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Lorsque le document est trop grand pour Atre reproduit on un seui clichA, 11 est film* A partir de Tangle supArieur geuche, de gauche ii droite, et de haut en bas, en prenent le nombre d'lmages ntcessaire. Les diagrammes sulvants lliustrent la mAthode. by errata led to Bnt jne pelure. apon d 1 2 3 32X 1 2 3 4 5 6 ■•'?■■ ''■-/> 't ¥ it".. ~ h'' >'•* ^*>-'.-:^^r:--> ^ «*.:' > ■■<* ■5. 1 i; f? - <■ ■. ', * ^v^-.. B^ 11 /J ■?!.?. .-<-!.. ■'■f. ^ COMPARISONS :^>:^;:v*4S-.''>^.'s.', i. •>> r ■ :■. - PUBLISHED UNIItEjR A GRANT OF THE LEOFSLATURK OF '•' :^ " NOVA SCOTIA. ■'3. '^ "■ 1 WINDSOR, N.S. O. W. Knowles, Printer and PubliBher* •1880. it*ii . I ■^ i[i* -j —„_— « -•-H.^^i**-**. ■.I»»-~1I^, % ^ fe - M' ?/L; o •' 'ii. ". *»,-• •■v, -*.■•'.' <*>"' '^..A „r'.-. '■! ■>- '^ ■.« " -■(• J ,- -i i f. ¥r" -~ ' '''/V, ..•:■.- ■■■■■K .1^'^V- ■■:>m' ..tj '-iv .;<■--■ ry ^-■•-1>' ■*".'■ > >■" ^'v^' ■>-•;. ftf „f-;v ■^■■Hxl :is^x::^ :■ "^ ■••■.1 ..^ ..,■ ,^,.. y >- .. ., »^ '.^X" /-;•-'•■■,■ \\ : > '■ ■04-.:- "-.A- .-■^:. Tr Snq And a Dra Man? i)r. (X7^ PUBLISH COMPARISONS OF I^NQLipH AND American Ji^arjviinq IN CONNECTION WITH HARD TIMES, And a Synopsis of the Theory and practice of Tile Draining from the writer's own experience ; ■"o^ ALSO ON THE Management of a Hundred Acre Farm SHOWING Dr. and Cr, Account, and according to the prin- cipals enunciated. BY ALFRED C. THOMAS, C. E. PUBLISHED UNDER A GRANT OF THE LEGISLATURE OF NOVA SCOTIA. WINDSOR : C: W. KNOWLES, BOOKSELLER AND PUBLISHER, 1880. ■■i I INTRODUCTORY. The writer considers it necessary, before bringing this Pamphlet before the Public, that certain explanations and remarks should be made as the r.!S has been written some kw years awaiting an op- portunity for Publication. The object in writing at all, had been principally to prepare the public mind for the introduction of some radical measures into the House of Assembly for the benefit and assistance of the Farming Community, principally the passage of a Drainage Act similar to that of Ontario, and also and even of more importance, tlie es- tablishment of institutions for the advancement of loans given on collateral security for longer periods than can be obtained in this Province, the shortness of time given rendering all money lending institutions perfectly useless to our Fanners. Altho' this latter sub- ject has been hardly referred to at all in a direct way, the writer, feeling that so much prejudice existed, that it would be better to bring about the desired results by drawing comparisons by analogy of what the actual positions of the farmers of different countries were, hence the article entitled "Comparisons of E. & A. Farming." The object was also to endeavour to get the general Public to take more interest in this branch of industry, by showing them plainly that it is clearly to their interest to do so, for I firmly believe that in a depressed state of agriculture no one suffers so little as the Farmer himself, for the researches of DeVille at Vincennes, Lawes and Gilbert and others have shown that land hardly ever becomes completely exhausted, so that with a mowing machine and horse rake, a fanner can run over his fields annually at little expense, and collect enough to afford him a bare living j but he is neither in the position to buy manufactured goods, luxuries or employ labor, and this accounts for the great prejudice in America among a cer- tain class against machinery. The English fanner increases his rotation by machinery, cultivating more land, and employing more labor, because he can do it with profit. A certain prejudice exists agamst the English System at present on account of what has lately transipired, but the reader must recollect the enormous difference between the two countric!- : one a Continent with every variety of climate, the other a small Island that Mr. Howe said could be put into ore of the Canadian lakes without raising the tide ; and the complaints are not by any means all on one side, for we have let- ters from Englishmen settled in Colorado, who would far rather be paying a heavy rent in England. However, I have endeavoured to review the systems impartially, and should be in a position to do so, for I believe in neither entirely, but shoula it be necessary in the^ft'ture to make great akerations in the English sjrstem, it wiU also b*e necessary to abandon the American one if possible entirely. If any reader should doubt this let him examine the map, and see the enormous quantity of territory, both in the United States and Dominion, that has been run over and exhausted in so short a time. Where are the wheat fields of the United States to-day? In tlie land of the Dakota. The enormous exportations of grain prove little, for the same rule applies to the wheat farmer that does to the hay- .maker. But whatever may be the difference of opinion on this great question, the writer cannot but think that the English practice is founded on rules of sound political economy, which may be con- densed as follows : That every working man, no matter what he may be. Farmer, Manufacturer, Shopkeeper, should have the con- trol of his own capital, as an auxilliary to his brains ; that Farming is an unprofitable business individually, but collectively it adds more to the wealth of a nation than anything else, consequently to induce individuals to undertake it a system has been introduced to make it as profitable as possible in the Vay hereinafter explained. One thing is quite certain, and tha;t is that as long as the mei- chant and trader can do business by advancing only a small portion of his own capital, augmenting it by loans, while the improving farmer has to invest the whole of his, it is useless to suppose that the evils of over trading will ever stop, or farming advance, it is simply a matter of percentage, if a farmer can with all his labor and skill, only realize the same as by investing his money, then few will undertake the business, while should a fair profit of 1 8 or 20 per cent accrue, I think it would be an exceedingly popular pursuit, and only under some very great change of system can it be made thus profitable. There are certain matters that should have been decided in this Province by this time in connection with this pro- ject, and that is what is problematical, and what possible, or rather impossible and the making farming pay under our present system may be classed as an arithmetical impossibility. I do not refer to practical farming, as the reader can easily see by referring to my description of the working of a loo acre farm, of which the general idea may be erroneors, but the figures hold good relatively. I do not affirm that every one who has these advantages given can make farm- ing pay, but I possitively assert that without them he cannot. A com- mand of a floating capital will, of course, entail better farming, con- sequently better educated farmers, or as an old Scotch farmer answer- ed the writer when asked if he did not think he would do better in England on a rented farm, "Mon ye would either do better or worse." My attention was drawn to these matters entirely by my own ex- perience, I found that with all the care, skill and economy that could possibly be used, a judicious outlay for machinery, anu an economical system of tile draining, that failure must be the result. I have since seen my farm carried on under a different manage- ment, or by what is generally called in this country, Practical Farm- ing, and the result has been exactly what I anticipated, neither more or less. I also find that the very things I advocated and carried out fifteen years ago, are rapidly meeting with general ap- proval, notably tile-draining (which bill passed the second Reading in the House last year) the extensive use of artificial manures, and using less composts and marsh mud, &c., &c. But with all these improvements, the remedy for the whole difl^- f) 1 the laud ive little, ) the hay- on this ih practice \y be con- what he ; the con- It Farming [y it adds quently to reduced to ixplained. the mct- nall portion improving ppose ihi^t mce, it is his labor ey, then few f i8 or 20 ular pursuit, it be made have been th this pro- jle, or rather sent system not refer to ring to my the general rely. 1 do not n make farm- nnot. Acom- farming, con- irmer answer- do better in tter or worse." y my own ex- conomy that lery, ana an )e the result, rent manage- ractical Farm- )ated, neither ivocated and 1 general ap- jcond Reading manures, and he whole diffi- cult lays in the farn^er's cajjjtal, be it small or be it great, being properly applied, and this can only be brought about by Legislation or as the mover of the answer to the Lieut. Governor's speech stat- ed in placing the farmer on the same footing with other professions and businesses. I say Legislation, for it must be recollected that in this country, farming has been completely uriven out of the field for a number of years by an unfair comjjetition with other interests, the failure of which tends to re establish it on a better basis, but if cannot for a moment be supposed that this can be done by private individuals or companies. A few words in consideration of the charges generally made against the farmers on account of their supi)Osed unbusiness like habits and recklessness. I think the impartial reader will c(jme to the conclusion after j)'jrusing the first part of this Pamphlet, which shows the position the farmer should be in, that he has hardly had a very great chance given him late ly, particularly as he is entirely cut off from sharing any benefits in the monied institutions of the country, not but what farmer's notes are occasionally accepted, but they are not as a class celebrated for helping one another. Besides which the business of agriculture is of far too great great importance to the country to be checked and made insecure by the cajjrice or tyranny of any body of directors. I know of no casv.; of this kind myself, but directors are only hu- man, and are vested with much power for good or for evil. The only security against anything of this kind is the establishment of an institution where money, is advanced on articles of value, and where thorough experts are employed to ascertain if the security is sufficient. I think it will be se n that Nova Scotia is exceptional in the treatment of her farmers, ar-^ as a celebrated writer observes, ''When any section of the popn .1 of a country are unfairly treated, the result is sure to bt 'ion or depopulation." So I am afraid, as we farmers have no t ..j to rebel against, we shall have to take the alternative. The writer would call the readers attention to the following ex- tract from Harper's Maffozine of August, 1879, taken from an article entitled "The Foreign indebtedness of the United States," showing the similarity of viewb entertained. Secretary Sherman, in his report for 1878, writes : " 'The increase of our exports consisted mainly of breadstuffs, provisions, agricul- tural implements, iron and manufactures of iron, copper and manu- factures of copper, leather and manufactures of leather, and petrol- eum Of ihe exports of domestic merchandise during the year, the products of agriculture comprised seventy-seven per cent., and exceeded the entire value of our imports of all classes of merchan dize from foreign countries. The exports of these products have risen from $361,852,972 in 1872 to $536,039,951 in 1878, and the capacity of their further increase would seem to be limited only by the demand thereof.' On account of this increase in raw production, food and necessities will be cheapened, because of the increased supply, thus allowing more use for luxuries, and giving employment to many embarrassed industries, while the increased !l e number engaged u. P~^«^Sf a^i^S^twaf i.f enS^^^^^^^^ of interest." 3 "I- r COMPA.RISONS OF ENGLISH AND AMERICAN FARMING, In connection with Hard times. CHAPTER I. REFERS TO HARD TIMES IN AMERICA, PAKLIAMENTABY COMMITTEES AND PUBLIC JOURNALS HAVE NOT ARRIVED AT ANY VERY SAT- ISFACTORY CONCLUSION AS TO THE CAUSE AND KEMEDY, TO PREVENT RECURRENCE ', INCREASED ATTENTION TO AGBICUL- TUKE APPEARS TO BE THE ONLY KEMEDY SUGGESTED. CHANGES IN AGRICULTURE REQUIRE TIME TO DEVELOPE THEMSELVES. IS AGRICULTURB ON A SOUND BASIS l!l AMERICA? GENERAL COMPARISONS CAN BE MADE WITH ENGLISH SYSTEM OF FARM* ING WITPOUT THE WORK IN DETAIL. ENGLAND HAS SUFFERED FROM HARD TIMES AS MUCH AS AMERICA* THE LATTER COtN- TRY'S large AREA MAKES HER COMPARATIVELY INDEPENDANT. HARD TIMES BROUGHT ON BY MANUFACTURES ^ND TRADING OUTSTRIPPING AGKICULTURE. ADVANTAGES 0AINED BY KNOW- ING WHERE THE REAL TROUBLE EXISTS. OVER-ItRADING STILL LIKELY TO CONTINUE. AGRICULTURE MUST BE MADE MORE PLEASANT AND REMUNERATIVE: THE PBOVLNCB HITHERTO HAS BEEN INDIFFERENT TO AGKICULTUBiB, THE PROFITS OP SHIPPING BEING- SO MUCH LARGER. MORE ENERGY MUST BE SHOWN, IS CONNBOTION WITH AUfilCULTUBfir TO GOBRBOT THE ^VJLfl OF OVER-TBAJDING. For the past few years the world at large has been suffering from what is generally denominated hard times J and perhaps of the English speaking, part of it, the United States and the Dominion of Canad^.have.suffered as greatly as any other portion, considering the large extent\ of available land they have at command,, where they axQ, not jcompeiled to condense their populatioQ into a small compass, «$J5 the casein Great Britain* - - It would be natural that were interests of such magnitude are concerned, that the cause of such depression should be carefully singled out, so that a remedy might be sought, as soon as possible, so that besides the varied discussions in the Public Journals, Par- liamentary Committees have been called together to sift the matter thoroughly. That no light whatever has been thrown on the mat- ter, it would be ifair to state, but the careful investigator cannot but notice that the whole mass of evidence given collectively is only the united opinions of men viewing the total disarrangement through the limited scope of their own particular business, or of their own particular locality. The fact that over-trading has brought about the present crisis, cannot be denied, and the public appear to accept this idea as con- clusive, and trust to time to bring the proper remedy, and restore all things to a proper level. There certainly appears to have been generally a great lack of information on the subject. No one appears to have ascertained the reason for over-trading, or to have devised any satisfactory means for checking this tendency in the future ; neither is the pro- posed remedy to leaving matlers to be rectified by time, at all more satisfactory. We think that any private individual, finding himself in embar- rassed circumstances, would much rather trust to his chances for extricating himself, to his increased energy and assiduity, than to wait for the slow process of economy to enable him to recover his position, and it would certainly be more satisfactory if we could look with confidence to the increase of any branch of industry to meet the enlarged proportions of the present trade and manufac- turies, than to await the necessary curtailments that otherwise will require to be made to establish the proper equilibrium. The only source that has been positively pointed out, from whence this increased stimulus can proceed, has been from agricul- ture, as the Minister of Finance of Canada in his Budget speech regrets the comparatively short crops of the last two years, and looks with hope to the future to relieve the country from its present de- pression by a bountiful harvest. Could these anticipations be re- duced to matters of positive certainty, the task of quiet submission to the present would be much ameliorated, but unfortunately it has been shown that in almost every line of business, and every enter- prise the experience of the past, is only valuable as a guide for the future, when proper provisions, and precautions are taken to make the recurrence of the same disaster an impossibility. That this has been done in America appears to be almost too much to expect, as all important changes in agriculture require great time in their development, and are onl} brought about by degrees. Being satisfied that it is from the increased production of this source of industry, that amelioration of the times must proceed, it would be well to enquire, and ascertain whether the whole system of agriculture of northern America at large has been placed on such a thoroughly sound basis, as to give promise for such bright hopes 9 for the future. It would be well to look to the management of this industry in P^ngland, not that it is by any means possible, or ad- visable to imitate their general method, of carrying out this work in detail, but to ascertain by what process of management, the com- paratively limited capitnl of American farmers can best be mvested for individuals, and th ,oneral benef-t of die country. It may be remarked that it is useless looking to England for an example, or for means to overcome our difficulties, as she has suf- fered nearly as much as we have, and from the same causes — over- trading. This k perfectly true, but then it must be recollected, that in her case it could hardly be prevented. On account of the large accu- mulated wealth, and the comparatively small area of the land, the English have been compelled to invest in doubtful speculations to obtain any interest for their capital a*^ all. There can be no doubt that could the area of land of Great Britain be doubled, tiiat many millions of pounds would have been employed in working and de- veloping it for the good of the country at large, instead of drifting off to build unpaying railways, and prop up impecunious Govern- ments. The money invested in England, in agriculture, is enormous, more than many people unacquainted with the subject could pos- sibly believe, altho' Mr. Mechi and others state that even now the country is not half farmed. Now, with ourselves, and our neighbours in the United States the case is different ; we have an unlimited quantity of land lying at waste, and if we bring on hard times it is entirely our own fault, we develop manufactures, and all rush into trade, because the pro- fits are larger and the returns more direct, and because much less scientific knowledge is generally required : while the more difficult branch of agriculture, upon which all these depend, is left to languish, or at least is completely outstripped by its auxilliaries. I have assumed from the remarks of the Minister of Finance, that the only hopes of the future are in the increased prosperity of the farmer, but the prevailing idea in Nova Scotia, at all events, with a great many, is, that other branches of industry are of a great deal more importance, and it is a very common thing to hear the remark made when speaking of hard times, that shipping is what the pros- perity of the country mainly depends on. But a closer investiga- tion will soon show as in the case of the evidence before spoken of, that the speaker can only view the subject from a nar- row contracted point of view in connection with its bearings upon his particular business. That the profits of shipping individually are enormous, there can be no doubt, but it is unfair to make a comparison between it and agriculture as they now stand, for the one is fully developed, the Other only in its infancy. It is of very great advantage to be able to point out one branch of industry, to which we entirely look for the uplifting of the pres- ent cloud of depression. Our whole energies can then be ex- ted I 10 to establish it on a sound basis, and to assist in its development. It having been shown that the whole evils of over-trading have been caused by the depression in agriculture, causing the demand for manufactured and imported goods to be too limited, the next question is how can the proper balance be most easily restored ? To wait till the stock of traders and manufacturers decrease for want of customers, as advised, would, to say ,he least, offer but a gloomy prospect for the future, for no other business would be likely to offer itself to this class of people and their dependants, and they would consequently be compelled to fall back on the soil, on the very industry, which its want of profits had led them to previously avoid, it is not at all probable that such a course will be adopted, and half a cake will be preferred to none at all, and the evils of over-trading continue, unless the demands of agriculture are made equal totthe supply of goods, which result can only be brought about by making the cultivation of the soil as profitable ; pleasant and honorable a position as any in the land : and to arrive at this de- sired result, a great deal of Legislation, and a great change in Pub- lic opinion and sentiment is necessary. iiient. ig have demand he next estored ? 2ase for r but a ould be a,nts, and )il, on the reviously adopted, evils of re made brought pleasant It this de- e in Pub- CHAPTER II SHOWS THE GENERAL POSITION OF THE ENGLISH TENANT. REMARKS OFTEN MADE IN AMERICA ON THE SUBJECT SHOW WANT OF RE- FLECTION. THIC SYSTEM REVIEWED IN CONNECTION WITH ITS EFFECT UPON THE GENERAL PROSPERITY OF THE COUNTRY. THE AMERICAN SYSTEM HAS HITHERTO SUITED THE COUNTRY. THE ENORMOUS AMOUNT OF CAPITAL INVESTED IN FARMING IN ENGLAND, AND M0NP:Y PUT IN CIRCULATION THROUGH THE SAME MEANS- IF TENANT FARMERS WhKE COMPELLED TO LOCK UP THEIR CAPITAL A FINANCIAL CRISIS WOULD OCCUR. FARM- ERS' CAPITAL LOCKED UP IN AMERICA. THE EFFECT OF THE SYSTEM ON THE TENANT INDIVIDUALLY. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PERMAN- ENTIVESTMENTS AND WORKING CAPITAL. POSITION OF THE TENANT NOT FULLY UNDEU8T00D IN AMEKICA. TENANT IN A MORE INDEl'ENDANT POSITION THAN A FARMER ON A MORT- GAGEDFARM. REVIICW OF THE GENERAL POSITION OF THE AMERICAN FARMER. PIONEER FARMERS HAVE THEIR DIFFICUL- TIES. VERY DIFFIGULF TO GET OUT OF A BAD SYSTEM OF FARMING. It is well known that in Great Britain, few farms are worked by the owners of the soil, but are let to tenants under various agree- ments, who pay a certain amount per acre per annum, under the denomination of rem. How the system originated, or in what way it is not my province here to enquire ; but it certainly dates back to a very early period. To state that it has given universal satis- faction would be untrue, both parties to the agreement have, at various times, had serious complaints to make ; the former, that the interest returned to them for the value of their land has been small, and that it was difficult to keep the occupant from injuring the pro- perty ; the latter, that they had no security for capital spent in ne- cessary improvements, for want of proper leases, that they were of- ten tied down and crippled by foolish regulations, and that they were generally in too dependant a position. 12 It is not my intention to enter into the general merits or demerits of the case from an EngUsh point of view, beyond stating what is well known to be the case, that Legislation is constantly going on, removing these difficulties, so that every year the two parties nearer assimilate to the positions, that any one in another business, hold, where mutual obligations are necessary. The satire and abuse often poured on the English tenant farmers by American writers, is as ungenerous as it is ill-timed, and as is often the case, when these ultra opinions are expressed ;it is the result of want a of reflection; hasty judgment, and a general ignorance of of the whole bearings of the subject. If the tenants are anywhere in the condition of dependants, that would make them liable to be classed as serfs, &c., it must be looked upon as the relics of feudal- ism an^ barbarism, that the march of civilization has not as yet thoroughly swept away, more than as any indication that the system itself is thoroughly bad, or that mutual obligations cannot be enter- ed into between two parties, landlord and tenant, advantageous to them both, and conducive to good feeling, and to each holding both a honorable ai. 1 an independent position. I have before remarked, when speaking of myself in connec- tion with tile-draining, that the world at large judges hastily, and seizes on the most prominent part of a subject, without taking the trouble to investigate it thoroughly, unless it happens to be deeply interested in it, which, in this age of rush, is not very likely the Americans are, in the relation of landlord and tenant in England ; consequently they strike on the most prominent fact, that is, that men have to pay a large rent in England, for what they can get in America for nothing, and that in addition to that burden, they are liable to be turned out of house and home at the mercy of a tyrant, whenever he thinks proper. The subject may be viewed from two different points : — Firstly, the direct and indirect effect of the system adopted in England, on the prosperity of the country at large; secondly, the advantages or disadvantages to the tenant or worker of the land. An old magazine says of agriculture, thus viewed in its most ex- tensive sense : "it divides itself into two great branches, territorial economy and husbandry ; the former, including the improvement and general management of landed property, the latter, the man- ual practice of agriculture." If we wanted to jump at conclu- sions rapidly, we might say at once that in the management of the former branch, America had shown herself decidedly difficient, in fact, so far from a general improvement in land — thousands of acres have been exhausted and then thrown aside as worthless. It is well known how the centre of American population has been stead- ily progressing towards the west, following the virgin soils, and the fact that during a panic, land and farms depreciate in value more than any other stock or property, show at least that the American system has not had a tendency towards Territorial Economy. It may be urged that in America the abundance of land is so great as compared with that in England, that no comparii. n can 13 demerits what is ;oing on, es nearer ;ss, hold, t farmers id as is the result orance of anywhere ble to be of feudal- as yet he system be enter- igeous to ding both I connec- tily, and aking the )e deeply likely the England ; lat is, that :an get in , they are jf a tyrant, : — Firstly, ngland, on antages or s most ex- , territorial provement the man- at conclu- lent of the Ificient, in ids of acres ;ss. It is been stead- Is, and the alue more American omy. md is so iriu n can be drawnjn this way. and that it says nothing or proves nothing in favor of a tenant and landlord system ; l)ut I think it can be shown that it is the clieck that such a system gives, that prevents land from being treated in the same way in England, not Init what it is quite natural and justifia!)le for new settlers in a new country, to take whatever advantag>.'s tiiey can of their position, and I look upon the fertility of the virgin soils as a wise ])rovision of nature to assist and sustain them in their first efforts, and while condemn- ing the American abuse of tlie tenant farmer, I cannot i)Ut sympa- thize witli, and admire the indei)endent spirit which would prefer being unfettered by any obligations to another party, and the ques- tion to be ascertained is, v>'hether by investigating the subject, we may not be able to derive great advantages by adoi)ting what is ad- vantageous and rejecting v. hat we do not ajjprove of. I have no reliable statistics of the area of the good farming land of Great Britain, or of the amount of average tenant capital employ- ed per acre, both of which would be necessary to give the informa- tion I desire with some degree of accuracy — but I think I have read a statement somewhere, that the amount of arable land in Great Britain consists of about fifty million acres. Now assimiing this land to be worth fifty pounds per acre on the average, then at three per cent, this would give an annual income to the land owners of one hundred and fifty millions, while the tenant, or working capi- tal, may be put down at ten pounds per acre. Of this amount, per- haps about one half would be spent when the farm was first occupi- ed, and the remainder annually in artificial manures, feeding cakes, repairs, wages, &c. Now this would give a yearly expenditure from agriculture alone, of over three hundred millions of pounds. A nice little sum, it must be confessed, to be put into circulation, and in dependent of all the results and disasters that may occur from over- trading. Now ' hat have we in America to represent this? Why, literally nothing to fall back upon, with any degree of ceitainty. The revenue to the owners or property may be great or may be almost nothing, both because the land has not been kept up to a fixed standard of fertility, and also because no system has been adopted that will ensure a sufficient working capital to be applied, to properly develop the resources of the soil. The land in England is valuable, and a certain income to the landlord, and indirectly to the country at large, only on account of the certainty that enough capital will be applied to it to work it pro- perly, and to advantage, and not by any means on account of its locked up and accumulated fertility, as is the case in America — for — this the farmer dare not infringe on, as he is compelled to leave his farm in the same state of fertility that he finds it. The best comparison that I can make to illustrate the idea, is, that the land may be compared to a line of railway, built between two populous towns, and where the traffic is sure to be large; now this line would be valuable or worthless, according to whether the company had means to equip it with rolling stock or not. Suppose circumstances should occur to make it necessary for every English II 14 f< i tenant farmer to devote his working capital to the purchase of his farm, what would be the result, nationally? Why, it is harder to imagine anything that could cause a greater crisis in the country. The whole machinery in connection with agriculture wc^ld be dis- arranged, thousands of workmen would be thrown out of employ- ment, not only those immediately connected with the farms, but also the assistants employed, in all branches connected with farm- ing, the agricultural manufacturies would all be stopped ; the work- ing of the brick and tile yards, and lime kilns, the bone and 5 pecial manure factories, and thousands of tons of shipping used for carry- feeding cakes, guano, &c., would be thrown out of employment And yet, when we come to consider matters, is not this exactly the position we are in, in America? Our capital is locked up in our farms, and we have not the means to work them properly. It does not matter whether they have been purchased or made by a life- time of unceasing toil, diey represent so much accumulated capital, and to make the matter still worse, a trade has been built up on an ursound basis, during days of prosperity, and when virgin soils easily gave forth their abundance. It may appear to be absurd to trace the depression in Nova Scotia to these causes, as hard times apparently only date back a few years. But is this really the case ? It appears to me the outcry commenced over twenty years ago, oi as the oldest inhabitants say, "when our crops first commenced to fa'l ;" and after that, excep- tional circumstances gave the business of the country an unusual stimulus. First, there was an expenditure of several millions on Public works ; then the American war broke out, and the carrying trade was entirely transferred to British bottoms, and also the coal trade was developed by the closing of the Pennsylvania mines. That some portion of this prosperity remained for a while, cannot be wondered at, as it took our neighbours some time to recover fiom the disarrangement caused by the war, so that, judging by all these circumstances, we cannot wonder at the general depression. Thus viewing the system of agriculture, in England, from a na- tional point of view, we cannot but think that it is established on a basis which, at least, conduces to the prosperity and well-being of the country, and we will endeavour to see to what extent the worker or tenant is benefited The country or system that is best for any man is, that in which he can, as the saying is, "get along best," I do not intend to refer to merely laboring men, with only their own hands to support them, as this is not a pamphlet referring to the general advantages of im- migration, but only to those who possess a certain amount of capital, in what way can they invest it in farming to the best advantage in America ? The greatest success that attends the investment of capital, is where the greatest amount of interest is procured with good s. ;curity. It will be readily conceived that when a man takes ( ontrol of his own capital, in a business that he is thorough- ly con^ ersant with, he has a right to expect a much larger return than he would get by an ordinary investment. At the same time 16 he runs a greater risk. Now in England, a tenant farnrier, by keep- ing the control of his capital, or keeping it floating, has a valuable auxiliary in enabling him to carry out undertakings as a farmer, and it is only under this system that he could possibly be placed in this position. The difference of the whole system and tenden- cies of English and American farming, are so great, that they can only be called branches of the same business. The English farmer is legitimately a manufacturer of organic and inorganic matters, or in plain words, manure into food, and produce directly as in the case of wheat for food for man, and indirectly as when growing turnips, &c., to make meat, of course certain processes and adjuncts are necessary before this can be done, and the more a farmer is able to control his capital to the direct end in view, the greater will be his profits. The mere turning of manure into produce, could it be done by some wizard invention, oiho, prasfof operation would be exceed- ingly profitable. As it has been ascertained that articles used as feed for man are worth ten times as much as the value of their manurial ingredients, but before this can be done, a \ rietv of ex- penditures have to be incurred, which, although unprofitable in themselves, are all necessary before the desired consummation can be arrived at. This being the case, it is quite clear that the less of these expenditures the farmer takes upon himself, and the more he throws upon others, the greater will be his profit. Among these expenditures are, first, the control of land, the use of expensive buildings, the expense of drainage, purchase of machinery, of man- ure, &C. It cannot be supposed that other parties can be expect- ed lo cover the whole expenditure, leaving the farmer the whole profit, so that certain portions are set aside for which he only pays for the temporary use, and these are generally the land and the drainage, and as they are lasting and stationary, they come under the denomination of permanent investments, and rarely produce more than three per cent, so that the farmer is left completely un- fitted to carry on his legitimate business, having had a great lift given him toward the desired end, by getting rid of the greatest out- lay at a moderate rental. But in spite of the system that gives the farmers such a control over their capital, theirs is not considered a profitable business. Farmers are not likely to create a panic by over-production. I never expect to see the day that all the professional gentlemen have shut up their offices to turn farmers. Many complain that the rents are too high, and then the land- lords say they do not put capital enough on, but if dissatisfaction exists, it would be well to examine the position of the American farmer, and see how he fares in general. Although I should have mentioned before, that it must not be supposed, that the English landlord realizes three per cent on a valuation of fifty pounds per acre on his land alone, as he is called upon to invest a great deal of money in building and improve- ments, so as to fit it for immediate occupation by the tenant. I have no doubt but that in many cases the landlords do not get 16 much more than a fair return for their investment and improve- ments, letting the land go for nothing. Neither is tenant fa'-ming universally tinprofUahle, for many farmers have realized largt for- tunes out of tlie land — even as tenant farmers, — as a member in the Upper House of Nova Scotia remarked, when expressing dis- satisfaction at the annual expenditure of the Central Board pro- ducing so little, but I should say because they are tenant farmers, it is the constant recurrence of these remarks in America, that has convinced me that the position of the tenant farmer is not under- stood, and the judgment has been formed only from the most salient point of the case. Many poor men, even laborers, have risen to be farmers of wealth and standing in Great Britain under the tenant and landlord system, which has enabled them to apply their small capital saved from days labor, to the direct and most profitable branch of agriculture, i. e., turning manure into proviuce. While had they been compelled to purchase, or even prepare the land by drainage, &c., the capital would be irretrievably and use- lessly sunk. It would be a similar case with a merchant or shop keeper, who was compelled to purchase his wharves and stores, so as to swamp his capital, he would of course soon be ruined by assuming what was not his legitimate business, and becoming a proprietor instead of a dealer. How laboring men generally acquire sufficient capital to com- mence farming as tenants, I cannot say, but in all probability, if they show extraordinary ability, they are able to borrow it, at from four to five per cent, where if they can realize ten per cent by farm- ing, their clear gain would be six per cent, then as they accumulate capital they take larger farms, or more of them, until they ultimate- ly become wealthy men, which they could not do under any other system than that of tenant and landlord, for it must be apparent to the reader, that if the tenant can make ten per cent, and can work improved land, for which he only has to i^ay three per cent, then every hundred pounds that he invests to beccme the owner of his land, mulcts him to the extent of seven pounds. This is actually the way the tenant is situated in England, and before we listen to one half that is said about them in the American papers, we had better pause and consider whether we are not by our own reck- lessness being driven into a position that will make it not only ad- visable, but absolutely necessary to adopt, at least, the principle of the same system, gaining what advantages we can without put- ting ourselves in too dependant a position, or imaginary depen- dant position. For in what respect a tenant cannot be in as de- pendant and honourable a position as a farmer owning his own land, but upon which another has a mortgage, I am at a loss to say. In the former case the capital is all floating, and by the laws lately made, all improvements and unexausted manure must be paid to the tenant in case of removal, while in the latter case, a mort- gager is completely at the mercy of the mortgagee, and particularly in America, where landed property is liable to so great a deprecia- Ii7 use- com- lity, if it from y farm- mulate timate- other rent to work then of his ictually en to had rede- ly ad- rinciple It put- depen- as de- tion, he can be turned out oi house and home at a twelve months notice, with the loss of the improvements of a lifetime, and without the least redress. The American farmer gets possession of capital, in either one or the other, of the two following ways, by inheritance or by accumu- lations gathered in business or v/hile under employment. When farms are purchased in America it is rarely that sufficient capital is reserved to improve them to the extent that will make the cultiva- tion profitable. The greater jjortion of the capital is expended in purchasing, so that it is comjjletely locked up, and this is unadvisable, as few farms are sold in this country tiiat are not more or less exhausted. Occasionally good bargains are made, and by great skill and economy, the owners of the land ultimately become indejiendent men But this is the exception, more than the rule. The desire to own a farm perfectly free of encumberance, is both natural and honorable, but the means taken to accomplish that ob- ject ; often have a tendancy the other way, and bring about the very annoyances that are so desirable to avoid. Most American farmers would consider it madness to reserve their capital for working expenses, and purchase on credit, and the consequences are, that they generally are compelled to adopt an unprofitable style ot farming, which robs the farm and necessitates the borrowing of money on mortgage, the interest of which has to be paid from an impoverished, undrained scjil. And it is in this state, that too many of our farmers are at the present day. Where- as, had the purchase money been retained to put the farm in thorough working order, the abundant crops would easily have paid the interest, and the mortgage could be paid off by degrees. Many farmers in America have become independant by their own industry, some by constantly following up the virgin soils, others by settling down and building up a valuable property about them. I will endeavour to trace what would, in all probability, be the history of many of the latter : — A log house and hard times seem to be the usual accompanyments for a number of years, but abun- dant crops are encouraging ; as civlization increases, and the family grow up, a more comfortable style of living is found to be advisable, better dwellings and barn accomodations are required, and all the little numerous etceteras, that take time and labour, but are not be- grudged, as they add to the home-like, and domestic appearance of the place, and surely "o its value, so the farmer argues, and so things go on ; there are no semiannual visits from abaliff, to remonstrate on the impropriety of selling so many colts and head of young stock, without returning the equivalent in phosphates, if the land gives a gentle reminder, the farmer contents himself with the re- mark that limes are not what they used to be, crops will not grow now, and if a chance traveller comes along and suggests heavier manuring and draining, he will tell you that he has no money, his additions to buildiugs and sprucing up the place has taken all his available capital, as he has no landlord to do this work. If, he is u fortunate enough to have a family of working sons, things may get along pretty smoothly for a while, but at last even they begin to get tired of never having a dollar in their pockets, while they see mechanics and others drawing the highest wages. Neither does the farm improve, so as *'^ ■ ^'^'' better hopes for the future. Then comes the last and wors jf all, the sons flock ofif to the cities and enter stores, &c., wages have increased and crops decreased, it will never do to feed hay at three dollars a ton, which is all it will pay when fed to stock alone, while fourteen or fifteen dollars can be realized by taking it to market, without the labor of feeding stock and hauling manure. This plan succeeds for a few years, till the yield decreases from two and a half to two tons to the acre, down to one, and at last to not enough to pay for putting up and hauling. Then follows foreclosure and ruin, and the harm does not end here only, for the mortgages due are not recovered, capi- talists become disgusted with letting money in the country which they never can recover, and prudent farmers, who have accepted small returns, looking more to the advantages of the future, in in- creasing the fertility of their farms, are entirely cut ofif from the ad- vantages that the possession of a little ready capital sometimes gives. So that at the present time, if we can believe the papers, the country is covered with farms that cannot be sold at one fourth the value of their improvements. THE s may get 2gin to get they see ;her does re. Then the cities iecreased, ch is all len dollars of feeding jw years, ) the acre, ; up and arm does red, capi- :ry which accepted ire, in in- Dm the ad- imes gives, ipers, the fourth the CHAPTER III. THE COMPARISOiTS OF THE ENGLISH AND AMERICAN SYSTEM ONLY MADE FOR THE PURPOSE OF INTRODUCING INNOVATIONS, NOT TO CONDEMN EITHER. NEW WORKS THAT ARE INTRODUCED SHOULD BE SELF-SUSTAINING. THE LAND BEARS TESTIMONY TO THE BAD SYSTEM OF FARMING THAT HAS BEEN PURSUED. IT IS DESIRABLE TO COMBINE THE ADVANTAGES OF THE ENGLISH AND AMERICAN SYSTEMS. FARMERS MUST KEEP CONTROL OF THEIR CAPITAL. LESS RISK IN HIGH THAN IN POOR FARMING. GENERAL DETAILS OF DRAINAGE SCHEME. LOAN SOCIETIES TO ASSIST FARMERS. NECESSARY FOR THE GOVERNMENT TO FIND THE FUNDS FOR DRAINAGE. THE CAPITAL BEING LOCKED, THE REAL AND ONLY CAUSE OF AMERICAN FARMING BEING SO UN- PROFITABLE. A FARMER MUST NOT SWAMP HIS CAPITAL IN PERMANENT INVESTMENTS. PROGRESSIVE SCHEMES SHOULD NOT BE LEFT ENTIRELY TO PRIVATE INDIVIDUALS TO CARRY OUT. AGRICULTURAL PAPERS OFTEN NOT PRACTICAL. MERE IMPOR- TATION OF THOROUGH-BRED STOCK NOT SUFFICIENT. It would be interesting to ascertain at what period of fertility the advantages k lance in favor of the tenant farmer. While crops are abundant, any farmer has an immense advantage in not having any rent to pay, and when no calculations are made for returning any- thing to the lanu, but small capital is required to commence opera- tions J so that it is said, that out in the Western States all that a man wants is a plough, a pair of horses with harness, and harrows, 20 and his seed grain ; as the wheat is threshed out by shares. But unfortunately, the pioneer has disadvantages to contend with. Neither are the croi)s taken from virgin soils, anything like those realized by high farming. As I see from a statistical account that the average crops of grain in the different States, that the highest wheat returns are of Minnessota, California and Texas, and the iiighest average being from eighteen to nineteen bushels per acre. It is hard to say what price the farmer realizes per bushel, but I should think not more than a dollar. .So that about twenty dollars per acre, may be assumed, to be the greates treturn in cash that can be expected from pioneer farmers. In England, twenty-eight bushels per acre of wheat is about the average crop, but with high farming there is no difficulty in pro- ducing thirty-five ; which at one dollar and fifty cents per bushel, would give a return of forty-two dollars per acre, but then this re- sult is only brought about by expenditure of capital and a rotation of crops, in some of which the farmer may not realize anything like what he does in the wheat crop. But to refer to the point at issue, at what stage of fertility does the position of a farmer, who owns his own fiirm, compare unfavor- ably with the tenant farmer ? We should say the very moment that he takes the first step in progressive farming. The prairie farmer has the choice of moving further west to new soils, or has to commence replenishing his exhairsted land. It may seem, to other than experienced men, that the task of ckingin^ the system of a farm by which the fertility may be kept up and balanced is exceedingly easy, but this is a great mistake. An old writer, speaking of the failure of gentlemen farmers, says, "the sight of a plough lying near a farmer's barn door, suggests the idea that farming must be a very easy and profitable busirfess, when such a simple inexpensive implement is the main assistant, but they little know the host of expenditures that follow at its tail". We have shown what a simple matter the mere collecting the yield of the virgin soil is, but suppose our farmer does not want to move west, but wishes to establish a home, what then? The crops have decreased perhaps to the value of ten dollars per acre, and as is always the case in instances like this, weeds have crept in and multiplied, dressings of artificial manures suggest themselves, as the cheapest way to renovate the land, but unfortunately they bene- fit the weeds as well, and small crops will not pay for a deduction of eight to ten dollars per acre. It is necessary that a different system be adopted. A rotation of crops must be established, so that the land may be cleaned in sections. This involves an expenditure for wages, and machinery, and also drainage. So that when the first step is taken in the way of improvement, or rather when the farmer ascends in the social scale of farming, from being a mere sower and gatherer, he works at a continued disadvantage from being tied to a system which or- iginated to suit the exigencies of the case, but which to persue and continue in the present, is not only unadvisable, but actually im- 21 otation ned in hinery, le way social works ch or- Lie and ly im- possible. For if as has been shown, and has shewn itself visibly, that the American fiirmers have been unable to keep their farms up toa proper standard, and to maintain the efficiency of farming as it should be, when they had all the advantages of cheap labor and fertility in abundance, what chances have we in the present day, of success, if we do not adopt aditTerent system, particularly as we have to restore what they have exhausted. Whatever opinion may have been formed, as to the most desir- able position held, either by the English tenant farmer employing his own capital, or the American working his own land, in v/hich his capital is invested, I cannot say. Neither has my object, in writing the above, been to condemn the American farmer, or uphold his English brother, as both systems have been the birth of circumstances, that rendered them necessary to suit the pe- culiarities of the times and different countries, but I wished that the reader should thoroughly understand the . positions in which each were placed, so that suggestions and ideas may be drawn by comparison, which may be of use in introducing innovations and changes into our own methods of farming, which are sadly needed. Before attempting to suggest any means, that may be employed to alleviate the present depression, and prevent its constant recur- rence in the future, it would be as well to review some of the re- marks that have been previously made, regarding the unanamity of the opinions that has been generally expresed as to the cause that has produced these disasterous results, and as to the means taken to produce a change for the better. It has not been my luck, in my desultory reading, to come across many articles that have deeply and thoroughly sifted the whole sub- ject. But the various newspapers occasionally express opinions, some dcsicivel^, and with an opparently clear preception of the matter at issue, others in a desultory and doubtful way, as if uncertain as to whether they are on the right track or not, but affording sufficient indications as from which way the wind blows ; while persons in authority do not hesitate to openly assert that it is to the increased produce of agriculture alone that we can look for a brighter future, which is equivalent to an acknowledgment that it has not been suf- ficient in the past. But beyond this, matters appear to be left pretty much to chance, and what few remedies are proposed, ap pear to be passive, more than active. That it is the duty of the Government to suspend all public works that will not be self-sustaining, is manifestly, but an ordinary prudent measure, although the laboring class will be great suffer- ers thereby. So that now is the time, if possible, to introduce works which will be self-sustaining, and to which we shall refer to. It appears to me that it would hardly be necessary to again re- fer to the fact of the soil of the Dominion of Canada in general, and the northern states, having become so exhausted by over crop- ping, as the fact is so apparent to the most ordinary observer : but I am aware that many otherwise sensible men deny that it is the case, and ridicule the statement. One would think that the plain & 22 nil testimony of the land itself, where thousands of acres are laying barren, with the marks of the plow still remaining on them, would be sufficient evidence, beside the additional testimony of the diffi- culty in growing abundant crops, without having to fall back on theoretical reasoning, which plainly shows that the system of farm* ing that has been followed, could not possibly produce any other result. With regard to the prospect for the future, it seems unreasonable to suppose that the farmers of America could rapidly relinquish an unsafe and unsatisfactory system, in favor of a better one. and even if they could do so, so, the results would not be immediately forth- coming. The Upper Canadian farmers have long taken a position among the very first in America, but they cannot do impossibilities. Ex- traordinary misfortunes require more than ordinary measures to meet and obliterate them, and as far as my experience goes, the waiting patiently for extraordinary seasons is one of the most dan- gerous practices, that a farmer can be guilty of. The anticipated fortune never comes, and if this is the case with private individuals, it is equally dangerous to the nation at large. From what I can gather, the Canadian farmer suffers from the same cause that the Nova Scotian does, that is a want of active capital, without which his farm is of but little use. In the remarks previously made, it must be apparent that, at all events, the system that leaves the farmer with his capital intact, however beneficial it may be to himself, is of an immense advantage to the country at large, as securing the circulation of a large sum of money, and also the employment and working of many branches of industry connected with faaming. , There seems to be a feeling prevailing in the United States that the time is approaching when wealthy men will become the owners of large landed properties, the same way as in England, and the farms will be sublet. Such an idea is repugnant to American ideas, and whether it will be carried out or not is doubtful, as it takes an immense amount of suffering to remove deep-rooted prejudice, so that any scheme that could be brought forward, that would combine the advantages of the English system, and maintain the integrity and independance of the American one, would meet with the hearty support and sympathy of the public. I have before shown that the only permanent remedy for hard times is to make farming as profitable and pleasant, as any other business, so that agriculture may so increase as to be able to sup- port the out grown branches of trade and manufacture. I have endeavoured to show, as I believe, that this can only be done in one way, and that is by enabling the farmer to keep the control of his own capital, which is now locked up in his farm, and applying it directly to its legitimate use, as directly as possible; also by giving every facility to enable farmers to pay, by instalment, for all the most expensive auxiliaries of the farm, and so leaving him, that his capital will only be employed in the same way that it 23 is on a first class farm. In England, in this way, it is to be hoped that farming may become a much more profitable business, and conducted with much less risk. For it may be taken for granted that very few failures of crops occur from reasons beyond our o\Vn control, provided that we have the capital sufficient to remove the obnoctious causes. The even rents of England, where they are based on the average amount raised per acre, are a proof of the truth of this statement. The most direct way to bring about these results, would be to ?,dopt the English system of landlord and tenant at once, but this would be impossible, and also quite undesirable, for we could not find purchasers for the exhausted farms, and I, for my part, fully sympathise with the American feeling, that would wish to retain the fee-simple of their farms in their own hands. So that we must look further, and for other means. The objects in view are two fold ; to relieve those farmers who are struggling along on mortgaged and exhausted farms, and to offer superior inducements to small capitalists, to take up and work what farms can be purchased. In the first case, any system that would include the borrowing of more money, would be unavailable and useless, as it could not be done unless it was for the purpose of introducing special work, which would be both self-sustaining and self-paying, for it is not probable that any farmer, who had been compelled to borrow money to pay off accumulated debts, could pay an increased amount of interest money, unless, by adopting an entirely different, and more profitable mode of farming, which could not be done without the command of capital. So to meet the difficulties of this case, I pro- pose the following scheme. That the Legislature of the Province or Provinces or State, pledge the revenues of the countr>', as se- surity for the purpose of borrowing a certain sum of money to be loaned to the farmers for the purpose of under-draining their farms, that the whole amount should be paid to them, as the work pro- ceedes — or otherwise the scheme would be useless, as the object is not merely to furnish them with means to drain, but all sufficient capital to develop the resources of the land, by cultivation and manuring after drainage. It is proposed that the work shall be performed by the farmer's own family, if advisable, which work shall be paid for, at rates specified by the Government Drainage Commissioner, who would also lay out the work and inspect it be- fore granting certificates. Assuming that the land could be drain- ed at distances forty feet apart, it would take one thousand tiles, and sixty rods of ditching, so that the account would stand thus : One thousand one inch tiles at $9, 1000 collars $5, freight $5, sixty rods of four feet ditching at 30 cents, $18. Laying tiles 5 cents, $3, hauling per acre tiles from wharf or tile yard, $2, total Forty-two Dollars per acre. The whole of this money could be earned by the farmer's family and employees, with the exception of nineteen or twenty dollars, so that he would have enough in hand to plough subsoili and dress this acre of land with half a ton of artificial man- 24 ures, ensuring a crop of the value of from fifty to one hundred dol- lars. There would be a risk that the money would not be devoted to this purpose, and this danger could only be overted in the fol- lowing way : By making a special agreement with the holders of the mortgages that in case of foreclosure they would allow their money to remain on the farm, so that the Government after that would hold all the right, and interest, as security till the drainage was paid for. My own experience has shown me that this would be quite sufficient, as the Farmers would make the most strenuous efforts to divert the Government money into its proper channel, knowing well that he could easily b*? supplanted in his position, and the farmer would be so situated that but little capital would be re- quired to work it. When I spoke of this subject some few years ago, many have ob- jected on account of the want of security to the public. They say the farmers would get their land drained for nothing I cannot imagine a better security being offered under these circumstances. Our farmers, although not very progressive, are sufficiently acquaint- ed with the advantages of drainage, not to let a chance like this' slip, especially where they would have but little to invest, and could continue the process of draining under Government or State pa tranage, with the certainty of ultimately acquiring a valuable property. Should an occurance like this take place, there would be ten ap- plications from responsible persons to every vacation. But it is not my object to point out how easily farmers can be turned out of house and home, but to assist those who have now a hard struggle to hold them. But it is necessary that these difficul- ties should be pointed out, or the menns fo overcome them could not be provided for. Special agieements should be made with the mortgagee, and a special act passed to meet the case. Should the holder of the mortgage not come to the terms, agreeing to leave his money on mortgage, in case of foreclosure, also not agreeing to the terms of the act which should make the drainage a charge on the farm, under any circumstance, then he should be passed over, and no other application, with reference to draining that farm, be entertained, until the whole money had been loaned, and a new list opened, and he would then have the pleasure of seeing properties improved at the cost of others, while his own remaided water logged and unproductive. Perhaps it might be advisable to adopt compulsory measures, as are done in England, where private selfishness is not allowed to remain long, as a stumbling block to public good. The worker or occupier of the soil would be benefitted according to the extent to which he was able and willing to improve, which would depend a good deal on the strenght of his family, but the lesson tought by the one acre, ought to be of greater value than the actual increased produce itself, and our farmers would be sure to profit by it I am not sure but that it would be better at once to pay the 25 id to )rding Iwhich It the Ian the Ire to the farmer in good superphosphate, to be applied to the land, although, I do not like the idea of a government being too paternal, and be- sides it would be trusting too little to the farmers' honesty and judgment. With regard to the best plan of dealing with the second case, and inducing small capitalists to purchase and work the al- ready worn out farms, it would be by merely applying the prin- ciples enunciated in this work, in practice, and through the aid of loan societies. The method of working these societies, several of which are at work in the Provinces, appears to be, that money is loaned on real estate to be repaid principal and interest by semi- annual instalments, extending over twenty years. Now, a farmer, by borrowing money from them, would have all the advantages of the English system : his capital would be free to work upon, without the disagreeable restraint and sense of dependence, his landlords would be too numerous to be able to make themselves obnoxious, and would be more imaginary than real ; besides with some societies where certificates are issued on subscription, he would be partially his own landlord, if that would be any satisfac- tion to him, for the whole tendency of the arrangement is such that in a given number of years he would be the owner of a highly im- proved, valuable, unencumbered property, to which end every year would bring him nearer, both as regards time and money. It would be desirable that the whole of the purchase money should be borrowed, so as not to trench upon the working capital. In case the security should not be deemed sufficient, I would pro- pose that a guarantee should be given that a certain amount of drainage be carried on and finished in a given time, to increase the value of the property up to the amount specified. This could be managed by an agreement between the government and the com- panies loaning the purchase money. The drainage would be car- ried out m the way specified. It would not be advisable to encourage a scheme of this kind un- less the farmer was prepared to show that he had the command of a certain amount of capital himself, I should say five pounds per acre at least for the land he intended to workl It may be asked, why should the government give assistance in this way only through the medium of drainage ? And also, why not borrow the drainage money from the loan societies in addition to the purchase money? The answer to the first question would be, that looking at the various Provinces or States, as large landed estates, of which the governments have the charge, that in assisting in work of this kind, they are only improving the p-operty under their charge, for the indirect benefit of the public, and that the drainage is a permanent benefit that remains after the proprietors have removed from tbe soil, besides that loan companies in new countries will not lend money for what is not actually in existance, and would not go to the trouble and expense of seeing the work properly carried out, as they have no indirect benefit in the mat- ter. It should be borne in mind that the government are not request- i 26 {, ed to place a fresh burjien on the people to be repaid by taxation, as is generally the case \vith our public works, but merely to become security for the money that is to be paid by instalments extending over a period of say twenty years, although in England they some- times make fifty years the limit of time for repayment. It will be seen from the working of this system, that a compara- tively small sum borrowed would place a constant fund in the hands of the government for this purpose, so that one hundred thousand dollars would give an annual loan of ten thousand dollars, which would be the receipts of the instalments at five per cent. The cost to the farmer would be according to the above estimate, exactly three dollars per acre, paying both principal and interest. Now it is for them to judge whether the advantages to be gained are equal to the expenditures or not. I belie'' c drainage to be the foundation of all good farming, and perhaps no where more necessary than in the North American Provinces or States. The effect of drainage on a large scale would no doubt ameliorate the climate, and make the Springs much earlier, hut I do not wish to make any further remarks on the subject, as I have written especially upon it. Before such a scheme could be carried out, it would be well to have meetings of the most advanced farmers, and the subject in all its bearings fully discussed. For my part I have been led to serious reflection on the subject, by the peculiar way in which I have been placed myself. It seems to me to be an anomaly, that a person can be brought to the very verge of ruin, while conducting his business on the most approved method, and a lengthened conversation with a Scotch gentleman, who had experience in both English and American farming, led me to the considerations of these matters in their dif- ferent bearings, and the total conclusion I have arrived at is, that of all the reasons assigned for unprofitable farming, or rather our being unable to make farming profitable, the only one that has really operated against us in any considerable degree, has been the being compelled to use our capital for other than its legitimate pur- pose. We are all more land proprietors than tenants, and conse- quent'-/ we only get landlords interest. Hardly a day passes but what I get additional evidence of the wants of country in this way, "How is my old friend, so and so?" I asked the other day. "Oh, very well, I was never more impress- ed with the value of drainage, than when I was up at his place last spring, but I'm afraid, poor fellow, ]■•? has gone beyond his means." And so it goes on. A farmer cannot afford to lay out ten pounds an acre in drainage, and yet he cannot do without it, at three times the price. He can pay the interest on the money required to drain over and over again, provided he has capital enough left to follow up a system, but he is compelled to lock up money that he requires, and it is not devoted to his proper business, which is converting manure into produce. He is assuming the position of a landlord. He is laying the track for a profitable traffic, which 27 and must pass into the hands of others, who will reap the benefit of his industry. Surely this is a case for Legislation in Nova Scotia, or any of the other Provinces or States for that matter. We are not, by any means, in that position of prosperity, that the public can stand quietly by and see efforts like these, that may be of such importance, and as commencements in the right direction smothered in the outset, we profess to take great interest in the improvement of agriculture, and various sums of money have been devoted to this purpose, and yet it cannot be said that one single step in advance has been made ; not a single obstruction removed, that stands in the way of progress towards the main end in view for the importation of stock for the improvement of the land, is only assisting a branch or appendage of agriculture, and is a question of money, not skill except to the originators of the system. It is no wonder that a member of the Legislature (I refer to Nova Scotia) complained that so little result had followed from the ex- penditure of so much time, and public money. It seems to me neither fair nor right that while the public are willing and anxious to pay for knowledge acquired in this branch of industry, the real burden of developing it is thrown entirely on private individuals, to whom the slightest mistakes are fatal, an i the consequences are, that schemes that in themselves are valuable and necessary are nipped in the bud for want of capital to fully de- velope, and act as warning instead of encouragement. While willing to give every credit to the Secretary and members of the Agricultural Board, I cannot but express the opinion that other means than those taken must be used before agriculture can hold that position that is absolutely necessary. The articles that occasionally appear in Journals of Agricul- ture, recommending farmers to abandon the present systems, are generally founded on a knowledge of the principals of Scientific farming, but are comparatively useless, because they are not practi- cal. I am sure the value of roots as a substitute for hay, for winter feeding, has been shown to the farmers ever since the days of Ag- ricola, and entirely without effect, because the change involves a large outlay of capital, for reasons which have been heretofore ex- plained, and no system has lately ever been promulgated and brought forward to relieve this want. It appears to me to be useless to advise the farmers to adopt po- tatoes in rotation, instead of turnips, as done in a late Journal, when they have not even got into a turnip rotation and cannot ; equally unavailing is it to devote all our means and energies to the production of thorough-bred stock, when we have not as yet per- fected any system that can produce, economically, the food neces- ■^ary for these stock to fulfill their ofiice, which is to turn produce into meat with the least waste or loss, also to arrive at maturity ready for the butcher early. It is desirable to have thorough-bred stock on a farm in the same way that it would be to have good locomotives on a railway that %. . 28 would economise wear and tear and fuel, but no one would expect them to build up the trafic. If the constant importation of thorough- bred stock was all that would be necessary to make agriculture a thriving and prosperous business, then our task would indeed be easy, thanks to the skill and enterprise of various breeders. But so far from that being the case, we have a work of great magnitude before us, and one that cannot be accomplished by the easy path made by the application of public funds alone, no matter how plentiful they may be, but by a combination of clear head work, energy, and determination. expect Drough- ture a !ed be But so jnitude r path r how work, DRAINAGE. »•♦ CHAPTER I. INSTRUCTIONS ONLY FOB PRACTICAL FARMERS. TO ASCERTAIN WHAT LANDS REQUIRE DRAINING. INDICATIONS OF AN OPEN SOIL. DIFFERENCE OF OPINION AS TO DEPTH OF DRAINS AND DISTAN- CES APART. DRAINS SHOULD BE CUT VERTICALLY, AGAINST THE HILL SLOPE. DRAINS IN OLD TIMES NOT DiJEP ENOUGH FEW DARE INVEST IN FARMING WITHOUT DRAINAGE. QUOTATIONS FROM STREVENS AND FROM AMERICAN AUTHORS. DRAINAGE SHOULD BB CONNECTED WITH GOOD FARMING. AGRICULTURE COMPARED TO MANUFACTURES. PRACTICAL DRAINAGE — PRO- TECT THE OUTLETS. LAYING THE MAIN DRAIN. NO FARMER SHOULD BE HIS OWN ENGINEER. MEANS TO SECURE A PERFECT ALLENIATION. THEORY SHOWS THAT DISTANCES AND DEPTHS ARE DEPENDENT ON ONE ANOTHER. WHY FOUR FEET DRAINS ARE A GOOD DEPTH. NO ECONOMY IN SHALLOW DRAINING. THE BEST DRAINS FOR MINORS. COMPARISONS OF COST. TILES TO BE ARTIFICIALLY CONNECTED. Any one wishing to thoroughly post themselves in the subject of draining, must look further than through the pages of this little book. For the writer has no pretention whatever to so thorough a knowledge ot the subject, as would enable him to place himself side by side with the different writers on this subject, and, in fact, all the information now given comes, so to speak, second handed from the different authorities, but has been proved, applied and carried out in practice. . 30 In tlie preceding pages I have* not sufficiently gone into details, perhaps, to please those who may wish to carry out drainage on their own farms, so that in the following, I hope to remedy the de- fect. As I presume that few would trouble themselves with this subject merely for the purpose of acquiring a certain amount of scientific knowledge, but would rather be governed by the prospec- tive hope of profit. I will, in the first place, endeavor to point out what lands require drainage, and what advantage is to be gained by draining them. Some writers have gone so far as to assert that all lands worth cultivating require drainage, but this is going too far. There are certain rules by which any person, who has had experience, could readily ascertain at almost any season of the year, except v/inter, and in almost any state that the land may be in, whether this im- provement was requisite or not. We will give a few indications of an impervious wet sub-soil, that have come under our own notice repeatedly. First, the growth of aquatic plants and grasses in places where the inclination of the land shows that water cannot possibly have lodged there permanently. Many may remark that is easy enough for any one to know, this is true, but how many reasonab^v apply this information, or if so, v/hy do we see surface ditches con- stantly dug to let off the surplus water, that is supposed to produce these plants, when they are located in a position that no surface water could possibly stand near them? I have pointed these facts out repeatedly to men when engaged in ditching, but without receiving any satisfactory answer. The signs of a wet sub-soil are most plainly indicated after land has been ploughed, and particularly in the spring, when viewed from an op])osite hill. In grass land the turf should be fine and springy in drained land, while in that which has an impervious sub-soil, it , is always either spongy in wet weather, and hard summer. In working undrained clay land, the difference can soon be detected by an experienced eye ; the furrow slice, when turned over by the plough, is hard and stiff (even if the land is in perfectly good order for cultivation at the time — that is if land undrained can ever be said to be in a state fit for cultivation — but had been watersogged all winter) and easily bear the weight of the body when stepped on, instead of crumbling to pieces, the harrows make little impres- sion, and catch and go in a zigzag manner, instead of swinging along easily ; when the roller is passed over the ground, the lumps are only pressed into the earth, instead of becoming finely disinte- grated, and the roots of weeds and grasses, instead of entirely sep- arating from the earth, are broken off and remain to grow afresh, thus rendering the land much harder to clean. It is not often that a farmer is inconvenienced in the summer time by his land being undrained, beyond what mischief has al- ready been done by the water not having been drawn off in the fall. Eut I recollect a few occasions ot this kind. Once when we could hardly get on the land, on account of its wet state, to top- dress a crop of mangolds with artificial manures, and twice, when details, lage on the de- ith this Dunt of prospec- 3 require hem. i worth ere are , could v/inter, his im- Ltions of notice n places possibly is easy isonab^v hes con- produce surface engaged :r. The tnd has d from springy ■soil, it ler. In ietected by the od order ver be rsogged stepped impres- winging t lumps disinte- s'y sep- afresh, summer has al- in the len we ;o top- when 31 the horses almost got mired, when hauling in the grain and the hay. A friend of mine tells me that it is a common saying in Scot- land, that on well drained clay soil you should be able to walk across a fallow field in your stocldng feet, without getting wet, twenty-four hours after a rain storm, that is if there has been any sun to dry the surface. If you dig a two or three feet ditch, and water gathers in it, the land requires drainage, and as a general rule, the more rapidly, the further the drains can be placed apart, as this is an indication of an open soil. To trace back the origin of drainage is beyond my province, but it is said to have existed in the time of the Romans. Perhaps El- kington was almost the first man who was actually employed as a draining engineer in England, although his system, or the system that he owed his celebrity to, was different from that now generally in practice. The Elkington system of drainage is generally sup- posed to apply to the method of tapping water in a lower sub-strata by means of boring, when either rises to the surface, and is con- ducted off by an ordinary drain, or is got rid of by being vented into a lower and open sub strata. This system might apply in some cases where our plaster formation exists, and where no other outlet could be got. Among the old advocates of drainage, the greatest difference of opinion appeared to exist as to the depth to which it was advisable to drain, many advocating drains of eighteen inches deep and from ten to fifteen feet apart, others from three to four feet deep and thirty to forty feet apart ; and perhaps thi- ques- tion is not definitely settled yet when certain soils are concerned Also among other systems advocated, which need not be fully described here, as they have nearly all been rejected, was the plan of draining diagonally across the inclination of the slope of the ground -, but reason and experience soon showed this to be a mis- take, as rain falling on the centre of a ridge naturally had a ten- dency to follow that inclination, so that as soon as the sloping land fell below the level of the bottom ol the drain, the water would have a tendency to seek the level of the lower drain, instead of the one nearest to it. So that if the drains were forty feet apart, and the ground sloped one foot in five, then in twenty feet, or midway be- tween the drains, the level of the ground would be on exactly the same level as the bottom of the ditch. Consequently it could have no influence. These reasons led drainers to come to the conclu- sion that drains should be cut directly against the slope of the hill. From want of the general knowledge of the principles of agricul- ture, our ancestors appear to almost universally have made the mistake of draining too near the surface, very likely they had what is the prevalent notion in Nova Scotia, that it was only the surface water that it was necessary to get rid of, and that if the drains were put deep enough to avoid being disturbed by the plough it was quite sufficient. Thousands of acres were drained in this way in Great Britain, and although the land was temporarily benefitted, and could be worked easier, and sooner in wet weather, still in dry 32 weather the crops apparently suffered, and further investigation led to the belief that insufficient depth of drainage and cultivation was the principal cause, so that as new work of this kind was being un- dertaken, the depth of cutting of the drains was gradually increased, till at last scientific men begun to recognize the fact, that certain laws were to be obeyed, by which the depths and distances could be properly regulated, so that the work would give the utmost sat- isfaction. As soon as this was the case, shallow draining became a thing of the past, not only on all new work projected, but the old drains had to be taken up and renovated and improved. Col. French says, that in Scotland alone, not less than 10,000 miles of shallow drains were laid before it was found that the depth was insufficient. The fact of the enormous extention of the drainage system in Great Britain, is a proof that the benefit gained is considered to be consummate with the expense. So much importance was attached to the desirability of this work being carried on extensively, that the Government were authorized to advance money to land pro- prietors for this purpose. It may safely be said that it is now considered the foundation of all good and profitable farming, and that few farmers would be found reckless enough to invest capital in farming on undrained soil. Mr Mechi speaks of our neighbor who quitted his farm after a few years trial, a ruined man, and he ascribes his losses entirely to want of draining. I will add an extract from Stevens' book on the farm, with the remark that all these facts have come personally under my own observation. "The existance of moisture in the soil being easily detected by in- jurious effects on the crops. The advantages derived from drain- ing, are also indicated by its good effects on them. On drained land the straw of white crops shoots up with a vigorous beard, strong, long, and so stiff as not to be easily lodged, the grain is plump, bright colored, and thin skinned. The crop ripen? uni- formly, is bulky, prolific, more quickly won for stacking, in harvest, more easily thrashed, winnowed and cleaned. The straw also makes better food for live stock. Clover grows rank, long and juicy, and the flowers large and of bright color. The hay wons easily and weighs heavily for its bulk. Pasture grasses stool out in every direction, covering the ground with a thick sward, and pro- ducing milk and meat of the finest quality. Turnips become large and plump as if fully grown, juicy, and with a smooth and oily skin. Potatoes push out long and strong stems, with large tubers, having skins easily pealed off, and their substance mealy when boiled. Live stock of every kind thrive, evince good temper, are easily fattened, and of fine quality. Land is less occupied with weeds, the increased luxuriance of all the crops checking their growth. Summer fallow is more easily cleaned, and much less ition led ion was leing un- creased, certain s could lost sat- thing of , drains 10,000 he depth stem in ed to be attached :ly, that nd pro- iation of ould be ndrained after a tirely to vith the ny own :ed by in- drain- drained beard, ;rain is tns uni- harvest, iw also |ng and wons ^1 out in id pro- le large id oily tubers, when ler, are Id with tlieir :h less 83 labor is required to put the land in order for manure and seed, and all sorts of manures incorporate more quickly with the soil. Thorough drained land is easily woiked with all the common implements. Being all alike, its texture becomes equal and in consequence, the plow passes through it with uniform freedom, and moving in a freer soil, it is able to raise a deeper furrow slice, which, on its part, though heavy, crumbles down and yields to the pressure and friction of the mould board, into friable mellow, rich- looking mould. The harrows, instead of being held back at times, and starting forward and ofcillating sideways, swim along, raking the soil into a smooth surface, and entirely obliterating the horses' footmarks. The roller compresses, and leaves the soil even and smooth, but the part below in a mellow state for the roots of plants to extend in. I now make a few quotations from American authors, as to the urgent necessity of drainage : Emerson, in an address at Concord, Mass., thus alludes to the subject : — By drainage we have gone to the sub-soil and we have a Concord under a Concord, a Middlesex under a Middlesex, and a basement story of Massachusetts more valuable than the heaped up structure. Tiles are political economists, they are so many young Americans announcing a better era, a day of fat things. John J. Klippart, Esq. says, the agriculture of Ohio can make no further progress until a good system of underdrainage has been adopted. Another writer says, one of two things must be done by us here, clay predominates in our soil, and we must underdrain our land or sell and move west. Prof Mapes says, I do not believe that farming can be pursued with profit without it. To these I will add a few remarks of my own. I cannot speak of drainage in tlie enthusiastic manner that Emerson does, for ex- perience has told me that the comparisons he uses do not always hold good, unless you happen to have a sub-soil of superior fer- tility to the top soil, which rarely happens. I believe many years ago, a great many farmers were mislead in Scotland, by following the examjjle of a nobleman, who had mixed his sub-soil with the top soil, to the manifest advantage of both. His neighbors, being disappointed, endeavored to ascertain the reason, when analysis showed that his subsoil was actually richer in certain ingredients than the top soil, while theirs was the re- verse. I never tried the experiment of mixing any two soils together by trench ploughing, although the ordinary sub-soil plough brings up a small quantity, and I confess I should be very douinful of the result, judging from the appearance of the spots where we have pitt- ed our roots. Although, as regards the benefits to be derived from draining, as stated by Stevens, are all perfectly true, still the farmers of this country should remember, that it is only in connection with good cultivation and manuring that these results are to be obtained. J S4 The better farmer a man is the more he will be benefitted by drain- ui;e. 1 know tliat the majority of farmers in this district are un- ai)l'..' to carry out rotation at all for want of drainage, or to spt'ak plainer, they are compelled to cnliivate the same land in roots year after year, because it hap[)ens to be dry. Consequently they take three inferior hay crops, worth from ten to twenty dollars per acre in place of two good grain and one clover crop, which ought to be worth nearly three times that pric^, while it is dou!)lful whether th.e root crop is at all benefitted by be- mt cultivated on the s:i: :e land year after year. It may be safely assumed that a poor farmer, or one who cares about nothing but cutting and curing hay for the market, will hardly go to t!ie trouble and expense of drainage, as although it would undoubtedly be advisable and profitable. Still the urgency is not so great as on land for cultivation- The more a man looks upon land as what I believe it is, or rather is getting to be, a receptical for manure to be turned into produce, or as die New Jersey man remarked, something to keep the plant upright while the manure nourished it, the more desirous he will be for drainage. He will want to have his manufacture in perfect order, so that the fijiished article can be returned to him for sale, with as little delay and expense as possible, and as little waste of the raw material. I no not mean to imi)ly that all lands in this part of North America are in this state of infertility, but I most certainly believe that the farmer who makes this his doctrine will be most likely to succeed, and less liable to disappointment. If there is any unexhausted fertility to be found, it will, most likely, be on the wettest, undrained soil. I have dwelt for some length on this latter part of the subject, because it is absolutely necessary that a farmer should understand his own mind before he becomes en ...gled in an unprofitable in- vestment. Digging drains must n(»t be looked upon as digging for gold, but more as the laying a tramway for the profits of traflic. There would be no advantage gained, that I can see, by giving examples of the cost and profits of drainage, as taken from P^nglish works, as the cost of labor, produce, &c., all are so different, and everything is so systematized there, that no information would be gained thereby, so that details of my own experience would be more valuable. The first thing in commencing drainage, is to find a proper out- let. It having been decided that the drains are to be cut directly against the slope of the hill, the outlet will be somewhere at the lowest part of the field to be drained, or at the lowest level. Should the sloping i.eld terminate in an abrupt bank adjoining a road, or otherwise, then each drain can be vented, independently without the construction of a main drain at all. The only objection there can possibly be to this arrangement is that you have a number of openings to protect instead of one, for although it may appear to be an imaginary trouble. I have seen drains stopped in two instances If ect, and in- fer .ffic. ing lish land be be 35 by froj^s 1)uilding their nests in them. Tlicy rut \v!iat appears to be h'ght hrush or slicks exactly the length of the tile, and thus com- pletely (lams back the water, and unfortunately they often (ravel a considerable distance up the drain before commencing operations. A small wooden trunk, with a grating over the end, is the best pro- tection against this nuisance. On account of the main drain often being run at right angles to the slope of the hill, the fall is generally very small compared with that of others, but it can be increased considerably, by [jlac- ing the upper end up tlie slope, but not so much as to leave the lower ])art of the field undrained. But sometimes it is advisnble even to do this, and drain the lower ])art indejjendently, venting into the main drain at a lower level, thus the permanency of the whole work is not endangered for the sake of a small piece. The inclination to be given to the main drain depends somewhat on the size of tile used, for if it is only of a small bore, the greater the fall, the quicker the water gets away. If a ])ipe sufficiently large is used, looking only to the safety of the work, I believe that main drains can be laid with litde or no inclination, with per- fect safety ; but then it must be remembered that the least obstruc- tion at the outlet causes the water in the whole drain to stagnate, so that should there be any matter in suspension, it is very likely to be deposited. Another great obstruction to drains with small fall, is that you are liable not to get the exact line of inclination you bargain for. Unskillful workmen may dig portions of the drain out till it is even below the level of the outlet, when it is liable to become obstructed and the whole connection is broken. The fact is that no farmer, no matter how well he may be ac- quainted with the theoretical principals of drainage, should lay out his own drains,, if he can possibly employ an engineer, or anyone used to giving levels and sections. People, in a new country especially, are very unwilling to employ engineers on any work that they can possibly do themselves. Whereas, even if the work is finished, and answers satisfactorily without such assistance, it may be looked upon as a matter of cer- tainty, that an engineer would have saved his salary ten times over by laymg out the work in a proper manner, besides insuring its success. I have mentioned previously the plan I adopted to insure the accurate alleniation ot all the bottoms of the principal drains, and I now explain it more carefully, A line of levels are run and a section made which shows the inclination and surface of the ground, as follows : i''i| ] Oottcmvtff r^ n -c^ u 61 1^ 3. 7/ T The rods A and B are placed in the ground to- the depth shown on the section, being four feet at A and B. Then the line C is parallel to A B, or to the finished bottom of the ditch. A small rod D can be put in the line of horozontal range for convenience or another at E, so that a rod exactly the length of A and B minus, the shoeing, held up in any of these ranges will exactly, by its bot- tom, indicate how deep to dig. These are what are generally call- ed boneing rods, and are used to inspect work after it has been finished. Col. French very properly says, "I object to the use of these rods, for they require two to hold them, and they are no guide to the men when working." But by my plan, for I certainly origin- ated it, these objections are done away with, and it is not as tedious as the method described by Colonel P>ench, and his plan presup- poses quite as much knowledge of levelling as mine does. The size of tile for the main drain is a matter of importance, as it should be large enough to convey the water away as fast as it receives it. As a rule, people, judging from the flow of the water in a broad open shallow ditch, imagine that a very much larger pipe is requir- ed for this purpose than is absolutely necessary. A three inch pipe contains nine times the area of orifice of a one inch pipe. So that even if the i)ipes were full, and it takes a long drain indeed before this becomes the case, a three inch main pipe would serve for an outlet for nine drains which, at forty feet apart, would give a total breadth of 360 feet, and in this short distance, I do not think it would matter very much if the inclination of the main drain was small, as the velocity of the water would be increased by the influx of the minor drains, provided that the co.nnections were properly made, so that the c.-rrent was not checked. The next point to decide is the distance apart that the drains should be laid, and farmers will.be apt to make a compromise be- tween expense and a proper execution of the work. It is necessary here to enter into theoretical reasoning on the subject. All water, as we know, has a tendency to seek the lowest level, and where no obstructions or hindrances occur, it is only a question of size of outlet, as to how long it will take to drain a certain area, but when it falls on and saturates the soil, it has the friction to contend with in its passage to an outlet, the extent of which depends on the consistancy and character of the soil, loose sand and gravel offering the least obstruction, and stiff clay the greatest, and other soils in proportion to their constituents The tendency in water to seek the lowest level, is by the force of gravi- r f I K ^ shown B C is i small 37 tation, and the steeper the line of gravitation, the more power it has to overcome friction. It is necessary that the farmer should thoroughly understand this as, if in draining he de does not know what he is aiming to accomplish, he cannot possibly expect to be satisfied by the result. To make myself thoroughly understood, I will offer the following illustration : Suppose you place your drain four feet deep for the purpose of drying half a ridge twenty feet wide, that the soil is of that consis- tancy that the water will not pass into the drain at a less inclination than three feet in twenty, then you would only have one foot of dry land in the centre of the ridge, so that if you reciuired two feet clear of drained land, it would be requisite to bring the line of in- clination to a lower parallel by either increasing the depth of the drain, or placing them closer together. I have repeatedly, in approaching an old drain, come across this table of stagnant water, which gets nearer the surface the fur- ther you recede from the drain. But to what extent depth can be increased for the purpose of decreasing the number of drains is still an open question, particularly when relating to clay soil. It can easily be seen from the foregoing remarks that the distan- ces at which drains can be laid apart, and the depths, are entirely dependent on one another. There are two or three circumstances which in this country, en- able us to fix on the approximate depth, with some degree of cer- tainty. The first is the great severity of the frost, which makes a three foot drain quite unsafe. I know that some have been laid at that depth, but there is not enough gain for the risk incurred. They may run a number of years, and yet in a very delapidated state. I myself have had four foot drains frozen up in places, and yet, near the outlets, where they have not been covered with more than two and a half feet of earth, they have remained perfectly safe. But this is no doubt owing to the fact that the large flow of water com- ing from the hill above, has always been of sufiicienl tempeiature to keep them clear. In the second place, the great cost of tiles, and the expense of carriage and labour, makes it advisable to increase the distance of the drains, wherever it can be safely done ; so that I have no hesi- tation in recommending four feet as the depth that it is generally advisable to drain to, though in some cases, and in some soils, and where tiles are very exi)ensive, 1 do not see why the depth should not be greatly increased and the width in proportion. Having assumed that four feet is the most desirable depth the question is, how far to put the drains apart, so that we may have a depth of eighteen inches of dry land in the centre of the ridge. To refer to what we were speaking of before, if the line of in- clination to overcome friction is one foot in about seven, or three in twenty, if we substituted a three foot drain for a four foot one, the water table would run out at the surface, and seven feet from the centre there would only be one foot of dry land, so that the two m 'It i '■ii l! 38 three foot drains could only be depended on to dry a twenty-eight foot ridge, so that by increasing the depth to four feet, we could af- ford to put them about one third further apart. Nothing but experience will enable any one to hit, with a nicety, on the distance apart that can be drained with safety. We do not know of any i)etter plan that can be adopted than the one practiced by me, and that is by running experimental drains, and sinking test holes, but I think a few feet farther may be allow- ed than the test-holes would indicate to be safe, as drains are one of the few things that liecome more effective the older they get. This is known to be the case in England,and it would naturally be more so in America, where the frost piercing into the ground, as the water makes way for it, pulverizes the soil and makes it less reten- tive. What are generally called medium clays can be safely drained at distances of from thirty-six to forty feet apart. No one should ever think of partially draining their land, as some of the greatest benefits to be derived from this investment would be entirely lost. You could not cultivate a field in sections, while waiting for the wet portion to dry. Having decided upon the depth and distances that the drains are to be placed apart, the next question is, as to what sized tile it is i)referable to use. I have explained, that in my drainage, I have used three different kinds, the horse shoe, ordinary two-inch tile, with flat bottom and round top, and the one-inch tile with a collar. In referring to works on drainage, I find that some engineers consider that an inch tile without a collar, is entirely too small, in which opinion I r.^iee. Not but what the bore is suflncient for ordinary minors, but because there is too little to come and go on in connecting them, the least deviation in either tile would break the connection, and when we come to think, that we have a joint in every foot, it is not improbable but that this might happen. The average bore, or capacity to carry off water, or matter deposited, of a two-inch tile without a collar, would not, in all probability, be more than that of an inch tile with a collar. While in the latter case, the security of the drain will be much greater. When boards are laid under the tiles tlie bottom of the drain is secured, and this is where disconnection is most likely to occur. But there is no positive certainty of the tiles not being displaced when being filled over, and three open joints are exposed, which aro completely covered with collars. rhe comparative cost would api)roximate nearly to the following figures: One tiiousand two-inch tiles, which would be enough for one acre, when laid forty feet apart, would cost ten dollars ; three hundred and thirty feet of boaids, at eight dollars per thousand, would be about three dollars, making :\ total of thirteen dollars. The other estimate would be, one thousand feet of one-inch tik-s, nine dollars ; one thousand collars, I should think about five dollars, it appears to me that is what I paid, it certainly is enough ; freight on onel act sur but it ij the exi^ charge inch til no diffel erally a| them. Accol comple^ acre ; o| whether few doll drain tc jury to bottom the side thing th tailed, a I have them as old drai some oh ones. ^\"ith i thev coil any greo diametei inty-eiglit could af- a nicety, [ than the I drains, )e allow- are one hey get. .irally he m}, as the ss reten- rained at land, as vestment sections, e drains 2d tile it : different ;om and jngineers mall, in :ient for d go on Id break a joint en. The )sitcd, of ity, be latter 39 on one thousand collars, about two dollars — I cannot name the ex- act sum as I do not know where they are supposed (o come from, but it is necessary that some item should be entered for this part of the expense. The haulage from the wharf to the farm, I make no charge for, as the difference between the moving the one and two- inch tiles would about make up for the collars. There would be no difference in the expence of laying them either, as there is gen- erally a considerable delay in fitting the joints of pipes without them. According to these estimates, the cost of material for the drains complete, stands as follows : Two-inch pipes, thirteen dollars per acre; one-inch, with collar, sixteen dollars. Now the question is, whether it is worth while to risk an inferior drain for the sake of so few dollars per acre, for the open pipes certainty are an inferior drain to the other, although I do not think that much danger of in- jury to drains need be anticipated if the perfect alienation of the bottom is secured. True, earth may sift in through the opening in the sides and in the top, but according to my experience, it is a thing that rarely happens, if the proper precautions, hereafter de- tailed, are taken. I have said nothing in favor of horse shoe tiles, because I look upon them as things of the past, although, even now, preferred by some old drainers, but perhaps for no better reason that can be given by some old sportsmen, who profess to prefer flint guns to percussion ones. With regard to a drain finished with tiles without collars, I believe the V could be safely laid, in a clean cutting clay bottom, without any great risk, but the bore should not be less than two inches in diameter. ram is occur, isplaced which )llowing ugh for three ousand, dollars. 1 tiL's, dollars, freight CHAPTER II. DIKFICULTIKS TN COMMENCING WORK. TOOLS REQUIRED. JOINTS WELL SECURED, NO RISK IN FILLING IN. TILES IN FILTY LAND. LAYING TILES. BACK FURROWING OVER DItAIN. OF.STRUCTIONS IN DRAIN. RECTIFYING OBSTRUCTIONS. WATKU flNE RISES TO BOTTOM OF DRAIN. DRAIXAGE PRESERVES LAND FROM DROUGHT. Having made all preliminary preparations, now comes the most difficu.t matter of all to deal with, that is, to get men able and wil- ling to take your drains at a reasonable price, and do them in a satisfactory manner. I believe the best plan is to abolish days work entirely, so that the laborer has an intere';*^ in carrying out the work skillfully. Few novices can be made to believe that a deep drain can be dug with the removal of so little earth as is really the case, and their prejudice will not allow them to give the matter a fair trial- The easiest, and most straightforward way, is perhaps in the commencement to dig a few drains by days work, after furnishing the proper tools, and laying the work off yourself. It is also a good plan to make a wooden frame, the exact size and shape of the drain, which pattern they should be compelled to follow, the frame would be of about the following dimentions: For a four foot ditch, width at top, two feet, sloi)ing down to four inches in the bottom, but this should be the maximum size, as it is quite possible to get down four feet with less excavation- 41 The workmen will soon find out that the amount of wages they earn depends more upon the number of cubic feet they throw out of the drain than on the facilities they have for working, for in the part of the ditch in which they are most inconvenienced for want , of room, the excavation has become very small. The only extra tools that are not made in the country, unless expressly to order, that I found is requisite to get, are a set of bot- toming tools, consisting of a spade of a semi-circular shape, and tapering to about three inches at the bottom, with a tread on the shoulder, for they are made so narrow that a workman has hardly room to bring his foot down with force on the spade itself to drive it into the earth. With this implement the earth is taken out from one foot to fifteen inches below where the workman stands ; and then a narrow circular scoop attached to a long handle is draw ^ along the bottom of the ditch, to collect what are tecknically called the crumbs. Col. French appears to be skeptical as to whether the bottom of deep drains can be excavated this way, but I can assure the reader that there is not the least difficulty, as this method was universally adopted on this farm, except for main drains. Fortunately an English gentleman who lived in the neighbor- hood had imported some proper draining spades, so that we had several made after these patterns, which, although they answered in a certain way, were not favorites with the workmen, as the little English spade was. The men complained that the others would not free themselves from the earth as the latter would. My m^'n used the ordidary digging spade and shovel for the first half of the ditch, then the same spade and an English navvy shovel with a few inches cut from each side finished the next foot, or un- til it was necessary to use the bottoming tools. The price I universally paid was thirty cents a rod for digging and filling, for minors, and forty cents for main drains. The laying the tiles can either be done by contract or by days work, and is worth about five cents per rod, provided that a small portion of the earth is returned. Main pipes are always layed by hand, the workmen taking them from the bank where they have been previously deposited. Some drainers insist upon having the first spitting of earth de- posited on one side of the ditch, so that it may cover the tile, but this is only necessary when the sub-soil consists of a hard stiff soil, and I doubt whether the practice is advisable any way, as the uni- formity of the texture of the soil is thereljy destroyed, and the hard baked clay allowes the water to have too free access to the tih.s from above. I have tried many of the plans recommended by drainers for fill- ing over tiles, but gradually abandoned them all. Tan-bark, I found quite as liable to choke the drains as silt. When the joints are at all open, a sod laid inversely is advisable, but when collars are used it is unnecessary. It depends on circumstances as to whether it is advisable to i : ■ ! 42 commence at the main drain and lay up the slope, or the reberse. In the former case, tlic bottom of the drain is disturbed in the operation of laying, and the tiles below are liable to become chok. ed. I found from experience that it was better to adopt the latter method, and commence at the higliest end of the drain, you are then sure of your work, as far as you go, the safety of which is in- dicated by the clear stream of running water. When the minor drains vent into a main, it is prudent to keep the connecting place tightly closed by sods, &c, A great deal of water will accumulate at the lowest level, which must be pumped out b efore the connection can be made, this plan no doubt involves a great deal of trouble, but it is better by far than having to take your main drains up on account of their becom- ing choked with slurry. Where you have a very bad minor drain venting into a main, it is sometimes better to stop your cutting some distance from the main drain, and then vent on to the surface, or across the main drain, then it caa be completed all but forming the con- nectirn, which can be d le at almost any time, either by taking the op])ortunity when th weather is diy or otherwise, as the main drain will have dried the land in the vacinity. I have adopted this plan in bad weather, and in digging bad drains — I mean those that are constantly caving in — with great success. I have hitherto said nodiing about joint tiles, simply for the rea- son that I never saw any, I tried to get the manufacturer of my tiles to make some, but was never supplied with them, so I was compelled to improvise joints out of what material we had, and whicii has hitherto answered the purpose, but it was not by any means a satisfactory way of doing work i this kind. Should it be desirable to lay the tiles without standing in the ditch, it is quite possible to do so, in fact, some of them are cut so narrow that the work can be accomplished in no other way. A simple tool can be made by any carpenter to answer the purpose. It consists of a long wooden handle with a small square knob or or boss on the end, and a round piece of iron about fifteen inches long inverted into it at right angles, the tile is placed on the iron and lowered into its position, when a few taps from the layer gives it an even baring. When collars are used, they are placed on the iron first, and the tile inserted into it (the collar) till about half way through, they are then lowered into position in the ditch, and the free end of the tile is inserted into the collar of the tile pre- viously laid ; the iron is then Withdrawn carefully, and the end of the pole applied to ascertain that the tile has not been drawn out of the collar. The drain being now completed, there is nothing further to be done tlian to replace tiie filling. As I have before stated, I have found no better plan than doing this work by the hand, but on account of what engineers call sub- sidence, the earth taken out will not refill the drain, consequently 43 as its security in a great measure depends on its being protected this way, other means have to be taken to bring it to the proper level. This is done by back furrowing with the plow ; so that it requires some skill to lay a field off properly after it has been drain- ed, that the drains shall be in the centre of every ridge. Writers on the subject of drainage generally recommend that an accurate plan should be kept, showing the whole system on paper, that in case of a drain tailing, its position can always be ascer- tained by scale and measurement, and any defect remedied. Although this would certainly by a systematic way, I cannot see that it is absolutely necessary. Few farmers would scale off with suificient accuracy to determine the exact position of a drain, so as to dig down to it with confidence. While should there be any stoppage or derangement of the tiles, the flow of water would soon indicate the place affected. Should anything of this kind occur, a crowbar should be driven down above the drain, when the point immediately between the wet and dry sub-soil will indicate the point of obstruction, provided the land below has not become too much saturated with the water from the tile drain, if so, the bar must be driven down nearly to the depth of the tile, when a small spring, caused by the force of water above, will indicate this point. Remedying defects in a drain when the flow of water is great, and the soil silty, is rather a delicate proceeding. Working men will, in nine cases out often, to save themselves trouble, put you to a great expense by turning the accumulated muddy water through the rest of the drain, causing it to choke up in a dozen places, when, in all probability, it will all have to be taken up and relaid at a great expense, as I know to my cost, having been served in this way when the very deepest drain on my farm was in question. So that it is better, at once, to sink a hole below the level of the drain, and pump the water out till tha tiles have been taken up and relaid ; for the reader must recollect that a small tile, perfectly laid, and that will answer as a condict for pure clear water is easily fill- ed up with matter held in suspension. The water in tile drains, after the ground is setded, is almost al- ways clear and pure, which it naturally would be, on account of the way in which it gets into them, not as unreflecting persons would imagine, f'om the immediate supply of the rainfall, but by gradually saturating the soil until it meets the water already there, when the whole water table rises until it comes to the bottom of the tiles, which it enters and escapes. I am able to give a very good illustration o^ this, for having noticed that all my tile drains wei* running freely after the last rains, I ascertained that not more than six inches of frost had gone out of the ground, consequently it is obvious that th^^ water table has been raised by an increased supply that has had no connection with what fell in the vicinity of the drains. The foregoing remarks on the action of water on the land in con- nection with drainage, may also explain why it is impossible to over- '4 44 drain land, for it can be seen that the drains can only take away what water should run off by tiie force of gravitation, while it would have no effect on the large mass held by attraction. A very simple experiment will prove this, by taking a box of dry pulverized earth, and with a dozen auger holes in the bottom, you will be astonished at the immense quantity of water it will hold without parting with any through the holes or drains. But it is well known that draining actually pr , rvcs land in. summer from drought, this is on account of the '' : : .*.ate of pul- verization the soil is brought into by the percola:i ;i of the water through it, and also by the admission of frost and air. When heavy thunder storms come up in summer the pnlverized earth can retain the whole of the water instead of venting it into th'} )0, or C-T ])or .acre for machinery , stock, &c. Amount inivcsted for tlio purchase of 50 steers, £500. Total capital re((nired 'ly the fjiriner the first year, - .£300 If the mrmev e«ui!d not be borrowed for purchasing cattle, 935 Cattle, &c,," ."iOO £1735 PROBABLE RETURNS. To 50 bushels nnt..fro-n 25 acres, 1 250, / ^^^^ ^^^^^^^ ^,^,5 deduct .-.ei'd and oars for horses, ) ' To 5o steers to be put on ji^rass, valued at £350, increase 330 j£435 Deficit, £480 It will be seen liv the al)0ve figures, that the first year shows a deficit of nearly r.ve hundred pounds, and pays .no interest on the farmer's capital of over iifteen hundred ])Ounds, but then he is one twentieth nearer ilje possession of his farm without incumberances, and besides I cannot see how this loss can be avoided. You can- not make a first class paying farm in a short time, and any farmer will, I think, find his energies sufficiently taxed to keep up with my progress on pajjcr in the same way practically and on the ground. I will not detail the farm management until the Whole rotation is established, which it is desirable that it should be done in four years, which can only be accomplished by the utmost vigor and promptitude, for ii can plainly ]-)e seen that if these annual deficits are allowed, the whole investment would be ruinous, and I think thst a perusal o^'tiiis chapter will explain more fully than anythina' that has been before written, wliy my own farming ultimately turn- ed out to be a '"aihire, Although the means adopted towards a cer- tain end were in tliemselves based u))on sound principles. The addition to the farm receipts for the next year would be twenty-five acre;- o\' barley from the land that had been occupied with roots, and .\\\ increase of thirteen pounds per head on the value of the cattle sold. I have divided the increase of value to the catde into three por- 1 and one seventy-five the stock incial por- i first farm- 400 30 40 75 60 30 135 &c. 300 )35 500 735 125 330 455 - - - £480 r shows a •est on the n he is one iml)erances, You can- any farmer up with my le ground, e rotation ne in four vigor and ual deficits d I think ,n anythine; lately turn- rds a cer- :s. would be occupied )n the value three por- C3 tions, one third for the summer gnizing, and one third for each winter feeding. The increase of vahic fur a year iid a half's feed- ing, is supposed to he twenty pounds i)er ox. 'i'his increase could, I am sure, be easily obtained, as I have repeatedly made as much in the value myself proportionately o ihe lime of feeding. The increase of outlay re(|uired would be two hundred and fifty dollars woith of superphosphate or Peruvian guano, to top dress the barley with, twenty-five pounds worth of seed grain, fifteen pounds \vorth of clover seed, so that the account for the second year would stand as follows : — Totul anniiul churges in" licfori', £935 Add. extiti special miinurcs, - - - • , »V>.10 Seed Gralu, &c., 37.10 X l().t.5 CapitaMiiveistmcm as before - £ 7:J5 Add. for oil cake, • - loo Add. loss Ist year, IsO £1135 £i;215 Returns, oats ae before, £125 Barley, 25 acres, at £10 per acre, 260 Increase on 50 steers lor one summer and one winter feeding, 650 £1026 Deficit, £110 In the fall preceding the time thit the last valuation was requir- ed, it would also be necessary to replenish the stock of cattle, as the sales would furnish back the original capital, which could be used for this purpose. An increased quantity of oil cake would be required, as, although the root crop would have increased a great deal on account of having the manure of fifty head of cattle appli- ed to it in addition to the artificial manures, still it could hardly be expected to come^up to the full standard of maintaining four head of cattle to the acre, so that the first year's cattle would have to bc wintered on a limited supply of roots, with straw and oil cake, for which an addition of one hundred pounds is added to the annual expenses. The third year, the farm should approach the full standard of crops, except that the oat crop would not be as heavy as it might be expected to be afterwards, when it followed the clover lea in rotation. The farm is now supposed to be able to maintain the full stock of one hundred head of catde, fifty to be sold annually, after a year and a half's feed. The twenty five acres of clover takes the place of the dyke, and should furnish eighty or ninety tons of good fodder to be fed to the second years feeding cattle. If I have made any omisions, it is in the charges for the second year, in not allowing sufficient capital for the purchase of hay to take the place of that cut on the dyke, which has been thrown out to pasture, after having been propedy prepared for that purpose, which should be done by draining, deep plowing and harrowing, and seeding with proper pasture grasses. It would be well to divide the forty acres into two fields of twenty acres each, and to sow with d'll'-rent kinds of grasses. A r-' rure 64 ij of perenial clovers would be suitable for the earliest grazing, and any of the grasses that are known to suit such land, and which could easily be obtained from good seedsmen, for the other. We have among ourselves one of the most valuable pasture grasses known, the wild timothy, or meadow foxtail of England- All our grasses being valued for their hay producing qualities, this one is not by any means a favorite, and the object is to get rid of it, instead of encouraging its growth ; but for a pasture grass it is invaluable, for which purpose our old favorite timothy is quite un- fitted, as it will not stand close grazing, on account of its bulbous roots being so near the surface. The dyke for pasture would be much benefitted by a top dress- ing of superphosphate, after the grass seeds had been sown, al- though no allowance has been made for this outlay in the estimate. A set of flexable chain harrows should also be passed over the land occasionally to spead the droppings of the cattle. The following will be about the pecuniary position of the farm when the land has been brought into the highest state of cultivation and the rotation fully established. I have followed the expenditures of the different years until the outlay and income become nearly equalized, so that no more ad- ditions need be made to the farmers capital, under the denomina- tion of deficits. Annual expenses, amount paid aa before, £400 Wages, £66 per annum to two men, • ■ • lao Extra labor, 80 Superphospfaate or other special manure, 12s oil oake for winter feeding, 37 k tons, J176 Wear, tear and blacksmith's billa, •-.•. ...,. 30 GrasB seeds, 20 £1160 ANNUAL RETURNS. Increase in value of 60 head of cattle at £20, £1000 To twenty-five acres of barles . 276 " " " " oats aoo -£1476 Profit, £315 Farmers capital required, £3216, as per account 2nd vear ; add. £110; second year loss, £2-326. or five hundred pounds less if the money for parchns- ing cattle could be borrowed. It will be seen, according to these figures, that it gives a return of about 15 per cent for tlie farmers capital of about eighteen povinds ten per acre. But in addition the farmer is gradually ac- quiring a property worth about seven hundred pounds per annum to him, for after twenty years his annual charge of ;^4oo per an- num ceases. It is only on this principal I believe that farming can ever be made a profitable investment. Too much dependence cannot be placed on these figures, al- though I have accomplished the work discribed in this article at the prices named, and have repeatedly raised the crops specified, and I believe that a farm, working on this plan, that the profits are not over estimated. of grazing, and and which other. ible pasture of England, ualities, this get rid of grass it is is quite un- its bulbous 1 top dress- ^ sown, al- the estimate. 1 over the f the farm f cultivation s until the more ad- denomina- £400 1 tm 'iSO £1160 -£1476 £316 ■econd irchag- s a return t eighteen dually ac- >er annum > per an- ever be giires, al- article at specified, profits are 66 TJie krgest published returns that I have ever heard of are those of Mr. Prout, whose working capital pays over thirty per cent His system is peculiar, no stock are kept on the farm at all, and the land is entirely worked by steam power, but even he had to pre- pare the land by thorough drainage, which is charged to the Dcr- manent investment fund. ^ CHAPTER III. farmers' ingenuity has not been taxed, manuring, fakm PRACTICE. WORKING THE ROOT CROP. CHANGING. THE SYSTEM RECOMMENDED. DIFFICULTIES IN It is not necessary to go very deeply into the details of the work- ing of the farm, as this is not intended to be a book on general agriculture, but I shall dwell mainly on the few points that are ne- cessary to show in what way, the management must be conducted to suit the peculiarities of the climate. The fact that our farmers have not as yet been called upon to use extraordinary means to carry on their business, I look upon as more the result of their being tied down to an impractical sys- tem, than showing any want of ingenuity on their part. Arrange- ments for working constantly at their business have not been made, as the extent of it was not sufficiently great to require it, their capi- tal being locked up has crippled them from making large quatti- ties of manure, consequently their minds have not been taxed to devise means for its proper application. It will be necessary to consider in what branches of practical farming, we are mostly inconvenienced by the peculiarities of the 67 climate, without reflection, one irright say in all, and i)erhaps this may be the case, but at least we have a more independent contn 1 over some than over others. The manuring a farm properly, when barnyard manure is chief- ly used, must necessarily occupy a great deal of the time of the men and teams, so that if left to accumulate till the sj)ring, or until the land was ploughed, this part of the work could not possibly be per- formed in the proper time. The quantity of cattle kept, would, in all probability, void about one thousand loads of manure during the winter, this should be carried to the fields during this lime, and each pit emptied as soon as it had been filled. The manure should be drawn from the carts into little heaps ready to be spread- The only exception to this management would be in case of very deep snow covering the ground, when the manure should be placed in convenient heaps ready to be recarted as soon as the snow partly dissapeared. The only objection I can see to the adoption of this' system, is that the land would not be prepared for manuring ''n the drills, then it would have to be decided by experiment, whether to gain such great advantages in saving time in the spring, it would not he bet- ter to adopt the broadcast system of manuring entirely, and to aid the early development of the roots with artificial manures. BuL I think it will be shown that the farmer need not be so hurried with his spring work, but what he might manure a large portion of the land in drill, but these matters could only be decided by exper- ience. It would also be well worth while trying the system of transplanting, for if it succeeded one half as well as it has been said to, the farmer would have pleanty of time to place the manure in whatever way he might think proper. Wherever drills have laid any time without being sown, or plants being put in them, they should be lightly harrowed down, and then set up again, by this means the weeds are destroyed, and fresh earth is turned up for the seeds and plants. The fall work of the farm would consist of the ploughing of twenty-five acres of clover lea for oats, the plowing and subsoiling twenty-five acres of stubble for roots, and storing and harvesting twenty-five acres of turnips and mangolds. The land for oats could easily be ploughed between the last of the harvest and the twentieth of October, for medium clay land never bakes to be very hard if underdrained, then the root crop must be attended to. The root crops should be pitted at the rate of two acres a clay, by employing enough extra hands to keep the carts constantly on the move. This extra expense being included in the estimates. The pits for the roots should have ventilators every ten feet, and need not be thoroughly closed until the winter sets in. This operation being finished, the remainder of the open weather would be left for subsoiling, and ploughing the oat stubble. This work could be accomplished in twenty-five days, weather permit- ting. 68 The springs work would commence with the harrowing and sow- ing of the oat field, which work could be accomplished in four days with two pairs of horses, or by the tenth of April, in the climate of Nova Scotia, in a tolerably fair season. The land that had been in roots should then be ploughed for the barley with two double furrow ploughs, so that the time occupied need not be more than seven days, with four additional for harrow- ing. The clover seed could then be sown by machinery, at the rate of fifteen pound of seed per acre. Only ordinary red clover is sown for the four course rotation, as it is undesirable that it should last more than one year. The field is then finished by passing a set of flexible chain harrows over it. The sowing of grain and grass seeds should be performed by the farmer himself, and if horse-power is required, the driving or wag- gon horse should be used. It is a very good plan in sowing grass seeds, when you have nothing to guide you, to fix three iron shod poles at equal distances apart in the field, denoting the line to be sown, then by driving or wheeling in exactly the range of these, you are sure to sow correct- ly, and on approaching the last pole, the operation can be repeat- ed by removing them half the width of the seed sower from their original position. The grain crops being all sown, the whole force of the farm can then be turned to preparing the land for roots. If the broadcast system is adopted, the work can be performed both rapidly and and easily. The manure has been spread partly by the permanent employees, when moist weather or slight frost has prevented them from using the horses, partly by additional hands. The first operation to be performed on the root land, is to pass the scarifier or grubber across the field at right angles to the origi- ginal line of plowing, care being taken that the tines penetrate deeply into she soil, almost to the depth of the land mellowed by the subsoiling. This work will require the whole power of the farm, but the twenty-five acres can be finished in eight days. The land then should be harrowed, first with the iron zigzig har- rows, and then with the flexible chain harrows. When the weeds and grass that have been brought to tne surface by the cross scari- fying, will be collected together, and can be brought to the head ridges and left there by lifting Ihc harrows. The land will then be clean and mellow, and the manure tolerably mixed with the soil, there remains then nothing more to be done, than to open the drills tor the various crops, and commerce the sowing, with or without special manures. The only objections that can be urged against this system, is that the manure is not covered thoroughly with earth, that it has not become much decomposed in the heap, and that it is incon- veniently long, and apt to catch in the harrows. No doubt these dificulties would occur, but how can they be avoided, it is a choice of evils ; to undertake to reload and cart the manure for twenty-five acres of land, and to wait till it has been 69 thoroughly worked and drilled up, would be to delay the sowing of the root crop fully for one month, when the result would be that these crops having plenty of manure, but no season to mature or utalize it, would be of less bulk than they should be, consequently the number of stock would have to be decreased ; also the grain following, having more than its share of highly ammoniated manure, with the addition of the decaying tops, would be sure to lodge. There is only one way in which I can see that matters can be arranged to suit all these circumstances, and that is by resorting to trausplantation entirely or partially, then the roots can be growing whilst the land is being prepared. Should this not succeed, the farmer, by following the whole system through as detailed, would have still more time at his command than any of our old style of farming allows. The process of weeding and thinning must be done by the most approved methods, i e, by parting the drills after the seed and special manure have been sown by machinery, and it only remains to make a few remarks res^ icting harvesting. The grass and grain should be cut by machinery, but the latter not bound. North America, as a rule, is not a hard climate to save either hay or grain in, but occasionally we have a bad catching . season, should this be the case, cut and cock as rapidly as possible, and do not leave a whole field of grain to get over ripe, for the sake of housing a few acres that are down. In conclusion I would say that it appears, I am aware, to be a very easy thing to give instructions on paper, and to draw rows of figures, showing that certain results can be arrived at, but can they be depended on ? These chapters have been written more to illustrate a principle, than for any other purpose, but as far as the details of work and instructions for its execution are concerned, there is nothing re- commended but what has been proved by my own actual exper- ience to be practicable, and the reason that the final results to me were not as satisfactory as to the imaginary farmer here represent- ed, I leave to the intelligent reader to account for. jm, IS