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IMaps, plates, cherts, etc., may be filmed at different reduction retios. Those too lerge to be entirely included in one exposure are filmed beginning in the upper left hend corner, left to right end top to bottom, as many frames as required. The following diegrams illustrate the method: Les certes, planches, tableeux. etc., peuvent Atre filmte A des taux de reduction diff Arents. Lorsque Ie document est trop grsnd pour Atre reproduit en un seul cliche, ii est film6 A partir de i'englu supArieur geuche, de geuche A droite, et de haut en bes, en prenent Ie nombre d'images ntcesssire. Les diegrammes suivants iliustrent la m6thode. 1 2 3 32X 1 2 3 4 5 6 JM M/f/h PRACTICAL ESSAY ON THB SCIENTIFIC R8PAIR AND PRESERVATION OP PlIBMC ROADS. 'PRESENTED TO THE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE, JOHN LOUDON M'ADAM, Esq. raiMTXB AMD DISTBIBUTBB ' ' " Sif Order of the Board of Agriculture, and InterniUImprovementf .. ' at London, 1819. - ,.. . fiiuetcc: RE-PIIINTED BY JOHN NEILSOK, MO. 5, MOUMTAIN-SIBEET. 1819. O t • • « • % (i > » • ■)«•* . •' % . ■»■ • '■ a • * < ^ % • » J • » ric S 1 C '« » « ■ « « * ' 4 < • * « * •• • < • * • • # • • * • * MEMORIAL. TO THE RIGHT HONOURABLE THE PRESIDENT AND THE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. THE duties of the Memorialist, m sMagistrate and Commisrii- oner ctf the Roads in Scotland for many years, first induced him to turn his attention in a particular degree to this branch.of our do- mestic economy. 'Die obvious disproportion existing between tba facility with which large sums are raised for ths service of the roads on the one hand, and the means provided for ensuring a wise and economical expenditure on the other, excited an inclination to trace the causes of this great defect in the national system of road management ; and for this object the Memorialist was induced to travel over a jgreat part of the country, from Inverness in Scot> land, to the Land's End in Cornwall, which gave him many op> portunities to observe all the various modes of making and amen- ding rdkds ; the different kinds of materials used ; and of compar- ing the success resulting from the several methods of constructing roads throughout the Ungdum. The ancient roads of the kingdom were paths beaten by travel- lers, who sought the driest ground, but without any attempt at forming an artiflcial surface. Modem roads have in most instan- ces ibll.jwed the same course as the old paths, which accounts for the improper lines of roads observable all over England. When commerce became exten8ive» and enclosure oonfln .ersal ignorance of the principles of road-making ; and the private occu- pation of the Commissioners, render them totallv unfit to enter into the detail of the business, or to exercise that constant and vigilant control, requisite to preserve mte/rity and economy throughout an expenditure so complicated and so extensive. From these two causes, the want of all scientific principles in the construction of roads, and the want of education, rank and character in the officers under whose inspection the money passes to 'its destination, have proceeded the proverbinlly bad state of the roads of Great> Britain ;— the enormous amount of the expendi- ture ;^-and the consequent creation of a debt, which threatens in a few years to absorb the whole road funds fur payment of interest. The turnpike roads of England and Wales amount to about , 25,000 miles in extent, and cost annually about a million and a quar« tcr to maintain them, in their present defective state. The debt over the wiiole cannot well be estimated at less than seven millions ; probably it even exceeds that sum ; whilst the numerous petitiona yearly presented to Parliament for increase of tolls, show, thatthia enormous debt is accumulating with alarming rapidity. ■ ■ : 1 c .y ti ir I* w M ti o l> ci a tl r e tl 8) V a o t Many years necessarily elapsed, before the efforts of a private individual could obtain sufficient information, to enable him to form any comprehensive maxims respecting a branch of the public service so widely extended ; and where the ignorance of the execu- tive officers rendered their communications of small value, whilst that little was often deceitfully, always unwiir'ogly bestowed. -4 . ^^t^i i , : ^*^ . ox MAKING AKB RBrAIIinra or BOABa. 8 TIm IbllowAig plana for the construction and repair of the roods of Great Britain, and the protection of the Ainds from mismanage- ment and speculation, were the result of the reflections of thutj years. A roadoMght to be considered as an artificial flooring kid upon the naturally moist and soft soil of this island: this artlflcial floor- ing requires considerable skill and ingenuity in the choice and pre« pwation of the materials, and in distributing them, so as to form Mrliat is required, namely, a strong, smooth, solid surface, over which carriages may pass without danger of sinking into the sub- i4oil, or finding anv impediment to prevent their being drawn with the smallest possible elfbrt of animal labour. The first of these objects, strength, is obtained by the quantity of materials ; in this respect, all the old roads of the Kingdom hav« been overdone ; and the Memorialist has generally found a suffl* cient supply in a road for several years use. The second, smoothness and solidity, can only be obtained by a proper selection, preparation and distribution of the materials. None but firm and solid bodies can be made smooth. It seems, therefore, an obvious proposition, that the materials of which a road is to be cqpposed, should be reduced to such a size as shall enable carriages to pass over, without strikina against them, so that they may be consolidated by a perpendicular pressure. The size of the stones must be proportioned to that part of the wheel, which willfortnthc point of contact upon a smooth, level surface ; and this will be found to be about an inch square. When the stones of a road exceed the size of this bearins, the wheels of carriages will keep them in constant motion, and prevent their consolida- ting: because, whena wheel rests onlv on one part of n stone, the other part rises ; or, if the stone be so large that the wheel does not pass over, but strikes against it, besides the impediment presented to the carriage, a great damage is done to the road. fVom this it appears, thatevery stone above a specified size, is a positive disad- vantage in road-making. Upon a road made of well-ordered ma- terials, wheel carriages will pass over without any jolt or shake; and consequently without that action and re-action between the wheels and the stones, which is the real cause of the present bad state of the roads of Great Britain. A rough road can only be a road made of large stones; and as neither use, nor chan^ of weather, can produce them, this delect must be entirely the work of the road-maker. It has been urged in favour of the practice of using large materi- als, that carriage wheels very soon break them. Supposing this assertion well founded, it would not be difficult to prove, that carriage wheels are the most eipensive breaking hammers which can be employed by the public. But is not true, that the woric is e^tuidly performed ; mr wheels passiiw over and amongst large stones, grind them to powder, instead of breaking them into proper sizes. The same argument also applies to an opinion very com- - moniy entertained, that breaking the stones small, anticipates the b2 :m -^m- H ON MAKIMC AMD ftlPAniMS OV tOASS. friction, and oonsequentlv tht wear of the road: Thtre itnauch more flriction upon a rough road, than on one perfectly level and smooth. Inmakinsaroad, the practice of mixing the itone with und dr earth, is to be carefully avoided. Earth retains the moisture, is strongly aiflscted hy frost, and changes with every variation of the weather. Clean unmixed stone cannot be acted upon by any changeof the weather; and a road properly made, will b« equally good in all seasons. • Until some powerfbl hand shall form one uniform system of makins and reparins roads upon a scientific plan, andur preven- ting dinlerent Trusts being competitors for the purchase of materia aJs, as is the case at present in the neij^bourhoud of London, all the little palliatives of regulating acts will be nugatory : the hydra evil, of Commissioners expendjlng immense sums in marring the roads with large stones, blended with earth, and other mischievous materials, will continue. Whatever carriages the law may com. pel men to draw through such roads (for at present they do not travel over them), must continue to act as ploughs. When the necessity of adopting one scientific system for the management of roads throughout the kingdom shall be felt by the Legislature, in order to insure its success, another great public act will remain to be performed. The Legislature has intrusted the care of local load aflkirs, to Ctnnmissioners selected from that class of the community least liable to abuse the confidence reposed in them ; and as far us their duties extend, it is impossible to cominit this great trust into better hands. But it appears, that these Commissioners are, from vari- ous causes, incompetent to the unremitting vigilance requisite in executive officers ; and thus, while every other branch of the pub* lie service, requiring the expenditure oflareesums, is placed un- der the constant control of men of rank ana character, the road revenue remains without any efficient protection against the uni- ted depredations of dishonesty and ignorance. The remedy proposed is, to commit the scientific direction of the work into tne hands of responsible officers of the rank of Gen- tlemen ; to place the Sub>surve.yors under the orders of those offi- cers, upon whose report the Commissioners may safely rely, in selecting deserving and trust-worthy persons as Sub-surveyors ; and by whose ^killthese Surveyors may be first instructed, as well as directed in their proper discharge of their duties. The system of road management hitherto practised, has had the effect of repressing every eftbrt for acquiring skill, and every exertion of science, as C3nnected with this branch of service. Men of education, of character, and of rank in society, must now be induced to accept the situation of. General-Surveyors of Coun- ties or Districts, by due encouragement from the country ; by the profession being made properly respectable, and reasonably lucni- , live. •N MAKING AXn KKPAIRIKO Of KOAM. 7 Ail the caro and management of the roadu of the kingdom can novur, with advantage to the public, bo taken from the Commia- ■ionerit, and conMquentiy the nomination of the General- Hurvey- nri, and other offlcum, must remain with them, it will be necvHiuiry, in order to obviate the danger of the abuse of patrongae, to commit n general inspection of roads to M>mc department of the Govern- ment. Tlie department mottt obviouNiy and ntiturnlly connected with the roads, is the |foat-Office, and the public voice has already decided, that to this authority the superintendance should be com- mitted by a special commission to the i'ost- Masters GeneraL This additional department must be invested with a discretionary power, to suspend officers in cases of neglect or misconduct ; and a report of the condition of the roads in every district, their extent, alterations made, &c. &c. with a copy of the accounts, and an ex- act suitement of the finances, must be transmitted yearly, by the Surveyor- General to the Po«t-Office, which must lay the whole before Parliament. A laudable ambition to excel being thus excited by the prospect of farther promotion, gentlemen's sons will be induced to acquire the necessary skill and information, to follow this profession. Although fVom local circumstances, some appointments will bo < less liable than others, the confidence reposed must in all cases bu so great, that it will be impuasible to consider the public interest Bare, in any other than the hands of a gentleman. The expence of such an establishiaent will appear as nothing when the immense sums annually lost to the publK^ through mis- application and fraud, are properly considered. Whenever the Memorialist has been called upon to examine into the aflkirs of a ' Trust, and to attempt an amendment of its Roads, it has been proved incontestibly, that at least one-third of the funds has been unprofltably, if not mischievously expended. A tythe of the money thus squandered would liberally provide for an establish- ment which would ettuct a general reformation of roads througliout the kingdom. The heavy expence to the public, in the consumption of horses and carriages, occasioned by the present deplorable state of the roads, although it falls so gradually on all ranks of people, as to be little thought of, is a subject deserving the serious attention of the Legislature. The sum so lost by the nation has been estimat- ed, by a Committee of the House of Commons, ill 1811, at Ave millions per annum. The Contractors for expediting the Mails, find considerable dif- ficulty in fulfilling their contracts, from the sanie caune. Not- withstanding the destruction of horses, painful to humanity, in' diiiwing the mail coaches, it is nearly impossible, on some roads to peform the distance within the given time. Although the necessity of some public control over all the roads of the kii^om can liardly be questioned, yet the hints, respecting t he manner in which that control should be exercised, are offer^ w ith great diffidence. It is generally hoped, that the importance • ON MAKIMO AND KBPAIKINO or BOABSi of the subject will cull furth the Hftfntion of much abler mm. Ot that imtt of lh>.' KYttoin which rclatVH t(t the cunstructiun of the tomin, and the a{)paintinent of (ivniTal-Surveyor* of Diatiicta, . th«5 MfinorialiHt wpeulu with that confidenco which is the result «f actual expi'i'ience. Whi'n years left the Mcmnrialixt at liberty to devote his time entirely to the public Kerviee, thu (7oiiimisiiionisrH furcare of the 'IHirn'iike itoHcU of the Hristol District wtie iriducedt by an ac« quaintunoe of in.my ycunt, during which the Meniorialiht hud ac< ted an CoinmlHsioner in that Trunt, to place their roads under his direction as General* Surviyor. The public spirit of the Com- misNioneni having empowered tliu Memorialist to begin the work of n furniai ion, their zeiilous and unwearied support enabled him to extend it to the most minute details in the management of the roods. During three ycnrs that the Memnrfalist has held the Office of General- Surveyor, an extensive field of observation has presented itself to hi>i view. Almve all, having now felt the difficulties of a jMrofession, requiring the union of much statistical information and Eractical knowleflgu of country work, with the regular habits of usinew), the estimation of his own abilities as a road-maker has been much lowered ; and cotiNctiuently, tlie opinion of the urgent nece'i< two or three yards at one liil is enough. The proportioning the work among the five men, must of coiursa be regulated by the nature of the road : when there are many very large stones, the three breakei's may not be able to keep paoi with the two men employed in lifting and forming,, and when there ar» few large stones, the contrary may betlMScase: of all this the Surveyor must judge and direct. ■ -f^ ^•.•'^(pi- 10 SIKBCTIOMS FOR RtrAIRINO OF HOAD8. But while it is recommended to lift and relay roads which have been made with lar^ stone, or with large stone mixed with clay, chalk, or other mischievous materials, there are many cases m which it would be hiehlv unprofitable to lift and relay a ruad, even if the materials should have been originally too large. llie road between Cirencester and Bath is made of stone, too large in size, but it is of so friable a nature, tliat in lifting it be« comes sand : in this case I recommend cutting down the high places, keeping the surface smooth, and graduuly wearing out the materials now in the road, and then replacing them with stona of a better quality, properly prepared. In like manner a part of the road in the Beth District is made of freestone, which it would ue unprofitable to lift. # At Egham, in Surrey, it was necessary to remove the whole road, to separate the small portion of valuable materials fh>m the massof soft matter, of which it was principally composed, which was removed at considerable ezpence, before a road coul' be again made upon the site. Other cases of several kinds have occurred, where a different method must be adopted, but which, it is impossible to specify, and must be met by the practical skill of the officer, whose duty it may be to supenntend the repair of a road, and who must con- stantly recur to the general principles laid down in this Memorial , (p. 272). These principles are Sniform, however much circum- stances may differ, and they mu&t form the guide by which his judgment must be alw ays directed. *' When additional stone is wanted on a road that has consolidated by use, the old harriened surface of the road is to be loosened with a pick, in order to make the fresh materials unite with the old. Carriages, whatever be the construction of their wheels, will make ruts in a new>inade road, until it consolidates, however well the materials may be prepared, or however judiciously applied ; therefore, a careful person must attend for some time after the road is opened for use, to rake in the track made by wheels. The only proper method of breaking stones, both for effect and economy, is by persons sitting : the stones are to be placed in small heaps, and women, boys, or old men past hard labour, must sit down with small hammers and break them, so as none shall ex- ceed six ounces in weight. The Tools to be used arCf , Strong picks, but short from the handle to the point, for lifting the road. Small hammers of about one pound weight in the head, the face the size of a new shilling, well steeled, with a short handle. Ilakes with wooden heads, ten inches in length, and iron teeth lf( ^■. DinecTioirs for repaikiko or roads. 11 about two and luilf inches in length, very strong, for raking out the large stones when the road is broken up, and for keeping the road smooth after being relaid, and while it is consolidating. Very light broad-mouthed shovels, to spread the broken stone, and to form the road. Every road is to be made of broken stone, without mixtin« of earth, clay, chalk* or any other matter that will imbibe water and be aflfected with frost : nothing is to be laid on the clean stone on firetenceofUndtncj broken stone will combine by its own angles nto a smooth solid surface, that cannot be affected by vidssitudea of weather, or displaced by the action of wheels, which will pass gver it without a jolt, and consequently without injury. Prices. The price of lifting a rou^h road, breaking the stones, forming the road, smoothing the sunace, cleaning out the watercourses, and replacing the stone, leaving the road in a finished state, has been found in practice, to be irom one penny to two pence per superficial yard, lifted four inches deep ; the variation of price defends on the greater or lesser quantity of stone to be broken. At two pence per yard, a road of six yards wide will cost, there- fore, one shilling per running yard, or 88^. per mile. Any rough road may be rendered smooth and solid at this price unlMs it be weak, and require an addition of stone, or require some very material alteration of shape. Breaking stone has been reduced in price, by the use of more proper hammers and the sitting posture. The Commissioners at Bristol used to pay fifteen pence per ton for limestone from Durdham Down, for the use of their roads, and broken to a size above twenty ounces : stone is now procured from the same place, broken so as none exceed six ounces, foi' ten pence per ton, and the workmen are very desirous of contracts at that rate, because the heavy work is done by the men, the light work with small hammers by the wives and children, so that whole families are employed. In Sussex, the proportion is greater between former and pre- sent prices : the breaking of flint cost at one time two shillings per ton ; and is now done, by introducing a better method and fitter tools, at about one shilling per tonr By a more judicious preparation and application of material.*!, the quantity OT stone consumed in roads is decreased, by which a great saving of expence is made, and with this great advantage, that the saving is in horse labour of cartage, while the labour price isgiven to men, and in such a manner as includes boys from the age often upwards, women, and old men past the age of being b le to labour hard. The proportion of men and horse labour in h e Bristol District, under former n^anagement, was oae-fourth —I • • • . • • ♦. I.,... •••• ... -1.* • .. IC DI&KCTIOVS rOft BBPAIRIiro dF KOADdt te men's labour, three^fourths to horse labour. Under a better system of management, the proportion has been exactly reversed—* during half a year that an exact account was kept, there was paid For men, women, and children's labour, £30S8 For horses' labour, 1035 This immense advantM^e is presented in every part of the coun- 2', as roads are confined to no particular place, and are univer- ly in want of repair; ample funds are already provided for every useful and proper purpose, although at present misapplied in aunost every part of the kingdom, while' the labourers are iu want of that employment which it ought to affi>rd them. Thefdlawing curious Details relative to the Roads near London, have been published by a Committee on the Highways of the Kingdom. Name of Trust. Surrey New-road City-road Ste. Mary-lc-Bone Kensington Canon-street New Cross Whitechapel Surrey and Sussex Highgate and Hampstead. Hackney Old-street Stamford-hill Length of Road. m. yards 6 440 1 440 4 1,584 17 1 747 39 660 34 220 57 798 20 6 880 1 880 20 880 210 489 Amount of TolU. 1818. ? 9,210 1,645 3,960 14,600 1,167 11,833 1M50 14,606 11,536 4,355 1,520 1,0,540 97,482 Expences 1818. £ 9,210 1,661 3yOUo 12,933 962 11,660 13,086 14,758 14,183 3,942 1,255 10,393 98,856 4&l/.p.mUe. 470/.p.inUe. After considering the propriety of various plans of altering the general constitution of the laws affecting the management of turn- pike-roads, the Committee give the preference to that of em- powering the ma^strates of every county, assembled in Quarter Sessions, to iq>point one or more surveyors-general, who shall have the superintendance and management of the tunipike-roads within the county, under the authority and direction of the com- missioners of the different trusts. They also are of opinion, that the most elkrible mode of paying the salary of this officer, would be by a ur ifurm rate per mile upon all the roads within the coun- tv, to be fixed by the magistrates at Quarter Sessions, and paid uom the funds of the res{>«:tive trusts. • • • • • IV. k ' • r'A?Mr'"l .,_ KOADAi ■ir. Under a better n exactly reversed-^ ept, there was paid .=^3088 . 1035 ery part of the coun- ace, and are univer- Iready provided for present misapplied the labourers are iu Rjrdthetn. Roads near London, the Highwayt of the mount of Expences 'olU, IBIS. 1818. £ 9,210 £ 9,210 1,645 1,661 3,960 3,808 14,600 12,933 1,167 962 11,833 11,660 15,450 13,086 14,606 14,758 11,536 14,183 4,355 3,942 1,520 1,255 1,0,540 10,393 97,482 98,856 164/. p. mile. 4ro/.p.inUe. plans of altering the t management of turn- 'encc to that of em- assembled in Quarter >rs-general, who shall of the turnpike-roads direction of the com- >o are of opinion, that of this officer, would oads within the coun- ter Sessions, and paid , •■ -J/ ' • • ' • - • '■ ' • • ■'-■»■.• <■•>;• ■«., V • ■■