AJ IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) i /. o / o % f/. !.0 I.I 1.25 1^ III 2.2 12.0 1.8 1.4 IIIIII.6 V] % /j 7 >^ V The images appearing here are the best quality possible considering the condition and legibility of the original copy and in keeping with the filming contract specifications. Les images suivantes ont dt6 reproduites avec le plus grand soin, compte tenu de la condition et de la nettet6 de I'exemplaire filmd, et en conformity avec les conditions du contrat de filmage. The last recorded frame on each microfiche shall contain the symbol -^(meaning CONTINUED"), or the symbol V (meaning "END"), whichever applies. Un des symboles suivants apparaitra sur la der- nidre image de cheque microfiche, selon le cas: le symbole — »> signifie "A SUIVRE", le symbole V signifie "FIN". The original copy was borrowed from, and filmed with, the kind consent of the following institution: National Library of Canada L'exemplaire film6 fut reproduit grdce d la gdndrositd de I'dtablissement prdteur suivant : Bibliothdque nationale du Canada Maps or plates too large to be entirely included in one exposure are filmed beginning in the upper Inft hand corner, left to right and top to bottom, as many frames as required. The following diagrams illustrate the method: Les cartes ou les planches trop grandes pour dtre reproduites en un seul clichd sont film6es d partir de Tangle sup^rieure gauche, de gauche d droite et de haut en bas, en prenant le nombre d'images ndcessaire. Le diagramme suivant illustre la m^thode : 1 2 3 1 1 i 2 3 4 5 6 3 HANDBOOK OF G E O L O G- Y FOR THE USE OF CANADIAN STUDENTS Bv SIR eT. WILLIAM DAWSOX, C.M.G., LL.I)., F.K..S., KTC. PRINCirAL OF McGILL UNIVERSITY. T MONTREAL: DAW S O X P, R O T H E R S, P U IJ L I S H E R S. 1889. 11.1 "Witness" Printiso House, Montreal. Entered, according to Act of Parliament of Canada, in tlie year 1889, by Dawson Broth eus, Montreal, in the otlice of the Minister of Agriculture. I PREFACE. This work is intended to servo as lecture notes for teachers of Geoloj,'}', more especiaily in tlie Dominion of Canada, and as a ^niide to Canadian Geoloyy for private students, enquirers and travellers. The first ])art relates to the <,'eneral ]irinci])les of the science, with examples, as far as possible, from Canadian minerals and rocks. The secijud part gives an outline of Geological Chronology, illustrated hy Canadian rock-formations and fossils. The third part gives details as to the Physical Geography and Geology of Canada. In this part reference is made to authorities and to works giving more detailed inform- ation ; and credit is given, as far as possible, to the original observers of the more important geological facts. Sept., 1889. I NT 1. II. I ni. I TAIMvK OF (X):s^TEN'rs. INTIJODICTION I'Aiii:. 1 PART I. General Geology. T. LITUOUKiV I. ClIKMIslliV or UdCKS ■J. MlNKI; AI.OCV HI' |{()( KS ;!. Cl.ASSIl'ICATKlN A.M. StIDV OK |{o( KS 1. IgUt'ollS RoclvH .... 2. A((iioou.s Rocks II. I'.VI..E()XT(>L()(iV 1. I'ltKSKUVAIIO.V OF OliCAMC |{|:mm\.s 2. Class KS oi- Ammvi.s .'{. Cl.ASSlFUATlON OF I'l.ANTS III. PHYSICAL (;K()L()(;v AM) STKATKiRAPllV 1. <>iU(;r\ OF Aqikhis Di;i-osrrs 2. HaRDEXINO AM) ALTKItATIOX. By Pressure ..... B}' Tntilh.irioii By Hunt 3. COXCKETIO.NAUV A( TIOX 4. Colours of AyiEou.s IIock.s . 4 11 17 24 2») 26 27 27 28 IV 10. 11. 12. \:\. 14. ir. It) 17 TABLE OF CONTKNTS. .Maukin<:s on Sri!K.\ation Massivk Rocks Vi;iN-KoK.MKi) Rocks ( >IU01N OK Mol NIAINS. ClIUoNol.o'^V oK HkI)S (ilOOl.OOlCAl. MaI'S ANl. SKCnoNS . riKl,l> (JkoI.OOY . • • • I'.VUK. :u :il :u :n .'{2 32 32 {\A ;«; :v,) 41 41 4:5 44 46 48 j1 PART IL— Historical Geology. CL.VSSIFICATION AND TKRMS I. KO/OlO PERIOD . 1. Laikkntian Svstkm. . Lower Liuu-entuin Mitldle Laiiruutian . Uppor T/uiriaitiaii 2. H IKON I AN S VST KM TT. PAL.EOZOTC PERIOD . 1. Camhrian System . • Lower Cambrian . Middle Cambrian Upper Cambrian . 55 HT 57 57 57 59 ()2 (55 ()5 05 (5(5 (58 T.M'.f.K Ol' CONTK.N'I'S. I'ACIK. :n :;i 31 :il 32 32 32 34 3() IV.) 41 41 43 44 46 48 '•7 57 r>7 iV.) 02 ()5 (58 2. Sll.l l!n-(A\lli|;| AN SvsTlvM (^Mii'lu'c Sorios Ti'oiitiiii SorioH . Iludsdii Kivi:r Sorit'M .'t. Sll.llilW SVSI'KM Mc'diiiii SuriL's Niuf^ivru Soi'ius . SaliiiM Series llclderlnjrg Surie.s 4. EiiiAx oil Dkvoman Svstkm ConuforoiiH Surios H.'iniiltoii Series . Clieiiuiiig Series T). CAIUiONlFKUdfS SysTKM liortoii Series W'imlsor Series Millstone (Irit . Coal Fiiriuatiiiii (). Pkumian Svstkm Lower Permian . Ui)per Penniiiu 111. MKSOZOIC PERIOD . 1. TiiiAssir Systkm 1. Bmiter Sandstone . 2. Muschelkalk . ."). lveni)er Sandstone. 2. JtKAssu' System 1. Lias 2. Oolitic Series . 3. Cretaceous Sy'.stem 1. Lower Crotaceons 2. Middle Cretaceous .'i. I'pper Cretaceous V •MiK. 70 7(1 7'> 7"» 7.'. 7.". 7ti 77 ( I S(l H> 82 82 8(; 8(J HS HK 88 !I7 '••7 !I7 w !t;t KJO 101 103 103 103 105 105 105 106 U ii I VI 'I Alll-K til' (ONTKNTS. IV. KAINH/OIC l'i:i{l<>|) I. I'liM KM-; SsviKM . I. liiiSVlir Knct'lll! 'J. Miildlo Kncciio . II. I |>|)cr Ivic'i'iK! li. .Mi<>( i.m; Svstkm 1. lidwcr Miciociu! 2. Midilli! MincDiio .">. I ppor Miiiceno ;;. I'i.kkkm: Svsii:m I. < HdlT I'linCL'IlO •J. Nc'wuf IMincuno 4. ri.KISI'ocKNK SVSTKM 1. linnldm- Cliiy . •J. Lid.i Clay . ;!. S;i.\ic;iva Sund . 5. iMohKltN AlIK . 1. I'dst-dliicifil 2. liiiCiiUt 1)1' lli.stiiric lot) |()<.> 1(11) IK) IMI II'-' ll'J li:: ii:; li:; li:; III 114 114 lir. iir. ik; IL'O II. III. PART III— Canadian Topography and Geology. ACADIAN UE(il()N l-'4 liArUKMIAN SVSTKM . ^-*' Hl'ldMAN SvsTKM ........ i-^> CAMliUIAN SV.STKM !-<> SltrKO-CAMIMtlAN Sv.STKM ].'>() Sin lilAN SvsTKM . . ... . . . . l-"'> FiKIAN Ol! DkVOMAN SVSTKM ].'>7 Cahi'.omkkkoi s System ...... !•'!'•• Pekmia.n 8vstkm 14r» Tria.-;.sic Svstkm 14<> Pleistocene Ack 14!) Mf)l)ERN AfiE • • 1'*^ COKKELATION Olr' AfADIAX WITH Kf 1!( M'KAN ( i K( II.Dd V . 158 Tabular CoN'.sPEnrs of Formations in tiii; Aiadian RElilON 1'>1 IV. i; |0<.> Id!) 10 Id l-J !•_' i:: TAHLK OF CONTKXTS. II. <.>l|';iM';C AM) OXTAIUO l>iM>i<.s rvn. DisriacTs .\i:( II i;\s (III Ku/()ic hiMiiii T CVMUKMS VM, Si,., ,;nCAM,i|M\s |)|„l!,rT ..K S..l,ll- v« l'\nK. KJL' 1(1:' ifi-J K\>,I|;N (,Ii i;ii,;c I'AL.Ko/nir Disriii. r .„. (.,,.;,„, .s„ K.sn.Ks ()n,m;„, ii; I*i,kist(mi:m: I)|.;r(isr,> Dlsritlr,' ,.|.- \\k.s,|.;ii.\ (»\taI!I<> 'run I.AI! (\,.VS1-K(TIS OK lMMiM\T„,vs ,v mV. (.ll KIUOC AM. OmAKIo MciMoNs Hi:; i; I (is 171 J7.'. 14 14 14 ir. ir> k; I'd -'! |-_'4 }\>r> 125 ll.'(i i;;() j:!.-! ].'!7 ];!<» i4r> 14() 14!t inn 158 i()i ill. MANITOIJAN AM) N(.|{TIi\VI.:sT I{E(;i<)N l'llVM( Al, <;i:(h;1!.\|>||v Aiutic ("oast Distkkt Hi DsoN I'.AY ..••••• AlMTIC Alt( III! Kl.\ (;1!I;TA( r.ol S AM> TKirilAUV nV (il!i;i-,M.AM> DuiKT DKrnsns VI. TKKRANOVAX oK NKWFOlNDL AND IIEOIOX LAlliKMIAN AMI II' ItoMAN . • • • TAi..K<>Z')It' DkI'OSITS . . . • ■ Pi.f:ist()('knk .••■■■■ APPENDIX PkINCII-AL MlXKRAL CoNSTmKNTS OF RoCKS I'AllK. 22;{ 227 228 220 230 232 232 234 235 23(1 23() I'AIIF.. 223 223 227 228 220 230 232 232 234 235 230 236 i\i I ■■■ V'- < V X K A\« 1^4 X ^ ■v " ^_.V /x )f '' H ■V* " -X* <1 o H CO INTRODUCTORY. Geology, or, as it has been soiiietinies termed. Geognosy, is the scientific knowledge of the earth ; or more particularly of that rocky crust of the earth on which its superficial features depend, which afibrds to us mineral products and soils, on which animals and plants exist, and in which are preserved the monumental records of tlie changes which our planet has experienced in past time. Previous to experience and observation, it might l)e supposed that all the rocks of the earth's crust are of the same age; but on careful study we find that this is not the case. On the contrary, the crust is built up of successive strata or beds deposited one over the other in such a manner that the upper are the newer and the lower the older. Thus we obtain a chronology of the rocks. Further, as the successive beds contain remains of animals and plants which lived at the times when these beds were deposited, we also obtain a chronology of animal and vegetable life. In connection with this succession, we can consider the causes of geological change, whether acting at present or in past time. Geology may be studied Avith reference to its practical pursuit as a method of scientific investigation, or with reference to tlie theories of the earth deducible from its facts, or with reference to its applications to the arts of life. These several aspects of the subject may be termed — 1. Practical Geology. 2. Theoretical and Dynamical Geology. 3. Applie'l Geology. The first is that which should engage the attention of the student at the outset, as being preliminary to the successful cultivation of the others; l)ut in studying it, reference may be made to its bearings on the second and third. I 2 INTRODUCTION. Practical geology may be arranged under the following heads : — (1.) GENERAL. I. LiTHOLOGY or PETRCiRAriiY — or the study of Bocks as mineral aggre- gates and as materials composing the earth's crust. Tiiis study is best carried on with the aid of properly named hand specimens of minerals and rocks, and is much aided by chemical tests and by the examination of sections of rocks under the microscope. II. Pal.eontology — the study of the fossil remains of animals and plants imbeddeil in the earth's crust, in connection with the succession of deposits ascertained by stratigraphical investigation. This subject requires some preliminary knowledge of zoological and botanical classification, and is studied by comparison of museum specimens and by collecting and determining fossils. III. Stratigraphy or Petrology — or the consideration of the arrangement of the rocky masses of the earth on tlie large scale. This Suudy requires the aid of maps and sections of the structure of portions of the earth, and is carried on in nature by the examination of natural sections, in clitfs, quarries, mines, and other exposures of rocks. (2.) HISTORICAL. IV. HisT' aiCAii Geology is the application of the above to the geo- logical history of the earth, and connects the elements of practical geology with the theory and applications of the subject. The first, second and third of these subjects may be regarded as general and preliminary to the fourth, which includes geology proper. "We shall therefore first consider the elements of Lithology, Palaeontology and Strati- graphy, in so far as necessary, and then proceed to the main subject of Geological History, more especially in relation to Canada. [In the repTiilar University curriculum the student is supposed to have given some attention to the elements of Chemistry, Botany and Zoology. He is thus prepared in the ordinary course in Geology to enter on the study of Lithology, Palajontology, and Stratigi'aphj' and in the honour course to go more fully into the determination of rocks and fossils, and into local stratigraphy and descriptive and theoretical geology.] PART I. GENERAL GEOLOGY. m geo- .] I. LITH(JLOGY.* (1.) Chemistry of Kocks. Of about seventy elements or simple substances known to clicmistiy, only sixteen enter into the composition of the more common rocks wliich constitute nearly the whole of tlie earth's crust. These are, in the order of their relative importance : — Non-MdaUic Elements. M'-taVic Elements. Oxygen. Iron. Silicon. Aluminium. Sulphur. Calcium. Chlorine. Magnesium. Carbon. Sodium. Hydrogen. Potassium. Fluorine. Barium. Phospjiorus. Manganese. Of the above, oidy Oxygen, Sulphur, Carbon and Iron can exist in nature in a pure or uncomlnned state. The more common minerals are all com- pounds of two or more elements. Oxij'jen is the most important element in the crust of the earth, since in the ordinary rocks the other elements almost always occur in combination with this, as oxides. Thus Silica or Flint is Oxide of Silicon, Alumina the earth of clay is Oxide of Aluminium, Lime is Oxide of Calcium. The ordinary ores of Iron are oxides of the metal. Xext to Oxygen the most important element is Siliam. Coml)ining with Oxygen this forms Silica, and Silica has the property of combining with many other elements to form Silicates, which are the most common constituents of minerals and rocks. Of these Silicates the most abundant * The term Petrography is sometimes employed for Lithology, but as the similar term Petrology is also applied by some geologists to Stratigraphy, and as both are applicable to rocks rather than to hand specimens, it is not so definite as Lithology. LITHOLOGY. arc those of AJuininium, Calcium, Magnesium, Sodium and I'otassium ; and these are variously combined and mixed with one another to constitute the more complex miiierals and rocks. Silicates sometimes contani water as an essential constituent, when they are termed Hydrous Silicates. Other important Oxygen compounds are the Carbonates, Sulphates and Phosj)/iatfs. Thus Calcium Carbonate is common Limestone, Calcium Sulphate is Oypsum, and Calcium Phosphate is Apatite or l>one-earth. Some important constituents of rocks are not Oxides, as Sodium Chloride or common Salt, Calcium Fluoride or Fluorspar, Iron Bi-Sulphide or Iron Pyrite. There is a peculiar group of minerals and rocks of organic origin into w lich Carbon enters as a principal ingredient. These are the Coals, At )halt and IJitumcn. (2.) Mineralogy of Of the chemical compounds above referr the majority of rocks are the following : — 1. (^iuartz or Silica. 2. Felspar. 3. :Mica. 4. Hornblende. 5. Pyroxene. 6. Garnet. 7. Chrysolite. 8. Nepheline. 9. Leucite. 10. Talc. 11. Serpentine. 12. Chlorite. 13. Calcite. 14. Dolomite. 15. Gypsum. 16. Apatite. 17. Fluor Spar. 18. Rock Salt. 19. ^lagnetite. 20. Hematite. 21. Limonite. 22. Pyrite. Rocks. ed to, those which constitute Anhydrous Silicates. Hydrous Silicates. Carbonates, Sulphate, Phosphate, Fluoride, and Chloride. Oxides and Sulphide of Iron. CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS. 23. Coal. 21. r.itninon and Asphalt. Carbonaceous Mineral?. >r). Graphite. [For the cliaracters and description of the more important of the minerals, see the aiipondix. If the learner lia.s not iiroviously studied Mineralogy, ho slioidd refer con- stantly to the descriptions of minerals unknown to him, and should havounopi'urtunity to examine specimens.] (3.) Classification and Study ok Rocks. Some rocks, as ([uartz roc^k and liiiiostonc, iire definite chemical com- pounds, and consist of one mineral species onl}'; hut even these are often mixed with foreif,'n matters ; and the greater part of rocks are mixtures of dillerent mineral .substances in various proportions. As these mixtures are regulated by no definite law of proportion, it follows that such rocks pass into each other by indefinite gradations. 1 fence the nomenclature and classification of rocks are attended with many dilficidties. For purposes of practical geology it is important to consider the classi- fication of rocks under three aspects. 1 . With reference to their Ori(iin, rocks may be : — (a) Aqueous or Sedimmfari/, that is, they may have been deposited as sediments, as sand, clay, &c., in water, and such deposition may have been aided or moiliiieil by accumulations of organic matter, as .shells, corals, vlrifted plants, 8 LITHOU)fJY. Sulj-Hcction 2. Acinic plitonio rocks. Ontnitc is a crystiilliin' niixt.ui'f of l^'clspar (OitlioclMni', nr AUiitc) with (^)uartz and Mica, It may 1)0 ciiarnn or HiU! ((raiiird, and Noniutinicit heciiinei* pnriiiiyiitic liy the adniixturu of largo folnpar cryntalH. J/ornhUiidic or Si/ciiitic Grunilc containn Hnin- Monde with nr instead nf .Mica, /'I'lilni/ine cimtix'mH Talc as well as Mica. Ora/iliic Gntiiiti is a hinary variety fnund in veins, it is dostitnte uf mica, and has the quart/, arranged in platoM in accordanco with the cleavage of the felspar, Fthitc is a hard, finely crystalline or compact mixtun! of Felspar and ',|iiart/.. It is Hometimus called J'drnni/ex and Fchtone. When distinct crystals of orthoclase Felsjiar are developed in it the pori>hyritic texture is produced. This is ordinary or FclnUc pur/ilti/rii, but other igneous rocks may assume the iiori)hyritic structure. The above are only a few of the more ordinary ignecjiis rocks, which should bo known to the student by specimens, and if jiossible also by their microscopic structure. The natmv of i^'iiooiis rorks leads u.s to iiii|uiro as to the (Icep-scuted sources, luidei' the superticial crust, from wliidi f hey come. Tlic fact that igneous rocks are very generally ilistrihuted over the earth's surface, so that few largo regions are destitute of them, proves that the sources of such material must bo very widely spread, if not universal. The further fact that igneous rocks are in all parts of the world of the same general character, shows in like manner that their origin is in general and uniform "magmas "or pasty sheets of more or less uniform heated and plastic matter, spread under the crust. Lastly, the fact that in every region the igneous rocks are of both groups, the basic and the acidic, shows that both kinds of material exist, and to some extent separate from each other, under all parts of the crust. These great facts have important liearings on our notions of the interior of the earth, and on the origin of igneous rocks, which may lie foi'nulated as follows : — (1.) Since the dawn (Ji geological science, it has been evident that the crust on which we live must be supported on a plastic or partially liquid mass of heated rock, approximately uniform in ([uality under the whole of its ivrea. This is a legitimate conclusion from the wide distriliution of volcainc phenomena, ami from the fact that the ejections of volcanoes, while locally of various kinds, are similar in every part of the world. It led to the old idea of a fluid interior of tlie earth, but this is now generally abandoned, and this interior heated and plastic layer is regarded as merely an under-crust. (2.) We have reason to believe, as the result of astronomical investi- gations, that, notwithstanding the plasticity or licpiidity of the under- crust, the mass of the earth — its nucleus as we may call it — is practically solid and of great density and hardness. Thus we have the ajjparent paradox of a solid yet fluid earth ; solid in its astronomical relations, liquid or plastic for the purposes of volcanic action and vuperficial movements. lONKOUS ROCKH. 9 lionney hns also 8Ug<,'esU'il the iniportnnt considi-ratiou that a mass may be HK)\vly inubile under loiij,' contimu'il pressure, while yet rigid with refer- ence to mure sudden movements. An ()l)jf(jti(>n has been taken to tho eflt'ct that the 8iipi»isi'd •■llipsoidai form of the cipiator is iiironsistcnt with a plastic suit-crust. I'.ut the cxislunce of this ellipsoidal form is not absolutely (-ertain, or, if it exists, tho divergence from the circular form is very minute.* (3.) The plastic sub-crust is not in a state of dry igneous fusion, but in that condition of acpieo-igneous or hydro-thermic fusion which arises from the action of heat on moist substances, ami which may either be regarded as a fusion or as a spimies of solution at a very high tetiiporature. This we learn from the phenomena of volcanic action, and from the conqxisition (if the volcanic and plutonic rocks, as well as from such chemical experiments as those of Daubree, and of Tilden and Shenstonc. (4.) The interior sub-crust is not perfectly homogeneous, but may be roughly divided into two layers or magmas ; an upper, highly siliceous or acidic, of low specific gravity, and light-cnlourod, and corresponding to such kinds of plutonic and volcanic rocks as granite and trachyte ; and a lower, less siliceous or more basic, more dense, and more highly charged with inm, and corresponding to such igneous rocks as the dolerites, basalts, and kindred lavas. It is interesting here to note that this conclusion, elaborated by Durochcr and Von Walterhauson, and usually connected with their names, appears to have bei'U first announced by.Iohn Phillips, in his " .Manual of (jeology,"and as a mere common-sense deductidu from the observed phenomena of volcanic action, and the probable results of the gradual cooling of the earth. It receives striking confirmation from the observed succession of acidic and basic volcanic rocks of all geological periods, and in all localities. It wnuld even seem, from recent spectro- scopic investigations of Lotkyer, that there is evidence of a similar suc- cession of magmas in the heavenly l)odies, and tho discovery by Xordenskiold of native iron in Greenland ba.salts, affords a proljability that the inner magma is in part m(;tallic.f * Hoiikins, Mallet, Sir Williiuu TiiDnison, anit Prof. (I. H. I)arwin maintain the solidity und rigidity of the earth (in astroniiniical grounds; but different conclusions have been reached by Hennesey, Delaunay, and Airy. In America, Hunt, Barnard and Crosby, Dutton, LeConteand Wadsworth have discussed these questions. t These basalts occur at Ovifak, Greenland. Andrews has found small particles of iron in British basalts. Prestwich and Judd iiave referred to the bearing on general geology of these facts, and of Lockyer's suggestions. 10 LITHOLOGY. (5.) AVliere rents or fissures form in tlie unper crust, the material of the lower crust is forced upwards by the pressure of the less supported por- tions of tlie former, giving rise to volcanic phenomena either of an explosive or quiet character, as may be determined by contact with water. The underlying material may also be carried to the surface by the agency of heated Avater, producing those quiet discharges which Hunt has named crenitic. There can be little doubt that the weight of the crust pressing downward on the interior magmas, especially in places where cracks or folds have caused unequal pressure, is tiie cause of the ejection of molten rocks, which may thus be forced upward into fractures, forming dykes, or pressed between the beds, forming igneous floors or LaccoJifhs, or may be raised to the craters of volcanoes and caused to flow over as currt i.s of lava. All this may go on (quietly, but where water in a superheated state is intimately mixed with the molten rock, and is prevented l)y pressure from passing into vapour, or when water is introduced into the ascending lava from porous beds, or from fissures communicating with the sea, the sudden evaporation of the water produces tremendous explosions. Thus gravitative pressure is the cause of (juiet ejections of volcanic products, the explosion of steam is the cause of the more violent phenomena. It is to be observed here that explosive volcanic phenomena, and the formation of cones, are, as Prestwich has well remarked, characteristic of an old and thickened crust ; quiet ejection from fissures and hydro-thermic action may have been more common in earlier ^leriods and with a thinner over-crust. Active volcanic phenomena are not now manifested within the Dominion! of Canada ; but igneous rocks of all ages from the Laurentian to the Pliocene exist in various portions of its area, and will be noticed in connection with the aqueous rocks of the iieriods to which they belong, and with reference to the classification and principles above stated. Igneous rocks are to be studied with reference to their crystalline, vitreous or fragmental condition, their various constituent and accidental minerals, the changes to which they have been subjected by subse(iuent decomposition, or from the injection of aqueous materials in solution, and the crushing or lamination which may have been induced by pressure after their consolidation. del cla sail in.i 11 Class II.— AQUEOUS ROCKS. Section 1. Unaltered Aqueous Rocks. TluiSu may be produced either by the niechanicfxl distribution of sedi- ment in water, by chemical precipitation, or by tlie accumulation of the remains of animals nud plants. Processes of these kinds are now going on, and must have been in operation throughout geological time. Crystal- line rocks have been undergoing decay, whereby their grains and crystals of (juartz have been separated as sand, while their felspathic or horn- blendic material has been decomposed into clay, marl. Sec. The sui'f on coasts, and running water on the land, have been grinding rocks iiito pebbles ; corals and shells have been accumulating as beds of limestone in the sea. IJy such processes the immense sheets of aqueous rock Pi)read over our continents have been slowly accumulated, so that they now pre- sent an ag<,a'egate thickness wliich has been estimated at 70,000 feet, or more. The ways in which they have been elevated from their original sub-aqueous position, disturbed from their horizontal attitude, and hardened and altered, will be considered under a subsequent heading. The principal kinds are the following : — Conylumcmte conaiHta of pebbles of hard, usually .silicious, rocks, united by a paste or cement which may be silicious, argillaceous, calcareous or ferruginous. Con- gllates of mica are micaceous sandstones. Shale is hardened clay or mud, having a laminated texture, due either to original deposition in layers or to subsequent pressure. On the one hand it passes into soft clay, on the other by metamorphism into slate. Arenaccovs fhale is mixed with fine sand and passes into sandstone. Carbonaceous sha/c is mixed and blackened with coaly matter, Bitumitious skale or Pi/roschist is impregnated with bituminous matter. flO -^ 12 LITHOLOGY. Calcareous shale contains limestone in a fine state of division, and effervesces with an acid. FlrecUtii is a soft variety rendered infusible by the iibseiicu of alkaline matter. It is often associated with beds of coal. Kaolin is a fine clay resultin;^ from the decomposition of felspar. Loess is the alluvial mud deposited in lakes and rivers. Loam is a mixture of sand and clay. Conglomerates, sandstones and shales are typically clastic or fragmental rocks, and in studying them we h > .'e to c(msider the nature and origin of their constituent pebbles and grains, the amount of abrasion or decomposition to which these have been sub- jected, the nature of the cementing material, if any, wliich lias been deposited in their interstices and binds them together, and the changes whicii they have experienced from heat or pressure. Limcsldiir includes all the unaltered rocks composed of calcium carbonate, or calcite. It is distinguislied by its softness as compared with fpiartz and most of trie silicious stones, and by effervescing with an acid. It may be earthy, ccmijiact, crystalline, massi\'e or laminated in structure ; or with reference to matters mixed with it, argillaceous, l)ituminous, ferruginous, orcliorty. Oolite is a variety conqiosed of minute rounded concretions, whicli often show under the microscope a radiating prismatic structure as well as concentric lamin.ation. Travertin or Calcareous Tufa is a lime- stone deposited by calcareous springs. Stalactite ■ .d Stalaijmitc are similar matter deposited on the roofs and Hoors of caverns. By mixture with fragments of limest(me or of bone. Stalagmite may become a calcareous or bone Breccia. Coral and Shell Limestone and Criiioidal Limedone, or more generally Orfianic Lime- stones, are composed of fragments of calcareous organisms, sometimes api)areut to the eye, in other cases visible only under the microscope. Ciialk is an organic limestone made up of tests of Foraminifera mixed with the miimte organic boilies named Coccoliths. Dnioiiiitc is a double calcium and magnesium carbonate. It may be distinguished from common limestones by its higher hist re, slightly greater weigiit, failure to etfervesce with cold acid, and by often weathering of a rusty colour, in consequence of the presence in it of ferrous carbonate. Marl is an earthy mixtiu'e of calcium carbonate with clay or sand. The calcareous matter is sometimes in a fine state of division and sometimes as fragments of shells (shell marl). Marl is distinguished from ordinary clay by effervescing briskly wiien treated witli an acid. Gii/isum, or Calcium .Sulphate, is of less connnon fjccurrence than limestone, but sometimes constitutes thick beds of great purity. Anh'idrite is often associated with the ordinary hydrous variety. Coal and carbonaceo\is rocks will be referred to under the iieadins of Minerals in the Appendix. Iron ores will also be noticed under the same heading. Section i'. ]\lETAMO"iPHic Kocks. These are rocks originally aqueous or aqaeo-iyneou.=!, which have been i^uhjocted to the action of heat and pres-surc, along with chemical agencies, until their particles have so rearranged themselves as to give a crystalline character accompanied by dillcrences in the state of combination of the contained elements. The metamorphic rocks are intermediate in character between the unaltered aqueou.s and the plutonic series. On the one hand they pa.ss METAMORPHIC ROCKS. 13 ?. ■? i into onlinary aiiueous rocks, on the other by bocomiiif,' hi,L,'hly crystallino and losing their original bedding, they graduate into plutonic rocks. The principal varieties of these metamorphosed rocks are the following : — Qnarfzite or Quaiiz Rock is a result of the alteration of sandstone, whereby its grains of sand become insei)arable and sometimes indistinguishable. (hicisn is a product of the alteration of sodimontH containing .sutticient basic matter for the iiroduction of Felspar and Hornblende or mica. It thus resembles granite in composition, and is distinguished by its laminated structure and stratified arrange- ment, ^lany gneisses may have originally been Ijedded trachytes or volcanic tutfs. AvyUHU- or Clay Slate is a product of the alteration and hardening of clay or shale. It is remarkable for the development in it of slaty structure, wiiich arises from the forcing by lateral pressure, of all flat i>articles in a soft mass into jiositions in which tliey lie at right angles to the direction of pressure. In this way the most perfect lamination is often i)roduced in planes quite different from those of bedding. Mica Schist is a crystalline mixture of Quartz and Mica. It is a product of tlie alter- ation of shales. It often contain.s disseminated minerals, as pyrite, garnet, staurolite, or chiastolite. By addition of felspar it passes into gneiss. By increase of quartz it becomes micaceous quartzite or quartz schist, and by diminution of its crystalline character it passes into Argillite. Hornblende Schist is a laminated mixture of hornblende with quartz, and sometime.'s witl) mica. Talc Schid is a slaty rock in which Talc takes the place of Mica. Chlorite Schist is a similar slaty rock consisting largely of that mineral. Nacreous or Hydro-mica Schist is a name which has been given to crystalline slates in which a hydrous Mica takes the place of the ordinary Mica. Marble or Crystalline Limestone and Crystalline Dolomite include the varieties of these rocks in which a perfect crystallization and often a white colour have been developed by metamorphism. Ophiolite is a marble containing grains or streaks and patches of Serpentine. Anthracite and Graphite result from the alteration of Coal or of bituminous matter. Thus ordinary coal passes, under alteration, into anthracite, and finally, in certain cases, into graphite, and bituminous shales pass into graphitic slates. Magnetite is very often a product of the metamorphism of ores consisting of the sesquioxide of iron. Local metamorphism can often be observed at the contact of a(iueous rocks with the larger igneous masses, and a study of these cases allbrds a key to the explanation of those larger examples in which no obvious cause of alteration is present. Metamorphism is induced or favoured by heat, by pressure, and by the percolation of heated and mineral waters; and rocks of complex character and containing basic and acidic minerals intermixed are those which present the most remarkable metamorphic changes. Such rocks have abounded more especially in the oldest rock formations, and in those partly made up of igneous ejections. At the same time the older deposits and those near to igneous foci have been the 14 LITHOLOGY. most exposed to int'taniorphic ayencies. Hence certain niotaniorphic or crystalline rocks are characteristic of the older formations, though not absolutely confined to them. Fife'. 1. Metamorphic rock (Gneiss) intersected by Igneous dykes. Lake of the Woods. (l) Red Felspar, (ii) Greenish Diorite. (in) Hornblendic Diorite. (iv) Red Granite. (G. M. Dawson.) Scale — feet to an inch. The conclusions of geologists have from time to time varied greatly as to the causes and extent of Metamorphism of rocks. These differences of opinion have, however, like many similar disputes, been to some extent subjective rather than objective, and have depended on the capacity of observers to comprehend the phenomena which they have studied. As to the facts, the conversion of woody matter into Anthracite, and Graphite, and finally into Diamond, the change of ordinary organic lime- METAMORPHIC ROCKS. 15 stones into crystalline limestones, with various disseminated minerals con- tained in them, the change of sand into quartziie, of clay into micaceous schists, and many similar metamorphoses are so common and well known that they cannot be disputed. Such changes may refer either to crystal- lization of rocks not previously crystalline, to recombination of the ingre- dients of originally elastic or organic rocks, or to the introduction of new minevid substances by water or in vapour, and the consequent develop- ment of disseminated minerals whose materials Avere not previously pre- sent. The first of these is what Bonney has called ^letastasis, or changes of position of molecules. The others come under the name Metacrasis, or changes of combination. What has been called ]Metliylosis, or change of substance, is altogether exceptional, and not to be credited, except on the best evidence, or in cases where volatile matters have been expelled, as in the change of htematite into magnetite, or of bituminous coal into anthracite. As to the causes of such metamorphic effects they are to be sought in the action of internal heat, aided by heated waters, along with enormous pressure cither vertical or lateral. Local examples show the efficacy of these causes on a limited scale, and enable them to be applied to the larger areas of metamorphosed rocks, or to the phenomena of what has been called Rcjional as distinguished from Local j\Ietamorphism. In connection with this, it is to be observed that the facts already stated in connection with igneous rocks show that the lower and older portions of the stratified crust must have been subjected for long periods to the con- tact of heated magm is in the under-crust, and to the action of heated water and the mineral matter contained therein under intense pressure. "We shall also find farther on that the earlier stratified rocks are of small relative thickness, and have been crumpled and folded by lateral pressure in such a manner as to produce changes of their t xture, and also to sub- ject them to the action of heat and heated waters under different con- ditions from those which would have applied to them when horizontal. The study of metamorphic rocks, whether in hand specimens or under the microscope, involves a combination of the questions and methods already referred to under igneous and unaltered aqueous rocks ; and this complexity causes it to be a subject of greater difficulty. A glance at the geological map, or at any of the general sections of Canadian rocks in this volume, will show that a(|ueous rocks, Avhether unaltered or metamorphic, largely predominate over the surface of Canada as in all the larger areas of our continents. 16 LITHOLOGY. Slicing Rocks and Fossils fob the Microscope. The aid of the microscope is invaluable in examining rocks of mo.st kinds, and especiiilly tiiose that are crystalline. They may be studied as tipaque objects or in thin flakes broken off with a hannuer, but much better in thin slices prepared by a skilful lapidary, or which the student may prepare for himself as follows : — Slicin),' and i)olishing machines may be ))nrchased in London or Berlin, or a lathe may bo converted into a Lapidary's wheel.* If not provided with uuch a machine, the lithologist may use the following method: — A cast iron plate should be procured about inches square ; two ])ieces of glass of the same size ; a Water-of-Ayr stone; coarse and tine emery and putty powder ; glass slides, covering glass and Canada balsam for mounting the specimens. Chips are then broken off the rock to be examined with a small hannuer. They should be about half an inch in diameter, and as thin as possible. One side of a chip is ground flat on an iron plate with emery and water. To facilitate this the chip may, if desired, be cemented with a cement made of resin and bees' wax to a jjiece of wood. When one side has been ground flat, the chip is washed and the surface is then polished on the glass plate with flour of emery, or on the Water-of-Ayr stone. When quite polished the chip is again washed, and its flat side is now cemented with hard Canada balsam, or with melted lac to a strip of glass, and the other side is ground till the chill becomes transparent or translucent, when it can be washed and examined with the microscope when moist and covered with a thin glass. If not sufficiently thin, it can be farther reduced with putty pewder on glass, or on the Water-of-Ayr stone. Care is reqinred in the last stage lest the chijj be altogether ground away. Practice will soon give the recpiired nicety of touch, even if there be some failures at first. It will be best to begin v.' th rocks not too hard, brittle or opaque. The chip having been reduced to a transparent film, may be warmed and covered with balsam, or with balsam dissolved in ether, and a thin glass cover applied to it and a label gummed on and marked. If, however, it is desired to have neat slides, the balsam may be softened by heat and the thin film of rock slipped off to a clean elide on which it may be mounted in balsam. To determine the minerals in the rock, the microscope should be furnished with a polariscope of two Nichol's prisms. For special lithological research, microscopes fur- nished with many appliances are now made ; but for ordinary purposes any good work- ing microscope furnished with a polariscope will suffice.f The above directions apply equally to fossils, except that of these it is usually desirable to have two or three slices in different directions. In the case of fossil woods, for example, we require a transverse slice and two longitudinal, one radial and one tangential. Fig. * Cotton &, Jordan, Grafton St., Soho ; Cottell, 52 New Compton St., Soho : Fuess, Berlin. The latter makes small and cheap maciiinery. Cutting Discs are made by Ken, 35 Westminster street. Providence, R. I. t The best books on Microscopic Lithology are those of Zirkel and Rosenbusch, (German) ; and Rutley, " The Study of Rocks." II. PAL/EONTOLOGY. (1.) PllESERVATION OF OuOANIC REMAINS. This depeiiils in the first instance on the accidental imbedding of animals and plants or of portions of them, in deposits in process of forma- tion, or on the accumulation of the remains of animals am! plants on the surfaces on which they live, aS for example of shells and corals on the sea bottom, or of vegetable matter in bogs and swamps. In one or other of these ways most aqueous deposits become more or less charged with organic remains. These are sometimes entire and sometimes fragment- ary, and as already stated some beds contain so great abundance of organic fragments that they may be regarded as orgjinic rocks. Often, however, the presence of organic fragments can be detected only by the lens or the microscope. (Pigs. 2, 3.) r~.,,,- X, 7',' . ;', Yo},'/ Pig. 2.— Fine grained Trenton limestone, Montreal, showing organic fragments x 10. Fig. 3.— Chazy Limestone, Island of Montreal, showing fragments of sheila and Stenopora x 10. Organic remains may occur in an unchanged condition or only more or less altered by decay. This is often the case with such enduring sub- stances as shells, corals, bones and wood, especially in the more recent B 18 rAL.EONTOLOGY. deposits, in whicli such remains occur little modified or iterhaps only sliglitly changed by partial decay of their more perishable parts, as, for in.stance, of the animal matter of bones. In the older formations, how- ever, organic remains arc usually found in a mty. ('/) Cell-wall calcite, cavity filled with the same. ((•) Cell-wall calcite, cavity filled with silica or a silicate. ((/) Cell-wall replaced by silica, cavity tilled with calcite. (f) Cell-wall replaced by silica, cavity tilled with silica. (c) Tlio substanco of organic roinain.s may '"c wholly ronioved, h'-avitig more moulds or iniprc^^sions of thoir external forms, or perlnips nionkls of tlio external forms ami casts of the interior.'!. This frequently occurs ou the surfaces of rocks, where for example calcareous fossils have been weathered out from a harder matrix, but it also occurs in the interior of 20 paL/Kont()L()(;y. porous l)(.'(l.s, owin^' to tlu; solution (»f the fossils by iicrcolatiiij,' waters. In tlio case of fossils in tins state, it is always noccssary to consider wliother the impression ol)serve(l is that of the true exterior surface, of an inner layer, or of an interior cavity. (d) The cavities left l)y fossils which have decayed may lie (iiled with clay, sand or othei ;'ore'^'n matter, and this lieconiin^' suhsecpicntly hardened into stone may constitute a cast of the fossils. Trunks of trees, roots, tVc , are often pr(!served in this way, appearinj; as stony casts, often with tin; outer haik of tlie plant forniini,' a carbonaceous coating on their surfaces. (Fi- 8.) Fig. 8. - Trunk nf Hi^jillaiia ri'iirescnted \>y .i HaiKlstDiio cast of the interior iif the bark. Coal formation of Nova Scotia. Keduced. I'-ig. 8. Fossils preserved in the two li st modes usually shew more or less of their minute structures under the microscope. These imiy be observed, (1) By Ijreaking off snndl splinters or Hakes and examining them either as oiwque or as transparent objects. {'2) IJy treating the material with aciils, so as to dissolve out the mineral matters or portions of them. This method is applicable to some fossil woods, silicified corals, iV'c. (3) jiy grinding thinst!ctions. These are first jiolished on one face, then attached to glass slips by a transparent cement or Canada balsam, and ground until they become so thin as to be translucent. (8ee p. IG.) In the movements to which rocks have been sid)jected, fossils have often been distorted by pressure, whether vertical (U' lateral. Thus truidcs of trees originally round have been llattened by the vertical com- pression of the beds, and where lateral piessure has allected the contain- ing rocks, shells and other fossils have been shortened, lengthened or distorted oljliipiely. (Fig. 9.) Fig. 9. — Spirifev Nictarcn.iin, Lower Erian of Xova Scotia, (aj Shortened, and (h) lengthened, by distortion, in the direction of ilie arrow. (Acadian tJeologj-. ) IMIKSKIIVATION OF ORGANIC REMAINS. 21 Ichniti'ii or fossil footprints and sinnliir nmrkiiij^s constitut(3 a peculiar ami sometimes inturcstin;^ kind of fossils. Animals walking,' over mudtly shores may leave impressions, wliidh luMiig partially hard(!ned liy the air and sun, may not he ol)literatt'd l)y the succeeding deijosits of sand or mud. Once .so covca'cd uji, they remain for an indclinitc time, and if the l)eds be hardened into stone, tht^ footprints appear distinctly as llui layers are removed hy the ([uarrymen. In this way the footprints of some land aninnds, not known to us Ity other renuxins, have l)oen preserved, and important information has been ol)tained as to their athnities and habits. (Fig. 10.) Fig. 10.— Footprints of a Batr.ichian (Sauropux,) in iii)i)le ni.arked Sandstone. Coal field of Cape Breton. Not only land iinimals, ])ut a(iuatic creatures, as fishes, crustaceans, worms and mollusks, have left impressions and trails on the surfaces of beds, and these though less definite than tlu; footprints of land animals, are of some importance as fossils. Such impressions have sometimes been mistaken for fossil plants ; but they can be distinguished by the absence of carbonaceous matter, by their close connection with the substance of the containing beds, by their being in relief on the under side of the beds, and by their forms. (Fig. 11.) The geological observer in examining any section or exposure of rocks, while noting all the facts respecting stratigraphical arrangement and r 22 PAL.f:ONT()LO(JY. rolations, ciirofiilly collects tin; fosailH of ciich bod, and lalwlb tlioni in such a mann(!i' that thi'ir order of succession can ho preserved. The study of these fossils may ho expected to aflord important information resiKH;ting the aj,'e antl conditions of deposition of the l)eds. Siioidil the ol)st'rver not possess the special kiiowlc(lj,'c necessary to int('rpr(!t the fossils obtained, he has recourse to iiakeontolo^'ical specialists, either experienced in the fossils of the formation in (juestion, or of the groups of animals or plants represented in the collections. Fig. 11.— Tracks jjrobably of a Crustacean (Kusic/niitcii) in relief on under side of slab. Coal formation of Cape Breton. The most abundant and cliaracteristic fossils available to the palfBontologist are those of acpiatic animals, liaving hard shells, crusts or cells. Thus practically the most important elementary knowledge of the study of fossils is that relating to the characters of invertebrate animals, and especially those of the sea. The student should therefore have some familiarity with this subject, and should have for reference some good zoological text-book, and if possible some work on the special palaBontology of the district or formation he may be studying. In some geological formations, especially the middle and newer members of the geological series, a knowledge of vertebrate animals becomes important ; while in others, as the coal-formation, an acquaintance with fossil plants is necessary. \ MOST IMPORTANT CLASSES. 23 (2.) Classes op Animals most imi-outant in Pal-kontolooy. Tlie following tal)lo iiulicates tho groups of aniiimis nio aIlo(/cns, or Thallophyta . Anogtms, or Bryophi/ta , . Acrogens, or Pteridoplujta . Algse Sea weeds. Lichenos Licliens, Arc. Fungi Mushrooms, &c. !Musci Mosses. Hepaticse Liverworts. Filices Ferns. Lycopodiace£E Club-mosses. Ecjuisetaceae Glares-tails. PHAENOGAMS. Gymnosperms, or Archispcrmae . { Cycailese Cycads. Coiiiferte Pines, &c. I"- Endogens I" Numerous families of palms, grasses, and allied \ plants, with Monocotyledonous embryo. „ f Numerous families of exogenous and covered- Lxofjens . ' ' " \ . ^ [ seeded plants, with Dicotyledonous embryo. For further information as to fossil animals and plants, and more especially as to their characters and classification, the student may be referred to the author's " Hand-book of Zoology " and " Geological History of Plants," and also to such larger works as Xicholson's " Paleontology " and Zittell's " Pal?eontologie." With reference to the special Palaeontology of Canada, reference may be made to the various Memoirs of Billings. Whiteaves and the author, in the Reports of the Geological Survey of Canada, and to the PfJteontology of New York, by Dr. James Hall. Illustrations of some characteristic fossils will also be found in the following pages. — * To these maybe added the extinct group of Protoyens having Algoid structure but constituting forests in early Palaeo^oip tim^s. 1 1 11 III. PHYSICAL GEOLOGY AND STRATIGRAPHY. The previous departments relate principally to the study of hand specimens. This introduces us to the arrangement of rocks on the large scale, or to tlie manner in which they are built up as constituents of the crust of the earth. As the greater part of rocks are bedded or stratified, and the massive and vein-formed rocks may be considered as subordinate to the bedded in all those i)arts of the crust accessil)le to us, the term Stratigraphy may be used to cover the whole subject of rock arraJigement on the large scale. (L) Origin of Aqueous Deposits. It will be useful in introducing this subject to notice in the first place the mode of formation of stratified rocks, and other matters connected with their present condition and appearance. — In nature there is a constant struggle between aqueous and igneous agencies in modifying the materials of the earth's crust. The deeper portions of the crust ar" Ijeing slowly softened and crystallized under the inlluence of heat and pressure, and are thus being converted into meta- morpliic rocks, and these finally into plutonic masses, portions of which being erupted constitute volcanic products. On the other hand the waters and the atmosphere are constantly decomposing and wearing away the crystalline rocks at the surface, and depositing their detritus in the bottom of the waters. These processes seem to have Ijeen active, through- out the whole of geological time, in producing igneous and aipieous rocks. Since, however, tlu latter are tlie more important in geology, on account of their greater relative abundance, their regularly bedded character and the fossils they contain, we may direct our attention in this place princi- pally to them, having already shortly noticed igneous plienomena under a previous head. AtmospliPric Erosion. — AVe have seen that the most common crystalline rocks are composed largely of silicates, as the Felspars, Hornblende au') Pyroxene. When these are exposed to the action of the atmosphere and of rain water, which always holds carl)on dioxide in solution, the soda, iwtash, lime, and other bases which they contain in combination with silica, are gradually removed in the state of carbonates, leaving the alumina and silica l)ehind in an incoherent state. Thus from the decay of a hornblende granite there may result quartz-sand, clay, limestone, and iron oxides, which, when sorted and variously deposited by water, may assume the appearance of distinct alternating beds, while the alkaline m 26 STRATIGRAPHY. :i! matters removed in solution arc washed into the sea or into hikes, where they may aid in chemical changes leading to other kinds of deposition. To the atmospheric agencien we may also add the disintegrating power of frost, which, ])y the expansion in the act of freezing of the water con- tained in rocks, chips olf sand and fragments, and rapidly reduces very hard rocks to ruins. In mountains and the polar regions this action of frost is aided by the mechanical movement of glacier.s, wliich removes to lower levels or into the sea the material disintegrated by frost, and which also exercises a polishing and abrading effect on the subjacent surface. The action of coast ice, which is also very powerful, may rather be cla.ssed with aqueous agencies. Arjuious Erosion. — This takes place by the abrading action of rivers and torrents, by the beating of the waves on coasts, by tidal currents, by the action of cold heav "" ents on the sea bottom, and by the solvent action of springs and other subterranean waters. As these agents are constantly at work, the changes which they produce in the lapse of ages are very great. It has been estimated that the atmospheric and aqueous causes of erosion at present in action, would sulHce to remove the whole of the dry land into the sea in about six millions of years. Deposition. — The materials thus set free by chemical deconiposition and mechanical abrasion are deposited in layers in the depressed portions of the earth's crust occui)ied by the waters. The coarser materials, as pebbles and sand, may be thrown down along coasts and at the mouths of rivers; the finer materials will be carried farther out to .sea, and those held in solution may be ultimately ttxed in the organisms of coral animals and other marine creatures, and may form coral limestones and similar organic deposits. In any given locality all these agencies, whether of erosion or of deposition, may be greatly moditiod from time to time by changes of level or of climate, whether arising from movements of the earth's crust, or from astronomical causes ; and also by volcanic paroxysms breal■ I ■ 28 STRATIGRAPHY. since their substance is satunitcd willi water, ami tliis being prevented by pressure from escaping, remains in a heated state, and must greatly pro- mote chemical and molecular changes. (3.) CONCRETIONAUY ACTION'. • An important modification of these hardening processes results from concretionary action. Tiiis is an unequal hardening of the mass, whereby certain jiortions of it become indurated into balls, nodules or grains. It depends upon molecular attractive movements collecting together certain constituents of the mass, and may produce the following kinds of concretionary structure : — (a) The whole mass of material may assume a concretionary structure, aggregating itself into nodular grains. This is the case with Oolitu, lima- stones and Ooli/ic ores of iron. (Fig. 13.) x\. similar change sometimes occurs in the cooling of igneous masses. Fig. 13. — Magnitii'd section of Oolitic Limestone (after .Sorbj',) showing concretions with radiating and concentric structure, and some of tliem enchising frag- ments of shells, &c. (b) Foreign materials diffused through the mass may be collected into limited spaces, and thus form concretions. This is the case with JitJits in chalk and with clai/ ironstone in beds of shale. (c) The cementing substance of the mass may be unequally collected in certain portions at the expense of the rest. This occurs in the hard concretions in clays and in " bull's-eyes " in sandstone. CONCRETIONARY ACTION. 29 Fig. 14. — Rounded eonci'LciDii containing a fossil fish, ((Ja.sterosteiis,) si)lit open. Pleistocene, Canada. Any foreign body, as a fossil or a.L^iaiu of sand, may form a nucleus for a concretion. (Fig. H-) Concn'tions iiave often a concentric lamination marking their stages of increase. Tliey are sometimes hardened at the surface while tlie interior ri.'inains soft, ami the latter may subsequently crack fnjm shrinkage. When these cracks are afterwards filled with other mineral matter, Si'ptarin concriitions result. Concretions often assume very fantastic .shapes, and have licen mistaken for fossils. The curious conical bodies found abundantly in some beds of shale and greenstone and known as " Cuni'-in-i'oni'^' (Fig. 1.5,) appear to be caused by concretionary action proceeding from the surface of a bed or layer and modified by the gradual compression of the material.* A similar origin has been attributeil to the columnar striated bodies found in some limestones and naim'd Sfuldliti's, which are often occasioned by the presence of shells or other objects on a .soft ma-ss undergoing compression. Fig. 15. — Cone-in-cone. Coal formation of Nova Scotia. .11 M{ I''! I * See Acadian Geology, ]). 070 for more full explanations. 30 HTRATKiRAPHY. Gfoi/c,^, which lire cavities in rocks lined with crystals, are distinct in tlieir mode of formation from concretions, though sometimes coufoundej, with them. (4.) Colours ok Aqueous Kocks. The most abuiuhint colouring,' matter in rocks is iron. Its monoxide and sulphide when difl'used thronj^'h sediments produce ^'reen, <,'ruy and blackish colour.s. Its sesquioxide produces red colours. Its hydrous ses(]uioxidej,fives yellow, bull' and brown shad(!s. Pt^roxideof man^'aneso is sometimes a cause (jf black colours in rocks, and coaly matter is also a not infreipKiut cause; of the blackening of seiliments. The followinLf facts are important witli reference to the colours produced l)y iron : — ■ (a) In the subaerial decomposition of most rocks a sufficient quantity of seS(|uioxide of iron is produced to colour the resulting sands or clays. In ordinary circumstances it is tiie brown or hyilrous oxide that is pro- duced in this way ; but in warm climates, under the influence of volcanic heat and in the presence of saline waters, the n.'d oxide; is produced. Thus the subaerial decomposition of crystalline rocks coloured gray, green or black by sulphide or monoxide of iron, gives rise to brown ami red, sediments. (b) If the sediments thus coloured are rapidly washed down and deposited in the sea, or in limited areas of fresh or salt water, they may retain their colours, and thus the red, brown and purple sandstones ancj clays so characteristic of certain formations are produced. (c) If the sediment is long abraded by moving water, the clay is separ- ated from the sand, and the su[)erlicial red coating is washed from the latter so that it loses its colour. In this way gray or white sandstones are often found to alternate with red or reddish shales. (d) When sediments coloured with iron are deposited in fresh water along with organic matter, as peat, &c., the latter deprives the iron of a portion of its oxygen, reducing it to monoxide, and this being soIul)le in the acids naturally produced by the dwtay of the vegetalile matter, is removed, leaving the sand or clay in a bleached (condition. (e) When the deoxidizing process occurs in sea water, the sulpliates present in the latter being deconq)osed at the same time with the iron oxides, a black iron sulphide is produced, which gives a gray colour more or less dark to tlu; sediment. Material coloured in this way becomes buff or brown on weathering, and becomes red when heated in the air. This is a useful mark of marine clay.s. In this case or the last, scattered mud( AQUEOUS ROCKS. 31 organic fmf^ments dopositcd in rod sediments and not in sufficient (|iian- tity to atfect the colour of the whole, produce gray or white stains. (f ) It' organic matter be present in large (piantity, it not only removes the; red colour but communicates its own black or dark brown colours to the whole. The above considerations serve to show why red rocks have been deposited in large (piantity in times of physical disturbance and volcanic activity, and generally when deposition is rapid and organic matter ab.sent. They also .serve to explain the presence of red beds with rock .salt deposited from the waters of .saline lakes or lagoons. They also explain the rarity of fossils in n^l rocks, since the retaining of the red colour implies scarcity of organic remains, and an excess of peroxide of iron tends to oxidise and destroy such as may be present. On the other hand they show why gray and dark coloured beds are those which most abound in fossils. (5.) AIaukings on the Surfaces of Aqueous Rocks. The circum-stances under which aqueous beds have been deposited are often indicated by markings seen on their surfaces. (a) Riiqilc marks, caused by the motion of currents throwing up slight ridges and hollows at right angles to the direction of the current. (b) Current lines, caused by the driftage of sand, organic fragments, or sea-weeds and drift wood, in the direction of the current. (c) Ili/l marks, caused by the running of drainage water over inclined surfaces of mud and clay after recession of the tide. These are often .so complicated as to simulate foliage and have frequently been mistaken for fossil marine plants. (Fig- 10.) Fig. 1(). — Kill-marks, Carboniferous (reduced.) (d) Shrin/ia(/e cracJcs, i)roduced by the drying and shrinkage of muddy surfaces when left bare to be acted on by the sun and air. (Fig. 17.) ..'♦' ; 32 STRATIGRAPHY Fig. 17. — Shrinkage ciacks, Carboiiiferou.s (letluced.) (e) Rain markt^, or nmiukMl j)it8 ])r(Kluci'(l l>y vain drops, or waslitnl surfaces productMl l)y contiiuious vain, afterward covtived up and preserved by subsequent depo.sits. (Fiu;. ]ji'r is the thinnest slieet into whicli a stratitied rock is divisible. Some slialy beds are divisible into extremely tlun lamina'. Other beds are destitute of lamination and are said to be compact. A Sfrafnm or Beil is of greater thickness, or may consist of several laminif — ''. (/. a bed of laminated .sandstone or shale consisting of several layer.-*. The term Seam is often used by miners for beds of useful minerals ; and when such beds are con- siderably inclined, they are sometimes called veins, though not of the nature of true veins. A For)nation consists of several beds deposited consecutively and under similar general con- ditions. A formation may thus include beds of rock of different kind.s, though usually there is a certain lithological similarity in the beds con- stituting a formation — 1>. g. the coal formation, which includes many beds of sandstone, shale, coal, il'c, or the Laramie Series of the "West. (Fig. 20.) The idea conveyed by the term " Formation " ^ I is one of the most important in Geology, since it relates not to lithological similarity but to con- tinuous deposition under like general conditions. The more important formations are designated by the term Series, and subdivisions of such formations by the word Stage. (Fr. eta>/c'.) By French Geologists the word " Terrane " is used in a general sense to indicate any geological formation. §^ 34 STRATKiHArHy. A Si/ff'ni of' t\>i'niatii>nx includes all till' foi'inatinna of one of the lar,i,'cr geolo^'ical pcrioils — c ;/. llio Cai'l)on- iferous System, which includes with the coal fornintion other formations l)elon^'- ing to the same great geological period. The term Group has been proposed for the larger I )i visions embracing several systems ; hut this term is more usually and properly employed lo des- ignate any assemblage of strata or form- ations. Inasmuch as formations and .systems of formations imply the lapse of time, tliey may also be designated by terms relating to time. Thus we may speak of the Carboniferous Period, the Coal- formation Epoch. The classitication of formations in relation to time will be considered under the heading of Historical Geology. cnCY SANPY SHALE LicNrre CREY U rELU)W SANDY SHALE IRONSTONE ORtYCLAY aiRsot4Aecous shalc ORtVSANDSnONE UCHITE SANDY CLAY IRON3T0NC UBNITE CARBONACtOUl BHAU UCNITE ORtY SANDY CLAY LICNITE SANDY CLAY LICNITE _ CiREYSANDYOLAr "— "^ WITH ROOT* Fig. 20 — St'ction of LamTiiie form- ation, west of Miinitolxi. The wliok'iif the beds shown, except the soil and drift, belong to one Form- ation, though differing in mineral characters. Some of them, as the shale beds, .are laminated. (tJ. M. Uawson. ) (7.) Joints and Slaty Cleavage. These appearances are important, because it is necessary to distinguish them from planes of bedding. Joints are planes of division cutting beds at various angles, though usually approaching to vertical. They often divide the bed into oblicjue angled blocks by the inter-section of two sets of cleavage planes ; and when the cleavage planes of one set are close together they often simulate true bedding. Joints sometimes facilitate the operations of the quarry- man by enabling blocks of stone tc be more readily detached ; but when numerous they injure stones otherwise useful. When joints occur in beds of igneous rock they sometimes give origin to a columnar structure, as in beds of basalt. Ill JOINTS AND CLKAVAGE. 36 Joints are often s/ir/,-r}i, ground, and geological ascent and descent do not coincide with topographical, except when the beds are horizontal or nearly so, or when they dip toward the suniniit of an elevation. The thickness of beds is always measured at right angles to tlieir dip. For ordinary purposes it may be assumed that the thickness is equal to j2 of the distance across the outcrop at t)" of inclination, and so on for every additional .■>'. When we follow a series of beds in ascending or descending order, we at length arrive at a lini; in which their dii) changes to the opposite direction. When this takes place in the descending series it constitutes an witidinal lin- or a,iix, sometimes called an aiitidini'. When it takes place in the ascending series it constitutes a xi/wfina/ line or synrlinc. When the anticlinal and synclinal axes are not horizontal, or when the surface of the country is inclined, the lieds may be seen at the surface to bend around the ends of the unticlinals or synclinals, so that on a map these appear as more or less abrupt bends or loops of the strata. In tliose regions where the beds have been slightly inclined, the anti- clinals and synclinals are low and wide ; but in disturbed districts tlie folds are often very abrupt, causing the l)eds to approach to verticality, and in some places to l)e overturned. In such cases also the anticlinals or syn- clinals are sometimes very steep on one side and less soon the other, and they are not infrequently accompanied with minor flexures and foldings of the beds as well as with fractures or dislocations. In such disturbed districts great caution is reipiisite lest abruptly folded and repeated beds should be regarded as cons'atuting a continuous scries, and lest overturned beds should be regarded as in their natural positi'ins. (Figs. 2.3, 24, 2.").) 38 STRATIGRAPHY. -a 5! >^ &c :!i. ■m s ^1 J ft* ^1 ? c3 be u C 'n a ,3. bo FAULTS. 39 Fig. 2"). — Beds of Limestone, Sandstone and Sliale of Lower Carboniferous age in a vertical position. Smitli's Island, Cape Breton. (9.) Faults. When movements of beds have l)een accompanied with fracture and slipping of tlie beds up or down, faulting or discontinuity of 1)eds is produced. Faults traversing inclined beds may displace them laterally as well as vertically. The vertical displacement is sometiaies designated by the term slide, the lateral displacement by the term heave. A parent uneonformability produced by denudation and filling up. S. .Toggins, Nova Scotia, a, Sandstone, b, Shale, c. Irregularly bedded Sandstone and Remains of Plants. DENUDATION, ETC. 43 Geological observation has shown that the ine([ualities of the earth's surface are very laryely due to denudation. This is best seen in sections Fig. 31.— Denudatidii of horizontal btds, Great Valley, N. W. T. ((i. M. Dawson.) of highly inclined rocks in which it often api)ears that such rocks have been planed off on the surface (Fig. 24,) while in other cases the softer rocks have Vjeen cut away and these of greater liardness remain as peaks or ridges. (Figs. 19, 23, 2.5.) It has been estimated that the areas drained by the rivers of our con- tinents are losing by denudation at rates varying from 1 foot in 1500 years to 1 foot in 6000 years. At these rates, were no counteracting ele- vation to take place, our continents would be levelled with the sea in from four millions to nine millions of years. (12.) Massive Rocks. These are in almost all cases of igneous origin, and can be readily dis- tinguished from the stratitied rocks both by their mineral character and their mode of occurrence. Such irregular masses may represent either (1) the remains of the bases of old volcanic cones, the looser parts of which have been swept away ; or (2) exotic or intrusive materials ejected among other rocks from beneath : or (3) portions of the aqueous crust so much altered that their stratification has been obliterated. If the stratitied rocks have been altered at their contact with igneous masses, or are penetrated by veins proceeding from them, we know that the masses are newer than the beds. (Figs. 19, 32.) On the other hand, m 44 STRATKJRAPHY. if the massive rocks have been eroded before the deposition of tlie beds, if the latter are unaltered, and if they contain debris derived from the massive rocks, we know that these are older. Fig. 32, — -Tunctioii of massive intrusive granite and Cambrian qu.artzite in clitf near Indian Harbour Lake, Nova Scotia. (13.) Vein-formed Rocks. The most common veins arc fissures tilled with material introduced either in a molten state or in ai^ueous solution. Iijneous veins or dyki's are often of great size, and extend through the stratified rocks for long distances. They are filled with som<; of the kinds of igneous rock ; sometimes present a jointed structure at right angles to their sides; often have the surface in contact with the adjacent rock of different texture from the interior, and have often, by their heat, produced considera])Ie alteration in the adjacent rock. They are especially numerous in the vicinity of igneous masses and of volcanic foci ancient or modern. (Figs. 19 and 33.) Veins or dykes, if harder than the enclosing rocks, may project above the surface like walls when the latter are removed by denudation. If softer than the containing rocks they may be eroded into ravines or furrows. VEINS. 45 A'/ni'ii>is nins, which are often inineral L'/'itis, are usually filled with ciystalline miucmls deposited in them by water. Tliey often present a Fig. 33.— Igneous dykes or veins, extension reservoir, Montreal, (a) Felspathic dyke traversing beds of limestone, (bj Floor or horizontal vein of Dolerite cutt'mg f II I. f'r; Thick dyke of Felsite cutting f ), and deniidation indica- ted by the dotted lines. Faults at F F. Ijykes at x x. subsequently cut by denudinf; agencies into mountain masses. The Lebanon range and some of the ridges of the Ai)alachians and in the western part of America furnish illustrations. (3.) The abrupt crumpling and sliding of the crust of the earth is the cause of most of the larger and more important mountain ranges, though such ranges are always greatly modified by denudation. (4.) In volcanic regions mountains of considerable elevation are often composed of the ashes, lapilli and lavas ejected by the volcanic vent, and arranged more or less in a conical form. Vesuvius is a heap of this kind 4,000 feet high, and which has been piled up since the year 79 of the Christian era. In great mountain chains, as in the Cordillera of western America, all the above agencies may enter into the causes of mountain-making, and such great mountain ranges are often due to agencies which have been in operation either constantly or with intermissions throughout the whole of Geological time. It therefore usually happens that mountain ranges whose formation has been going on up to late geological periods are of larger dimensions and more complicated than those in wliicii the elevat- ory movements have been arrested at early dates in the earth's history. The experiments of Cadell and others, as well as the r,u>:ulations of Prof. Darwin and ^lellard Reade have shown that the thickness of the crust affected by these movements must be relatively very small, and I have shown that evidence of this fact is afforded by the great igneous dykes which traverse for long distances the crumpled Laurentian rocks of Canada, and cut directly through them as a thin veneer of curled wood 'l:l '^ 48 STRATKiRArHY. . ■ t nuiybo cracked llirou^'h bytlu; .slirinknj,'e of tlie jiliiiik on wliicli it is hiid. Tlius tlic wrinkled crust, includiu},' its mountain masses, is l)ut a thin veneer on tlic iionioi^'eneous undor-crust. In some mountains great uplifts, fractures and lateral thrusts have given the oriji;inal inecjualities. In others the l)eds have been closely folded with little fracture. 15ut while these causes have produced the ori^'inal tdevations, denmlation has so greatly modified these that synclinal mountains are by no means uncommon. It is also to be observed that those belts along ocean margins wluu-e the greatest amount of deposition and downward bending of the crust have occurred, are often or usually those which have experienced the most violent folding. (15.) CimoNOLOGT OF IJeus. Siipurposition. — The great leading fact as to the ages of a(|ueous deposits is that tlie upper of two beds is necessarily the newer. Wherever therefore the actual superposition of Ix'ds can be ascertained, there can be no doul)t as to their relative ages. In mines and liorings, and in clifis and quarries, we can thus easily ascertain the ages of the beds exposed. In the case of inclined beds this is equally obvious as in those which are horizontal. In these, however, we must be careful not to be misled by overturns and by repetition of beds by faults. Xo one exposure, however, can show anything more than a limited por- tion of the series of rocks occurring in any district of consideraljle extent. Hence in extending the results of our observations it is necessary to have recourse to other data. TrwiiKj of hr.il-^. — Having ascertained the sequence of beds in one locality, we endeavour to trace them along their outcrops. We tlius bring them into relation with other beds not seen in the original exposui'e. Mhv'i'al chamdi'r. — Where the tracing of the beds fails, we have to compare them in different sections, and to endeavour to recognize them by their mineral character — a succession of like beds in two not very distant sections giving us fair evidence of identity. Here, however, we must rememljer that in tracing any given })ed for a long distance, it cannot be expected to retain precisely the same character, but may be represented by some different material. Fiissil remains. — When Ave can obtain from any of the beds in question fossil orgaric remains, these afford us a new means of testing identity of age. Ex[)erience has shown that in the course of the earth's history the facies of animal and- vegetable life has been constantly changing, .so that the fossils of one formation are different from those of another. When m CiKOLO(;iCAL CYCLKS. 49 wo havo ill any ono locality ascertained this succossioii, we are safe in applying it to others. The evidence of fossils is thus at present held to be one of the ])est criteria for the agi^s of stratified rocks. In ojuploying fossils as evidence of agi;, we have, however, to hoar in mind certain necessary precautions. There are other diflerences than tliDse of age ; as for example, the diiference between animals of the sea, of freshwater and of land ; of ditlerent depths in the sea, and of ditl'erent climates. It is nece.s.sary, therefore, to comiiarc animals or plants of like habitat and conditions of existence. It is farther to l)e observed that cer- tain forms of life have been of longer duration in genlogical time than others, and therefore do not .so definitely mark the lapse of time. Again, certain forms of animal or vegetal)lc life may have been begun earlier or continued later in one locality than in others. On these accounts the evid(!nce of fo.ssils is more certain with reference to the greater geological periods than with reference to tlu; minor subdivisions of these. It has been supposed that the similarity of geological succession in dis- tant places may not imply .strict synchroni.sm but merely what has been called IIomoto,vis, or resemblance of order without identity of time. "When, however, we comi)arc the whole .series of stratified rocks in differ- ent regions we find that there is an identity of sequence throughout, from the earliest to the latest, .so that there must be a general identity of time in the several members. We must, however, make allowance for the earlier or later introduction or extinction of the faunae and flora? at the beginning and end of each great period. fri'(iIo;/ical Cycles. — The foregoing considerations luring in a very dis- tinct manner before us two different, and at first .sight irreconcilable, general views which we may take of any given geological period. First, we must regard every such period as jire.senting during its whole con- tinuance the diversified conditions of land and water with their appro- priate inhabitants, or in detail — mountain ridges, continental i)lat(!ans and ocean depths ; and ,S''CO)t>f/i/, we must consider each sucli* period as form- ing a geological cycle, in which such conditions to a certain extent were successive. As we give prominence to one or other of these views our conc'usions as to the nature of geological chronology must vary in their character, and in order to arrive at a true picture of any given time it is necessary to have both liefore us in their due proportion. ^^'e shall thus find that in each geological system there was at least one great continental depression bringing marine life over the continental plateaus, and this with elevations before and after. In the meantime the ;! if 50 HTRATIGKAPHY. lii>,'lH'r parts t»f tlie cuiilincntH may ocean depths peiinaiieiitly abyssal, tliis 8u})je(t in the chronological geuIoj,'y have been continuonsly We hIuiII have occasit land, and the m to nturii to li X rt J4 o n X 3 01 s." ■n 01 ai <0 ^ s ■C o c ta s - a ■^ t f 3 •- f * S c «9 V ^ 1" — ■*-• s -^ S S s U ■' a ^ a; S - — 2 1- t. >— •« c 5 .£ c "^ s > o 1 i' T 5 5 h4 _1 - s 215 S MAPS AND SKCTIONS. 51 (IG.) (iKoi-cdicAi. Maps an'd Skctions. Tlic facts iiiid ^ciK'niliziitiiiiis olitiiiiuMl on the ahove i^'niuiuls aio ro I (ruse 11 It'll to till' t'}'!.' on nia|i.s ami sections. ( )n the foriiu'r are iiuliiatt'd hy spots or liiK.'s of colour or by ilill'creiiqi's of sliacliii},' i]u' tlilfciont forni- iitions luitl their precise Ixjundnries as far na ascertained. To these may be a. Tiie Civil Engineer, concerned in preliminary surveys for engineering works, or in actual construction, is also interested in the geological struc- ture of the country in which he works. The distribution of geological formations regulates the contours and the nature and position of the rock masses under the surface. Hence the cost of excavation and construction, the stability of structures and the materials of which they may be composed and the accidents to which they are lial)le, are directly dependent on the geological formation of the country ; and dithculties may be avoided and advantages secured by the judicious api)lication of even a small amount of geological knowledge. In like manner, the miscalculations, errors in specification and unexpected difficulties and pecuniary expenditures arising from want of attention to geological facts, are fruitful causes not only of loss but of dispute and litigation. Such difficulties may arise either from inattention to the facts, or from ignorant attempts to specify details not ])roperly understood. ( )ther things l>eing e([ual, he will be the best and most economical engineer who best iinder.stands the rocks in or on which his operations arc l)eing conducted. \lr PART II. HISTORICAL GEOLOGY. Classification and Tehms. The apiiliciition of the facts and principles of litliology, slratigniphy and ]ialiv>ontology to any given district, enables ns to work ont tlio geo- logical snccession of formations or geological history of the district in question, including not oidy the physical changes but the changes in living l)eings that may have occurred. The comparison and grouj)ing of such Incal results enables us at length to frame a table or chart of the geology of the whole earth. This we shall now proceed to construct, beginning with the oldest formations, and giving, wherever practicable, ty[)ical examples of each from Canada, or from those regions in America or elsewhere in which it may be best developed and has ])eeii most fully studied. The whole geological history of the earth may be included in four great Periods or Eras, the luunes of which have been based on tlic progress of aiuiual life. They are, beginning with the oldest — 1. 21ii' Ei>::nic* or that of Protozoa, often called Arch?pan. '1. Till' Pa/ii'ii::iiir, or that of Invertebrate animals. 3. llii Mi'fi(j::nif, or that of Reptiles. 4. Till' Kaincznif, or that of ^[ammals and of Man. They are farther subdivideil into Agis, or if we regard the rocks them selves rather than the time occupied in their deposition, into 5//.s7'';/;.s of *" Az'iic," the term originally proposed by Mtircliison is not now applicable, and the same objection applies to the term " Agnotozoic " recently proposed by western (Jeo- logists. The only objection to '■ Areb.ean "' is that it does not carry out the idea of succession of life embodied in tiie names of the other periods. W "':« "mmmmm 56 HISTORICAL GEOLOGY. I Si ! Forinations. These are represented in the following table, beginniii},' as before with the oldest : — ,, , ( Laurentian. Lozoio or Ahcilkan. ^r I Huronjan. ( Cambrian. Sihiro-Canibrian. Silurian. Erian or Devonian. Carboniferous. , Permian. PaL/KOZOIO. \ Triassic. Mesozoic ' Jurassic. I Cretaceous. ' Eocene. Pliocene. Kainozoic Pliocene. Pleistocene. Modern. Systems may be divided into Series, and these into Stages or Subdivis- ions : — ^These again into beds. The method recommended by the Inter- national Congress is as follows : — 1. Groups ox E rax ; <\r. PaLneozoic. 2. Si/stf'iiis or Pr'/'iodx ; r.r. Silurian. 3. Seri'S or Epoclis ; <'.i: Niagara. 4. Staijcs or Ages ; ex. Niagara shale. \\\ tht! Reports of the (leological Survey of Canada — Systems are divided into (iroups, Groups into Formations, Formations into Series, Series into J3ed.s. In noticing the Systems of formations and their subdivisions in detail, we shall begin in each case with a general statement of the subdivisions of the system and their most characteristic fossils, more especially noting the earliest known appearance of each leading animal and vegetable type. We shall then describe some typical Canaeeiiiieii di«^■nK»g<'C^ 1h' weathering. (2) Acervuline cells of iipner part— magnified. (3) Tuberctilated snrfaee of lamiuie— magnitied. (4) Lamiiiiv of Serpentine in section, repre.senting casts of the sarcode— magnified. Fig. 44. — Stnictnre.s of Eozoon. (1) Section magnified, showing tuhuli at (ii ) and canals at (h). (2) Canals more highly magnified. WPiPl KOZOIC PERIOD. 59 ."5. Uppi'r Laiiyi'utia)!, {Nnriau of Hunt.) In Ciuiada — LalmKlorite and Aiiortliosito scries of the Ottawa district, i^c-. Kuropcaii equivalents — Kta^'e A (if IJnlieniia in part, I)inietian of Wales? Norite formation of S(;andinavia. No fossils known. In the district originall}" descril)ed by Logan there occur large masses of Lal)radorite rocks, now !)elieve(l to be intrusive ; but there and elsewhere there are gneisses, schists, &c., and the formation is usually characterised Ijy a prevalence of basic and lime felspar as distinguished from the orthoclase of the Laurentian. Hence bedded .Amirthosite rocks and giieissic Anortliositc arc cliaracteristic features. To this horizon may belong the LimestiMies, Schists and bedded Dioritii; rocks of .Southern New lirunswick, which underlie the Huronian in that district ; also the "White Mountain Series " of Hitchcock occupy- ing a similar position in New Hampshire and the Green iMountains, and the sJMular rocks called lJ[)per Laurentian by Kerr, in South Carolina. A felspathic and Mica Schist group of this age seems inileed to bo very generally associated with the typical Laurentian of Eastern America. The Laurentian group of rocks has been recognized in Brazil and else- wheri! in .Sduth America. In tiie Old World it occurs in Scandinavia, in the Western Highlands of Scotland, in Lrittaiiy, in liohemia and else- where in Eastern Europe, and in Central and Eastern Asia. It recurs in Arabia and in Africa, extending from the first cataract of the Nile far to the southward. The Laurentian may indeed be regarded as a universal foundation of the Continents; though in many very large arcuis buried under newer .sediments. In the Laurentian districts there are great ma.sses and veins of Oranite, binary (Jranite, I)io-ite, Labradorite rock and Lolerite. Some of the.se seem to be <.'ither contemporaneous or little newer than the containing rock. Others have l)een introduced at much later periods. i)i.-ii 1)1 Canaila, ijv. These formations constitute an extensive angular belt extending south-westward, north of the St. Lawrence valley, from Labrailor to the Western coast of Lake Superior and thence norih- west to the Arctic ocean, and they recur in Oreenland. At the Thousand Islands this belt is connected with an extensive peninsula in the State of New York. Minor areas protrude through the I'ahTozoic rocks in New- foundland, New Ih'unswick, and the Atlantic coast of the United States, and also [)robably in the mountainous belt fringing the racitic coast. The following Section given by Logan on tlie North Side of the Ottawa maybe regardi^d as characteristic* * (leology of Canada, p. 4.5. ■m 60 HISTORICAL (iEOLOGY. Section from Trniibliii'j Mountain, in the Gonntij of Otiaira. (Logan).-— (Onler asoeiuling.) First Orlhoclase Gneiss of TreniV)ling Mountain, (Lower or Ottawa ( Jiieiss) .'),000 foot, or tnore. First Limestone, or Limestone of Trembling Lake. 1,500 Second Orthoclasc (liieiss, between Trembling Lake and (jlreat Beaver Lake 4,000 Second Limestone, or Limestone of (ireat Beaver Lake and Green Lake, witli two interstrati- fied bands of gariietiferous rock and liorn- blendic orthoclase gneiss, making up about half its volume '2,500 Third Orthoclase (Jnciss, with bands of garnet- iferous gneiss and (^uartzite, between Leaver Lake and the Kouge River , 3,500 Third Limestone, or Limestone of (Jrenville, in some places including a band of ( Jneiss : ( Kozoon CanaitenscJ. Its thickness varies from 1,500 to GO feet, average thickness estimated at 750 Fourth (Jrthoclase Gneiss, including a tliiu bed of Limestone (Proctor's Lake), and 600 feet of (^uartzite 5,000 Norian or Labradorian, or Upper Laurentian Series, estimated at 10,000 Total 32,250 KOZOIC PKRIOI). 61 The genesis of the Laurentiaii rocks has liccn a .suhject of much dis- cussion. To the writer it has hw^ apjieiired that llie lowest or Ottawa > ^ si .>^?')~ # 5 r: * OS c a ?a 5 2. 5 S O 2 Gneiss is an a(|ueo-igneous product of the original ocean covering the cooling crust. The Middle Laurentiaii, while presenting the same char- acters ill part, introduces also the formation of sandstones, mud-rocks and limestones, with organic deposits. The U[)per Laurentiaii marks a traiis- 62 HISTORICAL ( i KOLU( i Y. lipi< ition period, with varicil lucal deposits, ijfiieous and atpieous, iiidicatinf^ the he^'iiuiiiij,' of those ^'I'eat inoveiiieiits of tlie nust whirli closcil tlic l^aiireiitiait era. Kciiittinrii' l'i'(itlnrh. — \\\ Canada the I-aurcntian abonnds in (Ineips, Syenite, Cry.stalhne i.ini«stone«, Serpentine and otlier roeks suilaMf for construction and for ornamental purposes. It contains beds of Ma^'uetite (Hull, Marmora, \'c.) and veins of Hematite (Perth), and the ferni^jinous gneisses have yielded Iron-sand, (.Moisie, i^'c.). Important veins oi Apatite occur, especially in the I'yroxenic beilsand the Micaceous schists, (Ihiekitigham, Tenipleton, ISur^'ess, iV'c.), ( Iraphite occurs in larye (piantity (Ihickinghain, ttc), Mica, (laleiia, (lold, (Mailoc, »•(■{•.) are also locally among the jjroducts of the l.aurenlian. (11.) II f HON IAN System. 1. Iliironiaa propi'r. — In Canada — Chloritic slate, jasper conglomerate, slate conglomerate, (piartzite, limestone and bedded diorite of (leorgiau ]juy. Similar rocks in Newfoundland, New Ilrunswick and p(jssibly also in the Eastern Townships of (,>uebec. KiU'opean equivalents — Urschiefer of Scandinavia, Ktage A of liohemia and rel)i(iiiin of Wales (Hicks). Fo.ssii.. — Eoruiun Banin'rinii, (lumbel, — a somewhat doubtful form — (Fig. 4G). The Huronian Limestones liave hitherto afforded no f(»ssils in Canada, though I have detected traces of spicules, ]irobably of spong(>s in the chert contained in them. The following section (Logan, (,'f(i/iiuartzite. o. (.^uartzite, with (piartz conglomerate and jas[ier conglomerate. Associated with these IkhIs are extensive sheets of .stratified I )iorite ; and in places they are traversed with Diorite and Syenite Dykes. The Copper veins of the Huronian district of (leorgian Bay attain their maximum thickness in the bedded J)iorite. The thickness of the Huronian on (leorgian liayis estimated at 18,000 feet, but this is probably only a part of the volume of the entire system. w re KOZOIC PKRIOI). 63 Tlif " Hiistiii;,'s (IriHip,'' (if ()iilari £Ui4ijUJL iJtvE*. :( I;':, ft c a Hl'uoman I'ossii.s. Fit,'. 47. — (1.) Cast of wiiiiii Imiiows, Mailuc (Ifastings gnn'.p) — niagnificd, . Argillo-arenaceous beds and mottled argillaceous sandstone, — about 3;i0 feet. 4. Alternations of trap ami tufa, with a l)ed of conglomerate, — veins of calc-spar, quartz and launionite, with native copper and silver, — about 750 feet. Fossils.— .4«/>i(W/« Tcvra-nuvica, BillingH ; ArenicoUtes. .^'i ''i Fig'. V^.—Area'idrlla terra)iovica—iyi\Vn\gu. Upper Huronian of Newfoundland. * "Descriptive Sketch," 1884. t Paper by the Author, Canadian Naturalist, IS""?. PAL.ROZOIC I'KltlOI). Gf) I)i.itril>iitill understood. t Wulcott. E 66 HISTORICAL GEOLOGY. Ill Aiiitjiicii, ill ailditiou to VhiwUns, PlijrlKiparia, MicnnUsctis, Ellipfo ophafii.-t^ /fi/ii//f/i'!^, ohohis, Ktifuiyifia, Edcustitfs, Li^jfoinitas and otlier I'C'iU'i'a liavij IjL'L'ii found. m Fig. iJO. — Olcni;!lns Thmnpsoni, Georgia slates. (After Walcntt.) llure soint; would also place provisionally, in the alisence of fo.-'.sils, the IvL'Wtniaii, or I'liin'i' Copper bearing series of Lake Superior, and the Signal Hill series o<^ Xewfoundland. iSoth of these are formations of conglomerate and ">andstone of rediiisli colours and associated with igneous rocks and resting on the lluronian. It is possible, however, that these beds may cniistitute another series beluw the Cambrian. The}' may correspniid with some of the older sandstones and schists of AVestern Eurojie which underlie the fossiliferous Cambrian. The Caerfai series of Hicks in AVales, consisting of jjurple, red and green sandstones, shales and conglomerates, seem to lie the equivalent of these beds, and also etages A and 15 of Ikihemia, and the Eophyton and Fucoiilal shales of Sweden. The known rocks of this age are everywhere littoral or coast formatioiis. 2. Miihlh' CmnJirian. — In this we may place the Acadian series of Xew lirunswick, Division 1 of Mattliew in the St. -lolm group, consisting of slates wi.ii abundant fossil remains, and equivalent to the Solva and Meneviau groU[is of Wales, and to the Paradoxides Iieds of Sweden. They aio also the equivalents of the Paradoxides slates of Southern Xewfoundland and of ISraintree in Massachusetts. These beds are divided by Matthew into four series, (a to d) of which c antl d are those to which the name Acadian group was originally given. Above these at St. John are other slates containing fossils which indicate a somewhat higher horizon passing into the Upper Cambrian. .;,• I .\'tfi.'^s-in. PAL-EOZOIC PKKIOD. 67 Fossils, — PKfd'In.iiilc^, (l'"ig. 31.) Cunororiiiilir, Cfrnoir/ilifiht.'i, (Fig- ^>--) Mii'i'oili.'irus, A'jivislii.'i, and other trili)l)ites, (iIsd Liii'iiiJi'lht, (Fi^'. oU.) O/'^A/x, {Fig. TA.) Stenothccn, (Fig. 5.").) HiiolUhes, EociiditeK, Protmtimnt/in, ilv. In the upper Divi.sionaro Ctcnoji;/iie, Plijchojuivia, Agniintiis, Kntorgiiin, f('C. Tlic species and many nf the genera are distinct from thnso in the lower group. ^latlliews lias catiilogiied 05 species fnnii this series, of wliicli 28 are Trilobites, l)nt llie .^^(lllllsks, l''.cliiiiii(liMius, Cneleiiterates ami l'r(jt(.)Zou are also vepreseiiteil. At ^[o-.int Steplieu in the Rocky .Mountains, on the lino of the Canada Pacitic Kaih'oad, fossils of Lower and Middle Cand)riau ago have been found in a formation of (piartzite, slate ami limestone. Fig. ol. — One-fourtli natural size. "i3. TA, Mnini.K C.wiuuAN F'ossu.s. ''''ig. 51. — Paradox ides Rf(iimt. 52. Ctomn iilntl !(.■< Mattliewi. 53, LitiguUUa Mattheui. 54. Ortliis lUllinijsi. 55. StuKiilucn Acadi<'i(. — Acadian group, St. John, X, 13. 68 HISTORICAL (IKOLOCV 3. Upjwr Caiiihrian. — Tin; cliaracteiistic funniilion of tlii.s age in Cuiuula is tlie Potsdam saiitlsti>no, to wliicli may l)e addctl the lower part of tlie Calciferons formation. It is ■widely sjiread over the lower St. T.awrenee and in the State of New Y(jrk, and is remark- able for the abiuidanee of the cylindrical burrows known as Sc"/ if hits, for tracks of crust- aceans {Pi'iitichniti'S, Cliniar- n-lntif '■■<,) and in- species of Liininldla and Trilobites of the genera Oh'nitu and Dild'lln- c('2)halns. It is the e(piivalent of the Lingula Flags of ^^'ale.s and the < )lenus Zone and Dicty- onoma Slates of Sweden, the lattei; being equivalent to the English Treniadoc and the Lower Calciferons of Canada. The ]\Iire Kiver Slates of Cape Ih-eton, Flags of Kelly Island, Xowfoundland, Upper Slates of St. John, New Jiruns- Avick, T,imestones of L'Anse-a- Loup, Labrador, and the l)i onciini .shales of Matane am Rosier belling to this or jiart to the previous group, vavicnis Corals, Crinoids, L ellibranchs, lleteropods, G toropod« and Cephalopods occur m tl le upper nii'inher, w shows transition to the next i h Fig. ''('>.— -Protichnitcs scptem-notittus, Owen, I'dtsdiuu. rAL.EOZOIC PERIOD. 69 Tliis Uppt.'!' Ml'IuImt, the Calciforous saiul-Kick of tlu; original survey of Xew York, is represented by eoarse dark-culoreil dolomite over tlie continental |)lateau, Ijut contains slaty hedHfDirfi/oni'hia shixle.!^) an the Lower St. Luwri-ncc. It may admit of division into two niemhers 1)clniiL;ipg respectively to the Caiiilirian and Silui'o-Camliriar.. Fi" •")". — DilicUi>ccjtk((hi.t Miiuic.iotfiiniii h '] ro HISTORICAL (JKOLOdV. iMi>i''r(i/-<. — The l;()1(1 veins of Xova Seotia occur in CiUiibiiaii mcks, cspoeiiilly at and near llu; junctioii of llie (Hiartzile ami .slate constituting the Lower Cambrian of tlu; Atlantie cuast. They arc best ilevelojied on tlie ;uiticlinals, and ofleii cninciih' in directiim wilh the strike of the l^eds. The mali'ix is usually (|Uartz, in w liidi the u'l'ld nceiu's either disseminated in mieroscopio grains or in nuggets. These veins are of later age than the beds they traverse, probably as hite as the Krian or Devonian. In some parts of the coast region of Nova Scotia Staurolite, Chiastolile and ( laruet have been devehipeii in the aili reij slates. In the Kastern Tdwnsliijis of the I'mvinrcdf (^lueliee, where large areas at one time supposed td be Sihu'n Camlu'ian (<,)ueb('c group) are now mapped as Camln'ian and I'lv-Cambriau liy the (leolngical Survey, there are e.\ten>ive deposits of Copper, (Harvey ILill, \\'ickliam, i^'c.,) also veins of (iold, Chromic Iron, Manganese, Fibrous Chrysotile (Asliestos), and Soai>sione. These deposits are lielieved to occur principally in the Candirian and Pre-Caiid)rian areas. (2.) SlI.L liO-LAMIJIilAN SvsriOM. (1 ,ower Sil uriai 1 of Murchison, (Jrdovician of L iiiwoi th.) 1. (.Inrhi'C S''rk\^ (Cahiiferous-chazy).— In C; \- inaila tvc, sliale.- lime- stones anuel)ec group have caused much lis is increaseil bv tlie ancient facies of the fossils as f tl le i»laleau de •^its. It is also now known that rocks and fossils extending from 'An: Cpper Caml)rian to the Tnuitoii Ijeds of the (.^)ueliec gi'oup proper. group have been folded in with th Fossils, — Graiitelites >f (Jencra araptulithui', PhyUorivuptus, Dcndrograptas, Dkhiiiiniiitus, Diitmnumn. kc. Trilobites of Genera l>ikillocc/ih(iIii>i. Arioiullns, Biithi/tinis, &c., Land I'lants— P/'(*^(/(/i(('arirt of Skiddaw series Agniidi's, PAL.EOZOIC PKUIOD. 71 r.o C%4i,^;v^ i^^ ^.■ do r.2 SiMRo-cAMnuiAN I'ossiLs. (Qiu'bec gnuip.) Fi^- •""•'• — r/i>illi>griij>tii)i iiji' 00. — lHihiigra}itu$ Logaui. VA.—hWiiliDmjihaliii iiitDrtits. G2. — li<, i^'c. represent the English Arenig, and certain upju'r beds, (^^arsouin, i^'e.) an; of Trenton or Utica age. This graptdlilhic succession may l)e stated thus, in ascending order : — 1. Dicfjionenta Zimc, holding I), xoriah-, Salter, ei[uivalent to Tri'iiiadoc and Calciferous. ■J. Pliijllniiraptii^ Zmtr. holding P. tijpus, il'c., and Levis triloliites and Prafospui/i/ia, e([uivalent to Arenig and Fpper Calciferous or Chazy. Typical (Quebec group of Logtui. 3. C"')i'ii/rn}i/iis Znni\ holding C. iji-wilis and Trenton fossils. Equivalent to Knglish I'.ala and to jllack River and Trenton. .Ml of the above are fouml at various points in the long range of Cambrian and Ordovician deposits between Cape Rosier and <^>ueliec and thence south-westward, and which collectively constituted the (^Miebec group of Logan. 4. I)ij)/iiijrai)/iii> Zone, with 1). prit^fis, i^'c, e(piivalent to I'ppev Caraihjc and Utica shale, lleds of this age occur on the North shore of the St. Lawreiu'c near Murray Lay and Les Eboulenients, also at Lake St. .lohu. Certain beds associated with the (^)ucbe(' group at Covt' tidds and ( )rleans Island near (Quebec show a transition toward this fauna, according to I-apworth. The (irai)tolithic fauna is of special value because it is oceanic and not limited to continental plateaus. It presents identical characters in the west of America as well as in Europe, and even in Australia. \\i interesting illustration is furnished by the discovery of graptolites on the Dease river, in the N(n'thern part of lU'itish Columbia, by ] >r. (1. 3L Dawson. According to Prof. Lapworth they are mostly known species of ^Middle Ordovician ag(!. Similar s[)ecies were found by ^\v. R. S. McConnell in the Kicking Horse Pass, Rocky ^louutains.* * Canadian Record nf Science, 188)^. PAL.EOZOIC PERIOD. I •> 2. Ti'r)tton Sffii'S. In Canada — lUack River and Trenton limestones of (^)uebec and Ontario. Cnrresiionding rocks df the New York serie.s. European ei[uivalent.s — r>ahi formation of En^^laml and AVales ; Ktago 1) 2 of l!(jliemia ; K^L^io C, or < Kiland limestone of Scandinavia ; < Irapto- lite and Calymene .slates of France — Seeon I Fauna of liarrande. Fig. 04r(,— Supt'ipositiiiu of Siluro-Caiuhrian limestono on ciuartzito and slate of Hastiiii^'s .-^eries, Hog Lake, Ontario. The Trenton serie.s re[iresents a .suhmergence of the whole continental plateau of Xorth Ameri('a under warm waters richly tenants 1 hy a ^neat variety of forms of invertebrate life, and representing the culminatinn of the inverteljrate animals in the Lower Palaeozoic. ^lore especially the great Cephalopods of the family ()rthoceralid;e were dominant at the time, and the genera .<'I^•(Yj)^'^■<■, Cal iptn'iie i\m\ Ti-innrlrii!< rc'[)lace the older forms (if Trilolntes. The I'tica shale overlying the Trenton re[tresents an inHu.\:of cold and muddy waters into the great iidand sea of the Trent'm, along with the entrance of Gra[itolites and other dceanic forms nf life. Fossils. — Kich inverteVn-ato I'auna of Corals, Ci'inoid.-;, Bracliioiiods, Lauiolli- branchiatt's, ( Jasteroiiods and Crustaceajis. The following are very cliari'.cteri-^tic in Canada — Mouticnliiinrd (different siiiuehec .series appear to l>e represented by the Grai)tolite slates of Xnrthern Xew Ijrunswiek, and by the felsite.s, agglomerates, slates, Ac. of the C(d)eiiuid 74 HISTOllICAL CEOLOGY. SU-rKO-CAMBIilAN 1''0S.S1I,S. Fi^- •>■"'■ — (f'raptolithus bicornis. (id. — Petraid prufmida. (!". — Monticulipora,si>. OS. — I'ti'odictiia acuta. (Jit. — Lingvla ijiiadrata. 70. — Orthis hinx. "l.—Orthis pcctincUa. 72. — Illiyvchonelta iiicrdircsccus. 73. — Di.fciiia circc. 7A. — Orthis tcstudiiiaria. 7o. — Stoplnniicna ultcrimta. 7(5. — BcUcrophon Sulmtiiius. 77. — Muirhi.^oiiiar/'mcilix. 78. —il/. hicinda. 79.—Plcurotomavia umhilicatu^n, 80. — Orthoccras sp. 81. — Caliimcnc aciiaria. I'AL.Ko/.oIC I'KKlol). lO MiMiiitaiii', A"i'. in Xiiva Scdiia, wliirh Imvc lirm iiaiiieil tlic C(il)(Miuid sc.'i'ii's. TlifV I'Lvsciulili' in ininci'al cliarai.'tri- [\[i- Ilnrnnvdalo series of KliL;Ianil. '?,. lln.lsnii Ilirr,- S'-ri's. In Canada — I'lica shale nf the 8t. Luwreiice valley, shales, coarse limestones ami sandstones overlying; the Utica in various |iarts of Ontaiin and (jUieliec, and extending southward into the United States. iMn'opean equivalents — Caradoc sandstones and shale, Reyiii I» of Seamlinavia ; l'',ta,L;'es 1).'5. Ml, iMihemia. Fossils. — C'lHitimiHtiiiii of iiivcitcliiiitc ]'':iiiiiii of Tri'iitnii in )),ai't, with sdiuc new t.vpus, as Fiirislcllti .■ower ( )ttawa, as far up as the Thousand Islands. "We.-tward of this they form a hroad helt e.xteiidinu' across < >ntario, from Laki' nntaiiii to (Ieoi^i;in Lay. They occur in the Islands of fJeorgian Lay and the X(U'th Channel, and at Liver St. Mary cross over into the L'niled States. They reapjiear in the \'alley (jf the Red River. Usi'/ii/ I'riKhifts. — The limestones of the Chazy and Trenton ^roups afford '41 Hill Ijuilding' stone and lime. Sandstones and ilags are found in the Hudson River series. The Ctica shale is in some places sutiiciently rich in iiituminous nuitler to atl'ord illuminatinL;- oil, ami it is also a source of natural gas. The co])iier and other metallic minerals of the I'.astern Townships of (^Mudiec, formerly referred to the t^'uehec group, are now regardc'd as for the r,iost part ocrurring in older rocks. III. SlI.UHI.VN SVSTKM. (T'|iper Silurian of Murchison.) 1. Mfilina S'jri'S. In Canada — Sandstones of the "West end of Lake Ontario and extending thence into the United States. Lower p.ut of Anticosli series. European equivalents — Llandovery formation of Wales or beds of passage, including the Mayhill sandstone. Etage E 1 liohemia. Fossils. — The trails known as Avlltrophiicus, and LiiKjula Cu.ncata are characteristic. 7(; HISTORICAL cr.oI-OCY. 2. Niaijava Siri't^. In Ciiiiadii— ('liiitdii au'l Nia'^aia lirnc.-tniif nf Ontario, and Llu'ir cxti'iiNidii stnitliwaid inln tin' I'niti'il Stair-. Lnwi.-r Ari.siii,L; and New Canaan slates (if Nova S(;ijtia ; I'liprr Silurian linu;- stont's and slates n£ Xortlicrn Xcw iJrnnswick and (la>iiij in part. Kuroiican ciiuivak'nts — Wcnloclc iinicstuno and slialc iif Kin;land. Muil,'!? E 2 (if llohi'inia. l''ossu,s.— The Niagara liiiicstiuio cnntiiins a rich marine fiUiiia ; A.st!i'"i/i", jiracmnma, Stnimutuimra couccntrka, anirif('r A'liiiiitrriiKii^. Trilnliiti's nf genera li'i'innnin, LU'lttifi, Cahjmenc, and /l/minin, are characteristic. (Ihiiitiuli lulniii of tlie Clinton is Iiriiliahly a Ijj'C(i|i()iliaceiiiiH plant. i^^^l P^^ ^^^ .SlLlRIAN' Fossn.s Fig. 8.'i. — HeUoUtcK.'ipcriosKs 84. Fdrositea (,'iit/i'. Hali/.titcs C'ttiiinJnta . S(3, DirtiinniiiKiWihdcri. S7. I'dhntM' r Xinyvc i.tis. I'AL.Kozoic ri:i{i()i». 77 .'i. Sd/iiifi »>''•/•/' N. Ill Caiiiida — Sliiilcs, iiiarls, dolnmili's and inck salt of ( liiclcricli ill (ditario, Tliis is a local series (^oiitiiicd to tlie intciinr basin df Xnrtii America, aiul iiiaikiii,^' a iicrind of elevatinii and dry ciiiuale \villi dcMTls and salt lakes. The (Iiieliih liinestdiic and ddliimitc of ( »iitarii) is a traiisilioii tleposil lielweeii this and the Xia.Lfani. Miya/oui/i.'^ CdiKi'l' )isis, i\ lai'Lje lainelliliraiicliiate, is characteristic; of the (liudiih liine- stone. There are also species of iSfi'niiHtfnjiiira, Miiir/iis'ini((, C'/c/n- ninta, K-v. 4. //■ /i/i ill' r r/'rs. In Canada — I.inicstoiie of Si. Helen's Island, Montreal: Upper Limestones of Anticosti ; Caj e (Jaspe liuicstone ; Upper Arisaii,' series, Nova Scotia. I'Jiropean eiiuivaleiits— Ludlow Series of ]\ni,daiid ; KtnLjc; F, (I, of jlohenda. Fig. 88 — Chondts Nova Sail ini. 89. Atriiim rcticnhiriii. 'JO. HumHloiiottis ikJi>hiiioccphulus. Fossils, — Poitauicvun tjdlaitiin, P. purinlo-iKilcalH.t, HhinichdiuUd vcntricom. Species (if Mii'ifita, ChuiitU'n, Katmiid, Stricklaiiduiiii, Tciitucu/itcs a.nd Eiivm^crtitt, iiro clmi- actoristic. Tlie earliest kiiowu ScDrpion.s and Insects occur in the Silurian. Fossil ]il:ints nf ^i^ww^ Psikqili iiton , Ncimtldiiliiitoii, iS:c., occur. ]']arlit'st fossil fishes — Placo'iiDi- oli/t) and Schit'liiaii.t. Jn America — yVovf.s'/x'.s Aradica, Matthew, from the llelderburg of New lirunswick, Pala'cispis hitnuicatd, J'. Amcvionia, Claypolc, Saliiia of Pennsylvania. Di.-'fi'ihutiini. — The Silurian rocks are well developed in the district extend iiK4 north-we.stward from the Niagara river to Uake Huron. The}- orcupv a largo area in (^)ueboc and Xorthern New Urunswick, extending S. "\V. from ( laspe and the I!ay de Chaleur ; and isolated ai'';as occur in >.i.\-a Seotia and Southern ^sew l>runswick. IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) // V y 1.0 I.I 1.25 IIIIIM 1^ 1^ ^ us, 12.0 1.8 U ill 1.6 V} ^ /a /a ^' /A '/ 78 HISTORICAL (iKOLddV. Ill tlie Kast, where tliey liave lieeii involved in the fukls extending .South-we.stwai'dly in the Apalacliians, tliey liave been much disturbed, more or less altered and affected with slaty structure. In tin- interior plateau and iu tlu; area of the Gulf of St. Lawrence they remain flat or inclined only at very small angles. Extensive ejections oi dolerite and other igneous rocks occurred in the later par. of the Silurian period. Examples of these are allurded by the great sheets of dolerite inter- stratified with the I'pper Silurian in Xorthern New lirunswick, (C. l>on Ami, &c.) and in the trapiican masses occurring in the valley of the St. Lawrence, and to which Blount Koyal and JJela'il mountains belong. The nuumer in which the dykes of these mountains cut the Utica beds and the association of their agglomerates with the Ilelderberg limestones show that these were active volcanoes at the close of the Silurian. I i;i Fig. 01.— Silurian ve^etatiim of N. America. Prdtaiiiiulai'ia, liencynhi, Xeiiuitoji/ii/ton, AvthnatiijiiM, 1 silofiluiton . 1 PAL.^^OZOIC PERIOD. 79 The earliest known land animals belong to the Silurian. In ISSO \)i\ LimlstrOniannounceil the discovery of a well-iireserved s[)('ciiiu'n >>( a true .scorpion, which he named Palivaplmncus niuirins, in the L'i)i)er Silurian of Sweden ; and in December of the same year a similar diseitvery in Scotland was announced by l)r. Hunter. In the following year, Prof. Whitfield of New York described and figured a third species in the Lower Helderberg series of the State of New York. Thus this form of life has been at one bound, and in three different localities, carried back from the Carboniferous to the Silurian, a remarkable instance of the nearly simul- taneous discovery of new facts, in different places and by different observers. The insects had previously been traced back to the Devonian or I'rian period, and the scorpions would now have antedated them, but for another discovery made in Spain by M. Donville, and communicated to the Academy of Sciences by M. Charles Ih'ongniart, in December, 1884. This is a wing of an insect in the sandstone of the Middle Silurian, prol)al:)ly equivalent to our ^i iagara series in Caiuula. This wing is shown by its venation to belong to the Blattidte or cockroaches, a group already well known in the Carboniferous, where they seem to have tliriviii on the abundant vegetable matter of thai period. It differs, however, in some of the details of venation from any living or fossil species known. Brongniart proposes for it the name Prutahlattiiia Dunril/ii, and as the beds containing this insect are probably a little older than any of tiiose containing the scorpions above referred to, this di.«covery makes the cockroaches, still so numerous and voracious a family of insects, the oldest known air breathing animals. The Silurian is also characterized by the earliest known fishes, which belong to the groups of the Plaeogauoids or plate-bearing (ianoids, and the Selachians or sharks. These early fishes had in this period to con- tend for the mastery of the seas with gigantic Orthoceratites and with large and formidable Crustaceans, (I'terygotus, S:c.) On the land the few known fragments of plants indicate a meagre flora of I'rotogens and Acrogens. Modiolopais rhomloideu, Sihuian. m 80 HISTORICAL GEOLOGY. Miwral-'^. — Tin- ,c;rcat Salt (1c]insits nf fiodi.'ricli, iVc, in Ontario, occur in tlic Salina sorios, which also aH'onls Gypsum. The following .section from the Geological Suvvoy* illustrates these depo.sits : — I'cct. Inches. Pleistocene Cliiys, &c 7(5 Dol'iiiiite with Limestone hands 27H ■'? Limestone witli Corals, Chert, and layers of ])oloinite. . 'J7t> <• Dolomite LM.J Variegated Marls with layers of 1 )(jloinite 121 EorkSall .SO 11 Dolomite and Marl ;$2 1 Jlork- Suit 2.") 4 Dolomite 11 10 Jiork Salt 34 10 Marls and Dolomite SO 7 JlockSalt 1.". 5 Dolomite and Anhydrite 7 Jlnrk S((lt . 13 (i Marls 135 (', IlockSalt IMarl.s 132 Total 1.572 feet. Limestones of valuable ijuality aliound iu the Xiagara series, and roof- ing slates are affonleil by some of the altereil shales in .«ome parts of Eastern Canada. IV. EiUAN System. (Devonian of KnglLsh Geologists.) 1. Cornifi'rnxs Srrli'i^ — Corniferous limestone and a.s.soeiatcd sanf I>evon, Cypridina shale of iJennany. Fossils.— Many Lamellibranchiates of genera Pteronites, Avicnhi, &c. Fishes of genera Holoptiichiun, Ptcrichthim, &c. Peach has discovered Millipedes if two sjiecies in the Krian of Scotland. Ferns of genera AvchaofAerU, Cyclopkric, &c. PAL.KOZOIC PERIOD, 83 Eriax oil Devonian Plants. Fig. 100. — Psilojihiiton )>rincfi)S. *izf. 102. Asterophyllites parvuld, a, natural size, h, c, portions ni.ignitied. mm ' 84 HISTORICAL GEOl,OC;Y, Dutt'ihution. These rocks occupy the peninsula of Ontario Ijctween Lakes Erie and Huron. Tiioy occur largely in the region south of Lake Erie and elsewhere in the United States. They are extensively developed in flaspe and the Lay de Chaleur and also in Southern New Brunswick. In the maritime regions however, last mentioned, the great limestones, so rich in corals in Ontario, are wanting, and the whole system is represented by shallow-water beds, while fossil plants and remains of fishes prevail to the exclusion of strictly marine forms. The folljwing table shows the comparative development of t'lc system on the Atlantic margin and the Continental Plateau : — 103 Fig. Va^.—ArchmpUris Jacktoni, a, I, portions allowing venation. PAL.KOZOIC PERIOD. 85 Devonian, or Erian nf America. SUBDIVISIONS. Upper Devonian or Lrian. NKW VOIIK ASn WKSTKKX CANADA. CliennuiK Group. GASI'E AND ItAY |)K CHALKLU. Upper Sandstones fjonK Cove, .Scuunienac. SOLTHKRN NEW HIUNS. Wlt'K AND XCVA SCOTIA- Alisptc (Jroup. .Shale, Sandstone, and Conglomerate. .Sand- stones near Middle K., Pictou? Middle Devonian or Krijin. Hamilton Oroup. Middle . "Sandstones. Ijois Iinili', Cape Uiseau, etc. Little K.(ini\ii)(includ- '\ny( Cordaite shales ami Dado.xylon Sand- stone). Lower Devonian or Erian. Cornifcrous and Uriskuny groups* Lower SandstoneH. (iaspt' Hasin. Little (iaspi- Canipbi'Uton. Lower Conglomerates, etc. Nictaux and IJear River Series ((Jriskany). A .similar ditrert'iioe obtaiii.s between the Atlantic margin and the interior continental area in Europe, a.s evidenced by the comparison of the old Ked Sandstone of Scotland with the Eifel limestones in ("iernuuiy. The Erian i.s emi)hatically the period (jf the reign of li.shcs, when animals of that class first I)ecame dominant in the waters. The rich tish fauna of the Devonian of Scotland has long been known, and the discovery of Ci'phalaxpisixniX Mar/iaeracanf/tns in the Gaspe .sandstones, by the author, in 18G9,* showed that Ijoth Placoganoid and Selacliiau fishes existed in Canada in the Lower and Middlt; ]Jevonian. ^lore recently Mr. Whiteave.s has described, from the Lower Devonian of Campljcllton, fishes of the genera C.'ii.i, CoplialaKpiii and CtiniacantltH--^, and from Upper Devonian beds at Scaumenac Bay, other species of the genera PtencJi(/ii,'.<, I)i])/oL'anfhiii^, Pltamrnpleurnii, (r/i/ptoh'jns, Cht'iroU'piti, and of a now genus named liy him Eif.-^f/intopferon.f The evidencr- of the relative ages of the lieds as indicated ]>}' the lishes corresponds perfectly with that deduced by the writer from the fossil plants which accompany them. The Erian is also the age in which we fir.st find, in the Palteozoic, the evidence of extensive forests and of great vegetable growth. Wi; have remains of Land plants, as already stated, in the Silurian. JUit in the Erian wo find a profusion of new forms, introduced however not in the beginning of the period but more especially in its middle portion. The Lower Erian fiora is meagre, and the prevalent forms are Psilophijton, * Geological Magazine, 1870. t (iesner first noticed the Scaumenac fishes which were subsequently collected by Ells and Foord. 86 IIISTOKICAL (iKoUXiY. Artln-imtiijma niul Xniiato]>/ii/fi)ii. In the iiiiildlt' Eriaii we have riymno- sporms, rcprosL'iUeil by Daiioniliiu, Conlai/'x, ami tlie fruits known as Anilinlitlna and Qinfinrdrpnui. < )f An'OLjcns we liavc Lfjiiihulrnih-n)! and Li'ptopJili iini and Li/i'np(iifif,s, rcprcsonlinL; the Lyi'opnds, Calamitrn, ivp- resonting the Equisetacea' and numerous genera and .species of ferns, l)olh tree-ferns ami lierl)ac'eous species. We have also a Viist exuberance of the huml)le aipiatic plants known as Khizocarps, their sporocarp.s tilling .some thick bed,« of shale in such a manner as to render it highly bituminous. Mill' ra/ Prmhifts. — The Krian is especially remarkable as a source of petroleum, which se(!ms to abound in tlie Corniferou.- and Hamilton groups in certain districts in ( )ntario and in the North-West. V, Cahhomi'erous System. 1. tlnrtan S'\ ii'/i. Lower Carboniferous Shales and Conglomerates, Horton r>lull, iVc, in Nova Sc(jtia. K(piivalents in United .States — Vespertine group of Pennsylvania ; Waverly .sandstone (in part), Ohio; Kinderhook and Marshall groups of Illinois and Michigan ; lower or false coal measures of Virginia. Kuroi)eau equivalents — Tweedian group or Calciferous sandstones of Scotland ; Carboniferous .sliale and Coondiala grits of Ireland ; C>dm formation of nermany, (Jraywacke of Vo.sgcs. Fossu.s. — Fislics (if gfiicni Itliinliiiiflttliii.i, illiizii'iiin, AcroJeph, Ctiniira>itliit», etc. Footiiriiits (if earlif.st known B;itracliiiuis : Luiiilmicndron oirruijatuin, Aneimitis, Acadica, Conlaites. &c. Fiff. 104.— Piihi I. II Igcim mml ul ux, Ihi. «, Outline, natural size. t, .S(.^ries of 8uale.s enlargt'(.l, seen fmni in.side. The lower row are tliose on niei»ii»l line, c, Surface of exjxvsed i)art of scale from side and from upper lobeof tail, show- ing .sculpture enlar^'ed. ft', One of the doivsal scales, enlarged. PAL.KOZOIC PERIOD. 87 LowEU Carbonifehous Fossils. Fig. lOri.—Slenoporaexilis. \W>. Chatetcs Umida. 107. Litkostrotion Pictocnsc. 10S. Spiriftr acuirosta. 109. Sinrifcr cristata. 110. CentroncUa ainm. 111. Productus nemireticuhitus. 112. Athpris mUUita. 113. Canlinmorpha Vitidohouettsis. 114. Aviculniiecfeu simplex. 11.5. Conularia riuadvisukata. Wt. Nalicopsis dispasna. 117. Murchisoniaf/tipsea. 118. Loxovema acutula. IW. NaiitilHn nvonemis. 120. Ovthoccras vind'oboticnse. 121. Phillipsia Howi. 88 HISTORICAL (;E()L0(;Y. iil^ 2. Wimfriar S'riin. In Canada — Lower Carlwiiifftrnus limestono.* and ^'ypsiftTous surius of Novii 8cotiii and Xew l»run.Avick. KiinivaliMits in United States — Hurlington, Keokuk and CliesttT limestones of Illiiioi.'=i. European eipiivalents — Old ^^ountain or Carhonifovous limestone of Knj,'land ; Caleairo Condrusien of France ; Kolilen-kalkstein of ( Jermany ; Fusulinii limestone of Russia. Fossils.— Murine Invortebratfrt of genera Fit/ruiiswiek. In United States — coal formatinu of Pennsylvania, Ohio, Illinois ami Michigan, represented in the west by marine limestones, il'c. In Europe — the coal formations of Scotland, England, France, Germany, &c. Fossils. — Land plants of genera Araucaroxiihrn, Sir/ilhiria, Lepi'loileii'lrnn anil Cidamitcs, and Fcnin and allied plants. Fishes of f,'enera Piihtoinscus, Hlti:oiluii, Diploiliis, (iiimcaiithuK, &c, IBatrachians of genera Baphdcs, Dendrcrpiton, Hii'onoinus, Aiithracosaurioi, &.c. Insects, Millepedes, Arachnidans and Decapod Crustace.ans. ORIGIN OF COAL. All ordinary beds of coal consist of compresseil and carbonized vege- table matter, principally the cortical and other more durable and least permeable tissues of plants. That this matter has accumulated I'li situ on swampy Hats and depressions, is shown by the occurrence of fossil soils or "underclays" full of roots, below the coal-seams, by the vege- table debris spread out in the shales which overlie the coal, and by the frequent occurrence in tliese "roof-shales" of erect trees rooted on the surface of the coal. (See Figures, page 92). The chemical relation of vegetable matter to ordinary bituminous coal is seen in the following table : — Cellulose, - - - - Cn Hjo O^o Cork, C24 Ilig H ^6 10 Bituminous Coal (Regnault), C24 H,„ O3 ,^ I'AL.KO/.oIC rKKloi). Hi) COAL-FOBMATION F08SII.S II' 1 Fig. 122. Pi(i(i Ktusta ; «, natural size, '/, enlaiptd, c, aiiex, (/, sculiiturt'. 123, Con- uliis prisons; a, enlarged, h, sculpture. 124. Spirorbh rarhomtrius. 12.j. L'ntomai'tracaus ; a, Carhoniu hnirdeoidcs, Jonew ; h, Carhmiia ii'iintn, Jones; r, Cijthcre. 12C>. Mil/ipeiJeti ; a, Xylohius, siiiUlnrin ; li, Anhhiltts Xyfohioiles ; c, Xylohius fardus. 127. Blattina Bretoncnsis. 12.s. Blnttina Hccri, DO HISTORICAL GEOLOGY. Disfi'ihiifinn. — 111 Canada the CarVioiiifeious occupies considerable areas in Nova iScolia and New lirunswick, and includes the extensive and valuable coal lields of Cumberland, Pictou and Cape IJreti .i. The Carbon- iferous tlistrict of New Brunswick while extensivt; in area is as yet known to contain only thin l^eds of coal. The thickest beds occur in the vicinity of the ancient shores of the older formations in Picto"., Cape llretoii and iSouthern Cumberland. These coal beds from their resting on fossil swamp soils or underclays and being covered with beds holding erect trunks of trees, are known to have been produced in situ, and to represent buried bogs of the period. The microscope shows that the coal itself is made up of layers of vegetable deln'is, largely cortical and epidermal tissues of trees, and sporocarps and other remains of fructific - ^n. "Woudy lUatter proper appears in the form of mineral charcoal. In the R(jcky Mountains and in Ijritish Columbia, Carboniferous rocks are largely developed, but consist principally of quartzites and limestones associated with igneous rocks. In Ih'itish Columbia the limestones con- tain foramiiiifera of the genera FntuUiia ami Lo/fn,;pii1nili:ni1ra are also extremely alnindant. The flora throughout consists of Gymnosperms and Acrogens, but the species diller somewhat in the ditferent members of the group. iji, Fig. 129.— Tooth of Ctcnoptiichius cristulus, N.S. ; natural size and magnified. In addition to insects and scorpions we now have on the land many myriapods and land snails, and above all, numerous batrachians, some of Avhich, those of the Labyrinthodeiit and Miorosaurian groups, presented •characters in advance of those of the class ia modern times. The genera Eo:'au)'iis, Dajiltetes, Dimdn'riyton and Hylonomm, may be mentioned as •examples. (Fig. 130.)' i PAL.EOZOIC PERIOD. 91 Us'-fnl Mtwrah. — Tlio Lower Carboniferous of Nova Scotia abouiuls in I.iniestoiit.' and Gj'psum. It also contains ores of Iron (Limonite and 8uderitc) and of Manganese (Pyrolusite). Valuable sandstones for build- ing, and grindstones are also quarried in the Millstone Orit and Coal formation. This formation is however most remarkable for the great workable coal beds, now mined in various places, and the produce of which is extensively exported from Xova Scotia and Cape Dreton, more especially from the Pictou and Springhill mines and from the various collieries in Eastern Ca[M- lUeton. Fig. 130. — lidphetes planiceps, Owen, a, Fraj,'inent of Maxillary bone, showing sculp- ture, four outer teeth, and one inner tooth ; natural size, b, Section of inner to(jtii ; magnified, f. Dermal scale ; natural size. The Permo-Carboniferous occupies some space in the south of Prince Edward Island ; and the Lower Carboniferous, locally termed the Bonaventure formation, extends into the east of (Quebec. A limited area, incluiUng Ijeds of coal, occurs in western Newfoundland. In the west, rocks of Carboniferous age occur in the Rocky Mountains and in British Columbia, but, so far as known, without beds of coal. The following section from Acadian Geology represents a bed of coal •with its accompaniments: — (Fig. 13L) 92 HISTORICAL GEOLOGY. :(r Fig. 131.— Section from the Coal formation of S. Joggins. 1. Shale. 2. Shaly coal, 1 foot. 3. Underclay with rootlets, 1 foot 2 inciies. 4. Gray sandstone ptissing downward;* into shale, ,\ feet. Erect tree with StiRniaria mots fc} on the coal. 5. Coal, 1 inch. 0. Underclay with roots, 10 inches. 7. Gray sandstone, 1 foot o inches. Stigmaria rootlets continued fmm the bed above; erect Calamitcs. 8. Gray siiale, with pyrites.— flattened plants. •Mm^xjiiif:^. —~~- - — — SamUtoa Sh.ale.— (roof) Coiil, 15 inches. Shftly cliiy,— (uiiilercliiyl. — — ■ ~ Saiidatone. Fig. 131rt.— Section on Coal Creek near Richebucto,— Dr. Robb. PAL.€:OZOIC PERIOD. 93 Fig. 132.— Caubonifkrous Feuns. A. Odontoptevis subcuneata (after Bunbury) B Neuropteris covdatd. C Akthoptcris lonrhitica. D Dicti/apteris ohliijua (after Bunbury). E Phi/lfoptcris antiqna, mag. (El) nat. size. F Neuropteris cydopteroides. 94 IILSTORICAL GEOLOftY. Fl(i. l;«.— CAUIiONIKKIiOrs SiGILLARI.K. A Sir/Hfriria Jiroinni,rf^ti)ri'(]. V> S. c'fiinii.t, n'ntur&l. lU Loiif of ,'?. ^/<.7'ni.i. B2 I'dition iif clecortiuatcd .stiuii, sli(iwinf,'r)ne of thu transversa hand.-- nf fniit-scars. 153 Portion of stem ami braiiclics, rediicod -and scars, iiat. si/.c C Cross sec- tion of ,S'. Ilrowiiii {'!), reduced, and portion at (M), nat. size. ((() SternlMirKia pitli, (lA) Scalariform vessels, (Ifi) Discigerous colls, (c) Inner h.irk, {'/) Outer l)ark. D, E, Tissues mag. ¥ SiyUlaria nrct<>neiisis,'n- ^i S. ilrinlit. W S. tiiiiiiens, reduced. I S. cate»oidiS. K >'. planicosta, L Leaf. r.VL.KOZOlC I'l'.IlKJl). '.)-> T1 '■ Vu;. l;U.— (JAiuioNii'KKois Lki'ihoiikxdka. A Ijiaiuli ami leavfs'of L. Pirtucisi , '^ iiiit. si/.i'. A'-i Ii<-iif, A3 Twig ami li'iivfs, jj. A4 Piirtioiinf hark, H. A'> Leaf-scar. An IJarknf i>l(i stem fiirrowed by growth, j;. A7 Cone, 'il<; -.n- largeil. Va Leaf. (J A. plii'ittmn, hark of nltl «ti'iii. 1) A. )'t//i'wa»i, old Mtem with fui rows, J5. H. L. uii O ^1 98 HISTORICAL GEOLOGY. Fig. ISCi. Plants ok the PKUMo-CAiinoNiFEUoLs. (Prince Kdwavd Island.) ( a ) Wa\'hia [iracUis. (b) ]V. ro'ntsta. (c) Calamitcs uims. (d) PcrojiUrU nrhoresccns. General note an fin' Pa/cicuic. It will be ulisorvt'd that each of the groat systems of the Paheozoic has fossilifei'ous limestones indicatiiiL; oceanic conditions in its central part, and beds indicating littoral conditions or shallow water aV)ove and below. Thus each system constitutes a triplet of formations, and shows a gradual subsiilence of the continental plateau followed by re-olevation, or, in other words, sandstones and conglomerates in the basal and upper MKSOZOIC I'KKIOI). 99 p;ii't, liiiicsttiiie ami slnilc in the iiiiilillc. Il was in tlif wann-waltn' lasiiis I'ovcriii^' tlic |ilal('ati in times (if siilisi.lcncc tliat tlic siicc ossivu marine fiUinas Huiuislieil. In inteiveiiiii'^ times tiie cuntinental areas Itei'amt! elevate(l anil exteniled, sdmetiines, as in tlie ( 'arlmnil'ennis, in i(l(! .swam|>y tlal- ; ami forests an.l nmrasscs sprcail thtMiiselves, while; w il ami rrave Tl I est! suliiPnal (lennuatioM iirnilueeil vauie anil cnn tinental u[iheaval, sliding ami criimj)lin,L,MiriMliireil the I'ermian cuiitineiits, ami linmu'hl the I'aliviv.nic to a close. In connection with this it may he oljserveil — (1) Tliat the Carhonifcr- ous rocks share in the Ljreat folding's which have aflecteil the older rocks in the Ap ilarhian r'L^ion, and in Xova S(!iplia and New lirunswiek. ('2) That the red sandstones of tiie Trias ai'i; ile|iositeil in troic^lis pioduced hy the folding,' of the Carl)oniferous, and rest uneoiiformalily on the edL,'es of the latter. (."') That the ^'reat triippean ejections of the Trias.-ic ivn> may he rcLjarded as consenuent on tlie precediiiLj eaitli movements. (4) That tlie aijueous de[)osits of the I'pper I'einiiau and Lower Trias resemhle eaidi other in the prevah-iice nf reil sandstones, indicatin^' that hoth hidoULj to a period of transition. (.">) That, throUL,'hout tlie Xnrtheru IIemis[ihere, tlie I'aliPozoic forms of life disappear almost entirely in tlie Permian and are succeeded Ity new types in tint Trias. In Canada tiie principal i.Ljneous ejections of tin; Paheozoic occurred in the Kewcnian, ( Lake Superior, i\jc.) in the (Jamhrian, (Rocky Mountains) ; in the 8iiurn-(,'auil)iiaii (Nova Scotia, *Ve.); in the Silurian, (New UriinS' wick and valley of Lower St. Lawrence) ; in the Devonian, (.granites of Nova Scotia and (Jueliec, Felsites, iKrc); and in the Lower CarIinniferou.s. (Nova Scotia and New Prunswick). MKSOZOIC PKKIOI). 1. TiuAssic System. 1. Ilinit''!' Scuulstoni'. In L'anada--Lower new red sandstone of the Bay of Fundy and Prince Edwanl Island, as.sociated with trappeaii rocks. In L^nited States— Lower red sandstones of Connecticut and New Jersey. In the West, red and maynesiau limestones overlying Carhoiiiferous of Rocky Mountains. In Europe — -lUinter sandstone of CJermany, Lower Triassic red sandstones of England. Fossils. — Conifers and Cycads. Fi)oti>riiit» of Dino.saurs. 100 HISTOKICAL GK()LO(}Y. 2. Musrhi'lhalh'. A iiiarino limestone foiiiul in Germany ami Eastern France, but not represented in England or Eastern America. In British Columbia and the Western United States the Triassic santlstones and slates with volcanic rocks, and the ^flm^)tix shales, may be partly <>f this age, and it may also be represented in the East by part of the Triassic coal formalion of Virginia and 8outh Carolina. Fossils (in Kunipe) — Eitrrinnn moniliformis, Aficula soeialis, Ceratitet nodoiut, Pein/ih>ix Sneri, &c. Fistien -lii/hodus, &c. Keptiles, Nothosaurus, &c. Fig. 137.— Jaw of Dormatheriuni Sylvestre— Trias. >t iPtf ,< JOO Fig. 1.38.— Triassic Fossils. (Prince Edward Island.) 1. — Bathygnatfins borcalis (Lower }a,w), reduced. 2. Araucavoxylon Edvardianuin (Structures magnified). t MKSo/.oic I'Kinoi). 101 3. Kiiijur Sanihfono. In Cuiiailii — UppiT Tiiu.ssic samlstones of I'riiict' Ktlwiii'il IsliiiKl ami l>ay of Fuiuly, ami |iruljubly portions of the Trias of I'.ritish Columbia. In I'nitoil Stiites — Up|)cr kmI sandstone of North Carolina, iVc. To the Upper Triaasic are also usually referred the Mesozoic coal beds of Vir^'inia and North Carolina with their associattnl sandstones and shales. In Europe — Saliferons series of England ; Keupcr formation of ( lenuany. Fossils. — PlantH, Enniiirtum, Pteroiihyllum, &c. Heptiles, &c., Bathiignathnt hnrtalitt, fudtpriiitH of Diimsjims, Lahyriutho'loii ijiijanteum. Tlic earliest MarHUpial nminiiials (MirrnliHttx, Druinatfii'vium). Distrihiitinn nf t/ii' Triassir in Cnna'fa. — This formation occupies a larj,'e part of Prince Eilward Island and the basin of the Hay of Fundy, where its trappean beds form the " North Mountain " of Cornwallis and Annapnjis. Koeks of this age also appear in the Rocky Mountains, in British Columbia and the <^>ueen Charlotte Islands ; but in these West- ern n ^ions their mineral character is very diirerent from that which they present in the East. lioth in Nova Scotia and in New En^'laml theTriassic age was remark- able for the deposition of Red Sandstone in shallow bays and straits, and for the ejection of griiat beds and dykes of bafaltic and amygdaloidal basic volcanic asli. (Jn the coasts of the Bay of Fumly and Minas I>asin the tufaceous beds are ricli in zeolitic minerals of great beauty. The sections show the characters of tliis formation in Prince Edward Islanlants 88 4. Beach, probably representing soft beds 48 5. Red flaggy sandstone with conglomerate ami concretions of red oxide of iron, Containing remains of plants 50 0. Bright red sandstones and red shale with greenish stains 30 7. Marsh, probably soft beds 24 8. Red Shale and green bands capped with bright red sandstones .... 75 405 102 I i I .)> 'C V iJ- f] « " i IIISTOKICAL (iEULUGY. T*^ -w ^ / ^1 X 33 Kjc3 •5 ■3 '■^ D ^ •^s w 3 3 ^ -3 1 'A ^! f,iy ^i ! "5 1 1^1 HI MKSOZOIC I'KRIOD. 103 (Hfif tlio Hfctinii is l)r«ikon liy OrwelJ Bny, wliicli jirohftbly reprcHentu »oine tliicknt'HH iif Hiift IxmIn). 1' On tlit( lii»
  • lfait, mift rt'd HaiKintunes with IumIh '>(, c'iiii);rliiiiiiM'atiMvith roiiiulud (|iiart/. pfhlih-M and aruiiaceinix ct-nu'iit (thicioiuNH uncertain) 52*) As seen in this section, tho wliolo thickness of these heds eiuinot niu\nd marl ot l>lack Hills and elsewhere in "Western United State-s. In Europe — Lower, Middle and Upper Oolite of England, with II I p^ 104 HISTORICAL GEOLOdY. the intervening Oyfonl and Kininieridge clays. Also very largely rop- resenieil in France ami the Jura Mountains ami elsewhere in Kumpe. The Lower or l>ath Oolite of England is remarkahle for oolitic structure. The Stonesfield slate, a flaggy series connected with the Lower (Jolite, is noted for vegetable remains and remains of mammals and insects. The Lithographic slate of Solenhofen has many interesting fossils and is nf the age of the Middle (Jolite. It has atibrded the earliest known bird, A)r}iii-npti'r;/.r niamiruK. The L^pper or Portland Oolite is overlaid by a fresh-water formation, the Purbeck, which has afforded many mainiualian remains and land plants, and also fresh-water snails allied to Planorhis. Fossils.— Remarkably rich in Cephalopods, especially Ammouitida .and Bckm- nitida: Also in Reptiles, as Pkrodacti/la, Dinosaurs, Enaliosaurs, dvcodi/taiis, Turtles, &c. Fig. 143.— JiKASsic Fossils. 1.— He.ad of Meijalosaurus. ?.. Pterodactyl us crassirostris. 'i. Ickthiiosaurus communis, i. Tail o{ Arclidroitteri/x. '>. Ammonites Jason. (>. Bdemuiles (section). MEsozoic pp:riod. 105 III. Cretaceous System. 1. Loirrr Cretaceous or Neoconiian. In Canada — Tatlayoco lake sand- stone and conglomerate, with Ano'lla Piochii, and underlying porphyrites; and perhaps the coal series of Queen Charlotte Island and Quatseno Sound, in British Colunil)ia ; Shasta group in California ; Lower Cre- taceous clays of New Jersey, itc. In Europe — Hastings sand, Weald clay, and lower greensand of England, and their equivalents on the continent. Fossils. — Dinosauriau Reptiles, Ir/iianodon and Hiihtcosaurus, &c. Appearance of Teleost fishes, anil of Angiosijermous Exogens of modern types. Criocerait, Anojloccvns, and Ammonites ixhrnvXtint \ Diceras. 2. Middle Cretaceous or Cenomanian. In Canada — Dakota group of We.'-^orn Territories and its extension north of the 49th parallel ; Niobrara limestones and clays cf "Western Territories and Western States of the Union. This is an extensive marine formation, rich in Foraminifeni with Ostrea I'anfjeda and species of InoceraDnis and Baeiditet^. In Kurope — the (lault clay, Upper Greensand and Chalk marl of England and the continent of Europe. Fcssn.s. — SpecieH of Hamitcs, Scaphites, TurrUites, Lima, Ostrea, &c. , are cliar- acteristic in Europe. Plants of modern types. 1 2 N Fig. 144.— Crktacbous Fo.ssils, (Western America.) 1 and 2.— Scales of Teleost Fishes, N. W. Territory. 3. Trigonia Americana. 4. Iiioccramus Vancouvcrcusis. o. liacuUlci oratus. rr^^ 106 HISTORICAL GEOLOGY. X too 0. Ckktaceous Foramixikkha, Boyne R., Manitoba, (a) Text.darin rjlohalosn. (h) T. iiw/man. (c) Planorbuliuu arimiiicnsia. (d) PlanorhuHna. 3. Upper Crcfaceons or Smnniau. In Canada — Ft. Pierre and Fox Hill clays and sandstones of the Western Territories, and continuation to the Soutli. Greensand of Xew Jersey witli associated clay and lime- stone. White or Upper chalk of England and other parts of Europe, ami while limestones of Xorth Africa and Western Asia, Ma?stricht lime- stone of ])enmark. Fossils. — Vast numbers of Oc:anic Forauiinifera, especially Giohigerina ; Coccdlitlis ; Sponges of genus VnUririilitrs, &c. ; Ecliinodernis of gt-nera Ananrhitcs, Galeritcs, ^[arsupites, Cidavis, &c. ; Luinollibranchs of genera Inoccramus, Spondi/lus, Ostrea, &.C. ; Cephalopods of genera Bclemititvlla, BacuJites, Nautilus, &c. ; Rei>tiles of genera Md.msaurus, Cfidit.ifeg, Hudrou'diriis : toothed birds of genera Icthiiornis, Hcsiieriiv lis. &.c. The flora of this period contains a large preponderance of modern types. Mammalian Remains (March 1889). ////// i1 it til A Fig. 14.5, — Jaw of a Cret!iceueen Charlotte Islands and (m the mainland are beds containing A/n-rlhi PincJiii, and regarded as e([uivah'nt to the Shasta group of California, ov Upper Xeocomian. In the Rocky Mountains are still older beds, tin- Kootanie series, liolding fossil plants. These would probably occur liflnw the Dakota group of the .section given above. The fossil plants of the Xeocomian, as represented by the Kootanie serie.s and the (^>ueen Charlotte Island coal series, have a strictly luesozoic aspect, and consist of Conifers, Cycads and Ferns. r>ut in the Dakota group and eipiivalent beds in Canada, we find uuinerous giMicra ;ind species of Exogenous trees, as PopuJus, Sasmfras, Plafaiui^:, Ara/ia and Bctula. In the Upper Cretaceous of Vancouver Island there is a very rich angiosperniDUs tlora, with Conifers of the genus S''ii( mul a fan palm (iSalxc/J. Thus the modern types of i)lants appear in lln' MidiUe and Upper Cretaceous, and then appear also the ordinary nv teleost fishes, which in this age take the place of ihe ganoids, and present generic forms identical with those of the modern waters. The useful minerals of the Cretaceous are the coals already referred to, and which are of the greatest economic importance in Vancouver Island, in the Rocky Mountains and in the Bow and Lelly River Districts. 109 4 KAIXOZOIC PERIOJX I. Eocene Age. 1. Lnirrr Eocene (OiihrocneJ. In Caumla this formation is probably represented by the Lignite Tertiary formation of the Western Territories, the Lignitic or Laramie group of the American geologists, which consists of estuarine and fresh-water sandstones and shales, with reptilian remains, lignite and fossil plants of modern types. It is, however, regarded by many geologists as more nearly related to the Upi)er Cretaceous than to the Eocene proper. Fig. 141, and the section on p. 34, represent parts of 1 2 Fig. 14(i.— Kainozoic Mammals. 1. — Coriiplioilon hamntits (Eocene) reduced. 2. ZcuyMon cctioides — tooth (Eocene) reduced. 3. DinocemH mirabUL (Eocene) reduced. this group, which is very extensively distril)uted in the region between the Red River and the Rocky Mountains and thence southward. In England the typical formations are the London clay and Tlianet sands, holding marine and estuarine shells and fossil fruits and wood. The Argile Plastique and Sable 15raclieux represent it in the Paris l)asin. In these beds, in Europe, the oldest known placental mammals occur. {Fl^/raoif/iennm, Lophiodon, Conjpliodon). Marine invertebrates of living species also appear, though as yet in small numbers, about three per cent. of the whole. 110 HISTORICAL (}EOL(JGY. 2. Midlife Eoceni', or Eocenp prnjwr ( Nnminnlitic ). Not as yet rocng- nizt'd in Canada. In the United States this series is represeiiteil by tho clays, marls, sands and coarse liniestonos of the Claiborne series of Alabama, holding marine shells and bones of Zi'ioj/oihin. In the west the great lake basins of the Wahstaeh have atrordeil remains of many land animals (Cori/jt/mdai/, Ti/lo'Iunfia, Eohippns, Sec). In iMUnpe tho most characteristic and wide-spread formations are the Calcaire drossier of the Paris li.isin and its associated marine sands, and the Xummulitic limestones extending from Western Europe to India, and marking a great subsidence. In Englanil the Bracklesham and Alum Bay series are of this age. SOIL OUARTTTIT DRIFT CRTrAYUUlWJSH ucNnx PLAHVBLARIIID UONrrE IBIT CRTrSANDSmiB Fig. 147.— Lignite Bed. Porcupine Creek, N. W. T.— (O. M. Daw^-on). 3. Upjnt' Eno'ii'' (Proii'inv'). Xot recognized in Canada. In the United States represented by the marine clays and ()rl)itoi(lal limestone of Alabama, Mississippi, &c. (Vicksburggronp\ and in the west l)y fresh- water clays and samls (Uridger group, Szc), containing Dimtceras, Uintatln'rium, ()rohipp>if>, i^-c. In Europe the best known represeiitativo is the Gypseous series ami Silicious Limestone of the I'aris liasjn, and the npper beds of the Isle of Wight series in England. Tiiesc formations abound in mammalian remains (Ancldtlienum, Pa/ieofheriinn, Anoplo- t/icria))i, Xiipliniloii, Lmmiridd'). A very ecpiable and warm climate seems to have prevailed in the Eocene and Miocene, .so that plants of genera now living in temperate climates were abundant in Greenland and Spitzbergen. KAINOZOIC PERIOD. Ill Tliu Laramie of tlie Xortli-West Turritoiies rests confoi'iiial)ly mi tlie Upper Cretaceous and lias thick beds nf lignite and many fossil plants, witli fresh-water shells of the genera Unio, Goniohasis and Mi'ipava. Its general distribution and structure may be stated as follows : — On the geological map of Canada, the Laramie series, formerly known as the Lignitic or Lignite Tertiary, occurs, with the exception of a few outliers, in two large areas west of the 100th meridian, and separated from each other liy a tract of old(!r Cretaceous rocks, over which the Laramie beds may have extended, before the later denudation of the region. The most eastern of these areas, that of the Souris River and ^Vood Mountain, extends for some distance along the L''nited States boundary, between the 102nd and 109th meridians, and reaches northward to about thirty miles south of the "elbow "of the South Saskatchewan Kiver, which is (;n tlie parallel of 51° north. In this area, the lowest beds of the Laramie are seen to rest on those of the Fox Hill group of the Upper Cretaceous, and at one point on the west they are overlaid by i)eds of Miocene Tertiary age, observed by Mr. McConnell, of the Geological Survey, in the Cypress Hills, and referred by Cope, on the evidence of mammalian remains, to the White Kiver division of the Unit<'d Stales geologists, which is regarded by them as Lower Miocene.* Tiie age of the Laramie beds is thus stratigraphically determined to be between the Fox Hill Cretaceous and the Lower Pliocene. They are also undoubt- edly continuous with the Fort L^nion group of the Uiiit('y the proi^'niss of the glacial cold and sul)sidence, these animals were destroyed or comi)elled to migrate to the sijuthwanl. Fig. l')0. — IJimlder (11 feet loiijj;) on glaciated surface. Ijakt- of tln' Woods. 2. Li-ila Claij, Kru' Clcnj. This marks the greatest subsidence and the gradual emergence of the land. It i.s a tine stratiKed clay, smnetimes, however, with large boulder.s, and thus pa.ssing into boulder clay. It has on the Atlantic slopes of America and Europe numerous marine fossils, especially in its upper part; and the.-se are mostly of species still inhabit- ing the North Atlantic and Xortli Pacific. Farther inland it contains .some remains of plants and land animals. The Leda clay is (.'([uivalent to the Clyde beds and Uddevalla beds of Europe. There is reason to believe that the great subsidence which closed in tins period reached to 2."500 feet in the mountains of Wales, and to 4000 feet in those of Xcn-th America, it was j)roliably greatest toward the north. At the beginning of the deposit of Leda clay, the shells indicate cold water covered with floating ice. Toward its close (Upper Leda clay or U:ity ti ireHtriiil surfucc iintt'riiir to Ixnildur clay. b. LdWt'i- Htiiitifii'd (,'riivel.s — (SyrtcnHiiiii deposits of Miitthcw). c. HouldiT (.'liiy ivnd imstratified Hands witli boulders. Fuiiiia, wljcn inesont, extremely Arctie. er Tji'dii clay and sand, or I'dtievalhi beds, holding many suli-Arctic or boreal shells similar to tlioso of the liubrador coast at present. This in some places contains remains of boreal i)lants and corresponds to what lias been ternied in the >'est " Interb'lacial." /. 8axicava satid and gravel, either non-fossiliferoiis, or with a few littoral shells of boreal or .Vcadian types. This often contains travelled boulders and constitutes an upper or newer Boulder deposit. Fig. 151. — Stratified Oravel resting on J5oulder Deposit. Nova Scotia. Fig. l.')2.— Modern Ice-drift. Travelled Stone resting on recent tidal mud, Petitcodiac River. The I'loi^tocono dojiosits are sometimes called Quafeniarij ; but there is no good grotuid for separating them from the Kainozoic or Tertiary. The t(!rm " Champlain "' deposits has been applied to them in the United States ; but the Lake Chaniplain beds are those of a limited valley among mountains and are not typical or cliaracteristic. Some writers include in the Pleistocene the next or post-glacial age ; but it is more nearly connected in its physical conditions and its animal life ^vith the modern period. Pawkins catalogues, for this period in IJritain, 1 mammal surviving from the Pliocene and still living, 7 surviving from Pliocene and extinct, 67 new species, of which 14, including elephants and other large and important species, are now extinct. KAINOZOIC I'KUIOI). 2 117 Fig. 153. — Pleistocknk Fossils. Fig. l.—Rhimrkonella psiltacea, 2. Mi/tilus elali-t. 3. Sixxirnra ragonn, 4. Leda, ( PortlatuUa) arctica. it. TcUina ( Maconm t (irinilaii'lica. it. Tellini ( Macnrmi) alcarca, 7. Mya trum-atd. 8. Astartcf NicaniaJ Lnureiitiana. 9. Natica clausa, 10. Fusiis tornatus (Ncptiinca desiicrta). 11. Sca'aria Granlandica. r^ 118 HISTORICAL GKOLOGY. Tlie fuUowiiig (losciiption of tlie drift of the western plains is from a paper 'ny Dr. G. M. Dawson : — * "Resting immediately on tlie snrface of the cretaceons and Laramie rocks in a nnmber of localities on the l>ow, IJelly, Old ^lan, and other rivers, is a deposit of well-rolled pebbles of shingle, consisting, for the most part, of hard (piartzites, and derived entirely from the paliEozoic rocks of the Kocky Mountains. These jiebbles are seldom more than a few inches in diameter, and often very uniform in size. The deposit has been o])8erved to extend to a distance of over a hundred mik'S from the base of the mountains. Whether it has been carried from the mountains entirely by the action of rapid streams of preglacial times, or has been distributed in some more extended body of water, I am as yet unprepared to decide ; but the fact that it occurs at very different elevations above the present water-level in neighboring sections on the same river, would appear to point to the latter conclusion. No marks of ice-action have been found on the stones of this deposit, whicli at one place on the lielly was observed to be associated with stratified Siind beds. Resting upon the shingle deposit in some localities, but in other places directly on the Cretaceous and Laramie, is the IJoulder-elay, a mass of sandy c'ay, often very hard, and not infre(piently sliowing a pretty well marked relation in colors and material to the underlying soft rocks, from which it has evidently been largely formed, but packed irregularly with ])oulders and fragments > f Laurentian and Hurouian origin, often distinctly glaciated, and with quartzite pebbles resemljling those above described. While generally rather massive in character, the boulder-clay is frequently more or less evidently divided by stratification plaiies, and is quite distinct in appearance from the morainic accumulations which occur in the foot-hill belt. The upper part of the boulder-clay is usually much more distinctly stratified than the lower, and often more or less markedly lighter in color, though still h<)lding numerous stones and boulders of mingled Laurentian and Rocky l^Iountain origin. In the region through which the lower part of the J>elly River cuts, a series of well-stratified sands and sandy clays are intercalated between these two divisions of the boulder-clay ; and in several sections these were observed to include an irre,','ular layer of impure ligniteor indurated peat a few inches inthickness, evidently the accumulation in a swamp or shallow lake which must have covered •Quart. Journ. Gool. Soc, Nov., 1875. Geology and resources of the 4'Jth parallel. KAINOZOIC PERIOD. 119 many miles of surface. A thin nodular deposit of ironstone was also found in association with the lignite at one place." The Missouri Coteau is a great ridge of drift deposits at tlie edge of the tliird or Tertiary plateau of the prairie, about 400 miles west of the Laurentian area, from which it is separated by the palaeozoic district of ^lanitolja and by the first and second prairie plateaus. It is thus described by ])r. G. M. Dawson : — " The Missouri Coteau is one of the most important features of the western plains, and is certainly the most remarkaljle monument of the Glacial period now existing there. I have had the opportunity of examining more or less carefully that portion of it which crosses the forty-ninth parallel, north-westward for a length of about 100 miles. On the parallel, the breadth of the Coteau, measured at right angles to its course, is about 30 miles ; and it widens somewhat northward. On approaching its base, which is always well defined at a distance, a gradual ascent is made, amounting in a distance of 25 miles to over 150 feet. Tlie surface at the same time becomes more markedly undulating, as on nearing Turtle Mountain from the eas , till, almost before one is aware of the change, the trail is winding among a confusion of abruptly rounded and tumultuous hills. They consist entirely of drift material ; and many of them seem to 1)6 formed almost altogether of boulders and gravel, the finer matter having been to a great extent washed down into the hollows and basin-like valleys without outlets with which this district abounds. The ridges and Valleys have in general no very determined direction ; but a slight tendency to arrangement in north-and-south lines was ol)servable in some places. Tlie boulders and gravel of the Coteau are chieflj of Laurentian origin, with, however, a good deal of the usual white limestone and a slight admixture of the quartzite drift. The whole of the Coteau-belt is char- acterized by the absence of drainage valleys ; and in consequence its pools and 'akes are often charged with salts, of which sulphates of soda and magr.esia are the most abundant. The saline lakes freipiently dry up completely towards the end of the summer, and present wide expanses of white ertiorescent crystals, which contrast in colour with the crimson Saliconiia with which they are often fringed. Taking the difference of level between the last Tertiary rocks seen near the eastern base of the Coteau, and those first found on its western side, a distance of about 70 miles, we tind a rise of 600 feet. The slope of the surface of the underlying rocks is, therefore, assuming it to be uniform, 4I]:| r^ 120 HISTORICAL GEOLOGY. a little less than 100 feet per mile. On and .ngainst this gently inclined plane the inmiense drift deposits of the Coteau hills are piled. The average elevation of the Coteau above the sea, near the 49tli parallel, is aljout 2000 feet ; and few of the hills rise more than 100 feet above the general level." The Missouri Coteau can be traced across the central region of North America for 800 miles, and is believed by the geologists of the United States to be traceable south of the great lakes to the Atlantic coast, and to constitute what they regard as the moraine of a great confluent glacier. In the North-west however, where it attains to its maximum development, it is evidently the edge of a shoal or coast, on which floating ice has for a long period discharged its burden of boulders and debris. V. Modern Age. This extends from the close of the glacial or Pleistocene age to the present time, and is divisible into two well-marked periods. 1. Till' Pu^t -Glacial. (Second Continental Period of Lyell.) In this the land of the Northern llemisi)here was more extensive than at present. The climate was temperate but .somewhat extreme. All the modern mammals, including man, seem to have been in existence, but several others now extinct, as the Mammoth, the Tichorhini; Khiiioceros and the Cave Bear, lived in the Northern Hemisphere, and many still extant difTered very remarkably in their geographical distribution from that of the present time. To this periixl Iteloiig the human remains of the early cave deposits and river gravels of I'^urope, or of the " Mamnidlli age" ('Palpeocosmic or Palaeolithic age.) This period was terminated by a sub- meigenco or a .series of submergences whicli with their accompanying physical changes proved fatal to many species of animals and to the old- est races of men, and left the continents at a lower level than at present from which they have risen in the recent period. In Ih'itain, I)awkins catalogues 22 living and 6 extinct species survivors of the Pleistocene in this period, and 18 new forms still living. The 6 extinct species include 2 species of elephant, 2 of rhinoceros, the cave bear and the great Irish elk. It is evident therefore that man comes in with a fauna in the main modern, but including a few large and important species which have perished since his advent, and many others which have much changed their range. KAINOZOIC PERIOD. 121 2. Tlie Recent or Historic Perio.l. Tliis dates from the settlement of our continents at the present levels after the Post-lacial subsidence. It is the ijeriod of Xeocosmic or Neolithic men of races still extant. I have called this the Historic Period, because in some regions history and 0) 5 s ^ tie tradition extend l)ack to its beginning. The liistorical deluge is in all likelihood identical with the movements of the land above referred to, by which this age was inaugurated ; though in certain localities, as in mm I 122 HISTORICAL GEOLOCiY. tJ \ = 03 J3 3 H^ 5 s 3 bt Aniorica, tlic beginning of the liistoric period is very recent. In this age man coexists wholly with existing species of nianinials, and the races of men are the same which still survive. The whole forms geologically one period, and the distinctions made by antiquarians between stone, bronze and iron ages, and under the former between palpeolithic and neolithic, are merelj' of local significance, and connected with no physical or vital changes of geological importance. The real geological distinction is that of I'aliBOcosmic, Post- glacial or Antediluvian man on the one hand and Neocosmic, Recent or Post-diluvian man on the other. The PaltTocosmic men have been divided into two races, the Canstadt or Neanderthal type and the Engis or Cro-magnon type. Poth of these were contempora- neous with the Mammoth, the tichorhine Rhinoceros, and other Post-glacial animals now extinct. It is probable that they may be lUtimately identified with the ruder tribes of the historical antediluvian period, and that the physical changes by which they and some other animals seem to have been destroyed were the same with those recorded in the ancient history and tradition of all the older races of men. Slight changes of level have occurred in the con- tinents in the modern period. In Canada tlie most interesting evidence of these exists in the remains of submerged forests in the Bay of Fundy.* (Fig. 155.) ' See Acadian Geology, p. 38 PART III. CANADIAN TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY. The Dominion of Canada consists of a belt of more or less inhahiteJ conntry extending for about three tliousand miles across the continent of North America, between the parallels of -12° and 55° Xorth liatitude, together with a vast region to the north of this belt not colonized and extending to the shores of the Arctic sea. Its most eastern part is Scatari Island, in W. Longitude GO' 25', and its most western part, Graham Island, in the Queen Charlotte group, extending to W. Longitude 133°. Its total area is estimated at 3,406,562 square miles. Its area is thus rather less than that of Europe and somewhat greater than that of the L'nited States, and it embraces representatives of nearly all the geo- logical systems from the Laurentian to the Modern. For the purposes of Geological description, Canada and Newfoundland may be divided into six regions, as follows : — 1. Ill'; AcaiUan Ri'jion, comprehending the Atlantic Provinces of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick and Prince Edwartl Island. These con- stitute a part of the Atlantic Slope of Nortli America. 2. Till' CanaiJian Rrrjion j)rope- or tliat of Qiwhcc and 0«^rt;vV>, includ- ing the two Provuices above named. These occupy the St. Lawrence and Ottawa valleys and their vicinity, and a portion of the basin of the great lakes, and l)elong to the Eastern and Northern part of tlie continental plateau of North America. 3. Tlie Manitohan and Northn-est Rfgion may include the Province of Manitol)a and the great plains extending westward to the Kocky Mountains, and including the territories of Assiniboia, Saskatchewan, Alberta and Athabasca. 4. The British Oolumhian Region, being the Province of British Columbia, extending across the Rocky Mountains and Cordillera ranges, with the Pacific coast and the islands adjacent. a *n 12-t TOPOGRAPHY. 5. TIte Iludsoni'an or Arctic lii'i/ion, including all the vast territories stretching northward to the Arctic sea, and heretofore constituting the territory of the Hudson's Lay Cinnpany. This constitutes a portion of the Arctic Geological basin. 6. T/ie Terranoran Itir/iini, or the great island of Newfniindland, which is geologically related on the one hand to the ^Vcadian rcgi'in and on the other to the Canadian. It will be convenient to consider the.se several regions se[)arately. I. Tin-: ACADIAN REGION.* The general orographic features of this region consist of (1) the broken hilly ranges of Nova Scotia, extending along the Atlantic coast of that Province and into the Island of Cape Ih'eton ; (2) the isolated ridge of the Cobequid hills, extending from west to east and joining the former eastwardly ; (3) the hilly range of Southern New lirunswick, stretching along the coast and sending oil' a wide Ijranch to the North-east ; (1) the liigh ranges extending along the south side of the St. Lawrence, and separating the xVcadian Kegion from the Canadian [U'oper. Tliis con- stitutes a northern extension of the Apalachian mountains, sinking how- ever in Gaspe below the waters of the Gulf of St. Lawrence.'. The high- lands of Nova Scotia and New Lrunswickdo not attain a greater elevation than alxut 1600 feet, but the northern ridge attains a much greater height beyond the limits of New Lrunswick. Between these hilly districts are included the Silurian and Devonian area of Northern New Liunswick, the liU'ge triangular Carljoniferous area in tlie centre of that Province, the Carboniferous and Triassic tlistricts of Nova Scotia, and the dep'^ession occupied by the Lay of Fundy and its branches. The Hist and fourth of the ranges above mentioned extend farther to the North-east than the others, and include between tlieir extremities the semi-circular Acadian Lay of the Gulf of St. Lawrence in whii.li lies the low and crescent-sha[)ed Island of Prince Edward. The wliole of this Acadian region is characterized, like other parts of the Atlantic slope of North America, as distinguished from its interior plains, by a varied and uneven surface, and by great variety of soil and * As Canadian Geologj' was referred to for illustrative examples in Part II. the statements made there and figures, etc. of fossils given will not be repeated in Part III., except when absolutely necessary for the comiection. For the Acadian Region additional details will be found in tlie latest edition of the author's " Acadian Geology," and in recent Reports of the Geological Survey. ACADIAN REGION. 125 iiiineral iirodiicts. In tlio liitter, the Acadian Provinces are especially rich ; ami in these and their maritime situation, they bear to th(> inland regions of Canada much the same relation witli that which the British Islands hear to the plains of Central Kurope. Nova Scotia, more particularly, is most richly endowed with coal, iron, and gold. The fcirniations represented in the Acadian Kegion are those from the Laureutian to tiie Trias, im liisive, with the addition of the Pleistocene deposits. Tiie development of the older rocks corresponds very closely with that on the opposite side of the Atlantic, and dilfers materially from that in the interior plateau of America. We may therefore notice the several svstems of formations in detail, and shall be enal)led to point out their resemblances and difFerences as compared with those of the Canadian region, pvdpc.'r, next to be con.sidered. 1. Till' Lanrentian. — These rocks, as they occur near St. John, Xew Brunswick, have been arranged l)y ]\Iessrs. Bailey and Matthew, in their recent Keports, in a Lower and Upper -series.* The furnier consists, in ascending order, of gray, red and gray, and dark- gray gneiss, with chloritic gnei.ss and diorite. Tiie latter consists of lime- stone, with graphite and serpentine, gray quartzites and diorite, gray slates and limestones with diorite. In one of the Upper Limestones I have recognized somewhat obscure structures, whicii n])pear to indicate the presence of fragments of Kozoon.f In Capo r)retou the gneisses of St. Anne's Mountain resemble the Lower Lanrentian of Canaila, and the evidence that they may be of this age has been much strengthened by the recent observations of Mr. Fletcher. Specimens, and the observations of Mr. Brown and Mr. Canipbell and others, induce me also to believe that in the little island of St. Paul, and in .some parts of Xorthern Cape Pireton, we may have a continuation of the rocks referred by IVfr. Murray to the Lanrentian in Newfoundland. With these exceptions, I have not seen in Xova Scotia, unless in travelled boulders, any rock that I could l)elieve to be litlio- logically eciuivalent to the Lanrentian of Canada, nor have I found any .stratigraphical evidence of the occurrence of such rocks. 2. The Hiirnniaii. — The Coldbrook series of ■Messrs P)ailey and Matthew, rising from beneath the Cambrian fossiliferous slates, has been referred to this age. : 1,^ * fiei>l. Reports, 1871, etc. •)• Proceedings Auiericiin Association, 1870. ,;[ount Uniacke, Oldham and Renfrew, 1872. (See also later papers by Mr. Poole an 1 Mr. (Jilpin.) ACADIAN KEdlON. 129 though ill suiiii! casus, as at Slici'lu'miku, to tliu soutli. Tlic cuui'scs uf thus(! aiitii'liiiivls are approximately east and west. The gold has heeu found to lie most accessil)h' in tlie sides and near tlie summits of tin; nntii'Unals, while in the synclinals the upper unproductive slates usually appear. It is also to !«) oljserved that the productive gold veins are best developed in the vicinity of the great masses of erupti' " granite of Devonian age which traverse this formation, ami in connection with wducli it has locally Ijrcn mucii metamorphosed, the slates assuming the character of Mica Schists with Staurolite and Chiastulite. The gold veins, as stated in "Acadian (leology," run for the most part parallel to tlie bedding, lait cross courses and branches traversing the l)eds arc Very freipient, and there is no proof that these are less ancient than the conformabh; veins or "leads," Though occin-ring in the (^)uartzitu division, the auriferous veins usually follow bauds of slaty rock included in the ipuirtzite, ii circumstance which much favours their ]irolitable workiuLf. Fig. 1.58.— Junction of Granite and Slate, Nictau. Intrusive granites occupy a c(jnsiderable space in the Cambrian area. A map kindly communicated to me by Mr. Gilpin, F.G.S., shows that the largest granite mass extends continuously and with great l)readth, from Shelburne northward into Annapolis county, and there bends eastward, and southward till it reaches the Atlantic, west of Halifax. Smaller isolated areas occur to the eastward of Halifax and in Guysboro county. All these granites are of ] Devonian age, and they alter the slates in their vicinity into Mica Schists, and cau.se the development of Staurolite, Chiastolite and Garnets ; while the impure quartzites are converted into 130 TorotiUAPllY. imporfcct ^'iioissos. Those clmiigos are more nmiiifcst where miiiicrdii.s vt'iiis of l)iiiury graiiito jiciictnite tliu beds tliiiii wIhtc the liittcr are iiitTi'ly ill ('(iiitiict with massive ;,'raiiite. ^^^. Kh'tchcr, of the (Icological Survey, has discovereil, in (■crt.iiu licils near St. iViidrew's Channel, Cape Ih'eton, fossils which imilmlily liclonj,' to the ("aniliriau series, ami arc apparently newer than the Ai-ailian or Menevian j^'roiip. They eonsist, uceonlin.L,' to Mr. Dillinf^'s, of an oliithlln, Orf/iisiun, ami /Jirfi/nnctiin, ami a trilol)ite of Prinnprdial typi' ; and the beds hdldin,!,' the Liiii/u/a or (ilmhlhi are very like the Lin^aila shales of St. John. The .series is characteriziMl as consisting,' of a pur|»I{', ltd, and grtM'ii slat(!, sa: Istoncs ami liim'stiincs, with beds nf fclsitc. It liius dilTers in eharacter from tiic Acadian .uroiip, as developeil at St. John, and also from the Cambrian of th<; Atlantic coast of Xova Scotia. It rests on the crystalline rocdvS of the lioisdahi Hills. Mr. Kletired fossils from the vicinity of Mire River, where beils similar to tliosi; of St. Andrew's Channel are extensively developed, ami which inelnde an Aijw»i and other triloliites of primordial type, but specitically distinct from tliose of the Acadian gn)np ; and also a small Orthis, apparently allied to O. J'Jiri'Jn'', l>illinL,'s, from the Quebec group, or to O. lenticnlaris, Dalmau of the Ihitish Upper Lingula ilag.s. These fossils I regard as indicating a position prol)aljly Cambrian, but later than that of the A> idian beds of St. John. The beds containing these fossils are associated with the volcanic ash .series of Southern Cape Ureton. Professor 15ailey informs me that in the belt of old rocks, north of the central Coal-tield in New Brunswick, there are portions, apparently older than the Silurian rocks of tliat region, and resembling the Xova Scotia coast series, like whicli they are auriferou.?. 4. The Ordovician OT Si'nro-Canihrian.—ln Xew Drunswick the l)and of old rocks lying on th' of the crystalline belt extending south- west from liathurst, posed of greenish felsites, quartzite.s, and slates of various k' .sually referred to this .system. The evidence of this is, first, its ..irance from under the Silurian beds in the same manner with the rocks of the (^)uebec grouj) on the north ; and, secondly, the occurrence of a few characteristic fossils.* Lithologically these rocks may be regarded as corresponding somewhat closely witli portions of the Quebec group, and also With the contemporaneous Skiddaw and IJorrow- dale series in England. According to Messrs. Bailey and Matthew, similar rocks occur also in several places in the south-west of New Brunswick, Accoiding to Prof. Bailey, Triniideus, Harpes, Leptaena, and Obolclla. A(JAl)lAN |{i:(il<)N. i;u ami unilcrlie tliu Silurian «i thai iT.;inii. If ihis view of tln'ir :\'^i'. is cnrrcct, tlit'ii it wuulil follow llial the iiiixcil aqin'oiis ami volcanic (li'j)osits so charactcristii' of tlu? Iliii'oiiiaii rccuri'i'il in tin.' Siliiro-( 'amlirian, ami again in thi' tli'imsition of the Silurian .Mascarciic series. CroHsini; o/er to Nova Scotia we iiavc in the ('olie(|ui(l Mountains a <,'r<.'iit series of slatos, ([Uartzites anil vo|caiii(! rocks, eviilently uiiiIeilyin,L; tho Silurian Wentworth serius, l)nt doslilute of fossil remains. These, with their continuation in the district extending castwanl from tho CubL'i[uids to the Strait of Canso and into ('ape Ih'eton, were characterized by mo in 1S.')0* as consisting of "various slates and i|Uartzites, with syenite, greenstone, conii)act felspar, ciaystoiif! ami ]ioi'|)iiyry,'" and wen; named in "Acadian ( Icology "' liie •' ('oljeijuid groui),"and their ai'e deiinod as intermediate l)etween that of the lower Arisaig fossiliferous series and the (!old series (Caml)rian) of tin; Atlantic coast. As they had allbrded no fossils, ami as there .seemed to bi- a lithological and stratigraphical connection between them and the lower part of tho Silurian, they were placed with that series as a downward extension, oi', in part, metamor- phosed members of it. The arrangenu-'iit of these rocks in the central part of the (Joljcipuds, and also between the Kast Kiver of I'ictou and the east branch of the St. ^rary'.s River, nnxy be stated thus. There is a central mass of w.d intrusive syenite or syenitic granite, usually having a Iarg(! predominance of red orthoclaso, with a moderate tpiantity of horid)lend(! and (piartz. This sends veins into the overlj ing beds, and isits(df penetrated l)y dykes of diabase. (Jn this central mass rests a great thickness ) Lower Ci>bequid Series, l''elsite, Porpjiyry, Agglonicratc, &« ('c) Upper Col)e(iuid Series ; Ferriferous Slates and <.,)uartzite. (ilj Went- worth Fossiliferous beds; Silurian, (cj Carbonifci-ous. O'/ Triassic. (x/ Veins of Syenite and Diabase. * Journal of Geological Society, vol, vi. 132 TOPOGRAPHY. Along tho northeni side of the Cobequiils, ami botweoii Pictmi and Arisaig, these b'-ds ave seen inuncdiatcly to tindcrlic the Silurian rocks, Avhich have been disturbed with Ihcin, and are penetrated by the same ignec.ns dykes. Dr. lloneynian ajipears to have observed the same rela- tion on the Loehaber Lake and in other parts of Antigonish County. This somewhat constant association would seem so indicate that the rocks in ([Ucslion immediately underlie the Silurian, and are tlierefore tlicni- selves of Siluro-Canibrian age. ' )n the other liaml, their similarity in mineral character with tho II .nian series of New Brunswick, with rocks observeil in Cape 15reton t;i rise from under Cambrian deposits, and with the lluronian rocks of Murray in Newfoundland, might induce us to assign them to an earlier diite. Tiu-re are, howtiver, some diiferences in mineral cliaracter ; as, for example, the greater prevalence of olive, black, and micaceous slates, and of highly felspathic rocks in the Cobetpiid series, which, while they ally this series with that of Northern New lU'unswick and of the Kingston peninsula, separate ir. from the typical Huronian. I am therefore inclined to believe that it will ultimatidy be fouihl that tlicre are tliree barren series of mixed volcanic and acpieous deposits in the Acadian Provinces, separated by fossiliferous deposits, viz., (1) the lluronian, over which lie the fossiliferous Cand)rian (Acadian) beds; (2) The Cobe(piid series, over which lie the fossiliferous Silurian ; (3) The Mascarene series, belonging to the Silurian. In some districts, as in Southern New ISrunswick and Cape lireton, where these series, or some of them, approach closely to each other, and are mui;h disturbed, it nuiy l)e ditticult to disentangle these deposits ; l)ut I believe the distinction will be found to liold good, and will, no doubt, be facilitated liy the discovery of additional fossiliferous l)eds. In the meantime, I have no doul)t of the identity of the greater part of the altered and volcanic beds of the hillv country extendiui:' throu'di Pictou and Antigonish counties, and underlying the Silurian, with the Cobequid series. Further, large suites of specimens placed in my hands by Albert J. Hill, Esq., leave no room to doubt the similarity of the greater part of the rocks in the district extending from St. Peter's to Scatari in Cape Breton to the Cobe(iuid deposits; though, as previously stated, there is reason to believe that older rocks occur both in this district and in Northern Cape i>reton. If the above views are correct, it will follow that in tho Lower Silurian period, the area of Nova Scotia ami New Brunswick was the theatre of extensive and long continued volcanic ejections, producing a series of ACADIAN REGION. 13:5 1)0 art ,'h tlio luls lio to I'ict an of of rocks cntii'oly ilissiinilai' from tlioso deposited at tlie saino period in tho interior continental I'e.nion, tlioui^ii in some respects resenil)lin^f those of Great Britain and tlioso of tlie regions in Quebec and the rinlc(l Slates lying east of the great Appalacliian line of (listurl)ance. Th^ -In tlie Acadian P lie ,\i:nrian. — m ine Acaoian rrovinces, as in soni(! oilier jiarts of Eastern America, the great igneous outbursts, evidenced by the masses and dykes of granite which cut the Lower Devonian rocks, make a strong line of distinction between the later and older PahcDZoic. While the Carboniferous series is unaltered, except very locally, and comparatively little disturbed, and conlined to the, lower levels, the Silurian, and all older series, have been foldeil and disturbed and pntfoundly altered, and constitute the hilly and l)roken parts of the country. In tlie Silurian and the older periods there seems also to have been a constant mixture with the aqueous sediments in process of deposition of both acidic and basic volcanic matter, in the form of a-'lics ami fragments, as well as pro- bably outflows of both acidic and basic igneous rock, so that all these older formations are characterized by the presence of felsitc, porphyry, petrosilicious breccia and diorite or diabase. Further, since these volcanic and tufaceous rocks, owing to their coin[U)sition, are nnich more liable to be rendered crystalline by imitamorphisin than the (U'dinary ai[Ueous siidiments from wliicii the bases have been leached out by water, and since they are usually not fossiliferous, the appearance is piesciited of crystalline non-fossiliferous rocks alternating with others holding abundant organic remains, and comparatively unaltered. The volcanic members o f tl lese series are a Iso often verv irreyular in distribution, and there is little to distinguish them from each other, even when tlirir ages Uiay b(i very diifermit. These circumslaiKies oppose many diiiirulties to tlie classilication of all the ore-Devonian ri -r X ova Si'otia an 1 X ew Brunswick, dilliculties as yet very impi'rfectly overcome In X'orthern X'ew lU'uiiswick, at the head of the liaie de Chaleur, and more especially near Cape lion Ami, tliei'c! are Silurian limestones and resembling those on the Xortherii side of the Itay, sociated k. shales rich in fossils, and Igneous rock at Gaspe and else- iieie in the (^Mu'bec region. Tiiese strata ar<' .is with great interstratilied lu'ds of dark-coloured diahasii They art! (hiserilied in " Acadian Ceology." ^lessrs. Bailey and .Matthew have devoted much time and labour to the rocks which crop out from under the Upper Devonian beds at Perry in Maine, and extend thence eastward into New Brunswick, where they have been named the " Mascarene series." I studied tlie.se beds in 1862, r»»-v tis i! 134 . TOrCKiUAPHY. as they uccui' at I'inoon Tlill and t'l.scwlicu; near Jvislpoi't, and ruft'iTiMl tlicni to the Upper Silurian period,* but tlie tracing of tlieir extension in New Ilrunswiek, and the full e.stahlishnient of their age, Ijelongs to the gentlemen above nanud.f These I'deks ar" extensively developed in the south-western part of Xew Ih'unswick, and tlieir thickness has lieen estimated at 2,000 feet. The fnllowing section, in ascending order, taken from the report (if the Geological Survey for 1875-0, shows the general structure of the forma- tion in (^Hieen's County. — Div' in 1. (Jray clay slates, mostly of pale colour and generally somewhat calcareous. Darker gray clay slates, some of which are carbo- naceous, about 400 feet. Division 1'. lilack and dark-gray argillaceous or silicious clay slates, with very regular sediniontary bands al)out (iOO " Division 3. Dark-graj' and greenish-gray enrthy sandstones, the lower part compact, the upper part more slaty, greeiiish-gray, calcareous, or black and fissile, about COO " Division 4. Ash-gray and greenish-gray schistose beds, generally chloritic and calcareous, sometimes amygdaloidal and dicritie,. . . about oOO " Division T). .Vlternalions of gray and dark-gray felsites (often porphyritic), witli comjiact dark-gray fcldspathic rock, clou led with green and purple, and witli beds of dark and pale green chloritic schist. There is a mass of felsite about 150 feet thick near the base, and a breccia conglomerate at the summit, about SOO feet or more. Tlie.se rocks, with the same general structure, are widely distriljuted in Southern New Ih'unswick, but, as might be ex|K'cled, they vary in detail, more especially in the njjper nuimbers. They also jjre.sent a general reseni!)lance to the I^eltof Silurian rocks already referred to as extending towards llathurst, and rocks of this type are known to occur in the Silurian districts of Nova Scotia. The fossils found in the lower members of this series near Eastport are a Li)i>/nla allied to L. o'ntri/tiurifa of the Lower Ilelderberg, ami also very near to some Ilaniillon species, and to that found in the Lower Devonian of Oaspe, though probalily diil'erent from that occurring in the Siluriai' of Wentworth, I'ictou, and Arisaig. There are also species of MoiUiiiiiorjilia, and a species of Loj-owiiia, with a snnill Bi'ijrii-hia of Silurian type. Elsewhere in New Ih'unswick these ))eds have afforded species oi SfrDphoufna, Orf/un, It/n/nchonella, Pterinea, and corals of * Paper on Precarboniferous Flora. +l{eport8, (ieol. Survey, 187o-(). ACADIAN REGION. 135 Siluriiui genera. There can thus be ikj doubt as to their general age, tliougli we have not sufficient evidence to assign them to any particular horizon in the series of Silurian beds known in Nova Scotia. The cuttings of tlie Intercolonial Railway have enabled Dr. lloneynian to recognize at "Wentworth, on the north side of the Cobequids, the extension westward of the Silurian rocks mentioned in "Acadian Geology," and also in an earlier memoir on the metamorphio rocks of Eastern Xova Scotia,* as ilaidcing the crystalline rocks of these hills in Xew Annan and Karlton. Dr. Iloneyman was disi)osed to regard these beds at "Wentworth as possibly as old as the Hudson River group; Itut the fossils which 1 have collected in tiiem seem to me to indicate that they are pro- bal)ly of the age of the Lower Arisaig series,! or about that of the Clinton oi Xew York. They also much resemble in mineral character the Lower Arisaig beds, as well as those of similar age near Cape Gaspe, and on the Miitapeilia. The more characteristic fossils in my collections are : — (ii-.a|iti)lithns Clintoiu'iisis, Hall, CliiiiacogTapsus and Retiograjisus (?) .si>. Atryjia reticularis, Dalinaii, Strdphoinena rhi)iuboidalis, Wahl. Lingula ohloiiga, Hall. Ortiiis teiuiiradiat.a, Hall, or allied. Orthis elef,'autula, Dalmaii, or allied. Uliyncho- iit'lla neglects, Hall, or allied. Leptocu'lia intermedia. Hall, or allied. Tentaculites distans, Hall, or allied. As usual ill the shales of this series, the liner markings of the shells are not well [)reserved, so that it is not easy to assign them to their species. I think, however, that I cannot be wrong in referring them to the lower part of the Silurian. At W(mtworth the dark shales holding these fossils are traversed by diabiiso dykes, in the vicinity of whicli the shales have assumed a gray colour, and have been hardened .so as in places to resemble felsites. It is probaljle that the fossiliferous beds may be unconformabk' to the hard slates, felsites and porphyries underlying them, but the .'^hales have par- ticipated to some extent in the movements to which the older rocks have been exposed. Farther eastward, at French River and Waugh's River, the reiircsenta- tives of the Wentworth series contain coar.se limestone and hard sand- stone as well as shale, but hold some of the .same fossils, and at Karlton * Journal Geological Society, vol. vi. 1 1 use the term " Lower .Vri.saig " in the sense attached to it in "Acadian Geology," namely, for the lower fossiliferous series of that place, in tlie main equivalent to the Clinton and Medina groups of New York— Llandovery of England. i i 130 TOPOGRAPHY. ! ■: loose pieces contain fossils of a soniewliat lii^her horizon equivalent to the Upper Arisai^^ series. Passing,' from the eastern end of the Cobeijuids across a liay of the Carboiufcrous into the Pictou area, we find well characterized Upper Silurian rocks with fossils of the Upper Arisai^f (Lower IIelderVMu;L;) age. These rocks have recently been somewhat carefully examined in connection with exiiloratioiis of the great deposits of iron ore associated with them. It M'ould .seem that the upper half of the Upper Silurian is here (piite as well d(!VeIo]i('d as at Arisaig, and includes the great bed of fossilifcrous hematite which is so characteristic of this region (Fig. IGl). Fmrn below these beds arise thick beds of ferruginous (piartzitf, and of « o Fig, ICO, — Iilenl Section, showing the general relations of the Iron Ores of the East River of Pictou. 1. Great bed of Rod Hematite. 2. Vein of Siiecidar Iron. 3. Vein of Linionite. (a) Older Slate and '^iiartzite series, with Fclsite and -Vsli Rocks, etc. (Ii) Lower Helderl)erg formation and other Silurian Rocks, (c) Lower Carboniferous of the J'>ast Jiranch of East River. imperfectly crystalline diorite and slatyaiid fidsitic Ijreccias, wliirh wmUd seem to be hiwer mendjers of the Silurian, and which are less indurated than the rocks of similar composition previously referriMl to the Sihiro- Cambrian and older series. These latter rocks, which also ajipcar iu tlie vicinity of the Fast liiver, are breccia, felsile, (piartzite, slates and hydro- mica schists, which bear a close resemlflanci; to tln! Cobei[uid scries, and pass to the southward and westward of ilic newer rocks, no doulit form- ing in this region the continuation of that formation. In the central parts of the hills, at the head waters of the Fast Kiver, these beds are seen, as in the Coljcquitls, to be invadeel by great mas.ses of an intrusive red syeiuto. Fastwavd of tlie Fast Eiver the contiiniatioii of tln' Upper Silurian rocks has Ik'cu traced l)y Dr. Iloneyman and Mr. Fletcher to Arisaig, where they were originally studied and described by the writer, and include well characterized representatives of the Clinton and Ilelderberg series but without the great limestones characteristic of these forma- tions to the westwanl, and witluuit distinct representatives of the Niagara group which has however been recognized in Xew Canaan, in Western Nova Scotia, with its characteristic fossils.* * Canadian Record of Science, vol. ii., Acadian (jleology JU ACADIAN REGION. 137 Mr. Matthews has reci\L;iiisiMl reinains of a Phicogaiioid Fish akin to those of the .Sihirian of liritain and the I'nited States, in louks of this age in Xew Brunswick. It lias been referred to the genus Pteraspis (P. AcacUca, Matthew.)* of Fundy. West IJi Misjicck River Be.iver Lnke . Movuit Prosiiect. . .< ■ CokU)rook » O O = o t: c3 3 bD ?, i ^ 2 X o M — " ,*-" '^ 'S r '' ^hT ^ ^» O — — r'l — ' "S 6. 'Till' Brian or Devon- ian. Tl>e ]• nan System does not occupy a very wide area in tiie Acadian . yet, in counec- 1 the neiirhhorintr til circas in tlie Province of "= c (Quebec, it is of great in- -3 _= ierest, as showing perhaps I -t more of the land life of c n the r)oriod, and more es- ^ '-S pecially of its flora, than = ^ the Devonian of any other t: ? inu't of tlieworld. Incou- 3 2 ~ 2 nection with this, it is to p bo observed that the vast ' T-TT^ develoimient of this for- i "I J mation in the great Lake -^ 5 § Erie district shoM'smaiidy \\.~ niarnie cniiiluions. Yet it is satisfactnry to know that rmfessor Hall finds erect trunks of tree- ferns and abundance of remains of fern frmids and P.hio l)r. Newberry lias dis- covered trunks of conifers and beautifully preserved stems of tree-ferns. Acadian Geology and supplement, 18G8 and 1878. 138 TOPOdKAPIlY. These rocks in the Acadiau Provinces overlie tlie fossiliferous beds of the Lower IleliUn-berg or Ludlow group, and underlie the Lower Carbon- iferous, whose peculiar llora readily distinguishes it. From these lieds, thus limited, I have described or catalogued 1:25 species of fossil plants,* of which the greater part are specifically, and some generically, distinct from lliuse of the Lower Carbonifennis. A very considerable propor- tion of these plants have been derived from the rich plant-bearing beds near St. John, 2S'ew lirunswick, so admir- ably explored by Messrs. Hartt and .Matthew. One of the most characteristic forms of the Lower Erian is the re- markable genus PsilnphiitdH. The restoration given in Fig. 1G2 •will serve to show the general character of this curious plant, which, while allied to the club-mosses in structure and hidiit, has remarkable peculiarities in its fructitlcation. Ci/clopfcria Jac/i- so7ii and C Gafijv'enf^if, which should be placed in my new genus Aniio'- opt'-ris, are characteristic of the upper memliers of the system. The remarkable discoveries of fossil lishes and insects in the Lower and Upper Lrian of the Laie de Chaleur and St. John liave l)een referred to in part 11. The former, as de.scrilied by Whiteaves, show distinctive fi.sh ^ fauiuT of the Lower and Uj)per Krian, parallel with those of Europe, and corresponding to the distinct flora^ of the Lower and Upper Erian. f Yig. V'y2.—Psilophi/ton priiireps, restored. t(, Fruit, natural si/e ; b, Stem, natural size ; r, Sc.alariforin tissue of the axis, highly niaguitied. In the restora- tion, one side is represented in vernation, and the other in fruit. * Ro|Mirt on fossil Plants of Devonian, etc., Geol. Survey of Canada, 1871 and 1882, t Wliiti'iwes, Transactions Royal Society of Canada. \\IJ ?c^ r. c/j 'C -s •f. .~ C5 3 v: 0) -3 ■J. Ji 5 5^ _i i) o — K o — 3 ^ = •So':; ^ ^ - • - - bo I '^ '^ T :C - to z'. Albert Mine. Lower Carboniferous. Lower Co.il meaR\irt's, meaR\irt'S. \ \ ■t Hopewell. / . ^| "S III. ill* Ii.i\' _ 3 '"" Chepoily Hay Coal me Chepoily ACADIAN REGION. 139 7. Thi' Carhoiiifcroas Sj/.^f'-iit. — The total vcn-- tical tIiiokiK'.-;.s of the im- mense mass of sediment con.stituting the Carbon- iferous system in Xova Scotia ma}' l)e estimated from the fact tliat Sir ^V. K. Logan li:is ascertained, by actual measurciiuMit at the Jog.uins, a thick- ness of 1 1,570 t'ect ; and this does not include the lowest member of the series, which, if develop- ed and exposed in that locality, would raise the aggregate to at least 1G,000 feet. It is cer- tain, however, that the thickness is very vari- able, and that in some districts particular mem- bers of the series are wanting, or are oidy slen- derly developed. Still the section at the Joggins isl>yno means an excep- tional one, since 1 have been obliged to a.ssign to the Carboniferous de- posits of Pictou, on the evidence of the sections exposed in that district, a thickness of about 10,000 feet; and Mr. R. lirown, of Sydney, lias estimated the Coal for- mation of Cape Breton, exclusive of the Lower Carboniferous, at 10,000 feet in thickness. Lower Coal measures. \ ly Ferry. J Chiegnecto Bay. Lo\.or Carboniferous. \ .Miuudie, etc. / ii "^ = J u ^ Coal measures logfc': iieasures \ l '.r Joggins. / -.-a '"' o ^ -f pifm I "! 140 TOPOGRAPHY. When fully ilevelopeil, tin; whole Carboniferous series may be urrangetl in four subordinate groups or formations, wliichare referred In in Tart II, and are there taken as types of the Ciirboniferous system. They are (1) the I/iirfoN Series, or Lower Carboniferfjus shales and conijlonii'rati'S ; (2) the l[7«(/,s'o/',SV/v''>', or Lower Carboniferous Limestone; (3) the J////.-7o«e (/rit ; (4) the Coal Fonnafiim. Detailed features of these several mem- bers will be found in " Aeadian Geology." Pig. Itj.').— Sketch-niai) of Pictoii Cual l)isti'ict. A, Upper Coal fiiniKition ; 13, Middle Coal formation; C, Now (Jlasgow conglomerate; ]>, Lower Carhoiiifoiou.s ; K, Silurian and Devonian. Cutil Anas. — (1) (icneral Mining As-^dciation, or Albion flints ; (2 and 4) Acadia ; (3) Xova Scotia; (5) Intercolonial b(iit Ixiver. 4. The Carboniferous district of Pietou, bounded on tlie south and (;ast by inetanior[)iuc hills, and con- nected on the west witli the Cund)erl:ind district and tliat last mentioned. (Fig. IGo.) f). The Carboniferous district of Antigonish county, bounded by tW(j spurs of the nietaniorphic hills. G. The narrow band of Carboniferous rocks extend- - "^ ing froni. the Strait of Canseau westward through the -£ Jc S county of (iuyslxiro'. = Z ^ 7. The Carljoniferous district of Kiclunond county and southern Inverness. 8. The Carlioniferous district of Inverness and Victijria counties. 9. Tlie Carboniferous district of Cape Breton county. (Fig. 167.) Cuwlitions of Df'pn.<;ififiH of tJic Bfds. — It is evident that very various geographical conditions are implied in the deposit of this vast thickness of sediment. The Acadia of the Carboniferous period must not only have diifered much from that wdiicli now is, but it must have presented very dilFfrcnt appearances in the different portions of the Carboniferous time itself. The conditions of deposit thus implied in the mineral character and fossils of the several formations above described, would api)ear to be of three leading kinds : — (1.) The deposition of coarse sediment in shallow water, with local changes leading to the alternation of clay, sand, and gravel. This predominates at the beginning; of the period, recur.s after the deposition of the marine limestones in the formation of the " Mill- stone-grit," and again prevails in the upper coal formation. (2.) The - = o 112 TOPOCiUAPHY. gvowlli of corals ami slioU-lisli in ilcoji clear water, ftlon;^' with tin! pro- ciiiitalioii of crystalline liinostoiio and j,'ypsnni. Tlu'su comlitions occurred during the formation of the Lower Carhoiuferous liniostonc and its associated gypsum. (3.) The deposition of fine sediment, and the 10. Block House Mine. 11. Gowrie '' 12. South Head " 18. IMire Fig. 107. -^rap of Cape Breton Coal-fielfl. A, Upper Coal beds ; B, Middle Coal beds; C, Lowest Coal beds ; 1), Millstone grit ; E, Lower Carboniferous ; F, Metaniorphic Silurian. 1. New Cauipbellton Mine. (!. Caledonia Mine. 2. Little Bras d'Or " 7. Little Ulace Bay " 3. Sydney " 8. Clyde 4. Lingan " 9. Schooner Point " o. International " NoTK - It should he oliserved that there are prohnhly several beds of coal between series A and series B, and that the lines of series K, C, D, and K are conjectural. The town of Sydney has been placed too far noith. accumulation of vegetable matter in beds of coal and carbonaceous and bituminous shale, and of mixed vegetable and animal matters in the beds of bituminous limestone and calcareo-bituminous shale. These conditions were those of the middle coal formation. Within the limits of Nova .Scotia anil Xew Brunswick these con- ditions of deposition applied, not to a wide and uninterrupted space, but tO' an area limited and traversed by bands of Silurian and Devonian rocks,. I ACADIAN UEOION. 143 ftlrnatly piii'tiaUy iiictiimnriilidsiMl aiul oloviited above tlio avix, ami almi^' till' inarifiiiM of which iLfUcous action still (jontinuoil, as oviileiKi'il hy the hutls of ti'a|) iiiti'i'calutuil in tlu! Lower Carboniferous;* while abnut the close of the !)evoniun period still more important injectiniis and intrusions of i^Mieous matter had occurred, as sliown by the ^aanite dykes and masses which trav((rse the Devonian beds, but have not penetrated the Carl)onit'(ri)Us.t Tliei'e is evidence, hnwevei', in the ( 'arlinnit'erous rocks of the .Ma,i,'dal(!n Islands and of Newfoundland, and in the fringes of such rocks on parts of the coast of Nova Scotia* ami New lMiL;laiid, that the area in ipiestiou was only a part of a far more exti'usive reL,don of Carl)oniferous deposition, the j,'reatcr part of which is still under the Avaters of the Atlantic and of the (lulf of St. liawrence. The Ljeneial phenomena of deposition above indicated, apply to all the Carboniferous areas of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, and, so far a.s known, to tiiose of the Ma<,fdalen Islands and of Newfoundland. But numerous Incal diversities occur, in consei]uence of the interference of the oMer elevated ridges with the regularity of deposition. In some places the entire Lower Carboniferous series seems to be represented by conglomerates and coarse .sandstones. In others, the Lower Coal measures, or the marine limestones, or both, are extensively developed. These local dilferences are, on a small scale, of the same character with those which occur on a large scale in the northern and southern Appala- chian districts and western districts of the United States, and in the different coal areas of Great IJritain and Ireland, as compared with each other and with the Carboniferous ilistricts of America. On the whole, however, it is ai)parent that certain grand features of similarity can bo traced in the distribution of the Carl)oniferous rocks throughout the northern hemisphere. It is further to be observed, that in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, as well as in Eastern Canada, disturbances occurred at the close of the Devonian period which have caused the Carboniferous rocks to lie uncon- formably on those of the former ; and that in like manner the Carbon- iferous period was followed by similar disturbances, which have thrown the Carboniferous beds into synclinal and anticlinal bends, often very abrupt, before the deposition of the Triassic Red Sandstones. These disturbances were of a dilFerent character from the oscillations of level which occurred within the Carboniferous period. They were accom- * Dawson, Quart. Journ. Genl. Soc, vol. i. 1843, p. 329. t Dawson, Can.adian Naturalist, 1800, p. 142. in TOPOCRAPHY. I 4 l)iiiii"il liy vnlciuiic action, iiiul worn most intense! alon;^' cci'lain lines, and espeeially near tlie junction of tiie Carljoniferous witli tlie older formations. I have noticed an apparent case of nnconformability between meMil)or3 of the Carl)oniferons system near Anti;,'onish.* In the ('onnty of I'ictoii, tlui arran^'enu'iit of the lieils suj,';,'ests a possil)le nnconformaliility of the Upper Coal formation and the Coal measure-. f In \ew Ilrunswick, Prof. r»ai!ey+ has observed indications of local unconforniahility of the Coal formation with the Lower Carboniferous. I'.ut ihe strict conform- abiliiy of all the members of the Carl»onifcrous series in the ,L;reat major- ity of i.'ases, shows that these instances of unconformability are excep- tional. In the section at the .Iof,'j,'ins more especially, t\u- whole series presents a regular dip, diminishintf i,'radually from the margin to the middle line of the troui,'h, where the l)eds become horizontal. The most gradual and uniform oscillations of level must, however, be accompanied with irregularities of deposition and local denudation ; and phenomena of this kind are al)undantly manifest in the Carboniferous strata of Nova Scotia. I have descriljcd a l)ed in the Pictou Coal-lield which seems to be an ancient shingle-beach, e.xteniling across a bay or indentation in the coa.st-line of the Carboniferous period.!^ At the Joggins, many instances occur of the sudden running out and cutting off of beds, I, and Mr. Ilrown has figured a number of instances of this kiml in the Coal formation of .Sydney.H They are of such a character as to indicate the cutting action of tidal or tluviatile currents on tin; muddy or sandy bottom of shallow water. In .some instances the layers of sand and drift-]ilants tilling such cuts suggest the idea of tidal channels in an estuary Idled with matter carried down l)y river- inundations. Even the beds of coal are by no means uniform when traceil for considerable distances. TIk; beds which have been mined at Pictou and the Joggins .show material differences in cpiality and associations ; and small beds may be observed to change in a remarkable manner, in their thickness and in the materials associated with them, in tracing tiunn a few hundreds of feet from the top of the clilF to low-water mark on the beacli. I have no doubt that, could we trace them over sufficiently large areas, they * (^uart. Journ. Genl. Soc, vol. i. p, 32. j-Ihitl, vol. X. )). 42. J" Report on (Jeology of Southern New Brunswick," p. 188. §Quiirt. Journ. Geol. Soc, vol, x. p. 45. :: Ihid., vol. X. p. 12. H Ibid., vol. vi. p. 125 et seq. ACAIHAN 1!I;(;K)\. 11.-) CO S 5i^ J it •* ?.' ■r.-x. would all lie; fduml to f,'ive place to sandstones, or tn run out into bituminous shales and limestones, accord ini,' to the undidatioiiH of the surfaces on which they were deposited, just as the jicaty matter in modern swamps thins out toward hanks of sand, or passes into the muclv or mud of inundated Hats or pomls. 8. 7'/('' Pmiiian Si/xfi'in. — The I'jjper Coal formation was first distinjj;uisli<'il as a separate member of the Car- Ijoniferous system in Eastern Xova Scotia by the writer, in a paper iiulilishi'il in the first volume of the .lournal of the (leological Society, in 1845 — and was delined to be an upper or overlying series superimposed on the jiroductive Coal measures, and distinguished liy the absence of thick coal-seams, by the prevalence of red and gray sandstones and red shales, and liy a peculiar group of vegetable fossils. SubsecpU'ntly, in ray paper on tlie South Joggins* and in Acadian ( leologf," this fornuition was identified with the up[ier series of tlie Joggins section. Divisions 1 and 2 of Sir William Logan's sectional list, and with the Upper liarren Measures of the Mnglish Coal-tields, and the third or upper zone of ( leinliz in the Coal formation of Saxony, f Still more recently, in the " Report on the Geology of I'rince Edward Island," 1871, I have referred to the upper part of the same formation, the lower series of sandstones in Prince Kdward Island not previously separated from the overlying Trias.^ In Prince Edward Island, however, where the highest beds of this series occur, they become nearly horizontal, and are overlain apparently in a conforma])le manner by the red sandstones of the Trias, which dill'er very little from them in mineral character. It thus happens that, but for the occurrence of some of the characteristic Carbon- iferous plants in the lower series, and of a few e(|ually characteristic Triassic forms in the upper, it would be ditiicult to artirm that we have to deal with two formations so different in ago. *Journal (jeological Si)ciety, vol. x. t AeafUan (leology, p. 140. X Report on the Geological Structure of Prince Edward Island. IIG TOPOGRAPHY. in 111 coiuiL'ctioii with tliis, tin; pvcsuuicd ubscnce of the I'ciiiiiaii, nut only here but tliroughout Eastern America, raises the question which I have already sug<,'este(l in "Acadian deology," whether the conditions of the Upper Coal formation may not have continued lon,L,'er here than in Europe, so that rocks in the former region constituting an upward extension of the Carboniterous may synchronize with part at least of the Permian. On the one hand, there seems to be no stratigraphical break to separate these rocks from the Middle Coal formation of Nova Scotia; and their fossils are in tlie maii; identical. On tlu; other hand, where the beds are so slightly inclined that the Trias seems conformable to the Carboniferous, no very marked break is to be expected ; and some of the fossils, ,is the conifers of the genus Walc/ua and Ca/aunf'" i/i^/a", have a decided Permian tendency. On the whole, in the Report above referred to, I declined ti) separate the red beds of the lower series in Prince Edn-ard Island from the Newer Coal formation. Prof. Geinitz, however, in noticing my Report,* and aho in a private letter, expresses the opinion that the fossils have, as an assemblage, so much of a Permian (or Dyadic) aspect that they may fairly be referred to that formation, more particularly to its lower part, the Lower Rothliegende. This with further study of the sections on the North coast of Nova Scotia and New Prunswick induced me, in 1872, to propose the name Permo-Carboniferous for this formation.* 9. The Tria'i. — -The great Geological Periods known as tint Mesozoic and Early Tertiary are represented in the Acadian Provinces only liy the Triassic system. During all those periods in which the middle and older Tertiaries, the Cretaceous and the ( )olitic systems were produced, no rocks ai)[)ear to have been formed within its area, or if they were formed they have been swept away. This remark ai)|)lies not only to Nova Scotia, but to an immense region extending through New Brunswick, Canada, and the Northern United States. During those long periods, these regions, thut. destitute of the newer Secondary and Tertiary rocks, may have been in the interior of a great continent, or in the fathomless depths of an ocean where no sedinien*'- was being deposited ; but whatever their condition^ they retain no geological monuments of the lapse of time. The distriliution of the Trias imlicates that, when it was deposited, the form and contour of the country already made some approach to those which it still retains. Just as the marsh mud lines the coasts of the Pay of Fundy, so do we find the Trias occupying an inner zone, * Journal Geological Society, August, 1H74. ACADIAN KEfaON. U7 lie tl le ll le liV to i an the Ithut In in Lean Lion, litci to Is of lone, » ^ 5- = H be H 5 •6 "^ O Q find aiipeann'. to 1 lavc l)C;'n (Icposi tc.l m a iiav a ii ttU wider and luii.Ljer than tin; present one. It is indeed to tlii.s l)ay district tliat, in Xova 8co'ia and New iSruns- wiek, the Trias lias Ihhmi ehietly confi"ed, and it may lave heen deposi ited in cireiunstanees not verv dis- siinihir fmni those of the present marshes, except that tl le older deposit is accompan lied l)y evidence that active ■3 volcanoes pouied out their lavas on the grandest scale •X in the waters and on tlm shores of th(> hay while its 5 ^ sandstones were heiii'' formed. While the Trias of J > Xova Scotia is limited to the I'ay of Fundy, we have i" '/', evidence in the wide extent of the .samr formation in •| '" Prince Edward Islanil,that a sinular d(>posit was in pro- J S yress in the (Inlf of St. Lawrence. In the ''ulf, how- c "^ ever, unlike tin; hay, we do not find the New Red along the coasts, but in an isolated patch separated on all side.s from the continent. I may r"mark here, that the Trias, though patches of it are scattered over several parts of North America, is nowhere very extens- ive. To the southward of Xova Scotia it reappears in Connecticut, where it extends over a considerahle area ;^ B in the valley of the river; and in Xew Jersey, where S ^ another l)and commences that extends a great distance 'Z '-= to the south-east, some i.solated patches occurring as 2 far south as Xortli Candina. 02 S I ^ The ai[ueous rocks of this period in Xova Scotia and Prince Edward Island are i)rincipally coarse and soft red ""! ^ sandstoiKfs with a calcareous cemtnit, which causes 13 S them to etl'ervesce with acids, and contributes to the fertility of the soils formetl from them. In the lower part of the formation there are conglomerates made np of well-worn pebbles of the harder "nd older rocks. The V(jlcanic rocks of this [leriod are of that character known to geo- logists as I toleritic Lavas and indurated tufl' or volcanic ashe.s, and are quite analogous to the products of modern volcanoes ; and, like them, consist principally of Pyroxene and le-felspars. In Xova Scotia the })riiicipal areas of Triassic Red Sandstone ai'c those arovuid C^obequid l!ay and the long, narrow valley of Cornwallis and Annapolis, celebrated fur its a[)[>Ie orchards. The Triassic voh-anic rocks ll; 148 TOPOGRAPHY. form u l(jng, nanow and elevated bell, exteiuliiig westward fioiu Cape Blomiddu on the P.ay of Fiindy, while isolated eminences of the same rocks apjjear (in the opposite side of the Bay. Fig. 170, — Jiuictidn of Tria.s and Ciirb(>nif,'i<)u.s, (ireat Village Kiver, Nova Scotia. a, Sihiro-Cambrian. b, Carboniferous, c, Trias. The ImmIs of the Triassic series, as seen in Prince Edward Island, and more especially in its northern part, consist chietlyof soft red sandstone, with some buif coloured beds and red and mottled clays. Associated with them are conglomerates and hard calcareous and concretionary sand- stones, passing into bands of an'naceous limestone, which is in some places a dolomite. They present a division into an upper and lower group which may be held to represent respectively the Uunter and Keuper Sandstones, the lower member containing a greater proportion of gray, purplish and pebbly beds. The dips are so low, and the Ijeds so much affected by oblique stratifica- tion, that those of the Trias cannot be said t(j be unconformable to the underlying Carboniferous rocks ; and for this reason, as well as on account of the similarity in mineral character between the two groups, some uncertainty may rest on the position of the line of separation. That above stated depends on fossils, or a somewhat abrupt change of mineral character, and on a slight change in the direction of the dip. These beds spread over much of the island, though with no great thickness. Fossils are rare in the Triassic beds, Of plants, one of the most interesting is a species of coniferous tree distinct from that occurring in the Carboniferous beds beneath, and allied to Dadoxijlon Keuprriaimm of the European Trias. I have described it under the name 1). Edvard- ianam. Another is apparently a small cycadean stem, whicli 1 have de- scribed as Ci/cathmidca ( MautoHia) Ahcrjiiidensis, from the old ^licmac name of the Island.* Besides these there are Knorria-like stems, a coarsely marked Stcriihcrijia, and impressions resembling fucoids. The only animal fossil yet known is Bathijjnatlnis horealis, Leidy, a member of the group of carnivorous dinosaurs, the highest known reptiles, and an order verv characteristic of the ^lesozoic. * Reijort p. 4o. ACADIAN REGION. U9 ie.se 5, uost gill nnm ard- (le- in;ic s, a The iber ll an 10. The Pleistocenf. — After a great gap in the Geological succession, the Maritime Provinces present a moderate development of tlie clays, sands and gravels of the Pleistocene or (llacial age, resting on striated rock surfaces. These I have all along regarded as evi«otes on the rostqilioccne of Canada.* I may, however, quote the explanation which I gave in the first edition of Acadian Geology, in 1885, and to which I still adhere : — " In reasoning on this subject as regards Xova Scotia, I have the advantage of appealing to causes now in operation within the country, iind which are at present admitted l)y the greater number of modern geological authorities to allbrd the best explanatii^n of the phenomena. In the first place, it may at once be admitted that no such operations as these which formed the drift are now in progress on the surface of the land, so that tiie drift is a relic of a past state; of tilings, in so far at least as regards the localities in which it now rests. In the next place, we Iind, on examining the drift, that it strongly resemljles, though on a greater scale, the effects now produced by frost and floating ice. Frost breaks up the surface of the most .solid rocks, and throws down cliffs and precipices. Floating ice annually takes up and removes immense quan- tities of loose stones from the .-hores, and depossits them in tlie bottom of the sea, or on distant parts of the coasts. Very heavy masses are removed in this way. I have seen in the Strait of Canseau large stones, ten feet in diameter, that had been taken froui below low-water nmrk and Fig. 171. — Modern Travelled .Stone, Petitcodiac River. pushed up npon the beiich. Stones so large that they had to l)e removed by blasting, have lieen taken from the base of the cliffs at the Joggins and deposited off the coaldoading pier, and I have seen resting on the mud-flats at the mouth of the Petitcodiac River a boulder at least eight feet in length, that had been floated by the ice down the river (Fig. 171.) Another testimony to the same fact is furnished by the rapidity with *AIr. Clialnier.s has more recently iuvestit,'ated the facts as to local drift in the Baie des Cliak'urs and the mountains south of the Jjower St. Lawrence. — Reports, Geo- logical Survey of Canada, and Can. Record of Science, 1889. i i: ACADIAN REGION. 151 wliicli liui,ft' piles of falltMi rock arc renidvcd by the floating ice from the ba.se of tlic trap cliils of tlie Day of FiiiKly. Let us suppose, then, the surface of tlie laud, while its projecting rocks were still uncovered by surface deposits, exposed for many successive centuries to the action of alternate frosts and thaws, the wlmle of the untravclleil drift might have l)een accumulated on its surfai'c. Let it then be submerged until its hill-tops sliould become islands or reefs of ro(;ks in a sea loaded in winter and sjiriug with ilrift-icc, floateil along by currents, which, like the present Arctic current, would set from N.K. to .S.W. with various modifuMiiiius produced by local causes. We have in these causes (along with the actimi of local glaciers) ample means for accoiniting for the M'lioje of the appearances, including tiie travelled blocks and the .scratched and polished rock-surfaces. This, however, is only a general explanation. Had we time to follow it into details, many most interesting and complica- ted facts and processes would be discovered."* Glacial striation is very freipient wherever fresh surfaces of rock are exposed. The following are instau(.'es of its direction : — Point rie.isant. :ind ntluT places near Halffax, expnsure soutli, Vfiy distinct and beautiful striation. S. 20 K. to S. 30' E. Head of the Basin, exposure south, but in a valley, E. & W. nearly. La Havre River, expo.sure S. E S. 20 W. Petite liiver. exposure S.E S, 20 E. Bear River, exposure N S. 30 E. Rawdiin. e\iio.-.ure N S. 2.5" E. The (lore Mountain, exposure N., two sets of striae, respectively S. (l-V E. & S. 20' E. Windsor Road, ex))osure not noted S.S.Iv Gay's River, exposure N Nearly S. & N. Mu.squodobure E., in a valley . Neai'ly V.. k W . Poison's Lake, summit of a ridge Nearly N. it S. Near (iuysboro', exposure not noted Nearly S. & N. Sj'dney Mines, Ca[)e Breton, exposure S S. 30' W.f The above instances show a tendency to a southerly and south-easterly direction, which accords with the prevailing cour.se in most i)arts of North-eastern America. Local circumstances have, liowever, modified this prevailing direction ; and it is interesting to observe that while S.E. is the prevailing direction in Acadia and New England, it is e.\c(!ptionaI in the St. Lawrence valley, where the prevailing direction is S.W. | *8ee " Notes on Canadian Pleistocene," Canadian Naturalist. tThe above and other courses in this volmiie are muijmtic, tlie average variation being; about 18 W. i Logan, " Report on Geology of Canada." 152 topo(;raphy. Professor Iliiul lias <,'iven a table of similar striation in Xew Bninswiek, showing that the direction ranges from X. 10° W. to N. 30' K., in all except a very few cases. ()ii IJlue Mountains, IGoO feet above the sea, it is stated to be X". and S. As in Xova Scotia, X^AV. and .S.F. seems to be the prevailing course. The occurrence of Laurentian boulders from Labradin' in Xova .Scotia, shows the great distance of transport in some cases, and its direction to the south-west, while there are abundant examples of local driftage, more especially from the higher lands and alitng the lines of depression of the surface, and some of this is no doubt the work oi local glaciers in inter- vals of land elevation.* The Pleistocene of Prince Edward Island may ])e taken as a good illustration of the deposits of this age. The Triassic and Upper Carboniferous rocks of this island ci insist almost entirely of red sandstones, and the country is low and undulating, its highest eminences not exceeding 400 feet. The prevalent Post- pliocene deposit is a bouliler clay, or in some places boulder loam, com- posed of red sand and clay derived from the waste of the red sindstones. This is tilled with boulders of reil sandstone derived from the harder l)eils. They are more or less rounded, often glaciated, with stria' in the ilirection of their longer axis, and sometimes polished in a remarkable manner, when the softness and coarse character of the rock are cimsidered. This polisliing must have been elFected by rul)bing with the sand and loam in which they are iml)edded. These Ijoulders are not usually lar^e, though some were .seen as much as tive feet in length. The boulders in this deposit are almost universally of the native rock, and must li.iv(,' lieen produced liy ihi'. grinding of ice on the outcrops of the harder lieds. In the eastern and middle portion of the island, oidy these native rocks were seen in the clay, with the exce[)tion of pebljles of quartzite, wiiich may have been derived from the Triassic conglomerates. At Campljellton, in the western )iart of the island, 1 ob.served a be(l of lioulder elay tUled with boulders of metamorphic rocks similar to tho.-i; of the mainland of X'^ew Ih'unswick. Stria? were seen only in one place on the north-eastern coast and at another on the south-western. In the former case their direction was nearly 8.W. and X.E. In the latter it was S.TO" K. X'o nuirine remains were ol)served in tlie boulder clay ; Imt at Campbellton, above the boulder clay already mentioned, there is a Hunted area occupieil with tlie beds of stratified sand and gravel, at an elevation See Clialmer.s, I.e., and Geological Magazine, 1889. ACADIAN in'.GIOX. 153 'ood |ut at linitt'd atiou of about 50 feet above the sea, ami in (iiu' of the beds there are sliell.s of Tcllina Gricn/amlira. On the surface of the country, more especially iu the western part of the island, there are numerous travelled boulders, sometimes of consider- able size. As these do not appear in situ in the bouMer clay, they may be supposed to belong to a second or newer boulder drift, similar to that which we find to be connected with the Saxicava sand in Canada. These boulders being of rocks foreign to Prince Edward Island, the ((uestion of their .source becomes an interesting one. With reference t(i this, it may be stated in general terms that the majority are granite, syenite, diorite, felsite, pori)hyry, (juartzite, and coarse slates, all identical in mineral character with those which occur in tin metamorphic distiicts of Nova Scotia and Xew Brunswick, at distances of from 50 to 1.'00 miles to the south and south-west, though some of them may have been derived from Cape Ih'eton on the east. It is further to be observed, that these boulders are most abundant and the evidences of denudation i>f the Trias greatest in that part of the island which is opposite the deep break between the hills of Nova Scotia and Xew Brunswick, occupied by the Bay of Fundy, Chignecto Bay, and the low country extending thence to Northumberland Strait, an evidence that the boulder (h'ift was connected with currents of water pa.'ising up this depression from the soutli or south- west. Similar local gulf, which north (if the island is very shallow, doi-s not appear. They are all much rounded liy tiie waves, ditlering in this respect from the majority of the boulders found inland. I may adil here that Laurentian l)oulders have been observed on the north shore of Nova Scotia.* Dr. lloneyman records their a}>pearance even on the Atlantic coast. The nlder boulder clay of Prince Edward Island, with native boulders, must have been produced umler circumstances of powerful ice action, in ■which comparatively little transport of material from a distance occurred. If we attribute this to a glacier, then as Prince Edward Island is merely a slightly raised portion of the bottom of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, this can have 1>een no other than a gigantic iiuv.ss of ice HUing the whole basin nf the gulf, and without any slope to give it movement except towards the centre of this great though shallow depression, (in the other hand, if we attribute the boulder clay to floating ice, it must have been produced at a time when numerous heavy bergs were disengaged from what of Labrador was al)Ove water, anil when this was too thorough- ly enveloped in snow and ice to alFord many travelled stone.s. Further, that this boulder-clay is a sub-marine and not a sul)aerial deposit, seems to be rendered probalile by ihe circumstance, that many of the boulders of the native sandstone are so soft that they cruial)le immediately when exposed to the weather and frost. The tnivclled lioulders lying on the surface of the boulder clay evidently belong to a later period, when ihe hills of Labrador and Nova Scotia were above water, though lower than at present, and were sufficiently bare to furnish large supplies of stones to coast ice cai'L-ied by the tidal currents sweei)ing up the coast, or by the Arctic current from the north, and depositeil on the siu'face of Prince Edward Island, then a .shallow sand-bank. The sands with sea-.shells probably belonged to this period, or perhaps to the later i»art of it, when tho land was gradual- I3' rising. Prince Edward Island thus appears to have received boulders from both sides of the Gulf of St. Lawrence during the later Post- pliocene period ; but the greater numljer from the south side, perhaps because nearer to it. It thus furnishes a remarkaliie illustration of the transport of travelled .stones at tliis period in ditl'erent directions ; and in the comparative absence of travelled stones in. the lower boulder clay ; it furnishes a similar iliustration of the homogeneous and untravelled char- * Note.s i>n Post-pliocene, 1872. p. 112. I ACADIAN KEfJION. 155 actor of that doposit, in circumstances where the theory of tloatin.i,' ice serves to aeeoimt for it at hnist as well as that of laiul ice, ami, in my jn(l,i,'ment. .greatly Ijetter. Sitliifiri^n'niis nf fitf PIfistni'i'iif I)i'piixit.<. — -In Acadian (leolngy, ami in my ^[ellllli^s n\\ the Pleistocene of the 8t. Lawrence Valley, I iiave pro- posed a three-fold division of these heds into IhmJih-r rlaii, Leila I'laij, and Saxii'fira saml and ^'ravcl, to which may lie aihh'd the old peaty deposit ol)served under the Iioulder clay in Cape lU'eton. ^fr. Matthew has since rccnnnizcd in New lUiinswick certain licds only locally developi'd in the St. Lawrence Valley, and which I have been hitherto disposed tu reganl as dependinjf on tin; action of streams from the land or littoral aijencies, but wliich he re^'ards as marine deposits. They are gravels and sands underlyinij the boulder clay, and as yet destitute of fossils. The eumph'te series of Pleistocene beds in Acadia and Canada would thus stand as follows, in ascendin.L; order, though it is to be o])served thfit the whole si'i'ies is not to be found developed at any one place : — {a,) Peaty tm-rostrial surface anterior to boulder clay. (. 15aili'y'.s Report on New Uninswick, the following list of fossils from those beds. I have aliixrd an asterisk to the species found also in the I.eda clay and Saxicava sand nf the Province of (Juehec. — Articiildtii. Kiilaims Hanieri,* Asc, Lawlor's Lake. ]'.. crt'iiutus,* '* " Molhtunt. I'ecton iHliuulicuH,* Linn., Lawlor's Lake, K.R. Depot, Saint John. P. tfimistiiatus, MiK'li., " " " *' Mytilus cdiilis, Linn.* (.'iiiilimii |)iniiulatTiiii, dm. " " " Tt'Uiiia (Jiii'iiliiiulica* ( T. Iialthica L/xh.), Lawlor's Lake, etc. T. calcait'a* ( Macoina sabulosa, St/i.), Duck Cove, etc. Leda .lackrtoni ( - L. perniila*), Lawlor's Lake. L. tniiicata,* Duck Cove ; Lawlor's Lal;e ; U.K. Dejiot, Saint John. Nucula aiiti(iua (var. of N. tenuis. )* " " Mya arenaria.* " " i\L truncata,* " " Aiihmdite (Serripes) Oro-nlandica, Beck, Duck Cove, etc. Cardiinu islandicuni,* Linn. Mf'sodt'snia, 11. U. Depot. .Saxicava distorta, Sai/ ( - .S. rufjosa, Linn.)* Lyonsia arciiosa, Duck Cove.* Lacuna neritoidea,* O'uu/d, Duck Cove. Pandora trilineata, " Natica clausa, Saw,* " 15uccinuni !uidatuni,* Linn, " J3»V/or(;(/.— several 8i)ecies undetermined, Taylor's Island, Lawlor's Lake, etc. lidiliatii. Opliioglypha Sarsii, Lntk., Saint .Ti.hn, Duck Cove.* Toxopneustes drobachiensis, (Echinus granulatus, Snii.),* Red Ilcail, Lawlor's J^ake. Plants. — Algie, three 8|)ecies, uiideterniinHd.— Manawagonis. In soiue si)L'cinien.s .sunt to nie by INfr. Matthew, I lind in aiMitii>n to the forms al)0ve enumerated, S(une niicrosco|ii(: organisms, more cspt'cially P(ililtilii(/ipom st'rj>r?/,s and Crixia t'hur)iea, all in small fragments. The Kev. Mr. Paisley has published in tlie ''Canadian Naturalist" (1872) a list of shells obtained from a railway cutting on the Tattagouche River, near ISathurst, in New lU'unswick. They were found in beds of Leda clay passing upwards into sand and gravel. At the Jacipiet River in the same district, the bones of a small cetacean have been found, and have been described by iJr. (lili)in and Dr. Iloneyman.* Tlu-y are * Trans. N.S. Institute. ACADIAN UIKiroX. l.h 111 to •inlly |H'(;ies il'ora list " [uche Is of |\iver uiid are refenvil by I'r. (lilpin to IMmja V'ruKDifaiia oi Tlionipson from the PleistotjtMio of Vt'i'inDiit. Similar buiiL's have been fouiul in the Loda clay of the f^t. Lawrenco Valluy, aiul liave boon comparcil by the late Mr. r>illin^'.s with the skch^ton of the recent li. (•(ttddmi, L., of the 8t. Lawrenci.', with which the socalled Ji. Vrrniimfatia is probably iilentical, as the specimens above referred to, and examined by liillinys, certainly were. !\rr. >ratthew has noticed the occurrence of TrlUna (rfrn/nniJica at llorlon Jiliiff, and Ixs makes the important o))S('rvation that the shells found on the coast of the IJaie de Chalcur are oi more modern typi; than those in tlie Hay of Fundy, which conform more nearly to the assemblage found in tiifse deposits on the New England coasts, so that the existing geographical regions were alreaer- ficial gravel, which may be regarded as of Post-glacial or late Glacial age. This gigantic creature probably inhabited our country at the close of the Glacial period, and may have been contemporary with some of the present animals, but possibly extinct before the introduction of man, though the Micmac Indians seem to have had traditions of its existence. In Cape Breton the animal must have attained to its usual great dimensions, for a tbigh-boiu^, now in the Provincial ^fuseum in Halifax, though api)arently somewhat worn, measures three feet eleven inches in length. ins TOl'OlJIiArilY. 11. T/i'Mnifniiiiiii(iii ( lovrriiniL'iiL, I liiid it stalfil in tlic report of Mr. I!uillar;,'c, tliat Iictweeii the .Missacpiash Kiver ami Ciinil)erlaiiil Creek to tlio north of tlic ixiint where I have (li.seoverL'(l tlie reniarkalile suhniarino forest nf I-'mt I/iw- rencej- stumps of tree.s were .seen rooted in eartli for inoic tlian lialf a mih; aloni; the shore, and extending,' from low water mark to the hank. They are stated to he from >V2.H feet to l*2..'J feet b(dow the level uf tho hiijhest tides. The surveyors ri'co^Miized s[)niee, beech, pine and tamarac, all in a fair statu of preservation, and roote(l in a veyetal>le niniiM under- laid by a sandy .subsoil. The bed of stumps in f>if/i at Fort Lawrence, iiotieL-d in part II., [nv^a \2'2, and fidly described in my " Acadian ;;cology," is a still more inlercstin;,' example. In my Report on Prince Kdward Island I have noticed evidence of similar moderi' subsidence, th^u^h to 11 less amount. These facts place themselves in connect inn with the prol)abilily that in America, as in Kurope, a period of continental eleva- tion succeeded the great 1'lei.stoceiie subsithiuee, and has been followed by a depression in more modern times. This consideration seems to account for some otherwise anoiualou • facts in connection with tho distribution of modern murine animals. I ; r li 1.1 Note on the Coruelation of the Geology of the Maritime Phovinces with that of Euuoi'e.* As early as 1855, in the first edition of Acadian Geology, the author had indicated the close resemblance in structure and mineral productions of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick with the Ihitish Islands, ami in subsequent editions of the same work, further illustrations were given of this fact. Recent researches by liailey, ilatthew, Fletcher, Ells and others, still more distinctively indicate this resendjlance, as well as tho distinctness of the Maritime Geology from that of the great interior j)lateau of Canada and the United States. In short, tlie Geology of tho Atlantic margins of America and Kurope is substantially the same, and distinct from that found west of the Apalachians in America and in Cen- tral and Eastern Europe. In this fact has originated much of the X. ir.y IME \uil ill veil of Is iiiul lis tlio inli'vior (if the me. and in Ceii- iliirulty Caiiada dillicul- •ciice of 1. 1S88. dassilii-iitioii and iioincni'Iatiin'. Tln' system of I'alii'n/.oie sediiuciits, cmiildved fnrtlie interior plateau nf tlic Aiiieri<'an I'luitinent, thus rei|uiros very iiiiiinrtant niinlitieatinns wlien applied to the Atlantic coast, and nei,deet i)f this has led to serious niiseoni'options. The rii;^'<,'('d islands of Laurciitian and l[uronian ro(;ks correspond on both sides of the Atlantic, and shu oi identity of 8UC(X'ssion in deposits as well as a synrliKniism of the ureat f' Acailian li<'nUtite .Shiile. (, SiiucLstoues. ) Oriskany. Nictau Series. 52 ^ .Scaunienac ])ay, (lasj)e P>ay. Mispec, 8. New lirunswick. i J 1' ;/ ! ^ III; Courtney Pay, near St. John, X.P. ■r. — Lower Helderberg I'liiierArisaig Series. Niagara. ^^'^ Cauaan Series. Clinton. Lower Arisaig .Series. Cobequid Series? Graptolitic Shales of New Bruns- wick. Xictau, X'ova Scotia. Arisaig and East liiver, Pictou. X'ew Canaan, S.W. XewPrunswick. Arisaig. . .Mire ami Ht An- Upper Cambrian. I arewseri™, Middle Cambrian. I Ciipe IJretoii. Acaiiiaii Series. Lower Cambrian. {;^i:'jj;;;^'::^'!, Cnlie(iuid Mts., East K., Pictou. X. Xew lirunswick. Southern Capo Proton. ( .St. John, Xew Ih'ui.swick. \Atlaniiccoast,Canseau to Yarmouth. ]5a.sal series, near St. John, X.P. Felsitic, Chloritic, and Epidotic j >.. r i,„ vp .,„ i . .. .f„.n.. i t _, , r r^, , , ,, " I I ot. .lolm, JS.l). and oastwanl, 1 Kork.<; nt St. . nhn Yarm(.uth V , , ,' ,, „ ,, Rocks of St. John, YarmoJth and Cape Breton, in part ■OlS- !i dale Hills, CIS Gneiss, Quartzite and Lim -ne of St. John and St. , ,ie's Mountain, Cape Breton. j (Southern Xew Prunswick and j Xortheru Cape Proton. 162 'iil" II. TIIK CAXADIAX KKGIOX TKoPKR. {(2w:li''i' aitiJ ihtlariii.) Tliis iTL,Miiu ill its caslci'ii jiart cniisi.sts of tlio Silui'ci-Caniluian and .Silurian valley (if tlie Lnwcr St. Lawrence;, extcnilin^; from Antii'M>ti and (Jii.'^pe to the Thousand Islands, witli [lorlioiis of llie folded rocks of the A])alachiaiis inthe Kaslern To\vns]ii]is of (^tuohec in ihe south, and of thu <,'reat Laurentiau nucleus of the North American continent in the north. These features lielonj.;' maiidy to the Province of (^)uel)ec. In the west- ern or (>itario section it consists of the northern margin nf the great palteozoic |)lateau of the interior of North America along with a wide area of Huronianand Lanrentian country to the northward and westward. We thus have in the Provinces of (Juel^ec and Ontario the following geological districts : — 1. Tlie southern jiortiim of the great K( zoic ( Laurentiau and Huron- ian) nucleus of Northern Canada, separating the valley nf the St. Lawrence anil the (treat Lakes from the Arctic I5asin. 2. The hilly and l)roken region of Siluro-Camhrian and Canihrian and Pre-Canihrian rocks extending through the southeastern part of (,)uebec from Ciaspi' to the United States boundary, and constituting a north-east- ern extension of the Apalachian ami (Ireen mountain ranges. ."). The Siluro-Cambrian plain of the Lower St. Lawri'nce, east of the Thousand islands, and occupied principally by slightly inclineil formations ranging from the l\itsdam sandstone to the Hudson Kiver series, inclusive, with some limited areas of Silurian beds and occasional masses of igneous rock of Silurian date. 4. The Paleozoic plain of ( >ntario, consisting of nearly horizontal beds, of ages ranging from the P(jtsdam to the L^pper Erian inclusive. As these districts have in Part II. been taken as types of the Kozoic and older Palfcozoic Periods, and as they have lieen descrilied with much local detail in the " Geology of Canada " by Sir W. E. Logan, and ill Reports of the Geological Survey, it will not lie necessary to tieat of them very fully in this place, l)ut their great leiuling features will be given, with reference to tluj above mentioned works for details. 1. The Archean or Eozoic district occu])ies the north shore of the Gulf and Kiver St. Lawrence, with a few marginal patches of Siluro-Cambrian, from the Straits of Uelleisle to (Juel)ec. Below Quebec the margin of the Laurentian area begins to recede from tlie St. Lawrence and to leave a gradually widening band of flat Siluro-Cambrian rocks between the river and the Laurentian hills as far as the continence of the Ottawa i : (^rnr.Kc and (».\tari(). 1G3 the itions visive, beds, l'"ozi>ic I with in, ami rent of viU be H-C.ulf Lbi'ian, Ivj^iu of [o leave I'ou tlie l( )ttawa rivev. Tt 11 icll bill n\V; (he Viilicv (if the Ottawa to tlif wostwan About 100 miles west of the (•oiiljiiciicc of the ( )ttawii willi the St. LiiwrciiiT it is suddoiilv (Ifllcctcil to the south-east, aud erossiu'' the St. .awreiu'i' 111 a low au'l iiii rrow baud at the Th ousaiii I I>laiii|s, connects as by an isthmus tlir main Lauivntiau distrirt with the L^'reat [n'liinsular mass ( I f th Adii'ondaek niountaius in New Voik, in which the Lauientiau rocks attain tlieii\L;reatest altitude. Mt. Maicv lieint,' 5,400 feet in height. West of the Ti lousaiu I h and the soulliern liouiidarv ot th .lurentiau am 1 H ui'oiuan stiukes westwaidlv across ()iitario, till it reaches the II (teoruian Hav of Lake Huron, whence it sweeps m a lio curve liol'i lered in [)iu't by Cambrian and Iliiroiiiaii rocks, around the north shore of Lake Superior. Ueyond tht; western end of that ^reat lake it turns to the north-west and skirting,' the west side of Lake Winnipeg; runs into tlu; Arctic region. In this district are the most important deposits of Ma,i;netite, lleuiatito. Apatite and (Jraphite, mined in (^iiiebec and Ontario, and also vidualile quarries of granite, niarbh,' and mica, and deposits of copper ami silver. Tiie Laureiitian area is on (leoigiaii Hay and the North shore of Lake Superior, fringed and partly covered with Iluroniau and Ivowenian rocks. The typical Ilurouian of Logan is that on the north of (leorgian I'ay. (See I'art II.) '2. The secmid district, that of the Kastern Townships of (^tiieliee and thence to (laspe, is principally characterized by the prevalence id' the Quebec group of Sir William Log.in, consisting of black, gray and re, cliroiiiic irmi and ores of aiiliiiioiiy. The iua;^Mii'iitc is, f(jr the. most pari, ccoiioiiii(;ally iiiiavailal)I(' ou accuiiul of tin' \n'j;\i pc'iri'iitat^'c' of lilaiiic acid. Tlio soaji-stoiic, |iot-stoiui or mica-rock, smiiciiliiM' and aslirstos, descrilird in the (IcoloL^yof Canada, also lidon.L,' to tlic ri'cC';ii!il)rian Lclls. ()iic of llicst.' Ixdts crosses tlio St. Francis liivcr Ix'lwccu Slicrbrookc and Lcniioxvilic. It constitntcs tin; hi,nli ridges known .is the Stoke .Mountains, l)et\vecn Lake .Massa\vi]i)ii and Little .^^lL;■og, and in it are the most extensively worked copiier nunes of Canaila. No fossils of any kind have yet been found in liie rocks of thes(' liclts, and they ai'e la'csunu'il to belong,' to tin; ilumnian System, not oidy because of the guolo.L^ical position which they apparently occupy, Init also on account of their close correspondence with it in physical aspect, and in mineral ami lithological characters." In this region are granites of hevonian age, trappean masses of Silurian nge, and pmhably still older igneous I'ocks, some of them associated witli large masses of serpentine, and the Siluro-Cand)rian rocks are in places altered into hydro-mica .schists and graphitic slates. In this district are the valuable copper mines of the Eastern Townships, the gold deposits of the (Jhaudiere, S:o., and the deposits of Chrysotile or librous Serpentine usually named .\>bestos and now extensively worked ; also ijuarries of gi'aiiile and maible. •i. The third and fourth districts are characteriseil by the jprevalence of undisturhi (I members of the Siluro Cambrian, Silurian and Kriau systems. The lirst mentioned system [irevailsin the Province of (j>U(d)ec where its ordinarily Hat surface is broken by abrupt eminences of igneous rock ejected at the close of the Silui'o-Cambrian, and idlbrding excellent opportunity for the study of intrusive rocks and the remains of ancient volcanic vents, in the hills of Rigauil, ^Montreal, .Montarville, Ueloeil and ]\fonn(»ir, Kougenujnt, Yamaska, Ih'ome and Shell'oi'd. The.se hills form a line of ancient volcanoes e.xtending across the SiUu'o-Cambrian plain for a distance (if !)U miles. The Siluro-Candnian occuiiies the north side of Lake Ontario, but at the head of the lake it is covered by the Silurian, the thick limestones of which form tiie great Niagara escarpment, which is so prominent a geographical feature in the Lake region, and gives origin to the fall of Niagara, in Western Ontaiio, l)etween Lakes Huron and < Mitario, the Silurian is overlaid by the Krian or I >evonian. of which in this region the ( h'iskany sandstone, the Corniferous limestone, remarkably rich in siliciHed ciu'als, and the Hamilton shales, are characteristic features. (.lUKBI'XJ AND OXTAIJTO. ir.7 lul ut Itonos it'iit a lull of K the In the lei tied 'I'lic l'al;i'i)/,iiic nicks of tliesc distrii'ts liaviui;' liccii ahv;uly mitircil in ]'art II.. it will hi' iicccssarv here duly in rcl't-r hj tln' gedgmjtliical ilis- ti'ibutii)n ami ii ^ist chanieteristic exposures. The iiMi'sl Caiiihriaii rocks iire reprcscntcil in the thini district nnly hy the (!('or'.,da series, whicl) enters into Canada ami Dccupicsa limited space in the vicinity of I'hillipslmrLi;, and has lieeii described liy Mr. l!illin;/s.* Tile I'dtsdani sandstone in this district usnally rests directly du the Laurcnlian. all tin; nlder ^mups lieim^- absent. It cdnsists (if siliceous sandstdiie nften indmated into (piartzite and slmwing ripph.'-niarked surfaces. The prevalent fossils are the cylindrical perforations, usually tortuous ami sDnietinics branchin,n', known as Sco/if/i/i.-^ Catiaili'ii-', and on till' surfaces of some of lln' Iteils are the crustacean foutjirints named rriitirl(iiilr.<, IIimIs of conglomerate occur locally. The I'otsdaui covers considerable p(jrtions of Huntingdon. Cliateauguay, lleauharnois, Soulangi's and Vandrenil, and skirts the Laurentian on the Lower ( »ttawa and in placi's as far east as the St. Maurice Kiver. In the vicinity of ^Montreal it is well seen at St. Anne's, A'audreuil, lieauhurnois, and at various points on the ()ttawa IJiver. The L'alcifcrous, a formation consisting Iarg(dy of dark-coloured impure ilolomite. immediately overlies the I'otsdam and in places graduates into it. It covers considerable areas adjoining the Potsdam in Huntingdon, etc., and is well seen at St. Ainie's, near .Montreal, near lleaidiarnois and ].achuti.'. In these places it allbrds sevei'al characteristic fossils, as (_>ji/n7'/i( i-niiiparta^ Miirrliiiiiinia Ainia, J'ifnrrrd.-! ((mjihi/ii, ( hihacrra.-t^ etc, Till' Calciferons is regarded as a conteiiiporanecnis formation with the oldi'r parts of the (jJiieliec (iroup, and iiutalily with the J)iclyunema lieds (jf .Matane an- 1 C ape K losiei'. Korks of this au'e also skirl ih I aurentian on the north shore of thcdulfof St. Lawrence at INIiiiLiaii and T eisewliere he line-stones and .shales of lie' .Siluro-Cambrian series occujiy th nil. orniini als,) occupy the Tl II- ■ivsteiu greater [lart of the remainder of the Lower St, Lawn'iice a broad belt on Ijutli sides of the St. Lawreiic, and country between the Lower Ottawa and the former river, iiicludi's all the formations from the Chazy to ihc Iluilson Kivci', inclusive, and in tin- disti'ict in i[uestion tic Trenton and Utica forniations occupy the widest areas, with patches of Hudson Kiver superimposed, and a margin of Llack River and Chazv limestones between them and the oMer rocks. These forniations are well seen in the (piarries and other excava- tions in the vicinitv of Montreal and < Htaw.i. * GeolDgy of Canada, p. 283, et. seq. See also Walcott, Kept.5. of U.S. Geol. Survey. IGS CANADIAN (GEOLOGY. A small patch of Silurian liiiiestoiic of ircMciljcr;,' ago oci'ius in ihu Iflaml of St. Iluk'U, at .Moiitri'al ; and there aro good e.\i>ii.-iu'os of Silurian rocks, soino of them rich in characteristic fossils, fjn the north side of tlie liaie dc Chalmrs, and on the s(juth side ncai' 1 >alliiiiisi('. and also in tile I'eninsula of (lasjte. There' are also considerahle aieas nf Silurian rooks, in some idaees altered and with slaty structure, in the hilly rountry extending southwardly from (Jasjie, on the coiUines of (j)ui'ljec mid Xew- Jirunswick. Anticosti exhibits on its south side a large area of lime-;t(iiii- n( the lower part of the Silurian, rich in characteristic fossils, whih' tie' north- ern part of the island has a lndL of lludsou River rocks, and tlfse seem to pass upward gradually into tlu' Silurian. The Krian or Devonian series is rei)resented in this district nuly hy the Gaspe sandstones, rich in fossil plants, while the lower l)eds of tln' (Jarbon- iferous occupy a linuted area on the north siih; of the IJaie des tJhaleurs. Xo geological system later than the Carboniferous has been recognised in the district except the Pleistocene. The Pleistocene deposits are spread over all the hjwer parts nf the I'rovinces of (Quebec and Ontario, and consist of marine lieds in the valley of the St. Lawrence, with eviden(;es (d' local glaciers nn tlic hills. The prevailing direction of drift is fmrn the nortli-cast, and mi tln' hills south nf the r.ower St. Fiawrence there is evidence of lU'ivciiiciit of material from the high gi'ounds both to the north and south. "'^ In the St. liawrence Valley these deposits may be tabulated a> fnll(jws, in ascending order : — (aj L,uver stratified san.ls and ^n-avols | ''''"'«« represent land surfae- and sea (Svrtensian dei.o.sits .,f Matthew). T""' """'^ ''''"''' ■■"»"''l'^^t"ly ^'"t'-nMr to ' tlie I'xjuldtT-claj' tieriod. (Iij Ijdulder-elay or Till; hard ulay, or^ The Lower St. Lawrence reu'l'in iiolds uiistratitied sand, with hmildcrs, a fmv marine sliells of Arctic siiecie.s, Far- local and travelled, and stones often .ther inland it is iion-fossiliferMus. but has striateil and polished. It rests on usually the clieniical characters of a marine striated surfaces. J deposit. (c) Lowi r Leda clay; fine cliiy, often"! Holds L((l(t (Pdvllandin] or' laminated, and with a few large I soiuetinu's Tclliiui (ifninlmiiU ft ion, and travelled lioulders. pro balily ei pii seiMus to have been deiiosited in verv cold alent toKrieclayof inland districts, j and ice-laden water. (l) Upjier Leda clay, and jirobably San geen clay of iidand districts ; clay I ■ , and sandy clay, in the Lower St. Lawrence, with ninnerous marine shells. ' Holds in Eastern Canada a marine fauna ntical with that of the nortle'in i>art of the (!ulf of St. Lawrence at jiresent : and locally affords remains of boreal flora. ' Clialmers, Trans. R.S.C. The Author in Canadian Record of Science. (^IHRKC AND ONTAIilO. 1 (II) holds l'"ar- |iit lias iiiHiine \i, and and IV cold • faiuia liart of and Ira. fcj Sax icava sand and gravel, oft.-n witln siiallow-wat.'r fauna ,.f 1h„v;.1 diarac- nuuieroiis travi'llnd l)iiulders(r|) Jjdiildi'i' df|insit), |>nil)al)ly tin- saiiu' witli Alpiinasaiid, I'tc, of the West. tcr, ninn; psiiccially Hii.rirnrii rinin.-i, its varii'tieM. Ijunua "f Whales, otc. d r/J l>nst-(!h.cial deposits, rivi-alluviaaiKl^ i.,.,,,,^!,,, „f M,ixto,l..» ,t>vl Kh,,h,is, r !>..... .1 :t . r .1... 1...^.' Ki-avfls, Peaty deposits. Lake hot toiiis, etc. delll fresii-water shells. All of ih('.«(' (li'po.sits iivo ,^('('11 ill the vicinity of ^^lllltl'l■;>l. The Iiiwcr lloiilder-clay (c) is ofleii a true ami very hard Till, resting oil intensely j^'laciatcd rock-,surt'aco.«, and lillod with stones and In nldevs. "Whom very tliiek, it can l)o seen to have a nido stratiticatimi. Even Avheii destitute of marine fossils, it shows its submarine aceuninlation hy the iinoxidi/ed and iinwcatluatMl enndition of its materials. The striiB beneath it, and the direction of transport of its boulders, show a general movement from N.E. to S.W., or up the St. Lawrences Valley from the Atlantic. C(jnnected with it, and apparently of tlu^ .same a^e, are evidences of local glaciers descending into the valley from the Laiirentiaii highlands. The bould(!r clay and superficial deposits of the basin of the I'lent lakes are of similar character, but they are destitute of marine shells, I'ontaiu land plants in the beds corresponding to the Leda clay, and are surmounted in places by old lake nuugins evidencing a former greater extension of the lak(>s. In tl ( )iitario Kc'doii the Pleistoeene and niodt-rn formations, which mav for comnarison be noticed here, have been divided as f olio ws (Ji) IJoulder clay. {c) Erie clay. lugeen el.iy aiul san (.0 s. ('') Avt(Miiesia gravel and Algoma sand. (/) Keceiit alluvia. iaim which correspond in a general way to the lieds designated by tl letters in the preceding talih;. The Lower Leda clay ('/') seems in all respei'ts similar to the deposits now forming under the ice in JJaliiu's J!ay and the Spitzbergeii Sea. The L'pper Leda Clay represents a considerable amelioration of climate, its fauna being so similar to that of the Gulf of St. Lawrence at present that I have dredged in a living state nearly all the species it contains, ott' • the coasts on which it occurs. Laml plants found in the IhmIs holding these marine shells are of species still living on the north shore of the St. Lawrence, and show that there were in certain portions of this period 170 CANADIAN tIKoLOCV. consiiU'rabli- ImimI siirfiU'es clntlicil with vc^'oljition. Tlio rppiT I.dla Clay is |)n)liiil)iy (;iiiitt'iii]u)iiiiu'(Ui.s wiili tiic so-callod intur-^'laciiil ilcposils lioliliiiLT plants ami iiisofts discovi'Vcil \t forty yi'iirs, an' that in I'aiiaila iIh- cDiKlitinii (if rxtii'iiic glai'iatinii was mit' of parlial siiliiiH'rj,'oiice. in which llir valh'vs wciv oc(:n|iU'il liv a sea nidt'ii with liravy lidd ice cdiitinunr^ thriin^iiout tiic siunnior, wliih- tho hills ronniiuin'' aliov 13 water wcro occnpii'd with },'laci('i's, and that thcsi; conditinns varied in tin-ir distril)iitiuu with tin? varying' levels df the land, Mivin.i,' rise to ,i,'reat local diversities, as well as to ehaiiu'es of climate. There soems tn lie within tiie limits of Canada no ^'ood evidi'Uce (if a i^eneral coverin.Lj (if the land, with a thick mantle of ice, thmi^h iheic mnst at certain periods hav(> lieeii very extensive •daeiers (m the Laurentian axis and in the mduntainons re'dons of the ■wost. It does 111 it, indued, d soeni possible that, niitler anv conceivaoie hi. nieteorolou'ieal cunditinns, an area so extensive as that (if Canada, if exist- ing,' as a land surface, should re(;eive, except (in its oveaiiic mai'L^ins, a sulHcieiil amniiiit iif precipitatiiin tn pindiice a continental .glacier. Details nu .-oine of the alxive nientioneil formations will lie fninid in my " Notes (111 the I'ost-PlioceiK! of Canada," and a larL,'e aiiionnt of recent infiirinatiiin exists in the l^'pllrts of the ( ledld^ical Survey of Canada, and in papeis pulilishcd in the (,'anadian Xatur.dist and (Jeologist, and in the Canadian Record of Science. th-west of the -I. 'I'lie Western Pahenzini' district extends to the sou Thousand Islands in the St. Lawrence valley, and includes the north siiore of r,alve < )ntario, I.etween Lakes Krie and Huron, and the reninsula extending in Cabot's Head ami the (Ireat Manitoulin and its assneiated islands. In this district tlie Xiai'ara limestone form s a We mai ked ariiiiient, extending fium Niagara Falls westward and iKirlhward to Caliot's Head and Maiiitiiulin Island. ( )n the east of this the countrv north of Lake ()ntari Potsd; II is (iccu[iied liy tin' formations from the Hudson Iviver to tin to the west the peninsula hetween Mrie ami nil, inclusive, Willie Ilunm is (ii'cupied with the upper ineiulicrs of the Silurian and the Lrian All the fdi'inations of tliis distri(;t are of similar type tn thn.-c of tin interior plateau region of Xorth America, cumiiioi York type of the Palivozoic formatiniis. ilv kiinwn as the X'ew The I'otsdani sandstone is not verv exteiisivelv distriliuti eXcelit ill the eastern part, Iml the exposures tif the upper layers at lleverlcy is remarkalile for its line si»eciniens of LixijuUi (innniiuifa, and a ([Uarry near Perth has ati'orded some of the finest specimens of the tracks known as Protichnitr^ and CUmnrtichnili'^. In a great part of this district the ^. IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-S) / V «=>. 1.0 I.I 2.2 |!0 1.25 i 1.4 12.0 1.8 1.6 V] ^ /a 7 ^s '^^ '» o 7 /A c?- Q>. o^ rmm wm 172 CANADIAN GEOLOGY. f' I U\ 4 oKlor bnds seem to have been overlapped by the extension of tlif SiUu'o- Canibi'ian liiiicKtonos, who.^e outcrop cid.-sSL's in a broad band frnm Kings- ton to (ienrgian IJay and has on its south-west side a wide ar(;a of Utiea and Hudson River beds. The Trilol)ites A.iap/tns Cana(l'')i.ii-< and species of Trinrthnix seem to l)e speeially charaeteristie of this (hslrict. and tiio former occurs abumhintly at Colli ngwood as well as near to < Htawii, where, however, the Trenton limestone is well e.\i)osed and alwnndsin cliaracter- istic fossils, especially in crinoids. At various places near Toronto the Hudson River beds are well exposed. On tlie J)on and lluml)er, Li'ptcu'na ■•"'ricin, MoiIio/opKixniodiolariii, Anihoinjrliia ratij/l((f(i, are very abundant. At the western end of Lake < )ntario the Medina samlstoni', constitut- ing the base of the Silurian, spreads somewhat wiihdy on the lake shore, and towanl tlie foot of the escari)ment of Hamilton, where il presents a thickness of alunit GOO feet of reil and gray sandstone and marl. In its westward extensit)n to (Jeorgian Hay it thins oft' and disappears. Two chara(;teristic fo,ssils are the tracks Arf/irir/niifi.-t Ilavlani ami the brachio- pod Limjida I'lDU'iita, an ( )rthoceras ((>. imtltisi'ptinii ) occurs rarely and a few lamellibranchiate shells ( MDilinhipsifi.) The grea: escarimient west of Hamilton and extending to (Jabot's Head and by wliich tlie falls of Niagara are produced, exlii' its the Clinton grouj) and the Niagara shale and limestone. At the falls of Niagara thick beds of J)uloniite and dolomitic limestone constitute the most prominent features; and the most al)unilant fossils are .S7/''///*r(/o- ponii, but lielow the falls and near Hamilton as well as in many other localities along the escar|)ment, numerous fossils have lieen fouuil. A-^fi/Zn- S2><>fi<,lia and other sponges, /ar'«//'>- Xiai/dn'u.-'ix and other corals, Pi'u- taiinriis ()/ilo)ii/ii.-i, JSpirif' r jyiai/nr'itsiK, dill'erent si)ecit's of Ufliiimrnia and other graptolites, Cdlijiin'tv Xici'j'irfx.si.t ami Ddluuinil"' lininlarus are characteristic. The (iuelph formation is peculiar to this district, ami i- a dolomite containing a special fauna iKdonging apparently to a land-locked sea, and in which the h\\i\\\^i Mctjalnnuis CanailnisifinwA the curious Hrachiopods of the genus Triinrnlla are chara(;teristic. (lood exposures occur near Guelph and at Eloia, where many forms of Stromatoporae occur with other fo.ssils. The Salina or Onondaga salt group is well developed. Its outcrop extends from the Niagara River aliove the falls to Lake Huron, and it l^UEHKC AND ONTARIO. 173 (iontnins valnalilij di'iiosits of rock salt and uypsuni. Its striu'luii' lias 1)0011 notii.'od in tho previous i)art ami it untlouljlcdly marks a poriod of continental elevation and dessication, separatinj^ the Silurian period into two pnrtii'iis. (See section at (Jodcriidi in I'art II., p. ■"'O.) Tlio T'pper or Helderberi; inembor of the Silurian is not lar^'oly developed in this district, and is especially characterizetl by the Merostomatou.s crustacean Eiir;//'f''r".-- rinilpi'H. The ( )i iskany .samlstone constitutes tlie base of the P>ian deposits, and is here as elsewhere rich in Spiriff.r ari'itnxit.t, Jli'ustti'l/nria oralis and .several species df Farnaifrn. Ma'^y of its species are identical with those of the rpper beds of the Silurian, but Krian fossils rather preponderate. It may, however, be reganled as a transition <,'r(pup between the Silurian ami Krian. Tho outcrops of this and the fiillnwini; series oci'ur in sue- ce.ssiun, crossing,' the peninsula between Lakes ( )ntario and Huron. The Cornifemus fonnation is ime of the most remarkable in the dis- trict in a pala'ontolo„'ical point of view. It is esiiecially rich in silieified corals, which exhibit in perf(!ction, um^ipiallecl elsewhere, the profusion of fossils of this kind in the Kiian .seas. IJillings has described a lar^e number of species of corals from this formation, which also abounds in Brachiopod shelLs. Among the corals are specie.s of FaronifeK, Mii'liilhiia, Fist 1(1 i pi I ra, Zapli r'u/i.-', Ci/xfip/ii/l/inn, IlaiiinitphiilhiDi, I'li i//ipmnfrr{ their old outlets with I'leistoeene deposits, so that they are very modern features, and their basins must have liecn exeavatiiil l)efore the Pleistocene, and pro- bal)ly at a time when the land was more elevated tlian at present. liones of the Mnxtoihni iaid of a fossil Kle[)hant — ■Kmlciiha'^ Jarlsoni — have lieen founil in Post-glacial gravel and peat in tlie vicinity of Lake (Jntario. '1,1 (^UEBKC AND ONTARIO. 17.-) / ;) Cnnxprrfa. of a,-ohvjirnl Fnnmtions in thn Cam.Iian llyinn, ,nfh I'lpiral Lnralifir,, ,f..rnh.,/ in Rrpnrh nf tin' a,ohujical SHrr.;,.- Quaternary, Saxicava Sand | Vicinity of Montreal, I!euu,.n,.t, near LedaClay. ,^„„.,„„, k. ,lu Lo,,,,. (I „ Ontario Boulder Clay orTill. I Kri. Clay aii.l SauKcoi. sau,l. Lower Carbonif., Bonaventure, Ilaie dos Clmleiirs. Devonian, Catskill. artof the North American continent is geoloi^ically, and to a ureat extent also physically, divisible into two ^'reat jtortions. In the tirst, extending' from the Atlantic coasts to the south-eastern edge of the Laureiitian axis, — which is niarketl by a chain of grccat lakes stretch- ing fruui the Lake of the AVoods to the Arctic Ocean, — the Arclia?an plateau is the dominant feature, the succeeding formations arranging themselves about its edges or overlapping it to a greater or less extent in the form of bays or inlets ; but, with the single exception of limited tracts if Triassic rocks, no niesozoic or tertiary strata are represented in it. In the second, stretching westward to the shores of the Pacific, the Archa-an rocks play a very subordinate part, and Mesozoic and Tertiary rocks are abundantly represented and alone characterize the whole area of the great plains. Corvidated with the differenco of age in the forma- tions represented, is the fact that at a date when the flexure and disturb- ance of the eastern region had practically closed, and it was set and firm, the western Cordillera belt continued to be the theatre of uplift and fold- ing on a gigantic scale. The great region of plain and prairie which occupies the central part of the continent is on the 49th parallel of north latitude, includeil in longitude Itetween the 9Gth and M-lth meridians. It narrows })retty rapidly northwards, by the encroachment on it of its eastern border, but continues as a great physical feature even to the shore of the Arctic Ocean, where it appears to have a breadth of between 300 and 400 miles, lieyond the North Saskatchewan River, however, it loses its essentially prairie character, and with the increasing moisture of climate, becomes, with limited exceptions, thickly covered with coniferous forest. The north-eastern boundary of this interior continental plateau, north of latitude forty-nine, is formed, as above stated, by the south-western slojK' of that old crystalline nucleus of the continent which extends north of the St. Lawrence and Great Lakes from Labrador to the Lake of the Woods, with a general east and west course, and then, turning suddenly at an angle of 60° to its former general direction, runs with a north-north-west course to the Arctic Sea. The eastern barrier is rather MANITOIJAX KEGIOX. 17' (1 tinn, (1 fold- •al piu-t uled in pretty cr, Init Arctic iQ miles, nitially jecoines, u, north -western extc'iitls he Liikt! turning th a ther \vi IS ra a rocky plateau than a lununtaiu region. Tt presents iiu well-tleliued height of land, and the watershed-line foUnws a very sintious cmirse among tlie counties? lakes, small and great, which cover its surface. Northwaid fnim the Lake of the Woods, it divides the waters llowing into Iludsou's Uay from those draining directly into the Arctic ( >cean, with one important exception. Tin' Xrlson Kiver, carrying the aci'Uiuu- lated waters of the Saskatchewan, the Red Kiver and innumerahle smaller streams, lireaks through the f.aurentian plateau at the north end of Lake Wiuiupeg, and empties into Hudson's Hay at York Kactor\*. The Churchill or Knglisii River, a not inconsiderable stream, pa.s.ses through the same gap. Near the 49th jiarallel, the Rocky Mountains on the west rise abruptly from the elevated plain at their base, ami often present to the east almost peri)endicular walls of rock. A short distance farther north, however, they become bordered by an important zone of footdiills composed of crumpled Me.sozoic rocks, and these continue with vai'ying bnadth at least as far north as tlie Peace River region. Detween tiie tifty-tii'st and fifty-second parallels the Rocky Mountain range appears to culminate, and to the north gradually decreases in elevation till on the borders of the Arctic < )ceau it is represented by comparatively low hills only. With this decrease in lieight the mountains becoiiu' a less compli'te l)arriei', and the streams Howing eastward across the plains rise further back, till in the cases of the IViace and Liard Rivers tiie waters from the central plateau of liritish Columbia completely traver.se the range. Tiu' whohi interior region of tin; continent slopes gradually eastward from the elevated plains lying near the base of the Rocky .Mountains to the foot of the Laurentian highlands, and though the inclination is more abrupt in approaching the mountain.s, it is not so much .so as to attract special attention. Jjetween the tifty-fourth and forty-ninth degrees of latitude, however, along two liiu's which are in a general way parallel and hold a north-west and .south-east course across the plains, more or less definite step-like rises occur. These respectively form the eastern bound- aries of the two higher prairie plateaus, and the most eastern of them overlooks the lowest prairie level or that of the Red River valley. The three areas of plains or " prairie stej)])es "' thus outlined diller considerably in age and character, ami iheir margins have been impre-sed on the soft formations of the plains by the action of sub-aerial denudation, by that of former lakes and probably also by that of the sea. Though not every- wlu're sharply defineil in nature, they may be consiilered separately for purposes of description. M ..-^mammsK III 17S CANADIAN (iKOLOCJY. The iictiiiil inci'oaso (if olcviitinn ;u!(-'ntiiit('(l for in tlie two usp.ni'pinoiits, liu\VL!V(.'i', is .sli,t,'lit cuiniian-il with that ihif to the uuifonu eiisLwuitl slope of tlio ]iliiiiis. The dircctioii of ,L;i'<'at('st incliiialioii is toward tiic north- east, and a lini' diiiwn finni the iiilfrscction of tlie forty-niiilh jiarailol ami tlic iiiniiiitains, to a point on the lirst prairie-level north of Lake Winnipeg,', will be found to eross the esearpinents nearly at ri,t,dit an,;,des, ami to have an averaLje slope of 5..jS fei-t to the mile. From tin' same initial [joint, in a due east line to the lowest part of the valley of the Ked River — a distaiiee of 750 miles — the plains have an average slope of 1.48 feet jier mile. The lirst or lowest prairicdi'vd i> that of which the southern part lies alon^' Ked Kivcr, and which northward einhraces Lake; Wiiuiipeg and associated lakus and the ilat land surrounding them. A great part of its eastern border is C(jnterminous with that of Lake Winnipeg, and formed liy the rocky front of the Laurcntiaii, while east of Ked River it is lioundi'd by the high-lying drift Iitimci's surrounding the Lake of the Woods and forming part of llu' drift [tlateau of northern Miiuiesota. To the west it is limited l)y a more or less abru[)t edge of the second prairie level, forming an escarpment, which, though very irregular in some places, is scarcely perceptible wlnu'e tlu; broad valley of the Assineboine breaks thniugh it. The escarpment, wlnu'e it crosses the hn'ty-nintli parallel, is known as I'cmlnna mountain, and is continued northward Ity the Riding, JJuck, Poi'cu'pino and Basquia Hills. The average height aljove tin; sea of this lowest level of the interior continental region is about 800 feet, the lowest part being that includiuLj the Winnipeg group of lakes which have an elevation ot about 700 feet. From this it slopes up southward, and attains its 'greatest elevation — 9G0 feet — at its termination about 200 miles south of the international boundarv. The edi^es of this i)lain are also, notwithstanding its apparent horizontality, considerably more ele- vated than its axis where this is occupied by the Rwl River. Its wiiltli on the forty-ninth parallel is tifty-two miles only. Its area north of the same lint; may be estimat(;d at 55,000 sipiare miles, of which the great system of lake-s in its northern part occupies about 13,900 squan; niiles. A great par*^ of this prairie-level is wooded more or less densely, piir- tieularly that portion adjacent to the lakes. The southern part, extend- ing southward from Lidie Winnipeg, includes the prairie of the Red River valley with an area north of the forty-ninth parallel of about G,900 square mile§. The superficial deposits of this area are chiefly those of a former great lake, which has been named liy ^Ir. Warren L^'pham Lake Agassiz, and MAXITOHAN RK(JI()N. ro nt'iits, norlU- f Luke IC SlUUO ,\ie Ke>l of 4.48 piivt lies peg and u't of ils 1 formed ,ver it is Ke «>f tlie sola. To i„l prairie uie \)laces, iue breaks parallel, is lie Kiding, ve tho sea 800 feet, Un'A wUiek LnuUwivrd, i>l,out -200 lis plain are ,• more ele- Hs width ,iaU of the ,1 the great ipiare miles. lensely, pivr- ,art, extend- ,f the Ked ivbout G,900 former great JAgassiz, aud. wliich occiipied it towanl tlit; eloso of the ;,'Iacial ju'iioil. Many nf the old ohuie lilies and ln'aelii's of this lake liave lieeii traceil nut, and it ha.s been shown by (fcnrnil Warren, 1 )r. (1. M. Dawson, and tln' lirst nann'd gentlonian, that its onttlow was originally .southward to tiir Mississippi. The line silty niati'rial now tloDring the lied Rivei' plain and ( oiislituting its soil of inisur[iassci I fcrlilitv was laid down in this ancient ial Th Red and Assiniboini! Rivers have not eut very deeply into these snper- fieial deposits, having already nearly reac^hed abase level of erosion, and the surfaei; of the plain is hsvel and little furrowed by dciiudaliou. The second .steppe of the plains is bounded tntln! west by the Missouri Coteau and its northern continuations constituting the edge of the third .steppe. Its width on the forty-ninth parallel is two hundred and lifty miles, and on tins liftyd'ourlh abniit two hundred )niles, though it cannot there be so stri(;tly delim-d. its total area between these two parallels is al)out l()."),Oi)Osipiar(! niile>i. a nil nil liiiles the whole eastern portion of th great plain.s, properly so called, with an ap[iroxiiiiate .area of 7 1,000 square miles. These occupy its southern and western portion, and are continnou.s westward with those of the third ste|ii)e. The present rivers have ai:ted on this region for a much longer time than on the last, and with the advantage of agreatcr height abov<; base level ; ami now Ijow with unifnrm though often swift currents, in wide trough-like valleys excavated in the soft material of the plains, and frenueiitly depres.sed from one hundred to three hundred feet Ix-low the general surface. In these valleys the comparatively insignilicant streams wander from side to side in tortuous channels, which they leave imly at times of flood. The surface; of this steppe is al.so more diversiiied than tlie last, being broken into gentle swells and uinlulation-;, partly due to the present denuding agencies, luit in part also to original iiieipialities in the deposition of the drift material which constitutes the superlicial formation. Tiie average altitude of this region may be stated as IGOO f(!et, and its soil and adaptability for agri- culture dill'er considerably in its diil'erent portions, though it is generally fertile. The third or highest steppe of the plains may be .said to have a gen- eral normal altitude of about .'5000 feet, though its eastern edge is usually little over 2000 feet, and it attains an elevation of 1000 feet at the foot of the Rocky Mountains. Its area between the parallels aljove defined, and including the high land and foot-hills along thi ba.se of the mountains, is about 134,000 square miles, and of this the greater part is almost entirely devoid ox forest, the wooded region being chiefly confined r"^ ISO CANADIAN (JK{)L<)(;Y. I'' ,; I ti^ U) ii poitidii of its iiortlicni ami iiurtli-westfrn oxtcnsion near tlif North oit;-kat('lic\v.iii Kivcr iUnl it's tiiljiitarics. It;^ lircailth on Uw forty-nintli parallel is four Imihlreil ami sixty-live miles, ami its eastern hoiimlary is there well marked, hein;^' the lirokeii hilly eoiiiitiy known as the Cntvaii ih' Mixsiiiiri, or (ireat Coteau. This crosses the International lioundary near the one hnmlred ami fourth meridian, and thcMice runs cast of the Old Wives' Lakes to the Sontli Saskatchewan, and is then continued to the north l)y a ran;,fe of hi^di lands, of which the Kai^le Hills constitute I»ait, to tiie elliow of tin,' North Saskatchewan, and licyoml that river prohalily to the 'I'hickwood Hills. This ]»ortion of the ^^reat plains is inucli more diversilied than either of those; before descrihed. It has lieen elevated to a ;^n'eater heiLjht above the sea level, and act((d on to a much ,i,'reater extent by eroding aj^'cnts, both in later Tertiary tinn; ami subse(|iient to the glacial peri.id. Those portions of its surface whitdi still remain l)Ut liitle modiiied, form table- lands such as those of the Cypress Hills and Wood Mountain. The inuiiense denudation which has taken place is evidenced by the size and depth of the valleys of the streams, the great ravines and " coulees " which have been cut and are still extending tluiinselves among th(! soft sandstones and clays of the Cretiiceous and Laramie formations, and the isolated plateaus and l)Uttes which now stand far out on ] lains of lower level, seamed with newer systems of drainage. l)eposits belonging to the glacial period, with transported liouldersand gravel, are found over almost the entire area of the highest steppe, but are spread less uniformly than on the lower levels, and the surface is often based almost directly on the Cretaceous and Laramie beds. This is ample pi'oof that previous to the glacial period the surface was much more rugged and worn than it is, now that the glacial deposits have tilled many of the d(;eper hollows and given rounded and flowing outlines to the whole. In the foot-hills of tin; R(jcky Mountains the previously undisturbed l)eds of the plains are thrown into wave-like Hexures and compressed folds, which the surfac(! partici])ates in to a lesser degree, a.ssuining the form of crest-like parallel ridges which fre(iuently possess considerable uniformity. The nature of the soil and jirospective agricultural value of this great district are too varied to allow of generalization. Tlunigh it must be regarded rather as a grazing than a farming region, it presents frequently an excellent soil, and when the rainfall is suHicient and the altitude not too great, consideral)le connecteil tracts may yet be brought under cultivation. MAMTOIiAN KKcaoN. 181 Xoi'tli (if tlio Xortli Siisk;itclit'\Viiii 11(1 extensive treeless plains oce III' ill till' ceiitial ie^idii of ijit; conliiieiit, ami tiie forest country of tho east forms a wiile unlproUcii connection with that of the northern part of Ih'itish Columhia, ami though prairies of very attractive character are found near the I'l-ac'e IJiver, th"y an; limited in area and isolated liy helts of woodland. The width of tiie Mcso/.oic and Tertiary plain .ijiathially diminishes to th(! north, lieini^' less than lUO miles near the lifty-sixth parallel, and it is possihly completely interrupted north of the sixty- second parallel hy the inosi'ulation of the pahi'ozoic rocks of the east and west. In the liasin of the I'eace, the lower areas are covcreil superlii'ially by fine silty (h'luisits reseudilinL;' thos^; of the Ived Iviver valley, and doubtless indicaliiij,' a former j,'reat lake or extension of the si a in time immediately sui;ceedini,' the j^dacial period. th Though thus so remarkably simph^ and ilelinite in its ^laiul features the interior re-ion of the continent shows manv irregularities in detail Th second steppe has some elevations on its surface as hi,t,di as tiie cdLje of the third plateau, and that part siirroundiii-- the Assinilmiiie Kiver and its tributari les is aluKU'inally depiesseil, cau. ing some portion- .f th e eastern eilj^'e of this prairielevel wlii(di overlook Manitoba Lake, more to resembh; outliers than integral parts of it. The transvci'se water-sheds wliii'li 1 iiiinnl tl II' ilramau'e area o { tl Saskat(.'hew III aiKl [ivers tl null and north, tlciU'^li coiiipara- tively low and diifusi', and iiisi^nilii'ant as geological boundaries, are important geograiihically. Taken as a whole, however, the central por- tion of the .I)ominioii may lie regarded as a great shallow trough, of which the western edge is foniied by the Rocky .Mo'iiitaiiis, the east("rn by the Laureiitiaii axis, Inil in wliirli the western portion of the Hour is now, ([)robal)ly as the result of I'ost-Tertiary elevation,) liigluT than its eastern rim. ( »f tin! area as at lirst delined, extending from the lifty- fourth to the forty-ninth parallels, the great Saskatchewan Kiver and its tributaries drain by far the largest part, or about 139,000 sipiare miles. The Red Kivi.'r and its tributary the Assiniboine drain 70,.")()() sipiare miles and the vallevs of the iiuu'erous smal stream.-- Ill iwing 111 to th \\' mnipeg group -f 1; IKCS, iiududinif the area of the lakes theni.selve.s, drain 52,800 si[uare miles. The upper luanclu's of the Mi.ssouri, and especially those of its tributary the Milk Kiver, drain a considerable area to the south, embracing about 22,800 sipiare inile.s, while to tin; south of the tirst named parallel the tributaries of the Mackenzie drain an area of about 10,000 miles only. The total area of prairie country between the .same limits, including that of all three stejipes, may lie estimated at 18: CANADIAN (IKOT.OCV. }l\l I l!)l3,000 ,s(iu;irt' mill's. Tlii>ii;^'li iinii'li n|' tlii> iiica is ikiI uhsolutely troc'losH tlu! n^';,'ri>giilo trot'-clatl iiroii is iclutivdy iiisigiiilicniit. ( Ii;iii.(k;v, TIk' main i^'i'uln^ical fi'atures df tiic crntiMl ami wcstmi iiurlimi of tin.' ])()iniiiiiin have Ihmmi IhucIkmI on in iipinn'ctinii with its |iiiysical structure. In tln^ i-rcscnt section lln-y an' (Uitlim-il in more systematic form. 'I'lic eastern mar^'in nf tiii; i^'real interior conlini'iital l»asin is ('oini)ose(l of Silurian ami l)evoniaii rocks, \vlii(;li, rot iiiif almost liovi/.ontally on the upturned and ,<,'reatly dentiileil niari,'in of tlie Liurentian ami Hunuiian, form a lu'lt of varyiiiLf width whirh appears to exteml witli little or uo interruption from Minnesota to tho shores of the Arctic Sea. Recent investiL,Mtious of the fauna of these rocks by !Mr. Whiteavcs show that the Trenton formation is most widely .spread ahotit the shores of I.ake Winnipe,u', \vhil(!th(! horizon of the Hudson liiver is represented on the lake at the moutli of tlie Little Saskati'hewan as well as at Stony Mountain in the Red River valley. In lite vicinity of Selkirk in the same valley the fossil.s are those of the (laleiia limestone of the west, iMluivaleut to the Utica. On Manitolia and \Vinnipegosis Lakes JJevon- ian limestones occur. The SiluroCambriau and Devonian roeksof the Red River ami Win- nipeg Lake region are for the most part i)ale grey or butr-coloiired mag- ne-sian limestones. From Methy Portage northward it seems that I)evon- ian rocks constitute almost the (Mitire width of the I'aheozoic belt. They appear on the Clearwater and Athabasca Rivers as bituminous limestones and shales, which are referred by Meek, fiom their fo.ssils, to the Hamilton and Oene.see formations. In this region these rocks yield large (jnantities of petroleum, which, exuding from them, saturates the over- lying superlicial materials and Cretaceous sandstones and gives rise to " tar springs '' along the banks of the river.s. Salt springs also occur, and these are found to characterize the I)evonian rocks s mthward to Red River, though no certain indications of petroleum have yet been observed south of ^lelhy Portage. The Cretaceous and Tertiary rocks occupy the entire breadth of the interior continental region from the belt of Siluro-Cainl)rian and Devonian limestones last noticed, to the eastern edge of the Cordillera belt. These rocks correspond in their widespread and homogeneous gen- eral character, to the uniformity of the great plains which they underlie, and may be characterized in a few words, North of the forty-ninth parallel, the Systems represented — so far as MAMTORAN I{K(iI<)N. I S3 at iii't'sciit kiiDwii -111'' tlif Ci'i'tiK'rdiis mill Tt'i'tiiUT. In the (•ii>t('ni [Mir- tioii of tlic rcijioM, ':ii' Civtiiceniis. owim.; to tlif iiiimth.' df j,'ljifial ilo- po.sits, is ill :,'('iii'ral, pmirly ex postal, Inn jn miKt i'cs|i(cts icsciulilfs tln' strata oi tlie saiiio tv^r, sluiiii'tl liy Missis. Mcrk ami llayili'ii in tin.- con'rspniiiliii;^ pnrtiiiii nf the NN'cslcni States. It iiiav l"' airaiii^cil as folluw.s, in (loscomliii^' (inlcr : — l''iiX Hill Sniltlstnlll'H. Kiirt I'ifrri" Clays. Nilihriirii .Mail.t. Flirt Ufiiti'ii CliiVH anil LinieftfUie. Diikota .Siiml-'toiK's and Clay, For details soe Pt. ii., p. 107. 8i> far a.s at prcsont kiiuwn. IkmIs of tlio Dakota or lowest sul)ilivision of tho MissMuii Cretaceous occuiiy a very small portion of the siirfaet! in ^ranitoiia anil the Xortli-west Territory. Sainlstoiies ami sliales possihiy of this ai^i! oe(;nr at the lia.se of the sei'tion on Swan llivrr, west of WinnipeLfosi.s Like, ami fos.sil plants of this .staj,'e are fouml ainoiiL,' the iipturneil bases of the lioeky Mountain foot-hills. The Henti;!! ;iiiil Xiolirara snh-divisions (loealiy scareely separalile) are represeiiteil in the esearpiiieiit west of \Vinnipe,L,'(>sis and .Manitoha Lakes liy piaelii'ally liorizoiital, dark i^ray clay shales intorhedded with layers of rliaiky liiiio- stone and lian Is of sandstone. Similar mrks run southwaid aloii^^ the base of tho Peinbimi escarpment, tiie greater part of which is composed of I'ierre shales. Tho lower dark shales met with in the vieinity of tile L'[tper Milk River are al.so regarded as oquivaleiit to the Jieiiton, or Denton and Xiobrara, while tho Fort St. John shales of l^eaco River are referred to the Benton. It is prol)ahle that tiie r.i-lly River ami I )un- vegaii series, su1)se(iuently noticed, approximately represent the Xiobrara, thouglidinering much from more easterndevelopmeiits of that sul)-divisioii. The Pierre or next overlying group is in point of extent the most important of tho sub-divisions of the Cretaceous in tho X'orth-West, its characteristic dark shales or shaly-clays underlying a great part of the prairie country. The sliales freiineiitly contain ironstone nodules, and in some jtlaces arenaceous Ia3'ers also ap[)ear and are generally found to become more important in approaching the mountains. The lithological character of this group is, however, on the whole, remarkably uniform, and Ijeds are occasionally found in it which are highly fossiliferous. The highest bods of the Cretaceous .sj-stein proper, the Fox Hill, are closely related to the Pierre, and form in many places a series of passage beds between the Cretaceous and the overlving Lnraniie formation. "When 184 CANADIAX (JEOLOOY. ■fi;, most (•haractoristically developed they consist of sandstone and yellowish samly shales. N'liticcs of the fossils of tlic western Cretaceous will be found in Part II., and nior(! fnll dciails as lO tin.' iiiarin(! invertelirates in the lii'imrts on ^lesozoic Fossils by ^Ir. Whiteaves of the (leologieal Survey. Overlyinir the Cretaceous proper in jiertuct conformity, isa^rcat series of esluarine and fresh-water beds whieh may collectively bt; refcrreit to the Laramie formation. Xo ((uestion in western ifcjolo^iy has Lfivi'U rise to so much discu.ssion as that of tiie Cretaceous or Eocene a^c of these beds. It is one which depends almost entirely on the apjtarently con- Hictini,' evidence of the vertebr .le, inolhiscan and vegetable fossils which they (.'ontain, and one wiiich cannot here be entered into. It may snliice to •, 'e that while the vertebrates are of types regardeil as Cretaci'ous, the plaiiL. and molluscs r('send)le most closely those of Tertiary beils (jf other regions. The mollu.scs l)eing, howevcn', for the most l)ait, fresh-water forms, are not so characteristic as marine shells would be. The formation is really a transition one, but is closely attacheil to the Cretaceous by its c<'mpli'te stratigraphical conforinity with that formation. The most eastern locality of these b(!ds is Turtle .Mountain, on the forty-ninth parallel, where they form a (!onsikish water series, consisting of sandy argillitesand sandstones. This has Ijeen called the lielly Kiver series, and appears to oorrespmul precisely to that occupying a sinular stratigraphical position on the Peace Kiver, and there designated the Dunvegan si-ries. It indicates the nccurrence of a pro- longed inti'rval in the western Cretaceous area, during which '.he sea was more or less exchuled from the region, and its place occupieil for long periods l)y lagoons or fresii -.vater lakes. Though the Dakota series is the lowest representative of the Creta- ceous known to occur in the area of the [ilains, and has there been observed to rest on Paheozoic rocks, still older Cretaceous beds come to the surface in the corrugated region of the footdiills, and exist also in more or less conijiletely isolated troughs or in folds in the Kocky Mount- ains north of the forty-ninth parallel. These bods hav(! a thiekuess of, at least, 7000 feet and have lieen named the Kootanie series. They con- tain a peculiar flora consisting laigcly of cycads and conifers, and at their base marine fossils of lower or middle Cretaceous age have In-en found. It is proliable that the shore-line of the sea in which these lieils were laid down oecu[iied a pt)sition not far to the east of the jiresent border of the fooldnlls. If we regard the J )akota, lienton and Ni(jbrara as Miildle Cretaceous (see Part II.), the Kootanie may be takiui to re^>resent a part, at lea ^ of the Lower Cretaceous. This corres[)onils with the indications of the fossil plants; tor while tho.se of the Kootanie beds are cyi.'ads, conifers and ferns, akin to tiiose of the Wealden and Triassic of other countries, those of the Dunvegan and lielly Kiver are of more modi'rn type like those of the Upi)er Cretaceous elsewhere. The diH'erences of oiiinion among geologists in th(; Cnited States respect- ing the age of the Laramie may be partly explained by the (h.-velopnieiit of this formation in Canada. In the Wesi.ern or IJow Kiver district this formation may be tabulated as follows, in descending order ; — 1. Porcupine HiU hi''cck Scries — in wliicli red clays iiredDiiiiiiate. and wiiicli lias afforded no fossils. 3. St, Mar;/ Mirer Series. — Cliieffy grey clays witli fessil plant,s.* ' Reports of Geol. Survey for details. 180 CANADIAN GEOLOCJY. Ill the Siuiiis district, nearer tin; liduiidary of the United States, as stated in I'ai't II., tlic nppiT mcnibcr is represented by the oontinnatidn of the Furt I'nion gn)Ui> of tlio ^Missouri and the hnvor nicinln'r l>y the Dad Lands {^'roup, the middle menil)er l)uing absent. In Itoth districts the iipi)er intMuber contains a rich Hora of modern genera of exngcns, sucli as Pojvtinx, P/afanits, Ciinjlnfi, i*ec., and the species resemble tliose of tlie Eocene elsewhere, and there are also ]\Iolltiscs of Eocene type.* The lower nicinber holds a flora similar to tliat of the iSelly Kiver Scries in the nppcr Cretaccsous, and has also ailnnicd reptilia remains of creta- ceous types. It is proljable, thi'refore, that the Laramie may ultimately be diviilcd, the lower part being placed with the Cretaceous and the upper with the Eocene. The hinn.^aurs and small mammals described by .Mar.'^li, fidm the Laramie of the rnited States, and referred to the Cretaceous probably belong to the lower membcr.f The Cretaceous and Laramie Ix'ds (if the whole eastern portion of tlie interior Continental region are almnst alisoluti'ly horizontal, or affected by such slight inclinations that no dip is (jbservable in individual section.^. The beds nf both .series have, however, ]>articipated in tlie western uplift of this ]iart of the Continent, and are found at evi^r-increasing angles on approaching tin; liocky ]\Iountain.s. Near the base of th(! range they are also finmd to show more pronounced undulation.s, and in a narrow belt ahmg the foot of the mountains are .shar])ly folded and contorted, l.'^o- lated areas of thf^.se newer rocks have also been found in the Kocky ^Mountains thenl^elves. The most inijiortant study depending on the question of the Cretaceous and Laramie rocks of the North- West, is that of the fuel supply. Li the eastern region, lignites of fair (piality and workaljle thickness occur in the Laramie rocks of the Souris district, but have .so far not been found in the underlying Cretaceou.s. Further west the Cretaceous also becomes a coal-bearing formation, and in the vicinity of the iiow and Lelly, import- ant lignites or coals have; now been found in the Kootanie series (anthra- cite of r>o\v I'ass,) Lelly Kiver series (Medicine Hat, etc.); base of the Pierre (Lethbridge, etc.) ; top of the I'icrre (Bow River) and in tlie lower sub li vision of the Laramie (lUackfoot Crossing, etc.) In the Peace Kiver district seains wlii(;li may prove to be of a workable char- acter have licen found so far only in tin; Dunvegan .series. The fuels *See iLijii'i-.s by tlie .-luthDr, Trans. Koy.al Sue. of Cixnada, also rei)oi-ts of Dr. (i. M, Dawson and .Mr. \Vliiteave.«i. t Anicrican Journ of Science. MANIT015AX REGION. is; G. M. fouiiil in the urea of tlie plains may be cliavacterizod ^^enerally as li^'nites, but on approaching tlie mountains tluise are found to contain a decreasing percentage of water, and eventually, in the footdiills and areas included within til'.' lirst limestone range, freipiently become true coking l)ituminous coals, and in niie instance, as above stated, liave actually been converted into an anthracite which contains 80 per cent, of fixed carbon. The Pleistocene deposits of tliis great interior region are of much interest, and are thus ilescribed by J)r. (r. M. Dawson : — * 1. ilhii'ial PlirnoDii'na of tho Laxnntian Aji'is. — Ikginning with the glacial phenoiiKnia of the Laurentian axis, we may nutice the ai)pearances jiresenled in llie neighl)orhi)od of the I.ak(> nf tln' ^V(Mlds didy, where this a.xis is intersected by the forty -ninth parallel ; but, from the similarity of the traces of glacial action even in very distant parts (if the I.anrentian region, this will serve in some sen.se as a representation of its general features. The Lake of the Woods, as a whole, occui)ies a depression in the snuth- ■western slupi? of the Laurentian region. It is over 7U miles in extreme length, and has a coastdine of between .'500 and 400 miles. Its mn'thern part is comparatively deep, reaching in some places a depth <,)f over 80 feet. Its general form has been deteruiineil by that of an area of less highly altered rncks, which are probably Huriuiian ; and the iletails of its outline even follow very closely the chfinging character of the rock, spreading out over the schistose and thinly cleavable varietii's, and In'com- ing narrow and tortuous where compact dioritic rocks, greenstone ciui- glomerate, and gneiss prevail. Its shores are almost invariably composeil of solid rock with the rounded forms characteristic of ice-ai'lion, and dip rapidly l»elow the surface of the water, fornnng a bold coast, sandy or gravelly beaidies Vicing comparatively rare. It is studded with innumer- able islands, which vary from those several miles in length to mere water- wasted rocks. The islands, like the mainland, are seen, where not covered with luxuriant vegetation, to be composed of round-backed rocks. ( hdy where the rocks are of a specially soft and schistose charaeter has tin? action of the waters of tlie lake had sullicient eil'ect on them to form clills. The southern part of the lake is very dillerent : there are few islands ; the water is not deep ; and the whole .southern shore is formed by low lying deposits of sand and detrital matter. Where rock surfaces ajipear, however, they are like those of the northern part of the lake, leavilv aciati. Jdunial of Geol, Soc. of Lnndon, l^lTt. 188 CANADIAN GEOLOGY. All the harder rcjcks uf the reL;ii>ii still show with tlie utmost perfec- tion tlie scratching and grooving,' of the glacial period; and stuiie of the more compact granitcH and intrusive dioriles retain a surface still perfectly bright and polished. On a sniall scale even the hardest and most homo- gen(!ous of the rocks show a tendency ni the longer axis of their eleva- tions to paralhdism with the glacial markings. Though the general direc- tion of the northern part of the lake also follows that of the ice-action, it is at the same time that <>i the belt of lluronian rocks alrt-udy men- tioned. The course of the glacial stiia' is extremely uniform, and, from a great nunil)er of oljservations in ditlV'rent parts of the lake, is found to vary through a few points only, lying between north-north-east and south- south-west and north-oast and south-west. Slight deflexions, sometimes ol)served, are generally traceable to deviation of the ice liv nuisses of resistent rock running athwart its course, the stria' always shnwing a tendeiii'V to liend toward the more level regions, and away froui the more elevated (ir rugged parts, At a few ]ila('es in the southern part Lake of the Woods ; and on the Koseau Kiver, also, indications of the underlying bouldi'i'-clay are found. In geni'ral, however, the few sections which exist do m.t penetrate sullicieiitly deep to show this deposit. An interesting cniitirmation of the general direction already stated for the glacial action, is found in the composition of the materials of this plateau. Its eastern side, fronting on Lake Superior, is very abrupt, and seems Ui be held up l)y a ridge of hard old rocks, which li(!re and there appears from beneath it. Ascending to the jjlateau-level from the extreme Avcst'Tii point (if Lake Superior, l)y tlie Northern Pacific liailway, the drift is seen to have a reddish-purple colour, which continues, though gradually becoming less marked, for .some distance after attaining the summit. The colour then changes to the pale, yellowish gray which is generally characteristic of the drift of this plateau. The red drift is derived from the red rocks of the border of the lake, and is found almig its whole southern side. It is here buiimliMl liy a lim; lying a short dis- tance back from the north-western shore and nearly parallel to it. This western edge of the red drift has been already noticed by Whittlesey in his pajier in the Smithsonian Contrilxitions. The surface of the plateau is very generally strewn with erratics; and some of them are of great size. They arc chiefly derived from the Laureiitian and Iluronian to the north ; but there are also many of white limestone.* 3. Liiiri'M Prairii'-Ijpri'l and Valh'ij nf tin' R''roliably lieloiigs to the great lake of a later pi'riod. Stones of any kind are very seldom found on this prairie. They have no doulit l)een brought to their prc.->eut jjosition l>y the shore-ice of the lake itself, and are similar to those as.sociateil with the drift-deposits of its bounding escarpments. A.sceiiding the front of the western escarpment, it is found, as might ilmo.4 Kvve been foreseen, to lie terraced ; and on leaving the alluvial flat, boulders are again found aliundantly, l)oth strewii. the teiraces and the summit of the " mountain "" or second prairie-steppe. The terraces not only occur on the front of this escarpment, but extend westward along the banks of the great valley of Pembina River, which at the time of their formation must have been an iniet of the lake, and is therefore probably of pre-glacial age. i. SrcnniJ Prairii'-Platran. The surface of the second jilateau or stejipe of the plain appears to be almost everywhere very thickly covered ■with drift deposits ; and the undulations and slight irregularities of its contour, seem, in the main, due to the arrangement of the.se surface materials, which, thongh no doubt somewhat nuxliHcMl by subseii[Uont denudatiiui, do not seem to have suflered much. Over large areas no systems of " coulees " or stream-valleys are to bo found ; and the generally undulated surface must l)e due to origiiuil inequality of deposition, though a certain (piantity of material has no doubt been removed from the rounded hillocks into the intervening basin-like swamps and hollows. ■ .L i iJWH Wi mm 'T . tiMU or s of its surface sequent reus no ■luTiilly tiiOUL,'ll (111 tlie lolluws. MAMTOl'.AX l{K(;i()X. 191 Such iiii iuraii,L;fiiiL'iit not only iniiilics the porous naturt; of the sul)-s((il, but is in acconlaiice with the coiuparativtjly vt-ry small rainfall of tho r(',Ltioii, auil wouKl t'-nd tu show liiat at no tinic! since its enieri^'cncc has till' precipitation Ix'cn ,L;rcat. It was oIjsovvciI thiit in many places buulilers ami gravel are ei[ually abundant on the crests of the j,'enlle r: Iges and hillocks and in the hollows, while they arc comparatively seldom seen on the intervening slo})('s. A similar oljservation has been made by Prof. I5(dl in a part of the second st(!ppe consi(h'ral)ly further north, and Would ti'ud lo show slight erosion of liie irface by marine cui rents sul)- sequent to tin' deposition of the heavier materials. The drift material is found gi.'uerally to consist in great part of lucal debris derived from the immediately underlying soft formations ; l)Ut this is always mixed with a considenilih; ([uantity of far-lrans[)orted material, which is generally most abundant in the upper layers. Largo erratics are in s.Jine localilicts very plentifully strewn (jver the plains, luit they seem to bt; almost always superficial. They an; giMierally of Laur- entian rocks : but whitish and yellowish limestone, derived from tho Silurian, flanking the western base of tho Laurentian region, is abundant. A bank in Long-River Valley shows an interesting section, about 30 feet of drift, resting on Cretaceous clay or shale. < )f the drift the lower por- tion is composeil of stratilied sands and gravels, which are evidently false- bedded. The peljbles are chiefly of the underlying rock, wiiich, though soon splitting up under suljaereal influences, has been hard enough to bear rounding under water. There are also a few examples of rocks of foreign origin, and tiie whole arranged in a manner implying a very strong flow of currents in ditl'erent directions. About 11 feet from the top of the bank the false beilded layers end abruptly, being cut olf by a well- marked iiorizontal plane. Above this the bedding is nearly horizontal, and the drift inchules many travelled boulders of Laurentian and white limestone, some of them large, together with much small Cretaceous stuff. Large boulders are also al)undant, protruding from the surface of the prairie above. In otlu.'r places similar hard, yellowish, sandy clays are met with, but with little sign of stratification, holding nuuiy well glaciated stones, and thus resembling true till or boulder-clay. "With reference to the origin of the boulders ami travelled stones the following table shows the proportions of different kinds of rock in a great number of samples taken frem different parts of the second prairie steppe : L.iurenti.in 28.49 Huroiiian 9.71 Liniestdiic .')4.01 Quaitzite Drift Lit 19:.' CANADIAN GE0L0(;Y. Tlio LiUiii'iitiaa nntorial, consistin.L; of j,'raiuti's and j^'iieisscs, are easily di8tiiij,'uislial)lo. Those classed as lluroiiian are (jhiiffl}' lianl, L^rccnish, opid()ti(.', and lidrnblendic altered rocks. It is intorestinfj Lo ousorvethat the proportional importance of the Laurentian ami Jluronian, thus ascer- tained for till! drift, is nearly that uf their areas where thry have heen niap]ied. The limestone is that of the Haidvs of the Laurentian axis; and its j,'reat abundance is an interesting feature, and one tending to nrovt! that this rock must in preglacial times have lappccl far up on the Laurentian. These three classes arc ilcrived from the north-east or east. The fourth, or QuarfrJfr drift, is a general name which may be applied to that coming from the Kocky Mountains, which, although not entirely comjjosed of ([Uartzile, is characterized by the great aljundance of that material, and has a peculiar and distinctive appearance. ( )n the siufari! of this prairie-level there iccur some remarkable ele- vated regions, which seem to be entirely com])Osed of accutnulated ilrift materials. The most promiiuMit of these are iiKduded ttmler the names of Turtle Mountain, Moo.-.tion.s, the only one which 1 have personally exam- ined is that known as Turtle Mountain, wdiich is bisected by the forty- ninth parallcd, and forms the most southern of the series. It is a region of broken hilly ground., which may be about 20 miles sc^uare, and is for the most part thickly wooded — a circumstance which renders it a specially prominent feattire when vieweil across the prairie. Its extreme height is not more that 500 feet above the prairie at its base ; and its general elevation is a little more than 2,000 fecit above the sea, or nearly the same as that of the surface of the Coteau, On approaching it from the east, the already gentle-swelling plain l)ecomes more markedly undul- ating, small basin-likt! swamps and ponds are more frecpient, ami its junction with the region of the ".Mountain" would l)e tindetinaV)le liut for the linntiiig border of the wood.s. The western end of the mountain is more abrupt towards the plain, and is much diversified with ridges, between which lie swamps and lakes, which show a general tendency to arrangement in north-and-south lines. Towards the eastern end there are somewhat euteusive areas of gently tuidulating land, though always characterized by the abundance of pools and swamjjs. Notwithstanding the apparent abundance of water, there tire few brooks or drainage- MANITOHAN RKCSIOX. m ntaiu itlges, ley to there llways ln(lin<' inage- vallcy.i, anil the streams whieh (ht occwv are (|uite small. Tin; siufaeo seems vi.'ry nearly that of the drift as originally deiiositf.-d, thouj,di sulli- cicut HiK! material has l)een washed from tiio ridges to render the inter- vening iiollosvs llat-liottomed. f). K'/iji' i)f tilt' Third Pmirit'-P/af'-aii. — ( )ne hundred and tw'uty miles west of Tnrtl(! Mountain tliesecoml [trairie-plalcau conu's loan end against the fiiotof the great ludt of drift ihjposits known as the Missouri Cotcau. IJeyond this ]iuint three diverse zones of country cross the forty-ninth parallel nliliipicly with a west -north-west course, in the order suhjoiut'd : — 1. Tumulluously hilly country l)ascd on a great thickness of drift, and forming tlie Coteau de Missouri properly so called. 2. Flat-topped n-ah r.^lnil ji/dfirui, formed of rocks of the Lignite Tertiary, and constituting a part of the first tranverse watershed already descrilu'il. 3. Lower, hrokcii-down region, south of the plateau, partly based on the Lignite. Tiirtiary, and characteri/ed by gorges and large valleys di'aining towards the Missouri. The .second region can perliaps hardly l)e said to cross the line, but app(!ars immediaUdy north of it. ( )n the line and southward the streams Howing to the Missouri rise near the southern edge of the first division, the greater part of the plateau liaving succundxMl to d(!iniding agencies. The Missouri Coteau is one of the most important features of the western plains, and is c(!rtaiidy the most romarkabli; monument of the Glacial period now existing th(,'re. On the 49th parallel, the breadth of the Coteau, measured at light angles to its general course, is al)out 30 miles ; and it widens .s(,mewhat northward. ( )n aii[troacliing its base, which is always W(dl defineil at a distance, a gradual ascent is made, amounting in a distance of 25 miles to over 150 feet. The surface at the sami; time l)ecomes more mark(Mlly undulating, as on Hearing Turtle Mountain from the oast, till, almost Ijefore one is aware of tlie change, the trail is winding among a confusion of abrujitly rounded and tumultuous hills. They consist entirely (jf drift material ; and many of them seem to be formed almost altogether of boulders and gravel, tlie liner matter having l)een to a great extent washed down into the hollows and basin-like valleys without outl(;ts with which this dis- trict abounds. The riiiges and valleys have in general no very dettjr- mined direction; but a slight tendency to arrangement in north-and-south lines was observable in some places. The boulders and gravel of the Coteau are chiefly of I.,aurentiau origin, with, however, a good deal of the usual white limestone and a Jip i l !'^'!^ M ip- b i i 194 CANADIAN CJKOLOOY. slij^'ht iidinixture <>f tin: ([Uartzitc tlrift. Tin; wIidIi- of llic ("olcni-lKilt is chaructorized l)y the iil)SL'iic(! of ilmiiiaj,'t'-Viill«ys ; ami in cdiisciniciicc its pools iuul lakes are oftoii cliarj,'(Ml witii salts, of which suliihiitcs of soila and ma^'iicsiii art; thi; most almiidaiit. The saline lakes frcijiiently dry up cotnpli'tely towards the end of tiic sinnnier, and present wide (expanses of white elllorescent crystals, which (lontrast in colour with the crimson Saliconn'a with which they are often frint,'en and ai^'ainst this<,'eutly inclined plane the immense drift deposits of the Coteau hills aic iiileil. The average elevation of the Coteau aliove the sea, near the forty-ninth parallel, is about "JOOO feet; and f<'W id' the hills rise mure ijiaii 100 feet above the general lev(d. Ijetween the south-western side of tin,' Cnteaii licit and the Tertiary plateau is a very interesting region with characters of its own. Wide and deep valleys with .systems of trilmtary cniilees have lieen cut in the soft rocks of the northern fo(jt of the plateau, .some of which have small streams still flowing in them feil by its drain:ige ; but for the most part they are ilry, or occupied by chains of small .saline lakes which dry up early in the summer. Some large ami deep saline lakes also exist which do not disappear even late in the autumn. They have a winding, river- like form, and fill steep-sided valley.s. These great old valleys have now no outlet ; they are evidently of preglacial age, ami have formed a part of the former sculpture of the country. The hea])ing of the great mass of debris of the Coteau againit!ooino more hrnkcii ami less ilcliniic. In Dr. II(!(;tiiartzito Drift iVJ.lO Though the |icrcentage of Lauventian material appears nearly the same as before, the m\ich smalli-i' total ([uantily of drift on this level must be remenilxu'ed. A mark of inlermgation is put after llunmian, to in saiidv matrix \\i H ^daciatfd stones, liotli from tlic moiintaiiis ami from the east, and also a <,'reat ((uantity of di'Iiris frnin the softer iiiiderlyiii„' beds, anion;,' which .are fi'a;_'iiieiits nf liLtnite fmni tin- Tertiary. 'I'liese deposits of till, thniiLili generally massive and weatheiin;,' intn rinkdy colnmiiar forms in jierpeiidiciilar hanks, often show traces of lieildim,' and arraii^'emeiit in \Viiter ; and falsc-ltediled sandy masses are fnimd aliriiptly cut olf ahove tlio confused hoiildery clay. The shiii;_'le deposits of the lii^dier levids may jierhaps he formed partly from tlie reananu'ciiieiit of this material ; they are at hast supeiior to it. The width of the thil'il steppe, nil the line, is ahout \^>0 llliU'S ; hut it narrows rapidly northward. Its suri'are is more diversified and worn than that of either of the other prairii' levels ; and tin' occurrence and features id' the drift are less const lilt i-'ollowiiiL,' it westward, and in the main slowly risiiii,', l.iuiviitiaii and Eastern liiiiesloiie liniildcrs con- tinue tn (irciir to within almut l'") miles nf the hase of the Kneky .Moun- tains, at ii lii'i;-;ht id' ahout llJOU feet. The distainit! of IIkjsc; lrav(dled lilocks from the nearest part of the I.aiirentian rc;4ion i.s over 700 mile.s. 1 iCVollll th is 'loini eastern ami ami imr diei'ii I'oi'ks were not found : hut that the deprrssioll nl the cnlltillelit ceased here cailliot he arL,'Ued from this fiict ; I'nr hy this time the wlmle (d' the l.auieiitian highlamls wnuld 1 )ii .siilimer''eil On the luLjher prairie, sIojiIhh; up towards tlio mountains, the drift i.s entirely c-omposed of material derived fmin them, and consists of qnart- zito, with softer shaly and slaty rocks, and limestone, which is Ljeiierally distiii,L,'uishahle from that of the eastern origin. No granite or gneissic rocks oi'cur in the vicinity of the forty-ninth paralhd, or northwards in .llritish America, in tlio eastern ranges, so far as i.s known. Southwards, in ]\roiitaiia, granites and gneisses arii found underlying all the other for- mation.s, hut they do not apiie.ar to lie very extensively exposed. 7. Till' Jiiic/ri/ Miiiiiitainx. — The hrook issuing eastward from the mouth of the South Kootaiiie Pass has cut througli a great thi( kiiess of clean gravel drift, composed of large and uniform well-rounded i)ebbles. Above Jli ■ MANITon.VN uimioN. 197 iiiilt'S. ,1 ; l.ut from wiiulil drift is ■ ijwavt- •lu'ially i^uoirfsic iivtls ill iwai'iLs, Jut fov- it; mouth of clciiu Abovt' T llio liroiik, 111! llif llaiiks of till! luoiiiilaiiin nii tin; .smiili siili , an- scvi'i-al \vell-iii'('8frvt!tl tcrrat-'ok'VL'Is (.•oiiiposoil of siinilar iiiati'iial. 'I'lio lii^'liust (if tluvse, tl»i)ii;L,'li its alliliulo was not ai;lually iiirasiiri'ii, was csliiiiatoil from tlu! known altitiidi' of tin- Pass to lie ahuiit HUU fret alioVi' tlic sua. From the posiiioiiof iIr'si- tfrracL's, in tin! o|n;n iMstrrn tliroal of tin' pass, from wiiidi i\u: wliok; surfacir of tin- country falls rapiiUy away, llicy can hardly Ix' otiicr than old seamarks. The topo^rapliy of the n-^Mon wouM not allow nil- to (!X|>lain lliciu on any liypolliL'sis of a former moraine blockin.Lj up the valley. I'r. lleetor has nwasured similar terraces at several points aloiii,' tlio lioeky .Mountains norlli of the re;L,'ion now more especially undiT consid- eration, and stales that they may he said to ranj,'u from ."JotJO to loOO feet iihovu tile sea. He also states that in the re;,'ion examined liy him the or- dinary Laiiii'iiliaii rirati(.'s were not oliMrved altovt; 15000 feel, Init ineiitions a very remaikalilc line of lioiildiMN of ivd granite deposited on the [ilains at a hei'^ht of .'iTHU feet, wiiicli, knowing,' what we do now of the country can iiardly he -upposed lo have oihcr origin than the l.auientian axis. Aiiioii^' the Kocky Mountains themselves traces of the former action of L,diiciers art! everywhere ahumlant, thoUL,di in the part ot' the iMn^-e lu'ar the fnrly-niiilli parallel elai'ieis ilo not at pre-eiiL exist. I'liey are, how- ever, found further north. The evidence here niei with so riosely re- semhlos that found in many other mountain regions as to render it unnecessary that it siiouhl he ,i,'(Uie over in detail. Nearly all the valleys holt! veinnants of moraines, .sotni? i>f them still very perfect. The harder rocks show the usual rounded forms ; IjuL strialion was only ohserved in a sinj,'le locality, and there coincided exactly with the main direetinn of the valley. Tin- valleys radiatin,:; from the summits of ,:,'reatest idevation Imld lon^ lakes, many of which ap|iear to he dee[), and are lilled with the most pellucid water. Whether they are in all cases dammed in hy mouiiiuj matter 1 was uiiahle to determine. These lon;^'er valleys very eem-ially terminate in rfr'/ui'.-!, or amphitheatres, with almost piTpendicular hack and sides, which overlook small liut deep terminal lakelets, held in liy moraine-matter and shattered rock. In these sheltered liollows, ami on the sliaily sides of the hi^dier [)eaks, are mas.ses of [ic'reiinial snow, which have no douht kept up the direct succession from the time when great 7ieves tilled the heads of the valleys and tlu- mountains around them were comnletelv snow-clad, ninl are only waitiu'' some cluuc'e in tht climatic conditions to advance again down the old valleys and occupy the places they formerly lilled. Mi 198 CANADIAN GEOLOUY. <*^. Stati' nf fji" httitrior Rcijinu of flu' Cmtlinint prcrimts to fin' (iJarial Period.— VmiovG tlie oiipot of glacial coiulitioiis we find the coiitiiii'iit stand- ing at least at its present elevation, with its coniitlcte system of drainage from the larger river-valleys to many of their less iiiiportant tril)ntaries already outlined. Subaerial action must before this time have Ijeen in operation for a vast period, all tiie great features of the western plains having been already marked out, and the removal of a truly enormous mass of the soft and nearly Imrizontal Tertiary and Cretaceous rocks ellected. That some very considerable changes in the direction of the drainage of the country in preglacial and in modern times took place, however, is probable. An examination of the Lake-of-the-Woods region and a comparison of levels render it almost certain that the waters of the area now draiiifd liy its tributary strciims tlien found their outlet southward and westward, towards the present valley nf the 1-ied Rivcu', and that only after the blocking up of the southern region with the deposits of the drift did the waters flow over the pre-existing lireach in the northern rim of the lake, and descend over the surface of the Laur- entian to Lake Winnipeg. The Winnipeg River does not show any of the characters of a true river-valley, but consists of eroded and glaciated ruck-hollows, from one to another of which tlu; stream falls. There is also sonu) eviilence to show that the Red River itself, agreeing with the general structure of the country, flowed S(iutliwards; and if so, the Saskatchewan, loo, would probably with it join the former representa- tive of the Mississippi. This sul)ject, however, requires a more detailed di.scu.ssion th in ciui be granted it in this place. f'. Miiih' of Glaciafiou and Formation of fin' Drift Di'posit.f. — To the precise manner in which the Glacial period was initiated, the area now in (juestion gives no clue; bu there r. Ilaylen, who, more than any other geologist, has had the opportunity ni beconung familiar with all parts of the Western States. The glaciating agent of the Laurentian ]»laleau in the 1 ake-of-the- Woods region, however, cannot have bei'U other than glacier-ice. The rounding, striatiiju, and polishing of the rocks there, are glacier-work ; and icebergs floating, with however steady a current, cannot be supposed to have passed over the higher region of the watershed to the north, and then, following the ilirection of the striie and gaining ever deeper water, to have borne down on the subjacent rocks. The slope of the axis, however, is too small to account for the spontaneous descent of ordinary glaciers. In a distance of about 30 miles, in the vicinity of the Lake of the Woods, the fall of the general surface of the country is only al)out Sk feet to the mile. The lieight of tlie watershed region ncjrth-east of 200 CANADIAN GEOLOGY. k tli(! lake lias not Ix'oii actually iiu'asiired ; l)ut near Lac Soul, which closely coiTespoiids with the direction icipiired l>y i^daciation, according to Mr. Selwyn's nu^asurcnients it cannot he over 1400 feet. The height of land in other parts of the Laureiitian region is very luiifornily hetw(!cn ahout IGOO and ll'OO feet. Allowing, then, IGOO feet as a maxiinnni for tlie region north-east of the Lake of the Woods, iiid taking into acciiunt tli(! height of that lake; and the distance, the general slope is not greater than al)nut .3 feet per mile — an estimate agreeing closely with till! last, which is h/r a smaller area and ohtained in a different way. This slope cannot Ije (.'onsidereil stdficient to impel a glacier over a rocky surface which Sir William J.ogan has well characterized as " niainil- lated," unless the glacier he a conHuent one, [)ressed outwards mainly hy its own weight and mas.s. Such a glacier, 1 conceive, must have occupied the Laincnlian high- lands; aud from its wall-like front were detached tlu; icehergs which strewed the dehris over the then sul)merged ))lains, and gave rise to the various nionuments of its actioi; now foinid there. The sea, or ahody of water in coiimiunicalion with it, wliicli may have heeii during tiie lirst stages of the depression partly or almost en tirely fresh, crept slowly upwai'd ami spread west-ward across the plains, carry- 1 )uring its progress most iw' with it iceliergs Irom the east and nort of the features of the glacial deiiosits were impi'fsseil. Li the sectit)n descrihed at Long River we lind evidence of sliallow enrndit-depositeil with deepening water, planed otl' hy liaidscii![)ture of the ilrift-deposits of the second plateau may have' l)i'en proiluced. It; .seems certain, however, that the Rocky .Mountains still held compara- tively small glaciers, and that the Laurenlian region on its emergence was again clad to some extent with ice, for at least a short time. The closing episode of the Cdacial jieriod in this region, was the formation of the great fresh-water lake of the Red River valley, or first prairie-level (which was only gra "nally draiiieil), and the re-excavation of tin; river courses. It must not be concealed that there are dilHculties yet unaccounteil for by the theory of the glaciation and de]iosit of drift on the plains Ijy ice- bergs ; and chief among these is the aljseiice, whereever I have examined the deposits and elsewhere over the west, of the remains of marine ^lollusca or other forms of marine life. ^Vith a suimiergeiice as great as that necessitated by the facts it is impossiljlt; to explain the exclusion of the -sea ; for, Ijesides the evidence of the higher western plains and Rocky Mountains, there are terraces Ijctween the Lake of the \Voods and 202 CANADIAN (lEOLOGY. M ! ■< I ; ' Lake Superior nearly to the summit of the Laurentiun axis, and corres- ponding Ix-acli-marks on the face of the ncn'thern juuL of tlie second jirairie escarpment. Conspedai^ of (,'ei)lo(/ical Furmatiuns in (Iw Manitohan Rigion, irith some iijpical localitirs : — Alluviuna. Lake deposits of Red River Valley and Peace River,&c. Stratified Sands and Gravels, c.nd Moraines. QUATEUNAKY. ' , I 'pper HonlJir (.'l.iv. \ Boulder Clay or Till ' l"t«'Kli}eiiil !-"ik«. ' 'fposit. ]. of Southern Al- Teutiauv. Eocene, CliKTACK )- TKiiriAiiv, L Alt AM IK. Cretaceous. Devonian. Shako-Cam li. HlltONIAN. Lauuentian. j Ijowcr I'joiiUlur Clay. j VSIiinglo l',e,ls. ^ berta, utc. Pliocene? Saskatchewan (iravels. M iocene. Conglomerate Sandstone and Argillite of Cypress Hills, kc. Porcupine Hilh i'!^^ Fort Union. | ; .: Wapite River Laramie. V^- 'i Group. 5 X ic5 ; Paskapoo Series. K'„rthern Alberta Ednnonton Series. J Fox Hill Series. Pierre Series. Niobrara Se- ries. Benton Se- ries? Smoky River Group. Dunvegan Group. Fort St. John Group. 'A v8 Series Willow Creek Series. St. Mary River Series Fox Hill Series. Pierre Series Belly River Se- ries. Niobrara or Ben- ton Series. Kootanie Series. Limestones of Manitoba Lake, etc. Trenton Group. ] *''"'^:XvT*c. ^^'""'^'"^^ ^'''''*'' ^^'"^ ^''"'' lietween Red River Valley and Lake Su])erior. West of Lake Winnii)eg and Nortiiward, IV. THK r.KITISlI COLUMniAX KEGIOX. The description of this region lias, like the last, Ijoen taken mainly from the puhlislicd memoirs of J)r. G. ]\I. Daw.son, F.G.S., with the o.x;- ceptiiin (if the Kocky Mountain region, the geology of which has been condensed from the Rejiorts of R. 8. ^IcConnoll, 15. A. From the western edge of the great plains to the Pacific, l)etween the forty-ninth and fifty-sixth parallels, the Cordillera belt oi the west coast has an average breadth of about 400 miles. Geologically, it may be considered throughout as a region of fiexure and turmoil, and orographi- cally, as one of nu)untainfi. As compared with its development in the Western States, the Cordillera belt may here be characterized as strict BRITISH COLU>[BIAN REGION. 203 ■itlt and iiairow. To the iiorlli of Uk; tifty-sixth iiarallel it lian, as yt-t, only been traversi'il on a few lines and is very inipeifectly known topoj^raplii- cally and geoloj^'ically. It appears proljable, liowever, that a wide l)ay of eoniparatively undistnrlied Cretaceons rocks may penetrate it in the region of the upper Liard River, which tlie echelon range bordering the lower part of this stream and tlie Mackenzie may bound to the east. A southern i)i'olongation of such a range, Ijcneatli the newer rocks, may probably be indicated by the remarkable parallel Hexnres of the great rivers of the northern plains, the Liard, Peace, Athabasca antl Saskat- chewan. Jjetween the forty-ninth and tifty-sixth degrees of latitude the Cor- dillera belt is com[)osed of four great ranges ov axes of ui)lift and dis- turbance, which may be named the liocky, the Gold, the Coast and the Vancouver Mrtuntains. These are in the main nearly parallel and run in north-west and south-east bearings. In its southern part, the Rocky Mountain range has an average breadth of about sixty miles, which decreases near the iVace River to forty miles or less. Near the forty-ninth jjarallel several summits occur with elevations exceeding 10,000 feet, but northward few attain this elevation till the head-waters of the liow River are reached. Al>out the sources of the Xorth Saskatchewan and Atlialiasca the range appears to culminate, and Mounts Ih'own and Mnrchison occur witli re[nited altitudes of 16,000 and 1.3, .')00 feet respectively; near the Peace few summits exceed 6000, as far as known. Though more or less extensive snow-lields occur in many places, true glaciers appear oidy about the head waters of tlie Row, >('orth Saskatchewan and Ai iiabasca. Where the line of junction has l)een closely exiunined, great faults oci;\ir along the line of boundary between tiie Me.sozoic r(jcks of the eastern foot-hills and the pahrozoic of the mountains, and numerous similar dislocations are found in the heart of the range parallel to its general course. With the exception of a single small area on the Upper Athabasca, reported ])y Dr. Hector, no crystalline schists have been found in this range, which consists almost entirely of sedimentary rocks, largely limestones. A few Cretaceous basins, resembling in their character isolated jtortions of the eastern foothills, are included in the southern part of the range. Some of the valleys penetrating the range on the east are lightly timbered or in part prairie-like in character, but, as a rule, these mountains are thickly wooded wherever sufficient soil exists for the support of trees, and, owing to the greater rainfall on the western slopes, the forests are there often very dense. 204 CANADIAN (;p:ology. I t m n From the Iwiuulavy line iiorthwarcl, the principal i)iisses are as fol- lows : — South Kootanie Pays, elevation, 7100 feet; North Kootanie Pass, eastern (ir main summit, 0750 feet ; western summit, 0\\tL'^ ( IJi'h/nniijra/iliis, (r/aKxo- ijrapfiix, CriiptiKiraptiiti, Diiihuji'apliix, C/.iinac();/rajitii.-<, rtr.) They are held hy r,ai»wortli to he of Trenton, Utica or Idandeilo age. Some of the forms are W(dhknown .\merican and I-'uropi'aii species. I'nder these are the Camhrian, represented hy a great series of heds (Mpiivalent to those of the Castle Mountain series of the eastern h(dt and a lower series known as the liow River group. Tin; former consists largely of lime- stone and dolomite, the latter of argillite. It has all'orded fossils of the genera Paraifoxides and OlencMus, now regai'ded as of Middh; or Lower Cambrian age. . * Geol. Survey of Canada, 188G . I'.HTTISH COLUMBIAN REGION. •20/ Ill ihuir t hese icy aro Miiue of ■r tliesc Iciil tl) r sciifs t' liiiio- ot' tho Lower Tlio Camhrian fossils of tlic Rocky Mountains wore first discovered by oiHcers of till' (l('(tl{)^'icivl Survey in 18S-t, anil are noticed in McConnell's Report for liSS7. Speuinieiis liave also fountl their way to the hands of United States LjeoloLfists, ami have been described by Rounder and Walcott, who, however, ditl'cr as to their classilicatioi;.* Acccn'dinj,' ti> AVhiteaves the fossils lieloiiL,' to tiuee distinct horizons. Lower ami Midilie ( "auiliiian forms as ( Hiuilln^ and I'drci'lnxidi's, etc., were found near tin' base, and about 2000 feet hi,i,di(!r such Middle and Tpper Cam- brian forms as (J/t'noiih'.'^ and Donipiiiin witii two species of Jiaf/ii/nriin, while the up]H'r beds yi(dded /{np/iixfnnia r(ifiifi/(>riin''< and an A.-!af.'/iii.-<, and an.' therefore probably Siluro-Cambrian. The Cretaeenus rocks of the eastern V)elt consist of shales holdin;^ in .some plaee.s proilui'live beds of Antliracite coal, and they are over-ridden by the older rocks with reversed faults and folded in abrupt troughs, showin;^ that the Ljreat movements whi(di have ail'ecteil this belt are post-cretaceous. South of the region just de.scrilx'd, in the Rocky Mountains between the liftieth and forty-ninth parallels, a wide-spread flow of contempor- aneous, amvifdoloidal trap occurs in the upper [)art of the section, and is probably referable to the Carboniferous period. Above this is a thick- ness of several hundred f(,'et of red samlstones and flaf,'.i,'y magnesian .sandstones and limestones. ''Mieso doubtless represent the Trias or Jura-Trias, which with similar lithological clKUVK'ttrs is very extensively developed in the Rocky Moun- tain region further south. The conditions indicated are those of an inland lake, and the occurrence; of nnid-cracks, rii)ple-mark.s, and the impre.ssiims of salt crystals show that considera])lt; sinfaces were at times dry, or but lightly covered by water. These Ijcds have not been found further north in the range; th.in the Xorth Kootanie Pass, and it would appear pmliable that tliis is about the ancient limit of the Triassic inland sea. Al)out the Peace River, and as far north as the Liard, Triassic beds have lieen found, but they are dark shales and sandstones (piite ditferent in character, and hold marine fossils of the age of the "Alpine Trias" of the W(!stern States I'lKioiiforinably uiKierlyiug these are rocks which may now be pro- visionally cla.ssed as Cambrian, on the (iv.'dence of a few fossils found in the Coliiml)ia valley, and fmm analogy with beds described in the "Western Stales since this section was first published, though it is (piite Am. .Iimriiul of Science, 1888. 20S CANADIAN (;i;(»L()(iY. l»ossilil(.' tliiil .Siliiiian beds iiiay also be inehnli'il. In scimo places, west of the Klatlieail River, tin; icil lu-ds includiMl with these are character- i/ed liy sini-cracks, ripiile-iiiarks and prints of salt crystals precistdy reseiiihiin^' those (if the Trias and indicating' similar conditions of deposit, though of vastly j^icater an1ii|uity. Contemporaneous flows of diorite or dialtaso are also foiind at some horizons, and in tracinj,' this series of rocks, which niu^t in the aj,'j;re;,Mtc Ik; of <,'rent thickness, from point to point in the ran,t,'e, its litholoLjical character is found to hi' very varied, and the suhdivisioiis worked out in the nei^dihourhood of Watcrtown Lake, would appear to he inconstant. In the Peace Kiver district, on the tii'ty-lifth and fifty-sixth parallel, the axial mountains of the rai'Lje arc composed of massive limestones of Devonian and prohalijy also of Carboniferous aj,'e, associated with saccha- roidal (piartzites. On the west side these ap: believed to overlie a scries of aruillites which occasionally become micaix'ous schists and slates, and also include (piartzites. These rocks, which are probalily Cambrian, are known to occupy a loni; troui^di east of the Parsnip river, and cross the ^lisinchinca with considerable width. As before observed, the geological structure of the Gold Range, or second mountain axis, is little known. Camlirian rocks like those of the Rocky Mountains characterize its eastern portion, while its western side is largely composed of highly crystalline rocks, including gneiss, and considerable areas of granite. These are complicated, where tliey have been oliserved, by tie' occurreiu'c of areas of much altered rocks resem- Iding those of the interior ])lateau region, next to the west. Among these is a series of dark slates or schists which an; the auriferous rocks in the Cariboo district and elsewhere. The age of these has not been determined. The district colourese river graptolites of Miildle Ordovieian age have been determined. Though the information available is still insutlicient for the se|iaration of the various formations, it is pro- bable that rocks ranging from the Cambrian to the top of the I'aheozoic nnd possibly also including the Triassic, nuvy be embraced in this great preponderantly Palaeozoic area. The Coast Ranges of IJritish Columbia are remarkably uniform in com- position from the vicinity of the Fraser, where tlujy originate, to the head of Lynn Channel — a length of aluiut 900 miles. They are everywhere largely composed of grey granites which usually contain l)oth hornblende and mica, and often show a notable abundance of the first-named mineral. "With tliese are associated gneisses and other crystalline schists, together with belts of more or less highly altered argillites which often pass into black stam'olitic and micaceous schists, while limestones are repres(Mited in sonu) places by liighly crystalline marbles. Some of these rocks are infolded and more or less completely altered portions of the Palopozoic strata previously describetl, but it yet remains to be determined whether there are represented any pre-pal?eozoic stratified rocks, or whether all those met with may be explained as products of the extreme metamor- phism of palaeozoic materials. Portions of the lower part of the Creta- ceous series are found here and there at considerable elevations, resting in a comparatively unaltered state on the upheaved rocks of these ranges. Vancouver and the Queen Charlotte Islands represent unsubmergeJ features of another mountain axis, but one of less energetic uplift. While granitic areas here still occur, these are of less importance and often manifestly intrusions. llinTISll COLUMIUAX UKtilON. I'll incUulo ar." M Near 1! occur, .'|K)mler- ,ies, but Ikt ;j;nlil- licU K'eu- iu soino rystallinc 'iihi'iizoic. •sioncs in ,f Mia.llc I availiiblo , il is pio- I'ahvozoic this ;^ve;\t ■111 ill I'lJiii- ) llu; Uoiul vt'iywhere Imrublemle d miuenil. p, t(i|^elhei' 1 pass into L'proseutcLl |. iHicks are Paltpozoic ,1 whether hether all luetamor- ihe Creta- ns, resting lese ranges, ji submerged ;etic upUft. and often ! In Vancouver and the Qiieon Charlotte Islands all the stratified rocks, of periods anterior to th<' Cretaceous, iiave suHercd great tiexiire and disturbance, acciunpanied by more or less coiii[)leti' nietaiiiorphisin, and tiiis composition indicates throughout a contiiirm u" rcciirrcneo of ale. Rocks originally of volcanic volcanic action on a n enormous si origin characterize the greater part of tlie entire area, anil lliese in tlieir pre.'-.cnt condition, at first si^ht, and as juilged Ijy eastern American analogies, miglit often bo sup|)osed to represent formations occupying a 'iiy verv low staire in the ''eolo'Mcal scah 'I'l i((se volcanic roclvs, nri;4iiia composed of minerals already (■ryslailinc, have yieidt.'d readily to snbso- ipieiit ahi'ialiiiii and recrystallizatioii, and now, I'nrthe nmst jiart, appear as diabase, fclsite and diorite, more or less massive, but passing locally into true schists. The massive varieties freipieiitly show little eviileiice of a lieddcd character, but, when closely cxaiuined and traced out, are found to form portions of a stratified series of great thickness, which in- cluiles, lii'sides the piepniiderant volcanic niatctrials, inipnitaiit intercala- tions of tlaggy and slaty argillites of quartzite and of limestone. The greater part of tin; old volcanic rocks a[)pear to have consisted originally of basaltic and trachytic lava fiows, alternating with rongli volcanic lireccias and tutl's, largely composed of fragments of siirli Hows, These have been deposited in the bed of a sea iu which life was at in- tervals possiljle for considerable periods. Th th built thick )f th entire se sand feet, but no complete section of il can yet be given, and the evidences of age, as derived from fossils, is scanty. ( )ljscure fossils, which are probably of Carboniferous age, have been found in some of the limestones of Vancouver Island, and beds of the same age may also occur in the southern part of the (^ueen Charlotte Islands. The most important zone of argillites and liiU(!stoues, however, which is known in some places to attain a thickness of L',r>00 feet, has yielded a numl)er of fossils characteristic of the so-called Ali)ine Trias of California and the fortieth parallel region, which represents the Hallstadt and St. Cassiau beds of Europe. For this entire complex mass of pre-cretaceous rocks, the name Van- couver series is provisionally employed, though it is intended to restrict this name to the Triassic rocks when they shall have been distinctly separated. Lying everywhere quite unconformably upon the older beds so far described, are the Cretaceous rocks, which constitute on the coast the true coal-bearing horizon of British Columbia. These rocks probably at mmii 212 CANADIAN GEOLOGY. one time spread much more wiiltily aloiiL,' IIh; coast than they now do, but have since been folded and disturhcd duriiit,^ tlic continuation of the process of mountain elevation, and have been much reduced by denuda- tion. Their most important area, includini.;' tlie coal-miniuf; regions of Xanaimo and Comox, may be do.scrii)ed as forming a narrow trough ixlong the north-east Ijorder of Vancouver Islaml, lUG miles in length. The rocks are sandstones, conglomerates and shales. They hold abund- fince of fossil plants and marine shells in some places, and in a] [learance and degree of induration much reseml)l(! the, true Carboniferous rocks of ,'^ome parts of Eastern America. In the Xanaimo area the formation has been divided by ]\Ir. J. Richardson as follows, iu descending order : — Sandstimes, conglomerates and shales '.VI'M feet. Shales (iCO " Productive coal-measures . , . , l;U(! " 52t;(J " The last named consists of sandstones and shales, and holds valuable coal-seams near its base. In the Comox area seven well-marked sub- divisions occur, constituting a total thickness of 4911 feet. Upper conglomerate 330 feet, Ui)i)er shilfis 70'? '• Middle conglomerate 1100 " Middle shales 70 " Lower conglomerate !)00 " Lower shales.... 1000 " Productive coal-measures 739 ' ' 4911 feet. The fuel obtained from these measures is a true bituminous coal, with — according to the analysis of Dr. Harrington — an average of G.29 per cent, of ash pnd 1.47 per cent, of water. It is admirably suited for most ordinary purposes, and is largely exported, chiefly to San Francisco, where, notwithstanding a heavy duty, it compet(!S successfully with coals from the west coast of the United States, owing to its superior quality. The output of 1883 amounted to 213,000 tons, and is yearly increasing. In addition to the main area of Cretaceous rocks aliove described, there are numerous smaller patches, holding more or less coal, in different parts of Vancouver Island, some of which may yet prove important. In the Queen Charlotte Islands, Cretaceous rocks cover a considerable area on the east coast, near Cumshewa and Skidegate Inlets. At Skide- Fi ual)le . sulj- with 29 pel- most ncisco, coals uality. asing. there ut parts BRITISH COLUMBIAN REdlOX. 213 gate they Unld tnu' autliracite coal, whicli, bosulcs being a circumstance of considerable geological interest, would ])ecoine, if a really workable bed could be lu'ovod, a matter of great economic importance to the Pacific coast. At Skidegate, where these rocks are most typically developed, they admit of suljdivision as follows, the order being, as Ijefore, descending : A. Ui)i)er slialeti and .«aTid«t(ines I'lOO feet. B. Coarse ci>ii>,'liiuierates '2000 " C. Lower sliales with coal and clay ironstone. .. ."iOOO " D. Aj,'t,'lonieratos ;>.->()0 " E. Lower sandstones lOUO " l.'?,000 feet. The total lliickness is thus estimated at about 13,000 feet. With tlie exception of the agglomerates, the rocks in their general appearance and degree of induratiiieon Charlotte Islands have also been described and figured from Mr. Kichanlson's collections and those of l)r. ])awson. There are few cases of specific identity between the forms in the A".,ncouver Cretaceous, previously described, and those of the <,)ueen Charlotte Islands, the latter representing a hnver stage in the Cretaceous formation. The plants found in these rocks, embracing nunun'ous conifer- ous trees and a species of Cycad, also indicate a greater age than those of Vanc(juver. The coal-bearing 1)eds at Qnatsino 8ounil,(m the west coast of Vancouver Island, have also yielded a few fossils. These consist chielly of well- characterized specimens of ^«ct//a PiocJiii, which occurs but sparingly in the (^)ue(;n Charlotte Islands, and brings the rocks iiitr^ -1'- relations with the Aucella beds of the mainland of liritish Columbia, and in Mr. AVhiteaves' opinion probably indicate an " Upper Xeocomian " age. The rocks of the (^Uieen Charlotte Islands and Quataino may therefore be taken together as representing the upper and lower portions of the so-called Shasta group of California, which in liritish Cohunbia can now b(! readily distinguished l)y their fossils. On the mainland, develope(l most characteristically along the north- eastern border of the Coast Range, is a massive series of rocks first referred to by Dr. Selwyn, in the provisional classification adopted l)y liim in 1S71, as the Jackass Mountain group, from tlie name of the locality in which they are best displayed on the main waggon-road. The age of these rocks was not known at this time, but fo.ssils have since been discovered in the locality above mentioned, and in several others, the most characteristic forms h{i\ng Anc('//(i Piathic rocks of volcanic origin similar to those of the Itasyouco, which are most abundant on the eastern Hanks of the Coast Range, and pro- bably form the lower portion of the group, lii/sides these volcanic rocks, there is, however, a great thickness of comparatively .soft sandstones and argillites, with beds of impure coal. The strata are arranged in a series of folds more or less abrupt, and have a general north-west or south-east strike. It is not in-possible, from the general palivontological identity of the rocks of the interior with the older of tho.'^e of the coast, that the Skeena region may eventually be found to contain valuable coal-seams, but this part of the country is at present very dillicult of access, and there is no indurcMuent to explore it. ]\lore or less considerable areas of Cretaceous rocks are found still fur- ther ntu'tlnvard, as far as the basin of the upper Yukon. The Tertiary rocks do not form any wide or continuous belt on the coast of ISritish Columbia, as is the case farther south. They are found near Sooke, at the southern extremity of Vancouver Island, in the form of sandstones, conglomerates, and shales, which are sometimes carbon- aceous. Tertiary r(icks also occupy a consideral)le area about the mouth of the Fraser River ; extending southward from lUirrard Inlet, across the International boundary formed bj* the forty-ninth parallel, to liellingbam Bay and beyond. Thin seams of lignite occur at lUirrard Inlet. Sections of the Tertiary rocks at r>ellingham Uay are given in Dr. Hector's official report. Lignite l)eds were extensively worked here some years ago, l)ut the mine has been abandoned owing to the superior quality of the fuels now obtained from Xanaimo and Seattle. About the estuary of the Fraser the Tertiary beds are much covered by drift and alluvial deposits, and are consequently not well known. Lignites, and even true coals, have been found in connection with them, but so far in beds too thin to im m !1G CANADIAN CKOLOGY. fl 1.1 be of value. Fossil pliuits from llurriuil Inlet iind Uelliiigliam Bay have l)eeii (lcsL'ril)c(l by Xewlit'i'ry and Lcsiiuerenx, ami these are supposed to indicate a Miocene age for the deposits. Mucli farther north, in the (^huM'ii Charlntte Islands, the wlinh,' north- eastern portion of (iraham Island has now lieen shown t(t lie underlaid by Tertiary rocks, which produce u Hat or gently undulating country, markedly diirerent from that found on most parts nf the coast. The prominent rocks are of volcanic origin, including basalts, dolerites, trachytic rocks, and in one locality ol)sidian. Numerous examples of fvagmcntal vulcanic rocks are also found. lielow these, but f^wM in a few places oidy, are ordinary sedimentary deposits, consisting of sand- stones (ir shales, and hard clays with lignites. At a single locality on the north end of (Irahani Island, beds with numerous marine fossils occur. These, in so far as they admit of specific determination, represent shells found in the later Tertiary deposits of California, ami som(; of which are still living on the north-west coast ; and the assi'inblage is not such as to indicalt' any nnuked dillerence of climate from that now obtaining. The Tertiary rocks of the coast are not anywhere nnich disturljed or altered. The relative level of sea and land must have been nearly as at present when they were formed, and it is probable that they originally spread much more widely, the [(reservation of such an area as that of Graham Island being due to the protective capping of volcanic rocks. The lieds lielong evidently to the more recent Tertiary, and though the pala'oiitological evitlence is scanty, it aiipears probaljle from this, and by comparison with other parts of the west coast, that they should be called Miocene. To the east of the Coast or Cascade Kange, Tertiary rocks are very extensively developed. They have not, however, yielded any marine fossils, and ai)pear to have been formed in an extensive series of lakes, which may at one time have submerged much of the region descril)ed as the interior plateau. The Tertiary lakes may not improbably have been produced by the interruption of the drainage of the region by a renewed elevation of the coast mountains, proceeding in advance of the [tower of the rivers of the periotl to lower their beds ; the movement culminating in a profound disturbance leading to a very extensive volcanic action. The lower beds are sandstones, clays, and shales, generally pale-greyi.sh or yellowish in colour, except where darkened Ity carbonaceous matter. They frequently hold lignite, coal, and in some even true bituminous coal occurs. The sedimentary Ijeds rest generally on a very irregular surface, and consequently vary much in thickness and character in diil'er- IH r.lJITISII COLUMIilAN IIKCIOX. 217 cut iiiuts I if the cxtonsive ici^Moii over wiiicli they occur. Tin' H^'iiilL'^ appear in some places to rest on true " umlerclays," represeiilin^ the soil on which the vegetation pro(lucin,L( them has grown, while in others — as at Quesnel — they seem to be composed of ilrift-wooil, and show mnch chiy and sand interlaminated with the coaly matter. In the northern portion of the interior the upper volcanic part i>i the Tertiary covers great area.", and is usually in Ix'ds nearly horizontal, or at least not extensively or .'!hari)ly folded. Dasalts, dolerites, and allied rocks of modern aspect occur in sheets, broken only here and there l)y valleys of denudation, and acidic rocks are seldom met with except in the immediate vicinity of the ancient volcanic vents ( >n ilie lower Xechacco, and on the Parsnip Kivt'r, the lower sedimentary ror'ks appe;ir to be somewhat extensively developed without the overlyin- volcanic materials. The southern part of the interior plateau is more irregular and moun- tainous. The Tertiary rocks liere cover less extensive areas, and are much more disturlied, and sometimes over wide districts — as on tlie Nicola — are found dipping at an average angle of about thirty degrees. The volcanic materials are occasi(nially of great thickness, anil the little disturbed basalts of the north are, for the mout part, replaced liy agglom- erates and tufas, with trachytes, porphyrites, and other felspathic njcks. It may ind(!ed be questioned whether the character of these rocks does not indicate that they arc of earlier date than those to the north, but, as no direct paheontological evidence of this has l)een obtained, it is pre- sumed that their diflerent composition and appearance is due to unlike coiulitions of deposition and greater sul)sei[uent disturbance. Xu volcanic rocks or lava flows of Post-glacial ago have been met with. The organic remains so far obtained from these Tertiary rocks of the interior consist of plants, insects, and a te / fresh-water molluscs and fish scales, the last being the only indication of the vertel)rate fauna of this period. The plants have been collected at a number of localities. They have been subjected to a preliminary examination by Sir W. 1 >awson, and several lists of species pul)lished. "Wliile they are certainly Tertiary, and represent a temperate Hora like that elsewhere attril)uted to the Miocene, they do not ailbrd a very deluiite criterion of age, being derived from places whicli must have dilFered much in their physical surround- ings at the time of the deposition of the l)eds. Insect remains have been obtained in four localities. They have been examined by 31 r. .S. H. Scuddcr, who hits contributed three papers on them to the (leological Reports, in which he describes forty species, all of which are considered 218 CANADIAN GEOLOGY. now. Xnno of tlic insects liave been found to occur in lunro than a siii.Lj;I(' liifalily, wliii'h causes Mr. Scudiler to ol)serve tliat tiie deposits from wiiicli tliey came may cither dill'er consideraljly in age, or, with the fact tliat duplicittes liave seldom ])een fouiiil even in the same locality, evidence the existence of dilFerent surroundings, and an exceedingly rich insect fauna. Till nigh a large part of the interior plateau may at one time have been pretty uniformly covered with Tertiary rocks, it is evident that some regions have never been overspreatl by them, while, owing to denudation, they iiave since been almost altogether removed from other districts, and the niDiliMn river valleys often mit completely through thcni [o the older rocks, Tlu! outlines of the Tertiary areas are therefore now irregular and complicated. rh'iMoci'ne IJeposif^. — The following notes embrace the latest observa- tions of l>r. G. ^r. J)awson, in ISritish Columbia, which seems to be remarkable for the great development of its glacial jjhenomena. — It l;as lifcn sliown* that at oiio .stai;e in the (Macial perind— tliat i>f inaxiin\uu glaciaticiu— a great cmifliient iee-inass has (icc\i|iie I tlie rej,'ion whicli may he named the Interior Phitean, between tlie Cnast Mountains and ((old and Kocky ^Mountain Ranges. From tlie fifty-tiftli to thi' foity-nintii parallel this great glacier has left traces of its gmieral southuani or southeastward movement, which are distinct from those of subsequent local glaciers. The southern extensions or teriiiiiuitions of this confluent glacier, in Washington and Idaho Territories, have quite recently been examined by !Mr. I'.iiley Willis and Trof. T. C. Cliamberlin, of the U.S. (ieological Survey. f There is, further, evidence to show that this inland ice Ht)wed also, by trans- ver.se valleys and gajis, across the Coast Range, and that the fiords of the coast were thus def]),y filled with glacier-ice, which, suiijilemeiited by tliat originating on the Coast Kai)gt> itself, buried the entire great valley which sei>arates \'aiicouver Island from the mainland, and discharged seaward round both ends of the island. Further north, the glacier extending from the mainland coast, touched the northern shores of the ueeii Charlotte Islands. The observed facts on which these general statements are based have been fully detailed in the i>ul)lications already referred to, and it is not the object of this note to review former work in the region further than to enumerate the main features devel()]>ed by it, and to add to these a .summary of observations made during the summer of 1.SS7 m the extreme nortli of I'ritish Columbia, and in the Yukon basin lieyond the sixtieth parallel, which forms the northern boundary of that province. The littoral of the south-eastern part or "coast stri))" of Alaska presents features identical with those of the i)reviously examined coast of British Columbia, at least as far north as hit. 51) , beyond which I have not seen it. The coast ai'chii)ehigo has evidently been involved in the border of a confluent glacier whicli sjireads from the mainland and was subject to minor variations in ilirection of flow dependent on surface irregularities, in the manner described in my rejiort on the nortlieru part of Vancouver *(^uart. Journ. Geol. Sec. vol. xxxi. p. 89. Ibid. vol. xxxiv. p. 272. Canadian Naturalist, vol. viii. t Bulletin U.S. Geol. Survey, No. 40, 1887. BRITISH COLUMBIAN REOIOX. 219 Island.* No conclusive evidence was hero found, liowover, either in tlic valloy oi tho Stikiiiu Uivi'P or in tlic |in.ss leading inland from the head of Lynn Canal, to sh(Av that tii>' ice forced seaward across the Coast ilange, though analogy with tln' coast to the south favours the belief that it may have done so. The front of the glacier must have passed tho outer liorderof the archi|ielago, as at Sitka, well iiiarivcd glaeiation is found pointing toward the open I'acitict (average direction about S. Nl W. astr.) It is, however, in tho interior region, between the Coast Ilange and the Rocky Moimtains proi)er and extending northward to hit. GlV, explored and examined by us in 1SS7. that the most iiitrn;stiiig facts have coi/ie to light respecting the direction of movement of the Cordilleran glacier. Here, in the valleys of the Felly and Lewes branches of the Yukon, traces were found of tho movement of heavy glacier-ice in a northerly direction. Rock-Surfaces thus glaciated were observed down the Pelly to the point at which it crosses the liiCith meiidiau, and on tiie licwes as far iioith as lat. til 10', the main direc- tion in the tirst-named valley being north-west, in tin- second north-iiortiiwest. The points referred to are not, however, spoken of as limiting ones, for rock exposures suit- able for the ))reservation of glaeiation aie rather infre(|uent on the lower ]iortions of both rivers, and more extended examination may result in carrying evidenci' of the same kind nnich fiu'ther toward the elevated ])lains of the lower Yukon. Neither the Pelly valley nor that of tlie Lewes is hemmed in by high mountainous country excei)t towards tlie sources, and while local variations of tiie kind i)revious]y referred to are met with, the glaeiation is not susceiitible of explanation by merely local agents, btit rather implies the jiassageof a confluent or more or less connected glacier over the region. In the Lewes valley, both the sides and summits of rocky hills ;500 feet above the water were found to l)e heavily glaciated, tiie direction on the summit being that of the main (north-north-west) orographic valleys, while that at lower levels in the same vicinity followed more nearly the iiumediate valley of tho river, which here turns locallj- to the east of north. (Jlaciation was .also noted in several places in the more mountainous country to the south of the N'ukon basin, in the Dease and Liard valleys, but the direction of move- ment of the ice could not be determined satisfactorilj-, and the influence of local action is there less certainly eliminated. Of the glacial deposits with which the greater part of the area of the inland region is mantled it is not intended here t miles north-eastward and north-westward from tiieir s\ii)posed points of origin. Prof. Haugliton also states that the east side of King William's Land is strewn with boulders of gneiss like that of Montreal Island, to the sotithwarl, and points out the general nortliwird ice-movement thus indicated, referring the caniage of tiio boulilers to floating ice of the ( Jlacial Period. The copper saiJ to be picked uji in large masses by the Kskimo, near Princess Royal Island, ii> r rinco of Wales Strait, as well as on Prince of Wales Island, t lias likewiiio, in all probability been derived from the copiier-licariiig rocks of the Copper- mine River region to the soutli, as this metal can scarcely be supp>|l*li<'ceiio(/)Pi'e-,i{lacial Lti'avuls .Miocuuu (Volcanic). Sliak's and SaiulstnnL's .3 (uft.Mi AuritViniiH) Minceno (StMiimi-nUry, (if tlio Flat lioad rivois. t Mlncunu (NolcaiiR'l. j gi Mi()cun(.'(''^''n<^. 320' V\>. Shaius 776' Mid. ("Diig. iioo' Mid.Shiiius 76' L. Coni,'. 900' L. Shales WW 1320' I'n.dnctivc Coiil Muaa. 73iC Cliininf Ciii. ■- (t^uotsina. ftc ) I (JiiiDi ChirU'tte Islands. jj'A. rp. Shalos B. Coni^lonier- atus. C. L.Sandst. iV- Shales' (witli colli) A. l\ Shales A Sandst. looo' B. Conglomer- ates. 2000' C. L. Shales iV: Sandst. 5000 (with cnlll) D. Wanting. D. Agglouier- ! ate. 3500 E. Wanting. ,E. L. Sand- St. Alary River Series (l>li:l.') Fox Hill and Pierre. I'lelly River Series. Benton A' Nial)rara. iwo Vojoanie rocks (iijuaii2750 Dakota |, Koiitanie | 7IIIXJ' I Stones. 1000 Iltasyoueo Beds lO.ooo' Ancella Beds of Tat- layocii, .laek.iss Mt. and Skagit "mw also roeks on the Lewes, Skoena and Nechacco rivers and elsewhere, often including vol- canic materials. Viinconver Series (hirjidy vdi- >^' jg,,].^ Series (largely IMonotis I?eds of North- ern Rocky Mts. Red BedsofS. Rocky Mts. cniiic, Imt with Monotis shiilcs ami, Vdlciiiiic, liut with .Miuin- liiiiestunes. tis shah'S and limt'stones n'oL)."""'"^ ■voicaniOjL„^,.y,. i^.^^ff Shales. rVltered Volcauic;Low. Banti' Limestones. (t'(iW)"iu/r)-(iiM.) I it'tirhiinij'rrnm). [Viii-hiitiifimim). Altered Volcanic Itocks and Cache Creek (ironp.i^'pper B;infi'S]iales. Limestones (thesf have not yet, (i.initptdni's, (luartzit.'s L'p. Banff Limestones, liceii ilistiiictly si'iiarati li from th Vancouver Siries). ^ rocks, limestones.] Uhvimhm). slates and (piart- Intermediate Limest. ziteS(liccomin|j; schistic! (Silurian). locally. I'ruhai.ly r^fcr- Halysites Beds. alilf to vario\is horizons •' of thf raliiMiziiic. tmt nut yet euli-diviiled). (Cambrian). Quartzites, Slates, etc., of Pnrcell it Selkirk ranges. (Ca)n\)ro-Silurian.) (irajitolitic Shales. Castle Mt. Limestone, (Upper part). (Catiihrian). Castle Mt. Limestone. (Lower part). iBovv River Group. ;^!Portion8 of Basal Rocks of Coast Ranges (?)• (iineissic it Schistose, rocks of Shnswapi L. & Gold Range.! 223 y. TIIK ARCTIC OR IHJI)S( »\IAX RKCIOX. Tliis lias as yc-l Ikmmi only luirtially survcycil liy tlu; nHircrs of tlio Canailiaii SurvL'y, principally hy l)r. R. iiell, and our infornialion n'sju'ct- ing it is largely due to tliu obMTvations inado and spocinicns and fads collected by the various exploring cxpcilitions. The following siiinniary is chiefly derived from l)r. 1 )a\vsoirs " Notes to accompany a map i .' the Xorthi-rn portion of Canada," INST. Thi; region includes what may lie termed the Canadian portion of the liasin of the Arctic Sea, extending from Creenland, Hallin Laud and Labrador on the east to Alaska on tlu; west. It consists in great part of the northern portion of the great Areha'an nucleus of the continent with belts of I'akeozoic and later rocks around Hudson JJay and the Arctic Sea, and in the valley of the Mackenzie River. 1. (ii'tii'i-al G'(i/i)i/icaf Strucfiiri'. — The Arclntan or Eozoic rocks are dominant in the northern part of the continent. They form also, so far as has lieen ascertained, the greater part of Greeidaud, and doidjtless underlie, at no great depth, the entire Arctic archipelago. While the information available is sutlici'Mit to indicate the existence of the dilfer- ent subdivisions of the Arch; which are met with in the southern por- tion of Canada, including the lowest Liurentian or granitoid gneiss series, the Middle Launmtian, [)ossilily the peculiar rocks classed as the "Tppcr Laurontian," and certain of the more schistose and geniindly darker coloured and more basic rocks ^ilassed as Iluronian, it is far too imperfect to admit of the separation of these subdivisions on the map. It is evi- dent that the Iluronian is represented in parts of the west coast of Green- land, and it is probably also recognizaljle on the Labrador coast, and on the west coast of Hudson Bay, and possible that it is elsewhere present over the Archrean area, in proportions as great as it has been found to hold where these rocks have been subjected to more systematic and detailed investigation. The distribution of the Iluronian is important from an economic point of view, on account of its generally metalliferous character, which may eventually give value to tracts of country in wliich the rigor- ous nature of the climate entirely precludes the possibility of agriculture. While the term Cambrian may be interpreted in the widest sense, namely, as including all rocks above the Iluronian, to the base of the Cambro Silurian of the Canadian Geological Survey, and the reference of the rocks of the region here treated of to the Cambrian is based entirely on lithological and stratigraphical grounds, the rocks so classed are, as far as known, probably referable to the Lower Cambrian. It is further quite 224 CANADIAN (iKOLOCV. ■ 1 ;!'i oviik'ut tliiit ill the I'xteiisivo nroa wliicli has boon coloured mi tlic map us Ciimlti'ian on tlus Arctic coast, in tlic vicinity of the Cojipcrniino River, the rorks lire aniiloj,'ons in cliaracter to thuse of tlie Kewenaw or Aniinikio of tiie Lake Suiieiior re,L;ion, aii'l prohal)!}' represent both j,'roups of that groat ciiiiper-ltearin^' serii's. TIk mere oeeurroneo of native copper in consiili'ialile (piantities on liie ("oppeiinine, in association with pnOinite anil othrr mineials resomblinj,' thosuwliich accompany iton Lake Superior, gives [\ jiriina farir prol)ability to tliis correlation, which is borne out by a more careful study of Sir. .1. Kiohardson's accurate notes, and was recognised by Richardson himself, who hail examined both regions. Prof. ]{. 1'. Irving states th..t the Animiki(! of Hunt, or " Lower (linup " of Logan, oil Lake Superior, is composed of a great thickness of (piartzitos, (piartz-slate.s, argillaceous or clay-slate.s, magnetic (juartzitos and sand- ."toiies, thin limestone beds, anil beds of a cherty or jaspery material, associated with coar.se gabbro and line grained diabase (Copper-Hearing Rocks of Lake Superior, 1S83, p. 37'.),) while the overlying Kewenaw series is made up of similar basic crystalline rocks, with inteiliedded detrital rocks, chielly reildish conglomerates and .sandstones, the con- glomerates consisting, for the most part, of pebliles of acidic crystalline rocks. A comjiarison of the above description with that of Richardson of the rocks of the Coppermine, shows the practical lithological iilentity of the two widely separated areas. Though not a geologist, Captain I'mck, who had seen the Coppermine rocks, referred the formation coloured as Cambrian on Great Slave Lake, to the same series, from its lithological similarity ; to which also the doubtfully placed area of Cambrian on Hack's route from Great Slave Lake to the mouth of Great Fi.sh River is attril)uted. To this forma- tion also may be referred the gre *- volcanic series, described by Dr. R. Bell as t'ae Manitounuck grour : east coast of Hudson IJay, and the red sandstones of his ' .tiate group," ■wliich he regards as nnconfornnbly underlyin uiitounuck rocks, may possibly also be- long to the Keewenaw or * luikie. Throughout the whole of the vast northern part of the continent, this characteristic. Cambrian formation, composed largely of volcanic rocks, apparently occupies the same unconformable position with regard to the underlying Laurentian and Hurouian systems. Its present remnants serve to indicate the position of some of the earliest geological basins, which, from the attitude of the rocks, appear to have undergone com- paratively little subsequent disturbance. Its extent entitles it to be recog- nized as one of the most important geological features of North America. m ARCTIC RWilON. 226 ime ike, the Shive H'lllil- . R. and s as I Ije- tliis ocks, the lants isiiis, coin- ecog- ca. Till' Sihiriim and Cainhro-Sihiriaii (I'pjicr and Ldwuf Sihirian) ntcks aro chiftly palo limustonos, often of a yellowisli or i;roain colour and frequently more or less doloniitic. They rest everywhere uncoiiforniahly on the Archaian or on the Canihrian rocks, and one of their most constant features ajjpears to be the existence of a /one of red sandstones or arena- ceous limestones and C(,•^^'lonu'rales at tlit! liase, a fact which leads us to suspect that the red sandstones of Tunnudleorhick and Ij,'alliko in Greenland, which have l)een doubtfully referred on lith(jlogical grounds to the Permian, Devonian and Cambrian, may belong in reality to tho Silurian. This great .Silurian and Cambro-Silurian limestone series is very widely develo[)i:d, and is, in most places, nearly horizontal and undisturbed, •with long light undulations in the bedding or persistent and uniform dips at very low angles. The.se featunjs are very prominently shown in tho sketches of many parts of the coast line in the Arctic islands, reproduced in the volumes of voyagers. l>ut for the undisturlieil and Hat condition of the limestones, and the formations overlying them in the Arctic i)asin, it would be impo.ssible, with the fragmentary geological information available, to ofler any proximately correct geological mai) of the region as a whole. In a paper printed in the report of the British Association for 1855, J. W. Salter states that the Silurian fossils, obtained up to that time, showed a uniform horizon of U[)per Silurian limestone, stretching from near the entrance of Jiarrow Strait to Melville Island and far to the south along Prince Regent Inlet, and argues therefrom a wide extent of circumpolar land in Lower Silurian (Cambro-Silurian) times. In this he was followed, two years later, by Sir R. Murchison, who writes : — "I am led to believe that the oldest fossiliferous rock of the Arctic regions is the Upper Silurian." (Appendix to McClure's voyage, p. 40- ; Siluria, p. 440.) Though the Upper Silurian beds undoubtedly occupy a great part of the American polar region, characterizing the "south of North Devon and nearly all the islands south of Melville and Lancaster sounds, including the south of Jianks Lantl, Prince of Wales Land, King William Land, North Somerset, Boothia Felix, etc." (Fielden and De Ranee, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xxxiv.), the occurrence of Lower Silurian (Utica) fossils in Frobisher Bay, as shown by Hall's collections, on the shores of Kennedy Channel, as determined by Etheridge, and the occasional discovery of Lower Silurian forms in the regions above, referred in a gen- eral way to the Upper Silurian, prove that the generalization made by Salter and Murchison, on the evidence of less complete collections, can- 226 CANADIAN GKOL(JGY. not now l)e admitted, and that the limestones of the Arctic represent pro- bably the wliolo of the Siluro-C'imbrian and Silurian, and possibly part of the Devonian. (See Fielden and De Kance, loc. rif.) lleor enumer- ates the followinij places, besides tlioso above particularly referred to, as yieldin<,' Lower Silurian types :— North Devon, Cornwallis Island, Griffith Island, west coast of King William Land, ISouthia (Flora Fossilis Arctica vol. i., \). 21.) The above allusion to the possibly Devonian ago of part of the lime- stones of the Arctic basin proper, is o'^ '.terest in connection with the question of the relation of these limestones to the equally inq)ortunt lime- stone series of the ^lackenzie River Region. The early reference of an extensive portion of these latter to the Silurian by Isbister and others, can scarcely now be maintained, since ]Meek, as the result of his examina- tion of the most ample collection of fossils which has ever been brought together from the Mackenzii; valley, r(!ports the existence in tlie lime- stones of Devonian forms alone, though, as he cautiously remarks, he is not prcp^M'ed to deny tiie existence ot Silurian rocks. This Devonian facias is maintained by the limestones of the ^Mackenzie valley to the very shores of the Arctic Sea, as sliown by tlie occurrence of Hamilton group fossils on the Anderson River. Rocks of the Lower Carboniferous or so-called " I'rsa Stage" are widely distributed in the Arctic Archipelago, and their character, as de- scribed by Prjf. Haughton from an examination of the specimens Ijrought back by voyagers is similar to that of these rocks in Spitzbergen, as de- scribed by Heer, and to the Ilorton series of Xova Scotia. This formation, which both from its extent, and in its character as a coal-bearing series is a very important one, should apparently be regarded througliout as Lower Carboniferous and e(|uivalent to the Tweedian of the north of England and of Scotland, and to the Culm of fiermany. It may be noted that we are as yet without the data for any accurate estimate of the entire thickness of these or the previously mentioned rock-series of the Arctic basin. Certain small outlying areas in the nortliern part of the Arctic Archi- pelago have been referred to the Lias. These it appeared possible might now be assigned to the " Alpine Trias," a formation which since the above reference was made has been found to bo wide-spread and important in the Cordillera region of North America as far north as the nortliern part of Dritish Columbia, and is also characteristically developed in Spitzbergen and the north-west of Siberia. This question was referred to Prof. S. Haughton, who had originally described the fossils on which the age of are as de- L'Ollght as de- lation, ;ries is ,o\ver "land Archi- might Ibergen frof. S. 1 age of ARCTIC REGION. 227 tlu' beds in questii)n hud bucn di'lonniiic(l. The lesidt (d a critical re-exannnation of tlie fossils, wliicii I'rof. IlaughloM was so kind as to have made, app'-ars, however, rather to eniiliriii ihe origiiiiil Li;issic or Jiu'assic referoiico of these northern rocks. TIk' Tertiary rocks of the Mackenzii; Kiver and of Greenland, so remark- able for their rich lloraof temperate aspei;t, liave usually been referred to the Miocene, Ijut it now seems certain that the greater jiart are really of Laraune or Kocene age. This seems evident froui their fossil llora as describetl by lleer and others. 2. Miu'h'i'ii::)!' RinrDixfrirfauiJ Arctic Codst. — According to Richardson and other observers, the valley of the Mackenzie River froui Arthabasca Lake to the Arctic Hea is occupied principally l)y Pa!a>ozoie rocks of Silurian and l)evonian age with proljaldy a narrow Ixdt (d Cambrian in the hills west of the mouth of the river. The remainder of tlu; river valley, more especially in its southern part ai"l toward the Peace River, is occupied with Cretaceous and Larande beds, the latter atlbrding in some j)laces abundance of characteristic plants which have lieen ilescril)ed by Ileer. (Jii the coast, west of Mackenzie; River, the Cretaceous and Larande beds extend as far as Cape Parry. From this place to Coronation (lulf, at the mouth of the Coppermine River, quartzite, slate and limestone, supposed to be of Cambrian age, predominate. Tu the i.-lands to the north aiul east are great bnjadths of .SiluroCambrian and Silurian limestones, and the peninsula of Boothia consists of an axis of Laiu'entian with Sihu'o- Cambrian and Silurian rocks which also line the great Laurentian mass between the (lulf of Poothia and liaiHn's Pay. 3. HuiJson liaij. — The basin of IPulson ISay, as described by Rae and Bell, is surrounded l)y LaiU'entian rocks bordered by lluronian and Palaso- zoic rocks, including fossiliferous Silurian lime.Ntones. On tlu; west side tlie.se rocks extend northward to Cape Ivsquimaux and occur also on the south side of Hudson 15ay, the wide tract of Laurentian rocks which extends to the Labrador coast, forming tin; shore of the bay, except toward the south, where n :ks of Cand>rian age are reported. They con- sist of limestones, sandstones and ipiartzites, shales and ironstones, associ- ated wdth basalts and amygdaloid.s. At the south end of .lames' Pay are Devonian rocks from which Dr. I'ell has obtained numerous species of fossils deternuned by Mr. Whiteavo-s.* At the south end of Hudson's Bay are al.so Pleistocene beds with ligidte and marine fossils, Saxicava • Survey of Canada, 1877-8. 228 CANADIAN GEOLOGY. rugosa, Macoma calcarea, Mija truncata. been found. Bones of Mastodon liavn also 4. Tlic Arctic Archipdarjo and coast of GfeenlaivJ. — In the. appendix to McClintock's Voyage, Prof. Haughton has described this region, and arranges the formations represented as follows : — 1. Granitic and Granitoid rocks, probably in great part Laurentian gneiss, i^c. 2. Silurian, consisting of Red Sandstone overlaid by fossiliferous lime- stones. 3. Carboniferous rocks, including limestone beds (Ilorton Series) with plants aiiL. marine limestones. 4. Lias or ]\Iesozoic rocks holding Aiamoniti:», Monotis, &c., and a Saurian, Arctosaurus Oshorni. 5. Cretaceous and Tertiary, apparently of the same age with those on the coast of Greenland, and holding fossil plants. 6. Superficial deposits, which seem to be for the most part sands and clays with marine fossils. The Carboniferous beds of the Arctic islands arc thus described by Haughton : — " The Upper Silurian limestones, already described, are suc- ceeded by a most remarkal)le series of close-grained white s-andstones, con- taining numerous beds of highly bituminous coal, and Imt few marine fossils. In fact, the only fossil shell found in these beds, so far as I know, in any part of the Arctic Archipelago, is a species of ribbed Atnjpa, •which I believe to be identical with the Atnjpa fallax oi the Carbonifer- ous slate of Ireland. These sandstone beds are succeeded by a series of blue limestone beds, containing an abundance of the marine shells, com- monly found in all parts of the world where the Carboniferous deposits are at all developed. The line of junction of these deposits with the Silurian on which they rest is N.E. to E.N.E. (true.) Like the former, they occur in low, flat beds, sometimes rising into cliff's, but never reach- ing the elevation attained by the Silurian rocks in Lancaster Sound. " Coal, sandstone, clay-ironstone and brown haematite were found along a line stretching E. X. E. from IJaring Island, through the south of Melville Island, Ilyam-Martin Island, and the whole of liathurst Island. Carboniferous limestone, with characteristic fossils, was found along the north coast of Bathurst Island, and at Hillock Point, ]\lelville Island." From a comparison of diiferent coal exposures noted by McClintock, !McClure, Austen, Belcher and Parry, in the Parry Islands, Prof. Haughton has laid down the approximate outcrops of some of the coal ARCTIC REGION. 229 a. along ith of sland. rr the o u.l." intock, Prof, e coal beds. Those he liiids to agree remarkably well with the trend of the boundary of the formation drawn from totally different data. In connee- tion with this place it is noteil tliat the Carboniferous sandstones under- lie the limestones, and that " it is highly jjrobable tliat the coal beds of ]\[elville Island are very low down in the series, and do not correspond in geological position with the coal beds of Europe." The followi.ig account of the Cretaceous and Tertiary of Greenland is condensed from lleer : — I. C'HKrACKOUS. 1. Tlie Komc series, of black slialea resting on the Laurentian gneiss. Tliese beds are found ;it various otiier localities, but the name above given is that by which they are generally known. Their flora is limited to ferns, cycads, conifers, and a few endo- gens, with only Fopulus prinui'va to represent the dicotyledons. These beds are regarded as Lower Cretaceous (Urgonian,) but thi' animal fossiN would seem to give them a ratiier higiier iio.sition. They may bi' regarded as equivalent to the Kootanio and C^ueen Charlotte Ijeds in Canada, and the I'otomac series in Virginia. 2. The Ataiic series. These also are black shales with dark-coloured sandstones. They are best exposed at Upernavik and Waigat. Here dicotyledonous leaves abound, amounting to ninety species, or more than lialf the whole number of species found. The fossil iilants resemble those of the Dakota series of the United States and the Dinivegan series of Canada, and the animal fossils indicate tiie horizon of the Fort Pierre or its lower part. They may be regarded as representing tlie lower part of the U[)per Cretaceous. Tiie genera I'opiilas, Mi/rira, Qiicrcns, Firii.t, Platnnns, SdMafvas, Lanvus, Mai/tiolin, and LirinihiKlron are among those represented iu these lu'ds, and the i>eculiar genera Mdcclintockia and Creilncria are characteristic. The gemts J'inus is rein-esented by five species, Scqnnia by five, and Sulialturia by two, with three of the allied genus Bdicrii. There are many ferns and cycads. 3. The Patoot series. These are yellow and red siiales, which seem to owe their colour to the spontaneous comi)ustion of i yritous lignite, in the manner observed on the South Saskatchewan and tlie Mackenzie rivers. Their age is proljably aljout that of the Fox- Hill groui) or .Senonian, and the I'pper Cretaceous of N'at.couver Island, and tiiey afford a large ])roportion of dicotyledonous leaves. Tiie genera of dicoty- ledons are not dissimilar from those of Atane, but wo now recognise Bctn/a and Aliiu!>, ('umiitDiiiii, Pliiiicru, Sdiiotarilen, Frcruiun, I'ihiiniuni, Co/vik.s, Acer, ('chmtnix, P(illiirii,i, Ceuiwtkiis, Zi:yi)hi(!<, and ('rdtmiii.t as new genera of modern aspect. On the whole there have been found in all these beds 335 species, belonging to liO families, of which 'M> are dicotyledonous, and reiiresent all the leading types of arl)or- escent dicotyledons of the temperati' latitudes. The flora is a warm temperate one, witii some remarkable mixttires of subtropical forms, among wiiicli perhaps the most remarkable are Kdklucarpiua referred to the Pundain iv, and such exogens as Firua and CunuiiiKjiiiniii. II. Tkutiahv. 4. The UiHirtok series. This is believed to be Eocene. It consists of sandstone, whicii apjiears on the shores of Disco Islam), and jinssibly at some other places on the coast. T1h> beds rest directly and apparently conf(jrmably on the Ujiper Cretaceous, and iiave afforded only eleven species of plants. Magiwlia is represented by two species, 230 CANADIAN 0E0L()(;Y. Laurns hy two, Platiaiun by two, and one of tln'sc siiid to bo identical with n sjiecies found by licsqiiciinix in tlic Tjiiraniic,* Vihurnuu}^ Jinildii!!, (Jucrriis, each liy one species ; tlie ubicjuitous Seiiuoias Ijy .S'. Lttiuiadnrffi. This in i)retty ch'arly a Lower Laramie flora. "). The AUinekcriUuk series, eonsistinj? of shaly be(ls, with limestone intercalated between throat sheets of basalt, mucli like tlu; lOocene of Antrim and tlie Hebiides. These beds have yielded 187 species, i)rincii)ally in bands and concretions of xiilcrite, and often in a ^,'ood state of preservation. They are referred to tne Lower Miocene, but, as explained in th(^ text, the flora is more nearly akin to that of the Kocene of Europe and the Jjaramie of An;erica. The animal fossils are chiefly fresh-water shells. Onoclea scnxihilis, several conifers, as Taxitct Olriki, Tdxodiitm didichiim, (I'liiiitosh'ohiis Europans, and S«intna LaiujKil irffi, and -fi of the dicotyledon.s are recoi^'nized as found also in American localities. Of these, a large proportion of the more common species occur in the l'|)per Laramie of the Mackenzie River and elsewhere in north-west Canada, and in the western United States. It is quite likely also that several species regarded as distinct may prove to be identical. It Would seem that throui^hoiit tiie whole thickness of these tertiary beds the flora is similar, so that it is i>robable it bi'lon;. 57. lllltO (Op. 1 l)i> •anl e of ARCTIC RECJION. 231 thesf) fragincuts by arrows on liis j,'i'()l()ifi(;al iiiapof tlie Arctic arcliipcla^Lfo, and rev(.'rt.s to tlie same subject on pa^os IVJ'.] and 31)4, pointing' out tlie general nortliward luoveniunt of ici; indicated, and referriiiLj tlie carriage of the boulders to floating ice of the glacial period. " Near Princess-Koyal Islaml, in I'rince-of- Wales Strait, and also on the coast of I'rince-of- Wales Islaml, the copper saiil to be picked up in large masses by the Eskinu), (De Kanee, Xatiu'e, Vol. xi. p. 492.) may be supposed to Ije derived from the Cambrian rocks of the Coppermine river region to the .south, as it is not probable that it occurs in place anywhere in tin; region of horizontal limestone where it is found. "Dr. Armstrong, previously (juoted, notes the occurren ■" .,.. granitic and other crystalline rocks, iu)t only on the south shore of I'.aring Laiul, but also on the hills iidaml. These, from what is now knnwn of the region, can scarcely be supposed to have come from l ^where than the continental land to the southward. "In an account of the scientilic residt.. -f the 'Polaris' expedition, (Nature, vol. ix,) it is stated of the west coast of Smith's Sound, north of the Humboldt glacier, that ' wherever the locality was favorable,' the land is coveri'd l»y drift, sometimes contaiuiiin' veiy characteristic lithological specimens, the identification of which witli rocks of South (Ireeuland, was a very easily accomplished task. For instance, garnets of unusually large size were found in lat. 81° 30', having marked mineralogical charac- ters by which the identity with some garnets from Tiskernaces was established. Drawing a conclusion from such observations, it became evident that the main line of the drift, indicating the direction of its motion, runs from south to north. It should be stated, however, that Dr. Bessels, who accompanied the ' Polaris ' expeilition, regards these erratics as certainl}' not transported l)y glaciers, but by floating ice, and as showing that the current of Davis S'.'ait was formerly to tiie north and mU to the south, as at present. (Pull. Soc. Geog., l*aris, vol. ix., 1885, p. 297.) " It may further bo nu tioned as bearing on the general question here referred to, that Dr. P>ell iias found evidence of a northward or north- eastward movement of glacier-ice in the northern part of Hudson Pay, (Annual Report Geol. Survey of Canada, 1875, p. 14, D.I),) with distinct indications of eastward glaciation throughout Hudson Strait. (Re[)ort of Progress, Geol. Survey of Canada, 1882-84, p. 3G, D.D.) The facts so far developed in this northern part of the continent and in the Arctic islands, thus point to a movement of ice outward in all directions from the great Laurentian axis or plateau, which extends from Labrador 232 CANADIAN GEOLOGY. round the soutliem extremity of Hudson's Bay to tlio Arctic Sea, rather tlian to any general flow of ice from the vicinity of the geographical pole southward. VI. THE TERRAXOVAX OR NEWFOUNDLAND REGION. A large part of the Island of Newfoundland is occupied with Lauren- tian rocks. The western booundary of these extends south-west throughout the length of the island, from near Hare Bay at the northern extremity of the island to Cape Ray at its south-west end. The eastern boundary of the Laurcntian forms the west coast of White ]!ay, and south-east of this is broken l)y belts of newer strata, beyond which it forms a sinuous line from Cape Freels on the east coast, to Fortune liay. The extreme breadth of this Laurcntian district is therefore about 1.50 miles, and the general strike; of its beds seems to be N. E. and .S.W. Its continuity is, however, interrupted by two areas of Palajozoic rocks resting on it. One of these is a great tract of Cambrian and Siluro- Canibrian rocks presenting a broad front to the Atlantic at Notre iJame Bay, and forking into three l)i'anches before reaching the 8(Uitli coast. It includes great breadths of ser[)entine, associated with chldrilic slates, diorites, etc., and also a long trdugh of Silurian rocks. The second and narrower lireak is that stretching to the south-west from White Hay, along the Ilumber River to St, CJeorge's Bay, where it is united with tiie I'aLTozoic of the west coast. It contains Siluro- Cambriaii, Silurian and Carljonifcnius rocks. To llic wi'stward of the Laurcntian nucleus, the ( lulf of St. Lawrence coast is skirted with formations reaching in age from the Potsdam to the Carlioniferous, and which, in their northern part, seem to lie faulted against the Laurcntian. To the eastward nf the Laurcntian nucleus the south-eastern portion of the Isliiiiil, including the luMiinsula of Avalon, is occupied, with the exception of two considerable patches of Laurcntian, by rocks referred by ^lurray to the Huronian anil Lower and Middle Cand)rian. These eastern rocks partake of the nnirginal and Atlantic character of those of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, of which the eastern part of Newfoundland may be regarded as a north-eastern continuation. The Paloeozoic formations on the west cciast, on the other hand, constitute the eastern margin of the great undisturbed area of the Gidf of St. Lawrence. The Huronian' rocks of Newfoundland consist of ijuartzites, diorites, TERRANOVAN REGION. 033 slates and slate conglomerates, resembling those of tlio typical rc-ion in Georgian Bay. Tlieir ..ppor beds have, however, atrurded the doubt- ful f.)ssds known as Aspiddla and Arcnicolites spiralis. Above these are reu .. .d green sandstones and conglomerates known as the Signal Hill series. They correspoiul in mineral character and geological relations to the Kewenian of the west, and the liasal Cambrian of INIatthew, in ]S"ew Brunswick. Next in succession are the Caml)rian beds, consisting largely of shales, sometimes slaty, and sandstones, with some limestone. They appear tJ include the lower members of the Caml)rian system as develoj-e.! on tlio Atlantic coast. In a recent paper,* Walcott gives the section s.en on Manuel s Brook, Conception Bay, as follows : a. Archfean Gneisses. „ 1. Oon^'loinerate re.stint? uncomforinably upon rt 35 2. Sancl.tono, shale and iiripun, li.nestone, with OlaHUusBrwj'jeri sixteen species of the Olenellu.s fauna .... o") 3. Greenish argiHaceous shale T^ ■1. Red do. do V.V i"). Limestone ., (3. •''■"'"'^f^^'^rgijlaceous shales with an abunda'nV ' I'amdoxidcs faun'a 7. Dark argillaceous shah's Pam< aiillihunUca, Jfrlio/ifi'.-f, Zaphnntis hrf/istri(i/(t, S/ri>ji/i/ir/)>'na r/nn/z/i'iiild/is, Alr>/pa vuticiilarh, Sfrid'hat- i)arently new, ferns of tlie j,'enns Sii/icno/itcyis and fossil wond of the genus Ihtdoxiihit. The Pleistocene deposits are represented in X'ewfoumlland liy boulder clay and by clays holding marine shells of recent species, and surroumled by sand and gravel, as in most other parts of eastern America. Si_) far as known the direction of drift has on the low grounds been from the north- east, and there seems also evidence of local drift and striation from the central highlands ilown the valleys toward the coast. These directions mark ditrereiil stages of the great Pleistocene suljniergenee, in which Newfoundland .seems to liave shared like other parts of eastern America. In Xewfoundland, according to Richardson and llinde, there is evidence of subnun'gence to the amount of P200 feet, and hills at the height of 2500 feet show evidence of ice-action.* The economic resources of Xewfoundland, as described by Murray and llowley, include copper ores (Tilt Cove, etc.), galena (Port-a-Port,) iron ores, pyrites and ochres, gypsum and coal. (iold occurs in ipiartz veins near JJrigus in Conception J5ay, in rocks regarded as Huronian. For more full accounts of the economic nnneralsof the islaiul, reference may be had to the Keports of ^Messrs. ^Murray and llowley, of the Geological Survey of Xewfoundland. * For the details see the author's Notes on the Post-Pliocene, 1872. fl' APPENDIX PRINCIPAL MINEUAL CONSTITUENTS OF UOCKS. The following descriptions are intendoil to alFonl the student con- venient means of reference to the eluiracters of the more important minerals referred to in the chapter on Lithology. 1. UAIlTZ. As familiar example?, Flint and Rock Crystal may be taken. The former occurring in concretions in chalk and other calcareous rocks, was probably one of the iirst mineral substances used by man ; l)eing the material of the Hint implements of the "stone age." As nuartz is the most commiin of minerals, and occurs in most silicious rocks, it may serve as a typical mineral whereby to illustrate the terms used in other cases. Com posif ion. —Qnariz when pure is tfi/ica, a compound of the ele- ments in and oxj/f/cji. The former is an element not unlike carbon or charcoal in many of its properties; the latter a gas and the most im- portant ingredient of the atmosphere. Silica is thus an axiili: nf silicon, and containing two comiiining proportions of Uxygen to one of Silicon, its chemical name is xilicon dioxide. Cri/.^fa//i::a/ion. — Its usual form is a six-sided pi'ism, terminated by a six-sided pyramid. It thus Itelongs to the ILwcKjonal system of crystal- lization. When mineral substances soliilify from the state of vapour, from solution in water, or from a state of fusion, their particles tend to arrange themselves along certain lines or axes, and thus to produce crystals of definite geometrical forms. The law in the case of ([uartz is, that its particles arrange themselves along three horizontal axis, or lines of attraction, at angles of sixty degrees with -ach other, and along a fourth axis at right angles to the other three. The six-sided plates and six-rayed stars of snow are formed on the same principles. MINERALOGY. 237 and Perfect crystals of quartz are found lining rf/'ndes or cavities in rocks, also the sides of fissures and veins, and sojuetimes imbedded in the sub- stance of rocks. .Small crystals confusedly aggregated and imperfect, owing to pressure, give i/rannlar rarirfics. Crystals so small that they canntjt be discerned by tlie naked eye give criiptun'ijdaUiui' rariftirs. Its Hanhirss is 7, measured by a scale in which talc is 1 and diamond 10. Tiie liardness of quartz is sutticient to enable it to scratch glass, to resist the action of steel, and to feel gritty in the teeth. Its Sp'-i'itJi- (imritij is 2.5 to 2.8, measured l)y a scale in whiiih water is the unit. It is thus two and a half times heavier than water. (Juartz being one of the most common minerals, and entering very largely into the composition of rocks, in whicli also it is associated with many other substances not very different in specific gravity, it follows that its specific gravity is about that of most ordinary rocks, all of which are thus sufficiently heavy to sink readily in water, but when immersed in water lose between one lialf and one tliird of their weight. Optical Characters. — Quartz is sometimes cohmrletfs, but becomes coloured by mixture with other substances, especially oxides of iron. The protoxide (ferrous oxide) gives dull green and l)lackisli colours — ■ the peroxide (ferric oxide) red colours, and the hydrous peroxide yellow and brown colours. The lustre of quartz is, with reference to its hind, vitreous or that of broken glass ; with reference to its (ti'(jree, it varies from splendent, the lustre of perfect crystalline faces, to dull or lustreless. The vitreous lustre is a good character whereby to distinguish the mineral. The pure and crystalline varieties are transparent ; the crypto-crystalline and coarse varieties translucent to opaque. Quartz is brittle, ami its fracture concJioi'lal in the pure varieties. It is infusible and insoluble in Avater and ordinary acids ; but may be fused or dissolved in water, when combined with alkalis, as potash or soda. Varieties of Quartz. Quartz presents many varieties, which may be arranged under the heads of (rt) Crystalline or vitreous, {b) Chalcedonic and (c) Jaspery. (a.) Vitreous Varieties. Rock Crystal. — Transparent and colourless, often in the definite crys- talline form. Used for lenses, for ornamental purposes and to form imita- tion gems or doublets. Amethyst. — Purple and violet varieties, coloured by a minute quantity of Manganese, or perhaps in some cases by iron and soda. 238 APPENDIX. Ill Rn^i' (liinrf::. —A more dolicntoly liiitcil pink variety. Yr//i)wanif Snic/it/ Hitat'l::. — Ciillt'd Caini;,'orm (ir falso Topaz, of sinoky or rich yi'Uowish and lirownisli hues; coloured l)y titanic acid, or liy orj,'aiiic matter. Cft/V Eiir, — Transparent (piarlz, containing liljres of asljc.•(' or cominoii felspar. In (Jh'iiiicnl C'liiiipimifiuii. it is a silicate of alumina and [miash. It is not acted on by acids and is fusil)le with ditUcult}'. Its C'ri/ftfal/ini' fonn is moiiu'-linic ; its particles bein.L,' arraiii^t.'d in ac- cordance with three axes of crystallization — the two Imiizdiilal ones at ri,t,dit anodes to each other, tiie third at an an,L,de of C)l\' 'y'S' to [ilaiie of the others. Its two prini'ipal cleavas,'es aro at right angles, while the corresponding cleavages in the other felspars are never at right angles. The.se cleavage faces aid in distinguishing it from (piartz. Its Hnrdncsx is six, lieing thus next to (pmrtz in the scale of hard- ness. Though scratched by quartz it is hard enough to scratch glass, but feebly. Its Specific Gravity is 2.5 to 2.G. Its Lustre is vitreous, but with a tendency to pearly on cleavage sur- faces. Its more common colors are white, red and grey. Kaolin, or the finest China clay, proceeds from the decomposition of felspar ; the potash and part of the silica being dissolved by rain water and leaving a hydrous silicate of alumina in a fine state of division. Of the other Felspars the most important are Alhite, .soda felspar, in ■which soda replaces the potash of the orthoclase, AiK^rthifi', or lime fels[)ar, and Oli'iorlase and Lahradorite, in which both soda and lime are present. Albite sometimes presents a beautiful pearly opalescence upon its cleavage faces, and Labradorite is remarkable for the splendid play of colours observed in some specimens. Labradorite, Anortliite and Oligoclase are basic, or have an excess of base relatively to their silica. All beside Orthoclase are triclinic. The felspars are extremely important in geology as constituents of the silicious Ci_ystalline rocks, as granite, syenite, gneis.s, dolerite, etc. 2-iO APPENDIX. I: Tlioy enter very largely into the composition of the lavas of volcanoes ; those called TracJii/tic Lavas or TmcV/z/^cs, consisting principally of felspar. 3. Leucite. This mineral, like ortlioclase, is a silicate ot alumina and potash ; the constituents, however, being in different proportion. Crystallization isometric, the crystals often being very perfect trapezohedrons, with twenty-four similar faces. H.— 5.5 to 6. Gr.— 2.45 to 2.5. Colour, white to gray ; surface usually dr.U ; infusible. Decomposed by hydrochloric acid, without gelatinization. Not known to occur in Canada, but an abundant constituent of certain volcanic rocks in Italy and the United States. 4. Nepueline. Nepheline is a mineral which sometimes takes the place of felspar in crystalline rocks. It is a silicate of alumina, soda and potash, and crys- tallizes in hexagonal forms. The color is commonly white or gray, and the lustre vitreous to greasy. H.— 5.5 to 6. Gr.— 2.5 to 2.G. Xeplieline is decomposed by hydrochloric acid, with .separation of gelatinous silv-a. It is a prominent constituent of nepheliue-basalt, nepheline-syenite, phonolite and other rocks. 5. ]\IlCA. Of this also there are several species : Common mica or Muscotnte is the most important. It is a very complex silicate, containing silica, alumina, potash, iron, magnesia, lime and soda. Its crystals are inclined rhombic and six-sided prisms (monoclinic). The angles of the rhombic prisms are 1 20" and GO". It is remarkable for its very perfect cleavage parallel to the base of the prism. In this direction it may be split into extremely thin laminae, which are flexible and elastic. "When crys!',allized in small radiating plates it is called Plimiose Mica. H.— 2.0 to 2.5. Gr.— 2.75 to 3.1. Its lustre on the faces of the cleavage planes is metallic pearly, and its colors range from sih'ery white to greenish, yellow and black. They are due to oxides of iron. MINERALOGY. 241 Along with quartz it fonns n.ica-schist, an.l in a very fine state of c ivision It IS largely concerned in giving cleavage to roofing slate. It also gives a flaggy character tn sandstone. It general, when scales of mica are arranged in parallel layers in rocks, they give to these more or less ot their (jwn fissile character. Biotih; a mica containing n.ucli magnesia and iron, and of a dark color, IS next m importance to Muscovite. Pldn.,,:>p1nt, is a mica containing a large proportion of magnesia, and common y less iron than I]iotite. It is often of a curious brou-nish-red color. It IS one of the most common minerals in the Apatite-hearincr veins of Canada, as well as in some of the Lanrentian limestones. G. Pvi{OXUXE. Tlie name of this mineral, in.plying that it is a "stranger to fire » is a roimniscence of the ol.l controversies as to the origin of r.'.cks from water or heat, and is curiously contrary to the fact that Pyroxene is one of the largest constituents of volcanic rocks. a..V"-V.o„._8ilica, lime, magnesia and iron. Some of the varieties Have much more iron than others. Crystal I inef on., monoclinic or like that of orthoclase, Init the anodes d^eiMhe inclination of the principal axis being 73° 59', and the a^lite angle of the rhombic prism 87° 5', so that it is nearlv square. It oeeurs ah.0 in granular ruid fil,rous forms. Its cleavage is not perfect, but mav be obtained parallel to the faces and l,ases of the prisms. H.— 5 to G. dr.— 3.2 to 3..5. It is thus almost as hard as felspar, and somewhat heavier than that miner.,, quartz, so that rocks containing much pyroxene are usually somew liat Jieavy. '' It ranges in colour from white, through diflerent shades of t,,. ^nd green to black, the chief colouring constituent bein. ferrous oxide Its lustre is vitreous inclining to resinous, and in some varieties . becomes pearly. jclouils Variifii'.-<. These are very numerous and have receive.l ditlerent names. We shall notice only a few of some geological impo,-...,,. ht;n:!ri.i::kr ^"""^ ''- """^"^^^ --'' ----'y --- - - Q fwr mm 242 APPEXUIX. SaJiJif'' and Malacolifi' are li^flit green and white varieties, also occur- ring sometimes as considerable ingredients of rocks. Dialla(ie is a variety witli a very distinct cleavage, and strong metallic pearly lustre on the surfaces. 7. Hornblende. This is a mineral closely allied to Pyroxene. Its ordinary varieties, however, contain more magnesia and less lime than the latter. Criistallh:atinn monoclinic, hut its rhombic prism is much flatter than that of Pyroxene, its obtuse angle (corresponding in position to the acute angle in the case of Pyroxene) being I'ii" .30', and it has a distinct cleav- age parallel to the sides of the prism. It thus forms flat blade-like crys- tals, and those being often long and slender, it assumes fibrous forms. IL— 5 to 6. (Ir.— 2.9 to 3.1. Its range of colour is similar to that of the last species. Vavii'tie!^. Common ILirnhli'wh.' or Amphiljole includes the dark and more massive varieties. Adinolite is green, and columnar or fibrous. TremolUe is white or gray, and finely filjrous. Asbestos includes the finest fibrous varieties, which, from the slender- ness and flexilnlity of the fibres, may be woven into fabrics which have become celebrated as incombustible cloths. Mountain Wood, Mountain Cork and Mountain Leather are fibrous and lamellar varieties resembling the substances whose names they Ijear. 8. Olivine. This is a silicate of magnesia and ferrous oxide, and crystallizes in the ortho-rhombic system. It is commonly met with in rounded grains im- betlded in crystalline rocks rather than as well defined crystals. H.— 6 to 7. Gr.— 3.3 to 3.0. Colour usually olive green, sometimes yellow, brownish, reddish. Lustre, vitreous. Decomposed by hyilrochloric acid with separation of gelatinous silica. Olivine is freipiently altered to serpentine. It is a constituent of many crystalline rocks, some of which are almost entirely MINERALOGY. 243 compose,! of it, A rock of this kin.l (dunite) occur, ut Mount Albert, in the proviuct of Quebec. 9. (lAHNET. _ This is a mineral which varies greatly in composition, and has accord- ingly been divided into a number of subspecies. It is a silicate of diHer- ent ses4UioxKles and protoxides (sesquioxides of aluminum, iron or chromium, an.l protoxides of iron, calcium, magnesium or manganese.) Ihe crystallization is isometric; rhombic, dodecahedrons and trapezo- hedrons being the common forms. In many cases garnet occurs imbedded in rocks in rounded or irregular itallizati(m hexagonal. It occurs in many forms belonging to tl'is system ; especially the six-sided prism, tlie rhombohedroii and the scalenohedrou. It has very distinct cleavage parallel to the faces of the rhombohedron. It occurs also in granular, fibrous and crypto-crystalline states, as well as in eartliy conditions. II.— 3. Si). Cr.— 2.5 to 2.S. It is colourless, but is often coloured by other substances, especially exiles of iron and carbonaceous matter. Its lustre is vitreous, inclining to pearly on the cleavage faces. It varies from transparent to opaque. The transparent varieties known as Icdand Spar possess double refraction. Varieties. CalcareousSpa r includes the perfectly crystalline forms. Satin Sjmr is a fibrous form occurring in veins, and having a silky- lustre. ^[INERALOGY. 245 Cah Sinter is a geiuTal name, Avhidi may incliule the imporfootly crystalline conditions occurring \n Staladit.'s and Sfalacjniih', Cnui.'ah'd imtev, Gihralfar Spar aii.l Cah-ar.nus Tufa. All these varieties are deposited from solution in water, aided by an excess of carbonic a.'i.l 14. Dolomite. This is calcium and ma-nesiuin carbonate. It effervesces less readily with acids than calcite. Its crystallization is rhombohedral like that of calcite, except that the angles -f its rhombohedron are slightly different and It IS a little harder and heavier. It has also a more pearly lustre Dolomite occurs in nature in the same manner as calcite, but often contains ferrous carbonate, which causes it to assume a rusty colour in weathering. 15. Gypsum. Calrinm Sulphate with a largo proj^rtion of Avater (al)out 20 per cent ) Its crystallization is monoclinic, and it has a very distinct cleava-e parallel to the larger faces of the rectangular prism. It is found 1u foliated, Hbn.us and granular crystallizations, and sometimes occurs in thick beds. Finer granular and translucent varieties are use.l for orna- mental purposes, und..r tl.o name of soft or gypseous alabaster. Its soft- ness, enabling it to be scratched with the finger nail, and its pearly lustre, are distinguishing .-haracters. H.— 1.5 to 2. Or.— 2..31 to 2.33. Its lustre is pearly upon the cleavage faces. It is colourless, lint fre- quently stained red by ferric oxide, and sometimes black bv carbonaceous matter, S'/enit. is a lamellar variety of Gypsum. Fibrous varieties are used to imitate Cat's eye. The readiness with which Gypsum parts with its water when heated, and resumes it, becoming solid or setting, when mixed with water, gives the substance important economical uses for casting, plastering"' and cements. It is the cheapest means of supplying sulphuric acid to the soil, and to manures, and thus is of some value in agriculture. Anhydrite is anhydrous calcium sulphate. It is found with the pre- vious species, from which it differs in its greater hardness and specific gravity, and its orthorhombic crystallization. It is sometimes used as an ornamental stone in the same manner as marble. 2iG APPENDIX. I| 16. Apatite. This is calcium phospliate with a small proportion of calcium chloriile or fluoriile, and is of groat interest as representing the earthy part of the bones of animals. Its crystallization is hexagonal, and its usual form is the hexagonal prism. II.— 5. dr.— 3. to 3.2. Its lustre is resinous, and its colour usually greenish. In the crystalline state it occurs largely in veins and bc.'ds in the Laurentian formation in Canadii. It is also found in concretionary masses, in beds of various geological ages, and is the principal constituent of the harder varieties of guano. Calcium phosphate is an essential ingredient in soils, in which it is usually present in very small quantity, and it is rapidly removed Ijy those crops which produce the greatest amount of animal food. This gives to it a very great importance in agriculture, and it is much sought for in every civilized country, and largely used as a means of improving the soil. 17. Fluor Spar or Fluorite. This is Calcium Fluoride. Its crystalline form is isometric, and it often occurs in beautiful and regular cubes, with a cleavage parallel to the faces of the octahedron. H.— 1. Or.— 3. to 3.25. It is sometimes colourless, but more fre(iuently of blue and purple colours, and in some cases green, red or yellow. It frequently occurs in metallic veins, more especially with the ores of lead. It has been used as a tlux in reducing metallic ores, hence its name Fluor. 18. KocK Salt. Common Salt is sodium chloride. It crystallizes in the isometric system, usually in cubes. II.— 2. Gr.— 2.1 to 2.25. It furnishes an excellent example of a soluble native salt. It occurs not only in great quantity in the sea and in salt lakes, but also in exten- sive beds in the crust of the earth, whence it is mined for use. These beds have probably been formed by the drying up of salt lakes, and of isolated portions of sea water, and the subsec^ueut covering by setliment •h, MINERALOGY. 247 of tlie liGtls of salt thus formed. Copious salt springs often rise from such deposits. 19. Magnetite. Is an ..xide of iron intermediate between the monoxide and sesqui- oxide. Crystallization isometric, usually in octahedrons. H. — .5.;") to 0.5. Gv. — ,5. Colour black, Lustre metallic. It occurs in Canada in larye beds, in the Laurentian, and also in layers as iron sand, and is the most valuable of the ores of iron. It is attracted by the magnet, and it sometimes has Jtself magnetic polarity, constituting the natural loadstone. It is dis- tinguished from the other species by its black powder or streak and its magnetic properties. 20. Hematite. _ Also called specular iron, is ses.juioxide of the metal. Its crystalliza- tion is lu^xagonal, and it often occurs in thin plates or scales, and also in fibrous forms. II.— 0.5 to G.5. Or.— i.5 to 5.3. Its colour is black or steel grey in crystalline varieties, but its streak or powder is deep red. It is not usually attracted by the magnet. Foliated varieties constitute Micaceuns Iron Ore, compact°or fibrous dull red varieties are called Hematite, and earthy varieties are IM Ochre. It is a very valuable ore of iron. 21. LiMOXITE. This is hydrous sesquioxide of iron. It occurs in fdorous and con- cretionary masses. H.— 5. to 5.5. Gr.— 3.6 to 4. Its colour is ilark brown, and its streak or powder yellow. Compact and fibrous varieties are called Brown Hematite. Concretionarv varieties found ,n modern deposits are Bo,, Iron Ore, and earthy varieties are Yellow Ochre. It is a valuable ore of iron. 22. PVRITE. Is disulphide of iron. Crystallization isometric, usually in cubes and octahedrons. H.— 6. to 6.5. Gr.— 4.8 to 5. Colour, bronze yellow. It is a very common mineral, and is often mistaken for gold and for valuable metallic ores. When mixed with 248 APPENDIX. metallic ores ami with coal it is a troublesome impurity ; but it is used as source of sulph'.ir ami sulphuric acid, and of tlie ferrous sulphate. i! »1 Hi 23. Coal. Coal essentially consists of com|)i)Uiids of carliou and liydmucn, with variable anmunls of oxyj,'en, of nilmucn and nf earthy matter. It pre- sents many varieties, which shade into each other and dilli'r much in composition and physical properties. This results from the fact that it is not a detinite chemical comiiouud, or crystallized mineral specie.s, but rather a product of the partial decomposition of vegetable matter buried in the earth. Its veg(;table origin is proved by the remains of plants imbiMldcd in it, and often showing their structure distinctly under the micros"(ipe, and by its resting on under-clays containing roots of trees, overlaid witli siiales filled with impressions of plants. It is of dill'ereiit geological ages, liut the greater part was formed at a ])artieular part of the earth's geological history, knnwn as the carboniferous piM'ind. Its hardness varies from 1. to 'IJ), and its sp. grav. from 1. to 1.8. Its colour is black, or dark-ljrown, its powder either black or laown. Its lustre is resinous or sub-metallic, and its fracture conchoidal or Hat. It usually presents a laminated stru(;ture, with layers of mineral charcoal, or of vegetal)le debris, or of eartliy matter l)etu-een the lamina>, wliiidi nfteu consist principally of flattened trunks of which the coal has been made up. The prin(Mpal varieties are tlie following: — Brawn Coal is an imperfect coal found in the more modern formation.s. It is often merely a consolidated [)eat, but when composed of llattened trunks of trees it assumes the com])act form of jet. It is intermediate in comp(jsition between coal and wooil. It contains from 47 to 70 per cent, of carbon, and from 5 to 18 per cent, of hydrogen, the remainder being oxygen and ashes. It is usually an inferior kind of fnei. Bifuiiiinons Coal , or ordinary Ijlack coal, i)roceeds from a more perfect carbonization of vegetable matter, and is the coal of the true Carboniferous system. The coking varieties become soft when heated, and Inirn with much flame. The non-coking varieties do not soften, and contain less gaseous matter. Uituminous coal contains from 75 to 90 per cent, of carbon, and from 3 to 6 per cent, of hydrogen, the remainder Ijeing principally oxygen and ashes. The more bituminous varieties are used for the production of gas. Anfliracitc proceeds from the alteration of bituminous coals, and is MINEKALOdV 249 il as soniotnnes of the nuturo of natural coke. It is hanlcr aiul lieavier tl.an the l,itu.iuiiou,. coals, and contains from 85 to 92 per cent, of carbon and from 2 to 3 per cent, of hydro^^en. It gives littl.. or no flame in burning. In some coal deposits Anthracite passes by a furlhcr process of alteration into graphite or plumbago, which is, however, regar.led as a distinct mineral species, owing to its very diirerent physical properties. 24. ]5lTUMEN. Mineral oil ami mineral pitch are mi.vtures of different hydro-carbons diflenng from coal in tlum- liquid, viscid or easily fusible character, and in being soluble in oil of turpentine aiul ether. Like coal these sub- stances are derived from the chemical change of vegetable matter buried lu he crust of the earth ; but they result chi..fly fnm. marine vegetation, or from that which has been buried and excluded from the air while still Petrolr,,,, or mineral oil, includes the li,,uid or viscid varieties which flow from natural oil wells, or are obtained by l,oring into the beds of rock containing tiiis substance in their pores an.l fissures. It has been known and used from the most ancient times, but has receuilv acniired greater importance from the abundance of it obtained by b^rin'.,- ,nd the means discovered for its purification. J>etroIeum often contains more than 12 per cent, of hydrogen. Asphnffu>» includes the .solid and semi-solid varieties, havin-r a ertifrand " /.../. CW," are asphakic minerals .still further altered" until they assume nearly the appearance and composition of the bitumin- ous coals They are found in veins or fissures, and not in ])eds like the true coals, and have no vegetable structure. In some altered rocks materials of tins kind have been converted into anthracite and probably into graphite. ^ •' _Ea>-f/>!/ BitHu>en and Canu.J Cnal are materials of this series, mixcl with much earthy matter, and hardened till they resemble tru,. coals ihey are found in l,eds associated with the ordinary coals, and are much used m gas-making and for the distillation of coal oil. R 250 APPENDIX. It will be seen that the Coals unA r.ituiiR'us form two pamllel series, according to the amount of chemical change wiiich they have experienced, thus : — COAL SERIES. BITUMEN SERIES. Vegetable matter. Vogi^table matter. Peat. IVtroIinnn. Urowti coal. Asphaltum. Piituminous coal. Cannel coal. Anthracite. Anthracite. (Iraphite. (U'apliite. 25. (ilJAl'IIlTE. This substance is Carbon with its molecules arrang(!d in a peculiar manner, constituting an allotropic form. Its crystalline form is hexagonal, in Hat six-sided tables. IL— 1. to 2. Or.— 2. Colour black and steel grey ; streak black. Lustre metallic. Divides into thin Iamina>, flexible and greasy to touch. Graphite is probably, in most cases, a coal or asphalt, altered l)y heat, and in this way it is often formed accidentally in furnaces. It is largely used in making crucibles for melting metals, in coating iron castings, in lessening the friction of machinery, and in drawing an