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Lorsque le document est trop grand pour Atre reproduit en un seul clich«. 11 est film* A partir de I'angle supArieur gauche, de gauche A droite, et de haut en bas, en prenant le nombre d'images nAcessaire. Les diagrammes suivants illustrent la m^thode. 1 2 3 4 5 6 ONTARIO TEACHERS' MANUALS GEOGRAPHY AUTHORIZED BY THK MINISTER OK EDUCATION TORONTO THE RTEBSON PRESS CoPTRioHT. Canada, 1915. bt Thb Minister or Education for Ontario Second printinK, 1919. CONTENTS „ PAOl CorBRF OF Stpbt 1 Chapter I The Teaching of Geography 5 The Point of View .' .' 5 Home Geography ,\ C Twofold Aspect of Geography .'. 6 Practical Value of Geography g ClIAPTKR II Principles Involved In Teaching deography 9 Home Geography First 9 A Study of Relations 10 The Inductive Method 10 Correlation with other Studies 11 Chapter III Geographic Aids 12 Globes, Maps, Black-boards 12 Newspapers, Supplementary Reading 15 Pictures, Stereoscopic Views 17 School Excursions 19 Graphic Illustrations 20 Map Modelling, The Sand-table 20 Other Aids 22 Chapter IV. Form I: Senior Grade Details of the Course 23 Observations of Local Surroundings 23 Lesson topics suggested 23 General Notions of Direction 24 Lesson topics suggested 24 General Notions of Time 25 Lesson topics suggested 25 Simple Observations of the Weather and Seasons, etc 25 Lesson topics suggested 26 Land and Water Forms in the Neighbourhood ... 27 Lesson topics suggested 29 Simple Observations of Local Activities relating to the home, the farm; other activities 29 111 ^^ CONTENTS CHAmB V Po,H I: 8ENI0. QHAD. (Continued) Suggestions for Lcitong .. Local Surroundings ^^ Direction . 30 ^ H,Jri";» '™"'' ■''*•• »»"«''•' 'bi-iweV "etc • ^' wa% ;::;;arT' ""*• ""^^' '°"^'»= -•°^- Time 32 WeaSS;'"'!'^!!"^''^""^*''^""'--'''-"^ ^ ^ri.„^7h '2''*' •t»-V"wVn«isV"ciouds;' fogs' " The Moon <1 The Seasons .....,.'.'.".' <2 The autumn ** I-and and Water Forms ** Hills; a ditch ... *^ Activities of the Home .' *^ Chaptxb VI: PoBif II Details of the Course Recommendations to Tlwhe'r;*::::::; H Land and Water Forms . f ? onfi^^"^!'^! ""^ *^« Season;' .■.■:::;::: l\ Outline Study of the Earth as a Wholi II Local Geography " »» » wnoie 52 Map Drawing . '. 52 Commercial Geography ".'.';;;; H Places of Geographical Interest ln'theNeighiK,ur: JlTo^Vonle 'oT/;!'*! '°'*r" '° i^; Neigkbo'urh'ood II ^h^ld'^Lrl^'o\tr't?"i^ "' *'*" Nationalities 54 ■ ■ ■ ■ ' 54 Chapteb VII: FoBM II (Continued) Suggestions for Lessons Mountains. A River. AR^;; Basin" .' ::::::: 55 The Ocean, Shore Forms ... -^ Winds, Rain 61 The Seasons ^* Weather Records ^^ 71 CONTENTS CiiAPTER VII: PoBM II (Continued) paob Variation in the Length of Day and Night 75 The Earth aa a Globe 77 The Township [ 79 Maps gQ Chapteb VIII. FoitM III: Jt5ion Oradk Details of the Course 82 Recommendations to Teachers 82 Supplementary Reading 82 The Earth as a Whole 84 Continents and Oceans 84 North America 85 Canada as a Whole 87 Ontario 89 Chapter IX. Form III: Jlmor Grade (Continued) Suggcbtlons for Lessons 91 The Earth as a Whole 91 Its axis; the poles; the equat>yr; the earth's rotation; hot, temperate, and cold regions. 91 North America 94 Location 95 Size 95 Surface 9g The Rocky Mountain Highland 98 The Appalachian Highland 99 The Laurentlan Highland 99 Continental slopes and plains 99 Drainage lOo The Pacific Slope; the Atlantic Slope; the Great Central Plain lOO The Muckenzio Basin 101 The Winnipeg Basin 102 The Mississippi Basin 102 The St. Lawrence Basin 102 Hudson Bay Basin 103 Shore Forms 103 Climate 105 Natural Resources 107 Vegetation, animals, minerals 107 Distribution of Population 11 Industries Ill Transportation and Commerce Ill ^* CONTENTS CHAtnn X. PoBM III: sexiob Gbade Details of the Course . ''^"'^ Sun, Moon, Stars, etc. .' ^^^ Canada 112 The Provinces of the'l^minion' ." ?1^ ^hTw ?k""'''' ^°"*'^ AnierIca,Asia::; f S;oSl!*^7rC"''"' '" ^«°"»' •■•■••■.■:.■: m The British Empire '.'.*.'.■."■.'■.■.■ .' "^ Chaptkb XL PoBM III: Semob Cade (Continued) Suggestions for Lessons The Solar System . ^'^ „ "'.mT; t,er''''"''™«°"- ■'■'•'■■■'-. '" Nova Scotia (Type Lesson) '.' H? Location, size . . ^25 Physical features, cilmate' .■.■.;.■ }l^ Natural resources ^^7 '"mefce "': . .*™«;t»"«nV tra^e ' and ' com- ''" People and goverr'nient' .' ' ." .' ?^2 Cities and chief towns . . . l^^ 134 Chapteb XIL Fobm IV: Juniob Gbade Details of the Course . The Earth as a Planet'.'! ^^^ Latitude and Longitude ^^^ Continent Structure ^^5 Europe, North America,' Souih':::;erica ■.■.•::■• " Jg? CHA^B XIH. POBM IV: JCMOB Gbade (Continued) Suggestions for Lessons The Earth as a Planet ^^^ The earth's orbit ^^^ J-wi?.''"°f "°° "f t^e earth's axis" .' ul ^ JKMe'-srj-r.r °'^" ■•■■■ Latitude and Longitude . " ]:l Measurement of circles ,.'.'." Mf How to locate a point .' "^ MprM.*'® ^^'^ P"a"els of latitude " .' .' .' .' .;;••■ 14? Meridians and longitude . , !I Problems In latitude and longitude ]tl iunt?d^ i^jr^"*^^ ^""^ "- •••■•■••••• isf 153 CONTENTS ,1, CHAPTER XIII. Form IV: Jlmor Grade (Continued) paoe Continent Structure, etc ire Origin of Continents .*.*." 1 55 Coast-line of NortJi America '.'.'. 156 Physical Features of the Continents ...."" i-jr General Review 163 Influence of Topography upon CIvilYzktion' !!!!.' ' I66 World Barriers t^Z Mountains, Oceans, Heserta . ...... ..'.'.. ..', 157 CrfAPTER XIV. Form IV: Senior Grade Details of the Course 1 70 Winds ;::::;;:::: S Ocean Currents 1 rn Tides '.'.'.'.'.'.'.'. 171 Eclipses of the Sun and Moon 171 Climate t't Light Zones ,„ Heat Zones {7^ North America :i. South America 1 i? Europe ;; ?'; Asia ::••; Ill Africa ]ll Australia and New Zealand ... 170 Canada ,' United States ....'.'.'..'. !„ The British Empire '.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.['.'.['. 179 Chapter XV. Form IV: Senior Grade (Continued) Suggestions for Lessons isn Winds ;;:: J^J Zones of Sunlight 1 oV Zones of Heat „! The Evolution of the British Empire .'. ill List of Reierenee Books J9I GEOGRAPHY PUBLIC AXD SEPARATE SCHOOL COURSE OF STUDY FORM I, SENIOR GRADE (Consult Chapters IV and V.) 1. Observations of tlie local surroundings, 3. General notions of direction and time. 3. Simple observations of the weather and seasons, of the sun and moon. 4. Observations of the land and water forms in the neighbourhood. 5. Simple observations of the activities of the home and the neighbourhood. FORM II (Consult Chapters VI and VII.) 1. Land and water forms continued. Representation of the forms of land and water by modelling and 'drawing. 2. Observations of the common phenomena of the weather, and the changes and characteristic features of each season. * GEOGRAPHY 3. Outline study, on a globe and on the map of (lie world of tlie earth as a whole, its continents and oceans,' and the relative position of each. 4. Local geography. 5. Map drawing. G. Local marketing, local industries, raw material, pro- ducts, and distribution. :. Places of geographical interest in the neighbourhood. 8. Places of historical interest in the neighbourhood. 9. The peo-'e of the locality and their nationalities. 1<». Child hi. a other lands. FORM III, JUXIOR GRADE (Consult Chapters VIII and IX.) 1. The earth as a whole: its form, rotation, axis, poles, equator; its hot, temperate, and cold regions. ' 2. The position on a map of the world of the continents with their chief countries and islands, and of the oceans with their chief seas, r '% and bays. 3. The physical, political, and con., .-ial geography of North America. 4. The Dominion of Canada as a whole and its Provinces. 5. Ontario in particular with its local commerce: the ■ leading articles of exchange, the chief collecting and distributing centres, the means of transport" and the commercial routes. 6. The study of selected portions of the Geography Reader; supplementary reading. COURSE OF STUDY 3 FORM III, SENIOK CKADE (Conault Chapters X and XI.) 1. Elementary notions of the sun, moon, stars, and earth in space. 2. An outline of physical, political, and commercial geography of the Dominion of Canada and of each of Its Provinces, with the most important local commerce of each, the articles of exchange, the chief collecting and distributing centres; means of transportation, the commercial routes. 3. The Mother-country in general. 4. The British Empire and its chief component parts. 5. The further study of the Geography Reader; supple- mentary reading. FORM IV, JUXIOR GRADE (Consult Chapters XII and XIII.) 1. The earth as a planet: its form, size, motions, and seasons. 2. Latitude and longitude. 3. The important physical features of the earth- con- tinent structure and outline-the great mountain chains, nighlands and slopes; the great river basins and river systems; the coast-lines. 4. A brief study of Europe, and Xorth and South America, with reference to their principal physical and political divisions; their natural resources, in- dustries and products; theit leading routes of travel and commerce; their great centres of population. • OEOORAPHY FORM IV, SENIOR GRADE (Consult Chapters XIV and XV.) 1. Winds: elementary ideas of the nature and the in- fluence of the prevailing winds, land ad ea breezes, trade-winds, polar winds, and monsoons 2. Causes of ocean currents; the direction and the in- the Polar Currents; causes of movements of tides 3. Eclipses of the sun and moon. 4. Climate: the principal influences which determine or ' 'plarnraVml^^"^^' ^^' ''' ''''''^^'^^ °^ '* '"tith^.^'h w""?'? 'f ^'"^'^ ^"'^^•^ -"tinned, with a brief study .f Europe, Asia, Africa, Aus- tralia, and Xew Zealand with reference to the prin- cipal physical and political divisions, climate, natural resources, industries, and products, routes of travel and commerce, ard the chief centres of r. A more detailed study of the component parts of the Ca'nada '''' ''^''^"^ '"^ *^"' ''^^"°° *° GEOGRAPHY CHAPTER I THE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY THE POINT OP VIEW The teacheb must imve correct ideas of tl.e nature and scope of geography before he can understand and apply rational methods of teaching it. The old definition Geography is a description of the earth", led teachers to regard the subject as a mere collection of facts, largely unconnected, to be memorized. From this point of view the chief work in geography was the learning of defini- tions, boundaries of countries, names and locations of cities, rivers, capes, etc., with little attention to relation- ship. Nothing could be more deadening to an active, in- quiring mind than this method of teaching this subject. Fortunate y in recent years a marked chahge has taken place in the point of view from which the subject is approached; but if teachers are to be judged by their ac ions rather than by their speech, geography is still, in the case of many teachers, a collection of fact^ to be memorized; the only difference lies in the endeavour to teresting information. When, however, the subject is S n^ ^ '°'"' ''°*™' ^^«*' *hen geography ceases to need adventitious aids to make it interesting. • QEOORAPHV HOMK OEOGItApHv Ti.is central i.loa i« .upplid whoi, wo anproacli geography from the point of view of man's relation to ht environment. Every „.ind, even that of the youn,e pup.I at school, is interested in the n.e.s of thingf or ' other w„,,s, their relations to one another and%'o ma In order however, that these relations n.ay ho umler: St. t peoples, ,t IS necessary that they should be learned V aual ohservafon rather than from books. espe.iallv n. the early stages of the subject. Prom this point of v.ew, the study of the locality in which the ^u^ Hv 77" the «tarting-point in the study of 'JgrapC If the pup.I has gone about his own home region wTth s" J^es closed, the words of the text-book in g^ogra^ ea repeat the definitions or explanations of the bdok it is no^t^evidence that he really understands what V L THE Ti )FOLD ASPECT OF GEOGRAPHY The Study of geography has two faces, one looking oward nature, the other toward man. It i thus rela ed thrvlTl ^V"""''"^« the soils on the hilltops and in washn^ThVs //" f "^°"^- ^« «^--- the rain" part of^i aw nT *'' ^''^^ ""'^ '""^ streams carrying part of it away. This is nature at work. 1 ,1 TWOFOLD ASPECT OP GEOGRAPHY 7 He observes woodland and pasture Jand, sees what crops are grown on the highlands and in the rich vallov. eo how the crops when reaped are carried away by road railway, or water-way, and notes the interchange of Jool' between the farm and the town. He visit, local indut nes sees raw materials and the manufactured prodtt and learns about their transportation. He sees numbe of men eomb.nmg for industrial ends and begins to reXe the uJ^r r / '^''^"'' '° ^''S'^^^^y to the latest these t>vofold aspects of the subject must be kept in view For exan.ple, the .nfluence of heat on man's h'e may be sho^v" by a co^p«,,on of the peoples whose native home is on West iSs T^ ^'T ^^^«"' ^" ^"*«-' - - th ues Indies. The influence of heat and moisture on ands of the Sahara and the forest-laden plains of Brazil- thr. nfluence on man's occupations will follow natura iV Te early fin hsh settlements in America lay along e Atlantic coast-line and were walled in by the Alle^lnv Mountains; the French settlements lay' .^ng he 7 l-asTarbXof '"^"" !'"' ' """^'-^ ^"^^ «^-t Britain In Jr ;u ''''^^ *'"^ ''''''' ''° ^i" soon connect in eToha'lsT""" '''^'''' *^° ^"^ *^« — ^-'" there of narls, knives, agricultural implements, steel rails otc; he will see why Glasgow, Manchester, Sheffie ] a„d ^TLl'Xr ^T^-,-*-- A-the'r step/ln'dt and other food supplies. A step further, and he will see H Jl and r r' r*^ '' ^'''■^^'^^' '^"-Po^^ Bnstol OEOORAPHT THK PRAOTir.M. VAIAK OP OKOflltAI'IIY Properly taught, geography trains tlie pupil's powers of observation, commands his interests, develops his imagination, and exercises liis judgment. But while this subject trains the mind in the ways indicated, it is also of great practical utility in the affairs of life. Without a fair knowledge of geography tlie current events of the day cannot be understood; many events of history will be unintelligible; and tiie student of literature will often be as much astray as the school-girl who, while reading The Merchant of Venice, placed Venice in the south of Russia. Even to know where places are and what the peoples of these places do, adds much to one's intelli- gence; but wlien the relation between climate and surface conditions and the people has been studied, and the pupil becomes conscious of a growing power wliich carries him on to higher stages of development, he feels that there are few problems of economi.s and history which his knowledge of geography does not help him to understand. The pupils of to-day will be the farmers, the manu- facturers, and the merchants of to-morrow; and it is impossible for one to cope successfully with the complicated problems of supply and demand, of trade and commerce, without such a general knowledge of the part of the world to which his business is directed as will enable him profit- ably to make an intensive study of that region. As all the natural sciences are founded upon observa- tion of the ordinary phenomena, a careful study of home geography opens the door of these studies ; thus geography may be regarded as the key to all the elementary sciences. i CHAPTER II PRINCIPLES INVOLVED IN TEACHING OEOORAPHY IIOMK OICOnRAPIIV FIRST OXE OF the first principles i„ the teaching of geo- graphy, as also .n the teaching of all other suhjects is hat .should be based upon the knowledge and ex^r 'n "Inch have already been acquired by the learner. It can- not l.e based ujx,n mere words or definitions; these are or s o„.d e, ,he generalisations resulting from man^ ac"' of ohservat.on, an.l not mere meaningless formulas to be repeated parrot-like by the pupil. As we have alreadv pointed out, .t is from the home or out-of-door geography hat thus necessary experience is acquired by the learner; for ,t IS only by a careful study of the near that the remote and unseen can be understood. It is difficult, if not impossible, to teach pupils with a meagre experience why there is a great citv at the head of ocean navigation on the St. Lawrence River, or- how N^-agara Falls has affected shipping on Lakes Erie and Ontar as well as the position and growth of cities on hese lakes. But with an adequate store of ideas derived from a careful and systematic study of home geography. In addition to supplying true and vivid basal ideas the study of home geography arouses a spirit of inquiry oncerning the subject, which should lead to further inves- Jtion and study. This is the real goal of all teaching; for the ,n,portant matter is not that the pupil knows ocrtain things, but that he sees the meaning of what he 10 GEOGIIAPHY Jiart IcariUMl, and that he Iibh ncquiml mik-Ii n liking for I lie Hubjcct as will induce him to continue its study. A STUDY OF IlKLATIOXS Ah we have nlroady p)inted out, the study of jjcography should lonsist not in the nier» memorization of faits, hul in the study of relations. At every step the pupil should he brought faco to fare with the notion of cause and effect. The mind delights in tracing the causes of things, and so long as the work on hand is of such a nature as to exercise the judgment, the pupil is interested. The l)oy or girl takes a pleasure in tracing the origin of cities and towns and in accounting for their situation; in showing wiiy certain parts of the earth are desert regions, as along the west coast of South America; in explaining why the southern parts of South America and the northern parts of Europe in the same latitude, south and north, have similar rainfalls, etc. When we seek to determine the ori«rin of the cotton industry of the west of England, the shij, iiilding on the Clyde, the fishing industry of New- foundland, the production of wheat in the Prairie Pro- vinces or Argentina, the great coal and steel industries of Sydney, Cape Breton, we find our classes at once brightening up and doing their best to discover adequate reasons. THE INDUCTIVE MKTIIOD In teaching geography the inductive method is fol- lowed. That is to say, the pupils are required to observe particular examples and to compare these, in order that they may discover the general principle that is common to them all. Observations upon natural phenomena should be made and recorded in all grades. These should vary from i COHRELATION WiTH OTHER STUDIES „ biniple records of sunnhinp, doud rain sn..„. i • . oarciiieliT, niul rain-L'auL'i- are 11.....I \ . •■ ,". '^' Mi...;..i n,c. ,un, jk,t. „r,„r:;, „„„^ ,'„:;;;„:; tlie Thames, or t le Trent ' Tr...„ 1 ^™n(!, }i»vo « ^ x ., ^'^'^"i- «o\v can such a pupil ever Ha\e a correct idea of the vallev of tl,P «Jf t iho Mississippi? There must he f^ I ''"'' "^ t.ons of diSLnt vaLnld ' '''' "'""^ "^^^^^^^ eliminate the TnLd^nlT and' Sri^t^e '''''' '' features in the genoralizatiou. °'^ *^' *^°"^'"*^" CORRELATION WITH OTHER STUDIES .l." o,l,er ,.„aie, „, ,,3 LC" irt X'°*"' """ ffrapLy and, when the pupil i, f^",? , """""^ «*»• f^oogmphy Wn. .nppl/™„l„„'r ■";"''' *'"■ -n .n, s;;\c" rrc:::::,„rtf ■■"-"■: science is reauired in „, i • • department of natural CHAPTER III GEOGRAPHIC AIDS IIoMK geography 't a matter of direct observation, hut when a distant region is to oe studied, realistic word pictures, globes, maps, models, pictures, sample products, and descriptive reading must be used to enable the pupil to form a clear conception of its geographic features. GLOBES Beginning with Form II, globes should be used to give a view of the earth as a whole— its form, its divisions into land and water, the relative positions of the continents and the oceans; its hot, temperate, and cold regions, etc. If each pupil in Forms III and IV has a small globe, four inches in diameter, the positions of equator, tropics, pola'- circles, meridians, etc., may be readily indicated by means of lines drawn upon its surface or rubber bands held in place by small tacks. A globe sixteen inches in diameter is one of convenient size for the class-room, as four inches in length on it represents a thousand miles on the earth's surface. In addition to the ordinary globe, every school should have another covered with a slate surface. MAPS A map is a shorthand representation of a number of geographical facts. The pupil must be taught to interpret its symbols, that is, he must be taught to read a map and to get thoughts from it as from a book. To a certain extent, the study of the map is a substitute for personal 12 f GEOGRAPHIC AIDS: MAPS ,, otaervatio,.. It i, a window throngl, w|„eh ,|,e „„„„ l.»k.s out u|,„„ tl,„ country he i., studying '^°'^'' ni,e„ 11,0 pupil ],„,, |ea„„,, ,„ ^^^,, ton» sud, for esaniplo, as ll,o kinds of products in dif onoXT,;.ir:r',ocri';,;Lr''':,,"",''^--'''- tio,.od in his,„.j, lilcratu? and .re';, ca'i^n" """J ;vl.o„ books of travel arc Wn,, Jd t,: '™ ' S,/':^ f.ccly used ,„ tracing tl.e progress of the traveller Freehand map-sketching is a device for trainine pupils iTar::";:,; '° i""':,--!"- ""«-. im.-.an? r^; ratnfall and the prevailing industries of certain district, s..outdT::w'''th!t:n:!rr """", ""-""''• ^''■' "-p"' general dirccti „T rLSL:,, ° '"f "™'^' "« and arms of the sea 0„ v , *''™' l>eninsulas i.^ re,uired . n,„<.ir;;:nc'!:;^„ dlTt d^Sot"'""" f,«t£ti .Kcura(_\ ot detail in nmn-skcWiln.r ti ■ , out wasting timc^^^rirc; s:;:;;:'"' ''°''" '""■■ on ^cht: It:"'' " °"";"° "'=" °" *= '''-■'-""ard, t.me. The outline on the black-board should be fairly 14 GEOGRAPHY accurate and should not have names marked on if other- wise Its use in review will be very sligl.t. Such maps may be used w.th great advantage in the history lesson One or more maps should be hanging on the walls of the school-room all the day. They should not be rolled up and kept in a corner of the room. Many an important geographical fact may be learned incidentally bv the pupils from maps that are constantly before their eyes. BLACK-BOAUDS thP \"l *?f ""^1 ^««pP''y' much use should he made of the black-board. Outlines of continents and countries cross sections of these illustrating their physical features and diagrams marking places, when drawn on the black- board as the lesson is proceeding, help the pupil to understand it much more clearly. In descrilLg the position of Montreal, for example, how much clearer it becomes when a sketch of the island is made and the city ou lined in its proper position. Since nothing appears cui the b ack-board outline but that which is bein| tau ht the mind of the pupil is not confused by the ma^y detail.' of the ordinary map. The subject thus develops more clearly in the mind of the learner as it is being taught by the teacher. The use of coloured crayons, to distinguish one part from another, answers the purpose of the tints and shades employed in the ordinary school maps Every school should, if possible, have a set of slated hZ\ A T^" ''" ''' ""''^ ^'^' *''« black-board and a^e the advantage of being more accurate in outline than tbose drawn by the teacher on the black-board. fh/)!i i-'i^'T ^'"'''^'' '* ''"'"'^ ^' summarized on he black-board. This summary emphasizes the main d W" ''^ J-on, prevents the teacher from becoming discursive, and ,s conducive to systematic work. GEOGRAPHIC AIDS: NEWSPAPERS 15 XEWSPAPEUS of current efc'nts .n . . ""^ g««graphy. The study study TW ll '' ''^ ^'^^'"^'"i^'^ed from actual study. i,ey learn gographical ideas hy simply rearlinir with an attention bonj of interest li.a i '7"-''»/^'^Si& probable changes rosultinVfrl „ ''""^'''''"K of the p.pi. ^oo- «; tCriit e:4;.r;rf 'r'; ''" .-opaphical change-daily o2 .el MZtnT, """^ some new town is founrl^H «. industry is be^un, in a new region Z ) ' ""' P'"'^"''* ^'^^ ^'■^^^^'^'-^'l rt^c5:~---^^^ coloured pen i ix fn ' "'"' "^"'"'^ '^^'^^^'«°« ^i*^' " afterward pu^n. J v th? "' "" ''" '""^^^'" '^--^' a large man ilia :n^tlon ' '"'P"''""* «^ ^''«"» "> bear Fn Tnd t It h! T " '" ' '"^P''''^^^'- ^e should ••« in itsdf rot of 1 '^' ^T'"''*"" '^ ">^'- «^'^^tions -ichare^;::^:i-i;-i:--^^^ The: riX::;^^ r "r ^- a:r Jtr^,r „ nouid, however, be cautioned against accepting 16 GEOGRAPHY every geographical item tliey may see in print as absolutely reliable. IMie discussion on these items should, of course, take place when the news is quite fresh. SUPPLEMENTAUY HEADING No text-book on geography can be sufficiently full to present all that a pupil may desire to know regarding a region that is being studied. Sets of Geography Readers suitable for all the grades, books of travel, and accounts of voyages of discovery should be placed in the school library, and the pupils should be encouraged to use them. Magazines frequently contain well-written articles oji geographical topics which the teaclier may read to his class; and when the teacher in his general reading meets with fine descriptive passages, he should make a note of them and use them in their proper geographical connec- tion. Government Reports are sometimes of great value in calling attention to geographical changes. As these are compiled with care, their statements may be depended upon to be accurate. They may be obtain jrt by application to the Deputy Minister of the Department whose Report is desired. The following method of using supplementary reading is suggested: After the teacher has given an outline of the geography of a country, the pupils become responsible for the interesting details. This means reading and re- search on their part. They should be required to report, orally or in writing, the results of their researches. Each pupil may be held responsible for some phase of the sub- ject in hand. Experience shows that, in general, pupils are pleased at reporting the new information to the class. Facts gleaned from such researches are usually retained. GEOGRAPHIC AIDS: PICTURES 17 PICTUBE8 A picture of a building, a derriok, a landscape, a lock of a canal or a volcano in eruption, teaches oft ntimes more dean, than the printed page; it tells a plain t!ry h appeals to the mind, excites interest, and leais a distinct and vivid mental image. Let U.S, for example, look at the picture in the fir,f column of page m of the Ontario ^ckZ GeoraX U c -- easily read the title of the pict : ... XTL What' 1 n^ ^^'''' '" *''' ^"'•^^^^""^ °f the picture. \Vhat name would you give to the sheet of water in Tho distance? Were these rocks always thil shapeT Ar th ! elmnging from day to day? What is the principal a !enl jn erosjon? Find Hopewell Cape on the'map' Ja" the ba.e? Give reasons why no trees grow upon the sma ler rock. Why do not the trees extenf further down o the large rock? What has become of the rock wh"h a one time joined the.e rocks to the mainland? Why .a.o those rocks withstood the action of waves and tidel longer than some other rocks? Docs the size of the t ee pve you any information regarding the time the erosTon has been acting about the base of this rock? WhatTa" become of the mat' rial that has been worn away ? How htl are hese rocks? Why is the man shown in'the ZS If thtfrlck rtCti^ '' ^'^ ^«^^ +u^ 1 , „ "^"' °^ t"^ ni^st great movement in farter or sfewer then? Why? Pi„a other pictures in th„ book that show the wearing awav of a coast I^i,^S P.ctu..s that show the building fp „, a Iw Tllin. 18 GEOGRAPHY Many of the pictures in tl.is book are worthy of care- ful study, md the teacher should direct the pupil's atten- tion to each picture by questions similar to the above After a few pictures ],ave been studied by the pupils and teacher together, the pupils should be asked to describe one or more of these in writing. This, as well as what follows, provides excellent seat work in written composition. tr..7r *^' ?'*"''' ^" *^'' geography referring to transportation and notice the various methods shown. State the country m which each method is in use. Look each bridge found? What is the nature of the traffic? How can you tell? Compare pictures that show the dress of the people of the various countries. Try to account for the material used and the style of the garments. Study pictures that show typical rural industries in Ontario ^ame the industries shown in each picture. Describe the various industries. What industries carried on in other parts of Canada are pictured? There is hardly a limit to the vast amount of informa- tion that may be gamed from a study of the pictures shown in the text-book. The pupils of Form IV Ly^Z example, make a study of the pictures that show various us one styles of architecture. They will then be in a better position to appreciate the architecture of places government buildings, churches, etc. ^ ' Tn addition to the study of the pictures in the text- book teachers should make a collection of cuts and ph to. , cardl 7 T.'". ''^;°'- ^^''' ^^''"'^ ^ "^o^^ted on whltll' ^"'^"'' ^^ ''-' ''-' -^' ^ -"^ ^-^ When there is a school lantern, full use should be made of It. In this way the teacher is furnished with an oppor- GEOGRAPHIC AIDS: EXCURSIONS „ tunity to draw out his pupils and to supplement the text STEREOSCOPIC VIE^rs jr i^iciure in that it represents objects as hnvm^ thut Ji« .-u I I • . "Stiver IS given the impression use of (l,e .toreoscope in tl,o scl,»>l-r«,m are evident T ! p.cture. are inexpensive and are easily obtLned SCHOOL EXCURSIONS eau;ps. 'iC P^L":";Cd^t'?„t'inrinrr subjeets treated of in ,he text-book. MeTonto V in the eW wh b '' , """^ ''•°"' "■" '"^e n.mber ..■oMo:;\rinX!^r:/:t:;"-'^'"-"- so GEOGRAPHY OHAPIIIC ILLUSTRATIOXS The population and area of countries or cities, tlie amount of commerce carried on, the value of the produc- tions of a country, are not to be committed to memory; but at times it is of great service to know the proportion' one thing bears to another. This can bo shown to best advantage by graphic illustrations, using lines, squares, or circles. Thus if a line a foot long is taken to represent the average height of the interior plateau of British Columbia, it will require one three and a half feet lon^ to represent the average height of Bolivia, one four feci long to represent the elevation of Tibet, and one seven inches long to represent the average height of Switzer- land. By means of a graphic illustration, it is easy to show that South America is jnst a little less than twice as large as Canada, and that Africa is a little more tha.. three times as large. MAP MODELLING "The most frequent form of map work employed in the lower grades is some form of map modelling, either in sand, clay, or paper pulp. A few years ago such work was more common than it is now, and the sand- table was an essential part of the equipment of any well- ordered school-room. Map modelling is capable of pro- ducing excellent results in the hands of a qualified teacher, but in the hands of one less experienced is likely to be very bad, both in character and in the re-ilts that pupils secure. In order to be effective, one very constant and serious danger must be guarded against- and that is the danger that pupils will visualize the models of large areas, of which the vertical scale must be seriously exaggerated, and that they will think that the region depicted actually looks like their model OEOORAPIIIC AIDS: MAP MODELLING 21 Practically no models can be nm.le without vertical cxwrafon of scale, wl.icl. means over-steepene.l opes over-rug,.ed profiles, „,k1 impossible landscapes. Lvcn the skilfully „,ado relief models and maps fur- mshed by publishers have to be used with „^eat caution m h,s regard. How much more carefully must the models made by inexpert pupils be used, to prevent c^rroncons ideas that only long and hard study will correct as the years go on. Better a blank mind tl.an one full of wrong impressions, is the verdict of any teacher ,n the upper grades. Unlearning is harder for botli pupil and teacher than learning. "The best way to introduce this work is to model the area to be seen in the local landscape. By com- paring the slopes of the model with the slopes in nature imp.ls may be led to see how far from the truth their' product ,s, and therefore how much more erroneous must be the model of any larger areas. " The first modelling should be to show general rcla- t.ons and not to attempt to show a given fegion Let children represent flat land, gentle slopes, strong slopes isHl. T ? ""'"'^'^ '^' ''^''^'^ ^^'thin their us bl landscape and compare the slopes of this model with the slopes they have previously made. Let them see w] ether they have shown what they know to be gent!! slope, as gentle slopes, or, as will more probably be the result, m a very much exaggerated way. Thus, by suc- cessive steps, one can lead up to the models of Lger areas which show general relations only and do not pre- t"n ^4 a T'^ ''"^"'''"^- ^ '^'^'^' °r * relief map of ^orth America, for instance, that shows general relations, may be made the basis or even the climax of ^* GEOGRAPHY . some effective work, but similar products which seem to indicate that the section considered is really pictured are dangerous monstrosities that should be avoided with diligence and forethought. " Map modelling has its place as an effective means of teaching, hut its place is more secure with older than with younger pupils. This form of expression must always he used with caution and should not l,e employed by the follower of a book or a method who himself has no natural ability for doing this work." Dodge and Kirchwey : The Teaching of Geography in Elementary Schools. Rand, McXally & Company. THE SA\D-TAni,K The sand-table is merely a shallow tray, or box, of any convenient dimensions set ou a table. The desired geo- graphical form Is moulded in sand. The sand-table is of use .n furnishing the pupils with a means of expressing their Ideas of the ordinary physical features of the neigh- hourhood. Instead of having the pupils tell about these or write about them, they may be modelled in sand It may also be used sparingly to illustrate those geographical features of which there are no examples in the vicinity These cannot be studied as home geography, but models of them may be made in the sand-table. OTIIEn AIDS Collections of minerals, of productions of foreign lands and of the implements and dress of different peoples are of great interest to pupils and are of value in giving concrete expression to what otherwise could be expressed only m words. Pupils should be encouraged to visit museums, and geographical, botanical, and zoological gardens whenever possible. C'HAPTKR IV FORM I, SEXIOK GRADK DETAILS OP THE COURSE I'LAv to cover the Course in one year, the time usually pTr? V''*''' ''" "'^^'^ °^ *^« Senior Grade of i-orm I. This can be readily done, provided (a) that general notions only are taught, and (6) that le«son topics It is not required that the work should he taught in the order as outlined below. Lessons should l>e given when " Ra n"!' r T\ ^PP"'*""'- ^""^ ^^"^"^P'^' « J«««on on Keep a record of all lessons taught. 1. OBSERVATIONS OP LOCAL SURROUNDINGS Under this heading may be taken, as topics of class n truct,on. only those more or less permanent Objects o J Tl ^'''^ "P^" "^*"^^ observations made bv the pupils themselves, only such topics should be selected example, ,f a mme, or a lighthouse, or a toll-gate or a cir 'udv"'^??r "'' '' ^^-- « legitimTtX IhT , 1^' ^' ^'''^^''^^ «"^^ things are not found v:ously they can not be used for obsLation pu';:; and hence must not, at this stag, be used as lesson t^i^' 3 23 24 GEOORAPHY LES80X TOI'Ics srOOEsTFI) Country, city, town, villnco /„„„ inf i; , concession road, .si.lo roa.' town H^ h r ""'' '^'"'^' street, .do-walk, lane, bri ,7 .'e^'fl'";" ''"T^'^' pasture, bush nnrt i ^"'^ort, flcM. meadow, -.d., the .h„„,, ho«;e?,Te;;o ''""""■■' '"""' "'"'«'• 8. (a) GENERAL NOTIONS OP DIRECTION The pupil, „e already „„„ „r le,, ,„„)„„ „.,. ,, Kener.1 term, denoting diroetion. Henee . iLT terms definitely and consciously. In this wav ih "leaning and application are likely to be o Zr .' upon the pupils that they should V ah Trem mtelhgently and freely in ordinary conyersation. LESSOy TOPICS SUGGESTED GENERAL NOTIONS OP TIME „ 2. (ft) GENERAL XOTIOXS OP TIME LESSON TOPICS SlOOKsTKI) Thirty days has September, April, June, and November February has twenty-e.>ht alone, And all the rest have thirty-one. But leap year coming once in four February then has one day more. For hints on teaching the following topics see - 9n„ ge«t.on8 for Lessons", Chapter V- Dav nil'h T hour. ^ ■^*>' "'&"*. minute, 3. SIMPI^OBSERVATIONSOPWEATHER. SEASONS ETC " («) Weather; Advantage should be taken of wn^ i i , warm and cold days of rain «fn T'^ '^"^ ''''*^'''' °^ tional lessons. On 'v comln T'' " ^'' '"'''''''- general effects shZl » ? P''^"«'n^na ^ith their this Gradrh vf .oM : '^f T ^'"^ ^"P"^ «^ understand the phvsL . 7 ^ '"'"'^ ''^"'^^'^ ^« a simple d« Iv wt' the TZ "' "f P'^"^-"^-' ^-r « large card «nd t li! .u"^ ^'^ *^" hlack-board or on gc card and, with the pupils' help, fill in daily 29 GEOGRAPHY LESSON' TOPICS SUGGESTED J^et, dry, warm, hot, sunny, cloudy, cold, frosty, Hiutrj, calm, windy, stormy, misty, fog^- etc Winds, clouds, fog, rain, thunder and lightning rain- bow, white frost, ice, snow, hail, sleet, drou.dft For hints on teaching the following topics, see " Sug- g stions for Lessons", Chapter V: Wet, dry, cold, etc'; wind., clouds, fogs; rain; thunder and lightning; dew,' {b) The sun: Observations of the sun as the source of light and heat Its progress from sunrise to sunset, its absence during the night, Its shifting shadows, relative lengths of day and (c) The ir -^on: Observations of its changing position and appearance, its^^ource of light. The "Big Dipper" and {he North For hints on the teaching of these topics, see "Sug- gestions for Lessons » Chapter V: The .iun, The Moon. ^ (d) The seasons: Xames of the four seasons ; the months co.nj.riso.l in each; a few of the chief characteristics of each season giving special attention to the varying length of day and night, to the character of weather, and to the chief out- door activities of play and work. These general observations may be followed by separate lessons on each of the seasons, taken only in season. *or hints on teaching the following topic, see "Sug- gestions for Lessons », Chapter T: Autumn. LAND AND WATER FOr;..,n 27 4. THE LAND AND WATE] ; FORMS IN THE NEIGHBOURH.JO (1) According to the Course of Study for this Grade snnp le observat.ons of the land and water forn^s J"t' neighbourhood are to be taught. In planning a series of essons covenng this prescribed outline of work the teacher is recommended, at the beginning of the term to make a l.st of the land and water forms'l.at arc a" ";, . ound .n the neighbourhood and to confine the lesson topics to the list tlius made. Many localities in caster,, and northern Ontario are supphed w.th land and water forms in almost endless variety In such places the teaching of these fonns will presen httle d.Hiculty, as the observational method may be free y used. I„ „,any other parts of the Province, how- ever, the teacher must be content with a much smaller variety Informally, and to supplement the above Course 1.0 wide-awake teacher n.ay, however, find opportunities' give his pupils an elementary notion of many of these and and water forms, even when they are not actually found in the locality. V. J\!'" 'P'';^i''"'^ ""J ^ft«^ « '"^avy rainfall, the school ad, the roadsides, and neighbouring fields are covered etc wh.ch will serve to illustrate most of the land and water forms of the wide world. Why should use not be made of these very concrete objects to inculcate correct tlaTtlfi '• ""-rJ, ^" '''' '' ^^^"'-^ - *« teach la this s an uland because it is surrounded by water- timt tha ,s a .frait because it joins two l.rger bodic o^ . a er; etc.. etc Then set the pupil to disco^.r for him H'lf as many islands, straits, etc., as possible. Thi. prae- 28 GEOGRAPHY tioal work will prove a source of ereat del.Vhf m i,- («; iNo skilled teacher in fMo «- i i. , his own time and ZTZ f ""^ ""^'^ ^^^^^^ knowledge of the land l^d w1' . '^"'""^ '"' ^^""^^ Take a hrook for illustrsifmn n the stereotyped definition « A k , ^ ''' '^*''" i» fash. Tir"r„„t ^r. r "'""'^« """• ™° '«"'" •bout. Where tte bto "u S^hf ' , '"" ,"?' "°^^ 'teep. I„ ,„„e p..t, thf Jl' ITb^f ^'"V' or gravelly, or muddy. The water fl„« i , ^' m,eh pupil i„ow, more about the brook ft att -rrth? *"?'■? ^^ ^'-'"^ «■ "°-^" ^^ ^^"^^nr I'; ::: * '-^:i";;r;:^ ■"■i r greater power in the .t„dv' Wlii? ., ?'""' "" tet suited to his late fU It' ^ ''■"'""'''^''-"° way ga,n ,n h,s power to see and to express. What OBSERVATIONS OP LOCAL ACTIVITIES 29 that, for promotion examination or for other purpo.es ho may appear to know what he really does not know? ' LESSON TOPICS SUGGE8TKI) f„ii^'"'Jl'7' '"''"'' ^'''"' '"^^^^ '^'''^^' ^api<3.% water- fall pond lake, canal, harbour, drain, ditch, swamp, etc as found in the neighbourhood. ^ ' For hints on teaching the following topics, see « Su^- gestions for Lessons ", Chapter V : Hills ; a ditch. 5. SIMPLE OBSERVATIONS OF LOCAL ACTIVITIES KELATINO TO THE HOME Foods and their preparation, such as flour, meal butter, cheese, meats. ' RELATING TO THE FARM Activities, such as seeding, harvesting, thrashin.. mrketing, fruit-growing, poultry-keeping, Lrin. anl' lumbenng, drainage, etc., as carried on by^local farmers ' OTHER ACTIVITIES The Store, post-office, shop, factory, mill, railway gravel-p,t, brick-yard, quarry, mine, fishery, etc ^' For hints on teaching the following topics, see « Su- store, the cheese factory; the railway. OnAPTER V FORM I, svmon CJRADE SUGGESTIONS FOR LESSONS Local Suunou.vnixns rorxTnY. touk, vili.agr The corxTnT, if „ot too rough or rockv ;. « , farms or l.oincsteads On ihl f ^' "'"'''' "P «^ together and fh.r. ' »'»''^^'n?rs are close . hieh::; 2t X i:r xir' .r-i '"*™'' number of room. ™ j'"^"*'- The pubhc school has , a"d therTisTrg'sc^ '":'■''' ! '?* " '"' »""• ' ™as are called "str^!: .e «g J 'a. itif""'; ,:"' .•ire side-walks to wall ,, ^"*' ^^^ ^f^erc 30 SUGGESTIONS FOR LESSONS: THE SCHOOL 31 ItOADS Roads are used for travel. They are callod " public roads' because everybody has the right to use them What . a lane? For what is it u.ed ?' In the country; roads are known by different names, such as concession side road town-hne or boundary. C.ncossion roads usually run lengthways in the township; side roa.ls are cross-roads used for getting from one concession to another. Town- Imes or boundary roads separate townships. What is the name of your township? j,, towns what are roads called' J ndgcs an( culverts a,. I.uilt on roads in order to crosi streams and drains. What is the dilTerenco between a culvert and a bridge? Farmers living along the road are sometimes required to help to keep it in repair. Such work IS called road-work, and the man who has the over- sight of It IS known as the patlnnastcr. Why is he jjiven th,s name? Roads are made better by grading up and by puttmg gravel on them. What is meant by "gradin.^ up" the road ? Take imaginary drives to a "near-by vUlage, church, factory, etc., to show knowledge of roads. How did people travel in pioneer days before there were re-ular roads? ° THE SCHOOL The township is divided into school sections and a choons bu. t .n each. In what part of your section is the school placed? Is this the best place for it? Why' n hat 18 the name or number of your section ? It is pla-ed m charge of trustees who are elected by the people What IS meant by "elected by the people"? Give the names of the trustees. The work of the school is to train the boys and g.rls to become good citizens. When are men and women good citizens? Schools in the country are known as rural schools. 32 GEOGRAPHY HOUSE OP BEFUOB limes pluxi i„ , 1.™ i „ "^' """^ "" '"mc- tr™ily there r. ,.1 "«" '""■ ^'""- <"^'*t situated? -e would he :™t? %rr'r ""' "• "' """ logins are I^ZT , I.! ""''" «''' '"■« I""''! »"'! Those ^;ra,tTbira";'\°"'' "" '"""y '~'«1- . farm „ri„ the h„„t.°" *'"" "«'" «'" '» <•» »» the DIRECTION t UP, DOWN LiftfooLp^ltt X ^;:f ^p; ^r '^-"• Jump down. Throw the baU 'uo T. "^ If f'"'^''"^^' Which wa, is up the rivlf bL^~. ^^" ^-"• mkh of the following statements is true • Hp to the sky or down to the sky? my'' ^P to the earth or down to the earth? Why9 What did the little bird mean when it sang: So I flew down, down, down, through the air Up in the air I go flying again. Up m the air and down. Up in the maple tree, tree, tree, I^k, and a tiny nest you'll see. Where is this nest? Why is it ««#., xv down on the ground? ^ *^'' ""^ *^«^« than In a similar mangier teach above, below, etc. SUGGESTIONS FOR LESSONS: DIRECTION 33 FROKT, SIDE, BACK, BF«IDE, ETC. Place a book and a box on the desk. Ask the pupils of he\ ''rV'! '°'' '"^ '''''' °^ *h« box, at the side li .: u^ "^ ^^' ^'' ^^'^« '^' box, behind the two'hnr '•'^,^^;;' ""^^^ *''e box, beyond the box, between two boxes. Drill briskly. Jea J'^ ?,' «-ercise by asking Mary to stand in front of beZd T *''\«^'^%«^/««"' back of Jean, beside Jean, behind Jean beyond Jean, between Jean and Helen, etc. .^^ae A's farm with reference to other farms It is l)e.s.de 3's, beyond C's, between B's and D's, etc. RIGHT, LFFT »n/V'u ^7u\ ^"^ ""^^ ^"^'^ ^bich is the right hand and which IS the left hand, they must be told *!, m^' ^'^^* '''°^- R'^ise the left hand. Which is the right-hand side of the body? The left-hand sTde" • ea t! T.'':. "''^^ *'^ '''' 'y^- T°-b the righi ZZZtf :!''' T "*"' *'^ "^bt foot forwa^rd. Put the left foot forward. What is the boy's name who is sdeo ir ''" "^'*-''°'^ ^^^^- 0- y°- left-hand Tnd L7 T ^'"^ "' '^*"°^ ^^ y^"^ ««**' "««^« the boys and girls who are sitting on your right. Who is standing Uu .^''L ^'^ ^'"^^ ^'^'- ^' y*>" bold your pencil m the right or the left hand when writing? Do you know any one who writes with his left hand? When you are driving a team of horses, the horse on the right- hand side IS called the "off" horse, and the one on the left-hand side the "nigh" horse. EAST, WEST, NOBTH, SOUTH The directions east and west are readily learned in ITd r. Tf *''' "?'''"^'"*^ '^ *be sun. It is popularly stated that the sun rises in the east and sets inZ west u GEOGRAPHY ^f course we know thn* iu- ■ '0 "ot need to oonsid l^ tlrl '''''''' *-«' »>"* - accuracy of the state-^en't tI" ' T "'« ^^o^raphical the sun rises in the ea.t and sets i n H """^ ^ *''^^ "'«' be dnlled upon these direeUons " ^'^*' ''"^ ''« "^^^ n^ay I'ltleHo'lta^dlf^ ""'t ''"'' •'''"'''' the pupi, ^n'J told that he is fao.n, thT ^'J' ''^ '^^^'^ *« *'- -" ^'-ectly hehind hinu Ask • / wm"/ ^'^^ ^'^^ ^^^^^ ' -^•tend both arn^s sideways T^^ ^"""^ *''« "'^'•th. to "^';*/-^.Ppting? The'lefthanl? '"""°° '^ "'« J'rom t^'lnLl'dge'liJeadr'^"'^-*^' P"P"^ « -on^Pass. *« tell that the 00^'"^^^'^' ''''' "'" ''« ^'^^e '^^'l thorn that in iT^t Z'^'I^T' '^ "^« "-"'• f-od compass always poin fto h. T''^ '^'^ "«^'"« ^^ « ;- in the use o/tl.rcon pas ' tT "^^"'^ """^ P"-- that the four directions, north south'" T ""^ '' '^^^ -Hed the four chief, or'o.X^iC^tt::\r^ ^'^'^ ^ - ^sk a pupil to walk nn.fi, . ^ ^-ompass. -uthward, then weslCL "^rf /'"" ^^'^^^-'J' then -om is the teacher^rdlskl" Th J /"' '^^ '''' -'^^^J" ^oes the road run? The' rive 'flow" /" "''^* '^'-^*-" does the wind drive the smoke t. ''^'' ^'"'''^'^ ^^nll as much as possible '"'^'^' ''''- ^'^^Y the t^^^S/r^^^^ -th-west. Draw from "•^n west, or (b) CLZJ\ ^"\ ^^ ^^'"^ "^'^'^ and '^y ^oing in a straight^Hne tl ."1 *''" "°^*''' -^^ (^O ' •;trafght line to such ZlZ^l ^''' *^^"^ *^«* « ''"•ection. Show them the 17 I"" ^" * "orth-west I>eal with north-ea t south rr^'!""^^ '^ '^' ^^^- BUOOESTIONS FOR LESSONS: TIME oil WIVDWARD, LEEWABD Stand outside When the Wind is blowing Pn.nf finger m tlie direction from which H? J f'u, °* y""' faster to windward nr f i ^o ^ *^"" ^^^ run wind i, b „.":,« T: '""f '"'=" ' »'" is blowinir from fl,. 7 ", ^ ^^^^" ^^^ wind J0»th-ea.,, what direction i. wLdw.7? C'G^e V TIME DAY, NIGHT, ETC no. look i .^t: : ; ;z Tor.h^':-. " r ^'^ came tcohool? ,,T,.t tiL! hv Z t tZ. w.'°'' ™"ed™.et. wMdo^e^r;^", br^:;: ■• OEOORAPHY mght? When ,s it midnight? Where does the «un rise l^hen? What do we call the time in the early morn n. dawn) What name do we give to the early part of the noon? What name is given to that part of the day between early morning and noon? (Forenoon) Between noon and evening? (Afternoon) A.M. is a short way Do notl wr°'- '""^ ^•^- '^ """°« ^^t"'^-- stoge ''"^"' ""^ *'•''' abbreviations at this At what time of the year does i; g.t dark very early in uXrTA\ ^^"^ r'''^ ^* ^^"^^ ti'"^ d««« it keep light until late m the evening? When does the sun rise on summer mornings? (Early) When on winter morn- ings? Which IS longer, a summer day or a winter day? What is meant by the following stanza: In winter I get up at night, - And dress by yellow candle-light. In summer quite the other way, I hare to go to bed by day. MINUTE, Horu , Let the teacher, watch in hand, tell the pupil to hold up his hand at a given signal and keep it up until another signal IS gijen at the end of a minute interval of time. Tell him that he had his hand up for one minute. Next ask h,m to try the experiment without the final signal. The teacher will time him and tell him whether his time interval is too long or too short. How many times can a pupil walk back and forth across the room during a minute I SUGGESTIONS FOR LESSONS: WEATHER 37 of time? In such ways as those the pupil should get a general notion of the length of time in a minute interval Practise counting one, two, three, etc., until you can count at the rate of thirty counts in a half minute. When is school dismissed for dinner? (At twelve o'clock) When is it called in for the afternoon's work? (At one o'clock) How long a time did this allow for dinner and play? (One hour) How many minutes are there in one hour? (Sixty minutes) How long is the recess period? How many minutes are there in one half of an hour? In one quarter of an hour? What is meant by a twenty-four hour day? WEATHER WET, DRT, COLD, ETC. These terms should be learned incidentally in connec- tion with the daily weather observations recommended in Chapter IV. Illustrations: What kind of day was Saturday? It was a wet day. Why was it a wet day? What kind of day is this? It is a dry day. What made the weather to-day dry? Was the rain on Saturday a benefit to us? Why? Why 18 it warmer to-day than it was on Saturday? The sun is shining to-day; on Saturday the sun could not be seen for rain-clouds. WINDS ^Vhat is it that we breathe? Does air move? How do you know? Open a window on the sill of which some light pieces of paper have been placed. What happens to the paper? What caused the paper to move? Moisten your hand and hold it near the opening? What do you feel? What objects outside are moved by the air? What •• OBOORAPHT name is given to air in motion? Wind is air in motion In how many ways can you tell that wind is blowing '•' By^s.ght, by hearing, and by feeling, (iive examples of Does the wind always blow from the same direction? \Vhat would you call a wind blowing from the north, etc ' A wmd rs named from the direction from which it comeV \\hat .s a west wind, etc.? Fron. what direction is the wind blowing to-day? How can you tell? Toward what d.rect.cm does a weather-vane point? Watch a flag flying and tell he direction of the wind. Watch moving clouds "liat innkcs them move? Wlmtisan.ldwind? A warm wind? A gentle wind » A strong w.nd? A high wind? Why are north winds usually colder than south winds? How does the direction of the wind affect the weather? Why? What is a calm? A breeze? A gale? Do winds ever cause damage? Oive mstances of damage that you have known winds to do Discuss the destructive power of wind in blowing down buildings, trees, crops, fruit, etc. CLOUDS, FOGS On frosty winter mornings, what do vou see comin-^ from your mouth when you breathe? Tliis "breath" is really a little cloud. When the tea-kettle is boiling, what flo you sometimes sec coming from the spout? This • steam is a little cloud. The steam that you see escap- ing from a steam-boiler is also a cloud. The steam or vapour, seen rising sometimes from a river or lake or 'low ground 18 a cloud too. The clouds away up in the air are hke Jhese smaller ones only they are very, very much Why cannot we see the sun to-day? Is the sun shin- ing now? If an air-man in his flying machine went up, BUOOE8TION8 FOR LESSONS: RAIN 39 7;^' r^;* .""'".l °' '^"^ ''""''^ ''^ ""'^ <>" the other side of the clouda.- Why do you think so? How high up are the clouds? Sometimes they como right dow„ n,„l ret ui>on the earth. What do we call such a cloud? We call it a fog or mist. Did you ever walk through a cloud t., scIuk,!? When air-men in their flying mach.nos g„ thn.ngl. a cloud, it must be much lik^ riding alo,^ the road „n a foggy morning in an automobile. Clouds move across the sky and are of many «hapes and colours. Why are the clouds sometimes so very very beautiful at sunset? What kind of clouds indicates tha't a ram storm is approaching? What sometimes fall from these thick, black clouds? Rain and hail. In very cold weather what may fall from them? RAIN The rain is falling to-day. Where does it fall from' What are some of the signs of an approaching rain ? From what direction did to-day's rain-clouds come? Yesterday was a warm, dry day. What change of weather has been caused by toJ,y's rain? From what direction is the wind blowing? What IS the effect of the wind uponjhe falling ram. Why ,s the ground more tiresome to walk upon than ^t was yesterday? What becomes of the rain that falls upon the ground? Why is there more water in the wells after a very heavy rainfall? Of what benefit is rain to the grass and to the growing crops? Wliy? If all the ram-water docs not soak into the ground, what becomes of the surplus? Why is t.e water in streams and ditches so muddy-looking after a rainfall? Taste rain-water How does its taste differ from that of well-water? Mix a little soap m rain-water and in well-water. What differ- ence do you see? Which will make th^ better water for 40 OEOORAPHT washing purposes ? Why do we say rain-water is " soft " water ? What is a rainbow? What different colours do you see in it? Try to make a drawing of it with coloured crayons. What causes the rainbow? (The sun shining through falling rain) In wliat part of the sky is it seen in the evening? In the morning? What little creatures crawl out of the ground when it rains ? Watch a robin hunting for earthworms. Why is it dangerous to get one's clothes or feet wet?- What 8ho"ld you do in such a case, in order to make sure that your health does ijot suffer? THUNDER AND LIGHTNING What do you sometimes hear when rain-clouds are passing? Thunder. What do you sometimes see? Lightning. Which of these two things is the more dan- gerous? Why will the thunder not harm us ? It is noth- ing but sound. What are the two kinds of lightning? Chain- and sheet-lightning. How can you tell one from the other? Which is the kind that sometimes causes damage? What damage have you seen done by lightning? The "sheet lightning" is quite harmless. How can you tell when the lightning is not near? Wlien it is near? The closer together the lightning flash and the thunder peal are, the nearer and the more dangerous the lightning is. Why is it not safe to stand under a tree during a thunder-storm? We would be much safer out in the open. Lightning-rods are sometimes put on a building to prevent the lightning striking it. DEW What is dew? Moisture on grass, etc. When does it " fall "? During the evening and night. Watch for dew SUGGESTIONS FOR LESSONS: THE SUN 41 on cloudy nights. Do you find any? On what kind of night, calm or windy, does dew form? When there is little or no wind. Upon what does dew form? Upon grass, stones, etc., not usually upon boards or dusty roads. When does the dew disappear? What causes it to disappear? The sun. Of what benefit is dew? If the temperature is below the freezing-point, what happens to dew? What name is given to frozen dew? It is some- times called hard, or " black », frost. White, or hoar-frost, is not frozen dew. In what seasons do we find white frost? In spring and autumn and sometimes in early and late summer. What damage is a hard frost likely to cause in late spring? In early autumn ? ICB What is ice? How would you prove that ice is frozen water? Try these experiments: (a) Fill a glass bottle with water, cork it, and leave it out-of-doors on a frosty night, (b) Partly fill a tin vessel with water and let it freeze solid. What do you learn from these experiments? That water expands when changed into ice. What damage have you seen done by water freezing into ice? Water- pipes broken, etc. IIow does ice add to your winter's enjoyment? What games are played on ice? Of what use is ice in summer time? Explain how ice is kept through the hot weather. How can you make ice colder than it is? By breaking it up and mixing salt with it. How is ice-cream made? What is a refrigerator? THE SUN This lesson will give an opportunity to review previous lessons on associated topics, such as Day and Night, etc. As the class will return to this subject' in Senior Form 41 OBOORAPHT III, aU that is here required is to emphasize a few general notions not yet referred to. Proceed as follows : What two benefits do we get from the sun? Heat and light. Is the weather equally hot all day? At what time of day is the sun hottest? At noon. Why? Because it is more nearly overhead at noon. When does it give us least heat? Place a screen between yourself and the hot stove. Why does the screen make you feel the heat less? Apply this to explain why cloudy days are not so hot as sunny days. When is the shortest day of the year? A few days before Christmas. When is the longest day? About a week before the schools close for the summer holidays. How long does the sun shine then ? How much daylight is there after four o'clock in summer? In winter? Look at the sun through a smoked glass. Wliat shape is it? How large is it? More than a million times as large as the earth. Why then does it look so small? Be- cause it is so far away. How far away is it? It is so far away that, if you were to start now on a journey to it on a fast express train that never stops, you would die of old age before you would get half-way there; but you would reach the moon in about six months. THB MOON The pupils of Forms I and II should be required to observe the moon from night to night under the teacher's guidance, beginning with the new moon. This guidance may take the form of simple questions or sug- gestions given from day to day at school. Since the class will return to this subject in the Senior Form III, it is obvious that only such general introductory observations as arc of special interest should be attempted at this stage. SUGGESTIONS FOR LESSONS: THE MOON 43 At the end of a month the pupils should be able to answer intelligently such questions as are found Ijelow. What is the shape of the moon when first seen ? It is crescent-shaped. How many horns has it ? Make a draw- ing of it on the black-board. What name is given to it ? " New moon." Why is it called a '' new moon " ? Because it may be considered a " baby moon ". In what part of tlie sky is it first seen? In the western sky. When is it first seen? Soon after sunset. What becomes of It? It, too, soon sets in the west. Watch it for a few nights. "What change is taking place in its appearance? It is gradually getting larger. What change is taking place in its location? It is seen i. >re to the east each night. What shape has it in about six days? It is like a half circle. Make a drawing of it. It is now said to he in its " first quarter ". How big does the moon become? It becomes a full circle. What do we call it then ? A " full moon ". Make a drawing of it. How long a time is it since it was a new moon? Nearly two weeks. What do you see on the face of the full moon? Dark markings. Many people say that this is "the man in the moon**. Xobody lives on the moon so, of course, it cannot be a man. Where does the full moon rise? In the east. When? Just after the sun has gone down. In what direction does the moon move across the sky? From east to west just like the sun. Watch the moon for some days after it has become full. What change in appearance do you notice? It is getting smaller. It becomes like a half circle once more, and we say it is then in its "third quarter'*. When does the third-quarter moon rise? Quite lato at night. Does the moon rise at the same time each night? No, it is nearly an hour later each night. How long are wo without any moon? About a week, and then 44 OEOORAPHT another new moon is seen. How long a time is there between two full moons? Nearly a month. Of what use 18 the moon to us? Find the "Big Dipper « stars and the Xorth Star, when the sky is clear. Of what use is the North Star to ^0;^),^ ""' ''' ^* ""' ^°'^ ^^'' ^^ "« ^«°l^^°g straight East? West? The North Star is larger than the sun, but It ,s so very much farther away that it looks very much smaller. ^ SEASONS THE AUTUMN fh. «*.";^*^'. !u *''"'" '""°*'''' ^^'^^y " *h'^ ««^«o° called the fall of the year ? What change is gradually taking place m the autumn days as to their length? As'to their temperature? Note the beautifully coloured leaves and how they brighten up the whole countryside. Why do leaves fall? The tree has no further use for them. What trees keep their leaves during winter? What preparation do the animals of the neighbourhood make in t' e autumn for their winter home? For their wintei^s fon ? What change takes place in their fur coats? Why do n ny birds % away to the south in the autumn? When do they return? Describe the autumn work of the farmer in the harvesting of his corn, potato, fruit, and root-crops; in preparing food and shelter for his live stock for the com- ing winter; and in preparing his fields for the next year's crops. What preparation must boys and girls make? What is a fall fair? A school fair? Tell what you see at these fairs. I LAND AND WATER FORMS 45 HILLS AND STREAMS II ILLS Look out over the countryside. What is its surface Ike? It IS uneven or rolling. Point out the high places. AVhat are these high places called? They are hills. What 18 the road between here and your home like? Why is it an up-and-down road? \,'hen is a road said to be leveP Over what hills did you pass on your way to school ? What do we call the sloping side of a hill? It is called its .„J^^^ '' "''*"* '^>' ""P g'-^'le" and "down grade ? Over what part of the road do you find the «'alking easiest? Walking is easiest when the road is down grade. Why? Where do the horses find it hardest tohau laload? Why? What is the highest part of the hill called? It is the /o/,, or summit. What is the land at the bottom of the hill called? It is its foot, or base. Draw a hill on the black-board. Mark its top, its slope and Its base. How is a hill road sometimes built in order to make it more easy to travel over? The earth is taken from the road at the top of the hill and is used for grading lip at the bottom. How does this improve the road? It will not be so steep. Where is there a hill rn the neigh- bourhood cut down in this way? On your sand-table make a hill and show how such a road may be made. During a heavy rainfall or when snow melts on a hill- side, which way does the water flow? Why do rivers or brooks flow along between hills? Wliy is it pleasant to live upon the top of a hill in summer ? It is cooler. Wliy ? What difference would there be in winter? Why? Which IS warmer, the south slope of a hill or the north slope? Why? Which is easier to work, a hilly farm or a farm on level ground? Why? 46 GEOGRAPHY A DITCH and the class, by an observational study of it. may get much knowledge of rivers and their work.) Which is better, a wet or a dry road? Why is the ^Iry road better? What can road-/.kers do to JakS the road dry up quickly after a heavy rainfall ? Are ditches rZ' wf '"r '''' °"^^ '^ - both sides of" road? AVhy on both sides? When a heavy rain falls upon a dusty road what becomes of the dust? Vhat proo Jmve you that some of it was carried into the dLhv Look carefully Take « gla^s of mud-coloured water from the ditch and let it stand for a day or so. What is found m the bottom of the glass? Where did this mud come lkZ\ V r '^' ^'''^ ^° ^^"^ "'« ^"^ that makes the water so dirty, when there is no current? ^\^,en there is a current? How can you tell that there is a current? hrow some hght bits of wood upon the water. In what dl^rctronv "r'^"'*" '^"^ ^'^y ^- ^t «- - that direction? Running water shows which way the land Wn.^''? '^t 7'*" ^"^ ""'^'^'•'"^y *t the same rate? Uhynot? Look for rapids and waterfalls. Is the bank «-earing away in places? What is doing this? What I.ocomes of the water that is flowing down the ditch' As soon as a ditch dries up, look for the mud that was in be water. Where do you find it? Will this mud fill up v^Hthr.;V'"'%' ^^^''y^"*'''"^^^? What repair , Why? ^'*'^ ""''^ "'^°- ^^" the road need repair too? on'J\ *\', ''r °^ *^''' observations, which will require onsiderable ime. require the pupils, using the sand! ofaZtl 7 "'"" P^"''''^' *^ *^" -4 the story of a ditch-how it was made, how it drains the road of ACTIVITIES OP THE HOME 47 both water and mud, how this improves tlie road for a time, how the ditch gradually fills up, and how both road and ditch will in time need repair, the road by iK-ing graded up, and the ditch by being cleaned out. ACTIVITIES OP THE HOME BREAD, FLOUH, WHEAT Of what is bread made? How is flour made into dough? What is put into the dough to make it "rise"? Tell how it is made into loaves and cooked. Of what is flour made? Where is wheat made into flour? What else besides flour is obtained from the wheat? Take your knife and pick off the thin, skin-like • oat of a grain of wheat. It is this outer part that be- comes the bran. Of what use is bran? What part of the grain becomes the white flour? IIow is wheat made into flour at the mill? By crushing it between iron rollers. From whom does the miller buy wheat? Where does the farmer obtain it? Name two kinds of wheat. Why is one kind called "spring" wheat and the other kind " fall" wheat? What kind is grown at your home? Tell how the farmer prepares the field before sowing the seed wheat. Tell how he sows the wheat. When is the wheat ready to be harvested? Tell briefly how he harvests and thrashes the wheat. Review: Tell a "story" about each of the following: (a) How the farmer grows wheat, (6) how the miller makes flour, and (c) how the baker makes bread. THE FARM Workers on the farm are called farmers. The land that the farmer owns or works is his farm, and it is separated from adjoining farms by line fences. What are *■ OBOORAPHT line fences? Panna are usually divided into fields of various sizes. What crops are grown in these fields? What ,s meant by a "grain crop"? A "hoe crop"? \Vhat grows in a meadow? For what is a pasture field used? Of what use is the bush? The products of the farm are grain, hay, roots, potatoes, fruit, live stock, butter, eggs, etc. To whom does the farmer sell these things ? In each of the following cases, which farm is likely to DC worth more money: (a) One near a market-town or one far away? Why" (6) One near a railway station or one far away? Why? {c) One near a school or one far 'away? Why? (d) One infested with weeds or one that is clean? my? (e) One with good roads T,ear by or one with bad roads? Wi J ? THE STORE Locate the nearest store. The man who keeps the 8 ore IS called a storekeeper or merchant, and his helper a c erk Name different kinds of stores. What is a groiry store? A dijr goods Btore? A drug store? A hardware store? A book store? A flour and feed store? A general store is one that sells nearly everything that is ^ded, such as groceries, dry goods, boots and shoes, etc. «Z "'^°«* «>"°t^y «°d village stores usually general stores? Why do your parents buy groceries, dry goods, hardware, etc.? These things are not produced at home. What things do farmers sell or exchange at the store? Why do they do this? More of these things are produced at home than are needed. What is meant by buying for cash By buying "on credit"? By takinj goods m trade"? « THE RAILWAY 49 CHEGSB PACTOHY From what is cheese made? What is the place called m which cheese is made? From whom is the milk obtained? How is it carried from the farm to the fac- tory? Why is it weighed at the factory? What two things are made from the milk? Whey and curd. What 18 done with the whey? It is fed to the pigs. What is done with the curd? It is pressed in moulds until it becomes cheese. How old should the cheese be before it is good to eat? It should be at least six weeks or two months old, but if it is older than this it will make still better food. THB RAILWAY What is the name of the nearest railway? Through what near-by places does it run? The place where trains stop to take passengers or freight on or off is called the station. What is meant by freight? Name different kinds of freight. What is the name of the nearest station? What IS a railway train? Describe a passenger coach, a freight car, the engine, and the use of each. What are the duties of the engineer, the fireman, the brakesman, the conductor? The man who has charge of the station is called the station agent. He sends messages to other stations by telegraph or by telephone. What is the mean- ing of the "ticking" heard in a telegraph office? A railway operated by electricity is called a trolley line, and the cars, electric or trolley cars. In cities and towns they are usually called street-cars. What is the use of the overhead wire? The trolley pole? The man who runs the car is called the motorman. 1\ CHAPTER VI FORM II DETAILS OP THE COURSE RECOMMEXDATIONS TO TEACHERS To COMPLETE the Course in Geography for Form II will ;.:;t=tori:;sro^s:: h aken, p^ov.ded that the class has had the n ess" J A record should be kept of all lessons taught, to prevent unnecessary repetitions or omissions In rural schools it will be found advantageous to com- orade of Form I may be combined with Form II for S f f V"^^«^*-">«"- -<^J"<3ed in the sections num- FoZn\r "°f f '"*"" ^'^ ^'^^ -bject-mattor of rev^ws '^ """^ '* P'°^*'^'' *° ^*°'" *^^ J«^*^^ ^°r weirw^hJ^tC^"^^'*!?"' ^°' ^^'°°«" '° *^'« «™^« «^ Z V! i comprehension of ordinary Form II pupils has been demonstrated by careful tests made in the school- ZLL7K"' *"''^"- '^''^ °^^^-««- -^tho-J Zis f5.d7.'.^ -7^ interesting and practical, and the pup Is find httle difficulty in understanding facts and rd^onships which if taught by the old non'-observation methods, would be for the most part hazy and theoretical. BO LAND AND WATER FORMS 51 1. LAND AND WATER FORMS (1) The ideas obtained from observations of local hills, valleys, and plains extended to include ideas of mountain, range, volcano, watershed or divide, plateau, pass, promontory. (8) The further study of a local stream as to origin, direction, size, work (drainage, erosion, transportation), to develop such terms as river, tributary, source, channel, current, mouth, estuary, delta. Emphasize the erosive power of rivers in cutting down the valleys through which they flow, and their carrying power in transporting soils to lower levels. The river basin, its watershed, its source of water- supply (rain and snow), its springs, drains, and swamps, and its system of river and branches. (3) General notions of continent, ocean, sea, strait, gulf, bay, lake, canal, island, cape, peninsula, isthmus. A physical geography chart of these type forms will be found very helpful. Pictures are also very effective in this connection, (4) Representation by the pupils of the above types of land and water forms by modelling in sand or clay and by drawing. Sand-tables should be used \-ery sparingly by the teacher during the teaching process, but the pupils may afterwards use them freely, as a means of expressing notions that have been taught to them. For hints on teaching the following topics, see " Sug- gestions for Lessons", Chapter VII: Mountains; a river; river basin ; the ocean ; shore forms. 2. THE WEATHER AND THE SEASONS (1) Winds: general notions of their cause, direction, force, and uses. IS OEOORAPHY (2) Nature and origin of cloudg, fogs, dew, frost, rain, •now, hail, etc. (3) The seasons: changes, characteristics, general cau^s. (4) Simple weather records. For hints on teaching the following, lec " Sng- gestions for Lessons", Chapter VII: Winds; rain; the seasons; variation in the length of day and night. 8. OUTLINE STUDY OP THE EARTH AS A WHOLE (1) The earth: form, size, surface. (2) The continents and oceans and their relative posi- tions. Use the globe at first, the map of the world after- wards. Do not use the Mercator map at this stage, as it may give wrong impressions of distance and areas. For hints on teaching "The Earth as a Globe", see Chapter VII. 4. LOCAL OEOORAPHY Much local geography has already been taken in pre- ceding portions of :he Course. In addition the following may be taken: (1) Names and locations of particular local streams lakes, hills, roads, capes, islands, etc. (2) Township and county geography, with the prin- cipal towns, villages, highways, etc. For hints on teaching "The Township*', see Chapter B. MAP DRAWING The following order is suggested for the development of plans and maps : (1) Simple objects in the school-room, for example the teacher's desk or table. ' CJMMERCIAL QEOORAPHY 53 (2) The gohool-room, showing locatiou of Btove, teacher's desk, door, etc. (3) The school grounds. (4) Some neighbouring farm. For variety, models in sand or clay may be made of some particular farm, the school section, or the township, and then plans or maps may be made of these models. For hints on teaching maps, see Chapter VII. 6. COMMERCIAL OEOORAPHT (1) Local marketing: grain, live stock, fruit, butter, cheese, milk, eggs, and other farm products; wood, pulp- wood, fish, etc. (2) Local industries and their products: lumber, cheese, pulp, paper, furniture, woollen goods, clothing, flour and meal, leather, boots and shoes, cured meats, implements, machinery, brick, cement, lime, etc. (3) Raw material obtained in the locality: building stone, limestone, marl, marble, timber, pulpwood, tan bark, hides, iron ore, etc. (4) Distribution: local means of transportation: roads, railways, water-ways; local collecting and distri- buting centres, such as implement agencies, elevators, etc. 7. PLACES OP GEOGRAPHICAL INTEREST IN THE NEIGHB0URH006 Sand dunes, shores worn by waves, ravines cut by running water, gravel-pits showing layers of gravel and sand, deposits of boulder stones, quarries, crumpled or tilted rock layers, glacial-marked rocks, "pot-holes", streams flowing from springs, meandering streams in plains, etc. 54 GEOGRAPHY 8. PLACES OF HISTORICAL INTEREST IN THE NEIGHBOURHOOD 10. CHILD LIFE IN OTHER LANDS Stories, illustrated by pictures of ohUA vt ■ ... d«.. th. 7„ th« .dl '"^n-^""'''" <" other chi|. •toriw: ''"' ""P'OP""" material for cl.,. The appearanre of llie ,.h,'Mr„„ ,i, • pet., elothi„K. what thev 1 1 7 .V " *""""' '°y'- »hat their h„m„ ' n ""■' """'>' " '■''•ool. "».v tr.v:,,"Xar ";• p°::;:r.',t"" "^r t CHAPTER VII FORM II SUGGESTIONS FOR LESSONS MOUNTAINS What is a mountain? (Show a picture.) It is i verv high hill. Very few hills in Onta ^ are high enough to bo called mountains. How high mus. a hill be before it may be called a mountain ? There is no fixed rule f- r using the term mountain. What is called a mountain in one part of the country would simply be called a hill in another. For example, in some localities a hill about 500 feet high is called a mountain ; in other localities, it would need to be over 1,000 feet high to be considered as such. When wc speak of the height of a mountain we mean its elevation above the level of the sea. Explain. Some mountains are so low and their slopes are so gentle that one may climb to their tops without much trouble. Others are so high and their sides are so steep that it is difficult and often im- possible to reach their tops. The height of the highest mountain in the world is about five and one-half miles. Their tops may rise far above the clouds and are often hidden by them. Examine as many pictures of mountains as you can find. What shape is the top of a mountain? It has many shapes— sometimes rounded, but often irregular. The top of a mountain that is much higher than the country about it is called a peak. What is the colour of the high moun- tain tops seen in pictures? Why are they white? They 55 66 GEOGRAPHY are covered with snow and ice Ahn„f f«,„ . . the .t™,p„e. „ « ,„,a r; .now! r„„T :,:xr ■ng^oat ,.a™.,.. Tins i, ...led .„ TZT ""° '""'■ mn,^^ rL""r- ''" "''"" '° ' '■°»' °' ■"»""t>in»? These «t'i,ed' ' ,;^er ;," "r'"^" ^-"^ ■""'» - ^'^' Jiave the ereatpr rait,t«u n. • , range will side^ Whv' Tn . f ' the Windward or the leeward eivpn fn JfV «T, J ., ' " ^"" ^"'s name «.r:;h .ieio ;2:^,f ™"""^' "'»»^' — ■»»-"'-™ wl,.n' "'"*"'»'<'"■■<'■' »■« mountains composwl? Hock What name ,» pvon to powdered roek? Wliat beeomel away and leave, ,,,e ,»k, bare; part of it ™ver. Cid: forest, to grow on mountain sides. I),, y.,„ ^ ,h,„ fo«t. ,n the pietnres? Wh, ean not trees'growTn ,e^ high mountain tops? ^ n rocks. Why are these metals so often found in moun- amous countries? Why do fewer people live in moun- to,nous countries than in lowland Tuntries? How do mountaineers make their living? Do they cultivate the '-Hi much? ^Vhy„ot? They hunt, pasture sheep work SUGGESTION'S FOR LESSONS: RIVER HI US lis fs. s- ie n 1 s in mines, etc. What name is -ivon to men who hunt? To those who earo for slieep? To those who work in mires? Name some wild animals that live in the moun- tains. Why do many poplc gr, to the monntaiiis for (heir health? (Jive reasons why most people find it mon pleasant as well as more ])rorUahle to live in the vallfv> rather than up amnn^r ii„. niountains? Make hlack-hoanl skotclies and sanIow? Why is it covered with mud or fine sand? In 58 GEOGRAPHY «hat parts of the stream is the bottom covered with coarse gravel or stones? Account for this. Why is the water "UKldy after a heavy rainfall? Where did the mud come from? \\hy does it settle to the bottom where the cur- rent IS slow rather than where it is swifter? If there i« a p...:d in the neighbourhood, compare the colour of the ^Ta or flowing into it after a rainfall with that of the water flowing over the dam. What becomes of much of tlie mu.l that is carried into the pond? If this were to »"o"tinne for many, many years, what would probably be tlio fate (f the pond? Show how swamps may be formed hy natural ponds filling up with soil. When the brook bends, what part of the current has he most speed? Test to find out. What is the effect of .upon the bank? Why is it being worn away? Wl.t Kmd of tmnks arc worn away m<,rc rapidly, grassy banks or anks r,at are bare? Why? Find placc/where ^e or bushes help to protect the banks. How do they do .a Tr:'' '•" '^"^' *^"'^ *« ^-« -- wind- ing as the banks are worn away by the bending current Construct a paddle-wheel. Hold the wheel so that the ends of the paddles are in the flowi-g water W „ "lakes the wheel turn? What useful work c n mov ng water do? How? Why are dams built across strm? ^ote that many mills, factories, and electric power plants - operated by falling water. Mention oZ ways " n « h.ch streams are useful to man. They drain the country of surplus water supply water for man and beast, irrigate he land, furn.sh food fish and fur-bearing animals, and, If large enough, form a water-way for ships. By picture and description appeal to the pupil's imagination, in order that he may acquire definite notions of the great rivers at a uistance. u. SUGGESTIONS FOR LESSONS: RIVER BASIN r.9 A RIVEn BASIN It is of the greatest importance that the pupils sliouhl have a definite notion of river basin. This may he ohtained by means of a few simple experiments and observations, followed by the study of a local stream. Place an empty l)asin or pan out-of-doors during' a rainfall, and note: (a) That the water afterward found in the basin was siipphed by the rain— there was no other source of supply. (h) That the only rain-water that entered the basin fell within the limits of its rim. Have the pupils observe the roof of the school-house during,' a rainfall. By means of questions, guide their observations until the following facts are established: (a) That the ridg" or watershed of the roof separates its two slopes and thus determines the direction in which the rain-water must flow. (h) That at the foot of the sloping roof there is a drain (eaves trough) to carry away the water. (c) That the water flows from the higher end to the lower end of this drain trough. Next, the pupils should, if possible, observe a small, neighbouring stream whose basin is limited and therefore suitable for study. After they have carefully observed the stream and its slopes, help them to discover and to trace the watershed, or divide. Tell them that the land inclosed within this watershed and drained by the stream is called its basin. Refer to the experiment of the pan or basin to bring out the two points of resemblance between the two basins with respect to the rainfall. Then cinphn- size the drainage idea hy referring to the conditions observed in connection with the school-house roof and bv ''-^ t« -J-stand how ZZl spnngs and drams provide a eontinuous water-supply ev n when it is not raining. A swamp is very muclHke a huge sponge filled with water. These observations must he supplemented by verbal «o k ete., until the essential features common to river basins are understood by the pupils. The sand-table exercise may be carried on by the pupils as fo lows: Cover the surface of the sand-table'withS paper and spread a quantity of slightly moist sand o4 ; • Arrange the sand to represent the river basin with . s watershed^ Trace the courses of the brook nd win show these courses very plainly n.aled T^llt^""'' '''''''' *° ^''^^ ^^ ^ «- (a) The river basin is contained within a watershed or divide, which separates it from neighbouring basins ' (h) The river drains the whole tract of country em- braced within the basin. ^ SUGGESTIONS FOR LESSONS: OCEAN 61 (c) An extensive river basin may have as many smaller basins within it as the river has branch streams, (d) The land surface of the river basin slopes down to the river from both sides. The river flows alon^' l)e- tween slopes to its outlet, or mouth, which is at the lower part of the basin. (e) The river has its source in springs, swamps, etc. These receive their water-supply wholly from the rain and snow that fall within the limits of the basin. THE OCEAN What becomes of all the water that rivers are carrying away? If you could float along upon the river in a little boat for days and days, you would finally reach the ocean. Let us learn a few interesting things about it. Examine a picture of the ocean as it appears from the shore. Tell what you see. What colour is the water? It is a greenish-blue, but when there are clouds over it, it looks dark and gloomy. Find a picture of the ocean in a storm. What do you see? What happens to the waves when they strike the shore? Why is it dangerous for ships to be near the shore when a storm is Taging? How are f-ailors warned of their danger in the darkness of night? What are harbours? Of what use are they? How large is the ocean? It is thousands of miles long and in places thousands of miles wide." Many men have actually sailed on it all the way around the world. How deep is the ocean? Most parts of it near the land are shallow, but far out from shore it is in many places two miles deep, and in some places four or five miles deep. As there are so very many rivers flowing into the ocean, why does it not fill up and overflow its banks? It can- IS OEOORAPHT not do thig because most of the rain^rope that fall fron, ^ou ^^ n learn about this in another lesson. is the water of the ocean fresh or salt? How woul.I ^ou account for the ocean being salt? Nearfylll S gets into the rivers and is carried away to the ocean To T" .^'°" "- -ater of the ocean bLame saU ' tic following experiment: Fill a sauc.,r with wa^ in wh h -me salt has been dissolved. Taste the Jater 8eT saucer where it will be exposed to the outsl aif L „ yo^tM it ^d' ?"'T^rr: t « ^** ^^' ''-' like the wator Jn *r ^"^'^«^«'^ '" *''« ocean is much t L of ir ir '*"'"' '" """ ^«I^*- «•*«* quanti- ties of It disappear into the air to heln in fnrm i i and rain-drops. The salt th»t\h^ - -^ '''°''*'''' ocean •« l«/f *k , * *"® "^«" c&TTied to the rrsalt ttV ' ""'^'"^ ''^ ^**^'- ^'*^- ^"'J-J' ;.e we^d;!:: ofM-L':"'' *••"■"' °' ^^^°^'°« ^* -- ^' ti.ne?'HtT'.r''' ,^ '° '^' ^*-«^'>^ '" ^"'nmer eshTr and S.r'' T" *'^ ""^^ ^-''' »>-»"-'''« iresh air, and bathe m the cool, salt water. SHORE FORMS What name is given to the land ? ordering on a pond or lake or ^a? It is given different names, such as Tast or shore. Examine the shores of a pond or lake. UsuaTly ey are not straight but are more or less curved or Lnt le road^r ''"' " '"'*' "^" '''' ^^«"''- ^^e pools by- he roadside or m a field after a heavy rainfaU (I M-ysical geography .hart of land and Jter wi grea ,y 8U00B8TI0N8 FOR LESSONS: SHORE FORMS 63 help here in imparting correct notions. Such a chart should be placed in every school.) What do you call this point of land that juts out into the water? It is a cape. Find other capes. Here is another but larger mass of land jutting out into tiie water. Note that it has a neck-like part joining it to the mainland. The large mass of land just beyond the neck is almost surrounded by water. What name is given to this land? It is a peninsula. The neck of land joining it to the mainland is called an isthmus. Find other I)eninsulas and isthmuses. What is the point of land at theendof the peninsula called? Wliat is a cape? Look at that land out there in the water. How would you describe it? It has water all around it. What shall we call it? It is an island. If the peninsula were to become separated from the mainland by having its isthmus washed away, why would we have to change its name? What would it have to be named? Why? What is the chief difference between an island and a peninsula? What is an island? A peninsula? An isthmus? Find as many pictures as you can of islands and capes. - Now teke your sand-table and reproduce the above land forms, using damp sand to represent the peninsulas, islands, etc., and white paper or glass to represent the water. Deal similarly with such water forms as gulfs, bays, straits, etc. Finally, by oral description and especially by pictures, try to get clear notions of these land and water forms as they exist in the ocean; there arc the great capes, bays, islands, straits, etc., of the world. N UEOORAPHT WINDS Why do you like to fan yourself when you feel hot' Uhy does this make you feel cooler? When the face is hot the a.r next to it becomes hot too. The breeze from the fan drives away the hot air and cooler air takes its place. If this 18 kept up for . What is it? The sun makes some I'laces hotter than others. Over such places the heate.1 a.r rises and the cooler air from neighbouring places flows along to take the place of the heated air. When we feel the cool air rushing by on its way to do this, we say the wind is blowing. In all parts of the world there i, a movement of the air from colder to warmer regions. 1 Ills movement of air over the earth is callfed wind. Why are north winds usually cooler than south winds? What winds usually bring rain? Fair weather? When clouds cover the sky and the south wind blows, it is a s>gn of ram. After the rain ceases, the wind changes and iK^comes a north or a west wind, the clouds are blown away, and we have fine weather. Why is there little or no dew on a windy night? If the air is hotter over the land than over tho lake, which way will the wind blow? )n or near a large lake, why have we breezes blowin.* toward tho lake in fl.c mornings and from the lake in the evenings? At what time of a summer's day do we usually. 6C OEOORAPHY have Ica«t wind? Where do people po in «,mmer to get CKH.! breezoH? Why? What useful kinds of work can winds do? By keeping a daily record of the direction of the wind nnd of the kinc' of weather that it bringf., you will In- able t<> diMens to them? Why did tliey tiink? What does the exinirimcnt teacli us« h tea.lK.H us that if the pici^s of chalk are small enough, they w.il float in water, but if they are considerably larger they will sink. Drops of water in the air act in a similar way. If they are small enough, they will float in the air- but. If they are large enough, they will fall to the earth. ' When a cl(»ud iKJccmies still more chilled, what happens to Its viny drops (,f water? They unite to form larger drops and these fall to the earth aa rain. N«o«. is formed when the tiny droplets which form the cloud friH-ze. Each frozen droplet Ixromes a crystal of 8now. \\ hon a large number of these tiny crystals din- together, they form a snowflake. The white mantle of snow that covers the earth after a anow-atorm is really a frozen oloud. Hail is probably frozen rain-drops or a mixture of rain and snow frozen. THK SEASON'S Name the four seasons. Why do the seasons change four times a year? Let us try to find t^e reason by oiw^rvmg the sun's shadow during the year. For this purpose drive a stake into the ground in a sunny place. Have It about three feet high and wide enough to cast a distinct shadow. The observations should be carried out during the whole year and may be begun at any time Measure the length of the shadow of the stake at 9 8JTJ., at noon, and at 4 p.m. When is the shadow shortest ? Why 18 It shorter at noon than at 9 a.m.. or at 4 p.m '" When it is shortest the sun has reached the hignest point 70 OBOGRAPHY • n fho sky fr.r that .lay. It i« at noon that shadows arc alwayn shortest. At what time of ^.y is the sun hottest? ^^ hy ? It .8 hottest then b.x.au8e the sun is most nearly overhead. •' Ju8t here you may, incidentally, make the following observations: When the shadow of the stake on any day U shortest, that is, when it is exactly 12 oVloc-k noon, 'lay the straight edge of a Ixmrd along the shadow and, with a sharp-pointed stick or with a mixture of lime an.l water, mark a straight line on the ground. Note that every day at noon, no matter what the length of the shadow may be, it always lies along this line. What name inay be given to this line? We may call it f.,e "noon line , another good name is "meridian line", as the word meridian moans mid-day. In what direction does tins meridian line run? It is always a north and south line. Whenever the end of the shadow reaches this line we know that it is noon without consulting the clock U the sun at the same pUce in the sky at noon all the year round ? Try to find out by watching the shadow cast by the stake. Suppose that we l«gin observations about Scpteml^r first. With a tape-line or yanl-stick measure the shadow twice a month. Be sure that the measure- ment IS taken always exactly at 12 o'dcM-k noon. Keep a record of these measurements. Also keep a record of the number of hours and minute, between sunrise and junset on the days on which you measure the shadow Get the latter information from a good almanac and test Its .ocuracy occasionally as you find opportunity. The following form will serve for prewrving records : RECORDS RKCORDtt 71 Time Interral between Sunrise and Sunset li the (lay set for the ol)servation i« cloudv, take the firKt sunny day that follows. Note that a ut'raight rod with one end placed at the end of the shadow and resting upon the top of the stake will always point directly to the sun. What was the length of the shadow at the Iw^inning of September? On Septemlwr 2l8t? Mark the end of the shadow on September gist by a peg driven into the ground. Why is the shadow growing longer? It must be because the sun is getting lower down in the sky. In what part of the sky is the sun at noon, on September 21st? It is on this date that the day and night are equal in length. It is for this reason that it is called an equinox and, as this is the time when autumn begins, it is called the autumn equinox. This ia the real end' of summer and the beginning of autumn. Continue making measurements at least twice a month as time passes. As the shadows are getting longer, what change is gradually taking place in the position of the sun? What change is taking place at the same time in the length of time that the sun is shining each day? What change is taking place in the weather? It is gradually getting colder. What is causing the weather to n OBOORAPHT become colder? There are two reasons why the weather 18 becoming colder, namely: (a) The sun is gradually getting lower down in the sky and cannot give us as much heat as it did. (6) As the days are gradually getting shorter, we are getting less heat daily from the sun. When is the shadow longest? On or aI)out Dcenilxsr 21st. Drive a peg into the ground to mark the end of the shadow. Note that the shadows have gradually heen lengthening ever since you began your observations in Sei)teml)er. When the shadows at noon are lengthening from day to day, it is a sign that winter « coming. December 21st is the shortest day in the year, and it is on this date that winter really begins. How long did autumn last? It lasted for three months-from Sep- tember 21st to December 2l8t. How do the shadows change after December 21st? They gradually become shorter. What corresponding change is taking place in the position of tho 8un in the sky? What change is also taking place in the time during which the sun is shining each day? When are the day and night again equal in length? On March 2l8t. This IS called the spring equinox. Why? It is on this date that winter is said to end and spring to begin. How long haa winter lasted? How does the length of shadow on March 21st compare with ita length on September 2l8t? Why are the shadows the sa/ne length? The sun on its journey back has reached the same part of the sky it was in last September. Note that, after this date, the shadows continue to shorten, and that the time during which the sun is shining each day also continues to lengthen. What change in the weather is taking place? It continues to got warmer RECORDS 71 ami warmer. Why? Give two reasons. WI.en the shadows at noon are shortening a.v the days go l>y, it is a sign that summer ts coming. When is the shadow shortest'^ On or alK,ut June 21st. J)rive a peg into the ground to mark the end of the shadow at this date. How many hours of sunshine are there on June gist? This is the longest day in the year. Where is the sur it noon? It is thr nearest overhead to us that it ever ets. It is on June 2l8t that spring ends and that s. mer begins. After this date tlie shadow begins to lengthen once more. What season begins when the end of the shadow reaches the jn-g nearest the stake? The jieg farthest away from the stake? What seasons begin when the end of the sha.low reaches the middle peg? By using a straight rod, the corresponding positions of the sun in the sky on these dates are readily found. Some of you may observe the shadow of the stake a few times during the summer holidavs, noting the dates of observation and the lengths of the shadow. By doing this you will secure most useful records covering the entire year. There is another factor innncncing the chancre, in weather that should fK.rhai)s be referred to. It is very dosely related to the two factors already mentioned. Uhy does the hottest weather come after the longest day of the year (June 21st) ? We have already learned that after March 21st the sun actually shines more tlian twelve hours each day. It follows, therefore, that the earth is receiving mo-e heat in the daytime than it loses bv cooling at n.-ht. This surplus heat is stored up in the earth and •8 gradually making the earth warmer. H.-ncc. there is more of this surplus heat in the earth in July and in August than in June. The great heat that m' fed dnrin- irs'.f'X'- T4 GBOORAPHY July and August is, therefore, owing to the heat from the dimt rays of the sun, together with that given off from the heated earth. It is hocuise c.f the heat from Iwth Ihese sonrn^s that Jnly and Aii-unt are the hottest months of the year. In a similar way it can be shown that our coldest weather is after the shortest day in llic year (December 2l8t). Durinfr January and February most of the heat of the sun's rays is used up in warming the cold earth; there is lii le radiation of heat to warm the air. Heat conditions, lowever, gradually improve as spring approaches. The facts ' .d by the aljove observations may be summarized as fo. -ws: (1) The u,i\r gist. (2) Autumn be^nns un September 2l8t; winter on Dcccmkr 21st; spring on March 21st; and summer on June 2 1 St. Each season is therefore three months in length. (3) The sun's shadows gradually lengthen during summer and autumn, and shorten during winter and spring. (4) It is just when the sun has reached its highest place in the sky that our summer begins, and it is just when it has reached its lowest place in the sky that our winter begins. (5) Our seasons are therefore caused by the following related factors working together: (rt) The sun gradually changing its place in the sky. VARIATION IS LENGTH OP DAY AND NIOHT T5 (6) Tho variation in the length of time during which the sun slimes each day. (O Tlie gradual warming and i-.K,ling of fho ,.arlh. VARIATION' IN- T„K lkx„tI, oF IMV AM. .N„„IT ca.t^bvT"''''"'; "^''^ ''•' observations of the shadows uln^t r '*"",•'"'•'"« ^'>« >•«"'•. -ake the following con- current observations to determine why the length of dav and night varies during the year: ' l.ne « here the sun first apj^ars. Drive a ,H.g into tho traight line between tho stake and tho rising sun On he evening of the same day make a similar oI,ser;ation m the sky can l,o readily foun.l (see page 71 ). The throe principal positions of the sun in the sky are thus .lotor- mined and permanently marked. Ask a pupil to stand at he stake and with arm oxtendod trace with the forefingo the arc describe.1 by the sun in its apparent' journey rZ Minrise to sunset. '' ^ Mant^l^*'" fT'''"''' "" - «'-"t December 21st. Mard. ^ist. and Juno 21st; an.l mark permanently tho points of sunrise and sunset. in tilt" fl "^ these observations, require the pupils m review o tra.e, as described «Ik>vc, the three arc namely, (a) the arc of Juno '.>1st. (/.) tU, an- f Z tem,.r 21st and Manh 2,st, and (., ^thl lirofV'^ -5l8t. This should present no difficuJtv, a, the sunrise n^n, and suns^-t positions of the sun on these dates have been permanently marked by means of the pe^s 71 GROCRAPHY POHITIOX (»F THE MIDDAY HVS If thoM. i),s(ru(ti.,„s ,uv .an.fnlly carri...! out. tho followi,,- facts sl.(,nl(l lM>n.nu. (juito iutelli«ible to the clasg : (a) Tliat, on or nlnml June 21st, sunris.. anrl sunset tnk.. place farthest nortli. that therefore the an- nmrking the pathway of the smi across the sky is |..njjer, and lienee that there are more hours of ilireet sunli-ht and •nnsequently lon^r,.r ,h.ys and shorter ni^htn. thai? at any other time of the year. (/>) 'I'hat, on or ahont Decenik'r l>lst. sunri.se and siiiisot take place farther south, that therefore the are it.Hrk.n^r the pathway of tlie sun across the sky is shorter and hence that there are fewer hours of direct sunlight 'Hid consequently slu.rter days and longer nig! Is, than at nny other time of the year. (c) That, on or about S«.ptember 21st, the points on the horizon line where the sun rises and set.s correspond with those of March 21st and are intermediate between imtWX:^ THE EARTH A8 A aiX)BE ff thoge of June 21at an.l Decemlwr gist, ami that on these Jates the sun shines twelve hours, thus making day and night equal. -^ Note.— In the alwve ol)8ervation.s the U'st result^ will l« ohtained whore the surface of the surrounding country iH more or less level. If so desired, the sunrise and sun- set pomts on the horizon line may 1k> marked hy tree, buddings, or other objects in the distance. The explana- lon of the variation in the length of the arcs traced bv the sun s apparent movement across the sky will Iw taught m the Junior Grade of Form IV. ° TUB EARTH AS A GLOBB Its Shape: Many years ago people believed that the earth was flat. What led them into this belief? What shape d,H«s the earth appear to have? Why does it appear to be flat." It .8 because we see but a very small part of it at a time. Place a piece of paper with a small hole in it upon an apple. You will observe that the small part of the surface of the apple sc^n through the hole appears to be flat although we know that the apple is round. What .H the reason of this? What application l,a« this to the earth and its shape? What prrmf have we that the earth is round ? Perhaps the most convincing proof to us is that people have journeyed around the earth. They have started from home and by going eastward for many days found that they finally reached home again coming from the west and v,c* versa. You may go around a block in a town or township and come back to the starting-place, but to do 80 you will require to change your direction several times. In journeying around the earth, however, people keep the same general direction and get back to their Tl OCOORAPHT that the shadow c-wt by the obj«.t i. ,let.rn.ine^ <\ ^ \ ^^^ 80 GEOORAPHY Note.— The teacher should familiarize himself with the method of survey in the particular township in which his school is situated. A plan of the township may be drawn on the black-board and the pupils drilled until they can locate any farm, school, church, etc., that may be named. A plan of the local section on a scale large enough to allow the names of the farmers to be written on their respective lots will greatly aid in the under- standing of the township plan. ^i UAPS To teach representation by maps, try the following Begin with a drawing or plan of the teacher's desk or table. This may be done thus: Place the table so that two of Its edges run north and south. Place a large sheet of paper on it. Mark the centre of the paper and the directions, north, south, east, west. Now place several simple objects on the paper. Drill on the directions of these objects from the centre and from one another Next remove the objects, one by one, and mark in each case' the place where it stood, either by writing the name on the paper or by making a simple outline, or picture, of tl.e object. Drill upon the direction of these pictures from one another. The pupils will, in this way, learn that 'e should Tc ". By Idl" th "^^^^^^ *''^ ^"^ *^« ---'^-^ Grade. By so doing the very common error of considering such topics as isolated units, of study will be avoided. SUPPLEMENTARY READING The story of the Earth and Its Peoples: the MinL*^'%^S? ^'' '^''" ^P^^^*^"y recommended by plf m f ^^"''*^°° '' '' deader in Geography for t?u2. / M "' " ^"PPle^entary Reader in ^om IV trustees should see that a sufficient number of copTs arJ 82 SUPPLEMENTARY READING 83 placed in the school library for the ii«p nf iu. •, , Dooks, page 88, Regulations and Courses of Study, 1915.) It is recommended: 1. Tliat the Junior Grade of Form III read tl,e subject-matter pertaining to North America 3. That the Senior Grade of Form III read the re- mainder of the book. 3. That the Form IV Grades re-read the book. How to use the Reader: 1. In the Junior Grade of Form III and in both Grades of Form IV, the recitation in class should be followed by the reading of the corresponding chapter in the Reader. 2. In the Senior Grade of Form III, the subject- matter assigned for supplementary reading is outside that prescribed by the Course of Study for this Grade. The teacher, in this case' should prepare his pupils by means of a pre- hminary class "talk "-just sufficient to whet their interest, so that they may read with more appreciation and profit. th. l".'^f rf ^"^ ^*' ^^'"y °f *^' ^^^i^ ««^ Its People. flT™ K^, .J ' "" P"P"' "^ «"■" •' school— lasle hat can be further gratiW after Khool day, .re „C- 84 GEOGRAPHY Encourage pupils to bring in bookg and magazine articles. Encourage the making of scrap-books for pre- serving cuttings, pictures, statistics, etc., that may be use- ful in the geography class. I^t pupils read much from all available sources, without holding them responsible in recitation for all that they read. Encourage the reading habit but direct it. Do not make the work too formal. Occasionally assign articles or chapters to l)e read at home hy a pupil, to be afterward presented to the class. THE EARTH AS A WHOLE The earth as a whole (general notions only): Its form, apparent and real; axis; poles, relation to Xorth btar; rotation on axis, day and night; eqiitor, relation to the poles, recognition on globe and man; a general knowledge of the warm equatorial regions, the cold polar wastes, and the intermediate regions of moderate- tompcra- tures-with their low and high snns, and their main dilferences of climate and products. See Geography Reader: The Story of the Earth and Its Peoples—'' As Others See TJs ", page 7. For hints on the teaching of tlie following topics, see Chapter IX: The axis of the earth; the poles; the equator; the earth's rotation; hot, temperate, and cold regions. CONTINENTS AND OCEANS The location of the continents, with their chief coun- tries and islands; and of the oceans, with their chief seas, gulfs, and bays. Fix names, locations, and relative sizes of the con- tinents and oceans. Connect them with stories and pictures of human life already more or less familiar. A few characteristic facts NORTH AMERICA ^ Should be connected with each, for example, Asia as the thtt^fet":^ ''-'' '■" "^^■^' ''--' P^^P'' - ^-loped Deal with the chief countries, islands, seas, gulfs and t^L^at' "";\" "'^' '^^ ^^""^p'^' ^'^'^ - -teVf: w cS I?^' "V'r';'"' ^'■^^"*^°''' ^- ''^t"^' hides, wheat, Hawanan Islands, for their location in mid- NHp nv f'' ''^" '"'^ "■^^' ^^P* ^«^ "'« flooded iNile, pyramids, caravans, etc. Take imaginary journeys to add variety and interest. As a result of this study, the children are expected to have a general, but rvell organized, knowledge ani clearer pictures of hfe and its typical customs, and of the pro- duces, physical phenomena, climate, etc., of the world at ^ See Geography Header: "Land and Water", page 15; o. ' iT'fr ' P'^' ^^ ' " '^'^^ ^*^"°"« F^ry »: page 25; The Harvest of the Sea ", page 31. -^ ' ^ *'« NORTH AMERICA 1. Location: (a) With reference to other continents (6) With reference to the oceans (c) With reference to hot and cold regions. 2. Shape and size in comparison with other continents 3. Countries: Canada, United States and Alaska, Mexico, Central American Republics. 4. Surface Features: (a) Highlands and lowlands (6) Coasts (c) Drainage systems. ■• OBOORAPHT 5. Climate: Temperature, moisture, winds. How influenced by location, shape, and size of the continent, and by surface features. 6. Natural Besources: (a) Vegetable (b) Animal (c) Mineral. How dependent upon conditions outlined above. 7. Industries: s (a) Hunting and fishing (b) Grazing and stock-raising (c) Lumbering (d) Agriculture (e) Mining (/) Manufacturing. 8. Transportation and Commerce: (a) Internal trade, with routes (b) External trade, with routes (c) Commercial centres with reasons for location and growth. 9. People: (a) Native inhabitants (b) History of settlement. How influenced by phy- sical environment. Some such outline as the above should always be in the mind of the teacher, but it need not always be fol- lowed with exactness, since there may be danger of the form of the lessons becoming stereotyped. As an example of such variation it may seem the natural thing to con- , eider the effect of each land form upon the climate, in- CANADA AS A WHOLK ^ .'r* i:a«.^age» page 43; "la the Antarctic", page 17 ■ America-Surface an.l Climate ", pacre 52 ' For hints on teaching Xorth Ameri^ca, see Chapter IX. CANADA AS A WHOLE 1. Location: t.mn""r"'^''"^ ^'"'^ '"^^ ^«*^^ conditions-cold and temperate regions. 2. Extent: Its extent as conceived in terms of miles and of and' fIT"^"' p^^'^P^^^^*'"^ '^ith the United States and Jurope. Provinces: Xames, relative positions, 3. Relief: (1) In general: Highlands, watersheds, slopes (Paci- fie, Arctic and Hudson Bay, Atlantic). (2) In more detail: (a) Acadian Region, (b) Low- ands of the St. Lawrence Valley, (c Lauren- tian Highland, (d) The Great Central Plain, and (e) The Great Mountain Area. See Ontano School Geography, pages 86-92. For con- 4. Drainage: The chief rivers, particularly the St. Lawrence Saskatchewan-Xelson, and the Mackenzie River 'n-' atd i^nlr '^^^--^es-their .., dirSi: , and importance as highways for navigation; their 8g GEOGRAPHY rapids and falls, advantages and disadvantages; fer- Hlity of their basins, cause and extent; their lake ex- pansions (Ontario, Erie, Huron, Superior, Winnipeg, Athahaska, Great Slave, Great Bear). Canals ("Soo", Welland, and St. Lawrence). 5. Climate: Apply tiic fhief factors affecting climate (latitude, elevation, nature of soil, proximity to oceans or moun- tains, rainfall, local circumstances) to conditions in Canada. Characteristic climatic conditions in each Province. 6. Soil: Fertile, barren or rock, cold or desert regions. 1. Occupations: Natural conditions tiiat determine the occupations of the people. Keep in mind the physical divisions of Canada and their characteristics. Consider particu- larly tiie extensive lumbering, hunting, fishing, agri- cultural, mining, and manufacturing operations, carried on in different sections of the country. Deter- mine what js done with the products of these indus- tries. Study the important trade channels (water- ways, trunk railways, ports, ocean routes), and dis- cuss the importance of Canada's trade with (a) Great Britain, (6) the United States, (c) other countries. 8. People: The people of Canada, the races represented, the languages spoken, immigration, (whence, why, how- employed, training for citizenship). 9. Government: Federal, provincial; relation to Great Britain. ONTARIO 89 See Oeojrraphy Reader, pages 58-172: "The Surface of Canada "The Oldest BriMnh Edward Island "Alberta", "British Columbia" Colon, ^.. vs,,,.,,^ „,, _,.^,. „-^y;-:; ./— Territories ' Xorth-West ?. ONTARIO 1. Position 2. Area: im.m .,„.re „iW; how m,„j. ,i„„ ,„ ,., ZZlyT" ""' °' "'° """'^ '"-■ ""-' »' 3. Surface Features : (1) Southern (Old) Ontario (8) Northern (New) Ontario. I. Drainage: (1) Into St. Lawrence Basin (2) Into Winnipeg Basin (3) Into Hudson Bay Basin. Trace the " heights of land '*. . Climate: Temperatures, moisture, winds, . Besources: (1) Soil (2) Forests (3) Mines (4) Water-ways and water-powere. Industries : (1) Agriculture: i (a) Grain-growing (b) Dairying (c) Stock-raising (d) Fruit-growing. I OEOORAPHY (2) Mining: Iron coppor, nirkol, gilror, roM, gnlt. r,i|, gas. (3) Lumbering (4) Fisheries (5) Hunting and trapping (6) Mnnufacturing: Iron and «tpel, mad.iripry, olortriral apparatus, lieating apparatus, agricultural implements, carriages and automobiles, paper, furniture pianos and organs, flour and meal, woollens and cottons, meat-packing, canning, etc. Transportation: Railways, lakes and rivers, canals. People : Xationalities represented, where settled. • Cities and chief towns : Location and principal industries. Government : ' Legislative, municipal, educational. As the newspapers frequently refer to the counties of Ontarao in connection vith parliamentary representation, the administration of jVstice, and in other ways, it is desirable that pupils should familiarize themselves with the counties, county towns, and districts of the Province. Note.— For a suggestive method of teaching Ontario see lesson on Nova Scotia, page 125. A recent map. showing the Province as a whole, is essential to good teaching. Maps showing New Ontario in a corner, and drawn to a smaller scale, are misleading. See Geography Reader: " Ontario "-Sections I to IV page 96; "The United States", page 183; " Mexico »," page 211; "Central America", page gi'?; "The West Indies", page 218. 10. 11. CHAPTER IX FORM III. JUNIOR GRADE src;oESTioxs for lessons THE EARTH AS A WHOLE ITS AXIS Tin: oartl. is continuously turning aroun.l. Illu8trate tins l,y n.c.ans of an apple <,r an oran-^e, and a hat-pin or a kn.t .ng-needle. When the orange turns on the neodh., the atter may be called it« axis. Why is it so called? ^.nnlarly the turning earth may be said to have an axis Of course there is no large needle or anything of the kind on which the earth turns. We imagine, however, that Ibere ,s a line on which it turns, and this imaginary line is called the axis of the earth. THE POLES The ends of this imaginary line are called poles. The earth therefore, is said to have two poles-one at the north, called the North Pole, and the other at the south, called the South Pole. Are these poles real or imaginary' If we were to go to the places where these poles are, what do you think we would see? There would be no mark or anything of that kind to indicate the spot that is called the pole. We would not be able to recognize it, but if we had a skilled navigator or astronomer with us with the proper mstruments, he would be able to show us just where it is The discoverer of the South Pole (Amundsen) made a Heap of stones to mark its location. 91 92 GEOGRAPHY i! Show, by means of the globe, that the North Pole is straight north, and that the South Pole is straight south of every place on the earth. THE EQUATOR Draw a line around the globe half-way between the poles m such a position that every point on it is equidistant from the two poles. This line is a circle. If we imagine «uch a circle drawn around the earth, what name shall we give to it? How much of the earth is north of the equator? How much is south of the equator? If the whole earth is a sphere, what shall we call each of these halves? The half north of the equator is known as the Northern Hemisphere. What shall we call the half south of the equator? (See diagram, page 13, Text-book.) iixamine the globe closely and tell which of these hemi- spheres contains the greater area of land surface. Which lias the more water surface? THE earth's B' 'TION Did you ever sit at the window of a rapidly moving railway car and see the telegraph poles, fences, etc! apparently moving in an opposite direction to that in which you w.re travelling? It seemed as though you were not moving at all. When you see the sun moving across the sky, is it rea ly moving? Is the sun moving while the earth is stationary, or is the sun stationary while the earth is moving? The truth is that the earth is rapidly rotating, H.at IS It IS turning on its axis and carrying us around with It. It IS turning so smoothly and silently that we do not feel the motion at all. Just as the ferces, trees etc., seemed to be moving backward when we we.e on the t HOT. TEMPERATE. AND COLD REGIONS 93 swiftly moving train, so the sun seems to be moving back- ward when we are being carried around on the swiftlv rotatmg earth. Illustrate this by rotating an orange on a Imt-pin before a lighted candle. Let the candle represent the sun and show how the sun appears to rise and set For a long time people believed that it was the sun that moved and not the earth. In what direction does the su.i appear to move across the sky? In what direction, then does the earth actually rotate? Illustrate this again by means of the orange and candle. How long does it take the earth to make one rotation? \Vhat name is given to this period of time? In what other sense is the term "day" sometimes used? If the earth :s 25,000 miles in circumference, how many miles will a person at the equator travel every hour owing to the rotation of the earth ? By rotating a globe or an orange before a hVhted candle, show how day and night are caused. What" con- ditions of day and night would prevail if the earth did not rotate? What, would probably be the effect upon plant and animal life if the same side of the earth were always turned toward the sun? What is the "circle of illumina- tion " ? On which side of this line is it always twilight ? HOT, TEMPERATE, AND COLD REGIONS The sun's rays fall either vertically or slantingly upon the earth. What kind of rays, the vertical or slantin;? gives the greater heat? Why? The more vertical the rays are. the greater the number of them that will fall upon a given area, and consequently the greater amount of heat will such an area receive. Explain this by means of a diagram on the black-board. What part of the earth receives the vertical rays of the sun during the year. That , If> 94 GEOGRAPHY II M part in the neighbourhood of the equator. The hottest part of the earth is a great belt extending around the earth for about 1500 miles on each side of the equator Locate this region definitely on the map. What countries and groups of islands are in this hot region? What food products are imported from these places? What kind of rays shines upon the region around the North Pole? As a result of this, what kind of climate has this region? How far south from the North Pole does this extremely cold climate extend? About 1,500 miles, l^ocate this cold region on the globe and show that a portion of Northern Canada extends into it. \y}mt race of people live there? Deal similarly with the south polar region. ^ Between the cold polar region in the north and the Jio region to the south, there lies a broad belt about 3,000 miles wide extending around the earth. WTiat kind of climate is this region likely to have? It is neither ev- tremely hot nor extremely cold. Why? Canada and the United States and nearly the whole of Europe are in this temperate region. In a similar way locate the great tem- perate belt m the southern hemisphere. NORTH AMERICA An examination of the Course of Study will show that for three Grades, namely, the Junior Grade of Form III and the Junior and Senior Grades of Form IV. In addi- tion to this prescription, the individual countries of North itr/hV. '''f;""^ ^" ^'"'^^' '" ™^^« - I- detail, in both Grades of Forms III and IV. This therefore, should suggest to* the teacher that the geography of North America for the Junior Grade of LOCATION OF NORTH AMERICA 95 Form III should be of an introductory character. General notions only of location, size, political divisions, surface drainage, coast features, climate, natural resources, indus- tries, commerce, and people, should be taught at this stage. In Section XXIV of the Ontario School Geography the teacher will find subject-matter quite suitable for the work of this Grade, The old method of teaching the physical geography of a continent required the pupils, after stating what its boundaries are, to name and tabulate its mountains, capes rivers, bays, islands, peninsulas, etc. The usual procedure' was for the pupils to point out their location on the wall map— at least the names were pointed out, and then a 1st of each was written on the black-board for memoriza- tion So well was the memory drill done that, even after the lapse of thirty or forty years, many people are still able to recite the complete list. For instance, the capes on the east coast of Xorth America are Farewell, Chidlev Charles Race, Breton, Sable, Cod, May, Henrv, Hatteras,' .Sable, Catoche, Gracias-a-Dios. Such methods are not of much value in developing the mental powers; they overload the memory with matter that has httle relation to the other faculties of the mind and is of little practical use in after life. This method fails to make intelligent learners and often develops a dis- taste for the subject. i1 LOCATION OF NORTH AMERICA What oceans wash the shores of Xorth America? AMiat two continents are east of Xorth America? What continent is west? What strait separates Xorth America .rem Asia? How wide is Bering Strait? Thirty-six miles. What three continents inclose the Arctic Ocean? lifi W GEOGRAPHY How near does North America approach the equator? Where does the Tropic of Cancer cross the continent? The Arctic Circle? SIZE OF NORTH AMERICA What two continents are larger than North America? How many times larger is Asia? What three continents are smaller? How many Europes would make one North America? What continent is almost as large as North America? How long is North America from north to south? /bout 4300 miles. How wide is it from east to west? / : out 3000 miles. If you were to travel twenty- five miles an hour, how many days would it take you to cross Canada from the Atlantic to the Pacific? COUNTRIES OP NORTH AMERICA The countries of North America may be taught at this stage, as it will be necessary to refer to them frequently as the lesson proceeds. On an outline map of the con- tinent, carefully drawn on the black-board by the teacher, locate Alaska, Canada, the United States, Mexico, and Central America, by markjn ^he boundaries which separate them. Tint the couu.. .» lightly with crayons of different colours. Drill thoroughly. Then hang the wall map of North America beside it, and continue the drill on it until the positions of these countries are thor- oughly learned. It may prove helpful, at this point, to refer in greater detail to the use of maps. The method of gradually build- ing up the black-board map as the lesson is being taught, followed by a review drill on it and on the wall map,' should be generally followed in elementary geography les- sons such as this. In the development of the lesson, the COUNTRIES OP NORTH AMERICA 97 conversational method interspersed with questions to draw out the pupils' ideas will prove effective. At this stage, the teacher is strongly cautioned to be constantly upon ihe alert to assure himself that his pupils are forming mental images of the country itself. Their houghts must not stop short at the map, but should pene- rate the map, as it were, to the country lying beyond, and for the understanding of which the map may be regarded country (See Chap. Ill, page 12.) The extent ^ their ahthty to do this will largely determine the measure of t/ietr success or faihtre in this subject. The black-boar.l map should not be overloaded with names. One way of overcoming this difficulty is to write the names of the features being taught, at the margin, number them, and then write the corresponding numbers on the map being developed. In review drills these names should be blotted out or covered up. Teachers are advised to make a new black-board map for each new topic taught For example, one map may be used for developing the physical features; another, for natural productions (see lext-book, pages 81 and 82) ; etc. Good seat work exercises in elementary map work may be provided by placing in the hands of the pupils outline maps made by means of a copying pad; or by taking a map outline made of cardboard, laying it upon the blark page of an exercise book, and making a pencil line round Its margin. Later, of course, pupils should outline their own maps by freehand. After the physical features have been thoroughly taught, not before, the pupils should give expression to what they have learned by modelling in sand or clay. (See Chap. Ill, page 22 ) ' I |! 98 OEOORAPHT i: SURFACE OF NORTH AMERICA There are three great highland regions in North America. What are they? The teacher shows their loca- tion on the map. What is the general shape of the con- tinent? Show that the three great masses of highlands were factors in determining its outline. Which of the three highlands best deserves the name "continental axis"? Why? THE ncCKY MOUNTAIX IIIOIILAND Between what two points does this extend ? Near what ocean is it? In what place is it narrowest? Where widest? In southern British Columbia it has a width of about 400 miles. What is the principal range of mountains forming this Highland? Locate it definitely on the map. Note that, where the Highland is widest, there are several paralle' mges between the main Rocky Moun- tain Range and the Pacific Coast. Note, too, that the chain of islands from Vancouver Island north to the end of the Aleutian Islands (see wall map) really forms the tops of a submerged range. What is the highest mountain in North America? In what country is it? Look for it in Alaska. (See Refer- ence Tables on page 273 of the Text-book.) How high is Mount McKinley? Calculate its height in miles. Find Mount St. Elias. Describe its location. What is the highest mountain in Canada? Locate it. What is the highest peak in the United States? In Mexico? Which is the longer slope of the Rocky Mountain Highland? Which is the shorter? How can you tell? Why does this Highland form such a barrier to trade and travel ? In what country is the Rocky Mountain barrier likely to be most felt ? W\\y? SURFACE OP NORTH AMERICA M THE APPALACHIAN HIGHLAND This Highland should be dealt with in a manner similar to that employed in the study of the Bocky Moun- tain Highland. TUB LAUREXTIAN HIGHLAND This Highland comprises more than half of the Dominion of Canada. Locate it on the map. The teacher will find its location in the Text-book on pages 77 and 78. Note that it surrounds Hudson and James Bays in the form of a horse-shoe open to the north. (See diagram on page 74 of the Text-book.) Its most characteristic fea- ture is the innumerable lakes, large and small, with which it is covered. Its streams are very irregular and tortuous, flowing from lake to lake in almost every direction. Pictures of mountains and mountain scenery will prove very helpful in aiding the pupils to get intelligent notions of these wonders of nature. A number of such pictures will be found in the Text-book and in The Story of the Earth and Its Peoples. CONTINENTAL SLOPES AND PLAINS The crests of these great Highlands, together with a low-lying Drainage Divide extending from the Appalachian Highland round the head of tlie Great Lakes to the Laurentian Height of Land (see map on page 72 of Text- book), are the natural boundaries that divide the surface of North America into its continental slopes and plains. What are the two great slopes of the Rocky Mountain Highland? A short westerly slope toward the Pacific Ocean and a longer easterly one toward the interior of the continent. What are the Appalachian slopes? One east- ward toward the Atlantic Ocean, and the other westward 100 GEOGRAPHY toward tlie interior. What are the Laurentian slopes? Since the Laurentian Highland lias the general shape of a horse-shoe open to the north, it has an inner-curving slope toward Hudson and James Bays, and an outer-curving slope chiefly to the south and west. The union of the groat easterly slope of the Rocky Mountain Highland with the westerly slopes of the Appalachian and Laurentian Highlands and the Drainage Divide to the west of the Great Lakes, forms the Great Central Plain. The union of the slopes of the Appalachian and Laurentian Highlands to the east of the Great Lakes Drainage Divide, forms the great St. Lawrence Basin. i DRAINAGE OF NORTH AMERICA What are the physical divisions of the continent as out- lined above? They are (o) the Pacific Slope, (/ ; the Atlantic Slope, (c) the Great Central Plain, (d) the Basin of tu St. Lawrence, and (e) the Hudson Bay Basin. Locate these definitely on the map, and tell what their boundaries are. These natural divisions determine the character of the drainage systems of North America. The Pacific Slope Why are most of the rivers of the Pacific Slope com- paratively short? Why are they swiftly flowing rivers? Why are many of them of little use for navigation ? Name a few of the larger rivers. How would you account for the great length of the Yukon Kiver? The Columbia River? How long are they? (See Text-book, page 273.) Why are there so few rivers south of the Canada-United States boundary flowing into the Pacific Ocean? DRAINAQB OF NORTH AMERICA 101 Tub Atlantic Slope Why are the rivers that flow from the Appalachian Highland to the Atlantic comparatively short? Why are many of them navigable in the lower parts of their course but not in their upper stretches? One of these rivers is in Canada. Name it. What city is at its mouth? Name three American rivers flowing into the Atlantic, each of which has a very large city at or near its mouth. Name the cities. Why are large cities so often found at or near the mouths of rivers ? The Great Central Plain This extensive Plain comprises three very large river basins. What are they? Locate on the map the divide between the Mackenzie Basin and the Winnipeg Basin. Note that it runs in a north-easterly direction from the vicinity of Mounts Brown and Hooker in the Rockies to the Nelson River. The Winnipeg Basin includes those of the Saskatchewan, Red, and Winnipeg Rivers. The divide between the Winnipeg Basin and the Mis- sissippi Basin, like that between the Mackenzie and Win- nipeg Basins, is low (prairie) ; yet it is called a Height of Und. Trace, on the map on page 73 of the Text- book, Its course from the Rocky Mountains to the Drainage Divide a short distance west of Lake Superior. Note that It follows roughly the international boundary line, but that It takes a dip to the south round the head-waters of the Red River. Repeat the tracing until you are thoroughly familiar with its location. the MACKENZIE BASIN What three large lakes are in the Mackenzie Basin? What two large rivers flow into the western end of Uke Athabaska? What river drains Lake Athabaska into Great 102 GEOGRAPHY Slavo liake? What river flows out of (;roat Slave Lake? In wlint direction does it flow? Ix)cate its mouth. What meridian line (see page 70) crosses its nmuth? Follow this meridian line south on the map, and show that the mouth of the Mackenzie River is really much farther west than A'ancouver Island, The Ma(kctizie IJiver is icehound in winter. Why? In what part of the river will the ice break up first in spring? Why? If the ice hreaks up an similar way with otiior coa.t mills. 0„|v the o«de':r;:™' ;';r '""-" •"™"' -" '"■•«'" •" "■- ^-'- CLIMATE OP NORTH AMERICA The teachin^r of this topic should present no special 1. Only "continental" notions of climate should h*. Sd sir !'' ',rr!^' ^^°^«p^^ ofl^a^X th^ United states, etc., will follow at a later stage. ^^^2. The question method should be followed tlirough- is hlXlo^d.^'^ ""'' "^^"^ ''--'' ^''' - *^« -^^-eet . The main factors that determine climate are: (1) tem- perature (2) moisture. (3) winds. And these fa tors aTe affected by, (a) distance fmm the equator, (5) elevat^n above the sea-level, (c) distance from the e, (J dire" IM OEOORAPHY tion of the mountain ranges, (e) character and direction of ocean currents, and (/) other less important causes. Apply these factors to the North American Continent chiefly by questioning the class before the map. Let the class remember that North America extends through every possible variety of climate, from that of tropical Panama to that of Arctic Greenland. Generally speaking, we may say that it is extremely hot in the far south and extremely cold in the far north. Local condi- tions, however, must be taken into account when estimat- ing what the climate of any particular region is. Note that the land rapidly absorbs heat in summer and rapidly radiates away heat in winter; that the ocean slowly absorbs heat in sumper and slowly radiates away heat in winter. That is, water is both heated and cooled much more slowly than land. Hence, the interior of the continent is much hotter in summer and much colder in winter than corresponding places at the sea-shore that are the same distance from the equator. What rivers, seas, lakes, etc., are likely to be icebound during the winter? In the far north and on the Island of Greenland, winter is very severe and lasts most of the year. What people live in these cold regions? How are the Eskimos able to keep themselves from freezing? In what regions of North America is the rainfall heaviest? At this point let the teacher sketch on the black-board a rainfall map of North America. Use dif- ferent-coloured crayons to indicate the regions of heavy, medium, and light rainfall. Locate the two regions of least rainfall (desert conditions). Consult the rainfall map of the world on page 40 of the Text-book. Require the pupils for seat work to make a similar map of North America as a review test. NATURAL RESOURCES OP NORTH AMERICA 107 Remember that rainfall is dependent upon winds A br. consideration, therefore, of the principal Ids of fnd \ T?r '' '^'' '''^' ^^'^"'^ h«>P the pupils to understand the continental rainfall better In thfs con- paciror''^:,'"^'^ *"^ ^^"^-^"'"^ ^^-*-'- ^-- the Oce n'andl' ^'^r.V'^''''' "'"'^^ ^^«" the Atlantic Sou h Th. AH ^'''''' '"'^ ^''^ Trade-winds in the to Cane f;/"''"^'^^«^«t, especially from Newfoundland to Cape Cod, has quite a heavy rainfall and much foff Speakmg generally, the rainfall is heaviest on the Pacil; i^Ltn^^^r'' '''' '^'"^"^^^^ ''^-' ""« ^'^•^-^- of The Course of Study reserves a more detailed con- sideration of these winds for the Senior Grade of fZ NATURAL RESOURCES OP NORTH AMERICA The chief natural resources of Xorth America may be summarized as follows : ^ rJfJ'^'l^'^'r' ""^''^ '•' ^^P^^'^ent upon temperature, rainfall, and character of soil. 2. Animals, which are dependent upon vegetation. 'I'" "Barren i«>nd, . Hlmtdot.»ihi«„a,„ein,licatc? The people „!,„ 1.™ there have „„. „,„,,, ,,,„;„ „, J P^P^ » » _l^;ey oanno. ,a„„. Wh, „„.? How .,„ .he, ^aJXir area»''w'.ut,r'"" '°.'"'"™ '" " *«l"'"'° '"■^" o./wr:rdtre'::zr;^ ^,rr h~^ abundant and ehean T J„T . J ' ^^^^ """«* ^e ™p„,ae.„re. at:L^:\-r;r/hr;tt^^^^^ tc:'':ir;rr-j::: :ri 'iff-' industries'' How i« ti/ ^ '"■*'' American ..•^e, to ..eetTe t^aS ^J^r i:^ " ^*-' ThPv wrL'""''.*!''' 'P^''"^ "manufactures ^at thi. sta^^e TRANSPORTATION AND COMMERCE Consider in a general way : (1) Internal trade, with routes (2) External trade, with routes (3) Commercial centres, with reason for location and growth. CHAPTER X FORM III, SENIOR GRADE DETAILS OF THE COURSE SUN, MOON, STARS, ETC. The Sun: One of the stars; distance from earth; source of heat, light, and energy; attraction force; influence on life. The Planets: Names, motions, are stars sliining with reflected light, morning" and "evening" stars, the earth a star, recog- mtion of the brighter planet-stars in the sky. The Moon: A cold, dead world; shines with reflected light, rota- lon around the earth, lunar month, time of rising, why later each night; phases, explanation. Comets : Nature, appearance. Stars : A few generalizations only: are other suns, source of light, different colours, cause of "twinkling", distance from earth, the "Milky Way", recognition of North Star, Big Dipper, Little Dipper, and a few other prominent stars and constellations. Meteors : Shooting stars— cause of light. Geography Reader: "Coral Islands", page 37: "Mon- soon Weather ", page 49. 112 CANADA j,3 "S^lr"*' T V^' *''''""^ "^ ^''« ^«"«^'"^ topics, SCO Suggestions for Lessons", Chapter XI: The Solar Sys- CANADA 1. Review Canada as a whole and Ontario in detail, as outlined for the Junior Grade of Form III 2. The other Provinces in considerable detail, 'the Terri- tories, Newfoundland. The lesson on Xova Scotia (see page 125) will suggest a method of treatment. 3. Consider in the light of the detailed study of the in- dividual Provinces, Canada as a Dominion, emphasiz- ing particularly the commercial aspect of the subject. In connection with the commercial geography of fZ^VT.^"''^^ '^' ''''^' '°*^"«*^'«« «« °^t"°ed for *orm II. Determine, if possible, how these industries mppen to be located where they are. In what ways they important to the home locality? Have they any im- aCad? Wr^r' ''' '^'''''y - '^ 'he world abroad? If so, show how and trace their products to places of consumption or distribution. Use maps for this tl e Ce 1 rf "°". '' transportation. Why'^does n the home locality produce all things needed for consump- hidustrief '" "'^ ''^'''''' ^^^^^'^^ h-- '^^fferent After an introductory study of home industries, con- usor further the great industries of the Dominion The following list is suggested : (1) Agricultural produce: fruits, grains, flour, meal. (2) Animals and their products: bacon, cheese, caitle, hides and skins, furs. (3) Fisheries* produce : salmon, codfish, etc. 114 GEOGRAPHY (4) Forest products: Iu.nlK,r, square tin.ber, pulp- wood, wood-pulp. ^ (6) Mineral produce: coal, iron, gold, copper, silver, nickel, lead, asbestos. (6) Manufactures: wood, iron, leather, etc. In the study of each of these industries: (1 ) Locate the region of production. (2) Study carefully the natural physical features and the climate of the re;,non ^'^ ^^TL^ "^' °^ *^' p^p^' '""^'^'^ '" «'« (4) Trace the general steps in the production and preparation for market. (5) Locate important centres of production, manu- facture, and trade. (fi) Trace the movement of products to market, study- ing carefully the routes taken. (7) Determine why products go to various markets. («) Compare, when possible, present methods of pro- duction and transportation with earlier ,«, P "!'* *"^f- ^^^ '^^"^^^ fo'- the differences. (9) Consider the importance of the industry to our own country and to the world at large, both from the standpoint of money value and from Its influence upon the happiness and comfort of the people. and why the Government, in gome in.tances, ia .idinng star", the first star to appear after sunset: or as the morning star", the last star seen shining before sun- rise. Seek assistance in locating them. THE MOON The moon has no heat or light of its own and hence shines by light reflected from the sun. T?eview the facts learned by observation in a previous class (see page 42), and tell the class that the changes 120 GEOGRAPHY Which take place ii, the appearance of the moon are called the Phases of ihe Moon. By means of a ball and a li-htod candle, and also by diagrams on the black-board, cstahlis'i the causes of these pliases as foHows: (1) When the moon, on its journey round tiie earth comes between the earth and tlie sun, the ilh.niinatcd Jialf of the moon is turned toward the sun and the dark half toward the earth. At this time there is " no moon ". (2) When the moon has passed a little to one side of a straight line joining the earth and tiie sun, we see the edge of the moon lighted up by the sun. This is called the New Moon. (3) When the moon has moved on to a point where the straight line joining the earth and the moon is at right angles to that joining the earth and sun, we see one half of the moon's face lighted up. This phase is callei its First Quarter. Why so called ? (4) When the earth is between the sun and moon, we see the whole face of the moon lighted up by the sun. This is the FuU Moon phase. (5) When tlie moon has moved round the earth to a point opposite to that of the First Quarter, it is again m a position where only one half of its face is lighted up. This phase is known as the Third Quarter or Last Quarter. Why so called? (See diagram, page 324, Ontario Hifjh School Physical Geographij.) Note that the new moon crescent is tlie lighted edge of one side of the moon, while the old moon crescent Is the lighted edge of the opposite side. On which side of the lighted edge is the sun in each case? Note the same phenomena at the times of First and Last Quarters. It takes about 29^ days for the moon to journey round the earth once. What name is given to this interval of ' Ml THE SOLAR n- 3vf^.\r: STARS i2i time? How many lunar ;:orf!,s are ti ^re in one year? Does the moon turn on its ax.s as Hie o.rth docs? What proof have you of this? We know that the moon always I.resents the san.e face to the earth, because the same markings ( man in the moon ") are always seen on its ta«e; these tlark markings are probably shadows cast by mountains. If a pupil walks round a chair by keeping Jiis face toward it, show that he himself has actually made one comjilcte turn. Apply this to the case of th'e moon and show that it must turn on its axis once eycry iunar month. "^ The moon is approximately 50 minutes later each n>ght. What is the cause of this? If the moon were stationary, it would rise always at the same time. As it IS moving in the same direction in which the earth is rotating and as it makes a complete revolution round the earth in about 29^ days, therefore it must make ^, or A of Its round in a day. Hence, the interyal of time between two successive risings of the moon must be the t.me required by the earth to make 1^ turns, that is, approximately 24 hours and 50 minutes. The moon is a cold, dead world and probably contains no atmosphere, no water, and no life. Its surface i. Imrren rock. Meteors must batter the moon freely, as there .s no atmospliere to burn them up as they fall. The moon sou"nds ^' ^^''' '"' ""^ ^'' *° "'^'^^^ ^° P'^*^"^^ THE STARS If we look above us on any clear day or night, we see wha appears to be a great blue vault, or dome, which we call the sky. What is the name of the circular line where he earth and sky appear to meet? At night the sky is l.terally filled with bright objects called stars. 122 GEOGRAPHY Although (1,0 stars arc so very far away, many in- tercstmg things have been learned about thorn. Astron"- mers toll us that every shining star is in reality a groat l>az.ng sun and that many of thorn are supposed to have other worlds spanning aroun.l them, just as the earth on which wo hve sp.ns around our sun. These worlds aro, howe^.r h.o far away for us to sec them even with th.: aul of telescopes. How many of such worlds there arc- bow large they are, what kind of people (if any) live on thought, IS it not? Astronomers arc able to measure the distance between us and many of the stars. All of them are very, very far away. We know that light travels verv fast-186 40() miles a second. At this rate it takes th. light of the 'sun o.ght minutes to reach the earth. The nearest star is o far away that a ray of light from it takes about four years reach us. If this star were suddenly to become ev- t.nguished, we would still continue to see its light for four years onger. Look for the Pole Star; it takes nearly lialf a century for its light to reach us. Find the pfeiades group of stars; tlioso are so far away that the light we sec •Jlunujg from them has been on the way for more than that It takes thousands of years for their light to reach us If you watch the stars at night, you will be able to observe that, like the sun and the moon, ...ey are appar- ently moving. In what direction do they seem to move' 1 hey are not really moving from east to west across the AVhy then do they seem to us to move across the sky' The stars are of different ages. Like us, they are gradually .eitins older. Some stars are shining 'with THE SOLAR SYSTRM: STARR 123 white or blue light ; these are the younger stars As they grow ohler they hooon.e yellow, like our sun; and when Ley get still ohler, they turn red in colour. Manv stars linally lose their heat and light and become .■okl and dark Of course, wlien they reach this con.lition we cannot see them any longer. Observe the stars on some clear night to see if you can find stars of different colours-white, hi ue, yellow, red. All true stars " twinkle ". Why? Jf there was no atmosphere, the stars would not twinkle. You should be able to locate in the sky a few of the more important stars and constellations. Find the Milh/ II «.'/ ; it is a great white band across the sky. It is made up of so many stars, and they are so far away that we cannot see them distinctly; we see their diffused light. It IS this diffused light that gives the Milky Way^its peculiar appearance. Locate the Xorth or Pole Star; it is almost stationary, and for this reason makes a good "guide star". There are other stars in the northern sky that never set; they seem to revolve round the Pole Star without getting below the horizon. The following constellations may be observed in this connection: The Great Bear (or the Big Dipper) the Little Bear (or the Little Dipper), tjie Dragon, and Cassiopeia's Chair. The relation of the " Big Dipper " to the Pole Star is shown in the diagram on page 12 of the Text-book. The principal stars in the winter sky are Orion, Sirius (the Great Dog Star, the most beautiful star in the winter sky), the Pleiades, Castor and Pollux (the Twin Stars), otc. In the summer sky will be found Reguhis, Arcturus' the Northern Crown, Vega (the brightest summer star),' Antares, the Xorthern Cross, Altair, etc. It is toward N ega that our sun and its attendant planets, including the 124 GEOGRAPHY earth, are moving at the approximate rate of 800 miles a minute. Do not rest satisfied until you can identify the above-named stars. (Read Chapter XIX, Ontario High ^^chool Physical Oeography.) COMETS Comets are probably white-hot masses of £?as, which move swiftly toward the sun, go round it, and then rush away again. They are usually recognized by a tail of ight. A large comet is quite beautiful, with its bri-ht head and long flaring tail. The tail is always on the side away from the sun, and sometimes it is longer than the distance between here and the sun. The name comet is derived from an old word that meant "long-haired". Why was this name given to it? (Consult the Ontario High School Physical Geography, page 332.) METEOnS Floating through space beyond the earth's atmosphere are bodies which, it is supposed, were once heated and luminous; but, having lost their heat and light, are now cold, dark, rock-like masses. When they happen to come near enough to the earth to be influenced by gravitation, their great speed carries them so swiftly through the atmosphere that the friction developed heats them until they glow and burn. As the blazing mass rushes through sova Scotia could be carved out of Ontario' Compare the size of Xova Scotia with that of Xew Bruns- Vi^icK It 18 ahnost as large as Belgium and Holland put together, and it is half the size of New York State. What IS the length of Xova Scotia? Its width? 3. PHYSICAI. FEATUHKS Surface: «liat is the general shape of Xova Scotia? What forms the main axis of the Province? (A mountain Mdge, or «-atershed, running from the north-east to the -south-west.) Note another mountain ridge running in ^^trait. Do these ranges determine the shape of the country? In what way? How, too, do thev determine he general slopes? What is the relation of these slopes to the direction of the rivers? Why? How wouU yoi. account for the V-shaped depression occupied by the waters of Minas Channel, Minas Basin, and Cobequid iiay? Draw an outline map of the Bay of Fundy and its arms. - j "« iia The Atlantic Slope: About how wide is this slope? (Average width is t venty-one miles.) Describe the surface of this slope. so 1? (Chiefly the narrow river valleys) What ren.ark- able feature is noticed along the Atlantic shore-line? Account for the presence of so many harbours. (They 118 GEOGRAPHY are submerged mouths of rivers.) Xame n few of the largest harbours. How would you accoui.t for the origi,. of the Strait of Canso? How large is it ? (Len-nh four teen and one hu.^ miles; width, three quarters oi a' mile- depth, nowhere less than ninety feet.) What bavs does It connect? (See illustration on page 96 of the Text- book.) The Bay of Fundy Slope : Compare this slope with the Atlantic slope as to sur- face, r.vers, shores, etc. Why has the Bay of Fundy com- paratively few harbours? Is it because there is a second- ary mountain ridge (the North Mountains) runnin- para lei to and close to, the coast? Why do you think so? VV hat productive valley is immediately south of the North Mountains? What break in these mountains allows the lower part of the Annapolis Valley to fill with water '■' What name is given to this sheet of water? Are these North Mountains responsible, too, for Digby Neck, and St. Mary's Bay? Why do you think so? What cape forms the eastern end of this range? What tide phenomena are seen in the Bay of Fundy and especially in its upper arms? How high do these tides rise? Where do they rise highest? Why? Point out the effect of these high tides upon the low-lying shores of Mmas Basin. What effect have these tides upon the navigation of rivers flowing into the Bay and its arms' Explain. What happens to ships when the tide is out of the rivers? The Gulf of St. Lawrence Slope: The land slopes gently to the Gulf and the shores are comparatively low. As on the Atlantic slope, what is the relation of the harbours to the rivers? What is the largest ami best harbour? NOVA SCOTIA m Cape Breton Island: Which Hide of the Island h^. the n,ost hroken shore- Ime? AVhy.^ AVhat lake is there in the interior of the land? JH,tsaltorfre..,:> ;M,,v .W two good harbours on the Island. Locate them on the map. .J ) livf !" """^ ^° ^^'^ ^"^"^''^ «b«"t 200 miles east of Ilahfax? Descril,e its surface. Why is it so dangerous as to be called the " Graveyard of the Atlantic "? Drainage : Into what three general slopes is the drainage system of Nova Scot.a divided: What are the chief characteris- tics of the rivers of the Atlantic slope' Why are they short? Why are there so many? Why do they not unite and form a large river? Arc they navigable? Why not' Of what use are their mouths? Where is the Annapolis Valley? Between what mountain ridges does it lie? What river drains the valley toward the west ? Into what Basin does the Annapolil River flow? \\Tiat connects tl •. Basin with the Bay of ^undy? What river flows eastward through the valley' (Cornwallis Kiver) Into what body of water does 'ii flow? Name a river flowing into Cobequid Bay. Locate these rivers on the wall map. Is the navigation of rivers flowing into' the Gulf of St. Lawrence helped by the tides to the same extent? he Gulf of St Lawrence like those of the Atlantic slope? >\hy are the Cape Breton rivers so unimportant? Soil: If Nova Scotia is a rocky highland plateau in the process of btMng worn down, in what condition in most of Its surface likely to be? Where is most of its arable land 130 GEOGRAPHY found? Why? Why are the low-lyi„g lan.ls around the sliores of Minas Basin particularly fertile? 4. CLIMATE The general influences that modify climate are lati- tude elevation, proximity to the sea, ocean currents, winds, rainfall, etc. How many of these influences apply to Aova Scotia? In what way? Why has Nova Scotia a maritime climate? How does this affect the rainfall? What two ocean currents influence its climate? In what way? Xova Scotia extends through the same latitude as the country lying hetween Toronto and Quehec City compare the climates of the two districts. Wliicli is sub- ject to the greattT extreme.:^ Why? Why is .Vova Scotia more subject to fogs than Ontario? What influence has tiie ^orth Mountain ridge upon the climate of the Ann- ai>olis Valley? Why? What is the average yearly rain- fall of Xova Scotia? (See Uie Text-book.) What is the rainfall in Ontario? (Thirty to forty inches) What makes the climate of Nova Scotia so invigorating? 5. NATURAL RESOURCES Xame at least four of the chief natural resources of JSova Scotia. What connection have they with the leading Hidustnes of the Province? Illustrate. More detailed information will be supplied when the various industries are under consideration. . . ,. 6. INDUSTRIES Agriculture : Why is agriculture not carried on so extensively as in Ontario and the Prairie Provinces? Where are the chief agricultural districts of Nova Scotia situated. Account NOVA SCOTIA 131 for this. Wliat conditions are favourable to the ^^rowtl, of hay an.l root-crops? What influ.trios tlepond npon these crops and upon grazing for their success? Give a list of the grains grown in Nova Scotia. Fruit : Wliat part of Nova Scotia is famous for its fruit? Uhat are the conditions favourable to fruit-growing in tins Aallej? Name the chief fruits grown an.l exported. What uses are nn.de of cold storage warehouses in con- nection with this industry? What factors are favourable to the export of fruit? What advantages has Xova Scotia over Ontario in the fruit export trade? Why? Fishing: What physical conditions are favourable to the f5shin«r indrstry? Name the principal food fishes of Xova Scotia! irow are the fish prepared for market? To what coun- tries does Nova Scotia export fish? Why is it neces- sary for warm countries, such as Southern Europe, Brazil, and the West Indies to import fish? Ships that carry cargoes of fish to these countries will probably carry what cargoes on their return trip? Why? Wl.ich is more important, the fishing industry of Nova Scotia or that of Ontario? Why? What are the chief fishing grounds of Ontario fishermen? Compare the value of the fish and the number of men employed in fishing, in Nova Scotia and Ontario. (Nova Scotia's catch is valued at about $8,000,000 annually; Ontario's, at about $2,000,000. In Nova Scotia there are about 30,000 men employed and in Ontario about 3,000 men.) Mining : Name the four principal minerals found in Nova Scotia. Name, and point out on the map, the three chief 133 OEOORAPHY cculn'^ of ooal-niinii.-. What mineral is found in close proximity to the coal-mines? Of what economic import- ance is this? What Cape Breton city has very extensive iron and stool works? Tn what .ondition is ^old found ^ In what parts of Xova Scotia is gol.l minin- carried on? \\hore 18 pj-psum found? What are its principal con.- morcial uses? Lumbering and Hhip-buihling: "Pine has practically , disappeared from Xova Scotia." Why did pine disappear so much more rapidly than other timber? Whore are the chief markets for Xova Scotia's export lumber trade. What factors made Xova Scotia formerly a great ship-building coi.ntry? What causes Have led to a great decline in this industry? At what place IS ship-building still carried on to some extent? (larmouth) Manufacturing : What is the chief manufacturing industry of Xova Scotia? (Iron and steel) What conditions are favour- able for this industry? What is its chief centre? At what place are there extensive car workg? Xame the other leading manufacturing industries of the Province. 7. TRAXSPOnTATIOX In what respects is Xova Scotia so favourably situated for carrying on a world-wide commerce? With what countries does it carry on most of its trade? Xame, and trace on the map, its leading railways, and show the part each has in the trade of the Province. NOVA SCOTIA 8. TRADE AND COMMKRCK in Exports anrl imixjrts: Un.lcT wlmt ,„„,litio„s of production is it ponsibic for kin r r \ ''^'v ^'^''•'^ *^ ^°^^'^" <^ountrie8? What kind of go(.. i'KOI'Li; AND fiOVKKNMKNT the'^FrlT^l' "f^^"'* ^'''•" "' ''''^fly descendants of the French Aead.ans, the United Kmpire Loyalists, the Europeans Oncludin. the Highland Scots of Cape H eton Inland and the German settlers in Lunenbnr/). What was the p(3puIation of Xova Scotia according to the latest census returns? Ls its population increasing? Compare with previous censuses. (See Canadian Almanac.) How does the population of Xova Scotia compare with that of the city of Montreal ? Of what branches does the government of Xova Scotia 'n Jr. " ^''"* '■'nportant respect does this dit!er from tha of Ontario? Name the Provinces whose legislature, each contain two houses, namely, a LegislativcCouncil and a licgislativc Assembly. 10, CITIES AND CHIEF TOWNS \Vhat ,s the capital city? What educational institu- tions are situated at Halifax? It is a naval station and wL' T;r'"' ^'^'^''^- ^'^P'^'" ^^'«t these are. Why IS Halifax strongly fortified? What features make Halifax Harbour one of the best in the world? Xame the chief city on Cape Breton Island. Account for its 134 GEOGRAPHY origin and growth. Locate Pictou and New Glasgow Of what does their trade chiefly consist? What town is a h extreme west end of the Province? What is its trade? Whi r t'^T'l"'^^ ^''' " ^^^^'"^'"■P connection? ^olLrr ^"] '^: ""T'^ ^^h"*^' «"'! the Agricultural Col ege? Locate it on the map. Locate Springhill. What O la! P ."a 'u ^'''''" ^^''^'^''•^I''^^ ^""- the Atlanti.' Ocean. Find Amherst, the third town in size. What i. an'^Wo/n ';'"'"'''^" '''''' ^"-^ '«^«te Windsor and Wolfville, and name an important educational institu- tion m each. Locate, on the map, Grand Pre, the scene of the expulsion of the Acadians. Why is the district sur- rounding Grand Pr6 called "Evangeline's Land"? Why ?o7to!ril?''''" "^'^ "^' ' '^'■■^'^^"^ ^"'"-^ --' Form: CHAPTER XII FORM IV, JUNIOR GRADE DETAILS OP THE COURSE THE EABTH AS A PLANET Proofs Of the earth's rotundity; diameter, circum- lerence. Size: Measured by time required to travel around it; com- l)are witli the time required to cross the Atlantic; with the time required by Columbus for his voyage to America. Motion : Compare with a spinning top circling about the floor; the earth'a orbit; year, leap year. Seasons : Inclination of the earth's axis; distribution of light- variation in length of day and night-consult the almanac; cause of seasons; equinoxes. For hints on the teaching of the following topics, see buggestions for Lessons", Chapter XIII: The Earth as a Planet, the Earth's Orbit, the Inclination of the Earth's Axis, Variation in the Length of Day and Night the Cause of the Seasons. ' LATITUDE AND LONQITUDB 1. Measurement of circles. 2. How to locate a point. 135 JO " 136 GEOGRAPHY 3. Latitude and parallels of latitude: (1) Meaning, (2) Use. 4. Meridians and longitude: (1) Meaning, (2) Use. 5. Latitude and longitude: How detorniined on the map. 6. Longitude and time. 7. How latitude and longitude are determined at sea. 8. Standard time. For hints on the teaching of Latitude and Longitude, see " Suggestions for Lessons ", Chapter XIII. CONTINENT STRUCTURE, ETC. 1. Origin of continents. 2. Modification of coast-lines: Type: Coast-line of Xorth America. 3. Continental physical features: (1) North America (2) South America (3) Europe (4) Asia (5) Africa (6) Australia. 4. Influence of topography upon civilization. 5. General review. For hints on the teaching of the following topics, see "Suggestions for Lessons", Chapter XIII: Continent Structure, Influence of Topography upon Civilization, World Barriers. CONTINENT STRUCTURE: EUROPE 137 EUBOPB 1. Location: (1) In reference to other continents (2) Compare with latitude of Canada. 2. Size. 3. Coast-line: (1) Comparison with other continents. Ad- vantage, (2) Names of principal coast features-sea. gulfs, bays, straits, capes, etc. State one interesting fact about each. 4. Surface features, drainage: (1) Review facts taught in Form III, Junior Grade. (2) Mountains and rivers that form boundaries between countries. Effect upon local races, languages, and customs. (3) Non-boundary mountains and rivers. 6. The countries, with capitals: Associate with each country some interest- ing characteristic, such as, Holland- quaint customs, dikes, canals, windmills. 6. Climate and vegetation: Elements that affect the climate of Europe- Latitude, westerly winds, rainfall, elfect of mountain ranges. Compare the climates of Western and East- em Europe. Account for the difference. Compare the climate of Western Europe with that of Eastern North America in the same latitude. Give reasons for the difference. IM GEOGRAPHY 7. Occupations of people: (1) Basic factors: fertile soil, proximity of sea, accessibility to world's markets, presence of mines, labour (3) The principal industries and exports of each country (3) The chief commercial cities, particularly the world-renowned seaports (4) World trade routes. 8. Peoples, Governments. NOpTlI AMEPICA A review of work assigned for Junior Grade of Form III. Consider particularly not only physical conditions, but investigate the reasons for these conditions. Show, by concrete examples, that physical conditions, in large measure determine the industrial life of the people and form the basis for commercial and social development. SOUTH AMERICA Follow the same general line of cudy as for North America and Europe. The oliief poir ' • to be considered are position, form, size, relief, draina, , climate, indus- tries and industrial regions, centres of population, chief countries and cities, people and their government. Compare the physical conditions of this continent, such as, relief, drainage, soil, climate, seasons, etc., with those of North America, CHArTEll Xfll FORM IV, JUNIOR GRADE SUGGESTIONS FOR LESSONS THE EARTH AS A PLANET In additiox to he daily rotation of the earth on its axi. (see page 92), the earth has another motion. What is It? It has this motion round the sun in common with the other planets of the solar system. (See page 119.) How long does it take the earth to make one revolu- tion round the sun ? It takes it almost 365J days. What name is given to this interval of time? Why is every fourth year made a " leap year"? If you are given the number designating the year, how can you tell whether it is a leap year or not? If the number is divisible by four, it IS called a leap year. What exception is there to this g;eneral rule? The last year of a century is not con sidered a leap year unless its designation number is divisible by 400. For example, of the vears 1600, 1700, 1800, and 1900, only the year 1600 was a leap year. The year 1896 was a leap year; the next leap YPar was 1904, after an interval of eight years. What is the reason of this? The sun year is a little less than 365J davs, and ugless three leap years were dropped every four centuries, our time would get faster than the sun time. THE earth's orbit The pathway on which the earth is supposed to travel round the sun is called its orMt. It is almost, but not quite, a circle; it is a sort of flattened circle. Make a 139 140 GEOGRAPHY tlrawing of it on tl.e black-board, and mark the sun a little to one side of its centre. Note that this will brin- the earth a little nearer to the sun at certain times of the >^ar than at others. Strange to say, the earth is nearer tlie sun in winter than it is in summer. It is the slanting rays of the winter sun that counteract this advantage Perhaps you have noticed that the sun appears somewhat larger m mid-winter than i^ does in midsummer. What is meant by the plane of the earth's orbit ^ A very clear notion of it may be obtained by imagining the sun to be a large, stationary buoy floating, half submerged, on the surface of a perfectly smooth sea. Then imagine the earth to be a ball, also half submerged, floating swiftly m a circle round the stin-buoy. This circular pathway will represent the earth's orbit, and the surface of the water will represent the plane of the earth's orbit. Note that the orbit lies on this plane all the way round and that the plane cuts the earth into halves. THE IXCLIXATION OF THE EARTH's AXIS The earth does not move round the sun with its axis straight up and down. It is tilted a little, so that it is always inclined about 23^ degrees from the upriglj^ posi- tion. Draw an upright line on the black-board; draw another line inclined to it so that the angle Ijetween them is 83i degrees— a little larger than one quarter of a right angle. As the earth moves round the sun, this inclina- tion makes the axis always point toward the North Stir. (See diagram, page 11, Text-book.) VABIATION IN THE LEXGTH OP DAY AND NIGHT Take a small globe on which are represented the poles, the equator, and a few circles parallel to the equator. Do not forget that the earth's axis always points to that part VARIATION IN LENOTH OF DAY AND NIGHT 141 of the heavens where the X(,rth Star is, and that the earth turns on its axis always from west to east, the direction indicated l.y the equator and the circles that are parallel to it. Hold the globe in front of a lighted candle. How much of its surface is lighted up? How much of it is in shadow? Cut a lu)lo. the size of the glol)e, in a piece of card- l)oard, insert the globe, and hold it in such a way that the lighted half of its surface is on one side of the cardboard and the shadowed half on the other side. The line where the cardl)oard and globe meet will represent the circle of illumination. (See diagram, page 13, Text-book.) Place the globe so that its poles arc equally distant from the candle. Note that when the glote is i?i this position the circle of illumination passes through the poles. Why is this? ^ Examine the circles on the globe that are parallel to the equator. What part of eacli of ti.efe circles is in candle-light? In shadow? One half of each circle is in candle-light and the other half is in shadow. Locate on the globe a circle about half-way between the equator 'and the north pole. This circle will indicate, approximately, the distance that we are north of the equator. Mark a point on this circle; keeping the globe in tht> cardboard, rotate it once at a uniform rate before the lighted candle. How lonir a time is this point in candle-light? How long is it in shadow? Why is the time the same in each case? This illustration should give us the explanation why day and night are equal in length when the poles are* equally distant from the sun. Every twenty-four hours the earth turns on its axis once and carries us round with it in a circle. Tf the sun shines directly upon us for half of our daily circle-journey, and if we are in the shadow 142 OEOORAPHT of the earth for the other lialf, it follows that there must be twelve hours of day followed by twelve hours of night. This happens twice ever]f year— at the Spring and "the Autumn equinoxes. Next, place the globe in the cardboard so that the north pole is tilted toward the candle. How much of the circle is now exposed to tiie candle-light? How much of it is on the shadowed side? Measure accurately. If, say, five eighths of the circle is in candle-light and three' eighths of it in shadow, and if the globe is rotated once at a uniform rate, it follows that the marked point on the circle will be in the light five eighths of the time and in shadow three eighths of the time. If these conditions apply to the earth and sun, then, during one circle-journey around the earth, we shall be in direct sunlight for fifteen hours (that is, five eighths of twenty-four hours) and in the shadow of the earth for nine hours. Th happens on or about June 2l8t every year. Similarly, when the north pole is turned away from the sun,. we have short days and long nights. Of course all the above changes take place gradually as the earth re- volves about the sun. We referred to tliis, if you remem- ber, in our observations in connection with " The Seasons ", (see page 71). We have here the expjanation of the facts learned in connection with the observation lesson on the " Variation in the Length of Day and Night*' (see page 75). The ^un appears to us to move in a great circle around the earth. The arc traced by the sun in the sky in the day- time on or about June 21st forms more than half of this imaginary sun-circle, and the day is therefore longer than the night. On or about December 2l8t the arc is less than THE CAUSE OF THE SEASONS J« lialf the sun-circle and the day is therefore sliorter than the night. On or ai)out March 21st and Septemlwr Slst the are is lialf of the sun-circle and therefore the day and night are equal in length. We know that the sun docs not really move round the earth. The observations referred to above, as well as those made in connection with the lesson on "The Earth's flotation" (sec page 92), show us that it is we who are journeying every day, while the sun is shining upon us, from the place from which we see the sun rise to the place from which we see it set. It is the rotating earth that is carrying us round in a circle once every twenty- four hours past the stationary sun. The moving of the sun across the sky is only an illusion, like that of the moving fence and trees seen from the window of a fast railway train. THE CAUSE OF THE SEASONS If the earth always moved round the sun with its axis straight up and down, the sun's rays would- always shine upon the earth with exactly the same degree of slant ; that is, the shadows cast by the sun would always be exactly the same in length. There would be no lengthening of shadows as winter approaches, and no shortening of them as summer draws near. Again, if the earth's axis were straight up and down, there would be no variation in the length of day and night. Every place would always have twelve hours day and twelve hours night, and the amount of heat that any particular place would receive would be practically the same all the year round. In other words, there would be but one season, not four, during the year. You will thus see that the real cause of the seasons must be the inclination of the axis of the earth. Since 144 GEOQRAPHY the axis always points toward the Xortli Star, it follows tliat, as the earth journeys round the sun, each pole is in the sunlight for six months, and then in the shadow of the earth for the rcnminiii;; six months of the year. Illus- trate this hy means of a hat-pin and an apple. Show that, when the earth's axis has its greatest in- clination toward the sun, the latter's vertical rays will reach tiieir farthest point north, namely, oii the Tropic of Cancer; tiiis takes place on or about June 2 1st, and gives us the longest day in the year. Show also that, when the axis has its greatest inclination away from the sun, the latter's vertical rays will reach their farthest point south, namely, on the Tropic of Capricorn ; this takes place on or al)out. December 21st and gives us the shortest day in the year. When the sun is over the Tropic of Cancer, it is high up in the sky and its rays give us summer's heat; but . when the sun is over the Tropic of Capricorn, it is low down in the sky and its rays contain so little heat that we have winters cold. The tilting of the earth to, and away from, the sun, will explain why the sun appears to change its position in the sky to the south of us, being high up in summer and low down in winter. (Sec p;i;,'e 73.) Wiiy have we winter when the sun's rays are most slanting, and summer when they are nearly vertical? It is because the sun's rays not only pass through the thicker layer of air, l)ut also because they spread themselves over a greater area of surface than the more vertical rays do. Illustrate both of these factors by diagrams on the black-board. Note that the most slanting rays are accompanied by the shortest days of sunlight, and that the nearly vertical rays are accompanied by the longest ('•>' i of sunlight. LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE Note, too, that twice during the year, as the earth is '•*" revolving round the sun, the two poles are equally distant from the sun. It is at tliese times we have the equinoxes —equal day and night. Make furtlier use of the a[)i)lc and hat-pin and of blaek-Iward dia^jrnms until the suc- cession of the seasons is clearly understood. (See diagrams, pages 11-1 5, Text-book.) Thus we find that the causes of the seasons, which were deduced from observations that were made of the" sun's shadows throughout the year (see pages 6!)-7.'j), are now explained. LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE MKASUnEMENT OF CIRCLES Draw a circle on the black-board. What is a circle? Tn geographical language, a circle is an endless line drawn around a point, and always the same distance from that point. That point is called its centre. Every circle, whatever its size, is supposed to be divided into 360 equal parts which are called degrees. Each degree is again divided into 60 minutes; and each minute into CO seconds. The earth's equator is a great circle. What is its centre? What is the length of the equator? How many miles long is a degree at the equator? 25000 miles -=- 360 = 69J miles, nearly. How many miles are there in one minute? What name is given to a straight line drawn from one part of the equator through the centre of the earth to the equator on the opposite side of the earth? How long is this diameter? What name is given to a straight line from the surface of tlie earth to its centre? How long is it ? How many degrees are there in the circumference of the earth? Why? How many degrees are there between I4e OEOORAPHT •* tl.e two pc.le«? Why? . How many degrees are there between the equator and cither pole? Why? Hc'peat tlie table for tinulnr measure. There are 60 seconilH (") ii, l minute ('), 60 minutes in I dogree ("), and 360 degrees in 1 circle. Illustrate by circles drawn on the black-lward. now TO LOCATE A POINT Mark a point on a blank black-board. ITo.v can the location of this particular point be determined? Can it be located by saying that it is a certain distance from (he top of the black-board? Why not? This does not locate It definitely, because each of a whole series of points extending across the black-board from end to end may Imve Its location thus described. What other factor is necessary in order to locate exactly the given point? It will be necessary to state its distance from the end of the black-board. If, for example, we say that it is two feet five inches from the top of the board and four feet ten inches from its end (left), we know the exact location of It and that no other point on the black-board can have this location. Note that the top and the end of the board are really two lines at right angles to each other and that the given point lies between them. Locate definitely a pohit marked at random on a blank page of your scribbling book. Note that the two edges of the page, from which the measurements are made, form two lines at right angles to each other and that the given point whose location is sought lies between them. Similarly, it may be shown that any point on a surface can be readily located provided that it lies between two LATITUPE AND PARALLELS OF LATITUDE 147 linca that arc at right angles to each other. Illustrate this by one or two examples on the bjack-lward. An application of this principle is seen in the location of farms in a township. (See lesson on " The Township ", page 79). Locate, for example, the farm known as " Lot 12, Con. 7 ". Why are you sure that you have correctly located it? It is situated on the seventh concession num- , bercd from the town line at one side of the township, and it is on the twelfth lot numbered from the town line at one end of the township. These town lines are really two lines at right angles to each other, and the farm located lies between them. LATITUDE AND PARALLFXS OF LATITUDE How are places located upon the earth? Place a chalk mark upon the surface of the school globe. Can you descril)e accurately its location? Why is it difficult to do this? Let us look for two lines at right angles to each other between which is the point marked. In measuring distance north and south on the earth, it has l)een agreed to take the equator as the starting- place. On which side of the equator is the point that was marked? How far is it from the equator? The distance north or south of the equator is measured, not by miles, but by degrees, each of wljich is, as we have seen, almost seventy miles. How many degrees are there between the equator and the poles? To make the measuring easy, circles are drawn around the earth parallel to the equator:' the distance between these circles depends upon the scale on which the map is drawn. (See diagrams, page 17 Text-book.) What is the distance in degrees between these circles on your globe? On the map of the world? On the map of North America? On the map of Canada? On the map of Ontario? With the help of these circles. 148 GEOGRAPHY calculate, in degrees, how far London (England), Mont- real, New York, Calcutta, etc., are north of the equator Practise exercises like this on the globe and on the maps of the continents. The distance of any place from the equator in degrees IS called Its latitude. The degrees in latitude never vary •n length Why not? The circles that help in marking lie latitude are called parallels of latitude. What is meant I.y north latitude (X. Lat.)? By south latitude (S. l^t)? A^hat IS meant by saying that Petrograd is in ^^xiy degrees N. Lat.? That London (Ontario) is in forty-three degrees N. Lat.? That Rio de Janeiro (Brazil) IS in S. Lat. twenty-three degrees? Drill thor- oughly on various maps until you can readily determine tlie latitude of places in any part of the world. MEniDIANS AND LONGITUDE Just as it is necessary to have a line (the equator) as a starting-place for measuring distance north and south 80 it IS necessary to have a line for a starting-place when measuring distance east and west on the earth In what direction must this line run? Why'must it run north and south ? When measuring east and west, it has been agreed to take a menduin line for the starting-place. What is a meridian line? It is a line upon which the sun's shadow falls when it is noon. Where is our meridian or noon Imo? Tt IS the line drawn north and south through the noon shadow cast by the stake in the school yard (See lesson on "Seasons", page 70.) How long is this meridian line of ours? We may imagine it to extend north to the Xorth Pole and south to the South Pole- in other words, our meridian is a north-and-south noon line that 18 supposed to run from pole to pole passing through MERIDIANS AND LONGITUDE 149 here on its way. Since the sun crosses this line every day at noon, it follows that every place on it will have noon at exactly the same time that we do. What other places have meridians? Every place must have its own meridian. Why? What is Toronto's meridian? Keep in mind that meridians are north-and-south noon lines; and note that they cross the equator at right angles (what does tin's mean?), and that they are really semicircles meeting at the poles. (See diagram, page 317, Ontario High School Physical Geography.) Why are they semicircles? It is the meridian that passes through London (Eng- land) that has been agreei pon as the starting-place for measuring distances cast and west on the earth. It is for this reason that it is called the First Meridian. Find it on the globe and on the map; you will find it marked Distance east or west of the First Meridian is called longitude; it is always expressed in degrees. What does west longitude (W. Long.) mean? East longitude (E, Ix)ng.) ? If two persons leave Greenwich at exactly the same time and travel at exactly the same rate, one going east, the other west, where will they meet? They will meet half-way round the globe— at 180 degrees of longi- tude, that being half of 360 degrees. Find the 180th meridian on the map or globe. Xow, just as parallels of latitude were drawn at certain intervals to help in measuring distance north or south of the equator, so meridians are drawn at certain intervals to the east and west of the First Meridian to help in measuring distances east or west, the intervals depending ujion the scale on which the map is drawn. The measure- ments in degrees are made along the equator. (See diagram, page 13, Text-book.) 150 GEOGRAPHY What names are given to the different meridians? The one that crosses the equator 5 degrees west of the First Meridian is called the 5th meridian W. Long. What is the name of the one that crosses the equator 30 degrees east of the First Meridian? Is the 180th meridian in W. Long, or in E. Long.? As it is the same distance to the east or to the west of the First Meridian, it is simply called the 180th meridian. What group of islands in Iha Pacific Ocean is crossed hy this meridian? If meridians cross the equator at intervals of one degree, how many of them are there between the First Meridian and the 180th? Note that these meridians are farthest apart at the equator and that they meet at the poles. The length of a longi- tude degree therefore varies. It is greatest at the equator (almost 70 miles) ; at the poles its length is 0, Except in a few cases which need not be considered here, the latitude degree, as already noticed, never varies in length; it is always approximately 70 miles. Drill thoroughly on various maps until the pupils can readily determine the longitude of places in all parts of the world. (See diagram, page 13, Text-book.) LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE Wliere do East Longitude and West Longitude meet? They meet, as already noted, at the 180th meridian! Into how many sections, therefore, is the earth's surface divided by the equator and the First Meridian? What are they? They are: (a) That part of the earth north of the equator and west of the First Meridian as far as the 180th meridian. (6) That part north of the equator and east of the First Meridian as far as the 180th meridian, (c) That part south of the. equator and west cf the First Meridian as far as the 180th meridian. LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE 151 (d) That part south qf the equator and oast of the First Meridian as far as the 180th meridian. Locate these settions on the globe and note tliat each forms one quarter of the earth's surface. Xamc and h)cate on a map of the worhl important countries, cities, etc., in eacli section. Note that any place in any of these- sections lies between two lines that are at right angles to each other. What are these lines in each of the four sec- tions? They are the equator and the First Meridian. Find, for e.xample, the situation of Winnipeg. Mea- sure in degrees how far it is north of the equator. It is 50 degrees. Xext, measure in degrees how far it is west of the First Meridian. It is about 97 degrees. What, then, is the location of Winnipeg? It h approximately in' N. iMt. 50' and W. Long. 97'. Xote that tiiis method of locating Winnipeg is the same as that used in locating a i)oint on the black-ljoanl or on the blank page of an exercise book. It is also the same method as that used in locating farms in a town- ship. A ship is reported by wireless telegraphy to be in dia- tre.-twcen the First Meridian at (Jrconwich and the 60th meridian? The time at the 60th meridian is four hours slower than Greenwich time. Similarly, the time at the 75th, at the 90th, at the 105th, and at the 120th meridians is, respectively, five hours, six hours, seven hours, and eight hours slower than Greenwich time. Note that the time Iwlts are so arranged that their boundaries are largely provincial. (See Text-book.) The Maritime Provinces are associated with the 60th meri diau; Ontario and Quebec to the Great Lakes, with the 75tli; Western Ontario and Manitoba, with the 90th; Sas- katchewan and All)erta, with the 105th; and British Columbia with the 120th. By this arrangement the time in Ontario is one hour slower than that of the Maritime Provinces; Manitoba's time one hour slower than that of Outario ; etc. Wlien it is 12 o'clock noon at London (England) what time is it in the Maritime Provinces? In Ontario? When it is noon in Ontario what time is it at Halifax, Winnipeg, Regina, Calgary, and Vancouver, respectively? When tht Ontario schools are being dismissed at 12 o'clock uoon, what is probably taking place in the schools of British Columbia? Whv? CONTINENT STRUCTURE: ORIGIN CONTINENT STRUCTURE OBIOIN OP CONTINENTS The story of the origin and growtli of continents is a very interesting one. The secret was discovered by men called geologists, who have made a very careful study of the rocks; and, although they have not yet been able to learn many of the details, enough is now Icnown to mak.> the story a probable one. These geologists tell us that ages and ages ago the earth mass was much warmer than it is now and that it has been gradually cooling off. They also tell us that its rock surface was much more uniform; that, compara- tively speaking, its ridges were not so high nor its de- pressions so deep as at present. Hence the oceans at that time were probably more extensive in area but not so great in depth as our oceans are. As the earth gradually cooled, it gradually shrunk in size, just as most substances do when cooling. As this shrinking process continued, the rock surface of the earth became more and more folded into higher ridges and lower depressions, in much the same way that the skin of a hot, baked apple does when cooling. In course of time the folds, or ridges, gmdually rose higher and higher above the surface of the shallow ocean, carrying up with them broad ocean-bottom plains that were lying at or near the surface. These ridges, with the low adjoining plains, formed the l)eginning of the con- tinents, as we now know them. In the meantime the waters of the shallow ocean gradually withdrew into the deeper depressions that were being formed in the under- water rock surface. Tn this way the oceans, sls we now know them, began to form. IM GEOGRAPHY It is believed that the land surface of tlie earth is not yet stationary; that it is still rising in places and sinking in others; and that this rising and sinking is taking place so gradually that centuries may pass liefore the results are noticeable. It is Iwlievod too, that the general out- lines of the continents as well as their characteristic sur- face features are, in the main, the direct result of this undulatory movement of the earth's crust. Not only have the surface features of the continents iMjen greatly changed by. the earth's contraction fonts, hut they have been further modified by the erosion work of rivers and other agencies that have cut deeply into the rock surface; depressions thus formed vary in char- acter from the steep-sided gorge to the deep, broad valley. The sea bottoms, on the other hand, not being subject to such erosion-forces, are likely to have surfaces much more uniform in character. This is probably why a sink- ing coast region is likely to produce a broken shore-line; and a rising coast region, a comparatively unbroken shore- line. NORTH AMERICA The above theory will account for the broken shore- lines of the northern half, as well as for the compara- tively unbroken shore-lines of the southern ha'f of the North American continent. (See " Shore Forms of" North America", page 103.) According to geologists, the northern coast regions of North America have been gradually sinking, until the sea has at length entered wie river mouths and valleys, forming many harbours, bays, etc. ; while the higher land forms still remain above water, forming peninsulas, capes, islands, etc. Thus Newfoundland Island, the flulf of St. Ijawrence, the wide mouth of Hie St. Lawrence T?iver, CONTINENT STRUCTURE: SOUTH AMERICA 157 llclle Isle Strait, the Nova Scotian Peninsula, the Bay of Fundy, as well as the many otiier shore forms found along the coasts of (.'anada — east, west, nortli liiiv(> Ikhmi caused or have been greatly modified in this way. On the other hand, the theory suggests that the rising of the more or less uniform sea bottoms contiguous to the original shore-line will explain the almost unbroken shore- lines of the southern half of the continent. If the south- eastern, southern, and western coasts of the United States and the coasts of Mexico and Central America are care- fully examined on a wall map of Xorth America, com- paratively few harbours and other shore forms will be found. Ej^riment: In a deep tray make a plasticine model of North America; surround the model with an evenly- sloping margin to represent the sea bed contiguous to the shore-line; pour suflRcient water around the model to reach the shore-line; and then tilt the tray slightly so that the end representing the north is lowered and the other end raised. What is the result? How does this experiment help to explain the character of the North American coast-lines? The pupils of this Grade have already studied the general features of North America and should, therefore, be familiar with its highlands, slopes, plain's, and river basins. If North America has been well taught, the knowledge obtained and the method followed should serve as a guide in the teaching of the other continents. SOUTH AMERICA Review the three highlands of South America, the con- tinental axis, the chief river basins, and the regular coast- line. (See Relief Map, page 225, The Sfory of the Earth 1S8 OEOORAPHY and Ih Peoples.) The South American coast regions have been rising and are unbroken because the level sea bottoms are \te\ng raised. There is, consequently, a general absence of good, natural harbours. This is particularly true of the Pacific coast. What effect must this have upon the develop- ment of the continent ? I EUBOPB Physically Europe and Asia form a single conti'icnt, called Eurasia; but as Europe has so long been considered a continent by itself and htm been so long regarded as the home of the civilized races it is usual to consider it separately. What is its area? It has the longest coast-line in pro- portion to its area of any of the continents. Verify this statement. Why is the coast-line so much broken i* Its shores, especially in the north and west, have been sinking thus forming many inlets. The Baltic Sea and its gulfs are old land valleys that have been submerged. Name a few of the other inlets on these coasts. In Southern Europe the rising and sinking of the land areas, while the mountains were forming, has made many peninsulas, seas, etc. The Mediterranean Sea occupies a deep depres- sion formed by the sinking of the earth's crust. Locate on the map of Europe the chief coast features of the Mediterranean. What effect has Europe's much broken coast-line had upon its development as a continent?- ^Vllat is the primary highland of Europe? The Alps and associated mountains. Note that the Alps Mountains form a hub, as it were, from which radiate minor ranges in all directions. Name and locate them. This system of mountain ranges has more or less isolated many areas «»f Europe from one another. What results have such CONTINENT STRUCTURE: ASIA 1S9 physical barriers had upon race and language develop- ment? Give instances. Trace the continental axis of Europe from Cape Finisterre ("End of the I^and") over the Cantabrian, the Pyrenees, Alps, Dinaric Alps, and Balkan Ranges to the Dardanelles. The Caiicasus Ran<,'i' seems to Ik; a continuation eastward of the Carpathian Mountains, from which it is separated by a depression (Black Sea). The Alps and asbuciated highlands form the great plateau region of Central Europe. What im- jHirtant rivers flow from this plateau? What bramh of the Alps extend south into Italy? (Study Relief Map, page 297, The Story of the Earth and Its Peoples.) What mountains form a secondary highland? Tlie Scandinavian Mountains, ^^^lat great lowland plain lies Itetween the primary and seconda»y highlands? Xote its great extent— from the Atlantic to the Ural Mountains. Trace the drainage divide that separates it into two slopes; one, sloping north-west to the Arctic and Atlantic; and the other, south-east to the Caspian and Black Seas. Wliat are the chief rivers in each slope? Note that the waters of the Black Sea Basin force their way through the con- tinental axis at the Bosphorus (Ox-ford) and the Dar- danelles. ASIA Owing to its inaccessibility, comparatively little is known of the mountain system of Central Asia. We know that there is a great mass or knot of mountains north- west of India called the Pamirs (" Roof of the World ") from which, like the Alps in Europe, radiate ranges in various directions. The nimalayas, Kuen-lun, and Tian- Shan extend eastward; the Hindu Rush westward; and the Sulaiman southward. Tx)cate these ranges. IM OEOQRAPIIT The nimalayaa ("Abode of Snow") goparate ludia from Tibet. They contain forty penka that rise more than 24,000 fwt nl).jVo tho wa-h-vcl, one of which \a tho hiRhi'Mt in the worh]. What i.s iln name? How high is it? The Kuen-lun Mountains separato Tibet from Chinese Turkestan and Mongolia. Tliough its crests are not so high as those of the Himalayas, this range surpasses them all in average altitude and is, on the whole, the most elevated ,n the earth. Between the Himalayas and tho Kuen-lur,8 is Til>et, tho greatest plateau i. the world; its average elevation is almost as high as I highest peak (Mount Blanc) in the Alps. The Tian Shan (" Sky-Mountains ") separate Turke- stan from Chinese Turkestan, and are continued eastward as the Altai Mountains. Inclosed between the Kuen-luns on the south, the Altai on the north, and the (iroat Khingan Range on the east, lies the vast Gobi Plateau, (lower than the Tibet Plateau) the most of it a desert of sand and mountains. North-east of the Altai are the Yablonoi and beyond these the Stanovoi range extending to Bering Strait. These mountains are in detached masses and must not be considered a continuous range. Tho continental axis of Asia extends from the Dar- danelles to Bering Strait, and is Ixilicved to lie along the following mountain ranges: Taurus, Elbuns, Hindu Rush, Pamir, Kuen-lun, Great Khinjran, Yablonoi, and Stanovoi. At the Dardanelles it connects with the continental axis of Europe — making an almost continuous axis of 10,000 miles, extending from Cape Finisterre to Bering Strait; this is nearly as long as the continental axis of North and South America taken together. (Consult Relief Map. page .319, The. Story of the Earth and Its Peoples.) CONTINENT STRUCTURE: ASIA 111 Asia pposonts many Mtrikiiijj mirfHcv coiitraxt.-*. It liaM, M Wf linvf li'arnetl, tlit- >frcato«t lu'i;,'liis in tlu" wurM ; it lia» also till' imwt (Iccp-sunk (N-prt'ssiims. It lias iho moat elevated lul»le-laiulrt aixi the lowest plniii "'i« (Wpenl flepresnion in the world is the valley ol i i ' .,a Sea, wliii-h in \,M2 feet b«'lo\v the Hen-level. The Arctie coasts of Asia are similar to t!."- .1 Sortli Ameriea and have had a similar «)rij,'iii. W 'W Vi r lie; fonne ii. ' :ii. "Mil and sea-hirds. The east, south, and w» , ,.m i ! .•;.• eontiiieiil are niiicli hrokcii hy jn'oinsulas, - a-. ;.'i 1'-. «•'« The |M>ninsiilas are formed hy mountain spiirs or ji^u- liinds extending weanward. While these ptMiinsu'in 'i^!-- liiiids were rising, corresponding depressions were foi .. ...,' U'sidc them. Why should we expect this? These depres- sions have hecome seas, gulfs, etc. What is the relation of the capes of Asia to these iK'iiinsulas? Note that Arahia is the largest peninsula in the world. What islands of Asia are continental in their origin? What evidence have we that the Japan Islands are formed hy a range of mountains rising from the hed of the ocean? Why are earthquakes so frequent in Japan? Is it Ix- cause the mountains are still growing? Why should this cause eartli(|uakes? When we hear of earthquakes taking place in various parts of the world — some of them very destructive, others scarcely perceptihle — is it a sign that the earth mass is still contracting in bulk? Why do you think so? The ploins of Asia are all on the outer l)orders of the continent? TIow would you account for this? All tho great rivers of Asia have their source in the tahle-lands and mountains of the interior. Fjocate the chief plains and the rivers that flow through them. What rivers have 163 GEOGRAPHY i ? formed great alluvial plains that are supporting dense jiopulatious? So extonwive are the alluvial plains formed by the rivers of India (Ganges, Brahmaputra, Indus), that it is said that one may travel from the mouth of the (Janges in a north-westerly direction to the Punjab with- out seeing a pebble as large as a small marble. The "stone-mills" in the mountains seem to be doing their work well. Kxplain. It is said that " Asia is the homo of the twin-streams". locate the Hwang-Ho and Yangtse- kiang, (Janges and Brahmaputra, Tigris and Euphrates, Sir and Amu. Locate the 3Iekong River. This river is «.«<»() miles long and is said to have the largest volume of any river in Asia. How would you account for this? (Consult the Rainfall Map on page 40 of Text-book.) AFRICA Why is Africa called the "Dark Continent"? .Give two reasons. Africa has no continental "backbone". What does this mean? It has no great mountain ranges in the interior. Africa ie a great plateau continent. Why? It is walled in by a rim of mountains or high- lands round the edge and parallel with the coast. Traca? To what (Means do the short continental slopes iiidino? Nearest to what iMcaii is the lontinental axis of X(.rth America? Of Stmth America? Of Eurasia? jFow many outlets has the Arctic Ocoii? How wide is Bering Strait? What effect has this narrow outlet upon the climate of the North Pacific Ocean? Why? At what points do the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans join? What ocean is widest from east to west? What indentation extends farthest into the land? What highlands protect the continer.is from l)eing worn away by the waves and tides of the (nean? What coast-lines have no such protection? What islands seem to have once been parts of Europe ? Of Asia? Of North America? From what highlands were they broken off? What islands partially inclose seas or large gulfs and bays in Asia? In Europe? In North America? What con- tinental slope is most broken by large inlets? What jieninsulas extend in a northerly direction? Wliat ocean receives most water from the land ? What continental slope furnishes most water to the Pacific? What is the longest river in the world? The largest? Into what ocean do both these rivers flow? What is the longest river flowing into the Pacific Ocean? Into the Mediterranean Sea? Into the Indian Ocean? Into tlie Arctic Ocean? (Consult the Reference Tables in the Text-book.) What navigation difficulties are met with in the rivers flowing into the Arctic Ocean? In African GENERAL REVIEW 162 rivers? With the excepti..,, of the Darling River, why 18 there an ahseiue of great rivers in Australia? What urea of North America in not drained into the wean? (The Salt Lake Basin) Of Kura-sia? I^-ate these on the map. How is the greater part (,f the interior of Australia drained? What regions in Africa .lo not require drainage? Why n..t ? What is the largest river in the worl.l whose waters do not reach the on mountains for its waters than any other great river in the world. What iK'comes of the waters that flow into the Caspian and Dea.l Seas'-' \M>y do they not fill up and (.verflow their hanks? Are they lik.ly t(. have underground cnneetion with the Mediterranean Sea? Why not? They meupy depressions that are below sea-level. Xame in order all the mountains over which the con- tinental axes pass from Ca|H. Finisterre to Cape Horn via liering Strait. What mountains form the primary', or mam, highland region in Xorth America? In South America? In EuroiK>? In Asia? In Australia? What 18 the highest mountain in-ak in N',)rth America? In South America? In Kuroin-? In Asia? In Africa? In what continents do the continental axes extend north and south? East and west? What relation has the direction of the continental axes to the general direction in which the continents extend? What are the two secondary high- land regions of Xorth America? The two s,.co„dar>- high- lands of South America? What is the secondan- highland region of Europe? In Xorth America. S<,„th America, and Europe, locate definitely the hroad plains between the primary and secondary highlands, ^at continents have broken coast-lines? T^nhroken cast-lines? Which continents have been developed most? Which the least? 166 GEOGRAPHY What relatiou is tliere lictween tlie character of the coast- line and the development of the continent? Kxplain. INFLUENCE OF TOPOGRAPHY UPON CIVILIZATION What effect has the structure of a country upon its civil- ization? A people can never become civilized unless they have homes. In ancient times permanent homes were possible only where fertile areas of the earth were walled in by natural barriers, such as mountains, deserts, etc. In Palestine, for example, the land was fertile — a " land flowing with milk and honey ". It was a country with many natural defences — hounded on the west by an almost inaccessible se»-coast ; on the south by a great desert through which the wandering Israelites had passed ; on the oast by the Sea of (Jalilee, the deep valley of the River Jordan, and the Dead Sea. In the north was a plain, the one weak sjjot in tliis great natural fortress. The Israelites had many enemies in the surrounding countries, many of them \mug wandering nomads wlioso trade was war. They were able to defend themselves successfully against these enemies for centuries and tlius became the founders of the highest civilization of their time. Other races in other regions had similar opportunities to develop a distinctive civilization. What natural con- ditions made possible the civilization of India, Japan, Egypt, Greece, Rome, res|K'ctivcly? What modern forces and tendencies have made impos- rible the conditions upon which ancient civilizations were based? For some of the factors in the development of th*> British type of civilization see " The Evolution of the British Empire" (Chap. XV). WORLD HARRIKUH 167 WORLD BARRIERS For what purpose are jailH, or prisons, used ? Of what use are the hurred (l(M)rs and windows? The hars or "barriers" prevent prisoners getting outside or beyond them. Is the high jail wall a barrier too? Wliy? IIow are lots, farms, etc., separated from one anotlier? Are these '* line" fences barriers? What purpose do they serve ? Are swamps, iriuskegs, ri- rs, lakes, etc., barriers? Why? Do animals such as t horse, fox, dog, etc., find them harriers? Why? Do irds find them i)arriers? Why not? Docs man? \Miy not? Are they barriers to the spread of trees, weeds, etc.? Kxplain. What name do we give to barriers found in nature, that is, not made by man? Name other "natural" barriers. Which of these may !« called "world" barriers? Why? MOUNTAIN BARRIEH8 Name the greatest mountain ranges of the Old World. Which of these forms the greatest bar or barrier to travel ? The Himalayas. Why? Is man able to cross them? Are animals? Are birds? Are plants? Which of these would find the least diffi- culty in crossing the Himalayas? Why? What races of people are separated by the Himalayas? What general influetM-e has this range of mountains had npcan8 at) great barriers as formerly? Wliy not? What living things besides man, have found the oceans to be ffrcat barriers? What kind of oceans form the greatest barriers? (Wide oceans and the frozen o<-eaiis) Xame the widest -cean. What continents are sepamtcil by it? What con* onts are separated by the frozen Arctic Ocean? Why is t \rctic Ocean so impassable a barrier? What ocean barrit ^ separate America from the Old World? Wha. rat • of pt'oplc li»ed in America at the time of its discoven y Columbus? Why were no white people found in Ai lea nt that time? Were there any Indians liviri ' in Eui tpe 'tefore Columbus discovere<] America? Why not? What general effect did the ocean barriers of America have upon the development of its people during the long centuries before the white man came? In what respects are the Indians physically unlike the whites? (See Text- book.) After its discovery many white people settled in America. A large number of the descendants of the former are still to be found in various parts of the con- tinent. Did the early explorers of America find types of animals different from those found in the Old World? Name some of them. Why were these not found in the Old World? Name some important animals of Europe •tJ?^ DBBERT BARRIERS 1<9 not found in the New World. Why were they not found there? Name some native American birds. Name a European bird that has become 80 common in America a« to be a nuisance. Do birds find the ocean as great a barrier as the other lower animals? Why not? Did birds cross from Europe to America, and vice versa, before the latter was discovered? Name a few. Do plants travel from one part of the earth to other parts? What proof have we of this? IIow do plants travel? Give an example. What effect has the ocean upon the dispersal of seeds? Why? Name plants found only in America previous to its discovery. Name plants, useful and injurious, which have since found their way to America. Note.— The ocean barriers in relation to the other continents may be treated in a similar manner. nESEBT BARRIKRS Name the greatest desert in the world. What great race of people live south of the Sahara? North of the Sahara? What conditions for the independent develop- ment of these races were made possible bv the Sahara desert ? Name typical wild animals found south of the Sahara. Why are these not found to any great extent north of the Sahara? Is the Sahara a total hindrance to the migra- tion of birds? Why not? Does it hinder the disperul of seeds? Explain. How does man cross the Sahara? Name other desert barriers. CHAPTER XIV FORM IV, SENIOR GRADE DETAILS OF THE COURSB WINDH 1. Review lesion on " Winds " for Form II. (See page 64.) 2. Nature and inflaence of the following: (1) Trade-windB (2) Prevailing Westerlies (3) Belts of calm: (a) Equatorial (rising air), (6) Hone latitudes (falling air). (4) Monsoons (6) Polar winds (6) Summer and winter winds (7) Cyclic winds of Eastern North America (8) Sea breezes and mountain winds. For hints on the teaching of a lesson on Winds, see "Suggestions for Ijos8«)ns ", Chapter XV. See also Geo- graphy Reader, "Monsoon Weather", page 49. OCEAN CUHBENT8 1. General cause and nature. 2. Influence of earth's rotation upon their direction. 3. The great ocean eddies. 4. They equalize temperature of ocean. 6. Principal currents — origin, course, influence : (1) The Gulf Stream (2) The Japan Current (3) The Polar Currents (4) Equatorial Currents. 119 4. -.. ■ ■ DRTAII^ OF COURSE OF STUDY: CIJMATK 171 (Flhistratc l>y n (Set' (lia- Consult tlie Text-book, pages 4.J-5. Study The World map on pa^^e 44. TIDRS 1. Piienoniona at the otcan side: (1) Ri«o and fall of water i'i) Regular tiim'-iiilervals (.'<) Effects upon shipping. 2. Explanation of phenomena: (1) The theory of «ttra MOOV 1. Cause of eclipses. (Illustrate by means of ean.lle and shadows. ) 2. Eclipse of the moon— total, partial. 3. Eclipse of the sun— total, partial. Consult the Almanac for dates of eclipses. CLIXATR 1. Distinction between weather and climate. 2. Factors that influence climate: (1) Latitude: (a) The effect of the sun's rays is greatest where they fall perpendicularly on the surfaoe of the earth, and it diminishes as their obliquity increases. 17S GBOORAPHY (b) The Burface covered by the oblique ray« ia greater than that covered by the per- pendicular rays. (See diagram page 35, Text-book.) (c) Oblique rays paua through a greater thickneiw of air and thua lose more heat by abeorptioi). (Consult Ontario High School Physical (Jeography. diagram P»ge 177.) (d) The slope of the earth is important; a slope to the south is warmer than one to the north. (8) Elevation: The higher we ascend the colder it geta. The pupil must understand, in thia connection, that the actual temperature of the air depends not so much upon the direct rays of the sun as upon the radiation from the heated surface of the earth. (3) The nature of the soil: (a) A sand or rock desert raises the tempera- ture rapidly when heated by the sun'a rays. (6) A newly-ploughed field both absorbs and radiates heat much more rapidly than a grass field. Has the cultivation of the prairie tended to change its climate? (4) Proximity to the sea: (a) Water a poor absorber, and a poor radiator of heat (b) Effect of great evaporation (c) Effect of oceanic currents (d) Maritime and continental climates. DBTAIL8 OF COURSE OF STUDY: LIGHT ZONES 173 (5) Rainfall: (a) Coant countries have more rain than in- land countries. (ft) Mountain regions are wetter than the plains. (c) The tropics have more rainfall than otlur zones. Explain and give illustrations. (Consult Rainfall Map»«: Toxt-book. page 40; and Ontario High f^chool Physical Oeograpliy, pages 108.71.) (6) Prevailing winds: Atmospheric currents exercise a greater influence i»pon climate than do oi-ean currents. (7) local circumstances: (a) The amount of snowfall. (6) Bogs and marshes cool the air and generate fogs. (c) Clay soils retain moisture longer than lighter soils and have the same effect as marshes. (d) The clearing, drainage, and cultivation of land generally have favourable effects on climate. On the other hand, a too complete removal of forests may pre- vent the deposition of moisture to such an extent as to cause droughts or even floods. Is this partially true of Old . Ontario? LIOHT Z0KE8 Torrid, North and South Frigid, North and South Temperate Zones; their boundaries. 6>^> IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) V "W /IPPLIED^ IIV/MGE . Inc ^S 1653 East Main Street ^s r- Rochester, NY 14609 USA ■^^■aa Phone: 716/482-0300 -S^,^= Fax: 716/288-5989 e 1993. Appi 1 1mage. Inc.. All Rights Rssan«d // fe <. i^ ^^ 1.0 ^1^ 1^ 1.1 L"*"^ ||"-25|,.4 ^,.. ! < idUmm ^ — ' ^ ^^ ■ ■ ^ 174 GEOGRAPHY For hints on teaching the Zones of Sunlight, see Chapter XV. HEAT ZONES 1. Isotherms. 2. The Hot Belt, North and South Cold Caps, North and South Temperate Belts*; their limits. 3. Plant and animal life: (1) Dependence of plant life upon soil, temperature, rainfall (2) Vegetation regions located. (See Text-book, page 49.) (3) Dependence of animal life upon vegetation (4) General distribution of animals. (See Text-book, page 55.) 4. The people of the world : The various races; their characteristics as in- fluenced by environment; their distribution. (See Text-book, page 60.) For hints on teaching the Zones of Heat, see Chapter XV. NORTH AMERICA A review of the subject-matter outlined for the Junior Grades of Forms III and IV. SOUTH AMERICA 1. Review the subject-matter outlined for the Junior Grade of Form IV. 2. A general study of the continent as a whole : South America furnishes opportunity for the study of conditions prevailing in a tropical country. The wind and calm belts, together with the high- lands, furnish a key for the interpretation of rainfall. I3i DETAILS OP COURSE OP STUDY: SOTITH AMERICA 17.- Study carefully, therefore, the prevailing winds and the relief of the continent as a whole. Account for the heavy rainfall in the equatorial region, in the Brazilian Highlands, and on the western 4o]x;s of the Andes in the temperate zone; alsc, for the light rainfall on the western side of the Andes in ihe torrid zone; and for the wot and dry seasons north and south of the Equator. .Show how these conditions influence the distribution and activities of man. 3. The Great Industries of the continent : It is best to take the industries of the continent as a whole, rather than in connection with the study of the individual country. Since the surface, soil, climate, drainage, occupations, and productions of the wliole continent have been carefully studied, the pupil will know in what division and climate-belt each country lies, and what, therefore, are the chief occupations of the people in each. It accordingly seems unnecessary to make a detailed topical study of each country. Let the study of these countries come incidentally in connection with the study of the continent as a wfiole, and emphasize in connection with each country such matters as are especially associated with it. Teach thoroughly those industries and products which are typical of South America: coffee, cocoa, quinine, diamonds, nitrates, rubber. Picture, if pos- sible, methods employed in production. Define areas. Compare stock-raising with that industry as ear- ned on in Canada. What areas? Why? Emphasize uses of the productions, their importance in the com- mercial world, the countries to which they are sent, the shipping ports, and routes. 171 GEOGRAPHY In a similar manner study the wheat industry; show influence of imported machinery. Why does South America send more of her pro- ducts to Europe than to North America? What does she send to Canada ? What do we send to her? Why are her manufactures not more fully developed? Compare the forests with those of North America, and study their products. Study briefly the most important mineral pro- ducts. Study somewhat carefully the construction and probable influence of the Panama Canal. EUROPE 1. Review the subject-matter as outlined for the Junior Grade of Form IV. (See page 158.) 2. A further study of the continent as a whole, with special reference to rainfall, vegetation, agriculture and asso- ciated industries ; mining ; manufacturing ; transpor- tation, seaports ; population ; government. ASIA 1. Beview continent structure, coast-line, and drain- age, as outlined for the Junior Grade of Form IV (See page 159.) 2. Complete the study by using outlines similar to those suggested for North and South America and Europe. AFRICA 1. Situation: In regard to hemisphere, heat belts, wind belts, other continents, oceans, latitude, longitude. DETAILS OP COURSE OP STUDY: AFRICA 177 2. Size: In comparison with other continents. 3. Coast-line: Extent, regularity, advantages and disadvantages, comparison with other continents. 4. Surface: Highlands, lowlands, their distribution, their char- acteristics, comparison with other continents. 5. Drainage: (1) Rivers: Nile, Congo, Niger, Senegal, Zambezi, Limpopo, and Orange — their general direction, characteristics, value from stand-point of com- merce and exploration. (2) Lakes: Chad — location and relation to drainage. Lakes of Central Africa — reasons for size, im- portance. 6. Climate: (1) Temperature (2) Winds: prevailing winds, monsoons (3) Rainfall: General conditions arrived at from a knowledge of temperature, winds, surface. Specific conditions from study of rainfall map. (See page 40, Text-book.) Regions of extremely light and heavy rainfall aecoimted for. (4) Effect of climate upon exploration and develop- ment. 7. Vegetation: (1) General distribution as dependent upon tem- perature, soil, and rainfall (2) Character. 8. Animals: (1) Distribution as dependent upon vegetation (2) Character. 178 GEOOnAPHY !♦. People: (1) Distribution as influenced by climate, vegetation, etc. (2) Races, characteristics. AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND Treat Australia and New Zealand from a causal standpoint. Fix upon some imi)()rtant problem early in the study, such as distribution of population, kind's of products and their distribution, to be worked out as the study proceeds. Apply the principles outlined for the study of South America (pages 174-5). Suggestive topics: Physical features; wind belts; distribution of temperature and rainfall; vegetation zones, popula- tion; products, transportation routes. Special topics: Mining; farming, ranching; exports, govern- ment, history, and relation to the Empire. CANADA A detailed review of the Dominion as a whole. UNITED STATES 1. Position and size. 2. Division of States into sections. The subject-matter of each section to be treated as outlined in the Text- book : (1) New England States (6), (2) Middle Atlantic States (6), exclusive of Dis- trict of Columbia, (3) Southern Atlantic States (4), si DETAILS OF COURSE OF STUDY. BRFTISH EMPIRE 179 (4) Soutliern States of the Mississippi Basin (7), (6) Northern States of the Mississippi Basin (H) (C) Plateau States (8), (7) Pacific Coast States (3). .'}. Dependencies of the United States: (a) Alaska, .(ft) Hawaii, (r) Philippine Islands, (d) Porto Kico. There are forty-eight States, Xew Mexico and Arizona being the last to reach this status. How many " stars " are there on the American flag? THE BRITISH EMPIRE The subject-matter in the Text-book (pages 250-258) may be made the basis of study. Use, if possible, a map of the British Empire similar to that on page 251 of the 1 ext-book. Discuss with the class: 1. The growth and extent of the Empire, 2. Its trade and commerce, 3. Communication within the Empire-trade routes, cable connections, 4. Protection of commerce. 6. Constituent parts: (a) in Europe, (6) in Asia, (c) in Africa, (d) in America, (e) in Australia and the Pacific Ocean. For hints on teaching The Evolution of the British Empire, see Chapter XV. CHAPTER XV FORM IV, SENIOR GRADE :< SUOGBSTIONS FOR LESSONS WINDS There are great rivers of water in the ocean called ocean currents, such as the Equatorial Current, Gulf Stream, and Japan Current, that are continuously moving in fairly definite courses. So. too, in the atmosphere, there are great nvers of air called wind currents or winds that also move in more or less definite courses. The air is very unstable and is therefore easily moved l.y outside forces. The principal forces that influence its movements are heat, moisture, and the rotation of the earth. Heat, as was pointed out in Form II, causes air to expand and thus makes it lighter in weight; moisture also makes it lighter; the rotation of the earth influences its direction. The lighter air rises as tlie cooler and heavier air at the sides flows under it and lifts it up. When the air become lighter than usual, its pressure is said to be "low". Hence high pressure means a heavy atmosphere; and low pressure, a light atmosphere. These conditions are indicated and measured by the barometer. A fall in the barometer usually precedes a rainstorm. Why? Heated regions are always areas of low pressure; and cold regions, unless counteracting agencies are at work, are areas of high pressure. Winds always blow from areas of high pressure to areas of low pressure. 180 SUGGESTIONS FOR LESSONS: WINDS 181 In areas of low prossurc, wlioro wariii air is risiiif? to form upper currents, or in areas of liigh pressure, where cool air is fallin- to form surface currents, areas of calms are formed. Hence, air currents moving along the sur- face of the earth produce winds, while those moving either upward or downward produce calms. What is the greatest area of low pressure in the world ? Why is it situated in the equatorial region? What name 18 given to it ^ This Doldrum region is one of great calms. Why? (See Text-book, page 38.) Where does this region get Its supply of air? It is tcntiimously rushing in as great surface currents from the north and from the south. What name is given to these winds? These trade-wimh, as they are called, begin to blow at about the 30th parallel of latitude. In the northern hemisphere they blow from the north-east, and in the southern hemisphere from the south-east. Why ? The trade-winds are usually fresh and strong, and sailing vessels may go on for days without changing sail. These are the winds that carried Columbus with his three small ships across the Atlantic Ocean on his voyage to America in 1492. They are dry winds when they begin to blow, but when they reach the doldrum region they are almost saturated with moisture. How would'you explain this? (See Text-book, page 37.) As the trade-winds travel toward the doldrums, they are gradually becoming warmer and warmer, and will therefore absorb more and more moisture. This makes them drying winds. What is the effect of these winds upon the lands over which they blow? VNTiat causes the Desert of Sahara? What becomes of this flow of warm, moist air when it reaches the doldrums? Describe the climate of the dol- drums. (See Text-book, page 38.) What becomes of the 1S3 OEOOHAF'IIY nir that risos in the doMmmw.' ii he poles. ^ Kn.n, ob.orvation« made in the region o whot tl e'l": "• T '"'■"''•^"" ''""' «^ -" - «"-h ' "'«.V oe , louds at n ^roat altitude heinff carried in ;::i:r ^ r ': -th r M r ^"'^ - ^- ^ area of h.^^hest pressure in the world. Why a ll prevalent here? Bv what nan,o is this re^n now ^ sys emsaJwen I T"'"' '^ ^"^^P'^ ^^^ ^he trade-wind rihrp^sc fr:,rr " ^^^" ^'-^ ■^^^^^'-^ ^— thJ?^ "«/!>« Prevailing Westerlies so called? When hey leave the horse latitudes, they take a Ion. sw en toward the east-southeast in the southern hemisphere- in both cases they finally reach the polar regions. Wl^'a e hese winds more uniform in the southern hemisphere tl an n the nor hern? Explain why it is easier for ships sa 1 ng from England to Australia to go hy way of the'capl'f «^u:"8LnS'vSB*'car??ine wl'"'?' ^''' «° "^™«<' "e- the West Indies In the eTrly^davs J""" ^^"^ ^"^'*"^ t° calms that at times the horsVhad 7oZ Z ''''^'^^'^ ''^ '^' when the drinking water give ouf °''" °^«rboard BUGOESTIONS FOR LESSONS: WINDS 183 Good Hope tl.a.i l.y way of Cup,. Horn. Whi.l. is the better route for the return voyage? Why? Tlie prevailing westerlies that blow over Canmla and the Atlantic Ocean are somewhat variable; they blow on an average about two days out of every three throughout the year. For example, the av>rage time of a milinf/ voyage from Liverpool to New York is thirty-three days; and from New York to Liverpool, twenty-two days. IF(.w do these prevailing westerly winds grcatlv affect the climate of British Columbia? Of the British Isles? Locate, on a globe or n maj) of tiie world, the regions over which these winds blow. The Monsoon Winds of Southern Asia and the Indian O-iean are modified trade-wij.ds— trade-winds that change with the season. From October to Aj.ril they resemble the ordinary north-east trades, blowing from Asia over the Indian Ocean. Europeans in India find these montlis the pleasantest and most healthful part of the year. From April to October, however, tin- plateaus of Southern and Central Asia become so greatly heated that they become areas of low pressure— lower pressure than that over the Indian Ocean. The result is that the winds, instead of blowing from the north-east, turn completely around and blow strongly and steadily from the south-jvest. They bring excessive rains, and the weather becomes so hot and the humidity so great that many Europeans in India are forced to go to the foot-hills of the Himalayas for comfort and health. The above is a general description only of the more constant winds. Owing, however, to the instability of the atmosphere, to freque t changes in heat conditions, as well as to various other causes, there are endless modifications m the character of winds. Some of the more important 1S4 OEOORAPHY I l'«'io "■"y mean, „> . oJldi^td ^1" ' '''*'^- '""*"» ^-ees heyoud the .„rth Poir^^rtrdel^^f:: ^^ ZONES OP SUNLIGHT ||e latitude of the Arctic C.rde, that the whole region within the Arctic Circle i« in Hunlight. an.I that the ravH of the Hun are very nlanting muv the «u„ i. h,. „car the' horizon. .Note aUo. that at the name time the rays of the «un fall «hort of the South Pole 23J degrees, that this deter- rmnes the latitude of the Antarctic Circle and that the whole region within the Antarctic Circle in without any sunlight whatever. Six months later these conditions are reversed. It is In^cause tl.eso polar regions receive so little light and heat from the slanting sun's rays that they are called respectively, the Xorth Frigid Zone and the >««M f-ng^d Zone. (See diagrams, page 15, Text-book.) Between the Tropi,- of Cancer and the Arctic Circle in the northern hemisphere, and between the Tropic of Capricorn and the Antarctic Circle in the southern hemi- sphere are regions that are not so extremely hot as the lorrid Zone and not so extremely cold as the Frigid Zones I hey are regions of moderate- temperatures, and hence are known, respectively, as the yorth Temperate Zone and the t^oulh Temperate Zone. Unlike the Frigid Zones the sun shines upon them every day of the year; its rays do TT ,[ ' r «^«"tinglv upon them and hence are warmer. Unlike the Torrid Zone, no vertical rays of fhe sun ever fall upon them and therefore they are not so hot. How wide are the Temperate Zones? Each is 90-(83i+231) or 43 degrees wide. In which Zone is Canada? What other countries are m the North Temperate Zone? What countries are in the South Temperate Zone? In the Torrid Zone? Draw a circle; indicate the two polar circles and the two tropics- write m the names of the five zones of sunlight 186 GEOGRAPHY ZONES OF HEAT What instrument is used to measure the temperature of the air? How does the temperature vary during the day? It is usually wanner in the daytime than it is at night. What is the reason of this? By using special kinds of thermometers we are able to learn the highest and lowest temperatures for each day. If the highest tem- perature recorded on a certain day is 86 degrees and the lowest 52 degrees, what was the average temperature for that day? It was 69 degrees. How is the average yearly temperature of any place calculated ? What name is given to an imaginary line drawn around the earth connecting tlie places that have the same average yearly temperature? It is called an isothermal line, or isotherm. Do these isotherms form circles around the earth like the parallels of latitude? Why not? It is because the earth is not evenly heated. Which warms faster, the land or the ocean ? Why does the ocean not become as warm as the land under equal heat conditions? It is because the ocean has currents to carry the warmer water away to cooler places. It is because of this that the ocean lias a more equable climate than the land. Why does an isotherm reach a higher latitude when it is crossing a continent than when it is crossing an ocean ? (See Ontario High School Physical Geography, pages 184- 187.) What name is given to the isotherm passing through those places that have the greatest average temperature in the world? It is called the Heat Equator. Why is this heat equator not a circle like the geographical equator? Why does the heat equator change its position during the year? Why is its average position during the year always north of the geographical equator? It is because the ZONES OF HEAT 187 northern hemispliere has more land than the southern hemisphere that it is warmer than the latter. Extending around the ea^rth on both sides of the heat equator is a broad region known as the Hot Bell. Its northern boundary is the northern isotherm that 1. is an average yearly temperature of 68 degrees. Its southern Ix)undary is the southern isotherm of 68 degrees. Around the north pole is an extremely cold area called the Norih Cold Cap in which the average temperature is never above 50 degrees. It takes at least 50 degrees to ripen the hardiest grains. Wliat isotherm will therefore form the southern boundary of the north cold cap? Deal similarly with the South Cold Cap. Between the hot belt on the south and the north cold cap is a region known as the Xorfh Temperate Belt. What IS its northern boundary? Its southern boundary? What range of temperature has this belt? Its average tempera- tures range between 50 degrees and 68 degrees. Deal similarly with the South Temperate Belt. Why is the north temperate belt much wider than the south tem- perate belt? It is because the former has a greater land area than the latter. Explain. Consult the map and note that the north temperate belt embraces the most progressive countries in the world in- cluding Canada, the United States, all the' countries of hurope, and China and Japan. Draw a ma^ of the world on Mercator's projection and s.iow the general location of these heat belts, distinguish- ing them by different colour shadings. 188 GEOGRAPHY ^A SUGGESTIONS FOR A SERIES OP " TALKS " ON THE EVOLUTION OP THE BRITISH EMPIRE To obtain a proper perspective of the British Empire as at present constituted, some of the geographical and historical factors that have been co-operating in its development should be considered. 1. In all ages and among all changes of inhabitants the insular character of Britain has been one of the ruling factors of its history. Its people, of whatever race or speech, whatever their political condition at home or their political relation to other countries, have been above all things pre-eminently islanders — cut off in many ways from the rest of the world, acting in many things as a separate world. 2. There settled early in England roving, adventurous, liberty-loving Anglo-Saxons, and their roving, adventurous spirit has been transmitted to the succeeding generations of the British people. These were not content to stay within the limits of their little home islands, and many went forth, especially during the sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries, as sailors, explorers, and colonizers. As they discovered new regions, they took formal possession of them in the name of their Mother-country. In this way, and by war, Britain came into possession of Canada, India, Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa, as well as the smaller colonies scattered over the world. 3. Thus, from small beginnings the British Empire lias grown until to-day it stands first among the nations in wealth, power, area, and population. It occupies over one fifth of the land surface and includes more than a quarter of the total population of the world. In this popu- lation are represented practically all the races and grada- tions of human society correlated within the jurisdiction THE EVOLUTION OP THE BRITISH EMPIRE 189 of one paramount state. The position of the British Islands at the centre of the land hemisphere helps greatly to explain the enormous extent of British commerce. 4. The Saxon brought with him to Britain the demo- cratic spirit in government and democratic form of gov- ernment—popular representation of the governed. '''A germ of political and social life was brought into Britain which, changing from generation to generation but never itself exchanged for any other system, borrowing from foreign sources but assimilating what it borrowed with its own essence, changing its outward shape but abiding un- touched in its true substance, has lived and grown through fourteen hundred years into the law, the consti- tution, the social being of England."— Freeman. Since the war of American Independence, Great Britain has governed her colonies in such a way as to advance their interests, and not merely for her own advantage. Autonomy has been granted as soon as they have been able to assume responsibility. A spirit of toleration for language and religion, a belief in the supremacy of law and in personal and political freedom, a recognition of mutual rights and privileges have marked the administra- tion of Great Britain in every quarter of the globe. The sea which sheltered England from' the armies which devastated much of Europe had accustomed the Bntons to the handling of ships. Henry YIII created the English navy and improved it year by year. Elizabeth claimed the freedom of the seas in 1580; and in 1688 by the destruction of the Armada she broke the mono^lv of the seas then claimed by Spain. The struggle later for the empire of the sea lay between France and England and ended at Trafalgar. Since then Britain has main- tamed that supremacy at sea which is the condition of her existence. IM GEOGRAPHY The unity of the Empire depends for its strength upon a common ancestry, common ideals, a community of in- terests, and a loyalty bred from the traditions and history of a glorious past. The supremacy of the Empire is a guarantee of peace and justice throughout the world. Our task and aim should be to fit ourselves, by closer union, to maintain its limits and extend its influence. CANADA'S RELATIONSHIP TO THE EMPIRE In considering Canada's relation to Britain and the rest of the Empire, the following points, among others, should receive attention : 1. How Canada became a part of the British Empire. 2. How the favourable terms granted to the French- Canadians by the Treaty of Paris (1763), and their con- tentment under British rule, have made them loyal to Britain and to British institutions. 3. How a strong stimulus was given to loyalty to British connection by the settlement in Canada of thou- sands of United Empire Loyalists at the close of the American War of Independence. 4. How this 'f i '" was greatly intensified by the War of 1812-15. 5. How the principle of self-government, gradually conceded by Great Britain, tended to make Canadians contented with British connection. G. How the Boer and the German Wars tended to strengthen Imperial patriotism and Canadian national self-respect. 7. Canada's present status may be stimmed up as follows : CANADA'S RELATION TO THE EMPIRE 191 (1) The British Government appoints the Gov- ernor-general; and may veto, within two years after passing, any Act of tho Cana- dian Parliament whieli it may regard as detrimental to the interests of the Empire. It would be only under the most grave circumstances that we can conceive of this power being exercised. (8) Canada has fiscal independence, but gives a "preferential tariff" to the Mother-country and to most of the other parts of the Empire, except Australia. (3) Canada has assumed, with the concurrence of the British Government, the full respon- sibility of maintaining a permanent military force, militia, and navy for her own defence, and in so doing is relieving the Mother- country of a part of her heavy Imperial responsibilities. (4) Canada has not yet any voice in the declaration of war or peace; the Imperial Government alone has this power. (5) The highest court of appeal is the Judicial Committee of the Imperial Privy Council. (6) The strongest tie binding Canada to the rest of the Empire is the one of sentiment, based chiefly upon community of interest and of blood relationship. (7) In other respects Canada is virtually an independent country with full control of her affairs. Daughter am I In my mother's house, But mistress In my own.- -Kipu.xo i BOOKS OF REFERENCE METHODS OP TEACHING The Teaching of Oeography In Elementary Schools. Dodge t Klrchwey. Rand. McNally & Co.. Chicago I!*,'^flf'"^'"°*°^*''^''- ""''''«• Macmlllan. Toronto Special Method In Geography. McMurry. Macmlllan. Toronto. TheTe?chl ^p"""""'*''"' '''^'"''- Macmlllan. Toronto. Ca ChlSgJ. "^'■''"'^- S"'^*^'^""- Scott. Foresman & SUPPLEMENTARY BOOKS FOR TEACHERS Commercial and Industrial Geography Olnn & Co.. Boston. Influence of Geography Upon Environment Holt & Co., New York, Home Geo^aphy for Primary Grades. Fairbanks. Educa- tlonal Publishing Co.. New York. Commercial Raw Products. Toothaker. Glnn £ Co Boston How^the^World Is Fed. Carpenter. American Book Co N^w' "°Vew Y^rT '^ """''• ^"''*"^"- ^"'«'-"=- ^^ Co.. »Z w T n",*"""^- ^'>»»''*'-'»'"- Macmlllan. Toronto. How We Are Clothed. Chamberlain. Macmlllan. Toronto How We Are Fed. Chamberlain. Macmlllan. Toronto How We Travel. Chamberlain. Macmlllan. Toronto ' NeVYo^k."''"^' ''°''- '• "• ^'"*^"''°*' ^"»»»»»"°« Co.. Man and His Markets. Lyde. Macmlllan. Toronto. 193 Keller and Bishop. Semple. Henry 194 QEOGRAPHT Great American Industries. Ed. Rocbeleau. McClelland, Qoodchild & Stewart, Toronto. MineralH; Manufacture!! ; Products of the Soil; Trans- portation. Historical and Economic Geographies. Vols. I-VI. Dent, Toronto. I. World Studies; II. Europe; III. Asia; IV. The Americas; V. Africa and Australia: VI. The British Isles and the British Empire. Man and His Conquest of Nature. Newbegin. A. & C. Black, London, Eng. Regional Geography— The World. Reynolds. A. & C. Black, London, Eng. GEOGRAPHY READERS (Consult Catalogue of Bootes rpoommendeil for Public and Separata Hchool Libraries, page 9C.) A Geography Reader — Asia. Huntington. Rand, McNally ft Co., Chicago. Africa as Seen by Its Explorers. E. J. Webb. Edward Arnold, London, Eng. Highroads of Geography. Vols. I-V. T. Nelson & Sons, Toronto. New Century Geography Readers. Vols. I-VII. Blackie & Son, London, Eng. Carpenter's Geographical Readers. Vols. I-V. American Book Co., New York. The Youth's Companion Series. Ginn & Co., Boston. The Wide World; Under Sunny Skies; Toward the Rising Sun; Industries of To-day. The World and Its People. T. Nelson & Sons, Toronto. Europe; Asia; Africa; America; Australasia. The Continents and Their People. Chamberlain. Macmillan, Toronto. North America; South America; Asia; Europe; Africa. Industrial Studies— Europe. Allen. Ginn & Co., Boston. Home Life in All Lands. Morris. Llppincott & Son, Phila- delphia. How the World Lives; Manners and Customs of Un- civilized Peoples. BOOKS OP REFERENCE 195 GENERAL READING FOR LIBRARY Earth and Sky Every Child Should Know. Rc-ers. Mc- Clelland, Goodchlld. & Stewart Water Wonders Every Child Should Know. Thompson. Doubleday, Page & Co. Peeps at Many Lands and Cities. Macmlllan (Black). Toronto. France; Holland; Egypt; etc. Peeps at Great Industries. Macmlllan (Black). Toronto. Rubber; Tea; Sugar; and others. Little Folks of Many Lands. Chance. Glnn & Co., Boston. Luclta— A Child's Story of Old Mexico. Gaines. Rand. Mc- Nally & Co., Chicago. The Little Cousin Series. 30 vols. The Page Co.. Boston. Library of Travel Series. McClelland. Goodchild & Stewart, Toronto. Mit'.lU^»^S"A"*^" }°. ^*''!'* """^ Japan; Little Journeys to An?tH».*?uM*"i"' America: Little Journeys to Russia and ^mil^iLh'"'*' Journeys to Holland, Belgium, and Denmark; Little Journeys to Cuba and Porto Rico; Little People Everywhere Series. Co., Boston. Big People and Little People of Other Lands. Shaw American Book Co., New York. Travels in the Far East. Peck. Crowell & Co., New York. The New North. Cameron. Appleton & Co., New York. Pathfinders of the West. Laut. Macmlllan, Toronto. Eskimo Stories. Smith. Rand. McNally & Co., Toronto. Twentieth Century Geography Readers. Vols. I-VII. Cham- bers, W. & R., Edinburgh. Geographical Readers of the Continents. Vols. I-IV. jCham- bers. W. & R.. Edinburgh. Europe; Asia; Africa; America. 20 vols. Little. Brown &