business by long study, labour 
 and apprenticeship — no matter how great may be their 
 aptitude or natural tact. This is specially true of the 
 teacher. Without study and due preparation no man can 
 possibly be an educator. Moreover, if careful preparatij 
 
THE SCIENCE AND ART St TEACHIKO. 
 
 65 
 
 , whilst it 
 sufficient 
 ctual capa- 
 ,1 the feel- 
 5 regarded 
 the mind 
 qualities, 
 )art of our 
 culty upon 
 enables us 
 sed commu- 
 as the most 
 be sciences, 
 •am in" the 
 ally stir up 
 ct, analyze, 
 ier of these 
 11 pack into 
 but he who 
 md thereby 
 sfficient dis- 
 j heart are 
 quisition o* 
 that know- 
 iducaticMP- 
 mind with- 
 .ccompanies 
 not always 
 
 men^ll^st 
 udy, lalK)ur 
 be their 
 irue of the 
 
 lo man can 
 
 y 
 
 preparati^^ 
 
 d continued study be necessary for success in other pro- 
 sions, they are doubly so in the case of the teacher, inas- 
 uch as his responsibilities are much greater than those 
 hich devolve on the members of other callings — seeing 
 at lie has to work on the minds of immortal beings, whereas 
 ey, for the most part, have to do with earthly and transi- 
 things. He has to work on heavenly subjects — on the 
 erlasting materials of mind and spirit. Why should he, 
 erefore, through blunders arising from ignorance or inex- 
 irience, maim or mar what was intended to be blessed, and 
 16 source of blessings to others 1 He has to educate vital 
 d immortal principles, to train the human body, to fashion 
 human soul, and, unlike the productions of other work- 
 in, his work, be it good or bad, will endure forever. If 
 , it shall be his delight in future ages ; if bad, it will 
 I a source of shame to him for all generations. How 
 ortant therefore that he should fully understand th® 
 iteries of his profession, and be duly impressed with its 
 nsibilities ! How absolutely necessaiy that, like the to have a 
 ul artist, he should have a beau ideal before him in all *^" "^***' 
 llabours 1 Every word he speaks should be fraught with 
 ing, and every sentence he uttere should more clearly 
 elop the idSal of his mind. The skilful teacher is a 
 ind artist," whose works will influence the world for , 
 
 d, amd leave their impression on the history of our race, 
 unskilful teacher is just the reverse — he may influence 
 world for evil more or less in proportion to his mental 
 bre. He may be likened to the novice who would 
 mpt to chisel an Apollo or a Venus from a marble block. 
 higUPt; efforts would be at best but a series of failures 
 inful blundei-s — ^blundei-s that probably could never be 
 ^edied so far as that block of marble may be concerned, 
 much more irreparable would be the errors of the 
 idering teacher 1 How many blocks of marble would be 
 bh one good citizen — one immortal souU Other labourers 
 
 I 
 
66 
 
 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 ^! ! 
 
 Fiittir* 
 reward, 
 
 Bon of 
 culture. 
 
 may blunder, and perhaps destroy the materials on which 
 they labour, but tlio teacher cannot afford to do so. A 
 thousand diamonds, each tlio size of the world, could not 
 buy one of the little souls entrusted to his care. How 
 absolutely necessary is it, therefore, that before commencing 
 his professional duties he should have correct ideas of hU 
 work, and be fully posted in the beat and moat approved 
 methods of performing it 1 The teacher who possesses these 
 qualifications, and avails himself of every opportunity of 
 turning them to good account in the interest of the public, 
 will surely command success, and in days to come " many 
 shall rise up and call him blessed." It has been well said 
 that " he who labours for others, forgetful of selfish interests, 
 is sure of immortality." 
 A perfect ^ Man was designed to be " perfect after his kind " — in his 
 
 man — uni- ^ o ' 
 
 physical as well as in his mental and moral natures : not in 
 one only, but in the whole three together. No man can he 
 perfect after hi^ kind who does not possess a benevolent 
 heart, a vigorous mind, and a healthy body. It is the due 
 development and "proportional combination" of these charac 
 teristics which constitute a " whole man." It is a well 
 known fact that persons friendly to education have oftcD 
 affirmed that during the early years of childhood the physical 
 powers should be allowed to develop themselves, u^heckei 
 by the tempering restraints involved in the exercise of tkj 
 other two. Others again have held that the mental faculties 
 of children should engross all attention to the exclusion ofi 
 the physical and moral powers, whilst a third party (equallji 
 earnest) make a similar affirmation with respect t^^e mora 
 feelings. These three views are equally erroneous^ Natiir 
 and experience inform us that the true course consists of 
 due combination of the whole three. All of them are equalljj 
 important, so that none of them should be placed " afore orM 
 after the other " in the order of culture. Their developmeDi|| 
 should be contemporaneous. From infancy up, the respectivej 
 
THE SCIKNCE AND ART OP TEACHING. 
 
 #7 
 
 rials on which 
 to do so. A 
 irld, could not 
 \a care. How j 
 •e commencing i 
 ct ideas of hU 
 moat approved \ 
 possesses these ! 
 opportunity od 
 , of the public, j 
 
 come " manyj 
 been well said 
 lelfish interests, | 
 
 1 kind " — in his 
 latures : not in 
 No man can be 
 js a benevolent 
 
 It is the due 
 of these charac 
 
 It is a well- 
 ion have ofter. 
 ood the physics 
 Ives, uq^heckec 
 
 exercise of tb 
 mental facultici 
 the exclusion c 
 
 party (equfvll} 
 ect t^Jie mora. 
 neous^ Natur 
 se consists of i 
 hem are equall; 
 >lac6d *' afore or| 
 eir developmenil 
 
 I, the respective! 
 
 mental faculties, physical powers and moral feelings, should 
 be carefully attended to, so that, being cnlletl forth into 
 harmonious action, none may flourish at the expense of the 
 other. It will be seen fr'-m the foregoing that thgse who 
 consider education to be the mere art of carrying children 
 through a certain programme of intellectual studies, are 
 grievously in error as to the right meaning of that science, 
 whose object is to develop, "perfect men and women" out 
 of the crude material so characteristic of childhood and 
 [youth. Q 
 
 If we were to watch an icicle from the commencement of P"* f''"n»- 
 
 tloii of 
 
 is formation until it has attaiued its full growth (or length), *'»anicter. 
 e would notice that it froze one drop at a time. " Sliould 
 e water be clean, the icicle will be clear and ratliant in the 
 nlight ; but should the water be muddy, the icicle will 
 ;B0 be muddy and deficient in ' sparkling ' beauty. It is 
 us human character is formed — one little thought or feel- 
 ing at a time. If every thought be pure and right, the soul 
 irill be bright and lovely, and will sparkle with happiness ! 
 But if tiie thoughts or feelings be evil or impure, the mind 
 ^U\ be soiled or darkened, the cliaracter depraved, and the 
 5ieart miserable and wretched." The first principle of all First pnn.i- 
 od sound education is that more attention should be paid education. 
 the formation of character than to mere expertness in the 
 spective branches of learning ; and the second is like unto 
 ., namely — that ftir more emphasis should bo laid on the 
 ight cultivation of the feelings of the heart, and development 
 f the faculties of the mind, than on the mere acquisition of 
 nowledge. Every act of the teacher should tend to develop 
 1 strengthen these eternal principles, and the exercise of 
 1 the means at his disposal for that purpose is not only 
 [egal and right, but obligatory. Strict attention to these 
 atters must be reckoned amongst his most important 
 iUties. How import;ant that the educators of youth should 
 eep constant watch over the development of the characters 
 
68 
 
 ■111 I 
 
 ■!l9l 
 
 THE BCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 of the immortal and imitative beingn '^'omraitted to their 
 charge, constantly impressing on tkem the necessity of being 
 always on tlunr guard against the idle alluremonts and 
 impulsive propensities peculiar to their age. 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 PUBLIC AND PKIVATE EDUCATION CONTRASTED. 
 
 Pupils of studious habits will " gain more book know- 
 ledge " from a private tutor, in the same space of time, than 
 they could possibly acquire in a public school. But on tho. 
 other hand they gain experience of the world and its customs 
 At public schools, such as they could never obtain in their 
 own homes. As Goldsmith says, " Boys will learn more 
 true wisdom in a public school in a year, than by a private 
 educn^ n ia five." If privately educated they generally 
 reach uie f.ge of discretion before they become acquainted 
 with the vices or extravagancies of life ; and as their reason 
 and judgment are then well developed, they are better pre- 
 pared to resi.st the temptations or enticements of the world 
 than they could possibly be at an earlier age. On the other 
 hand, if kept in ignorance of the allurements of life during 
 their early days, they are the more likely to be carried away 
 by them when they esca]oe from tho rest mints of home — 
 when they enter the universities or go into business. If 
 boys be kept in ignorance of the allurements of the world, 
 and subject to rigid restraints, while at home, they generally 
 (or at least frequently) go beyond all due bounds when they 
 leave the parental roof, " for the novelty of vice may then 
 have irresistible charms."* It is unwise to raise children 
 in this rigid puritanical manner. Nature will have its way 
 sooner or later. Too much restriction in youth is often suc- 
 
 • Goldsmith. 
 
THE SCIENCE AND ART OK TBACiriN'O. 
 
 69 
 
 ceedetl by Ticentiousnewj in af -or life. In fart it ncoras to 
 
 be a law of om being, that unrestHcted liberty Hudilenly or 
 
 unseaflonably obtained is almost sure to be abused : and as 
 
 ia nile, the succeeding liceiif 'ousness is in direct proportion 
 
 [to the indulgence or antecedent hiirhiiuess of th« ruling 
 
 authority. In this respect, as in aH others, !• t ns follow 
 
 nature. Let children l)e raised to know tlio world a.) it 
 
 b< tjly is; let a aj 'nt be ini ilanted in them which will 
 
 enable thorn to steer their ooiirse free from the danger of 
 
 shipwreck on the rocks ;ind quicksands of life. Let them 
 
 be raised to know thems 'Ives and taught to understand 
 
 humanity as it is, and wo need not fear the result. They 
 
 Iwill then be almost sure to feel and act as becomes worthy 
 
 [citizens, and will prove by their ueeds that the discovery of 
 
 jtnith and the [)ractice of courtesy, kindness, and 'oenevolence 
 
 jare the noblest objects of life. 
 
 Private instruction may perhaps be best adapteil to the A pubim 
 
 luining of youth to habits of virtue and piety ; but the countr th« 
 
 ?niulations, trials, and triumphs of the public school form paration for 
 
 the best preparation for the battle of life. If the affections oiliff. 
 
 md passions of human nature be not properly directed and 
 
 Inly restrained by a firm land during childhood days, man- 
 
 lood is apt to be barren — totally devoid of those qualifi- 
 
 mtions and accomplishments 
 
 " Which adorn youth and cheer with hriTllant rays 
 The fading spirit of winter's gloomy days." 
 
 Parental affection frequently nullifies parental authoi-ity. 
 lS a necessary consequence th<' child is indulged intem- 
 ir.itely, and aH the evil propensities of human nature 
 jvelop themselves unchecked. It is seldom so in the 
 jnblic school or collegiate institute -. In those institutions 
 10 various powei-s of the mind are called into activity by 
 Ijo noble influence of example. Emulation is excited, and 
 .^ery pupil knows and feels that shame and disgrace are 
 ire to follow idleness. In those national institutions the 
 
70 
 
 .THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACBINO. 
 
 V r 
 
 Eleuientii 
 ■aec«Bs. 
 
 0.V 
 
 II 
 
 ft 
 
 obstinate heart is induced to yield a willing obedience; 
 friondiihip.s are formed which will endure for ever ; equality 
 is felt, and no sui)eriority acknowledged but that of merit ; 
 the diffident and shy become confident and bold ; the rude 
 learn politeness, and literary improvement is pursued by 
 all with more or lf3ss zeal and success. Some learn from 
 their companions, others from their books and teachoi-s, but 
 the fires of emulatit»n gradually seize upon all — upon even 
 the most indolent. Here, as the mind of the child or youth 
 expands, and as he wends his way to the temple of learning, 
 he will have the sweet companionship of co-labourers and 
 fellow-travellers. He will learn to esteem the noble quali- 
 ties, usually known as generosity, gratitude, and courage, 
 and, by the example of companions, be led to despise perfidy, 
 sloth, and selfishness. Ho will thus (insensibly, as it were) 
 be taught to cherish in his heart the nobler feelings of 
 humanity, whilst he learns to avoid the baser instincts of 
 our fallen nature, as if they entailed instant death. Find- 
 ing that his reputation in a public school depends on his 
 own conduct, and being constantly impelled to act with 
 decision, his mind must gnidually expand, and he will 
 attain a certain firmness and manliness of character other- 
 wise unattainable. He will thus leam to feel that patience, 
 perseverance, energy, fortitude, and industry, are the true 
 elements of success, whilst he becomes convinced that real 
 merit, like tho water of a river, is silent in proportion to 
 its depth. 
 
 The future success in life of each individual child depends, 
 in a great measure, on the right cultivation of its talents by 
 appropriate studies — on the proper training or development 
 of its intellect — on the vitality, energy, and amiability of its 
 disposition, and on the morality of its early youth. " Public 
 schools are the best arenas in which to prepare for the 
 duties of after life."* No person can receive a thorough 
 
 * Prince Von Bismarck. 
 
THE 8C1EKCE AKD AfiT OF TKACniKO. 71 
 
 tical education witliout availing himself of their advan- 
 Iges. Awkwardness, timidity, doubt, and uncertainty, are 
 10 accompanying charactcriatics of pupils " educated " by 
 ivate tutors at their own residences. Such parties seldom 
 ul to contract the habit of looking upon the world through 
 irrow or bigoted channels, as their judgment is formed 
 rather deformed by their own limited experience of 
 len and things. 
 It is true the advantages of the public school may be ^^- , 
 
 •^ , * _ _ dei-eption. 
 
 ithin their reach, but (as in Europe) the foolish pride of 
 
 irents, the culpable vanity of caste — antequateil id(>as of 
 
 jdark and barbarous age — clinging to the skirts of their 
 
 rments, oft<m prevent them from availing themselves of 
 
 keir educational opiKjrtunities. They then seek to api)ea8e 
 
 ^eir conscience by abusing the public school system. The 
 
 lildren of such j)arent8, not having the opportunity of com- 
 
 in contact with enlightened or intelligent minds, often 
 
 lagine themselves to be beings of gigantic intellect — of 
 
 ingelic mould" — by birth, position, and education worthy 
 
 the worship they would fain claim from their fellowmen. 
 
 iffed up with self-conceit and imaginary importance, they 
 
 unconscious of being victims to the vice of self-deception. 
 
 structed without being educated, they would fain have us 
 
 ieve the scream of the crow to be the voice of the eagle. 
 
 lorance and inexperience may be regarded as an excuse 
 
 such erratic pretensions if not a palliation for such 
 
 Ifish stupidity ; but we can scarcely regard any system of 
 
 ication with favour, which tends to make men uncon- 
 
 |ou3 of their personal deficiencies. As a learned teacher 
 
 jll observes, ** There are some things which a boy leams 
 
 )m none so well as his parents, but there are others which 
 
 better taught him by men who have made education 
 
 study and business of their lives. And though it may 
 
 Bm rash and cruel to drive a boy out (to college or public 
 
 lool) from the sanctuary of a quiet home into a scene where 
 
72 
 
 THE SCIENCE AND ABT OF TEACHING. 
 
 :i!| ' ■ 
 
 the darts of Satan are flying thick, yet it is really wise and 
 kind. That fight must be fought by all ; and if a man 
 leam not in youth to face the noise and the dangers of the 
 battle, he can scarcely be firm and fearless in manhood. To 
 have never met danger is not courage, nor is it innocence 
 to be ignorant of evil." * 
 Union of In the education of our children, if we are to have a choice 
 
 and private between the public school and private tutorial system, by 
 all means let us have the former with all its faults, rather 
 than the latter with its "alleged advantages;" but, if pos- 
 sible, let us have both together. While children are very 
 young, mothers are their best teachei's, and governesses are 
 the mother's best substitutes. Tliey should be sent to school 
 at an early age; and thenceforth, until they emerge from 
 the University, private tuition (if it can be procured) 
 should go hand in hand with i>ublic education — the former 
 being secondary to the latter. Parties availing themselves 
 of the advantages of both systems, will have reason to be 
 pleased with the result. 
 Necessity It is a matter of the greatest importance, if not of abso- 
 
 of national . . , i«iii-iii 
 
 provisioufor lute and imperative necessity, that "iiivery chud should be 
 educated — and this is specially true of those destined toj 
 occupy prominent or important positions in society." f One 
 of the greatest duties we (citizens and legislatoi-s) owe to 
 posterity is, to make a liberal provision for the efiicient| 
 education of the rising generation. Should we not do so, 
 we may be sure that our sins of omission will be visited on I 
 our posterity "to the third and fourth generation." This 
 provision should be national in character, and subject to 
 central administration — each city, town, or district being 
 compelled bylaw to provide school accommodation, with an 
 efficient staff of teachers, for all the resident children within] 
 the legal school ages; and entitled, as a necessary conse 
 
 * Ascott R. Hope. 
 f Earl Duffcriu, Goveruor-General of Canada, 
 
THE SCIENCE AND ART OP TEACHING. 
 
 7$ 
 
 ouence, to a share of the national school fund in proportion 
 to the amount raised for school purposes by the local Board 
 of Education. Every parent, rich or poor, should be com- ^Sion'^ 
 pelled to send his chiklren, for a certain length of time, to 
 some public school — that is, a school taught by a teacher 
 (or teachers) licensed by Government. Each child in a 
 country is as much the child of the nation as it ia the child 
 of the parent, and the nation, therefore, should provide for 
 its future welfare so far as educational matters are con- 
 cerned. Parents should not be allowed to raise their 
 children in ignorance, when facilities are at hand for their 
 right instruction. Every nation, making a national or 
 public provision for education, should have a clause in its 
 legal code compelling all children between certain ages, 
 enjoying good health, to attend some school, public or 
 private, a certain prescribed number of days per annum. 
 A Government which neglects to make, or declines to 
 enforce, such a law, has no moral right to impose (or levy) 
 a school tax on its citizens. The Chief Superintendent of 
 Education for the Province of Ontario, taking this view of 
 the matter, had a clause inserted in the recent Canadian . « 
 
 Scliool Act making attendance at '^'ihool compulsory within 
 certain limits. Toronto, and some other cities, have given 
 effect to the Act by appointing ''Truant Officers," whose 
 duty it is to see that the iaw is obeyed within their 
 respective jurisdictions. 
 
 6 
 
 * 
 
74 
 
 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 
 Fundamen- 
 tal prin- 
 ciples. 
 
 J )e vol 01)- 
 iiieitt ut the 
 faculties. 
 
 Ni 
 
 II 
 
 .■ 
 
 Order of 
 sequence. 
 
 CH.VPTER IX. 
 
 NATURAL ORDER OF DEVELOf>MENT OF THE 
 RESPECTIVE FACULTIES. 
 
 Education may be defined as the art of develojnng, in due 
 order and proj)ortion, the respective mental, moral, and 
 physical powers. It behoves the teacher to ascertain the 
 order of sequence in which nature develops the respective 
 faculties, so that he may be able to supply each with suitable 
 mental nourishment during the process of evolution. If we 
 would command success, our arrangement of matter and 
 mode of instruction must conform to th^ natural order of 
 mental development. No one can be a skilful teacher 
 unless he knows not only how to impart information with 
 facility, but also the order in which the various branches of 
 knowledge should be presented to the understanding. These 
 principles form the basis of Nature's method of instruction — 
 the great archetype of all methods. The same faculties are 
 not always ready to germinate at the same age in different 
 individuals ; nor does the order of sequence remain invari- 
 able. Both time and sequence are subject to slight fluctu- 
 ations arising from certain inherited or associated causes ; 
 but the skilled teacher will discover these variations, and 
 "govern himself accordingly." In the generality of cases 
 the order of development follows the order of sequence 
 observed in this chapter. 
 
 Observation is one of the first — if not the very first — of 
 the mental faculties which awakes to consciousness. Then 
 come memory, faith, reflection, imagination, reason, and 
 judgment. The mental faculties which should be particu- 
 larly attended to in childhood are those which bud, blossom, 
 and bear fruit during that period — namely, observation, 
 reflection, memory, and faith. By faith, in this instance, 
 we mean that faculty which impels people to receive as true 
 
 t 
 
tan SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 those things which are toUl them bj others. As children 
 advance in years, and ascend into higher classes at school, 
 the other faculties should be gradually cultivated — the first 
 lessons in the cultivation of each being of a simple kind, 
 partaking more of the nature of direct intuition than of 
 formal propositions. One of the chief objects of education 
 ia to enable pupils rightly to instruct themselves, and unless 
 we take Nature for our guide, this object can never be 
 achieved. The great secret involved in the right cultivation 
 of the respective faculties is, that the order of sequence 
 indicated by Nature should be observed in their development. 
 
 75 
 
 Sectiok 1. ATTENTION. 
 
 Observation and reflection are often regarded as sub- *;{'!^'J!"^'tJ(^„ 
 divisions of what some call the faculty of attention. By es'^fntiai. 
 the word attention, as here used, we mean that elective 
 affinity or faculty of the mind which enables us to fix on 
 (or select for consideration) one particular object, of the 
 many which may present themselves to the mental vision — 
 to the exclusion, for the time being, of all others. T^ is a 
 well known fact that when we thus direct our attention to 
 any individual object, all extraneous ideas — or thoughts 
 foreign to the subject — naturally retire from the mind. 
 The ability to single out or fix on one particular idea, to 
 the total exclusion of all others, is of course a very impor- 
 tant, useful, and necessary mental power. The power of 
 continued attention is, in fact, one of the most important 
 elements of success. Without it, natural talent will remain 
 dormant or undeveloped, and even genius itself will fail to 
 command professional s\iccess. Observation and reflection 
 may be regarded as the parents of all human ideas. With- 
 out their aid there would be little or no knowledge. It is 
 a matter of fact that the strength and utility of our ideas 
 are in proportion to the degree or intensity of the attention 
 
 i 
 
 
76 
 
 THE SCIENCE AND ART OP TEACHINO. 
 
 W) 
 
 devoted to the subjects conceming which conceptions are 
 generated or conceived. The majority of our ideas perish 
 at their birth. None permanently remain except those 
 produced by accurate attention — direct or indirect. By 
 direct attention we mean percei)tion or observation, and by 
 indirect attention we mean reflection. The former refers, 
 of course, to impressions engendered by external objects 
 received through the media of the senses ; and the latter 
 refers to thoughts or sensations produced by mental analysis, 
 synthesis, or comparison, — or by the recurrence and consid- 
 eration of former ideas. The recalling, or summoning back, 
 of such ideas is sometimes spontaneous and sometimes the 
 result of a direct effort of the will. 
 Cultivate One of the principal duties of a primary teacher is the 
 
 observation training of pupils to habits of accurate observation. The 
 
 and reflec- o t r ^ . 
 
 ion. development of the reflective powers should be the special 
 
 duty of the teachers in charge of intermediate departments, 
 whilst the development of judgment, and its kindred facul- 
 ties, should be the province of those in charge of the higher 
 departments — the principal teacher being careful to review, 
 revise, and overlook the work done in all classes. The 
 order of development may be fixed, but the age at which 
 the reflective faculties of the child should be aroused, called 
 orth, and educated, is very variable. In this respect, as in 
 others, let the teacher follow Nature. But to return : Con- 
 ceptions of qualities, such as taste, smell, etc., are com- 
 prised under the head of reflection. They are diflGicult of 
 comprehension to the youthful mind, and cannot be recalled 
 or compared with much accuracy or clearness; but the 
 reverse is the case as regards conceptions of visible objects. 
 The latter are generally definite and precise, and can almost 
 always be recalled without dimness or uncertainty. This 
 circumstance proves the superiority of sight as a medium of 
 intelligence. It is an axiom with teachers that knowledge 
 acquired through the eye is always the most accurate, the 
 
 , -, _ .1 '-"yj-,-- 
 
THE SCIENCB AND ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 rT 
 
 most durable, and the most easily leai-ned. For these 
 reasons, all knowledge, so far as practicable, should be com- 
 municated through the medium of that organ. If the subject 
 of a lesson be not of a spiritual or "intangible" nature, it 
 will probably belong to "the physical world;" and if the 
 object itself, or a model of it, cannot be presented to the 
 class, they should, at least, be shown a picture of it. If a 
 picture or chart of it cannot be obtained, then a drawing 
 of it should be made on the black board. This plan will 
 not only enable them to understand the lesson, but will 
 quicken and cultivate the habit of attention, without which 
 there can be no permanent acquisition of knowledge — no 
 improvement in mental capacity. As Archbishop Fenelon 
 well observes, " There is no pleasure equal to that of diffus- 
 ing happiness and exciting attention." 
 
 The happiness of life depends chiefly on the right use of a child's 
 
 . , , • /. 11 hapi)ine8». 
 
 moderate enjoyments — on the continued succession ot small 
 
 but agreeable sensations. The happiness of childhood de- 
 pends in a great measure on the continual supply of little 
 pleasures — on its opportunities of observation and experi- 
 ment — the true sources of early enjoyment. The child is 
 ignorant ; everything is new to it, and Natui*e impels it to 
 seek for knowledge. Hence its continued activity, its love 
 of variety, and its craving for sympathy — essential elements 
 of its happiness. Success in securing attention depends on 
 the teacher's ability to understand and satisfy these long- 
 ings ; and his personal experience will prompt him to avail 
 himself of their combined influence in imparting instruction. 
 Reciprocal regard is the surest index of successful teaching — Mutual 
 the best evidence of good education. The cultivation of a 
 generous affection, on the basis of mutual confidence and 
 niutual esteem, seldom, if ever, fails to refine the heart and 
 ennoble the understanding. Such an attachment sweetens 
 the fountains of knowledge, and awakens every chivalric 
 feeling dormant in the human heart. - ;: if 
 
78 
 
 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 How to 
 
 seeuro 
 
 uttcntion. 
 
 i jil:::i 
 
 Not t<) 
 iliscouiage. 
 
 To secure attention, on ordinary occasions, the matter 
 must be interesting, an'^ the manner of treating it gi-acious 
 and attractive ; the tei s oi- words must be selected with 
 care, defined with accuracy, and adhered to with firmness. 
 If the hmguage used be beyond the pupil's comprehension, 
 the words will convey no ideas, the attention will be lost, 
 and the children will yawn and exhiV/it symptoms of weari- 
 ness, or mental repulsion. Every method of instruction 
 which fatigues attention, and every effort made to convey 
 information after the attention is fatigued, must be injurious 
 to the pupil. For this reason it is not wise to attempt too 
 much at once. We should, at first, exercise attention only 
 during comparatively short periods. We should advance 
 but few ideas that are new, in our early lessons on any 
 subject. Novelty and variety when concuirent and contin- 
 uous, always fatigue the mind. The acquisition of one dis- 
 tinct idea brings the pupil more knowledge and real pleasure 
 than the recollection of a dozen haz^'^ and confused notions. 
 The actual information gained in a lesson is of little account 
 in comparison with the desire of further progress engendered 
 thereby. 
 
 When a subject is new, an unnecessary amount of labour 
 is often expended on the acquisition v)f terms and ideas. 
 Under such circumstances children are often fatigued l>y 
 overstrained and misplaced efforts. They should, theiefore, 
 be relieved from any app (;hensions of the teacher's fliB- 
 pleasure ; for undue anxiety will be sure to weary and 
 weaken their attention. While sympathizing with the 
 pupil in his difficulties, the teacher should not exhibit or 
 express any doubts of the pupil's ability to master them. 
 On .the contrary, he should intimate that though success 
 may not smile on the child's present efforts, yet time and 
 perseverance will give him the victory. Such judicious 
 encouragement will prevent children from contracting an 
 antipathy towards any branch of knowledge, by failure in 
 first attempts. 
 
THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 7« 
 
 A learned writer justly observea that, " when we expen- c»u»e and 
 ence any disagreeable sensations, mental or pliysical, we try certain 
 
 . ccct*iit rlcl- 
 
 to procure temporary relief by certain motions of the limbs tie*, 
 and muscles most habitually obedient to the will." * Great 
 thinkers often unconsciously endeavour to relieve the pain of 
 intense thought hy indulging in certain awkward gestures. 
 By frequent rei)etition these gestures become habitual, and 
 hence the eccentricities and peculiarities so characteristic of 
 thoughtful men. The same fact holds good in the case of 
 children. They wrinkle their brows to mitigate the mental 
 pain caused by close attention; or, wlieu application be- 
 comes irksome, the body becomes restless, and assumes 
 strange attitudes ; and thus Nature declares it time to 
 change employment. These eccentricities are voluntary at 
 first, but, from frequent assochition with certain states of 
 the mind, they recur involuntarily whejiever the ideas or 
 sentiments with which they were associated are recalled — 
 particularly when the soul is absorbed in the solution of 
 some difficulty. Judicious oversight may break these ab- 
 surd motions, and prevent them from becoming habitual; 
 otherwise, when the pupil comes to man's estate, thoughts 
 are sure to be governed by external circumstances, and his 
 manners will, therefore, appear crude and awkward. To 
 eft'ect a permanent cure, the hours of study should be short- 
 ened and agreeably intermixed with bodily exercise ; so 
 that the pain arising from close attention may be alleviated 
 and assuaged. 
 
 Incentives or excitements need not be very numerous to conrentra- 
 produce attention ; a judicious variation will sometimes be attcution" 
 more agreeable and effective. Children become conscious 
 at a very early age of the pleasure aiising from successful 
 application, as well as from the performance of good and 
 kind actions. In many cases this alone will be sufficient 
 
 Darwin. 
 
80 
 
 Nutiiral dis- 
 pi)»itiun. 
 
 
 How to 
 sweeten 
 Inbour and 
 ensure pro 
 gresa. 
 
 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 inducement to continued exertion. Tliose who are not idle, 
 stupid, or obstinato, Rometimes exhibit an indisposition or 
 incapability to concentrate the attention on the subject of a 
 lesson, chiefly because the exertion required is too great for 
 their patience, or because the language employed is inac- 
 curate or of vague signification, or because they despair of 
 undei-standing the explanations given or the ideas intended 
 to be conveyed. In either case they can not attend, and the 
 fault lies with the teacher or the text book. 
 
 In forming an opinion of the degree of a child's attention, 
 the teacher must not forget to consider the natural disposi- 
 tion of himself and jMipil. If the one be slow and the 
 other quick — one phlegmatic and the other vivacious — 
 mutual sympathy may be wanting, and there will be a pos- 
 sibility of mutual misunderstandings and misconceptions. 
 Vivacious children are very susceptible to censure or com- 
 mendation. They are quite as honorable, and perhaps more 
 sensitive and affectionate, than other children. Hence the 
 desirability of regarding them with feelings of attachment, 
 and of rewarding them with our ap[)robation when they 
 give proofs of long continued exertion and attention. 
 Children of this disposition are often enthusiastic admirers 
 of what is good and great, hence the feasibility of creating 
 or fostering the desire to excel. Let them once feel the 
 necessity of persevering industry, and with the rapidity of 
 genius they will c<)U(;ludo that attention is the primary 
 source of success, and that they must iict accordingly. 
 
 When we have a fiiend whom we admire, esteem, and 
 love, his approbation becomes necessary to our happiness. 
 His affecticm sweetens labour, and the smile of his approval 
 throws a flood of sunshine round the heart. Work in the 
 service of such a friend is always pleasant, always attractive 
 — never wearisome, never fatiguing. When associated 
 with the pleasant sensations of affection, liberty, and enthu- 
 siasm, labour often becomes the medium by which we 
 
TUE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 81 
 
 express our attjvchraent, and we therefore consider no 
 exertions too great, provided they give pleasure to the object 
 of our affections. Is it not possible to cultivate the affec- 
 tions of pupils to such an extent, and in such a manner, 
 us will ensure their attention to their respective duties, not 
 uloiie because of the personal benefits arising therefrom, but 
 l[)ecause of the pleasure which such a line of conduct would 
 afford their teacher and other friends I It is possible, and 
 we believe that it behoves every teacher who aspires to 
 anything more than an ordinary successful career, to acquire 
 the power of exciting young people to great niental and 
 physical exertion. For this reason, human nature and the 
 philosophy of mind must be his constant stutlies. 
 
 The dojrree of children's timidit . , or personal confidence, Self-reliance 
 depciuls in a great measure on the quality and quantity of aK«J- 
 their fii"st instruction, and the mode of its conveyance. If 
 innny things be forced on their attention, which they can 
 not undei-stand or recollect, they lose confidence in their 
 own mental capacity, and will often feel difiident to under- 
 take exercises which they can easily perform. For this 
 reason, whatever is attempted should be within their com- 
 prehension. Success in small things will encourage them 
 to attempt the performance of greater. If we would endue 
 the timid with confidence, we must expect little from each 
 effort, and award to each triumph its full meed of praise. 
 With some people, to will is to conquer. Hence the advi- 
 sability of occasionally leading timid children to observe 
 that attention, patience, and resolution are equivalent, and 
 sometimes superior, to quickness of intellect, and that 
 under such circumstances, the length of the period of appli- 
 cation is the only difference between the quick and slow. 
 [| When a succession of small triumphs has given them confi- 
 dence in themselves, they may then be pressed a little as to 
 velocity — the time allowed being gradually curtailed. Long 
 continued efforts of attention fatigue the mind, exhaust 
 
 fti 
 
 ■ lii- 
 
82 
 
 THE 8CIENCK AND ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 i; 
 
 tha phyaiciil strongtli, and caiiso the pupils to appear 
 Hlugijish au'l torpil. In thia case, the pupils should be 
 allowed rest, or tho subject of study changed. Quick transi- 
 tion of thouijht cannot bo reasonably ex)MH;ted unless the 
 ciiild bj inontally ai;tive, and partially, if not perfectly, con- 
 v.irsaut with eauh idea expressed on the subject; otherwise 
 it would only weaken the understanding, confuse the intel- 
 lo*;t, and destroy tlie ambition of the timid. Children are 
 often timid from an anxioty to plea.se, and often unduly 
 fatigued from the same cause. We should th(5refore seldom, 
 if ever, act towards them so as to promote terror. On the 
 contrary, wo should u.se all suitable means in our power to 
 allay their anxiety, dissipate their fean?, and strengthen 
 their affectionate reliance on our sympathy and esteem. 
 We can never command ilie intelligent attention of the 
 timid until wp Iku e diti'used their fears. Habits of observa- 
 tion and reflection are always more enduriiiL,' when asso- 
 ciated with pleasure, and whore there is fear there can be 
 no pleasure. 
 
 Abstraction, or the power of withdrawing the mental Ab^raction. 
 gaz3 from surrounding objects, or extraneous subjects, and 
 of concentrating it upon some particular idea or series of 
 ideas, i , one of the most useful forms of attention, and per- 
 haps the most difficult of acqui.'-'tion. It is necessary to 
 the successful oi)eration of the understanding, and essentiiilly 
 characteristic of genius, heroism, and .}>i'esence of min<l. 
 Without this faculty, no one can be a great or successful 
 thinker — there can be no concentration of thought; the 
 powers of the mind will be diffused like mist ; continued 
 application will be impossilde, and, if possible, it will be 
 unfruitful, and therefore unremunerative and of no effect. 
 By the aid of this faculty, the industrious student will con- 
 tinue his labours in "the midst of alarms," and heed them 
 not ; the soldier will be unconscious of the roar and smoke 
 of battle, and the hero will be blind to ])ersonal danger — 
 
 --.i aimiiiiim J I ' I i iiiinj 
 
THE ariKKCB AND ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 )iH' 'uhn, and onv alone, will tiljHorb every power of the 
 
 leait RU<1 soul. In Huch moiaonta, the |)ersoiinl is innt in 
 
 ihe general, aelf retires from tljo lieUl, syniputliy subtuu^ 
 
 ieur an I tiuinanity is ennobled ' >y a ricii 8ucceb8 or a devoted 
 
 icritico. 
 
 8S 
 
 SKtmoN 2. MKMOHV. 
 
 Memory, the seci-etttry of tlie senKes, is closely allieii to M.mory and 
 attention, iind may hv <ienned lus tluit lacniity ot the mind 
 which enables us to recal piust inip^ossions. Infonniition 
 n received through t'^i media of the senses or by the 
 [exeroihe of the mental acuities. But it is not enough to 
 receive it passively, its if our inf» Uectual jKiwci's were coni- 
 |,(c,;(l of sponge. The faculty of attenti. n mist be aroused, 
 [interested, and fascinated ere the rain<l .>ill ardently grasp, 
 receive, or apjjropriate the knowledge placed l»eforo it. 
 [Merchants often say that *" it is more difficult to keep 
 inouev than to make it." However this m.iv be, it if* cer- ^ 
 
 tainly less difficult to infuse knowl»;dge into the mind than 
 to retain it tlitre after its reception. Its retention is the 
 duty of the memory. From want of sufficient strength 
 (arising from defective d*\»jlopment), this fjiculty is often 
 unequal to the task — unable to discharge the important 
 duti^'rf of its office. Such a state of thii^gs iiuliaites a sickly 
 condition of the intellectual system, and should therefore 
 receive the earnest and immediate attention of " the mental 
 physician." The teacher must take steps to improve and 
 duly deAclop the weakened faculty. 
 
 It has been well said that "memory is the store-house of ^^ignt^j 
 the undei'standing." But it should be remembered that the "tore house 
 value of things stored depends, in a great measure, on the 
 order and system of their arrangement. Everything (even 
 in mercantile establishments) should be stowed away in its 
 appropriate })lace, so that it can be readily and promptly 
 found when required. So of mental accumulations. Know- 
 
 
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 THE SCIENCE AND ART OP TEACHING. 
 
 ledge should be arranged under its proper heading. Intel- 
 lectual wealth, like other riches, will be the source of much 
 embarrassment, should confusion prevail in the mental 
 store-house. For these reasons, the teacher's ideas must be 
 arranged in regular sequence, and, if possible, be presented 
 to the pupils in logical and coherent order. Love and 
 veneration may be regarded as the parents of memory. 
 Hence, wise and skilful teachers always lead their pupils to 
 contract a fondness for that which is to be learned or 
 remembered. We ourselves may possibly recollect some 
 subject which, at one time of life, we may have regarded as 
 repulsive and difficult to learn, yet, how easily did we 
 master it in after years, when time and experience had led 
 us to discover its worth and to admire its beauties? Look- 
 ing at the matter in this light, we would say that, reverence 
 for our teachei*s and love for the subjects of instruction, ai"e 
 two of the most powerful aids in the culti^'ation of memory 
 and education of the young. 
 
 Knowledge acquired when the mind is apathetic, evapor- 
 ates instantaneously, heiico the importance of exciting a 
 lively interest in the subjects of study — the necessity of 
 mutual sympathy between the teacher and the taught. 
 Knowledge is never learned so quickly, nor retained so 
 firmly, as when taught through the eye. This is why visible 
 illusljrations are so popula * and effective, and so easily re- 
 membered in after yeai-s. When information is imparted 
 under such conditions, memory will always be vigorous and 
 retentive. 
 Two vari- There are two kinds of memory — the retentive and recol- 
 
 inemory. / lective. The former accumulates and retains facts, with 
 / little or no reference to their further identity, whilst the 
 A latter selects and reproduces, when necessary, such as may 
 ) be considered useful, desirable, or important. Both of these 
 ( varieties of memory have their advantages and advocates. 
 The selective variety, usually called recollection, is, how- 
 
 Visible illus- 
 trations. 
 
THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 85 
 
 ever, the higher and more intellectual bi*anch of the faculty. 
 People who can guide their memory by natural selection, or 
 inherent taste, will improve their understanding and acquire 
 the same amount of facta with far less fatigue than those who 
 are satisfied with mere acquisition by rote. Memory is one 
 of the faculties firat developed ; but its growth continues 
 tks we advance in life, and its cultivation in the higher 
 gtages is materially assisted by judgment, taste, and kindred 
 powers. 
 
 Memory furnishes the materials on which invention exer- invention, 
 cises its ingenuity. The two faculties are closely allied. 
 The development of the latter under proper guidance should 
 therefore receive careful attention. In proportion to their 
 knowledge and experience, children can judge quite as well, 
 and perhaps invent much better, than adults. This circum- 
 stance arises from the fact that they are comparatively free 
 from prt^udice, and can, therefore, judiciously analyze, com- 
 pare, and combine the few ideas they possess — those ideas 
 being accurate, clear, and distinct. 
 
 A good memory is all-important to a public speaker — in H*'''*yA? 
 tact, he cannot succeed without it, as no other quality can speaker. 
 compensate for its absence. It endows him with personal 
 confidence, command of language, and capability to arrange 
 the ideas he is about to express, while engaged in giving 
 utterance to others. 
 
 The efficiency of memory depends (1) on Hb fidelity, by ^P"!"'""" 
 which it reproduces faithful impressions ; (2) tenacity, by 
 which it retains what is committed to it, irrespective of the 
 lapse of time ; (3) readiness, or rapid reproduction of former 
 conceptions when required; (4) facility, or rapidity of 
 acquisition. 
 
 The memory is strong or weak in proportion to its power 
 of analysis and generalization. The principles of associ- 
 ation by which we analyze or combine, for the purposes of 
 memory, may be regarded as the instruments of method. 
 
86 
 
 fir 
 
 
 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 They are three in niimher, namely, (1) natural contiguity, 
 by which objects or incidents, impressing the inind in con- 
 junction, recur to it in the same connection ever after; 
 (2) resemblance or analogy, by which objects or incidents 
 resembling each other are retained together in the mind by 
 the fact of their resemblance ; (3) cause and eff'ectj by which 
 facts that are at fii-st conceived as casually related to each 
 other, recur to the mind ever after by mutual suggestion. 
 
 
 ItnaginKtion 
 — what it is. 
 
 Connection 
 with the 
 sublime. 
 
 Section 3. IMAGINATION. 
 
 Imagination is that faculty of the mind which forms con- 
 ceptions, ideas, or mental images of things temporal or 
 spiritual ; so that whether far or near, past or future, their 
 ideal presence is, for the time being, a living reality — dis- 
 tinct, clear, and tangible. It comprises two branches — 
 the conceptive and creative. Besides assisting in the work 
 of education, the right use of this faculty increases our 
 enjoy mentSy and adcls materially tp the happiness of life, by 
 enabling us to group, analyze, and combine objects as well as 
 create them. Mental exercises and intellectual amusements 
 are the best antidotes or preventatives of weariness and 
 dissipation, and may, therefore, be regarded as essential to 
 the right existence of intelligent and responsible beings. 
 - "When recollection recals former ideas, imagination pre- 
 sents them in vivid pictures before the mind; and then, by re- 
 arrangement and new combinations, it creates characteristic 
 pictures of its own. The imagination often rambles through 
 "scenes sublime," in search of mentiil enjoyment. Obscurity 
 and terror may be regarded as the parents of sublimity. The 
 natural fears arising from a consciousness of their presence, 
 when uncontrolled by reason, tend to enervate the mind, 
 whereas a right conception of the grand and beautiful always 
 tends to elevate it. But there are branches of the sublime 
 free from associations of the obscure and terrible, and there 
 
 a. 
 
THE SCIENCE iND ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 87 
 
 are many branches of study and thoiififht connected with 
 them which liave no connection with gloom or violence — such 
 works of art, for instance, and scenes in nature as excite ideas 
 of infinity with respect to power, space, and duration. These 
 are praiseworthy media for the exercise of the imagination. 
 Being founded on observation and conception, they are also 
 the most simple sources of the sublime, and, therefore, the 
 most suitable for children as well as the most attractive for 
 the generality of adults. They are, perhaps, "the fii-st 
 fields" in which the young imagination delights to ramble, 
 as well as the last which it will explore. Some children are 
 slow m comparing, deliberating, or associating ideas, and 
 othei's seem to have little inclination for mental exertions of 
 any kin-l, whilst a large number of those who are naturally 
 vivacious, prompt, and energetic, take more delight in strong 
 feeling than in deep reflection. Hence, the sensations of 
 pleasure or pain are intense or acute, toi-pid or sluggish, 
 iiccording to the mental capacity or natural inclination of 
 the pupil —strong association of ideas being a characteristic 
 of such as are over-sensitive or enthusiastic. 
 
 In cultivating the imagination so as to counteract the imaginaticn 
 various defects peculiar to different natural dispositions, the dSts"''^* 
 teacher must have more than ordinary knowledge of child- 
 natuie. He must, in fact, be as well posted in "the anatomy 
 of the mind" as a surgeon is expected to be in that of the 
 body. He will then be able to read the mental through the 
 physical, and can prescribe the necessary remedy according 
 to his skill. The best and most approved regimen for the 
 quick and slow — lively and dull, the worker and dreamer, 
 observer and reflector — will be duly considered and faithfully 
 administered in his plan of education. ^ 
 
 \ 
 
I ( 1 
 
 88 
 
 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING 
 
 misi 
 
 i i 
 
 i 
 
 Reflection 
 a creative 
 faculty. 
 
 Bectiok 4. REFLECTION AND REASON. 
 
 Memory endows man with the power to recal any, or all, 
 impressions once strongly, vividly, and accurately conceived. 
 Reflection then enables him to compare their resj)ective 
 properties, estimate their concurrent or divergent influence, 
 and ascertain their mutual or relative connections. It is 
 this faculty which enables us to associate old conceptioiis so 
 as to produce new idetis on which to base the inferences or 
 conclusions of reason. Reflection may, in fact, be regarded 
 as a creative faculty ; since, by its aid, we analyze, compare, 
 and «ombine old ideas so as to generate new ones. It does 
 not directly impart the vital energies of conception; but it 
 nevertheless develops and enlarges the capacity of thought. 
 Its agency is chiefly directed to a consideration of the posi- 
 tive qualities of objects; and, by leading us to form just 
 ideas of their relations, it enables judgment to give fair and 
 impartial decisions, in accordance with the sober realities of 
 life and the plain dictates of unadorned truth. 
 Reason— its Reason and reflection are faculties of the highest order; and 
 importomje. though their presence may be discovered in children at a very 
 early age, yet they do not attain perfection until late in life. 
 Their development is essentially progressive, and may be re- 
 ferred chiefly to habits of accurate observation, arising from 
 mental and moral cultui*e. Reason is an exercise of the will 
 which controls thought and regulates the mind, and may be 
 defined as the art of drawing inferences from the associaticm of 
 facts or ideas. Having collected certain data, it abstracts the 
 attention from external objects, analyzes its perceptions, asso- 
 ciates its ideas, estimates their general bearing and relative 
 importance, recals previously acquired knowledge, reviews 
 former and present ideas as with a kaleidescope, and finally, 
 with the aid of conscience, it arrives at conclusions which may 
 be regarded as the fountains of justice and "stepping stones" 
 of judgment. Reason is one of those rays of Divinity in 
 
THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 89 
 
 re, reviews 
 
 man, which ennobles human p tiire, and brings us nearer 
 the Creator, while shining in on our hearts, calmly and 
 placidly, like moonbeums on a silvery sea. The greater 
 the development of this principle, the greater our knowledge 
 of humanity — the more we understand ourselves and others, 
 and the wider and more efficient our s[)here of usefulness. 
 The existence of this God-like principle in the human soul 
 proves that man was not created to be a slave, mentally, 
 spiritually, or physically — that he was originally endowed 
 with free will, and all inherent or collateral privileges 
 implied by that term, and that he is expected to use every 
 faculty with which he was favored to the fullest extent of 
 his ability. Reason impels us to receive truth, however 
 painful to our feelings of pride or self-esteem, and it contin- 
 ually commands us to do eveiy man justice, however inimical 
 Buch action may be to our personal interests. "Its still, 
 small voice," aided and dii-ected by the kindred voice of 
 Conscience, tells us that the art of being happy implies the 
 dispensation of happiness to others — that natural kindness 
 and fraternal affection ensure the happiness of society, 
 collectively and individually, and that the interests of all 
 are secure in the hands of God. Though the understanding 
 may be regarded as the principal working power of the 
 mmd, yet all the inferior faculties must perform their res- 
 pective duties ere reason can i^xercise her authority, or judg- 
 ment make known his decision. 
 
 Formal reasoning scarcely falls within the province of Art of 
 elementary education, and is, therefore, professedly taught in considered. 
 but very few of our public schools. The art of reasoning, 
 however, is not wholly ignored. It is practiced, more or 
 less, though indirectly, in every school in the land. It is 
 taught practically, however informally, wherever rules anrJ 
 principles are deduced from examples, or infeiTed as a result 
 of comparison from simple questions — wherever the con- 
 clusions arising from personal discoveries in Grammar, 
 7 
 
 m 
 
n 
 
 90 
 
 To ascertain 
 niotives— 
 How and 
 why. 
 
 THE SCIENCE AND ART OP TEACHING. . 
 
 Science, or Mathematics, are summarised and prepared for 
 application in the solution of similar or more complex diffi- 
 culties. The highest and purest forms of reasoning practiced 
 in our public schools are imparted by the study of Euclid, 
 Algebra, and Grammar. These subje< s present exercises 
 in reasoning (within certain dof nite limits) which are well- 
 connected, conclusive, exhaustive, absolute, and therefore, 
 complete, explicit, irrefragable, and free from fallacies. The 
 study and acquisition of a liberal course of public school 
 subjects (such as suggested or prescribed by the Council of 
 Public Instruction for Ontario) develops and invigorates 
 the reason, while intuitively and unconsciously ^'mparting 
 the art of reasoning. Such p. course of instruction, when 
 fully adopted and intelligently taught, gives each faculty of 
 the mind its due share of attention, so that there is a suc- 
 cessive, concurrent, and continuous development of the 
 various powers in an order of sequence as near as possible 
 to the order of Nature. In planning a system of education, 
 or in projecting a mode of instruction, the teacher should 
 carefully consiJer the peculiar talents ind ever-varying 
 tastes of children, so as to give each an opportunity of 
 developing his specialty in accordance with the indications 
 of his natural disposition. 
 
 Vivacious children, and others who feel quickly, should 
 be encouraged to describe and compare their sensations in a 
 deliberate manner. Their motives of action can be thus 
 ascertained, while their minds are strengthened by the 
 voluntary exertion entailed by such an exercise. By this 
 means, and by careful attention to the circumstances which 
 give birth to hope and fear, joy and grief, a good knowledge 
 of a child's habitual mental associations, designs and aver- 
 sions, may be obtained ; and the teacher will thus have 
 gained such information as will enable him to modify, guide, 
 or alter the child's character as he may think expedient, 
 whilst fixing his own ascendancy and authority on, an im- 
 
THE SCIENCE AND ABT OF TEACHING. 
 
 91 
 
 movable basis. By a judicious preparation of hi.s pupils' 
 minds, he may increase the attraction and effect of his 
 lessons so as to make their impressions indelible. 
 
 Some have laid it down as an axiom, and apparently with Caiiinm in 
 truth, that those who are favored with moi-e than ordi- t!)^inraghia- 
 nary powers of imagination, are usually defective in '*"°' 
 judgment. In this case, the reason and judgment should 
 be 8ti*engthened even at the expense of the imagination, 
 iis they are the more important faculties. A cultivated 
 imagination, how.3ver, is not only a never failing source of 
 j)leasure and entertainment, but a positive neces&itv to 
 those who expect to occupy a high sphere of usefulness. 
 The different callings in life are indebted to imagination for 
 the ardent professional enthusiasm which enables their 
 votaries to overcome every obstacle in their path, and at 
 last stand prominently forward as leaders and masters in 
 their respecti'e arts. Different professions require different 
 degrees of enthusiasm, but its source is the same in all. 
 Men of genius are generally characterized by an enthusiasm 
 
 which ri ijften mistaken for insanity by the uninitiated 
 
 the world has never exhibited much repugnance to the 
 persecution or crucifixion of its great reformers. The 
 enthusiasm arising from strong inuigination makes military 
 and political heroes — poets, patriots, and othei*s — strike out 
 in the direction best suited to their tastes and genius, hence 
 the vast variety of callings. Should our enthusiasm fail 
 during our apprenticeship in life, we ourselves will fail also 
 from the want of energy and stamina. Enthusiasm is in 
 fact, the first, and perhaps the greatest, element of success. 
 Hence the desirability of rightly cultivating, training, and 
 guiding the imagination, without which there can be no 
 enthusiasm. Enthusiasm increases the value of objects 
 whilst it depreciates real difficulties. To be really advan- 
 tageous and useful in the highest degree, imagbiation and 
 enthusiasm must be subject to the control of the judgment. 
 
 I 
 
 
II ffl 
 
 &2 TUE SCIENCE AND ABT OF TEACUINO. 
 
 Section & THE JUDGMENT. 
 
 "The key Judgment l>eing the highest of tlio faculties, Nature 
 
 the iiittii.;c- would seem to imnlv that its chief dcclopment whould take 
 tual arcli. * •' * 
 
 place near the close of a school i^reer. The faculty of 
 judgment would be comparatively useless unless assihted by 
 the minor faculties, just as the head would be if deprivotl 
 of the services of the less important }>arts of the body. 
 Memory, imagination, reflection, etc., must support judg- 
 ment with facts or data, even as the inferior organs of the 
 body nourish and support the brain. Judgment is a 
 monarch, and cannot exist without subjects and servants. 
 Before exercising judgment, we must necessarily have some 
 experience of the world and of men. It is the key stone 
 of tho intellectual arch. To retain that position, every 
 stone of the under structure must be sound and of due pro- 
 portions, and, in addition, occupy its proper place. Everj' 
 faculty must do its duty ere Judgment can do " his," just 
 as the wheels and works ot" a clock must do, ere the hands 
 indicate the hour on the dial plate. 
 
 Judgment expresses itself in propositions ; ideas in terms. 
 It therefore bears the same relation to a thought that 
 observation bears to an idea. The exercise of judgment 
 comes into partial operation in early life, and continues its 
 growth through after years, and probably never reaches its 
 full maturity in this world. It may be regarded as a com- 
 pound faculty, comprising abstraction and goneralization. 
 By the process of abstraction we compare the whole of 
 anything with its parts, or vice versA ; and by generalization 
 we compare one entity with another. Judgment implies 
 comparison, contrast, and analogy, or resemblance. Tlie idea 
 of resemblance suggests that of dissimilarity. Comparison 
 deals with the resemblance of objects ; analogy with the 
 resemblance of qualities or functions., 
 
 The dependence of cause and effect will gradually lead to 
 inference, which, in itself, is the creature of reflection, as it 
 
 A oompouud 
 faculty. 
 
 Inference. 
 
TBE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 4» 
 
 has no sermble or tangible existence. Inference comprises 
 two divisions — tlio inductive and deductive. Induction 
 infers the general from the particular — the law which 
 governs facts from the facts themselves — the cause from the 
 fffoct. Deduction enables us to draw the particular from 
 the general — the facts from the laws which govern them — 
 the effects from the cause. As Currie observe s, " Both are 
 necessary parts of that completed reason by which scientific 
 knowledge is established." In the order of logical develop- 
 ment, time, o,nd effort, induction precedes deduction. " In- 
 duction comes first and lays down the plan or outline, and 
 then deduction reduces the contents to ortler within that 
 outline." 
 
 
 BJtcTiow 6. INTEGRITY. 
 
 The consciousness of having desei'ved well of our friends, Pleasure of 
 and the certainty that we enjoy their confidence and esteem, ed. 
 are sources of continual happiness. The pleasure of being 
 tiiisted and esteemed by those we love is, perhai)s, one of the 
 most delicious experiences of early life. Children will do 
 much to earn such rewards. They should, however. Vie led 
 to look impartially on their own merits, so that while grate- 
 fully accepting well earned praise, they may have sufiicient 
 sense to regard flattery with contempt. Confidence is the 
 reward of integrity and intrinsic wurth. Children feel 
 proud of being trusted, and, when they learn that their 
 character depends on their conduct, and that to secure res- 
 pect they must deserve it, they will strive to maintain a 
 good reputation, and the generous enthusiasm of their 
 nature (if not habit and reason) will win them to the side 
 of honour and virtue. They may then be led to understand 
 that truth is the reflection of God in the heart of man — the 
 light of heaven revealed on earth. 
 
 We have often noticed during our school experience — as jjot to wear 
 visitor or pupil — that many teachers w^ear masks while on "*^ ''' 
 
94 
 
 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TBACHINO. 
 
 ■i ! 
 
 Courtesy to 
 children. 
 
 Praise in 
 proportion 
 to uierit. 
 
 duty. They are radiant, cheerful, and happy (and apparently 
 dcflirous of bestowing happincRs) in their ordinary inter- 
 course with society, but in the schoolroom they seem to be 
 totally different personages. Cold, stem, and sevci-e — the 
 light of a smile never relaxes their iron features. Grave 
 and solemn, as if the Hchool was the tomb of their affections, 
 a word of sympathy or encouragement never escaj>es their 
 indomitable lips. Teachers, if you feel kindly, don't fear to 
 let the little ones know it — they will appreciate and recip- 
 rocate. Jf you cannot sympathize with child-nature, your- 
 self and pupils will not understand each other — your school 
 associations will lose half their attractions, and more than 
 half their real happiness. Try, therefore, to be natural : 
 throw off the mask ; let the warmth of your affections and 
 the radiance of your face be as sunlight to your pupils. 
 Be happy, and the fountain of happiness to your little 
 friends; then will the school-room be a haven of rest to you 
 and them. Reveal your real nature. We should not act a 
 falsehood even to win an erring child to the ti-uth. It 
 would be wrong to do so, and, besides, children would see 
 through such an artifice, and gradually, if not immediately, 
 withdraw their confidence and esteem. 
 
 We should listen with pleasure and attention to such 
 narratives of children as relate to their personal experiences, 
 and as Rousseau well observes, " We should not doubt, nor 
 appear to doubt, their veracity ; nor should we question 
 them too minutely on any matters concerning which it 
 might be their interest to deceive us." Suspicion would be 
 injurious, and unbelief imprudent. 
 
 If teachers flatter indifferent pupils, then the Baore worthy 
 will gradually lose their desire to deserve or receive praise. 
 Praise increases personal confidence, and is a strong stimulus 
 to industry if it be judiciously managed ; but in awarding 
 it we must not give false ideas of merit — the degree of 
 approbation must be in proportion to the value of the 
 
 •^mmm 
 
THE SCIEKCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 action. The pleasures of praise should lie ashociattMl with 
 what commands our approval, and, as the stimulus is of a 
 r)0werful nature, we should administer it in small quiuiti- 
 ties — the smallest calcidatcd to produce the desii-ed eflect. 
 
 9ft 
 
 8KCTION7. PRUHKNCE. 
 
 Judgment, resolution, and benevolence are the essential Eiemcnuof 
 elements of prudence. We i*equire judgment to calndy 
 review the objects of happiness ; resolution to put our con- 
 victions in execution ; benevolence to enable us to prefer 
 the greatest amount of felicity ; so that, if necessary, we 
 may cheerfully sacrifice ourselves for others. Prudence also 
 implies tact, or wha^ some call intuitive analogy — a system 
 of " short-hand reasoning," >)y which we arrive at immediate 
 conclusions without going through tlio steps of actual demon- 
 strations. It may justly be said that sensible people possess 
 tact, prudent people use it, and imprudent people lack it or 
 abuse it. 
 
 Objects appear differently to different i>eopie, and each certain im- 
 person, while strictly following his own conviction accord- Ee^reotinlfi!' 
 ing to the light of his understanding, may, nevertheless, bo 
 the victim of false associations or false apj)earances. Per- 
 sonal feeling may make them oblivious of past experience, 
 and negligent as regards future calculation. If so, wisdom 
 will not inspire their minds, nor prudence guide their con- 
 duct. Reason and friendly counsel may even fail to recal 
 them to a right fcense of theii- i)osition — ipore especially if 
 they happen to be victims of false impressions. In the 
 latter case, false ideas must be removed, and wrong ones 
 rectified, before we attempt to improve the judgment or 
 inculcate prudence. 
 
 Should children entertain false ideas on any subject, we How to 
 
 cor-i 
 
 must change their manner of viewing it before we can alter habits and, 
 their feelings. In fact, we must induce them to change ''^''^^' 
 
96 
 
 THE SCIENCE AND ART OP TEACHING. 
 
 tlieir habits of thought. In doing this, their age and experi- 
 ence should be taken into account. Habits of action and 
 modes of thouglit may bo easily broken, or formed, in young 
 children ; but, before attempting to produce similar results 
 in the larger pupils, wo must first rectify the principles 
 which guide, or regidate, their conduct. The habits of larger 
 children are based on principles — true or false — as they gen- 
 erally exercise reflection, more or less, before they act. 
 Hence, to change their mode of action, we must correct and 
 purify the source of action by changing their manner of 
 thinking. 
 
 Sympathy 
 and its 
 effects. 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 POWER AND EFFECTS OF SYMPATHY. 
 
 Sympathy may bo regarded as the essence of sensibility. 
 It is the primary source of compassion, courtesy, kindness, 
 ambition, friendship, love — the genuine language of Nature, 
 the fountain of moral sentiment and social vii'tue — the most 
 pleasing peculiarity of childhood — the most charming and 
 attractive characteristic of riper years. Yet, strange to say, 
 there is no necessary connection between sympathy and vir- 
 tue. If misdirected, or injudiciously guided, it may be 
 productive of evil. To be useful to the individual and to 
 society, it must be governed by the light of reason. Children 
 long for the sympathy of their companions — they wish their 
 friends to admire their efforts — to be proud of their success — 
 to take pleasure in their superiority. Their hearts yearn 
 for our sympathy and approbation. Let us be generous, and 
 make them happy while we may. Beaming glances of affec- 
 tion will repay our efforts. Children can feel and reciprocate 
 sympathy long before they can exercise reason or judgm6nt. 
 
 ' jj i i i > 
 
THE SCIEiTCE AND AUT OF TEACHING. 97 
 
 To this feeling may be traced tlie desire to excel — the ambi- 
 tion to dare and do — the motives of good and gi-eat deeds. 
 Involuntary imitation is its natural expression at an early 
 iif'e. Childi'en with strong Kymj)athies are, therefore, the 
 most liable to be injured or improved by example, habit, 
 or other external circ\imstances. For this reason, youi'g 
 chiMren should never be exposed to the influence of bad 
 cxauii)le. This restriction will not be so necessary as they 
 a})proach the years of discretion, for their habits will then 
 have attained greater strength, and they will probably have 
 acquired sufficient sense to choose for themselves, and suffi- 
 cient fortitude to abide by their decisions. Kindness and 
 benevolence seldom fail to inspii'e emotions of gratitude and 
 love. It will be difficult, perhaps impossible, to transfoim 
 sympathy into virtue, should the faces of teachers and rela- 
 tives frequently exhibit the stern and vile expressions of 
 anger, malice, or other malevolent passions. 
 
 If a teacher's intercoui-se with his pupils be honorable. Effects of 
 candid, and straightforward, and if he treat them with habi- affection, 
 tual kindness, courtesy, and generosity, and should he be 
 so fortunate as to be always able to cheer them with the 
 light of sympathy and love, then will they always feel hap- 
 py in his presence ; for, work under his auspices will be a / 
 pleasure, and even continued attention will become agreeable. 
 In fancy they will often see him riurrounded with a luilo of 
 light, and will gradually come to regard him as a kind of 
 sacred personage who delights in removing doubts and diffi- 
 culties, and in dispen^iing knowledge and pleasure. His 
 presence will recal the remembrance of triumphs won by his 
 aid. Their recollection will excite associated affection, and 
 revive instinctive love whilst renewing former pleasures — 
 pleasures arising from a sense of duty done. 
 
 Children naturtilly expect a gratification from . he society Fellowship 
 of strangers similar to that derived from a friendly inter- panions. 
 course with tea«her^ Bvd relatives. The curiosity and 
 
98 
 
 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHINO. 
 
 I 
 
 Man.igc- 
 iiiuiit of 
 St nsibility. 
 
 Principles of 
 happiness. 
 
 sympathy arising from this source impels them to wish for 
 society and friendship. The present and future happiness 
 of the child requires the judicious indulgence cf this ])ro- 
 pensity. Its lonely little heart yearns for companionship, 
 sympathy, and love. Shall it crave for these things in vain] 
 The best way to supply these blessings is to grant children 
 free intercoui-se with their peers in years and station. They 
 will relish this privilege with a keenness unknown amongst 
 adults. 
 
 Nothing wounds the feelings of children more than to 
 despise their friendship, or doul>t the genuine character of 
 their expressions of regard. In fact, we often alienate their 
 affection, and perhaps change it to antipathy by undue sus- 
 picion or cold reserve. If, on the contrary, we receive their 
 expressions of kindness and gratitude with feelings of 
 thankfulness, they will feel delighted with the idea that 
 their sentiments are reciprocated, and that they can give as 
 well as receive pleasure. The desire to give pleasure will 
 probably lead them to repeat these demonsti-ations from 
 time to time ; but, for fear of fostering a spirit of affectation, 
 such repetition must not be unduly encouraged. In such 
 cases it will require no little skill and delicacy to preserve 
 a proper medium between the indulgence and repression 
 of youthful sensibility. As Marmontel truly observes, 
 "People seldom feel a desire to be cured of any defect which 
 makes them agreeable." Hence, if possible, the cure should 
 be effected in youth. As children advance in years, the 
 enthusiasm arising from fine feeling should be gradually 
 and cautiously repressed by the greater cultivation of the 
 reasoning faculties; so that the heart, if possible, may be 
 made impervious to disappointment — the seat of abiding 
 pleasure instead of fluctuating felicity. 
 
 Children should be treated with such courtesy, kindness, 
 and consideration as may be necessary to transform child- 
 hood into a possible st^te of uniform happiness,. Thejr 
 
THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 99 
 
 should not, it is true, be indulged inordinately or impru- 
 dently, but they should be invariably given the largest 
 amount of present pleasure consistent with future ailvan- 
 tage. Our happiness, like that of children, in every stage 
 of life depends, to a gi'eat extent, on the genuine heai-t-felt 
 sympathy of our fellow creatures. We cannot command 
 lasting sympathy or enduring friendship unless we oui-selves 
 possess some useful and agreeable qualities, or social virtues, 
 which will endear us to our companions. Mutual inter- 
 course, under such circumstances, will develop mutual 
 thought, and thus enable us to derive pleasure and profit 
 from the sweet influences of society and friendship. 
 
PART IT.— SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 CHAPTKR I. 
 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SCHOOL. 
 
 i:r 
 
 
 aiidlysTein Order has always been, and will ever be, the faithful 
 essential. handmaid of the Creator. We gaze with awe on her move- 
 ments in the heavens, and with feelings of the deepest 
 interest contemplate her doings on the earth during the 
 dark ages of old. Without Order, chaos or confusion 
 would run riot as at "the beginning;" nothing could bo 
 efficiently done; all our efforts would end in disap})ointment, 
 and our labours be comparative failures, if not worse than 
 useless. Order and system are essential to success in every 
 calling. No railroad or steamboat company could possibly 
 prosper if they neglected to make arrangements regulating 
 the arrival and departure of their trains or steam boats. 
 Nor is this sufficient — they must afterwards publish (or 
 inform the public of) the rules they have made, and strictly 
 adhere to the same. Order must be apparent in all the 
 transactions of the company (and of its agents), otherwise 
 they will lose the confidence of the public. The rules of 
 the company once fixed, should, if possible, be invariable. 
 The preliminary arrangements being made, and the time 
 table drawn up for the guidance of the public, both parties 
 will save time and money by being punctual and regular. 
 N''««^'Y °^ This "Time Table" and its accompanying code of rules, 
 being the agreement of the company with the public, forms 
 the basis of a common understanding between the contract- 
 ing parties, neither of whom can infringe the conditions 
 with impunity and convenience. The time table is the plan 
 
THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACUINO. 101 
 
 )f the company's work — an abstract of tlieir agreement 
 ith the public. It is absolutely necessary on both sides. 
 Without it, all would be confusion and dissatisfaction, and 
 [no efforts of the officers or employe's could make the lino 
 pav. In fact, it would be a general nuisance instead of a 
 jmblic convenience. 
 
 Order and system are essential to success in any line of Eflici» of 
 
 . /. . /.••<. f^'*^ order. 
 
 life. This is true of nations, of armies, of societies, of 
 imblic meetings, and of individuals. No order; no progress. 
 Such is the rule in the univei-sity, the college, and the 
 school. Without order, without system, without a plan of 
 work — without a well reguhited time table — the best elTorts 
 of tlie teacher will be fruitless, and his establi.shment little 
 hftttor than an "incarnation" of chaos. The observance or 
 Piiforcemeii of good ord( r in schools, curbs the lawless pro- 
 pensities of youthful Iiearts. civilizes their animal tendencies, 
 :i!kI, by obliging them to conform to its conditions — condi- 
 tions naturally repugnant to their will — it day by day 
 strengthens the power of mind over matter, facilitates all 
 mental acquirements, and endows every individual with the 
 fjnices of self control. By its aid, those accomplishments 
 and qualities, which at first were foreign, become customary, 
 and then habitual — that is, personal characteristics. Laxity 
 of order will nullify the good intentions of both teachers 
 and parents. Its tendency is to ti*ansform children into 
 boisterous, riotous rowdies,, instead of educating them to be 
 good and useful citizens — ladies and gentlemen in the true 
 sense of the words. Children will practice order in school 
 if trained to habits of order at home. They naturally love 
 order, ojid will observe it if it be made more convenient to 
 them than disorder. Suitable and attractive occupation is 
 the best guarantee of good order. Order and system, a time'and 
 punctuality and regularity, are the sides of a " moral eyerything. 
 square," within which every true craftsman should duly 
 exercise his skill for the benefit of himself and his fellows. 
 
102 
 
 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 I 
 
 A plan of 
 atudy. 
 
 "True order," as Miss Chadwick well observes, "is that 
 which is maintained with the least apparent eflfort, just as 
 the best i-uler is he who governs without seeming to govern. 
 The school should be a model of refined taste and good 
 arrangement — every ai-ticle of furniture should be in its 
 proper place, and every exercise should have its appointed 
 time, and vice versd." 
 
 The various duties of the day, arranged according to a 
 pre- determined plan (as in the case of the railroad company), 
 should be attended to in order. The \Aaii of study or time 
 table, drawn up by the teacher for the guidance of himself 
 and pupils, should be hung up in a conspicuous place in the 
 school-room, and each pupil should be instructed to take u 
 copy of the same. This copy will direct the pupil in his 
 studies, or in the preparation of his lessons at home, and 
 will show the parents what he is doing while at school. By 
 referring to it he will see at a glance what lessons he has to 
 prepare for the cun-ent day, or for the morrow, as the case 
 may be. This course will save much time and trouble, and, 
 if hung up in the ]>rivatc study at home, will furnish 
 parents with information which they are often anxious to 
 possess. 
 youthM^ °' Having classified his pupils and given them employment 
 activity. jjj accordance with the directions on the prescribed time 
 table, he should insist on their earnest attention to their 
 respective duties. By carefully attending to this matter, 
 and taking up each subject according to its order of 
 sequence, he will be dispensing an effective antidote to that 
 law of nature which impels children to activity ; or, rather, 
 he will have discovered an effective means of directing it to 
 other ends than the pui-suits of indolence and pleasure. 
 Neglect in this case, as in others, will give birth to much 
 mischief, and make it almost impossible for the teacher to 
 " resist the beginnings" of idleness, disobedience and self- 
 indulgence. Change in the subjects of study, within short 
 
 ■ ■- ULUi e -"J ^ . ' i.- iiiiam t-wmwi iwii 
 
THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 103 
 
 intervals, is not only favourable to good order, but also to 
 good health and mental vigour. "Animal motions, or con- 
 figurations of the organs of sense, constitute our ideas. The 
 fatigue that follows a continued application of the mind to 
 one object, is relieved by changing the subject of our 
 thoughts, as the continued movement of one limb is relieved 
 by moving another in its stead."* The truly wise educator," 
 savs Ascott Hojie, " will take care to let the latent energy 
 of youth have some natural vent." In other words, physical 
 recreation and mental labour should succeed each other 
 alternately. 
 
 In our opinion, it is 8im])ly impossible for the best of Unfortunate 
 
 * , . 1 • 1 t professional 
 
 teachers to maintain good order in a large school, under cer- conncctiom. 
 tain conditions — conditions for which parents and tnistees 
 are wholly responsible. It not unfrequently happens that 
 teachers who are not appreciated in one locality become the 
 idols of another. It is a fact of common occurrence that ho 
 wlio has failed to maintain order in one sch(x>l becomes 
 eminently successful in this respect when hie removes to 
 another sphere of labour. What is the cause of this aj)parent 
 anomaly] Why is it that in one place his labours produce 
 nothing but leaves, whilst in the other they bear abundant 
 fruit 1 The efficient teacher of the one school is voted ineffi- 
 cient when he assumes a similar charge elsewhere, and why? 
 Teachei*s, and other experienced persons, will give a variety 
 of practical and suggestive answers to these queries. Many 
 will ascribe the result to prejudice, factious opposition, 
 difference of locality and in people; but, although all these 
 answers may be true in certain cases, yet there is still 
 another cause of local or temporary professional failure for 
 which the trustees and parents are personally and collect- 
 ively responsible. We allude to the absence of comfortable 
 andattractive school accommodation. The school house should 
 be large and airy, agreeably furnished, comfortably heated, 
 
 ♦ Darwin. 
 
104 
 
 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACIIINO. 
 
 A hint to 
 parontit 
 an<l 
 gunnJiana. 
 
 A CAnadian 
 
 village 
 
 s<'ho!)l. 
 
 and well mipplied with scliool appamtus. The school should 
 \>Q well Hwept every evening, and pro|)erly dusted every morn- 
 ning. All its appendages should be a model of cleanliness, 
 neatness, and comfort. The apartments should be properly 
 ventilated, and sufficiently large to accommo<lato all the pupils 
 in attendance. The various articles of furniture should bo 
 kei)t in their proper places, and each place should have its 
 proper furniture. Pupils should bo clean in pei*son, neat in 
 dress, smart in api)earance, kind and courteous in di.sposi- 
 tion, dutiful and olx^dient — ever ready to "bear and forbear." 
 But how can such habits of order and propriety be inculcated 
 with success where external conditions are militant — where 
 the school and everything connected therewith ai"e suggestive 
 of disorder, misery, and meanness? How can a teacher, 
 however skilful, be expected to command success in such 
 a })lace 1 How can children be expected to form habits of 
 order and industry in over-crowded schools — the windows 
 being broken, the desks "rickctty," the seats uncomfortable, 
 the cold unl^earable, or the heat oppressive? Where there 
 is no pump, no washing apparatus, no playground or gym- 
 nasium, no cloak-room, no singing, no music — nothing 
 whatsoever to render the school attractive. It is impossible. 
 Such a school-room, with such suiTOundings, is a silent but 
 powerful inculcator of disorder and discontent, and would 
 counteract the ,)recepts and example of the most eminent 
 and worthy educator on earth. It is time that parents and 
 trustees should become conscious of the fact that the best 
 and most skilful teacher cannot permanently maintain good 
 discipline in a miserable over-crowded class-room, where 
 defective appliances and insufficient appointments ever tend 
 to generate discomfort and produce disorder. 
 
 Some years ago the writer was officially connected with 
 a public school in one of our western settlements, in which 
 the average attendance exceeded one hundred and sixty. 
 In the junior division, many of the pupils had no desks ; 
 
TBB SCIBMCB AND ART OF TEACH llMk 
 
 105 
 
 in the primary division, more than one-half of the 
 children had no seats, and were under the necessity ot 
 squatting themselves on the floor, so that their class-roona 
 njsembled an infant "tailoring department." The few seats 
 were densely crowded. There were no maps, no cards, no 
 books, no decorations — absolutely nothing in the room but 
 some old-fashioned desks, which apparently were old enough 
 to have "come over in the Main/lower^' a few ricketty 
 benches, a table minus a leg, a stove, a poker, and an old 
 drum. The senior division, on the first floor of the 
 building, was tolerable, but devoid of any decorations or 
 furniture calculated to cultivate the taste of the pupils. 
 The intense noise wh.oh occasionally prevailed in the former 
 divisions was favourable to the cause of disorder in the 
 latter, and had a tendency to "drown' the voice of the 
 teacher as there was no "deafening material" in the floors. 
 Just fancy such a state of things, and the impossibility of 
 any teachers (under these circumstances) to inculcate, 
 with success, habits of order and propriety. For twelve 
 months or more, the trustees "quarrelled" about the provis- 
 ion of desks and other requisites — half being in favour of 
 supplying the necessary articles, and half against it — and 
 during all that time the parents and guardians of the children 
 looked on with calm indifference. The evils arisincr from 
 the persistent meanness of trustees, and the culpable negli- 
 gence of parents, are often imputed to the teacher. Finding 
 that "things do not progress satisfactorily," they put them- 
 selves to iio trouble to ascertain the real cause; and, if pointed 
 out to them, their bigotry, selfishness and ignorance are so 
 great as to prevent them seeing it : they think it more con- 
 venient to impute the cause of failure to want of skill in the 
 teachers, and accordingly the latter are converted into a 
 kind of scape goats, and sacrificed for the sins of others. 
 How convenient for our educational guardians f You send 
 the scape goa^ into the wilderness; still the greatest sufferers 
 
 8 
 
loe 
 
 Kff.x t» of 
 (uttirlor 
 
 illfllK'IIUCH. 
 
 i( 
 
 TRR SCIRNCR AND ART OT TRACtllNO. 
 
 are your own littlo children. In it poRAiliIn tbat men can 
 b« found who would hoo childnm dio, or grow up deformw! 
 in mind or body, rather than ciill on tho nit<spayor8 to pay 
 an additional tax of a oont on tho dollar) Wo fear it in ho 
 in many places. Tho fort^goitig itt not an iHolaifnl caso- — 
 there am hundro<lH of Himihir onoH in KurojK) and America. 
 Teachers in such localiti<'H, though unfortunate »n their pro 
 feKsional connections, must make the most of their limited 
 opportunities, and learn to cheer themselves with the idea 
 that they lalx)ur for |K)Ht<;rity. The |»oor children are moro 
 unfortunate than their teachers, sotniig that they have such 
 careless parents and unworthy educatioual trustees. Ijet 
 them resolve to do l)otter when they come to man's estate, 
 and provide for their children thotte advantages which wo 
 would fain bestow on themselves. 
 
 A large, airy, well-furnished, well-arnxngod, comfortable 
 school, enlarges tho perceptive faculties, captivates the heart, 
 generates cheerful emotions, fosters taste, and has a special 
 tendency to render tho minds of children susceptible to the 
 precepts of the teacher. Broken windows, broken desks, 
 " lame" benches, wet walls, damp or uneven floors, and 
 rooms too hot or too cold, have a contrary efiect. No mat- 
 ter what "economical" trustees say to the contrary, tho 
 quality of the building and furniture have a most powerful 
 effect on the minds and bodies of teachers and pupils. How 
 can a sweet little child like to spend five or six hours every 
 day in a building which has a cheerless exterior and a 
 gloomy interior? It would be strange, indeed, if such sen- 
 sitive and innocent little ci'eatures did not look upon such 
 schools as men look upon asylums and jails, or as sheep 
 would look on the shambles, were they endowed with reason. 
 Bright children love a school which is bright inside and 
 bright outside. The building should be a handsome one — 
 comfortably furnished, large, cheerful -looking, exhibiting 
 artistic taste in all its arrangements — a model of neatness 
 
THX SCIEKCB AND ART OF TEACUIMO. 
 
 107 
 
 nnd convenience. Everything connected with the inntitution 
 ithould bear evidence of refine<l tofite. 
 
 While M{N>aking of tliis Hubjpct, we will take the liberty Po"""*! 
 of stating that prrHoiml noutnosH in one of the primary 
 eMientialH in a gomi teatdjer. It is a nocesHary ({ualitication, 
 a cardinal virtue, which no educator can afford to neglect. 
 Ho must insist on its practice by his pupils, and bo careful 
 to exhibit it in his own i>erHon. Success in teaching 
 do[>cndH, in no small n»(»ft«ure, on the observance of this rule. 
 Next to cleanlineas, there is scarcely any other |)ersonaI 
 characteristic so essential in the practice of education. 
 Create an intellectual atmosphere in the school, so that 
 honour, truth, and justice may "flourish like trees planted 
 beside rivers of water." Then striven to make the class- 
 rooms cheerful and attractive, and let the teachers endeavour 
 to acquire similar characteristics. Success will then depend 
 on tlio good sense of the community, and tJie generosity or 
 justice of trustees. 
 
 A quiet, gentlemanly (or ladylike) manner should be the MatiMrof* 
 leading characteristics of boys (and girla) in school. The KilooU." 
 behaviour of all sliouM be gentle and unassuming. Each 
 pupil should j>osscss a business-like air, and during business 
 hours a general calm should reign throughout the respective 
 departments. The teacher should tolerate no conversation 
 in the desks during school sessions, and, when "hearing a 
 class," he should never allow one pupil to interrupt another, 
 or two to speak at the same time. Then, a pleasing calm, a 
 genial quietness, a salutary restraint, will pervade the whole 
 school — thus increasing the comfort of the pupils and the 
 efficiency of the teachers. 
 
 While giving a lesson, a teacher should be all life and Teacher t« 
 animation. We do not mean to imply that he should leo- ^"''•"■»*'^ 
 ture — lecturing is not suited for the school-room; we do not 
 mean that he should be a perpetual talker, as mentioned 
 elsewhere; we do not mean that he should devote himself to 
 
I >! 
 
 Brevity a 
 clmracU'ris- 
 
 Si*^""'* acteristics of the school. 
 
 11 
 
 108 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHINO. 
 
 continual repotition, and such like — for nhould he do 80, his 
 pupilH will make comparatively little progrewi: b«it we mean 
 that inHt<^ad of defining, explaining, and repeating laws and 
 principleH, etc., to his pupilH, he should Uad them by a series 
 of appropriate questions, to define, explain, or rejyeat to him. 
 In this manner ho will guide or load them to discover the 
 laws and principles of things for themselves. Knowledge 
 acquired in this way becomes part of their being, and will 
 never bo forgotten, whereas that which is gained by the pro- 
 cess of "telling" will evaporate like water, leaving not a 
 trace behind. 
 
 Brevity of expression should l>c one of the leading char- 
 Ideas should never bo covered 
 with a multitude of words. Every thought should be ex- 
 pressed clearly and fully, but as laconically lus possible. 
 Useless verbiage obscures the senae and weakens the expres- 
 sion; but the effects of brevity are just the reverse. The 
 teacher should thoroughly undci*stand the particulars of 
 each lesson, subject, or part of a subject, before introducing 
 it to his pupils. In defining, explaining, or discussing its 
 difficulties, uses, beauties, etc., he must be careful not to 
 say himself, nor allow his pupils to say, more than is abso- 
 lutely necessary. 
 
 In school, as elsewhere, urbanity and suavity should be 
 the motto of each pupil in his personal intercourse with 
 those around him. Courtesy of manner, sincerity, truthful- 
 ness, unselfishness, and a careful regard for the feelings of 
 others — love of God and nature — are, or should be, the 
 guiding stars of every man or woman bom into this world. 
 Children, even from the earliest age, should be led to culti- 
 vate a genial manner and an amiable disposition, so that as 
 they grow up, these endearing qualities may become personal 
 characteristics. 
 
 Each pupil should do his own work — the teacher should 
 never do it for him, as many teachers do through feelings 
 
 Urbanity 
 and suavity. 
 
 Pupils 1o(!o 
 their duty. 
 
THE SCIENCE AND AET OF TEACHINO. 
 
 109 
 
 of mistaken kindness. Each and all should underaiand that 
 their teachers and {uireDtM expect thcni to do their duty, 
 and that they must do it. More as-siHtance and attention 
 should Ih) given to the chiKiron of the lower tliviMionn, or 
 classes, tlmn to those of the upper. The latter are generally 
 able to help themselveH, und retpiiro little which a few 
 judicious questions will not lead them to discover, wher«Mi 
 the former may often i-eally need assistance of a more minute 
 and substaii'ial kind. But, from the commencement, each 
 pupil shoii I l>e taught to rely chiefly on himself — ImiIkjs or 
 invalids are tlio only individuals fed with a 8|Kxm. So in 
 literary matters. Stdf-reliance, perseverance, and industry, 
 should be practised by all. 
 
 At home and abroad, pupils should 1)0 encouraged to love ToinTeth«^«r 
 
 * ' " teachers, au<l 
 
 their own particular school, and to revere its teachers, pre- bo zealous of 
 
 - . , .... *'>e honour 
 
 fernug them to all others. Want of zeal in maintaining of their 
 
 the honour of the school is a sure sign that a pupil does not 
 
 stand very high in his resjiective classes, and (worse still) 
 
 that he is deficient in that laudable ambition. Every pupil 
 
 in a school should be ambitious of adding to its glory. Each 
 
 should endeavour to make it superior to all others, always 
 
 remembering that its prestige depends on individual efforts, 
 
 and that they can command success by working earnestly, 
 
 perseveringly, and harmoniously with their teacliers. Should 
 
 they do so faithfully and well, they can, in after years, look 
 
 back with conscious pride and affection on the memory of 
 
 their school days —ever fondly and gratefully remembering 
 
 the devoted teachers and school mates of tlieir early youth. 
 
 As a French writer (Thomas) justly observes, "Gi-atitude is 
 
 the sweetest as well as the holiest of duties." 
 
 O 
 The teacher should occasionally tell his pupils how to How to 
 
 study. Calling their attention to some particular subject, or " " ^^ * 
 
 part of a subject, he should explain how he himself would 
 
 study it were he to take it up for the first time — how he 
 
 would examine, analyze, and combine the respective asser- 
 
no 
 
 Qiiality and 
 quantity. 
 
 f iangiiage to 
 Ite pure and 
 simple. 
 
 THE SCIENCE AND ART OP TEACHINO. 
 
 tit>ns or statements, and revolve the whole matter in his 
 mind as in a kaleidoscope, seizing or appropriating the lead- 
 ing ideas or *• landmarks " as they presented themselves to 
 his mental vision ; how, by means of reflection, he would 
 arrange these ideas in natural and logical order, and then 
 lay them up for future use in the storehouse of his under- 
 standing. By these means, he will lead his pupils to study 
 in a philosophical manner, and much valuable time will be 
 saved which would otherwise be lost or wasted to no pur- 
 pose. If a pupil, having a thirst for knowledge, knows how 
 to study aright, and Ims a clear idea of what he should study , 
 he is sure to become a learned man. If the habit of think- 
 ing justly, and strongly, be formed at an early age, the cir- 
 cumstances of future life will, of themselves, carry on the 
 great work of personal improvenient. 
 
 One book studied well, and properly "digested," will be 
 of more real sei-vice to him than would a hundred studied 
 cursorily and without order or reflection. Quality will 
 always tell against quantity. For these reasons, the man- 
 ner and quality of study are far more important than the 
 matter and quantity — far more essential to the right devel- 
 opment of the faculties and the proper cultivation of literary 
 taste. 
 
 When the teacher undertakes to explain a subject, he 
 should be careful to use language which will be intelligible to 
 children. In fancy he must descend to the level of their 
 mental capacity — standing beside them as one of themselves; 
 and from that point, gaze in imagination on the cause or 
 causes of their perplexity. He will then see the respective 
 difficulties as children see them, and be able to explain each 
 in its natural order, and in language both simple and expres- 
 sive. This method of analyzing subjects, the logical order 
 observed in explaining each component part, and the art of 
 putting all together again — skilfully presenting ic to the 
 youthful mind as a complete whole — constitutes what may 
 
THE SCIKNCE AND ART OP TEACHING. HI 
 
 be called the science of teaching, and will seldom fail to excite 
 an interest in study, or to create a desire for the acquisition 
 of knowledge. The teacher must i-emember that language 
 which would be plain and simple to him might be incompre- 
 hensible to children. He should, therefore, never use words 
 of foreign origin if he can express his ideas in pure Anglo- 
 Saxon. Should he do so, the explanatory language may 
 sometimes be more incomprehensible to his pupils than the 
 original difficulty, as it will only cover the pre-existing 
 " swamp" with a canopy of clouds or fogs. 
 
 We could cite many examples to show that the answer to Lu^-J** ^, 
 
 •' * ^ , explanationn 
 
 a question may be correct and yet be more incomprehensible 
 to the child than the query itself, but will mention only one 
 or two. Many years ago a certain little boy met with the 
 word "eclipse" in one of his books, and, feeling rather 
 
 I puzzled about its meaning, he requested the principal of his 
 school to tell him what it was. The teacher graciously 
 smiled, and told him it was "a phenomenon." Some time 
 
 t afterwards he requested another teacher to inform him " why 
 it was that a stone would sink in water, whereas a log of 
 wood always floated on the surface 1" The teacher replied 
 that, ''The cause should be attributed to the difference in 
 their specific gravity." Of course, the pupil appeared to be 
 satisfied with " these lucid explanations," but in reality they 
 had only increased his difficulties. "Phenomenon" and 
 "specific gravity" — "words of learned length" — were to him 
 as a "sounding brass or tinkling cymbal" — mud-banks over 
 which he might jump, but through which he dared not wade. Rfcitationn 
 Prompt and accurate recitation of lessons saves much be prompt 
 time, strengthens pi-aiseworthy habits, and will exercise no l?curate. 
 small influence on the pupil's character in after life. For 
 these and other reasons, the teacher should always insist on 
 their observance. Should the interest in the subject grow 
 dull during recitation, he would do well to stop proceedings 
 until it is revived. The interest created by him in any sub- 
 
112 
 
 THE SCIENCE AND ART OP ^BACHIirO. 
 
 Child- 
 natura. 
 
 !li 
 
 ject, and the amount of information imparted, are stire to fbe 
 in proportion to the attention of the pupils. He should 
 decline to proceed with the lesson without the attention of 
 his class, or should the pupils be unable to recite without 
 aid. By following this plan, each individual will have to 
 stand on his own basis; the deficiency of the indolent will 
 be exposed, and all will feel that disgrace will overtake 
 those who fail to study the lessons thoroughly. It has been 
 well said that " the teacher is the school ;" but it is equally 
 true that he should be the text booh. He should be per- 
 fectly acquainted with all the authorized works in use in 
 his sphere, and be able to catechize in the various subjects 
 without reference to the book. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 HOW TO MAKE STUDY ATTRACTIVE. 
 
 People who have been so unfortunate as never to have 
 enjoyed the companionship or friendship of little children, 
 are ignorant of some of the gi*eatest pleasures in life. They 
 have, perhaps, carelessly passed by the little flowers without 
 investigation and without interest, not knowing or appre- 
 ciating their value. "What can be more beautiful than the 
 radiant orbs which reflect our image as we look into the 
 clear wells of light, so characteristic of youthful eyes? How 
 earnestly they gaze at us ! How merrily, affectionately, and 
 gratefully they return our smiles ! How full of love, hope, 
 curiosity, and innocence are those windows of the soul! 
 How fruitful! how interesting the study of those living, 
 laughing, rolling, dancing gems ! If patient, watchful, and 
 sympathetic, we may perceive in the light of their reflection, 
 the various thoughts and fancies which chase each other 
 
THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACH INO. 
 
 118 
 
 B sure to be 
 He should 
 attention of 
 ite without 
 ill have to 
 dolent will 
 1 overtake 
 t has been 
 is equally 
 nld be per- 
 in use in 
 s subjects 
 
 • to have 
 children, 
 b. They 
 i without 
 >r appre- 
 than the 
 into the 
 J? How 
 ielj, and 
 e, hope, 
 ie soul! 
 living, 
 ful, and 
 3ection, 
 1 other 
 
 through the youthful mind, as well as the germs of those 
 feelings which will some day stir up the heart and fire the 
 imagination of the advilt. 
 
 If the teacher acquires a fair knowledge of the child's bo*tt"oc!- 
 mental organization, he will be the better able to adapt his fnstruotion. 
 instructions to the child's requirements. His professional 
 success depends chiefly on his knowledge of Nature, and his 
 ability to interpret her precepts aright. It behoves him to 
 Btudy her operations carefully, closely, perseveringly. I^et 
 jliim question her in all his difficulties. She is the great 
 [teacher of teachers, and the only one whose instructions are 
 free from error. Her admonitions will direct him "in the 
 way he should go." She will tell him that enjoyment must 
 ^be combined with education, and that methods of instruc- 
 tion should produce a ha]»py and healthful activity. "La 
 tout est beau (says Rousseau) parceque tout est vi-ai." We 
 naturally dislike such places and things as suggest painful 
 reminiscences, and, in accordance with certain laws of mental 
 association, we delight in those which recal former pleasures. 
 The remembrance of painful lessons may make the acqui- 
 sition of knowledge repulsive, and the remembrance of 
 pleasureable ones will make it attractive. If the process of 
 education be made pleasant and agreeable, it will not cease 
 when school days come to an end — it will bo progressive and 
 continuous. Those therefore who would succeed as educators 
 must study child-nature, and adjust their instructions to 
 the laws of life. Pleasure and instruction go together in 
 the teachings of Nature : they sliould not be divorced in the 
 school-room. If feelings of pain be associated with words 
 or ideas, the pain will invariably retuiii to the mind when- 
 ever these words or ideas are recalled, and the child will 
 soon contract a disliko for what ho believes to be the cause 
 of his sorrow. 
 
 Education should be conducted on "the happiness princi- nei prEaci- 
 ple." Pleasant feelings excite intellectual action whilst im- ^^' 
 
114 
 
 Ouidinc 
 principlea. 
 
 How to cul- 
 tivate the 
 love of 
 study. 
 
 IMS 
 
 Ml 
 
 THE SCIENCE AND ART OP TEACHING. 
 
 proving the bodily health and natural disposition. Teachers 
 and pupils, according to the laws of their being, are at the 
 mercy of associated ideas. Their relations are friendly or 
 antagonistic in proportion to the happiness or misery pro- 
 duced by the prevailing mode of culture. A teacher will 
 be hated if he create no other than painful emotions; he will 
 be liked if he sympathize with his pupils, and can lead them 
 to daily conquests ; he will be esteemed and admired if his 
 precepts be good, noble, andconfirmed by practice ; he will 
 be loved if he teaches in accordance with Natui*e's princij)le8. 
 From these Tacts we infer that that system of education 
 which gives the most pleasure and least pain is the best and 
 most appropriate. 
 
 When children are well taught in accordance with Nature's 
 plan, they will often prefer mental to physical exercise; 
 they will take delight in their studies, and generally prefer 
 school to home life. Our pupils deserve our warmest smiles 
 and deepest sympathies — let us give them promptly, gener- 
 ously, and cordially. Let us cheer them on to victory, let 
 us inspire them with the desire of mental conquests, and 
 show ihem how to "storm the fortifications" of doubt and 
 difficulty, ourselves leading the attack. Let us encourage 
 them in their attempts to concentrate attention, and, if pos- 
 sible, endow them with a desire to persevere through repeated 
 failures. Constant exercise will produce a constant appetite, 
 and a working mind will inhabit a working body. Such 
 efforts must educate the finer feelings of the heart whilst 
 creating mental enjoyment, and will thus increase the sum 
 total of man's happiness. 
 
 Should children acquire a dislike to study, it would be 
 imprudent, and, perhaps, unjust, to force books and studies 
 upon them. It would be cruel to punish them for not lov- 
 ing what they consider uninteresting. Better far to associ- 
 ate pleasure with the cultivation of habits of attention and 
 application. Better to create or cultivate the desire for 
 
THE SCIENCE AND ART OP TEACHING. 
 
 llff 
 
 knowledge by a series of interesting conversations on such 
 subjects as are likely to be useful and attractive. When 
 this desire is created, study will become pleasant and books 
 cease to be repugnant. To preserve this desire in good 
 working order, the attention when aroused must not be 
 [fatigued; there must be variety in the subjects of study, and 
 [periods of application must be regularly followed by inter- wh«naie«- 
 vals of rest. As Mons. Marcel observes, " Lessons should J^**""*'' 
 [cease before the child evinces symptoms of weariness. 
 
 His desire of variety should be indulged, 
 
 id the gratification of his curiosity should be combined 
 
 fvith his improvement." We believe that a lesson should 
 
 cease while the child's attention is still on the qui vive — 
 
 ibefore the desire for further information begins to wane. 
 
 [••The various powers of children's minds stretch out like 
 
 foung tendrils to grasp the truths of the material world;"* 
 
 Jut their yearning for knowledge should nob be gratified so 
 
 ffej* as to destroy their desire for more. 
 
 Knowledge should be self-mastered, and is best acquired Seif-instruc- 
 by a process of self-instruction, more or less modified. For best. 
 this reason, the subjects in the programme of studies should 
 be so arninged as to make it possible for the pupil to ascend 
 the successive steps with little or no external help. To effect 
 this object, the ascending steps must correspond with the 
 successive stages of evolution in the ordinary development ^ 
 of the respective faculties. This concurrence will tend to 
 make application pleasant, and thereby endow acquisition 
 with intrinsic gratification. The mental vigour educed by 
 self-evolution, "will guai-antee (says Herbert Spencer) a 
 vividness and permancy of impression which the ordinary 
 methods can never produce." The concentration of thought, 
 essential in the solution of difficulties, necessitates a contin- 
 uous organization and classification of knowledge previously 
 acquired, and, in connection with the pleasurable excite- 
 
 ♦ Rev. Dr. BelL 
 
I 
 
 116 
 
 niifflcient 
 
 ]ihyBi<vil 
 
 rn<i-eat.li)n. 
 
 Exercise 
 
 without 
 
 fatigue. 
 
 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 m^tit peculiar to success, it tends to make a permanent 
 record iu the memory of all facts received. 
 
 Let children be allowed parfect freedom of action in the 
 play-grounds, so long a.s they recognize and respect each 
 other's rights and privileges; but insist on perfect discipline 
 in the school. When taking fresh air and exercise, Nature 
 inipsis them to be lively and sportive, and, in our opinion, 
 the teacher or parent who would unnecessarily damp their 
 flowing spirits and joyous hilarity of heart, would be littl' 
 better th.in a tyrant. During their younger years, and 
 under such cir^'umstances, let the innocent little creatures 
 bo free to run^ leap, and romp just as they please. Natiu^ 
 prompts them to do so. How can we be so forgetful of our 
 own young days as to curtail their happiness ! Let us make 
 Nature our guide and ally, and encourage the little ones to 
 " sing for joy." She impels them to run, jump, and shout 
 with delight. God's works smile on them from every side- 
 Why should man alone be frowning and stem'? Freedom 
 will promote health, and increase the delights of life. After 
 due exercise in " Nature's b})ortive fields," a return to order 
 will be agreeable, and the labours of study atti^active. If 
 children dislike studies, it is chiefly because their teachers 
 oppose, neglect, or ignore Nature, and cannot, therefore, 
 make them attractive. Dislike of study, or failure in acqui- 
 sition or application, point to personal ignorance or profes- 
 sional incapacity on the part of the teatdier, or to mental 
 debility on the part of the pupil, arising, perchance, from 
 imperfect instimction in the past, or a too rapid promotion 
 in the present. "Experience," says Fallenberg, "has taught 
 me that indolence iu young persons is so directly opposite 
 to their natural disposition to activity, that unless it be the 
 consequence of bad education, it is almost invariably con- 
 nected with some constitutional defect." 
 
 Mons. Vernet justly observes that "the exercise of our 
 faculties is always attended with pleasure so long as the 
 
 KMnuawuiiim 
 
THE SCIENCE AND ART OP TEACHING. 
 
 117 
 
 cercise can be continued without fatigue." For this reason, 
 
 lessons should not be too nuinei-ouH, nor the term of api>li- 
 
 ition too long. It matters little how much is learned in ft 
 
 fiven time, provided the habits of attention l)e strengthened 
 
 acquired, the wish to improve excited, and a longing for 
 
 lore information created. Children regard their lessons as 
 
 )me grown people regard friends — they love them while 
 
 ley think them useful and pleasant; but contract a dislike 
 
 them when they imagine them to be troublesome or dis- 
 
 jeable. In teaching, we should point out the design and 
 
 ictical utility of the reH[>ective subjects of study, and then 
 
 [ercise all our ingenuity to make them attractive and 
 
 jeable. ^ 
 
 If we watch a child studying under the guidance of Na- ^'^,"7,/ 
 5, we will notice that he earnestly examines the object culture, 
 his attention. He feels it, tastes it, breaks it, weighs it, 
 id makes it undergo the scrutiny of all his senses, com- 
 litting his respective observations to memory, one by one. 
 lere is no distraction, no confusion, no interruption, no 
 lental sleep in Nature's mode of culture. The attention is 
 idivided, vigorous, and active; all the energies of the mind 
 concentrated upon one object, and only one, at a time, 
 tence, we infer that children should never be interrupted 
 their experiments on surrounding objects, or while en- 
 iged in work, play, or the solution of difficulties. Such 
 iterruption breaks the course of their ideas, and, besides 
 pving them real annoyance, prevents them from acquiring 
 knowledge by personal experience. Instead of thwarting or 
 iterrupting them, teachers or parents should direct their 
 lactivity, furnish materials for additional combinations, and 
 [make such suggestions as will enable them to take fresh, • 
 
 and, if possible, more extensive observations. It is our duty 
 to foster their love of play by directing it into useful and 
 scientific channels ; and, instead of finding fault with their 
 physical restlessness and apparent mental idleness, we should 
 
lis 
 
 THE SCIENCB AND ART OF TEACHINQ. 
 
 Row Nature 
 tAattliM. 
 
 Whon Na- 
 ture dis' 
 misnes her 
 
 •(;li(>ol. 
 
 hearken to the voice of Nature and arouse ourselves to the 
 oonsciousnes'i of the fact that it is our privilege to guide 
 their energies in the pursuit of knowledge by giving proper 
 direction to their natural curiosity and bodily vigour. 
 
 Nature teaches by means of tangible and familiar objects. 
 She does not fatigue the mind with long lessons. Her in- 
 structions are practical, not theoretical or abstract. She calls 
 for no painful exertion of mind or body. She proceeds 
 gradually, from the known to the unknown — from the sim- 
 ple to the complex — one stop at a time, taking duo care that 
 the foremost foot is firmly fixed before she moves the other; 
 hence, her lessons are always received with real gratification 
 and positive delight. She tills the minds of her pupils with 
 ideas, but leaves the mode of expression to their judgment 
 and choice. All her lessons are useful, aiid imparted to be 
 used. She is, therefore, the best and most successful teacher 
 Under her guidance, as Dr. Gall observes, "Every new les- 
 son is a pleasure, and an additional step in advance. In 
 every instance, the exercise of to-day revives and consoli- 
 dates that of yesterday, while it smooths and prepares a 
 way for that of to-morrow." 
 
 Mental enquiry creates mental hunger; but after a certain 
 length of application, a child's attention will necessarily 
 wane. Having stored up for future use the ideas acquired, 
 his desire for further investigation, or additional experiment, 
 will cease for a time in obedience to Nature's promptings. 
 His lesson has been learned, and the law of his being declares 
 it is time to play, or change the subject. Any attempts 
 to stimulate, or further force, the attention, would, under the 
 circumstances, be injudicious and unjust — perhaps cruel. 
 The mental appetite has been appeased, and time is required 
 for rumination and mental digestion. Prolonged or com- 
 pulsory eflforts, in such a case, would probably excite feel- 
 ings of dislike. Nature requires rest, variety, change. Let 
 her have them. 
 
 w^wmwig 
 
THl 8CIBKCE A»D ART <Sf TBACniNO. 
 
 119 
 
 CHAPTER III 
 
 INCENTIVES TO STUDIOUS HABITS. 
 
 r a certain 
 
 The desire to be useful and to do what is right, are the J^Ji^we. 
 
 ioblest incentives of human action— the most praiseworthy ofaction. 
 
 jriiiciples of individual character. Being the offfpring of a 
 oA conscience, they are the worthiest preceptors of per- 
 nial conduct. United with the anxious desire of advancc- 
 lent and the earnest love of acquisition, they are the 
 mdainental cloments on which the teaclinr must repose his 
 Porta whilst exciting and promoting studious habits amongst 
 pupils. Emulation is, perhaps, one of the most com* 
 lendable aspirations which can stir up or influence the 
 luman mind. By emulation we mean the love of distinc- 
 
 ^ou, the earnest desire to advance in knowledge, to improve 
 
 ir condition in life, to excel others without wishing to 
 
 sipress them. Progress is imprinted on our nature — we 
 
 )re never created to retrogi-ade or remain stationary. 
 
 'Onward and upward" should be the motto of man in par- 
 
 bcular, as of Nature in general. Wholesome emulation will 
 sldom fail to develop progress in youth or manhood, and 
 lould, therefore, be judiciously employed by every teacher, 
 tends to make men and boys better, wiser, or greater 
 lan they really are, and (as the saying i*uns) often "enables 
 
 [them to surpass themselves." It is, therefore, one of the 
 
 [noblest aspirations which can fire the heart of youth or guide 
 
 [the feelings of man. ^^ 
 
 Curiosity is the expression of a desire for knowledge — /u!^Suia~ 
 the earliest development of the young intelligence, and,\**^jy*°^jj,^ 
 [iince it is "the first motive of sentient, intelligent being," ^-- 
 it may be regarded as the source and stimulus of attention. 
 Curiosity often "runs wild," and is then the source of 
 importunity, impertinence, inconstancy, and change. Its 
 development, therefore, requires careful cultivation and 
 guidance. Its energies should be concentrated on a few ob« 
 
 "s 
 
120 
 
 THB 8CIENCK AND ART OF TBACHINO. 
 
 |i I 
 
 Bill 'i 
 
 II 
 
 ^^^H 
 
 jects — objocts of personal worth or public utility — and these 
 should be pursued in accordance with Nature's mode of 
 teaching. 
 ThadMirtof The pleasures experienced in acquiring useful and inter- 
 esting information more than re|>ay the labours of study. 
 This "delicious pleasure" varies in proportion to the age 
 and mental development of the student. Its influence ia 
 greatest in infancy, and least in old age. A baby feels more 
 delight in studying the philosophy of a dntni, out of which 
 it has just ** knocked the bottom," or in contemplating the 
 fragments of a China cup it has just broken, than the agod 
 miser would experience in discovering a gold mine. "The 
 propensity in children to do mischief" is, in reality, a whole- 
 some and commendable curiosity — an intense desire to ac- 
 quire information. Their mind is conscious of its ignorance 
 and want of experience — it is awake to acquire knowledge 
 of men and thi»ig8. They have been placed as strangers in 
 a world of wonders, and in exercising their " destructive 
 ingenuity," or in asking " peculiar questions," they are 
 merely seeking to gratify their curiosity — they are fulfilling 
 one of the conditions of Nature, and, in this respect, should 
 be aided rather than discouraged/ In after years, he will 
 be the most successful teacher who can most effectuallv 
 excite and satisfy this curiosity or thirst for knowledge. 
 This laudable propensity once properly aroused, the mind 
 of the pupil shall thenceforth neither slumber nor sleep, and, 
 instead of a task, learning will be a pleasure to the teacher 
 and the taught. 
 
 The love of Th© love of approbation is a very powerful incentive to 
 approbation, g^^jy Many educators consider it to be a very commend- 
 ^ able one ; others regard it as reprehensible. We don't. 
 
 Being a selfish propensity inherent in our nature, its appli- 
 cation requires considerable caution, discrimination, and 
 judgment. It is commendable so long as it excites the child 
 or the man to desire the admimtion of the good, the pious, 
 
 ■Si ■ 
 
I. 
 
 THE SCIENCE AND ART Of TSACUINO. 
 
 121 
 
 Y — and thesfi 
 re's mode of 
 
 111 and intftr- 
 irs of study. 
 I to the a^e 
 influence ig 
 l>y feels more 
 Hit of which 
 riplating the 
 I an the agod 
 nine. '*The 
 ity, a whole- 
 desire to ac- 
 ts ignorance 
 ) knowledtfo 
 
 o 
 
 strangers in 
 * destructive 
 they are 
 ire fulfilling 
 pect, should 
 ^ars, be will 
 
 effectually 
 
 knowledge. 
 
 the mind 
 
 sleep, and, 
 ihe teacher 
 
 icentive to 
 commend- 
 We don't. 
 3, its appli- 
 ation, and 
 s the child 
 the pious, 
 
 and the learned — so long as it incites him to sork the 
 approval of his tcaclier, parents, and friends — so long as it 
 impels him to inci-ease his own merit without wishing to 
 depreciate that of others. Tl»e skilful teacher will seldom 
 app<>al in vain to this propensity — the desire of distinction 
 and approval. Indeetl, it is the opinion of many old and 
 experienced educators, that the teacher will frequently suc- 
 ceed by its means in governing bis pupils, and in awaken- 
 ing a thirst for study, when he would fail to produce the 
 sjime effects by an ap|)eal to other motives. Should the 
 skilful teacher apjK'al to all these incentives bi vain, and that 
 the pupil is really in<lifferent about the approbation of his 
 friends, devoid of curiosity, and careless about being useful 
 an<l of doing what is right, then indeed will we admit that 
 there is little hope for the improvement of that child — but 
 ■uch a child we have never met, nor do we ever expect to 
 meet with such a hardened specimen of humanity. 
 
 Whether it is commendable to offer prizes to be competed jhe r.riz* 
 for in schools, and whether the incentive to study thus pro- STdered. 
 duccd, does not more than counterbalance the envy and 
 [ jealousy it may be supposed to engender, have, for many 
 years, been questions of discussion between the great edu- 
 cationists of the age. On the whole, we believe that the 
 balance of opinion is in favour of their introduction and use. 
 It must be remembered, however, that w^ien the prizes 
 offered are but few in number, and the candidates numerous, 
 it is often exceedingly difficult to do full justice to the sev- 
 eral competitoi-s. Men are not, and never will be, of one 
 mind; the candidate who would be considered best by one 
 judge, might be rated as second by another, and vice versd : 
 so that the examiners may be divided as to the relative 
 merits of the youthful " rivals." Then again the facilities 
 of the competitors in preparation and acquisition may be 
 unequal. The facilities of some of the pupils may be more 
 than sufficient, whilst those of the majority are inadequate 
 9 
 
r 
 
 12-' 
 
 THE 8C1ENCR AND ART OF TKACUINO. 
 
 l*rixes b/ 
 
 ignoble 
 
 lue.ins. 
 
 Some may have all the a^siHtance afforded by good text 
 books, kind {Hirentfl, and intelligent friendH, besides having 
 no extraneous matters to attend to after school hours, 
 whereas other children, equally anxious and equally indus 
 tiious, may have none of these advantages. It is true, 
 moreover, that the prize is often the measure of success, not 
 of effort — of good luck, not of worth ; and, in any case, evoi 
 experienced person will readily concede that success in sucii 
 a contest is a very unreliable test of a pupil's merit. Th« 
 most meritorious docs not (but should) always wear tiio 
 crown. Nature and good fortune may have given one child 
 mental advantages 8U|)erior to those of another who is far 
 more industrious, so that what the one can learn in a few 
 hours, may cost the others as many days or weeks of jiei-se 
 vering toil.* If the motive and ejhrt of the latter be taken 
 into account, the former must yield him the palm of merit, 
 and these are the only means by which we can justly meas 
 ure the virtue and value of an action. Though the intention 
 and effect be the same in both cases, there is a vast difference 
 in the effort. 
 
 Some teachers regard prizes as a sort of "literary bribe," 
 and affirm that they t nd to make children seek their end 
 by fair means if convenient, and by ignoble means if neces 
 sary. It is true that ambition is seldom scrupulous about 
 the character of her servants. Her devotees are often willing 
 to stoop to anything that will ensure success. That " the 
 end will justify the means" is a positive falsehood, and the 
 root rkf much mischief. But if such ignoble means be used 
 to eLi4ure success, the teachers or examiners may possibly 
 detect the fraud, and punish the guilty by public exposure 
 and forfeiture of privileges. However, it is not at all likely 
 that pupils will resort to such ai-tifices, and, if they do, the 
 prudence and experience of the teacher will be more than a 
 match for them. 
 
 •Pago. 
 
TBI SCIENCE AND ART OP TEACRINO. 
 
 12.1 
 
 ' rmity 
 capacity. 
 
 A prize or two offered to the best and second beat Bcholani JJjJJI,]J^'' 
 in a claaa, stimulates only a few. The Uwicher — and even on*y • '•*• 
 the pupils themselves — knowing by experience the capabili- 
 ties of the re8|)ective candidates, can tell beforehand who 
 will bo the victors at the examinations — or, at least, who 
 are likely to bo. Those pupils who have no hope of obtain- 
 ing a prize, and who feel confident of their inability to win 
 one, will make little exertion, or perhaps bo totally indiffer- 
 ent, seeing that persevering toil will bring them no immedi- 
 ate reward — despairing of success, they may in fact pretend 
 to despise "the baiuble." 
 
 It is obvious that unless the mind of each child in the 
 respective classes be a'*:ikened — unless the individual wiU 
 of all be influenced to mcreasod efforts, to honourable rivalry 
 with each other, by awarding prizes, then the system is a 
 failure.* If the system fails to arouse the whole school to 
 renewed activity — to increased exertion, to additional efforts, 
 to a higher ambition — and that only two or three or half a 
 dozen really contend for the prize, the remainder being 
 indifferent, then it is a mere gift to tliis limited number — 
 one of them being sure of it. If it be a gift, why call it a 
 prize ] The efficiency of the prize system depends on the 
 uniformity of the competitors in mental aipacity. Prizes 
 are the most powerful, popular, and perhaps the best of all 
 incentives when the members of the respective classes are of 
 the same degree of mental standing, and when the facilities of 
 acquisition are similar, and the services of skilful examiners 
 can be secured. 
 
 We are inclined to believe that prizes or rewards should The rew»r* 
 be used in every school. The prize system, in its purity, is '^•**^'" 
 more suitable for colleges and universities than for common 
 and middle class schools. Judging by our own experience, 
 and the information gleaned from others, we have no hesita- 
 tion in stating that, when "piizes" are offered in these 
 
 Page. 
 
124 
 
 The merit 
 card HyBtem, 
 
 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TE.U'HINO. 
 
 schools as an incentive to study, they should partake of the 
 nature of rewards, and be so numerous that every industri- 
 ous, well-conducted child can receive some token in recog- 
 nition of his efforts "to become good and great." The 
 number of prizes offered to each class should be in proportion 
 to its size. Prizes should be offered for efficiency in each 
 individual subject, and also for proficiency in the whole 
 programme of school studies. No pupil should be eligible 
 to compete for the latter prizes unless his character and 
 conduct were irreproachable; but eveiy pupil having hia 
 name on the school register should have permission to com- 
 pete for the prizes for individual subjects. There should also 
 be "good conduct" and "regular attendance" prizes, or re- 
 wards, in addition to the foregoing. Unless these things be 
 carefully attended to, the system of awarding prizes or re- 
 wards, will fall shoi-t of the object in view. If prizes or 
 rewards be introduced at all, they should be awarded to 
 good conduct, diligence, punctuality, amiability, and intrinsic 
 worth, as well as to superior talent, or marked success in 
 certain examinations ; and, as aforesaid, they should be so 
 numerous that every desei'ving pupil shall receive some 
 tangible evidence of the appreciation of his efforts. 
 
 An accurate register of scholarship and individual deport- 
 ment never fails to engender and promote healthy emulation ; 
 yet such a journal is seldom kept. If not attended to at the 
 close of each lesson or recitation, it must be made from 
 memory; and, in the latter case, perfect accuracy is impos- 
 sible. The pupils will, therefore, have little confidence in 
 the record, and its moral force will be nullified. Taking 
 these things into consideration, many of our most experienced 
 teachers recommend the use of merit cards. These "merits" 
 act as a substitute for, whilst securing the good results of, 
 accuriite records — and they possess the advantage of occupy- 
 ing less of the teacher's time than would the record system. 
 They also enable the pupil to take home with him every 
 
TBB SCIENCE AND ABT OF TEACHING. 
 
 125 
 
 evening witnesses of his daily progi-ess, and therefore com- 
 mand foi him a lively paternal interest, whilst securing for 
 the teacher the active co-operation of his pupil's natural 
 guardians. 
 
 There are many ways for using the merit cards. We will How used. 
 mention one or two of those commonly used. In the morn- 
 ing each pupil may receive as many merits as will represent 
 the perfect work of one day — the same, or a certain number 
 of them, to be forfeited should the recipient fail in recitation, 
 or infringe any of the rules of the school, with reference to 
 conduct, diligence, or punctuality. Or, if preferred, the 
 following plan may be adopted, provided the pupils "change 
 places" in their classes. Give a merit to each pupil as often 
 as he may happen to get a head mark in reciting his respec. 
 tive lessons — the recipient to go to the foot of the chiss each 
 time he receives the same. The less .advanced and " more 
 bashful" will thus have "a chance," and the more clever will 
 have an opportunity of winning their way up again. Each 
 time a pupil gets head of his class he is to receive a "ticket" 
 or "merit," ami then retire to the foot as before — no pupil 
 to receive a merit for giving correct answers to questions 
 directly addressed to himself, unless pupils "above him" have 
 failed to answer them. According to this plan, as in the for" 
 mer, the teacher may fine any pupil one or more merits should 
 he be guilty of a misdemeanor during the day. It may be 
 remarked that the smaller merits may be exchanged for 
 "fives, tens, fifties, or hundreds." The merits should be 
 " paid into the treasury" once a month, and a receipt for the 
 same handed to the pupil. 
 
 A chart or roll of merit, containing the names of the The roU of 
 pupils, and exhibiting the number of merits won by each *"*"' 
 during the respective months of the season, should be placed 
 in some conspicuous part of the school-room. 
 
 It must not be forgotten, however, that the "merit card" Abuse 
 system is liable to abuse unless it be supplemented or checked 
 
126 
 
 Power and 
 «flreets of the 
 system. 
 
 THE SCIENCE AND ART OP TEACHING. 
 
 by registration. It is possible that pupils may sell or give 
 away some of their merits to othern. Unless such transactions 
 be discovered, the latter would, by such a si^ecies of dishon- 
 esty, attain a higher standing than that to which they were 
 justly entitled ; and the suspicion of foul play thus engen- 
 dered in the minds of their more honourable companions, 
 would destroy their confidence in the system, whilst para- 
 lyzing their efforts to excel. 
 
 The number of "merits" handed in by the pupil, and 
 credited to him on the roll of merit, at the end of the month, 
 or at the close of the school session, will show his individual 
 and relative standing; so that, if premiums or prizes are 
 given, there can be no difficulty or mistake in ascertaining 
 or determining to whom they should be awarded. No sus- 
 picion of favouritism or foul play can possibly arise, for, by 
 looking at the roll of merit, even the pupil himself can tell 
 to whom the rewards belong — provid) d t! «- •^umber of merits 
 given to each individual are duly checked or registered. 
 
 It is needless to discuss the value of prizes as incentives to 
 study — no experienced educationist will deny their power. 
 When mismanaged, the system has doubtless been the origin 
 of some evil ; but when skilfully conducted, it has been pro- 
 ductive of much good. Rewards bestowed as indicated (or 
 even prizes) can do no harm — they afford no food for mis- 
 apprehension, envy, or jealousy, and no scope for deceit or 
 hypocrisy. Every pupil will feel that if he deserves a 
 memento of his benefactor's kindness, his teach r's love, or 
 of his own honest, earnest efforts, he will be su j i a receive 
 it. Each, perchance, may reason with himself auc' .; - — " I 
 have every chance of obtaining a prize or award. If I fail 
 in talent or perfect recitation, I will acquire one for diligence, 
 or for good conduct, or for regularity and punctuality, or for 
 some other individual excellence, if not for general merit- 
 I will persevere in my studies, and carefully avoid giving 
 trouble or offence to my companions, or to my teachers. I 
 
THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 will infringe none of the niles of the school, ard do every- 
 thing I find to do 'with all my might,' so that, even should 
 I fail to win a prize, all will admit that my efforts deserved 
 miccess." It is evident that either reward or prize system, 
 conducted according to the foregoing principles, would secure 
 the due recognition of the merits of each individual pupil, 
 whilst it would prevent the larger pupils from appropriating 
 all the pearls, and incite the smaller ones to press forward to 
 the goal set before them. 
 
 127 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 ELEMENTS OF GENERAL ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 The teacher should always endeavour to be consistent in JhJuJj" 
 his doings, and never forget to respect his own authority- o^J*®** *''*'" 
 He should say what he means, and mean what he says, and authority. 
 never issue an order unless he intends it to be obeyed ; nor 
 should he give a second command until the first has been 
 executed. All commands should be issued coolly and delib- 
 erately, in a voice clear and distinct — loud enough to be 
 heard by all, but not too loud — and when uttered, he should 
 permit no hesitation in their execution. " A low, decided 
 tone of voice accomplishes much more than a loud, bluster- 
 ing one ; the former attracts and fixes attention, the latter 
 divides and confuses it." The teacher should be possessed 
 of the faculties of decision and firmness of purpose, so that 
 he may deteimine quickly, and act promptly and justly in 
 accordance with his sense of duty. In teaching, as in every- 
 thing else, decision of character is the first element of suc- 
 cess. There should bo no hesitation apparent in his manner 
 — no vacillation visible in his conduct, for " a courageous 
 
128 
 
 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 Duciaion of 
 charnctei'. 
 
 loquesta v, 
 Commands, 
 
 f 
 
 heart and a resolute mind are omnipotent." When he de- 
 cides, he should be sure to decide justly. When he issues 
 orders, he should, if necessary, compel obedience. "Unless 
 in case of error," as Locke affirms, " his word should be irre- 
 vocable." He must convince the whole school, individually 
 and collectively, that he is a man of energy and tenacity of 
 purpose, and will exact prompt and implicit obedience to all 
 his commands — that he will permit no half measures, and 
 tolerate no habits of partial submission or indolent compli- 
 ance. Then shall his pupils confide in his justice, and, as 
 Milton observes, " None will question the equity of his 
 decisions;" then (and not till then) will order, regularity, 
 prompt obedience, pei-severing industry, and steady progress, 
 become the characteristics of his school. It is far better, 
 however, that these things should be the result of dutiful 
 affection, than the effects of mere slavish submission. 
 
 A sensitive pupil will obey with greater pleasure and alac- 
 rity when requested than when ordered ; it is, therefore, 
 better to request than to command. It is imprudent to 
 foster or exhibit a love for commanding, and unwise to mani- 
 fest any feeling which would indicate a want of personal 
 confidence or a doubt of professional ability. Require only 
 what is reasonable, just, and necessary; be sure that the pupil 
 comprehends your meaning, and then enforce your orders to 
 the letter. The teacher should do all things for the best — 
 best for his pupils, for himself, and for the public. Rever- 
 ing justice, loving what is right, acting in accordance with 
 religious and patriotic principles, professional failure will be 
 impossible; success certain. Such a party will be a good, if 
 not a great, teacher — a fellow-labourer with his Creator in 
 the noble work of progress. 
 
 Courage, resolution, and tenacity of purpose are just as 
 
 Koveiuiuent. requisite in the principal of a school as in the commander of 
 
 an army. The mode of discipline or manner of government 
 
 should be kind and gentle, for the assurance conveyed there- 
 
 J\)rce a» an 
 element of 
 
THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 129^ 
 
 )y, that no harm is intended, will tend to secure a perfect 
 uid willing obedience ; but this obedience implies the exist- 
 jnce of a power sufficient to enforce it if necessary. This 
 )wer is the bjisis of that authority which commands and 
 lubdues the will. But power should always be united with 
 dndness, so that children may obey the one while they love 
 the other — so that they may yield submission affectionately, 
 id as the result of affection. Authority and love form the 
 isis of all good government, and these in turn may be re- 
 jferred to force — a force base<l on strength, power, or influence. 
 Svery child is more or less a reasoning creature, an intelli- 
 jnt being, and a loyal, loving individual, and hence a subject 
 >r compulsion, persuasion, or inducement, according to the 
 availing peculiarities of his disposition. Government by 
 )rce is the lowest order in the scale of disci[)line, and gov. 
 mient by personal or moral influences is the highest, purest, 
 id best. Government by supremacy of will is a mean 
 Jtween those extremes. But any of these methods, if used 
 cclusively, would, doubtless, {)r()ve a failure, owing to dif- 
 )nce in disposition and home associations. A mixed 
 lethod, combining the advantages of all, will, therefore, be 
 16 most useful in the management of large numbers of 
 lildrcn. In all cases, the teacher must possess the ability 
 command obedience when necessary, to control stubborn- 
 less, quicken diligence, and reform bad habits. 
 It will well repay the teacher to make himself thoroughly Abbott's 
 [uainted with the more approved systems of education 
 id school government as practiced at present and in days 
 me by. He can then strike out a new and independent 
 )ui-se for himself, and with the success which always follows 
 rell-directed efforts. His chances of success will, at all 
 Events, be materially increased by an acquaintance with the 
 laxims and writings of the teachei-s and philosophers of 
 fother ages. Apropos of what we have been writing are the 
 following maxims of Jacob Abbott : — "When you consent, 
 
 maxiuii). 
 
130 
 
 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 Self-reli- 
 auce. 
 
 Fretftalness 
 and frivolity 
 to be 
 avoided. 
 
 To com- 
 mence as he 
 would 
 continue. 
 
 consent cordially; when you refuse, refuse finally; when 
 you punish, punish good-naturedly : commend often — never 
 scold." 
 
 Before undertaking the office of a teacher, the candidate 
 should duly consider the duties to bo performed, the difficul- 
 ties to be overcome, and his personal qualifications for the 
 position. He should not accept nor adopt such a responsible 
 calling unless, after due consideration, he has reason to W 
 lieve that he can teach and govern efficiently — unless he 
 possesses self-reliance, and has perfect confidence in his abil- 
 ity to satisfactorily perform the onerous duties peculiar to 
 the office. When pupils discover that a teacher entertains 
 doubts of his own ability, they are sure to put his misgiv- 
 ings to the test, and will completely conquer him should his 
 skill and resources fall short of the occasion. Fixity of will 
 is the measure of ability in such cases. Resolution will give 
 him the victory. 
 
 The teacher should never so far forget the high responsi- 
 bility of his post as to wear an air of peevishness on the one 
 hand, or of frivolity on the other ; nor should he blend these 
 characteristics together, as is done in many instances. The 
 trials of life should never influence his conduct in school. 
 In sickness or in health his manner should be uniform, calm, 
 and genial. If not favored with a strong constitution, it 
 may, at times, be difficult to overcome these frailties. We 
 are inclined to believe, however, that they can be thoroughly 
 subdued, even by a confirmed invalid, should he only con- 
 sider how little his pupils have to do with the cause of his 
 illness or the state of the weather. Unless a man learns to 
 govern himself in such trivial matters, ho cannot possibly 
 govern others. How can the blind lead the blind 1 
 
 In his dealings with his pupils, and with the public gen- 
 erally, the teacher should never forget his personal dignity 
 80 far as to "put on airs" (as it is called), nor should he ever 
 assume a manner foreign to his natural character. "Be 
 
THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 131 
 
 he candidate 
 1, the difficul- 
 itions for the 
 a responsible 
 reason to Ix-- 
 f — unless he 
 e in his abil- 
 } peculiar to 
 er entertains 
 t his misffiv- 
 n should his 
 'ixity of will 
 ion will give 
 
 gh responsi- 
 3 on the one 
 blend these 
 mces. The 
 in school, 
 iform. calm, 
 3titution, it 
 ilties. We 
 thoroughly 
 e only con- 
 ause of his 
 in learns to 
 ot possibly 
 
 n 
 
 public gen- 
 ial dignity 
 lid he ever 
 iter. " Be 
 
 rhat you appear to be," is a good and wholesome motto. 
 
 'ith children, as with full-grown j>eople, attachment always 
 
 )llow8 respect — esteem and admiration always precede affec- 
 
 m and love. To gain this esteem, affection, and love, he 
 
 lust \ye courteous and affable, yet firm and resolute — deeply 
 
 itei-ested in the welfare of his pupils. His future success 
 
 jpends, in a great mcasui-e, on " first impressions." On 
 
 :ing charge of a school, or class, he should be sure to com- 
 
 »ence as he would wish to continue, and vice versd. In a 
 
 ly or two, each pupil in the school or class has formed his 
 
 )r her) estimate of the new teacher. One has formed an 
 
 >inion of him in one respect, another in another respect, 
 
 id so on. If the individual opinio is thus formed were 
 
 ritten out in order, the aggregate would undoubtedly be a 
 
 lir estimate of the teacher's character. 
 
 The teacher should be particularly careful not to exhibit Not wise to 
 
 listrust, or appear to entertain suspicion of his pupils, either suspioion. 
 
 llectively or individually. He should never let them see 
 
 at he is watching them, or that he suspects they would do 
 
 rong. Such an act would not only decrease their respect 
 
 »r him personally, but would actually tend to make them 
 
 hat he desires them not to bo.* If he has reason to 
 
 lieve that a pupil is vicious or idle, and inclined to be 
 
 ublesome, he may possibly refomi him by the exercise 
 
 a little stratagem — by ai)parently placing great conti- 
 
 ce in him, for instance, or by appointing him to some 
 
 ponsible position in the school pi'o tern., or by occasionally 
 
 fequesting his assistance in some responsible capacity. The 
 
 Judicious application of such incentives as these Avill be 
 
 Jklmost sure to transform "the backslider" into a good, indus- 
 
 ious, trustworthy boy. To doubt an honest child is tanta- 
 
 ount to doing all we can to make him a liar. Unless able 
 
 convict, we should never appear to doubt. 
 
 If a boy be wild, idle, and troublesome, it is not wise of To look on 
 
 e teacher to look altogether on the dark side of his char- of a boy's 
 
 — — —^ cliaracter. 
 
 "" Page. 
 
132 
 
 TME SCtENCE AND ART OP TEACHING. 
 
 i 
 
 |i 
 
 . 
 
 act«r. He should be permitted to understand that the 
 teacher's gaze is fixed on the bright side also — that his good 
 qualities have been noted as well as his bad ones, and that, 
 no matter how reprehensible his acts have l>een, still it is 
 l>elieve<l that many of his intentions were good. This course 
 being in accordance with Nature^ will probably be effectivp 
 At all events, it will exhibit to the pupil "a strong likeness 
 of himself," so that as time rolls away he may gradual Iv 
 become conscious of his errors, and be strengthened to avoid 
 his follies in the future. The tf^acher cannot be too careful 
 in bestowing his commendations. Always strictly just and 
 honest, he will not, of course, offer them unless they havp 
 been merited. Boys, like older folks, can distinguish be 
 tween praise and ilattery — they will not fail to look upon 
 the one as honest payment of a just debt, and upon the 
 other as a sinister present. Verbal bribes, like those of a 
 more tangible nature, are certain signs of weakness, and he 
 who offers them merits contempt. 
 Pupils not The painful and malevolent passions of rivalry, arising 
 triisted^with ft'O^i envy or jealousy, should be carefully repressed by the 
 impartial distribution of affection and applause — by the due 
 administration of exact justice, each receiving "what was 
 justly due to him." When necessary, the plain truth should 
 be spoken, as to their respective excellencies ; but we should 
 never contrast pupils with each other, nor should we censure 
 one while we praise another. As Rousseau observes, " Let 
 us compare the pupil as he is, with what he himself has been, 
 or may be, but never compare his deficiencies with another 
 pupil's excellencies." We naturally love those who are, to 
 us, a source of pleasure. To prevent envy or jealousy, and 
 make children fond of each other, we must place them in 
 situations where no passion or appetite will cross their 
 natural sympathy, and where they can dispense pleasure to 
 each other. "It is true," as Edgeworth states, "that many 
 of our most useful and agreeable actions arise from the desire 
 
 eacli otliur. 
 
 
THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACIIINO. 
 
 133 
 
 excel; yot, as a nile, we should avoid placiiig children in 
 linful corapetition with each other." 
 
 Children should be encourage<l, but not flattered. They Children 
 
 uould receire their just reward when they act so as to merit eucour«ge«i, 
 
 le approbation of parents, teachens, and friends. The 
 
 jher or parent who always scolds, and is never satisfied 
 
 rith a child's efibrts, is sure to break his spirit, and to de»- 
 
 roy in him the desire to please, since all his efforts, all his 
 
 leeds (whether good or bad), meet with the same reception. 
 
 Pouchers, be gentle, but firm, with your pupils ; watch over 
 
 them constantly ; rcprove earnestly, but " be not bitter 
 
 gainst them." Have compassiom on their infirmities ; re- 
 
 uemljer that you were childreii youi-selves ; rccal your child- 
 
 lood days, luid you will be better able to sympathize with 
 
 rour pupils in all their little trials, joys, and sorrows. En- 
 
 Icavour to discriminate between idleness and want of ability. 
 
 lEucourage as much and reprove as little as possible. Try 
 
 [to "overcome evil with good;" and remember that if a child 
 
 ihMH done its best, it can do no more. It then merits praise, 
 
 lud not censure, however insignificant the result of its 
 
 \ei\ortH. 
 
 The teacher should be careful not to a: near to believe a offenders to 
 )upil guilty of an offence until the charge io clearly proved ered^inno- 
 |l)y reliable evidence, and he should suspend judgment in all proled *'^ 
 ses until such evidence is produced. He should avoid *"*^^^" 
 lything that would tend to produce the impression that he 
 id pre-judged the case. "Innocent until proved guilty," 
 lould be the motto of the school as well as of the hall of 
 Ijustice ; and the reputation of a child should be as sacred as 
 ithat of a man or woman. Such kind and charitable feelings 
 pxhibited by the teacher towards the accused, will tend to 
 l«how that he takes an interest in their welfare, and would 
 ffain consider them honorable and trustworthy; and his good 
 )pinion will have no small effect in making them so. As 
 Marmontel observes, "This is the wisest plan, and also the 
 
li 
 
 134 
 
 THF. SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 To maintain 
 
 Sropcr 
 incipline. 
 
 ! iW i 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 A timo for 
 everything, 
 and every- 
 thing in tta 
 lim»*. 
 
 most just." Such a rulo of coin. net will foster sentimentaofj 
 mutual confidence and esteem, and induce the pupils to feel^ 
 tbat the teacher is their friend as well as their judjjp. 
 "Respect their feelings, and they in turn will respect yours." 
 
 In the matter of discipline, the teacher should be strict 
 without being severe. As Mr. Lancaster observes, "Each 
 and all should always have something to do, and a motive! 
 for doing it." The various exercises should be so conducted 
 that the pupils may fool that indolence and inattention an 
 sure to be followed by detection, and that degradation and 
 punishment will be the natural consoquencos. As order, I 
 quietness, and implicit obedience are characteristics of every! 
 woll-con<luctcd school, the teacher should not be insensibkj 
 to any breach of the s.ini", bo it ever so insignificant. 
 
 " A time for everything, and everything in its time," waj 
 tlio favourite motto of good old Lancaster — the motto which 
 he placod over the door of his school in imitation of that of i 
 Plato;* and, without strict attention to its precepts, no 
 teacher can bo really successful. Should the teacher disrc 
 gard its principles, irregularities will accumulate; indolence,] 
 mischief, and confusion will increase, until, perplexed and 
 oppressed, he bows down beneath their united weight, and \ 
 is finally led to believe that his profession is the most weari 
 some in the world — and that, far from being " a delightful 
 task," it is a sore burden too heavy to be borne. However, 
 if he adhere strictly to his "time-table," appointing a time 
 for every duty and attending to every duty at its proper 
 time — in other words, if he cany on business in a sys- 
 tematic manner — then order, regularity, and quietness will 
 be the characteristics of his school ; otherwise, it will become 
 a babel — a pandemonium. Whatsoever the teacher finda to 
 do let him do it with all his might, for, as an old couplft 
 states — 
 
 " One thing at a time and that done well* 
 Is a very good rule as many can tell." 
 
 • "Let no one ignorant of niathomatics enter hero." 
 
THE SCIENCE AMD ART OF TEACUIMO. 
 
 135 
 
 A person can only attend to one thing at a time with all Jyj*"||];';^* 
 hi8 might, and at one and the same time can only do one {[JJ,****"*" 
 thing toell. If he attempt to do two things at one time, and 
 (Uxjs one of them well with all his might, the other must of 
 necessity be done badly or imperfectly. Therefore, if a 
 teacher be giving a lesson in geography, let him not mix it 
 up with algebra, and if giving a lesson in geometry, let him 
 not "interline it" with a lecture on grammar. While hear- 
 ing the recitations oi one class, let him not attempt to correct 
 the exercises of another. So of individuals as of classes. 
 When giving a lesson in any subject, he should not allow 
 pupils to internipt him with comj>iaints against their fellows, 
 or with requests of assistance in other lessons, etc. He 
 should not tolerate extraneous interference by the members 
 of other classes, but he may encourage the individual pupils 
 of the class he is instructing to .ask any questions connected 
 with the subject. He should not, however, allow them to 
 ask collateral questions until the close of the lesson. They 
 should wait on him, not he on them. Were he to permit 
 individuals to interrupt him during the delivery of his in- 
 stnictions by asking questions, etc., concerning extraneous 
 subjects, the attention of his clafs would be arrested, their 
 chain of thought and his broken, and a large amount of time 
 squandered to no purpose. When the lesson has been deliv- 
 ered, he might profitably allow the pupils to question each 
 other, beginning with the last and ending with the first in 
 the class — taking care to revise the queries proposed when 
 necessary. 
 
 If the teacher be not systematic in all his school arrange- Not to allow 
 ments, then frequent interruptions will occur during the tloM^"^ 
 delivery of the respective lessons. On the one side, James 
 will ask for leave to go out; on the other, little Georgie will 
 request permission to take a drink ; Minnie will require 
 some assistance in arithmetic ; Maggie may want to know 
 the position of some city, town, or river; whilst Philip, 
 
136 
 
 
 f 
 
 A time for 
 investiga- 
 ting irregu- 
 larities. 
 
 TUE SCIENCE AND ABT OF TEACIIINO. 
 
 Bggiieved by idle Jobn, immediately cri it for justice 
 and protection. All this time the teacher must be attending 
 to thcHe various requehtH and complaints to the neglect of 
 the lesson (the members of his cIjush gazing listlessly at aich 
 other) or vice versd; or he must Ih3 attending to both. If 
 the latter, then he is attempting an impossibility, and is only 
 half doing his work ; if the former, then he is attending to 
 the reipiests and neglecting the lesson, or vice versa, and the 
 class before him, and the children preferring petitions, are 
 slowly but surely ac<juiring habits of disorder, inattention, 
 and carelessness. It would bo totally subversive of ^'uo»l 
 order to attend to the lesson exclusively, and [lennit the 
 complainants to prefer their petitions unheeded. On the 
 other liaud, if he allows the interrup* ions, and attends to the 
 complaints, he must partially neglect the lesson, and tlius 
 the chain of ideas will be broken, the j)upils will lose all 
 interest in the subject, and the effect of this "dual work' 
 will be ruinous to the school. It is in the power of every 
 teacher to j)ut an end to these unseemly things, and he should 
 do it. Of course, every one w" admit that there will be 
 always some interruptions in .rgo school consisting of 
 
 pupils of various ages, many of whom were never trained in 
 habits of ordor and system at home, and are, therefore, heed- 
 less of these virtues abroad. However, while engaged in 
 delivering lessons or in hearing recitations, the teacher, as a 
 rule, should never attend to extraneous requests — never 
 allow complaints to be made, never inflict punishment, anil 
 but seldom administer reproof. Then his teachings will be 
 efiective, prolific of good to his pupUs, and of comfort to 
 himself. 
 
 As he has a time for teaching, during which he should 
 permit no interruptions, so should he have a time for inves- 
 tigating irregularities of conduct, for administering reproof 
 or punishment — a time for receiving complaints, and for 
 attending to requests, and (as a rule) that time should be 
 
T1IE 8CIIKCK AND ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 1S7 
 
 ich he should 
 iime for inves- 
 
 during intermission or immediately before its commence- 
 ment. 
 
 MoHt of the negligence, disorder, and insubordination, ^"J*'" 
 occasionally visible in some schools, may bo tracwd to the commend- 
 monotonous character of the programme, and the lack of 
 interest in the respective studies. lie, therefore, will be the 
 best disciplinarian who can excite and maintain the deepest 
 interest in the various exercises. It is thus that he. will 
 wake up mind in the fullest and truest sense of the word. 
 It would be well, perhaps, if the teacher were occasionally 
 to introduce a little variety in the respective exercises. This 
 he can accomplish by means of recitations, special readings, 
 music — vocal or instrumental — etc. By such means he will 
 seldom fail to interest the minds of even the most indolent ; 
 and, in addition, will so engi'oss the attention of the more 
 unruly as to prevent them being troublesome. These exer- 
 cises, like David's harp, will seldom fail to expel the spirit 
 of discord, as they tend to elevate the mind, cultivate the 
 taste, soothe the ' ssions, and, in addition, are an excellent 
 recreation. 
 
 Now, thanks to the enlightened spirit of the age, music — Music in 
 vocal or instrumental, or both — is being introduced into all 
 our public schools. Almost all the superior public schools 
 are provided with a piano or melodeon. This is specially 
 true in cities and towns, and the country schools are follow- 
 ing suite. Many a time has the writer enjoyed the sweet 
 performances in the public schools of New York, Ohio, and 
 Illinois. In these schools, one of the pupils plays volunta- 
 ries whilst the classes are marching to or from their class- 
 rooms. Everything is done with precision and in silence. 
 Not a sound is heard on such occasions but the music and 
 the pupils' measured tread. When the weather is cold, 
 wet, or boisterous, the respective divisions practice certain 
 evolutions during intermissions in the hall or class-rooms. 
 These evolutions are very graceful and becoming, and are 
 10 
 
138 
 
 MiiiUry 
 education 
 ia schools. 
 
 i 
 
 Quality, not 
 qaantity. 
 
 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 sometimes accompanied by patriotic and soul-stirring songs. 
 The principal, or the first assistant, superintends, and one 
 of the pupils discourses the music. Such exercises as these 
 are calculated not only to refine the taste, elevate the affec- 
 tions, and create a love for the school and its officers, but 
 likewise to educate citizens and patriots who shall rival the 
 worthies of ancient Greece and Rome. The pupils of "the 
 music class" preside at the piano in turn, and, on ordinary 
 occasions, many of them remain in to practice during recess 
 — preferring the enjoyments of the school-room to the pleas- 
 ures of the play-grounds. Music, in fact, is one of the 
 characteristic recreations of public school life in America. 
 We would it were so in other countries also. The cost of 
 the instrument is a mere trifle in comparison with the ben- 
 efits it confers on the rising generation. It furnishes a 
 continual feast to the pupils at school, and at home it is the 
 source of much profitable amusement. Give the young 
 warblers a chance to speak their thoughts in music. 
 
 If convenient, it would be well to put boys through a 
 course of military drill. No other exercise will be so efiec- 
 tual an aid in school government. It trains the pupil to 
 habits of prompt obedience — it predisposes him to observe 
 the rules and regulations, and, to a certain extent, prepares 
 his mind to receive durable impressions. In a military and 
 physiological point of view, it would be wise perhaps to have 
 all school boys drilled, and trained to the use of arms. Any 
 country adopting this policy would, in less than fifteen years, 
 be a nation of citizen soldiers — powerful as a friend, terrible 
 as an enemy. 
 
 In prescribing "home work," or in assigning lessons for 
 the respective school exercises, teachers should be very care- 
 ful not to require their pupils to master too large a task — 
 more than they can well accomplish, allowing sufficient time 
 for recreation. If the lessons appointed be too lengthy, the 
 pupils must necessarily learn them superficially — or pos- 
 sibly they may be induced to give up the task in despair, 
 
THK 8CIBN0B AND ABT OF TEACHING. 139 
 
 sad not learn them at all. Such habits, like all others, 
 would "grow with their growth, and strengthen with their 
 strength." As a necessary consequence, they would loae 
 their self-respect, be indifferent about their failures, reckless 
 in manner, and, perhaps, acquire propensities which would 
 materially injure their mental and moral character for time 
 And eternity. In prescribing lessons, the teacher should 
 consider the minimum capacity of the children, rather than 
 the maximum — he should appoint too small a lesson, rather 
 than too large a one. In this respect, as in others, his 
 motto should be, "quality before quantity." 
 
 We have reason to believo that pupils would progress in Preparation 
 their studies with gi*eater celerity and more uniformity, if H«>ine work. 
 ihey were to learn their lessons under the immediate super- 
 vision of thoir teachers. Parents are seldom willing or com- 
 petent to render much assistance to their children at home. 
 ; fiome, having the inclination to do so, have not the necessary 
 time ; and others, having the time, are devoid of the ability 
 or inclination. As a necessary result, many pupils — even 
 the most industrious, for want of a little aid — are obliged to 
 |)repare their lessons in a very imi)erfect manner, whilst the 
 fnajority neglect them altogether. The indolence and care- 
 lessness of even a few will divert the efforts of the more 
 industrious, and check the progress of the whole class. But 
 when the work is done under the teacher's supervision it is 
 ^nerally well done — better done than elsewhere. Pupils 
 may, with propriety, be required to prepare their lessons in 
 the easier branches at home ; but lessons in the more diffi- 
 cult subjects should be studied at school, under the immedi- 
 [4kte supervision of the teacher. While engaged in this exer- 
 cise, immobility and perfect silence should be maintained. 
 
 The time fixed for the preparation of each lesscm must Perfect 
 necessarily be limited, and indolent pupils who fail to keep rejS'relil* 
 |>aee with the rest, should be " kept in" and required to study 
 during the greater part of the intermissions and, if necessary, 
 compelled to return and prepare their lessons after school is 
 
140 
 
 I 
 
 i^ 
 
 THE SCIENCE AND ABT OP TEACHINO. 
 
 dismissed, so that they may make good their deficiencies, 
 and keep pace with the more intelligent and industrious. 
 Judging by our own experience and that of others whom we 
 have consulted concerning this subject, we feel assured that 
 we advance a good and wholesome rule when we say that, 
 if the exercises be performed in a careless or slovenly man- 
 ner during school hours, the teacher should have them pro- 
 perly done after hours, retaining for that purpose (after the 
 usual time of dismissal) those pupils who may have exhibited 
 laxity of discipline or application. This privation would be 
 a disgrace as well as a punishment, and the offenders would 
 probably soon endeavour to avoid both by attending more 
 strictly to business ; so that instead of gazing on their books 
 in a passive listless manner, their minds, aroused to activity 
 by a sense of duty, would be absorbed in their studies dur- 
 ing the appointed hours. If a pupil, convicted of indolence 
 or wilful negligence failed to remain in, or to return to 
 study his lessons after hours, as instructed, he should be sub- 
 jected to corporal punishment. If his parents or guardians 
 object to this arrangement and discipline, the young offender 
 should be expelled forthwith, so that his example may be a 
 warning to his companions and save them from similar 
 errors. The teacher will seldom have occasion to adopt the 
 latter expedient. He may never have occasion to exercise 
 such authority; but its possession will have a material effect 
 on his labours, and will tend to keep youthful feet on the 
 right path — ^the path of duty and of peace. 
 The Alter- The carrying out of the foregoing principles, regulations, 
 nate System. ^^^ suggestions, is not so difficult as may appear at first 
 sight. For instance, the teacher can give instruction to one 
 of the classes, sections, or divisions of his school, or hear 
 them recite, while the remainder would be engaged in the 
 preparation of their fixed or prescribed lessons or tasks. 
 During the succeeding hour he could examine or instruct 
 the latter, and while doing so, could have the former engaged 
 
JO. 
 
 r deficiencies, 
 i industrious, 
 hers whom we 
 si assured that 
 L we say that, 
 slovenly man- 
 ave them pro- 
 pose (after the 
 aave exhibited 
 tion would be 
 fenders would 
 btending more 
 3n their books 
 sed to activity 
 ir studies dur- 
 d of indolence 
 • to return to 
 should be sub- 
 
 or guardians 
 
 oung offender 
 
 iple may be a 
 
 from similar 
 
 to adopt the 
 )n to exercise 
 naterial effect 
 J feet on the 
 
 , regulations, 
 >pear at first 
 uction to one 
 hool, or hear 
 gaged in the 
 >ns or tasks, 
 or instruct 
 fmer enj 
 
 THE 8CIBNCB AND ART OF TEACHINQ. 
 
 141 
 
 the work of preparation, and so on alternately, the time 
 
 jcupied in the delivery of any lesson not to exceed three- 
 
 larters of an hour in length — thirty minutes would be suffl- 
 
 jient in the junior classes. This plan has been adopted in 
 
 lost of our public schools, and is specially applicable when 
 
 sircumstances do not permit trustees to secure the services 
 
 a teacher for every class. The system has also been 
 
 lopted in tne public schools of the United States, Canada, 
 
 issia, Ireland, and in the superior schools of England — 
 
 wntries whose inhabitants have been long noted for their 
 
 itelligence, prowess, and patriotism. "The Alternate Sys- 
 
 jm," as it has been called, is a special feature in the public 
 
 lools of Massachusetts — a State whose school system has 
 
 mg been a model for America, and the admiration of 
 
 stant nations. 
 
 Frequent reviews are necessary with every student, but Reviewing 
 
 loi-e particularly with the young. Tliey strengthen and ""fi «"'"''«« 
 
 iprove all the faculties, whilst impressing useful facts on 
 
 le tablet of the mind, but if carried to excess they will 
 
 reaken the power of attention. "When skilfully conducted, 
 
 ley are a source of never-failing interest. One of the most 
 
 iccessful teachers now li^dng, once informed us that he 
 
 jribed all his success to "grinding;" another, speaking in 
 
 le same spirit, at' ributed his "fame in the art" to frequent 
 
 jviews and searching private examinations. The teacher 
 
 lould know by the manner, voice, and countenance of the 
 
 ^upil, when he clearly understands, and is master of the 
 
 leas advanced. The mind should then be directed to the 
 
 oonsideration of some other topic — prompt, active, and unre- 
 
 jpaitting attention being required in all cases. The teacher 
 
 llhould never indulge in the habit of calling special attention 
 
 Jo certain questions or parts of lessons to the exclusion of 
 
 lers. Such a practice would weaken and perhaps ulti- 
 
 itely destroy the powers of attention. On the whole, we 
 
 re inclined to believe that, in the nature of things, no sys- 
 
*p" 
 
 142 
 
 Loitering, 
 etc., on the 
 w)iy to or 
 from school 
 
 Suspension 
 of privileges 
 
 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 tern can be siicceasful without "grinding." Tt will always 
 be a mighty lever in the hands of a judicious instructor. If 
 possible, the teacher should revi(;w his work, at lejist once a 
 month — we allude to the studies of the more advtmced 
 pupils. The work of the younger children should be re- 
 viewed once a week. At the close of each lesson the teacher 
 should call on the members of the respective classes to give 
 him a summarj'^ of the" facts adduced, (in their own words,) 
 taking care to arrange them in logical order or natural 
 sequence. The pupils shouhl 1m3 encouraged to furnish any 
 pei-sonal incidents or other matters likely to explain or 
 illustrate any of the subject^s under consideration. He 
 might profitably devote iive minutes or more to this pur- 
 pose at the close of each lesson, and at the same time encour- 
 age the pupils to mention any difficulty which may have 
 cccui-red to them in connection therewith, or any statement, 
 etc., which they may have failed to understand or compre- 
 hend. No pupil should l>e allowed to put questions, or in- 
 teiTupt the class during the time a lesson is being given, 
 more especially if th^ subject of his enquiries has nothing to 
 do with the matter under consideration. 
 
 The teacher should prohibit pupils from loitering around 
 the gates, or on their way to or from school, as such a prac- 
 tice tends to promote indolence and slovenly habits. Sucli 
 habits exhibited outside the school have a tendency to im- 
 press strangers with the idea that discipline is lax inside. 
 Pupils should be taught to be kind and courteous to their 
 companions, polite and respectful to their teachers and elders, 
 " to hurt no person by word or deed, to be true and just in 
 all their dealings," ever zealous to promote the honour of 
 the school, and always desirous of deserving a good name. 
 
 Suspensions, or total loss of privileges accompanied by con- 
 finement, is an eflfectual aid in -school government, and in 
 compelling the observance of all rules and regulations. The 
 infringement of laws, human or divine, entails punishment j 
 
THE SCIENCE AND ABT OF TEACHING. 143 
 
 id the abuse of privileges shoiikl be followed by their tom- 
 
 jrary or permanent Huspenaion. If a pupil be guilty of 
 
 iproprietios of conduct, or neglectful of his duties, or if he 
 
 lisi-egard the rights cf his fellows, then punishment, in some 
 
 )rm, should follow as a necessary consequence. Tlie voice 
 
 conscience, the code of right and wrong, should be the 
 
 )mmon law of the school ; and parties interested should be 
 
 lade to feel that the teachers will, and the pupils must, obey 
 
 precepts — that no infringement of its principles will be 
 
 3rmitted — that all without exception must conform to its 
 
 i«nciations. 
 
 Before iiroceeding to consider the uifliction of the minor The Begin- 
 
 .,, /» 1 t ration sys- 
 
 >r major punishments, we will venture to treat oi the tem. 
 
 f** Merit System" and its registration of " credits" — a system 
 
 leservedly popular on both sides of the Atlantic. Having 
 
 jcarefuUy studied its effects as applied to the Collegiate Schools 
 
 [of England and Public Schools of the United States, we 
 
 ive no Iiesitation in affirming that in the hands of a skil- 
 
 toacher, the registration of merit and demerit marks is a 
 
 lost effective medium of good government. It is a most 
 
 )werful ally in stirring up the minds of the j)upils — a valu- 
 
 )le aid in inciting them to honourable rivalry, to renewed 
 
 )plication, to persevering study, so that if possible they may 
 
 irpass themselves and each other. This system is carried 
 
 it more perfectly in the Upper Canada College (Toronto) 
 
 m in any other school or college with which we are per- 
 
 >nally acquainted. We will therefore venture to give a 
 
 lopsis of the method as practised in that Institution under 
 
 le vigorous supervision of its kind and excellent Principal, 
 
 it. R. Cockburn, Esq., M.A. 
 
 In the Upper Canada College (and similar institutions) the How applied 
 jlivery, or recitation, of a lesson occupies about forty-five iSge.' ^' ^"^ 
 linutes. The janitor rings the College bell on the expira- 
 ion of the allotted time, and the students then change 
 [classes or go out to enjoy "recess," Each master or pro- 
 
144 
 
 THE SCIENCE AND ARl OF TEACHING. 
 
 f 
 
 feasor teaches his particular subject to all the classes in turn, 
 and in his own particular room. The classes, it will be 
 observed, change rooms, but the teacher never does so. Each 
 master, or teacher, is supplied with a " Daily Register" and a 
 "Demerit Book." Each of these books contains the names of 
 all the students in attendance, classified in theii" respective 
 classes according to the order in which they wait on the 
 teacher. Before commencing his lesson, or lecture, the master 
 reads out the names from the "Daily Register," and the 
 standing (individually) held at the close of last lesson on 
 the same subject. Each boy takes his place in the order 
 and position indicated thereby. After this process has been 
 completed, the teacher commences his lesson, and the pupils, 
 during its delivery, change places according to the valine of 
 their answers. A pupil invariably goes above all the pupils 
 he has corrected. If, perchance, he happens to be third 
 from the head, and corrects the pupil tenth from the head, 
 the* question having meantime been passed round to all 
 below number ten, and to the first and second boys, he 
 takes the position number nine from the head, and counts 
 one Round. When the lesson is over, the boy who has most 
 Rounds, or supposing the number of Rounds equal, the boy 
 who is nearest the head is ranked one, and the others follow 
 in rotation according to their standing. The boys who are 
 idly disposed and desire to keep together, are thus shaken 
 up, and idle coteries destroyed. By this method no boy can 
 come out head by a mere chance correction, made perhaps 
 just before the end of the lesson. When "the lesson is over," 
 (i. e., about three minutes before the bell tolls,) he desires 
 them to "number." In response, the first boy says "one," 
 the second "two," and so on to the last. Then the teacher 
 calls the name of each individual in order, as at the begin- 
 ning, and as he does so, the party named mentions the num- 
 ber he holds in the class, and the same is entered opposite 
 his name in the Register. 
 
THE SCIENCE AND ART OP TEACHING. 
 
 145 
 
 )ns the num- 
 
 At the end of each month the numbers opposite each Average 
 
 ■tanding — 
 
 individual's name are added up, and the total divided by how found, 
 the number of lessons he attended during that time. The 
 quotient indicates his average standing in the class for that 
 particular month in that subject of study. When the aver- 
 age places of all have been thus ascertained they are "num- 
 bered off;" the lowest quotient A^dll be the fii-st in the order 
 of merit for that class during that month ; the next lowest 
 will be second ; the nex t third ; and so on to the highest, 
 which, of course, indicates the last in the order of merit. 
 
 On entering the college each pupil is supplied with a neat Private Re- 
 
 ■r. . T^ T^ , • ,.,,.,, 11. port Book. 
 
 Private Keport 13ook, mto which his absolute and Ins average 
 
 standing in each class (and also his absolute and his average 
 for all the classes united) is copied every month by the res- 
 jjective masters ; by whom also, remarks are recorded oppo- 
 site each suVject, stating whether the pu})il is pi-ogressing 
 satisfactorily or otherwise, The total number of pupils in 
 each class is also stated, so that the efficiency and progress 
 of each boy can be seen at a glance. The demerit marks 
 accorded, the fines, penalties and punishments inflicted, and 
 sometimes the offences committed, are also recorded ; so that 
 teachers and friends may judge of a boy's character, whether 
 good, bad, or indifferent, by this barometer of conduct. These 
 reports are made out and entered in the Pupil's Private Re- 
 port Book on the last school day in each month — after which 
 the said Report Book is forwarded to the parents or guard- 
 ians for inspection. Should they reside at a distance, the 
 principal sends them a copy by mail of their son's " Report" 
 as exhibited in the Report Book, and retains the latter until 
 the close of the session. In this way the parents and guard- 
 ians receive a " monthly reminder" of the capacities of their 
 children and of the progress made; and the pupils, from 
 love of parents or other motives, take a pride in study, so 
 that they may attain a higher position and, if possible, ob- 
 tain a better report each month. On the whole, we are in- 
 
146 
 
 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 Tho Demerit 
 nook. 
 
 clined to believe that the foregoing is a most excellent plan 
 for exciting an honest and praiseworthy emulation. 
 
 The Demerit Book is used for recording any breach of dis- 
 cipline, any acts of insubordination, negligence, etc., with 
 the kind and degree of punishment inflicted. A sepjuute 
 book is sometimes kept for recortling the Litter items. In 
 all such institutions corporal punishments are inflicted by 
 the principal alone, or with his approval, and only for the 
 graver and higher offences, such as obstinacy and insubor- 
 dination. Pupils guilty of any of the minor offences, are 
 punished (at the discretion of the teacher in charge) by 
 allotting additional lessons, or by " the imposition of demerit 
 marks, or the dei)rivation of some privilege." The demerit 
 marks are entered in the Demerit Book opposite the 
 offender's namoj also, the date and nature of liis offence. 
 On the last school diiy of each month these marks are 
 summed up and added to his " sum of averages," — which is, 
 of course, a very severe punishment, as it removes, or rather 
 degrades, him so many places in the relative order of merit 
 in his class. As "1" is the highest number a pupil can get 
 in his class, it follows- that he who has " the smallest total 
 will have the greatest merit." Generally speaking, boys 
 would prefer any amount of corporal punishment to this 
 moral one. The application of a moral punishment is not 
 unfrequently found to be conducive of more good, individu- 
 ally and collectively, than either "public or private flogging." 
 A teacher should be judicious and sparing in awarding merit 
 (or demerit) marks. To be lavish of them would decrease 
 their value and lessen their effect. 
 
 The following is a good method of keeping a school record. 
 
 registration. Some may prefer it to the foregoing, especially if the classes 
 
 are very large and the teachers too few in number, as in 
 
 most of our common or public schools. The former system 
 
 is the more exact, the latter the less laborious on the 
 
 American 
 system of 
 
THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 147 
 
 e, etc., with 
 
 teacher.* Let the number "5" be adopted as the maxi- 
 mum standard of perfection for a recitation, or for u (lay's 
 dei>ortment. Sbovkl the pupil recite lessons in a subject 
 every day, he will (if able to answer all questions jx^rfectly) 
 obtain 25 marks for that subject every week, or 100 every 
 month — there being five days in the school week, and 
 about twenty in the school month. [It simplities the 
 work to regard each week as a unit of time complete in 
 itself — four such weeks to make a school month.] Should 
 a class recite in a subject only twice a week, then "40" 
 will be the maximum for the month in that subject. 
 The principle of the system is unaffected by the number of 
 recitations. His own convenience, the necessities of the 
 school, and the requii^ements of the law, must gidde the 
 teacher as regards the frequency of recitations in any 
 particular subject or number of subjects. 
 
 At the close of each month the marks obtained in the Monthly 
 several subjects should be added up, and the result placed Honour, 
 in the margin under the heading "monthly summary." 
 From this summary, or rather from the aggregate arising 
 from the addition of the several summaries, a monthly " roll 
 of honour" should be prepared — the order of sequence of the 
 pupils' names coiTespondiiig with their order of merit, as 
 indicated by the ftiaximum of marks. This "roll of honour" 
 should be placed in a neat frame, to be provided by the 
 school board, and hung up in the school, until replaced by 
 the "roU" for the succeeding month. As in the preceding 
 system, the average standing may be found by dividing the 
 maximum of marks by the number of liBssons the pupil has 
 attended. This is done in U. G. College, and in each suc- 
 ceeding roll of honour the ranks previously obtained are also 
 
 * For specimens of both systems see Appendix. The samples of the mode of 
 registration of merit marks, etc., in U. C. College, furnished us through the kind- 
 ness of the principal, have been copieddirectly from the books of that institution. 
 The samples of the second method have been taken from the "Record Books" of 
 Clifton School, Niagara Falls. Ibey, therefore, have the advantage of being the 
 exponents of actual practice. 
 
148 
 
 THE SCIENCE AND ABT OP TEACHING. 
 
 Valufl nt 
 niarkii and 
 time of 
 futrj. 
 
 A word to 
 trustees. 
 
 recorded along-mde the name of the pupil, ho tliat the Form 
 Master may jiulge by a ghince at the lifit whether a pupil ia 
 rising or falling in his class. 
 
 The record of scholarship should he entere<l at the close 
 of each lesson — a jwjrfect recitation (as aforesaid) being 
 and a total failure "0" or "#"— the inte^ 
 
 "5." 
 
 marked 
 
 vening numbers l)eing awarded according to the tlegree of 
 intermediate meiit. Before the close of each day the roll of 
 deportment and attendance should be called. If a pupil liaa 
 conducted himself to the teacher's satisfaction — not requiring 
 or receiving admonition, reproof, or other punishment — ho 
 will be entitled to a record of "5," and will answer accord- 
 ingly. The number "10" is taken as the maximum of merit 
 for a recitation in some of the public schools in Philadelphia, 
 whilst "5" has been adopted as the maximum in most of 
 the schools in the cities of Now York and Boston. Any 
 number may l)e used, but we believe that, in practice, ** 5" 
 will be found most convenient. 
 
 Of late years wo have seen the "registration system" prac- 
 tised in schools of every grade, and invariably found that it 
 worked well in all. It is popular with the pupils and well 
 received by intelligent parents, wheresoever adopted. Unfor- 
 tunately, veiy few teachers give registration a fair trial, very 
 few receive it with favour, feeling that it entails a large 
 amount of additional labour for which, under present arrange- 
 ments, they would receive no additional remuneration. The 
 system does, undoubtedly, entaU much additional labour j 
 and the managing officers of schools would find it to the 
 advantage of their several communities were they less nig- 
 gardly in money matters. The teacher cannot be expected 
 to make himself the "scape-goat" of the community, or to 
 perform extra work without extra pay. "Good teachers," 
 as a learned writer remarks, "cannot be paid too highly," 
 and, "if trustees want good hands," they must give good hire. 
 "We have no doubt, judging by our own knowledge of the 
 foregoing system, and the observations made by us of its 
 
THB 8CIEMCE AND ART OP TEACH 1 NO. 
 
 14» 
 
 ifuccosflful working in Europe and America, that it will 
 
 Iffradually be introduced and finally prevail in all our schoolg. 
 
 Oregon, cpiite a new State, has inserted an article in its Brhooiuw 
 
 constitution providing for the registration of progress, etc., 
 
 [of pupils of the public schools ; and another, prohibiting any 
 
 [person from assuming the office of teacher who l»as not a 
 
 diploma from the State Normal School, or a certificate from 
 
 the Board of Public Instruction. In these respects she has 
 
 set a worthy example, not cmly to her sister States, but to 
 
 the proud and boastful countries of Europe. 
 
 CHAPTEU V. 
 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 ChiMren will naturally practice such habits as are associ- Effects of 
 itcd with pleasure, whilst they will soon learn to avoid such pleasure or 
 I as are followed by immediate or even prospf^tive pain, 
 t Punishment will, therefore, be more intelligible and effec- 
 tive with young children, if it be immediately and unifonnly 
 associated witj, actions from which we wish them to refrain. 
 The same principle holds good in the use of rewards. By 
 [associating pleasure or pain with certain actions, habits may 
 [be formed long before reason can be sufficiently developed 
 [to be used as a means of government. We should make 
 [reason our friend and ally as soon as possible. Otherwise, 
 [it may become an enemy. As pointed out elsewhere, it is 
 'natural ^r children to dislike everyone, and everything, 
 that gives or causes them pain, and equally natural that 
 [they should like all that gives them pleasure. To secure 
 tand retain their affection, the teacher or parent must respect 
 [his own authority, be consistent in its exercise, and particu- 
 larly careful not to enforce it in a fretful, peevish, or ungen- 
 
 
150 
 
 THE 8C1ESCE AND 4RT OP TEACHIlfO. 
 
 Nkturalcon 
 Mqu«nc(!t. 
 
 Obedience, 
 and buw tu 
 ■ccure it. 
 
 erous manner. The little sufTerer will then attribute hit 
 pain to his offence, and regjird it aa the natural consequeooi 
 of his own conduct, instead of associating it with the penon 
 of his just, but generous ruler. 
 
 He will, unconsciously, perhaps, reason on the philosophy 
 of natural consequences, and gradually learn, by experience, 
 that trust and confidence are the rewanl of sincerity and 
 truth, that all the useful virtues give birth to esteem, that 
 the heroic virtues command sympathy and admiration, and 
 that th(5 amiable virtues engender affection and foster love 
 Good and bad actions should l>e referred to their proper 
 source, and receive their due raced of praise, censure, or 
 pain, without unnecessary delay; and a repetition of an 
 offence should, on detection, be inevitably followed by i| 
 repetition of the punisliment. 
 
 The virtue of obedience should be taught as a habit, inag- j 
 much as we expect it from children long before they arf! 
 capable of yicaling it on rational grounds. The beat way 
 to secure it is, at first, to command children to do agreeable j 
 things, then those which are less agreeable, and so on to tbt 
 repugnant. They will thus by degrees become accustomed 
 to the habit, and then the observance of disagreeable orden 
 will not be so difficult. Frequent prohibitions, and contra 
 dictorv commands, promote disobedience, peevishness, and 
 other .nfirmities of disposition. The voice of command 
 should be gentle, but decided. However disagreeable an 
 order may be, the pupil must regard prompt obedience asan | 
 imperative necessity. Authority is placed in jeopardy by 
 giving a command without enforcing it; and, if we conde- 
 scend to entreat compliance, we abdicate our functions, and | 
 give the child the impression that ho may I'efuse if so dis- 
 posed. Before giving commands we should be sure that the i 
 child is able to obey them, and, in case of refusal, that we 
 are able to compel him. If we are not exact in requiring 
 prompt obedieuoe, we .will never succeed in. obtaining it. 
 
TBI ICIKNCB AND ART Of TXACniHO. 
 
 101 
 
 |We should endeavour to lead our pupils to perceive that we 
 [irish to promote their welfare nnd happinesA, and that obedL 
 iixco to our commands will facilitate, if it does not ensure, 
 Ithis object. If children entei*tain a love of glory — and many 
 )f them do — the courage and fortitude, which would other- 
 rise have a tendency to degenerate to obstinacy, may be 
 huire<l and extolled ; for they will imj)el their possessors 
 |io travel in the path of honour. The love of glory enlarges 
 [the understanding, transforms obstinacy into magnanimity, 
 ind strengthens every noble feeling of the heart. It ia, 
 lorefore, a worthy ally in educational work. 
 
 The teacher may bo regarded as the common parent for The Father 
 th»» time being, of all the children under his charge, and is mhool. 
 justified in treating them in every respect as if they were 
 illy his own. His responsibility is, however, much greater 
 lan that of any individual parent — his " collective family " 
 iiiig much larger than that of any " home circle." There 
 scarcely a domestic circle in the land in which " the head 
 )f the house " (notwithstanding his moral influence and other 
 irentiil advantages) has not more than once deemed it his 
 luty to inflict corporal punishment on some member of his 
 imily. This he did with the view of reforming the " little 
 ilprit," and for the sake of example ; hoping thereby to 
 leter his other children from committing similar offences. 
 ?he teacher, for identical reasons, uses similar means to pro- 
 luce like results, being the parents' substitute, or locum 
 lens, in all educational matters. 
 
 The abolition or continuance of corporal punishment in coiicerning 
 )ur schools, is a subject which has been discussed with much pu'^ishment. 
 iterest throughout the length and breadth of the land ; and, 
 mge to say, it is a question on which the greatest teach. 
 &rs and most learned men of the age have taken opposite 
 iews. Some of the States — New Jersey, for instance — 
 >assed laws prohibiting corporal punishment in the public 
 jhools ; but ere many months elapsed, the respective legis' 
 
152 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 latures had to repeal these enactments, "the moral snaaion 
 system" not having been successful in winning "little offend- 
 ers" to a right sense of duty. Events proved that a middle 
 course was best — that corpoi*al punishment should not be 
 abolished, but that it should be resorted to as seldom as pos- 
 sible ; only when all other means had been tried and found 
 to fail. Efficient school government is not a tyranny. It 
 is an arrangement for the public good, placing the teacher 
 temporarily in the position of parent to each and ail under 
 his tuition — to children not his own. This arrangoment. 
 made by the common consent of parents and guardians, has 
 been founded upon the experience of ages past, not for the 
 teacher's special convenience, but for the pupils* public and 
 private welfare. 
 
 Objects of 
 punishment 
 
 Section 1. THE MINOR PUNISHMENTS. 
 
 The "minor punishments" are frequently and thought 
 lessly used and abused by both parents and teachers. We ! 
 will therefore take the liberty of considering them before 
 proceeding to treat of the infliction of corporal correction. 
 This is regarded by the vulgar as the "major punishment, 
 but we believe that children of a refined nature will fre-l 
 quently regard it as "a misfortune" far more easily borae 
 than any of the minor or moral punishments. Reformation 
 of the culprit, and the detention of others from committing | 
 like offences, are the principal objects in view, when we b 
 flict punishment of any kind. When these objects are| 
 united, the motive for punishment is doubly just and proper. 
 Legitimgte authority, having praiseworthy objects in view, 
 has an unquestionable right to inflict legitimate punishments I 
 to accomplish legitimate ends. It is so with civil and mili- 
 tary governments, in every country on earth. It is so in 
 the private family, and should be so in the public school. 
 No punishment, not proper nor legitimate, should be inflicted | 
 
THE SCIBNOK AKD ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 153 
 
 on any pupil : no unseemly or disagreeable epithets should 
 be applied to him. As Mr. Page well observes, " he should 
 
 I never be scolded or abused, never be struck with the hand, 
 and never subjected to any punishment partaking of the 
 nature of prolonged torture. The teacher must avoid the 
 appearance of inflicting punishment as if it were a pleasing 
 duty — as if he were glad of having the opportunity of 
 paying the pupils off for some real or imaginary crime. 
 He should administer it with regret and sorrow, and in obe- 
 
 [dience to thu claims of justice. Punishment should be ad- 
 ministered in love, and because the little sufferer is belovu . 
 otherwise the teacher would be a tyrant, and the pu iii a 
 
 I martyr. 
 
 If we express censure or indignation, it should be against cemnre 
 
 [the c;iild's fault not against himself; and even then it should *" *"' 
 never pass the bounds of exact justice. Should it do so, the 
 little culprit will command the sympathies of his school fel- 
 lows. It is not advisable to punish or censure a whole class 
 or division at once, as numbors keep each other in counten- 
 ance, and, to a certain extent, modify the shame of guilt. 
 
 Solitary confinement, in a properly lighted and well venti- Solitary con. 
 
 [lated room, is one of the most commendable of the minor 
 punishments. It affords time for reflection, and, if exclusive 
 and effective, will seldom fail to produce repentance, contri- 
 tion, and reformation. It will, therefore, be found an import- 
 
 [ant aid in preventing the repetition of offences, as it will 
 eradicate or stem the evil at its source. But to be successful, 
 
 jit must be effective — it must be really solitary, and the 
 offenders must have no means of communication during its 
 
 Icontinuance. In school the confinement must necessarily be 
 limited, but at home it may be prolonged if necessary. In 
 
 [the former case, the refractory pupils will feel that should 
 
 [they " hold out " a certain length of time, they must be 
 
 liberated unconditionally. It would be better that they 
 
 fShould never be confined than that this should occur. How- 
 11 
 
 
 
w- 
 
 164 
 
 Admonition 
 And advice. 
 
 < 
 
 Ridicule and 
 Sieproach. 
 
 THE SCIENCE AND ART OP TEACHING. 
 
 ever, they might be required to attend school on Saturdays, 
 or other holidays, to undergo this punishment. In the 
 nature of things, solitary confinement is better adapted for 
 domestic discipline than for school government. We cannot, 
 therefore, recommend its general application. 
 
 In the event of a pupil being condemned to "solitary con- 
 finement," the teacher, when releasing him at the close of 
 the allotted time, should administer a " proper dose " of kind 
 reproof, showing the guilty one how his conduct appears in 
 its various phases — leading him to " see himself as otljers 
 see him "- —after which he may give him some good and I 
 friendly advice as regards the future. The skilful teacher 
 will seldom find this course to fail, even with the most obdu- 
 rate, and will probably have the satisfaction of feeling, ere I 
 many weeks elapse, that he has converted another " prodi- 1 
 gal." Advice is better received in private than in public. I 
 "Were reproof administered to a pupil publicly, a spirit of I 
 obstinacy might be developed in him, the manifestation of I 
 which would be anything but agreeable or edifying. Human I 
 nature is weak at best, and inclined to be rebellious on such I 
 occasions — more especially if the reason and judgment be I 
 not well developed. For this cause, if for no other, reproofl 
 (like advice) should always be administered in private, unl 
 less the offence be a very grave one. The kind considera i 
 tion exhibited in respecting the offender's feelings so far aal 
 not to expose him in the presence of his companions, willl 
 tend to open his heart to receive better impressions, andi 
 may possibly stamp on his conscience the seal of contritii , 
 besides increasing his affection for the teacher personally. 
 
 Ridicule and reproach are objectionable as aids in schooll 
 management. The former tends to loosen the ties betweeil 
 the teacher and the taught ; and the latter, though not quitel 
 so objectionable, has much the same effect. Both should m 
 avoided. They generally fall on the awkward, innocentj 
 and over-sensitive pupils, whilst the idle and vicious, haviii 
 
THE SCIENCE AND ART OP TEACHING. 
 
 155 
 
 no reputation to forfeit, are quite indifferent or insensible to 
 tJieir application or effect. The unskilful use of either 
 reproach or ridicule could not fail to destroy the harmony 
 and mutual affection which exists between the pupils and 
 teacher of every well-regulated school. It would annoy and 
 degrade one section of the pupils, whilst it unduly elevated 
 the other. Besides, it would foster a tendency in the latter 
 to ref'ard themselves as much better individuals than the 
 former. In fact, it is wrong to sneer at pupils, and not pru- 
 dent to rail at them, or to work much on their feelings. On 
 the whole, it must be apparent to every reflecting mind 
 (particularly to every experienced teacher) that reproach and 
 ridicule are extremely dangerous as school punishments, if 
 not wholly pernicious or reprehensible. 
 
 Humiliation, as a means of school discipline — though a Humniatiou 
 legitimate punishment — should be used, if resorted to, with 
 [much caution and extreme delicacy. If not skilfully used, 
 it might possibly produce the same effects as ridicule, and be 
 followed by disobedience and rebellion. Before resorting to 
 it, therefore, the teacher should be careful to satisfy himself 
 that it is requisite. Sometimes the public confession of an 
 [error or offence, may be absolutely necessary ; and when 
 
 lade it should be accompanied with a request for forgive- 
 less. To condone the offence, this confession should spring 
 
 rom a contrite heart. The confessor should be really peni- 
 
 mt — really sincere ; for, as Blair well observes, " sincerity 
 the b us of every virtue .... Ingenuousness and 
 
 mdour possess the most ^lowerful charms, and carry an 
 ipology for almost every failing." The teacher should 
 
 Iways encourage his pupils to frankly acknowledge their 
 (rffences, commending them to pursue the wisest, best, and 
 
 lost gentlemanly policy under the circumstances, namely — 
 ike a free confession with a suitable apology. If they confess 
 
 leir offences, regret their occurrence, and resolve not to be 
 
 lilty of such conduct in future, the teacher may with pro- 
 
156 
 
 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 "Quickness 
 of apprehen- 
 sion ' in 
 childrq^ 
 
 Courtesy to 
 juveniles. 
 
 Children not 
 to be re- 
 buked in 
 auger. 
 
 priety overlook the past, and agree to receive them into favour 
 again. Should the ** little culprits " fail to do (or decline to 
 do) these things, and that the offence is a grave one, the 
 teacher being morally bound to investigate the case, will be 
 legally (and naturally) justified in using every legitimate 
 means, even corporal punishment, to bring about the desired 
 reformation. 
 
 "Grown persons often make an incorrect estimate of the 
 understanding of children, and judge them by what they 
 know, rather than by their capacity of comprehension." 
 Their knowledge is "veiy limited," but their power of com- 
 prehension is very great. They are close observers in small 
 things, and can draw correct inferences from few and insig- 
 nificant actions. People often wonder at the grotesque 
 mixture of wisdom and folly in the sayings and doings of 
 some "solitary little one," whose old-fashioned ways indicate 
 its inexperience and want of genial companionship. Its 
 sayings are foolish, from comparative ignorance; and wise, 
 from quickness of apprehension. It behoves the educator 
 to train and develop the latter faculty, so as neither to de- 
 press, repress, or over-exert it. Like all other faculties it 
 should be duly exercised, not prematurely forced. No 
 human being can overstep with impunity the intellectual 
 boundaries fixed by Nature. 
 
 Juvenile inquisitiveness is a natural thirst for knowledge, 
 and should, therefore, be encouraged rather than discoun- 
 tenanced. The pupil should not be ridiculed, or laughed at, 
 if he fail to convey his ideas in suitable or intelligible lan- 
 guage. Rather let him be requested to put his question in 
 other words, so that the teacher, if possible, may discover 
 his meaning. This being done, let the teacher courteously 
 furnish the required information, taking care to use words 
 suitable to the child's capacity. 
 
 No teacher should forget himself so far as to lose his tem- 
 per, or to become what children call a "scold." It is very 
 
 ' i 
 
THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 157 
 
 
 objectionable to chide pupils frequently or passionately — 
 such " indulgence" would certainly lessen the teacher's au- 
 thority, and diminish the pupils' resi)ect for his person. If 
 they have violated, or infringed on, any of the rules, a few 
 words representing the reprehensible nature of their offence, 
 spoken in a kind and sober tone, with coolness, courtesy, 
 and becoming dignity, will be far more effective in producing 
 sorrow and amendment than many hasty rebukes or sundry 
 angry allusions. In fact, the teacher who would command 
 respact and professional success, must diligently study the 
 temper, disposition, and character of his pupils individually, 
 and fill them, " not so much with learning as with a desire 
 to learn," — not so much with the fear of punishment as with 
 the desire not to offend. 
 
 H e must lead them to di sc over at an early age that virtue The end of 
 ancTwLsdom a re the g reat ob j ects of a ll learning — " that jhe * "** 
 end oi education (as Milton affirms) is to repair the rjumpf 
 Eden by regaining to know God aright ;" and that the more 
 they advance 3.. j[gai,r^jig,, the nearer they approach to Hmi 
 who IS the fountain of all kiiowled<;e. 
 
 ■■■••-, ... - «^ •- -.. .JUL 
 
 People naturatty love liberty, and dislike anything that How to 
 tends to curtail their privileges. So is it with children. By pieaaant 
 nature they have an antipathy towards the performance of 
 compulsory duties, and have an aversion for anything en- 
 joined as a task, particularly if it tends to limit their pleas- 
 ures, or control their freedom. The skilful teacher will 
 therefore induce them to perform their various duties with- 
 out giving them reason to feel, or even suspect, that they 
 are in the harness of restraint, and must be obedient to the 
 whip of compulsion. He may even succeed in creating in 
 some of them, if not in all, a desire to be taught for the sake 
 of the honour, delight, and recreation the information may 
 afford ; but, if possible, he will never allow them to suspect 
 that the acquisition of any subject, or part of a subject, is 
 imposed as a compulsory task. The moment he does so, its 
 
 I- ..J i 
 
 ■li 1 
 
 i^ 
 
 
 :i u 
 
 I 
 
 ' i 
 
 ^it 
 
 
 r. 
 
 W:. 
 
158 
 
 THE SCIENCE AND ABT OP TEACHING. 
 
 
 Natural teu- 
 dencies of 
 children. 
 
 Personal re- 
 criminations 
 not to be 
 jtounten- 
 auced. 
 
 Study will be shorn of its attractions, and may be regarded 
 as "a punishment rather than a pleasure." 
 
 Children love dominion, and take much delight in exaiJt- 
 ing obedience to their will. During infancy this tendency 
 displays itself in frequent fits of crying, and in "unreason- 
 able peevishness ;" in boyhood, the presence of the " disease" 
 is indicated chiefly by sullenness of temper, or the desire of 
 personal acquisition — a longing to have "things as their 
 own." This love of power and inordinate possession, being 
 the foundation of many evils, and the roots of contention 
 and injustice, must be promptly rebuked, and, if pcv-ssible, 
 extracted from the system. If children strive together for 
 the mastery, as often happens, and the case be duly reported 
 to the teacher, he should, as a rule, give judgment against 
 the originators of the strife, calling attention to the spirit of 
 the Saviour's words — "Whosoever would be chief among 
 you, let him be your servant." 
 
 Though it be necessary for the teacher to curb- the insolent 
 and unruly, and to check ill-nature, yet, as a rule, it would 
 not be prudent of him to countenance the accusations or 
 informations of pupils against each other. Such charges are 
 generally the result of anger, envy, or malice — feelings which 
 need repression, not development. However, if on investi- 
 gation, he finds the accused " guilty," he would do well to 
 reprove him in private, and if possible induce him (1st) to 
 solicit pardon from, and (2nd) make reparation to, the injured 
 party — both to be done as if the offender were acting of his 
 own free will. Such a course will make the apology more 
 easy to the one and more acceptable to the other, whilst it 
 mutually engenders and promo\;es feelings of good nature, 
 civility, courtesy, and respect. In well-regulated homes, 
 children never get what they cry for. or basely ask. Of 
 course their necessities are supplied, but the desires of pas- 
 sion or fancy are firmly denied : so should it be in every 
 well-ordered school. Pupils should be taught, so far as pos- 
 
THE SCIENCE AND ABT OF TEACHING. 
 
 159 
 
 Bible, to practice the virtues of resignation, submission, mod- ^f**,]*,^^'*^* 
 esty, and self-denial, so that they may cheerfully " bear and vi^uer 
 forbear," cordially sympathizing with each other in every 
 little trial and difficulty incident to ** school-life," being ever 
 ready to assist each other — ever willing to divide and share 
 their little stock of delicacies or curiosities. 
 
 Faults arising from inadvertency, mental weakness, for- Certain 
 cetfulness, unsteadiness, and absence of mind — when not ings to be 
 
 ° . , ,.1.11 trt'jitcd with 
 
 wilful — may be treated with some little indulgence, more indulgence, 
 especially if the pupil be dull of comprehension or percep- 
 tion. Probably the best way to correct such errors, or irregu- 
 larities, is to recognize them as constitutional, but conquer- 
 able misfortunes, whose subjugation will require continued 
 effijrts on the part of the pupil, and continued tenderness and 
 good-will on the part of the teacher. Tlie influence of mu- 
 tual affection will be almost sure to sharpen the intellect of 
 the pupil, opening and expanding his mind, so th.at he may 
 do his duty faithfully and well. Without this incentive to 
 action (as Locke truly observes) "there would probably be 
 much uneasiness, and but little learning." 
 
 '■I 
 
 
 ■I 
 
 Hi 4 
 
 n 1 
 
 It 
 
 Section 2. CORPORAL PUNISHMENT. 
 
 The greatest happiness and \ Jtimate good of the whole, Object of 
 
 . pumshnicnt. 
 
 should be the chief objects of school government. The pun- 
 ishment of the few is not only to be tolerated but com- 
 mended, when it is necessary for the public or general good, 
 more especially when there is reasonable hope that its in- 
 fliction will reform the ofiendei", and deter others. The least 
 possible amount o^ pain which can produce the desired effect, 
 is the just measure of punishment ; and the best system of 
 government is that which reduces to a minimum the temp- 
 tation to do wrong. 
 
 Children favoured with reasonable and affectionate parents shame as a 
 are under judicious discipline at home, and, as a necessary ^""''' "'''" ' 
 
 ■M 
 
 f .1 
 
 
1 
 
 160 
 
 )rpo: 
 pUDiahmeut 
 Juititlabla. 
 
 THE 8C1KNCE AND ART OP TEACHING. 
 
 consequence, tbey will seldoni nwjd punishment at school. 
 Intelligent and well-disposed |>upils require little restraint. 
 Shame is a more powerful feeling than that arising from 
 bodily pain. Hence the advisability of leading children to 
 perceive that it is shameful to need government by force. 
 
 Many educational writers seem to think (with certain 
 legislators) that the use of " the rod of correction" is incon- 
 sistent with the spirit and progress of this enlightened age- 
 They affect to regard coi-poral punishment as a relic of bar- 
 barism, and as a crime against juvenile humanity. On en- 
 quiry it will generally be found that these writers have never 
 been practical teachers, and have never raised a family of 
 their own. The theories of such kind-hearted gentlemen 
 are seldom founded on experience, and (we regret to say) 
 will not stand the stern test of practice. In teaching, as in 
 other things, we must take human nature as it is — as we 
 find it, and not as we hope it may be some centuries hence. 
 Guided by the experience of mankind, we must deduce our 
 ' inferences from general principles and actual experiment. It 
 would be folly to draw our conclusions from (or to found a 
 theory 07i) isolated cases of j)ermanent success, as the result 
 of mere moral suasion. The oldest book in the world de- 
 clares with divine authority, that " He who spareth his rod 
 hateth his son ; but he that loveth him chasteneth him be- 
 times."* "Chasten thy son," says Solomon, "while there is 
 hope, and let not thy soul spare for his crying, . . . for 
 if thou deliver him thou must do it again."t " Foolishness 
 is bound in the heart of a child, but the rod of correction 
 shall drive it far from him."| " Correct thy son and he 
 shall give thee rest, yea, he shall give delight unto thy 
 80ul."§ While extracting these precepts, our mind reverts 
 to the writings of a sage of an a,nterior age. We remember 
 that it is recorded in the first book of Samuel, that God 
 
 *Prov. xiii. 24. fProv. xix. 18-19. JProv. xxii. 15. jProv. xxix. 17. 
 
THl BriENOE AKD ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 161 
 
 Himself punished a certain parent, and pronounced a fearful 
 doom against his posterity, because he neglected his duty in 
 this respect. We allude to Eli, Judge of Israel. When 
 informed of the evil deeds of Hophni and Phineas, the soft- 
 hearted old man (believing, doubtless, in the omnipotence of 
 moral suasion), merely pointed out the enormity of their 
 offence, hoping probably that they would repent and reform ; 
 but he did not inflict any tangible degradation or punish- 
 ment, or take any steps to produce contrition or reformations 
 and for these reasons the Loi-d declare<l that both his sons 
 should die in one day — that his pnesthood should be given 
 to another, and that all his posterity should die in the flower 
 of their age.* What a dreadful punishment of the old 
 man's apathy, and of his weakness in neglecting to " train 
 up his children in the way they should golf Well might 
 Solomon say : " Withhold not correction from thy child, 
 for if thou beatest him with the rod of correction he shall 
 not die. Thou shalt beat him with the rod and deliver hit 
 soul from hell." J And to the young he says in another 
 place : " Apply thy heart unto instruction and thine ears 
 unto the words of knowledge. "§ " Hear counsel and receive 
 instruction, that thou mayest be wise in thy latter end."|j 
 These precepts give a divine sanction to the judicious appli- 
 cation of corporal punishment — to the discreet use of the 
 rod, and not only invest the parent with the necessary 
 authority, but absolutely require him to exercise it eflici- 
 ently ; and, moreover, the practice of all nations, ancient 
 and modern, barbarous and civilized, seems to indicate that 
 such a right has always been recognized by mankind gene- 
 rally. 
 
 In the early ages of the world, parents were the principal ^'®ubi^° 
 (and in most cases the sole) teachers of their own children, schools. 
 Every father had to instruct his sons in the arts of peace 
 
 •1 Sam. ii 22-36. fProv. xxii 6. J Prov. xxiii. 13-14. §Prov. xxiii. 12. 
 
 II Prov. xix. 20. 
 
 ■ Hii 
 
 J-^f- 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 
162 
 
 TIjc teach- 
 er's vAtm- 
 missiun. 
 
 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 and war, ro that he was tutor, chaplain, judge, and 'uilitary 
 commander — all in one. In like manner, the mother had 
 to teach her dau'^htere tlie arts of domestic life, attending 
 aldo to the education of her sons during their younger years. 
 But, as ci/ilizition advanced, the arts of life b» oume more 
 numeix)UH and complex, so that domestic or public obligations 
 compelled parents to delegate th«'ir educational duties and 
 privilegtMi to another, who thus b^'came the locum lenenn of 
 the jMirent. Then, after the la])se of yeai^s, another change 
 took place, as men became conscious of the advaitages to be 
 denved from "a division of labour." A number of families 
 residing in the same locality made an*angements to transfer 
 the education of their childi'en to one such officer — tliinking, 
 doubtic»s, that this plan would be more economical than for 
 each to keep a private tutor. This officer, ♦^bi-ough "imme- 
 morial custom," and by virtue of his election, became the 
 common parent (so to speak) of all thr pupils entrusted to 
 liLs charge — bein: uthorized to treat them ii every re8i>ect 
 SiH if they wer- ioally his own. Probably it was thus 
 public schools tirst originated ; and. in thi^ wa\ , instead of 
 every parent in a town or district l)eing of necessity com- 
 pelled as of old to assum.^ the office of private teacher to his 
 own family — thereby neglecting other duties — a common 
 tutor was (and is) appointed to repres( nt them all, who, by 
 reason of his special training and experience, is far more 
 skilful as an educator than each individual parent (or pri- 
 vate tutor) could possibly be. 
 
 In the present age, the teacher is not only recognized as 
 the legal representative of the i)ai*ents in n\\ scholastic mat- 
 ters, but is likewise considered as endowed with full parental 
 powers while i i the school-room. Public opinion supports 
 his influence, and the laws confirm his authority. Indeed, 
 it seems to be tacitly understood, if not genemlly conceded, 
 that "the teacher, in the school -room, stands in the parents' 
 shoes." Let him, therefore, make the most of the position 
 
TlIS SCIENCE AND ABT OF TEACDIKO. 
 
 163 
 
 accorded him by the Inw, bj public opinion, aiid by imme- 
 morial uHRgo, alwayR acting towanls "the litrle ones" m ii 
 they were really his own — jurlicioiiHly and dincreetly exer- 
 cising his del«j»at«d authority according to his 8U|>orior 
 judgment, and '"the light that iH iu hiui;" not sci upling to 
 inflict even corpuml punishment when he considers it nw^s- 
 sary, and conscientiously believes that, under Nimilur circum- 
 stances, an i telligent and pr 'lont paren t would do likewise. 
 "Tendermss is a very requisite quality iu an insti-uctor, 
 yet there is often the truest tendtrness in well-tiun d cor- 
 rection," * 
 
 The teacher should be careful never to threaten his pupils, Ti-aciiem 
 more especially if he is not prepaicd to carry his threats into uinnUsn 
 execution. If a boy be innocent, no on- has a right to *"*' 
 tlireaU;n him ; if guilty, justice oi' gootl example call for his 
 punishment. The ruU'V who continually threatens his sub- 
 jects, will gi-adujilly alienate their aflections, and ultimately 
 l>e "favonred" with their hatred and contempt. They will 
 hate his person, scoft'at his words, n^ale his actions, and at 
 last rise in rebellion and deprive him of ix>wer if not of 
 his head. He who strikes without previous threats, is the 
 man whom people honour and obe . An old proverb tells 
 us that "the dog which barks the loudest is not the quickest 
 dog to bite." Children acquire a knowledge of this fact an 
 if by instinct, and soon learn that the loudest juid greatest 
 talker is usually the weakest and smallest actor — that the 
 firmness and decision of a man of many words are contined 
 to his tongue. They feel that he does nof really mean what 
 he says, and, if they do not actually leai-n to despise their 
 mler, they, at least, acquire the habit of listening with 
 indifference to his words. Parents and teach nrs who under- 
 stand human nature, 'will never tLi"eaten children. If a 
 grave offence be committe^i, and the teacher is of opinion 
 
 it 
 
 U] 
 
 ' i 
 
 'M 
 
 ^h 
 
 • Goldsmith. 
 
 
K 
 
 1C4 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACH INO. 
 
 that I he imposition of a certain taKk — say "double home 
 work," so many hnn(lre<l liu» «, 1oh« of privileges for a term, 
 or confinement, followed by a^lmonition or advice, etc. — 
 would be ineffectual in protlueing reformation, then let him 
 reHort to corj>oral puniHhmcnt without "scolding" or previous 
 threatfl. The teacher must never "give in to disobedience 
 or wilful neglect." 
 nUhment Corjwral punishment shouM be inflicted in the presence 
 I ^ t".',"!*'*' of the whole Hchool, and in as solemn a mann(;r as i)OSsible. 
 
 ed publicly. ' ' 
 
 When infiictetl publicly, it tends not only to reform the 
 offender, but deters others from committing similar offences. 
 When inflicted privately, its example is lost to the school, 
 and the disgrace to the sufferer is not lessened. Inflicted 
 publicly in a proper manner, with a right spirit, and for 
 sufficient cause, its effects on the school will be lasting and 
 salutary. The degree of severity cannot bo exaggerated to 
 parents and guardians, nor ridiculed and "made light of" to 
 school-fellows and other associates. The teacher cannot be 
 misrepresented ; nothing can be mis-stated, or erroneously 
 repoi-ted, as dozens of anxious eyes will witness its applica- 
 tion, dozens of attentive ears will listen to the investigation, 
 and dozens of expanding minds will moralize on the relations 
 between cause and effect. If thi^ punishment were admin- 
 istered in private, (in a room where there would be no wit- 
 ness,) its example would be lost, and the teacher might be 
 misrepresented, and the degi*ee of seventy erroneously re- 
 ported. Punishment should be inflicted as early in the day 
 as may be convenient, and, as a rule, it should never be 
 administered during the last hour of the school .session. 
 
 The teacher can scarcely expect prompt obedience from 
 ail his pupils (on taking charge of a school). He must 
 first win their love or affectionate regard ; and this he can- 
 not do in a day, a week, or perhaps in a month. Without 
 a will of his own, and an affectionate, straight-forward, gen- 
 tlemanly manner, concuri*ent with an unalterable tenacity 
 
 To establish 
 authority bj 
 force, if 
 necessary. 
 
mmmmmm 
 
 iHPiiPMpm 
 
 """■^ 
 
 UPPippi" 
 
 THB SCreKCl AITO ART Of TEACH IlfO. 
 
 165 
 
 of purpose, h« will uiver win their esteem ; and, without 
 enjoying their esteem, he cannot Kccure their love. What, 
 then, in he to «l«? Should he allow fiome of them, denirouii 
 of being trouV)leHonie, to run riot for weekH or months, and 
 thus set ft f-emicious example to the remainder, whilst he — 
 endeavourmg to convert them by softer means— declines to 
 PHtablish his authority by force 1 Were he to do so, he 
 would never win their affection, and never succeed in ruling 
 by love, by reason, or persuasion. No half measures ever 
 succeed in such coses — "he feara to strike," would be the 
 motto «>f all. Things would go on from bad to worse; "the 
 gickly sheep would infect the flock," and, as a last and only 
 i-esource, a new physician would be invited to attend to the 
 case, and the old one paid off. If the pui)il8 abuse their 
 freedom, and disi-egard or disrc^jiect the immortal principles 
 of law and order, the teacher must act promptly, and do as 
 governments do in extreme cases — "suspend the constitu- 
 tion, and rule by martial law." A ruler, abolishing fines, 
 prisons, penal servitude, and cai)ital punishment, would soon 
 have no country to rule, ;io servants to obey him, no friends 
 to love him — all would be confusion, riot, and bloodshed ; 
 so of a teacher who, on failing to establish his authority by 
 reason and love, would decline to do so by force. At the 
 very first, the teacher must establish habits of order and 
 implicit obedience at any cost. When this has been done, 
 he will have to resort but seldom to the rod of correction. 
 Habits of order and obedience being promulgated and firmly 
 established, his appeals to higher motives than fear or force 
 will seldom fail. He can thenceforth rule by the power of 
 reciprocal affection, and rely for success on the finer feelings 
 of human nature. These will carry conviction to the con- 
 science through the avenues of the heart, and the pupils can 
 then be easily led to exercise their mental faculties under 
 the teacher's supervision, even as they would exercise their 
 physical powers without his instructions; for activity of 
 
 
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 7 
 
 
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166 
 
 PnnlBhinent 
 to be iimde 
 effectual. 
 
 THE SCIENCE AND ART OP TEACHING. 
 
 mind is as natural to them as activity of body. Both need 
 direction and exercise. Good government is essential Co 
 progress, and it can he maintjiiiied only through "eteViial 
 vigilance." "Aimez Jes enfants," says Archbishop Fonelon, 
 "n'oubliez rien pour en etre aira6. La crainte est ndcessairo 
 quand I'aniour man<|ue ; mais il hi faut toujours employer 
 b, rcgi-et, omme les remedes violents et les plus dangereux." 
 Corporal punishment is the last resource, and, when used, 
 its application should be made effectual. Tlie punishment 
 should be continued until the offender is thoroughly sub- 
 dued; otherwise its application will only "make bad worse." 
 The roil should be used only when absolutely necessary, and 
 when other means have failed or would be likely to fail. 
 Slight offences should not be followed by a slight ap})lication 
 of the rod ; nor should the teacher be so deficient in wisdom 
 and good taste as to keep this instrument in his hand when 
 he visits the several departments and cbisses, or when going 
 from one part of his school-room to another. It should b.; 
 kept in the desk or drawer until required for use, and de- 
 posited in the same place after it has done its work. Its 
 constant ap[)earance, or its frequent and slight application, 
 will familiarize the pupils with its terrors — and lamiliarity, 
 it is said, generates contempt. "All punishments," as Seneca 
 observes, "are either for amendment or example, or for 
 
 both The custom of offending will take away 
 
 the shame of it . . . . and for these reasons, punish- 
 ments should be effectual, few, and far between." Moreover, 
 it is as dishonourable for a teacher to have too many pun- 
 ishments, or rather occasions to punish, "as it is for a prince 
 to have too many executions, or a physician too many 
 funerals." It would be far better never to attempt to ad- 
 minister corporal punishment, than that it should fail in 
 design, or soon need repetition. As a rule, it should be 
 inflicted on the hands with a cane of modera^te thickne^. 
 The child should never be struck on the head, or on the 
 
THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACUINQ. 
 
 167 
 
 tth need 
 ntial fo 
 * eteVnal 
 ^enelon, 
 'cessaiie 
 niployer 
 ^ereux." 
 3n used, 
 ishment 
 Illy sub- 
 worse." 
 [try, and 
 to fail. 
 )lication 
 wisdom 
 id when 
 )n going 
 ould h\\ 
 and de- 
 :'k. It« 
 lication, 
 iUarity, 
 5 Seneca 
 , or for 
 ce away 
 punish- 
 oreover, 
 ny pun- 
 i prince 
 many 
 t to ad- 
 fail in 
 ould be 
 ickness. 
 on the 
 
 front part of the body. Good discipline is the foundation of 
 good teaching — the fundamental basis of education — yet it 
 should be always tempered with mercy, and administered in 
 love. 
 
 The teacher should never be in a hurry to inflict corporal a suppie- 
 
 •^ * mentary 
 
 punishment. Ho would do well to remember that one duty, 
 thoughtless word, one unjust blow, may nullify the lal)orious 
 inculcations of many days. Quiet delibenition and long- 
 forbearing justice, are fundamental elements of success in 
 school government. When inflicting punishment he should, 
 therefore, be perfectly calm, self-possessed, and free from 
 arujer ; but at the same time, he should exhibit a just sense 
 of the reprehensible nature of the offence. If not free from 
 anger he sliould defer me punishment. Except in the case 
 of very young pupils, it will always be wise to allow some 
 time to elapse — a day or two, or more, according to circum- 
 stances — from the investigation of an offence and delivery of 
 judgment, until the infliction of punishment. During the 
 interval, the offender will have tlie o})por^unity of reflecting 
 on the nature of his crime and tiie justice of his sentence, 
 and may perhaps become truly penitent. Thoroughly un- 
 dei*standing the teacher's character, and knowing by expe- 
 rience that silence and delay do not mean cemption, he 
 will feel certain that nothing will arrest the course of justice 
 except due contrition and immediate reformation — the ex- 
 hibition of a hea.'tfelt repentance and timely amendment. 
 The teacher should carefully avoid the appearance of "favour" 
 or prejudice during the investigation of a case; but above 
 all, he should never execute judgment or inflict punishment 
 while under the influence of anger. It is related in ancient 
 story that on a certain occasion the great teacher Plato being 
 incensed with the conduct of one of his slaves, thoughtlessly 
 raised his hand to inflict punishment. Suddenly recollect- 
 ing himself, he checked his uplifted arm, but still retained 
 it in its elevated and menacing position. The poor slave 
 
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 [WR 
 
168 
 
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 The teacher 
 to be ft-ee 
 from anger 
 when inflict- 
 ing |)uui«h- 
 nient. 
 
 THE SCIENCE AND ART OP TEACHING. 
 
 ran away after some he8itation, alfhotigh his master remain- 
 ed '* fixed to the Hpot," as if he were a statue. One of his 
 intimate friends, having observed the occurrence, asked the 
 philosci (her what he meant by such singuhir conduct 1 "I 
 am now ^said he) chastising an angry man." He had post- 
 poned his servant's punishment, and was puni.shing himself 
 for having given way to anger. Seneca states that oiT 
 another occasion thi-s individual committed some offence 
 for which Plato thought it advisable to administer corporal 
 punishment. But being under the influence of anger, he 
 addres.sed his friend Spousippus, who happened to be pres- 
 ent, saying — " Do you cliastiso that follow, please. I am 
 angry, and might go farther than becomes me." This is the 
 spirit we would commend. The modern teacher, like his 
 Grecian predecessor, should never injlict punishment while 
 under the mjliience of auyer. He, also, is liable to " go far- 
 ther than becomes him." It is true, he cannot legally dele-** 
 gate his executive power in this respect to another ; but he 
 can stop his uplifted hand, and allow the offender time to 
 repent, and his own anger time to evaporate. 
 
 The teacher should not rest satisfied with the mere inflic- 
 tion of corponil punishment. A much higher and nobler 
 duty awaits him. Coercion prepares the way for persua- 
 sion. Neg-^jiations and amicable arrangements are often 
 impracticable until after a satisfactory trial of arms. The 
 infliction of j)unishment does not terminate the teacher's 
 opportunities or responsibilities. Every act of coercive dis- 
 cipline should be carefully followed up by sound suggestions 
 and friendly influences, until the subjugation of the will is 
 supplemented by the conquest of the heart. The more cri- 
 tical the case, and the more violent the treatment, the more 
 pressing is the need for the watchful and unwearied appli^ 
 cation of the necessary subsequent restoratives. * 
 
 ♦Jewell. 
 
^ 
 
 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHINO. 
 
 169 
 
 The teacher teaches whetever he is. His daily walk and ^ot to in- 
 
 •' dulge self 
 
 conversation are living lessons — practical inciilcators of »"^ ^*«"iy 
 every praiseworthy quality, *or the opposite. Calm, steady, 
 and gentle, he should be consistent in all his actions — a 
 standard of justice and honour, a model in manners, and a 
 bright example of patient self-confrol. Whilst insisting on 
 the due observance of all rules and regulations of the school 
 by his pupils, he should be particularly cai-eful not to in- 
 fringe them himself; nor should he ever allow himself any 
 indulgence which duty or principle would compel him to 
 deny to others. Whatever he would wish his pupils to do, 
 that he must also do himself; for, as Seneca well observes, 
 " the best instructors are those who teach in their lives, and 
 prove their words by their actions." 
 
 The divine Seneca, in his " Cautions Against Anger," Henecn's 
 advances many useful hints concerning the education of th"e'ima^-" 
 children. We take the liberty of transcribing a few of thom, children. 
 which may possibly be interesting to parents, and useful to 
 the young teacher. The noble Roman affirms that " a 
 careful education is a gi'eat matter in enabling us to conquer 
 our evil propensities, for our minds are easily formed in 
 youth ; but bad habits once acquired are very difficult to 
 cure. Children should be trained to avoid provocations and 
 the beginnings of anger. Nothing breeds anger more than 
 a soft effeminate education. The choice of a healthy nurse 
 and a good-natured tutor, goes a great way in eradicating or 
 eliminating its geims from the system ; for the sweetness of 
 the blood and manners pass into the child. . . .The 
 teacher's favourite or mother's darling, seldom come to good. 
 Flattery and fortune nourish touchiness, and as he grows up 
 he becomes a choleric coxcomb . . . It is a very nice 
 point to check the germs of anger in a child, so as not to 
 take off his edge and quench his spirits. In this matter, 
 care must be taken that he be neither too much emboldened 
 by license, nor too much depressed by severity. Commenda- 
 12 
 
 
 ' :\\ 
 
 
170 
 
 Towel's ami 
 duties of 
 principals. 
 
 THE SCIENCE AND ART OP TEACHING. 
 
 tions give him confidence and courage ; but, if dispensed to 
 excess, they seldom fail to pi-omote a spirit of insolence. 
 . . . When to Uvse the bridle and when the spur, is the 
 main difficulty." Parents or teachens should never put the 
 child to the necessity of begging anything bjisely; and if he 
 demeans himself in this manner, let him go without what ho 
 desires — he is unworthy to receive it. They should give 
 him nothing that he cries for, until the dogged fit is over. 
 However, if convenient, they may let him have it when he 
 has regained his equanimity, and assumed a chcerfid and 
 becoming demeanour. " He will thus learn that nothing is 
 to be gained by peevishness," and, as a necessary consequence, 
 will, day by day, become less waspish and quan-elsome. 
 Jjct him be led to unde\*stand, in his various exorcises, that 
 it is not generous nor just to injure his competitors and oppo- 
 nents, or even to wish them harm, but that it is pmisc- 
 woi-thy to overcome them without wishing to depress them. 
 
 Section 3. MUTUAL DUTIES AND OFFICIAL RELATIONS. 
 
 In Canada and most of the States, the principal of a 
 public school is invested, by law, with full power and author- 
 ity in the management and control of the school. In such 
 cases ho is bound to conduct the school according to law, 
 and it becomes his duty to observe and enforce the mles 
 and regulations prescribed by the State, or Provincial Coun- 
 cil of Public Instmction, and any other rules or regulations 
 consistent therewith, which himself and the school board 
 may, from time to tima, think expedient or necessary for the 
 efficient government of the respective departments or classes. 
 It is also his duty (with the concurrence of the school 
 board) to prescribe the work of the assistant teachers. The 
 law, or public opinion, holds him responsible for their work ; 
 hence the necessity for continual vigilance. It is the princi- 
 pal's duty, also, to prescribe a general plan of teaching for the 
 
THE SCIENCE AND ART OP TEACHING. 
 
 in 
 
 whole school ; but without sacrificing harmony of arrange- ' 
 ment or ilovelopment, he may permit its provisions to be 
 slightly modified in application, so as to meet the peculiar 
 necessities of each division or dopartment. There nwy be 
 variety in method, but there should bo unity in design. We 
 here venture to advance a few suggestions which may be of 
 material service in effecting these objects. 
 
 1. Each assistant in charge of a division, department, Uniformity 
 class, or section, should rule in accordance with the pre- 
 scribed general plan or method, and in its administration Ije 
 guided by the principles of government a<iopted for, and ap- 
 plioaVJe to, the whole school. There will then be uniformity. 
 
 of discipline and no clashing of interests — no occasion, and 
 no opportunity, for invidious comparisons, or internal jea- 
 lousies ; each individual division will supplement and sus- 
 tain the whole. 
 
 2. As a rule, each teacher of division {i. e. an assistant in powers and 
 charge of a class-room) should receive authority and, in fact, jJygi'gtVnts 
 be required to investigate and decide on all mattera of dis- 
 cipline within his (or her) particular realm. But the graver 
 offences, and all matters affecting other divisions, or the 
 
 order and government of the school in general, and such as 
 may be committed on the grounds, or in entering or leaving 
 school, or on the way to or from school, should be refeiTed 
 to the principal. 
 
 3. All cases of suspension, expulsion, or of corporal pun- 
 ishment, should be entered in a book, to be kept for that iilenS* 
 purpose, by the pi-incipal. Before inflicting corporal pun- 
 ishment, each teacher should enter a statement of the case 
 in this book, names of witnesses, amount of punishment, 
 etc., and then affix their signature. -The principal should 
 revise these reports occasionally, and give such advice (pri- 
 vately) to the teacher concerned as he may think judicious. 
 This book should be open for inspection by parents ; and it 
 might not be amiss to lay it before the school board at their 
 regular meetings. ;, . 
 
 A Record of 
 
 u 
 
 '} 
 
 I % 
 
 r 
 
i 
 
 172 
 
 Proper 
 channel of 
 inter-com- 
 muoioation. 
 
 •Signatures 
 4o uotea. 
 
 Local supre- 
 macy of 
 ^teachers. 
 
 To report 
 cause of 
 absence to 
 principal. 
 
 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 4. The principal is the only proper channel of communica- 
 tion between the assistant teachers and trustees, or public 
 at large. All letters relative to the ipils, or other school 
 matters in this connection, should pa. through his hands ; 
 and should any of the people, ignorant, or otherwise, of this 
 rule, address an official communication to an assistant 
 teacher, said teacher as a matter of courtesy, if not of right, 
 should immediately lay it before the principal, who should 
 reply (if necessary) in such terms as he may think judicious; 
 or the assistant may reply under his instructions. 
 
 5. " All notes presented by pupils should bear the signa- 
 ture of the parent or guardian, known as such to the 
 teacher." 
 
 6. "A teacher," says Tracy, "should not be interfered with 
 in the Government of his or her class while in actual com- 
 mand — not even by the principal. The teacher, of whatever 
 grade, should, in the estimation of the pupil, be principal of 
 his or her own class. Any suggestions or advice from the 
 principal should, in all cases, be apart from the observation 
 of the school or class ; otherwise the authority of the teacher 
 is, in the minds of the pupil, weakened ; for, if the principal 
 manifest a lack of confidence in the teacher, so will the pupil. 
 It is a great mistake for the assistant to appeal unnecessarily 
 to the principal in maintaining order in the class ; for the 
 pupil is thereby impressed with the idea that his teacher is 
 incompetent, or he would manage without assistance. Pupils 
 should not be sent to the principal for punishment or re- 
 proof, except for absolute disobedience. All else being set. 
 tied by the teacher unaided, increases his authority and 
 secures for him the respect of the pupil. When a teacher is 
 obliged to send an unruly pupil out of the class-room, he 
 should, at the time, explain the nature of his offence to the 
 principal, said explanation to be made to the principal alone." 
 
 7. Teachers should not allow anything but impossibilities 
 to prevent their attendance at school; for, when a teacher is 
 
THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 173 
 
 absent, not only his class but the whole school is more or 
 less embarrassed. When a teacher is absent through any 
 cause, he should never fail to apprise the principal of the 
 circumstances. 
 
 8. The principal should visit each class, division, or de- General 
 
 supervision. 
 
 partment at least once a day. It would be advisable that he 
 should note the state of discipline, the character of the work 
 being done, etc., on these occasions, and make an entry of 
 same in the Report Book of the division, or in the General 
 Report Book of the school. He should review the work of 
 each division, at least once a month ; or require the respec- 
 tive teachers to do so under his direction. He should then 
 make an entry of the result in the General Report Book, 
 after (privately) calling attention to defects, or publicly 
 pointing out excellencies. 
 
 The adoption and observance of such rules and regulations 
 as the foregoing, cannot fail to create a unity of influence, 
 effort, and design amongst teachers of the same school. 
 
 'M ' 
 
 14 
 
 ¥, 
 
 '14 
 
 ft 
 
 .,_.L_ 
 
PART III.— METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 MoreAU's 
 i)lau tbc 
 ijetjt for 
 Mureau. 
 
 111! 
 
 
 I 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 HINTS ON THE GENERAL ORGANIZATION OF SCHOOLS. 
 
 It is said that when Napoleon was about to send Moreau 
 (A.D. 1801) to fight the Austrians, he drew up a plan of 
 campaign, such as he himself would have used, and presented 
 it to the Genenil with his commission as Generalissimo. 
 Moreau read it over, and then, after a few moments' deliber- 
 ation, declined to accept the command, aflSrming that should 
 he fight as directed, and in accordance with the instructions 
 contained in the document before him, he would certainly 
 be defeated. The First Consul was not pleased with the 
 gallant officer's blunt but honest declaration, as it reflected 
 on, or apparently depreciated, his own militsxry talents. 
 However, after a little consideration, he very wisely resolved 
 to let the General have his own M'ay, stating that "he be- 
 lieved Moreau 's plan was the best for Moreau." That gallant 
 officer fought according to "hisown plan," and the total defeat 
 of the Austrians under Klenau, at Hohenlinden, was the re- 
 sult. As it was with Moreau, so is it with almost every indi- 
 vidual teacher. His own i)lans and expedients (or methods) 
 are the best for liim. We do not mean to imply that the 
 teacher should decline to enquire into the nature and {jositive 
 success of other methods, and blindly follow his own. Quite 
 the reverse. We mean that the teacher, like General Moreau, 
 must have diligently studied and thoroughly mastered the 
 theory and practice of his art, before he can take rank, or 
 assume any very responsible position in his profession ; and 
 
 M 
 
THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 175 
 
 that, having thus posted himself — duly graduated, so to 
 speak, in all the principles and ai)plications of his calling — 
 he should strike out an independent and original course. 
 
 In writing the preceding sheets, we have not taken it Jrigin*? *" 
 upon ourselves to particularly recommend any individual P**"* 
 system or method of educatioA, nc r have we wittingly spoken 
 dogmatically to our fellow-citizens and co-labourers on any 
 contested subject or theory ; for, as aforesaid, we believe 
 that, in the majority of cases, each teacher's "own plan is 
 the best for him." Still, in practice an in theory, there are 
 general principles and a common basis from which no teacher 
 can materially diverge, without suffering the penalties of fail- 
 ure and defeat. Each teacher should be careful to found his 
 plan or system on these fixed and eternal priiv'/des, and not, 
 as is too often the case, on his own or other men's hobbies. 
 As Wickersham observes, " Teaching is an art based on sci- 
 entific principles tliat must always guide its practice ... 
 it lays under contribution all science and all art, in working 
 out the grandest end that human conception ever realized — 
 the perfection of the human race." Let the teacher, there- 
 fore, be just and honest towards himself and his charge 
 — lot him act like Moroau, or like David of old, who pre- 
 ferred his own simple weapons to those which lie had not 
 tested nor proved. But should he have cause to doubt or 
 suspect the comparative efficacy of his own weapons, let him 
 lose no time in discarding them, so that he may acquire the 
 use of others more efficient. Prussia was the first nation in 
 Europe to arm her soldiers with the needle gun. The vic- 
 tories of Konnigratz, Sadowa, Gravellotte, and Sedan, were 
 the result of this intelligence and promptitude. Had she 
 been content with her old weapons, Alsace, Lorraine, Schles- 
 wig Holstein, and the minor German States, would not have 
 been annexed ; Sadowa and Sedan would have had a differ- 
 ent ending, and her King would never have reigned over a 
 "united Fatherland." These facts tell us we should never 
 
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 176 THE SCIENCE AKD ART OF TEACHINO. 
 
 despUe uew piiuciplea, or ignore new discoveries ; and that, 
 while revering the old, we should acquire an intelligent, 
 practical knowledge of the new. Having treated of some 
 of the general princij)le8 on which all good, sound educ.ttion 
 should be based, we will now proceed o consider matters 
 which involve the practical application of the great truths 
 advanced in the foregoing pages. 
 
 The school- The class-rooms of the public schools in tfie more respect- 
 room and its . . . 
 decorations, able towns and villages, as well as in the cities of the res- 
 pective States (of America), are generally decorated with 
 life-size paintings of Washington, Jefferson, Franklin, and 
 other worthies of the Republic. This decoration speaks 
 volumes for the taste and generosity of the people. Apart 
 from the decoration of the walls and consequent beauty of 
 the interior, it cannot fail to have a powerful influence on 
 the minds of the rising generatit<u. Besides cultivating the 
 taste of the pupils and developing their ideas of the beauti- 
 ful, it creates a certain emulation which tends to incite them 
 to the performance of patriotic and heroic deeds. As time 
 rolls away, we trust the class-rooms of our public schools 
 will become more and more like the pi'ivate di*awing-room. 
 Then will children look upon them as the most pleasant as 
 well as the most profitable places in which they can spend 
 their time. The decoration of our educational institutions 
 deserves the consideration of every citizen. The legislature 
 of very civilized community should make a liberal provi- 
 sion for this purpose. It behoves our legislators to make 
 the school attractive so far as money can do it; and by 
 doing so, they will discharge one of the most important 
 duties which they owe to posterity . No capital will bring 
 in such a large interest as that which is invested in educa- 
 tion. The United States have generally acted in accordance 
 with this principle, and Canada — following the example of 
 her southern sisters — has already taken the initiative in 
 :--— decorative matters. The Canadian system of education is 
 
TUF SCIENCE AND ART 01 TEACUINO. 177 
 
 Mkid to equal that of MaR8achub<3tt0, but in artiatic arrango- 
 mont, decorative attr -tions, and arclnt«x;tunil df'^^ign, the 
 schools of the States fj* r excel tho8«' of ( 'anadii. 
 
 We are of opinion that lari/c puhlic schools should contain Pi«nof 
 a spociai rtKnu for eutli cIhmh, and also a room of sufficient 
 capacity tu allow all the pupiln to asseuiMe together <lnriiij3j 
 oiiening and closing exercises, and on spociivl occasions, such 
 i\s exhibition or ceiubmtion days, etc. In this room [>upils, 
 with ( oir toachci*s, should assen ^'le every morning for 
 prayers, etc., after which tlicy should bo dismissed by the 
 principal, cKiss by class, to thiir ro.sp'ctive class r<> nns.* At 
 on-^ end there should l>e an elevator platform, from which 
 the prin'^ipal or his ;i.ssistant may overlook the wholo school, 
 and direct the various movements of the classv s. It would 
 be advisable for the principal and his assistants t< have 
 desks or seats on this cLiiJ*, as it would bo their m(.8t appro- 
 priate place at the commencement and close of business. 
 But if the school is not a very large one, and all 7mi.'<t find 
 accommodation in one room — that room should be rectan- 
 gular in shape. At the further end of the room a gallery (or 
 galleries) should be erected, with fixed seats or chairs for pu- 
 pils, during the delivery of collective or object h^ssons. This 
 gallery should be separated from the » 'st of the room by 
 means of a movable glass partition. There should be a par- 
 tition, because without it the classes will interrupt each other 
 
 'y 
 
 
 * Some years ago while eni^aged as a master at the Upper Canada College, 
 Toronto, we had tlii' pleasure of studying pra<^tic;illy the exi'dl-'Pi-ics of^tlus 
 system— the arrangements alluded to being Ktri(!tly observed in that Institution. 
 So far as we know, the principle has not bi;en hitherto adopted in any other Cana- 
 dian schools. It is <toniing into general favour in the States, and is fully exempli- 
 fied in the new Stfite Normal S 'hool, at IJuffilo, under the kind and able supervision 
 of its ex<!ellent principal, Mr. Buekhain. Officers ( harged with the ere.?ti«)n of 
 Normal or other lar^je schools, would do well to visit both of these Institutions, 
 and study their arrangements, before adopting plans orawarding contra.ts. 8t.ind> 
 ing, as it does, at tlie head of the great public schools of the continent, U. C. Col- 
 lege should hava buildings more worthy of its fame. The interior arrangements 
 are exc^ellent, but the style of architecture is not such as we would recommend. 
 The Toronto Provincial Normal School Bnildin^'s are, on the whole, worthy of 
 much commendation— particularly tho.se 8e(;tion.s allotted to the Education Offices, 
 Library and Museum. The Model Schools (or schools of practice) are neither as 
 commodious or corwenient as we would wish t<> s > them, and. in r ality, detract 
 from the beauty anT symmetry of one of the prettiest aud best ordered institutions 
 in the Province. 
 
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 WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 
 
 (716) 872-4503 
 

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 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHINO. 
 
 I ! 
 
 during recitation, etc., and it should be of glass, so that the 
 principal may see through it, and, if necessary, overlook the 
 work of the whole school or department at one and the same 
 time. The part of the floor occupied by desks, if the room be 
 very largo, should gradually rise towards the rear, and the 
 smaller pupils should occupy the firat seats. The desks should 
 be arranged so that the pupils when seated may face the 
 teacher's platform. Behind the recitation gallery, and at other 
 convenient places, maps, diagrams, etc., might be suspended. 
 The walls of all class-rooms should be lined with slate 
 (three feet three inches wide) for " black-board " purposes, 
 the lower margin being about three feet from the floor. The 
 windows should be elevated about four feet from the ground, 
 so that outside transactions may not attract the attention 
 of the pupils. The wall behind the teacher's platform, and 
 also certain portions of the side walls, should be adorned 
 with historical paintings and witli life-sizo likenesses of the 
 great and good men of other times. The ground space of 
 a school-room laid out according to the foregoing plan would 
 consist of four divisions: — (1) The teacher's platform, (2) 
 the recitation or object lesson gallery, (3) the space occupied 
 by desks in the body of the school, and (4) the open space 
 between the front desks and the plitform. In small schools 
 the gallery may be dispensed with. All classes, when at 
 recitations, should be separated from each other by movable 
 glass j)artitions ; but if the attendance be very large, the 
 accommodation sufficient, and the stafi" of teachers in pro- 
 portion, each class, division, or department should have its 
 own particular room ; or the pupils should change class, 
 rooms as often as they change subjects. Accordmg to the 
 former plan, the teacher in charge of this class or department 
 would teach them every subject ; and according to the latter 
 plan, certain teachers would teach them certain subjects, and 
 they would daily pass under the jurisdiction of each indi- 
 vidual teacher in the school. Both arrangements have their 
 
THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHINO. 
 
 179 
 
 (leskH. 
 
 advantages and objections ; but of the two, the latter is the 
 more commendable. In either case the respective classes 
 (having separate class-rooms, and, for the time being, differ- 
 ent teachers) would meet together in the assembly room of 
 the school only twice a day — at the commencement and con- 
 clusion of business. The tolling of a bell would announce 
 the intermissions or respective changes, and each class would 
 of course know by its "time table" what subject would come 
 next, and what teacher (and in what class room) they should 
 attend during the ensuing hour. Each class-room should 
 possess the most approved means of ventilation, and, unless 
 in very I'are cases, the building should not exceed two stories 
 in height. 
 
 Desks should not be larger than what may be necessary isolation 
 to accommodate two pupils. The distance between each mcnt of ***^ 
 desk, from front to rear, need not be more than twelve or 
 fifteen inches ; but the distance between the " ends of each 
 range " of desks and seats should not be less than two f^et 
 four inches. That is to say, the aisles should be between 
 two and three feet in width. The centre aisle should not 
 be less than four or five feet. If a school " be seated " 
 according to this plan, each pupil can get to, or from, his 
 particulai" seat without disturbing his compiinions: the space 
 lost in width, and occupied with aisles, will be more than 
 gained in length, as more desks can be made to fit from 
 front to i*ear, than under the old system. In addition, a 
 more general air of comfort and respectability Avill pervade 
 the establishment ; the teachers can preserve better order, 
 and there will be less " crowding " on entering or leaving 
 the school-room. But instead of being made for two, it 
 would be better if the desks were constructed for the 
 accommodation of only one pupil. In many of the more 
 respectable public schools in American cities,* the desks and 
 
 * Normal School, Buffalo, for instance 
 
180 
 
 TnE SCIENCE AND ABT OF TEACHING. 
 
 Tlie play 
 groimtl and 
 cloak- 
 rooms, 
 
 seats are isolated ; each pupil has a desk and seat for himself, 
 and this desk and seat have no connection with other desks 
 or seats. We aflSrm without hesitation that this is one of 
 the great improvements of the age — one which only needs 
 time to be generally adopted. The upper part of these 
 desks resembles a gentlemen's writing case when open — 
 being elevated in front, and dipping as it approaches the 
 body. It is fastened to a cast iron pillar, (or to two iron 
 castings,) which, in turn, is fixed to the floor. Immediately 
 in rear of this pillar is a seat resembling a small arm chair, 
 which is also fastened to a pillar fixed to the floor at a 
 convenient distance from the former. These desks are 
 placed together in pairs to the right and left of the regular 
 aisles, and only two feet apart. Being thus isolated from 
 each other, no pupil can hold communication with his com- 
 panions without detection, as there is no covering in front 
 to hide from the teachers " the telegraphic movements " of 
 " little hands and feet." There is another feature in these 
 primary arrangements which (so far as we know) is peculiar 
 to America — a feature which deserves not a little attention. 
 It has met with much favour in New England, especially 
 in "the old Bay State." We allude to the practice of 
 placing the principal's platform in a large and commodious 
 recess in the side of the school-room, the pupils being faced 
 as usual towards ei<!'^r end. By this arrangement the 
 teacher has a full side view of each pupil — ^a better view, 
 perhaps, for all practical purposes than he could enjoy were 
 he to gaze on them from front to rear. 
 
 A good play ground, well stocked with gymnastic appara- 
 tus, should be attached to every school. Part of it should 
 be covered in, so as to protect the pupils from the extremes 
 of temperature. Flowers, fancy shrubs, and trees might be 
 cultivated in another portion of it, if the grounds are larrje 
 enough. There should also be a suitable place for cricket 
 and other such games. The grounds should be enclosed 
 
THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 181 
 
 with a high wall, and a good pump should be situated in 
 some convenient place therein. In the respective cloak- 
 rooms there should be a wash-sc^nd, looking-glass, some 
 brushes and other apparatus for arranging and adjusting the 
 toilet. These things are necessary in eveiyr respectable 
 school, and all schools should be respectable. The articles "^ 
 required cost but little, and they tend materially to promote 
 habits of taste, cleanliness, and good order amongst the pupils. 
 
 Scholastic exercises should be conducted with considera- ^xcTcinen 
 ble military precision. When the boll " calls school," the J^u.^^niti. 
 pupils should arrange themselves in files on the play ground p^cUion 
 or some other convenient place. When it ceases to ring, they 
 should march into the school and to their respective class- 
 rooms, keeping time to the music of an organ or piano. 
 Should there be no instrumentiil music available, they may 
 be allowed to sing some patriotic soul-stirring song. The 
 piano sliould be situated on the platform, to the i*ight or left 
 of the } lincipal's desk. One of the assistant teachers, or 
 some of the older pupils, should discourse the music; or 
 each pupil competent to do so might take the post in turn. 
 The music, whether vocal or instrumental, should be con- 
 tinued until all the pupils have entered, and are standing in 
 lint beside their respective seats. Then the principal should 
 command " the halt " by touching his bell, and, by a second 
 sound thereof, order them to be seated. 
 
 If it be the custom of all the teachers and pupils to .«camng" 
 assemble in the large common hall or assembly room at the ^ig^Jnt'"' 
 commencement and close of business, the principal, after school." 
 conducting the religious exercises or other " collective busi- 
 ness," should dismiss the classes to their homes, or to their 
 respective class-rooms, not altogether, but separately, and 
 at short intervals. He should first (by touching his bell) 
 dismiss the lowest class with its teacher, then the second 
 class with its teacher, and so on, until all have left, or until 
 none remain, except the principal's own particular class, 
 
 •K 
 
 r} 
 
 ■t' 
 
 -iji.i 
 
182 
 
 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 Clausiflca- 
 tion of 
 pupiU. 
 
 Test sub- 
 jects. 
 
 should he have one. During their departure some patriotic 
 tune should be played ou the piano : so that as a rule they 
 should march into, and out of, school (or their respective 
 class-rooms) to the sound of music. Though the dismissal 
 of the pupils should not be en bloc, it should be continuous 
 —class after Class in succession. 
 
 The school may be conveniently organized into three 
 divisions or departments, each division into twocla.sses; and, 
 if the school be a large one, each of the classes should be 
 sub-divided into two sections, each section to number from 
 twenty to thirty pupils. In Ontario the pupils of the public 
 schools are supposed to be divided into six classes, the quali- 
 fications of each class or grade being fixed by the Council of 
 Public Instruction. Under this system a teacher may be 
 placed in charge of each class, as in central schools, or two 
 or more classes may form a division under the superintend- 
 ence of one teacher, as in the generality of public schools 
 — the head master being responsible in all cases for the 
 classification, management and control of each class or divi- 
 sion, as well as for the general progress of the whole. In 
 conjunction with the School Board, he has the power to 
 prescribe the duties of all his assistant teachera, and the 
 school laws require him to see that these duties are effi- 
 ciently performed. Generally speaking, the head masters 
 of the public schools have little cause to find fault; for 
 there is no " class of workers " in the world more faithful, 
 diligent, and zealous than Canadian female teachers-^-the 
 class whence the supply of assistant teachers is usually 
 drawn. 
 
 As a rule, pupils should pursue all their studies in the 
 same division, or class. But, although it is desirable that 
 their progress from class to class should be uniform, still, a 
 pupil may be allowed, if qualified, to study reading in one 
 section of that class, and arithmetic in another, or vice verad; 
 and so of the other subjects. These may be regarded as the 
 
THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHINO. 183 
 
 most appropriate test subjects for the younger children, (t. «. 
 those best adapted for enabling a teacher to determine the 
 section, class, or division to which each child should belong,) 
 but dictation, composition, (with accurate punctuation, spell- 
 ing, etc.,) mathematics, and the elements of natural science, 
 may be more suitable for senior pupils; as difference in skill, 
 in their case, is more eixsily ascertained in the latter subjects 
 than in the fomier. They are also more appropriate to the 
 supposed mental calibre of the pupils of advanced age. 
 
 It has been ascertained that in almost all schools classified G-iding. 
 as above, the thii'd or lowest division will contain about 
 twice as many pupils as the first ; and the second about as 
 many, aiid half as many moi*e. In large schools the fore- 
 going classification into diviMJous, classes and sections, is the 
 best that can be adopted. Taking fifteen as the average 
 number in each section, a school arranged as indicated would 
 stand as follows : 
 
 First Division or Department, two classes, each 
 
 class two sections 60 pupils 
 
 Second Division or Department, three classes, each 
 
 class two sections 90 " 
 
 Third Division or Department, four classes, each 
 
 class, two sections 120 " 
 
 Total average attendance .... 270 " 
 
 If twenty be taken as the average number in each " section," 
 it will give a total of 360 for the whole school ; but schools 
 are seldom so large, even in our most prosperous cities, as to 
 exhibit such a high average. As a rule, a "section" should 
 not contain less than ten, nor more than thirty pupils; and 
 there should be an assistant teacher for each class of two 
 sections, or " a teacher for every thirty in the average." In 
 many English schools what we call sections are called classes 
 and vice versd : but the name is a matter of little import, 
 provided we have the principle. In small schools the inter- - 
 mediate grade should be omitted, and the pupils classified as 
 
 1 
 
184 
 
 Uniformity 
 of progress. 
 
 THE SCIENCE AND ART OP TEACHING. 
 
 follows — at least we think the following classification will 
 be more apprOi>riato in rural schools than that given above. 
 The following ia to be considered as merely ai. approxi- 
 mation : 
 
 First Division, one class of, say 20 pupils. 
 
 Second Division, two classes, fifteen pupils each. 30 " 
 Third Division, two classes, twenty pupils each. 40 " 
 
 Total average attendance .... 90 
 In very small or very large schools, the classification should 
 be somewhat diflforent still to the foregoing : we merely 
 submit these examples as guides to classification. Taey may 
 serve as a basis for that purpose. It would be unwise, if 
 not impossible, to lay down any fixed or rigid rules on this 
 subject, as so much depends on circumstances — circumstances 
 not general. However, enough has been said on the sub- 
 ject for all practiciil purposes. 
 
 If the teacher be desirous of promoting uniform progress^ 
 the classes must be of uniform size ; the pupils of the same 
 class, if not of the same section, must be of the same intel- 
 lectual attainments ; and whatever assistance he thinks pro- 
 per to furnish should be given, not to one individual but, to 
 the whole chiss collectively. If a pupil ask for aid, the 
 teacher should note the difficulty, and explain the same to 
 the whole cLxss at a fit and convenient time, when, if possi- 
 ble, he will lead " the youngsters" to solve it for themselves. 
 Unless he attend to these things, and that the pupils present 
 at collective lessons be endowed with the same, or nearly the 
 same, degree of mental capacity, his teaching cannot possibly 
 be very efficient or successful. He will be like the sower 
 who went forth to sow, whose seed fell amongst thorns and 
 on rocks, as well as on good soil. We may remember, it is 
 said, that the seed which fell on the latter, grew up and came 
 to maturity, whilst that which fell on rocks and amongst 
 thorns, remained unproductive. The child's mind is the 
 ground on which the seed is cast. It behoves the teacher 
 
THR SCIENCE AND ART OF TBACHINO. 
 
 185 
 
 to see that the soil is duly pre{)ared for the seeds of lastruc- 
 tion — properly cleared of rocks, stumps and weeds — ho that 
 in days to come, he may reap when? ho has sown. 
 
 The teacher should be careful to suit the subjects of study. Subject* of 
 and the mode of treating thoui, to the mental capacities of adapted to 
 
 1 iMi ji'i Lt ' •» mental f«pa- 
 
 the children under his charge. Starting with common city. 
 things and long familiar ideas, he should lead them on grad- 
 ually to higher objects — to more enlarged acquirements, 
 more extensive viows, and, so far as possible, to the maxi- 
 mum of excellence in everything. The subjects or branches 
 of learning, likely to be useful in after life, should be made 
 the instruments of moral culture and mental development. 
 The lessons of the lower sections and classes should be speci- 
 ally adapted to the exercise of the perceptive faculties. At 
 this stage, observation and curiosity are the " working 
 organs," and, so tar as possible, the pupils should be taught 
 through the medium of the eye. As the children grow older, 
 or advance in their respective classes, as aforesaid, memory, 
 imagination, i-eason and judgment, should be developed in 
 natural order. This development is the foundation of good 
 education. The healthy cultivation cf the jnental, moral and 
 physical powers is far more desirable than the mere acquisi- 
 tion of knowledge. 
 
 The various methods of instruction may be reduced to Systems of 
 
 teaching 
 two — the synthetical and the analytical. By the former 
 
 we combine, construe^, or pi*t together ; by the latter, we 
 reduce compounds to elements. The one ascends from par- 
 ticular facts to general principles, the other descends from 
 general principles to particular facts. 
 
 When the essential particulars of any subject are so order of 
 numerous as to be likely to fatigue the attention, pupils may me^t.°^ 
 commence its study by learning the general principles first, 
 and then proceed to the consideration of the respective facts. 
 However, as a rule, they should proceed from the simple to 
 the complex, from the concrete to the abstract, from the homo- 
 13 
 
 
 
 'f4 
 
 it 
 
18() THIS SCIENCE AND vBT OF TEACHINO. 
 
 goneouH to the heterogeneous. If possible, the mind should 
 be intruiluced to principles through the medium of exam- 
 ples, and gradually led from the particular to the general. 
 Every study should have an cx[>erimcntal introduction. 
 The facts a child acquires in this manner should Im) made 
 the basis of communication of more advanced or more com- 
 plex ideas. When he fully understands these ideas, we may 
 a^ke a further step in advance. As he thus gradually digests 
 each lesson, wo may supply the knowledge he craves, and 
 thus qiake the mind self-developing. As M. Le Compte 
 well observes, " the genesis of knowledge in the individual 
 must follow the same course as the genesis of knowledge 
 in the race." ** In mode and arrangement," says Herbert 
 Spencer, " the education of children must harmonize with 
 the education of the race, considered historically." *' There 
 are stages of development in the immature growth of indi- 
 viduals," says Hugh Miller, "which seem to correspond with 
 stages cvf development in the immature growth of nations." 
 There ia in every child, as we may ascertain by looking 
 back on our own individual history, an aptitude to acquire 
 information in the order in which the race to which he 
 belongs mastered its various kinds of knowledge. The 
 education of the individual may be facilitated by leading 
 him through the steps traversed by the general mind — 
 those steps being taken in their order of sequence. Hence, 
 education should be a, repetition, in miniature, of the suc- 
 cessive stages of development in the civilization of the race. 
 The piore fuUy we consider these facts, the more firmly are 
 we convinced of their truth. The history of educational 
 progress amongst the race (or mankind generally) is a potent 
 ally ii^ CAahling ua, to understand " child natui-e," whilst it 
 suggests many useful hints as regards the true principles of 
 teaching. Qne, mgUui is, a, type and representative, more or 
 less, o£ s^ i]^nds y hence, if we unden^tapd our own con- 
 ceptiopsi, and 4ulx copiprehend the power sgad effect of the 
 
THE SCIENCE AND ART OP TEACHING. 
 
 187 
 
 laws which regulate the action of thought, we will he ablp 
 to divine tue thoughts and ascertain the motives of other 
 people. We may generally read a parent's character through 
 that of his child ; and, vice versd, the evil passions and 
 infirmities of disposition to be checked or eradicatetl in 
 children, are traits of character which have l)een more or 
 less transmitted from their progenitors. Hereditary trans- 
 mission hands down mental and moral characteristics as 
 well as physical excellencies or defects. 
 
 The order in which subjects of study should be presented Natural hikI 
 to the understanding, deserves much thought. By judicious of stu-i'y 
 arrangements and careful elimination, the accumulattd know- 
 ledge of ages may be condensed into a small compass, and 
 imparted to children in such a form as will create a thirst 
 for m^re light, whilst saving them useless labour. An expe. 
 rienced teacher can impart as mucli information in a few 
 hours, as the unassisted tyro would fail to acqiiire in as 
 many months — perhaps years. The subjects embraced in 
 the programme of studies should follow each other in natui*al 
 and logical order. The primary, or elementary subjects 
 should invariably be presented fii-st, and the elements of 
 ea<ih, thoroughly understood by the pupil before the tt^acher 
 proceeds to the inculcation of higher truths. In other 
 words, the subjects best calculated to promote the right 
 cultivation of the mental powers, should bo j)resented to the 
 mind in the order of sequence which nature follows in the 
 development of these faculties. For these reasons, ''natural 
 and logical order" should be a motto with eA'ery student 
 and teacher; otherwise, success, if possible, will at all events 
 be doubtful. Pupils desirous of acquiring any branch of 
 knowledge should learn to regard it in an applicate jis well 
 as in a theoretical sense, and vice versa. For instance, in 
 the acquistion of geometry, arithmetic, grammar, geogra- 
 phy, or any other branch of learning, they sJiould atudy the ' 
 subject, and regard books relating thei-eto as mere tools or 
 
 !4| 
 
 ti 
 
18^ 
 
 TflK ariKMOE AND ART OP TKACHINO. 
 
 meaTiR for that purposo. As mntterH Htand, they fro<|uently 
 fnU into the error of Ktii'lyiui; tho author more than they 
 study the Hubject, implicitly adopting his view.s without the 
 least reflection or [>ci*sonal investi<,'ation. Mind should not 
 be a passive recipient, like the sponge. It should be the 
 great and constant aim of the teacher to make it an active 
 agent, .so that it may (jxorcise its divinity, an<l ivssert its 
 near relation to the Creator. 
 
 •frvation*. 
 
 CHAI'TEU H. 
 
 COLLECTIVE TEACHING. 
 
 In collective teaching the teacher's success will depend, in 
 a great measure, on his j)ei*sonal carriage and general appear- 
 ance. His manner of address should, therefore, be easy, 
 fluent, and graceful. He should be animated, without being 
 "flouried." Being careful to avoid such characteristics as 
 "meaningless pauses," stammering, and unnecessary repeti- 
 tion, he should state exactly what he means, and in as few 
 words as possible. It is far better to be a man of too few 
 than too many words. Simplicity should be one of the char- 
 acteristics of every teacher— simplicity of language, simplicity 
 of illustration. In fact, simplicity may be regarded as "the 
 maximum of excellence." During the delivery of a lesson, 
 prior to its commencement and after its close, the teacher 
 should test his pupils' comprehension of the subject by a 
 series of skilful questions. As explained more fully else- 
 where, the time occupied in the deliveiy of a lesson should 
 not be prolonged so as to weary the class, and create a dis- 
 like for the subject. A lesson extending over the space of 
 half an hour will be quite long enough for junior classes, 
 
THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 189 
 
 and forty-five minutos will be Ruflicient for the senior divi- 
 sions. The teacher can easily jpiess how long a lesstm may 
 be, and also ascertain the effect of his teaching, by noting 
 the interest he is able to inspire and maintain. He should 
 never continue a lesson until the pupils lo.se their relish for 
 the subject. He must stir up and |)iirtially sati.sfy their 
 mental appetites, but he must not allow them to feed to the 
 verge of satiety. Better to stop short of this point and 
 bring the lesson to a close, while the pupils are yet anxious 
 to learn more about it. They will then return to, or resume, 
 its investigation at some future time with renewed pleasure, 
 and study it in private with an ever-increasing interest. 
 
 With very young children, the elliptical method of teach- 
 ing is, perhaps, the most effective — at all events, it will l)e 
 most succe.ssful in maintaining attention. It has its dangei-s, 
 however, and, to be successful, must l)e guided by a skilful 
 "hand." As a rule, the practice of this method will be suc- 
 cessful if accompanied by many questions, and but few ellip- 
 ses. Both skilfully intermixed, will be effective. The pupils 
 should not be required to fill in an ellip.sis which, in the 
 nature of things, they could not be expected to supj)ly. The 
 ellipses should not be ambiguous nor uncertain, and should 
 consist of but few words. If the class be composed of very 
 young children, one word will be sufficient. 
 
 The analytical and synthetical methods may be used with 
 great advantage in collective teaching. In conducting his 
 instructions according to the collective method, the teacher 
 should be particularly careful that the pupils in each class 
 be of the same degree of mental capacity ; that he educate 
 as well as talk; that they be instructed as well as pleased; 
 that he be supplied with specimens, models, or diagrams, to 
 illustrate his lesson ; that whatever maps he may require be 
 at hand, and that any subjects needing illustrations, addi- 
 tional to those provided, be sketched on the black-board. 
 If the members composing a class be not of the same (or 
 
 The»llinti- 
 cnl metho<l. 
 
 same capa< 
 city. 
 
 
 J 
 
 
 rt , -I 
 
lyo 
 
 THE SCIENCE AND ABT OP TEACHING. 
 
 nearly the same) degree of capacity, the wubjoct, and the 
 teacher'H methcnl of treating it, will be too simple for some, 
 and incomprehensible to others. Therefore, neither party 
 will be edified — probably both will be injured, fatigued, or 
 "disgusted." Imperfect cUiHsification is one of the greatest 
 impediments to success, and one of the most serious obstacles 
 with which the conscientious teacher has to contend. The 
 difficulty arises from many causes, such as irregularity of 
 attendance, want of sufficicnit help, the natural though fool- 
 ish anxiety of parents to have their children promoted, the 
 desire of teachers to comply with parents' wishes, etc. The 
 teacher who would be successful must exhibit a will of his 
 own, and classify his pupils according to their natural and 
 acquired abilities, irresj)ective of exterior influences. But 
 to return : 
 AiTniige- The teachei- must thoroughly understand his subject, and 
 
 lesson in its arrange the matter in uf^ural and logical order, if he be 
 
 natural '^ . . , , " ' 
 
 order and really desirous of practising collective lessons successfully. 
 He should prepare a sketch of the subject, and after tlie 
 delivery of the lesson, tile the same for future reference. 
 This sketch should exhibit the heads, divisions, and sub- 
 divisions of the lesson, arranged in their natural order of 
 sequence, so that the treatment of the matter, and manner 
 of delivery may be apparent at a glance. It would be wise 
 to note (as a P.S.) the specimens, models, charts, or dia- 
 grams, necessary for illustrating the subject. Object lessons 
 are generally collective lessons ; and every collective lesson, 
 should be more or less an object lesson, . 
 
 When the teacher has deduced and explained all the par- 
 ticulars of the first section of his lesson, he should lead his 
 pupils to recapitulate what they have learned, whiist he 
 writes the headings or sketch of same on the black-board, 
 fioni their dictation — taking care to ascertain whether they 
 have gained ideas jis well as words. He should then take 
 up the next section and ti'eat it in like manner, and so on 
 
 Hf.iiapltula- 
 tiuM. 
 
THiB SCtEUCE AtfTt ART Of TEACHINO. 191 
 
 to the end of the lesson, when there should be a general 
 i*ecapitu!ation of the whole, the teacher pointing to the 
 headings on the board. At the close, the black-board 
 should exhibit a perfect sketch of the principal points of the 
 lesson, duly numbered in their order of sequence — ^ther each 
 idea will have been developed, deduced, and expressed in 
 its logical order. Each of these lessons should form part of ^ 
 a regular series — of a complete whole — being naturally con- 
 nected one with another, links in the development of the 
 great chain of intellect, well-prepared stones in the great 
 arch of science. 
 
 From what has been stated in this and preceding chap- Chaiacturi:- 
 ters, it will be seen that successful teaching depends chiefly teac biiii-. 
 on the following characteristics, namely: (1) Simplicity, by 
 which we mean that the mind should be fixed upon only one 
 thought at a time : (2) Gradation, or logical and natural 
 order: (3) Repetition, which is necessary to due impression: 
 (4) Illustration, which groups and associates examples of 
 same facts : (5) Precision in the use of words, whereby the 
 elective faculty selects the best and most appropriate : (6) 
 Enunciation or Definition, whereby principles are clothed in 
 words : (7) Application, which applies the results of the les- 
 son to the benefit of the pupil , by solving or confirming some 
 principle in religion, science, or morals. 
 
 Every collective lesson should have an introduction, and lutidduc- 
 an application. The object of the introduction is .to connect ifssou— 
 the lesson with the preceding lessons on the same subject. 
 It should be short, clear, useful, and interesting ; so that it 
 may open the mind to receive additional light, and fix the 
 attention on what follows. The illustrations used should 
 be apposite and natural, interesting, clear and graphic, the 
 essential points of resemblance being distinctly and promi- 
 nently placed before the mental gaze. Illustration to be 
 effective must be ample, without being redundant. 
 
1 92 
 
 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 (icsson to 
 have a pruc- 
 tinal appli- 
 imtioii. 
 
 Socritic 
 ii»ethi>(i. 
 
 The practical application of a lesson should grow naturally 
 out of the lesson. It should not be forced, nor introduced 
 as a mere statement, but as a reflection associated with, and 
 arising from, the subject. It should not comprise more than 
 one or two infeiences. Wei-e they increased in number, the 
 impression of each would be lessened, and the mind con- 
 fused. The teacher should have a definite purpose in every 
 lesson he gives, and should not rest satisfied until he has 
 accomplished the object in view. Should he have a just 
 conception of his work, he will be able to describe before- 
 hand what he aims at, how he expects to attain it, and what 
 efiect each lesson may be expected to produce. The collec- 
 tive lesson, if skilfully delivered, is a potent agent in devel- 
 oping noble ideas, habits, and actions. It is the most effec- 
 tive instrument he can use to influence the affections, or 
 draw out and develop the various faculties of the mind. 
 Under the management of a skilful teacher it is one of the 
 most powerful aids in doing good. We know of no means 
 more eflicient in "pointing a moral or adorning a tale." 
 
 Section 2. THE ART OP CATECHISING. 
 
 The art of asking questions admits of two divisions. The 
 firet division may be used as a means of instruction, and is 
 then called the catechetical or Socratic method. It is a well- 
 known fact, that by Ifieans of a few judicious well-connected 
 questions, pupils may be easily led to discover principles, and 
 to solve difficulties, which would otherwise be insurmount- 
 able. Full many a time does the bosom of the pupil glow 
 with honest pride when he remembers, that personal efforts 
 have enabled him to overcome such literary obstacles. But 
 to effect these objects, the questions should naturally grow 
 out of each other, beginning at some familiar point and pro- 
 c ^ding step by step to the unknown — until the answer to 
 t e last question of the series reveals the mystery, and 
 unfolds the knowledge sought. 
 
 P< 
 P 
 
THE 'SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 19S 
 
 The second division of the art comprehends queries pro- Tentative 
 
 . ... Ill- ""•' examiii- 
 
 posed as test questions at recitations, reviews, and public or ation que«- 
 private examinations, and also such as may be proposed to 
 ascertain the extent of pupils' knowledge of a subject before, 
 giving a lesson. In proposing questions, as in performing 
 other educational work, the teacher's chief object .should be 
 to exercise and strengthen the respective mental faculties of 
 the pupils. The test of their actual knowledge (except at 
 certain examinations) is a matter secondary to these consid- 
 erations. A question, admitting of such an answer as *' yes " 
 or " no" should never be proposed. Queries should be of a 
 searching nature, and be proposed in such a manner as to 
 find out how much or how little the pupil knows of the sub- 
 ject. This course will tend to secure careful and thorough 
 preparation. It will improve the i)upirs power of expression, 
 cultivate his memory, increase his knowledge, make his in- 
 formation more definite, and thereby enable him to acquit 
 himself with credit and satisfaction. The pupil's answei'S, 
 like the teacher's queries, should be clear, full, and exact — 
 free from ambiguity and uncertainty. As a rule, the pupil 
 should not be interrupted or corrected until ** quite through 
 with his reply." The tact or skill requisite in asking ques- 
 tions aright may be regarded as one of the mysteries of the 
 teacher's art — and not the least of them. This tact is, in 
 fact, one of his most imi>ortant qualifications, and (if not 
 naturally possessed of it) he must necessarily acquire it, 
 should he be desirous of more than ordinary success. It is 
 a real test of the teacher's aptitude and ability. However, 
 it must be remembered that the true measure of his skill is 
 not what he can do and say himself, but Avhat he can get 
 his pupils to say and do. 
 
 Individual questioning is impossible in a large class; and, To be gen- 
 
 A**a1 in 
 
 if possible, it implies a loss of power, as each pupil will re- application, 
 ceive only a fraction of the whole instruction. Questions 
 
 Mi 
 
194 
 
 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 Character- 
 
 ifltiCB of 
 
 good 
 answering. 
 
 Correction 
 of errors. 
 
 should be addressed to the class, not to indr-'dual pupils. 
 To be effective, they must act upon the whole, not upon any 
 part or unit. After all have held up their hand, or given 
 some other sij^ of their ability or inability to reply, the 
 teacher may call on one individual to give the answer ; but 
 he should never designate the individual before giving the 
 question. In this manner, all the pupils will profit by the 
 questions addressed to one, and the whole lesson will be 
 continuous to the whole class. 
 
 Effective questioning must combine the individual and 
 simultaneous methods. Under such a combination the pupils 
 will acquire a tendency to answer mentally, and, if the ques- 
 tions be fairly distributed, the class will imbibe the maxi- 
 mum amount of knowledge. Though tfulness and distinctness 
 are the best character is tics of good answering. Hence, 1*6- 
 plies are to be judged by a double standard — by th^.AI2iount of 
 truth they contain, and the amount of thought they indicate. 
 In rejecting an answer, tlie teacher should give credit for 
 the amount of trutli or evidence of thought expressed or 
 implied therein — the class, or the ])upil himself, being led to 
 amend or enlarge, as necessary. This course will encourage 
 the diffident, and check the thoughtless ardour of the over- 
 confident, whilst it develops instead of repressing intelli- 
 gence. Should the teacher detect any inattention on the 
 part of a pupil he should instantly ask him to answer the 
 question proposed, or to repeat it. If unable to do so, he 
 should forfeit his standing in the class. 
 
 Error is the result of ignorance, prejudice, or habit. Per- 
 sonal correction on the part of the pupil is the only true 
 safe-guard against its repetition. The correction of errors is 
 no small part of the work of both teacher and pupil ; but 
 unless a sense of error be felt by those who make it, there 
 can be no real or thorough correction. It is not always 
 expedient to insist on rapidity of thought. Hasty answers 
 
THE 8CIENCB AND ART OF TEACH INQ. 
 
 196 
 
 are often the result of impulse, and then imply the absence 
 of reflection. For these reasons pupils should be encouraged 
 to ''think twice before they speak once." 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 SPELLING. 
 
 Having treated of the school building, of the order or 
 plan of instruction and classification, and of the general 
 principles which should guide every ttiacher in the intelligent 
 practice of his art, we will now proceed to consider the more 
 important of those branches of knowledge supposed to be 
 imparted at every public school. Feeling that theory should 
 give way to practice, and science develop itself in art, we 
 will venture to submit, at least, one of the more approved 
 methods of teaching each particular subject. However, we 
 would not bind the teacher to adopt this method, seeing that 
 "Moreau's plan was the best for Moreau." There are cir- 
 cumstances in which other methods will work equally well. 
 The teacher, however, must remember that all systems of 
 education should be founded on well-established scientific 
 principles, and that life is too short to waste much time in 
 visionary experiments. Doubtless the following pages may 
 be useful to the young and inexperienced teacher, and not 
 wholly uninteresting to the Nestors of the profession. 
 
 Keeping the foregoing objects in view, we will now pro- 
 ceed to consider the more important subjects of popular 
 instruction. Fii'st on the list, and first in the order of se- 
 quence, is spelling — the foundation-stone of all literary edu- 
 cation. This subject may be taught to very young children 
 by means of a box or spelling apparatus, containing a chart 
 
 MethcKlH of 
 teaching 
 bbould [>« 
 bas<>d on 
 Bcicntifli; 
 principlt'8. 
 
 Spelling, 
 and how to 
 teach it. 
 
1U<) THE SCIENCE AN5 ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 of pictures and words (names), which, by the agency of 
 cranks, can be moved like a panorama beliind an opening — 
 the said opening, tlirough the action of flexible slides, to be 
 closed, enlarged, or decreased, at the will of the teacher. 
 
 The pictures are of groat Talue, as they prepare the mind to 
 receive the name of the ol)ject presented. Then tlie crank 
 is turm?d again, and, as it slowly revolves, letter after letter 
 of the name is exposed in regular sequence ; so that the 
 little ones actually spell the word by naming each letter as 
 it appears. By these means, they tirst receive a strong im- 
 pression of the object; they then obtain its name, (^ through 
 the teaclier, if necessary,) and finally learn to spell the same. 
 This done, they should write the word on their slates (if 
 able to write), after which the teacher may write the word 
 on the black-board, and direct them to compare it with the 
 word on their slates, making any necessary corrections. 
 They may then proceed to consider the next object, and to 
 spell and write its name in like manner — the new object 
 being revealed, and the former one concealed, by another 
 turn of the crank; and so on to the end of the lesson. It 
 will be seen that this system combines real amusement with 
 genuine intellectual instruction. The fact of a portion of 
 the lesson being concealed, tends to excite the curiosity and 
 to hold the attention of the pupils, so that they are sure to 
 be on the qui vive as to "what will come next." This spell- 
 ing apparatus is specially adapted for the use of primary 
 
THE 8CIENCE AND ART OP TEACHING. 
 
 197 
 
 schools, and may be said to supci'sede the use of primei-s. 
 Besides making instruction pleasant !vnd profitable, it saves 
 much time and labour, and materially increases the instruc- 
 tor's teaching power. It will l)e seen that reading (and 
 even vioa voce com})osition) can bo taught young pupils by 
 means of this apparatus ; but the reading machine is a much 
 l)etter aid in this respect. 
 
 The Realiiig IMachino, of wliicli the above is a cut, was 
 devised (with some necessary alterations) from a model seen 
 by us some years ago in the Royal Museum at Naples. It 
 is simple in construction and very easily managed. It may 
 be described as a frame, or box, mounted on a movable 
 support and fixed so as to revolve on a horizontal axle, e, f. 
 It may be of any height or length, but its width from front 
 
198 
 
 •« 
 
 precede 
 ^prlHiijj. 
 
 I 
 
 THE 8CIBNCB AND ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 to rear need not exceed two and a half inches. The face or 
 front of the mac})inc may be divided into an many vertical 
 HectionH containing word«, aa the teacher may desire; — each 
 section Iwdng covered with Hlides which can be moved up- 
 wards or downwards at pleasure, one slide Uung absent in 
 each column. Inside these slides is a card, of suitable 
 dimensiouH, containing sentences arranged so that at any 
 stage of an expression the words will suit and make sense, 
 no matter which of the slides may be moved in the adjoin- 
 ing column. The teacher may remove the card and substi- 
 tute another by opening the baso-board, c, D. The iron feet 
 are sufficiently heavy and far apart to secure stability. It 
 would be advantageous to mount them on rollers. The card 
 headings, corresponding to th(^ spaces from a to b, contain 
 pictures representing the subject of the lesson (the lion for 
 instance) in various attitudes or relations. 
 
 According to Nature's mode of teaching, reading should 
 precede spelling in the order of sequence. The young child 
 acquires the use of words long before he is required to 
 analyze them into soimds, or express them by lettei*s. After 
 he has learned to read and write the letters of the alphabet 
 (small scrijjt or italic) he may, by means of the "reading 
 macliine," be taught to read short sentences. After read- 
 iii'^ a sentence, tlie words may be resolved into syllables and 
 letters, and then written by the teacher on the black-board, 
 the children dictatiiii' the letters. The children mav then 
 copy same, letter for letter, on their slates; after which they 
 should be required to read it collectively and simultane- 
 ously — finally spelling each word as they have written it. 
 The machine used for teaching spelling in some of the 
 Massachusetts primary schools (see fig., page 19G,) is about 
 three feet long by one and a half in breadth and two in 
 height, and when in use is fixed on a table set apart for the 
 purpose. The respective objects, and their names, letter 
 by letter, are exhibited to the class by the movement of 
 
TUfi BCIKMCB AND ART OF TB-'CHINO. 
 
 the crank turned by the tmcher'a hr.nd — hovelled wheels 
 acting on the cylmdera inside Cfuise tlu'-ni to revolve, an<l thuH 
 roll the canvas round the drum at one end of the machine 
 (a), whiJHt it is unrolled at the other (6). In some primary 
 schools the "spelling stick" (see cut) is favoured with a 
 prominent place. 
 
 199 
 
 This instrument consists of a piece of wood, or iron, 
 properly fashioned and grooved for holding the card-board 
 letters. By the aid of this simple device the teachers of 
 primary classes will find it easy to command the attention 
 of their pupils, teach the form of letters, and show how to 
 combine them into words. It has been well said that " by 
 it« use words and their Hj)elling may be taught to a large 
 class with less outlay of time and })atience than is required 
 for teaching a single p\ipil with the book alone." It will 
 be seen that if words, instead of lettei*s, be placed on tlie 
 card-board, the Sjjelling Stick will be transformed into 
 a "Sentence Stick" — an instrument which may be very 
 advantageously used in teaching children how to constiiict 
 sentences, just as they had previously been shown how to 
 construct words. In fact this is done in the ordinary 
 manner, as above, with but little effort on the part of the 
 teacher. By means of " The Stick " the teacher may (with- 
 out the use of the rod) lead his primary classes to acquire, 
 almost unconsciously, a good working knowledge of the 
 first principles of composition. 
 
200 
 
 THE SCIENCE AND ART OP TEACHING. 
 
 How th« 
 higher 
 claaiies 
 nhoulil b« 
 Uught. 
 
 OnItT of 
 mer.t. 
 
 I 
 
 Pupils of the higher claflses should bo taught spelling by 
 means of dictation, cotni>osition and analysis of words. 
 S|)ellin^ is needed chiefly in writing, and is taught best in 
 connection wiUi that exercise. Its aajuisition, in this man- 
 ner, will cost comparatively little time or labour, and the 
 neceasary practice in writing words will ensure ibe pupil a 
 degree of facility in expressing his thoughts, which will be no 
 small help when he comes to study the art of composition. 
 Each [)Upil should provide himself with a dictionary, and 
 also with a spoiling book " without meanings." During the 
 preparation of his lesson he should write on his slate the 
 words proscribed, and attach their meanings as given in the 
 dictionary. The time fixed for spelling exercises having 
 arrived, and the class being called, the pupils will erase any 
 words they may have on the slates, and take their places 
 accortling to their order of merit in the last spelling class. 
 The teacher will then give out the words of the prescribed 
 lesson in irreijular order, and the pupils will write the same 
 to his dictation. This being done he will instruct them to 
 write the meanings, allowing a fixed time to do so. He will 
 then tell' them to hold down (or exchange) slates, after which 
 he will glanco over each and mark the errors, beginning at 
 the head of the class. When all the slates have been 
 examined thus, the pupils who have no erroi*s will take pre- 
 cedence, according to their order of merit, of those who have. 
 In like manner those who have only one error will take 
 pi-ecedence of those M^ho have two, whilst those who have 
 more than two may be " plucked," i. e. sent to their seats 
 with instructions to remain in during intermissions, or to 
 remain after school hours to study the lesson. The former, 
 that is, those who had but one or two errors, correct the same, 
 while the latter are returning to their seats. The teacher 
 examines the corrections and instructs the class to ** number," 
 He then reads aloud the name of each individual in the 
 spelling class, from the " Daily Register of Progress." 
 
 
THE SCIENCE AND ART OP TEACHING. 
 
 201 
 
 been 
 
 e pre- 
 
 have. 
 
 take 
 
 have 
 
 seats 
 
 or to 
 
 ji-mer, 
 
 same, 
 
 eacher 
 
 nber." 
 
 n the 
 
 While doing so, eacli pupil, on mentioned, Htntes the " num- 
 ber" indicating bis standing in the claw as acquired during 
 the present losson. This number is imme<liately entered by 
 the teacher opposite© the pupil's name, under the proper date^ 
 and so on from tirst to last. Pupils sent to their seats will 
 have no stiinding, and must take places in the class next 
 time after all their companions, and in the relative order 
 indioited by their register nuinl)er8 on the roll of the school. 
 
 The pupils of intermediate or junior chisses may not be How error* 
 compelled to give ** meanings for words " as indicated above, corrfotH. 
 but should be required to write them coiTectly, dividing 
 each into its proper syllables. The correct copying of prose 
 or poetry is an agi-eeablo exercise, and also an excellent me- 
 thod of teaching this subject. Pupils making mistakes in 
 8i>elling should invariably correct them in writing — on paper 
 or on the black-board — this will tend to fix them on the 
 tablet of the mind. Some teachers require pupils to prepare 
 thoir spelling exercises at home, but the circumstances of 
 each l)eiag diff»n'ent, and the facilities of acquisition variable, 
 we believe it would be better to have the work done in 
 school under official supervision. The higher classes should 
 study the philosophy of spelling while labouring to acquire 
 perfection in the art. This is often neglected by modern 
 students, but wjis never forgotten by our fathers. They 
 were also more skilful in the art than we are. They seem 
 to have had more time for pi-actice than their sons and 
 grandsons of the present age. In former times, besides the 
 ordinary daily lessons in spelling, there were what might be 
 called general field days. On these occasions the pupils (by 
 "choosing sides") divided into two parties, and were ranged 
 in lines opposite each other. The two best pupils in the 
 school made the "selections" alternately, under the super- 
 vision of the teacher. Sometimes, instead of "the whole 
 school being ranged against each other," irrespective of sex, 
 the girls became the opponents of the boys, or a class was 
 U 
 
 "Field days' 
 in spelling. 
 
202 
 
 THE BCIENCB AKD ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 ran/;(e<l aguinHt a class. TIio woi-ds were th n given out by 
 the teacher, or by one of the pupils elected i'or the purpose, 
 and the lively contest commenced; or the pupils on either 
 side gave words to their op|)onents — words taken from 
 lessons that hiul l)een learned. Each pupil who missed a 
 word, fell out of line and took his seat, and at last only a 
 few remained standing on the "bloodless field." These 
 "heroes" then commencofl the contest anew (if time per- 
 mitted), and wagetl "war" until one had the high honour of 
 standing alone, "monarch of all he sui'veyed." This pupil 
 was then hailed as "champion s|K;ller" of the school, until 
 the varying fortunes of another battle gave his laurels to 
 some industrious rival. If time were limited, the side which 
 had the greater number standing after "the first round of 
 spelling" had been finished, might, of course, be regarded as 
 having won the match. We would not bo so minute in 
 describing this method were it not that it has fallen into 
 disuse, and may be forgotten, unknown, or misunderstood 
 by young teachers. It was formerly very popular, and is 
 so still, wherever used. It forms an agreeable variation 
 when the mind is fatigued with heavier studies, and, if 
 introduced, the teacher may rely on its favourable accept- 
 ance and general success. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 READING. 
 
 Reading, 
 . and how to 
 teach it. 
 
 In reading, as in spelling and other exercises, the teacher, 
 of course, appoints the lesson beforehand. It is the custom 
 in many schools for pupils to go through their reading exer- 
 cise in their desks, each standing up when it comes to his 
 
THK BTIKNCE Aim ART OP TeACIIllfa. 
 
 2on 
 
 torn to roa<l; but, if convrnient, it would Iw mlvirnvble for 
 the pupih to go tlirough this leiwon at the oIumi HtatiotiH, ^ tutrit. 
 tftking and changing placeH according to merit. Having 
 duly prcfKinMl tlio leHHon, and taken their resfKictive posi- 
 tionH, the teacher givi« the aigiuil to *'b«^gin," and then the 
 6nit pupil in the clasH cominenceN to read, previouHJy naming 
 the page, 8U> •jt3ct, etc. As a rule, l>efcre giving the order to 
 commence, '»f^ teacher should propose a few searching ques- tion«t4. jm- 
 tions, so that he may ascertain what the pupils really know leaaoim. 
 about the lesson. By this means he gains seveml necessary 
 advantages ; he leads the pupils to perceive how much they 
 have still to learn in connection with the subject; he excites 
 their curiosity to know more ; he gains and concentrates 
 their attention, and places himself in a [>osition to adapt his 
 teaching to their mental capacity and general ac(|uirements. 
 If consistent with his convenience, he should also ask a few 
 leading questions concerning the lesson, on the same subject, 
 immediately preceding the one under consideration. This 
 prwcticfi will enable him to retain and continue the thread 
 of succession. In reading exercises, strict attention should 
 be paid to the clear, distinct utterance of each word, to cor- 
 rect pronunciation, proper inflection, and just emphasis — 
 the teacher himself occasionally reading a sentence as a 
 model. Pupils detecting errora in the reading of their com- 
 panions should raise their right hand in token of dissent; 
 and one of them, specially selected by the teacher, should 
 make the necessary correction. If it be the custom of the 
 school that pupils are to be permitted to '^change places" in 
 their classes, taking precedence according to merit, then, if 
 several of the pupils have their hands up, the teacher, as a 
 rule, would require the correction to be made, or the correct 
 answer to be given, by the nearest boy to him who had 
 erred, and who maj have his "hand up." Should this party 
 answer satisfactorily, he should be allowed to "go up," that 
 is, to take precedence of the erring boy, and all the inter- 
 
 y 
 
204 
 
 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 I I 
 
 Papils to 
 give u sum- 
 in iry of the 
 les«on at its 
 
 To quention 
 e»(;!i other. 
 
 Things to be 
 observed. 
 
 l<ei}Sons to 
 he of mod- 
 prate length. 
 
 mediate pupils, if any. At the close of each paragraph (if 
 the class be a junior one) questions might be advantageously 
 proposed relative to the meaning of the respective sentences 
 and component words. If necessary, explanations should 
 be given, diagmms and other illustrations exhibited, and, 
 finally, the pupils should l)e required to ex[)i"e8s the sense of 
 the paragraph in their own words. At the close of the 
 lesson (whether the classes l)e junior or senior) a general 
 summing uj» is desirable. Each pupil should be required to 
 name in order (wholly or in part) the successive steps in the 
 argument or discourse. The pupils may be occasionally per- 
 mitted, as a favour, to propose questions to each other con- 
 cerning the lesson — etich taking "place" according to his 
 skill and ability. The last or lowest pupil in the class 
 would, of coui*se, ask the first query, and the head of the 
 class would ask the last, according to this arrangement. 
 This CNercise will form an agreeable variation, and will 
 never fail to excite general interest, and to create an honest 
 rivalry amongst the pupils. It will cau.se them to seek 
 assistiiiice at home, so that they may be able to come to 
 school with a select stock of questions on the reading les- 
 son. This is a subject in which almost every parent will 
 be able to render assistance. Of course, all questions pro- 
 posed by pupils will be subject to such alterations, additions, 
 or omissions, as the t«acher may think necessary; and all 
 pupils must "ask questions having answers in the lesson." 
 The observance of this rule is necessary to the success of the 
 ]>lan. Every Friday afternoon, the pupils may be allowed 
 to question each other on general topics — on the contents of 
 the several lessons learned during the week, for instance — 
 but no idle or unruly pupil should be allowed to take part 
 in this recreation. It will be observed, that thebo remarks 
 concerning exercises in reading, are equally applicable to 
 lessons in history, geography, and several other subjects. 
 Reading lessons should be of moderate length — ^the limits 
 
THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 205 
 
 being always fixed beforehand by the teacher. Every pupil 
 in a class should be required to pay strict attention to the 
 reading of his companions, and occasionally required to criti- 
 cise same. Should the teacher have reason to believe that 
 any pupil is careless or inattentive, he should stop proceed- 
 ings immediately, and ask him a question. Let him be 
 asked to read, for instance, and, should he not know the 
 place, let him be degraded and sent to the foot of 
 the class. 
 
 The best way to correct a bad style is to call the pupils' uow to vet- 
 attention to the characteristic excellencies of good reading — ffiw- *»tyi"! 
 instructing them to carefully note the i)eculiar causes of bad 
 reading. If a boy read badly, or in a slovenly and careless 
 manner, the teacher should ask if any of his companions can 
 read better. When he has ascertained how many of them 
 feel desirous of " offering improvements," he should call on 
 each pupil (having his hand up) to point out some defect, 
 and finally require one of them to read the sentence again. 
 He may then encourage them to [)oint out the difference 
 between the reading of the former and that of the latter, 
 and so on until all have read. The following is also a good 
 method of improving style, viz., let the children be requested 
 to relate some anecdote, or a short history of their own life 
 and experience. After it has been stated viva voce, let them 
 be required to write it on paper, taking care to observe the 
 same order of narration. This being done, let each pupil, 
 ill turn, be requested to read his own composition. It will 
 be found that pupils can read their own productions, of this 
 nature, much more efficiently than they can read other 
 compositions. They may thus be led to discover, that, as a 
 rule, good readers must deliver a piece as they would recite 
 it, were the composition their own — that they must read 
 as they would speak, or as they would relate a personal 
 anecdote. 
 
<tt 
 
 2Q6 
 
 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 The concert 
 method. 
 
 The pupils should be occasionallj required to road in 
 concert — that is, all together — taking the time from the 
 teacher, or some of their more efficient companions. This 
 exercise will cure them of many defects, such as false 
 emphasis, etc. At the close of each sentence or paragraph 
 the teacher should call for criticisms, or point out such 
 defects as he had noticed and wished them to avoid. In 
 reading exercises, attention should be directed to the ideas 
 expressed, rather than to the foi-m of expression. The 
 lesson should bo repeated until the ideas contained therein 
 become familiar. Should the pupil fail to observe or under- 
 stand these ideas, they must be pointed out and explained ; 
 after which, his attention may be directed to the form of 
 expression — to the spelling, derivation, and syllabification 
 of the more important words, etc., the black-board being 
 freely used. 
 
 It would be advisable to got the pupils to point out on 
 maps or globes the position of all places mentioned in his- 
 
 {loned irT" torical or geographical lessons, as well as in reading exercises. 
 
 lessons. If maps or globes are not convenient they can point towards 
 the places, giving their positions with respect to some known 
 locality. At the close of the lesson the pupils may be 
 directed to ask for any additional information — direct or 
 collateral — which they may desire concerning it ; but they 
 should not be allowed to ask " idle questions," or queries, 
 which have nothing to do with the subject. During the 
 progress or delivery of the lesson they may be allowed to 
 take or "change places," according to their efficiency or 
 ability in answering. At the close of the lesson the teacher 
 orders them to" number, and then copies these numbers into 
 the register of daily progress, as described elsewhere. Before 
 dismissing the class, the teacher should always fix the limits 
 of the next lesson on the same subject. The register of 
 progress, if properly kept, will present an accurate daily 
 record of ea,ch pupil's scholarship and deportment. How- 
 
 Pupils to 
 leant the 
 position of 
 
THE SCIENCE AND AAT OF TEACHING. 
 
 207 
 
 ever, it cannot be accurately kept unless the record is made 
 
 at the close of each lesson ; and without accuracy it will a substitute 
 
 command no confidence, and its moral effect will be lost, ter of daily 
 
 When the staff of instructors is small in comparison with the 
 
 number of pupils, it is questionable whether the teachers 
 
 can spare time to keep such a register of daily progress as 
 
 that alluded to. In this case " merit cards" may be used as 
 
 a substitute. By their aid, teachers may secure most of the 
 
 good results of accurate records with less expense of time. 
 
 We may here remark that teachers who 
 keep Class Records or Registers of Progress 
 should never fail to summarize same on or 
 about the first day of every month, so as to 
 ascertain the relative merit of theu' pupils 
 and give each his proper position on the 
 Monthly Roll of Honour. In New England 
 and New York it is the custom of the teach- 
 ers of the more respectable public schools to 
 prepare a Monthly Register of Merit in the 
 form of a " School Index " (see cut) ; and, so 
 far as we could learn, its introduction and 
 constant use has been attended with the 
 happiest results. The School Index is hung 
 on the walls (generally in some c nspicuous 
 place), where it can be easily seen and exam- 
 ined by the pupils, parents and visitors. It 
 consists of a black walnut or other frame, in 
 which are arranged, inside a glass front, small 
 pieces of wood, or slate, the names of pupils 
 being written on same once a month, in their 
 relative order of merit. One side of the 
 frame is hinged, so that it can be opened whenever the 
 teacher desires to make any change in the order or position 
 of the names. This machine may be used to indicate (1) 
 
 K^ffl 
 
 
 
 WmTSM 
 
 SCHOOL INDSX. 
 
 
 r: 
 
 
 u 
 
r 
 
 208 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 the standing of each pupil as to Scholarship alone ; or (2) 
 Dei)ortment alone ; or (3) Scholarship and Deportment, 
 with attendance, the marks obtained in all subjects being 
 added together for this purpose. When used, there should 
 be ar. " Index " for each Class or Division of the School. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 WRITING. 
 
 To be taught 
 at an early 
 age. 
 
 Firat lesaon. 
 
 The practice of writing is often foolishly delayed until 
 the child reaches a certain age or certain class, etc. We 
 believe it should be one of the first subjects taught. So 
 soon as children have learned the names of the letters of 
 the alphabet, they should be permitted to indulge in the 
 pleasure of wi'iting — " making" each letter on their slates as 
 they learn (or even before they learn) its name, the teacher 
 first printing same on the black-board. The first letters 
 taught should be the smaller script or italic ; and, if brought 
 before them in a proper maimer, thoy will know, and be 
 able to write, the alphabet in a few days. They can then 
 learn to write small words. Attention should be directed, 
 ' an early date, to the proper manner of holding a pen or 
 pencil. The teacher will guide, modify and correct the 
 pupils' attempts in writing, but it would not be wise to 
 insist on too rigid a uniformity in the style. No two per- 
 sons are alike, mentally or physically, and handwriting, like 
 a man's face, will always be characteristic and personal — 
 similar, yet different. Let the pupil's capacity in this 
 respect, as in others, bo developed, disciplined, and regu- 
 lated, but never artificially forced. 
 
THE SCIENCE AND ART OP TEACHING. 
 
 209 
 
 When tho time prescribed in the Time Table for the How to 
 
 teach it 
 
 practice of writing amvea, the teacher should call tue school 
 to attention by touching his bell. He then gives his pre- 
 liminary command as foPows^ "First division (second or 
 third as the case may be) prepare to write." Tlien the 
 slates, books, etc., of the division, or divisions, addressed 
 are quietly returned to their proper places. Pens, ink, and 
 copy books having been conveniently arranged, the pupils 
 sit perfectly still until they receive the signal to *' Begin," 
 from the teacher. When tlie time allotted to writing has 
 been completed, the principal or his assistant should close 
 proceedings as follows : -" Writers ! finish lines" — a pause. 
 "Clean pens" — a pause. " Deposit pens." He then touches 
 his bell, and all the writers rise, holding their copy bookr 
 in their hands. Another stroke of the bell (or the command, 
 "Places") orders them to their class stations — each pupil 
 taking his place accordin^^ to his standing or order of merit 
 in writing on the preceding day. Then the principal and 
 his assistants, (if there be two or more classes) pass round the 
 class (beginning with the "head") and examine the writing ; » 
 
 and while doing so, assign to each individual the place he 
 deserves in the order of merit. The order to " Number" is 
 then given, and the standing of each pupil is entered in the 
 " Register of Progress." This being done, the command 
 "To seats" is given, and all march off to their desks "in 
 Indian file." Each pupil should lose a place in his class 
 (i. e.f be degraded one place), for every blot or error in his 
 copy. If the " Merit Card System" is in use, the teacher 
 may give a merit to every one deserving of it, taking care 
 to give none to those who have blots or errors. In such 
 cases pupils are generally fined a " merit" if their exercise 
 in writing exhibits more than one blot or one error. 
 
 Before concluding this subject, it may be well to say that Working 
 children can be classified for the practice of writing, in meuts. 
 classes, sections, or divisions. The children of the lower 
 
i 
 
 210 
 
 Primary 
 classes. 
 
 Supervision 
 and correc- 
 tion. 
 
 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 classes should sit in front, and those of the higher in the 
 hindermost desks. When arranged and sub-divided in this 
 way according to their proficiency in the art, the senior 
 classes engage in copying from a head-line in their copy 
 books, or from one on the bhick-board, or from copy slips 
 placed before them for that purpose (as aforesaid) ; whilst 
 the principal or his assistant (taking a convenient position 
 before the same or another black board) gives instruction to 
 the junior pupils in the general principles of the science. 
 
 Teachers of writing in the primary department must, of 
 necessity, devote considerable time to instruction of this 
 kind ; and, if properly managed, children of very tender 
 years will take a great delight in the exercise. The pupils 
 being furnished with slates and pencils, and liaving learned 
 how to sit and how to hold the pen, the teacher will draw 
 the straight stroke on the board, and direct attention to 
 its slope, uniform thickness, and other characteristics, after 
 which the little ones will copy it, each endeavouring to profit 
 by the instructions received. When they have grown expert 
 at this exercise, the upper and lower "ties" or " crooks" (as 
 they are called) may be introduced. Then the characteristics 
 of the curve may be pointed out, the children copying it after 
 receiving the necessary preliminary explanations. When 
 sufficiently posted in these exercises, lessons should be given 
 on the formation of letters — each pupil being required to 
 copy the same accurately from the black-board. This pre- 
 liminary course " may be gone through on the slates." But 
 the use of pen and paper should be introduced at its close. 
 If the pupils copy from the same kind of head-lines (whether 
 from the copy book or black-board) uniformity and simi- 
 larity of writing will be the result. "Young beginners" 
 may, for a short time, have the lines " pencilled." 
 
 While the pupils are practising their writing exercise, the 
 principal, or one of his assistants, should pass up and down 
 the aisles, pointing out errors, or leading the children to 
 
THE SCIENCE AND ART OP TEACHING. 
 
 411 
 
 1 the 
 
 L this 
 
 enior 
 copy 
 slips 
 
 v^hilst 
 
 sition 
 
 ion to 
 
 Be. 
 
 ist, of 
 
 f this 
 
 tender 
 
 pupils 
 
 sarned 
 
 I draw 
 
 bion to 
 
 i, after 
 
 ) profit 
 expert 
 
 ks" (as 
 
 eristics 
 
 it after 
 When 
 
 e given 
 
 ired to 
 lis pre- 
 " But 
 is close, 
 /whether 
 id simi- 
 ;inners" 
 
 sise, the 
 d down 
 dren to 
 
 discover them hy comparison with the original headline or 
 copy slip. It would be advistible that he should take a 
 pupil's "copy" to the black-board and copy the errors in 
 spelling, the malformation of letters, etc., and then require 
 the pupils to point them out, deducing from themselves 
 personally (by reference to the original) the principles to 
 be observed in connection with the subject. In writing, as 
 in all other subjects, the teacher should prefer quality to 
 quantity, being more desirous that all should write well, 
 than that a few should write par excellence. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 ARITHMETIC AND ALGEBRA. 
 
 Arithmetic should be made an exercise of the mind, and Arithmetic 
 
 . 1 " J. • If 1 rrw. • £> , as a mental 
 
 not a mere application ot rules. The science of numbers exercise. 
 and art of computation afford, perhaps, the best facilities 
 for the healthy exercise of the mental faculties. An intelligent 
 knowledge of the powers^ principles, and properties of num- 
 bers, combined with precision and despatch in their manipu- 
 lation, effectually cultivate all the faculties of the mind, and 
 in after years will enable the pupil to transact the business 
 of daily life with credit to himself and employers. It is, 
 perhaps, one of the best subjects for teaching pupils methods 
 of thought, and how to reason ; as well as what to do, and 
 how to do it. 
 
 Children generally acquire their first knowledge of number First ideas 
 by learning to count their own fingers. In primary schools 
 the first ideas of number are usually imparted in this way, 
 or by means of the ball- frame, the pupils being occasionally 
 required to reckon marbles, pins, maps, the panes of glass in 
 
212 
 
 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACUINO. 
 
 Written 
 arithinetic, 
 
 a window, etc. Children should be taught the elementary 
 rules on a sort of oomraon-sense principle. Beginning with 
 simple thingJ4, they should be " inveigled" (or le<l) on by 
 degrees to the comprehension of more complicated ideas. 
 Children always seem to experience some difficulty in under- 
 standing abstract numbers, and for this reason they should 
 (at fii*st) bo taught to connect them with visible objects. In 
 the elementary exercises, they should be gradually led to 
 discover that the name and kind of the artichis reckoned, 
 do not affect the result — that numbers, in themselves, are 
 abstract ; that 2 and 3 make 5, whether they be marbles, 
 cows, horses, cr abstnict units ; tliat the different orders 
 of units increase from right to left, and decrease from left 
 to right in a ten-fold ratio ; and that the removal of a figure 
 one place to the right or left, increases or decreases its value 
 ten-fold. 
 
 Having acquired the names of the numerals, formed cor- 
 rect ideas of their simple and local values, and learned how 
 to solve easy questions, in multiplication and division, they 
 may commence the study of written arithmetic — the rules 
 being deduced from the examples in all cjises. The exercises in 
 arithmetic (and in algebra also, so far as practicable), should 
 always be thickly interspersed with questions occurring in, 
 or applicable to, the transactions of daily life. The teacher 
 may occasionally introduce a little variety into the subject, 
 by writing the queries on the black-board. The various 
 classes (standing at the draft stations, or sitting at their 
 Rapiditvand ^®sk^)» copy and solve these questions as rapidly and cor- 
 rectly as possible. " The first done" (if his work be correct) 
 takes the first place, the " second done " takes the second 
 place, and so on to the end. This exercise is conducted in 
 some places in the following manner : We will suppose the 
 pupils to be standing at their class stations, *' armed with 
 slates and pencils." The teacher writes the query on the 
 black-board ; the pupils copy and solve it. The first done 
 
 accuracy. 
 
THE SCIENCE AND ART OF THACHINO. 
 
 213 
 
 entary 
 r with 
 on by 
 ideas, 
 uiider- 
 bIiouM 
 ;t8. In 
 lod to 
 koiied, 
 es, are 
 arbles, 
 orders 
 )m left 
 L figure 
 } value 
 
 icd cor- 
 ed how 
 11, they 
 rules 
 cisos in 
 should 
 ing in, 
 teacher 
 ubject, 
 various 
 bt their 
 tid cor- 
 orrect) 
 second 
 cted in 
 >o8e the 
 id with 
 on the 
 st done 
 
 calls out the word "one," and deposits his slate on the floor 
 — first writing his name thereon. He then stands erect as 
 before. The second done calls out the word " two," and 
 follows the example of his predecessor. Each pnrty writes 
 a large figure on his slate to represent the nunib<»r he willed 
 out. When all have done, or a reasonable time has ela})sed, 
 the teacher writes the answer on the black-board, and all the 
 pupils raise their slates and hold them immovably in such a 
 position as will enable the teacher to conveniently examine 
 them lus he passes round to *' inspect the work." This being 
 done the pupils, whose work is connect, tjike })laces according 
 to the order of merit indicated by the " numbers " aforestiid. 
 Another plan is as follows : As each pupil solves the ques- 
 tion, let him deposit his slate on the table, taking ci\i*e to 
 place it on top of that of his predecessor. When all have 
 done, the slates will thus l>e piled one on top of the other. 
 Jjct the teacher then reverse the pile, and the slate of the 
 boy who haxi done tii-st, will be on the top. The teacher can 
 then examine each slate, and, if the work be connect, the 
 pupils will take places according to the order in which the 
 slates come to hand. If many of the pupils fail to solve the 
 query, the teacher should solveit himself on the black-board, 
 explaining the different steps of tiie work. He should occa- 
 sionally call on one of the pupils to exhibit and explain 
 their solutions on the black-board. This is a wholesome and 
 laudable practice. Such variations are highly commendable, 
 and never fail to make school work attractive. 
 
 The following is, we believe, a more excellent way for ^ ^^^^ 
 teaching algebra, arithmetic, etc., than either of the foregoing : nfe^^od ^f 
 We will take it for granted that the walls of the school are J^**^el^tj(.3 
 all set with "liquid slating," or other material for black-board 
 purposes. Let the black-boards be divided into spaces by 
 upright lines 30 inches apart. Let each of these spaces be 
 numbered, and a supply of crayons and brushes placed on 
 the shelf beneath. On a signal from the teacher let the 
 
2U 
 
 THE BCI::SCE AND ART OP TEACHING. 
 
 pupilfl arrange themwjlves in claw-form all round tho room 
 — a pii|)il in front of each space, armed with a crayon. Let the 
 teach(3r divide the pupils into sections — ^the odd numbers 
 being section 1, and the even numl>ers section 2; or vice 
 versd. By this arrangement no two pupils of the same 
 section will be together — the individuals of each section 
 will be alternate, arul there can, therefore, be little or no 
 "copying." The teacher will then dictate a question to 
 section 1, and they will instantly commence its solution. He 
 will then give a difterent question to section 2, and they in 
 like manner will set to worL with such energy and vigour 
 as to command our sympathies and admiration. As each 
 pupil finishes the solution, ho deposits his crayon and faces 
 the centre, awaiting' further onlers. To procure despatch, as 
 well as accuracy, the pupil in each section who first solves 
 the question, is allowed a higher "mark" than his com- 
 panions ; and to prevent confusion ho is required to say 
 ** Fii'st," as ho faces the centre. When all (or nearly all) 
 have done, the teacher, standing in the centre, or at hiw desk, 
 calls on the "tirat pupil" to read his answer. If it be correct 
 he (the pupil) marks a X opposite the name or registsr num- 
 ber on his portion of the black-board, and he underlines same 
 (thus >f ) to show that he was first in the order of merit in 
 that particular exercise. Two underlined X's count "three," 
 *. e,f the first pupil receives an additional " half mark " as 
 the reward of his superior despatch. All others, whose work 
 is correct, will mark X alone. Those who are wrong will 
 mark — instead of X- Each pupil registers hifi own work 
 in the presence and under the inspection of his rivals. At 
 the close of the lesson the pupil writes three figures on the 
 black-board ; the first indicates the number of " problems " 
 read to the section ; the second, preceded by a minus si^, 
 indicates the number missed; and the third, preceded by the 
 sign of equality, showB the number he has solved correctly, 
 ai^ indicated by X's- The teacher then reooipds each pupil's 
 
THB SCIENCE AND ART Of TEACHING. 
 
 215 
 
 as 
 work 
 5 vrill 
 work 
 , At 
 311 the 
 lems" 
 
 sign, 
 by the 
 rectly, 
 
 upil's 
 
 merits in the clasH regiHter, glancing, if neceraary, at the 
 marking on the black-l>oard. Should any pupilH of a nection 
 fiftil to work the question, then some of the successful ones 
 are required to go through the work and explain the respec- 
 tive stages of difficulty, the remaining successful pupils being 
 required to assist from time to time. When arithmetic is 
 properly taught it becomes a sort of mental recreation, and 
 will always be popular in school — not only for the means of 
 improvement it affords, but for the agreeable excitement and 
 peculiar pleasure which always accompany trials of skill 
 when the opponents are of the same, or nearly the same, 
 mental calibre, and inspired by the desire to excel. 
 
 Teachers should see that every pupil is well grounded in welCgro^ndT- 
 the various arithmetical ttibles and elementary rules, so as *^ *" ^^^^*- 
 to be able to apply them rapidly to the practical (or business) 
 affairs of every-day life, and the general manipulations of 
 numbers. As correctness and despatch are the principal 
 objects aimed at, the pupils should be instructed in all con- 
 tracted methods of calculation, and encouraged to '* read, 
 mark, learn, and inwardly digest" the laws and principles 
 on which such systems are based ; so that, if necessary, they 
 may be able to discover other methods for themselves. As 
 
 . , MenUlarith- 
 
 a rule, mental anthmetic should be taught to every class in metic. 
 the school, always being preliminary to the study of the 
 written work. In fact, every " rule" of arithmetic should 
 be preceded by a mental courae bearing specially on that 
 particular branch of the subject. The principles on which 
 the rule is founded should be duly explained and thoroughly before rules. 
 understood — practically and theoretically — before the pupils 
 commence the investigation and solution of the exercises 
 contained in the text-book under that heading. The skilful 
 teacher will ha.ye little difficulty in leading pupils of average 
 ability to discover these principles for themselves. When 
 they understand the laws, and have discovered the principles 
 on which the subject of study is based, they can be easily 
 
 il 
 
210 
 
 I low to 
 
 MOIUlititioU 
 
 MOIUI 
 
 • .rkn 
 liilge, 
 
 iiW- 
 
 §\ 
 
 THB 8CIENCK AMD ART OF TKACHHrO. 
 
 led, by a few judioiuus, well-connect«<l quefitioim, to give 
 oxpreHsioii And form to " the rule." Each pupil should 
 then ho re<{uirod to Holve some exerciM08 in accordance wHh 
 the i-ule thus formed — explaining the principles involved in 
 each Htop of the work ; after which they may refer to their 
 )HH)k8 and road the rule there given, c(>m{)tiring it with the 
 one discovered by " thoinMclveH. '''hey will then see with 
 their eyew and ** undoifstand with their hearta ;" for they 
 will have di.scovei*o.l with thoir minds, heard with their ears, 
 and worked with their handu. Things thua learned will 
 never Im3 forgotten. 
 
 In teaching mental calculations it would always l>e wise 
 to commence with sensible objects — objects familiar to the 
 pupils. Should a ditfioulty arise in treating of abstract 
 numbai-s, the pupils will fro(juently solve it if referred to 
 f imiliar thiugs ; that is, if the respective numbers be a])plied 
 to things within their comprehension. Tlie numbers (or 
 quantities) treated of in the lower chisses should be of small 
 value (or dimensions) — so small as to be esisily comprehended 
 by young minda of avera^'e ability. Teachers conducting 
 arithmetical (or mathematical) exercises should never forget 
 to elicit, by frequent (juestions, whether the pupils under- 
 stand the reason (** the why and the wherefore") of each 
 step in the process in the i^espective solutions. Such dili- 
 gent and persevering laboui-s will be sure to produce much 
 fruit. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Geography- Every school should be provided with a compass, a globe, 
 
 study.*'" '*' and two sets of good maps — one set filled in and the other 
 
 blank. It would be advisable, perhaps, to commence the 
 
tus soibnck amd ait op TEACIIINO. 
 
 217 
 
 study of gnogiuphy hy directing the attention of the pupils 
 to the natunil feutuitM of thoir own immediate neighbour- 
 hood. The peculiar chaructoriHtics of hilU, mountains, 
 valleyH, ishindM, {KininHuhiH, lakcH, gulfH, Hean, l>ay8, Htntitn, 
 etc., may tliUH be deduced. Tlie distribution of animulM and 
 vegettiblcH may then be i>ointed out, and the phenomena of 
 springH, fountains, deserts, volcanoes, etc., fudy exjdained. 
 Lessons on winds, currents, tides, climates, latitude, longitude, 
 eclipses, and other such matters would, of course, follow in 
 regular order. The *' canlinal points" should be the subject 
 of one of the early lessons in geograj)hy. Having learned 
 how to "box the compass," the pupils may \ie required to noxintrthrt 
 (>oint to any places named (or indicated on the maps), giving 
 their " bearings" or position with respect to some well known 
 city, country, or district. " Beginning at home," they should 
 first give the position of all places in the immeiliate locality, 
 the school (or their personal residence) being taken as " the 
 fixed point." They may then be required to point in the 
 direction of remote towns, cities, or countries. A map of 
 their own city, vicinity, or county (if convenient), should 
 then be introduced, and the pupils thoroughly grounded in 
 the contents. When teaching geography, the scale of the 
 map, (or chart) of the part of the world under consideration, 
 should be one of the first things to which attention ought to 
 be directed. Indeed it would not be amiss to give them a 
 preliminary lesson on the measurement of space as exhibited 
 on maps, charts, or globes. Latitude and longitude can be i-'»titudeBn'» 
 effectually explained by drawiufj two chalk Unas on the floor and how to 
 
 ; , . , , ,x . , , ^ • , teach thi-iiv 
 
 (or on the black-board) at right angles to and cutting each 
 
 other. One of these would represent the equator and the 
 
 other the first meridian. The pupils could then be easily 
 
 led to perceive that all objects on either side of the line 
 
 representing the former, would be north or south, whilst 
 
 those situated on it (or immediately under it) would be 
 
 neither one nor the other — in other words, that all places 
 
 15 
 
LM8 
 
 R >t'iti<>i» of 
 t lie earth, 
 ami (tilfcr- 
 
 •« rices of 
 
 .time. 
 
 I I 
 
 Hints on 
 the use of 
 maps and 
 . charts. 
 
 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACniXO. 
 
 under the equator have no latitude, and that those on cither 
 side of it have north or south hititudo according to tlieir 
 position. In liko manner they would easily discover that 
 all placo.s under the tii*8t meridian have no longitude, and 
 that all places to the right or left of it are in east or west 
 longitude respectively. The globe may then be introduced, 
 and the i)ujnls led to perceive how the respective meridians 
 (marked thereon) " come under the sun" in regular succes- 
 sion during the space of twenty -four hours — the earth in 
 the meantime making one complete revolution on its axis, 
 every point on its surface, except the poles, describing a 
 circle or SGO"^. Having thus learned that the earth revolves 
 on its axis at the rate of 360° in twenty-four hours, they 
 will easily perceive that it rotates 15° in one hour, or 1° in 
 four minutes. Hence, j^eople say that " fifteen degrees of 
 longitude make a difTerence of one hour in time." The cal- 
 culation of time from difference of longitude (or of longitude 
 from difference of time) will originate many questions of an 
 instructive and interesting nature. The pupils will easily 
 perceive that time varies as the longitude changes, but the 
 fact that all places east of them have earlier time than they 
 have, and that all places west have later time, will at fii*st 
 cause some confusion. The action of the sun and moon 
 with reference to alternate light and dai-kness, etc., being 
 explained and understood, the attention of the pupils may 
 be directed to the orbitual motion of the earth, when the 
 causes of the seasons and other collateral matters may be 
 fully discussed. 
 
 The first map introduced, in teaching political geography, 
 should be that of the city, township, or county in which the 
 school is situated ; the second should be that of the state or 
 country; the third, that of the continent which includes 
 their particular nation. Map-drawing should go hand in 
 hand with these subjects, each pupil being requested to 
 sketch maps on the black-board, or to fill up those drawn 
 
 
THE SCIENCE AND ART OP TEACHING. 
 
 219 
 
 (in outline) by the teacher, correctly locating the cities, de- 
 lineating the rivers, mountains, etc. As a preliminary exer- 
 cise to this, the teacher should point to certain localities on 
 the blank map, desiring the pupils to name the places, and 
 mention their natural characteristics, historical associations, 
 etc. The difference of countries (or parts of countries) in 
 physical appearance, mineral wealth, and geological forma- 
 tion, should be pointed out. Attention should be specially 
 directeJ to their agricultural productions, manufacturing en- 
 terprise, and commercial facilities ; nor should the national 
 character of the modern and ancient inhabitants be over- 
 looked or forgotten. The maps of the great empires of 
 antiquity should be studied in connection with ancient 
 history. It should always be borne in mind that a vast 
 amount of geographic«al and historical iziformation is acquired 
 incidentally. For this reason every city, river, mountain, 
 etc., mentioned in the respective lessons, should be pointed 
 out on the maps, and then a short summary should be given 
 of their historical associations. 
 
 The principal things to be attended to in teaching Order of 
 geography are as follows — to commence with some known geograpjiy. 
 locality, and direct attention to its physical features, or 
 rather by a series of skilful questions to lead the pupils to 
 state its natural peculiarities, political importance, etc.; to 
 draw (or cause the pupils to draw) an outlin.d map of the 
 district under consideration ; to require the pupils to point 
 with their finger towards any place mentioned, or to indi- 
 cate its position on the map, globe, or chart, relating, at 
 the same time, the characteristics of the locality and the 
 historical events associated with the name. At the close 
 of the lesson the pupils may be allowed to question each 
 other on the contents of same. 
 
 The following may give some idea as to the order in which Geogra- 
 the geographical facts of a country, continent, 0£ island Bummary 
 should be introduced to a class: — (1) Boundaries, (2) Extent 
 
'2-20 
 
 Wcfikly 
 Reviews. 
 
 THE SCIENCE AND ABT OF TEACHING. 
 
 and divisions, (3) General character of surface, (4) Internal 
 watera, (5) Nature of soil and climate, (C) Productions, 
 (7) Cities and towns, (8) Facilities of intenml comnuinica- 
 tion, (9) Inhabitants — Race, (10) Education, religion and 
 government, (11) Science and art, (12) MLscellaneous facts. 
 During a short time every Friday the pupils may be per- 
 mitted (as aforesaid) to examine each other on the subjects of 
 study during the week. When eacli pupil lias asked his 
 query, the teacher, if so disposed, may propose a series of 
 general questions on the present and preceding lessons, and 
 also mention such collateral matters as occurred to him 
 during the "mutual examination." 
 
 ■ 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 ACQUISITION OF LANGUAGE. 
 
 How Nature Nature, when teaching a language, always commences 
 laiiKuaKes*"* With nouns. She impels the young child to begin with sim- 
 ple sounds — words of one syllable, such as ma, pa, ba, da, 
 etc. She then prompts him to repeat them at shr»rt inter- 
 vals — ^hence the combinations of ma-ma, pa-pa, ? "> etc. 
 Hia words, at first, are all names (nouns) j adj c.j' >, apd 
 ^ certain pronouns, follow in regular succession. B^ ...utar^ 
 tion, he gradually acquires the use of verbs — and all this 
 time he has no knowledge of the grammatical relations of 
 words. The ideas expressed are stored up in hia mind; a 
 language has been learned, but the memory has not been 
 burdened with words. In fact, Nature has never called 
 upon him to exert his memory for that purpose She re- 
 quired him to remember the ideas, but allowed him to lot 
 
THE SCIENCE AND ART OP TEACHING. 
 
 221 
 
 the words take care of themselves. Yet, by preserving the 
 ideas, she has made the words his own. They return with 
 tlie respective ideas, but lie is unconscious of having ever 
 occupied himself in acquiring them. While exercising his 
 fuCTilties in the acquisition of knowledge, he has, without 
 any special exertion, learned to speak and understand a 
 language — the elements of which he uses correctly, without 
 knowing when or how he acquired them. The ideas compris- 
 ing this knowledge were impi^essed on the mind by the action 
 of the judgment or will ; but the words must have been 
 committed to memory unconsciously and unintentionally. 
 
 When Nature uses words as a medium for conveying Mental 
 ideas, they are always kept in the >)ack ground. The ideas to preceriu'* 
 exist first in the speaker's mind, and often suggest the words 
 which give them expression. Should the ideas be vigor- 
 ously conceived, words will follow naturally, correctly, and 
 in the form and order required. Should the mind attempt 
 to grasj) both the ideas and words at one and same time, 
 tlie attention will be divided and distracted, and the under- 
 standing little benefited. Should the mind attend to words 
 alone, the comprehension will be weakened, and the intel- 
 lect degraded. Ideas should, therefore, precede words. 
 
 It is injudicious to cultivate the memory at the expense Nature's 
 of the reason and judgment, as the mere acquisition of les- teachhi^ 
 sons by rote will not promote intellectual improvement. In 
 such cases, the recun*ence or expression of ideas depends on 
 a set form of words, and can, therefore, never make a per- 
 manent lodgment in the memory. If words be preferred to 
 ideas, the texture of the mind will be injured, and its im- 
 pressions weakened. Such a preference would not only 
 enervate the understanding, but ultimately produce, more or 
 less, incapacity of thought. It would, moreover, cause 
 children to dislike study, and thus injure or destroy their 
 chances of s\iccess in after life. A chapter, first read for the 
 sake of its ideas alone, and for the sake of the pleasure it 
 
 
990 
 
 Acquisition 
 iitade easy. 
 
 \ 
 
 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 affords, will produce impressions far more clear and per- 
 manent than if it were first "learned by rote," and then 
 "sifted for ideas." 
 
 In committing lessons to memory, the first object of the 
 pupil should be to understand the ideas ; second, to arrange 
 them in natural or consecutive order as in the book ; third, 
 to clothe them in appropriate words ; fourth, to commit 
 them to memory for future use. In this, as in all other 
 educational matters, the powei*s of the mind must be con- 
 centrated upon one thing, and only one, at a time ; and tlie 
 attention must not be diverted until that thing be tho- 
 roughly known. Nature first imparts ideas, and then sup- 
 plies appropriate words or terms. Her order of instruction 
 should never be reversed. Such a course would, more or 
 less, be sure to paralyze physical effort, and promote men- 
 tal debility. Let us, therefore, study her means, follow her 
 methods, and conform to the order of sequence and devel- 
 opment exhibited in her teachings ; we may then entertain 
 a reasonable hope that success will crown our efforts. 
 
 
 Composition 
 to accom- 
 pany the 
 study of 
 {{rnnuiiar. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION. 
 
 In the nature of things, English composition, both spoken 
 and written, should precede or accompany the study of 
 English grammar. Grammar should be introduced in con- 
 nection with sentences composed by the pupils, and written 
 from their dictation by the teacher on the black-board, or it 
 may be introduced through the aid of the Reading Machine 
 (see page 227). By these means its study becomes an intel- 
 lectual exercise, and the children are taught the principles 
 of the science through the medium of the eye. 
 
 \_ 
 
THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 223 
 
 The matliod of treating the subject will, of coui-so, depend {Jj^j,^ 
 very much on the a^e and mental capacities of the children, j^*^^^" 
 If they be very young, the subject may be introduced by i»ui»'»«- 
 asking thorn to m3ntion the names of some things or places 
 they see or have seen. Such answers as liouse, tree, field, 
 boat, book, river, etc., may be given in reply. The seh'ction 
 of the names should be left to themselves, as it is a matter 
 of importance that they sliould have a clear idea of the 
 meaning of each term. The words, thus given, are written 
 vertically on the black-board, in their order of sequence — 
 the plurals being placed in an opposite column. The teacher 
 then points to the word hoiise, tree, or field, etc., and asks 
 what kind it may be] Tn all likelihood they will answer 
 "nice," "pretty," "green," etc., and then these qualities — 
 these words — are written before the names of the things to 
 which they allude — the pupils spelling as the teacher writes. 
 They are then asked "what these" new words "tell us of the 
 names'?" and will probably answer — "Their kind, their 
 quality." They may then be informed that another word 
 for names is "nouns" — and that both words are similar in 
 meaning. The word "nouns" is then written over the list 
 of names, and the pupils are informed (because they could 
 not be expected to discover it themselves) that words which 
 express "kind or quality" are called "adjectives." They 
 are then asked what the nice house, the pretty tree, the 
 large field, etc., might do? and may reply, "The nice house 
 falls," "the pretty tree blossoms," etc. They are then asked 
 to mention something they themselves could do? and will 
 probably give some such reply as — "We talk, learn, eat, 
 drink, jump, and sleep," etc. If asked what these words 
 tell us, they may repl}' — "They tell us of the doing of some- 
 thing." The teacher may then inform th^ra thtit "words 
 which tell us of the doing of something," are called verbs. 
 The question is then asked — "What h;ive you been learn- 
 ing'?" and they will probably reply, "We have been learning 
 
 hgrani- 
 
224 
 
 Coniitniiv 
 tion and 
 clasaiHca- 
 tiou. 
 
 Iiilleetioiia 
 die. 
 
 Grammar to 
 be made in- 
 teresting. 
 
 THE EfCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 about nouns, atljectivoa, and verbs," They are then required 
 to define these words viva voce, or on their slutes or black- 
 board, f^iving e.vamplcs of each. The other parts of speech 
 should bo taught in much the same manner. 
 
 The pupils should then be "practised" in the construction 
 of sentences containing all the parts of speech. Tlie point- 
 ing out of the several parts of spt^ech as they occur in an 
 ordinary reading lesson, is also a good method of impressing 
 them with correct ideas of chussification. Occasionally, they 
 may be required to write out the diffei*ent parts of speech 
 in a certain number of sentencea, taking care to place each 
 word under its proper heading. A few preliminary exer- 
 cises on the Reading and Paraing Machine will afford mate- 
 lial assistance in this respect. 
 
 The properties or inflections of the different parts of 
 speech may then be taught on the same common-sense prin- 
 ciple, each being attended w^th so much "practical drill" 
 as may be sulncieut to permanently fix the subject on the 
 pupils' mind. Tlie pai-ts of speech, an, I their variations or 
 inflections, being thus " imprinted on the tablets of the 
 memory," the principles of concord and government may be 
 introduced, the teacher taking care to lead the children to 
 discover the laws and rules of syntax for themselves. He 
 can do this by a series of judicious questions relative to the 
 composition, or verbal construction, of certain sentences, 
 written specially on the black-board — -said sentences to con- 
 tain the piinciples (or violation of principles) involved in 
 the rule to be deduced. 
 
 Grammar is usually considered "a very dry subject," and 
 one of which the pupils of many schools entertain a certain 
 undefined dread, or suspicious awe, arising principally from 
 imperfect methods of teaching. The pupil, left to himself 
 and the usual text book, finds that he is expected to ac- 
 quii'e, and even love, that which he does not comprehend or 
 esteem; and he is whipped or disgraced if he fails to perform 
 
THE SCIENCE AND ART OP TEACHING. 
 
 225 
 
 
 the allotted task. Poor fellow! his lot is not an enviable 
 one. I fear that we teachers have a great deal to answer 
 for. We often lose sight of the fact that we were not always 
 wise or learned men ourselves. Perhaps we are still want- 
 ing in this respect. We seldom take the trouble to bring 
 ourselves down to the pupil's mental level, so that we may 
 look out on his difficulties from a child's standpoint. Yet, 
 it is only by such condescension that we can discover and 
 remove these obstacles. In fact, we have yet to learn how 
 to deal with children as we would wish teachers to deal 
 with us, were we children once mo- o. To be successful 
 teachers, we must become as little children. Gnvmmar, 
 being considered "a dry subject" by childi-en, it behooves 
 the teacher to aim at making it as interesting as any other 
 subject. If he can do this, and also duly impress the pupils 
 with a just sonse of its utility, they will, smile at the idea of 
 its being ''dry," and become as thoroughly posted in it as 
 in any other subject — if not more so. 
 
 It is a matter worthy of note that pupils " well up" in 
 grammar, are invariably well posted in the other school 
 subjects. This probably arises from the fact that owing to 
 imperfections in the method of teaching, and to non -develop- 
 ment of the reason and judgment, pupils are generally on 
 the confines of manhood before they thoroughly understand 
 " what grammar is all about" — before they can comprehend 
 its principles, or intelligently apply its rules. By the adop- 
 tion of the common-sense method, previously alluded to, 
 pupils will be enabled to educate themselves (so to speak), 
 and the teacher will skilfully lead them, by the judicious 
 exercise of their own minds, to discover the vaiious laws and 
 principles peculiar to each element of the language — merely 
 supplying them with the proper terms as occasion requires. 
 
 As aforementioned, when the pupils are thoroughly posted 
 on " the Parts of Speech," the teacher must retrace his 
 steps and — considering them one by one — lead the children 
 
 Au obscrva- 
 tiun. 
 
 Thi* GraTii- 
 matical va- 
 riiationa. 
 
 
226 
 
 THE SCIENCE AND ART OP TEACHING. 
 
 *i 
 
 to discover the variations of each. By inducing them to 
 observe the genius and common usages of our language, 
 and by leading them to illustrate the same by rofei*ence to 
 fitmiliat* examples, they cannot fail to discover the rules of 
 syntax for themselves — the teacher giving form to the 
 expression of their ideas when necessary.* In this way they 
 will be led to tliiuk for themselves, while acquiring the ideas 
 and experience of others ; their thoughts will become more 
 original, and their conco})tions, like the rose-buds of early 
 spring, will gi'adually unfold until they expand into full- 
 grown flowers. The i)upils will thus be educated in the 
 true sense of the word. 
 CompoHition Composition and grammar should bo taught in conjunc- 
 and original, tion — they naturally go "hand in hand with each other." 
 In practising composition, the pupils will be enabled profit- 
 ably to employ the principles learned in grammar. It may 
 consist of two kinds — original and secondary. In the order 
 of sequence (or study), secondary composition should always 
 precede original. In first-class schools, one hour a week 
 should, at least, be devoted to the study of the science and 
 art of composition ; two hours would not be too much. In 
 some cases parents and friends will be likely to render con- 
 siderable assistance, and it may, therefore, be advisable to 
 occasionally appoint it as a " Home Exercise." If it be a 
 " Sacondary Composition," the ideas may be appropriated 
 from the works of some standard author, or from some lesson 
 given by the teacher; but they must be neatly dressed in 
 the pupils' own language. When criticising the MSS. of 
 pupils, the teacher should pay strict attention to the vera- 
 city of the information, the style, orthography, penmanship, 
 punctuation, use of capitals, etc. 
 
 Before concluding thLs subject we may observe that Eng- 
 lish grammar, regarded as a text-book, is a collection of the 
 laws and principles which should govern the expression of 
 English thought. It should therefore be borne in mind that 
 
 Tli« licst 
 tcncher of 
 graniinar 
 und cotn- 
 )>osition. 
 
 Jl^v. Dr. Davies. 
 
THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHINO. 
 
 22; 
 
 Eng- 
 of the 
 3ion of 
 id that 
 
 
 the niles of jsn^mmar are merely the expression in words of 
 tlie recognized usages of language. Ke who can most success- 
 fully lead his pupils to discover these principles and usages 
 for themselves, l)efore they attempt to learn the rules by 
 rote, will Ik? the most successful teacher of grammar and 
 composition. 
 
 One hour per week, at least, should be set apart for the importance 
 
 ... and utility 
 
 practice of " letter writing. This is one of the most useful (.f eon-os- 
 and impoi-tant branches of composition. Other branches 
 may Imj regarded as an accomplishment, but this is a neces- 
 fcity in every sphere of life. It behoves every respectable 
 citizen to be an expert correspondent. It is a matter of 
 fact that there are many intelligent and respectable people 
 in this enlightened country (and fair scholara too) who aro 
 totally unable to write a passable letter. This defect should 
 be remedied at once so far as the rising generation are 
 concerned"; and there is no more effectual way for doing so 
 than by introducing " correspondence" into all our schools — 
 taking care to prescribe it as one of the regular periodical 
 exercises. Its importance should be duly i cognized on the 
 progi'amme of studios. In every stage and * ondition of life 
 it is one of the most useful and asTeeable exercises. Never- 
 theless, at the present moment its study and practice are 
 neglected or ignored in more than three-fourths of our 
 })ublic schools. This gigantic defect is partially remedied 
 by " our commercial colleges." These private institu- 
 tions profess to teach business correspondence ; but the 
 subject should be thoroughly taught in all schools and • 
 seminaries, without restriction. The public school is the . 
 crowning glory of this favoured land — one of the institu- '. 
 tions of which we feel especially proud. By its means S 
 alone can we reach the children of the massas. The desire, 
 tlierefore, of the people, and the common object of both '\ 
 teachers and legislators, should be to equip the rising genera- 
 tioii with the armour of intelligence, and to educate them 
 
 I y 
 
 i i-\ 
 
 I •? 
 
228 
 
 THE SCIENCE AND ART OP TEACHINO. 
 
 in the use of all weapons, or tools, essential to their success 
 in the battle of life. 
 
 The above is a modification of the Rea ing Machine al- 
 ready described. Its face or front is divided into eight ver- 
 tical columns or sections, to correspond with the Eight Parts 
 of Speech. Slips containing the names of the Parts of 
 Speech, in print, are placed at the head of the respective 
 columns — from A to b — in such order as the teacher may 
 desire ; or these " headings " may appear on the card selec- 
 tions if preferred. The card may be inserted or removed 
 by opening the base-board, c, d. Its dimensions should cor- 
 respond to the arrangement of the machine ; and it should 
 embrace sentences comprising all the Parts of Speech, 
 arranged so that each word will make sense with what has 
 gone before, no matter which slide is opened in the vertical 
 section immediately succeeding. After half an hour's intel- 
 ligent practice at this Machine the youngest children in 
 primary classes will feel little or no difficulty in classifying 
 the words of any scntenca so as to place them under their 
 proper headings or respective Parts of Speech. 
 
THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACH IXO. 
 
 220 
 
 ccess 
 
 I" 
 
 D 
 
 line al- 
 ht ver- 
 t Parts 
 irts of 
 psctive 
 sr may 
 selec- 
 moved 
 lid cor- 
 should 
 Speech, 
 lat has 
 vertical 
 intel- 
 Iren in 
 isifying 
 their 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 HISTORY. 
 
 
 There are two methods of teaching history, each perhaps nininrr- 
 
 II /•!•• 11 ^•tr^ • f mt'thtWS of 
 
 equally useful in its way — both very different in form. t»»ci»iiig. 
 According to the first method, the pupils receive a lesson 
 viva voce from the teacher on the events, manners, customs, 
 etc., of some particular time or era, and ui-ethen required to 
 read at home the account of the same as given in history. 
 On the occasion of next lesson they are questioned closely 
 on the subject. This is, perhaps, the method best adapted 
 for junior pupih. According to the second method the 
 pupils read history at school as a reading lesson or as a 
 recitation. Prior to the commencement of this exercise the 
 teacher should examine them to ascertain how much they 
 know of the subject, and to excite an interest therein. 
 During the progress of the lesson he should occasionally 
 question them as regards the positions, etc., of the localities I^^^iom' 
 mentioned, and also as regards matters alluded to, which he 
 may have reason to believe they do not thoroughly under- 
 stand. Their attention should be specially dii-ected to the 
 effects likely to be produced by the invasion and subjugation 
 of one people by another — to the changes wliich follow 
 amalgamation of races — to how people were housed, clothed 
 and fed in different ages — to the mannei*s, customs and 
 facilities of intercourse which existed at different periods — 
 how railroads, canals, steamboats, etc., promote the general 
 happiness, preventing local famine, equalizing prices, and 
 extending commercial intercourse — to the advance of science 
 the invention of paper, of printing, etc., etc., to the fact 
 that the poorest citiz-^ns are now • in the enjoyment of 
 privileges and advantages, comforts and conveniences denied 
 to kings in olden times. Children should thus be " intro- 
 duced to the events of other ages," and not confined to the 
 
 I: 
 
 i. 
 %. 
 
 m 
 
 
 Nl 
 
230 
 
 Gtrieral 
 rac4|)ituU- 
 
 PuriU to 
 write 
 
 vketches of 
 tho leaguD. 
 
 How to 
 study 
 history 
 aright. 
 
 TRB SOIBMCB AND ART Of TCACnilfO. 
 
 acqiUHition uf diy chronological factfi. Ixit the teacher 
 excL 'u hin profossioniil Hkill 80 us to intereHt the pupils in 
 their work. They will then find every lesson instructive, 
 and cannot fail to improve the future by reflecting on the 
 past. When the prescribed lesson has been read, the whole 
 subject (or the substance of it) should be recapitulated in 
 the answers' to a series of searching, well-connected, well- 
 arranged questions judiciously pro|)osed. During the 
 progress of the lesson, or at its close, the teacher may (as 
 hinted elsewhere) furnish any additional information con- 
 nected with tho events mentioned, and relate any incidents 
 of interest associated with localities named therein. Then, 
 with a view of impressing the principal facts of the lesson 
 on their minds, ha may retjuire each pupil to write a 
 skeleton of same ; or ho may desire each in turn to mention 
 some one idea in its order of sequence some " one step in the 
 argument," so that when put together they may exhibit a 
 chaste and logical outline of the sub t under consideration. 
 He may then allow the pupils to < ion each other — tlio 
 last in tho class commencing, as described in the Chapter on 
 Reading. Finally he may require them to prepare (at their 
 convenience) an abstract of the lesson, the same to be 
 presented for inspection at some specified time. 
 
 It is not necessary that a large number of studies should 
 be mastered in youth, but it is essential that pupils should 
 acquire tho art of studying aright, and that whatsoever is 
 taught should be taught livingly, philosophically, profoundly. 
 In teaching history, for instance, it is not necessary that the 
 pupil should be taken though the minutiae of the subject 
 from the creation until the present day, or that he should be 
 compelled nolens volens to pore over the fragmentary records 
 of lost races, much less* "the gigantic" volumes which relate 
 the story of modern nations. Rather let the pupils be taught 
 to study — "read, mark, learn, and inwardly digest" — the 
 history of an individual nation. As he proceeds, let the 
 
THE sen. ICE AND ART OF TEACIIISO. 
 
 231 
 
 lIh ill 
 ;tive, 
 I the 
 ^holo 
 ed in 
 well- 
 5 th« 
 ly (aa 
 I con- 
 idenU 
 Thou, 
 lesson 
 rrito a 
 lention 
 p in the 
 hibit a 
 3ration. 
 )r — the 
 >ter on 
 iX their 
 to hi\ 
 
 teticher show him how to apply the principles of historical 
 evidence to the statoinonts contained therein; lot him then 
 be led to trace the cau8t»8 and effects of events, and directed 
 to investigate the motives of actions, so that he may observe 
 the workings of human nature in what has been done and 
 suffered;* let him endeavour to detect the ruling spirit of 
 each successive age, sympathizing with what is noble and 
 abhorring what is unworthy; let him master the great truths 
 and impulse.s whic^h formed the basis of human action in 
 the past, and learn to judge impartially of men and things, 
 whilst recognizing a moral Providence, a retributive justice, 
 amidst all mutations and corruptions. He will thus ac(piire 
 the art of tracing all events to their origin, whilst forming 
 a judicious conclusion as to their ultimate effects. The 
 exercise thus afforded will enable him to study aright, and 
 as he grows in years he will extend his researches (should 
 time permit) until li lias studied the whole course of human 
 history. One book studied in this way v/ill afford him more 
 educational discipline than would all the histories in the 
 world read in the usual cursory style. 
 
 . 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 GEOMETRY. 
 
 Geometry presents us with one of the most extensive and Excellency 
 attractive fields for the exercise of the faculties of memory, ^lyl^^^' 
 reason, and judgment. Some mathematicians exhibit a dis- ^g"].^^^ 
 position to ignore Euclid, and go so far as to assert that 
 trigonometry and mensuration may be mastered without the 
 aid of pure geometry. They might as well assert that a 
 stone bridge could be built on a basis of sand. Supposing 
 
 * Canning. 
 
 li 
 
 tm 
 

 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 
 I 
 / 
 
 A common 
 
 il 
 
 method of 
 
 1 
 
 tuAuhing 
 
 
 Kui-lid. 
 
 ) 
 
 
 / 
 
 that a knowledge of Euclid were unnecessary for the 
 acquisition and right application of other branches of 
 mathematics, it would still be worthy of study, as no other 
 subject affords such mental discipline. Other subjects may 
 equal it in positive utility, but none can surpass it as an 
 iiivigorator of the mind. Euclid is not so popular in 
 America as in the British Isles. The fact that our people 
 prefer utility to abstract excellence, is the only reason we 
 can offer for such a singular anomaly; yet it is possible that 
 defective teaching ability may have something to do with 
 the matter. It is a matter of notoriety that the subject is 
 highly appreciated in our universities, while partially ignored 
 in our public schools. It is a well-known fact that pure 
 geometry is better adapted for cultivating and invigorating 
 the reason .and judgment than for developing the inferior 
 faculties. Those who degrade it to a mere memory exercise, 
 mistake its real objects, and divert it from its legitimate 
 province. In attempting to cram, they fail to educate ; and, 
 as a necessary result, the youthful students learn to dislike 
 the subject. This can scarcely be wondered at when we 
 consider the mode of study adopted in some schools. We 
 will venture to illustrate our meaning by an example which 
 came under our own notice in a land famous for its mathema- 
 tical scliolars. 
 
 Some years ago wo held the position of First Assistant 
 Master in one of the High Schools of England. Occasion- 
 ally the duties of general superintendence devolved upon us, 
 and in that capacity we had to visit the respective class- 
 rooms once or twice a dav. On one of these occasions it 
 happened that we were present during the delivery of a 
 lesson in Euclid — the class being the highest in the 
 institution. The method of teaching having attracted our 
 attention, we remained until the close of the lesson. This 
 method was as follows : The young men, seated at their 
 desks during the first half hour, read the proposition (or 
 
THE 8CIKNCE AND ABT OF TEACHING. 
 
 233 
 
 or the 
 hes of 
 o other 
 ;ts may 
 ^ as an 
 liar in 
 r people 
 uson we 
 ble that 
 do with 
 ibject is 
 f ignored 
 bat pure 
 igorating 
 e inferior 
 
 exercise, 
 Legitimate 
 sate; and, 
 to dislike 
 
 when we 
 )ols. We 
 
 pie which 
 
 mathema- 
 
 Assistant 
 Occasion- 
 d upon us, 
 ctive class- 
 jccasions it 
 ivory of a 
 st in the 
 tracted our 
 sson. This 
 «d at their 
 position (or 
 
 lesBon prescribed) over and over, the books being open 
 before them. During the succeeding fifteen minutes they 
 were engaged in writing verbatim (from memory) the words 
 of the text — the book being closed. Each pupil used the 
 diagram lettered as in the book. During the next fifteen 
 minutes (^ach pupil had to read what he had written, and the 
 teacher — glancing at the book — told hira to " sit down " if 
 his composition failed to coincide with that of the text. If 
 he happened to remember the words of the book, and sue 
 ceeded in giving a verbatim report, the teacher smiled and 
 informed him that he was a "good boy." The good boy 
 then resumed his seat with an air of conscious pride, and 
 was asked no further questions. 
 
 We represented the weakness and inutility of this system a change of 
 to the teacher — a graduate of a famous university — and like- '^^ *^"* 
 wise explained our views to the principal who happened to 
 be the teacher's father ; but both gentlemen informed us 
 that such was the method in use at Cambridge, and that as 
 most of the pupils were preparing for matriculation in that 
 university, they thought it advisable to adhere to the 
 " Cambridge System." We were under the impression at 
 the time that these gentlemen had been misinformed, but 
 on making enquiries as to the practice at other colleges, we 
 found that the system was a favorite one in several of the 
 great educational institutes though it had not been formally 
 encouraged by Cambridge. On further enquiry, we learned 
 through Professor Stokes and others, that Professors in the 
 great English universities had no fixed plan of imparting 
 information on this subject, but generally followed the method 
 of teaching practised in the sister institutions of Scotland 
 and Ireland. • 
 
 Geometry should always be taught as a i*eal intellectual "The more 
 exercise. The enunciation of each proposition should fij-st meThoT." 
 be analyzed, and each statement clearly understood. Then 
 the different assertions should be written in logical order on 
 16 
 
 
 l! 
 
23 1 
 
 ft 
 
 'r.> U.1C 
 
 ittitt^raiiis 
 
 without 
 
 letters. 
 
 Molutiuit in 
 
 general 
 
 terms. 
 
 TilU SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 the bl;ick-bo:u-J. Tho toacher, pointing to these, biiould 
 ren .ire tho pupils to enumorate the qiierie-s, or things to bo 
 iloae, ami also the data or things givon. Having described 
 the diagi-aui — each part in the order in which it is m(;ntione(l 
 in the enunciation — he may ask tlie pupils if thoy can 
 suggest any way for solving the theoiem (or problem) or any 
 »)f its individual assertions. Perhaps one boy can do one 
 j)art, and another boy tho next, and so on until tho proposition 
 is solved. Slioul.l they wander from tho right path tho teacher 
 will, of course, lead tliem back, occasionally making such 
 sugge.stions as ho may tliink necessary to throw light on the 
 subject. When they have gone through the solution in thLs 
 way, the teacher may solve the proposition himself in the 
 presence of the whole class ; after which they may be 
 allowed to take their seats and study the solution as given 
 in the text book. On referring to the text the}'' will be 
 delighted to find that they have successfully solved the pro- 
 position — they will be proud of their discoveries, pleased 
 with themselves, and grateful to the teacher. But a new 
 exercise is before them. After some time they are called to 
 their places or class stations, and one by one required to 
 perform the solution without assistance, using the diagram 
 without letters. Each pupil, while solving the proposition 
 at the board, is closely watched by his companions, who 
 listen to his words with the ears of critics. If he happens 
 to go wrong, up go the hands of his comrades — the teacher 
 points to one, down go the hands, and the pupil indicated 
 instantly corrects the error, and takes his place in the class 
 accordingly. After they liave been well drilled in this exer- 
 cise, they are required to solve the proposition in general 
 terms — no diagrams being used. Each pupil takes prece- 
 dence according to his merit. The latter is, perhaps, the 
 most interesting as well as the most useful exercise in tlie 
 study of Euclid. It improves the memory, strengthens the 
 judgment, sharpens the reasoning faculties, increases the 
 
THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 235 
 
 ( to be 
 
 itiontnl 
 cy can 
 
 I or any 
 do one 
 poHition 
 
 teiw-her 
 112 such 
 t oil tlu^ 
 
 II ill this 
 f in tbe 
 
 may be 
 as given 
 f will be 
 the [)r<>- 
 , pl<;asod 
 at a new 
 s called to 
 quired to 
 ) diagram 
 roposition 
 ions, who 
 e happens 
 le teacher 
 indicated 
 1 the class 
 this exer- 
 iu general- 
 kes prece- 
 ii-haps, the 
 cise in tlie 
 orthens the 
 Teases the 
 
 jK)wer of expressing ideas, stores the mind with new termp, 
 and tends to make the pupils eloquent by enabling them to 
 ppeak effectively and concisely, with accuracy and precision, 
 whilst creating and fostering a love of truth in general, and 
 of mathematical knowledge in particular. Such is the "more 
 excellent way " for teachuig geometry. 
 
 In tejvching JCuclid, especially the second, fifth and sixth The connec- 
 
 1 1 1 1 1 1 • ■\ !• • tion wjlh 
 
 bookH, the teacher should lead his pupils to discover its kindred 
 intimate relation to Arithmetic and Algebra. After analyz- he noted, 
 ing the enunciation of each proposition, as before described, 
 the teacher, by directing the pupils to take numbers to repre- 
 sent the respective lines, or parts of lines, and to operate 
 on them as indicated in the same (enunciation), will greatly 
 facilitate their corapreliension of the subject, and thereby in- 
 delibly imprint on their minds the facts elicited. After doing 
 KO, he may proceed with the diagram as before described, and 
 conclude with the solution in "general terms." During the 
 pupil's progress through the various books, the teacher should 
 point out the connection of the respective propositions with 
 tha kindred sciences, whensoever that can be done with 
 advantage. In teaching monsuration or trigonometry, fre- 
 quent reference should be made to the principles in geometry 
 on which each rule, proposition, or exercise is based. If the 
 pupil be thoroughly posted in the latter subject, he will 
 experience no difficulty in acquiring an efficient knowledge 
 of the former. 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 A SCIENTIFIC HABIT. 
 
 J- 
 
 
 Thirst for knowledge is a desire for novelty and change — j,^^ cuitiva 
 a wish for more than we have — a disposition not to be gJ.'JJji'jffl* 
 content with what we know — ^a longing for information. In *'*^'*- 
 
 M\ 
 
dae 
 
 Natural 
 hittor/. 
 
 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 early youth, having no experience and but little knowledge, 
 we need instruction in the best and most approved methods 
 of acquisition. Whether old or young, as students, we must 
 lean! to despise nothing ; we must investigate and strive to 
 understand the nature and use of everything that comes 
 under our observation. In other words, we must carefully 
 cultivate a scientific habit, and labour to acquire a thorough 
 knowledge of the more useful and important branches of 
 science. Nature generally endows children with every 
 requisite necessary for the formation of this habit. They 
 naturally notice everything they see or hear, arid seldom fail 
 to draw right conclusions from the data thus afforded. 
 Nature impels them to study her wondrous workings by 
 implanting in their breasts the curiosity and inductive 
 J;>ropensities necessary to unravel her mysteries ; but at first 
 they may need a tutor or guide, just as at an eariier stage 
 of existence they required the services of a nui-se. The 
 Iscienti'fic habit once acquired, timo^ and opportunity alone 
 can define its limits. The play of the ^upil may be made 
 to afford him the most useful and instructive lessons. 
 Circumstarices alono can deterinine whether he is to becdmo 
 a Newton, a Herschell, or a mere avetuge sdholar; but in 
 either case he must have a beginnirig — teaching of some sort 
 must initiate and drill him in the Earlier stages of progress. 
 In th6 cultivation of a scientific habit, oar^ must be taken 
 to present such subjects of study as are likely to be attrac- 
 tive to youthful minds, the less difficult and more popular 
 subjects preceding the more difiicult and less attractive, in 
 their order of sequence, each branch being introduced and I 
 treated in a manner such as will ensure its comprehension 
 by youthful and inex|^rieneed minds. Natural History is, 
 perhaps, one of the most popular subjects with the generality! 
 t)f children. Besides ^resentii^ ihein with rich and inex- 
 liaixstible mmed of iiif(n*mation, it will be a powerful aid in 
 incttlda^iig scientific habits, and fdr ti^ese t^eaaons should bel 
 
THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 237 
 
 taught in eveiy school. Children, if favoured with a little 
 assistance, are capable of understanding every department 
 of natural history. They have eyes, and a lively curiosity 
 which impels them to investigate and make enquiries, so 
 as to satisfy their natural desire of acquisition. Nature 
 compels them to use the faculties with which she has 
 endowed them. It is the teacher's province to train and 
 develop s^iid faculties, and to ensure this result he is justified 
 in pressing science and art into his service. 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 BOTANY. 
 
 \ 
 
 During the spring, summer, and early autumn months chiidren'a 
 children indulge in the habit of bringing flowers and iiowers 
 branches of trees to school. They adorn their desks with 
 these "spoils of the season." Nor will they forget their 
 teacher. His desk will receive its share of the regalia. We 
 remember the little devices occasionally practised by some 
 dear pupils to induce certain teachers to leave the class-room 
 at intermissions, and mingle in the sports on the play- 
 grounds, so that some of them in the meantime might 
 decorate the teacher's desk with flowers and evergreens. 
 How slyly the little flower " without a name " used to be 
 laid apart by itself, so that its character and history might 
 be discussed on the occasion of the next lesson in botany. 
 How delicate and yet how devoted are the attentions of 
 children — artless yet full of art, cunning yet delightfully 
 innocent — they seldom fail to please. 
 
 Children enioy their teacher's pleasure and surprise, and To be turned 
 
 •^ '' ^ ^ ^ ' to account 
 
 when they learn that he is fond of flowers, etc., they are >« teaching 
 
 •^ } } J botany. 
 
 m 
 
 V 
 
 4^^^ 
 
 t ^ 
 
 ' t' 
 
 •J I 
 
238 
 
 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 Arrange- 
 meut. 
 
 Adaptation 
 to circum- 
 •tancea. 
 
 Characteris- 
 tics of parts. 
 
 rings. 
 
 sure to keep bim well supplied. Ho may easily turn these 
 little attentions and civilities to good account in imparting 
 a knowledge of botany. Holding up a flower (for instance) 
 he may direct their attention to its form, colour, number of 
 its parts, and the functions of each part in the floral 
 economy. Directing attention to the uniformity in number 
 and size of the sepals, petals, stamens, pistils and shape of 
 leaves characteristic of one class, he may compare or contrast 
 them with corresponding j)arts of another class, and thu.s 
 lead the pupils to form correct ideas of classification. By 
 dii'ecting attention to the form and shape of the root — 
 whether fibrous, bulbous or tap-rooted — and inquiring wliere 
 the flower was found, in what situation and under what 
 conditions, he may easily lead them to discover that different 
 kinds of plants grow iii different situations and in different 
 kinds of soil ; each in the soil best suited to its habits; some 
 in the shade, some in the sunlight, some in water, some on 
 dry land, whilst others grow on their fellow plants. The 
 attention of the children may then be directed to the charac- 
 teristics of the roots, trunks (or stems), twig.-j, br:^.n:'h: ;, 
 leaves and leaflets of different trees, the parts of one bein^- 
 compared with the coiTesponding parts in another. They 
 may be thus led to distinguish between flowering and 
 flowerless plants, being occasionally required to state points 
 of likeness and points of difference. Their attention may 
 then be directed to the characteiistics of exogens and 
 endogens, the outside growers and inside growers (a sample 
 of each being produced for inspection.) Each pupil should 
 note the point of difference in the appearance of the plants 
 while growing ; the difference in the wood, in the leaf, 
 branch, stem and bud or embryo, as the case may be. 
 Having learned that the layers of wood of an exogen are 
 called season rings, and that one ring is formed every season, 
 they will easily discover that the number of "rings" indicate; 
 the age of the tree. Looking closer, they may perceive that 
 
THE SCIENCE AXD ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 
 parting 
 stance) 
 iber of 
 > floral 
 number 
 hape of 
 contrast 
 nd thus 
 >n. By 
 root — 
 12 where 
 er what 
 different 
 different 
 its; some 
 some on 
 its. The 
 le charac- 
 r:-.no'h::'., 
 ne bein,!jf 
 r. They 
 rni!' and 
 ite points 
 tion may 
 rjens and 
 (a sample 
 pil should 
 the plants 
 the leaf, 
 may be. 
 >xogen are 
 ery season, 
 s" indicate 
 I'ceivo that 
 
 the concentric circles or season rin^s are not all of equal 
 thickness, and when informed that these inequalities may be 
 ascribed to some variety in the seasons of former years — 
 such as a cold or dry summer — they will not be slow in per- 
 ceiving that tliey can thus ascertain the probable character of 
 the weather dunn^ every season since the tree commenced its 
 
 growth. Hiiviug thus lx3com'3 acnuaintsd with tlie kind, <;iiM!fi«-4 
 
 tion. 
 form, mannei", and term of growth of the various plants and 
 
 organs of vegetation and roproduotion, and the particular uses 
 
 and peculiarities of arrangement of the respective parts, the 
 
 attention of the young botanists should bo directed to tho 
 
 principles and practice of botanical classilication. 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
 Animal Physiolo''y may be tauirht to children at a very '''''"'••' tJic"' 
 early age. It is a very interesting subject, and one in which •y«- 
 they specially delight. Most of its details may be taught 
 throngh the medium of the eye, and for these reasons it can 
 be easily adapted to their comprehension or capacity. Their 
 attention should first be directed to tlie domestic animals, 
 after which they should be led to study the structure, out- 
 ward appearance, habits, and other peculiar characteristi(;H 
 of each class, order, genus, and species. Attention should 
 then be directed to the chancres which the food underiroes 
 during the process of mastication, digestion, etc., before its 
 conversion into blood. A series of lesions should be given 
 on this subject, so that the pupils m-iy thoroughly master its 
 difficulties, and fully and clearly undei'stand its nature and 
 effects on the physical peculiarities of each class of animals. 
 
 r 
 
 .Ui 
 
 
 ft"- 
 
 
 f- '1 
 
IMO 
 
 I<««soiia 
 •bout birds. 
 
 ' I 
 
 Lessons 
 aliuut flslies. 
 
 Il 
 
 fi Mill lit 
 i^liy.sit»l(i{jy. 
 
 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACIIINO. 
 
 To theue should bj added a series of skilfully arranged 
 lessons on the circulation of the blood, the organization and 
 action of the heart, luriija, senses, arteries, veins, etc. 
 
 In teachinj^ that branch of animal physiology which 
 relates to birds, the attention should tii-st be directed to the 
 form, habits, and other characteristics of those varieties witl» 
 which the pupils are most familiar. Tlio birds themselves 
 (or "their })ictures") should be produced bsfore the class. 
 Those wliich niigrate should be distin<^uished from those that 
 do not indulge in this propensity. The times of their 
 departure and arrival may be noted, the reason for these 
 observances, etc. The pupils may then bo required to state 
 the characteristics of water birds (tlie Natatores,) and to 
 point out the various ways in which they differ from (the 
 Inaessores) those that roost or porch, etc. — characteristics of 
 those that sing, tlioso noted for brilliancy of plumage, etc. — 
 characteristics of the cursores, scaiisores, grallatores, and 
 raptoros, and how each differs from the other according to 
 mode of life, etc. 
 
 A few lessons may then be given on the construction, 
 characteristics, habits, etc., of fishes and reptiles; after which 
 the pupils should be required to learn by rote the classifica- 
 tion of the animal kingdom, as given by some writer of 
 eminence. Having acquired a passable knowledge of the sub- 
 kingdom vertebrata, the pupils may now (if time and 
 circumsttmces permit) direct their attention to the sub- 
 kingdoms invertebrata, duly studying the various structure 
 and peculiarities of the MoUusca, Articulata, and Radiata. 
 
 Human physiology should form an important branch of 
 study in every school, and be placed in a prominent position 
 in the programme. No pupil should be left in ignorance of 
 the laws of health and physical development; nor should 
 they be uninstructed as to what they should eat and what 
 they should drink, and how human food, in all its varieties, 
 should be prepared for use. 
 
TUE SCIENCE AND ART OP TBACUINO. 
 
 241 
 
 anged 
 Q and 
 
 ■which 
 to the 
 a with 
 iselves 
 I class, 
 se that 
 ■ their 
 • these 
 io state 
 and to 
 )m (the 
 Lstics of 
 I, etc. — 
 3S, and 
 ding to 
 
 ruction, 
 r which 
 assifica- 
 riter of 
 the sub- 
 ne and 
 he sub- 
 riicture 
 iata. 
 ■anch of 
 position 
 Irance of 
 should 
 d what 
 krieties, 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 ELEMENTARY GKOLOOY. 
 
 Geology, though still one of the infant sciences, should not Vim irmm<M 
 be altogether ignored in the pubhc school. The attention ot 
 the pupils might profitably bo directed to this subject some 
 time before they commence their studies in agiicultural 
 chemistry. Geological science is useful, necessary, and inter- 
 esting. When properly taught it cannot fail to be the 
 source of much pleasure. The teacher need not necessarily 
 enter into the technicalitie.s of the science. By refei*ence to 
 charts or to some locality in the vicinity of the school, the 
 pupils may be led to distinguish between stratified and un- 
 stratified rocka. Theii- attention may then be directed to 
 the divisions and sub-divisions of the former — to the order of 
 sequence of the different strata irrespective of locality — to 
 the manner in which the different strata were deposited 
 througli the agency of water, the materials being originally 
 of igneous and metamorphic origin — to the fossils charactei- 
 istic of each stratum — to the degradation, denudation, and 
 erosion of rocks under the influence of water, heat, cold, 
 frost, and thaw — to the action of glaciers and the jiccumulation 
 of alluvial debris. 
 
 The formation of soils will thus become an interesting Fommtion 
 
 of soila. 
 
 study. The pupils will easily understand, by due attention 
 to the foregoing, how the mineral ingredients are derived 
 from underlying rocks or from the detritus of neighbouring 
 mountains — how the high hills are being ground down an<l 
 the valleys elevated — how the depth of the soil increases 
 from year to year — how great rivers form deltas in one 
 locality, whilst "they wear away the stones" in another, as 
 at Niagara Falls. 
 
 s ij 
 
 .HI 
 
 n 
 
 {■ 
 
 6»1" 
 
 
 if- 
 
 
r 
 
 212 
 
 Ptf<^ultaHtie« 
 of ImmlkHi. 
 
 flinty of 
 
 TOE SCIENCR AND ART OF TEACUINQ, 
 
 Having taken a courso of lossous in those subjects, and 
 coniniltt<'(l tlie order of Htratificiition to imnnory, the atten- 
 tion of tlio children may be recalled to the conaidenition of 
 the unstratitiod rocks, sucli us granite, syonite, etc., the 
 Hgency of th*'ir formation and protrusion binng ex{)lained as 
 clearly and fully as poHsiblo. Having learned that the 
 unHtratitied rocks generally appear on tl»e summits of moun- 
 t^iins as well as at the base of tho aqueous formations, the 
 class may bj e isily led to perceive that the causo of their 
 elevation must l)e referred to internal violence ; and that 
 during their upheaval the concentric crusts, coits, or layers 
 «»f tho 8eco!ulary strati were broken and laid bare for 
 inspection, and that the internal treasures of the earth were 
 thus brought within the reach of man. 
 
 \Vhil(^ directing tlio pupils' attention to the laws of 
 geological super-imposition, the teacher may justly refer to 
 some of tho many instances in which vast sums of money 
 were needlessly and uselessly spout by minors, ignorant of 
 the principles enunciated by the discoverers of "the order of 
 sequence." He may then question the pupils as to their 
 kno'.vledge of the pi'eceding .subjects, and the general applica- 
 tion of geological science, being careful to ascertain where 
 they would look for coal? — the names of the strata under- 
 lying and overlying the coal measures ] — where they would 
 bore for oil, water, or salt, etc., etc. — the names of the 
 creatures which characterized the Silurian, Devonian, and 
 other eras ] — their dimensions, structure, and habits 1 — the 
 nani'js of creatures wliich have become extinct during the 
 human era? — the probable causes of their extinction, etc. — 
 alto'rations in climate ? — cause and consequence? 
 
THB 8CIENC£ AMD ABT OV TEACIIIKO. 
 
 243 
 
 I, and 
 Ditten- 
 on of 
 ., the 
 \e»l Q» 
 ,t the 
 inou Il- 
 ls, the 
 • theii 
 il that 
 layers 
 ire for 
 h wero 
 
 iiwa of 
 :efer to 
 money 
 »rant of 
 order of 
 L their 
 a|)plica- 
 i where 
 I imder- 
 y would 
 
 of the 
 
 Lan, and 
 
 s 1— the 
 
 ng the 
 1, etc. — 
 
 CHAPTKR XVI. 
 
 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. 
 
 
 Thei-e 18 no knowIed;.jeof a secular nature more interesting i»np.>rti«n. 
 tiian that which is ftirnished by chemical science; and of all tiu«1'^,''iu'i 
 the branches of chemiHtry there is none so ur^eful or so *"*'^- 
 important as that which relates U) agriculture. Wo a,ve a 
 pfre;it agricultural people, and likely to continue so for ever. 
 (Jur farmers should, thcrifore, comluct their litdd operations 
 on scientific principles, Wing careful to leave tlunr prolV ;sion 
 better than they found it. " Head rules muscle, and (as a 
 Itiaruod writer well observes) all farmers who educate only 
 their muscle must occupy the inferior relation of muscle."* 
 llenco we infer that the elements of agricultural chemistry, 
 or the theory of farming, should be taught in every public 
 school — more especially in rural oner;. IIum;in forced ai-e 
 mere developments of nature. Man's nourishment and 
 strength are her gifts; and through her the student of 
 humanity learns the true relationships of things, and through 
 them finally succeed:! in understanding the wonderful 
 workings of the human mind. 
 
 The gicat object of the farmer is to make his lands yield Diffp^^j^^ 
 the most productive crops at the least possible expense. To '*'?'*? "' 
 effect this laudable desire, li ) must bi) guided in his agricul- 
 tural operations, by science and (■.\[>erionce. Science teaches 
 him that all soils, plants, and animals are composed of 
 two kimls of substances, whose proportional ingic dients 
 vary iu different species — that one kind of substances 
 is organic und volatile; that the ollin* is inorganic and 
 inca[)able of growth except by accumulation; and that these 
 again can be analyz)d into their separate elements, the 
 number, nature, and amount of which will indicate the 
 composition of the original compound. These things are 
 
 * Rev. E. T?yerson, D.D. 
 
 l'-'. 
 
 %^., 
 
 \ i*\ 
 
 ml 
 
 
2U 
 
 lt()tatiun of 
 crop* 
 
 Supply of 
 complemen- 
 tary ele- 
 lueuts. 
 
 THE BCIRNCE AHD ART OF TEXrHINO. 
 
 not ditCcuIt of conipiehension, and should be taught in the 
 laboratory and un the farm, by practical oxpcriuient. The 
 pupils must first learn *' the chemical al)>habrt" — the names, 
 symbols, and atomic runnbers of the reH|)Octive element**. 
 After whi'^h, the teacher, by a series of judicious, well- 
 selected exj)eriments, may Iwul them to discover the law of 
 multiple proportions. After going through a series of 
 IcHhons ou the metals, metalloids, acids, bases, etc., attention 
 should be dir»*cted to the composition, conservation, irri^^- 
 tion, and drainage of boils, the nature and structure of 
 plants, etc., tlie rotation of crops, and general economy of 
 the farm. 
 
 Science teachas us that diffei*ent species of plants require 
 different kinds of nouri«hment — or the same kind in 
 difteront proportions — that every crop depnves the soil of a 
 portion of its elements; that no soil, however fertile, can 
 yield an indefinite succession of crops without being 
 manured; that rotation ])re8erves the soil from impoverish- 
 ment, clears it of pernicious weeds, turns each element to 
 account in favour of reproduction, and enables the fatuur to 
 "replenish and recu[)erate the soil," while relieving him 
 fix)m the necessity of directly applying manure to su(;h crops 
 as could >t receive it without hazard or positive injury. 
 The principles of rotation will teach him how to obtain the 
 largest interest on his capital. Science will show liim that 
 the culniiferous and legumenous plants should succeed each 
 other alternately, and that the period of rotation should 
 extend over six or seven years. Practice on the farm will 
 prove the value of the theory of rotation. 
 
 A knowledge of the particular substances which a crop 
 absorbs from the soil, and of the elements needed by the 
 crop which is to follow, will enable the farmer to form a 
 good system of rotation — such a system as may be suited to 
 the exigencies of the time, climate, and nature of the land. 
 Knowing the composition and capabilities of the soil, he can 
 
n the 
 Th« 
 
 nenU. 
 
 well- 
 
 aw of 
 
 i('8 of 
 
 eiition 
 
 Mve of 
 >iny of 
 
 pequirw 
 md ill 
 lil of a 
 ;ilo, can 
 
 being 
 jverish- 
 nent to 
 »ttur to 
 ig him 
 :h crops 
 injury, 
 tain tho 
 iim that 
 jed each 
 
 shouhl 
 irm will 
 
 I a crop 
 by the 
 
 ) form a 
 uited to 
 
 the land. 
 
 il, he can 
 
 THB HCIBNCB AND ABT OF TEAOIlINQk 245 
 
 apply RucL nianuros as will be mout b<:ne(loial. By burning 
 »ome of the pluntH which he intendn to how, ro that ho may 
 examine their aHhea, and by analyzing a portion of the noil 
 in which he would expect them to grow, the farmer may 
 judge by the com{>onent ingredientH, and the peculiar habits 
 of the plant, whether the crop would be productive. Having Abnorption 
 asceitainod the component elements of the soil, and of the lation 
 project«<l crop, antj knowing what ingredients will bo 
 supplied by the atmosphere, he can apply that kind of 
 manure which contains the proper supply of nourishment — 
 the same or complemontaiy elements. Children can Ikj 
 easily UkI to understand that if grasses, vegetables, etc., 
 cannot find in tho soil such suljKtances as they need for 
 suppoi-t, the crop must necessarily be a failure in projwrtion 
 to the deficiency in the requisite amount of food. Tlie 
 farmer can supply somo of those substances, antl atmospheric 
 influences will furnish the remainder. The pupils will nut 
 find it difficult to remember that plants take in their food 
 in a fluid form, and cannot under any circumstances absorb 
 or a.<isimilate substances in a solid state. Hence, a manure 
 may contain the necessary ingredients, and remain uselesf^ 
 through improper application. Plants cannot avail them- 
 selves of the nourishing properties of manures unless tho 
 latter are soluble in water. Solution must precede absorp- 
 tion. 
 
 When the pupils have been well grounded in the fore- utility of 
 
 ,. . 11111. 1 agricultural 
 
 going facts, their attention should be directed to the great chMnistry to 
 difference which exists between the respective grasses, so far raiaar. 
 as their nourishing properties are concerned — this fact being 
 exemplified by reference to certain fields in the immediate 
 vicinity. They may be led to perceive that some grasses 
 possess more of the elements of which bone and sinew is 
 made, than others — that the grass in one field gives the cows 
 a large flow of milk and a certain quality of butter — that 
 the grasses in another field have a tendency to fatten the 
 
 
 "m 
 
246 
 
 liiflueiictifl 
 of UffUi, 
 heat, «tc. 
 
 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 COWS, etc.; so that chemistry is useful even to the stock- 
 raiser; for it instructs him as to the particular kind of food 
 ■ — grass, hay, etc. — wliich should be furnished to certain 
 kinds of cattle, or to cattle intended for certain uses. It 
 also enables him to fix tho amount of exercise, and to pre- 
 scribe the quality of tho accommodation or shelter neces- 
 sary for thoir comfort and his profit. 
 
 A series of well arranged, well-connected lessons should 
 be given on light, heat, cold, moisture, etc., and their 
 influences on vegetation. If passably posted in the laws of 
 absorption and radiation, the pupils will easily perceive that 
 the degree of warmth, or amount of heat, which a soil 
 obtains from the sun, depends upon its cliemical com|)osition 
 and power of retention, and tliat this heat will materially 
 aifect vegetation. The temperature of a dry soil, for 
 instance, may bo 90'' or 100^, when tliat of the air is only 
 60' or 70^; and the temperature cf a wet soil is alway 10° 
 or 15*^ below the temperature of a dry soil. Wet soils are 
 favourable to evaporation. They thus lose much of their 
 natural heat, and are, therefore, called cold soils. Hence 
 tho necessity of correcting this defect by draining. We 
 might enlarge on this subject, but think enough has been 
 said to show the utility and necessity of a knowledge of 
 agricultural chemistry, as well as the advantages to be gained 
 by placing it on the j)rogramme of school studies. 
 
 CII.VPTER XVII. 
 
 NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 
 
 ! * 
 
 Kiementa of No intelligent person will question the utility and im- 
 PhUosophy portanco of acquiring a knowledge of natural philosophy, 
 at PuwS^**' o^ chemical physics ; and but few will deny that the founda- 
 Sehoois. ^^Qj^ Qf ^IjJ^ knowledge shoidd be laid at the public school. 
 
THE 8CILNCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 247 
 
 stock - 
 f foo<l 
 lertain 
 s. It 
 to pre- 
 neces- 
 
 ahould 
 . their 
 aws of 
 ve that 
 a soil 
 )Osition 
 terially 
 ioil, for 
 is only 
 jvay 10° 
 soils are 
 of their 
 H<^nce 
 . We 
 las been 
 ledge of 
 
 >e 
 
 gained 
 
 and im- 
 ilosophy, 
 3 foanda- 
 ■ic school. 
 
 We would like to dwell on this subject and. if possible, to 
 give a few examples of how lessons in philosophy should bo 
 given in the school room ; but want of space prevents us 
 from indulging ourselves in this respect. However, wo will 
 take the liberty of advancing a few hints as to the manner 
 in which the respective brunches should bo introduced to the 
 notice of children. 
 
 The teacher may commence his lessons in natural ^^^^Uo- FirHt lessons 
 sophy by a few simple exporiments, illustrating the at' .n Philosophy, 
 of attra'3tion of gravity, cohesion, capillary attraction, et«s. 
 He may then direct attention to the pressure of the atmoa- 
 phere, and its elFocts in tlie economy of nature. Should he 
 not be able to procure orthodox apparatus, his ingenuity will, 
 in some cases, enable him to provide passable substitutes. 
 A. large basin will do service as a pneumatic trough, and a 
 large drinking glass will suit, in some exporimsnts, as well 
 as a receiver. Both together will enable him to illustrate 
 several important lessons, especially such as relate to the 
 pressure of the atmosphere, etc. For instance}, let him fill 
 the basin with water iind, inverting the glass, place its mouth 
 horizontal to tlie surface. Inviting one of the i>upils to 
 press it downwards gradually until it is submerged, let the 
 teacher call attention to the fact, that as the glass descends, 
 the air confined therein occupies less and less space. He must 
 then lead them to discover, by a series of logical well-ar- 
 ranged questions (based on facts within their comprehension), 
 why the glass presses upwards against the boy's hand ] — why 
 the surrounding water does not fill the submerged glass, no 
 matter how great the pressure I — why the air in tiie glass 
 expands or contracts in proportion to the depth of the .sub- 
 morgenco 'I From this, and kindred experiments, the ])upils Suujort to 
 may bo led to form correct ideas of the compressibility, olas- gimpic pra!-- 
 ticity, im|ienotrabiIity, and other properties of the atnios- nu-nu"^"^' 
 phero. This experiment will also enable them to compre- 
 hend the philosophical principles involved in the construction 
 
■iiBM 
 
 248 
 
 THE SCIENCE AND ART OP TEACHING. 
 
 The pupils 
 to conmict 
 the experi- 
 ments under 
 the teacher's 
 guidauce. 
 
 of the diving bell. Let the teacher now fill the glass with 
 water, cover its mouth with a sheet of paper, and then sud- 
 denly inverting it (mouth downwards), explain why the 
 water and paper remain suspended. They will thus be led 
 to see that the atmosphere presses equally in all directions — 
 that its upward pressure is sufficient to counterbalance gra- 
 vity. Submerging the glass, and allowing it to fill with 
 water, let him invert it and raise it out of the water until 
 its mouth nearly reaches the surface. Let him then call 
 attention to the facts that the column of water in the glass 
 is supported — that it would be supported were the column 
 thirty-three feet high ; and why 1 — that the same pressure 
 would support only thirty inches of mercury, and why? 
 — that the height of the column varies as the density or 
 Specific gravity of the liquid — that the -atmospheric pres- 
 sure is about 151bs to the square inch, etc. 
 
 Handing one of the pupils the barrel of a quill, or some 
 similar tube open at both ends, the teacher may direct him 
 to put one extremity in his mouth and the other in the wa- 
 ter, (or in milk,) and try whether he can thereby help him- 
 self to a drink. The teacher may then direct attention to 
 the fact that the liquid rose in the tube as the " air was 
 sucked out;" and why] — that the liquid will not rise if a 
 hole be bored in the tube above the water; and whyl — that 
 it will rise if this hole be submerged, etc. The pupils may 
 then receive a few special lessons on "the barometer and its 
 variations," "the common pump, and its construction, etc. 
 In explaining the philosophy of the latter, special attention 
 must be paid to the use of valves, the action of the piston, 
 its tendency to create a vacuum, the limit to which water 
 can be raised by the common pump, etc. ; the pupils in all 
 eases conducting the experiments under the teacher's guid- 
 ance. 
 
 By actual experiment, the pupils may then be led to per- 
 ceive that air has weight — that it expands by heat — that 
 the lower strata are more dense than the upper, and have 
 
THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 241) 
 
 s with 
 m 8ud- 
 liy the 
 , be led 
 bione — 
 ice gra- 
 il with 
 er until 
 lien call 
 he glasR 
 column 
 pressure 
 id why] 
 msity or 
 iric pres- 
 
 , or some 
 irect him 
 n the wa- 
 help him- 
 lention to 
 '* air was 
 , rise if a 
 y1— that 
 pils may 
 ier and its 
 ction, etc. 
 attention 
 he piston, 
 ich water 
 ipils in all 
 ler's guid- 
 
 led to per- 
 heat — that 
 and have 
 
 to sustain a greater pressure— that the lighter bodies always a series of 
 rise above and rest on the heavier ; each body taking its I'xper'iVneut'i 
 place in the order of sequence according to its relative tiong.^"*^^'^'' 
 specific gravity, as creum on milk, for instance, a cork on 
 water, etc., and hence that smoke ascends, and a balloon 
 rises above the clouds. Their attention may then be 
 directed to the principles of rarefaction — why there is always 
 a draught up the chimney, a current of air from the door to 
 the fire] — why a current entei-s a room near the threshhold 
 of the door, whilst another leaves the room at the top of the 
 door, as may bo proved by holding a lighted candle to these 
 places — why the one current is cold and the other war|ja] 
 — why the janitor raises one part of the school windows, 
 whilst he lowers the other, when desirous of ventilating the 
 rooms, etc. ? The teacher may now direct attention to the 
 philosophy of winds, their velocity, cause, and consequences 
 — the difibront kinds of winds, and their uses in the economy 
 of nature. Attention may then be directed to the nature and 
 velocity of light and sound — their utility in calculating dis- 
 tances, as in the cases of thunder, lightning, cannon shots, 
 etc. (light travelling at the rate of about 192,000 miles per 
 second, and sound travelling 1,142 feet in the same time). 
 They may then introduce a few simple experiments, showing 
 that the speed of sound varies as the density of the media 
 through which it passes — that it is about four times quicker 
 in watei, and twenty times quicker in solids, than in air. 
 Why the Indians apply their ears to the ground when 
 calculating their distance from foes on the march? — why 
 boys apply their ears to the rails of a railroad when they 
 wish to discover whether there is an approaching engine on 
 the line. After the pupils have been well grounded on the 
 preceding subjects, they should receive a series of lessons on 
 the principles of radiation, reflection, refraction, absorption, 
 evaporation, electricity, magnetism, etc., and then the laws 
 relating to them should be committed to memory. 
 17 
 
 i -I' 
 
 t ."♦' 
 
 
 r 
 
 I 
 
 ■it- 
 
250 
 
 THE aCIEN^CE AND AllT OP TEACHING. 
 
 Kfr.-.-ta of 
 ll.ut. 
 
 Coiistriu'- 
 ti.iiiof Tlicr- 
 
 DKIllU'tlT. 
 
 rropertiea 
 «.f Water. 
 
 XfhL'n the 
 t'.xt book 
 slinnld bp 
 iiilnnluci d. 
 
 By a scries of judicious experiments and well-arranged 
 questions, the pupils may be led to discover that heat 
 expands all bodies, and is present in all matter — that the 
 increase of volume at a given temperature varies in different 
 bodies — that air and gases expand most, fluids* next, and 
 theu solids, examples being mentioned in each case — that 
 conterminous bodies have a tendency to equalize their heat, 
 or to assume an equal temperature — that cir, gas, and porous 
 bodies are bad condtictoi-s, and that metals and solids 
 generally are good ones — find that the hair or fur of animals 
 and pluiauge of birds vary with the climate, etc. 
 
 Tiie piinciples on which the thermometer is constructed 
 may now bo explained — the nature and use of that instru- 
 ment — why the tube is of a narrow and smooth bore — how 
 it is graduated — how the frof^zing and boiling points are 
 determined — the best thermometer for warm countries — the 
 best for polar regions, and why 1 — and how we may ascertain 
 the relative (Quantity of heat in different bodies, etc. 
 
 The pupils should receive a series of lessons on the nature 
 and properties of water in its respective forms, during 
 whicli their attention should be directed to the temperature 
 at which it becomes ice, and whether 16 then expands or 
 contracts in volume — why it should not be left in pipes in 
 frosty weather — effects of its expansion on agriculture. 
 When water becomes vapour or steam — how one cubic inch 
 of water becomes 1728 cubic inches of steam — utility in the 
 arts, etc. — how soluble salts and difference of pressure re- 
 tard the boiling of water. How the formation of vapour 
 absorbs heat and thus produces cold — evaporation and dis- 
 tillation. 
 
 In this manner, or in a manner somewhat similar to this, 
 the teacher should, from time to time, guide the pupils 
 through n regular course of lessons on the philosophy of 
 common things, making each as interesting as possible ; 
 asking for examples and giving illustrations; enlisting the 
 
THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 2S1 
 
 gett 
 tieat 
 
 the 
 rent 
 
 and 
 ■that 
 heat, 
 Droits 
 solids 
 inials 
 
 •acted 
 nstru- 
 — how 
 ts are 
 B — the 
 certain 
 
 nat\iv0 
 during 
 erature 
 nds or 
 dpes in 
 lulture. 
 lie inch 
 in the 
 are re- 
 vapour 
 nd dis- 
 
 to this, 
 
 pupils 
 
 lophy of 
 
 Possible ; 
 
 Iting the 
 
 active co-operation of the children so that he may be able 
 to turn every available circumstance to good account. After 
 receiving, viva voce, such lessons as we have alluded to, the 
 pupils should refer to the text books, and supplement 
 their knowledge by a careful study of the subject as given 
 therein ; or, at the close of the viva voce series, they may be 
 required to take a regular course through the text book. 
 The teacher's lessons will have enabled them to thoroughly 
 comprehend the author's meaning in "all cases of doubt or 
 diflficulty," so that their studies, instead of being dull, will 
 be considered interesting and agreeable. 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. 
 
 MECHANICS. 
 
 The teacher may introduce his lessons on this branch of introtiuc- 
 
 tory lessons 
 
 Natural Philosophy by asking the pupils for information as on Mecha- 
 
 iiics 
 
 to the manner in which certain familiar tools, or simple 
 machines, are used in e very-day life — how a spade, hay fork, 
 fishing rod, etc., are used — how a large stone may be moved 
 with a walking stick — how water is taken from a draw-well 
 by means of the wheel and axle — how casks are placed on 
 or taken off a waggon by means of the inclined plane, etc.? 
 He may then explain, or give a series of lessons illustrating 
 what we mean by, such terms as force, motion, centre of 
 gravity, momentum of forces, etc., and require the defini- 
 tions to be entered in the pupils' note books, and committed 
 to memory. Directing attention to the manoeuvres of John 
 and James, while balancing each other on a plank placed 
 over a log of wood, to how they adapt, the length of the 
 arms to their respective weights, etc., he may lead the pupils 
 
 *• .'I 
 > 
 
 If 
 
 t; - 
 
 'i4;l 
 ■'1'., 
 
 di 
 
252 
 
 " virtual 
 velocitleu." 
 
 The mechan- 
 ical powers. 
 
 Formulae, 
 and practi- 
 cal hints on 
 the applica- 
 tion of each 
 power. 
 
 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 to deduce the laws wliich regulate the power and action of 
 the lever. Taking a rod of any length (say 30 inches), and 
 assuming that the power multiplied by the units of distance 
 through which it moves is equal to the weight multiplied 
 by the units of distance through which it moves, ho may, by 
 placing the fulcrum at different distances, show that the 
 equilibrium is not deranged, and hence that the assumpinon 
 is true in every case, and of universal application. The 
 pupils may thus be led to discover and enunciate the prin- 
 ciple of virtual velocities or equality of moments. 
 
 Directing the pupils' attention to a chart (or to models) 
 of the six mechanical powers, the teacher, after giving the 
 name of each, should point out the fact that they may be 
 all referred back to two, namely, to the lever and the in- 
 clined plane. He may then lead them to observe that to 
 understand the power of a machine we must consider four 
 things, viz. — the force or power which acts, the resistance 
 to be overcome, the fulcrum or centre of motion, and the 
 respective velocities of the power and weight. The pupils 
 should then receive a lesson on each of the mechanical pow- 
 ers and their varieties. The art of illustrating is one of the 
 great secrets of successful teaching, and for this reason ap- 
 propriate illustrations should precede or accompany the 
 enunciation of every mechanical principle. If the lessons on 
 the simple machines be properly delivered and efficiently 
 illustrated, the pupils, at the close of each lesson, should 
 clearly comprehend the principle involved, and be able to 
 form a rule, or to construct a formula, for its application. 
 [The following, with similar rules and formulae for the 
 remaining powers, founded on the principle of the equality 
 of moments, may be deduced from such lessons and made 
 the bases of many useful and practical problems. As the 
 product of the extremes is equal to the product of the means, 
 a simple arithmetical operation will enable us to find a 
 mean or extreme when three of the terms are given.] 
 
THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 253 
 
 lOf 
 
 Eind 
 nice 
 lied 
 ,by 
 
 the 
 n:ion 
 
 The 
 prin- 
 
 )dels) 
 
 g the 
 
 ay be 
 
 he in- 
 
 lat to 
 
 r four 
 
 stance 
 
 id the 
 
 pupils 
 
 1 pow- 
 of the 
 on ap- 
 ly the 
 
 .ons on 
 iiently 
 should 
 ible to 
 .cation. 
 :or the 
 quality 
 made 
 As the 
 means, 
 find a 
 
 The Lever. — The power is to the weight as the weight 
 arm is to the power arm : — Thus, P : W : : Ws arm : P's 
 arm. 
 
 Single Cord Pulley. — Tlie power is to the weight as 1 is 
 to twice the number of movable Pulleys : — Thus, P : W : : 
 1 : 2n. 
 
 Pvlley vy'Uh Fixed Separate Cords. — The power is to the 
 weight as 1 is to 2 raised to the power indicated by the 
 number of movable pulleys : — Thus, P : W : : 1 : 2". 
 
 When the Cord passes over a Fixed Pullty attached to a 
 Beam. — The power is to the weight as 1 to 3 raised to the 
 power indicated by the number of movable pulleys : — Thus, 
 P : W : : 1 : 3". 
 
 The Wedge. — The power is to the weight as one half the 
 width of the back to the length: — Thus, P : W : : ^ B : L. 
 
 The Wheel and the Pinion. — The power is to the weight 
 as the continued product of the leaves is to the continued 
 product of the teeth : — Thus, P : W : : I x P : t xt'. 
 
 The Diff'erential Screw. — The power is to the weight as 
 the difference in pitch of the two screws is to the length of 
 lever multiplied by 2 multiplied by 3.1416: — Thus, P : 
 W: : Diff. : ^x 2x3.1416. 
 
 The Endless Screw. — The power is to the weight as the 
 radius of the axle is to the product of the number of teeth 
 in wheel, multiplied by the length of the winch : — Thus, P : 
 W : : r: tx\. 
 
 During the progress of the series of lessons on the mecha- 
 nical powers — in fact during the delivery of all lessons — the 
 teacher may occasionally vary the exercise by some interest- 
 ing observations of a simple kind, always encouraging the 
 pupils to give him the result of their own thoughts, and 
 also to mention such illustrations of the subject as may 
 occur to them. If giving a lesson on the lever, for instance, 
 he might ask, in connection with some of the examples men- 
 
264 
 
 'It 
 
 Hydrosta- 
 tics and Dy- 
 namics. 
 
 THE SCIENCE AND ART OP TEACHING. 
 
 tioned by the pupils, Why hollow tubes are stronger than 
 solid ones] Should they fail to reply, he may then state 
 the reason, or reserve " the difficulty" to form the subject of 
 some succeeding lessons. Then again he may ask. Why it 
 is easier to break a ruler flatways than edgeways] — Why 
 the joists of a house are made thin and laid edgeways in 
 their respective places] Being thus brought face to face 
 with another principle of nature, they may be led to per- 
 ceive that in such cases the strewjth of the material is eqttcU 
 to the breadth midtlplied by the depth squared, divided by the 
 length : — Thus, S = 6 x ci' -j- /. Or thus — 1 : 6 : : d^ : S. 
 
 The pupils may then receive some lessons on the principles 
 of liquid pressure, the hydrostatic press, hydrostatic bel- 
 lows, hydrostatic paradox, specific gravity, etc., after which 
 theii* attention may be directed to the study of Dynamics. 
 By a series of practical lessons, judiciously and logically 
 arranged, the pupds should be led to discover ( 1 ) that when 
 the velocities of moving bodies are equal, their momenta are 
 proportional to their masses; (2) that when the masses of 
 two moving bodies are equal, their momenta are proportional 
 to their velocities; and (3), that when neither the masses nor 
 velocities of two bodies are equal, their momenta are in pro- 
 portion to the products of their weights b}'- their velocities.* 
 
 Attention should also be directed to the facts that one 
 
 of the bodies being stationary at the moment of impact, the 
 
 M X V 
 velocity of the united mass (y) - ~ (V and v representing 
 
 the respective velocities; M and m the masses of the respec- 
 tive bodies, 
 
 That when the two bodies are moving in the same direction, 
 
 the velocity of the united mass 
 
 (MxV) + (mxV) 
 M-f-w 
 
 Pliilosophy 
 of falling 
 bodies. 
 
 That when the bodies are moving in difierent directions, 
 
 the velocity of the united mass = ^ J.'^ — — — . 
 
 The pupils' attention may then be directed to the nature 
 and effects of gravity with respect to falling bodies. They 
 
 * Dr. J. H. Sangster. 
 
THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 255 
 
 than 
 state 
 ct of 
 by it 
 Why 
 fa in 
 face 
 • per- 
 equal 
 by the 
 
 iciples 
 s bel- 
 wliich 
 amies, 
 gically 
 b when 
 ata are 
 ,8363 of 
 rtional 
 ses nor 
 in pro- 
 cities.* 
 lat one 
 ,ct, the 
 [senting 
 respec- 
 
 rection, 
 
 jctions, 
 
 nature 
 They 
 
 must be led to undoratand that it acts separately, cipmlly, 
 nnd continuously, on every particle of matter without refer- 
 once to the nature of the body; an<l that all bodies falliiitj 
 freely, move through equal spaces in the same tiuie; that 
 gravity never ceases to act; that the falling body gain.s a 
 new impulse and a consequent increase of velocity o^ich mo- 
 ment of its descent, and that its final velocity is the sum of 
 all the increments of velocity thus communicated ; that the 
 velocity at the end of the second moment of de^scent is twice 
 that acquired at tlio end of the first; and that its velocity 
 at the end of the third moment is three times tJint which it 
 had at the end of the first, and so on. The pupils may bo 
 then informed that a falling body acquires a velocity of 
 about 32 feet per second at the end of the firat moment of 
 descent; that the average speed being the arithmetical mean 
 between its initial and terminal velocities, the descent in 
 the first second must have been 16 feet. The following for- 
 mulae may then be constructed, each forming the basis and 
 sununary of a lesson : — 
 
 The space through which a body falls during any second 
 of its descent = 2 (sec. — 1) x 16. 
 
 The final velocity at the end of any second = Second x 2 
 xl6. 
 
 The whole descent in given number of seconds = Seconds 
 X 1 6 : (or 8 — ^ gP). 
 
 When a body descends with initial force, space travelled 
 in given time ^Y x t+lCy x t^: (or s~vt + ^ yf). 
 
 When a body ascends with initial force, sjiace travelled in 
 given time = Y xt-\Q xP: (or s~vt-\ gf^). 
 
 When a body d -scends with initial force, the final velocity 
 = V + < X 32 : (or V = V + ig). 
 
 When a body ascends with initial force, the final velocity 
 = V - < X 32 : {ovv = Y -tg). 
 
 The foregoing, and Hydro-dynamics, will aflford materials sundry oiv 
 for many useful and interesting lessons of a practical nature. 
 
 |i 
 
 1/ 
 
 st'i'vatious. 
 
Iri* 
 
 25(1 
 
 
 ' HI 
 
 THE BCIENTE AND ART Or TEACHING. 
 
 In a work of this description it would be impossible for us 
 to do more than hint at Huch lassons; but even a young and 
 inexjKjrienced teacluT would have but little diflficulty in fill- 
 ing up tho meagre outlines here pi-esentcd. The t<iacher who 
 would sticcoed in his profession must remember that one of 
 the (jreat seci'ets o/ success is the poxo*r to make study attrac- 
 tive by pracflcally illustrating u hat is tauyht. Children can, 
 and will, learn any subject, how<^ver ditlicult, if the teacher 
 can only make it sufficiently interesting. Ii studying these 
 things, or in directing others how to study them, prudence 
 will not |)ermit us to fetter mind by rules too rigid or too 
 numerous. Cuiiosity, amusement, and natural tastes may 
 bo allowed to direct the student in certain cxc» optional cases 
 in the Iiigher institutunis of learning, lu.il we are of opinion 
 that, within certain limits, a similar indulgence might be 
 extender! to ^^ o pupils of the higher classes in public schools. 
 This princii^ is recognized in the Cv^rnell University, 
 (Ithaca,) and with marked advantage. The studies of pu- 
 pils may be as wide as their condition in life and mental 
 calibre will permit; but it is not advi sable that their atten- 
 tion should be directed to the acquisition of a large number 
 of subjects at the same time. Better at first to concentrate 
 their attention on a few, nnd then gradually keep adding to 
 the number as they gn vv in mental stitmgth. 
 
 The manner in which we would have other subjects intro- 
 duced may be infeiTcd from the suggestions advanced in the 
 foregoing pages. Further digression is unnecessary. We 
 will therefore proceed to discuss other matters, hoping the 
 preceding sketciies may not be wholls profitless nor alto- 
 gether uninteresting. 
 
THE SLiENOK AND ART OF TBACHIMSi 
 
 26: 
 
 ;.-f^ 
 
 » for UB 
 ng and 
 ^ in tin- 
 ier who 
 t one of 
 ' attrac- 
 en oau, 
 teacher 
 ig these 
 i'udence 
 (I or too 
 itos may 
 lal cases 
 ' opinion 
 ni^ht be 
 ; schools, 
 liversity, 
 ^a of pu- 
 l m<;ntal 
 }ir atten- 
 ! number 
 icentrate 
 itUUng to 
 
 icts intro- 
 eJ in the 
 ry. We 
 oping the 
 nor alto- 
 
 CHAITER XIX. 
 PUBLIC EXAMINATIONS. 
 
 Public examinations at (•prtain int<^rval8 — twice a ycnv at P«ii'iif - x 
 
 *^ _ iiininnti'Mi- 
 
 lenst four times at most — are \ory useful and ilosirablc, if d»«ira».ii i- 
 
 Cf^rtaiii in 
 
 they bo conducted so as to tc.st the etliciency and accuincy ttrvaU. 
 of the instruction ^iven, as well us the gen* ml pi'ogross ot" 
 the youthful students. In fact they are commendabl«3 when 
 they exhibit the school as it really is, and j>ernicious when 
 they represent it in false colours or under false lig))ts , Thc^e 
 periodical examinaticms should ceitainly bo held; but it ^j't.ft'exhn. 
 must bo borne in mind that they will do more harm than '^'* "* '' '*• 
 good should the pupils bo led to act the hypocrite in order 
 that tlioy may win the applause and admiration of the .spec- 
 tators. No particulai- lessons should be appointed f»)r these 
 examinations; no special preparation should bo made for 
 them; nor should the examiners, beforehand, apprise the 
 pupils of tho nature of the questions they intend to ask. 
 On these occasions the scho(.> should exhibit a true pictui*e, 
 a faithful photograph, of the real progress made since the 
 last "periodical examination." These rules are frequently 
 infringed, in fact we are well aware that tlioy are seldom, if 
 ever, observed. Their violation affords a cloak for much 
 decc^ption; but in such cases the people srem to enjoy and 
 encourage the deceit *' by bestowing lil»eral encomiums on 
 the deceivers," However, the most intelligent minds, and 
 the most discriminative audiences are liable to be decei ed 
 by appearances. No experienced te-«icher will deny that/ 
 public periodical examinations arr> unreliable in their results, unifiiiii.ie. 
 and therefore, unsatisfactory tests of the real progi'ess of a 
 school or any section thereof; nor do they afford sufficient 
 data whereby to judge of the teacher's professional capacity, 
 attainments or success. A teacher not possessing a high 
 
 »... 
 
25« 
 
 ! 
 
 A HUperiur 
 jTlvnte 
 
 «''lu»l>l. 
 
 ■ I 
 
 THB SCIEXrR AND ART OF TBACHINO. 
 
 character, but favourcxl with a certaiu amount of Belf-nKsur- 
 anco and " huainess tact," can very eaiMily exhibit his school 
 in such a light as to aatonisii spectators by its apparent 
 ethoiency, ami thus* coHi»»au<l thoir fiivourablo coinmenila- 
 tiona.* A man who is dishonest and hypocritical can ex- 
 hibit an inferior school in such a way as to induce visitors 
 to believe it to be in h much moi*e healthy condition as re- 
 gards «}tticiency, thji ^ another school, which may be far 
 superior to it but which is governed by an honest conscien 
 tious teacher. It follows therefore that on such occasions 
 we should not place too much reliance on apparent success, 
 as it is often the more counterfeit of merit. 
 
 Some years ago while engaged as editor of a paper in a 
 large provincial town in Ireland, we received a communica- 
 tion from the Superioress of one of the local educational 
 institutions requesting '* the favour of our presence and 
 assistance at an examination of the pupils in attendance at 
 her school," Knowing from our oflicial connections that 
 this lady and her staff of sister teachers had earned the 
 gratitude and esteem of people of "all denominations," by 
 the affectionate interest tlioy had taken in the educational 
 welfare of the young, irrespective of creed, class, or con- 
 dition, we gladly availed ourselves of her kind invitation. 
 Next day wo duly reported our arrival and were cordially 
 received by the Sup3rioress and Chaplain, and conducted 
 through the sevond departments of the institution, the na- 
 ture and the objects of the various arrangements being ex- 
 j)lained to us in due order. The walls of one room were 
 decorated with specimens of the pupils' handwriting, draw- 
 ing, and fancy work of different kinds. The schools were 
 graded in much the same manner as corresponding institu- 
 tions in this country — the Public School System being taken 
 as a basis. The discipline in all the divisions or departments 
 was perfect; and the CalLsthenical exercises excelled anything 
 
 * f)&Yii Page, 
 
THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 250 
 
 ilf-Rsaur- 
 » school 
 ipparent 
 muenda- 
 i can ex- 
 I visitora 
 3n as ro- 
 ( be far 
 conscieii 
 occasions 
 \, success, 
 
 aper in a 
 :umunica- 
 lucational 
 ence and 
 ndance at 
 ions that 
 iriiod the 
 tions," by 
 lucational 
 or con- 
 iivitation. 
 cordially 
 conducted 
 III, the na- 
 being ex- 
 ooui were 
 mg, draw- 
 lools were 
 ig institu- 
 eing taken 
 partments 
 I anything 
 
 <»f the kind wo have ever seen. We were proud to notice 
 rhat neither the sisters nor pupils were u.shanie«l to learn, 
 <»r afraid to sing, good patriotic, froeiloni loving songs ; 
 and, while devotedly attached to the land of their birth, we 
 f(mnd that they not only ** feart^l Ootl" but "honoured the 
 King." Tlie examination in English history brought out 
 the many laudable features in Queen Victoria's lift5; and at 
 its close the young ladies (by reijuest) sung the National 
 Anthem with all the power, sympathy, and pathos, so char- 
 acteristic of Celtic hearts. In fact their ren<lenng of the 
 music was so expressive as to incite the enthusiaoni and com- 
 mand the encomiums of the oldest and highest ecclesiastics 
 present. We could not help thinking, during the proceed- 
 ings, how sadly we Protestants misunderstand our fellow 
 citizens of the Catholic faith, and how much we might learn 
 from them in matters of devotion, discipline, and patriotism, 
 were we so disposed. 
 
 We must add, however, that notwitlistanding the excel- Exoeiifncy 
 lency of the discipline, and the apparent efiiciency of the and arra'n«e- 
 pupils, we were not quite satisfied as to the intrinsic super- 
 iority of the system of teaching as indicated by the mode 
 of examination. We never heard better answering; still 
 we think the result was unreliable. The pupils answered 
 the questions addressed to them, clearly, pointedly, deliber- 
 ately; hut nevertheless, the answers were more "racy" than 
 appeared natural, and more verbose than necessary — too 
 foi-mal and too exhaustive. The questions were given viva 
 voce from a MS. volume on the examiner's desk ; and we 
 occasionally noticed, by certain changes in some child's face, 
 and certain hesitations in her manner, that the intellectual 
 energies were not looking for ideas but for half-forgotten 
 modes of expressions. We therefore inferred one, or both, 
 of two things — the pupils had been specially prepared for 
 examination, or they were answering by rote. The good 
 sisters told us during another visit some days afterwarcb, 
 
 I' 
 
 \i 
 
yir' 
 
 260 
 
 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 nefectof the 
 fiysterii. 
 
 91 
 
 that the latter was the case, and that they always insisted 
 on accurate acquisition of the text by rote. The Memory 
 System never appeared to more advantage than under the 
 skilful management of these kind, patient, and indefatig- 
 able ladies. Their success was apparently greater than any 
 ordinary teachers could have commanded with all the newest 
 (and now more approved) modes of instruction ; yet we 
 could not recommend its unrestricted use in Public Schools. 
 Peculiar circumstances may make it popular and successful 
 in some places, subject to conditions mentioii'^d on p. 222; 
 but the restilts will always be unreliable, and, more or less, 
 unsatisfactory, if pupils be examined through the medium of 
 formal stereotyped questions, copied directly from text books 
 or selected from recent catechetical acquisitions. Examina- 
 tions should exhibit what pupils really know ; not what we 
 think they ought to know, or would wish them to know. 
 
 The committal to memory of the words of text books, 
 and certain stereotyped dialogues, was once a very popular 
 mode of instruction ; but its fallacy has been long apparent. 
 Prussia, Switzerland, and Ireland wei 3 the first countries to 
 adopt an intellectual method of instruction and acquisition, 
 whereby the respective ideas concerning a subject are im- 
 printed on the mind, the pupil being then permitted to ex- 
 press them in his own words — the best which nature can I 
 suggest. We advocate the use of memory, though opposed 
 to its abuse, or special cultivation at the expense of higher! 
 and more useful faculties. Under certain cii'cumstances itl 
 may be prudent to have certain subjects, or portions of sub- 
 jects, committed to memory (see p. 222) : but the acquisi- 
 tion of whole text-books verbatim, especially those portions 
 required for examination, is an abuse of the faculty. The 
 examination alluded to was one of the best memory exercise^ 
 we ever witnessed, and the most likely to impress a visitor 
 with the absolute perfection of the system of teaching adopted] 
 Still it was far from being an infallible exponent of real eduj 
 
THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 2<)1 
 
 cational progress — far from being reliable as a test of the 
 right development of true mental [)ower. It merely showed 
 what could be accomplished by the persistent and judicious 
 training of a single faculty. 
 
 " The rote system," with its unhealthy mode of recitation The Memory 
 and " memory" examinations, is what prevails in many parts ^' ^"' 
 of the St;.tes. It looks well outwardly, but inwardly it is un- 
 sound. It prefers accuracy of expression to crude evidences 
 of native intelligence. It deceives a non-professional visitor 
 by inducing hira to accei)t " accurate memory answers" as 
 expressions of individual thought. Visiioi-s who cannot 
 look beneath tht surface are apt to give credit for real pro- 
 gress when the efficiency is only apparent ; and they often 
 withhold commendations which have been richly deserved, 
 because of their inability to measure aright the quality 
 or quantity of intellectual work. Pupils are frequently 
 " crammed " specially for such exhibitioDB. Even in this 
 Canada of ours, instances have often come to our knowledge 
 of public school pupils having been favoured beforehand 
 with a list of questions they were to be asked on examina- 
 tion day, or the number of certain prop^»sitions to be solved 
 on that occasion. This was in "the good old days," when 
 teaching was a refuge for the outcasts of all other professions 
 — an asylum for men who had little or no professional con- 
 science. In the case above alluded to, the visitors might 
 deceive themselves, and probably did ; but the teachers 
 -highly educated, accomplished, and religious ladies — were 
 entirely above suspicion. As we ascertained xluring succeed- 
 ing visits, the examination exercises differed very slightly 
 from those pursued on ordinary occasions. The teachers 
 believed that the acquisition of the text by rote was the 
 best system of teaching, and adopted it accordingly. It was 
 the system that was at fault and not the teachers. They 
 lacted conscient'ously and in good faith — just as our fellow- 
 jkbourers, its patrons, do to the south of the line. 
 
Tlie By item 
 
 of tiK- 
 
 future. 
 
 262 THE SCIENCE AND ART OP TEACHING. 
 
 There is, however, no method of inatniction, or examina- 
 tion, so bad that it does not contain Home good, and none 
 so good that it does not admit of much improvement. In 
 truth, the art of teaching (in all its Vjranches) is yet in 
 embryo. The system of the future has yet to be developed. 
 It must be founded on practical experiment, and its philo- 
 sophy interpreted by liberal-minded, generous-hearted men 
 and women, whose souls are radiant with the light of science 
 and full of sympathy with child-nature. As a necessary 
 preliminary to this state of things, " the greatest liberality, 
 in religious matters, should be shown in our public schools, 
 and the greatest care taken in the preparation and right 
 interpretation of our text-books. Nothing offensive to any 
 class of citizens, should be tolerated or allowed in institutions 
 supported by general taxation."* To effect these laudable 
 objects, teachers must be persons of truly Catholic and unsec- 
 tarian minds — free from all kinds of religious bigotry, pre- 
 judice, or intolerance, receiving the opinions and expressed 
 feelings of others with all the courtesy and respectful con- 
 sideration so characteristic of true Christian hearts ; being 
 always ready, like the bee, to extract honey from every open- 
 ing flower. 
 
 Public examinations, however, when conducted properly, 
 are very useful and desirable, inasmuch as they cause the 
 t'eaeiier and people to take a greater interest in educational matters than 
 t le taught, ^j^^y. otherwise would do. When conducted, not for show 
 or applause, but so as to test the quality and quantity of 
 the instruction given, and the cultivation and refinement 
 developed by the same during the respective terms, the 
 teacher and the taught are exhibited in their true light, and 
 intelligent, well-educated men can form a correct estimate 
 of the efficiency of the school. Under such circumstances, 
 should the examination be a success, parents and guardians 
 may justly be delighted with the efforts of their childi*en. 
 
 •Rev. Dr. Ryersom. 
 
 When exam 
 inations ro- 
 Heit credit 
 
 ( ) 
 
[NG. 
 
 THE SCIENCE ANl) ARt OP TEACHINO. 
 
 263 
 
 m, or examina- 
 good, and none 
 irovement. In 
 ches) is yet in 
 io be developed. 
 ;, and its philo- 
 US-hearted men 
 ) light of science 
 
 As a necessary 
 eatest liberality, 
 r public schools, 
 •ation and right 
 
 offensive to any 
 sd in institutions 
 it these laudable 
 tholic and unsec- 
 ous bigotry, pre- 
 ns and expressed 
 Id respectful con- 
 Ein hearts; being 
 
 from every open- 
 
 nducted properly, 
 as they cause the 
 3nal matters than 
 ed, not for show 
 and quantity of 
 and refinement 
 active terms, the 
 ir true light, and 
 correct estimate 
 ch circumstances, 
 Lts and guardians 
 mi their childi-en, 
 
 while the latter, incited to renewed exertions, will in future 
 be proud and happy when succeeding examinations aftbrd 
 them opportunities of acquitting themselves to the satisfac- 
 tion of their friends. Parents and pupils will feel deeply 
 grateful to the esteemed teacher, and he — whilst remember- 
 ing that good men need no commendation for doing their 
 duty — will feel happy to receive their encomiums, knowing 
 that they speak the words of sincerity and truth. 
 
 Two public examinations each year, are quite sufficient- 
 one at midsummer, and one at Christmas; nevertheless we 
 are inclined to believe that it would be advisable to hold 
 two minor examinations between these intervals. Accord- 
 ing to this arrangement there would be four examinations 
 in the year — two public and oflicial, and two of a "more 
 quiet" and less pretentious nature — and the intervals be- 
 tween each would be of moderate length, so that the minds 
 of the pupils while pursuing their studies, may be fixed on 
 each subject with a view to its retention and possible use on 
 examination day, as well as on the more laudable object 
 of their own permanent pei'sonal improvement. The near 
 approach of "the quarterly test days " will be a great incen- 
 tive to study, and cannot fail to incite them to increased 
 exertion and more accurate attention. On the other hand, 
 more than one general examination each quarter would be 
 objectionable, as they would interfere too much with the 
 regular course of study. 
 
 At the half-yearly examinations, rewards or prizes (if any) 
 should be distributed to the successful candidates, and those 
 found duly qualified should be promoted to the next higher 
 classes, the announcement of their promotion being made 
 in presence of the audience. Paients or guardians, if not 
 })resent, should be officially informed of the promotion of 
 their children. On these occasions the pupils should be re- 
 quired to pass through a written (or printed) and oral exam- 
 ination. The examining committee should comprise the In- 
 
 Quarterly 
 
 I'ixnminH' 
 
 PilM llt.S to 
 
 be api'ri.^fd 
 of t!ie jjro- 
 niolioii of 
 their cliild* 
 ren. 
 
264 
 
 Periodical 
 evening 
 ftxnniinu- 
 t.ii>n». 
 
 Official 
 l>ooks. 
 
 TttE SCIENCE AND ART OP TEACHING. 
 
 spector of Schools, the Head Master, and the Chairman ol 
 the School Bofvrd. It will be the duty of this committee 
 to prepare questions and examine answers ; after which they 
 should make out an official leport, carefully noting each 
 pupil's standing in the respective subjects. Some member 
 of the committee should copy same into the General Report 
 Book, whilst another should prepai-e a " Roll of Honour," 
 showing each pupil's order of merit; or absolute and relative 
 rank. 
 
 In many of the great schools in Europe an evening ex- 
 amination, partaking of the nature of a "celebration," Ls 
 held once or twice a year for the gratification of parents and 
 friends. This laudable custom is adopted by the principals 
 of public schools in many of the more important French, 
 English, and Irish cities. Part of the half-yearly examina- 
 tions are held in the evening so as to suit the convenience 
 of parents and other friends whose busmess avocations 
 would not permit them to attend during the day. Recently 
 the practice seems to have commanded general favour in 
 many parts of Ontario and New York. These evening ex- 
 aminations are usually diversified by dialogues, recitations, 
 and music. They are generally interesting, and afibrd an 
 agreeable treat to parents and guardians. We therefore 
 venture to hope that they will, in time, become a universal 
 institution. There can be no possible objection to such 
 popular entertainments provided they do not interfere with 
 the regular course of study by inordinately engrossing the 
 minds of the children. They have been very favourably 
 received wherever adopted. Parents and pupils welcome 
 their advent with much enthusiasm, being always willing 
 and ready to do whatever they can to promote efficiency, 
 and thus ensure the success of the enterprise. 
 
 We may here be permitted to observe that it is the duty 
 of the teacher to keep the daily, weekly, monthly, quarterly, 
 and yearly registers of th-? st iit«,v hi ci "veat and proper man- 
 
 t 
 i ■ 
 
 ,-!,<' 
 
 -!-^ 
 
•man ot 
 nmittee 
 .ch they 
 [ig each 
 member 
 [ Report 
 lonour," 
 relative 
 
 sning ex- 
 
 ition," is 
 
 rents and 
 
 [principals 
 
 b French, 
 examina- 
 
 nvenience 
 
 avocations 
 
 Recently 
 
 favour in 
 
 vening ex- 
 
 •ecitations, 
 afford an 
 therefore 
 universal 
 1 to such 
 srfere with 
 :ossing the 
 Ifavourably 
 s welcome 
 jiys willing 
 rsfficiency, 
 
 lis the dut}' 
 quarterly, 
 Iroper man- 
 
 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACniNO. 
 
 ner. These registers are indispensable books in all well- 
 regulated schools. "In them," as an eminent educator well 
 observes, "the patrons and friends of the school have a tole- 
 rable record of their labours ; and by means of them the 
 teacher can at any time exhibit the proficiency of every scho- 
 lar who has attended the school." It is therefore a matter 
 of the greatest importance that they should be accurately 
 and neatly kept. In addition to the foregoing, each school 
 should have a Visitor's Journal. It should he placed on a 
 suitable desk in some convenient and conspicuous spot. On 
 visiting days this book should be kept ojmn, and visitors 
 should be requested (by a notice attached) to insert in same 
 any remarks suggested by their visit. On examination days 
 the visitors may be formally, but cordially, invited to record 
 therein their individual impressions of the proceedings. 
 18 
 
 265 
 
 4 
 ■I 
 
 4 
 
 m 
 
 ^^■■.:'■^^\' 
 
266 
 
 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACIllNO. 
 
 PART IV. 
 
 CHAPTER XX. 
 
 CONCLUDING REMARKS. 
 
 TcachorV 
 iiitcrcinirsp 
 - its cliar- 
 .icteristics. 
 
 Tlie social and official intercourse of teachers should be 
 free from any traits of character inimical to true friendship 
 and genuine refinement. Its leading characteristics should 
 be personal esteem, professional respect, and a delicate re- 
 gard for the rights and feelings of others. Candid without 
 rudeness, earnest without positiveness, mutual confidence 
 and reciprocal kindness should daily cement their friendship. 
 The younger " craftsmen" should look up to the older and 
 more experienced with feelings of respect and devotion ; 
 likewise the Assistants to the Principal ; and the latter 
 should be always r\ady to sacrifice his own interenta or con- 
 venience to promote the welfare of his colleagues or official 
 inferiors. It behoves him to regard their welfare as insepa- 
 rable from his own. It is his duty to prescribe their duties, 
 and superintend the jxrformar o of their work; but whilst 
 zealously guarding his own prerogatives and the public in- 
 terests, he should carefully protect the rights and privileges 
 of his colleagues, and on " no account wrong them or see 
 them wronged." He should judge with caution, admonish 
 with friendship, and, if necessary, reprehend with courtesy 
 and candour. He should neither palliate nor aggravate their 
 negligence or other short comings. First to advise or sug- 
 gest, last to censure or condemn, he should strive to antici- 
 pate and remove the cause of what he could not approve. 
 He may thus prevent what would require much pains to cure. 
 
THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 267 
 
 lOiiW be 
 iendship 
 ;s should 
 iicate re- 
 without 
 anfidence 
 iendship. 
 older and 
 levotion ; 
 he latter 
 ts or Con- 
 or official 
 as insepe- 
 ■ir duties, 
 »ut whilst 
 public in- 
 iprivi luges 
 im or see 
 admonish 
 courtesy 
 ,vate their 
 se or sug- 
 to antici- 
 approve. 
 ls to cure. 
 
 His band given to his colleagues, like theirs to him, should 
 be the wicred pledge of truth, confidence, and fidelity. 
 
 Teachers of Division should devote themselves to their Tonvoid 
 respective duties without envy or jealousy, each pretemng 
 the other — the younger giving precedence to the more ex- 
 perienced. Nothing looks so bad in the eyes of the world, 
 and nothing has such a deleterious efiect on the school as 
 dissensions amongst the teachers. Slioidd such a malady 
 exist to any extent it would not be amiss if the principal 
 were to note its working in his private diary, with its pro- 
 bable cause and ultimate effects. Should his influence, judg- 
 ment, and executive tact fail to restore the harmony 
 and concord necessary to unity of action, the evil may be 
 regarded as chronic, and he will then be justified in seeking 
 exterior advice as to its removal. Better that one oi* more 
 teachers be requested to resign than that the school should 
 permanently suffer. Such cases of internal dissensions are, 
 we believe, extremely rare. No such episode has ever fallen 
 within our own experience ; but we have observed evidences 
 of their existence in more than one instance during our 
 official visitations. True teachers never quarrel. Labouring 
 in the same school, they have an Identity of hopes, interests, 
 and aspirations which effectually prevent (or should prevent) 
 profes.sional suspicion and social strife ; whilst those labour- 
 ing in isolated fields have, nevertheless, a community of 
 feeling which binds them together in a common apostleship 
 of peace and good will. Rejoicing with each other in pros- 
 perity, and sympathizing with each other in all trials, diffi- 
 culties, and adversities, true teachers never ignore the claims 
 of duty, or fail to strengthen the bonds of fraternal affection 
 and christian charity. Being always actuated by a right 
 spirit, their professional career becomes a living example of 
 professional harmony, unity, and zeal ; hence the alacrity, 
 honesty, and cheerfulness with which they obey the respec- 
 tive commands of their superior officers. 
 
 .:'i 
 
268 
 
 THE 8C1EKCE AND ART OF TEACHINO. 
 
 To cultivate 
 a fraternal 
 (Unpuititiua. 
 
 
 Abnence of 
 
 professional 
 eothusiauui. 
 
 Its cause 
 
 Teacliers in the same school should regulate their in- 
 tercourse — social and official — by the chivalrous sentiments 
 ever present in true christian hearts, so that a sort of maso- 
 nic atmosphere may pervade the scene of their united lalx)ur8. 
 All should stand together to form "a rampart of mutual de- 
 fence and safety, sup}>orting each other in all just and lau- 
 dable efforts." They should protect a fellow-teacher's cha- 
 ■racter in his absence as if he were present, "They should 
 not revile him themselves, nor knowingly suffer others to do 
 so, if in their power to prevent it." On the contrary, they 
 should decline fellowship with his detractors, and " boldly 
 repel the slanderera of his good name." 
 
 It has often been remarked to the writer that " lady teach- 
 ei*s are generally deficient in that professional enthusiasm" 
 which we regard as essential to success. But after a varied 
 and prolonged experience in the Public and Collegiate Schools 
 of this and other countries, during which we have had daily 
 — we might say hourly — opportunities of studying the excel- 
 lencies, deficiencies, and relative merits of our colleagues, we 
 feel bound t'> say that some of the best, most enthusiastic, 
 and accomplished teach ors we have ever known were ladies ; 
 and some of the most indifferent and incompetent were men. 
 In truth, professional apathy is common to both sexes, and 
 not the peculiar property of either. Our own observations 
 would lead us to infer that professional enthusiasm — like 
 professional conscience — depends «//j age, education, and ex- 
 perience, irrespective of sex. 
 
 Young women, it is said, are always ex[»ecting to change 
 their names, and leave the profession ; young men are usually 
 expecting to get a more lucrative appointment in some other 
 calling ; and hence both sexes neglect professional cultiva- 
 tion, and look on their position as a mere temporary arrange- 
 ment which will secure them the necessaries of life until 
 the advent of better times. Such temporary teachers can 
 have no abiding love for children, no real regard for the 
 profession — no correct sense of its importance, no just idea 
 
THE ICIEKCE AND ART OF TEACIIIKO. 
 
 269 
 
 leir in* 
 :imeuto 
 f maso- 
 abours. 
 tual de- 
 tnd lau- 
 d's cha- 
 shoulJ 
 ra to do 
 ry, they 
 boldly 
 
 (( 
 
 I* 
 
 ly teach- 
 lusiasm 
 a varied 
 3 Schools 
 liad daily 
 lie excel- 
 Lgues, we 
 uiaiastic, 
 re ladies ; 
 rare men. 
 xea, and 
 ervationa 
 sm — like 
 and ex- 
 
 ,o change 
 •0 usually 
 jine other 
 cultiva- 
 arrange- 
 life until 
 chers can 
 d for the 
 just idea 
 
 of ita many responsibilities, and therefore no professional 
 conscience. They probably have had no })rofe88ionttl train- 
 ing, and do not feel the want of any. Possibly they Imve 
 got legal certifica*^^es uuthorizing them to teach, and think 
 that sufficient. What ciire they for professional devotion ] 
 What need for study — particularly for dry uninteresting 
 professional study 1 '* And even if there were need it would 
 not be woi-th while ; for in a month, or a year or two at most, 
 they will leave the irksome profession, with all its troubles 
 and annoyances."* 
 
 Such, we are told, are some of the favourite modes of ex- How to 
 pression adopted by young teachers to excuse their want of evij. 
 enthusiasm. Now all this must hv changed. Of course it 
 would not be desirable, or indeed possible, to prevent y<mng 
 women getting married ; but we think it very desirable and 
 very necessary, to })revent young men or young women leav- 
 ing the profession for more lucrative appointments. It should 
 be done : and the only way to do it is to make the teach- 
 er's profession as lucrative as any other, and to refrain from 
 em})l<»yihg nnskilUxl labour no matter how well recommended. 
 If teachers be deticient in energy and zeal (and doubtless some 
 of them are), then, in most cases, the people are to blame. 
 They offer insufficient salaries (or wages as some call them), 
 and, to keep up the supply ot indifferent ** educators," they 
 — through their officials — grant certificates to unquali- 
 fied persons. What right, we would ask, have any board, or 
 body of men, to furnish young and inexperienced persons 
 with diplomas, giving them the name and status of teach- 
 ers, until they have supplied practical proof of their prqfea- 
 sional skill and enthusiasm, and of their desire and intention 
 
 * In dlscuBsiug the effect of their profesaiun upon teachers, the San Francisco 
 BulUtin says; — "Too many queer persons — eccentric, singular, and naturally » -— 
 small and pedantic-- enter upon the business of instruction. On all such persons 
 teaching seems to have an unfavourable effect, because it brings out tlKJSt- unde- 
 sirable traits very prominently. Whenever teachers have striven to l)e something 
 more t^a,n ma'liines, and have endeavoured to balance any unfavourable tenden- 
 cies by Y'de reading, high cuUure, and high aims, in nearly all such iitstant^es, so 
 far from experiencing any ill effects, they have been made better by their voca- 
 tion. The man or the woman who is not the better for teaching, and fails to <!•• 
 v«lop what is best in the i>upil, is unworthy of that vocation." 
 
 f^ 
 
270 
 
 
 I ! 
 
 Apprentice- 
 ship to the 
 
 plufCHHJUU. 
 
 THE SCIENCE AND ART Of TEACHING. 
 
 to devote their Uvea to their calling ? Tliird-class certificates, 
 as grnnted in this country, are evidences of mere literary 
 attainments ; and as such (|ualificatioiis, without practical 
 prof(>s.sional skill, cannot make a teacher, we are of opinion 
 that tlie basis on which they are awarded is unsound, aud 
 needs alteration. The crlificate of a physician testilying 
 to the [ihysical strength of a navvy does not (jualify such 
 an individual t( set up as a surgeon; much less does the 
 certificate o^ a county, or other board, testifying to the 
 scholastic ac([iuromentsof a caiididato, qualify him, or her, to 
 set up as a teacher. No certificate or diploma can make a 
 teacher — a fact which no intelligent board will deny: } 't 
 strange to say these very gentlemen, though admitting the 
 truth of our assertion, will next moment grant Teachers^ Cer- 
 tificates to pei'sons who never taught a day in their lives — 
 even to mere boys and girls of sixteen. 
 
 Now, we maintain in thi? interests of the public, of the 
 profession, and of the candidates themselves, that a certifi- 
 cate should not be awarded to any a[)plicant until he, or she, 
 has given proof of his, or her, professional fitness and na- 
 tural, or ac(piired, skill in teaching. As in England, Ire- 
 land, and part of Germany, no person should receive a cer- 
 tifica* of any class or grade, no matter how high his lite- 
 rary qualifications, until he hjxs served a certain apprentice- 
 ship (ono year at least) to the profession in the ca})acity of 
 pupil- teacher, student-teacher, or monitor, under the auspices 
 of a legiilly-qualified Public School Master or Mistress; or 
 until he had attended a Normal School ono or more sessions. 
 The standard of qualifications now required for Third Class, 
 should be raised to the Secmd, and subsequent promotion 
 to the Second or First Class should depend more on length 
 of service and professional success than on mere literary at- 
 tainments. The principles and practice of education should 
 be the most prominent subject on the programme of examina- 
 tion for certificates of all grades, insicad of being the lowest 
 and least important, as it is now considered even by the Gov- 
 

 [icates, 
 iterary 
 •jictieal 
 )piuion 
 id, and 
 nitying 
 fy such 
 loes the 
 to the 
 r her, to 
 laake a 
 ny: > 't 
 biiig the 
 lers' Cer- 
 • lives — 
 
 c, of the 
 a certili- 
 ), or she, 
 i and nar 
 and, Ire- 
 ve a cer- 
 his lite- 
 iprentioe- 
 acity of 
 iiuspices 
 [tress ; or 
 sessions. 
 |ird Class, 
 iromotion 
 111 length 
 ;erary at- 
 »n should 
 examina- 
 |he lowest 
 the Gov- 
 
 TUE 8Ci£NCE AND AHT OF TEACHING. 
 
 ernment « tRcials themselves — receiving (as it doos) only half 
 the numl>er of marks awarded to oth< r individual sithjocts. 
 Such a la t is, in itself, stifficient to make teacherK cureless 
 of progress in their art. As ii illustration of its cfl'octs wo 
 may mention that not many years ago we were present at a 
 large Convention of Teachers, in which a majority declined 
 to ItHten to a lecture on "M(!tho<l," projiosed to be given by 
 a gentleman from New York, who was well intnxluced — 
 dleging (1) that the lf'«^ture was out of order, not being 
 mentioned on the progr.niime ; and (2) that a pnjlongution 
 of the isosaion would cause then' personal in -onvenience t 
 There were only five ladies present, and we wen^ glad to 
 notice that four of them voted with th« minoritv. Hince 
 then, we were present at a tea* liers' meeting where a pro- 
 j)osal to make " The l»est modes of discipline, and mast 
 a})proved methods of Teaching a standing subject of discus- 
 sion," was voted down by the younger membci's of the 
 profession, 
 
 Th(^se and similar facts which have come under our notice 
 from time to time, would ^< r i to indicate a deai-th of profes- 
 siontil enthusiasm sutRcient. m itself, to prevent general ad- 
 vancement in the science of teaching. As Archbishop 
 Whately well observes, " Such a dearth fills the heart of 
 the inexperienced with a false pride, and impels them to 
 believe that improvement is unnecessary." Regular appren- 
 ticeship to the profession, as in England, more extensive 
 Normal School training, and greater restriction and discri- 
 mination in the granting of certificates are the best, and 
 only real remedies for the evils arising from such profes- 
 sional apathy and official carelessness. The more a person 
 knows, the greater his consciousness of his own ignorance — 
 the greater his humility, and the more intense his desii'e to 
 learn; 'dnd vice versa. 
 
 As teachers advance in life they generally learn to love 
 their calling an(' to identify themselves with its interests, 
 so that their zeal becomes more ardent, and their eliiciency 
 
 271 
 
 11 
 
 Tin- bent, 
 remediv*. 
 
 Advantages 
 of txpcr- 
 ieuce. 
 

 IMAGE EVALUATION 
 TEST TARGET (MT-3) 
 
 2r 
 
 U 
 
 ^/ 
 
 
 ^^< 
 
 4^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 1.0 
 
 1.25 
 
 12.2 
 
 |J0 ^^^ 
 
 1.8 
 
 U lllll^ 
 
 -2 
 
 7] 
 
 
 c» 
 
 7] 
 
 '>> 
 
 
 / 
 
 9 
 
 /A 
 
 Hiotographic 
 
 Sciences 
 
 Corporation 
 
 23 WEST MAIN STREET 
 
 WEHSTER.N.Y. 14580 
 
 (716) 872-4503 
 

272 
 
 The best use 
 uf wealth. 
 
 ;, 
 
 THE SCIENCE AND ART OP TEACHING. 
 
 more certain than during their younger and less experienced 
 years. Successful and continued practice increases their 
 knowledge of human nature, enlarges their sympathies, 
 invigorates their enthusiasm, and imparts a lasting impulse 
 to their professional devotion ; and, not infrequently, ti*an8' 
 forms the indifferent recruit into a gallant, self-sacrificing 
 " veteran." 
 
 When a community recognizes its greatest benefactors and 
 most useful citizens in the persons of its teachers, and is 
 not only willing but anxious to devote its resources to their 
 proper remuneration, (and the consequent elevation and dif* 
 fusion of education,) then will it have laid the foundation of 
 lasting prosperity and true greatness. Wealth is best ex- 
 pended when used in relieving men of vigorous intellect and 
 generous disposition from the ordinary cares of existence, 
 thus enabling them to devote their lives with ardour and 
 enthusiasm to the study of nature and science, so that with 
 the professional light obtained they may b the better able 
 to cultivate the heart, conscience, and mental energies of the 
 rising generation. It can command the services, and enlist 
 the sympathies of the most generous and highly-cultivated 
 spirits of the age, by inducing them to seek commissions in 
 the grand army of educators. The influence of wealth and 
 of liberal national appropriations, operating in harmony 
 with the intelligence and profound sympathies of such 
 teachers, cannot fail to elevate the social status, whilst pro- 
 moting the happiness and material comforts, of the masses. 
 Well-paid, accomplished educators will elevate the art of 
 teaching, and gradually invigorate the dormant intellectual 
 energies of their respective communities, so that the people 
 will not only have a better comprehension of the dignity of 
 human nature but be better instructed in the laws, harmo- 
 nies, and duties of life — more especially that portion of it 
 which relates to the mental, moral, and physical education 
 of children. 
 
THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 273 
 
 •ienced 
 i their 
 )atbies, 
 mpulse 
 , ti-ans* 
 •rificing 
 
 tors and 
 , and is 
 to their 
 
 and dif* 
 lation of 
 
 best ex- 
 iUect and 
 "xistence, 
 lour and 
 that wich 
 atter able 
 riea of the 
 ,nd enlist 
 jultiyated 
 
 issions in 
 
 ealth and 
 
 harmony 
 of such 
 
 rhilst pro- 
 
 ,e masses. 
 
 ^he art of 
 itellectual 
 
 jhe people 
 dignity of 
 3, harmo- 
 
 [•tion of it 
 education 
 
 1 
 
 It has been said that, under the regulations of the new f " ncwmf 
 
 ' '^ for want of 
 
 school law, pupils in the higher classes have so many stu- tcxt-iMxtWi. 
 dies and require so many books that parents, when poor, 
 cannot afford to send them to school in consequence of the 
 necessary expense, nor to keep them at home in consequence 
 of the penalties attached to the Compulsory Act. The new 
 subjects of study are nece8.sary if we would keep up with 
 the progressive spirit and industrial progress of the times ; 
 and if parents are too poor to provide good and sufficient 
 text-books, the law authorizes trustees to supply them at 
 the public expense. Tliere is therefore no just ground for 
 complaint, and no excuse for ignorance — no palliation for 
 negligence. Every parent, or guardian, in the land can 
 supply his child with all necessary text-books at his own or 
 the public expense. ^^ 
 
 Want of books may retard but cannot stop the progress ji,^ g,.,.„|, 
 of education — a large supply is desirable, but not essential. ''*^fi"'"'*" 
 Pestallozzi and others have taught successfully without any 
 books, and but little apparatus. In most cases, chalk and 
 black boards may be made to supply their place. The great 
 requisite in the public schools is a class of teachers well 
 acquainted with the pliilosophy of mind ; active, intelligent 
 men and women who underntaud child-nature, and ai'ft always 
 ready and anxious to avail themselves of every opportunity 
 to develop mental growth, generous sentiments, and coiTect 
 moi*al principles — teachei*s who will devote their lives to 
 their profession with that energy and enthusiasm which 
 always command success. The impulse imparted to educa- 
 tion by the teaching of such officials cannot fail to invigo. 
 i*ate, elevate, and regenerate society, and thus introduce a 
 higher, holier, and more fraternal civilization than any known 
 hitherto. The ever-increasing number of Normal Schools 
 and Teachers' Institutes is an evidence of the national 
 anxiety to produce and train such officials. To be suc- 
 cessful the people must supplement the Normal Schools and 
 
 I 
 
■m 
 
 2/4 
 
 If 
 
 
 The laws of 
 life and 
 Drder of 
 iTiHntal 
 evolution. 
 
 THE SCIENCE AND ART OP TEACHING. 
 
 Institutes with better pay, higher social consideration, and 
 greater permanency of engagements. As Clianning truly 
 remarks, *' Tf it be the people's desire to secure and retain 
 the services of such an order of teachers (as those under 
 consideration), social circles must be re-arranged, so as to 
 allow the educators of youth to take precedence of the 
 moneyed and money-making classses ; and, in point of rank, 
 the woman of fashion must fall behind the female teacher. 
 E lucation must be recognized by the community as its high- 
 est intere-st and duty, and p.arents must sacrifice pleasure 
 and ostentation to the acquisition of the best possible aids 
 and guides for their children." We must not be understood 
 to imply by the foregoing remarks that a sufficiency of good 
 text-books and apparatus are not desirable ; or that teach- 
 ers should ever become pomi)ous, flashy, individuals, like 
 certain fasli >nable folks outside the respective circles of our 
 ac<juaintance — quite the reverse. We would advocatp a 
 sufficiency in tlio one case, and the judicious exercise of 
 reason, taste, and judgment, in the other. 
 
 Our ideas of education should not be of the aimless, con- 
 fusing, cramming, or chaotic character. The nature and 
 oi'der of mental evolution or development, and the probable 
 effects of certain modes of treatment, should be constant 
 themes of professional study. Without a clear and intelli- 
 gent knowledge of the general principles of mental pheno- 
 mena, with their causes and consequences, we will fail to 
 understand the laws which guide the evolution of intelli- 
 gence, and cannot therefore properly regulate the process of 
 education, or supply the necessary means to secure each 
 special end. Moreover, in our ignorance, we will be in 
 constant danger of thwarting children in their pursuit of 
 happiness, thereby diminishing their enjoyments, with no 
 other result than that of making them miserable, fretful, 
 peevish, and ill-natured. We must remember that the in- 
 tellectual action which a child likes at any particular age is 
 
THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 275 
 
 Ion, and 
 
 ig truly 
 
 id retain 
 
 ie under 
 so as to 
 
 e of the 
 
 of rank, 
 
 J teaclier. 
 
 I its high- 
 pleasure 
 
 iible aids 
 
 nderstood 
 
 ;y of good 
 
 hat teach- 
 
 iuals, like 
 
 cles of our 
 
 tdvocatp a 
 
 exercise of 
 
 mless, con- 
 .ature and 
 le probable 
 (O constant 
 ,nd intelli- 
 ital pheno- 
 m fail to 
 of intelli- 
 process of 
 lecure each 
 will be in 
 pursuit of 
 |ts, with no 
 ,le, fretful, 
 Ithat the in- 
 cular age is 
 
 just the action it needs, and therefore the most healthful 
 and suitable for the requirements of its organization. As a 
 learned writer remarks, " The rise of an appetite for any 
 kind of knowledge implies that the unfolding mind has be- 
 come lit to assimilate it, and needs it for the pur{)oses of 
 growth ; on the other hand, the disgust felt towards a 
 kind of knowledge is a sign either that it is prematur 
 presented, or that it is presented in an indigestible forn 
 We should reasonably inrlulge the child's love of variety, 
 and combine improvement with the gratification of his 
 curiosity. Unwise prohibitions, like unsuitiible regulations, 
 may undennine his mental or physical constitution, and 
 gradually produce pennanent disease, premature decay, or 
 untimely death.. It is cniel carelessness, therefore, on 
 the part of those having the guidance and control of the 
 young, to neglect the study of the laws of life, and those 
 mental and vital procc ses, which are influenced or affected 
 by rules, regulations, or example. " At present, and in the 
 remotest future, it must be of incalculable imj>ortance for 
 the regulation of conduct that men should understand the 
 science of life, physical, mental, and social ; and that they 
 should understand all other sciences as the key to the sci- 
 ence of life True education is practicable only to 
 
 the true philosopher."* ^ 
 
 If teachers would command success in their vocation, they Teacher-, to 
 must learn to understand the laws of mentiil activity viewed gciencc of 
 in connection with nature, instinct, and the various analo- 
 gies of life ; they must be able to resolve intellectual phe- 
 nomena into its primary elements, and from this analysis to 
 deduce such facts as will enable them to think out methods 
 of their own for dealing with the opening mind of child- 
 hood. The teacher's profession can never attain its true conditions 
 position until the majority of its exponents acquire such a gf,J,^.^'^'*.. 
 knowledge of mental philosophy as wiU enable them to base ^**'*'*- 
 
 ♦Herbert Speucer, 
 
276 
 
 How to 
 iiecure it. 
 
 Nature's 
 book on 
 tenching. 
 
 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACH INO. 
 
 every portion of their art upon its corresponding science, 
 and to refer every manifestation or expression, mental or 
 physical, to its native source. Once possessed of this know- 
 ledge, due development or repression of the mental and 
 physical powers will be a mere matter of time and patience. 
 
 It is essentially necessary that teachers, like other skilled 
 workmen, should study the pliilosophy of their art. For 
 this rejison they should pursue a regular course of reading. 
 When opportunities otfer they should daily question Nature, 
 in the school-room or nursery, as to the truth of the theories 
 advanced in the works of their more expciienced brethren. 
 Should the student-teacher find it impracticable at all times 
 to command such an excellent studio as either of those men- 
 tioned, he may nevertheless test the truth of such theories by 
 looking inwards on himself. No work on education, and no 
 study of other people's chai-acteristics, can teach us so much of 
 the science of our art as the revelation of human nature in our 
 own hearts. The secret workings of the soul, the silent oper- 
 ations of our varied intelligence, the recollections of our own 
 personal history in all the stages of its development, our 
 mental struggles, our sorrows, our joys, and the spontaneous 
 thoughts, longings, and aspirations which fill our minds from 
 day to day — with all theii' mutations of ardent feeling and 
 strength of purpose — compose a volume of priceless value, 
 and form, in themselves, a fountain of truth, on whose eternal 
 principles every true teacher must ultimately repose his art- 
 
 The teacher's personal experience, and Nature's light in 
 his own bosom, are the best books on teaching, and the 
 first, as well as the last, which should engage his attention. 
 His chief objects during his professional career should be, 
 (1) to think strongly and actively, so that he may create a 
 desire for study ; (2) to form good and worthy designs ; (3) 
 to conceive and impart correct if not great ideas, so that 
 while diffusing knowledge, he may communicate sound 
 guiding principles. Such ideas and designs are often receiy|4 
 
THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACH1.nO. 
 
 277 
 
 r science, 
 aental or 
 iuB know- 
 mtal and 
 patience, 
 ler skilled 
 art. For 
 )f reading, 
 m Nature, 
 lie theories 
 I brethren. 
 it all times 
 those men- 
 tlieories by 
 lion, and no 
 3 so much of 
 ature in our 
 1 silent oper- 
 , of our own 
 )pment, our 
 spontaneous 
 minds from 
 feeling and 
 celess value, 
 rhose eternal 
 pose his art. 
 re's light in 
 ng, and the 
 is attention. 
 sr should be, 
 lay create a 
 designs ; (3) 
 leas, so that 
 dcate sound 
 ften receiyfA 
 
 by outwp~d impressions, and often by direct inspiration ; 
 but are more frequently the result of the inward work'nga 
 of mind on ideas already acquired. If we would l)e good 
 and skilful teachers we must look inwards, and obtain a 
 correct and more extensive knowledge of Nature's workings 
 in ourselves ; otherwise our teaching will lose half its influ- 
 ence, our lives lack half their usefulness, and our example 
 never be a worthy beacon light to others. In studying self, 
 and the principles and laws of our own being, we study na- 
 ture, history, philosophy, and art. By retaining a conscious- 
 ness of what pavsses (or has passed) in our own minds, under 
 certain conditions, we can comprehend the effect of like con- 
 ditions on other minds. The ideas derived from the study of 
 our own nature will enable us to understand other natures ; 
 hence, the key to successful teaching is the study of one\s self r^y^^ ^ ^^ 
 The light gained by intelligent observation and the study of f"*'^^:'*'''^"' 
 oui"selves, supplemented by such as we may be able to obtain 
 in the works of others, will not only increase our present 
 happiness and enable us to serve our generation more effici- 
 ently, but it will open to us a source of perpetual enjoy- 
 ment, entirely independent of the changes peculiar to time 
 and circumstances. " Happy are they whose amusement is 
 knowledge, and whose supreme delight is the cultivation of 
 mind. Wherever they chance to roam the means of employ- 
 ment are still with them. That weary lirtlessless which 
 renders life insupportable to the indolent and voluptuous is 
 unknown to those who can employ themselves in study."* 
 
 We are inclined to believe that in matters of school gov- The doctrine 
 emment sufficient attention has not been given to the doc- re-actions 
 trine of natural consequences or relative re-actions, although 
 the events of every-day life constantly proclaim their gene- 
 ral operation and inevitable results — mentally, physically, 
 and politically. We will find, should we question nature, 
 
 that every action is followed by a corresponding re-action, 
 
 ■ ' — — p 
 
 * Archbiabop Fenelon. 
 
 I! 
 
■■ipl 
 
 278 
 
 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 i ! 
 
 II ,' 
 
 and that the latter is the unavoidable consequence of the 
 fonner. Natural re-actions are proportionate to the degree 
 of tranHg;*es8ion, other tilings being eijual. " Tliey are con- 
 stant, direct, unhesitating, and not to be escaped." As Spen- 
 cer observes — " No threats ; but a silent, rigorous perfor- 
 mance. If a child runs a pin into its finger, pain follows* 
 If it does it again, there is the same result ; and so on per- 
 petually. In all its dealings with surrounding inorganic 
 nature it finds this unswerving persistence, which listens to 
 no excuse, and from which there is no appeal : and very soon 
 recognizing this stern though l)eneficent discipline, it becomes 
 
 extremely careful not to transgress It is the function 
 
 of parents to see that their children habitually experience 
 the true consequences of their personal conduct — the natural 
 re-actions ; neither warding them ofi", nor intensifying them, 
 nor putting artificial consequences in their place." These 
 natural re-.actions have a tendency to develop caution, reflec- 
 tion, and other powers essential to self-jcruidance, and are, 
 therefore, the Ixjst and most efficient physical and luciital 
 monitors. The great object of family or school discipline 
 should be the production of reliant self-goveniing beings, 
 and not the manufacture of slaves to be governed by others. 
 For this and other reasons, too numerous to mention, parents 
 and teachers, while prompt in sympathy, should, as a rule, 
 let children experience the natural consequences of their own 
 conduct and actions. Except in extreme cases, children may 
 be governed efficiently and to advantage by means of the 
 minor punishments and the penalties incident to natural re- 
 actions. But to be truly salutary, instructive, or efficient 
 the latter should be inflicted by nature herself, the teacher 
 merely acting as proxy to direct or apply her manifestations. 
 Artificial consequences, such as temporary displeasure, may 
 justly accompany, though not be the substitute for, natural 
 penalties. The expression of pai*ental or tutorial feeling in 
 such cases should assimilate as much as possible to the reac- 
 
THE SCIENCE AND ART OP TEACHING. 
 
 279 
 
 ice of the 
 the degi-ee 
 jv aro con- 
 Ab Spen- 
 ds perfor- 
 in follows- 
 so on per- 
 r inorganic 
 li listens to 
 (1 very soon 
 >, it becomes 
 the function 
 r experience 
 -the natural 
 lifying them, 
 ace." These 
 lution, reflec- 
 ice, and are, 
 L aud mental 
 3ol discipline 
 niing beings, 
 led by others, 
 ition, parents 
 aid, as a rule, 
 IS of their own 
 children may 
 means of the 
 to natural re- 
 ve, or efficient 
 If, the teacher 
 aanifestations. 
 ipleasure, may 
 te for, natural 
 )rial feeling in 
 ►le to the reac- 
 
 tion of nature. By due observance of the doctrine of natural 
 consequences, circumstances may be so guided as always to 
 ensure the infliction of the right penalty by the oj>eration 
 of the right agent — the natural laws which n?gulate and 
 goveiTi things. An irregular, vacillating inlliction of pains 
 and penalties — too severe t one time, too merciful or motle- 
 rate at another — promotes transgression instead of decreasing 
 it. Hence the absolute necessity of being consistent in our 
 administration, and free from the temi)orary, or traditional, 
 impulses so characteristic of parental government even in 
 this enlightened age and country. The difficulties appertain- 
 ing to the right education and government of children will 
 be reduced to a minimum when they discover that certain 
 consequences will inevitably follow certain acts, and that 
 the only way to avoid the former is to abstain from indul- 
 gence in the latter. 
 
 The American and Canadian people have many advantages provision 
 over their European brethren in the matter of popular edu- education. 
 cation. In the Old World popular education has never had 
 a good start or a fair chance of due dev^opment. It is 
 different in these countries of the Western W^orld. Tlie 
 English-speaking States of North America are blessed with 
 the best and most comprehensive school systems in the 
 world. Each commonwealth recognizes its children as its 
 most valuable property and, as a matter of course, makes 
 State provision for their free education. Every resident has 
 the privilege of attending the public schools, and most of 
 the universities, irrespective of his creed, class, condition, or 
 nationality. The law invests him with an inherent right to 
 attend these national institutions, and thereby relieves him 
 of any embarrassments arising from personal obligations- 
 His thanks are due to the Commonwealth of which he is 
 himself a part. All the States of the Union, and all the 
 Provinces of Canada, recognize the right of the people to a 
 good sound education, and, by the operation of compulsory ^ 
 
 Acts are about to compel the rising generation to avail them- 
 
 
 O 
 
280 
 
 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHINO. 
 
 riiblic 
 Koardi). 
 
 
 selves of the educational advantages provided for their ben- 
 efit. Tlio States have, from time to time, set aimrt one-sixth 
 of their public lauds (f^'v^hiy millions of acres) to form a per- 
 petual fund for gtmenil eihication. In addition to the pro- 
 ceeds of these lauds a direct supplementary tax is raised 
 annually for school pur|)oses by the diflferent muuicipalities, 
 districts, or school sections. 
 
 The public schools in Ontario ai'e maintainetl |><irtly by 
 Government grants based on the average daily attendance, 
 and p'^rtly on direct local taxation. Public School Boards 
 are the most jiowerful local corpoi^ations in the Province. 
 Thev can erect and furnish schools, hire and dismiss teach- 
 ers, and [Kiy what salaries they choose. Tlieir respective 
 municii)al councils are compelled by law to furnish them 
 with whatever sums they desire for school purjioses. In an 
 economical point of view they seldom, if ever, abuse the 
 immense jK)wer with which they are invested. On the con- 
 trary they are generally accused of being " mean and miserly 
 in money matters." So far as our own personal experience 
 extends we must, in justice, say that we invariably found 
 the members of the respective School Boards with which we 
 have been connected, to be generous, liberal, and high-mind- 
 ed men according to their ideas of right and wrong ; but we 
 have reason to believe that some of our fellow-labourers in 
 other localities have not been so fortunate in their official 
 connections. It is true that in consequence of a dearth of 
 candidates of tlie right stamp* in rural sections, and a dis- 
 inclination for office in cities and towns, men of limited, un- 
 
 • School Trusters. —The editor of The Globe, writing on the 5th January, 1875, 
 Bnys : " Wo are sorry to say that, in general, there is not that amount of oare shown 
 in tlie sulection of schoul trustees wliifh th-; interests of education require. W« 
 hold tint among all our local olflcials, there are none who can influence the com- 
 munity for good or for evil to such an extent as those who have tlve management 
 of our publif schools. The powers of these ofRcMala are very extensive, and their 
 duties are both numerous and important. They can tax to any exttmt. Whether 
 willing or not, city and town councils must comply with their demands, and provide 
 the necessary funds. They have the choice of all the teachers, and the building 
 and equipping of the ditferent school rooms are entirely in their hands. We have 
 only to make this statement to show that school trustees ought to be persons of 
 more than ordinary intelligence, and of high moral character. It is of far more 
 importance to have reliable school trustees than to have superior city or town 1 
 councillors. By all means let us have the best for both, but if there are degrees ot 
 
 I I 
 
THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHINQ. 
 
 281 
 
 tlieir bcn- 
 : one-sixth 
 •orm a per- 
 to the pro- 
 ( is raised 
 liicipalities, 
 
 d i«irtly hy 
 atten<lance, 
 tiool Boards 
 e Province, 
 ismiss teach- 
 ir respective 
 umish them 
 ^ses. In ai^ 
 er, abuse the 
 
 On the con- 
 1 and miserly 
 Lai experience 
 vriably found 
 ith which we 
 
 td high-mind- 
 
 ron^ 
 
 hut w© 
 
 r-labourers in 
 
 their official 
 
 |f a dearth of 
 
 ms, and a dis- 
 
 )f limited, un- 
 
 Tsth January, 1876, 
 ^ountofcareshovm 
 Lition require. We 
 I influence the com- 
 
 Ive the »uana8''?ifi}* 
 txtenaive, and their 
 ly extent, ^l^ether 
 ILands. and provide 
 
 k, and the ^"^^J'^f 
 fir hands. We have 
 
 Iht to b« Pf'*""*^^: 
 
 \ It is of far more 
 tperior cityorto^, 
 Uhere are degrees otl 
 
 sympathetic and prejudiced views sometimes find a seat at 
 tiie Board. As the late Bishop of Illinoist olwerves, in H*«ak- 
 ing of the Western States, " It occasionally hnpjwns that a 
 man of obtuse principles, and little chivah'ous feeling, finds 
 a seat amongst the worthy and enlightened friends of educa- 
 tion — a man who, i)erha[)H, in the plenitude of his rare in- 
 telligence, gives exju-ession to his temporary authority by un- 
 dermining the influence of, and fostering conspinicies against, 
 school ofticera — a man who occasionally exorcises factious 
 opjKJsition towards some teacher who may be of too ster- 
 ling a character to flatter his weaknesses, or whose position 
 he may covet for a relative." We believe, however, that in 
 ** this Canada of ours" the majonty of trustees are straight- 
 forward honest men — lovers of justice and fair play, as they 
 underatand them. Hence, as corporate bodies, thoir offences 
 are " sins of omission" rather than " sins of commission" — 
 a failure to use theii* i)0\yer rather than an abuse of it. It is 
 often said (and apparently with some reason) that, as a rule, 
 they are not sufficiently intelligent to be generous in the u:3© 
 of their authority — that they are negligent in the provision 
 of suitable school accommodation, and so dull in their appre- 
 ciation of education as to be incapable of paying good sala- 
 ries to teachers. In truth, if the teachers bs paid badly the 
 fault must be referred to the local trustees, not to the State 
 or Provincial Government. The Government, in this respect 
 has done its duty ; it only remains for the people to do 
 theirs (through their school trustees), in a generous and in- 
 telligent spirit, in accordance with the national will. 
 
 The Governments of Canada and the neighbouring States, Europe mni 
 in proportion to population, have made almost as liberal a compared 
 provision for the education of the people as European nations 
 
 both, let those who are preferable be taken for the trusteeship. Yet, in a vast 
 number of cases, it is exactly the reverse. It seems to be thought that any one 
 can do for a school trustee, and instead of the office being sought by respectabie 
 and trustworthy men, it too often goes a begging, and is all but forced upon iadii- 
 viduals totally unsuitable, both in character and iutelligence." 
 
 t Right Rev. Dr. Whltehouse. 
 19 
 
 i 
 'A 
 
282 
 
 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 make for their fleets and armies, and their eflTortfi have been 
 nobly seconded by the more intelligent and enlightened sec 
 tions of the community. TIio mont jirominent buildings in 
 a Eur(>|)eHn landscajM^ are the cjiHth's of the aristocrjicy ; the 
 most striking buihlings in F]uro|»ean cities are prisons and 
 pauper houses; but in American scenes the most im|)osing edi- 
 fices are public schools and collegiate halls. Every Ameri- 
 can and CJanadian is oorn|xin\tively well acquainted with the 
 history and politics of his country, and with the individual 
 merits of the more prominent public men — whether they 
 be writers, statesmen, tesvchers, farmers or inventors. As 
 a necessary consequence he i>osses8es a certain energy of 
 will, tenacity of puq.ose, and intelligent reliance on self, 
 seldom, if ever, found in ordinaiy European i)opulation8. 
 America, in the diffusion of education and aimilgamation 
 of her heterogeneous people, is perfonning a noble work 
 — difficult and gigantic. Her educational labours would be 
 comparatively easy and light were it not for the presence 
 of an ever-increasing foreign element. Year after year tens 
 of thousands of Europeans, fresh from the bondage of serf- 
 dom, land upon her hospitable shores, bringing with them 
 all the prejudices, poverty and ignorance so characteristic of 
 antiquated rigimea and Old World institutions. What does 
 Columbia — the land of Washington and Cartier — do with 
 these hardy " outcasts " — aliens in race and language per- 
 haps 1 She gives them a cordml greeting — a hearty welcome 
 — sends them out to the Great West — presents them with 
 a little estate — and, if they so desire, adopts them as her 
 own children, giving them all the advantages and privileges 
 enjoyed by her first-bom — ^the sons of the soil. Nor is this 
 all. She establishes public schools to educate them — " to 
 teach them the love of country, a reverence for law and 
 order, and a preference of honour, not only to pleasure but 
 to life."* 
 
 * Archbisiop Fenelou. 
 
THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHINO. 
 
 283 
 
 Etvo been 
 
 ened sec 
 
 lilings in 
 
 t*cy ; the 
 
 iHonH and 
 
 osing edi- 
 
 •y Ameri- 
 
 I with the 
 
 [ndividual 
 
 (ther they 
 
 itors. A» 
 
 energy of 
 
 ce on self, 
 
 opulations. 
 
 iilgamation 
 
 loble work 
 
 ^ would be 
 
 tie presence 
 
 n- year tens 
 
 age of serf- 
 with them 
 
 acteristic of 
 What does 
 
 jr — do with 
 
 signage per- 
 rty welcome 
 t them with 
 hem as her 
 d privileges 
 Nor is this 
 them—" to 
 for law and 
 pleasure but 
 
 The majority of our eminent men are persons who have nighor 
 grathiated in the trying school of Ex{>erience — men who 
 have never obtained a college diplunm, not being able in 
 early life to command the necessary capital. They are 
 emigimnts or the sons of emigrants, and have ensured their 
 personal success by the force of their innate abilities. Huch 
 success is the best of all degrees, and can only be obtained 
 in the University of Practical Life. The universities of 
 Europe are aristocratic guilds, and may justly he regarded 
 as the private academies of the rich. Univeraities on this 
 continent bt;long to the |)eople, and, like the public schools, 
 are open to the {>ennile8S child of the friendless widow as 
 well as to the aspiring son of the ambitious statesman. 
 There is no national institution of learning amongst us 
 which a poor boy may not attend, if he can command suffi- 
 cient funds to pay his board ; and there is no degree which 
 he may not attain, if possessed of the necessary ment 1 
 capacity. Weal this doubtless a great convenience, but time 
 and mental ability are the only " necessary requisites." In • 
 Europe, education, like wealth, is generally confined to a 
 class. In America, both are widely (though not yet suffi- 
 ciently) diffused amongst the masses. Our institutions, 
 however, have a mighty reflex influence on European coun- 
 tries, and, whilst breaking down social barriers and remov- 
 ing the prejudices of ca^w, are causing society to " level 
 up." Those in authority are beginning to feel that the 
 welfare and stability of nations and governments depend 
 on the elevation, education, and consequent prosperity of 
 the working classes. Hence the tendency of the mother 
 countries to copy our laws and institutions. 
 
 The English-speaking States of North America have popular 
 made gigantic strides in material wealth during the present ®*'"^**''*"* 
 century; but public education, witL its corps of faithful 
 teachers, was (and is) the pioneer of their prosperity. 
 I Foreign nations are becoming electrified by our example. Our 
 
284 THE SCIENCE AND ART OP TEACHING. 
 
 wonderful progi'ess has aroused them from the \ethit..^jy of 
 ages, and foreign statesmen — Kjonscious of the dangers which 
 would threaten the peace, welfare, and stability of a nation 
 inspired by bigotry and ruled by ignoi-ance or piejudice — are 
 desirous of having their people thoroughly educated ; but the 
 people themselves have not yet responded with the energy 
 which might have been expected. The fact is, they have been 
 so long in darkness that their mental eyes cannot bear the 
 light. This transition stage will soon pass away, and then 
 the light of knowledge will shine on their hearts and fertilize 
 their minds. Public education, aided by the benign influences 
 of real Chi'istianity, will enlighten the conscience, quicken 
 generous sentiment, and develop every power of the human 
 being — mental, moral, physical. Whilst imparting courage, 
 strength, and stability, it will make each individual the centre 
 of a cheerful and radiant social circle, investing all his actions 
 with a genial grace, finally impelling him to love and culti- 
 vate all that is lofty, perfect, and beautiful in human char- 
 acter. The intelligence and patriotism arising from such 
 culture cannot fail to promote the public welfare and secure 
 the national honour. Mental and social elevation arises 
 chiefly from the promptings of a good and generous heart, and 
 from the continued activity of the intellectual forces exerted 
 in the acquisition of knowledge. It is, therefore, the result 
 of the combined action of natural impulse and mental power. 
 The right cultivation of these promptings, or impulses, and 
 the proper development and judicious guidance of these 
 intellectual energies, comprise all the duties of the teacher, 
 and convey all we mean by education. Such an education 
 must elevate each citizen intellectually, morally, socially. 
 Without it, no man can elevate himself or others ; so that 
 from the first to the last hour of life, he must remain obli- 
 vious of one of the greatest sources of happiness, and fail in 
 one of the most important objects of existence — that of being 
 a fountain of light and joy to " those who sit in darkness." 
 
THK SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 285 
 
 etha.^ of 
 Ters which 
 f a nation 
 udice — arc 
 (1; but the 
 the energy 
 J have been 
 at bear the 
 r, and then 
 md fertilize 
 n influences 
 Lce, quicken 
 the human 
 ing courage, 
 al the centre 
 11 his actions 
 ire and culti- 
 human char- 
 g from such 
 •e and secure 
 ration arises 
 us heart, and 
 orces exerted 
 re, the result 
 lental power, 
 mpulses, and 
 nee of these 
 the teacher, 
 an education 
 illy, socially, 
 hers ; so that 
 remain obli- 
 3s, and fail in 
 -that of being 
 in darkness." 
 
 Tills is what every citizen should strive to be — each in bis 
 respective sphere of usefulness* 
 
 Tlie right education of the young is the best guarantee of f'^'^^l*'''.'" 
 the welfare of all classes in the future. But manhootl, and e<iu.»ti..n. 
 even age, should not be forgotten. Philosophers and states- 
 men, while attending to the interests of the child, should 
 not overlook the welfare of the adult. They are indebted 
 to the present, as well as to the future. To discharge this 
 debt in a wise and patriotic manner they must create 
 facilities for the education of adults by establishing "Night 
 Schools," and making arrangements for the delivery of peri- 
 odical courses of lectures on technical subjects — Natural 
 Philosophy, Mechanical Arts, etc. In such a population as 
 
 • We have stated elsewhere that good home Kovcmment was the fsscntial basis 
 of good school government, and that the rliildren of amiable, high-minded, and 
 int<'Iligent parents generally inherited, more or less, these noble characteristics. 
 In referring to these matters, Herbert Spencer justly remarks that it is very 
 erroneous for teachers and others to ascribe all the faults and difticnlties to the 
 
 like certain governments, that 
 
 gove 
 
 children and note to the parents ; or to assume, 
 " the virtues are with the rulers and the vices wit 
 ftrom the truth," says he, "that we do not hesitate to affirm that to parental mis- 
 conduct is traceable a great part of the domestic (and school room) disorders com- 
 monly ascribed to children. . . . The truth is, that the difficulties of moral 
 education are necessarily of dual origin — and necessarily refult from the (-ombined 
 fanlts of parents and children. If hereditary transmission io a law of nature, as 
 every naturalist knows it to be, and as our daily remarks and current proverbs 
 admit it to be; then on the average of cases the defects of children mirror the 
 defects of their parents. . . . The most glaring defect in our progrfimmes of 
 education is entirely overlooked. . . . Though some c.ire is taken to fit youth 
 of both sexes for society and citizenship, no care whatever is ttiken to fit them for 
 the still more imp rtant position they will ultimately have to flll^the position of 
 parents. , . . While many years are spent by a boy in gaining knowledge of 
 which the chief value is, that It constitutes what some cidl ' the education (»f a 
 gentleman ;' and while many years are spent by a girl in those decorative acquire- 
 ments which tit her for evening parties ; not an hour is s)>ent by either of them in 
 preparation for that gravest of all resiumsibilities— the management of a family. 
 . . . Not only is the need for su<'h self-instruction unrecognized, but the com- 
 plexity of the subject renders it the one of all others in which self-instruction is 
 least likely to succeed. No rational plea can be jiut forward for leaving the Art 
 of Education out of our (nirrimlum. Whether as bearing upon the happiness of 
 parents themselves, or whether as affecting the characters and lives of their children 
 and remote descendants, we must admit that a knowledge of the right methods of 
 juvenile culture, i)hy8ical, intellectual and moral, is a knowledge second to none 
 in importance. Thi.s topic should occupy the highest and last place in the course 
 of instruction passed through by each man and woman. As physical maturity is 
 marked by the ability to produce offspring, so mental maturity is inarked by the 
 ability to train those offspring in a proper manner. The subject which involves all 
 other subjects, and therefore the subject in which the education of everyone should 
 culminate is, the Theory and Practice of Education." Few will read these remarks 
 without admitting the existence of the evils allndod to— evils which are more 
 general than is commonly believed. It behoves evei^ good and patriotic citizen 
 to assist in removing "such glaring defects. This can be done only by the creation 
 of a higher intelligence, by the more general diffusion of education amongst all 
 classes, ages, and conditions of men.— O. V. L. 
 
 

 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 Km 
 
 i 
 
 Influences 
 of age on 
 eilucatiou. 
 
 ours, composed as it is of a large foreign adult element, 
 anxious for and needing improvement, there should be 
 suitable and comfortable provision made in cities and towns 
 for the accommodation of all who may desire instruction in 
 the Public School subjects. These students should, when 
 practicable, be placed in charge of the local Public School 
 teachers, the salaries of these officials being supplemented in 
 pi'oportion to their increased duties and responsibilities. 
 Night Schools should be established during the winter 
 months, for the benefit of young men — labourers, clerks, 
 artisans, and all others, irrespective of age or condition, who 
 might be willing to conform to the rules and regulations 
 necessary for the successful government of such institutions. 
 Night schools have been established, by the bounty of wealthy 
 citizens, in many p?irts of England, France, and Ireland, and 
 are the source of many blessings to the adult population in 
 their immediate vicinity. It remains for some of our 
 American commonwealths to make them State institutions, 
 and thus give them a legal or recognized existence on this 
 Continent. Night schools should be merely supplementary 
 to, not rivals or substitutes for, day schools. Both institu- 
 tions should, of course, be carried on in the same building 
 and under the management of the same School Boards. 
 
 None are too old to leam ; yet it cannot be denied that 
 the influence of long established habits will, in some cases, 
 make the minds of old people impervious to impressions 
 which would have been happily received in younger years. 
 " After a certain age (writes the amiable Archbishop 
 Fenelon) men lose their pliancy, and become fixed in their 
 habits, which have grown old with them and become, as it 
 were, a part of theii* constitution." Much, however, as we 
 admire tli precepts of the good prelate of Cambray, we cannot 
 concur v ch him (and other worthies) in believing that old 
 men may become conscious of the existence of objectionable or 
 injurious habits, and even sigh over their presence, earnestly 
 
THE SCIENCE AND ART OP TEACHING. 
 
 287 
 
 b element, 
 should be 
 and towns 
 bruction in 
 luld, when 
 blic School 
 ^>mented in 
 )n8ibilities. 
 bhe winter 
 ers, clerks, 
 iition, who 
 regulations 
 nstitutions. 
 r of wealthy 
 [reland, and 
 >pulation in 
 )me of our 
 institutions, 
 ence on this 
 »plementary 
 ioth iustitu- 
 iB building 
 loards. 
 denied that 
 some cases, 
 impressions 
 Linger years. 
 Archbishop 
 [xed in their 
 )Come, as it 
 ever, as we 
 y , we cannot 
 ing that old 
 sctionable or 
 :e, earnestly 
 
 desiring their removal, and yet not have sufficient fortitude, 
 or energy of will, to resist and overcome such infirmities ; nor 
 can we believe that "the faults of age are hopeless," or that 
 "youth is the only season in which nature can be corrected."* 
 Without referring to history, many of us could adduce 
 instances from personal observation which would prove the 
 contrary. All men, of all ages, are capable of improvement; 
 but '* in youth," as the royal teacher well observes, " the 
 power of correction is unlimited." In some respects people 
 advanced in life are more susceptible of improvement than 
 the young; but manhood and age have a multitude of cares 
 which are apt to wage war for the dominion of the mind. 
 The child, be he ever so ignorant, is, therefore, the more 
 hopeful subject, and, on the whole, will probably be the 
 more successful student. 
 
 Free libraries, cabinets of natural history, fine arts collec- 8upj»ip- 
 tions, and museums of the industrial arts, should be estab- Pubik- 
 lished in connection w ith the Public School system in towns, system. 
 Similar institutions should be established at central places 
 in the country, the adjoining townships combining to shai-e 
 the expense and advantages of same. These institutions 
 might embrace the following departments : — 
 
 1st. A free reading-room, open to all who will conform to 
 to a few simple regulations. Also an elevating resoi-t, in 
 the shape of an attractive, neatly-furnished room, where 
 young men could meet to exchange opinions on current 
 events and other topics. 
 
 * More than 150 years have elapsed sincp the good and amiable Fenelon put 
 the foregoing words to the account of Mentor. But the world has changed since 
 then, and our increasing knowledge of human nature has kept pace witli the lapse 
 of time. Feuelon's own life and example attords many proofs that old men may 
 break old habits and form new ones— that they may learn to the latest hour of 
 their lives— thit they may rise stijierior to Fortune, and derive pleasure; and profit 
 in the evening of their days, not only from their own continued cidture, but from 
 their laboura as practical educators. We a])i)entl the jiassage alluded to in the 
 foregoing: — "La vieillesse n'a plus rieu de souple, la longue habitude la tient 
 comme enchainee ; ell n'a plus de ressource contre ses defauts. Semblables aux 
 «rbres dcmt le tronc rude et noueux s'est durci par le nombre dea annees, et ne 
 pent plus se redresser, les hommes a un certain age ne peuvent presque plus ae 
 plier eux-memes contre certaines habitudes qui ont vieilli avec eux, et qui aont 
 6n trees jusques dans la moelle de leurs os. Souvent ils les connaissent, mais trop 
 tard ; ils gemissent en vain ; la tendre jeunesse est le seul age on I'homme pout 
 encore tout sur lui-meme pour so corriger. "— Xea AvtniMrts De Tekviaque. 
 
 I i 
 
 I 
 
288 
 
 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 )! 
 
 !i 
 
 111! 
 
 2n(l. A free public library for the U8e of ineml)er8. 
 
 Srtl. A free course of lectures on litei'ary and historical 
 subjects to be delivered each session by men of acknowledged 
 ability, as orators, teachers, and philanthropists. 
 
 4th. A popular course of lectures upon scientific subjects. 
 
 5th. A literary society affording opj)ortunities for mental 
 improvement, and general culture in writing and speaking. 
 
 Gth. A gymnasium where persons of leisure may find 
 pleasant and profitable recreation in physical exercise. 
 
 By these and similar means the people will be refined, 
 educated, and ennobled. As they grow in intelligence they 
 will acquire a more philosophical knowledge of their various 
 callings j the forces of nature will be more fully subdued to 
 man's use ; the cost of production will be lessened, and 
 labour economised to the highest degi'ee. The people can 
 then acquit themselves to greater personal advantage, and 
 therefore command higher wages. Their duties will be 
 discharged with greater avidity — more facility and less 
 labour — because the light of science will guide their least as 
 well as greatest efforts. Under such arrangements the toils 
 of daily life will become potent instruments of self culture, 
 mighty levers of elevation to the human race, because 
 labour will thenceforth be applied with intelligence and 
 "practical ease," being the mere physical expression of the 
 knowledge and power stored up in the workman's mind. To 
 effect this object, "labour and refreshment" — physical toil 
 and mental education — must succeed each other at regular 
 intervals ; and life be so diversified in its aims, aspirations, 
 and employments, as to call forth all the latent energies of 
 the body and soul, inspiring the love of truth and imparting 
 a sense of pleasure to its acquisition. The knowledge 
 arising from the prosecution of original enquiry and the 
 cultivation of . cientific habits cannot fail to lessen labour 
 and increase production, whilst elevating the people and 
 increasing the comforts of life. 
 
THE SCIENCE AND ART OP TEACIIINQ. 
 
 289 
 
 •B. 
 
 historical 
 iwledged 
 
 subjects. 
 )r mental 
 leaking, 
 may find 
 ise. 
 
 B refined, 
 ence they 
 ir various 
 ibdued to 
 3ned, and 
 )eople can 
 atage, and 
 )s will be 
 and less 
 ir least as 
 ts the toils 
 slf culture, 
 because 
 rence and 
 ion of the 
 mind. To 
 ysical toil 
 at regular 
 spirations, 
 nergies of 
 imparting 
 :nowledge 
 and the 
 len labour 
 leople and 
 
 Natui*e never intondetl that the advantages of life should Sorrow« nn.i 
 
 , ,. , , , 1 /. • J'lys of life. 
 
 be monopolized by one class, ca.ste, or onler of men, as is the comiuon 
 generally the case in Europe. She is no respector of castes all. 
 or cla.sses, and doubtless intended that the trials and bless- 
 ings of life should be the common property of all. The 
 tendency of the present age is to ignore all distinctions not 
 aiising from peraonal worth — to rebel against any claims to 
 superiority based on the merits of ancestors, or on the power 
 of ill-gotten wealth. It has often been a matter of surprise 
 to us that Christianity, and kindred influences, have not 
 long ago succeeded in establishing recij)roc!il charity and an 
 identity of interests amongst all classes, in these highly- 
 favoured countries, liowever, the prejudices and delusions • 
 inherited from former ages are gradually evaporating ; and 
 although the present hour is not so full of light as we could 
 wish, wo have reason to hope for a bright to-morrow. On 
 this continent, where the civilization of the East and West 
 have met together, and the children of the Orient and Occi- 
 dent *• have kissed each other," the people think, speak, and 
 act for themselves, and enjoy the comforts as well as the 
 toils of life. Yet even here there is room for much improve- 
 ment. The people need more discrimination, more judg- 
 ment, more education — in a word, more real Christianity. 
 The age of intellectual enquiiT has dawned upon the world. The age of 
 
 ° 1 ^ I ^ intellect. 
 
 Men now ask for reasons for what they are required to do, 
 suffer, or believe. They are no longer content to be " like 
 dumb driven cattle." They are " up and doing." Hence- 
 forth they will and must think for themselves. It therefore 
 behoves wise legislators and prudent teachers to lead them 
 t/O think justly, strongly, irapai-tially, and at the same time 
 inspire them with the love of tnith and justice — the first 
 principles of Science and Religion. The aff*ections, feelings, 
 Kid enlightened opinions of the people — arising from i-ational 
 conviction and the teachings of eternal truth — are now the 
 only real basis of stability in human institutions. In every 
 
290 
 
 THE SCIENCE AND ABT OF TEACHING. 
 
 Oriiwth of 
 iiiiiid. 
 
 civilized land the pomps and vanities of physical force are 
 paling before the mighty energies and pulsations of the 
 human mind, directed an they are by popular education and 
 Divine intuition. No social or political ordinance can 
 possibly survive the sweeping changes of the present and 
 future ages, unless it has its foundation in the human heart ; 
 hence the advisability, if not necessity, of studying more 
 accurately the principles of those laws or natural forces 
 which control human action. 
 
 The mental energies of an educated people grow larger 
 -^fcnd stronger in the presence of danger — and in times of 
 doubt, difficulty, or uncertainty — so that no obstacle, royal 
 or democratic, can enervate their intelligence, or perma- 
 nently withstand their onward march. If it be true (and 
 it is) that the mind makes the man, it is equally true that 
 mind makes the nation. In truth, it is the highest, greatest, 
 and most god-like force in the universe ; yet it can never 
 attain its full development in the human being without the 
 fostering aid of generous, sympathetic, and intelligent in- 
 struction. As education and civilization advance, the 
 volume of mind — increase'! by ever-increasing rills and 
 streams from the fountains of thought — will make the 
 nations illustrious, and attain such an irresistible sweep as 
 to overwhelm all opposing obstacles. The force of mind 
 will increase from age to age until all other powers and 
 forces are subject to it. Enlightened public opinion, even 
 now, causes men to acknowledge it as intrinsically glorious 
 — one of the noblest emanations from the Creator. Great 
 thoughts are the characteristics of great minds. Once kindled, 
 they transform the hearts of men into living fii-es, whence pro- 
 ceed those mental sparks, or ideal germs, which time and 
 circumstances develop into great deeds. It may be regarded 
 as an axiom in international politics, that the more int^jp 
 ligent and energetic races of men are endowed with tnl 
 greatest mind — national and individual — and they are sure, 
 
THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 £91 
 
 force are 
 l8 of the 
 ittion and 
 Mice can 
 )8ent and 
 an heart ; 
 ing more 
 ral forces 
 
 ow larger 
 a times of 
 acle, royal 
 or perma- 
 true (and 
 jr true that 
 it, greatest, 
 : can never 
 without the 
 elUgent in- 
 vance, the 
 rills and 
 make the 
 lie sweep as 
 ce of mind 
 lowers and 
 ►inion, even 
 lly glorious 
 )or. Great 
 ace kindled, 
 whence pro- 
 ;h time and 
 be regarded 
 more in 
 jd with 
 ey are sure, 
 
 it^P 
 tW 
 
 therefore, sooner or later, to subdue their neighbours, men- 
 tally, morally, or physically. It is unnecessary to quote 
 examples to sustain this statement : the history of man, 
 from the first page to tlie last, em[»hatically confirms its 
 truth. When this greatness of mind and activity of will 
 are widely diffused amongst a people, their nation, in a 
 certain sense, becomes omnipotent and immortal. Such 
 were Greece and Rome in the past, and such may our own 
 country be in the future. 
 
 It should be the ambition of all good citizens to assist iiiii»«>r 
 
 . l)ul.lic 
 
 in the creation and general development of such an inter duUci. 
 lectual greatness, of such moral and physical excellence, 
 as will secure individual freedom and well-being, whilst 
 perpetuating the unity and omnipotency of a strong, healthy, 
 national will. The absence of such an ambition, or the neg- 
 lect to cultivate it, indicates a want of real patriotiHin and 
 vital religious sentiment. Influenced by the presence of such 
 noble aspirations, true teachers express in actions the love 
 they feel for their country and their God. They seek the 
 higher truths through the medium of the lower — the spiritual 
 and mental through the temporal and tangible. They zeal- 
 ously study the manifestations of nature, life and thought, 
 and thus approach nearer to the Divinity, whilst obtaining 
 a key to the right intei-j^retation of individual and national 
 existence, past, present, and to come. As patriotic men 
 they must cordially and generously share their superior 
 lights with less-favoured citizens ; and further, they must 
 aim at the correction or gradual development of public 
 opinion, so that the national voice may ultimately do honor 
 to vigour of physique as well as to vigour of mind. They 
 must also remember that no nation can be justly regarded 
 as educated until the great majority of its people are made 
 |lly conscious of the fact, that voluntary breaches of the 
 ^s of health or bodily development are criminal offences, 
 mjurious to the family or the community — pliysical sins for 
 
292 
 
 il 
 
 11 
 
 TOE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACniNO. 
 
 which nature will, sooner or later, inexonihly demand satis- 
 faction. The moral and vital energies necessary for the 
 right conception and accomi)liHhment of such worthy designs 
 must be infused into the j)eoplo by the more general dif- 
 fusion of science and the more lil)eral encounigement of 
 physical training ; and our legislators must be inspired 
 by the conviction that the intelligence of a community 
 depends more on the high average of education, as distri- 
 buted amongst the many, than on vast stores of know- 
 ledge monopolized by a few : nor must it be forgotten 
 that the god-liko principles and noble ideas inspired by 
 knowledge are of more importance than knowledge itself — 
 being, as they are, the true source of magnanimity and mental 
 energy. In an age and country like ours, the great object 
 of the philanthropist, legislator, and patriot should be the 
 creation and accumulation of such powers and influences 
 as may be necessary to awake, and educate aright, the slum- 
 bering energies and latent capacities of all classes and all 
 ages ; and this object will be best accomplished by making a 
 more liberal national (and local) provision for public educa- 
 tion, so that men and women of largo and enlightened minds 
 may be employed, at good salaries, to take charge of the 
 Nation's schools, and thus send streams of light and mental 
 life into every homestead in the land. 
 Conclusion. In conclusion we would say that teachers owe it to them- 
 selves, and to their profession, to avoid and rise above the 
 din and conflict of professional, political, and sectarian strife 
 — ^to lay broad and deep the foundations of intelligence, truth, 
 and fraternity — so that, with Divine favour, they may be 
 the better able to secure, difiiise, and perpetuate the many 
 blessings, public and private, which flow from the judicious 
 development of a free and comprehensive system of educa- 
 tion such as that which has made this Province the \is\ 
 and life of our JSTew Dominion, 
 
ml satis- 
 
 for tho 
 
 r designs 
 
 enil <lif- 
 jment of 
 
 inspired 
 mmunity 
 OH distri- 
 )f know- 
 forgotten 
 ijpired by 
 ;e itself — 
 tid mental 
 oat object 
 Id be the 
 influences 
 
 the slum- 
 es and all 
 
 making a 
 blic educa- 
 ined minds 
 
 ge of the 
 md mental 
 
 it to them- 
 above the 
 arian strife 
 Bnce, truth, 
 ey may be 
 the many 
 le judicious 
 a of educa- 
 e the lig^ 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 KOTlCE TO PARENTS AND OtJARDIANS.* 
 
 The Rei>ort (see p. 296) wliich is prepared witli great care 
 and accumcy, furnishes each parent or guardian with a 
 minute and exact stateniont of hir, son's (or ward's) jirogress 
 and standing in eveiy subject of study. Strict attention to 
 the following particulars is requested : 
 
 1. No one but the parent or guardian should sign tho 
 Report. Should circumstances {)revent duo attention to this 
 point, special arrangements should be previously made with 
 the Principal. 
 
 2. The pupil's progress, as manifested by each Report, 
 should be minutely observed, to see whether he is getting 
 up or down in his Form (or Class), whether his averages are 
 becoming lower or higher, and whether his demerit marks 
 and detentions (if he has any) are increasing or decreasing. 
 Sixty demerit marks will caase the suspension or dismissal of 
 the pupil ; but as soon as any pupil has twenty-five demerit 
 marks recorded against him, the Principal will notify the 
 parent or guardian of the fact, and the pupil will take home 
 a daily report, to be signed by the parent or guardian, and 
 returned to the Principal. 
 
 • the following pages (293 to 298 inclusive) have been selected from papers 
 kindly furnished us by the Principal of the Upper Canada College, George R. R. 
 Cuckburn, Esq., M.A., to whom we are also indebted for many valuable sugges- 
 tions contained in the foregoing work. The selections alluded to fUrnish a sample 
 of one of the most perfect systems of Registration of Merit to be found in any school 
 on this continent. l*hey will richly repay patient perusal, and we can say, from 
 iractieal experience, that teachers who may introduce such a Record of Progresg 
 'nto their schools, will reap an abundant harvest. No other system can surpass it 
 as a medium of stirring up mind or exciting scholastic enthusiasm. — 0, V. L, 
 
 •v'i 
 
 i 
 
 n 
 
294 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 I 
 
 3. Whenever the Report is unflatwfactory in any of theHo 
 particulars, the parent ought to call imnietliately at the 
 College (or School) and enquire into the matter, as prompt 
 attention to this particular may often save the pupil being 
 dismisseil, or suspended, or put back a whole session. 
 
 4. No pupil is advanced with his Form (or Class) at the 
 end of the sepsion, who, in the writUm and oral examina- 
 tions upon the studies of the Form (or Ciass) fails to obtain 
 in each subject the " Minimum Value for Promotion,"' 
 (see p. 297). ♦ • * j^o pupil, on completing the 
 course, will obtain a Certificate of Distinction, who fails to 
 obtiiin honors in every subject, and Firat Class honors in 
 Classics and Mathematics. 
 
 5. Parents and guardians are respectfidly informed that 
 their sons or wards have certain lessons proscribed for every 
 evening, and they are particularly requested to allow no 
 arrangements to interfere with the due preparation of them. 
 From one to three hours are required for that purpose, 
 according to the Form and ability of the pupil. * * * 
 
 6. Writing and Book-keeping are marked according to 
 an average, ranking from 1 to 6 and 1 to 10 respectively, 
 and those averages are determined by the attention shown 
 and progress made by the pupil. 
 
 fr 
 
 ■ '■ 
 
of these 
 
 \f at the 
 s prompt 
 pil being 
 [1. 
 
 ifi) at the 
 examina- 
 to obtain 
 )raotion," ^ 
 sting the 
 
 fails to 
 lionors in 
 
 rmed that 
 for every 
 allow no 
 
 1 of them, 
 purpose, 
 
 # ♦ 
 
 ;ording to 
 ipectively, 
 on shown 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 295 
 
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296 
 
 API»BNDIX. 
 
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▲rPENDIX. 
 
 307 
 
 \ 
 
 a 
 
 o I 
 
 1 O t? 1 
 
 M> S^ 
 
 Sfi 
 
 <e ^ 
 
 UPPER CANADA COLLEGE, 
 
 RESULTS FOR THE SESSION. 
 
 ExAMtNATiuN Mark-, accokokd to Okorob Wiltoit. 
 
 Subjects. 
 (Third Fwm.) 
 
 8hakH|N-aru 
 
 Lutlii (J rniu mar 
 
 Anthniutic 
 
 Algfttrti 
 
 Geometry 
 
 Natural Phlloaonhy. . . 
 KukUhIi CompoHitiDn. . 
 Etiglixh (irHniinar .... 
 Kn({li>«>i Uict.'itiDii, Stc. 
 M(><|. Hmt.A Literature 
 Mtxlern Oottgraiihy . . .. 
 
 Cheiiiitttry 
 
 PbyHiology 
 
 Fr. Trans., Kcading, Ac 
 
 Prencli Grammar 
 
 German 
 
 liuok-keeping 
 
 75 
 
 50 
 150 
 
 l'J5 
 
 1^5 
 75 
 50 
 50 
 60 
 
 100 
 75 
 75 
 75 
 
 lUO 
 50 
 
 HO 
 75 
 
 §^| 
 
 X>£ 
 
 60 
 
 25 
 
 55 
 50 
 35 
 25 
 25 
 
 to 
 
 60 
 40 
 :<5 
 35 
 45 
 25 
 45 
 »5 
 
 Valiw actually 
 obtataML 
 
 1st 
 
 Examln. 
 
 45 
 
 48 
 100 
 
 «7 
 104 
 
 01 
 
 29 
 
 37 
 
 29 aba 
 
 70 
 
 66 
 
 66 
 
 66 
 
 88 
 
 S3 
 
 67 
 
 53 
 
 Total value actually obtained , 
 
 Average of Average Ranks . . . 
 
 Session Average Rank 
 
 6.15 
 2.21 
 
 3.94 
 
 1,038 
 
 2lid 
 Examin. 
 
 Remarks 
 
 on Ut 
 
 Exauiioa- 
 
 tiou. 
 
 69 
 49 
 126 
 100 
 110 
 60 
 40 
 35 
 46 
 85 
 70 
 65 
 60 
 85 
 40 
 90 
 70 
 
 1,180 
 1,0S8_ 
 
 2,218* 
 
 Rt* marks 
 
 on 'inil 
 
 ExamiD»« 
 
 tion. 
 
 «PL4 
 
 Session Absolute Raiik, 4, in a Form of 23 Pupils. 
 
 iBt Ex., tabf. 
 
 2nd Ex 
 
 For careless Penmanship and bad Spelling in each Subject, five per cent, of tbe 
 " value actually obtained will be deducted. 
 
 * I have filled up the 1st and 2nd Examination Columns merely to illustrate the 
 manner of working. To find the 8e».sion Average, by which the Session Absolute 
 Rank is settled, and Prizes, &c., distributed, add the Ist and 2nd Examination 
 totals together, then divide by 1,000, and subtract quotient (2.21) ttvm the Average 
 of Average RonJui (6.16). 
 
 
 "I 
 
 » 
 
 i 
 
298 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 UPPER CANADA COLLEGE. 
 
 Jieport ending 0/ Form VI. 
 
 RESULTS FOR THE SESSION. 
 Examination Marks.* 
 
 Subjects. 
 
 Latin 
 
 Latin Grammar 
 
 I^atin Composition .... 
 
 Greek 
 
 Greelc Grammar 
 
 Antiq. Anct. His.& Geog 
 
 English 
 
 English Comjiosition.. 
 Modem History A Geog 
 
 Arithmetic 
 
 Algebra 
 
 Geometry 
 
 Mensuration and Trig. . 
 Chemistry* Physiology 
 
 French 
 
 French Grammar . . . 
 
 o 
 
 a 
 
 -a 
 > 
 
 £ 
 
 3 
 
 M 
 
 200 
 
 75 
 
 76 
 
 1^0 
 
 75 
 
 65 
 
 125 
 
 60 
 
 75 
 
 125 
 
 150 
 
 150 
 
 100 
 
 76 
 
 100 
 
 60 
 
 V 9 1 V 
 
 ® 
 
 
 > 
 
 e o 
 
 3 C 
 
 '150 
 , 56 
 ! 56 
 jll2 
 56 
 48 
 |»3 
 
 I >)0 
 
 ! y3 
 
 |112 
 !112 
 75 
 56 
 75 
 45 
 
 
 120 
 45 
 45 
 
 90 
 
 76 
 
 36 
 45 
 75 
 PO 
 90 
 60 
 45 
 60 
 36 
 
 Total vAlue actually obtained 
 
 Average of Average Ranks. 
 
 Session Average Rank. 
 
 S 
 
 100 
 37 
 37 
 75 
 
 45 37 
 39 32 
 
 62 
 30 
 37 
 62 
 75 
 75 
 50 
 37 
 60 
 30 
 
 Value actually 
 obtained. 
 
 1st I 2nd 
 Exami- 1 Exami- 
 nation, nation. 
 
 d 
 0-3 
 
 no (3 
 
 is 
 
 OB 
 
 o 
 
 Session Absolute Rank in a Form of Pupils. 
 
 Please to examine carefully the above Report, compare it with the preceding (if 
 any), and the notice to Parents and Guardians on page 
 
 N.B.— This Report to be carefully preserved by the Parent or Guardian. The 
 duplicate is kept by the Pupil. 
 
 1st Ex 
 
 2nd Ex. 
 
 Pupils answering ♦hree-fourths of Maximiim Vaht« of any Subject, are entitled 
 to First Claris Honours in that Subject, wliile those who answer two-thirds secure 
 Becond Class Honours. Those answering one-half of the Maximum Value are 
 placed in the Third Class. 
 
 » 
 
 * Teachers will easily perceive, by above Report of Examination Marks, how 
 they might prepare similar programmes, embracing the Public School Subjects. 
 
 O. V. I.. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 299 
 
 d 
 
 o 
 
 feeding (if 
 ian. The 
 
 re entitled 
 IrdB secure 
 lvalue are 
 
 larks, how 
 ibjects. 
 
 O. V. I.. 
 
 
 
 
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 1 
 
 
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APPENDIX. 
 
 801 
 
 §f5 
 
 a^ o 
 
 ^4 
 
 {» 
 
 s o 
 
 CLIFTON PUBLIC SCHOOL. 
 
 FUTH CLASS. 
 
 Report of. 
 
 4> 
 
 I 
 
 o 
 o 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 n 
 
 1 
 
 ra 
 
 ending . 
 
 . .for the term of 4 weelet 
 .187 
 
 Subjects or Study, etc. 
 
 Dt'ixjrtment 100 
 
 Spelling, Dictation, and Derivation. ... 40 
 
 Reading 40 
 
 Geograpliy and use of Globes 40 
 
 Writing and Book-keeping 60 
 
 Arithmetic — Mental and Written 80 
 
 Natural History 20 
 
 Composition 40 
 
 Grammar and Analysis 60 
 
 History — Ancient and Modem 40 
 
 Algebra , 30 
 
 Drawing and Mapping 40 
 
 Botany and Chemistry 40 
 
 Natural Philosophy 20 
 
 Geometry and Mensuration 50 
 
 Reviews 
 
 Days absent Times late 
 
 Ranks in a class of pupils. 
 
 MEniT Mabkh. 
 
 Possible. Obtelned 
 
 § 
 
 & 
 
 & 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 o 
 a 
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 o 
 
 
 Parents are requested to examine, sign, and return this Report, 
 »nd to visit the School as often as convenient. 
 
 Parent or Guardian. 
 Hold Master. 
 
302 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 TIME TABLES. 
 
 In pages 100-103 of this work, we pointed out the 
 absolute necessity of a good " Working Time Table." We 
 believe that the construction of such a plan of work is no 
 small test of a teacher's administrative ability, especially 
 when there is a great inequality between the number of 
 classes and the number of teachers. Such a duty is a matter 
 of more than ordinary difficulty to young teachers wto have 
 had little or no professional experience, or Normal School 
 Training. We therefoi-e append a few specimens, which 
 may be of some assistance. In the construction of a Time 
 Table, teachei-s must necessarily be governed by circura- 
 stances — by the number of pupils, teachers, studies, classes 
 and class-rooms. They should not be too hasty in changing, 
 or prescribing a plan of work ; but once fixed or adopted, it 
 should be scrupulously followed. Let the teacher first pre- 
 pare, and work for a week or two by, a trial Time Table in 
 which due provision is made for the more essential subjects. 
 He may, in the meantime, distribute the less important 
 subjects according to their relative value and the time at his 
 disposal, making sure that, while each class (or section) is 
 reciting, the others are engaged in the work of preparation. 
 He will thus provide suitable work for all classes at all 
 times during school hours. The following Tables are copies 
 of those in use at a Canadian Public School, in which 
 there is a registered attendance of 360 pupils, and an aver- 
 age of 230. This institution may be regarded as a fair 
 average specimen of the Graded School. It has five class 
 rooms; but only four teachers — a head master and three 
 lady assistants. The pupils are graded, according to their 
 attainments, into four divisions, each division being sub- 
 divided into two sections. 
 
AI^PEKDIX. 
 
 303 
 
 t the 
 We 
 is no 
 3cially 
 jer of 
 natter 
 ohave 
 School 
 which 
 I Time 
 drciim- 
 clasBes 
 mgiiig, 
 pted, it 
 •st pre- 
 able in 
 ibjects. 
 fortant 
 at his 
 ion) is 
 xation. 
 at all 
 copies 
 which 
 la aver- 
 a fair 
 ^e class 
 three 
 lo their 
 Lg sub- 
 
 In rural districts, schools cannot, of course, be graded in 
 this manner ; still the following tables may afford such sug- 
 gestions as will materially aid the young teacher in the con- 
 struction of a plan of study suitable to the attainments, 
 requirements, <fec., of his pupils, and the peculiar circum- 
 stances of his locality. 
 
 X 
 
304 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 A GRADED PUBLIC SCHOOL OF FOUR DIVISIONS. 
 
 II 
 
 TIME TABLE— Fourth ob Pbimary Division. 
 
 Hours. 
 
 Length 
 of Time. 
 
 Subjects. 
 
 9.00 to 9.10 
 
 10 
 
 Opening Exercises. 
 
 9.10— 9.45 
 
 35 
 
 Tablet Lessons (Ist Sec.) ' 
 
 9.45—10.00 
 
 15 
 
 Singing, &c. 
 
 10.00—10.30 
 
 30 
 
 Tablet Lessons (2nd Sec. ) 
 
 10.30—10.50 
 
 20 
 
 Intermission. 
 
 10.50—11.20 
 
 30 
 
 Arithmetic (Mental). 
 
 11.20—11.30 
 
 10 
 
 Calisthenical Exercises. 
 
 11.30—12.00 
 
 30 
 
 Reading and Spelling (Ist Sec. ) 
 
 12.00— 1.00 
 
 60 
 
 Intermission. 
 
 1.00— 1.40 
 
 40 
 
 Tablet Lessons (2nd Sec. ) 
 
 1.40— 2.00 
 
 20 
 
 Writing on Slates or Black Board. 
 
 2.00— 2.10 
 
 10 
 
 Calisthenical Exercises. 
 
 2.10— 2.30 
 
 20 
 
 Arithmetic (on Slates or Black Board.) 
 
 2.30— 2.50 
 
 20 
 
 Intenuission. 
 
 2.60— 3.20 
 
 30 
 
 Object Lesson. 
 
 3.10— 3.20 
 
 10 
 
 Singing. 
 
 3.20— 3.50 
 
 30 
 
 Reading and Spelling (Ist Sec.) 
 
 3.60— 4.00 
 
 10 
 
 Closing Exercises. 
 
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 GEOLOGY AND GENKSIS HARMONIZED. 
 
 iHETWipECORDS OF CREATION; 
 
 OR. GEOLOGY AND GENESIS ; 
 
 THEIR PERFECT HARMONY AND WONDERFUL CONCORI*. 
 
 By OEORUE VUTolt LK VAUX, M.C.P. 
 
 With Numerous ///uxtfations. Foolscap, 8vo., pricr ^s. cloth. 
 
 We can rccomnieml Mr. T.c Vanx Jis an ahle and intcrestinij guide to 
 a popular appreciation of (jeoli>t;it..il .SciL-nce. Sfeitator. 
 
 The author, combines an unl>oun(leti admiration of science with an 
 unbounded admiration of the; Written Record. The two impulses are 
 balanced to a nicety ; and the consequence is, that difficulties, which to 
 minds less evenly poised, woidd be serious, find immediate solutions of 
 the happiest kind. — I.otuioti Rr, ii^,s>. 
 
 Mr. Le Vaux very feasibly reconciles the two Records. — Builiier, 
 
 A most instructive ami readable book. We welcome it as aitling in 
 a most important discussion, and comnieiul it to those interested in the 
 subject. I'lvd ni^'cUcal A/ai^a'Jtii: 
 
 Vij^orously written, reverent in s[)irit, stored with instructive geological 
 facts, ami designetl to show that there is no ttiscrepancy or inconsistency 
 Inrtween the VVord and works of the Creator. The future of Nature in 
 connection with the j^lorious destiny of man is vividly conceived.- 
 iyatcJinian. 
 
 A valuable contribution to science and the evidences of revelation, 
 and disposes very conclusively of the arguments of those wlu» would 
 set God s Wor.vs against His Word. No real difficulty is ilurked, and 
 no sophistry is !elt unexposed. — T/u A'ocl. 
 
 A very able book, . . . An admirable exposition of the History 
 of the I'larth, as indicated by (leology and sketchetl in Genesis. Ii will 
 be read with much interest and profit. — Ri,^ht A\t. Dr. U'/i//i/:uiiSi!, 
 Biihop oj Illiiiflis. 
 
 LONDON :— I.ocKWDon & (>>., Stationer's Hall Court. E. C.