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t'( ■ M 
 
 THE 
 
 PUBLIC SCHOOL GRAMMAR, 
 
 AND ELEMENTS OF 
 
 COM POSITION ; 
 
 till Itumerfltts €nxtm^. 
 
 TORONTO: 
 CANADA PUBLISHING COMPANY (LIMITED;, 
 
 J886, 
 
PEin] 
 
 <l 
 
 Entered according to Act of Parliament of Canada, in the Office of the MiniBter of 
 Agriculture, by The Canada Publishino Cohpamt (Limited), in the year one 
 thousand eight hundred and eighty-aix. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 IN offering this book to his fellow-teachers, the author lays claim to no 
 other merit than that of having earnestly endeavored to present the 
 elementary principles of English Grammar in such a way that they can be 
 readily comprehended by the youth of our Public Schools, and made 
 helpful to them in the correct use of their mother tongue. The lessons 
 have been so framed as to lead the learner, step by step, to discover the 
 essential truths of Grammar by observing the facts of actual speech; and 
 then these truths have been made tributary to the art of correct expres- 
 i sion by exercises in Composition. Advantage has thus been taken of the 
 pleasure that a discovery and its immediate application always afford to 
 allure young pupili^to the study; while, by proceeding on the principle 
 I of "one thing at a time," and dividing the book into consecutive parts, 
 I pains have been taken to avoid disgusting and discouraging them. 
 
 Part I. aims at rendering the learner thoroughly acquainted with the 
 nature of the Sentence, and with the function of each Part of Speech, — 
 I this knowledge being deduced from the very necessities of speech itself. It 
 is believed that this Part may be taken up by pupils in the Junior Division 
 of the Third Book ; and for this reason the language here has purposely 
 I been made simple and semi-colloquial. If a pupil has to leave school after 
 having mastered this Part only, he will carry with him much exact and 
 I useful knowledge concerning the Sentence and the words that compose it. 
 Part II. gives the Classification or sub-division of the Parts of Speech 
 in the order in which they were learnt, thus calling them again to mind, 
 and further impressing their function upon the memory. It is thought 
 that this Part may be mastered while pupils are in the Senior Division of 
 ^ the Third Book; and that Parts III. and IV., which deal with Inflection 
 I and Syntax, may be mastered while pupils are passing through the Fourth 
 Book. Some useful information on the Alphabet, Use of Capitals, Punctua- 
 tion, and Letter-Writing, which did not fall logically under any of the 
 preceding Parts, has been given in Part Y. as an Appendix. 
 
 The "Errors for Correction," liberally interspersed throughout the book, 
 I have been inserted, first and mainly, to improve the speech of pupils by 
 showing them that much of the English they are in the habit of using and 
 
IV 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 of hearing is incorrect; secondly, because it has been found that frequent 
 practico in correcting errors of this kind creates and develops, even in 
 very young people, a critical faculty that makes them quick to detect bad 
 English in the language of others, and to avoid the use of it in their own ; 
 and, thirdly, in Part IV., to test, as well, their grasp of the principles of 
 Syntax. 
 
 The other Exercises with which the book abounds have intentionally 
 been made numerous: Ist, because it is not only right but also profitable 
 to gratify the desire young people always have to apply knowledge as soon 
 as they have gained it; 2nd, because a truth or a principle is not the 
 useful, permanent property of the learner till he can reproduce it, and 
 correctly put it in practice. These Exercises are intended to be suggestive 
 rather than exhaustive. Looking to the intelligence of the class, the 
 teacher will decide whether, before passing on to what follows, the class 
 should do part of an Exercise, the whole of it, or additional Exercises 
 of his own making. 
 
 No apology is offered for the attention given throughout the book to 
 the subject of Punctuation. This important part of Composition is sadly 
 neglected, and no improvement can be looked for till teachers and pupils 
 are convinced that 9t written sentence is not finished till it is punctuated, 
 and that faulty punctuation is as great a disgrace as faulty spelling. 
 
 By the appeal that is continually made to the experience and to the 
 linguistic needs of the pupils themselves, it is hoped that an interest and 
 an impressiveness have been given to the Lessons which could not be 
 secured so well in any other way. It is hoped, too, that by this means, 
 and by following, as much as possible, the inductive method, the subject 
 of Grammar has been rescued from the category of studies to be learned 
 by rote and recited memoritery and made the means of valuable mental 
 training. 
 
 Free use has been made by the author of the labors of his predecessors, 
 particularly of the " Essentials of English Grammar," by Prof. Whitney, 
 of Yale. In some places he has but adapted this most excellent work to 
 the circumstances and needs of Canadian Public Schools. 
 
 In order that a Public School pupil proceeding to a High School may 
 be saved some confusion, this book, both in matter and in language, has 
 been assimilated, as much as its natur« permitted, to the " High School 
 Grammar " ; the privilege of doing this having been generously afforded 
 by the author of that work. 
 
/ 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 PART I. 
 
 LESSON I. 
 
 INTRODUOTORY.-THB SENTENCE. 
 
 1. "When we wish to tell others what is passing in our minds, 
 re make use of either spoken or written words, which we call 
 mguage, or speech. 
 
 This language, or speech, we learn chiefly from hearing others 
 )eak. Many people, however, speak bad English ; that is, 
 liey use the wrong kinds of words and put them toother in 
 rrong ways, and, of course, we often imitate these faults. 
 
 If, then, we are to speak and to write good English, we must 
 
 taught the right kinds of words to use and the right ways of 
 putting them together. 
 
 To teach this is the chief object of the lessons in this hook. 
 
 2. If you were asked what the school-clock does, you might 
 
 The clock ticks ; or, The clock tells the time. 
 
 f, again, you were asked where the clock is, you might say 
 
 The clock hangs on the wall ; or. 
 The clock is on the teacher's desk. 
 
..J._.,L„ 
 
 TIIK SKXrE^CE. 
 
 [I'ART r. 
 
 Ho, too, if you wore to think about a bird and say what you 
 think, jMjrhaps it wouhl bo 
 
 A bir4 flies ; A bird chirps ; A bird sinffs ; 
 A bird builds its nest. 
 
 In these eight groups of words you would be stating or ex- 
 pressing your thoughts about the school-clock and a bird. And 
 each of these groups we call a Htoteinent, or hkntknck. 
 
 If, then, you wish to tell exactly what you mean by the word 
 sentence, that is, to give a definitiox of it, you will say 
 
 Dkfinition. — A sentence is a group of words expressing a 
 thought. 
 
 The claiB will commit all definitions to memory, and repeat them often. 
 The teacher also must frequently assure himself that the meaning has not 
 been forgotten. 
 
 lijXercise 1.— Make as many sentences as you can about a tree, a 
 fish, a house, the s"n, the railway, cars, horses. 
 
 EjXercise 2. — So far, you have been speaking what you think; now 
 take your shites and write something about a flower, a garden, mice, 
 boots, the moon, the stars ; some boy, some girl, some place, some 
 animal, some vegetable, some mineral. 
 
 OAUTION.— Take care to begin each sentence with a capital letter, and to 
 put a period at the end of it. Keep the lines straight, writs neatly, and spell 
 every word correctly. 
 
 Model 
 
 C^ //o-a4J^el 
 
 ■v^/i?^t 
 
 <?<:»-^^^. 
 
 Sxercise 3. — Point out and correct what is wrong in tha following 
 sentences: — 
 
 1. my dog can jump 2. harry is making a kite .3. our cat has sharp 
 claws 4. your brother hurt me 5. the spring is a pleasant season 6. we 
 skate in winter 7. bees make honey S. ploughing is liealthy work 9. a 
 horse is a useful animal 10. it was hot last summer 11. snow covered 
 the ground 12. that house belongs to my uncle 13 bricks arc made of 
 clay 
 
LE8SON 11.] 
 
 GROUPS OF WORDS. 
 
 xpreasing a 
 
 >out a tree, a 
 
 LESSON II. 
 
 GROUPS OF WORDS ARE NOT ALWAYS 
 
 SENTENCES. 
 
 1. If wo speak or writo the words 
 boy a dogr the savagre yesterday little bit, 
 
 [we have not made a sentence ; l)ecause these words, if arranged in 
 this way, do not express a thouglit. If we wish to express a 
 thought by them, we must put tliem together properly: thus, 
 
 A savage dogr bit the little boy yesterday. 
 
 We thus see that we cannot form a sentence by uttering a number 
 1 of words at random. 
 
 2. Neither do we make a sentence if we say 
 
 The pretty red squirrel ; or, 
 A boy skating on the pond ; 
 
 j though these words are properly arranged. To make a sentence 
 I we must say something more ; as, 
 
 The pretty red squirrel is in the tree. 
 A boy skating on the pond broke through the ice. 
 
 From this we see that some groups of words, though arranged 
 [correctly, do not express a complete thought, and are, therefore, 
 lot sentences. 
 
 Exercise 4. — Tell which of the following groups of words are sen- 
 tences, and which are not : 
 
 Ask yourself about each, " Do the words make a statement?" and then, to make sure, 
 Ely what they state. 
 
 Model 1. — Doga hark. These words make a statement about dogs; 
 therefore they are a sentence. They state that dogs hark. 
 
 Model 2. — The stars are shining. These words make a statement about 
 the stars; therefore they are a sentence. They state that the stars are 
 shining. 
 
 Model 3* — Some noisy boys. These words do not state anything about 
 tu9 boys; therefore they are not 9> sentence, 
 
PARTS OF A SENTENCE. 
 
 i 
 [part I. 
 
 1. Flying birds. 2. Birds fly. 3. Closed door. 4. A running boy. 
 0. The raiu falls. 6. Cooked meat. 7. The moat is cooked. 8. The snow 
 sparkles. 9. Timid rabbit. 10. Like skating. 11. Boys like skating. 
 12. Cows milk. 1.3. Cuws give milk. 14. Rabbits are timid. 16. Bees 
 honey. 16 Bees make honey. 17. A bird in the nest. 18. Snow on the 
 ground. 19. A sail up the river. 20. Heat from coal. 
 
 Sxeroi86 5. — Make sentences about the things in Column I. below, 
 selecting what you say about them from Column II. 
 
 Scloot first tho thinff about which you apeak and then what you Bay about it. See that 
 the luiitenccs make good and complete sense. Obierve the caution given In Letton I. 
 
 Column I. 
 
 1. The dog 
 
 2. An elephant 
 
 3. Snakes 
 
 4. Geese 
 6. The hen 
 6. The wolf 
 '7. Pigeons 
 
 8. The policemen 
 
 9. The hands 
 10. The children 
 
 Column II. 
 
 Column I. 
 
 cackles. 
 
 11. Toronto 
 
 howls. 
 
 12. George 
 
 13. My book 
 
 fly. 
 
 wear helmets. 
 
 14. Our cat 
 
 la stiong. 
 
 15. Our lessons 
 
 lay eggs. 
 
 16. We 
 
 creep. 
 
 17. Jane 
 
 sleep, 
 hold things. 
 
 18. My knife 
 
 19. The ball 
 
 growls. 
 
 20. Our school 
 
 Column II. 
 
 catches mice, 
 has pictures, 
 are writing, 
 is sewing, 
 is sharp, 
 is a city, 
 likes fruit, 
 are finished. 
 is built of brick, 
 went a long way. 
 
 LESSON III. 
 
 PARTS OF A SENTENCE. 
 
 1. You now understand that we do not really make a sentence 
 unless we say something about something. It follows from this 
 that every sentence must have two parts : one to express 
 
 the thing: spoken about ; 
 the other to express 
 
 that which is said about it. 
 
 2. The part that expresses the thing spoken about is called 
 the SUBJECT of the sentence, and the part that expresses what is 
 said about the subject is called the pbedigatb of the sentence. 
 Thus, in the sentence — 
 
 The dog howls, 
 
 tho dog is the subject, and howls the predicate. 
 
LESSON III.] 
 
 PARTS OP A ShiNTENCK. 
 
 Definitiov. — TVw subject of a sentence ia the part that expreaaen 
 t/te thimj sjtoken about. 
 
 Definition. — Thn predicate of a sentence is the part that ex- 
 \presHe8 V)hat ia sdid about the aubject. 
 
 3. Analysis. — When we break up a scntenco into subject and predi- 
 Icate— or these parts into still smaller parts— we are said to bo analyzing 
 [the sentence, or its parts; and this breaking up is called analysis. It can 
 Ibe done either in writing or by word of mouth. If done in writing, it is 
 Icalled written analysis; if by word of mouth, it is called oral analysis. 
 [In this lesson our analysis will consist in merely separating subject from 
 ' predicate. 
 
 Sxerciso 6. — Analyze, orally, the following sentences: — 
 
 Model for oral anillysiH. — Jieara like honey. In this sentence bearaia 
 the part that expresses the thing spoken about ; therefore it is the subject : 
 like fioney is the part that expresses what is said about the subject bears; 
 therefore it is the predicate. 
 
 1. Apples grow on trees. 2. The miller grinds whe^t. 3. A horse 
 can run fast. 4. Lions roar. 6. My brothers can sw*'",!. 6. Harry is 
 making a kite. 7. A little girl sat on the door-step. 8. The strong boy 
 was helping an old man. 9. The feeble old man fell down. 10. A robin 
 on the tree was singing. 11. A sail on the lake is very pleasant. 12. Heat 
 comes from burning coal. 
 
 Elxercise 7. — Write (to the teacher's dictation) the sentences in 
 Exercise 6, and then analyze them in writing. 
 
 Model for nrritten analysis. — T/ie miller \ grinds wheat. 
 Observe the caution given In Leaaon I. 
 
 Sxercise 8. — Make sentences of your own by adding predicates to 
 the following subjects : — 
 
 1. The baker. 2. The farmer. 3. A carpenter. 4. A ship. 5. Crows. 
 6. An eagle. 7. The red squirrel. 8. A mad dog. 9. A nouse on fire. 
 10. That boat on the water. 11. The snow in the valley. 12. The lovely 
 spring time. 13. Tom's kite. 
 
 Elxercise 9. — Make sentences by putting suitable subjects to the 
 following predicates: — 
 
 1. swim. 2. fly. 3. is thawing fast. 4. scream. 
 
 5. went away. 6. works hard. 7- lost his place. 
 
 8. shines brightly. 9. degrades. 10, ennobles the mind. 
 
10 
 
 BAJtE SUBJECT AND COMPLETE SUBJECT, [part i. 
 
 ' LESSON lY. 
 
 BARB SUBJECT AND COMPLETE SUBJECT. 
 
 1. We found in Lesson III. that, in order to form a sentence, 
 wf; must have something spoken about, and, also, something said 
 about it. It follows from this that, in every sentence, there 
 must be at least two words — one to express the thing we speak 
 about, that is, to I)e the subject ; and another to express what we 
 w'sh to say about the subject, that is, to be the predicate. 
 
 Let us first see what we can find out about the subject. 
 
 2. The subject may (and generally does) consist of several 
 words ; as, for example, in the sentence— 
 
 My little yellow bird sings. 
 
 But, although the subject may consist of several words, there 
 will always be one word which more particularly names the thing 
 spoken about. In the above sentence bird is that word; for, 
 although the words, my, little, yeilow, are parts of the subject, 
 we do not say that my sings, that little sings, or that yeliOW 
 sings, but that bird sings. 
 
 3. The one word that, in this way, more particularly expresses 
 the thing spoken about, is called the bare subject ; and the bare 
 subject, with all the words that belong to it, is called the 
 
 COMPLETE SUBJECT. 
 
 Of course, when the subject consists of one word only, the hare subject 
 and the complete subject are the same. As a matter of fact, however, 
 we generally need to use, with the bare subject, words which complete it 
 by describing it in some way. Thus, in the foregoing sentence, the bare 
 subject bird is completed by the words my, little, and yellow, which 
 describe it. 
 
 Definition. — The bare Subject of a sentence is the one word 
 that particularly expresses the thing spoken about. 
 
 Definition. — The complete subject of a sentence is the bare 
 Bubject and all the words that belong to it. 
 
LESSON v.] 
 
 NAME-iVOBDS OR NOUXS. 
 
 11 
 
 4. Analysis. — We can now carry the analysis of a sentence a little 
 
 further than before, for we can separate the bare subject from the ocher 
 
 [words of the complete subject. We do this in writing, if w^e separate 
 
 I subject from predicate by an upright line as before, and then draw one 
 
 Istroke under the bare subject. 
 
 "Written Analysis. — The lowing herd winds slowly o'er the lea. 
 
 Model. — The lowing nerd \ winds slowly o'er the lea. 
 
 Oral Analysis. — The old wooden bridge fell down. 
 
 Model. — In this sentence the word bridge is the one word that expresses 
 [the thing spoken about; therefore it is the bare subject. It is completed 
 [by the words th<:, old, and wooden. Fell down are the words that make the 
 
 statement or assertion, as it is called, about the subject bridge; therefore 
 
 they are the predicate. 
 
 Exercise 10. — Write (to the teacher's dictation) the following sen- 
 Itences, f.nd analyze them first orally i".d then in writing, according to 
 I the above models : — 
 
 1. The little busy bee works hard. 2. The snow covers the ground. 
 ! 3. Their naughty cat killed my bird. 4. The swallows come in spring. 
 5. Our brown dog knows some tricks. 6. Flowers bloom in spring. 
 7. Joy danced in her dark eye. 8. Time waits for no man. 9. Each 
 foeman drew his battle blade. 10. The distant thunder told of a storm. 
 II. The smiling daisies blow beneath the sun. 12. No useless coflSn 
 enclosed his breast. 
 
 LESSON V. 
 NAME- WORDS OR NOUNS. 
 
 1. From what was said in the last lesson we see that in every 
 j sentence there must be at least two kinds of words — a name-word 
 
 to name the subject, and a statement-word to say something 
 aboTit the subject ; and, as all language is made up of sentences, 
 it follows that our language must have at least these two classes, 
 or kinds of wordd. 
 
 2. In this lesson we shall treat of name-words only. Name- 
 words are called nouns, noun being another word for name. Some 
 
12 
 
 NAME-WORDS OR NOUNS. 
 
 [part I. 
 
 nouns are the names of persons or places or things, that we can 
 perceive by the, sense of sight; as, 
 
 James, Toronto, school. 
 
 Others are names of things that we perceive by some of the other 
 
 senses; as, 
 
 sound, odor, taste. 
 Others are names of thin</s that we can only think about ; as, 
 
 mind, soul, life. 
 Others, still, are names of qualities of objects ; as, 
 
 roundness, brigrhtness, beauty, courage. 
 
 But, though there are many different kinds of nouns, they are 
 all alike names ; and since we can think of, and say something 
 about, that which they name, they can each be used as the bare 
 subject of a sentence. 
 
 A name may consist of one word, as, Toronto, Shakespeare; or of 
 two, as, General Middleton, Owen Sound, Christmas Day; or 6f three, 
 as, Bay of Quinte, Duke of Wellington, New Year's Day; or ev3n 
 of four or more, as, Maid of the Mist. 
 
 Definition, — A noun is the name of anything. 
 
 CAUTION. -Bear In mind that the thing itself Is not a noun; It Is only Its 
 name that is a noun. Thus If you eat an apple, you do not eat a noun, but 
 the name appie given to the thing you are eating is a noun. 
 
 Exercise 1 1. — Write out the following extract neatly and correctly ; 
 then underline all the nouns it contains : — 
 
 One fine morning a lion, a fox, and a donkey set out to hunt together 
 in the forest. The donkey ran abcnit in the brushwood, made a terrible 
 noise with his loud bray, and frightened the deer, the hares, and the 
 rabbits. The fox ilew at their hind legs, bit at "them, and drove them to 
 where the lion w .s standing. 
 
 3. You must not suppose, because the bare subject of a sentence 
 is a noun, that every noun in a sentence is a bare subject. For 
 example, in the sentence — 
 
 A dog in the yard bit my brother on the leg 
 there are four nouns — dog, yard, brother, leg. 
 
 If, however, you analyze the sentence, you will find that only 
 pne of these — dOQ — is the bare subject. We must, therefore, bear 
 
LESSON VI ] COMPOSITION AX J) GRAMMAR. 
 
 13 
 
 in mind that although a name-word in any part of tlic sontence 
 i is a noun, it is not always a subject. 
 
 4. Parsing. — When we select the name-M'ords in a sentence and call 
 |them nouns, we are suid to be parsing the nouns. 
 
 Oral Parsing". — General Brock was hilled at the battle of Queenston 
 \IIi'i(jhts. 
 
 Model,— General Brocic is the name of a person; therefore it is a 
 
 noun. 
 battle is the name of an event; therefore it is a 
 
 noun. 
 Queenston HeUjlUa is the name of a place; therefore it is a 
 
 noun. 
 EjXercise 12. — Parse the nouns in the following sentences accoruing 
 ito the above model: — 
 
 1. Toronto is a city in Ontario. 2. Beavers are found in Canada. 
 
 j.S. Ice is frozen water, snow is frozen vapor, and hail is frozen rain. 
 
 J4. Montreal is built on an island in the St Lawrence. T). Magna Charta 
 
 [was signed by John. 0. In the mouth of June, flowers bloom in the 
 
 garden. 
 
 LESSON YI. 
 
 COMPOSITION AND GRAMMAR. 
 
 1, When wo express our thoughts in suitable words and put 
 [them in their proper order, more especially if we do so in writing, 
 Iwe are said to be coMrosiNo; and that which we compose — a 
 
 letter, for example — is called a composition. The act of com- 
 posing is also called composition. 
 
 2. The ability to compose well is closely connected with the 
 study that teaches us the right forms of words to use and the 
 right ways of putting them together into spoken or written sen- 
 tences. This study is called grammar. Without a knowledge of 
 grammar we should not know whether the English we were using 
 was good or had, nor why it was good or bad. 
 
 Grp.mmar docs not at all maJce rules and laws for language; but the 
 information that it gives, whereby we know whether we are using good 
 
u 
 
 COMPOSITIOX AND GRAMMAR. 
 
 [part I. 
 
 Enj^liah or bad, has been obtained by persons observing how those speak 
 and write who use the language most correctly, and then setting clown 
 what they have ol^served, in an orderly way, in a book which is called a 
 " Grammur." 
 
 3. We shall, from time to time in these lessons, learn many of 
 the chief facts that grammar teaches us about language, (we have 
 already learned a few), and as fast as we learn them we shall put 
 them in practice in our exercises in composition. Before entering 
 upon composition, however, you must know that in written 
 language, which is addressed to the eye, we have to observe certain 
 rules about capital letters, punctuation markp, and so forth, for 
 which there is no need in spoken language, which is addressed 
 to the ear. The following are some of these rules : — 
 
 1. A word that is the name of a particular person or place must begin 
 with a capital : thus, 
 
 Columbus, Tennyson, Toronto, Ontario. 
 
 2. If the name of a person or of a place consist of two or more words, 
 each word, or each important word, in the name, must begin with a 
 capital: thus, 
 
 Tom Brown, Egerton Ryerson, Niagara Falls, Gulf of St. Lawrence. 
 
 3. Sometimes part of a word is used for the whole word, as, Ont. for 
 Ontario ; ex. for example. The word is then said to be abbreviated, 
 that is, shortened, and th© part thus used is called an ABBRE\aATlON. 
 
 When a name is abbreviated by using the first letter of it (called the 
 initial), such letter must be a capital ; and, like all other abbreviations, it 
 must be followed by a period, to show that it is an abbreviation : thus, 
 A. P. Smith, Esq.; Col. A. T. H. Williams. 
 
 4. Mr. (which is short for Mister), Mrs. (which is short for Mistress), 
 and Miss, must begin with a capital : thus, 
 
 Mr. Jones, Mrs. Smith, and Miss Robinson came home yesterday. 
 
 Exercise 13. — Compose ten sentences, using as bare subjects the 
 names of Persons you know, or have read about. 
 
 Exercise 14. — Compose ten sentences, using as bare subjects the 
 names of Places you know, or have read about. 
 
 'an ANIMAL, as bear. 
 a VEGETABLE, as wheat, 
 a MINERAL, as sJllver. 
 an ACTION, as leaping, 
 ^a QUALITY, as whiteness. 
 
 The name of a thing may be the name of 
 
LESSON VI.] COMPOSITION AND GRAMMAR. 
 
 15 
 
 Sxercise 15. — Compose ten sentences, using as bare subject the 
 name of some animal, some vegetable, some mineral, some action, some 
 quality, two of each. 
 
 Model 1. — The horse is a noble animal. 
 '' 2 . — Wheat is ground into flour. 
 
 3. — Sand is used in making mortar. 
 4. — Bathing is healthy. ' 
 5. — ffis courage was admired. 
 
 
 Explanation of some marks and si^ns used in writing:. 
 
 1. The mark ? is called an Interrogation Mark, and is used to show 
 [that the sentence before it is a question: thus, 
 
 Has the teacher come ? 
 
 2. The letters viz. stand for namely ; they are used in writing when 
 we wish to specify persons or things before referred to : thus, 
 
 In every sentence there must be two kinds of words, viz., a name-word 
 I and a statement- word. 
 
 3. The letters i.e. mean that is; they introdiTce words which show 
 [more fully what is meant by some word or words just used: thus. 
 
 The bare subject, i.e., the noun, is the principal word of the whole 
 I subject. 
 
 4. The curved lines ( ) are called Parentheses ; they are used to cut 
 i off words in a sentence, which, being chiefly explanatory, are not necessary 
 I to the sense: thus, 
 
 Nouns (or name-words) must have a verb. 
 
 5. The word ditto was formerly, and is now sometimes, used to indicate 
 [repetition, particularly in lists : thus, 
 
 2 Avooden ploughs, 
 
 3 iron ditto. 
 
 In the hurry of writing, ditto was contracted into do, and is now often 
 represented by this sign *': thus, 
 
 2 wooden ploughs. 
 
 3 iron " 
 
 6. The sign & is sometimes used for the word and ; when it has a C 
 after it, thus, &c., it means and the rest. In books the sign &c. is often 
 written etc., which is an a|>breviation for, and is pronounced, et cetera. 
 
 Exercise 16.— Errors for Correction.— Point out and correct 
 [fill the faults you can find in the following uentences:— 
 
16 
 
 VERBS. 
 
 [part I. 
 
 CAUTION.— I. Never write i;he words to-day and to-morrow without 
 putting a short stroke (called a hyphen) after the word to. 2. Always put 
 hyphens between the parts of the words In writing f ather-i n-law, mother- 
 I n-law, and so op. 
 
 1. James brady lives in our town 2. me Craig has just come back 
 from montreal 3. The Bay of quinte is part of Lake Ontario 4. J T Day 
 was hurt yesterday 5 miss Kemp will be home tomorrow 6. Is mrs 
 harris your motherinlaw 7. Jack, gi'me a drink, I'm so dry 8. billie 
 Porter hurt himself 9. Has Mr Mrs and Miss l:I?iwkin3 gone to new York 
 10. Mr A M Wade is his fatherinlaw 11. Little tommy Wilkins got a 
 tumble on Wednesday 12. Niagara falls is a wonderful place 13. Bob 
 and thomas are going there today 14. The st Lawrence river flows past 
 the thousand islands. 
 
 Note to Tbaciikr.— It is suggested that these "Errors" should first be corrected 
 orally, sentence by sentence, the teachor calling upon nieniberc of the class to point out 
 each fault, to say, when they are able, why it is a fault, and to make the correction; 
 that the teacher then dictate the sentences of the exercise/or the class to write them with 
 the proper corrections; that alates be then exchanged for correction ; and that during the 
 correction the teacher Beek to impress the rules, cautions, etc., by having the class repeat 
 them in answer to his questions — " Why is such a form right?" or, " Why would such a 
 form be wrong ?" 
 
 Occasionally, in these exercises, sentences will be found containing errors as to which 
 no rule or caution has been given. In explanation it may bo stated : 1. That the prcva' 
 lenco of such errors makes it undesirable to postpone their correction till after the point 
 has been covered in due course by the grammar lesson ; 2. That in most instances of the 
 kind, the verbal explanation, caution, or "never say" of the teacher will meet the case 
 much better than any formal rule that could be given. The words to which these remarks 
 apply will be found for the most part printed in italics. 
 
 LESSON VII. 
 
 BARB PREDICATB.-THE VERB. 
 
 1. We found in Lesson IV. that, although the complete sub- 
 ject may consist of several words, there is always in it a word 
 that more particularly expresses the thing spoken about, and 
 that this word is called the bare subject. Now, just in the same 
 way, the predicate may consist of several words ; yet there will 
 always be in it a word that more particularly makes the state- 
 ment, or assertion (as it is sometimes called), about the subject. 
 Thus, in the sentence — 
 
 My little yellow bird sings beautifully every day, 
 although the words beautifully, every, and day are parts of the 
 
LESSON VII.] 
 
 VERBS. 
 
 IT 
 
 piedicate, because tliey are part of wliat we say about the subject 
 bird, yet it is plain that if used ah)ne with the subject they 
 would state nothing, and that we do not make a statement unless 
 we join with them such a word as sings. Sings^ then, is the 
 word that chiefly makes the statement — does the asserting about 
 the subject bird. 
 
 So, too, in the long predicate of the sentence — 
 
 The horses run every day down the hill to the 
 brook for water, 
 
 run is the word that chiefly makes the asseroion about the subject 
 horses. 
 
 2. That word in the whole predicate which, in this way, makes 
 the assertion about the subject, is called the bare predicate ; 
 and the bare predicate, with all the words that belong to it, is 
 called the complete predicate. 
 
 Definition. — The bare predicate of a sentence is that word in 
 the whole predicate that makes the assertion about the subject. 
 
 Definition. — The complete predicate is the bare predicate and 
 all the words that belong to it. 
 
 Exercise 17. — In the following sentences distinguish the bare from 
 the complete predicate : — 
 
 1. The school-clock ticks loudly. 2. The judge sentenced the prisoner 
 I to death. 3. The sun shines in the valley and on the hillside. 4. The 
 [ flowers in the garden need water every day. 5. My brother likes farming 
 very much. 6. The railway train goes slowly over the bridge. 7. The 
 [fire soon consumed the town. 8. The disease quickly spread to other' 
 [places. 9 Along the dusty road they went. 10. The rising sun peeped 
 lover the hill. 
 
 11. Swiftly, swiftly, flew the ship. 
 Yet she sailed softly, too ; 
 Sweetly, sweetly, blew the breeze, 
 On me alone it blew. 
 
 3. In Grammar, the bare predicate, that is, the word that 
 
 makes the assertion, is called a verb. The name verb means 
 
 word simply ; and this kind of word was so called because the 
 
 verb was looked upon as the chief word of the sentence ; for the 
 
 reason that without a verb, as we have seen, there can be no 
 
 statement or assertion, and therefore no sentence. 
 2 
 
18 
 
 VERBS. 
 
 [part I. 
 
 Definition. — A verb *'« a word hy means of which we can make 
 an assertion. 
 
 Sxerciso 18. — Now go again over the sentences in Exercise 17, 
 naming the verbs and telling why they are verbs. 
 
 Oral Analysis. — The young girl saw a snake in the garden. 
 
 Model. — In this sentence girl names that about which tho assertion is 
 made, therefore it is the bare subject (or noun); it is completed by the 
 wcrds the and young. Saw is the word which chiefly makes the assertion 
 about the subject, therefore it is the bare predicate (or verb) ; it is com- 
 pleted by the words a snake in the garden. 
 
 "Written Analysis. — BeatUi/ul pictures hung all around the room. 
 Model. — Beautiful pictures \ hung all around the room. 
 
 Elxercise 19. — Copy neatly the following sentences and analyze 
 them according to the above models for oral and written analysis: — 
 
 1. The ploughman^ homeward plods his weary way. 2. My father 
 blessed me fervently. 3. Bees construct their cells most ingeniously. 
 4. The cloud burst over the city. 5. His fingers grasped the broken 
 sword. 6. The doctor then directed his steps homeward. 7. The moving 
 moon went up the sky. 8. At my feet the city slumbered. 9. Long grass 
 covered the plain. 10. The farmer sat in his easy chair. 
 
 11. The fair breeze blew, the white foam flew, 
 
 The furrow followed free. 
 
 12. The sun now rose upon the right, 
 
 Out of the sea came he. 
 
 Parsing. — fVilliam lost his dog in the woods. 
 
 Model. — William is the name of a person; therefore it is a noun. 
 
 lottt is the word that makes the assertion about the subject 
 
 William; therefore it is a verb. 
 dog is the name of an animal ; therefore it is a noun. 
 
 woods is tho name of a thing; therefore it is a noun. 
 
 Sxercise 20. — Parse the nouns and the verbs in the last Exercise, 
 according to the foregoing model. 
 
 4. In this last exercise you have been putting the words that 
 are names into a class by themselves, and calling them " nouns ; " 
 and the words "by means of which we can make an assertion" 
 into another class, and calling them " verbs." 
 
 We shall see, as we proceed with our lessons, that all the 
 words of a sentence can, in like manner, be put into one or another 
 
LESSON VII.] 
 
 VERBS. 
 
 19 
 
 le room. 
 
 of eight classes^ according to the part they play in expressing our 
 thoughts ; for we shall find that each word in a sentence has its 
 own particular work to do, and its own ways of being used with 
 other words. 
 
 5. When words are put into separate classes according to their 
 uses, as we now see that nouns and verbs may be put, :he classes 
 are called parts op speech ; and every word, as belonging to 
 one or another class, and as having a certain kind of use of its 
 own, is called a part op speech. 
 
 This name " part of speech," given to a word, plainly shows 
 that it is only a " part," and not the whole, of speech, and that it 
 must be joined to other " parts," that is, to words of other classes, 
 in order to make a whole, or in order to be speech. 
 
 The whole which these parts make up is the sentence. 
 
 Exercise 21.— Errors for Correction.— Point out and correct 
 all the faults you can find in the following sentences : — 
 
 CAUTIONS.— I. Never say "You l»," "You was," "Is you," or "Was 
 you?" But always «ay "You are," "You were," " Are you?" and " Were 
 you?" 2. Never say "I seen It," or "I done It." But always say "I saw 
 It," "I did It." 
 
 1. monday Morning will be the first of June. 2. i am off to Georgian 
 bay tueaday. 3. He seen H v Sanders last week at the fair. 4. Them's 
 my books; here's your^s. 5. I am sure you done it, for you was at our 
 place at the time. 6. We passed through st Catharines to day. 7. Whose 
 got my pencil. 8. Don't the Welland canal join lake erie and Ontario. 
 9. Wasn't you at mrs nevilles at six ocLock lastnight. 10. I believe that's 
 them, for they said they was com%n\ 11. I expect it was her that done it. 
 12. Yesterday was a very nice day. 
 
20 
 
 PRONOUNS. 
 
 V 
 
 [PABT I. 
 
 il: 
 
 : LESSON VIII. 
 PRONOUNS. 
 
 1. We now understand why, in every sentence, there must be 
 at least a subject and a predicate. We have learned also that 
 the subject of a sentence may be that part of speech called a 
 noun, for the reason that a noun can be the name of that which 
 we speak about ; and that the predicate of a sentence must have 
 in it, as its asserting word, that part of speech called a verb, 
 for the reason that without a verb there can be no assertion. 
 
 Indeed, with these two parts of speech alone we gan form sen- 
 tences of a simple kind : thus, 
 
 NOUN. VERIJ. 
 
 Boys run. 
 
 NOUN. VERB. 
 
 George reads. 
 
 NOUN. VERB. 
 
 Time flies. 
 
 
 2. But while a verb ia the only kind of word, or part of speech, 
 that can make an assertion, that is, that can be used as a predi- 
 cate, the noun is not the only one that can be used as a subject. 
 For, in the little sentences just given, instead of the subject 
 
 nouns Boys, George, Time, we can use) the words They, He, It ; 
 
 and say 
 
 They run. He reads. It flies. 
 
 But the words they, he and it, and others like them, are words 
 of a kind so different in use from other words, that they are made 
 a class or part of speech by themselves, and are called pronouns. 
 
 3. The name pronoun given to this part of speech means stand- 
 ing for a noun ; for the words which make up this class are a 
 kind of additional set of names for objects, which may be used 
 instead of their usual names, that is, instead of nouns, whenever 
 circumstances show jilainly enough v)hat is referred to. 
 
 Thus, instead of saying 
 
 George reads; or, The sun shines, 
 we may say 
 
 He reads; or. It shines, 
 
lk;-><on VIII. J 
 
 PJtONOUNS 
 
 21 
 
 if we have before spoken of George and the sun in a way that 
 makes plain what he and it mean. 
 
 4. So, speaking to George himself, or to George and others 
 with him, wo may say 
 
 You read, 
 
 because the meaning of you would be quite evident from the cir- 
 cumstances : and George, speaking of himself, may say 
 
 I read, 
 
 /or in this case also the meaning of I would be plain from the 
 circumstances. Again, if George were to take hold of, or point 
 to some boy near him, and say 
 
 This is my cousin, 
 
 we should know well enough who was meant by the word this, 
 though we may never know the boy's name. 
 
 5. In this way, we may use he, she, it, this or that, of every 
 single object that we can speak 6i by a noun ; to any one or more 
 that we can speak to, we may say you | and any one of them that 
 oan speak of itself, may call itself |. In all cases, however, our 
 knowledge of what these pronouns mean depends on our knowing 
 from the circumstances who or what is referred to. 
 
 6. Thus the pronouns are a sort of general names, or general 
 substitutes, when circumstances make their meaning plain, for 
 ordinary names, and we are led to the following 
 
 Definition. — A pronoun is a word that can stand/or a noun. 
 
 7. It follows from what was said in 5, that a small number of pronouns 
 cnn stand for a very large number of nouns. This is really the case, for 
 while there are many thousands of nouns in the language as names of 
 objects, about twenty pronouns suflBce to stand for these names. Hence 
 the words in this part of speech are not numerous. The chief of them are 
 found in the following list : — 
 
 I, me; we, us; you; he, him; she, her; it; they, them; this, that; 
 
 who, what, which. 
 
 i^:iercise 22. — Point out all the pronouns in the following sentences, 
 
22 
 
 PfiOXOl/XS. 
 
 [part I.. 
 
 
 telling whether tl»oy btand for the speaker, the person spoken to, or the.' 
 person or thing spoken of, und whether for oiiu or more than one: — 
 
 1. I know it. 2. So hero ho comes. 3. Wo saw her in the street 
 4. She climbed up the mountain. 6. You know they left last night. 
 (J. I thinU they .saw ua wlieii wo pas-sed the door. 7. If you touch a wasp, 
 it will Htiiig you. 8. We hiiiglietl loudly, but they were silent. 0. 1 told 
 tlu'in that we saw her. 10. Thuy are good boys. 11. This is the chair 
 tliiib I bought. 12. Tell nio what you heard. Hi. James will come when 
 she comtiH. 14. Above it stood the seraphs. 1."). He often helped me. 
 Itt. Wiio told you that? 17. 'She pitied the boy und gave him food. 
 18. I liear a voice you cannot hear. 
 
 Exercise 23. — Fill up each blank in the following with any 8ui AAq 
 pronom : — 
 
 1. Follow '. 2. My Vnother is sick, did know ? 3. 
 
 4. Do aa do. 5. may leave school if 
 
 saw the meteor. 4. \)n aa do. 0. may leave school it are 
 
 .sick. 0, is learning to sew. 7. Tom ami Crcorge have lost their 
 
 ball, so cannot play. 8. ■ has made a mistake, think. 
 
 }>. W^hon Sara had finished her drawing, had framed, and 
 
 did ■ groat credit.' 10. must be ready when I call for 
 
 II. . 
 
 to - 
 
 is learning to plough. 12. 
 
 like our teacher, 
 
 is kind. 
 
 Oral and written analysis.— As in previous lesson. 
 
 Parsings* — ^^'* I'drsjlowcrs and h/ic etiUivatea them. 
 
 Model. — Ella is the name of a person ; therefore it is a noun. 
 
 Ukctt is the word that makes an assertiox. about the subject 
 
 Ella; therefore it is a verb. 
 flowPTH is the name of a thing ; therefore it is a noun. 
 she is a word that stands for a noun (Ella); therefore it 
 
 is a pronoun. 
 cultivates is the word that makes an assertion about the subject. 
 
 she; therefore it is a verb. 
 them is a word that stands for a noun (Jtoioers); therefore 
 
 it is a pronoun. 
 
 Exercise 24. — Analyze the following sentences, and parse the nouns, 
 verbs, and pronouns they contain : — 
 
 1. We saw the fireworks in the park. 2. Joseph gained the prize. 
 .*?. He deserved it. 4. She touched me on the shoulder. 5. He planted 
 the tree. 6. I watched him. 7. You often helped us. 8. They lighted 
 a fire on the ground. 9. It burned brightly in the darkness. 
 
 Exercise 25.— Errors for Correction.— Point out and correct 
 
 all the faults you can find in the following sentences, and tell, where you 
 can, why they are fault*: — 
 
LB8S0N TX.] 
 
 ADJECTIVES. 
 
 23 
 
 0AUTI0N6.— !• In tpAaklng of yourself and another person, pollteneta re« 
 quiret that you should mention the other person first, thub: Jane and I 
 will come. He told John and me. 2. The words I and O mutt always 
 be capital letters. 3. Ours and yours should not be spelled our's and 
 ydur's. 4. Never say them books, them applet, but say those 
 books, those apples. 
 
 1. Ho said that me and you may go if wo liked 2. Mont any boy can 
 
 do that. .3. do you see them thre trees yonder 4. Them two boys are 
 
 very like to each other. 5. George and him was playing truant. 6. i 
 
 Icannot stand it no longer. 7. Wan you at school to day 3. You was 
 
 igoiug down the street when I seen you, 9. My cousins wil\ be at our place 
 
 Ion new yearsdaij / 10. The horse of Mr H M Drummond Esq of oakwood 
 
 I victoria co was droM'ned in the lake. 11. i am, your's truly, Mr J B Stokes 
 
 1 12. o mary what a fright you are 13. Please sir can i ^o honip 14. Will 
 
 1 be allowed another try 15. Me and her are in the same class 10. You 
 
 and me can run faster than them. 
 
 LESSON IX. 
 
 MODIFIERS OP THE SUBJECT.- ADJECTIVES. 
 
 1. The three parts of speech we have now learned about, viz.: 
 ^he noun, the pronOUn, and the verb, are often called the prin- 
 sipal ones, because by means of them we can form sentences 
 
 dthout help from other parts of speech. 
 But we seWom do so ; we can say 
 
 Roses grow in our garden ; 
 
 it. if we wish to tell the kind, we must use with roses some 
 rord that will describe them, such as red, and say 
 
 Red roses grow in our garden, 
 '"e may wish to describe them further, and say 
 
 Large, red roses grow in our garden. 
 )r further still, and say 
 
 Larg(3, red, fragrrant roses grow in our garden. 
 
 2. Each of these descriptive words may be necessary to give a 
 )rrect idea of the roses we are speaking about. It will be 
 
24 
 
 ADJECTIVES. 
 
 [part I. 
 
 I'll 
 
 noticed, however, that the meaning of the s; hject noun rOS6S has 
 been somewhat changed by each descriptive word we have added 
 to it. It has, in fact, been limited by each added word. For 
 when we said that roses grow, we may be understood to mean 
 roses of any kind, or of all liinds ; but when we say red roses, we 
 limit the meaning to roses that are red; by saying large, red 
 roses, we limit the meaning to roses that are red and large ; and 
 by saying large, red, fragrant roses, we limit the meaning to roses 
 
 that are large and red and fragrant. 
 
 3. Because the subject noun roses is thus changed in mean- 
 ing by these words, it is said to be modified by them ; and each 
 of them is called a modifier of it. To modify means to change 
 somewhat. 
 
 Now it will be seen that they modify the noun by expressing 
 certain qualities as belonging to the things of which the noun is 
 the name. Thus, large shows that the roses possess the quality 
 
 of largeness ; red, the quality of redness ; fragrant, the quality of 
 
 having a sweet smell. For this reason, such words are sometimes 
 spoken of as qualifying the noun to which they are added. 
 
 4. Some few words modify nouns, though they do not express 
 a quality as belonging to them : as when we speak of 
 
 A rose, the rose, yonder rose, this rose, two roses, 
 oiir roses, some roses, many roses, etc. 
 
 But such words are not numerous ; so that nearly all the words 
 that modify nouns do so by expressing a quality. 
 
 5. In Grammar, a word that modifies, i.e., limits or qualifies 
 in any way, a noun, is called an adjective. The word adjective 
 merely means something added— thd^:, is, added to a noun by way 
 of limitation or description of it. 
 
 Definition. — An adjective is a word used to modify a noun. 
 
 Exercise 26.— Mention all the adjectives in the following sentences, 
 and say why they are adjectives: — 
 
 1. A savage dog bit me, 2, The cold winds blow. 3. A pelting rain 
 falls. 4. The golden sun shines. 6. Thin paper tears easily. 6. Two 
 tall men met me. 7. These children sing. 8. Industrious boys usually 
 
LyssoN rx.] 
 
 ADJECTIVES. 
 
 25 
 
 succeed. 9. The brave soldier returned home. 10. Some trees grow 
 slowly. 11. Many beautiful birds never sing. 12. Yonder tall brick 
 chimney took fire. 13. The dead leaves fall. 14. A rainy day spoiled 
 our fun. 15. The vivid lightning flashed. 16. Our genial summer days 
 are over. 
 
 Exercise 2f7. — Modify the subjects of the following sentences by 
 limiting the noun by as many suitable adjectives as you can : — 
 
 1. 
 
 3. 
 
 bee 
 
 men worship God. 2. man gropes his way. 
 
 gathers honey. 4. tree is withering. 5. wind blew down the 
 
 barn. 6. elm bends. 7. pane let in the cold air. 8. gen- 
 eral lost his life. 9. sailors fell overboard. 10. ships are in 
 
 sight. 11. woman sobbed bitterly. 12. breeze blew, foam 
 
 flew. 13. dog knows some tricks. 14. accident happened, 
 
 !5. leader fell. 16. man was once a soldier. 
 
 6. We have now seen how a noun used as the subject of a 
 (Sentence can be modified by one or more adjectives; the following 
 examples show that a noun in cmy pa/rt of the sentence can be 
 modified in the same way : thus, 
 
 1. A kind boy helped the old man to carry his heavy load. 
 
 2. The bright silvery moon lighted the dreaiT path of 
 the weary traveller. 
 
 Exercise 28, — Modify the nouns in the following by prefixing suit- 
 able adjectives: — 
 
 1. We live in house. 2. I have terrier. 3. boy has 
 
 pigeons. 4. farm belongs to my uncle. 5. horse is 
 
 dra,wing load. 6. mother has dress. 7. leak may 
 
 ship. 8. monkey stole cake. 9. wind blew 
 
 10. canary is dead. 11. horse has 
 
 sink 
 down 
 
 8. 
 chimney. 
 
 \ load to draw. 12. I managed to escape from bull. 
 
 Oral Analysis.—^ poor old man legged some food. 
 
 Model. — In this sentence a poor old man is the complete subject; mnn 
 
 [means that about which the assertion is made; therefore it is the bare 
 
 subject or noun ; it is modified by the three adjective words, a, poor, and 
 
 old. Begged some food is the complete predicate ; begged is the word that 
 
 makes the assc '"on about man; therefore it is the bare predicate or verb. 
 
 Written Analysis. — Many poisonous plants abounded. 
 Model.— Subject plants. 
 
 Modifiers of subject: 1, many; 2, poisonom. 
 
 i^redicate abounded. 
 
 Exercise 29. —Analyze, and parse as far as you are able, the sen- 
 tences in Exercise 23. 
 
m^ 
 
 
 26 
 
 PREDICATE ADJECTIVES. 
 
 [part I. 
 
 i& 1 
 
 LESSON X. 
 
 PREDICATE "ADJECTIVES-PREDICATE NOUNS. 
 
 1. Predicate Adjectives. — Sometimes we wish to say that 
 the subject possesses some quality : for instance, that iron has the 
 quality of usefulness ; or that certain hats have the quality of 
 whiteness. We cannot express this thought by saying 
 
 Iron useful ; Those hats white ; 
 
 for such groups of words do not make statements (Lesson II.). 
 But if we join the noun jpon to the adjective USeful by the verb 
 is, and the noun hatS to the adjective white by the verb are, 
 and say 
 
 Iron is useful ; Those hats are white ; 
 
 we make statements that express our meaning fully. By means 
 of iz and are, we assert about the subject the quality expressed 
 by the adjective. 
 
 2. The verbs that are chiefly used for this pupose are am, IS, 
 are J was, were, etc., and each of such verbs is called a copula, 
 or tie ; because it couples, as it were, to the subject, the quality 
 or limitation expressed by the adjective. Thus, 
 
 i!|n i 
 
 SUBJECT. 
 
 PREDI 
 
 GATE. 
 
 
 COPULA. 
 
 AD.TECTIVB 
 
 Iron 
 
 \ was J 
 
 useful. 
 
 Hats 
 
 / are 1 
 
 white. 
 
 \ were J 
 
 Notice carefully that in sentences such as these it requirec the copula 
 and the adjective to make the statement, in other words, to form the 
 predicate. For, if we leave the adjective out of the predicate and use the 
 verb alone, the meaning will be very diflferent from that which we wish 
 to convey; for instance, if we aay Iron is, or Hats are, we are asserting 
 the existence of iron and hats; i.e., that there is such a thing as iron, and 
 that there are such things as hats. These, however, though true, are not 
 the assertions we wish to make. 
 
LESSOK X.] 
 
 PREDICATE NOUNS. 
 
 27 
 
 3. Adjectives that thus form part of the predicate are called 
 PREDICATE ADJECTIVES, OF are Said to be used predicatively. 
 Aiid this name distinguishes adjectives so used in the predicate 
 from adjectives like those in Exs. 1 and 2, par, 6, of the last 
 lessoii, which modify a noun in any part of the sentence without 
 being part of the assertion made about it. These latter are called 
 attributive adjectives, or are said to be used attributively. 
 
 The same adjective may be used predicatively- iii one sentence, and 
 attributively in another : thus, 
 
 This man is old (pred.); This old man is blind (att.). 
 
 Or, even in the same sentence : thus, , 
 
 This old man was old when I first knew him. 
 
 4. The following examples show that when an adjective is used 
 predicatively it can modify a pronoun just as freely as a noun. 
 We can say equally well 
 
 George is truthful ; or, He is truthful. 
 The peach was ripe ; or, It was ripe. 
 
 5. Predicate Nouns. — The same verbs, am, is, are, etc., also 
 help sometimes to make an assertion about the subject, }>y join- 
 ing to it a noun. Thus, 
 
 I am a Canadian. Snakes are reptiles. 
 
 Ontario is a Province. That man was the leader. 
 
 In this case, too, it takes both the copula and the noun to express what 
 we want to assert about the subject ; the two together, therefore, form 
 the predicate. 
 
 Kour-. that thus form part of the predicate are called predi- 
 cate NOUNS. 
 
 Definition. — A copula is a verb that makes an assertion abont 
 its subject by joining to it an adjective or a noun. 
 
 Definition. — A predicate adjective or a predicate noun is ono 
 
 that is used with a copula to form the predicate. 
 
 6. We have seen that the predicate made by the copula alone 
 is incomplete : this is true, not only of is, but also of all verbs 
 
28 
 
 PREDICATE KOUXS. 
 
 [part I. 
 
 
 that are used as copulas. For, if we use with a subject the verbs 
 become, seem, look, appear, and several others, we shall find 
 that our predicate is incomplete till we have added an adjective 
 or noun. Thus, 
 
 He becomes, seems, looks, appears — attentive. 
 That man became, seemed, looked, appeared — a soldier. 
 
 Oral Analysis. — Four strong horses were necessary. 
 
 • 
 
 In this sentence, four strong horses is the complete subject ; horses names 
 that about which the assertion is made ; therefore it is the bare subject or 
 noun ; it is modified by the two adjective words /our and strong. Were 
 necessary is the complete predicate ; it is composed of the copula were and 
 the predicate adjective necessary. 
 
 Parsing^. — The funny little squirrel was a great pet. 
 
 Model. — Tlie mpdifies the noun squirrel ; therefore it is an adjective. 
 funny *• " •' •• *• " 
 
 little " " •* " •' •' 
 
 squirrel is a name ; therefore it is a noun ; it is subject of the 
 
 verb was. 
 was makes the assertion about the subject squirrel; there- 
 fore it is a verb, 
 modifies the nonn pet; therefore it is an adjective. 
 
 a 
 
 great 
 pet 
 
 is a name; therefore it is a noun; it is a predicate 
 noun after the verb was. 
 
 Elxercise 30 — In the following sentences separate the subject from 
 the predicate by a short line ; draw two strokes under the copula, and one 
 under the predicate adjective or predicate noun. Examples, 
 
 The day I was hot and sultry. 
 
 Gold I is a metal. 
 
 1. Walking is healthy. 2. James is honest and industrious. 3. Drunk- 
 enness is degrading. 4. A goose is a biped. 5. She was a widow. 
 6. The beautiful bride was charming and attractive. 7. The boy is 
 truthful. 8. I am hungry. 9. He was a sincere friend. 10. The day 
 was cold and dark and dreary. 11. Drunkenness is a degrading habit. 
 12. It was a glorious victory. 13. Four horses were necessary. 14. The 
 snow was their winding sheet. 15, She is sick. 16. The herdsman's arm 
 is strong. 17. Great was the joy. 18. Few and short were the prayers. 
 19. A man severe he was. 20. That stranger is my cousin. 21. A dainty 
 plant is the ivy green. 
 
LESSON X.] 
 
 PREDICATE NOUNS. 
 
 29 
 
 Exercise 31. — By means of a copula, and a predicate adjective or 
 a predicate noun, say something about each of tlie following subjects. 
 Where possible, qualify the nouns by attributive adjectives. 
 
 1, 
 
 Model, - 
 
 Dogs 
 
 2. Spiders 
 
 3. He 
 
 4. Koses 
 r>. Slie 
 6. It 
 
 ■Newfoundland days are good swimmer a. 
 
 7. Pride 
 
 8. Reading 
 
 9. Skating 
 
 10. Peace 
 
 11. Ink 
 
 12. Books 
 
 13. Water 
 
 14. Sleep 
 
 15. Spring 
 
 16. They 
 
 17. Gold 
 
 18. Time 
 
 19. Beauty 
 
 20. We 
 
 21. The day 
 
 22. His symptoms 
 
 23. The object 
 
 24. Last summer 
 
 Remahk 1. — Sometimes the names of persons and places, and words 
 formed from these names, are used as adjectives : thus, 
 
 The Tudor period. A Toronto firm. Canadian scenery. 
 
 CAUTION. — Such adjectives must begin with a capital letter. (See last 
 Examples.) 
 
 Rkm. 2. — When two or more adjectives are use<l predicativcly (Lesson 
 X.), the last one is joined to the one before it by and: thus, 
 
 Glass is hard, brittle, and transparent. 
 
 [But when two or more adjectives are used attributively, the word and is 
 generally omitted : thus, 
 
 I have a large, black, Newfoundland dog. 
 Rem. 3. — Modifiers must be placed where they will sound best : thus, 
 A muscular, ragged, tall beggar 
 I does not sound so well as 
 
 A tall, ragged, muscular beggar. 
 
 CAUTION.— Several adjectives modifying the same word must be separated 
 ;from each other by commas. (See laf it Examples.) 
 
 Exercise 32.— Errors for Correction.— Point out the faults 
 
 the following sentences, and, where you can, tell why they are faults : — 
 
 1. Every boy must attend to their lessons 2. Ain't you coming out 
 night 3. I love the spring of the year came violets comes then 4. Aly 
 launt has bought me a great large wax doll 5. Who done that? It was 
 rme and him. 6. Them cherries is quite ripe they wont hurt nobody a hit. 
 7. The canary's song is musical clear and sweet? 8. A murmuring clear 
 [stream was near by 9. A fiery bright long meteor /erf acioss the sky 
 10. All european travellers admire our Canadian woods in the fall. 1 1 . We 
 [was i-eading an interesting short story ]2 Cant I have it after you are 
 \done with it 13. Pra;*,s it wasn't Jack that you seen after all 14. Oat- 
 meal is a easily-procured vv^holesome cheap food; 15. A great red and 
 [angry bull ran after us. 10. We are learning the stuart period of euglish 
 \ history 17 He was a industrioits hardworking honest lad 
 

 30 
 
 ADVERBS, 
 
 [part I. 
 
 1! 
 
 mm 
 
 W\ 
 
 il;N 
 
 LESSON XI. 
 
 y 
 MODIFIERS OP PREDICATE-ADVERB. 
 
 1. We have seen that every predicate must contain a verb, 
 because without a verb there can be no statement. But it fre- 
 quently happens that the statement made by the verb alone is 
 too indefinite, that is, it is not exact enough. Thus, if we say to 
 
 a person 
 
 The soldiers marched, 
 
 he may want to know hoW, when, where they marched. And 
 we may have to modify our indefinite statement, and say 
 
 i steadily, which would tell him how. 
 yesterday, " " '* when, 
 
 homeward, " " " where. 
 
 So, if we say 
 
 The children behaAe well ; My uncle arrived yesterday ; 
 He sits here ; She sang twice ; 
 
 the words well, yesterday, here, twice, modify, by describing or 
 limiting, in one way or another, the assertions made by the verbs 
 
 behave, arrived, sits, and sang. 
 
 2. Words which thus modify the verb are called adverbs, 
 because they are added to the verb, as the adjective is added to 
 the noun, to m'^dify or change its meaning in some way. 
 
 Exercise 33. — Point out the adverbs in the following sentences : — 
 
 1 . The lion roared terribly. 2. The sun shone brightly. .3. That boy 
 swims badly. 4. The robin rises early. 5. Sparrows eat greedily. 
 6. The master arrived suddenly. 7. He paid dearly for his fault. 8. I 
 saw your friend yesterday. 9. Three merchants failed lately. 10. The 
 king treated him cruelly. 11. My teacher praised me highly for my neat 
 exercise. 12. We take a walk daily. 
 
 3. We found in the last lesson that an adjective, with a verb 
 to act as copula, may form the predicate of a sentence. Thus, 
 
 He is honest. The man was civil. 
 
 Now it may happen that assertions like these are not quite 
 
LESSON XI.] 
 
 ADVERBS. 
 
 81 
 
 true, but will become so if we modify the moaning of our adjec- 
 tives somewhat. Thus, 
 
 He is ( hardly \ honest. 
 
 The man was ( scarcely ( civil. 
 
 Or, 
 
 He is 
 
 The man was 
 
 ( very \ 
 \ quite / 
 \ most ) 
 
 honest, 
 civil. 
 
 4. Words like these, that modify predicate adjectives, are 
 called ADVERBS, as well as the words that modify verbs. And the 
 
 ime adverbs that modify predicate adjectives can also modify 
 ijectives in any part of the sentence. Thus, 
 
 very civil man waited upon me. A quite surprising event 
 took place. A most shocking accident happened. 
 
 5. Again, it sometimes happens that when we have modified 
 ^ur verb in the manner shown in par. 1 of this lesson, it yet 
 lails to express exactly our meaning; and in order to make it do 
 Jo, we may have to modify our modifying word, that is, to modify 
 )ur adverb. Thus, if we wished to express to what extent the 
 |ioldiers marched steadily, we should have to say, perhaps, 
 
 ivery, or \ 
 quite, or > steadily, 
 most ) 
 
 But the words that we have used here to modify the adverb 
 teadily are the same that just now served to modify the adjec- 
 
 ^es honest and civil. 
 
 Hence we see that adverbs are sometimes used to modify 
 Iverbs as well as verbs and adjectives, and we are led to the 
 following 
 
 Definition. — An adverb is a word used to modift/ a verb, an 
 djective, or sometimes another adverb. 
 
 Bxercise 34. — Point out the adverbs in the following sentences, and 
 ly whether they modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs : — 
 
 1. The wind was bitterly cold. 2. The frost was intensely keen. 
 We departed immediately. 4. My sister is almost well, 5, The poor 
 
82 
 
 ADVERBS. 
 
 [part I. 
 
 I?! I 
 
 
 
 ill 
 
 ::^: 
 
 si I :-i 
 
 l! ; 
 
 Jill 11':: 
 
 M ■ ■ ,i 
 
 woman was much distressed. 6. He thinks too highly of himself. 7. I 
 once saw a mole in my daily walks. 8. I take a walk daily. 0. The stars 
 are very bright. 10. We met a very civil man. 11. He is always very 
 happy. 12. Th6 Indians in their snowshoes walked quite fast over the 
 exceedingly deep snow. 13. I commc-:lv rise before seven. 14. He very 
 nearly lost his life. 15. This very foolish child fears the dark exceedingly. 
 16. And the good south wind still blew behind. 
 
 17. To every man upon this earth 
 Death Cometh, soon or late. 
 
 Sxercise 35 . — Fill up the blanks in the following sentences with as 
 many suitable adverbs as you can think of: — 
 
 1. The invalid walks 
 
 soldier is well . 4. 
 
 bad conduct — 
 
 2. I saw your friend - 
 
 The bruised place is - 
 
 cost him his situation. 6. M> 
 
 . 3. The wounded 
 
 red. 6. His 
 
 - kind friend 
 
 stayed with me all night, because I was afraid. 7. That lady dresses 
 
 . 8. She visits the poor. 9. The stranger was attentive 
 
 to me. 10. The children took their places. 11. He went ■ . 
 
 12. I am glad to see you. 
 
 Sxercise 36t — Compose sentences, using the following adverbs as 
 modifiers of the verb or of some adverb or adjective, used in the sentence : — 
 
 Sweetly, cleverly, far, now, once, abroad, swiftly, sometimes, to-night, 
 above, backwards, homewards, frequently, constantly, wholly, certainly, 
 badly, often, slowly, by and by, yesterday, before, thus. 
 
 Sxercise 37. — Compose or quote four sentences in which adverbs 
 
 shall modify verbs. 
 Compose or quote four sentences in which adverbs 
 
 shall modify adverbs. 
 Compose or quote four sentences in which adverbs 
 
 shall modify adjectives. 
 
 Oral Analysis. — An exceedingly high tide occurred very recently. 
 
 Model. — In this sentence an exceedingly high tide is the complete sub- 
 ject; tide names that about which the assertion is made; therefore it is 
 the bare subject or noun ; it is modified by the adjective words an and 
 high; the adjective high is modified by the adverb exceedingly; the word 
 occurred makes the assertion about tide, therefore it is the bare predicate 
 or verb; the verb occurred is modified by the adverb recently, and the 
 adverb recently by the adverb very. 
 
 Parsing. — That intensely painful operation was quite successful lately. 
 
 Model* — Tliat modifies the noun operation; therefore it is an adjec- 
 tive. 
 intensely modifies the adjective painful; therefore it ia ?ui 
 adverb. 
 
ces with as 
 
 LESSON XII.] 
 
 OBJECT. 
 
 8$ 
 
 pair\ful modifies the noun operation; therefore it is an adjec- 
 tive. 
 
 operation is the name of something ; therefore it is a noun. 
 
 WCU makes the assertion about the subject operation; 
 
 therefore it is a verb. 
 
 quite modifies the adjective successful; therefore it is an 
 adverb. 
 
 successful modifies the noun operation; therefore it is an adjec- 
 tive. 
 
 lately modifies the verb was; therefore it is an adverb. 
 
 LESSON XII. 
 
 COMPLETION OP THE PREDICATE —OBJECT. 
 
 1. The assertion made by some verbs is complete in itself, and 
 r'e are satisfied with what the verb alone tells; as, 
 
 The baby sleeps. The boys run. The sea roared. 
 
 2. But often the statement made by the verb alone is not 
 jomplete; for, as we saw in Lesson X., the assertion made by 
 rerbs that act as copulas is always incomplete without the adjec- 
 tive or the noun which they join to the subject. Thus, 
 
 He seemed attentive. The man appeared a soldier. 
 
 3. We have now to learn that the assertion made by the verb 
 lone is sometimes incomplete for another reason, and needs to be 
 
 Completed in a different way. Thus, if I say 
 
 I saw ; The carpenter builds ; 
 
 i^ou naturally want to know what I saw, — what the carpenter 
 Hiilds ; and I nmst complete my statement by saying, for instance, 
 
 I saw the fireworks. The carpenter builds houses. 
 
 Verbs which require to be thus completed are mostly verbs 
 which express action, and they are completed by naming the 
 Iperson or the thing acted upon, which is called the OBJECT. 
 
m 
 
 S4 
 
 OBJECT. 
 
 (PABV I. 
 
 lii: 
 
 
 Ml 
 
 
 Other examples of verbs which require to be completed by 
 objects are 
 
 The sun gives lig'ht. We admired the pictures. 
 
 An Indian caught a bear. I saw it. 
 
 4. Of course, in naming the person or thing acted upon, we 
 can use either the name, or a pronoun to stand for the name. 
 Examples : — 
 
 I helped Qeorgre ; or, I helped him. 
 He took the books ; or, He took them. 
 
 An easy way of telling whether a verb requires ^-o be completed by an 
 object or not, and of telling what that object is if it does, is to put whom 
 or what after the verb, and then ask a question. If the question requires 
 an answer, the verb must be completed, and the word that answers the 
 question is the object that completes it. Example.: — 
 
 ; The teacher taught the boy. 
 Taught whom? The boy — an object; hence the verb needs completion, 
 and hoy is the object that completes it. 
 
 The moon shines. 
 Shines whom? Shines what? No answer; hence the verb needs no com- 
 pletion. 
 
 Oral Analysis. — The faithful old dog followed his kind master every- 
 where. 
 
 Model* — Subject and predicate as analyzed before; the predicate /o^ 
 lowed is completed by the object master, and master is modified by the 
 adjective words his and kind. 
 
 "Written Analysis. — The same sentence. 
 
 Model. — I. Subject, dog. 
 
 II. Adjective modifiers of subject, 1. the, 2. faithful, S. old. 
 
 III. Predicate, followed. 
 
 IV. Object, master. 
 
 V. Adjective modifiers of object, 1. his, 2. kind. 
 VI. Adverb modifier of predicate, everywhere. 
 
 EjXercise 38. — Write out the following exercise, and underline the 
 object where the verb is completed by one. 
 
 1. The tree waves. 2. The tree produces fruit. 3. The cow lows. 
 4. The cow gives milk. 5. The water boils. 6. Water surrounded the 
 house. 7. Shepherds watch. 8. Shepherds watch their flocks. 9. The 
 hunter shot. 10. The hunter shot the deer. 11. Serpents creep. 12. 
 James praised bis brother. 13. The mother loves her child, 14. The 
 
LESSON XII.] 
 
 OBJECT. 
 
 35 
 
 erline the 
 
 stars glitter to-night. 15. We walked away. 16. Lucy ran upstairs. 
 17. 'I'he carpenter made a round table. 18. The raven croaks loudly. 
 1!>. We love him. 20. I see them. 21. The invalid recovers. 22. The 
 pliysician cured the invalid. 
 
 Exercise 39. — Complete the predicate of each of the following sen- 
 tences by putting a suitable object after the verb: — 
 
 1. My terrier caught — 
 lay . 4. Nelson gained 
 
 2. The hunter shot 
 
 Dark clouds cover 
 
 clouds poured down ■ 
 are building . 9. 
 
 7. Reading improves our 
 
 Tlie river has overflowed 
 11. The captain led on 
 
 enveloped the 
 
 study . 1.3. Alfred the Great made many 
 
 . 15. Tumultuous murder shook . 16. 
 
 at dead of night. 17. But Linden saw . 18. The warrior bowed 
 
 3. Our hens 
 
 . (i. The 
 
 8. The masons 
 
 A thick cloud 
 
 — . 12. Diligent pupils 
 
 -. 14. The curfew tolls 
 
 W e buried darkly 
 
 10. 
 
 and tamed 
 
 of fire. 
 
 Exercise 40. — Here are given eight bare subjects and bare predi- 
 cates ; qualify the subjects and complete and modify the predicates in as 
 many ways as you can. 
 
 Model. — A good \ / hi8 powera conscientiotisly. 
 
 " shai'p I I " /acuities advantageously. 
 
 *• lazy y boy uses ■{ ** opportunities very badly. 
 
 An industrioxis I I " time well. 
 
 J \ " 
 
 1. 
 
 sells 
 6. — 
 
 A worthless 
 
 sun ripens . 
 
 4. rain 
 
 friends ungratefully. 
 
 moistens 
 
 cats catch 
 -. 5. 
 
 3. 
 
 merchant 
 
 horses draw 
 
 makes 
 
 child obeys 
 
 gardener digs 
 
 8. 
 
 tailor 
 
 Exercise 41.— Errors for Correction.— Correct all errors in 
 the following, and say why they are errors : — 
 
 CAUTIONS.- 1. Adverbs, as well as adjectives, should be placed where 
 jthey sound best; provided, that when so placed, they modify the right word. 
 1 Ex. —The soldiers marched quite steadily, sounds better than The soldiers 
 quite steadily marched. 2. An adjective should not be used where an adverb 
 Is required. Never say: Tom writes good; but say: Tom writes well. 
 3. An adverb should not be used where an adjective Is required. Never say: 
 "These rosessmell sweetly," but say, sweet. And neversay: "She looks 
 prettily," but say, pretty; for In these last sentences you do not want 
 to tell how the smelling or looking Is done, and should therefore not use adverbs. 
 
 1. We merely refer to the order, not the importance of the subjects. 
 2. She acted so bad that she had to be spoke to. 3. The Chinese chiefly 
 live upon rice. 4. We always should do our duty. 5. He nmst have cer- 
 tainly been sick 6. I was very annoyed. 7. The work will be never 
 finished 8. Come here quick, and leave them things alone. 9. The cat 
 only caught one mouse. 10. The curtain hung graceful, and the room 
 looked so nicely. 11. That was a decided weak point in his argument 
 12. He spoke quite decided on that point 13. I am rm^ glad you co»ie 
 yesterday. 14. Your father is sickly, so step as quiet as you can. 
 
Pi 
 
 'l" 
 
 36 
 
 PliEPOSITIONS. 
 
 LESSON XIII. 
 
 [part I. 
 
 \l 
 
 \' 
 
 
 lit' i ' . 
 
 OTHER ADJECTIVE AND ADVERB MODIPIERS.- 
 
 PRBPOSITIONS. 
 
 1. You liavn already loai'iiocl that w(! liavo nouns and pronouns 
 for tho l)ar(i sul»J(!ct, and v(4bs for the ])aro predicate, and that 
 these form the frame-work of tlie sentence; that we hfive adjec- 
 tives to modify the sul)j(^ct, juid adverbs to modify the predicate, 
 or even the modifying words tliems(?lves; and that tlio verV) may 
 bo completed by an object, which may be either a noun or a pro- 
 noun. You have now to learn another method of modifying 
 both subject and predicate, v/hich will leid us to discuss another 
 part of speech. 
 
 In the following sentences — 
 
 1. The cake in the basket is spoiled, 
 
 2. My pencil rolled under the table; 
 
 you will perceive that the words in the basket show what cake is 
 meant, just as an adjective would; and tuat the words under the 
 table show where the pencil rolled, just as an adverb would. 
 Also in the sentences — ■ 
 
 The grass on the lawn is wet; 
 
 The book lies by the lamp ; 
 
 Eager for money he became tlishonest ; 
 
 the words on the lawn modify as an adjective would the noun 
 grass ; the words by the lamp modify as an adverb would the 
 verb lies J and the words for money modify as an adverb would 
 
 the adjective eager. 
 
 Other examples still are 
 
 The man at the gate is my uncle. 
 
 The coat hangs before the fire. 
 
 Mother is anxious about us. 
 
 Some large bird flew over the hill behind our house. 
 
 Groups of words like the foregoing, that serve the purpose of 
 adjectives, or adverbs, are called phkases. 
 
LKSSON XIII ] 
 
 PliEPOSlTIONS. 
 
 8T 
 
 2. You will notice that in oach of i\w foro^oinj* examples the 
 [)lii!iso consists of a noun (or a pronoun) preceded by a little word 
 
 liicii joins the noun or the pronoun to the word that is inodi- 
 i»'d l)y th(^ phrase. In the exainphis given, t^'o words which thus 
 join the won. following taeni to the modified word, are: in, undor, 
 
 )n, by, for, at, before, over, etc. 
 
 The work which these little words liave to do is diflerent from 
 lliat of any of the parts of speech we have hitherto had; they 
 jluucfore constitute another part of spec^eh. They are called 
 ^i{EPObrnoN8 — the word means placed bf/ore — and these words 
 i,re, in fact, usually placed before the ixouu or the pronoun which 
 hey are to coimect to another word. 
 
 Elxercise 42. — In each one of tho foUowiJig aentenjes point out: 
 it, the phi-uBO or phrases; 2iul, tlie preposition that joins the noun or 
 ronoun of the phrase, to the noun, verb or adjective modified by the 
 irase : — 
 
 CAUTION.— Care must be taken not to mistake the word which the phrase 
 modifies; for the modified word does not alwayn come impie- 
 llately before the modifying phrase. For example, the phrase 
 lay be placed Immediately after a noun, and yet be an adverb modifier of 
 >me preceding verb. In the sentence "I put the letter on the table," 
 Is easy to see that the phrase on the table shows where the letter 
 r a 8 put, and not what sort of letter was put; It is therefore an 
 iverb modifier of put. 
 
 1. Kain fell during the night. 2. The swans on the pond in the park 
 ^ill cat from your hand. 3. The name of my terrier is Snap, what is the 
 imc of your dog? 4. Snap lies on the step of the verandah, and barks 
 
 all who come to the door. 5. He took a horse from the stable, hitched 
 
 to a buggy, and drove quickly along the road toward the city. 6. In 
 
 )t weather fruits ripen fast. 7. I don't think much of him, I see him 
 
 ften in bad company. 8. She was not among those who landed from the 
 
 sat. 9. From their nests beneath the rafters sang the swallows. 
 
 10. By many names men call us, 
 In many lands we dwell. 
 
 Note to Teacher.— The teacher should not proceed till the c'.asa have thoroughly mas- 
 Bred this kind of phrase, and can readily point out : 1st, the phrase itself ; 2nd, the word 
 tioun, verb, or adjective) modified by it; 3rd, the joining word or preposition ; 4th, the 
 
 k'ord (noun or pronoun) so joined. To this end ?nany more illustrative sentences made 
 
 by the teacher, or taken from the Exercises, may be necessary. 
 
 3. The preposition is sometimes said to " relate " the noun or 
 )ronoun of its phrase to some preceding noun, verb or adjective, 
 
;'i ., 
 
 ■':' : 
 '.I pi 
 
 !H'; 
 
 IIW 
 
 
 l\f 
 
 w^n 
 
 
 'i|< 
 
 m 
 ■■■\<] 
 
 • i 
 
 38 
 
 PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 [part I, 
 
 because it indicates a certain kind of relation as existing between 
 the two words that it joins. It is not always (!asy to tell exactly ' 
 what this relation is. But in most cases it can be easily seen. 
 Thus, of generally shows the relation oi jiossession ; in other words, 
 it joins the name of a possessor to that of a thing possessed, as in 
 
 The palace of the king. 
 Here of is said to show the relation between palaCG and king. 
 
 On, in, under, near, beside, etc., show the relation oi position, as 
 The book lies on (in, under, near, beside, etc.) the box. 
 And these words are said to show the relation between lieS and 
 
 box. 
 
 By and with often show the relation of means or instrument^ 
 as in 
 
 He burst open the door by main force. 
 I shot the mad dog with my rifle. 
 
 And so with other prepositions. We are thus led to the following 
 
 Definition. — A preposition is a word that joins a noun or 
 pronoun to some j)recediny word, and shows the relation between 
 them. 
 
 ISxercise 43. — With regard to the following sentences, say: 1st, 
 whether the phrases they contain are adjective or adverb phrases, and 
 why ; 2nd, between what words the prepositions show relation : — 
 
 1. Two workmen fell from the roof. 2. That book on the box belongs 
 to me. 3. We came over the hills. 4. A path over the hills leads you to 
 our house. 5. 1 threw the ball to him. 6. They ran around the house. 
 7. A verandah around a house makes it cool in summer. 8. Desirous of 
 knowledge, ho studied intensely. 9, We found her at home. 10. Our 
 house is in the valley below the hill. 11. That boy is too eager for praise, 
 12. Earnest in her work, she never failed. LS. On our way we passed by 
 a church. 14. The gentleman in the garden gave three apples to v.s and 
 fi'-~ ""o them. 15. In silence and in sadness she passed through the hall. 
 
 Exercise 44- — Fill up the following sentences with suitable pre- 
 positions: — 
 
 1. Men learn 
 four o'clock - 
 
 4. fic stood the window. 5. 
 
 letter his brother was received 
 
 — experience, 
 the afternoon. ,3. 
 
 2. We come home - 
 
 I will wait you 
 
 A meteor shot 
 
 school 
 
 the corner. 
 
 the sky. 6. A 
 
 the day. 7. The blind man 
 
 Jii 
 
[part I, ^B LESSON xin.] 
 
 PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 S9 
 
 hia way home fell — 
 
 Uvea the cottage 
 
 the bushes - 
 
 the river, but was saved the shepherd who 
 
 the bend the stream. S. We hid 
 
 the garden. 
 9. The vine still clings - 
 
 But every gust the dead leaves fall. 
 
 the mouldering wall, 
 
 4. The idea conveyed by a phrase can in many instfinces be 
 conveyed equally well by a corresponding adjective or adverb. 
 Thus, 
 
 PIIRARK. 
 
 AD.T. 
 
 An apron of leather means the same thing as a leather apron. 
 
 rilRASB. 
 
 ADV. 
 
 He acted in an insolent manner is the same as he acted insolently. 
 
 But more often we are forced to use a phrase ])ecause we have 
 I no corresponding adjective or adverb, as in Examples 1, 2, par. 1. 
 
 If the preposition relate the principal word of the phrase to a foregoing 
 loun, the phrase is an adjective modifier ; if to a foregoing adjective or 
 ^erb, it is an adverb modifier. Such phrases are called, for short, adjeo- 
 
 CIVE PHRASES and ADVERB PHRASES. 
 
 Exercise 45. — In the following sentences substitute adjectives or 
 [adverbs for the preposition phrases, or preposition phrases for the adjec- 
 jtivcs and adverbs, as the case may be : — 
 
 1. The orator speaks fluently. 2. Here I take my stand. 3. Some 
 |writers compose with great ease. 4. That person in distx'ess called loudly 
 for help. !r>. In hot weather fruits ripen very quickly. 6. Everything 
 
 ras done with prudence and wisdom. 7. The game went on very spirit- 
 edly. 8. A post of wood will not last so long as a post of iron. 9. Many 
 Important discoveries have been made accidentally. 10. Some emigrants 
 from Iceland are settled in Manitoba. 11. In all haste he despatched the 
 letter. 12. You should treat the aged respectfully. 13. He always acts 
 
 mh judgment. 14. Ropes of hemp are superior to ropes of cotton. 
 Steel knives cut better than silver knives. 17. You are acting 
 thoughtfully. 18. Leather aprons are better than linen aprons. 
 
 Written Analysis.— ?^Af? hrkUayer on the scaffold in Im haste care 
 \lessly dropped a broken brick from his hand. 
 
 Model.— I. Subject, 
 
 II. Modifiers of subject, 
 
 III. Predicate, 
 
 IV. Object, 
 V. Modifiers of object, 
 
 VI. Adverb mod, of pred. 
 
 bricklayer. 
 
 The, 2. on the scaffold. 
 
 dropped. 
 
 brick. 
 
 a, 2. broken. 
 1. ill his haste, 2. carelessly, 
 3. /rom his hand, 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
40 
 
 PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 [part I. 
 
 Ilit 
 
 M 
 
 Parsing' — Same sentence. 
 
 Model. — (Other parts of speech as in former models). 
 
 on is p. word that joins the noun scaffold to the noun 
 
 bricklayer, and shows the relation between them ; 
 
 therefore it is a preposition. 
 in is a word that joins the noun haute to the verb drojyped, 
 
 and shows the relation between them ; therefore it is 
 
 a preposition. 
 from is a word that joins the noun hand to the verb dropped, 
 
 and shows the relation between them ; therefore it is 
 
 a preposition. 
 
 Exercise 46. — Analyze and parse each of the sentences in Exer- 
 cise 39. 
 
 Explanations. — Besides the abbreviations given in previous lessons, 
 the following are in common use. 
 
 Names of the days of the week: — 
 Sun. for Sunday. 
 
 
 Mon. '* Monday. 
 
 
 Tues. " Tuesday. 
 
 
 Wed. " Wednesday. 
 
 Names of the months of the year 
 
 
 Jan. for January. 
 
 
 Feb, '* February. 
 
 
 Mar. " March, 
 
 
 Apr. " April. 
 
 
 May. 
 
 
 June. 
 
 A.D. 
 
 stands for Anno Domini, a 
 
 B.C. 
 
 " before Christ, 
 
 inst. 
 
 " instant. 
 
 ult. 
 
 " ultimo. 
 
 prox. 
 
 " proximo. 
 
 N.B. 
 
 " nOtd bPue, 
 
 P.S. 
 
 " postscript. 
 
 Thurs. for Thursday. 
 Fri. '* Friday. 
 Sat. '* Saturday. 
 
 July. 
 
 Aug. for August. 
 Sept. " September. 
 Oct. " October. 
 Nov. '* November. 
 Dec. " December. 
 
 2ans in the year of our Lord, 
 before the birth of Christ, 
 (of) the present month. 
 " past ♦' 
 
 " next " 
 
 notice well. 
 
 an addition to a letter after 
 it has been finished. It should be signed with the Initials only of the writer. 
 Sometimes a word is contracted by leaving a letter, or letters, out 
 of the middle : as e'er for ever ; e'en for even, etc. The place of the 
 omitted letter is mai'ked by a comma written above the line and called 
 an APOSTROPHE. 
 
 (( 
 
 (( 
 
LESSON XIV.] 
 
 CLAUSES, CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 41 
 
 Exercise 47.— Errors for Correction.- 
 
 the ioUowing sentences : — 
 
 -Correct the faults in 
 
 CAUTIONS. -I. Preposition phrases, like other modifiers, must be placed as 
 near as posslblQ to the words they modify. 2. Care must be taken In the 
 choice of prepositions, since the meaning of the verb often depends on the 
 preposition by which It is followed : thus, to correspond w 1 1 h (by letter) ; 
 to correspond to (to agree); to differ from (In opinion); to differ 
 with (to wrangle). 3. Nouns, too, and adjectives, must be followed by the 
 prepositions that suit them : thus, preferable to; worthy of; different from; 
 abhorrence of, etc., etc. 
 
 1. In the month of Febru a. d. 1884 there was 28 days and there was 4 
 Wednesdays. 2. A brave prudent honorable man was chosen 3. Are 
 you reconciled %vith your old enemy ? 4. His abhorrence to going to school 
 cannot be overcome except with kindness 5. We must profit from expe- 
 rien " ^f we wish to be acquitted /ro?>i the charge of folly. 6. Wanted a 
 vn;i an to deliver groceries of a religious turn of mind. 7. I seen that 
 the ball was going to be ketched with half an eye. 8. I shall try a7id come 
 to school more regular in future. 9. They halted with a river on their 
 backs 10. He divided his property heticeen his four sons. 11. Please 
 mother don't be angry at me I haven't done nothing. 12. The elizabethan 
 style of Architecture is awfully admired 13. The tall man is looking at 
 us with a glass eye. 14. Did you take notice to what he said. 
 
 LESSON XIV. 
 
 HOW -?3NTENCBS ARE JOINBD.-CLAUSES, 
 
 CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 1. When we have only one thought to express, i.e., one state- 
 ment to make, we express it in a sentence having but one suV)jeet 
 and one predicate. Such a sentence is called a simple sentence. 
 
 2. But in the course of speech we often need to group two or 
 more thoughts together, as 
 
 The sun rose and the mist disappeared. 
 
 Here you will see there are two thoughts expressed, two asser- 
 tions made, and that these two assertions or sentences are joined 
 together by the little word and. In 
 
 My book is on the table, or someone has taken it, 
 
 
ilrr. 
 
 42 
 
 CLAUSES, CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 [PAKT I. 
 
 !;• 
 
 il!^?' 
 
 the two sentences are joined by the word or. Other examples 
 
 are 
 
 They lost their way, for the night was dark. ^ 
 
 He wats rich, yet he was not happy. 
 
 He went, but I stayed. 
 
 She played "while they danced. 
 
 Though he was poor, he would not work. 
 
 A word that joins sentences in this way is called a conjunc- 
 tion ; that is, a word that conjoins or joins together. Hence the 
 conjunctions that join the foregoing sentences are 
 
 and, or, for, yet, but, while, thougrh. 
 
 3. But these joining words, and others like them, will do more 
 than merely join; for, if we are careful to select the right one, we 
 can show by it the nature of the thoughts in the sentences that 
 are joined. For e^^ample, if we wish to show that the sun's rising 
 caused the mist to disappear, we can choose the conjunction 
 therefore, and say 
 
 The sun rose, therefore the mist disappeared. 
 
 Or, using because, we can say 
 
 The mist disappeared because the sun rose ; 
 
 or, changing the order of the last sentences, 
 
 Because the suii rose, the mist disappeared. 
 
 If we wish to show that the second thought is opposed to, or 
 contrasted with, the tirst, we can find joining words (conjunctions) 
 that will show the opposition or contrast. For example, 
 
 ( but ) 
 Tom goes to school, < yet > he does not learn. " 
 
 ( still ) 
 
 Again, if we wish to make it plain that something took place 
 at the same time as another thing, we can do so by using the 
 conjunctions when or while. For example, 
 
 I had the toothache \ , / I was going home. 
 
 :'KSl 
 
LESSON XIV,] 
 
 CLAUSES, CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 43 
 
 111 this way we endeavor to show, by means of the conjunction 
 wo employ, what is the nature of the connection between the 
 thoughts in the sentences that we join. 
 
 4. But some conjunctions, especially and, but, OP, are also 
 sometimes used to connect, not two sentences, but two words in 
 the same sentence. 
 
 It will be noticed, however, from the examples given below, 
 tliat the words thus joined are always used in the same way in 
 the sentence, i.e., they are (except that nouns and pronouns may 
 be so joined) the same part of speech, they occur in the same part 
 of the sentence, and they belong to the same word in the sen- 
 tence: thus, 
 
 A proud t\iowg\x' childlike form. 
 
 Poor but honest parents. 
 
 (Adjectives.) 
 
 He went hy and with my consent. 
 A boat to and from Hamilton. 
 (Prepositions.) 
 
 The hoy and the girl came. 
 
 (Noun sub.iects.) 
 
 He and she came. 
 
 (Pronoun subjects.) 
 
 I like the rose or the violet. 
 
 (Noun objects.) 
 
 We saw you and them. 
 
 (Pronoun objects.) 
 
 They and John helped Jane and me. 
 
 (Noun & Pronoun subs. & obs.) 
 
 The tide ebbs and ^ffotvs. 
 (Verbs.) 
 
 Cromwell ruled sternly but ivell. 
 (Adverbs.) 
 
 A boy of strong mind but of xveak 
 body. (Adjective phrases.) 
 
 On the hills and in the valleys lies 
 the snow. (Adverb phrases.) 
 
 We are thus led to the following 
 
 Definition. — A conjunction is a word that joins together sen- 
 tences, or words, or phrases, used in the same way in a sentence. 
 
 Note to Teacher. — Young pupils are not unfrequently puzzled to distinguish between 
 prepositions and conjunctions, owing to the fact that the work of both is to join. But 
 they must bo led to see that the kind of joining done by these two parts of speech is very 
 difTerent. The preposition joins a noun or pronoun to some preceding word (noun, verb 
 or adjective) by way of qualifying or limiting such word. Thus its work is to join and 
 show a relation between words. The conjunction, on the other hand, joins and shows a 
 relation (i.c., the connection in meaning) between sentences; or, if it joins words (as the 
 preposition does), the words are the same part of speech, etc., as shown in the examples 
 },'iven above. 
 
 5. A single statement or assertion is, as we have seen, called a 
 simple sentence. But the name sentence is also given to a com- 
 
44 
 
 CLAUSES, CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 [PAKT I. 
 
 bination of simple sentences like those in par. 1 of this lesson. 
 To avoid the confusion that might arise from calling a com- 
 bination of simple sentences a sentence, and, each simple sentence 
 in the combination also a sentence, each of the simple sentences 
 that is joined to make the larger sentence is called a clause. 
 Thus, of the sentence 
 
 The mist disappeared because the sun rose, 
 the clauses or simple sentences are 
 
 The mist disappeared. The sun rose. 
 
 Definition — A clauSG is a sentence that is joined loith one or 
 
 more other sentences to make a larger sentence. 
 
 A clause must be carefully distinguished from a phrase. A clause is 
 a sentence with a subject and a predicate ; a phrase is a collection of words 
 that are connected in meaning, but it is not a sentence, since it has neither 
 subject nor predicate. 
 
 EiXercise 48.-r^Point out the conjunctions in the following sentences, 
 and mention the clauses which they connect : — 
 
 1. He pushed me and I fell. 2. They had cake, but we had fruit. 
 
 3. The girl screamed because she was afraid. 4. The battle continued, 
 though it was dark. 5. It rained, yet we started. 6. It was raining 
 when we started. 7. He was laughing as he went out. 8. He neither 
 saw nor heard anything amiss. 9. The child was weak in body, but strong 
 in spirit. 10. Troy was lost, although Hector defended it. 11. I am 
 certain that they have come, for I saw them. 12. The watch is on the 
 table, or someone has taken it. 13. He is going to Toronto that he may 
 see his brother. 14. You and Jane may remain if you wish. 15: Either 
 you or I must go. 16. You were gone, else you would have heard. 17. 
 Jack and Jill went up the hill. 18. Jack fell down and broke his crown. 
 19. I shall go to Montreal on Thursday or on Friday. 20. On the hills 
 and in the valleys lies the snow. 21. To every one upon this earth, death 
 cometh soon or late. 
 
 EiSLercise 49. — Join together the following clauses and parts of 
 clauses by proper conjunctions: — 
 
 1. It may seem strange, it is true. 2. He succeeded, he 
 
 persevered. 3. No sooner had the workmen left the roof fell in. 
 
 4. James John will be there. 5. Gold silver are found in 
 
 Colorado in New Mexico. 6. A garden is not only pleasant, 
 
 tiseful. 7. They had full warning, 
 
 rained heavily we started. 9. 
 
 is more useful gold. 11. I met your friend 
 
 12. You may expect us the day is fine. 13 
 
 will be no fun. 14. There will be no fun you don't come 
 
 day was too hot, too cold. 16. The fact was so evident 
 
 needed no proof. 
 
 they are without excuse. 8. It 
 
 you say so, I believe it. 10. Iron 
 
 I was going home. 
 
 — you come, there 
 
 15. The 
 
 — it 
 
LKSSOy XV,] 
 
 IXTERJECTIOyS. 
 
 45 
 
 Parsing. — A conjunction is parsed by naming the clauses or words 
 or phrases that it joins, and telling the relation of the thoughts to each 
 other. 
 
 John went home, hut I remained in school. 
 
 Model* — hut joins the clauses John went home and / remained in school; 
 therefore it is a conjunction; it shows contrast between the statements. 
 
 NoTK TO Tkaciier.— The relation of one sentence to another need not be insisted on 
 till the classes of conjunctions are understood. 
 
 LESSON XY. 
 
 INTERJECTIONS. 
 
 1. We have now learned the names of seven classes of words 
 or parts of speech. We have also learned the office which the 
 words of each of these classes fill in building up sentences. We 
 have found, for instance, that in a sentence the noun and the 
 pronoun can serve as subjects of the sentence, or as objects of a 
 verb, or as words that can be related to other words by preposi- 
 tions; that the office of the verb is to make the assertion about 
 the subject; that the office of the adjective is to modify a noun in 
 any part of the sentence, and, when used predicatively, to modify 
 a pronoun acting as subject; that the office of the adverb is to 
 modify verbs, adverbs, and adjectives; that the office of the pre- 
 position is to go before a noun or pronoun, and with these form 
 a phrase used to modify a noun, a verb or an adjective; lastly, 
 we have found that it is the office of conjunctions to serve as 
 links joining the clauses of sentences, and, in certain cases, words 
 or phrases. 
 
 2. There yet remains another class of words, which, for the 
 .sake of convenience, are called a part of speech, though they 
 really form no part of the sentence. This last part of ^eecli 
 comprises words which we are in tlie liabit of uttering under the 
 
46 
 
 INTERJECTIONS 
 
 [PART 1. 
 
 Iii;i! . 
 
 
 m 
 
 m 
 
 i 
 
 ]!';,! 
 
 if! 
 
 m 
 
 impulse of some strong feeling: joy, surprise, sorrow, contempt; 
 or when wo wish to call attention, etc., as 
 
 Ohl Shame! Hark! Hurrah! Alas! Bravo! ^ 
 
 These words, and others like them, are thrown in among the 
 words of the sentence, and for this reason are called interjec- 
 tions. The name " interjection " signifies something interjected^ 
 that is, thrown into the midst of something else, and this some- 
 thing else is the sentence. 
 
 The name given to these words implies, what is really the case, that 
 they are not parts of the sentence itself : they are not put together with 
 other parts to make up sentences. Hence, though it is proper enough, 
 because convenient, to call interjections a part of speech, they are not so 
 in the same sense as the others. 
 
 Definition. — An interjection is an exclamation expressive oj 
 
 feeling. 
 
 i 
 
 Elxercise 50. — Point out the interjections in the following: — 
 
 1. What! are you here? 2. Hurrah! the game is ours. 3. Oh, for a 
 
 calm and thankful heart! 4. " But she is m her grave, and oh, the 
 
 difference to me!" 5, I warned him often, but, alas! he heeded not. 
 6. We heard the pilot shout "Boat, ahoi!" 7. Strange! I never thought 
 of that. 8. Up, up, Glentarkin ! rouse thee, ho ! 9. But hark ! what 
 means yon faint halloo? 10. Dear me! how did it happen? 11. Fire! 
 Fire! the house is in flames. 12. But hush! hark! a deep sound strikes 
 like a rising knell. 
 
 Interjections, or the clauses in which they are used, are followed by 
 this mark I — called an exclamation mark. When the sign follows the 
 interjection, the next word does not begin with a capital. 
 
 We generally use the form O (without a comma) before the name of a 
 person spoken to; and the form Oh (followed by a comma or an exclama- 
 tion mark) to indicate glad surprise, painful feeling, or strong desire. 
 
 -Point out and correct 
 
 Exercise 61.— Errors for Correotion.- 
 
 all errors in the following: — 
 
 CAUTION.— The Interjection O must always be a capital. 
 
 1. He went to bed and he did not sleep. 2. It may seem strange for 
 it is true. 3. I will tell but you won't tell nobody. 4. I seen how it was 
 done cause I watched close. 5, They saw the storm coming and they took 
 no precautions 6. Them apples aint ripe dont eat 'em 7. This stick is 
 longer nor that. 8. I cant find it nowhcres. 9. It wont be done without I 
 do it. 10. Oh Jane my brother has got the measles so bad. 11. Alas 
 we've won the game 12. Hello we shall certainly be drowned. 13. My 
 mother looked out and said dear me what a storm are the doors and 
 windows all closed. 
 
LESSON XVI.] 
 
 VALUES OF WORDS. 
 
 47 
 
 LESSON XVI. 
 
 DIFFERENT VALUES OF WORDS. 
 
 1. Nouns as Adjectives.— From the knowledge we have 
 now gained about the parts of speech, we see that each one has 
 its own work to do in the sentence, — its own office to fill in 
 enabling us to express our thoughts. 
 
 Now, when we have a thought in our mind which we wish to 
 express, we usually seek to express it in as few words as pos- 
 sible. One reason for this is, that we wish to save ourselves the 
 trouble of using more words than are necessary ; another is 
 that we wish the person to whom we are speaking or writing 
 to get the thought into his mind as quickly and with as little 
 trouble as possible. Hence, so long as our meaning is clear, 
 the fewer words we use the better. 
 
 2. This desire to be brief has caused many irregularities in the 
 language ; among others, it has led us sometimes to use one part 
 of speech for another. For instance, if we want to tell a person 
 that a certain star that usually shines after sunset shone brightly 
 last night, we can say 
 
 The star that shines in the evening shone brightly last night. 
 
 In this sentence the words that Shines In the evening are used to 
 tell to what star we refer, and in them the word evening, as being 
 the name of a portion of time, is a noun. But we can express the 
 same thought in fewer words, and just as clearly, if we say 
 
 The evening star shone brightly last night. 
 
 In which sentence the word evening modifies the noun star ; and 
 therefore fills the office of an adjective. 
 In the same way, instead of saying 
 
 A cup that is made of sUver, 
 
 we can say 
 
 A silver cup. 
 Instead of 
 
 The dew that lies on the grass in the morning, 
 we can say Ihe moming dw, 
 
 :l 
 
48 
 
 VALUES OF WORDS. 
 
 [part I. 
 
 li'ii 
 
 Pi 
 
 I. 
 ii 
 
 8 
 
 I*; 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 
 iiiit' 
 
 Other examples of nouns used as adjectives are seen in — A 
 
 garden rake, a hardware store, a Toronto linn, June frosts, 
 Manitoba wlieat, an iron plough, etc. 
 
 3. Wo see from these examples (and you can easily think of 
 many others), that nouns aro frequently used as adjectives. We 
 cannot, therefore, bo sure that a word that looks like a noun is 
 really one, until we have looked into it, and found out the office 
 that it fills in the sentence. 
 
 4. Wc shall see, by and by, that in many cases nouns that were at first 
 used separately in this way — one to modify the other — have afterwards 
 grown so completely together that all thought of their having, at one 
 time, been separate words is forgotten. Thus, 
 
 Horseshoe, rainbow, inkstand, railway, penknife. 
 
 Elzercise 52. — In the following sentences say how the words in 
 italics are used : — 
 
 1. The ^Monu'wy stars sang together. 2. We use s^peZ pens ; our grand- 
 fathers used goose quills. 3. Our pear tree has not a single pear on it. 
 4. In the country you must expect country customs. 5. Ii^ia rubber does 
 not come from India. 6. Oold watches are not made entirely of gold. 
 7. The county council met last week at the county town. 8. The contents 
 of the table drawer were thrown under the table. 9. A board floor is much 
 warmer than a bi'ick floor. 10. An iron kettle will last longer than a tin 
 kettle. 11. On our farm we do not grow garden peas, but^eW peas only. 
 
 Sxercise 53. — Where, in the above sentences, a noun is used as an 
 adjective, express its meaning in other words. 
 
 5. Nouns as Verbs.— Again, if we are not careful to notice 
 the way in which words are used, we may think that the words 
 harness, niili<, oil, are nouns in such sentences as these: — 
 
 We harness the horse. We milk the cow. 
 We oil the machine. 
 
 But a moment's consideration will show us that they make asser- 
 tions about the subject we, and are therefore verbs; and that the 
 sentences are short ways of saying 
 
 We put the harness on the horse. 
 
 We take milk from the cow. 
 
 We apply oil to the machine. 
 
u>;soN XVI. ] VA L UES OF PREPOSI TION-PHRASES. 
 
 49 
 
 Exercise 64. — Mention the part of speecli of each of the words in 
 
 italics: — 
 
 1. I sometimes butter my bread on both sides. 2. We sugar our coffee 
 witli maple Hvijar. 3. Some tribes ink their bodies with a kind of ink 
 olttained from plants. 4. Hand me that paper that you have in your hand. 
 5. If you water the plants do it with rain iritter. 0. We pump water to 
 tlie top of the house by means of a force pump. 7. When you all toe the 
 iiiaik the lino will be straight. 8. Some silly women pou-der their faces. 
 !». Saddle me the pony. 10. If you iron that lace with so hot an iron you 
 will scorch it. 
 
 6. Different values of Preposition-phrases.— It was men- 
 tioned in par. 4, Lesson XIII., that we are sometimes obliged 
 to use preposition-phrases because we have no adverb or adjective 
 that will express the same sense. Frequently, however, we have 
 both w ays at command. Thus, we may say 
 
 ADJECTIVE. 
 
 An afflicted person, 
 The child was barefoot, 
 
 ADVERB. 
 
 or 
 (1 
 
 PREPOSITION-PHRASB. 
 
 A person in affliction. 
 
 The child was without shoes or stockings. 
 
 PREPOSITION PHRASE. 
 
 " In this place. 
 ,. ( With great wisdom, or 
 I In a very wise manner. 
 Somewhat courageously, " With some courage. 
 
 Here, 
 
 Very wisely, 
 
 Sxercise 55. — Point out the phrases in the following sentences; 
 tell their kinds, and show what words they modify. When possible 
 change them into adjectives or adverbs as the case may be : — 
 
 1. He called in a loud manner. 2. From which place they fled in all 
 haste. 3. Wc should do our duty at all times. 4. The people of Holland 
 are called Dutch. 5. A drive for carriages led up to the mansion. 6. She 
 began in a very solemn manner. 7. The boy was by nature timid and 
 generous. 8. The storm raged with fury. 9. That person in the corner 
 is my uncle. 10. In an inst(..nt all was silence. 11. It is hard to endure 
 a winter in high latitudes. 12. That animal with a long neck is a giraffe. 
 13. He set out with some eagerness. 
 
 7. From what has been said in this lesson, it will be seen that 
 the same word may be used as more than one part of speech; and 
 that in order to know what part of speech a word really is, we 
 must know the office that it fills in the sentence. 
 
 <\ 
 
 m 
 
 d 
 
I 
 
 ( 
 
 
 m 
 ;iii;i 
 
 Hi: 
 
 it 
 
 ■1 ■!■':•.■ 
 
 If 
 
 1 -\ k 
 
 lit iP;' 
 
 :i 
 
 III ''[,■ 
 
 
 1! 
 
 i 
 
 'I; 
 
 60 KINDS OP SENTENCES, [part i. 
 
 LESSON XVII. 
 
 DIFFERENT KINDS OF SENTENCES. 
 
 1. "The complete thought expressed in words," which we 
 call a sentence, most commonly takes a form which asseiis 
 that something is true. Such sentences, for this reason, are 
 called ASSEitrivE sentences. 
 
 Definition. — An assertive sentence m owe that is used in an- 
 serting or making a statemeAit. 
 
 In an assertive sentence we may either assert that something is a 
 fact; as 
 
 He went to town yesterday ; 
 
 or assert that something is not a fact; as 
 
 , He did not go to town to day. 
 
 For distinction the former is called an affirmative-assertive sentence, 
 and the latter a negative-assertive sentence. 
 
 2. But the speaker, instead of stating something he knows, 
 may wish to express a desire to know something. In this case, 
 of course, he could say 
 
 I desire— I -wish— I would like— to kn6w whether the 
 train has left, whether my friend is here. 
 
 But it is more usual to change the order of the words in the 
 sentence by putting the subject after the verb : thus, 
 
 Has the train left ? Is my friend here ? 
 A sentence of this sort is caviled an interrogative sentence. 
 
 Definition. — An interrogative sentence is one that is used in 
 asking a question. 
 
 It is the business of some pronouns and adverbs to ask questions ; as, 
 
 Who comes here ? What are you doing ? Why does he wait ? 
 
 When did he arrive ? 
 
 Such words are called interrogative pronouns and interrogative adverbs. 
 
LMSON XVII.] 
 
 KINDS OF SEXTENCES. 
 
 51 
 
 3. Soinotimes, ton, wo wish the person to whom we are speaking, 
 to do something. In this case, as a])Ovo, we could say 
 
 I desire you to shut the door— to go to bed- 
 to say nothiner about it. 
 
 ruit wo more commonly express ourselves in the form of a com- 
 iiiiuul or a desire: thus, 
 
 Shut the door. Go to bed. Say nothingr about it. 
 
 A sentence of this sort is called an imperative sentence, i.e., a 
 commanding or desiring sentence. 
 
 Definition. — An imperative Sentence is one that is used in 
 i/ivini/ a command. 
 
 Since the speaker can only cive a command to the person hr s speaking 
 t"* there is no mistaking the subject of the sentence ; it is then^fore usually 
 ^ted in an imperative sentence. 
 
 xjXercise 56. — Punctuate the following sentences, and classify them, 
 i.e., tell the kind of each : — 
 
 1. Blessed are the merciful 2. Do you think so ,3. Go and do thou 
 likewke. 4. Aim at perfection in everything. 5. Who gave you the 
 parcel 6. Hasten slowly 7. A favorite has no friends 8. Wast thou 
 made before the hills 9. The voice of the turtle is heard in our laud 
 10, Is India free or do we grind her still. 
 
 11. But tell me tell me speak again 
 Thy soft response renewing; 
 What makes that ship drive on so fast 
 What is the ocean doing 
 
 Exercise 67- — Make an assertion, ask a question, give a command 
 on each of the following subjects : — 
 
 1. The approach of Spring. 2. The departure of Summer. 3. The 
 rolling of the sea. 4. The howling of the winds. 5. The twinkling of 
 the stars. 6. The bright silver moon. 
 
 Exercise 58. — Rule your slate into eight columns, one for each part 
 of speech, thus: 
 
 Nouns. 
 
 Pronouns. 
 
 Verbs. 
 
 
 
 Adjectives. 
 
 Adverbs. 
 
 Prepo- 
 sitions. 
 
 Conjunc- 
 tions. 
 
 
 
 
 Inter- 
 jections. 
 
 and classify, by putting into its proper column, each word in the following 
 
 exercise : — 
 
 Once a little boy found a firefly. It shone so brightly that he caught 
 
 I! 
 
 l! 
 
 li 
 
 1 1 ' 
 
 i ! 
 
 ., I 
 
 . I 
 
 I 
 
 
m 
 
 -ill 
 
 52 
 
 KINDS OF SENTENCES. 
 
 [part I. 
 
 it easily. He took it to his home and put it into a bottle. While the 
 room was dark, it gave out a bright light, and the boy thought that he had 
 a beautiful insect. Next day he looked at it, but alas 1 he saw a little 
 beetle only, whose brightness seemed quite gone. 
 
 Exercise 59.— Write out correctly in every particular the following 
 sentences : — 
 
 1. mrs stowe the author of uncle toms cabin is the sister of the rev 
 henry ward beocher. 2. gen wolfe after descending the st lawrence by 
 night defeated the french under montcalm at the heights of abraham at 
 Quebec. 3. was not dr ryerson the founder of the school system of 
 Ontario. 4. what work are you engaged in. 5, the fox said to the crow 
 what makes you so black. 6. i am so happy for my brother has couic 
 home from brandoa in manitoba. 7. the Canadian pacific railway runs 
 thro the north west territory all the way to Coal-Harbor in british Columbia. 
 8. goatisland is just above the falls of niagara. 9. Have you ever seeu 
 niagara falls. 10. yes i visited them with my two cousins from port hope 
 on thanksgiving day in October last year. il. In matters of government 
 champlain was wise prudent and moderate and these qualities gained him 
 the love esteem and confidence of those v/hom he governed. 12. The 
 preacher said how short is time how long is eternity. 
 
 
t t 
 
 PART II. 
 
 CLASSIFICATION OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 
 
 In Part I. we learned that we express our thoughts in sentences 
 made up of words belonging to one or another of the eight parts 
 of speech ; and that in order to determine to which part of speech 
 a word belongs, we must know the way it is used in a sentence. 
 
 We shall now make a fuller acquaintance with these parts of 
 speech by learning the different classes into which they may be 
 divided. 
 
 ■.fi 
 
 tiv 
 
 LESSON XYIII, 
 
 CLASSIFICATION OF NOUNS. 
 
 1. Proper Nouns. — When any thing is distinguished from 
 all other things by a name of its own, that name is called a 
 PROPER noun; proper here means of its own. Examples are 
 
 Wolseley, Toronto, Tray, Bible. 
 
 Here the name Wolseley distinguishes one man from all other 
 men ; TorontO, one city from all other cities ; Tray, one dog from 
 all other dogs ; Bible, 0!ie book from all other books. 
 
 Remark. — By thing is meant any thing we can think about. 
 
 2. Common Nouns. — But most of our nouns are of another 
 sort. We cannot give a separate name to everything; we there- 
 
 i; " 
 
 ' 5 ' 
 
Il' 
 
 u 
 
 CLASSIFICATION OF NOUNS. 
 
 [part II. 
 
 il 
 
 r\ &iA'*--t 
 
 
 1. ,|:: 
 
 ^(A 
 
 lllll' 
 
 '^ 
 
 fore group things of the same kind together, and make one name 
 do for each of them, using other words along with it to show 
 which individuals. are meant. Thus, 
 
 one tree, my tree, that tree, the maple tree, 
 
 may each refer to a separate thing; but none of them has a name 
 of its own, for the name tree belongs not to any one in par- 
 ticular, but to all in common. In this manner, the name tree 
 may, by means of suitable adjectives, be made to represent any 
 one or more of the class of things called trees, though it is not 
 the individual name of any one of them. 
 
 Nouns that are used in this manner are called common nouns, 
 because they are not names peculiar to individuals, but belong in 
 common to a number of things. 
 
 Definition. — A proper nOUn is a name given to anything to 
 distiiiguish it from others of the same class. 
 
 Definition. — A common noun is a name that is common to a 
 whole class; that is, to all things of the same kind. 
 
 3. A common noun with a suitable adjective or phrase to describe or 
 limit it may often be used instead of a proper noun. Thus, 
 
 The British Queen (Victoria). 
 
 The Limestone City (Kingston). 
 
 The Queen City of the West (Toronto). 
 
 The Father of Waters (Mississippi). 
 
 The Key of the Mediterranean (Gibraltar). 
 
 EjXercise 60. — Write out the following sentences with proper capi- 
 tals and punctuation marks ; underline all the nouns ; write p, n. over each 
 proper noun, and c. n. over each common noun : — 
 
 CAUTION. — The first letter of every proper noun must be a capital. 
 
 1. England expects that every man this day will do his duty 2. the 
 father sent John into the garden 3. tennyson the poet lives in the isle of 
 wight 4. longfellow wrote poetry and lived at boston, massachusetts 5. sir 
 waiter scott was fond of dogs ; one of his favorite dogs was called camp 
 6. i call my dog nip and my pony fly 7. the famous horse of alexander 
 the great was named bucephalus 8. vimus is sometimes the morning star 
 and sometimes the evening star 9. the siege of troy lasted ten years. 
 10. Christmas day this year will come ou tueaday. 
 
 iiltii 
 
LESSON xvm.] CLASSIFICATION OF NOUNS. 65 
 
 4. Collective Nouns. — Some common nouns denote a collec- 
 tion of objects ; as for instance, 
 
 committee, jury, family, group, herd. 
 Such nouns are called collective common nouns. 
 
 .5 Abstract Nouns. — Other common nouns denote not ob- 
 jects, but only actions, conditions, or qualities belonging to 
 objects; as, 
 
 leaping, whiteness, pity, virtue, manliness. 
 
 Nouns of this class are, for the most part, the names of quali- 
 ties or attributes ; they are generally derived {i.e., formed, or 
 made) from adjectives, as whiteneSS and manliness from the 
 
 adjectives white and manly. 
 
 They are called abstract common nouns, from the fact that 
 they are the names of qualities abstracted (i.e., withdrawn or 
 separated) from objects, and considered apart from them. Thus, 
 when we speak of the whiteness of snow we abstract from the 
 object snow the quality of being white, that belongs to it, and 
 consider this quality without thinking of the snow in which it 
 exists. 
 
 DEFiiiiTiON. — A collective noun is the name of a collection of 
 
 objects. 
 
 Definition. — An abstract noun is' the name of an action or a 
 quality thought of apart Jrom the object in which it exists. 
 
 Exercise 61. — Make a list of the nouns in the following sentences; 
 over the collective common nouns write col. com,, and over the abstract 
 common nouns write ahs. com. : — 
 
 1. The moon reflects the light of the sun. 2. The purity of the Queen's 
 life has gained her the love and respect of mankind. 3. The committee 
 will meet every evening this week. 4. Sleep, gentle sleep, how have I 
 frighted thee ? 6. The army was in great peril until reinforced by the 
 navy. 6. The aged man was thrown on the cold charity of the world. 
 7. The mob forced the gates of the palace. 8. War is a dire calamity. 
 9. A sudden trembling seized on all his limbs. 10. Boating, bathing and 
 ^«hiug are healthy exerciser. 
 
 lii 
 li 
 
 ,i'i 
 
^ 
 
 r i 
 
 ii 
 
 ■ri' 
 
 ■>;i 
 
 
 pi I 
 
 56 
 
 CLASSIFICATION OF NOUNS. 
 
 [part II. 
 
 6. Gender-Nouns. — Another way of classifying nouns rests 
 upon the fact that some nouns indicate the sex of the objects 
 signified by them. Thus, in the sentences ' ■ 
 
 The lioness growled, 
 A "woman wept, 
 
 Girls sang, 
 
 I i , 
 
 The lion roared, 
 A man laughed, 
 Boys played, 
 
 the nouns lion, man. boys, indicate objects of the male sex ; while 
 lioness, woman, girls, indicate objects of the femnle sex. 
 
 Nouns that, in this way, indicate the thing signified by them 
 as male and female, are called gender-noun d {gender is an old 
 word that meant kind^ class, or sex). And those nouns that 
 indicate male objects are called masculine nouns, or nouns of the 
 masculine gender (masculine means of the male sex) ; while those 
 that indicate femp,le objects are called feminine nouns, or nouns 
 of the feminine gender (feminine means of the female sex). 
 
 All nouns that are not gender-nouns, namely, those that 
 signify objects that are without sex ; as, 
 
 book, tree, house, sun, window, love, pity ; 
 
 and nouns which, though they signify objects that have sex, are 
 yet used indifierently for either sex ; as, 
 
 child, bird, dog, fish, neighbor, parent, 
 
 are often called neuter nouns, or nouns of the neuter gender, 
 (i.e., of neither one sex nor the other). But there is no need to 
 say anything about gender in connection with a noun, unless it 
 be a noun that indicates a distinction of sex. 
 
 Definition. — A gender-nOUn is one which indicates that the 
 object signified hy it is of the male or the female sex. 
 
 7. A distinction of sex is indicated by gender-nouns in three different 
 ways : — 
 
 First way. — By using a masculine gender-noun, and a feminine gender- 
 noun quite different from it : thus, 
 
 boy, girl; brother, sister; king, queen; drake, duck; 
 gander, goose; xmcle, aunt. 
 
 Second way. — By using a masculme gender- noun, and a feminine 
 
( » 
 
 LESSON XVIII.] CLASSIFICATION OF NOUNS. 
 
 67 
 
 gender-noun formed from the maaculine by making an addition to it: thus, 
 
 lion, lioness; heir, heiress; abbot, abbess; baron, baroness; 
 duke, duchess ; master, mistress ; hero, heroine. 
 
 Third way. — By using a masculine or a feminine gender-noun (or pro- 
 noun) before or after another word : thus, 
 
 man-servant, maid-servant; cock-sparrow, hen-sparrow; 
 
 landlord, landlady; gentleman, gentlewoman; 
 
 he-goat, she-goat. 
 
 Other examples of the first way are 
 
 Masc. 
 Bachelor, 
 Boar, 
 
 Bridegroom, 
 Buck, 
 Cock, 
 Dog, 
 Earl, 
 Father, 
 Horse, 
 Husband, 
 
 F'em. 
 
 Maid. 
 
 Sow. 
 
 Bride. 
 
 Doe. 
 
 Hen. 
 
 Bitch. 
 
 Countess. 
 
 Mother. 
 
 Mare. 
 
 Wife. 
 
 Masc. 
 Man, 
 Monk, 
 Nephew, 
 Papa, 
 Ham, 
 Son, 
 Swain, 
 Stag, 
 Youth, 
 Wizard, 
 
 Other examples of the second way are 
 
 Masc. 
 Actor, 
 Count, 
 Deacon, 
 Emperor, 
 Hunter, 
 Jew, 
 Lad, 
 Marquis, 
 
 Fem. 
 
 Actress. 
 
 Countess. 
 
 Deaconess. 
 
 Empress. 
 
 Huntress. 
 
 Jewdss. 
 
 Lass(i.e.,Ladess). 
 
 Marchioness. 
 
 Masc. 
 Murderer, 
 Priest, 
 Prince, 
 Prophet, 
 Songster, 
 Sorcerer, 
 Tiger, 
 Viscount, 
 
 Fem. 
 
 Woman. 
 
 Nun. 
 
 Niece. 
 
 Mamma. 
 
 Ewe. 
 
 Daughter. 
 
 Nymph. 
 
 Hind. 
 
 Damsel. 
 
 Witch. 
 
 Fem. 
 
 Murderess. 
 
 Priestess. 
 
 Princess. 
 
 Prophetess. 
 
 Songstress. 
 
 Sorceress. 
 
 Tigress. 
 
 Viscountess. 
 
 8i A few nouns taken from foreign languages have, in English, their 
 foreign feminines. The following are the most common: — 
 
 Masc. 
 
 Beau, 
 Sir, 
 
 Testator, 
 Executor, 
 
 Fem. 
 
 Belle. 
 Madam. 
 Testatrix. 
 Executrix. 
 
 Masc. 
 
 Sultan, 
 Czar, 
 Signor, 
 Julnis, 
 
 Fem. 
 
 Sultana. 
 Czarina. 
 Signora. 
 Julia. 
 
 Exercise 62. — Head two columns — Maaculine, and Feminine — as in 
 the above lists, and put each of the following words into its proper 
 cohunn ; then write opposite to it its masculine or its feminine, as the 
 case may require: — 
 
 1. Aunt, doe, horse, wife, maid, cock, hart, queen, earl, duck, lady, 
 wizard. 2. Actress, duke, prince, lass, abbess, priest, mistress, marquis, 
 sorcerer, count, deaconess, emperor, hunter, viscount. 3. Murderer, 
 prophet, son, bridegroom, woman, mother, goose, ewe,«;nephew, son, stag, 
 jew, widow, poet, mayor, lord, friar, executor, beau, madam, bullock, 
 
 iW 
 
 Ij 
 \\ \ 
 
 ■> ' 
 
 '•: I 
 
 "it ; 
 
^lil' 
 
 68 
 
 CLASSIFICATION OF NOUNS. 
 
 [part n. 
 
 ,:iv 
 
 i!i!, 
 
 I^i;!^'',,: 
 
 Hi 
 
 > Si u 
 
 I 
 
 bull, testatrix, patron, giant, founder, sultan, mamma, administrator, 
 heroine, czar, peacock. 
 
 Sxercise 63- — 1" *he following sentences, change the masculine 
 nouns into the feminine, and the feminine into the masculine, and make 
 such other changes as may be necessary : — 
 
 1. It was not long before the author was introduced to the baron, who, 
 in turn, introduced him to the emperor. 2. The earl asked his man-ser- 
 vant whether his nephew, lord H., had called. 3. The czar madly ap- 
 pointed a wizard and murderer aa his executor. 4. The actress, who was 
 also a songstress, highly delighted the king and queen, the marchioness, 
 the viscount and the duchess. 5. The belle of the day, and heroine also 
 of the hour, was countess M., sister of the princess who had lately become 
 the bride of a duke. 6. We were informed that the priestess of the temple, 
 who acted as our hostess, was regarded as a prophetess or sorceress, and 
 that she had predicted the speedy arrival of an abbess and some nuns, in 
 company with the sultana, who was f-^undress of the temple. 
 
 9. Simple Nouns. — The foregoing classification of nouns is 
 based upon differences in meaning ; they are also classified accord- 
 ing to differences lAform. Thus, when a noun cannot be reduced 
 to any simpler form, it is called a simple noun ; as 
 
 boy, friend, king, book. 
 
 10. Derivative Nouns. — ^When a noun is derived from a 
 simple word by putting at the beginning or the end of it a 
 syllable that cannot be used separately in the language, it is 
 called a derivative noun. 
 
 n. The syllable, if put at the beginning, is called a prefix; prefix 
 vaeBiXiB fixed (or fastened on) in front; if put at the end, it is called a SUFFIX; 
 suffix xf\Q&n^ fixed (or fastened on) at the end. 
 
 Examples of derivative nouns are 
 
 distrust, formed from trust by the prefix dis ; 
 
 unbelief, 
 
 nonsense, 
 
 boyhood, 
 
 friendship, 
 
 goodness, 
 
 <( 
 
 belief 
 
 ii 
 
 u 
 
 u 
 
 (( 
 
 un; 
 sense " non ; 
 
 boy by the suffix hood ; 
 friend " ship ; 
 
 good " ness. 
 
 12. Compound Nouns. — And when a noun is compounded, 
 i.e., made up of two or more words that may be used separately 
 in the language, it is called a compound noun ; as, 
 
 eailor-boy, house-top, axe-handle, rainbow, washtub, 
 
t i 
 
 LESSON xvin.] CLASSIFICATION OF NOUNS, 
 
 59 
 
 13i In compound nouns the first part usually describes the second part, 
 from which it is sometimes separated by a very short line called a hyphen ; 
 tluis, hall-table. In many cases, however, frequent use has made us forget 
 tliat a word is made up of other words, and then the hyphen has been 
 dropped: thus, copybook. 
 
 CAUTION.— If the word calls up the Ideas conveyed by the separate parts 
 of the cumpcund, the hyphen Is generally used,' as garden-gate; If not, 
 it Is omitted, as penknife. 
 
 Definition. — A simple noun is one thai cam/not be reduced to 
 any simpler form. 
 
 Definition. — A derivative noun is one that is derived from a 
 simple word by putting at tlie beginning or the end of it a syllable 
 that cannot be used separately in the language. 
 
 Definition. — A compound nOUn is one that is made up of tux> 
 or more words that mxiy be used separately in tlie language. 
 
 Analysis and ParsinGf* — ^^ote to Thaohbb.— The analysis of sentences 
 having: been discusaed in Part I., it has not been considered necessary to give illustrations 
 or exercises for practice in this subject throughout Part II. ; but the teacher should still 
 continue the practice, drawing his exercises from the Reader or other sources. If, oa should 
 always be the case, ih& sentence be analyzed before it be parsed, and a word modified by 
 another be parsed be/ore that other, pupils at this stage will have little difficulty in telling 
 what part of speech any word is. The rcasoning-out method of parsing adopted in Part I. 
 may therefore now be used only occasionally. It is advised, however, that throughout 
 Part II. the relation which every word in a sentence bears to some other word or wcrds 
 should be stated as part of the grammatical parsing. The following scheme, which, with 
 sli^'ht changes, is suitable for either written or oral parsing, may be used throughout 
 Part II. ; the classifications being added as the lessons in this Part are mastered. 
 
 Sentence. — She walked abottt in a sad reverie apparently unconsciotia 
 
 of danger. 
 
 
 
 Word. 
 
 Relation. 
 
 Part of Speech. 
 
 Model.— She 
 
 walked 
 
 pronoun. 
 
 unconscious 
 
 she 
 
 adjective. 
 
 apparently 
 
 unconscious 
 
 adverb. 
 
 of 
 
 unconscious of danger preposition. 
 
 danger 
 
 of 
 
 noun, common, abstract. 
 
 walked 
 
 she 
 
 verb. 
 
 about 
 
 walked 
 
 adverb. 
 
 in 
 
 walked in reverie 
 
 preposition. 
 
 a 
 
 reverie 
 
 adjective. 
 
 sad 
 
 it 
 
 «( 
 
 reverie 
 
 in 
 
 noun, common, abstract. 
 
 ! 
 
 m 
 
 
 „l ! 
 
!l 
 
 i»nii!- 
 
 60 
 
 CLASSIFICATION OF VEUBS. 
 
 [part ir. 
 
 Exercise 64. — Write 
 classiBcatiou of nouus. 
 
 summary of what has bet n said about the 
 
 Exercise 65. — I. Compose sixteen sentences : (i.) four with a proper 
 noun as subject; (ii.)four with a proper noun a8o})ject; (iii.) four with 
 a common noun aa subject; (iv.) four with a common noun as object. 
 
 II. Substitute proper nouns for the following : — 
 
 1. The queen city of the west. 2. The home of the just. 3. The 
 
 f)rime minister of our country. 4. The river that flows from the great 
 akcs. 5. The prairie province. G. The creator of the universe. 7. The 
 mistress of the soas. 8. The land of brown heatli and sliaggy wood. 
 9. The king of dramatists. 10. The land of the shamrock. 11. The hero 
 of Waterloo. 12. The key of the Mediterranean. 
 
 III. Substitute common nouns with an adjective, or adjective-phrase, 
 for the following: — 
 
 Ottawa, Victoria, Shakespeare, Ontario, Dr. Egerton Ryerson. 
 
 IV. Substitute comrtion nouns for the following: — 
 
 1. Earth's white mantle. 2. The vale of tears. 3. The staff of life. 
 4. The king of the forest. 5. The ship of the desert. 6. The root of all 
 evil. 7. The antlered monarch of the glen. 8. The sleep that knows no 
 waking. 
 
 V. Write down twelve simple, twelve derivative, and twelve compound 
 nouns, and then use some of these in making sentences. 
 
 mm 
 
 ■ • ■ „■ i 
 
 LESSON XIX. 
 
 CLASSIFICATION OP VERBS. 
 
 1. Transitive Verbs — One method of classifying verbs rests 
 upon tlie distinction that was pointed out in Lesson XII., where 
 ic was shown that " the assertion made by some verbs is com- 
 plete in itself," and that the assertion made by other verbs is not 
 complete until the object is mentioned upon which the action 
 denoted by the verb is exerted (par. 3, Lesson XII.) 
 
 Verbs which require to be thus completed arc called transitive 
 verbs. The word transitive means passing over; and these verbs 
 
i l' 
 
 LKSsoN xrx.] 
 
 CLASSIFICATION OF VERBS. 
 
 61 
 
 are so called because the action they denote is looked upon as 
 " passing over " from the subject to the thing acted upon, which, 
 as we have seen, is called the object. Thus, in the sentence 
 
 The cat caught a mouse, 
 
 the action of catching is looked upon as passing from the subject 
 cat to the object mOUSe. In the sentence 
 
 I see them, 
 
 the action of seeing passes fronx me to the things for which the 
 pronoun them stands. 
 
 2. Intransitive Verbs. — Verbs which do not require to be 
 completed in this way, because they do not express an action 
 which passes over to an object, are called intransitive verbs. 
 Intransitive means 7iot jMssing over. Examples are 
 
 I walk. He stands. We rejoice. You weep. 
 
 Df:FiNiTiON. — A transitive verb is one that dues not make a 
 comphite assertion ivithout an object. 
 
 Definition. — An intransitive verb is one that makes a complete 
 assertion without an object. 
 
 Exercise 68. — Complete by an object, when possible, the following 
 verbs, und say whether they are transitive or intransitive : — 
 
 1. The moon shines. 2. I called. .3. A man fell. 4. She sang. 5, 
 Wlio came? 6. The mob shouted. 7. He walked. 8. We heard. 9. 
 They laughed. 10. The ship sank. 11. The boys began. 12. A spark 
 burnt. 13. Snow melts. 14. The earth shook. 15. I knew. 
 
 ■r 
 
 
 ll 
 
 ■ ti 
 
 Exercise 67« — Attach to the following subjects a suitable transitive 
 verb and an object, and qualify your object by an adjective-word or a 
 preposition-phrase : — 
 
 Model. — The sun melts the snow tipon the hillside. 
 
 1. The sun 
 4. The enemy 
 
 2. The traveller . 3. Our gallant forces 
 
 b. The kind-hearted boy . 6. My sister 
 
 8. The sportsman 
 
 / . The architect ; and the contractor 
 
 and his retriever . 9. The artist ; and my uncle 
 
 farmer , and then he . 11. We . 12. They - 
 
 10. A 
 
'P 
 
 62 
 
 CLASSIFICATION OF PRONOUNS. 
 
 [part II. 
 
 liltll 
 
 
 1!!! 
 
 i'.li 
 
 i-':': 
 
 ni''; 
 
 
 ! I II 1 
 
 'Hi' 
 
 '■■■' t 
 
 Sxercise 08.— Errors for Correction. —Point out and correct 
 
 all errors in the following: — 
 
 1. Was you at the concert last night, me and Jennie was there 2. Has 
 the school-children came out yet? 3. Where was you last night? 4. 
 James has went home, I seen hun go. 5. A crowd of boys were standing 
 by and I didn't like to 6. This game is our's, the next may be yours. 
 7. It is the best situation that can oe got. 8. Is the sums right that you 
 and me done /* 9. I have two brother in laws 10. Don't forget to fetch 
 them books with you when you come. 11. We arrived about the middle 
 of the day in Toronto. 12. I and Addie was walking down the street, 
 when we seen Lizzie who was crying awf<d because she hadn't passed the 
 examination. 
 
 LESSON XX. 
 
 CLASSIFICATION OP PRONOUNS. 
 
 1. Personal Prbnouns. — In Lesson VIII., Part I., we found 
 that different pronouns are used according as they stand for the 
 speaker, for the person spoken to, or for the person or the thing 
 spoken of. Thus I always indicates the person speaking; you, 
 the person or persons spoken to ; he, sho, it, the person or the 
 thing spoken of. 
 
 This difference in the form of the pronouns is called a difference 
 of PERSON ; and, to distinguish them from one another, we call 
 I the pronoun of the first person; you, the pronoun of the 
 SECOND PERSON ; and he, She, it, pronouns of the third person. 
 
 The pronouns that, by theii form, distinguish the person 
 speaking, or the first person, from the person or persons spoken 
 to, or the second person, are especially called personai oronouns. 
 
 2. There are but few personal pronouns : here is the entire list of those 
 that can be used as subject of a sentence, or as object of a verb or of a 
 preposition : — 
 
 First Peeson. Second Person. 
 
 Subject. — I, we, (thou), you. 
 
 Object. — Me, us, (thee), you. 
 
 Definition. — Personal pronouns are those which, hy their form, 
 distinguish the person speaking from the person or persons spoken to. 
 
LESSON XX.] CLASSIFICATION OF PRONOUNS. 
 
 63 
 
 3. Demonstrative Pronouns The pronouns of the third 
 
 person, viz., he, she, it, that stand for a person or a thing spoken 
 of, are often called the personal pronouns of the third person. But 
 these pronouns are more correctly called demonstrative pronouns 
 OF THE TFiiRD PERSON. (Demonstrative means pointing out, shotv- 
 inf/, calling attention to.) For when we speak of an object as 
 he, she or it, we point it out just as when we speak of it as this 
 
 man, this woman, this thing. 
 
 The Demonstrative Pronouns of the Third Person that can be used as 
 subject of a sentence, or as object of a transitive verb or of a prepoaition, 
 are the following : 
 
 Subject. — He, she, it, they. 
 
 Object. — Him, her, it, them. 
 
 4. Again, when we wish to call attention to anything near, we 
 say this, and if there are more than one thing, these ', if the 
 tiling is at a distance, we say that, and if there are more than one 
 thing, those. Thus, 
 
 This is the gate, and that is the door. 
 These are flowers ; those are weeds. 
 
 And because the words, this, that, these, thoSO, thus point out the 
 thing spoken of, they also are called demonstrative pronouns. 
 
 5. This, that, these, those, are often followed by a noun which they 
 modify; they are then, of course, adjectives, and are called demonstrative 
 adjectives. Examples are 
 
 Have you seen this picture — those pictures ? 
 
 6. Because the words this and these refer to something near, we use 
 them to refer to something last mentioned; and because that and those 
 refer to something farther oflf, we use them to refer to something Jlrst 
 mentioned. Thus, 
 
 Some place their bliss in action, some in ease, 
 Those call it pleasure, and contentment these. 
 
 Hence, instead of this and these we sometimes say the latter; and instead 
 of that and those, the former. 
 
 Definition. — Demonstrative pronouns are tJiose which point out 
 or call attention to the objects for which they stand. 
 
 :fH 
 
 : 
 
 ■i 
 
 ^'i 
 
 i 
 
 
G4 
 
 aiA^.^IFWATION OF PROXOUNS. 
 
 [part II. 
 
 I, 
 
 ii 
 
 IM; 
 
 EjXercise 69.— In the following exercise, mention the personal pro- 
 nouns, and the demonstrative pronouns of the third person, and say 
 whether they aro used as subject or as object. Mention also the other 
 demonstrative pronouns and the demonstrative adjectives : — • 
 
 1. Wo went our way, but they stayed. 2. She was lost in the snow. 
 3. He gave me this apple, and 1 shall eat it. 4. You were late that 
 morning. 5. This belongs to Jane and that to Martha. G. I saw him do 
 it this very day. 7. She told us tliat a friend had assisted her. 8. I 
 requested Mary to help her, btit she paid no attention to me. 9. Those 
 apples aro not ripe ; do not eat them, they will injure you. 10. Jieneath 
 those nigged elms, that yew-tree's shade. 
 
 7. Interrogative Pronouns. — Wo often ask question.^ by 
 using tho pronouns who, which, what I thus, 
 
 W^ho coinoH here ? "Which would you like 1 
 "What does lie want ? 
 
 These are therefore called interrooativp: pronouns (i.e., enquir- 
 ing or qnpsfion-dskhxj pronouns). Their place, as the above 
 exanipl(!S show, is as near as possible to the beginning of the 
 sentence. 
 
 Which and what (but not who) are often followed by a noun which 
 they modify : thus. 
 
 Which lesson have you learned ? What ii.oney have you ? 
 They are then adjectives, and are called interrog'ative adjectives. 
 
 Definition. — An interrogative pronoun is one that is used in 
 askirxj a questio7i. 
 
 8. Eelative Pronouns. — The words who, which, What (which 
 are called interrogative pronouns when they ask a question), and 
 the word that (which is called a demonstrative when it points 
 out an object), are used for another purpose than to ask a question 
 or point out an object ; as when we say 
 
 The man who was hurt is dead. 
 
 We, "who escaped, were much alarmed. 
 
 The money which you found belongs to me. 
 
 Tell me what he said. 
 
 The book that I was reading has been taken away. 
 
 In these sentences who, which and what are not used to ask a 
 
LKS80S XX.] CLASSIFICATION Of PRONOUNS. 
 
 65 
 
 (jucstion, nor doos that point out an object; thoy are thereforo not 
 interrogative or denionHtrative pronouns ; but they are used to 
 relate, that is, to cirry back, the thouglit to a noun or another 
 pronoun in the same sentence. Thus, in the foregoing exarnpleg, 
 t)ie first who relates to the noun man, the second whO to the 
 
 pronoun we, which to money, and that to book. 
 
 When who, which, what and that are thus used to rdatfi to a 
 noun or another pronoun, tliey are called kklativk pronouns; 
 and the word to which they relate is called the antkcrdent of the 
 n^liitive, because it generally goes before it. Antecedent means 
 something tlcat goes before: see examples. 
 
 9. Let it be noticed, in the foregoing examples, that each relative 
 pronoun introduces a clause which has a subject and predicate of its own, 
 uiid tliat it joins this clause to its antecedent by way of a description or 
 limitation of it: t.^., to serve as an adjective to it: thus, in 
 
 The man who was hurt is dead, 
 
 the relative who introduces and joins the clause who was hurt to man — 
 the antecedent of the relative, to tell what man is dead. }kcause the 
 relative pronouns join clauses in this way to their antecedents, they are 
 often, and more correctly, called conjunctive pronouns. 
 
 10. Who, when relative, just as when interrogative, is used only of 
 persons; which is used when not persons but other creatures or things are 
 
 meant: thus 
 
 The man 
 ** woman 
 
 } 
 
 who etc. 
 
 The horse 
 " house 
 
 } 
 
 which etc. 
 
 That may be used instead of either who or which, and (like who or 
 which) may refer to one or more than one. 
 
 What differs from the other relatives in having no antecedent expressed 
 in the sentence. It is equivalent to that which (that demonstrative, and 
 which relative). Thus, 
 
 I know what (that which) he will say. 
 
 Definition. — A relative pronOUn is one that relates to an ante- 
 cedent, and that joins to it a clause by way of describing or limit' 
 
 imj it. 
 
 NoTK TO Teacher. — It is not essential, at this stage, to keep before young pupils the 
 difference between a clause that limits and one that describes. If, however, the teacher 
 chooses to do so, he may show that a clause limits when it distinguishes its antecedent 
 from all other objects of the same name: thus. The soldier who was wounded hat 
 recovered ; and that a clause describes when it does not do thin : thus, Toronto, 
 which Is the capital of Ontario, Is In York County. Here, of course, as elsewhere 
 in the book, the minuteness of the matter taken up must depend upon sbe intelligence o{ 
 the class. 
 
 '< ! 
 
 ■:J; 
 
 ^1 hi 
 
mm 
 
 
 § 
 
 I''' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ¥''' 
 
 !l 
 
 
 
 Wi'^ 
 
 i.r 
 
 '^^\, 
 
 
 {111 
 
 iiii: 
 
 ii'l 
 
 66 
 
 CLASSIFICATION OF PRONOUNS. 
 
 [part II, 
 
 Sxercise 70. — Write out to the teacher's dictation the follov/ing 
 exercise; over the interrogative pronouns write int. pr., and over the rela- 
 tive pronouns, ref. pr.; and link each relative pronoun to its antecedent 
 by a line :— - 
 
 I. I met the man who was bringing your message. 2. What did he 
 say ? 3. Which way did my brother go ? 4. The time that remained was 
 well employed. 5. Have you found the pencil which you lost ? 6. Uneasy 
 lies the head that wears .x crown. 7. What is your grade in the army? 
 8. Fools, who ca^ne to scoff, remained to pray. 9. I promise to do what 
 you require. 10. Which is the way to Kalouga? 11. Who would have 
 believed it? 12. What are those queer-looking things yonder? 13. It 
 was the schooner Hesperus that sailed the wintry sea. 14. '"Tis some 
 poor fellow's skull," said he, " who fell in the great victory." 
 
 II. Indefinite Pronouns. — There are pronouns of yet another 
 class, which, because they do not stand for any particular or 
 definite persons or things, are called indefinite pronouns. Thus, 
 in the sentence 
 
 \ All are here, 
 
 all means every one of the separate objects that make up some 
 whole, but what these objects are is not stated or defined. 
 Hence, all is an indefinite pronoun. 
 Among the indefinite pronouns are 
 
 1. Each, either, and neither, which refer to objects taken 
 separately or distributed, and which, for this reason, are called 
 
 DISTRIBUTIVES. 
 
 2. Some, any, many, few, all, both, one, none, aught, naught, 
 
 such, other, and another, which have reference to iiumber or to 
 quantity. 
 
 3. Words made by joining SOmO, any, every u^xid nO to the 
 
 words one, thing, and body. 
 
 Almost all the words in 1 and 2 may bo followed by tho nouns to 
 which they refer; they are then, of course, indefinite adjectives. 
 
 Definition. — An indefinite pronoun is one that does not refer to 
 any particular person or thing. 
 
 EjXercise 71. — Write a summary of what has been said about the 
 olassification of pronouns. 
 
LKssoN XX.] CLASSIFICATION OF PRONOUNS. 
 
 67 
 
 Exercise 72. — Point out the pronouns in the following exercise, 
 and say to what class each belongs, and why. Point out, also, any 
 demonstrative, interrogative, or indefinite adjectives that occur: — 
 
 1. We saw that they had lost their way. 2. I went to him and to her, 
 and told them that we would come to see them, if they were at leisure to 
 receive us. 3. Who broke the window? 4. The boy who is honest and 
 truthful is trusted. 5, Bless them that curse you. 6. He says what he 
 thinks. 7. What book are you reading? 8. What would you do in such 
 a case? 1). Which do you like best, this picture or that? 10. Short is 
 the bliss that sin bestows. 11. He is the free man whom the truth makes 
 free. 12. Here are some raisins, will you take a few? 13. That life is 
 long which answers life's great end, 14. The one became a soldier, the 
 otlier a lawyer. 15. Somebody has been here, but I do not miss anything. 
 16. They who die in a jnat cause never fa,il. 17. Which situation would 
 you prefer? I would like one as well as the other, and would take either 
 if it were offered me. 18. Few, few shall part where many meet. 19. The 
 boy that came last into that class will soon be first boy in it. 20. Do you 
 know anyone in this town ? 
 
 21. Come one, come rdl! this rock shall fly 
 From its firm base as soon as I. 
 
 22. Fear nought, nay, that I need not say. 
 But doubt not aught from mine array. 
 
 Exercise 73. — ^i. Compose seven sentences, using as subjects the 
 following pronouns — /, %i}e, you, he, she^ it, they. 
 
 ii. Compose seven sentences, using as objects either of transitive verbs 
 or of prepositions, the following pronouns — me, un, you, him, her, it, them. 
 
 iii. Compose four sentences, using the demonstrative pronouns either 
 as subjects or as objects. 
 
 iv. Compose three interrogative sentences, using as subjects — who, 
 which, what. 
 
 V, Compose, or quote, four sentences, using as connectives the relative 
 pronouns — who, which, what, that. 
 
 vi. Compose, or quote, sentences containing as subjecvs or as objects 
 the following indefinite pronouns — any, some, few, many, all, such, cither, 
 both, neither, another. 
 
 •' s 
 
ii 
 
 '■l|jS!i; 
 
 lillHl! 
 
 68 
 
 CLASSIFIOATlOir OF ADJECflVEB. [viSfttu 
 
 ^iMi,;;! 
 
 
 m 
 
 n 
 
 i- 
 
 ill, J,'; !, 
 
 IIP' 
 
 m 
 
 I:!;: 
 
 LESSON XXI. 
 
 CLASSIFICATION OP ADJECTIVES. 
 
 1 . Qualifying* Adj ectives. — It was shown (par. 4, Lesson IX.) 
 that most adjectives modify nouns by pointing out some quality 
 or another in the objects signified by the nouns; as, 
 
 A red rose. The fertile field. A clever boy. 
 
 Such adjectives are called qualifying adjectives. 
 
 Definition. — Qualifying adjectives are those that point out some 
 quality in the objects signified by the nouns which they modify. 
 
 2. Quantifying" Adjectives. — It was shown also in the same 
 lesson, that some few adjectives modify nouns by pointing out, 
 not qualities of the objects signified by the nouns, but the quantity 
 or the number of the objects ; as. 
 
 There was much grass in the place. I have little money. 
 
 Three men were present. The third man was 
 
 the prisoner. We^re seven. 
 
 Such adjectives are called quantifying adjectives. 
 
 Definition. — Quantifying adjectives are tJwse that point out the 
 qvuntity or the nuviber of the objects signified by the nouns which 
 tliey modify. 
 
 3. Some quantifying adjectives point out the exact numher of objects: 
 
 thus, 
 
 one, two, three, four, etc. 
 
 To distinguish these from other quantifying adjectives they are called 
 CARDINAL NUMERALS — numerals because they have to do with number^ and 
 cardinal because they are the chief words to signify number, for cardinal, 
 as used here, means chief, moxt important. 
 
 Others (derived for the most part from the cardinals by adding th) 
 point out the order of objects in a series : thus, 
 
 first, second, third, fourth, fifth, etc. 
 
 The latter are called ordinal numerals. 
 
1:1 
 
 LESSON XXI.] CLASSIFICATION OF ADJECTIVES. 
 
 69 
 
 4. Pronominal Adjectives — There are other adjectives still 
 which either are derived from pronouns, or are identical with 
 them, and which, as we saw in the last lesson, are called pronouns 
 when used without, and in place of, nouns ; and adjectives, when 
 used witli nouns which they modify. 
 
 Such adjectives are called pronominal adjectives. 
 
 Definition. — Pronominal adjectives are those that are called 
 pronouns when used without, and in place a/, nouns, and that 
 are called adjectives when used with nouns. 
 
 5. Of pronominal adjectives there are five kinds, corresponding to 
 the five classes of pronouns given in last lesson. 
 
 1. Possessive adjectives. These are forms of the personal pronouns, 
 and of the demonstrative pronouns of the third person, used adjectively, 
 {i.e., as modifiers of nouns expressed or understood), to denote possestiion ; 
 for each of these pronouns has, corresponding to it, a form to denote 
 1 ossessiou, and most of them have two such forms : thus, 
 
 1st person singular 
 2nd " 
 
 Ist " plural 
 2nd " " 
 
 3rd person singular 
 3rd " plural 
 
 Pers. Pronouns. 
 
 I, 
 
 thou, 
 
 we, 
 
 you, 
 
 Dem. Pronouns. 
 
 rhe, 
 
 -| she, 
 
 lit. 
 
 Possessive Form. 
 my or mine, 
 thy or thine, 
 our or ours, 
 your or yours. 
 
 Possessive Form. 
 his. 
 
 her or hers, 
 its. 
 their or theirs. 
 
 'hey, 
 
 The second forms, mine, thine, hers, ours, yours, theirs, are used 
 when no noun follows : thus, 
 
 Your father and mine were present. This book is mine ; that is yours. 
 
 2. Demonstrative adjectives. These are this, these; that, those; 
 yon, yonder; the; when followed by a noun. Examples are 
 
 This animal. Those sad days. Yon or yonder bright clouds. 
 
 The White Ship. 
 
 3. Interrogative adjectives. These are which and what when used 
 interrogatively and followed by a noun. Examples are 
 
 Which road must I take ? What ofience have you given ? 
 
 Remark.— The interrogative pronoun, who, is not used adjectively, 
 f.c'.,witha»o\U];. 
 
 m 
 
 1 (■ 
 
 I 
 
Im 
 
 HIiSitlL'i 
 
 70 
 
 CLASSIFICATION OF ADJECTIVES. [part n. 
 
 
 i.!' 
 
 
 m 
 
 hi- 
 
 ll H 
 
 4. Relative adjectives. These are the same words, which and what, 
 
 when used relatively &nd followed bi/ a Tioun. Examples are 
 
 I know what book (i.e., the book in general which) you mean. ' 
 I know ivhich book {i.e., the book in particular which) you mean. 
 
 5. Indefinite adjectives. These are those words which, when used 
 without a noun, we called indefinite pronouns. A list of them was given 
 in par. 11, of the last lesson. 
 
 Remark. — Many indefinite adjectives, since they have reference to 
 number or quantity, may, with equal propriety, be put in the class of 
 quantifying adjectives: thus, 
 
 Several kinds. Many tribes. Some persons, etc. 
 
 6. Articles. — An or a, called the indefinite article, and the, called 
 the definite article, are in reality adjective-words, since they are always 
 used along with nouns to limit them : thus. 
 
 An officer. A street. The letter. The letters. 
 
 An or a is formed from the niiaieral adjective one. It can be used 
 before nouns in the singular only, and then an is used before a vowel sound, 
 and a before a consonant sound : see examples. 
 
 The is connected both in form and in meaning with the demonstrative 
 adjective that. It can be used before nouns in the singular or the plural : 
 see examples. 
 
 Sxercise 74- — Write a summary of what has been said about the 
 classification of adjectives. 
 
 Exercise 75. — Arrange in three columns, headed Qualifying, Quanti- 
 fying, and Pronominal, the adjectives found in the following sentences; 
 and further distinguish the pronominal adjectives by writing after them — 
 poss., dem., inter., r<'l., or indef., as the case may be: — 
 
 1. That kind boy helped the old man with his heavy load. 2. The 
 rapid train soon completed its long journey. 3. The first fresh dawn 
 awoke us from our drowsy sleep. 4. Have you any money? I have a 
 little. I have three or four dollars. 5. Many men have many minds. 
 6. All clever boys are not good boys. 7. Each boy must do his best. 
 8. Far other aims his heart had learned to prize. 9. The whole affair was 
 disgraceful. 10 Every girl in the class heard him make that mistake. 
 11. (Jreat results from little causes spring. 12. What account can you 
 give of the sad affair. 13. Which way did he go ? 14. Every fourth year 
 is called Leap-year. 1.5. Two heads ai-e better than one. 16. Every tenth 
 man was shot. 17. Who are those people in yon carriage ? 18. All work 
 and no play makes Jack a dull boy. 19. Drunkenness is the cause of 
 many deaths and much misery. 
 
 20. The way was long, the wind was cold, 
 The minstrel was infirm and old. 
 
LESSON XXII.] CLASSIFICATION OF ADVERBS. 
 
 71 
 
 Exercise 76. — Express otherwise the sense of the words in italics. 
 and thou decide whether the change improves the sentence or not. 
 
 CAUTION.— If two expressions are equally strong and clear, and sound 
 equally well, the shorter one Is generally to be preferred. 
 
 Model. — 1. The Tower was once 
 a resid'.-nce of the kings. 
 
 2. We began our voyage 
 towanh home. 
 
 1. The Tower was once a royal 
 
 residence. 
 
 2. We began our homeward voy- 
 
 age. 
 
 1. The mountain tops are covered with snow. 2. She wore a crown of 
 (jold and a robe of lace. 3. There he stood with eyes of fiaiiie and with a 
 soul of fire. 4. He was a boy of great industry, 5. This village was once 
 inhabited by Indians. 6, The sea is always in a state of unreM. 7. Bears 
 are white in lands near the pole. 8. Gates of brass richly carved forbade 
 our entrance. 9. The inhabitants of Canada can never be slaves. 10. 
 Lord Dufferin was a very sagaciov-H governor. 11. The poor widow .was 
 much afflicted owing to the death of her only son. 12. We sat out of doors 
 with nothing on our heads. l.S. The speaker touched all hearts, for his 
 words were full of vigor and passion. 14. The druids of old offered sacri- 
 fices of men. 
 
 $ 
 
 LESSON XXII. 
 
 CLASSIFICATION OF ADVERBS. 
 
 1. In Lesson XI. it was shown that adverbs are words that 
 modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. Most adverbs 
 modify verbs ; and they do so by pointing out either where, when, 
 how, etc., the action expressed by the verb took place : thus. 
 
 Afterwards we sailed along pleasantly. 
 Other adverbs modify by pointing out extent or degree : thus, 
 
 We greatly admired the scene. 
 The wounded man is nearly well. 
 
 Others, again, are used in asking questions : thus, 
 
 When did you arrive ? 
 
 
72 
 
 CLASSIFICATION OF ADVERBS. 
 
 [part II. 
 
 \mk 
 
 \4% 
 
 u. 
 
 111. 
 
 IV. 
 
 2. Adverbs may, therefore, be roughly divided into 
 i. Adverbs of place and motion ; as, 
 
 ther^, above, out; forward, hence, back. "^ . 
 
 Adverbs of time and succession ; as, 
 
 then, seldom, never; once, next, thirdly. 
 
 Adverbs of manner and quality ; as, 
 
 thus, so, well; carefully, badly, truly. 
 
 Adverbs of measure and degree ; as, 
 
 much, more, all ; quite, greatly, very. 
 It is adverbs of the 2nd and 4th classes (the latter chiefly) that are 
 mostly used to modify adjectives or other adverbs. 
 
 3. When the adverbs when, where, whence, how, why, where- 
 fore, are used in asking questions, they are called interrogative 
 adverbs, and may be classed as interrogative adverbs of time, 
 place, manner, and so on. 
 
 Sxercise 77« — Arrange in five columns, properly headed, the adverbs 
 found in the following exercise ; write vh. after such as modify verbs ; adj. 
 after such as modify adjectives; and adv. after such as modify adverbs: — 
 
 1. The poor are always amongst us. 2. He recently came back. 3. I 
 lost my thimble yesterday, and found it to-day. 4. She bore her suflferings 
 very patiently. 5. I often meet your friend. 6. This is good enough. 
 7. She is seldom punctual. 8. I seldom saw such a storm; it raged 
 furiously. 9. We were greatly in danger. 10. The idle boy is generally 
 mischievous. 11.- Flowers soon fade. 12. My canary sings beautifully. 
 13. I never before saw such bad writing. 14. You are greatly to blame, 
 for you are old enough to know better. 15. I was very sorry to find my 
 friend so ill; he is much better to-day. 16. Where did you see her? 
 
 Fixercise 78. — Express otherwise the sense of the words in italics, 
 and decide whether the change improves the sentence or not. 
 
 Model* — We awaited the dawn 
 with great anxiety. 
 
 We awaited the dawn very 
 anxiously. 
 
 1. He began to address us in a very solemn manner. 2. Each army 
 fought desperately. 3. We watched the retreating figure in silence. 4. 
 You must proceed very carefully. 5. Will you go to that place of your own 
 accord? 6. After a little while the mistress of the house entered. 7. 
 Beehives were originally made of straw. 8. With some courage our dogs 
 advanced to the attack. 9. The travellers were of necessity delayed on 
 their way towards home. 10. He acted his part loith justice, with skill, 
 and without fear. 11. If you act in such an insolent manner, you must 
 take the consequences. 12. God is in all places and at all times present 
 with us. 
 
LESSON xxiii.] PREP08ITI0NS-INTERJEGTI0N8. 
 
 73 
 
 Exercise 79.— Errors for Correction.— Point out and coneot 
 
 all the faults you can find in the following sentences : — ' 
 
 1. You done that very bad. 2. She always appears very amiably. 3. 
 Lust night was excessive cold. 4. My hair wants cutting badly. 5. Lord 
 Duiferin was exceeding popular in Canada. 6. If you act so bad, you'll 
 })e apt to be punished. 7. That velvet on her dress looks very prettily, 
 more prettily than silk. 8. They were real glad when they seen us. 9. 
 The speaker began very solemn, and the audience looked so seriously. 
 10. By working hard, they made near forty dollars a month. 11. If you 
 wish to be trusted, you must stick firm to your principles. 12. The 
 strangers were very perplexed, cause they were stared at. 
 
 l \: 
 
 LESSON XXIII. 
 
 CLASSIFICATION OP PREPOSITIONS AND 
 INTERJECTIONS. 
 
 1. Prepositions. — As there are comparatively few preposi- 
 tions in the language to indicate a great many relations, each of 
 them has many uses, so that prepositions cannot be divided into 
 such distinct classes as some of the other parts of speech. Some 
 of them, however, when used in a certain way can be divided off 
 into classes. Thus, some denote rest in a place ] as, 
 
 in, at, on, above, below, beside. 
 
 Others, again, denote motion J as, 
 
 into, ftom, toward, along, up, down. 
 
 Exercise 80. — Distinguish between the meanings of the same prepo- 
 sitions in the following sentences or phrases: — 
 
 1 . By. He sat by me. By skill and daring he overcame the difficulty. 
 We judge of the future by the past. He pulled up the plant by the roots. 
 
 2. Of. The palace of the king. The rays of the sun. I will think of 
 it. A ring of gold. 
 
 3. Above. He kept his head above water. The hill is above a 
 thousand feet high. He thinks himself above his former companions. 
 Such treatment was above my deserts. 
 
 4. From. From nothing, nothing can come. From anger to murder 
 ia often but a short step. 
 
 5. For. He couldn t go, so I went for him. This mixture is excellent 
 for colds. Last winter was famous for high winds. We did it for fun. 
 
 6. With. I saw it with my eyes as I was going along with my fatheK, 
 
w 
 
 Wi 
 
 n,« 
 
 ■ u 
 
 ! 
 
 '& 
 
 il! (1 
 
 II ■: 
 
 liaiih 
 
 74 
 
 PREPOSITIONS— INTERJECTIONS. 
 
 [part II. 
 
 EjXercise 81. — Point out the diflference between these pairs of sen- 
 tences: — 
 
 1. The bird flips in the house, — into the house. 2. The bird flies over 
 the house, — above the house. 3. The bird flew after me, — behind me. 
 4. The bird flew between us, — among us. 
 
 Note to Tbachkr. — Though no classification according to meaning is given of the 
 prepositions, tlie teacher is recommended to accustom his pupils to explain the use of 
 euch preposition in a sentence; see Exercises 80 and 81. The practice will lead to 
 the careful use of these words, and will also enable the pupil to distinguish between such 
 words as by and with; In and Into; at and to; over and above; between and 
 among : after and behind, etc. 
 
 2. Interjections — We may classify interjections according 
 to the emotion which each is designed to express : for instance, 
 into interjections expressing joy ; as. Hurrah ! or suffering ; as, 
 Oh dear ! or contempt ; as, Pshaw ! or calling ; as, Hello ! or 
 hushing ; as, Hush ! 
 
 But such classification would not be reliable, because the same 
 interjection often expresses different emotions, according to 
 the tone of voice in which it is uttered : thus Oh ! may denote 
 glad surprise, or fright, or suffering. 
 
 Interjections may also be classified into real interjections, that 
 is, those that are never used but as interjections ; as, Ah ! Pshaw ! 
 Hello ! etc., and occasional interjections, that is, those that are 
 formed by sometimes using other parts of speech in an inter- 
 
 jectional manner ; as, Indeed ! What ! Hark ! Well done ! Dear 
 
 me ! etc. These last are, properly speaking, not interjections, but 
 fragments of sentences, which we are too hurried or too excited 
 to utter in full. Thus, 
 
 Indeed ! means — Is this indeed the case 1 
 
 Well done ! means — You (or They) have well done. 
 
 Sxercise 82. — Combine into one simple sentence each series of simple 
 sentences given on the following page. 
 
 Model. — Simple se7itences. — The tree was struck. It was an oak tree. 
 The tree was old. It was a nne tree. It grew in the park. The lightning 
 struck it. It was night when it was struck. The night was Wednesday. 
 It was 12 o'clock when it was struck. 
 
 Combined into one simple sentence. — The fine old oak tree in the purk 
 was struck by lightning at 12 o'clock on Wednesday night. 
 
t / 
 
 LESSON XXIV.] 
 
 COMPOUXD SENTENCES. 
 
 75 
 
 Here, the thoughts contained in several of the simple sentences have 
 Itei'ii expressed as nioditiers of either the subject or the predicate of one 
 simple sentence. 
 
 1. The boy fell. The boy was little. It was a ditch he fell into. The 
 ditch was dry. It was this mornini? that lie fell in. 
 
 2. The river overflowed. The river was the Trent. The banks were 
 ovortlowed. It was in July. It was on the loth of that month. On both 
 sides it was overflowed. 
 
 X A boy came. The boy was pretty. He was little. He was blue- 
 cycd. He had rosy cheeks. It was his mother he came to. The boy had 
 a rabbit. It was a young one. It was white. It was lop-eared. He 
 curried it in his apron. 
 
 4. Leonidas died. Leonidas was a king. He was king of Sparta. 
 Three hundred of his countrymen died with nim. They died like heroes. 
 It was at Thermopylae they died. They died to defend their country. 
 They were defending their country against the Persians. 
 
 5. Milton was born. He was a poet. He was a great poet. He was 
 an English poet. Breadstreet was the place of his birth. Breadstreet is 
 iu Cheapside. Chcapside is in London. He was born in the year 1608. 
 
 6. John was a king. John signed. It was a document called Magna 
 Charta that he signed. John was afraid of his barons. He did not care 
 about liberty. He signed it at Runnymede. Runnymede is on the 
 Tliames. It is not far from Windsor. 
 
 7. The boy M^rote. He was a good boy. He wrote a letter. He wrote 
 to his father. He wrote from school. He wrote on his birthday. It was 
 a long letter. Ha wrote it early in the morning. He wrote it before 
 breakfast. 
 
 m »i 
 
 
 , 
 
 LESSON XXIV. 
 
 COMPOUND SENTENCES. 
 
 Before proceeding to the classification of conjunctions, it is 
 necessary that we should learn something more about the nature 
 of sentences. 
 
 1. In Lesson XIV. we found that by means of conjunctions 
 we can put together simple sentences, each having its own 
 subject and predicate, and thus make of them a longer sentence. 
 We found, too, that each of the separate sentences that were joined 
 in this way to make a longer sentence is called a "clause" 
 (par. 5, Lesson XIV). We have now to observe a difference in 
 tlie nature of these chvus^es, 
 
 i ( 
 
 i i 
 
 ; i 
 i I 
 
 \ i 
 
 1 ! 
 
 ;••( 
 
j 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 I'l 
 
 il 
 
 ',f 
 
 pi" 
 
 l:i 
 
 '■'- 'mr 
 
 l;«.'!j 
 
 irii; 
 
 iivi 
 
 r^n 
 
 76 COMPOUND SENTENCES. 
 
 If we notice carefully the clauses in the sentences — 
 
 [I'AliT II 
 
 The day was fine, and the sun shone brightly ; 
 
 Tom goes to school, but he does not learn ; 
 
 The watch is on the table, or some one has taken it ; 
 
 we see that each clause, though joined to another by a con- 
 junction, makes an assertion of its own; and that in each 
 sentence the assertion made by one clause is independent of the 
 assertion made by the other clause; that is, neither clause depends 
 on the other for its sense. Indeed, so independent are the clauses 
 one of another, that if we remove the joining words (and, but, OP) 
 each clause becomes at once a separate, independent assertion. 
 Moreover, it will be seen, that in each longer sentence the asser- 
 tion made by one clause is as important {i "he assertion made 
 by the other clause ; in other words, that one clause is equal in 
 rank to the other. 
 
 2. Clauses that make sense of themselves, and do not depend 
 on other clauses, are said to be independent ; and because one 
 clause is as important as the other, they are said to be co- ordinate, 
 that is, of equal order or rank. And a sentence made up, like 
 those above, of two or more independent, co-ordinate clauses is 
 called a compound sentence ; compound means placed to(/ether, 
 and in this kind of sentence the clauses are, as it were, placed 
 side by side and loosely tied. 
 
 Definition. — A compound sentence is one made hy joining 
 together two or more independent clauses. 
 
 Sxercise 83. — Of the following sentences, say which are simple, 
 and which are compound; divide the compound sentences into their 
 co-ordinate clauses, and mention the conjunctions that join the latter:— 
 
 1. He pushed me and I fell. 2. The birds in the nest were sheltered 
 from the rain by the wings of their mother. 3. They had cake, but we 
 had fruit. 4. The girl screamed, yet no help came. 5. The girl screamed 
 at the sight of a snake in the garden. 6. The battle continued, though it 
 was dark. 7. The battle between the Arabs and the French lasted from 
 ten in the morning till eight in the evening. 8. It rained, yet we started. 
 9. You were gone, else you would have heard. 10, Th§ bird was shot, 
 pj- some onQ had struck itt 
 
T.ESSON XXIV. J 
 
 COMPOUND SENTENCES. 
 
 77 
 
 3. Abbreviated Compound Sentences.— i. We often want to 
 
 iiiuko tho buinu assertiou about two or more subjects : thus, 
 
 Raisins ) , ^ . 
 
 Figs ) °o™^6 iroxa. Spain. 
 
 Wo can, cf course, throw this into the form of a compound sentence, and say 
 
 Raisins come from Spain and figs come from Spain, 
 
 but, for brevity, we usually join such subjects together by a conjunction 
 ( par. 4, Lesson XIV. ), and make one assertion about all : thus, 
 
 Raisins and figs come from Spain. 
 
 2. Often, too, we require to make two or more assertions about the 
 
 same subject: thus, 
 
 ( ebbs. 
 The tide {flo^g. 
 
 For a similar reason as before, we join the predicates and say 
 
 The tide ebbs and flows. 
 
 So, too, we may join two or more predicate adjectives, and assert of the 
 same subject the qualities they express : thus. 
 
 They were lovely and pleasant in their lives. 
 
 We may also join two preposition -phrases, and modify therewith the 
 same subject or predicate : thus, 
 
 The snoM' on the hillsides and in the valleys began to melt. 
 He was seen both before and after the battle. 
 
 Such sentences are really compound sentences abbreviated ; and it is 
 generally possible to treat them as compound sentences by supplying the 
 member or part omitted. It is, moreover, perfectly proper to hold that 
 there are as many sentences (or clauses) as there are verbs (asserting words) 
 in anything we say ; nevertheless, lohen such sentences, are brifj and not 
 comiMcated, it is generally better to treat them as simple sentences having 
 a compound subject, or predicate, or modifier, as the case may be. 
 
 Exercise 84. — Write a summary of what has been said about com- 
 pound sentences. 
 
 Exercise 85. — Say in what respect the following sentences are 
 abbreviated ; expand them into co-ordinate clauses by supplying the 
 omitted parts : — 
 
 1. Owls and bats fly by night. 2. He came yesterday and went away 
 to-day. 3. Peter went out and wept bitterly. 4. Time and tide wait for 
 no man. 5. Air expands and becomes lighter by heat. 6. On the moun- 
 
 ■ " t 
 
 11 
 
 
 - 
 
 ■ 
 
 1 
 
 ] 
 
 
 
 
 , 
 
 
 
 '\ 
 
78 
 
 COMPOUND SENTENCES. 
 
 [part 11. 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 tain and in the valleys liua tlio snow. 7. We obtain heat and lif{ht from 
 the 8un. 8. The moon roao and diBpelled the gloom. 9. He autod with 
 great prudence and rourago. 10. Nut a drum was heard, not a funeral 
 note. 11. Slowly and sadly we laid him down. 
 
 12. Can storied urn or animated bust 
 
 Back to its mansion call thu fleeting breath ? 
 
 13. With a slow and noiseless footstep, 
 Comes that mes.senger divine. 
 
 4. Analysis of Compound Sentences. — A compound sen- 
 tence is analyzed by tolling the clauses, their relation and con- 
 necting words, and tlien proceeding with each clause in the manner 
 already pointed out for simple sentences. If the compound 
 sentence is abbreviated, the analysis should show in what resperts 
 it is abbreviated ; or the omitted parts may be supplied in full, 
 and the clauses analyzed as simple sentences. 
 
 John went home hiit I stayed in school. 
 
 Model 1. — This is a compound sentence, of which the clauses are— 
 A. John went home; B. I stayed in school; and these independent 
 clauses are joined by the co-ordinating conjunction but; (par. 1, Lesson 
 XXVI.) 
 
 Frogs and seals live on land and in water. 
 
 Model 2. —This is an abbreviated compound sentence, being abbre- 
 viated in having but one predicate for two subjects. Its subject is com- 
 pound, consisting Oi" the two simple subjects frogs, seals, joined by the 
 co-ordinating conjuncVion and. The predicate Zi«« is modified by a com- 
 pound adverb-phrase consisting of the two adverb-phrases on land, in 
 water. Or, better : 
 
 This is a simple senlence; its compound subject is frogs and seals; its 
 predicate live is modified by the compound adverb-phrase, on land and 
 in water. 
 
 If the omitted pr-rts are supplied, it is equivalent to the following four 
 simple sentences: — 
 
 A. Frogs live on land (and) 
 
 B. Seals " " ; 
 
 C. Frogs " in water (and) 
 
 D. Seals " " 
 
1,1 SSON XXV, 1 
 
 Cf) \trLEX SSXTKXCKS, 
 
 79 
 
 1:1 
 
 LE8H0K XXV. 
 
 1. If wo examine auch a seuticnco u« 
 
 We started wheix the aui\ ^m©, 
 
 wo easily jHi»'oelvft that thi' only statement made is W0 Started^ 
 for the clause when the SUfl roSB does nothing more than point 
 out or define i\w time of our starting, just as an adverb would 
 do ; it nuMvns tlie same as the adverb-phrase at SUnHSG, and is 
 used as if it were an adverb of time modifying the verb started. 
 So, too, if we say 
 
 The bird could not fly because it was wounded, 
 
 the second clause here, also, has the value of an adverb modifying 
 could not fly, like the adverb-phrase on acCOUnt of ItS WOUnd. 
 
 Such clauses are called adverb-clauses ; and it will be easily 
 seen that they cannot be independent of the other clause in the 
 sentence any more than a simple adverb can be independent of 
 the word it modifies. 
 
 2. A clause of this kind cannot make sense without the other 
 clause; and, this being the case, it is evident that the clauses 
 are not co-ordinate, or of equal rank with one another. As 
 compared with each other, one clause, viz. : WO Started, is said 
 to be PRINCIPAL, or of first rank; and the other, viz.: when the 
 sun rose, subordinate, ^.e., of an order or rank below the other. 
 
 3. Again, in the sentence — 
 
 Wo saw that it was a bird, 
 the subordinate clause — that it Was a bird — is not adverbial like 
 the preceding ; but it serves as object to complete the transitive 
 verb saw in the principal clause, for it names or defines the thing 
 we saw just as a noun would do. 
 So, too, if we say 
 
 I can tell whether any one has been here, 
 
 the subordinate clause — whether any One has been here — serves 
 
 ! 1 
 
 { ;ll 
 

 
 ,\A 
 
 \M': 
 
 m: 
 
 
 Si 
 
 ,3*,; 
 
 '^i:!' 
 
 
 i| 
 
 pl''=i' 
 
 It ' 
 
 SO 
 
 COMPLEX SENTENCES. 
 
 fPART 11. 
 
 as object to complete the transitive verb can tell, for it names 
 the thing I can tell, just as a noun would do. 
 Again, if we say 
 
 That the prisoner is guilty is certain, 
 
 the statement is sinij)ly that something is certain; and that 
 something is expressed by the dependent clause — that the ppiSOne" 
 is guilty. This clause, therefore, has the value of a noun, being 
 equal to — the ffuilt of the prisoner ; but, instead of being object 
 of a transitive verb li^'o the clauses above, it serves as subject 
 to the predicate JS certain. 
 
 Clauses that have the value of nouns are called noun-clauses; 
 and these examples show that, like nouns, they may be used 
 either as the subject or as the object of a verb. 
 
 4. Once more, if we say 
 
 The man who made that design was clever, 
 
 the statement is — the man was clever; and these words form 
 the principal clause. The dependent, or subordinate, clause — who 
 made that design — merely modifies the subject man just as an 
 adjective woul i do. 
 So, in the sentence — 
 
 I saw the house that was struck by lightning, 
 
 the dependent clause — that waS struck by lightning — modifies, as 
 the adjective lightning*Stricken would do, the noun house which 
 is the object of the verb saw. 
 
 Clauses that have the value of adjectives are called adjective- 
 clauses; and these examples show that they may be used to 
 modify a noun in either the subject or the predicate of the prin- 
 cipal clause. 
 
 Thus we have found that dependent, or subordinate, clauses are 
 
 of three kinds, viz. : adverb-clauses, nouii-claiises, and adjective- 
 clauses. We have further seen that they may be used in any 
 part of a sentence where an adverb, a noun, or an adjective may 
 be used. 
 
 5. A sentence that is made up, like the foregoing, of one prin- 
 
LESSON XXV.] 
 
 COMPLEX SENTENCES. 
 
 81 
 
 m 
 
 uses are 
 
 cipal clause, and one or more subordinate clauses, is called a 
 COMPLEX sentence. Complex mea^ns woven together, and the 
 name is intended to indicate that its parts are more closely 
 connected than are those of the compound sentence. 
 
 6. In the examples so far given, the principal clause of the 
 complex sentence has, for simplicity's sake, had only one depend- 
 ent clause attached to it ; but the following sentence shows that 
 it may have several, and th; these may be of different kinds ; 
 and that a dependent clause may itself be modified by another 
 dependent clause : — 
 
 My friend, who had gone on in advance, hastily returned when he 
 found that the boat which we had expected was not at the landing. 
 
 Definition. — A complex sentence is one made up of a prin- 
 cipal clause, and one or more dependent clauses. 
 
 7. The dependent clause will always be joined to the principal clause 
 by unme. connecting word, expressed or understood, but this connecting word 
 is not always a conjunction purely. Some part of the dependent clause 
 may act as connecting word : thus, 
 
 The man that was sick is dead. 
 
 Here the word that is partly a conjunction and partly a pronoun; i.e., it 
 
 is a conjunction in so far as it joins the clauses together, and a pronoun 
 
 in so far as it stands for a noun. 
 
 Sometimes the connecting word is partly a conjunction and partly an 
 
 adverb: thus, 
 
 The tree lay where it fell. 
 
 Here the word where is a conjunction in so far as it joins the clauses, and 
 an adverb in so far as it modifies a verb in its oivn clause. 
 
 Such joining words perform a double duty, which is indicated by a 
 double name sometimes given to them — Conjunctive- pronouns and Con- 
 junctive adverbs; see par. 9, Lesson XX. 
 
 Exercise 86. — Write a summary of what has been said about 
 complex sentences. 
 
 Exercise 87. — In each of the following complex sentences, 1. Dis- 
 tinguish the principal from the dependent clause ; 2. Say of what kind the 
 ilepcndenb clause is; 3. Mention the word that connects the clauses, and 
 tell whether it is a conjunction purely, or whether it is also part of the 
 dependent clause : — 
 
 1. That the man was tipsy was painfully apparent. 2. That you are 
 l)ound to go is clear. 3. He says that you are bound to go, 4. I feel 
 
 ti 
 
82 
 
 COMPLEX SENTENCES. 
 
 [part II. 
 
 that I am right. 5. They who die in a just cause never fail. 6. That 
 life is long which answers life's great end. 7. I love them that love me, 
 8. This is tlie housie that Jack built. 9. He started when the news came. 
 10. Go when duty calls thee. 11, He did as he was told. 12. Why he 
 came did not appear. 13 They also serve who only stand and wait. 14. 1 
 will write when I can. 15. You saw how he avoided me. 16. She sat 
 down because she was tired. 17. The book that 1 bought is on the table, 
 18. Where he was born cannot now be ascv-^rtained. 19. He spends his 
 time as he likes. 20. The city in whicli he lived was proud of him. 21. 
 I speak of the time when Elizabeth reigned. 22. I gazed until my eyes 
 grew dim. 23. That he is mistaken is certain. 24. How the snake got 
 into t'le house is a mystery. 
 
 Exercise 88- — Go over the above sentences again, and say whether 
 the noun-clauses serve as subjectb or as objects: say also what words, are 
 modified by the adjective and adverb-clauses. 
 
 Analysis of Complex Sentences. — These must first b^ a la 
 lyzed as one sentence, taking each dependent clause as a aiuglo })art 
 of speech; tlien the dependent clauses should be anp^lyzed separately. 
 
 Model 1» — That our guide loses his way frequently is manifest from hu 
 actions. 
 
 I. Subject, Tliat our guide loses his way frequcTVtly (a 
 
 noun-clause) 
 
 III. Predicate, is manifest 
 
 IV. Adv. Mod. of Pred., from his acthns. 
 
 Anatysis of Noun-Clause. 
 
 / N.B. — When the noiin-clauHO is 
 I. Subject, guide. 
 
 II, Adj. Mod. of Subj., our, 
 
 III. Predicate, loses. 
 
 IV. Object, way. 
 V. Adj. Mod. of Obj., his. 
 
 VI. Adv. Mod. of Pred., frequently. 
 
 itself tho subject of the princiiwl 
 cliiuse, the liitter cannot, of coiiiso, 
 he complete without it, and yon cmi- 
 iiot separate the coni])lex sentoncts 
 into two complcta clauses, ea 'li with 
 its own subject and predicate. So, 
 dso, when the noun-clause is tiie 
 object, the complete predi^-ate of the 
 principa'. clause muwt include the 
 noun-clause. 
 
 Model 2. — I feel in my heart that I am right. 
 
 Principal clause {A ) I feel in my heart 
 
 Dependent noun-clause (6) {that) I am right (object oifeel in {A). 
 
 Analysis of {A). 
 I. Subject, / 
 
 III. Predicate, feel 
 
 IV. Object, noun-clause (h) 
 VI. Adv. Mod. of Pred., in my heart. 
 
 Analysis of {!>). 
 I. Subject, / 
 III, Predicate, am rights 
 
 f : 
 
 Si 
 
f. • 
 
 LESSON XXVI.] CLASSIFICATION OF CONJUNCTIONS 
 
 83 
 
 LESSON XXVI. 
 
 CLASSIFICATION OF CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 1. Now that from the last two lessons we have learned the 
 nature of co-ordinate and subordinate clauses, we can readily 
 understand the classification of conjunctions into co-ordinating 
 conjunctions and subordinating conjunctions. For those con- 
 junctions th.it join the independent, co-ordinate clauses of a 
 roiiipound sentence, and that sometimes join phrases or words 
 used m the same way in a sentence (par. 4, Lesson XIV.), are 
 called CO-ORDINATING conjunctions, while those that join a subor- 
 dbidte clause to the principal clause of a complex sentence are 
 cidlcd SUBORDINATING Conjunctions. Hence, we have the following 
 
 Definition. — Co-Ordinating conjunctions are those that join 
 to(/(' flier phrases or words used in the same way in a sentence^ and 
 sentences of equal order or rajik to form a compound sentence. 
 
 Lefinition. — Subordinating conjunctions are those that join a 
 sid)()rdinate or dependent clause to a jjrincipal one to form a 
 
 complex sentence. 
 
 Exercise 89. — Say which of the following sentences are compound, 
 and which complex; also name the kind of conjunctions by which they 
 iiro joined : — 
 
 1. The lion is small, but it possesses great strength. 2. Not only is 
 the game amusing ; it is nseful also. 3. John Maynard was surrounded by 
 the lire of the burning ship, yet he nobly did his duty. 4. I shall go to 
 Montreal on Monday unless something pievents me. 5. We must be quiet, 
 or the bird will fly away. G. I like him, though we sometimes disagree. 
 7. He drank heartily, for he was thirsty. 8. He had left before I arrived. 
 9. Zaccheus, because he was little of stature, climbed a sycamore tree in 
 order that he might see Jesus. 10. Jesus wrought many miracles, never- 
 theless the Jews believed not on Him. 11. The girl is more attentive 
 tlian her brother, consequently she makes more progress. 12. The captain 
 lost his reckoning, hence the ship ran aground. 13. Go indoors, else you 
 will take cold. 14. When Rover is in the house, I am not afraid of 
 robbers, lo. How I managed to lose it, I cannot tell. 16. We pursued 
 ti.at lonely path until night set in. 17. Christ died in order that we 
 might live. 18. We set out again as soon as it had done raining. 19. 
 Large herds of buffaloes ouce roamed over our Canadian North- West, 
 whereas now one is seldom seen. 20. We must be diligent, else we shall 
 not learn. 
 
 l\ 
 
84 
 
 CLASSIFICATION OF CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 [PART II. 
 
 Sxercise 90. — Taking care to preserve the sense, combine, in an 
 many ways ati you can, the simple sentences in each of the follow'ng para- 
 grax>hs, into compound and complex sentences, so as to form continuous 
 narratives. 
 
 Model. — Simple sentences. — Two friendly goats once met by accident. 
 They met on a very narrow bridge. Neither could possibly go back. One 
 goat knelt down. The other climbed over his back. They thus got over 
 safely. 
 
 Combined. — 1. Two goats that were friendly to each other once met by 
 accident on a very narrow bridge, where it was not possible to go back. 
 So one goat knelt down, and the other climbed over his back. In this 
 way both got over safely. 
 
 2. When two friendly goats once met by accident on a very narrow 
 bridge, and could not possibly go back, one goat knelt down, and the 
 other climbed over his back, and thus they both got over in safety. 
 
 3. Once on a very narrow bridge, two goats that were friends met 
 accidentally. As neither could return they both got over safely by one 
 goat kneeling down and allowing the other to climb over his back. 
 
 4. Two goats that once met by accident on a very narrow bridge, where 
 it was impossible for either to return, effected a safe crossing by one goat 
 kneeling down and allowing the other to climb over his back. They 
 would not have acted thus if they had not been friendly. 
 
 5. Two goats having accidentally met on a bridge that was very nar- 
 row, and not being able to return, effected a safe crossing by the one goat 
 kneeling down and the other goat climbing over his back. They did this 
 because they were friendly. 
 
 1. A dog stole a piece of meat. He ran oflF with it. He saw hils shadow 
 in some water. The meat in the shadow seemed very large. He dropped 
 the meat in his mouth to seize that in the shadow. He thus lost the meat. 
 It is not wise to grasp the shadow and lose the substance. 
 
 2. A hare ran a race. A tortoise ran a race, too. The hare ran fast, 
 The tortoise walked slowly. The hare despised the speed of the tortoise. 
 He ran half the distance. He then lay down to rest. He went to sleep. 
 The tortoise did not rest. It kept on walking. It passed the hare. It 
 won the race. 
 
 3. A monkey and a cat lived in the same house. Their master was 
 roasting some chestnuts. The chestnuts were on a hot stove. The 
 monkey wanted the chestnuts. He did not want to burn his paws. He 
 seized the cat. He used lier paws to dra'v off the chestnuts. 
 
 4. The Si^uirrel ia a funny little animal. It lives in the woods. It 
 runs or leaps from branch to branch and from tree to tree. It lives upon 
 nuts, acorns, fruits and seeds. It lays up stores of tViese for winter use 
 It sits up to eat. It holds its food in its fore-pawfj. With these it 
 nimbly turns its food round and round. It uses its fore-paws as we use 
 our hands. 
 
it 
 
 PART III 
 
 'm 
 
 INFLECTION, 
 
 We liave now learned to distinguish the Parts of Speech, and 
 the classes into which they are divided. We have next to notice 
 pertain changes of form called inflection, which some of the 
 xii'ts of speech undergo, for the purpose of indicating differences 
 |n their meaning, or differences in the connection in which they 
 ire used. 
 
 LESSON XXVII. 
 
 INPLBOTICN OP NOUNS AND PRONOUNS TO 
 INDICATE NUMBER. 
 
 1. Let us take as examples the little sentences — 
 
 The man learns. The men learn. 
 
 The horse runs. The horses run. 
 
 I go. 
 
 We go. 
 
 He was. They were. 
 
 Here it is seen that when we want to speak, not of one man 
 v~\o<u\ !/;/^ of more than one, we alter the sound of the word (and 
 I'.enci- i).h.n >he spelling), and say men. 
 
 ^i. V(> w, it to speak of more than one horSG we add an S, and 
 paj horses. 
 
 ■'''■: ■! stead of myself alone, I speak of a number of persons of 
 
 
M 
 
 INFLECTIOX OF NOUNS AND PRONOUNS, [part in. ■ lkss 
 
 ll*i| 
 
 i 
 
 whom I am one, I change I to we, and say we. And in the| 
 same way wo change he to they. 
 
 Here, then, is a set of changes in the form of nouns and 
 pronouns, made in order to show a difference in the number m 
 objects meant, wliether a single one or more than one. Hence 
 we call it a change for numbeh, and we say that the words | 
 man, horse, I and he are of the singular number because tliev 
 denote but one; and that the words men, horses, we and they] 
 are of the plural number because they denote more than ono. 
 {Singular means sirnjle, and plural means more titan one.) 
 
 2. What is true of these nouns and pronouns is true also of | 
 nearly all the rest: we do not use [precisely the same word when 
 wo mcnin one and when we mean more than one ; that is to say, 
 our nouns and pronouns have, in general, two number-forms, one | 
 singular and the other plural. 
 
 Other examples are 
 
 book, books ; mind, minds ; lady, ladies ; foot, feet ; 
 
 ox, oxen ; mouse, mice ; she or it, they ; 
 
 this, these; that, those. 
 
 3. But if in these sentences we change the number of the I 
 subject from singular to plural, we must at the same time change | 
 the form of the verb to suit the altered number of the subject. 
 Thus" with the singular subject man we use learnS, but with the 
 plural subject men we use learn ; and so with two of the other?, 
 although we say both I go and we QO. 
 
 This change in the vei'b when it is made (and it is by no mean? 
 always made), does not show a difference of meaning in the same | 
 sense as the change in the noun or pronoun; for the act oi 
 learning is the same whether one person or more than one take 
 part in it ; it is a change caused by the verb's having to adapt or 
 suit itself for use with its subject. 
 
 Now, a change in the form of any word, either to show 
 changes in its <iwn meaning, or to adapt it for use with other 
 words, is called its inflection ; the name means a bending into , 
 
 (I </l 
 
 liO I 
 
 i: 
 
Vf 
 
 ^ !■ 
 
 LKSSON XXVII.] 
 
 PLURAL OF NOUNS. 
 
 87 
 
 (I (lijjhr.nt shape, and the word thus changed in form is said to 
 
 liO IM'FJ'Xn'KI). 
 
 J)i:finition. — Inflection is a cJtange in the form of a loord 
 dejx'ndiiKj on differences of its meaning and use. 
 
 Ukmahk. — The inflection of a noun or pronoun in often called its 
 DKi'i.KNSioN, and these parts of speech are said to be beclinkd. 
 
 Dkfinition. — Number in nouns and jironowis is the change of 
 for III tJint they undergo to show whether they stand for one thing 
 or more than one. 
 
 4. How the Plural of Nouns is Formed Tlio plural of 
 
 iiouus is formed by adding S or es to the singular : thus, 
 
 door, doors ; loss, losses ; box, boxes ; brush, brushes ; 
 lady, ladies; cargo, cargoes; wife, wives. 
 
 In old times the plural was also formed by adding en, or by changing 
 the vowel of the singular ; and we have some words that have retained 
 tliesc old plurals. Thus, 
 
 By adding en ; as, 
 
 ox, oxen; brother, brethren. 
 
 By changing the vowel of the singular ; as, 
 
 man, men; foot, feet; mouse, mice. 
 
 5. As to the plural in S notice 
 
 1. That most nouns form their plural by adding s only; as, 
 door, doors; table, tables. 
 
 2. That es is added when the pronunciation calls for it ; that is, when 
 
 Itlie singular, by ending in a hissing sound, prevents s alone from being 
 
 1 heard; as, 
 
 loss, looses; box, boxes. 
 
 3. That y following a consonant is changed into i before es is added ; as, 
 lady, ladies; baby, babies. 
 
 4. That f in the singular is sometimes changed into v in the plural ; as, 
 wife, wives; knife, knives. 
 
 5. That some nouns in o take es ; as, 
 cargo, cargoes; potato, potatoes. 
 
 I 
 
 : I 
 
 I I 
 
I'.''<l 
 
 88 JNFLEC TION OF NO UN8 A ND PRONO UNS. [part ul I 
 
 6. Other Ways of Fonningr the Plural of Nouns.- 
 
 1. Many words taken from foreign languages have retained in English 
 their foreign plurals. The following are a few of the most common : — 
 
 INGITLAR. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 beau, 
 
 beaux. 
 
 memorandum 
 
 memoranda. 
 
 axis, 
 
 axes. 
 
 analysis. 
 
 analyses. 
 
 basis, 
 
 bases. 
 
 index, 
 
 indices. 
 
 stratum, 
 
 strata. 
 
 phenomenon, 
 formula. 
 
 )henomena, 
 ormulaj. 
 
 larva. 
 
 larvjB. 
 
 datum. 
 
 data. 
 
 appendix, 
 
 appendices. 
 
 seraph, 
 
 seraphim. 
 
 criterion. 
 
 criteria. 
 
 cherub, 
 
 cherub'.m. 
 
 radius. 
 
 radii. 
 
 2. Some nouns use the same form for both singular and plural : thus, 
 deer, sheep, salmon, cannon, heathen. 
 Other nouns, again, are used in the plural only : thus, 
 
 news, annals, scissors, shears, tongs, thanks. 
 .3. A few nouns have two plurals with a diflference of meaning: thus, 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 brother \ ^^'^^^^^^i ^^^^^ ^^ ^^e same parents. 
 ' I brethren, members of the same soci 
 
 penny, 
 
 die, 
 pea, 
 cloth, 
 
 iociety. 
 
 pennies, separate coins. 
 
 pence, money computed in pennies. 
 
 dice, for gaming. 
 
 dies, for stamping. 
 
 peas, separate grains, 
 
 pease grains in bulk. 
 
 cloths, kinds of cloth. 
 
 clothes, articles of apparel. 
 
 4. Names of material and abstract nouns are used in the singular 
 
 only: thus, 
 
 clay, silver, justice, clearness. 
 
 5. Most compound nouns form the plural like simple nouns: i.e.,\\) 
 adding s or es : thus, 
 
 runaways, forget-me-nots, spoonfuls, steamboats. 
 
 But if the compound consists of a noun followed by an adjective word or | 
 phrase, the noun part alone takes the plural : thus, 
 
 courts-mr "tial, governors-general, brothers-in-law. 
 
 6. Letters of the alphabet, figures, and signs are made plural by writing 
 after them 's : thus, 
 
 Be careful to dot your is and cross your t's. 
 Mind your p's and q's. 
 
If 
 
 S. [PARTiiiB^^j^^^. XXVII.] PLURAL OF PRONOUNS. 
 
 89 
 
 Exercise 91. — Write the plurals of the following words: — 
 
 1. liook, table, lamp, stove, window, seat, eye, ear, finger. 2. Cross, 
 IkisH, nasH, gas, moss, lass; fox, hoax, buzz; brush, fish, bush, wish, dish, 
 [thrush; church, match, birch, lurch, bench, finch; horse, race, judge, 
 prize, face, nose, pace. 3. Party, beauty, body, county, country, injury, 
 quantityi quality, duty, century, gaiety, fly. 4. Loaf, knife, wolf, shelf, 
 leaf, thief, self, calf, life, half. 5. Hero, potato, volcano, calico, echo, 
 negro, mulatto; brother, child; goose, woman, tooth. 
 
 NoTK TO Teacher. — After correetion, and before slates arc cleaned, have the words 
 changed orally back to the sinjfular. 
 
 7. How the Plural of Pronouns is Poimed — The only 
 cliissfts of Proiiouna tliat indicate number are the Personal and 
 the Demonstrative (pars. 1 and .3, Lesson XX.), and all these 
 (excoj)t this and that of the latter class) form their plurals, not 
 {IS nouns do by altering the singular, but by using words that 
 are quite different f I'om the singular : thus, 
 
 PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 
 
 First 
 Sing. 
 
 Person. 
 
 Plur. 
 
 I. 
 
 we. 
 
 [my, mine], 
 
 [our, ours]. 
 
 me, 
 
 us. 
 
 Second Person. 
 Sing. Plur. 
 
 thou, 
 
 you, ye. 
 
 [thy, thine], 
 
 [you, yours]. 
 
 thee, 
 
 you. 
 
 I;J 
 
 ' I 
 
 H 
 
 ',: i 
 
 DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 
 Third Person. 
 
 : ' 
 
 Sing. 
 
 he, she, it, 
 
 [his] [her, hers] [its] 
 
 him, her, it, 
 
 Sing. 
 this, 
 that, 
 
 Plur. 
 
 they. 
 
 [their, theirs]. 
 
 them. 
 
 Plur. 
 these, 
 those. 
 
 i 
 
 •, 
 
1 
 
 90 
 
 INFLECTION OF NOUNS AND PRONOUNS, [partih 
 
 EjXercise 92. — Change the nouns, pronouns, and pronominal adjec- 
 tiv^eB in the following versos into the plural number, and make any other 
 changes required : — 
 
 Not a drum was heard, not a funeral note, 
 As his uorse to the ramparts we hurried ; 
 
 Nut u soldier discharged his farewell shot 
 O'er the grave where our hero we buried. 
 
 No useless coffin enclosed his breast. 
 Nor in sheet, nor in shroud we wound liim ; 
 
 But he lay like a warrior taking his rest, 
 With his martial cloak around him. 
 
 Sxercise 93. — Change the nouns and pronouns in the following 
 tenteuces into the singular number, and make any other changes required :— 
 
 Springs are small things, but mighty rivers often have their sources in 
 springs. The tiny streams that bubble from rocky heights,' and then 
 escape from their fountains, ^row as they flow down the sides of the 
 mountains ; and as they sweep along they often lose themselves in the 
 forests, or plunge out of sight into deep caverns. They bound over 
 rocky ledges, and foam and roar as they fall down lofty clifis ; but when 
 they reach the plains they flow onward more gently, and cease their angry 
 brawlings. 
 
 irni; 
 
 LESSON XXVIII. 
 
 '■•'■I 'i. I 
 
 INFLECTION OP NOUNS AND PRONOUNS TO 
 
 INDICATE CASE. 
 
 " % 
 
 m 
 
 \ If ■ 4 
 
 1. But number is not the only inflection of nouns and pronouns. 
 Let us examine the following sentences — 
 
 1 . He saw something running towards him ; 
 
 2. it proved to be his watch-dog ; 
 
 3. and it knew him. 
 
 Here the words he in 1, his in 2, and him in 3, are pronouns 
 which evidently stand for tlie same person. Why, then, this 
 change in theii^ form 1 A little examination will show that each 
 one stands in a different relation to the other words in its 
 sentence. We t!nd, for instance, that he, in 1, stands in the 
 relation of svhject to the verb saW ; that hini; in 3, stands in the 
 
,.,<s„.N XXVIII.] CASE OF NOUNS AND PliOXOUNS. 
 
 91 
 
 pronouns. 
 
 )ronouns 
 
 ifl.itioii of object of tlu! transitive verl» knew: and that his, in 2, 
 slioW"* that the porson in jiotiseasor of the \vatch-(l()<^. 
 
 2. Now this kind of iiifloction, or chantjo in form, to indicate 
 ilif (litlcrent rehitions in whicli a pronoun stands to other words 
 ill tlio sentence, is caUed case. 
 
 And the form he, which is used when the pronoun stands in 
 the relation of subject, is called the subjective case, or more 
 usu vlly, but less correctly, the nomixative, i.e., the nnming case. 
 The forn? him, which is used when the pronoun stands in the 
 relation of object, is called the objective case ; and the form his, 
 whuh is used when the person stands in the relation oi 2wssessor, 
 is called the POSSESSIVE case. 
 
 3. If we look again at the sentences, we shall see that the 
 .same word him, which in 3 is in the objective case after the 
 transitive verb Idiew, is used in 1 also after the preposition 
 towards. Other examples are 
 
 I saw her and spoke to her ; 
 
 He met us and went with us ; 
 
 Our father bought it and paid for it ; 
 
 and so on. This shows, that when a pronoun is connected with 
 some other word by a preposition, ire always use the objective case 
 of the pronoun, just as wlien it is the object of a transitive verb. 
 
 4. Now let us substitute in our sentences the nouns for which 
 the pronouns stood : thus, 
 
 1 . Tom saw something running towards Tom ; 
 
 2. it proved to be Tom's watch-dog ; 
 
 3. and it knpw Tom. 
 
 Here each noun has, . f course, the same relation to the other 
 words in its sentence, as the pronoun had that stood for it, and 
 must, therefore, be in the same case as its pronoun vas ; that is 
 to s;iy, Tom, in 1, because it is the subject of saw, is in the 
 .subjective or nominative case ; Tom'S, in 2, because it shows 
 pcssesbion, is in the possessive case ; while Tom, in 3, is in the 
 
 >t 
 
 i !i 
 
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 (716) 872-4503 
 
^ <^ 
 
 
 ^ 
 
1! h 
 
 'ri 
 
 **'i 
 
 t: 
 
 ii i^ 
 
 ( 
 
 92 
 
 INFLECTION OF NOUNS AND PRONOUNS, [partui. 
 
 objective case, as oljject of knew, and in 1, is in the objective case 
 after the preposition tOWards. 
 
 5. But notice, that while the pronoun has three different 
 forms — he, his, him — for the three cases, the noun has but two; 
 thus, nominative and objective Tom, possessu'e TOTtl'S. This is 
 because there is no noun in our language which has for the 
 objective case a form different from the nominative. We say 
 
 The father (subj.) loves the son (obj.), and the son (subj.) 
 
 loves the father (obj.) 
 
 And also after prepositions: thus, 
 
 The father went with the son, and the son went 
 with the father ; 
 
 without any change of the words father and son. 
 
 6. We may !now sum \ip what we have learned about case, 
 and say by way of 
 
 Definition. — Case is a change of form that nouns andpronoum 
 undergo to indicate their relation to other words in the sentence. 
 
 Definition. — The ROriinatlve case is the form that a noun or 
 a pronoun has tchen it is the subject of a verb. 
 
 Definition. — The objective case is the form that a noun or a 
 jironoun has when it is the object of a verb or of a preposition. 
 
 Definition. — The poSSeSSlve case is the form that a noun or 
 a pronoun has when it denotes possession. 
 
 Sxercise 94. — Tell the case of each noun and pronoun in the fol- 
 lowing sentences : — 
 
 1. A hungry dog stole the boy's dinner. 2. The cat scratched the 
 girl's face. 3. The raven's wings are black. 4. The sun's light illumines 
 the world. 5. God's goodness is great. 6. The moon reflects the light of 
 the jun. 7. John threw the book away; it fell into the water. 8. We 
 know our lessons, do you know yours? 9. They met their uncle on the 
 Jirain, 10. I love them that love me. 
 
 11. He wrapped her warm in his seaman's coat 
 Against the stinging blast ; 
 He cut a rope from a broken spar, 
 And bound her to the mast. 
 
LESSON xxviii.] POSSESSI VE CASE OF NO UNS. 
 
 93 
 
 it a noun or 
 
 m in the fol- 
 
 7. Since a noun or a pronoun that indicates possession must 
 naturally be followed by a noun ncming the thing possessed, it 
 follows that the possessive case of both nouns and pronouns 
 partakes of the nature of an adjective: thus, 
 
 Tom's dog, men's hats ; my pen, your book, her aunt. 
 
 Indeed, the possessive case of pronouns constitutes the class of 
 posso-'sive jyronominal adjectives treated of in par. 5, Lesson XX. 
 
 8. How the Possessive Case of Nouns is Formed.— The 
 
 possessive case of nouns is formed as follows : — 
 
 1. The possessive singular is formed from the nominative singular by 
 adding an apostrophe and s ('s), ■which is called the sign of the. possessive: 
 thus, 
 
 NoM. Sing. 
 
 boy, 
 man. 
 
 Poss. SiKG. 
 
 boy's, 
 man's. 
 
 2. The possessive plural is formed from the nominative plural by adding 
 an apostrophe only('): thus, 
 
 NoM. Plur. Poss. PlUB. 
 
 boys, boys', 
 
 masters, masters*. 
 
 3. But when the nominative plural does not end in s, the possessive 
 plural is formed from the nominative plural by adding an apostrophe 
 and s (like the singular) : thus, 
 
 NoM. Plur. Poss. Plur. 
 
 men's, 
 children's. 
 
 4. Compound nouns, possessive-phrases, and the names of a firm, attach 
 the sign of the possessive to the last word only : thus, 
 
 My brother-in-law's farm. The Governor-General's residence. 
 
 The Sultan of Egypt's power. Brown, Jones, and Robinson's office. 
 
 9= We now present, in one view, examples of the declension 
 of nouns for number and case. Thus, 
 
 C/ASE. Number. 
 
 men, 
 children. 
 
 Cask. Number. 
 
 Sing. Plur. 
 
 N"om. <fe Obj. oat, cats. 
 Poss. cat's, cats'. 
 
 Sing. Plur. 
 
 Norn. <fe Obj. man, men. 
 Poss. man's, men's. 
 
 
04 
 
 ! 
 
 ■ 1 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 I ^ 
 
 INFLECTION OF NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. [i'Artiii. 
 
 10. How the Oases of Pronouns are Formed. — It was 
 
 seen in par. 5 that pronouns are nioro fully inflected than nouns 
 to express case. This is true, not only of the Personal Pronouns 
 (as tln^ro shown), but also of the Demonstrative Pronouns of 
 the Third Person; and of who and which, both Interrogative 
 and Relative. The following scheme shows how, and to what 
 extent, pronouns are inflected for case: — 
 
 
 PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 
 
 
 Sing. 
 
 First Person 
 
 Plur. 
 
 Norn. 
 
 ' » 
 
 
 we. 
 
 Poss. 
 
 [my, mine], 
 
 
 [our, ours]. 
 
 Obj. 
 
 me. 
 
 
 us. 
 
 
 Sing. 
 
 Second Person. 
 
 Plur. 
 
 Nom. 
 
 thou, 
 
 
 you, ye. 
 
 Poss. 
 
 [they, thine] 
 
 
 [you, yours]. 
 
 Obj. 
 
 thee. 
 
 
 you. 
 
 
 DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 
 Sing. 
 
 Third Person 
 
 Plur. 
 
 
 MASC. FBM. 
 
 NBUT. 
 
 
 Nom. he, she, it, 
 
 Poss. [his] [her, hers] [its], 
 Obj. him, her, it. 
 
 they. 
 
 [their, theirs]. 
 
 them. 
 
 INTERROGATIVE AND RELATIVE. 
 Sing, and Plur. 
 
 MASC. AND FEM. NEUT. 
 
 Nom. who, which, 
 
 Poss. whose, whose, 
 
 Obj. whom, which. 
 
 For the adjective vahie of the possessive case of these pronouns, see 
 par. 7. 
 
 Remark. — Of the other rilasses of pronouns none alter to express case. 
 
1 • I 
 
 LESSON XXVIII.] 
 
 PARSING OP N0U2rS. 
 
 05 
 
 Exercise 95. — Write the possessive, singular and plural, of the 
 fuUowing words : 
 
 Possessive Case. 
 Sing. Plur. 
 
 Model.— 
 
 horse's, 
 baby's, 
 
 horses*, 
 babies'. 
 
 Chief, cherub, duchess, wife, brother-in-law, heart, gipsy, month, 
 goose, sheep, day, postman, brother, mechanic, man, woman ; I, thou, he, 
 
 she, it. 
 
 Parsing. — The class is now in a position to give the full grammatical 
 parsing of a noun. In parsing orally the " reasoning-out " process should 
 be followed till the class is perfectly familiar with the inflection of the 
 uoun: thus, 
 
 James fulfilled his mother's hopes. 
 
 Jams is a name ; therefore it is a noun. It belongs to a particular person ; 
 thflrefore it is a proper noun. It indicates the male sex ; therefore it is 
 niiieouline gender. It denotes but one person; therefore it is singular 
 number. It names the subject of the verb fulfiUed; therefore it is nomi- 
 native case; etc., etc. 
 
 Parsing" of Nouns (Short Form, Oral or Written). — James 
 
 fliljilU'd his mother's hopes. 
 
 Model. — James, noun, proper; masculine gender; singular number; 
 
 nominative case, subject of the verhfidfilled. 
 motlieys, noun, common; feminine gender; singular num^ ir; 
 
 possessive case, possessing hopes, 
 hopes, noun, common; abstract; plural number; objective 
 case after the transitive xavh fulfilled. 
 
 Note to Teacher. — The teacher must always see that written parsing is properly 
 
 punctuated. 
 
 Exercise 96. — Write to the teacher's dictation the following exer- 
 cise, and then parse the nouns in it : — 
 
 1. The boy writes a letter. 2. John's book is lost. 3. A dog was 
 guiirdiug the house. 4. The shepherd watched his master's sheep. 5. The 
 boy is sending a letter to his father. 6. The father wrote a note to the 
 teacher. 7. Almost all idle people find amusement in minding other 
 people's business. 8. My brother attends the Mechanics' Institute. 
 9. Tlie oxen draw the plough. 10. Mrs. Ryan sells ladies' bonnets and 
 children's hats. 11. I cannot believe the thief 's story. 12. The drunkard's 
 home is wretched. 13. Some iuvalids drink asses' milk. H. James lost 
 
^^ 
 
 -II 
 
 s 
 
 4 
 
 In 
 
 i 
 
 l! 
 
 
 
 
 96 
 
 INFLECTION OF NOUNS AND PRONOUNS, [partiii. 
 
 his sister's satchel. 15. Mr. A. is president of the sailors' home. 16. Ivory 
 is obtained from elephants' tusks. 17. He disapproved of his son-in-law's 
 conduct. 18. St. James's Cathedral is in Toronto. 
 
 11. In composition, preposition-phrases and other modifiers may be 
 placed in any part of the sentence, provided the sense is maintained. 
 By this means we can give variety to our language, and often draw j-tten- 
 tion to a word, phrase, or clause by placing it in an early, or an unusual 
 position in the sentence : thus, 
 
 On Easter Sunday, last year, snow fell to the depth of four inches. 
 Last year, on Easter Sunday, snow fell to the depth of four inches. 
 Snow, to the depth of four inches, fell last year on Easter Sunday. 
 
 Sxercise 97- — Change the order of the words in the following 
 sentences in as many ways as yuu can, still preserving the sense: — 
 
 1. The youth went out early in the morning with light step into tie 
 garden. 2. I lost my purse out of my pocket at the Industrial Fair in 
 Toronto oh Wednesday of last week. 3. At the dawn of day she ascen(^d 
 the hill with a merry heart in company with her brother. 4. Sir Waber 
 Scott, the poet and novelist, was bom in Edinburgh, the capital of Sot- 
 laud, in August, 1771. 5. The field this year yielded a much better cnp, 
 through the exertions of the farmer. 6. On the margin of a lake, sir- 
 rounded by th« dense wopds ot a Canadian forest, stands the cottage n 
 which we delight to pass our summer holidays. 7. VVe were detained ly 
 a snow drift on the C. P. R. last winter in a railway car nearly destitue 
 of fire and provisions. 8. In his remarks he charged me more than one 
 with saying what I never said. 
 
 Exercise 98.— Errors for Correction. — Make all necessar; 
 corrections in the following, giving reasons where you can: — 
 
 - 1. He was an independent small farmer. 2. Four month's interest is 
 owing on it. 3. That small man is speaking with ed whiskers. 4. The 
 cow eats quietly her grass. 5. How many chimnies has your house. 
 6. I have joined the Mechanic's Institute. 7. Boy's coats and mens' shoes 
 sold here. 8. This is tlie thanks we get for our pains, 9. Such holes in 
 the side-walk are so many mentraps. 10. One of the courtmartials sen- 
 tenced the soldier to a twelvemonth's imprisonment. 11. As the patient 
 was attacked with look-jaw he could only be fed by spoonsful 12. There 
 is a boy's school and a girl's school under the same roof. 13. When a 
 person begins to talk like that, they ought to be ashamed of theirselves, 
 14. How much do you think is this stone's weight? 15. A great quantity 
 of people were laying about on the grass. 16. There is a farmer's club in 
 our village. 
 
LESSON XXIX.] PERSON AND GENDER OF PRONOUNS. 
 
 97 
 
 LESSON XXIX. 
 
 OTHER INFLECTIONS OP PRONOUNS. 
 
 1 necessar; 
 
 1. "We learned in the last two lessons that pronouns as well 
 as nouns have an inflection for number and case. Now, while 
 nouns have these inflections only, pronouns have an inflection 
 also for person^ and to a slight extent for yeyider, too. 
 
 2. Person — We paw in Lesson XX. that some pronouns, 
 namely, the Personal Pronouns and the Demonstiutive Pronouns 
 of the Third Person, by a difference in their form, distinguish 
 the person speaking, or the First Person, from the person spoken 
 to, or the Second Person, and both from the person or thing 
 spoken of, or the Third Person ; and that this difference in the 
 form of the pronouns was called a difference of person. We 
 have thus the 
 
 Definition. — Person in pronoufis is a difference of form hy 
 tohich some of them distinguish the person speaking, the 2^erso7i 
 spoken to, and the person or thing spoken of 
 
 The only classes of pronouns that distinguish Person are those 
 just mentioned, i.e., the Personal Pronouns and the Demon- 
 strative Pronouns of the Third Person; and the way in which 
 these distinguish Person is fully shown in par. 10, Lesson XXVIII. 
 
 3. Gender.— Any person, male or female, wishing to signify 
 himself or herself, says I, and to signify himself or herself and 
 others, WG. Again, when speaking to one or more persons of 
 either sex, we say you. This shows that pronouns of the first 
 and second person, i.e., the Personal Pronouns, do not distinguish 
 sex ; in other words, they have no gender forms. 
 
 But if we use a Demonstrative Pronoun of the Third Person, 
 and wish to denote a male, we say he J to denote a female, we 
 say she ; and to denote something without sex, or something of 
 which the sex is unimportant, we say it J thus showing that 
 this pronoun does distinguish sex, and has different gender forms. 
 7 
 
 t :: 
 
 
 11. 
 
 i i ■ 
 
r 
 
 !• ii 
 
 i 5 
 
 i 
 
 i s 
 
 ; :1 
 
 96 
 
 INFLECTION OF PRONOUNS. 
 
 [fart III. 
 
 As was oxj)laino(l, whoii treating of the goiuler forma of nouns 
 (par. (), Lesson XVllJ.), theso geniU-r i'ornis ixra known as the 
 MASCULINE, FEMIXINE, and NKUTKU gender tonns of this pronoun. 
 
 But, even in the Demonstrative Pronoifns of the Tliird Person, 
 sex is distinguished by different gender forms in the singular 
 number only; for in the plural, whatever may be the sex of that 
 which we are speaking about, we always say they. 
 
 4. The inflection of the Demonsti-ative Pronouns of the Third 
 Person for gender is fully shown in par. 10, Lesson XXVIIL, 
 which also shows that the pronoun who — Interrogative and 
 Relative — also has gender forms, but to a very slight extent, 
 merely changing who — masculine and feminine — into which for 
 the neuter. Besides these, no class of pronouns has gender 
 forms to distinguish sex. 
 
 Parsing of Pronouns— Personal, Demonstrative, Rela- 
 tive, and Interrogative. — you said that he met a school-girl who said 
 to him, " Who do you think has taken it away from me ?" 
 
 Model* — YoUf pronoun, personal ; second person ; plural number; nomi- 
 native case, subject of the verb told. 
 
 he, pronoun, demonstrative ; third person ; masculine gender ; 
 singular number; nominative case, subject of the verb 
 met. 
 
 who, pronoun, relative; third person; singular number, to 
 agree with its antecedent, school-girl, to which it 
 relates its clause ; nominative case, subject of the verb 
 said. 
 
 him, pronoun, demonstrative; third person; masculine gender; 
 singular number; objective case, object of the pre- 
 position to. 
 
 who, pronoun, interrogative; nominative case, subject of the 
 verb has taken. 
 
 you, pronoun, personal ; second person ; plural (for singular) 
 number ; nominative case, subject of the verb do think. 
 
 it, pronoun, demonstrative ; neuter gender ; singular number; 
 objective case, object of the transitive verb has taken, 
 
 me, pronoun, personal; first person; singular number; objec- 
 tive case, object of the preposition /rora. 
 
 NoTB TO Tracher.— When the class can parse readily and accurately, the worda person, 
 g«nder, number, casei may be omittedt 
 
t I 
 
 LESSON XXIX. J 
 
 EXEIiClSES. 
 
 99 
 
 ords person, 
 
 Exercise 99. — Parse the pronouns in the following sentences accord- 
 ing to the foregoing model : — i 
 
 1. They were all in the school when it happened. 2. I think the box 
 belongs to me. 3. Here ho comes ; do you soo him ? 4. She was holding 
 the crying baby, and trying to soothe it. 5. You are doing him an injury. 
 (1. We shall award them tlie prize. 7. I that speak to thee am he. 
 S. Tiiey never fail, who die in a good cause. 9. "But tell me further," 
 said he, " what thou vliscoverest on it." 10. The person who told me her 
 story had seen her at a masquerade. 11. Who told you that story ? 12. 
 Whom did you see in the oHice ? 1.3. Shy she was, and 1 thought her cold. 
 
 14, He who serves well, and speaks not, merits more 
 Than they who clamor loudest at the door. 
 
 15. I know not how others saw her, 
 But to me she was wholly fair. 
 
 Exercise 100. — l. Compose sentences, using correctly the pronouns 
 me, you, it, shf, them, we, him, /, m«, thoii, her, he, they. 
 
 2. Compose sentences which shall illustrate the right use of «'Ao, 
 irhose, whom; first, when Relative; second, when Interrogative. 
 
 .3. Compose four compound sentences using as the co-ordinating con- 
 junctions — also, yet, either, or, cont<e>juently. 
 
 4. Compose four complex sentences using as the subordinate conjunc- 
 tions — if, in order that, because, while. 
 
 Exercise 101. — Correct the following by using capitals, punctuation 
 and other marks where required, and then give reasons for what you have 
 done: — 
 
 1. the arabian empire stretched from the atlantic to the Chinese wall 
 and from the shores of the Caspian sea to those of the Indian ocean 
 
 2. the man cried out run miss here come the Indians dont you see them 
 3» every stalk bud flower and seed displays a figure a proportion a 
 
 harmony beyond the reach of art 
 
 4. o father i hear the church bells ring 
 o say what may it be 
 tis a fog bell on a rock bound coast 
 and he steered for the open sea 
 
 Exercise 102.— Errors for Correction.— Correct whatever is 
 wrong in these sentences, and give, where you can, a reason for the cor- 
 rection : — 
 
 1. It was them as did the mischief. 2. Her and me were asked to tea. 
 3. I know the man what sold you them books 4. Every boy must work 
 tlirir own questions 5. Neither of us air. willing to give up our claim 
 (5. Who did you give that letter to 7. Between you and / he'll find that 
 lies made a big mistake. 8. The infant which you adnured died suddenly 
 last Tuesday 9. Fetch with you them books that are layiwj by my satchel. 
 10. Lord Dufferin was once governor-general of the dominion of canada 
 lie w as afterwards made viceroy of india 1 1 . The friend who I love is my 
 sisterinlaws cousin. 12. I had no idea but v^hat she'd be here. 13. Them 
 and us went fishing and we catched eighteen trouts. 14. Let you and I 
 go, Tom and him can atop here. 
 
 If: 
 
 \ 1 
 
 1; 
 
: 
 
 r 
 
 ' ,.■ 
 
 ^11 
 
 |) I 
 
 
 
 100 CHANGES OP FORM IX ADJECTIVES. [part hi. 
 
 LESSON XXX. 
 
 CHANGES OF FORM IN ADJECTIVES. 
 
 1. With the exception of the demonstrative adjectives, this and 
 that, which are changed to these and those when used with a 
 plui'al noun, no adjectives have inflection to express differences 
 of number, or case, or gender. 
 
 2. Comparison. — Nevertheless, the form of most adjectives 
 that express a quality can be varied to mark the degree of the 
 quality in the object they describe, when such object is compared 
 as to the same quality with one or more other objects. Let us 
 take as an illustration 
 
 My sweet apple. 
 Here, by using the adjective SWeet in connection with apple, we 
 do not assert that the apple is sweet (that can be done only by 
 means of .a verb), but the apple must possess the quality of 
 sweetness to a decided, positive extent, before we can use the 
 word sweet with reference to it. 
 
 If, after comparing my apple with yours as to the quality of 
 sweetness, I find that there is more sweetness in my apple than 
 in yours, I add er to the word SWeet, .ind say 
 
 My apple is sweeter than yours. 
 
 Again, if after comparing my apple as to sweetness with several 
 others I find that it surpasses them all in sweetness, I add est to 
 the word SWeet, and say 
 
 My apple is sweetest of all. 
 
 3. These variations — er and est — in the form of the adjective 
 are thus seen to be the result of a comparison as to the extent 
 to which two, or more than two, objects possess some given 
 quality ; for this reason the adjective thus changed is said to be 
 coMPAREr>, and the three forms of it (as SWeet, SWeeter, SWeet- 
 est) that mark different degrees of the quality, are called the 
 three degrees of comparison. 
 
PART 111. 
 
 LK.SSC..N XXX. J COMPAJiJSOX OF A DJKCTl \L'S. 
 
 101 
 
 4. Tlic siiiipl*', uiialt«>n'(I foi-ni of tli(< Jidjcctivc (SWCet), which 
 iiKMcly cxprosscs tho quality, i« cnllcd tlio po.srnvK cl«';^ro(\ 
 (/\>sitir(i liore means tmnitcrrd, statunj Hiinply, vifhout nunli- 
 liniflon \ 
 
 Tlu! form in er (SWeetGP), which exprcssos a fifroater clo«;];roo of 
 tluMiujility, since it is tho result of compuriny at least two objects, 
 is culled tho C^OMPAIIATIVK degree. 
 
 Lastly, the form in est (SWeetest), which expresses a greatest 
 degree of the quality, i.e., the degree that suipasses other degi-ees, 
 is called the supeulativk degree. {Svpcrlative means tutrjxtssitifj.) 
 
 It 18 well to observe that this variation of form that adjectives thus 
 uiHlurf,'o to express a greater degree ami a greatest degree of a (jiiality, is, 
 strictly speaking, rather a matter of ilcrivatioti than of injiit/ioii. It is, 
 nevertheless, conveniently treated of under inflection. 
 
 The following are additional examples of the comparison of 
 
 adjectives : — 
 
 Positive. Comparative. 
 
 tall, taller, 
 
 bright, brighter, 
 
 steady, steadier, 
 
 lovely, lovelier. 
 
 Exercise 103. — Compare the following adjectives: — 
 Young, pure, rich, late, dull, noble, quiet, noisy, simple, true. 
 
 5. There are, however, a few adjectives that do not form the 
 comparative and superlative by simply adding er and est to the 
 positive. The following, as will be seen, are compared irregu- 
 larly : — 
 
 Superlative. 
 tallest, 
 brightest, 
 steadiest, 
 loveliest. 
 
 Positive. 
 
 Comparative. 
 
 Superlative. 
 
 good. 
 
 better, 
 
 
 best. 
 
 bad (evil, ill), 
 
 worse, 
 
 
 ■worst. 
 
 little. 
 
 less, 
 
 
 least. 
 
 much or many, 
 
 more. 
 
 
 most. 
 
 far. 
 
 farther. 
 
 
 farthest. 
 
 near. 
 
 nearer, 
 
 
 nearest or next. 
 
 late. 
 
 later, 
 
 
 latest or last. 
 
 ^ore. 
 
 former. 
 
 
 foremost or first. 
 
 old, 
 
 older or 
 
 eldei, 
 
 oldest or eldest. 
 
 tvi^ 
 
^¥" 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 1 
 
 102 
 
 COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 
 
 [part III. 
 
 6. Except tho fon'i,'oin<r and a fo\v othors, all a(lj«'ctivcs of 
 one .syll;il»lij aro ('oinpan'd regularly l»y CP n-'td 6St | so also aro 
 souKj of two syllaMes. lint many adjoetivtis of two syllables 
 cannot l>e so compared; for, although wo say 
 
 able, abler, ablest; common, commoner, commonest, 
 
 wo never say 
 
 cautious, cautiouser, cautiousest, or 
 distant, distanter, distant est. 
 
 And no adjoctivo of tlireo or more syllables is, nowadays, com- 
 pared regularly ; for instance, wo never say 
 
 brilliant er or agreeablest. 
 
 7. Such adjectives of two syllables as it is not customary to 
 compai'o regularly, and all adjectives of three or more syllables, 
 aro compannl by putting Ijoforo the positive tho adverb mOPG for 
 tho comparative, and the adverb mOSl for the superlative : thus, 
 
 I'OSITIVK. 
 
 agreeable, 
 cautious. 
 
 Comparative. Supkrlative. 
 
 more agreeable, most agreeable.- 
 more cautious, most cautious. 
 
 Here, the form of tho adjective itself ia not varied at all; it mci^ly has 
 the words more atid most put before it; yet, as the adjective-phrases 
 made up of the positive with more and most detiote the same sort of com- 
 parison as the variations er and est, the adjectives, for convenience' 
 sake, are said co be compared by more and most. 
 
 8. Some adjectives, frojn the nature of their meaning, do not 
 admit of comparison by either method. Examine, in this respect, 
 the following combinations : — 
 
 Horizontal line, circular saw, leather satchel; Canadian scenery, 
 
 the Crooks Act, police regulations; infinite mercy, weekly mail; 
 eight 1 toys, the eighth boy; our territory, thiS age, each year, all 
 
 (certain, some, other) men, etc. 
 
 Exercise 104. — Compare, when possible, the following adjectives:— 
 
 Little, undefilcd, f,'ood, poor, desolate, bad, hungry, intimate, needy, 
 old, inany, everlasting, Ijriglit, thin, dismal, far, yonder, metallic, near, 
 
LESSON' XXX.] 
 
 PARSING OF ADJECTIVES. 
 
 103 
 
 nigh, much, square, (Ustant, timid, eighth, dry, wet, upright, porpen- 
 (licuhir, lierce, wooden, silvery, national, perfect, complete, free, n>erry, 
 heautiful, tiiut, each, your, faithful. 
 
 Parsingf. — An adjective is parsed by tolling its kind, its degree, 
 comparing it (if possible), and saying what noun (or pronoun) it modilies. 
 
 ThU xludiouif hoy is the best scholar of all my hniubrd pujnls. 
 
 Model. — Tim, a pronominal adjective; demonstrative; modifying 
 
 hoy. 
 sttuliom, IX qualifying adjective; positive degree; compared 
 
 by more and most ; modifying hi>y. 
 bcstf a qualifying adjective ; superlative degree ; compared 
 
 irregularly, thus : good, better, best ; modifying 
 
 scholar, 
 cUlf a pronominal adjective ; indefnite ; modifying pupila. 
 
 my, a pronominal adjective ; possessive ; modifying/;M/>i7». 
 
 hundred, a quantifying adjective ; modifying juipils. 
 
 t 1 1 
 
 Exercise 105. — Parse, according to the foregoing model, vlie adjec- 
 tives found in the following sentences:— 
 
 1. That kind boy helped the old man with hia heavy load. 2. The 
 rapid train soon completed its long journey. 3. The Hrst fresh dawn 
 awoke us from our drowsy sleep. 4. Have you any money ? I have a 
 little. I have three or four dollars. 5. Many men have many minds. 
 (). Not all clever boys are good boys. 7. Each boy must do his best. 
 8. Far other aims his heart had learned to prize. 9, The whole attair was 
 disgraceful. 10. Every girl in the class heard him make that mistake. 
 11. (ireat results from little causes spring. 12. What account can you 
 give of the sad affair? 13. Which way did he go ? 1 4. Every fourth year 
 is called Leap-year. 15. Two heads are better than one. 10. Kvery tenth 
 man was shot. 17. Who are those people iu yon carriage ? IS. All work 
 and no play makes Jack a dull boy. 19. Drunkenness is the cause of 
 many deaths and much misery. 
 
 20. The way ^vas l<mg, the wind was cold, 
 The minstrel was infirm and old. 
 
 21. Sweet is the breath of summer morn, 
 And sweet the sight of golden corn ; 
 And sweet, at evening's closing hour. 
 The balmy breeze, the fragrant flower. 
 
 'Tis sweet when harvest glories shine, 
 When glowing clusters load the vine ; 
 When bows the heavy tree, and pours 
 In Autumn's lap its juicy itores. 
 
hi 
 
 
 mi 
 
 m 
 
 ■ 'I- 
 
 ' i 
 
 
 104 
 
 INFLECTION OP THE VERB, 
 
 [part III. 
 
 EjXercise 106. — Express the sense of the following adjectives; first, 
 by a preposition phrase ; second, by an adjective clause : — 
 
 The very stroiuj rnan, 
 
 Model. — 1. The man of yniU .strength. 
 
 fwho is very strong, or 
 I " has great strength, or 
 2. The man < " possesses great strength, ov 
 
 I " abounds in great strength, or 
 \whose strength is very great. 
 
 Select the relative clause that sounds best. 
 
 1. The courageous beast. 2. The tender-hearted girl. 3. Wintry 
 storms. 4. A well-principled boy. 5. An honest person. G. An ex- 
 ceedingly Nvell-informed woman. 7. That mournful day. 8. The evening 
 star. 9. Shoeless feet. 10. His pitiless breast. 11. Avery industrious 
 pupil. 12. The very beautiful scene. 
 
 LESSON XXXI. 
 
 THE VERB.-INFLECTION FOR PERSON AND 
 
 NUMBER. 
 
 1. A verb, as we have seen (par. 3, Lesson VII,), is a word 
 by means of which we can make an assertion; and as a sentence 
 is the assertion of something, it follows that every sentence must 
 have in it a verb. 
 
 2. The assertion made is sometimes that of existence: as, Troy 
 was ; sometimes that of a state : as, He SleepS ', sometimes that 
 of an action: as. They ran ; sometimes that of suffering an 
 
 action : as, The boy was beaten. 
 
 3. Person. — 11 we use as subjects the three pronouns 
 
 I, thou, he (she or it), 
 we shall find that we must generally make a change in tlio end- 
 
LESSON XXXI.] 
 
 PERSON OF VERB. 
 
 105 
 
 inrj of the verb to suit the pcrSOM of the pronoun that we use as 
 subject: thus, 
 
 SiNOULAR. 
 
 First person I write. 
 
 Second " 
 Third " 
 
 Thou write-st. 
 He write-s. 
 
 ITore the action asserted of the subject by the verb is the same 
 in ciicli statement, so that the difierence observed in the form of 
 th(; verb does not denote a change in its meaning. It is a change 
 made solely to suit tlie perSOn of the subject; in other words, the 
 person of the subject decides or goVGrnS the form of the verb 
 that is to follow it ; the subject being given, the verb is com- 
 pelled to agree with it in respect to pijrson. 
 
 4. These words, government and agreement, are much used in gram- 
 mar, and the above is an illustration of thf ' neaning. Here, the person 
 of the subject decides or governs the form of the verb ; the verb agrees 
 with, or adapts itself to, the subject. 
 
 5. No English verb has different forms to put with the plurals 
 
 of the personal pronouns: i.e., in the plural, the verb is the sitmc 
 
 with each person. It is always like the first person singuKr : 
 
 thus. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 First person We \ 
 Second " You I write. 
 
 Third 
 
 They 
 
 6. When the subject of the verb is of the first, second, or third 
 person, singular or plural, the vei-b itself is said to be of that 
 person. Aid we may notice here, that a verb is of the first 
 or of the secor.d person only when its subject is a pronoun of the 
 first or of the second person. Every noun has the verb in the 
 third person: thus, 
 
 John learns. The dog learns. The tree falls. 
 
 Wo express this in the following rule : 
 A verb agrees with its subject in person. 
 
I 
 
 i 
 
 
 I .1 
 
 lit 
 
 ^ 
 
 I 
 
 ■I 
 
 106 
 
 INFLECTION OF THE VERB. 
 
 [I'ART III. 
 
 7. Number. — Wo shall have to make, in the form of our verb, 
 a change difTerent from that which %vo made in it for person, if 
 in such sentences as the following wo use the plural form of the 
 subjects instead of the singular : thus, 
 
 SlNOULAR. 
 
 The boy runs; 
 The man talks. 
 Thou lovest. 
 He eats. 
 
 Plural. 
 The boys run. 
 The men talk. 
 You love. 
 They eat. 
 
 8. Here, too, the change made in each vert) does not indicate 
 any change in its moaning, that is, in the action expressed by 
 it ; the verb has m<M"ely adapted itself to the numbGr of its 
 subject. And just as it was said to be of the first, second, or 
 third person, according as its subject was first, second, or third 
 person, so is it said to be of the singular or the plural numbcr, 
 according as the subject is singular or plural. This we express 
 in the following rule : 
 
 A verb agrees with its subject in number. 
 
 9. The verb, we have seen, has not many changes to indicate 
 person and number ; for all the persons in the plural are alike, 
 and always the same as the first singular, and often the same 
 as the third singular. And as to number, the only changes are 
 St of the second singular (which person we almost never use), 
 and S of the third singular. 
 
 Since changes for person and number are the only changes 
 that a verb undergoes to adapt itself Lo its subject, we combine 
 the two foregoing rules ar.d say 
 
 A verb agrees ivith itf subject in member and j^erson. 
 
 Exercise 107. — Tell the person and number of the following verbs, 
 and then give each person and number of the verb in full : — 
 
 1. We sleep. 2. They read. ,S. It fits. 4. He loves. 5. Thou praisest. 
 6. You carrji. 7. I run. 8. Tliou sinnest. 9. He digs. 10. We go. 
 11. They can. 1*2. I may. 
 
 13. The boy stood on the burning deck. 14. It is noble to forgive. 
 15. Yon disappointed me. 10. So knelt she in her woe. 17. And the 
 mighty rocks came bounding down. 18. I stood on the bridge at mid- 
 night. 19. 1 pity those poor children; they have no father. 20. We 
 
LESftOJiXXXlI.] 
 
 TENSIS OF VEUn. 
 
 107 
 
 learn to do l)y doing. 21. Lovost thou me ? 22. As you sow, so you reap. 
 2.'{. Jolin Mayuard watched the iieuring ilunics. 
 
 XoTK TO Tkaciikr.— Wkoii t,h<! addition of st or suitors t)u' spi'Iliuf,' of tlio vnrbal Hteiii, 
 an it, (Iocs ill some of tho llrat 12 previous suntcncos, thu teacher will do well to notice and 
 i'\]ilaiii It. 
 
 10. An excellent exercise in composition consists in taking some sen- 
 tences as models, and iu changing entirely the suliject matter while pre- 
 serving the general structure of the sentences: thus, 
 
 Camels are used in Arabia. 
 
 The sun was intensely hot, and 
 having found a leafy tree be- 
 side a stream, we rested in 
 its cool shade. 
 
 1. Beavers are found in Canada. 1. 
 
 2. The day broke beautifully clear, 2. 
 
 and having crossed a deep 
 valley between the hills, we 
 toiled up the opposite slope. 
 
 Exercise 108. — Change the subject matter of the following sen- 
 tences, but preserve the general structure : — 
 
 1. The bridge across the Trent has been lately rebuilt. 2. Tliere were 
 three of us — my brother, myself, and our guide. 3. Toronto, the capital 
 of ( )uturio, is situated in the county of York. 4. Shoes are made of 
 leather, and leather is obtained from the skins and hides of animals. r». 
 The way to be rich is to have few wants. 6. Many cities are now lighted 
 liy electricity. 7. In some parts of the world gold is found in the sands 
 of tlie rivers. 8. Mungo Park, the African exjdorer, had his trust in 
 Providence restored by observing the beauty of a little moss. 9. A young 
 girl had fatigued herself one hot day by running about in tlie garden; so 
 wlicn she sat down in the cool summer-house she soon fell asleep, 10. 
 ^Vllen I am in a s(!rious humor I very often walk by myself iu West- 
 minster Abbey, where the gloominess of tho place, and tlie xise to which 
 it is applied, are apt to till the mind with a kind of melanclioly that is not 
 disagreeable. 
 
 11. Reside yon straggling fence that skirts the way 
 The village master taugiit his little school. 
 
 LESSON XXXII. 
 
 THE VERB.-INFLEOTION FOR TENSE AND 
 
 MOOD. 
 
 1. Tense. — In the previous lesson we learned of two inflec- 
 tions of the verb, one for person and one for number; and we 
 saw that neitlier of these inflections indicates a diilerence in the 
 incaniiig of the verb; each is caused by tlie verb's having, 
 ill some instances, to accommodaie itself to a difference, either 
 in the person or in the number of its suliject. 
 
I 
 
 ■> 
 
 I 
 
 
 108 
 
 INFLECTION OF THE VERB. 
 
 [PAUT III. 
 
 ' But, 1)eskles being varied to suit the person and the nuniljev 
 of the subject, ve;'bs aio varied also in two respects to signify 
 real diflenMices of meaning belonging to th(!niselv(\s. One of 
 these variations is for the purpose of showing a diirei'enco in the 
 lime of th(i action or of the state expi-esst^d by the verb. 
 
 Thus, I love is usod especially oi what is going on now, at tlie 
 present time, and is therefore said to be of the pkksknt tknsk 
 [iov tenne iwGixwA tunc)', while I lovsd is used of sojnethirig gone 
 l)y or in the past, and is, therefore, called the past tknsk. Aiid 
 we liave in like manner, as corresponding j^rescnt and past, 
 
 I lead and T led, 
 
 1 hold and I held, 
 
 He sits and He sat, 
 
 You laugh and You laughed. 
 
 The boy runs and The* boy ran, 
 
 The men talk and The men talked. 
 
 This is called the inflection of the verb for tense. 
 
 2. It is only in these two tenses, the present and the past, tliat the 
 verb varies to denote time; for, although we can easily express the fact 
 tliat an act, etc., takes place in otiier times than the present or past, we 
 do so, not by varying the form of the verb, but by using what are called 
 verb-phrases, i.e., compound forms of it: e.<j.:— 
 
 The boy will run, has run, had run, etc. 
 
 As 141080 compound f(jrms, however, are not inflections, their consideration 
 is deferred for the present; see Lesson XXXVI. 
 
 3. Mood. — The other variation in the verb is made much less 
 fre(piently, and is for the purpose of showing a difference in the 
 7Hode or manner in which the action or state expressed by the 
 verb is presented to our mind; that is, whether as a simple, 
 out-and-out assertion, or as a doubtful, contingent assertion, or 
 as a command. ♦ 
 
 4. When a verb makes a simple out-and-out assertion, in 
 other words, Avhen it imJieatcs that something is an actual fact 
 (or asks whether something is an actual fact), it is said to be in 
 
 !l 
 
LESSON XX XII.] 
 
 MOOD OF VERIi. 
 
 109 
 
 M 
 
 i\w INDICATIVE mood. {Mood is only another form of the worfl 
 )node, and means nmnjier.) Thus, 
 
 He walks, I went, They etruok him. 
 
 The indicative mood, then, is the mood of simple; assertion. 
 
 5. When a verb makes .i doubtful, contin^<!nt assertion, that 
 is, wluin it expresses not an actual^ but a 2)oxHH)le^ fact — some- 
 tliini,' that is doubtful, uncertain or supposed, it is said to bo in 
 th(i SUHJUNCTIVE mood, because the clause which contains a v(>rb 
 in this mood is usually suhjolncjl to (t,«., put Vxifore or after), 
 and made dependent upon, a principal clause: thus, 
 
 I will call you, if he come. 
 Though he go, I shall stay. 
 
 The su))junctive mood, then, is the mood of doubtful assertion. 
 
 6. When a verb expresses a command, a desire, or an entreaty, 
 it is said to be in the impeuative mood. {Iniperatim means 
 ronunandinff). Thus, 
 
 Walk thou. Go you. Leave us. See him. 
 The imperative mood, then, is the mood of command or entreaty, 
 
 7. These three moods, the indicative, subjunctive, and imperative, arc 
 the only moods that are marked by inflection; and of these, the indica- 
 tive, from its nature, is in most frequent use. Indeed, it has supplanted 
 the subjunctive in the language of every -day life, and left the latter to 
 be found almost wholly in written works and in grammars. 
 
 o. The imperative mood has only one form, and this is the same as the 
 subjunctive present. It can, from its nature, be used only in the second 
 poison and in the present tense. The subject of a verb in the imperative 
 mood is usually omitted, because, Ijeing spoken to, there can be no doubt 
 as to who is meant; it can be easily supplied, however — singular, thou; 
 plural, ye or you. The seeming harshness of this mode of speech makes 
 us often avoid it, and instead of saying 
 
 come, go, fetch me, etc., 
 
 we use a form which appears to leave it to the choice of the person ad- 
 dressed, and say 
 
 Will you come, go, fetch me, etc. 
 
 ! f 
 
If 
 
 i:' 
 
 
 1': 
 
 ii. 
 
 1 
 
 t:' 
 
 i 
 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 ii 
 i 
 
 
 i 
 
 : 
 
 ii 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 it 
 
 ' 
 
 I' I 
 
 i 1 
 
 !|:| 
 
 I ' 
 
 r '\ 
 
 110 
 
 INFLECTIOy OF THE VERB. 
 
 [fart III. 
 
 Parsing. — You are now able to parse the verb so far as to tell its 
 person, number, tense ami mood ; and to say whether it ia transit ive or 
 intransitive. 
 
 Ho said, " Tell him that I wish I were in Toronto." 
 
 Model. — said, a verb, transitive ; third person; singular number ; past 
 tensa ; indicative mood ; agreeing with its subject he. 
 tell, a verb, transitive ; second person ; singular number ; 
 present tense; imperative mood; agreeing with its 
 subject thoic or you, understood. 
 wish, a verb, transitive; first person; singular number; pre- 
 sent tense ; indicative mood ; agreeing with its sub- 
 ject /. 
 
 , vjere, a verb, transitive ; first person ; singular number ; 
 
 past tense ; subjunctive mood ; agreeing with its 
 subject /. 
 
 Exercise 109. — Parse the verbs of the following exercise, as fully as 
 you can, according td the above model : — 
 
 1. He knelt beside the grave. 2. We know our lessons. 3. Each 
 horseman drew his battle-blade. 4. Lord, Thou seest me. C). I dreamt 
 not now to claim its aid. 6. "Tiy not the Pass!" the old man said. 
 7. Tliy secret keep; I urge thee not. 8. They tug, they strain! down, 
 down they go. 9. Uneasy lies the head that wears a crown. 10. He 
 who steals my purse, steals trash. 11. It nerves my heart; it steels my 
 sword. 12. Fools, who came to scoff, remained to pray. 13. ]ie still, 
 sad lieart ! and cease repining. 14. Short is the bliss tliat sin bestows. 
 15. Act, act in the living present. 
 
 16. What recked the chieftain if he stood 
 On Highland heath or Holyrood ! 
 
 He rights such wrong, where it is given, 
 If it were in the court of heaven. 
 
 17. Build thee more stately mansions, O my soul, 
 As the swift seasons roll ! 
 
 Leave thy low vaulted past. 
 
 Exercise 110. — Retaining the same person, change the number of 
 the subjects of the verba of the foregoing exercise, singular into plural 
 and plural into singular, as the case may be; and make the necessary 
 changes in the verbs. 
 
 Exercise 111. — Retaining the subjects, change the verbs of the fore- 
 going exercise, from present tense to past tense, and from past to present, 
 as the case may be. 
 
 Note to Tkachkr.— For more of this useful practice, teachers may take suitable pre- 
 vious exercises, or extracts froii\ tlie Readers. As to the impossibility of ('.hani;^iii<ir tlK' 
 tense of the imperative, see par. 8 of this lesson. 
 
LESSON XXXIII.] 
 
 INFINITIVES. 
 
 Ill 
 
 Exercise 112.— Errors for Con*ection.— Correct the following, 
 
 yivuit; reasons where possible: — 
 
 1. in7/ 1 bring your glasses ? 2. Has he selected you and I? 3. He 
 don't know nothing about it. 4. They have laid hero since morning. 5. 
 Tlierc is seven or eight in my room. 6. Where was you when I came ? 
 7. You must try ancl read more distinct. 8. In what latitude is Chicago 
 in^ 9. Go and lay down for a while. 10. Neither you or nie are invited. 
 11. I cannot run «o farther. 12. At what hotel are you .t/o/)Mi.7 .? 13. He 
 wishes you had went yesterday. 14. Each of the boys have their books. 
 1,"). It isn't him, I don't think. 16. Was there many at the meeting? 
 17. We have a daily mail every day now. 18. We were compelled to 
 ii'turn />nfA-. 19. i^ise your feet off the floor. 20. They had «o< hardly a 
 minute to spare 21. It is undoubtedly true what I have heard. 22. 
 (iodliness with contentment are great gain. 23. They kr ow scarcely that 
 temperance is a virtue 24. The number of suffercs have now been ascer- 
 tained 2r». I am afraid lest I have labored in vain 26. At christmas 
 tlie shop windows look invitingly 27. It was them what broke the 
 window 28. Give every word and syllable their proper sound 29. 
 Whether he expects to stay I don't know. 
 
 LESSON XXXIII. 
 
 THE VERB.-INFINITIVES AND PARTICIPLES. 
 
 1, Tlie indicative, subjunctive, and imperative forms that have 
 boen described in the last two lessons, are all the forms of inflec- 
 tion which the verb has in English. But there are certain 
 derived words, made from almost every verb in the language, 
 which are so important and so much used, and used in such 
 ways, that they are always given along with the inflected 
 forms as part of the conjugation of the verb, although they are 
 not really verbs, since they make no assertion: they are only 
 nouns and adjectives. They are called infinitives and pabti- 
 
 CIPLKS. 
 
 2. Infinitives. — If we say 
 
 He plays ; or. He ploughs, 
 
 w(> declare that some one is the doer of an action. And if we 
 wish to name the action he is doing, we say it is that of 
 
 playing or ploughing. 
 
 : 
 
 ; i ■ : 
 
112 
 
 INFLECTION OF THE VERB. 
 
 [part III. 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 1 
 
 I) '.' '• 
 
 Now, these last words, being names of actions, are in reality 
 nouns; and as such they can be made the subjects of verbs, or 
 the objects of verbs or of prepositions: thus, 
 
 Subjects. 
 Playing" is pleasant. 
 Ploughing is healthy work. 
 
 Objects. 
 He likes playing. 
 He is fond of ploughingr. 
 
 The words, it will })o obsen^ocl, are derived from the verbs 
 play and plough by adding -jng to the simple form of the verb, 
 as found in the first singular, present indicative, viz. : I play, I 
 
 plough: thus, 
 
 play-ing, plough-ing. 
 
 3. And besides this form in -ing, there is another which we 
 can use with exactly the same meaning, and which is made by 
 prefixing the preposition to to the same simple form of the verb: 
 thus, 
 
 Subjects. 
 To play is pleasant. 
 To plough is healthy work. 
 
 Objects. 
 He likes to play. 
 He likes to plough. 
 
 4. These words, then, playing and to play, ploughing and to 
 
 plough, are a kind of verbal noun which names in a general way 
 the action or the state which the verb asserts. And verbal nouns 
 of this kind can be made in a similar way from almost every verb 
 in the language. They are cnlled infinitives; the word means 
 unlimited; and this part of the verb is so called because it 
 expresses in a general, indefinite way, the action or state ex- 
 pressed by the verb, and is not limited as to form by the person 
 and number of any subject, as other parts of the verb are; (par. 
 4, Lesson XXXI.) 
 
 5. We distinguish the two forms of infinitives by calling one 
 the INFINITIVE IN -iNf! ; and the other, the infinitive with to. 
 As to this last, however, it must here be mentioned that in many 
 cases, which we shall notice when we come to treat of verb- 
 
I>t^-'0 
 
 .V XXXIII.] 
 
 PAliTlGIPLES. 
 
 113 
 
 tlu'ascs 
 
 ill Lesson XXXVTI., tlio "siffn'Mo of the iuliniuvo is 
 
 (jinittcd (or droppod, ;is it is calliHl): thus, 
 
 I '.id him (to) come. I daro (to) say so. Tict mo (to) speak. 
 
 I saw you (to) take thoin. 
 
 Til 
 
 iitiv( 
 
 itli to 
 
 alf 
 
 died th 
 
 UOOT-INFINITIVE, 
 
 1i('(;mis(^, as wo shall sco in tho next lesson, tho strm or simplest 
 form of tho verh, from which other fonua are made by variou.s 
 i Iterations, is obtained (or fjiovvs as it wtsre) from it. 
 
 It is not easy for junior pupils to distinguish between the infinitive in 
 . ng and an ordinary al)stract noun (par. f), Lesson XVIll.) having tho 
 iaiiie termination. But it is safe to eall such a word an infinitive when 
 it is modified or completed as a verb alone can bo modified or completed, 
 and an abstract noun when not so modified : thus, 
 
 InjinUlve in -ing. 
 
 He sliowed great courage in boldly facing' tho enemy. 
 Keeping bad company is the ruin of many. 
 ]Jy starting early wo avoided the heat. 
 
 Ahdrnct nouns, 
 
 His graceful skating' was much admired. 
 Jane's reading was unsurpassed. 
 
 6. Participles. — When a mother loves her child, she may be 
 desciibed as a lovinQ mother; if a liouse is on tire, it may be de- 
 Tsciibed as a burning house. In tho sam(! way we may describe a 
 person who gives as a giving person, and a star that falls as a 
 
 falling star. 
 
 Here, the words 
 
 loving", burning, giving, falling, 
 
 though formed, as is easily seen, by adding -ing to the simple 
 form of the verbs 
 
 love, burn, give, fall, 
 
 have the value of adjectives, since they modify the nouns mothGr, 
 
 house, person, and star. 
 
 7. Dosides these words in -ing, there is another word formed 
 from ciich of the above-named verl)S that can also be used to 
 modify a noun. For Ave may describe a child as a JOVed child, a 
 
 !'f 
 
114 
 
 INFLECTION (jF Till'] VhJIilt. 
 
 [I'ART III. 
 
 f\ 
 
 hoiiKr iis fi burnt house, a tiling as a given tiling', and a star as n, 
 
 fallen star. 
 
 J [ere, too, though formed from verbs, tlu^ words 
 loved, burnt, given, fallen, 
 
 liave the valiK^ of adjectives, siiu-c! tliey an^ used to modify nouns. 
 
 8. Tliese words, then, 
 
 loving, loved; burning, burnt; giving, given; 
 
 falling, fallen; 
 
 ai*e a kind of verl)id adjcotivo tliat expresses in the form of an 
 adjective tiiat which tlie verl> asserts. And v(;rl>al adjectives of 
 tliis kind can 1mi made fi'om ahnost every verb in the lanjruai^'c. 
 They ar(^ call(Ml I'Ain'KUiMiKH. The word means j)'^^'t^<''P'^f'^''.h 
 KJi'iri)i<i : and these parts of the verb are so called, because, wliilc 
 I'cally adj(>ctives, they share also the nature of verbs. (See 
 paj-. 12 below next paj^e). 
 
 9. We distinguish the two forms of participle by calling tlic 
 on(^ that ends in -ing the i.mim:hfk(;t participhi. Imperfect means 
 hero 'iniji>ils//'<f, iiiroitijt/eff ; and tliis form of the participle is so 
 called because it expresses an unlinislied or incomplete action or 
 state of the olijeet signified by tlie noun that it modifies. Thus, 
 wlien we speak of a running stream or a sleeping child, we mean 
 a stream that is still lainniu-j;, i.e., has not finished or completed 
 the act of ruiniini,', and a child that has not finished its sleep, 
 i.e., is still in the sleeping state. 
 
 Though (][Hite difTerent in meaning and use, this im'perfcct participle is 
 now of the same j'onn as the infinitive in -ing, from which, however, it 
 iiuist be carefully distinguished. 
 
 10. The other participle which has a variety of endings, viz.: 
 d, as in loved; t, as in burnt; n, as in given; or none at all, as 
 in run, is called the pkiifkct participle, because it expresses a 
 r())npl'fe<l action or state of the object signified by the noun. 
 Thus, a burnt house or a givGH thing, is one upon which the action 
 of burning or of giving is completed or finished. 
 
LKsso.v XXXIII.] fXFINITI VES A XP /'A HTK 'IPLES. 
 
 115 
 
 11. Since, before we can speak of a house as a burnt lioiiHe, or of a 
 |inseiit !iH a given present, the house must have* suil'ireil. or nn/nmt the 
 artinii (if Imrning, and the present tlio action of giving, th»! participles 
 burnt ami given are also called I'assivk participles; pasMiiw means miffer- 
 
 lii'l vv tndurinij. 
 
 12. l»y reason of their verbal nature, both the infinitive and 
 the participle may bo moditiecl ]>y an adverb or adv«»rl)-phra.s(;, 
 mid (wluMi transitive) may be completod by an object, in just the 
 siimi! way as the verbs from whicli they come; tlius, 
 
 (1) Itifinltivpn completed by 0'>jpct, and modified b;/ adverb and adverb-phrane. 
 This is the weather-! 
 
 to gather the wheat safely into the barn. 
 for gathering " 
 
 (( 
 
 (( 
 
 (2) Imperfect participle completed by object, and modified Inf adverb and adverb-phrase. 
 
 I see the farmer gathering the wheat safely into 
 
 his barn. 
 
 (3) Perfect (or passive) participle, modified by adverb and adverb-phrase. 
 
 Flowers transplanted carefully in Spring will bloom 
 
 in Summer. 
 
 13. The infinitive, with the word that completes it, is called an infini- 
 tive phrase ; and the participle, M'ith the word that completes it, is called 
 a rAiiTiciPLK phrase. Thus, in (1), to gather the wheat, and gathering 
 the wheat are infinitive phrases ; in (2), gathering the wheat \» a. participle 
 
 phrase. 
 
 14. By reason of their noun power, the infinitive with to (or 
 root-infinitive), and the infinitive in -ing may be modified by an 
 adjective: thus. 
 
 To play is pleasant. Waiting so long is tiresome. 
 
 And tlie infinitive in -ing may also be modified by a noun in the 
 possessive, or by a possessive adjective: thus, 
 
 John's rising rapidly in his class is creditable to him. 
 I )id you liear of my gaining the prize % 
 
 Exercise 113. — In the following sentences point out the infinitives 
 
 i--i| 
 
116 
 
 INFLECTION OF THE VERB. 
 
 [part III. 
 
 an<l piirticipIcH ; say aUo of what kind they are, and how they are modi* 
 tied or completed: — 
 
 To dittlngulih the Infinitive In -Ing from the Imperfect participle, bear In 
 mind that the former Is always the name of tome action, state of being, 
 etc., and has therefore the nature of a noun; while the latter always modi* 
 fies some noun, and has therefore the nature of an adjective. 
 
 1. Wo saw the sinking ship. 2. To live in suspense is wretched. 3. 
 A sudden trembling seized on all his limbs. 4. The trembling hope is 
 unuonHriiied. 5. A piercing cry rang through the startled air. 0. The 
 eye of the cat is formed for seeing in the dark. 7. Most people eat to 
 live, but some live te eat. 8. He tapped each growing tree with his 
 walkhiif-itxcV.. 0. That evening sky was a blending of aU beauties. 10. 
 They wish to turn him from keeping bad company. 11. To err is human; 
 to forgive divine. 12. The king, approving the plan, was not long in 
 executing it. 13. Cradled in the field, the army loved him. 14. We saw 
 him turning the corner. 15. Turring from an old habit is difficult. 16. 
 Praising oneself is a sign of vanity. 17. Learn to labor and to wait. 
 18. Caught by the darkness, we lost our way. 19. Ycm. deserve praise 
 for writing this letter; what writing-table had you? 20. Brandishing 
 their broadsword*, they swept through the wavering troops, giving them 
 no time for rallying their ranks. 21. We live on, loathing our life, and 
 dreading still to die. 
 
 15. Participles serve a very useful purpose in composition, by furnish- 
 ing an elegant and convenient way of contracting a compound or a com- 
 plex sentence. Thus the compound sentence 
 
 We ascended the mountain, and had a wide prospect, 
 
 or the complex sentence 
 
 When we had ascended the mountain, we had a wide prospect, 
 
 is more elega.itly and shortly expressed by using for one of the clauses a 
 participle-pl ^e: thus, 
 
 Having^ ascended the mountain, we had a wide prospect. 
 
 Exercise 114. — Contract the following compound and complex sen- 
 tences by using participle-phrases where possible : — 
 
 1. If you pursue this course you will be ruined. 2. The ships were in 
 extreme peril, for the river was low. 3. At length the messenger, who 
 had been long expected, arrived. [Six words.] 4. This is a blessing 
 which heaven has sent. [Five words.] 5. When the day dawned, we set 
 out. 6. When they found the darkness, which they dreaded, coming on, 
 they hastened their steps. [Ten words.] 7. The jury appeared in their 
 box, and there was a breathless silence in the court. 8. The breeze, 
 which had hitherto favored us, died away. [Six words.] 9. When I 
 entered the cemetery, I observed a grave which had newly been dug. 
 [Eight words.] 10. In the spring of 1493, while the court was still at 
 
LKSSO.V XXXIV.] 
 
 CON JUG A TIONS. 
 
 117 
 
 Iknolona, letters were received from Columbus which announce*! }tis 
 return to Spain. 
 
 11. Lightly they'll talk of the spirit that's gone, 
 And oer his cold ashes upbraid him, 
 
 Exerciao 115. — Make twelve sentences that shall exhibit the correct 
 use of sav7 and seen (six of each); and twelve more that shall exhibit the 
 correct use of did and done (six of each). 
 
 Exercise 116.— Errors for Correction.— Correct ail errors in 
 
 the following, with reasons: — 
 
 CAUTION.— Never use past partlclplea for past tenses. Say, I did It, not 
 I done It; I saw It, not I seen It. 
 
 1. A great number of masons were employed 2. Everybody are going 
 to the concert except you and I. 3. You shouldn't have undertook the 
 hiisuiess 4. Have you wrote that letter you had to? 5. I don't mind of 
 ever seeing you before. 0. Leave it be till they come. 7. Your brother's 
 anil is broke, and the Doctor hasn't came yet. 8. Them lata di<ln*t 
 ouglit to be laying there. 9. Thinks I to myself they have came in vain. 
 10. Leave it setting on the stove. 11. I never seen anythin;^ like it; but 
 here comes two firemen 12. You didn't ought to have went so early. 
 \X Potatoes is very plenty this year, and so is apples. 14. You have 
 soon forgot that he done you that kindness 15. Wheat has rose three 
 cents a bushel yesterday 10. Look what holes Tom has wore in the toe 
 of his shoes 17. Wo got into the barn and laid there an hour. 18. He 
 has went without his mits, and I'm afeard his hands will be froze. 
 
 LESSON XXXIV. 
 
 THE VERB.-CONJUGATIONS. 
 
 1. If we take the simple forms or stems of the verbs loVC and 
 give, as obtained from the root-infinitive by dropping tlie to, and 
 form from them the past tense and the perfect participle of these 
 veibs, we shall find that we have to follow two different methods : 
 tliu.s, 
 
 Root-Infinitive. Stem. Past Tense. Perf. Pab'cple. 
 
 to love, love, loved, loved, 
 
 to give, give, gave, given. 
 
lis 
 
 IX FLECTION OF THE VERB. 
 
 [I'ART III, 
 
 ' f 
 
 f'l 
 
 In tlio casi; of love. to form both past tense and perfect par- 
 ticiplti we iuld ii d to the stem loue. In the case of giVG, to form 
 the past tense we change the vowel of thf stem {<flve to <jave)^ 
 and to form the perfect participle we add to the stem an n. 
 
 In following the first of these methods, if the stem does not end in e, 
 \vc ha"e to add ed ; and,- in sonic cases, for ease of pronnnciation, this d 
 or ed is changed into t : thus, 
 
 work, 
 leap, 
 
 worked, 
 leapt, 
 
 and with a changed sound of the stem vowel — 
 
 sleep, slept. 
 
 Additional examples of this method are 
 
 worked ; 
 leapL; 
 
 slept. 
 
 praise. 
 
 praised, 
 
 praised ; 
 
 wish, 
 
 wished, 
 
 wished ; 
 
 keep. 
 
 kept. 
 
 kept. 
 
 In following the second of these methods, if the stem does not end 
 in e, to form the perfect participle, we often add en: thus, 
 
 fall, fell, fallen. 
 
 Additional examples of this method are 
 
 blow. 
 
 blew, 
 
 blown; 
 
 shake. 
 
 shook. 
 
 shaken ; 
 
 bite. 
 
 bit. 
 
 bitten. 
 
 2. Now, almost every verb in the language forms its past 
 tense and its perfect participle in one or the other of these two 
 methods; and, consequently, verbs are divided into two great 
 classes according as they follow the ore or the other. These 
 classes are called conjugations. 
 
 3. Because the method of forming the past tense and perfect 
 participle foUowed by verbs like gJVG, viz., by changing the vowel 
 of the stem and adding n or en, is an older way than that fol- 
 lowed by verbs like love, that add d or ed to the stem, verbs that 
 follow the former method are called verbs of the old coniuijatioii, 
 while verbs that follow the latter method are called verbs of the 
 NEW conjugation. 
 
 Moreover, verbs that follow either of these methods are said 
 
i.i:-s(»s XXXIV.] 
 
 CONJUOA TIONS. 
 
 110 
 
 does not end 
 
 to Ik; c()nju,i,'atc(l REGULARLY, or to ))0 regular vorlis of the Old 
 (jt of tho Now conjugation, as tlu; caso may bo, 
 
 Wt; may now sum up what has liore been said, and say — 
 
 Definition. — 7'A« conjugation of a verb is its method off onniw/ 
 its past t'mse and perfect 'participle from the stem. 
 
 Defimtiox. — Regular verbs of the new conjugation are those 
 that form their 2^o,st tense and perfect participle by addimj d, Cd. 
 (//• t to the stem. 
 
 Definition. — Regular verbs of the old conjugation are those that 
 /'(irnt their past tense bg changing the vowel oj the stem, and their 
 perfect jjarticijjle bg adding n or en to the stein. 
 
 4. Sometimes the Old Conjugation is called the strong conju- 
 tfation, and the New, the weak, for the reason that ver])S of the 
 Old Conjugation were thought strong enougli to form their past 
 tense witliin tliemselves, fr.nd without outside help; whereas ver^>s 
 of the New were too iveak to do so, and had to get the aid of an 
 additional syllable. So we see that the distinction l)(;tween the 
 two conjugations really consists in the adding, or the not adding, 
 to the stem, of a syllable to form the past tense. 
 
 5. If, then, we know the infinitive or stem, the past tense, 
 and the perfect participle of any verb, we can tell to which 
 conjugation it belongs, and can put it through all its inflections 
 of pci'son, number, tense, and mood. Hence, these three — the 
 infinitive, the past tense, and tho perfect partici])le— aie called 
 the principal parts of the verb; and, in describing a verb, they 
 
 ai-e given: thus, 
 
 love, loved, loved; 
 teach, taught, taught; 
 go, went, gone; 
 
 give, gave, given ; 
 sing, sang, sung; 
 be, was, been. 
 
 Is are s;ii 
 
 When W(? put a verb tlirough all its inflections, we are 
 said to CONJUGATE it, but we ai-e sometimes said to conjugate 
 a vci'b if we indicate its conjugation by giving the principal 
 parts only. (To conjugate means 'o yoke ov join together.) 
 
 I 
 
 '; i 
 
120 
 
 INFLECTION OF THE VERB. 
 
 [part III. 
 
 ii 
 
 ^i;l I 
 
 if!;" 
 
 6. The verbs praise and write, since they exhibit all the in- 
 flecccd and derived forms of the Old and the New conjugations 
 respectively, may he taken as models. 
 
 Nkw Coxjugation. 
 
 PRAISE. 
 
 Principal Parts. 
 
 Praise, Praised, Praised. 
 
 INFLECTED FORMS. 
 
 Indicative Mood. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 Person. 
 
 1 Sinf). I praise, 
 
 2 " Thou praisest, 
 
 3 " He praises. 
 1 J^lu. We praise, 
 
 " You (Ye) praise, 
 " They praise. 
 
 Past Tense. 
 
 Sing. I praised, 
 " Thou praisedst, 
 " He praised. 
 
 1 Phi. We praised, 
 
 2 " You (Ye) praised, 
 
 3 •' They praised. 
 
 Subjunctive Mood. 
 Present I'ense. 
 
 1, 2, 3 Sing. (If) I, thou, he praise. 
 1, 2, 3 Pill. (If) We, you, they " 
 
 Past Tense. 
 
 l,2,3,S'm5'. (lf)l,thou,hepraised. 
 l,2,3P/u. (If) We, you, they " 
 
 Lmpekative Mood. 
 2 Praise (thou or you). 
 
 o 
 3 
 
 1 
 o 
 
 3 
 
 
 Old Conjugation. 
 
 
 WPJTE. 
 
 
 Principal Parts. 
 
 Write, Wrote, Written. 
 
 INFLECTED FORMS. 
 
 
 Indicative Mood. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 Person. 
 
 1 Sing. I write, 
 
 2 " Thou writest, 
 ;> " He writes. 
 
 1 Pin. We write, 
 
 2 " You (Ye) write, 
 
 3 '' They write. 
 
 
 Past Tense. 
 
 1 
 
 9 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 Sing. I wrote, 
 
 " Thou wrotest. 
 
 " He wrote. 
 Pin. We wrote, 
 
 " You (Ye) wrote, 
 
 " They wrote. 
 
 
 Subjunctive Mood. 
 
 
 Present I'ense. 
 
 1,2, 
 1,2, 
 
 3 Sing.(Ii) T, thou, lie write. 
 3 Plu. (If) We, you, they " 
 
 
 Past Tense. 
 
 1 2 
 1 '"> 
 
 3 Sing. (If) I, thou, he wrote. 
 3 Pin. (If) We, you, they " 
 
 
 Imperative Mood, 
 
 
 2 Write (thou or you). 
 
LLSsoM KXXIV.] 
 
 C0XJUGATI0N3. 
 
 1-21 
 
 DERIVED FORMS. 
 Infinitives. 
 
 (To) praise. 
 Praising. 
 
 Participles. 
 
 Imperfect, Praising. 
 rcrject, Praised. 
 
 DERIVED FORMS. 
 Infinitives. 
 
 (To) write. 
 Writing. 
 
 Participles. 
 
 Imperfect, Writing. 
 Perfect, Written. 
 
 7. It will be noticed that in regular verbs of the New Conju- 
 gation the only forms that are actually different are six, namely, 
 
 praise, praisest, praises, praised, praisedst, praising; 
 
 while in regular verbs of the Old Conjugation there are seven, 
 namely, 
 
 write, writest, writes, wrote, wrotest, writing, written. 
 
 8. It will be noticed, too, that as regards the inflection of the 
 tenses, the subjunctive tenses have but one form for all persons 
 and both numbers ; and that, in the indicative, the second 
 person singular adds st or est in both tenses, while the third 
 person singular is like the first in Uie past tense, but in the pre- 
 sent adds S or es. 
 
 Exercise 117. — Taking the verb praise as a model, give the conju- 
 gation of the verbs— love, work, call, wish, keep, tell. 
 
 Exercise 118. — Taking the verb write as a model, give the conju- 
 gation of the verbs — give, see, fall, nhake, bite. 
 
 9. It was shown on page 116 that participles often afford a short and 
 elegant way of expressing a thought which otherwise would have to be 
 expressed by a complete sentence. In uaing a participle for this purpose, 
 liowever, great pains must be taken to see, 1st, that the word (noun or 
 pronoun) is expressed which the participle is intended to modify; 2nd, 
 that the participle is so placed as clearly to modify this word, and no 
 other. The faults seen in the two following sentences arise from inat- 
 tention to these points : — 
 
 1. Turning" my eyes towards him, he began to play on the 
 
 instrument in his hand. 
 
 2. A pocket-book was found by a boy made of leather. 
 
i 
 
 i 
 
 Hit ! 
 
 »J:i!ii I 
 
 122 
 
 INFLECTION OF THE VERB. 
 
 [part III. 
 
 Exercise 119.— Errors for Correction.— Correct the following 
 
 sentences, giving rcdsons:-- 
 
 1. Raising the window and looking out, busy crowds were seen in the 
 street. 2. 1 could count no lens than eleven cows seated at my window. 
 .'J. Sho walked with a lamp across the room still burning. 4. Hoping to 
 hear from you soon, believe me, truly yours. 5. These islands are the 
 residence of wild fowl composed of rock with a slight covering of herbage, 
 G. Examining the place, the intruder was found to be a tiny mouse. 7. 
 The whole town may be seen sailing up the river. 8. The hotel was full 
 of guests, badly built, and unprovided with means of escape. 9. Rising 
 from these elevated table-lands, the traveller will stu; lofty ranges of 
 granite mountains. 10. She ran towards the police station terrified and 
 screaming murder in her night-dress. 
 
 LESSON XXXV. 
 
 THE VERB. -IRREGULARITIES OP OCNJUaATION. 
 
 1. New Conjugation The regular verbs of the New Conju- 
 
 aration,, as we have seen, form their past tense and their perfect 
 participle alike, by adding ed or d to the stem : thus, 
 
 work, worked, worked; love, loved, loved. 
 
 But this ed or d makes an additional syllable only when the 
 stem ends vntli a t or a d-sound, after which the d of the ending 
 could not otherwise be heard. Thus, we say in one syllable 
 
 looked, hoped, raised, wished; 
 but in two 
 
 waited, skated, loaded, faded. 
 
 2. Moreover, when the pronunciation admits of it the ed or d 
 is sounded like a tl thus, 
 
 worked, looked, hoped, wished, vexed, baked. 
 This has caused some verbs to have double forms in their past 
 
LKxsON XXXV.] 
 
 OLD CONJUGATION. 
 
 123 
 
 JGATION. 
 
 tcnso and perfect participle (especially in the latter), viz., one in 
 ed and another in t '. thus, 
 
 bless, blessed or blest ; spoil, spoiled or spoilt ; 
 drop, dropped or dropt. 
 
 3. Some verbs of this conjugation are more or leas Irregular in other 
 ways. Thus, some shorten the vowel of the stem either in spelling or in 
 pronunciation, or in both, before adding t: thus, 
 
 mean, meant, meant; feel, felt, felt; sleep, slept, slept. 
 
 4. Others, somewhat after the manner of Old Conjugation verbs, take 
 both a vowel and a vowel sound different from that of the stem : thus, 
 
 say, said, said; buy, bought, bought; seek, sought, sought; 
 
 catch, caught, caught; tell, told, told; 
 
 sell, sold, sold. 
 
 5i Lastly, quite a number that end in t or d make no change at all, 
 but form their past tense and perfect participle like the stem : thus, 
 
 put, put, put; cost, cost, cost; set, set, set; burst, burst, burst; 
 
 cast, cast, cast. 
 
 It is to be borne in mind that, notwithstanding the above and some 
 other irregularities that liave net been mentioned, the fact that all these 
 verbs (except those last given) add ed or t to the stem or to the stem altered, 
 to form their past tense and perfect participle, stamps them as verbs ot 
 the New Conjugation. 
 
 N.B. — A list of all irregular verbs of this conjugation, with their prin- 
 cipal parts, will be found at the end of this lesson. 
 
 6. Old Conjugation. — Verbs of the Old Conjugation, as we 
 have seen, regularly change the vowel of the stem to form the 
 past tense, and add to the stem n or en to fcrni the perfect par- 
 ticiple. 
 
 Considering the much smaller number of verbs in it, irregu- 
 larities abound much more in the 'Old Conjugation than in the 
 New. Indeed, no rule can be given as to what other vowel 
 that of the stem is to be changed into to form the past tense, 
 and the n or en of the perfect participle is often wanting. 
 
 For this reason it is usual in grammars to give the whole list of Old 
 Conjugation verbs with their principal parts. This will be found at the 
 end of this lesson, after the list just mentioned of irregular verbs of the 
 New Conjugation. 
 
In' ^tl' 
 
 124 
 
 INFLECTION OP THhl VMB. 
 
 [PAHT 111. 
 
 i>l'! 
 
 7. A few verbs, namely, 
 
 have, bp, do ; can, may ; shall, will, must, ought, 
 
 are mostly used along with infinitives or participles of other 
 verbs to form verb-phrases or compound tenses, as they .are some- 
 times called. Of these, haVG is an irregular verb of the New 
 Conjugation (contracting its past tense and^ perfect participle 
 haved into had), — have, had, had; and do is a more irregular verb 
 of the Old conjugation — do, did, dORG. All the others are so 
 irregular .as scarcely to belong to either conjugation; and can, 
 may, shall, will, must and ought, have neither iniiiiitives nor 
 participles of their own. 
 
 8. Vei'bs that help other verbs, in the w.ay these do, to form 
 verb-phr.ases, are called auxiliary verbs, that is, hefping verbs; 
 and as we shall >^'ant to use these verbs for this purpose in the 
 next lesson, we here give their conjugation in full. 
 
 9. Have. 
 
 Principal Parts. 
 
 Have, Had, Had. 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 
 
 Present. 
 
 
 
 Past. 
 
 
 
 Sing. 
 
 Plur. 
 
 
 Sing. 
 
 Plur. 
 
 1. 
 
 I have, 
 
 We have. 
 
 1. 
 
 I had. 
 
 We had. 
 
 2. 
 
 Thou hast, 
 
 You " 
 
 2. 
 
 Thou hadst. 
 
 You " 
 
 3. 
 
 He has, 
 
 They " 
 
 3. 
 
 He had. 
 
 They " 
 
 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE 
 
 MOOD. 
 
 
 
 Present. 
 
 
 
 Past. 
 
 
 
 Sing, and Plpr. 
 
 
 Sing, and 1 
 
 'lhr. 
 
 1, 
 
 2, 3. (If) I, thou, he, etc., have. 
 
 1, 
 
 2,3. (If) I, thou, he, etc., had. 
 
 Imperative. 
 
 Have, 
 
 Infinitives. 
 
 (To) have. 
 Having, 
 
 Participles. 
 
 Imperfect, Having. 
 
 Perfect, Had. 
 
[PAKT III. H 
 
 I.KSSON XXXV.] 
 
 AUXIUAIilES. 
 
 12 
 
 1 
 
 
 10. ]^K. 
 
 
 
 ought, 1 
 
 )les of other H 
 
 l'KiN<;irAi. Parts. 
 Am, Was, Been. 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 
 
 ley are sonic- H 
 
 Present. 
 
 
 
 Past. 
 
 
 of the New H 
 
 SiNO. 
 
 Plur. 
 
 
 Sing. 
 
 Plur. 
 
 ct participh^ H 
 
 1. T am, 
 
 Wo are. 
 
 1. 
 
 I was. 
 
 Wo were. 
 
 ^•egular verb 1 
 
 •1. Tl.ou art, 
 
 You " 
 
 2. 
 
 Thou wast, 
 
 You " 
 
 thers are so H 
 
 ;}. lie is, 
 
 They " 
 
 3. 
 
 He was, 
 
 Thoy " 
 
 )n; and can, ■ 
 liiiitives nor ■ 
 
 Present. 
 
 snuUNCT 
 
 [VK 
 
 MOOD. 
 
 Past. 
 
 
 I 
 
 Sing. 
 
 Plur. 
 
 
 Sing. 
 
 Plur. 
 
 } do, to form H 
 
 1. (if)Tbe, 
 
 If we be. 
 
 1. 
 
 (If) I were, 
 
 If wo wen 
 
 Ijnng verbs; H 
 
 '1. ( I f ) thou be, 
 
 If you " 
 
 2. 
 
 (If) thou wert. 
 
 If you " 
 
 irpose in the H 
 
 '\. (If) lie be, 
 
 If they" 
 
 3. 
 
 (If) he were. 
 
 If thoy " 
 
 I 
 
 IMPKRATIVE. 
 
 Infinitives. 
 
 Participlk 
 
 s. 
 
 I 
 
 Be, 
 
 (To) be. 
 
 Imperfect, Being. 
 
 I 
 
 
 Being, 
 
 Perfect, Been. 
 
 I 
 
 
 11. Do. 
 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 Principal Parts. 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 Do, Did, 
 
 Done. 
 
 
 Flub. 1 
 
 Present. 
 
 INDICAXr 
 
 k^E ] 
 
 MOOD. 
 
 Past. 
 
 
 We had. I 
 
 Sing. 
 
 Plur. 
 
 
 Sing. 
 
 Plur. 
 
 You " I 
 
 1. T do, 
 
 We do. 1. 
 
 I did. 
 
 We did. 
 
 They " 1 
 
 2. Thou doest, or dost. You " 
 
 2. 
 
 Thou didst. 
 
 You " 
 
 ■ 
 
 3 He does. 
 
 They " 
 
 3. 
 
 He did. 
 
 They" 
 
 UR. 
 
 e, etc., had. 
 
 'ing. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
 
 Present. 
 
 Sing, and Plur. 
 
 1, 2j 3. (If) I, thou, he, etc., dO. 
 
 liMPERATTVK. INFINITIVES. 
 
 Do, (To) do. 
 
 Doing, 
 
 Past. 
 Sing, and Plur. 
 1, 2, 3. (If) I, thou, he, etc., did. 
 
 Participles. 
 
 Imperfect, Doing. 
 Perfect. Done. 
 
 
 ; r 
 
1 1' 
 
 II' 
 
 • I 
 
 126 INFLECT Hi N OF TlllH VEIUI 
 
 12. Can. 
 
 SiN(j. rurii. 
 
 1. T can, Wo can. 
 
 2. Thou canst, You " 
 X He can, Thoy " 
 
 [I'AHT 111. 
 
 Si NO. Plur. 
 
 1. I could, Wo could. 
 
 2. Thou couldst, You " 
 .*?. He; could, They '' 
 
 Present. 
 
 SlN<J. 
 
 1. I may. 
 
 2. Tliou mayst, 
 
 3. He may. 
 
 Present. 
 
 SlNO. 
 
 1. I shall, 
 
 2. Thou Shalt, 
 
 3. He shall. 
 
 Plur. 
 
 We may. 
 
 You " 
 
 13. May. 
 
 SiNu. Plur. 
 
 1. I might. Wo might. 
 
 2. Thou mlghtst, You " 
 
 They " | 3. He might. They " 
 
 14. Shall. 
 
 Plur. 
 
 Past. 
 
 Sl.NO. 
 
 We shall. ' 1. I should, 
 
 Plur. 
 
 We should. 
 
 You " 
 They " 
 
 2. Thou shouldst, You " 
 
 3. He should. They " 
 
 ^ ! \i 
 
 wm 
 
 
 Present. 
 
 
 SlNO. 
 
 Plur. 
 
 1. 
 
 I will. 
 
 We will. 
 
 
 
 Thou wilt. 
 
 You " 
 
 3. 
 
 He will, 
 
 They " 
 
 
 16. 
 
 Must. 
 
 
 Present (only). 
 
 
 Si NO. 
 
 Pluk. 
 
 1. 
 
 I must. 
 
 1. We must. 
 
 2. 
 
 Thou must, 
 
 2. You «' 
 
 3. 
 
 He must, 
 
 3. They " 
 
 15. Will. 
 
 Past. 
 Si NO. Plur. 
 
 1. I would. We would. 
 
 2. Thou WOUldst, You " 
 
 3. He would, They " 
 
 17. Ought. 
 Present (only). 
 SiNo. Plur. 
 
 1. I ought, 1. We ought 
 
 2. Thou oughtest, 2. You " 
 
 3. He ought, 3. They " 
 
1,1 ,nN- XXXV.] VEliliS OF NKW ( 'oXJUOA TION. 
 
 127 
 
 Exercise 120. — Oivc the principal parts, and tell thci oDrijugation, 
 III the following verbs: — 
 
 Vtv, do, have, see, drip, fade, feel, sleep, neck, spoil, toil, drive, tell, 
 l.iiid, buy, cut, dip, bless, catcli, come, dig, knew, burn, ily, freeze, sell, 
 fall, lead, lie, lay, ride, sew, sow, go, fight, l)egin, spill, hear, buihl. 
 
 Exercise 121. — By changing the participles or participle-phrases 
 into clauses, change the following simple sentences into compound or 
 ((implex ones: — 
 
 If'e saw the sinkimj ship. 
 
 Models. — 1. Complex Sentence. — We saw the ship that was sinking. 
 2. Compound " " ** n7i(l it " 
 
 1. Brandishing their broadswords, they swept through the wavering 
 troops. 2. Here come two firemen, bursting fhrough the crowd. .S 
 I'msued by wolves, we spurred our horses to their utmost speed. 4. We 
 saw him turning the corner. 5. The king, approving the plan, soon car- 
 ried it out. G. Cradled in Jie fiehl, the army loved him. 7. Here he 
 comes, bringing the lost one with him. 8. The general, having conducted 
 a successful campaign, was highly honored on his return home. 9. Fore- 
 seeing his fate, he burst into cries of agony. 10. We live on, loathing 
 our life. 11. Taking the cavalry with him, he crossed the ri»'er. 12. 
 Beaten at one point, he made for another. 13. Being fatigued with our 
 journey, we stopped to rest. 14. She came laughing. 15. 'Tis the car 
 rattling o'er the stony street. 16. He rushed into the field, and, foremost 
 lighting, fell. 
 
 17. And departing, leave behind na 
 
 Footprints on the sands of time. 
 
 VERBS OF THE NEW CONJUGATION THAT ARE JP.REGULAR 
 IN THEIR PRINCIPAL PARTS. 
 
 Infin. P't Tense. Per. Par. 
 
 Infin. P't Tknsk. Per. Par. 
 
 Bend 
 
 bent* 
 
 bent 
 
 Cost 
 
 cost 
 
 cost 
 
 Bereave 
 
 bereft * 
 
 bereft 
 
 Creep 
 
 crept 
 
 crept 
 
 Beseech 
 
 besought 
 
 besought 
 
 Cut 
 
 cut 
 
 cut 
 
 Bleed 
 
 bled 
 
 bled 
 
 Dare 
 
 durst * 
 
 dared 
 
 Breed 
 
 bred 
 
 bred 
 
 Deal 
 
 dealt 
 
 dealt 
 
 Bring 
 
 brought 
 
 brought 
 
 Dream 
 
 dreamt * 
 
 dreamt 
 
 Build 
 
 built * 
 
 built 
 
 Dwell 
 
 dwelt * 
 
 dwelt 
 
 Burn 
 
 burnt * 
 
 burnt 
 
 Feed 
 
 fed 
 
 fed 
 
 Burst 
 
 burst 
 
 burst 
 
 Feel 
 
 felt 
 
 felt 
 
 Buy 
 
 bought 
 
 bought 
 
 Flee 
 
 fled 
 
 fled 
 
 Cast 
 
 cast 
 
 cast 
 
 Gild 
 
 gilt* 
 
 gilt 
 
 Catch 
 
 caught 
 
 caught 
 
 Gird 
 
 girt * 
 
 ;irt 
 
 Cleave, to 
 
 clave * 
 
 cleaved 
 
 Have 
 
 had 
 
 lad 
 
 adhere 
 
 
 
 Hear 
 
 heard 
 
 .leard 
 
 Clothe 
 
 clad* 
 
 clad 
 
 Hit 
 
 hit 
 
 
 ' Verbs to which an asterisk is attached sometimes form their past tense atul perfect 
 ]i,ii'tifi))h' in ed. 
 
 I J;-; 
 
128 
 
 JNFLECT/OX or Tllh: VKRR. 
 
 [VART III. 
 
 I 11 
 t 
 
 \ 
 
 V 
 
 In FIN. 
 
 T't Tknsk. 
 
 pKli. Pak. 
 
 Infix. 
 
 P't Tknsk. 
 
 Pkk. Pak. 
 
 Hurt 
 
 hurt 
 
 hurt 
 
 Send 
 
 sent 
 
 sent 
 
 Keep 
 
 kept 
 
 kept 
 
 Set 
 
 set 
 
 set 
 
 Kiioel 
 
 knelt 
 
 knelt 
 
 Shed 
 
 shed 
 
 shed 
 
 Knit 
 
 knit* 
 
 knit 
 
 Shoe 
 
 siiod 
 
 shod 
 
 Ijcad 
 
 led 
 
 led 
 
 Shoot 
 
 shot 
 
 shot 
 
 Lean 
 
 leant * 
 
 leant 
 
 Shut 
 
 shut 
 
 shut 
 
 Leap 
 
 leapt * 
 
 leapt 
 
 Sleep 
 
 slept 
 
 slept 
 
 Learu 
 
 learnt * 
 
 learnt 
 
 Smell 
 
 smelt * 
 
 smelt 
 
 Leave 
 
 left 
 
 left 
 
 Speed 
 
 sped 
 
 sped 
 
 Lend 
 
 lent 
 
 lent 
 
 Spell 
 
 spelt * 
 
 spelt 
 
 Let 
 
 let 
 
 let 
 
 Spend 
 
 spent 
 
 spent 
 
 Lose 
 
 lost 
 
 lost 
 
 Spill 
 
 spilt * 
 
 spilt 
 
 Make 
 
 made 
 
 made 
 
 Spit 
 
 spit 
 
 spit 
 
 •Mean 
 
 meant 
 
 meant 
 
 Split 
 
 split 
 
 split 
 
 Meet 
 
 met 
 
 met 
 
 Spoil 
 
 spoilt * 
 
 spoilt 
 
 I'ay 
 
 l)aid 
 
 paid 
 
 Spread 
 
 spread 
 
 spread 
 
 Ten, to 
 
 pent * 
 
 pent 
 
 Sweat 
 
 sweat 
 
 sweat 
 
 enclose 
 
 
 
 Sweep 
 
 swept 
 
 swept 
 
 Put 
 
 put 
 
 put 
 
 Teach 
 
 taught 
 
 taught 
 
 Quit 
 
 quit * ' 
 
 quit 
 
 Tell 
 
 told 
 
 tol< 
 
 J<ead 
 
 read 
 
 read 
 
 Think 
 
 thought 
 
 thought 
 
 Rend 
 
 rent 
 
 rent 
 
 Thrust 
 
 thrust 
 
 thrust 
 
 Rid 
 
 rid 
 
 rid 
 
 Weep 
 
 wept 
 
 wept 
 
 Say 
 
 said 
 
 said 
 
 Wet 
 
 wet * 
 
 wet 
 
 Seek 
 
 sought 
 sold 
 
 sought 
 
 W^het 
 
 whet* 
 
 whet 
 
 Sell 
 
 sold 
 
 Work 
 
 wrought * 
 
 wrought 
 
 VERBS OF THE OLD CONJUGATION. 
 
 i Vi 
 
 iNiVix. P'r Tense. Per. Par. 
 
 Infin. P't Tense. Per. Par. 
 
 Abide 
 
 abode 
 
 abode 
 
 Cleave, to 
 
 clove 
 
 cloven 
 
 Am 
 
 was 
 
 been 
 
 split 
 
 
 
 Arise 
 
 arose 
 
 arisen 
 
 Cling 
 
 clung 
 
 clung 
 
 Awake 
 
 awoke N* 
 
 awaked 
 
 Come 
 
 came 
 
 come 
 
 Bear 
 
 bore, bare 
 
 f borne 
 \ born 
 
 Crow 
 Dig 
 
 crew n 
 dug X 
 
 crowed 
 dug N 
 
 Beat 
 
 beat 
 
 beaten 
 
 Do 
 
 did 
 
 done 
 
 Ik'^dn 
 
 began 
 
 begun 
 
 Draw 
 
 drew 
 
 drawn 
 
 Bid 
 
 bade, bid 
 
 bidden 
 
 Drive 
 
 drove 
 
 driven 
 
 Bind 
 
 bound 
 
 bound 
 
 Drink 
 
 drank 
 
 drunk 
 
 Bite 
 
 bit 
 
 bitten, bit 
 
 Eat 
 
 eat, ate 
 
 eaten 
 
 Blow 
 
 blew 
 
 blown 
 
 Fall 
 
 fell 
 
 fallen 
 
 lireak 
 
 broke 
 
 broken 
 
 Fight 
 
 fought 
 
 fought 
 
 Chide 
 
 ohid 
 
 chidden 
 
 Find 
 
 found 
 
 found 
 
 Choose 
 
 chose 
 
 chosen 
 
 Fling 
 
 flung 
 
 flung 
 
 * Verbs to whicli tin asterisk is attached sometimes form their past tense and perfect 
 particijilo in ed. 
 
 N Verbs which follow the New as well as the Old conjug^ation are marked with thu 
 letter N. Thus the past tense of awake is cither awoke or awaked. 
 
[I'AHT HI. 
 
 Pku. Pab. 
 
 cut , 
 
 ct 
 
 hed 
 
 hod 
 
 hot 
 
 hut 
 
 lept 
 
 illicit 
 
 iped 
 
 ipelt 
 
 ipent 
 
 ipilt 
 
 spit 
 
 iplit 
 
 spoilt 
 
 spread 
 
 sweat 
 
 swept 
 
 taught 
 
 told 
 
 thought 
 
 thrust 
 
 wept 
 
 wet 
 
 whet 
 
 wrought 
 
 Per. Par. 
 cloven 
 
 llung 
 come 
 prowed 
 lug N 
 lone 
 Irawn 
 Iriven 
 jrunk 
 laten 
 illen 
 
 )Ugllt 
 
 )und 
 
 LKssoN XXXV.] VERBS OF OLD CON JUG A TION. 
 
 129 
 
 le and perfect 
 Iked with thu 
 
 Infin. P't Tense. Per. Par. 
 
 In FIN. P't Tense. Per. Par. 
 
 Fly 
 
 flew 
 
 flown 
 
 Speak 
 
 spoke 
 
 spoken 
 
 Forget 
 
 forgot 
 
 f forgotten 
 \ forgot 
 
 Spin 
 Spring 
 
 spun 
 sprang 
 
 spun 
 sprung 
 
 Forsake 
 
 forsook 
 
 forsaken 
 
 Stand 
 
 stood 
 
 stood 
 
 Freeze 
 
 froze 
 
 frozen 
 
 Steal 
 
 stole 
 
 stolen 
 
 Get 
 
 got 
 
 got, gotten 
 
 Stick 
 
 stuck 
 
 stuck 
 
 Give 
 
 gave 
 
 given 
 
 Sting 
 
 stung 
 
 stung 
 stunk 
 
 Go 
 
 went 
 
 gone 
 
 Stink 
 
 stank 
 
 Grind 
 
 ground 
 
 ground 
 
 Strew 
 
 strewed 
 
 / strewn \ 
 \ strown j 
 
 (J row 
 
 jrew 
 
 grown 
 hung N 
 
 
 
 Hang 
 
 lung N 
 
 Stride 
 
 strode 
 
 stridden 
 
 Hide 
 Hold 
 
 hid 
 leld 
 
 hidden, hid 
 held 
 
 Strike 
 
 struck 
 
 [ struck 
 1. stricken 
 
 Know 
 
 cnew 
 
 known 
 
 String 
 
 strung 
 
 strung 
 
 Lie 
 
 lay 
 
 lain 
 
 Strive 
 
 strove 
 
 striven 
 
 Meet 
 
 met 
 
 met 
 
 Swear 
 
 swore 
 
 sworn 
 
 Mow 
 
 mowed 
 
 mown 
 
 Swim 
 
 swam 
 
 swum 
 
 Kide 
 
 rode 
 
 ridden 
 
 Swing 
 
 swung 
 
 swung 
 
 King 
 
 rang 
 
 rung 
 
 Take 
 
 took 
 
 taken 
 
 Rise 
 
 rose 
 
 risen 
 
 Tear 
 
 tore 
 
 torn 
 
 Run 
 
 ran 
 
 run 
 
 Thrive 
 
 throve N 
 
 thriven N 
 
 See 
 
 saw 
 
 seen 
 
 Throw 
 
 threw 
 
 thrown 
 
 Shake 
 
 shook 
 
 shaken 
 
 Tread 
 
 trod 
 
 trodden 
 
 Shear 
 
 sheared 
 
 shorn N 
 
 Wax 
 
 waxed 
 
 waxen n 
 
 Shine 
 
 shone N 
 
 shone N 
 
 Wear 
 
 wore 
 
 worn 
 
 Show 
 
 showed 
 
 shown N 
 
 Weave 
 
 wove 
 
 woven 
 
 Shrink 
 
 shrank 
 
 shrunk 
 
 Win 
 
 won 
 
 won 
 
 Sing 
 
 sang 
 
 sung 
 
 Wind 
 
 wound 
 
 wound 
 
 Sink 
 
 sank 
 
 f sunk 
 \ sunken 
 
 Wring 
 Write 
 
 wrung 
 wrote 
 
 wrung 
 written 
 
 Sit 
 
 sat 
 
 sat 
 
 
 
 
 Slay 
 
 slew 
 
 slain 
 
 List 
 
 OF Defective Verbs, 
 
 Slide 
 
 slid 
 
 slid den 
 
 Can 
 
 could 
 
 
 Sling 
 
 slung 
 
 slung 
 
 May 
 
 might 
 
 
 Slink 
 
 slunk 
 
 slunk 
 
 Must 
 
 must 
 
 
 Slit 
 
 slit 
 
 slit 
 
 Ought 
 
 ought 
 
 
 Smite 
 
 smote 
 
 smitten 
 
 Shall 
 
 should 
 
 
 Sow 
 
 sowed 
 
 sown N 
 
 Will 
 
 would 
 
 
 N Verbs which follow the New as well as the Old conjugation are marked witli the 
 letter N. Thus the past tense of awake is either awoke or awaked. 
 
 m 
 
 If' 
 
 9 
 
 •ill 
 
130 
 
 INFLECTION OF THE VERB. 
 
 [part hi. 
 
 LESSON XXXVI. 
 
 THE VBRB.-TBNSB.-VBRB-PHRASES. 
 
 . 
 
 H'' 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 1 
 
 '!' ^i 
 
 1 ''{"■ 
 
 » 
 
 1 > ^'' 
 
 j 
 
 lll 
 
 'iw 
 
 1 ''' 
 
 i 
 
 Ir 
 
 It f] 
 
 1. It has already been stated (par. 2, Lesson XXXTI.) that 
 wo have inll«H't(Hl forms of tho verb to express a diflffinuico ])'3tweon 
 time present and time past only, and that if wo wish to express 
 that an a(!t took place in any other time than these, we nnist use 
 compound forms of tho verb, or verb-phrases, as they are calleil. 
 Wo will now show liow this is done. 
 
 2. Every action, state, etc., that can be assorted by a verb, 
 must take place in time present, in time past, or in time tO 
 come. There are, therefore, three main tenses, namely, 
 
 the present tho past, and the fiiture. 
 
 3. To express a difT'erence between time present and time past 
 we cliango the form of the v>3rb as shown in the foregoing models; 
 but to expi'oss future time wo must have recourse to tho helping 
 verbs shall and will, and by means of these form verb-phrases. 
 Thus, if we wr.nt to express, for instance, tbno the action of 
 praising or writing is to be done in time to come, we put shall or 
 will before the root-inlinitive (dropping the to), and say — 
 
 SiNtlULAR. 
 
 I shall praise, write. 
 Thou wilt " 
 He will " 
 
 Plural. 
 We shall praise, write. 
 You will 
 They will 
 
 i( 
 
 (( 
 
 (( 
 
 C( 
 
 And this compound form, or verbal-phrase, since it aigni^efi/uture 
 action, we call a future tense. 
 
 4. To decide whether shall or will is the right auxiliary to 
 use, observe that to denote simply something that is going to 
 
|,l.S.s(»N XXXVI.] 
 
 TEN at: PIIHASES. 
 
 181 
 
 fiikr placo, wo uso shall iii i\w Jti'nt pnrson, singular and pit' ra/, 
 ukI will in thu tfrcond and third: tlius, 
 
 1. I shall ^'o. 
 
 2. Th. 11 wilt go. 
 
 3. Ji«) will <'o. 
 
 1. Wt; qhall go. 
 
 2. You will go. 
 ;i. They will go. 
 
 5. But, l)osi(l(!s .siinj)lo futurity, tho same ttuxiliari«>s will 
 (li'iioto tho sp«Nikor's promiso, or, when eini)hatic, his detrnnina- 
 tiou. Wo thoti rovorso tlio above, and use will for the Jit'st 
 ptifson, and shall for tho nccond and third: thus, 
 
 117// in first person,—- 
 
 (Promise.) — I will see (i.e., I promise to see) that he does so. 
 (Determination.) — I will go (i.e., I am determined to go), what- 
 ever may oppose. 
 
 Shd// in second and third, — 
 
 (Promise.) — You shall have it. It shall be there; rely on 
 me for that. 
 
 (Determination.)— You shall go ; I exact it of you. 
 
 He shall go, in spite of him and you. 
 
 6. Hence, summing up as rules what we have here learned 
 about shall and will, we may say: 
 
 To denote ft iturili) simply, tise shall in the first person and will 
 ill the second and third. 
 
 To denote the 8j)enker's promise or determination, use will in the 
 first person and shall in the second and third. 
 
 7. But in speaking of an action, we often want to express not 
 only the tiine of its taking phice, but also whether it was going 
 on (and therefore incomplete or imperfect), or was tinishtd (and 
 therefore complete or perfect) at the time indicated. 
 
 Now, the simple forms of the verb, in either the present or the 
 pHst tenses, do not express completeness of action; nor yet does 
 
132 
 
 IN^l.ECTION OF THE VERB. 
 
 [PAUT III. 
 
 the verb-phraso wliich wo call a future tense ; for the forms I praJSG, 
 I praised, I shall iralSG, for in.stauce, rather give us the idea that 
 the action is undnished, and therefore incomplete or imperfect 
 at the preSGtlt, past, Jind future time. And if we wish to (express 
 the comi)ieteness or perfectness of the action at these times, we 
 must liavo recourse to another helping verb, have.. 
 
 If we use of this verb the present tense have, the past had, 
 and the futui'e shall have, and put with them the perfect par- 
 ticiple praised, we form three other so-called tenf-es by whicii we 
 can express the perfectness of the action in present, past, and 
 future time respectively : thus, 
 
 I have praised expresses the perfectness of the action at the 
 present time, and may be called a present perfect tense. 
 
 I had praised expresses the perfectness of the action at some 
 time in the past, and may bo called a past perfect tense. 
 
 I shall have praised expresses that the action will be perfect 
 at some time in the future, and may be called a future 
 PERFECT tense. 
 
 8. In this way each of the three main tenses is split into 
 two tenses, one to express incomplete or imperfect action, and 
 the other to express complete or perfect action: thus, 
 
 Main Tenses. Tenses. 
 
 Present into ^^' ^^®®®^* (Imperfect), e.g., I praise, 
 
 Past into 
 
 Future i 
 
 2. (Present) Perfect, e.g., I have praised. 
 
 Jl. Past (Imperfect), e.g., I praised, 
 12. Past Perfect, e.g., I had praised. 
 
 1. Future (Imperfect), e.g., I shall praise. 
 Future Perfect, e.g., I shall have praised. 
 
 (^ 
 
 9. In naming these six tenses, however, the words we have 
 here printed in parentheses are omitted for the sake of shortness, 
 .iud the past perfect is usually called the pluperfect (which is 
 intended to mean the same thing). 
 
LF.SX > < X X X V 1 1 . ] PROG R ESS 1 VE VERB-PUR A SES. 
 
 133 
 
 If, now, using tho verb praisC in the first person singular, 
 wt' j^ivo a collected vi(;w of the tenses with their usual names 
 and in their usual order, it will he as follows: — 
 
 Pkesent. 
 
 Past. 
 
 Perfect. 
 
 Pluperfect. 
 
 Future. 
 
 I praise, 
 I praised, 
 I have praised, 
 I had praised, 
 I shall praise. 
 Future Perfect. I shall have praised. 
 
 Exercise 1,22. — Give the first person singular in each of the six 
 tenses of the verba — love, wish, work, walk, sleep, keep, write, (jive, speak, 
 kll, see, and rise. 
 
 LESSON XXXVII. 
 
 THE VERB.-OTHBR VERB-PHRASES. 
 
 1. Progressive Verb-phrases. — Besides the verb-phrases, 
 spoken of in the last lesson, that help to distinguish the tense or 
 tiiiK! of an action, there are other verb-phrases, formed by using 
 other auxiliary verbs, that enable us to express other distinctions. 
 Foi', if we join the simple and compound forms of the auxiliary 
 verb be (par. 10, Lesson XXXV.) to the im2)erfect jmrticiple of 
 any verb, we can represent the action of that verb as going on, or 
 \\\ progress, at the time indicated by any of our six tenses: thus. 
 
 Present. 
 
 Past. 
 
 Perfect. 
 
 Pluperfect. 
 
 Future. 
 
 Future Perfect. 
 
 I am giving, 
 
 I was giving, 
 
 I have been g-iving, 
 
 I had been giving, 
 
 I shall be gi/ing, 
 
 I shall have been giving. 
 
 Because these verb-phrases denote that the action of the verb is 
 in proijress at the time indicated, they make what are called the 
 HKucntHssiVE forms of the verb. 
 
i:v! 
 
 INFLECTION OF THE VERB. 
 
 [PAKT III, 
 
 !ii!: 
 
 :'; I 
 
 \" 
 
 I !' 
 
 
 
 2. Emphatic Verb-phrases. — Agrain, by joining the present 
 and past tenses (only) of the auxiliary verb dO to the root-mjinitiiv 
 of any verb, we form verb-phrases that enable us to render more 
 positive or emphatic the assertion made by that verb : thus, 
 
 Present. I do give. Past. I did give. 
 
 Because these verb-phrases, which are limited to the present and 
 ])ast tenses, render the assertion emphatic, they make what are 
 called the emphatic forms of the verb. 
 
 Notice that the same verbs do and did are used also by us in asking a 
 (question, and in making denials : thus, 
 
 Do I give ? Did he give ? I do not give ; He did not give ; 
 
 but in such interrogative and negative sentences, do and did do not denote 
 emphasis. 
 
 3. Potential Verb-phrases. —Although, as was stated in 
 
 Lesson XXXII., we have inflectional forms for those modes 
 
 only of expressing the action of the verb, which we called the 
 
 indicative, the subjunctive, and the imperative moods; yet the 
 
 action of the verb is sometimes expressed in dependent sentences 
 
 by verb-phrases in ways that have the nature of moods: as when 
 
 we say 
 
 I may (or can) go if I like. 
 
 I might (or could) go ii I liked. 
 
 These verb-phrases are formed by joining the present and past 
 tenses of the auxiliary verbs may and can to the root-infinitive 
 of any verlj. They express that an action is possible from the 
 subject having poiver to perform it. They are, therefore, called 
 the prese,nt and past potential verb-phrases of the verb to which 
 these auxiliaries are joined. (^Potential means having power.) 
 
 4. Obligative Verb-phrases. — Again, other verb-phrases, 
 that have the nature of a mood, express an obligation on the part 
 of the subject to do a certain act: as when we say 
 
 I must )••<..! • X 
 
 V give, if they are in want. 
 
 I ought to J 
 They are formed, as is seen, by joining the root-infinitive to the 
 
LESSON XXXVII.] CONDITIONAL VERB PHRASES. 
 
 135 
 
 auxiliary verbs must and ought^ and since these phrases imply 
 oUi;/atio7i, they are called the obligativp: verb-phrases of the 
 vorbs to which these auxiliaries are joined. 
 
 5. The difference between may and can is chiefly this: that may ex- 
 presses possibility in the most general way, whereas can expresses possi- 
 bility that depends on the will or the ability of the subject: thus, I may 
 go means I have the power to go because there is nothing to hinder my 
 going; I can go means I have in myself the power to go if I like to 
 exert it. 
 
 The difference between must and ought (to) is : that must expresses 
 necessity, «.e., obligation which the subject is forced to fulfil; whereas 
 ought (to) expresses duty, i.e., obligation which the subject may or may 
 not fulfil: th.is, T must give means something obliges me to give j I ought 
 to give inei,.u6 it is my duty to give. 
 
 6. Conditional Verb-phrases.-— Once more, other verb- 
 phrases, that also have the nature of a mood, express the action 
 of the verb as depending on some condition : as when we say 
 
 I should go if I could get away; 
 I would grive if I had the means. 
 
 They are formed by joining the root-infinitive of any verb to should 
 and would — the past tenses of shall and will. And these verb- 
 phrases, since they imply a condition, are called the coxditional 
 verb-phrases of the ^ rb to which these auxiliaries are joined. 
 
 It is important to nc • i : . ' these verbs with an infinitive are not always 
 to be regarded as verb- ^i .-I h with the nature of moods. Sometimes 
 they have as independent a i lOaning and character as other verbs which 
 have an infinitive dependent on them : thus, 
 
 You can either go or stay. 
 
 They may improve before we return. 
 
 We must begin as soon as it gets dark. 
 
 He would start, i.e., was determined to start. 
 
 I could not (i.e., was not able to) stop him. 
 
 7. Imperative Verb-phrase — In par. 8, Lesson XXXII., 
 it was mentioned that a command can be given only to a second 
 person who is always present to the person giving the command. 
 But we have a verb-phrase which is much used to intimate a wish 
 or direction in the third person and even in the^rs^. It is formed 
 of the verb let, followed by a pronoun or noun in the objective 
 
I ; 
 
 
 ' 
 
 136 
 
 INFLECTION OF THE VERB. 
 
 [part III. 
 
 case, and that followed ])y the root-infinitive of any verb: thus, 
 
 Let me (or us) give. Let him (her, it or them) give. 
 Let the messenger set out at once. 
 
 Since this form seems to supply the place of an imperative mood 
 in the first and third persons, it may properly be called an 
 IMPERATIVE verb-phrase. 
 
 8. With regard to the compound forms mentioned in this 
 lesson, let it be observed that in what we called the emphatic 
 form of the verb, viz. : I do praiSG^ I did praiSG, the words do, 
 dost, does (present), and did, didst (past), are the real verbs of 
 the phrases; and that praiSG is the root-infinitive, and is the object 
 of the transitive verb do. Thus, I dO praiSG strictly means j dO 
 
 or perform an act of praising. 
 
 We might properly enough always analyze and parse in this 
 manner the phrases which constitute this form. But since such 
 phrases are used in making sentences just as tenses composed of 
 simple verbs are used, we find it convenient not to analyze them, 
 but to treat them as if they were simple tenses. We therefore 
 call the phrases I do praise, I did praise, etc., the emphatic pre- 
 sent and PAST of the verb praise. 
 
 9. So, too, in the " progressive form " made by using the imper- 
 fect participle of any verb after the several parts of the verb be | as, 
 
 I am giving, He was giving, 
 the participle giving has the value of a predicate adjective (Lesson 
 X.), modifying the subject of the auxiliary verb be, just as the 
 predicate adjectives generOUS and liberal modify I and he in 
 
 I am generous, He was liberal. 
 And in this way we might always break up these phrases; but, 
 as before, it is more convenient to treat them as if they were 
 simple tenses; we therefore call these phrases the progressive 
 forms of the verb give. 
 
 10. Again, when we make owv future tense by the help of shall 
 and will, and say, I shall praise, he will write, etc., the words 
 praise and write are root-infinitives, governed in the objective 
 case by the transitive verbs shall and will, For shall meant 
 
 •iti 
 
LK.SSO.V XXXVII.] 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 137 
 
 originally owe, be Under obligation, and will meant wish, resolve, 
 determine. So tliat I shall praise, he will write, really signify 
 
 I owe, I am bound, to praise ; 
 
 He intends, he is determined, to write. 
 
 But although the future is in this way compounded of a 
 (transitive) verb and an infinitive (object), it is nevertheless 
 treated as if it were a simple tense. 
 
 The same explanation applies to the conditional forms made 
 l)y adding the root-infinitive to should and WOuld, the past tenses 
 
 of shall and will. Thus, I should praise signifies I owed, was 
 bound, to praise ; and He would write signifies He intended, was 
 resolved, to write. 
 
 11. Lastly, the verb that is joined to the auxiliaries may, Can, 
 must and ought, to make the potential and ohligative forms, is 
 easily seen to be an infinitive, if we substitute the equivalents of 
 these auxiliaries, and say, for instance, I am permitted, am able, 
 
 am compelled, am in duty bound, to write. These forms, too, 
 
 though thus compounded, are best treated as simple forms. 
 
 Exercise 123. — Write out in full, (1) the progressive, (2) the em- 
 phatic, (3) the potential, (4) the obligative, (5) the conditional — forms of 
 the verbs look, think, tell and say. 
 
 Exerciae 124.— Errors for Correction.— Correct the following 
 
 sentences, giving reasons where you can: — 
 
 CAUTIONS.— Never say, Can I (we) go? Will I (we) go? for the first of 
 these questions means Am I able to go? and the second means Do I Intend 
 to go? and of these facts no one can Judge so well as yourself. But say, 
 May I go? i.e., Am I permitted to go? and Shall I go? I.e., Do you wish 
 me to go? 
 
 1. If you do this, I will be under a great obligation to you 2. Can I 
 speak to you ? Can we leave our seats ? 3. Will we see your friend when 
 we come ? 4. I will be under the necessity of asking for it. 5. Where 
 will you be if I come ? I will be to home 6. If I had saved my money 
 years ago, I would not have been in this condition now. 7. Will I tell 
 him you wants him if I sees him ? 8. When will you be able to pay me 
 back? 9. The master determined that the boys would not play in school 
 10. How will you proceed in the matter? 11. If we cannot go farther 
 what will we do? 12. The teacher hoped that we would all enjoy our- 
 selves. 13. You was too young, else you should have taken the prize. 
 14. If you'd have ran all the way, you'd have been in time 15. AVill we 
 be late at school? If so, we will lose our places. 16. Have you eat your 
 dinner as quick as that? 17. I shall have great pleasure in accepting 
 your invitation 18. A person having accidentally fallen into a pond cried 
 out <*I will be drownded; I will be drownded; and nobody shftlfhelpmc." 
 
138 
 
 INFLECTION OF THE VERB. 
 
 [part hi. 
 
 ii 
 
 \l 
 
 I '; 1 :' ? 
 
 v\ f 
 
 
 1 ifi' 
 
 I 
 
 LESSON XXXVIII. 
 
 THE VERB.-OTHER TENSE AND PROGRESSIVE 
 FORMS.-SCHEME OF CONJUGATION. 
 
 1. Tense Forms Not only does the verb have help to form 
 
 the perfect and pluperfect tenses, indicative mood, as shown in 
 par. 7, Lesson XXXVI., but this same auxiliary helps to form 
 the same tenses of the subjunctive mood, and of those other forms 
 of the verb which we called potential, obligative, and conditional 
 verb-phrases: thus, 
 
 Pluperfect. 
 If I had given. 
 
 Pluperfect. 
 1 might or could have given. 
 
 Subjunctive mood, — 
 
 Perfect. 
 If I have given, 
 
 Potential verb-phrase^ — 
 
 Perfect. 
 I may or can have given, 
 
 Obligative verb-phrase, — 
 
 Perfect. 
 
 I must or ought to have given. 
 
 Conditional verb-phrase, — 
 
 Perfect. 
 I should or would have given. 
 
 Participle, — 
 
 Perfect (Active). Having given. 
 Perfect (Passive). Having been given. 
 
 Infinitive, — 
 
 Perfect. 
 
 To have given. 
 
 2. Progressive Forms. — Again, not only does the verb be 
 help to make the progressive form of each tense of the indicative 
 
LESSON XXXVIII.] 
 
 TE^SE FORMS. 
 
 139 
 
 nioncl, as shown in par. 1, Lesson XXX VTI., l)ut it helps also 
 to make the progressive form of the several tenses of the sub- 
 junctive mood, and of the phrases: thus, 
 
 Snhjinictive, mood, — 
 Pkesent. If I be giving", 
 Past. If I were g-iving", 
 
 I'KKFECT. If I have been givingr. 
 Pluperfect. If I had been giving. 
 
 Pofential verb-phrase, — i 
 
 Present. I may or can be giving, 
 Past. I might or could be giving, 
 
 Perfect. I may have or can have been giving. 
 Pluperfect. I might have or could have been giving. 
 
 OhJigative verb-phrase, — 
 Present. I must or ought to be giving, 
 
 Perfect. I must or ought to have been giving. 
 
 Conditional verb-phrase, — 
 Present. I should or would be giving, 
 Perfect. I should or would have been giving. 
 
 Imperative mood, — 
 Present. Be giving. 
 
 Irifinitive,- 
 Present. 
 Perfect. 
 
 (To) Be giving, 
 
 (To) Have been giving. ■ 
 
 Participle, — 
 Perfect (Active). Having been giving. 
 Perfect (Passive). Being given. 
 
 3. Scheme of Conjugation. — If, now, we put all the verbal 
 forms we have so far learned about into one scheme, so as to 
 present them at one view, it will be as follows : — 
 
 NoTK TO Teaciirr. — The original and simple forms of the verb are put in small capitals 
 ''jdiatinj^uigh tlieni from tiie phrase forms. It has not been thought necessary to give 
 
140 
 
 INFLECTION OF THE VERB. 
 
 [part III. 
 
 more of each tense than the first pergon nin^rular, and since the four tenses of the Hub- 
 jiuictivtt do not dilTcr in form or name from the first four tenses of the indicative, they 
 have been omitte^ for brevity's sake. 
 
 n\ 
 
 m 
 
 V ■ 
 
 im 
 
 
 
 STEM. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Give. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Principal Parts. 
 
 
 
 
 Give, 
 
 Gave, 
 
 Given. 
 
 
 
 
 Present. 
 
 
 
 
 Slmrlo. 
 
 
 Emphatic. 
 
 
 
 Progresslvo, 
 
 GIVE 
 
 
 do give 
 
 Past. 
 
 
 
 am giving 
 
 GAVE 
 
 
 did give 
 
 
 
 was giving 
 
 Simple. 
 
 
 Perfect. 
 
 
 Proffresslve. 
 
 have given 
 
 
 have been 
 
 giving 
 
 had given 
 shall or will give 
 shall or will have given 
 should or would give 
 
 Pluperfect. 
 
 had been giving 
 
 Future. 
 
 shall or will be giving 
 
 Future Perfect. 
 
 shall or will have been giving 
 
 Conditional. 
 
 should or would be giving 
 
 Conditional Perfect. 
 
 should or would have given should or would have been giving 
 
 Potential. 
 
 may or can give may or can be giving 
 
 Potential Past. 
 
 might or could give might or could be giving 
 
 Potential Perfect. 
 
 may or can have given may or can have been giving 
 
 Potential Pluperfect. 
 
 might or could have given might or could have been giving 
 
[part III. 
 
 I.KSSON xxxviii ] SCHEME OF COKJUt! AVION. 
 
 Ml 
 
 iscs of the Rub- 
 ndicative, they 
 
 giving 
 ring 
 een giving 
 
 ig 
 
 giving 
 en giving 
 
 must or ought to give 
 
 Ohliijative. 
 
 must or ought to be giving 
 
 ObWjative Perfect. 
 
 must or ought to have given must or ought to have been giving 
 
 
 
 Imperative. 
 
 
 
 simple. 
 
 Kiii]ilmtli-. 
 
 ProffrcHslvf, 
 
 
 GIVE 
 
 do give 
 
 Phraml Imperative. 
 
 be giving 
 
 
 let (me, etc.) give 
 
 do let (me, etc.) give 
 
 let (me, etc.) be giving 
 
 ve, 
 
 ring 
 
 (to) CIVE 
 
 Infinitive, 
 
 (to) be giving 
 
 ving 
 
 (to) have given 
 
 Infinitive Perfect. 
 
 (to) have been giving 
 
 1 
 
 Imperfect Participle and Oerund. 
 GIVING. 
 
 Simple. 
 
 having given 
 
 GIVEN 
 
 Perfect Active Participle and Gerund. 
 Perfect Participle, 
 
 Progrcs.slvD, 
 
 having been giving' 
 
 being given 
 
 Sxercise 125. — (l) Tell the form and the tense of each of the verbs 
 in the following sentences ; (2) Complete the tense by gi\'ing each person 
 and number of it: — 
 
 1. I am helping my mother. 2. He was hurting me. 3. The teacher 
 praised the diligent pupil. 4. Everyone esteems an honest man. 5. We 
 shall go when we have finished our work. 6. Succtss will crown his 
 efforts. 7. The rising moon has hid the stars. 8. In her veins the red 
 river is fast running high. 9. We were standing near M'hen the accident 
 happened. 10. Behind the clouds is the sun still shining. 11. He has 
 been feigning sickness. 12. Home they brought her warrior dead. 13. 
 Snow had been falling all the night. 14. I wish we could hear the Inch- 
 cape Bell. 15. We shall have finished our practice when you call. 16. 
 Trust in God, and do the right. 17. He could easily have given ten 
 dollars, and he ought to have given five at least. 18. To err is human, to 
 forgive divine. 19. Let me hear my Father's voice. 
 
 20. Alas I they had been friends in youth. 
 But whispering tongues can poison truth. 
 
 21. The dew was falling fast, the stars began to blink; 
 
 I heard a voice; it said, " Drink, pretty creature, drink!" 
 
142 
 
 INFLECTION OF THE VERB. 
 
 [I'AKT III. 
 
 i' , 
 
 ' LESSON XXXIX. 
 
 THE VERB.-PASSIVE VERB PHRASES. 
 
 1. It has already been explained (see Lesson XIX.) that a 
 
 transitive verb is one that requires to be completed by an object; 
 
 as, 
 
 He digs the garden. 
 
 The fisherman was mending his nets. 
 
 And that an intransitive verb is one Ihat does not require to 
 be completed by an object; as. 
 
 The child kneels. Boys sleep soundly. 
 
 2. Now, when the verb of a sentence is transitive, the asser- 
 tion may be made in either of two ways. Compare, for instance, 
 the following: 
 
 The boy caught a fish. 
 
 A fish was caught by the boy. 
 
 It will be seen that these two sentences state the same fact; the 
 only difference is in the form or manner of stating it. And it 
 will be noticed that this difference consists in taking the word 
 fish, which is the object in the first sentence, and making it the 
 subject of the second sentence, and then slightly altering the form 
 of the verb. 
 
 The first sentence brings out prominently the idea that the 
 subject boy was acting, i.e., doing something ; the second sentence 
 that the subject fish endured or Suffered the something done. 
 The form that the verb must take will depend, then, upon 
 whether the subject is to be represented as acting, or as suffering 
 an action. 
 
 3. Now, all through the scheme of conjugation given in the 
 last lesson, the subject, it will be seen, is represented as acting, 
 i.e., as doing the action expressed by the verb. That scheme 
 may, therefore, be called the active conjugation. To represent 
 
LESSON XXXIX.] PASSIVE VERB-PHRASES, 
 
 143 
 
 the subject, not as doing the action expressed by the verb, but 
 as endurimj or suffering it, we use a set of verb-phrases made by 
 putting the perfect, t.e., the passive participle of any transitive 
 verb, after tlie various forms, simple and compound, of the verb 
 be. The set of verb-phrases thus formed is called, to distinguish 
 it from the other, the PASSIVE conjugation; for passive^ as was 
 sliown, means enduring or su^ering. Thus, using the active 
 conjugation, we say 
 
 {Present tense), He gives the money ; 
 
 using the passive conjugation, i.e., first taking the object money 
 
 and making it the subject, then putting the perfect or passive 
 
 participle of the verb, namely, given, after that tense of the verb 
 
 be that corresponds to the tense of give, namely, the present, we 
 
 say 
 
 The money is given by him. 
 
 Again, active conjugation, we say 
 
 [Past tense), He gave the money ; 
 
 passive conjugation, 
 
 The money was given by him. 
 
 Active conjugation, 
 
 {Perfect tense), He has given the money; 
 
 passive conjugation, 
 
 The money has been given by him; 
 
 and so on through all the other tenses. 
 
 4. By using the passive, instead of the active, conjugation, we 
 are able to give greater variety to our language, and to represent 
 the enduring of an action without mentioning the actor. Indeed, 
 the actor is omitted whenever (1) we are ignorant of him, or (2) 
 wish to conceal him, or (3) think it unimportant to mention him. 
 Thus, omitting the actor, we may say 
 
 The money is given. The money was given. 
 The money has been given. 
 
 t^ 
 

 I i 
 
 ii 
 
 PI I 
 
 til 
 
 U4 
 
 INFLECTION OF THE VERB. 
 
 [fart III. 
 
 5. The passive conjugation (loos not admit of emphatic verb- 
 phrases (except ill the phrasal-imperative), for the reason that 
 the verl) be, the auxiliary of the passive, admits of none. Thus, 
 we may say 
 
 He is, Lut not, He does be ; He was, but not, He did be. 
 
 Hence, too, we may not say 
 
 The money does be given ; nor, The money did be gfiven. 
 
 Moreover, the passive conjugation has progressive forms for the 
 present and past tenses only, 
 
 6. Passive Conjugation. — If now we give a scheme of the 
 Passive Conjugation, corresponding to that of the Active, it will 
 be as follows : — 
 
 Love. 
 
 Present. 
 
 Simple. 
 
 I am loved, 
 I was loved, 
 
 ProtfrosHlve. 
 
 I am being loved. 
 
 Past. 
 
 I was being loved. 
 
 Perfect. 
 
 I have been loved. 
 
 Pluperfect. 
 
 I had been loved. 
 
 Future. 
 
 I shall or will be loved. 
 
 Future Perfect. 
 
 I shall or will have been loved. 
 
 Conditional. 
 
 I should or would be loved. 
 
 Conditional Perfect. 
 
 I should or would have been loved. 
 
 Potential. 
 
 I may or can be loved. 
 
 Potential Past. 
 
 I might or could be loved. 
 
LKSSON XXXIX.] 
 
 PASSIVE GONJVOATION. 
 
 140 
 
 Potential Perfect. 
 
 I may (><' can have been loved. 
 
 Potential Phq>er/eet. 
 
 I might or could have been loved. 
 
 ObUgative. 
 
 I must or ought to be loved. 
 
 ObUgative. Perfect. 
 
 I must or ought to have been loved. 
 
 hnperative. 
 
 Be loved. 
 
 Phrasal Imperative, 
 
 Let (me, etc.) be loved, Do let (me, etc.) be loved. 
 
 Injinitive. 
 
 (To) be loved. 
 
 Infinitive Perfect. 
 
 (To) have been loved. 
 
 Perfect Participle. 
 
 LOVED. 
 
 Having been loved. 
 
 Being loved. 
 
 7. Great care must be taken to distinguish the Passive Conju- 
 gation from the Progressive Form of the Active. Young pupils 
 are liable to confound these, for the reason that they both 
 use the verb bG as an auxiliary. It will be noticed that the 
 Passive Oonjugation uses with the verb be the Perfect Par- 
 ticiple, while the Progressive Form of the Active uses with the 
 verb be the Imperfect Participle : thus, 
 
 Passive Conjugation, I am loved. (Perf. Part.) 
 
 Progressive Form of Active, I am loving. (Imp. Part.) 
 
 Exercise 126. — In the following sentences, say which verba belong 
 to the Passive Conjugation, and which are in the Progressive Form of the 
 Active : — 
 
 I. I am helping. 2. I am helped. 3. He was hurting me. 4. He was 
 hurt. 5. He is scaling the mountain. 6. The mountain is seldom 
 sealed. 7. Thou art defied. 8. Thou art defying. 9. Time is passing. 
 10. We were writing at the time. 11. The letters were written at the 
 time. 12. They are finishing their lessons. 13. Their lessons are finished. 
 14. The architect has been changing the plans. 15. The plans have beei) 
 
 10 
 
f! 
 
 146 
 
 PARSING OF VERBS. 
 
 [part III. 
 
 :; I 
 
 1^. 
 
 'S; 
 
 '.tHj 
 
 'Vm . 
 
 "'HI 
 
 f'' 
 
 changed. 16. Tiie shades of night are falling fast. 17. Behind the clouds 
 is the sun still shining. 18. The sun was reddening the clouds of mum. 
 19. In her veins the red river is fast running high. 20. The pass was 
 filled with their serried power. 
 
 Sxercise 127. — l. Say whether the verbs (or verb-phrases^ of the 
 following sentences belong to the Active or to the Passive Conjugation. 
 2. Change the active into the passive conjugation, or the passive into the 
 active, as the case may be: — 
 
 1. The teacher praises the diligent scholar. 2. Everyone esteems an 
 honest man. 3. The son was taught by his father. 4. Success crowned 
 his eflforts. 5. The British Empire is ruled by the Queen. 6. He has 
 been feigning sickness. 7. Tea is imported from China. 8. Home they 
 brought her warrior dead. 9. Sorrow is lightened by sympathy. 10. 
 Stone walls do not a prison make. 11. We buried him darkly at dead of 
 night. 12. All your prayers are heard in heaven. 13. The rising moon 
 has hid the stars. 14. Monster ! by thee my child's devoured. 
 
 15. Now he stirred their souls to passion, 
 Now he melted them to pity. 
 
 16. W^ carved not a line, we raised not a stone. 
 But left him alone in his glory. 
 
 Parsingf. — In parsing a verb we have first to say whether it is a simple 
 verb or a verb-phrase. If it is a verb-phrase, it must be taken apart into 
 the auxiliary and the infinitive or participle that goes with this to make 
 up the phrase. We have next to say whether the verb is transitive or 
 intransitive, then of which conjugation; the principal parts are then to be 
 given ; then the mood and tense are to be stated, and the tense may be 
 inflected in full. Finally the number and person must be given, and the 
 subject-nominative with which (in respect to number and person) the verb 
 agrees. 
 
 Remark. — Under the name verb infinitives and participles are not 
 included, except as they are used along with auxiliaries to form verb- 
 phrases. 
 
 You gave ris our orders; we listened, and ive shall not forget them. 
 
 Model lo—gavct 
 
 listened, 
 
 a verb, transitive ; Old Conjugation ; priiioipal 
 parts, give, gave, given; indicative mood; 
 past tenae ; inflected, I gavC; thou gavest, 
 he gave, we, you, they gave ; second per- 
 son; plural; to agree with its subject the 
 pronoun you. 
 
 a verb, intransitivt ; New Conjugation ; prin- 
 cipal parts, listen, listened, listened; past 
 tense; indicative mood; first person; plural; 
 to agree with its subject the pronoun we. 
 
[part III. 
 
 lul the clouds 
 >uds of morn. 
 The pass was 
 
 lirases) of the 
 Conjugation, 
 ssive into the 
 
 le esteems an 
 jcess crowned 
 I. 0. Ilfc has 
 >, Home tliey 
 mpathy. 10. 
 illy at dead of 
 e rising moon 
 &d. 
 
 LK.S.SON Xli.] 
 
 ADVERBS. 
 
 147 
 
 r it is a simple 
 icen apart into 
 this to make 
 transitive or 
 re then to he 
 tense may be 
 iven, and the 
 son) the verb 
 
 pies are not 
 |o form verb- 
 
 thevi. 
 
 [)n; priucipal 
 [ative mood; 
 
 lou gavest, 
 1 second per- 
 
 subject the 
 
 |ation; prin- 
 f:ened; past 
 3on ; plural ; 
 loun we. 
 
 shall forget, a verb-phrase — made up of the auxiliary Hhall 
 and the infinitive forget — transitive; Old 
 Conjugation ; principal parts, forget, forgot, 
 forgotten; future tenSfe; indicative moml; 
 first person ; plural ; to agree with its sub- 
 ject we. 
 
 lie mnut have been suffering intennely, as his leg toas broken. 
 
 Model 3. — must have been suffering, a verb-phrase, made up of the 
 
 auxiliary must have been and the present 
 participle suffering, the two composing to- 
 gether the progressive form of the obligative 
 perfect of the verb suffer. It is intransitive, 
 etc., etc. 
 was broken, a passive verb-phrase, composed of the auxiliary 
 was and the perfect participle broken. It is 
 transitive, etc., etc. 
 
 Exercise 128. — Parse, according to the above models, the verba in 
 the two last exercises. 
 
 LESSON XL. 
 
 ADVERBS, PREPOSITIONS, AND CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 1. Prepositions and conjunctions have no variation of form at 
 all, of the kind we have called inflection. They are called, there- 
 fore, the UNINFLECTED parts of speech. A few adverbs, which are 
 either adjectives used also as adverbs, or words resembling such 
 adjectives, have a comparison like that of the adjective : thus, 
 
 much, more, most ; well, better, best ; 
 soon, sooner, soonest; ill, worse, worst. 
 
 2q As has just been said, many words that are adjectives in 
 form are used adverbially. For example — 
 
 The lane is long (adj.). He has long (adv.) been ill. 
 The far (adj.) meadow. He is far (adv.) on his way. 
 A late (adj.) hour. They arrived late (adv.). 
 
1 1 
 ■ 1 
 
 148 
 
 PARSING OF ADVERBS. 
 
 [part III. 
 
 il 
 
 I \-^. 
 
 J w 
 
 Such double use, hbwever, can give no trouble if we remember 
 that the part of speech a word is depends on the office that it 
 tills in tlie sentence. 
 
 3. Parsingf. — An adverb is parsed by telling the kind, the degree (if 
 it be compared), and saying what verb, adjective, or adverb, it modifies. 
 
 If you work so hard to-day, to-morrow you roill he at home very ill. 
 
 Model. — so, an adverb of degree; modifying the adverb hard. 
 
 hard, an adverb of manner ; positive degree ; modifying 
 
 the verb icork. 
 
 to-day, an adverb of time ; modifying the verb tvorh. 
 
 to-morroxo, an adverb of time ; modifying the predicate-phrase 
 will he ill. 
 
 at homCf an adverb of place ; modifying the predicate-phrase 
 will he ill. 
 
 very, an adverb of degree ; modifying the predicate ad- 
 
 jective Ul. 
 
 ElxerciSO 129. — Parse, according to the foregoing model, the adverbs 
 found in the following sentences : — 
 
 1. The poor are always amongst us. 2. He recently came back. 3. I 
 lost my thimble yesterday, and found it to-day. 4. She bore her sufferings 
 very patiently. 5. I often meet your friend. 6. This is good enough. 
 7. iShe is seldom punctual. 8. I seldom saw such a storm; it raged 
 furiously. 9. We were greatly in danger. 10. The idle boy is generally 
 mischievous. 1 1 . Flowers soon fade. 12. My canary sings beautifully. 
 13. I never before saw such bad writing. 14. You are greatly to blame, 
 for you are old enough to know better. 15. I was very sorry to find my 
 friend so ill; he is much better to-day. 16. Where did j'ou see her? 
 
 Exercise 130. — Express the sense of each of the following adverbs, 
 or adverb phrases, by an adverb clause, and then use the clause in a com- 
 plex sentence of your own making : thus. 
 
 In the moonlight. 
 
 Model. — 1. Phrase changed into clause, — While the m,oon was shining. 
 2. Clause used in complex sentence, — While the moon loas 
 shining we could see our j^ath. 
 
 1. At sunrise. 2. In youth. 3. After school. 4. At the cross-roads. 
 5. Deliberately. 6. Unknowingly. 7. After sundown. 8. In his pres- 
 ence. 9. With your consent 
 12. Before church. 
 
 10. In daylight. 11. With my friend. 
 
 When several adverb clauses may be used, select the one that makes the 
 best sense and sound. 
 
I.KSSOy XL.] 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 U9 
 
 ;he adverbs 
 
 Exercise 131. — Express, in as many diflferent ways as you can, the 
 ideas contained in the predicates of the following sentences : thus, 
 
 He suffered patiently. 
 
 Model. — 1 . He suffered with patience. 
 
 2. '* without complaining. 
 
 3. He bore his sufferings in a patient manner. 
 
 4. ** " tifithout a murmur. 
 
 5. In his sufferings he never murmured. 
 
 1. The bird builds its nest with great skill. 2. With all speed he sent 
 ofT a telegram. 3. The baby sleeps peacefully. 4. Robins rise at dawn. 
 T). The crews cheered lustily. 6. He came with reluctance. 7. She at 
 all times conducts herself properly. 8. The procession moved forward 
 with solemnity. 
 
 Exercise 132.— Errors for Correction.— Correct all errors in 
 
 the following, and give reasons : — 
 
 CAUTIONS.— I. Never use the article a after such words as sort or kind. 
 Say, What kind of house? not, What kind of a house? etc. 2. Never use 
 the superlative when only two things are compared. Say, She is the younger 
 of the two; not, the youngest. 3. Use many with reference to things 
 counted; much with reference to things measured or weighed; as, many 
 cattle, much wheat or pork. 4. Use less with reference to size or bulk; 
 fewer with reference to number; as, less straw, fewer apples, 
 
 1. You walk too rapid; go along slow, then we shall do it quite easy. 
 2. She looked so sweetly, and sang so lovely and correct. 3. My dog is 
 the comicalest fellow you ever seen. 4. What kind of a machine do you 
 call that? 5. I like t..ese kind of bouquets — how sweetly the mignonette 
 smells in it. 6. During this extreme bad weather there has been many 
 colds caught. 7. Not much buflfalo are now seen along the track of the 
 C. P. 1\. 8. The horse and elephant are both strong, but the elephant is 
 much the strongest of the two. 9. The norman was an elder house than 
 the plantagenet. 10. Toronto has a larger population than any city in 
 Out. 11. Don't forgit to fasten it on good and strong. 12. In the proper 
 distribution of adverbs the ear carefully requires to be consulted as well 
 as the sense. 13. Whenever I try and improve I always find I can do it. 
 14. Every person whatever be their station are bound by the laws of 
 morality. 15. The winter has not been as severe as we expected it to be. 
 16. They came agreeable to their promise and behaved their selves suit- 
 able to the occasion. 17. T do wish them boys would act quiet. 18. There 
 are less bushels of wheat to the acre this year than last. 19. Scarce had 
 the audience went, but the building took fire. 20. A fondness for show 
 is, of all other follies, the most vain. 21. Iron is more useful than all the 
 metals. 
 
 4, To use the same words too frequently, and to form their sentences 
 too much after one fashion, are very common faults of young writers. 
 Many of the previous exercises in composition were framed with a view 
 to correct these faults, by showing how the place of words, phrases and 
 
150 
 
 CUMPOSITIOX. 
 
 [part III. 
 
 ill 
 
 clauses may be varied without altering the sense, and how the same 
 sense niriy bo conveyed by the use of different words or of different con- 
 structions. 
 
 Additional practice of this kind may bo obtained, 1st, by turning pas- 
 sages of poetry into the order of prose, using the same words, or nearly 
 so ; 2nd, by taking the ideas only from the poetry and expressing them by 
 different words, as far as possible, in prose. The first is called transposing 
 POETRY, and tlie second PARAPiXRASiNct poktry. Before either can be 
 done, and especially before the second can be done, the meaning of the 
 poetry must bo thoroughly understood. 
 
 Examples. 
 
 Xear yonder copse where once the garden smiled, 
 And still where many a garden flower grows wild, 
 There, where a few torn shrubs the place disclose, 
 The village preacher's modest mansion rose. 
 A man he was to all the country dear. 
 And passing rich with forty pounds a year. 
 
 Transposed. — The modest mansion of the village preacher rose near 
 yonder copse, where the garden once smiled, where many a garden flower 
 still grows wild, [and] where a few torn shrubs [still] disclose the place. 
 He was a man who was dear to all the country, and who, with forty pounds 
 a year, was passing rich. 
 
 Paraphrased. — The humble abode of the village preacher used to 
 stand on the border of yonder wood, in that very spot where many garden 
 flowers still grow wild, and where a few shrubs, rough and broken, still 
 point out the place whei'e his garden once bloomed. This preacher was 
 a man highly esteemed by the whole neighborhood, and, although his 
 ;: alaiy was only forty pounds a year, he was considered more than rich. 
 
 Exercise 133. — First tx*anspose and then paraphrase the following 
 poetical extracts. Other passages may be selected by the teacher from 
 the Readers or elsewhere: — 
 
 1. On Linden, when the sun was low. 
 All bloodless lay th' im trodden snow. 
 And dark as winter was the flow 
 
 Of Iser rolling rapidly. 
 
 2. Hope, like the glimmering taper's light, 
 
 Adorns and cheers the way ; 
 And still, as darker grows the night. 
 Emits a brighter ray. 
 
151 
 
 PART IV. 
 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 Ill the preceding lessons we have been dealing chiefly with 
 words. We have learned to tell, from its use in the sentence, 
 what part of speech a word is ; we have learned how the parts 
 of speech are classified, and how some of them are inflected. 
 The branch of grammar that treats of these matters is known as 
 ETYMOLOGY. The term means a knowledge of the origin^ uses, 
 and changes of words. 
 
 But, while learning what we have done about words as words, 
 i.e., about etymology, we have learned a good deal about the way 
 in which words are put together into sentences to enable us to 
 express our thoughts. This branch of grammar is really distinct 
 from the other, and is known as syntax. The term literally 
 means an arranging together. We shall now, in a manner more 
 connected and systematic than before, take up the subject of 
 Syntax, or the proper way of arranging words in sentences. 
 
 LESSON XLI. 
 
 SIMPLE SENTBNCB.-SUBJBCT AND VERB. 
 
 1. The combinations of words which we make in expressing 
 our thoughts are called sentences, and these sentences, as to 
 form, may be assertive, interrogative, or imperative (Lesson XYII.) 
 But l)y far the most common form of the sentence is the assertive, 
 ie., the form that is used in making an assertion or statement. 
 
I V 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 
 iimrai 
 
 152 
 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 [part rv. 
 
 2. In every assertion or statement, as we learned in Part I., 
 there must be a subject to name that about which the assertion 
 is made, and a predicate to assert what we say of the subject. 
 The subject may be either a noun or a pronoun, or some other 
 word or words having the value of a noun. The predicate must 
 contain, as its essential part, a verb, because the verb is the only 
 part of speech that asserts (Lessons V. and VII.) 
 
 3. When a noun or a pronoun is used as subject, the case that 
 must be employed is the nominative or subjective case: thus, we 
 say 
 
 He (not him) loved; Who (not whom) spoke; 
 I (not me) give. 
 
 And since the essential part of the predicate is the verb, the 
 subject of the sentence is also cnlled the subject (or subject- 
 nominative) of the verb. 
 
 4-. Again, so far as the verb has different forms of person and 
 number, the form used is of the same person and number as the 
 subject: tlms, we say 
 
 I give (not gives); Thou goest (not go or goes); 
 The men were (not was or wast). 
 
 5. This relation of subject and verb is also expressed by saying 
 that the verb agrees with its subject in number and person; or 
 that the subject governs the verb in number and person — that 
 is, requires the verb to be of a certain character in these respects : 
 the subject being given, the verb is compelled to correspond with 
 it in number and person. 
 
 6. A sentence composed of a verb and its subject (or subject- 
 nominative), is called a bare sentence, and with respect to such 
 a sentence we have now these first rules of syntax, which are 
 applicable also to all sentences : 
 
 I. A sentence is composed of subject and predicate ; the 
 
 subject, a noun (or a word or words having the value of a noun), 
 names that of which something is asserted; the predicate, which 
 is a verb, expresses that which is asserted of the subject. 
 
[,ESSON XLI.] 
 
 THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 
 
 153 
 
 II. The subject of the sentence (also called the subject-nomina- 
 tive of the verb) is in the nominative case. 
 
 III. The verb agrees with its subject in person and number. 
 
 7. The foregoing are the general principles underlying all 
 sentences, but there are a few special cases under these rules 
 that need to be taken up here. 
 
 The Subject. — A verb sometimes has for its subject the 
 pronoun it, not as standing for any real actor, but as helping the 
 verb to assert that a certain action or state is going on without 
 reference to any actor or person : thus. 
 
 It rains; It thunders; It grrew dark; It strikes seven; 
 
 It will soon be winter. 
 
 Such subjects are called impersonal, and the verb is said to be 
 
 used IMPERSONALLY. 
 
 8. Again, the pronoun it very often stands as subject of a verb 
 to represent a word, a phrase, or a clause, which is the real 
 subject, and which is then put after the verb: thus. 
 
 It is sinful to lie ; It is doubtful whether he will come ; 
 
 that is. 
 
 To lie is sinful, Whether he will come is doubtful. 
 
 9. The Predicate. — In deciding the number of the verb we 
 must consider, not the form^ but the meaning of the subject. 
 From this principle it follows that 
 
 i. With a collective noun in the singular we use either a singular 
 or a plural verb, according as the subject means the collection as a 
 whole, or the sepr rate individuals of which it is composed : thus, 
 
 The council (considered as a whole) has decided the matter. 
 The council (considered as individuals) have decided the matter. 
 
 ii. Two or more singular nouns, or their equivalents, connected 
 by and regularly take a verb in the plural : thus, 
 
 Time and tide wait for no man. 
 
 He and I are in the same class. 
 
 To sing and play are very useful accomplishments. 
 
 i 
 
 f! 
 
154 
 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 [part IV. 
 
 i' ' 
 
 
 Rkmark. — If two or more singular nouns connected by and are preceded 
 by each, every or no, the verb must be singular : thus, 
 
 , Pygry [ nian and horse has fallen. 
 No liuman being and no animal is ever seen there. 
 
 iii. When two or more singular subjects are thought of as one 
 thing the verb is singular: thus, 
 
 Bread and cheese is wholesome food. 
 
 My friend and adviser warns me. 
 
 Her health and strength was ruined forever. 
 
 iv. When two singular subjects are conneci/od by OP or nOP the 
 verb is singular: thus, 
 
 Either John or James is in the wrong. 
 Neither the will nor the ability was wanting. 
 
 10. Of course, if the subjects connected by or or nor are both plural, 
 or one singular and the other plural, the verb will be plural. In the latter 
 case the plural subject should be placed nearest the verb; as, 
 
 Sher}*^^^ boys {^*;^J the girls have done this. 
 
 Neither } *^® leader | jJJJj. }^^^ "^®" ^^ *° blame. 
 
 Exercise 134. — In the following sentences point out the subject- 
 nominative, and mention the rules of syntax that apply to the verbs : — 
 
 1. From crag to crag leaps the live thunder. 2. It is the foe! they 
 come, they come. 2. Wolfe and Montcalm were brave generals. 4. 
 Cowardice and treachery generally go together. 5. The people were much 
 enraged. 6. The lowing herd wind slowly o'er the lea. 7. Each book 
 and paper was arranged. 8. Every boy and girl is to have a prize. 9. 
 No wheat and no corn was raised that year. 10. Neither the difficulty 
 nor the cost of travelling is insuperable. 11. Cries nor tears bring any 
 response. 12. No man detests slavery more than I do, I am its mortal 
 foe. 13. The house has decided the question. 14. To read and write 
 was once an honorable distinction. 15. No penitence or contrition is avail- 
 able now. 16. The saint, the father and the husband prays. 17. It was 
 the deep mid-noon. 18. The soldier and statesman was ready with his 
 counsel. 19. Why is dust and ashes proud ? 20. The cavalry were sent 
 to reconnoitre. 
 
 Exercise 136.— Errors for Correction.— Correct the follow- 
 ing, where necessary, and give reasons: — 
 
 1. Every man, woman, and child were put to the sword. 2. The 
 number of sufferers have not yet been ascertained. 3. The house as well 
 
LESSON XLii.J INCOMPLETE PREDICA TES. 
 
 155 
 
 as its inmates was destroyed by fire. 4. Gold nor lands availa to ward 
 off death. 5. There's several mistakes in this exercise, (i. Neither liis 
 conduct nor his language were what they should have been. 7. Bread 
 and cheese are wholesome food. 8. No food and no water are to be found 
 there. 9. Each book and paper were to be arranged. 10. Thinks I to 
 myself there's thieves in the house. 11. The horse and carriage are at the 
 door. 12. The committee is all of the same opinion. 13. My trusty 
 counsellor and friend has warned mo to have no dealings with such a man. 
 14. The secretary and the treasurer was on hand. 1.'). Milk and water 
 were his only drink. 16. Either the father or the son were left in charge. 
 17. Can you see a red and white flag ? I can see neither. 18. The school- 
 board was in the room. 19. Whom do you think I am ? 
 
 LESSON XLII. 
 
 INCOMPLETE PREDICATES. 
 
 1 . What was said in the last lesson had reference to a sentence 
 made up of a bare noun or pronoun and a bare verb. But it is 
 comparatively seldom that a sentence is made up of these alone, 
 and we have next to consider how this simple and necessary 
 framework of the sentence is extended and filled out, so as to 
 let us express more, C7 express ourselves with greater definite- 
 ness, in a single sentence. 
 
 2. Incomplete Predicate. — Many verbs are not in them- 
 selves complete as predicates ; we almost never put them alone 
 along with a subject ; when so put, they do not make a sentence 
 that seems to have a full meaning ; we wait for something more 
 to be added. 
 
 3. One class of these verbs is made up of such as call for 
 something more to be added relating to the subject, and further 
 describing or qualifying it ; and such verbs, as we saw in Lesson 
 X., may be completed by adding to them a predicate adjective or 
 a predicate noun : thus, 
 
 Pred. adjective.— I am ... poor. They look .... hungry. 
 
 Pred. noun. — We were — brothers. The men 
 
 seemed — porters. 
 
 W 
 
 I, 
 
■ 
 
 156 SYNTAX. [PART IV. 
 
 i 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 4. A word thus used is called a prkdicate noun or a predicate 
 
 ADJECTIVE, because it in a manner completes the predication or assertion 
 made by the verb ; it describes the subject, being made part of the asser- 
 tion respecting the latter ; it does so by the help of the verb which brings 
 it into connection with the subject. 
 
 5. The number of verbs that thus take a predicate adjective or 
 noun is not a very large one. When regarded as not able of 
 themselves to make a complete predicate, they are called verbs 
 OP INCOMPLETE PREDICATION. By far the commonest of the whole 
 class is the verb be \ thus, 
 
 I am ill ; He was angry ; They will be tired. 
 You are a scholar ; She was the heroine ; 
 They have been soldiers. 
 
 6. Other verbs of incomplete predication are 
 
 i. Become, with its near equivalents, grow, get, turn, and the like: 
 thus, 
 
 I became ill ; His face grew black ; It turned cold. 
 
 ii. Remain, continue, stay, and the like : thus, 
 
 John remained silent ; He continues grateful. 
 
 iii. Seem, appear, look, and the like : thus, 
 
 She seemed a goddess ; It looks terrible. 
 
 iv. Sound, smell, feel, and the like : thus. 
 
 The rose smells sweet ; It feels soft. 
 
 V. Verbs of state and motion, like stand, sit, go, move, and so on : 
 thus. 
 
 The door stands open ; My blood runs cold ; 
 
 They sat mute ; He will go mad ; He ran foul of me. 
 
 vi. The passive of verbs which take an objective predicate (pars. 11 
 and 12, Lesson XLIIL): thus, 
 
 He was made angry ; They are called cannibals. 
 
 7. With the verbs mentioned in v. above, the modifying force 
 of the predicate adjective is very often shared by both subject 
 and verb. Thus, in 
 
 He stands firm. 
 
LR.S80N XLII.] 
 
 INCOMPLETE PliEDICA TES. 
 
 157 
 
 wo mean not only that ho is firm in his standing, but also that 
 tho standing itself is firm. So, also, in 
 
 The sun shines bright ; The messengfer comes runningf ; 
 The tone rings clear and fall. 
 
 An adjective thus used may be distinguished as an adverbial 
 PUEDICATE adjective. 
 
 8. An inflected word in the predicate (except a predicate pos- 
 sessive) ought, since it describes the subject, to bo in the sfime 
 case with it ; and this rule is generally observed in English — 
 that is to say, in the pronouns, the only words which distinguish 
 nominative and objective. Thus, we say 
 
 It is I ; It was we ; If it were she ; 
 
 and so on. Careless and inaccurate speakers, however, often use 
 such expressions as 
 
 It is them ; It was us ; If it were her ; 
 
 but these must be carefully avoided. 
 
 9. We have then the definition : 
 
 IV. A predicate adjective or noun is one which is brought by a 
 verb into relation with its subject, as describing it ; 
 
 and the rule : 
 
 V. A predicate pronoun regularly agrees in case with the sub- 
 ject it describes. 
 
 Elxercise 136. — In the following sentences point out the verbs of 
 incomplete predication ; and mention the predicate adjectives or predicate 
 nouna that complete them : — 
 
 1. His purse was low, his friends were few. 2. A thing of beauty is a 
 joy forever. 3. At first it seemed a little speck. 4. The stars were dim, 
 and thick the night. 5. And they all dead did lie. 6. Tliey went along 
 singing. 7. He stood gazing at the scene below. 8. Man became a living 
 soul. 9. Silent she stood. 10. With him lay dead both hope and pride. 
 11. A man he was to all the country dear. 12. Hope springs eternal in 
 the human breast. 13. Men may live like fools, but fools they cannot die. 
 
 Exercise 137.— Errors for Correction.— Make such changes 
 as are necessary in the following, and give your reasons : — 
 
 1. He lives here and they in Toronto. 2. My duty and not my interests 
 
 
m 
 
 158 
 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 [PAKT IV. 
 
 prompt me to act thus. .'). I think I liuve saw yuu before. 4. I am sure it 
 washiin. 5. This is one of the best books that has ever appeared. 0. They 
 are easily destroyed and their existence forgotten. 7. No one has been 
 spoke to about it. 8. It was them and not us that was to blame. !). 
 Khe done wrong in stopping so late, she ought to have went sooner. 10. 
 Not only was the building burnt, but the contents too. 11. Wo seen 
 them in the garden as we was coming from school. 12. His diet was 
 scanty, his prayers long and fervent. 13. I have wrote to them twice, 
 and no answer has came yet. 14. It wasn't me that done it, it was them 
 boys. 15. The plan proposed was one of the boldest that has ever been 
 put forward. 16. The river has overflown its banks. 
 
 LESSON XLIII. 
 
 OBJECT OF THE VERB. 
 
 1. The Direct Object. — A very much larger class of verbs 
 than those spoken of above are incomplete in another way — 
 namely, as they call for the addition of a word to express some 
 person or thing on which the action they signify is exerted. 
 Thus, for example, 
 
 I fold — ; She tells — ; The man wrote.... ; 
 
 where we expect an addition telling what is folded, or told, or 
 written, and the sense is made complete in some such way as 
 this : 
 
 I fold the paper ; She tells a story ; 
 
 wrote a letter. 
 
 The man 
 
 Such an added word is always a name of something, a noun (or 
 else a pronoun or other equivalent of a noun) ; and it is called 
 the OBJECT of the verb, because it signifies that at which tlie 
 action of the verb is directed (Lesson XII.) 
 
 The verb that takes such an object to complete its meaning is 
 called TRANSITIVE, because its action, instead of being merely 
 asserted of the subject, "passes over," and affects the object 
 (Lesson XIX.) 
 
LE»SON XLIII.] 
 
 OBJECT OF THE VERB. 
 
 159 
 
 2. When a verb is completed in this way by a pronoun, we 
 find the case in which the object is put is the objective : thus, 
 
 I strike him ; They saw us. 
 
 Hence we say that a transitive verb governs the objective case, 
 that is, its object is compelled to be of that case. 
 
 3. But verbs, which are ordinarily called transitive, may in 
 Knglish, almost without exception, be used without any expressed 
 object, that is intransitively. In that case they signify simply 
 the doing of an act, without taking into account whom or what 
 it is done to : thus, 
 
 I love ; You speak ; Seek, fire, kill. 
 
 4. On the other hand, there are verbs which do not properly 
 take after them such an object : thus, for example, 
 
 Sit, fall, run, lie. 
 
 We may sit on something, fall from something, run over some 
 one, and so on ; but we do not usually sit anyone or anything. 
 Such verbs are called intransitives (par. 2, Lesson XIX.) 
 
 5. Although it is the nature of intransitive verbs not to 
 require to be completed by an object, a few intransitive verbs 
 sometimes become so far transitive as to take an object of similar 
 meaning to the verb : thus, 
 
 I dreamed a dream ; He ran a race. 
 She sleeps the sleep that knows no waking. 
 
 This kind of object is called a cognate object, because it is 
 always of similar meaning to the verb, and is often derived from 
 tho same word as the verb. {Cognate means related^ akin to, i.e., 
 to the verb.) 
 
 6. The Indirect Object. — The kind of object we have thus 
 far considered is also called a direct object, because its relation 
 to the "governing" verb is so close and immediate as not to 
 ^idmit of an auxiliary word, as a preposition, to define it. 
 
 7i Some verbs, however, take along with such a direct object, 
 
 ii 
 
ppp 
 
 w 
 
 m 
 
 .: il 
 
 16U 
 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 [PAET IV. 
 
 another of a different character, in a relation which we more 
 usually express by tO or for I thus, 
 
 He gave me the book ; They made the man a coat. 
 
 In these sentences book and COat are evidently the direct 
 objects of the verbs gave and made. But in the first sentence, 
 me points out to whom the act of giving the book was done ; in 
 the second, man shows for whom the act of making the coat was 
 performed. 
 
 This appears at once if we change the order of uhe words, and put me 
 and rnan after the direct object. We are then obliged to use preposi- 
 tions: thus, 
 
 He gave the book to me ; They made a coat for the man. 
 Other examples are, 
 
 He means us no good ; 
 We forgive our friends their faults ; 
 He paid the man his wajxes ; 
 You answered me the qeustion ; 
 He taught his sister music. 
 
 8. Such a second object, then, is called an indirect object, 
 because it represents what is less directly affected by the action 
 of the verb, and because the same relation may be, and often is, 
 expressed by prepositions — namely, by tO or, more rarely, by foP. 
 
 But, although we may use to and for in expressing the relation of 
 the indirect object, we must not make the mistake of supposing that a to 
 or a for is left out, and to be " understood " as expressed along with the 
 object itself, any more than that of is left out with John's, because, 
 instead of it, we may say of John. The case is not, indeed, like the pes- 
 fcassive, now distinguished by an ending of its own ; but it was so formerly. 
 
 9. The indirect object, like the direct, is put in the objective 
 case. But the objective in this use is to be called the indirect 
 
 OBJECTIVE. 
 
 10. When a verb, which in the active conjugation takes both a direct 
 and an indirect object, becomes passive, either its direct or its indirect 
 object may become the subject: thus, 
 
 The book was given me ; or, I was given the book, 
 
PART IV. 
 
 ire more 
 
 oat. 
 
 e direct 
 lentence, 
 lone; in 
 coat was 
 
 d put me 
 e preposi- 
 
 in. 
 
 ).ESSON XLIII.] 
 
 OBJECT OF THE VERB, 
 
 161 
 
 3T object, 
 
 he action 
 
 often is, 
 
 |y, by for. 
 
 relation of 
 
 that a to 
 
 |g with the 
 
 I, because, 
 
 :e the pos- 
 
 formerly. 
 
 lobjective 
 llNDIRECT 
 
 \h. a direct 
 L indirect 
 
 11. Objective Predicate A^'ective or Noun. — We have 
 seen (par. 4, Lesson XLII.) that a predicate adjective or noun 
 is one v/hich, being added to the veib, forms part of the predica- 
 tion or assertion about the subject of the verb ; one that is made, 
 through the verb, to describe or modify the subject. 
 
 Now, it is sometimes also the case that an adjective or noun 
 forms parts of the assertion by describing or modifying, not the 
 suhjectj but the direct object. Thus, in 
 
 He made the stick straight, 
 
 tlie adjective straight modifies the object stick, by becoming a 
 kind of addition to the verb made J as if we said 
 
 He made-straight the stick; 
 as we do say, 
 
 He straightened the stick. 
 
 It will easily be seen that the word straig^ht forms part of the assertion 
 made about he ; for what we wish to assert is, not that he made the stick, 
 but, as has just been said, that he straightened the stick. 
 
 And in 
 
 We called him a coward, 
 
 the noun COWard modifies the object him by becoming a part of 
 the assertion ; for we do not assert that wo called him, but that 
 
 We called-a-coward him. 
 
 Other examples are. 
 
 The sailors made the rope fast ; They choose her queen ; 
 
 They planed the board smooth; He called me a thief; 
 
 The lightning struck him dead ; We made him leader ; 
 
 Slie wrings the clothes dry ; I named my dog Snap ; 
 
 You see him running ; I think him a rogue. 
 
 •2. If any of the above sentences be turned into the passive form by 
 making the former object the subject (par. 3, Lesson XXXIX.), the 
 adjectives or nouns that before modified the object will become ordinary 
 predicate adjectives or predicate nouns modifying the subject ; thus, 
 
 The stick was made straight ; 
 He was called a cowatd, 
 H 
 
 i 
 
ff 
 
 162 
 
 SYNTAX, 
 
 [pari IV. 
 
 13, A predicate adjective or noun used as in par. 11, in close 
 connection with a verb, to modify its object, is distinguished 
 from the ordinary predicate adjective or noun by being called 
 an objective predicate adjective or noun. 
 
 14, We have, then, the following : 
 
 VI. A transitive verb takes a direct object, expressing that which 
 is immediately ajfected by the act oftlie verb; and sometimes also an 
 Indirect object, expressing that to or for which the act is performed, 
 
 VII. The object of a verb, whether direct or indirect, is in tJie 
 objective case, the direct being called a direct objective, and the 
 indirect an indirect objective. 
 
 VIII. An adjective or a noun is called an objective predicate 
 adjective or predicate noun when it helps the verb to form the 
 predicate by modifying the direct object. 
 
 Elxercise 138, — In the following sentences point out the objects, 
 and state their kind and their government. Point out also the predicate 
 adjectives and the predicate nouns : — 
 
 1. He lent me a useful book. 2. I forgave thee all that debt. 3. He 
 smiled a dreadful smile. 4. He taught his sister music. 5. My brother 
 heard me my lessons. 6. I have fought a good fight. 7. You must keep 
 the water hot. 8. The ball went rolling down the street. 9. He wrought 
 the castle much annoy. 10. The boy made his sister angry. 11. The 
 sister was made angry. 12 I mean you no harm. 13. Let me die the 
 death of the righteous. 14. She carries her head high. 15. He is seen 
 running. 16. I sang my throat dry. 
 
 17. And the skipper he blew a whiff from hia pipe, 
 And a scornful laugh laughed he, 
 
 If 
 
[pari IV. 
 
 , in close 
 nguished 
 ng called 
 
 that which 
 les also an 
 oerformed. 
 
 5, is in tJie 
 ;e, a/nd the 
 
 e predicate 
 o form the 
 
 the objects, 
 he predicate 
 
 LESSON xLiv.] ADJECTIVE COMPLEMENTS. 163 
 
 LESSON XLIV. 
 
 ADJECTIVE COMPLEMENTS. 
 
 1. Predicate Adjective, — We have found that a noun may 
 be modified by an adjective or a noun in a way that requires a 
 word of assertion, that is, a verb to connect the modifying noun 
 or pronoun with the modified noun, and we have seen that an 
 adjective so used is called a r dedicate adjective, or is said to be 
 used PREDiCATiVELY (par. 3, Lesson X.) 
 
 2. Attributive Adjective. — But we have also found that 
 an adjective may modify a noun in a manner more direct than 
 this, namely, by being simply added to the noun, the quality 
 expressed by the adjective not being asserted, but only mentioned 
 as belonging to the object signified by the noun. And we have 
 seen that an adjective used in this latter way is called an attri- 
 butive adjective, or is said to be used attributively (par. 3, 
 Lesson X.) 
 
 3. While a predicate adjective modifies only the subject or the direct 
 object of a verb (par. 11, last lesson), an attributive adje> tive may modify 
 a noun in any situation whatever (par. 6, Lesson IX. ) 
 
 4. Appositive Noun. — A noun is much less often, used to 
 describe another noun in a way somewh;.. ^ similar to this : thus, in 
 
 My friend the hunter carries his weapon, a rifle, upon 
 
 his shoulder, 
 
 we have the nouns friend and weapon limited or described by 
 the nouns hunter and rifle. The two words thus added imply 
 
 that 
 
 My friend is a hunter, and that his weapon is a rifle, 
 
 but the facts are only implied, not asserted. 
 
 5. A noun thus used is called appositive, or is said to be in 
 APPOSITION with the other noun. This means in position by the 
 
 m 
 
 !l 
 
 11 
 
164 
 
 SYNTAX, 
 
 [fart IV. 
 
 \r. M 
 
 side of, or set alongside of, because tlie appositive noun seems less 
 closely connected with the noun that it describes, less dependent 
 on it, than the attributive adjective is. It is rather an inde- 
 pendent Tvord, added to the other for the purpose of further 
 describing the same thing. 
 
 6. Sometimes a pronoun is used in apposition to a noun, or a noun to 
 a pronoun. It is then seen that the appositive word, as may be expected, 
 is in the same case as the word that it modifies : thus, 
 
 Wolfe, he that took Quebec, died in the moment of victory. 
 
 I gave the parcel to the porter, him who always stands by the door. 
 
 I, Isaac Ashford, do hereby declare. 
 
 7. Appositive Adjective. — But an adjective is also often 
 joined to a noun in a looser and more indirect way, so much like 
 that of the appositive noun that it is also to be called an apposi- 
 tive adjective. Examples are 
 
 For these reasons, avowed and secret ; 
 All poetry, ancient or modern ; 
 Young, handsome, and clever, the page was the darling 
 
 of the house ; 
 
 where the shade of meaning is a little different from what it 
 would be in 
 
 For these avowed and secret reasons ; 
 
 All ancient or modern poetry ; 
 
 The young, handsome, and clever page. 
 
 8. A pronoun, which almost never takes an attributive adjec- 
 tive before it, has an appositive adjective or noun added to it 
 just as freely as a noun has: thus, 
 
 We, poor in friends, sought love ; 
 
 They ran off laughing ; 
 
 You Frenchmen are livelier than we English. 
 
 9. We have, then, the definitions : 
 
 IX. An adjective modifying a noim directly (not through a 
 
PART IV. 
 
 LESSON XLiv.] ADJECTIVE COMPLEMENTS. 
 
 165 
 
 ;ms less 
 
 pendent 
 
 in inde- 
 
 further 
 
 a noun to 
 expected, 
 
 le door. 
 
 ,lso often 
 nuch like 
 ,n APPOSi- 
 
 darling 
 what it 
 
 [ivo adjec- 
 Ided to it 
 
 lish. 
 
 through, a 
 
 verb) is called attributive — or, if more loosely connected with the 
 nounj it is called appOSitiVG. 
 
 X. A noun added to another noun, by way of further descrip- 
 tion of the same object, is said to be in apposition with that noun. 
 
 That an appositive adjective or noun also modifies a pronoun 
 has been explained above. 
 
 Sxorcise 139, — In the following sentences say which adjectives are 
 used attributively, which predicatively, and which appositively. Point out, 
 also, the appositive nouns and pronouns. In each case mention the modi- 
 fied word: — 
 
 1. The melancholy days are come, tne saddest of the year, of wailing 
 winds, and naked woods, and meadows brown and sere. 2. Ardent and 
 intrepid in the battle-field, Monmouth was everywhere else effeminate 
 and irresolute. 3. History is philosophy teaching by examples. 4. She 
 was dead. Dear, gentle, patient, noble Nell was dead. 5. In there came 
 old Alice the nurse. 6. The daughter of a hundred earls, you are not one 
 to be desired. 7. They all with one consent began to make excuse. 8. 
 God save thee, ancient mariner 1 9. Tired and hungry, he hastened home. 
 10. The many men, so beautiful 1 and they all dead did lie. 11. My lips 
 were wet, my throat was cold, my garments all were dank. 12. Plato, 
 thou reasonest well. 13. Our old friend, the captain, was elected president. 
 
 14. Truth, crushed to earth, shall rise again; 
 
 But error, wounded, writhes with pain and dies. 
 
 Exercise 140.— Errors for Correction.— Make such changes 
 as you think necessary in the following sentences, and give reasons for 
 what you do : — 
 
 1.' This grammar contains a great quantity of exercises 2. Shakes- 
 peare is greater than any dramatist. 3. There was much cattle in the 
 meadow 4. All men think all men mortal but themselves 5. He is more 
 cleverer than anyone I ever seen 6. That is the best horse of the two. 
 7. The nation is torn by feuds which threaten their ruin 8. Niagara is 
 finer than all sights 9. Give every syllable and every letter their due 
 utterance. 10. This paper has the largest circulation of any paper in the 
 city. 11. Thomas and her are going to school. 12. Who done that? It 
 was me and him. 13. Them are excellent apples. 14. Miss Jones, her 
 who went to the examination, succeeded. 15. It is me that will have to 
 suffer. 16. I am sure it was her. 17. You and him can run faster than 
 them. 18. Him being absent, the class was sent home. 19. You are 
 ahnost as tall as me. 20. It wasn't them that did it. 21. All enjoyed 
 themselves, me excepted. 22. If you meet a man in a fur coat, that will 
 be him. 23. This is him I was telling you about. 24. Him out of the 
 way, the rest will soon come right. 25. The soldiers, them we saw going 
 off, bave all come back. 26. I got this book from James, he that sold 
 you yours. , 
 
i ' 
 
 p 
 
 166 
 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 [PAttX IV. 
 
 
 
 LESSON XLV. 
 
 THE POSSESSIVE CASE. 
 
 1. We have seen (Lesson XXVIII.) that nouns and pronouns 
 have an inflectional form, which is called their possessive case, 
 and that the case is called possessive because it is especially used, 
 in connection with another noun, to point out the possessor of 
 whatever that noun signifies. For example, if a book has John 
 for its owner, we call it John's book ] a crown belonging to the 
 king is the king's crOWn ] and by extending the meaning of 
 "belonging to" to mean having to do vAth in some way or 
 another^ we have come to speak of the doings that are done on a 
 certain day as that day's doings^ and even of the time that is 
 comprised within a week as a week's time, although in these last 
 expressions no idea of possession is intended to be conveyed. 
 Again, if a man has debts, we call them hiS debts J the act 
 performed by him is his ,tac the faults he has committed are hiS 
 faults 'j and so on. 
 
 2, In this way, a noun in its possessive case-form becomes a 
 descriptive or limiting addition to another noun, much as if it 
 were an attributive adjective. Of\/en we can put an adjective in 
 place of the possessive with little or no difference of meaning j 
 thus, 
 
 The king's crown ; The sun's heat ; God's mercy ; 
 
 may also be described as, 
 
 The royal crown ; The solar heat ; Divine mercy* 
 
 And we saw (par. 5, Lesson XXI.) that the possessive cases of 
 the personal pronouns, and of the demonstrative pronouns of the 
 third person, always modify a noun expressed or understood; 
 they, therefore, always have the value of adjectives. 
 
PABT IV. 
 
 LESSON XLVI.] 
 
 ADVERB COMPLEMENTS. 
 
 167 
 
 >ronouns 
 VE case, 
 Jly used, 
 isessor of 
 las John 
 ig to the 
 aning of 
 
 way or 
 lone on a 
 e that is 
 :hese last 
 ionveyed. 
 
 the act 
 are his 
 
 3. The possessive is said to be dependent on the noun which it 
 describes, or to be governed by it: that is to say, the modifying noun is, 
 as it were, required or compelled by its relation to the other to take the 
 possessive case-form. 
 
 Thus we have the rule : 
 
 XI. The possessive case of a noun or pronoun is used to 
 describe or limit another noun in the manner oj an adjective. 
 
 Remark. — The possessive inflection is, except in poetry, limited princi- 
 pally to nouns signifying persons, animals, and things personified. Thus, 
 we say, 
 
 The roof of the house ; not. The house's roof. 
 
 The size of the stone ; not, The stone's size. 
 
 Exercise 141.— Errors for Correction.— Correct the follow- 
 ing sentences, giving the reason in each case :— 
 
 1. What is this cheese's weight? 2. That is a boy's and girl's school. 
 3. I rely on you coming. 4. This is either a man or a woman's voice. 
 5. John's writing is better than your's. 7. Our town has a mechanic's 
 institute. 8. There aint no use of you saying that. 9. What is the cause 
 of the leaves curling ? 10. This field's crop is below the average. 11. It 
 could not have been her, 12. Whom do you think called on me yester- 
 day? 
 
 [ecomes a 
 as if it 
 
 lective in 
 leaning j 
 
 Joy; 
 
 pcy. 
 
 cases of 
 
 IS of the 
 
 lerstood ; 
 
 LESSON XLVI. 
 
 ADVERB COMPLEMENTS. 
 
 1, Adverbs. — As the adjeciive is the usual modifier of the 
 noun, so the adverb is the usual modifier of the other member of 
 the simple sentence, the verb. 
 
 2. Adverbs, as we have alreexiy seen (Lesson XI.), modify 
 also adjectives, and sometimes other adverbs; and there are 
 cases in which an adverb modifies a preposition : thus, 
 
 The mouth is just below the nose ; 
 She jumped clear over the wall ; 
 A result far beyond his hopes ; 
 A nail driven deep into the wood. 
 
!'l !■■' 
 
 
 168 
 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 [part IV. 
 
 h 
 
 :| \ 
 
 I'- i 
 
 3. All advorh has very often the value of a predicate adjective, 
 usually with some part of the verb be I thus, \ 
 
 The sun is down, the moon is up, and the stars are out ; 
 He was there, but you were away, 
 
 4. Less often, an adverb is used as an apjjositive adjective : 
 thus, 
 
 lightings within, and fears without ; 
 
 My stay there will be short. 
 
 5. Sometimes (and less properly) an adverb is used even as an 
 attributive adjective : thus, 
 
 The above passage; The then ruler; 
 
 My sonietim,e friend; His almost impudence of manner. 
 
 We have, then, the rules : 
 
 XII. An adverb modijies a verb, an adjective, or another 
 adverb. 
 
 XIII. An adverb is sometitnes used with the value of an adjec- 
 tive, especially of a predicate adjective. 
 
 6. Adverbial Objective. — While our noun has a special 
 case-form — the possessive, which we use in the manner of an 
 adjective to modify a noun (par. 7, Lesson XXVIII.) — it is some- 
 times used without any special case-form, in the manner of an 
 adverb, to modify a verb, an adjective, or even an adverb : thus, 
 
 To modifu a verb : 
 
 He walked a mile ; We travelled all day ; 
 
 The parcel weighed two pounds ; My dress cost six dollars. 
 
 To modify an adjective : 
 
 The street is a mile long ; He is a trifle better. 
 
 To modify an adverb : 
 His farm is a mile away ; I arrived a few minutes Igkte ; 
 The second boat was a length behind, 
 
LESSON XLVI.] 
 
 ADVEIililAL OnJEOTIVE. 
 
 169 
 
 Bii as an 
 
 7. In the first sontoncos, for oxauiplo, it is (Misily soon that tlio 
 nouns following the verba are in no proper sonso th<;ir ohjocts, 
 and that the verba are intransitive, as usual. Novertlielos?,, 
 nouns thus used to modify verbs, adjectives and adverbs ai-o con- 
 sidered to be in the objective case ; and, from this adverbial use, 
 they are called adverbial oimkc^'ives : that is, an objective case 
 used with the value of an adverb. 
 
 8. The adverbial objective is used especially to express meanure, 
 whether duration of time, or extent of distance, or space, or 
 weight, or number, or age, or value, and the like. 
 
 We have, then, the rule : 
 
 XIV. A noun expressing ineasuo'e, time, or manner is sometimes 
 used m the objective case with an adverbial value, or to modify a 
 verb or an adjective or an adverb. 
 
 Sxercise 142. — In the following sentences, point out the adverbs 
 and adverbial objectives, and mention in each case the words they 
 modify : — 
 
 1. A truly upright man always speaks truly. 2. I see your friend very 
 often. 3. A very high tide occurred (juite recently. 4. My stay here will 
 not be long. 6. The mighty wreck lay right athwart the stream. 6. It is 
 the signal of our friends within. 7. liut close around the body no cries were 
 heard. 8. He is ten years old. 9. My sometime friend now passes mo 
 by. 10. You should have come an hour sooner. 11. His house is a great 
 deal better built. 12. 'J'he feast was over in Branksome tower. 13. He 
 is above, sir, changing his dress. 14. They watched all night long. 15. 
 The above passage clearly bears me out. 
 
 16. Seven days, seven nights, I saw that sight, 
 And yet I could not die. 
 
 Exercise 143.— Errors for Correction.— Correct, where neces- 
 sary, the following, giving the reason in each case : — 
 
 1. She always appears very amiably. 2. I cannot run no farther. 
 3. He feels some better. 4. That is an awful pretty hat. 5. His conduct 
 was surprising strange. 6. He won't give me none of his flowers. 7. I 
 will soon have it finally completed. 8. He doesn't wish for none at all. 
 9. Only sleep, my young friend, in the dark. 10. If you wish to live 
 healthily you must live conformable to the rules of health. 11. I will not 
 forgive him neither this year nor next. 12. We ascended an exceeding 
 high mountain. 13. Agreeable to his promise he came this p.m. 14. 
 Many people never learns to speak correct. 15. I feel coldly somewhat 
 this morning. 
 
:' ] 
 
 : ' 
 
 170 
 
 SYNTAX, 
 
 LESSON XLVII. 
 
 [PAET IV. 
 
 NOUNS USED ABSOLUTELY. 
 
 1. There is yet another way in which a noun (or pronoun) is 
 sometimes made to descrilje or modify something in a sentence, 
 without having its relation to what it modifies denoted either by 
 a case-form or by a connecting word. Thus we say, 
 
 He lay down, his heart heavy with sorrow ; 
 He flies, wild terror in his look ; 
 They charged, sword in hand and visor down ; 
 The mountain rose, height above height. 
 
 A word thus used always has added to it an appositive adjec- 
 ive or a word or a phrase of some kind (an adverb, a preposi- 
 tion-phrase, etc.) having the same value. The construction is 
 especially common with a participle modifying the noun or pro- 
 noun : thus, 
 
 The sun having risen, the fog soon dispersed ; 
 This finished, they took their leave ; 
 He being penitent, we pardoned him. 
 
 2. A noun or a pronoun thus used is said to be used absolutely, 
 and to form with the added word an absolute phrase, so called 
 because it appears to stand as if cut loose, so far as grammatical 
 connection is concerned, from the rest of the sentence. The case 
 used, as appears from the last example, is regularly the nomina- 
 tive. 
 
 3. An absolute phrase always has an adverbial value, for it 
 indicates either the time, the cause, the condition, or some other 
 accompanying circumstance, of the action asserted in the sen- 
 tence that precedes or follows it : see examples. 
 
 Thus we have the rule : 
 
 XV. A noun or pronoun along with an appositive adjective or 
 its equivalent, in sometimes used in the nominative case absolutely^ 
 
LESSOy XLVIII.] 
 
 PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 171 
 
 in the manner of an adverb to express some accompanyiny circum- 
 stance or condition oj the action. 
 
 lExercise 144. — In the following sentences mention the absolute 
 phrases, and say what nouns and pronouns in tliein arc used absolutely: — 
 
 1. He waited an hour, staff in hand. 2. They sit side by side. 3. On 
 wo marched, our companions following. 4. This said, he paused not. 
 "). The rest must perish, their great leader slain. 6. He out of the way, 
 our work would be easy. 7. Each in his narrow cell for ever laid, the rude 
 forefathers of the hamlet sleep. 8. The foe and the stranger will tread 
 o'er his head, and we far away on the billow. 9. This having been said, 
 he sat down. 
 
 10. Fast as shaft can fly. 
 
 Bloodshot his eyes, his nostrils spread. 
 
 The loose rein dangling from his head, 
 
 Housings and saddle bloody red, 
 
 Lord Marmion's nteed rushed by. 
 
 LESSON XLVIII. 
 
 PREPOSITION, ADJECTIVE, AND ADVERB- 
 PHRASES. 
 
 1. A preposition, we have seen (Lesson XVIII.) to be a con- 
 necting word by means of which a noun or a pronoun is attached 
 to another word — noun, verb, or adjective — to modify it after the 
 manner of an adjective or of an adverb. 
 
 2. We have seen, too, that the noun or the pronoun thus 
 iittached to another word by the preposition is called the object 
 of the preposition, or is said to be governed by or dependent 
 ON it, and is put in the objective case. 
 
 The preposition and the word that it governs form together a 
 preposition-phrase, and a\o found that this phrase is called an 
 adjective-phrase when it modifies a noun, and an adverb-phrase 
 when it modifies a verb or an adjective; and that it is often pos- 
 sible to substitute an adjective for an adjective-phrase, and an 
 adverb for an adverb-phrase (par. 4, Lesson XIII.) 
 
r i 
 
 172 SYNTAX. [iakt iv. 
 
 3. The words composing many advorb-plirases are used so often 
 together that they can hardly bo taken apart uiid parsed separately : Buoh 
 are 
 
 on board, on fire, at hand, out of doors, on the whole, for the present. 
 
 Many, indeed, liavo quite grown togctlicr, and are never separated 
 wheii so used : thus, 
 
 indeed, aboard, out-doors, beforehand, to-day, overboard. 
 
 4. An adverb-phrase, like an adverb, sometimes takes the 
 place of a noun as object of a preposition: for example, 
 
 lie went from here ; He came from beyond the sea. 
 
 We have, then, the following rules as to the use of prepo- 
 sitions : 
 
 XVI. A prepo^tion forms vith its object either an adjective- 
 phrase^ modifuing a noun, or an adverb-phraSG^ modifying a 
 verb or an adjective or an adverb. 
 
 XVII. Tlie object of a preposition (if a noun or a pronoun) 
 is in the objective case. 
 
 Sxercise 145. — In *he following sentences point out the preposition- 
 phrases, and say whether thv-y are adjective or adverb-phrases, and why : — 
 
 1 . At dead of night in sullen tilence stalks forth the pestilence. 2. Stop ! 
 for thy tread is on an empire's dust. 3. We take no note of time, but 
 from its loss. 4. Mercy is abov s this sceptred sway ; it is enthroned in 
 the hearts of kings. 6. From jeak to peak, the rattling crags among, 
 leaps the live thunder. 6. Other ways exist, besides througli me. 
 
 7. Brightest and bes j of the sons of the morning ! 
 Dawn on our da'^aness and lend us their aid. 
 
 Sometimes a slight difference in the wording of a sentence will very 
 much alter its meaning, as is seen in the following exercise, 
 
 Sxercise 146. — Distinguish between — 
 
 I /I have aided you more than he. 
 
 ' 1 I have aided you more than him. 
 „ J An able and intelligent friend. 
 
 ' \ An able and an intelligent friend. 
 „ \ She has more discretion than genius. 
 
 ' 1 She has more discretion than a genius. 
 . / Southey is a better prose writer than poet. 
 \ Southey is a better prose- writer than a poet. 
 
VRT IV. 
 
 I,K.SS(IN XLIX.I 
 
 srMMAh')' Ot^ SYifT^'K. 
 
 173 
 
 » often 
 ", Buch 
 
 )resent. 
 parated 
 
 i. 
 
 cea the 
 
 3a. 
 prepo- 
 
 Ijective- 
 
 fi/ing a 
 ronoun) 
 
 jposition- 
 wby:— 
 
 2. Stop ! 
 time, but 
 ironed in 
 among, 
 
 I will very 
 
 ft. 
 
 «. 
 
 7. 
 8. 
 
 lJ\i\ you Bi'p a ved ftud \\\\ii\s Hiiglf 
 
 ('ftii you ««n A I'tul ttixl a whitw rfiigt 
 
 Tlio »('»>» «'ti\ry juid tv»tv »»»*»» will !»♦> \m\ VuVhd 
 
 Tilt! stM»»-l.uy auit th« tieaHurer will 1»m «tu Uahd. 
 
 I Ho \\\xy happier than any pov*«tu in tl\o hMvtWPt 
 
 \ Hu was happier than any othH r p(>i-M«ttk iu ihe nrtttae. 
 
 / Few nvou havt; h^MMl more hiMionid, 
 
 \ A (»»w Mieu have la^u mojv lionoit^d. 
 
 I Sly trleud had a ta«to fci farming. 
 
 \ My friend had a taste of fanning. 
 
 LESSON XLIX. 
 
 SUMMARY OB' SYNTAX. 
 
 1. We have now considered the parts of speech which combine 
 with one another to form simple sentences, and have noticed the 
 ways in which their combinations are made. 
 
 In these ways the necessary elements of the sentence, the bare 
 subject and predicate, are extended and filled up so as to express 
 a thought in a more complete and detailed manner. 
 
 2. We may sum up the processes of combination as follows: — 
 
 i. The original elements of tJte sentence are the subject-noun 
 and the verb. 
 
 ii. The meaning of the verb may be filled out by an object-noun; 
 also, by a predicate adjective or noun (modifying either the subject 
 or the object); or it may be modified by an adverb. 
 
 iii. A noun in any construction in the sentence may be modified 
 hy an adjective; an adjective, by an adverb; an adverb, by another 
 adverb. 
 
 iv. A noun may be made to modify another noun, adjectively, 
 hi) being put in the possessive case, or by being joined to the other 
 nnnn by a preposition; it may be made to modify a verb or adjec- 
 tire or adverb, advei'bially, sometimes in the objective case simply ^ 
 but usually by means of a pre2}Osition. 
 

 174 
 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 [part IV. 
 
 t : f 
 
 In these statements, for V-revity's sake, we havo treated the pronoun as 
 included along with the noun. Moreover, the "absolute " construction of 
 a noun with an appositive adjunct is here left unnoticed, as being leas 
 common, and apart from the ordinary processes of sentence-making. Also, 
 the compounding of the various elem*^nts of a sentence by means of con- 
 junctions, because this is a kind of abbre^a«,tion, and was treated of in 
 Lesson XXIV. 
 
 3. The words and phrases thus added to the subject-noun, or 
 bare subject, and to the verb, or bare predicate, are, in either 
 case, called its modifiers; or, collectively, because they complete 
 it, its complement. And the bare subject or predicate, along 
 with its modifiers or complement, is called the complete subject 
 or predicate. 
 
 Some prefer to speak of the subject as *' extended "or " enlarged," and 
 of tha predicate as "completed," by the additions made to each respec- 
 tively; and hence, to call the whole subject the " enlarged " or '* extended" 
 subject, and to call only the predicate "completed" or "complete;" but 
 the distinction is not of consequence enough to be worth making. 
 
 4. In the ways described above, the simple sentence is, in 
 theory, capable of being drpwn out and filled up to any extent — 
 made a wbole page long, for instance. But, in practice, the 
 length of a sentence is kept within limits by the fear of becoming 
 iiwkwa-rd and lumbering, or even unintelligible. We put what 
 we have to say, by preference, into a series of briefer sentences, 
 separate statements. And the relation of these 'separate state- 
 ments to one another we often determine by means of connecting 
 wo^ds. 
 
 5. The connecting words which determine the relation of sen- 
 tences to one another are the conjunctions and the relative or 
 conjunctive pronouns and pronominal adjectives. These bind 
 together simple sentences more or less completely into a whole. 
 Combinations of simple sentences made in thin way are called 
 compound and complex sentences. These were treated of with 
 sufiicient fulness in Lessons XXIV. and XXV., but by way of 
 review, and for the sake of completing our definitions and rules 
 of syntax, we here append a summary of what was said in those 
 lessons on sentences other than simple; — 
 
LESSON XLIX.] 
 
 SUMMARY OF SYNTAX, 
 
 175 
 
 RTIV. 
 
 oun as 
 tion of 
 ig lesa 
 Also, 
 af con- 
 1 of in 
 
 mn, or 
 either 
 
 , along 
 subject 
 
 ed," and 
 li respec- 
 ttended" 
 >te;" but 
 
 ;e is, in 
 sxtent — 
 ice, the 
 lecoming 
 ut what 
 ntences, 
 te state- 
 necting 
 
 of sen- 
 lative or 
 3se bind 
 la whole. 
 he called 
 of with 
 way of 
 Lnd rules 
 lin those 
 
 XVIII. A sentence ivhich forms a part of a more comprehensive 
 sentence is called a clause. 
 
 XIX. A clause is either independent or dependent — independent 
 if it forms an assertion by itself; dependent ij it enters into some 
 other clause loith the value of a part of speech, namely, of a noun, 
 an adjective, or an adverb. 
 
 XX. Clauses are CO-Ordinate if they are of the same rank with 
 one another, either as being alike independent, or as being alike 
 dependent, with the same construction. 
 
 XXI. A sentence is COmpOUnd if made up of independent 
 clauses; COITipleX if it contains a dependent clause, or more than 
 one. 
 
 XXII. Co-ordinate clauses, whether independent or dependent, 
 are usually joined together by co-ordinating conjunctions. 
 
 XXIII. A dependent clause is joined to the clause (independent 
 or dependent) on ivhich it depends, or of which it forms a part, by 
 a subordinating conjunction, or by a relative 2ironoun or adjectivt. 
 
 XXIV. A dependent clause is named from its office in the sen- 
 tence of which it forms a part: it is a substantive, or an adjective, 
 or an adverb-clause. 
 
 XXV. A SUbstantive-Ciause is one that performs the office of a 
 noun: being the subject or the object of a verb, the object of a pre- 
 position, and 30 on. 
 
 XXVI. An adjective-clause is one that performs the office of 
 an adjective by tnodifying some noun. 
 
 XXVII. An adverb-clause is one that performs the office of an 
 adverb by modifying a verb, or adjective, or adverb. 
 
f:V 
 
 17« 
 
 PART V. 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 NoTH TO Tkaohku.— Thoujih tho Ioshoiih tliafc follow haw, from their iiutiirc, imcea- 
 sarily hoon put in an AiJpiMKlix, tluy may liu taken up, or useil for rtjfcrcnoe, in any part 
 of the courHU that tho teacher deeuiH udviHable. 
 
 LESSON L. 
 
 WORDS, LETTERS, THE ALPHABET. 
 
 ■ • Words, Letters. — Wc express oin- thoughts hj- means of spoken 
 or written language. When wo speak our thouglits wo niako use of 
 sounds, which we form into spokeu words; when we write our tlu)ughtM 
 we make use of characters or signs which represent to the eye tlie sounds 
 which in spoken hinguage are addressed to the ear. 
 
 Thus, if we wish to call up the idea of that which shines hy day in the 
 sky, we first utter tlie sound of s, tlieu the sound of u, histly tlic soiiiul 
 of n. Tliese sounds, by uttering th'Ui rapidly one after tlie other, wc 
 combine into tlie spohn woril sun, and this is addressed to tiio ear. If, 
 however, we wish to call u|) the idea of the same ohji'ct in writing, we 
 first write the sign (or ciiaracter) s, which represents the first sound lie;inl 
 in the spoken word; then the sign u, which represents the second 
 sound; and lastly the sign n, which represents the third sound. Tlic-^o 
 signs, by writing them close together one after the otiu'r, we conil)ine into 
 th'. ••■lit ten word sun, which tiius represents these three sounds to the eye. 
 Aft :• the same maimer we make all the words of a spoken or written 
 
 i he written signs that thus stand for the spoken sounds of a langungc 
 ai*^ .ailed letters. 
 
 CAUTION. — Throughout this lesson the pupil must carefully guard agaifst 
 confounding the sound of a letter with the name of It. 
 
 2. The Alphabet. — The collection of all the letters used in a lan- 
 guage is called its ali'IIABet. If, as we have seen, letters are signs fof 
 
LESSm L.] 
 
 THE ALPHA f^ET, 
 
 177 
 
 urc, iinci'fl- 
 iit any part 
 
 of spoken 
 
 V thouglits 
 Mc Houiuls 
 
 (lay in the 
 ;lic soiuul 
 other, wi' 
 
 o oav, If, 
 riting, vt' 
 and lu'iinl 
 
 10 SCCdIlil 
 
 a. Tho'' 
 
 mV)ineinto 
 
 to thi! i'> i:. 
 
 )!• written 
 
 a lauguDgo 
 ird ag-ilnst 
 
 !(l in a Ian- 
 e signs for 
 
 the so\n(Ia used in a language, there ought to ho, in a perfect alphabet of 
 any language, as many letters as tliero arc sounds in it. In this resptict 
 the En^iah alphaltet is very imperfect. It has oidy twenty-six letters to 
 rcpresen'. more than forty distinct sounds, and three of these letters, viz., 
 c, g; and It, since they represent the same sounds as s, k and ks, are not 
 wanted, scthat wo have really but twenty-three useful letters. 
 
 3- Vo"\^ls^ Consonants.— Some sounds made by the voice are 
 free and oi)ev. as the sound of a in at, of e in egg, of i in is, of o in ox, 
 and of u in up^ others are made by stopping or obstructing, by means of 
 the lips, tongu, t eth or throat, the voice as it is issuing from the mouth, 
 thus: by lips, iVp in up; by tongue, as n in on; by teeth, as t in at; and 
 by throat, as fj'n egg. Otlier examples of words beginning with an 
 open, free sound, oid onding with a closed or obstructed sound are 
 
 am, an, q; eve, eel, eat; in, it, if; on, of, ode; us. 
 Examples of words IVrinning with obstructed sounds are 
 
 pa, ma, n bat, cot, dog, fit, gun, "keg, lip, i)ot. 
 The open and free so\,(]g ^^^<Q called vowel sounds, and the closed or 
 obstructed ones are callev,„^;^()NANT sounds; and the letters that repre- 
 sent these sounds to the e> jiro called vowels and consonants. In this 
 way th«" letters of the ali)hiv,t; are divided into vowels and consonants. 
 
 4. In speaking we use mo\ than thirty vowel sounds, but our alphabet 
 has only live letters to repreVit them, viz.: a, e, i, o, u. These, then, 
 are the vowels. The consonan. i,y ^hich we represent the obstructed 
 sounds, are twenty-one, viz. : b, j, f, g, h, j, k, 1, m, n, p, q, r, s, t, v, 
 w, X, y, z ; but w and y arc cons^,^^g ^nly when they begin a syllable, 
 as in way and you; elsewhere theyj.^ vowels, as in by and low. 
 
 5. According to the organ used » obstructing the voice, consonants 
 arc divided into — 
 
 lip consonants or labials, « b v f^ m. 
 tongue " Unguals, . [ ^ ^^ 
 
 teeth " dentals, ai ^^ ^^ |^ ^^ 
 
 throat " gutturals, a,^' ^'^^ ^ ^ 
 
 h represents a breathinji|j^j 
 
 Exercise 147.— Mention separately the N^^jg ^^^ consonants in 
 each of the following words:— 
 
 Tame, scholar, hopeful, think, manner, ruler, gV.rnment, yard, wide, 
 worry, when, yawn, worthy, The paths of glory lea,,^^^. ^ ^^^^ g^ave. 
 
 6. Diphthongs.— Two vowels are sometimes \^^^^^ together, a« 
 
 oi in moist, ou in mouse. 
 
 Such a combination is callei 
 
 DIPHTHONG, 
 
178 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 [piRT V. 
 
 lit'i 
 
 "1:! 
 
 Rbmaek.— Two vowels may occur in the sanio Hyllal)le, but if only one is sounied they 
 fonu an apparent diphthong, not a real one, as I in field. 
 
 Exercise 148. — Writo the following words iu a column, "-nd then 
 write alongside each tlfte diphthong it contains: — 
 
 School, thought, through, feat, fountain, people, cow, way,yew, tree, 
 brook, view, unread, taught, maintain, buyer, yawning, bo^i caution, 
 your, voice. 
 
 7. Silent Letters.— Many words contain letters V^ich are not 
 sound ad, as k in sack, gh in fight, e in come, ue in le^ue, y in say, 
 w in bow, etc. Such letters are called silent letters; tl^y *re often (not 
 always) used to modify the sound of a preceding vov^l or consonant. 
 Compare filled and filed ; mat and mate ; rang and laa^* 
 
 Exercise 149.— Mention the silent letters iu e?^ of tlie following 
 words, and say whether they modify the sound or nr: — 
 
 Blighted, note, face, site, sight, safe, some, ^f^ beautiful, valley, 
 please, pleasant, would, could, should, coal, pab> vague, tomb, chalk, 
 doubt. 
 
 8. Syllables.— A sound produced by a sic^e effort of the voice, and 
 forming a word or part of a word, is called a'^^'^^^"^'^' A syllable may 
 be represented by either one or more letters-*'"'^ '^^ "i^st contain at least 
 one vowel : thus, 
 
 I, O, a, man, strength, -^a^^-i-^est-ly. 
 
 Exercise 160.— Divide into sylla-es each of the following words, 
 
 thus: im-me-di-ate: — • 
 
 Society, grammarian, thereby, sha'^^J,^' separation, government, dis- 
 tinctly, distinguish, syllable, divi-"-^' follower, composition, caution, 
 recess, time-table, probability, grr'*"'^' nation, ocean, arm-chair, nomi- 
 native. 
 
 9. If, in writing, it become? ^^^^^^^y ** ^^^ end of a line to divide a 
 word, it can be divided at the'"^ ^^ ^ syllable only, see par, 10, Lesson 
 LII. Of course, in such ca- ^ ^°^*^ °^ °"® syllable cannot be divided 
 at all. 
 
 Exercise 151.— Sa-''^^*^^* ^^ *^® following words you would divide at 
 the end of a line, and w'^'^J ^"<^ ^^^y y*^^^ would not divide, the others:— 
 
 Articulation, addi^^' ^"oj"' ^^,^^\ t^'^J^' ta,bular, wealth, wealthier, 
 there, machine, me<-"*^*\v^®^' ^1' t'^erefore, teacup, penholder, their, 
 factious, courageou'^r^"^'^^*' ^^?}'* ^^^r, liope, hopeful, foot, foothold, 
 field, field-mouse, '^"ow, pencil, pen, inkstand, copy-book, teacher, 
 strength, himself ='*'' P^"'^' ^^h-pond. 
 
 Rkmark.— It is r""' *^ ^* ^^^ ^^ avoided, not to divide ii word at all at the end of a 
 line. 
 
LES8CN LI.] 
 
 CAPITAL LETTERS. 
 
 179 
 
 We may now sum up, in the following manner, what haa been said in 
 this lesjon : — 
 
 A spiken word is a sound or a combination of sounds expressive of an 
 idea. 
 
 A written word is one in which the sounds of the spoken xoord are repre- 
 sented hy chiracters or svjns. 
 
 The charcuters or signs that stand for spoken sounds are called letters. 
 
 The letters %sed in a language are called its alphabet. 
 
 A vowel is a letUr that represents a free^ open sound, made hy the 
 unohstrnctcd void, 
 
 A consonant fc a letter that represents a sound made by obstructing the 
 voice hy the lips, toigue, teeth or throat, at the beginning or the end of a 
 vowel sound. 
 
 A diphthong is tlu-.union of two vowels in one sound. 
 A silent letter in a vord is one that is not sounded, 
 A spoken syllable is x sound produced by one effort of the voice; a 
 written syllable is the letttrs that represent that sound. 
 
 ideat 
 
 iier, 
 leir, 
 lold, 
 3her, 
 
 lof a 
 
 LESSON LI. 
 
 CAPITAL IbTTERS. 
 
 1- Capital Letters arc used for tK gake of giving importance to 
 cpitain words sc that the sense may therck, \^q made more obvious. A 
 capital letter should be used to begin— 
 
 1. The first word of every sentence. ^ 
 
 2. The first word of every line of poetry. 
 
 3. The first word of every direct quotation n.^{^^ complete sense, 
 thus: Judas said, "Master, is it I?" 
 
 4. All proper nouns and derivatives from them, thn, Canad?. ; Cana- 
 dian; tie English language. 
 
 b. Tnr names of streets, of the days of the week, and c ^^^ months of 
 t1; J • r.j , '^us : Bedford Street ; Spadina Avenue ; tlie mor^ „f August ; 
 V/'idnesday morning. 
 
 i'^. The name and titles of Deity, thus: God; Christ, the x jj^^j^j^^y . 
 
 tiie Most High ; the Son of Man. 
 
FT 
 
 180 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 [I'AKT V. 
 
 
 7. Importa,nt words in tho titles of books and essays, thus : Eriors in 
 the Use of English. 
 
 8. Titles of ofRce and honor, thus: the Marquis of Lome; Sheriff 
 Jones; Mayor Howland. 
 
 9. Names of things personified, thus : O Death, where is thy iting ? 
 
 10. Names of religious denominations an«l political parties thus : tho 
 Baptists; the Roman Catholics; the Tories; the Reformers 
 
 11. Tho pronoun I and the interjection O. 
 
 12. The words North, South, East and West, and compouids of these, 
 when they denote sections of country, but not when they merely denote 
 direction. 
 
 Exercise 162.— Errors for Correction.— Co rect all errors in 
 
 the use of capitals in the following sentences, and givf the reason for the 
 changes made: — 
 
 1. and nathan said unto david, thou art the Man. 2. i am the lord thy 
 god. 3. The christian religion has christ the redeener for its great central 
 Truth. 4. O solitude I where are the Charms tha^'^^'ges have seen in thy 
 Face? 5. The Earthquake occurred on the lirst Wednesday in february. 
 6. lord DufFerin was once governor-general of enada; he was afterwards 
 viceroy of India. 7. They will come from th east and from the west, 
 from the north and from the south. 8. I am eading morley's history Of 
 The netherlands. 9. the city of hamilton is^n V)urlington bay. 10. My 
 Sister and I study french and german, and'"'' Brother studies greek and 
 latiii. 11. The provincial secretary reside''''^ iio- 14 bloomsgrove orescent. 
 12. methodists are sometimes called wesly<i^'is after John wesley. 
 
 16. from Stirling castle we-ia<^ seen 
 the mazy forth unr^elled ; 
 had trod the Banks ^ clyde and tay, 
 and with the tw-^ had travelled. 
 
 ena 
 
 LF»SON LII. 
 
 PUN'TUATION MARKS. 
 
 1. Punctuation ro '^^ ^^^ certain marks that are used in writing to 
 ^„able the reader, ^ "leans of the eye, to apprehend more readily the 
 sense of the passa'''* -l^^ey are 
 
 the T^'^o^ • the Interrogr tion Mark ? 
 
 „ ^olon • t. Exclamation Mark 1 
 
 Semicolon ; „ Dash — 
 
 .. Comma , „ Parenthesis ( ) 
 
 2. T^ Period.— The Period is used, 1st, at the end of every com- 
 
■ 
 
 LESSON 1,1 1. J 
 
 PUNCTUATION. 
 
 181 
 
 pleto sentence, unless the nature of the sentence calls for the Interrogation 
 Mark or the Exclamation Mark, thus: Time and tide wait for no man. 
 2nd. After abbreviations, figures used in numbering, and before decinuils, 
 thus: Rev.; Hon.; Geo. T. Jackson, Esq.; i. 2. 3.; $36.75. 
 
 3. The Colon. — The Colon is used, 1st, between sentences that are 
 connected only slightly in sense, thus: I met a little cottage girl: she 
 was eight years old, she said. 2nd. Before wcn-da used in exphmation 
 of a previous statement or of a title, tl.us: Feathered workmen serve 
 no apprenticeship: their trade comes to them by nature. A Psalm 
 of Life : a Poem by Longfellow. 3rd. Before a direct quotation, thus : 
 Sydney handed the cup to the poor fellow with these words: "Thy 
 necessity is greater than mine." 
 
 Remark.— If the quotation bo short a comma sufRces, thus : Judas said, "Is It I?" 
 
 ExerciS'3 153. — Punctuate the following, giving reasons for what 
 you do : — 
 
 1 Niagara Falls are a wonderful sight 2 Shakespeare died Apr 23 A 1) 
 1(516 3 Italian ships covered every sea Italian factories rose on every 
 shore Italian money-changers set up their tables in every city manufac- 
 tories dourislied banks were established 4 The Hon Geo Brown M P ; the 
 Rev J H Baldwin MA; p 50 Chap IV Vol I 5 The package weighed 1 
 cwt 14 lbs 6 ozs 
 
 6 Prosperity makes friends adversity tries them 7 The president rose 
 and said Ladies and gentlemen we are etc 8 Warren Hastings an Essay 
 by Macaulay 9 It may cost something to serve God it will cost more not 
 to serve Him 
 
 10 The long day wanes the slow moon climbs 
 The deep moans around with many voices 
 
 4-. The Semicolon. — The Semicolon is used, 1st, between sentences 
 somewhat closely connected in sense, thus: The Lord is my shepherd; 
 I shall not want. 2nd. After a complete sentence when a clause is added 
 stating a reason, an inference, or an explanation, thus: Mercy is twice 
 blessed ; it blesseth him that gives, and him that takes. 3rd. Between 
 parts of a sentence that already have the comma, thus: If the tree is 
 still straight, the beavers set to work again; but the moment they 
 hear it crack, off they run to keep out of danger. 4th. Between the 
 clauses of a compound sentence, especially if these are contracted, or are 
 long, or are not quite closely connected, thuF: Man counts his life by 
 years ; the oak, by centuries. Then shook the hills by thunder riven ; 
 then rushed the steed, to battle driven. 
 
 5. The Comma.—The Comma is used, 1st, before an appositive 
 noun or pronoun, thus: Nature's sweet restorer, balmy sleep. 2nd. 
 After the name of the person addressed, thus: My son, give me thine 
 heart. 3rd. Between an absolute phi-ase and the rest of the sentence. 
 
r 
 
 18 
 
 o 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 [I'AKT V. 
 
 thus: This finished, they took their leave. On they marched, sword 
 in hand. 4th. IJetwecti •words and pairs of words used in tlio aainc con- 
 struction, thus: Voung, handsome, and clever, the page was the 
 darling of the court. Old and young, rich and poor, wise and foolish, 
 perished together, .nth. r»cft)ro and afterwords and phrases used paren- 
 tlietically in a sentence. The following are tluis " set off" by commas: — 
 however, therefore, accordingly, namely, indeed, perhaps; in short, 
 of course, as it were, so to speak, on the one hand, etc. 0th. ]ietween 
 the (dauses of a coinpound sentence, if they are simple in construction and 
 short, thus: He rewarded his friends, chastised his foes, set Justice 
 on her seat, and made his conquest secure. 
 
 -Tunctuato the following, giving reasons for what 
 
 Exercise 154.- 
 
 you do: — 
 
 1. Straws lie at the surface but pearls lie at the bottom 2. Touch not 
 taste not handle not 8. I am not afraid my fatiier is in tlie liouse 4. 
 I lonier was tlie greater genius but Virgil was the ! tetter artist .'). 'iV) err 
 is human to forgive, divine (i. There are ten cities in Ontario Toronto, 
 Hamilton, etc 7. 1 must go for night is coming on. 
 
 8. I rise sir to a point of order 9. The storm being over he departed 
 10, Men and women friends and enemies n)ojiks and prebendaries were 
 crumltled amongst one another. 11. (Jentleslieplicrd tell me Avhere. 12. 
 Fie will in all jirobability deny it 1.3. 1 indeed scarcely ever see him now. 
 14. .Sink or swim live or die survive or perish I give my hand and heart 
 to this vote 15. His coiKbict proceeds in a great degree if not altogether 
 from ignorance 10. To tell the tiuth I was to blame. 17. He wrote 
 readily forcil)ly and accurately, lt>, A godly righteous and sober life 
 brings a man peace at the last. 
 
 6. The Interrogation Mark is used after every sentence that 
 contains a (///v (7 question, thus: "What is thy name, yeoman?" asked 
 Prince John. 
 
 / • The Exclamation Mark is used after interjections, exclama- 
 tory phrases, and invocations, thus: Pshaw 1 Hello, my fine fellow I 
 Father of ail! in every age adored 1 
 
 Exercise 155. — Punctuate the following, giving reasons for what 
 you do : — 
 
 1. What's to-day my fine fellow said Scrooge. 2. A wounded spirit 
 who can bear. :^. I suppose sir you are tlie doctor are you 4. Who hath 
 trouble who hath contention tliey that tarry long at the wine. 6. And 
 ilesus said How many loaves have ye 6. What is our life It is even as a 
 vapor. 
 
 7. But hush hai-lc a deep sound strikes like a rising knell. 8. England 
 with all tliy faults I love thee still. 9. Friend of the wise and teacher of 
 the good. 10. Hands off says Pompey. 11. An officer seeing this called 
 out See they run. 12, Fly mailed monarch fly. 13. When lo its folds 
 
LESSOK LII.] 
 
 PUNCTUATION. 
 
 183 
 
 
 lama- 
 llowl 
 
 Iwhat 
 
 spirit 
 
 I liath 
 
 And 
 
 as a 
 
 fland 
 Jer of 
 
 lalled 
 folds 
 
 far waving on the wind I saw the train of the departing year. 14. Quick 
 quick cried ho let us run away or thuy will catch us. 15. How oft the 
 sight of means to do ill deeds make ill deeds done 
 
 16. The Sea the Sea the open Sea 
 Tiic blue the freali the ever free 
 I'm on tlie Sea I'm on the Sea 
 I am where I would ever be 
 
 o- The Dash is used, 1st, to indicate an unexpected break, pause, 
 or turn in the sentence, tlius: I was crossingf the bridge, when a little 
 girl —but I must not tell the story, it is too painful. And nov/ my 
 business is— to die. 2iid. Instead of a parentheais, thus: With thanks 
 —'twas all she could —the maid his rugged courtesy repaid. 
 
 Remark. — Many persons uao the Dash freely in place of the other correct i)unctuati<)ii 
 marks. The practice should bebtudiously avoided, uh it is always a proof of Ignorance or 
 of carelessness in the writer. 
 
 9- The Parenthesis is u.scd to enclose words in a sentence, which, 
 ))ciiig chietly explanatory, are not lUMicsaary to the sense, thus: The 
 night (it was the middle of summer) was fair and calm. 
 
 10. Other marks used in writing.— The Hyphen - is used, 1st, 
 l)etween tlie parts of a coiiipouml word when such parts have not grown 
 together into one word, thus : door-mat ; wheat-field ; time-serving ; 
 rose-tinted. 2nd. At the end of a lino when a word is divided, thu.s: 
 
 Words can l)e di- 
 vided at the end of a syl- 
 lable only, 
 
 11 > The Caret is used to mark that some letter, word, or expression 
 A 
 
 wa« omitted in writing, and ia to be supplied by what is written over the 
 
 e been 
 
 caret, thus: belive; The caret has called a blunder-mark. 
 A A 
 
 12. Quotation Marks ** " are used to show that the words they 
 enclose are the exact words of some person, or have been previously used 
 l»y the writer or some one else, thus : And (>ain said, "Am I my brother's 
 keeper?" His last words were: "How short is time I how long is 
 eternity I" "Surely," said I, "man is but a shadow, and his life a 
 dream." 
 
 Brmark. — It la seen by these examples, 1st, that an Interrogation or Exclamation 
 Mark, if belo- jiiijf to the {piotation, must be included within the quotation marks. 2nd. 
 If the quotation is interrupted by the insartionof explanatory words, each part must have 
 quotation marks. 
 
184 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 [part v. 
 
 II 
 
 13. The Apostrophe ' is used to mark the omiiuaion of one or more 
 letters or figures, to mark the possessive case of nouus, auil tu form tiie 
 plural of some letters and signs, thus : o'er ; tho' ; 'gan. '86. The boy's 
 hat. Gross the t's and dot the i's. Change the + 's and the - 's. 
 
 EjXercise 156. — Punctuate the following, giving reasons: — 
 
 1. Nelson was in want of frigates the eyes of tlie fleet as he called them. 
 2. He had only twenty-three ships the others had been lost with which to 
 meet the enemy. 3. Perhaps he did not see Nora Heaven only knows and 
 BO died. 4. He had no malice in his mind no ruffles on his shirt. 6. Arm 
 arm it is it is the cannon's opening roar. 6. Her dark eye flashed she 
 paused and fled. 
 
 7. Ho gave utterance as he often does to revolutionary sentimonts. 8. 
 I knew his companion I had good reason to know him to be a man of the 
 vilest character. 9. That woman I say it with all reverence was more 
 angel than mortal. 10. A few and these were among the youngest of the 
 children slept peacefully on. 11. The feeble winters sun and winters suns 
 in the city are very feeble indeed just then brightened up. 
 
 12. Quick quick cried he let us run away or he will catch us 
 Who will catch us asked the stranger 
 
 Mr Toil the old schoolmaster answered Daffy Dont you see him 
 amongst the haymakers 
 
 -Correct any errors 
 
 Exercise 157.— Errors for Correction.- 
 
 in the following : — • 
 
 1. An honest mans the noblest work of God 2 The young are slaves 
 to novelty the old to custom 3 A fathers or a mothers sister is an aunt 
 4. Honor being lost all is lost 5 The Pleasures of Memory a poem by 
 Samuel Rogers 6 A horse my kingdom for a horse 7 But who can paint 
 like nature he exclaimed Can imagination boast amid its gay creation hues 
 like hers 8 Her voice was ever soft and low an excellent thing in woman 
 9 The common air the earth the ;jkie3 to him are opening Paradise 10 
 Lamb was a writer of humor Smith of wit 11 My poverty not my will 
 consents 12 Ah then and there was hurrying to and fro 13 Well can 
 the green-garbed ranger tell how when and where the monster fell. 
 
 14. Very well indeed said Mr Crummies bravo 
 
 Bravo cried Nicholas resolved to make the best of everything beautiful 
 
 This sir said Mr Vincent Crummies bringing the maiden forward This 
 is the infant phenomenon Miss Ninetta Crummies 
 
 Your daughter inquired Nicholas 
 
 My daughter my daughter replied Mr Crummies the idol of every place 
 we go into sir 
 
[part v. 
 
 LESSON UII.] 
 
 LETTER- WIUTINU. 
 
 185 
 
 or more 
 form the 
 le boy's 
 
 ed them, 
 which to 
 10W8 and 
 5. Arm 
 bshcd ijhe 
 
 onts. 8, 
 m of the 
 ivas more 
 38t of the 
 iters suua 
 
 see him 
 
 ly errors 
 
 re slaves 
 
 an aunt 
 
 3oem by 
 
 an paint 
 
 tion hues 
 M'onian 
 
 dise 10 
 my will 
 
 *Vell can 
 1. 
 
 Ijcautiful 
 ard This 
 
 sry place 
 
 LESSON LIII, 
 
 LETTER-WRITINO. 
 
 '• Parts of Bi Letter. — The essential parts of a letter are the 
 heading, the address, the salutation, the body, the complimentary close, 
 the signature, and the direction. 
 
 Z. The Headingf. — This consists of the name of the place at which 
 
 the letter is written and the date. The former should be given in full as 
 
 a direction to where an answer is to be sent ; and the latter should give 
 
 the month, the day of the month, and the year of the writing. If ruled 
 
 paper is used, the heading is written on the first line of it; if unruled, it 
 
 is written one and a half or two inches from the top of the page, beginning 
 
 a little to the left of the middle of the page. If the place and the date 
 
 occupy more than this half line, they should be separated and written on 
 
 two lines, the second beginning a little farther to the right than the line 
 
 above it: thus, 
 
 Toronto, April 27th, 1886. 
 
 or, 128 Jarvis Street, Toronto, 
 April 17th, 1886. 
 
 3. The Address. — This consists of the name (and sometimes the 
 business and place of abode) of the person written to. There should always 
 be a narrow margin on the left side of the page, and the address should 
 be written on the next line or the next but one below the heading, begin- 
 ning at this marginal line. If it contains the address and busixicss of the 
 person, these should be written on the next two lines below, a little to the 
 right, so that the first words of the lines will be in a line sloping to the 
 right. For illustration see next paragraph. 
 
 4'. The Salutation. — This is the formal or ceremonial words of 
 respect used towards the person. It is written on the next line below the 
 address, beginning at the margin or a little to the right of it ; thus, 
 
 A. B. Brilliant, Esq., 
 
 Manager Gas Co., 
 
 Luxborough. 
 Dear Sir, 
 
 Your favor etc. 
 
 The form of the salutation will depend on the position of the person 
 addressed, or on the degree of intimacy between the parties. Sir is 
 formal, and is mostly confined to official letters. Dear Sir is the more 
 

 IMAGE EVALUATION 
 TEST TARGET (MT-S) 
 
 // 
 
 
 <- 
 
 1,0 
 
 I.I 
 
 l.?5 
 
 ■ 50 
 
 
 110 
 
 2.0 
 
 I. 
 
 14 116 
 
 6" 
 
 Photogi'aphic 
 
 Sciences 
 Corporation 
 
 23 WEST MAIN STREET 
 
 WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 
 
 (716) 873-4503 
 

186 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 m 
 
 
 
 m-i^ 
 
 ^ ! i 
 
 I ■' ■ ■ ■ 
 
 [fabt v. 
 
 usual form. Dear denotes courtesy or friendshir/ when set before Sir or 
 a name, and My 4ear denotes intimacy as well. 
 
 In familiar and official letters it is usual to place the address after the 
 body of the letter on the left side of the page. 
 
 5. The Body. — This contains what the person writing wishes to say 
 to the person addressed. It begins on the line below the salutation, as 
 shown in the preceding paragraph. Matter that relates to different sub- 
 jects should be put into different paragraphs. The urst paragraph usually 
 acknowledges a previous letter received, if any. 
 
 6" The Complimentary Close, — The complimentary close will, 
 like the salutation, depend on the position or the relationship of the person. 
 It often repeats the salutation. It is written, on the line below the body 
 of the letter on the right hand side, and if it occupies more than one line 
 the second begins a little to the right of the first. (See Specimen Letter, 
 par. 9.) 
 
 7. The Sigrnature. — The signature follows the complimentary close. 
 It should be written quite legibly, especially when the letter is written 
 to a stranger. 
 
 Matter not relevant to the siibject of the letter, and matter forgotten 
 or omitted in tne body of the letter, ia to be added after the signature as a 
 postscript. Thid begins with the capital letters P.S., and is signed by the 
 initials only of the writer. 
 
 8. The Direction. — This contains the name of the party written 
 to; his business or occupation (if any); the numbtr and the street (if 
 necessary to give them) on which he resides or does business; and the 
 city, town, or post-office where the letter is to be deliv ered : thus. 
 
 
 STAMP. 
 
 c;^ 
 
 
 Rkmark.— When no mistake can possibly arise, because th e place is small and the party 
 written to is well known In it, the occupation and the street, i.«., lines 2 and 3, are omitted, 
 
i I 
 
 I;! 
 
 LESSON LIII. ] 
 
 LETTER- WRITING. 
 
 187 
 
 The name, which should include titles of courtesy, is written about 
 half-way down the envelope, leaving a margin on the left-hand side. The 
 business or occupation is to be put on the next line. The number and the 
 street are put on the next Una. Then, on the next, the name of the city, 
 town, or post-office, and the province. Each part of the direction should 
 be written very plainly, so that the post-office officials may, without diffi- 
 culty, know exactly what to do with the letter. Each line of the direction 
 should begin a little to the right of the one above it, so that the whole 
 may slope to the right. 
 
 »• Specimen Letter. — ^An application. — 
 
 The Dominion Printing Co., ^«'''^^^fl'» ^»'- -^'"d' SOth, 1886. 
 
 Froni, Street, 
 
 Gentleman, ^^^^'^^^^ 
 
 / have Been your advertisement in the Toronto daily papers for a 
 youth to learn the printing business, and I beg to offer myself for the place. 
 
 I am fourteen years of ag^, am strong and active, in excellent health, and 
 am not afraid to work. I attended the Public School of this town for about 
 four years: two years ago I passed the Entrance Examination, and have 
 since been attending the Collegiate Institute. These facts will give you an 
 idea of my scholarship, and, as evidence qf my good character, I enclose 
 testimonials from the Principal of the Institute and my former teacher. 
 
 If you loould like a personal interview, I shall be glad to present myself 
 li your office on any day and at any hour you may name. 
 
 lam, Genilemen, 
 
 Yours very respectfully, 
 
 A, B, Workhard. 
 
 P.S. — My father has just told me that business will call him to Toronto 
 tki day after to-morrow, and he has promised to call and see you. 
 
 A. B. W. 
 
 10. Letters of Introduction.— A letter given by one person to 
 another for the purpose of introducing the latter to some other person, is 
 called a letter of iNTRODtrCTioN. It may run as follows :— 
 
 Brantford, Ont., April 30th, 1885. 
 My dear Friend, 
 
 This will introduce to you Mr. Alpheus Todd, an old and dear 
 
 acquaintance of mine. He is visiting your city for the first time, and any 
 
 attention it may be in your power to show him during his stay will be highly 
 
 esteemed by him, and regarded as a personal favor by 
 
 Yours very sincerely, 
 
 Oliver Wendell Holmes, M.D., Geo. Peabody. 
 
 Boston, Mass. 
 
188 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 [PAET V. 
 
 m' 
 
 h -S: 
 
 % 
 
 ■t 
 
 A letter of introductiou is generally left unsealed, and has the name of 
 the person to be introduced written on the left hand lower corner of the 
 envelope, preceded by the words Introducing^ Mr. . 
 
 A letter that is sent by a friend has Favor of Mr. in the left hi9Uid 
 
 lower comer of the envelope. 
 
 11 • Notes of Invitation. — Notes of invitation are generally writ- 
 ten in the third person, and have none of the formal parts of a letter. 
 They are generally short, containing the name of the persons inviting, and 
 of the person invited, and the time of meeting. The place and date of 
 writing the note are placed below on the left hand side : thus. 
 
 • a company on 
 
 Mr. and Mrs. request the pleasure of Mr. - 
 
 Monday evening, May 11th, at ii p.m. 
 Rjsehank, 
 
 Wednesday, May 6th. 
 
 The answer should be in similax" form. Of course, an invitation may 
 be given in the ordinary letter form ; the answer should then be in that 
 form also. 
 
 12. Post Cards. — Most of the directions given above for letter- 
 writing apply also to post cards ; but, since these partake somewhat of the 
 nature of despatches, less attention and Gpace are given to the parts that 
 are merely formal, such as the salutation and the complimentary close. 
 
 i,,! 
 
 FINIS. 
 
 -'1i;' 
 
 !'.■ ' 
 
 .l-u. 
 
 
I i 
 
 INDEX 
 
 PAUES 
 
 Abbreviation 14, 77 
 
 Adjectives 23 
 
 ). Predicate . . .26, 155, 163 
 
 II Attributive 27, 163 
 
 II Appositive .... 164 
 
 II Classes of 68 
 
 II Clauses 80 
 
 It Comparison of . . 100 
 
 Adverbs 30, 147, 167 
 
 II Classes of VI 
 
 11 Clauses 79 
 
 Adverbial Objective 168 
 
 11 Pred. Adjective. 157 
 
 Agreement 105, 152 
 
 Alphabet 176 
 
 Analysis 9, 11, 18, 22, 25, 
 
 28, 32, 34, 39, 59, 78, 82 
 
 Appositive 163 
 
 M Adjective ...... 164 
 
 Appendix 176 
 
 Apostrophe 40, 93, 184 
 
 Articles 70 
 
 Auxiliary Verbs 124 
 
 Capitals 14, 29, 46, 54, 179 
 
 Caret 183 
 
 Case 90,92, 94, 166 
 
 Cautions 6, 12, 16, 19, 
 
 23,29,35,37,41,54,59,71, 
 116, 117, 137, 148, 149, 176 
 
 Ckuses 41, 44, 80 
 
 Colon 181 
 
 Composition 6, 8, 9, 13, 
 
 14, 15, 22, 25, 29, 32, 35, 
 38,39,44,51,52,60,61, 
 66,67,71,72,74,75,81, 
 84,96,99,104, 107,116, 
 121, 127, 148, 149, 150 
 
 Compound Sentence 75, 174 
 
 Complex „ 79, 174 
 
 Complement 174 
 
 PAOBS 
 
 Comma 29, 46, 181 
 
 Conditional Verb-phrase . . 135 
 
 Conjugations 117 
 
 New..ll8, 120,122, 127 
 Old.. 118, 120, 123, 128 
 
 Active 142 
 
 Passive 143, 144 
 
 Scheme of . . . 139, 144 
 
 Conjunctions 42, 83, 147 
 
 Conjunctive Pronouns .... 65 
 
 Consonants 177 
 
 Copula 26, 27 
 
 Dash.. 
 
 Defective Verbs 
 
 Degrees of Comparison . 
 Different Values of Words. 
 Different Values of Preposi- 
 tion Phrases 
 
 Different Kinds of Sentences 
 Diphthongs 
 
 183 
 129 
 100, 147 
 47 
 
 49 
 
 50 
 
 177 
 
 Emphatic Verb phrases . . 134 
 
 Errors for Correction 15, 19, 
 
 22, 29, 35, 40, 46, 52, 
 62,73,96,99,111,117, 
 122, 137, 149, 154, 157, 
 165, 167, 169, 180, 184 
 
 Exclamation Mark 46, 182 
 
 Explanation's 15, 40 
 
 Gender 66,98 
 
 II Nouns 66 
 
 II of Pronouns 97 
 
 Government 105, 152 
 
 Grammar 13 
 
 Hyphen 16, 59, 183 
 
 Imperative Verb-phrases . . 135 
 
 Infinitives Ill 
 
190 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 }'■ ;■ 
 
 I*- 
 
 m 
 
 Wui: 
 
 I'i'lUfi 
 
 i- ^ « 
 
 4 "■ 
 
 '" 'i 
 
 ill 
 
 PAaSH 
 
 Inflection 85, 87, 90 
 
 Interjections , 45, 74 
 
 Interrogation Mark 15, 182 
 
 Irregularities of Con j ugation 1 22 
 It 153 
 
 Letters 176 
 
 Letter Writing 185 
 
 Marks Used in Writing . . 15, 183 
 
 Modifiers 23, 29, 30, 36 
 
 Mood 108, 134 
 
 Nouns 11 
 
 n Classes of 53 
 
 II Clauses 80 
 
 II Predicate 27, 155 
 
 II Used Absolutely .. 170 
 
 Notes to Teacher 16, 37, 43, 45, 
 
 59, 65, 74, 98, 107, 110, 139, 176 
 
 Number 85 
 
 I, of Verbs 106 
 
 Numerals 68 
 
 Object 33, 158 
 
 I, Direct 158 
 
 II Indirect . 159 
 
 Objective Predicate, Adjec- 
 tive or Noun 161 
 
 Obligative Verb-phrases . . 134 
 
 Parts of Speech 19, 45 
 
 Participles 113, 116, 121 
 
 Parenthesis 15, 183 
 
 Parsing .... 13, 18, 22, 28, 32, 40, 45, 
 51. 59, 95, 98, 103, 110, 146, 148 
 
 Passive Verb-phrases 142 
 
 Period 6, 14, 180 
 
 Person 97, 104 
 
 Phrases 36, 38, 
 
 96, 130, 133, 134, 135, 171 
 
 Plural 86, 87, 89 
 
 Poteiktial Verb-phrases ... , 134 
 
 Postcards 138 
 
 Predicate 8, 153 
 
 M Bare 17 
 
 I'AOIUI 
 
 Predicate Complete 17 
 
 It Incomplete 155 
 
 II Adjectives 26, 156, 157 
 
 ,1 Nouns 27, 156 
 
 Prepositions 36, 73, 147 
 
 Progressive Verb-phrases . 133, 138 
 
 Pronouns 20, 21 
 
 II Classes of 62 
 
 Punctuation 6, 14, 29, 
 
 40,41,51,52,54,99, 180, 184 
 
 Quotation Marks 
 
 Scheme of Conjugation . . . 
 
 Semicolon 
 
 Sentences 
 
 II Parts of 
 
 II Subject of ... 9, 
 
 II Predicate of .... 
 
 i. Simple 
 
 II Compound 
 
 II Complex 
 
 II Assertive 
 
 II Interrogative . . , 
 
 II Imperative 
 
 Stem or Root-infinitive .... 
 
 Subject 
 
 Summary of Syntax 
 
 Syllables 
 
 Syntax 
 
 5, 
 
 151, 
 
 9, 
 
 41, 
 
 75, 
 
 79, 
 
 10, 
 
 183 
 
 139 
 
 181 
 
 152 
 
 8 
 
 153 
 
 153 
 
 151 
 
 174 
 
 174 
 
 50 
 
 50 
 
 51 
 
 113 
 
 174 
 
 173 
 
 178 
 
 151 
 
 Tense 107, 130, 138 
 
 Values of Words 
 
 Ver >s 
 
 Classes of 
 
 Tenses of 
 
 Mood of 
 
 Transitive 
 
 Intransitive 
 
 Verb-phrases 
 
 Verbs of Incomplete Predi- 
 cation 
 
 Vowels 
 
 Words 
 
 47 
 
 16, 18 
 
 60 
 
 107, 130 
 
 108 
 
 60, 158 
 
 61, 159 
 130, 142 
 
 156 
 
 177 
 
 176 
 
 ri'i 
 
 M' 
 
PAoes 
 
 17 
 
 155 
 
 r)6, 157 
 
 11, 156 
 
 J:i, 147 
 
 13, 138 
 20,21 
 
 62 
 
 14, 29, 
 iO, 184 
 
 183 
 
 130 
 181 
 
 5, 152 
 
 8 
 I, 153 
 [), 153 
 1, 151 
 "), 174 
 ), 174 
 50 
 50 
 51 
 113 
 ), 174 
 173 
 178 
 151 
 
 », 138 
 
 47 
 
 6, 18 
 60 
 
 , 130 
 108 
 , 158 
 , 159 
 , 142 
 
 156 
 
 177 
 
 176