IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) ^A 1.0 ;?>- HM I.I 1.25 iT 1^ 10 M 1.8 1.4 1.6 /^ % v> '/ /A Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 V/EST MAIN ST! (meaning "CON- TINUED "), or the symbol V (meaning "END "), whichever applies. Un des symboles suivants apparaitra sur la dernidre image de cheque microfiche, selon le cas: le symbole — ^- signifie "A SUIVRE", le symbole V signifie "FIN". Maps, plates, charts, etc., may oe filmed at different reduction ratios. Those too large to be entirely included in one exposure are filmed beginning in the upper left hand corner, left to right and top to bottom, as many frames as required. The following diagrams illustrate the method: Les cartes, pie., ihes, tableaux, etc., peuvent dtre filmds d des taux de reduction diff^rents. Lorsque le document est trop grand pour dtre reproduit en un seul clich6, il est filmd d partir de Tangle supdrieur gauche, de gauche d droite, et de haut en bas, en prenant 's nombre d'images ndcessaire. Les diagrammes suivants illustrent la mdthode. rrata :o pelure. □ 32X 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 } CHAPMAN'S MINERALS AND GEOLOGY OF ONTARIO AND QUEBEC. J). nV Tim SAME Ai'TIlOli. AN OUTLINE OF THE GEOLOGY OF CANADA BASED ON A SUBDIVISION OF THE PROVIN'CES INTO NAJURAL AREAS. IVt^/i six sketch-maps and S6 figures of characteristic fossils. II. IJLOWPIPE PRACTICE. WITH ORIGINAL TABLES FOR THE DETERMINATION OF ALL KNOWN MINERALS. Favourable i.i.ntion is inade of this work in the later editions of Vo,i Kobell's celebrated Tafaln ^lw■ IJeKtinuimng ilci- Miiicralien. III. ASSAY NOTES. PRACTICAL INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE DETERMINATION BV FURNACE ASSAY OF GOLD AND SILVER IN ROCKS AND ORES. Second Edition. IV. THE MINERAL INDICATOR: A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO THE DETERMINATION OF MINERALS OF GENERAL OCCURENCE. IjoI- THE MINERALS AND GEOLOGY (,)F CENTRAL CANADA, l'O.Ml'l;iSIN(i THK PHOVINCES OF ONTARIO AND QUEBEC. Fsy E. J. CHAPMAN, Ph.D., LL.D. PROKES.S()K IX THE UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO, AND .SCHOOL OP PRACTICAL .SCIENCE. THIRD EDITION, REVI.SEn AND IN GREAT PART REWRITTEN. TORONTO : THE COPP, CLARK COMPANY, (LIMITED.) 1888. CI?. 10211^ yl£~ ' "*"»■'"''««» Of, he M,„,„',';"";rt^„';^™ COMPANY a,»„»,. I„„l. PPEFACE. TlIK jdiiii and mode of treiitiiient adopted in tlir ori^diiiil I'ditiuii of this Avoi'k, live rotained in tlic prcscnl edition ; hut tiie j-uliject matter Ims lieen gi'oatl}' cxtende'd, and. with the exception of a few pages, tlie woi'k lias ho(>n entirely rewritten. It aims to convey, in huiguage as litth:; teclmical as ])o.ssi!de, a practical knowledge of the minerals and general geology of the two central ])rovinces of the Dominion — Ontai'io vmd (^uehec. In its plan, it endiraces live leading .sections or subdivisions. These f(.ilow each otlier in logical order, and uie discussed throughout in an essentially exi)lanatory form. The first section dcsci-il)es hrietly the more salient characters or ])ropeities by which the determination of minerals is etlected ; and it includes a sullicient notice of the blowpipe to enable anyone to employ tliat useful instrument in the practical examination and rough analysis of ndneral Ijodies. The second part or .section contains descriptions of all the mincals hitherto I'ecoi'nized within the Provinces to which t\w work reftr.s. In these descriptions, minute cry.stallo^fra|)hic and chemical detai.s are purposely avoided, as unsuited to the character of the book.* The t'escriptive portion of the .section is preceded by a couple of Determi- native Taldes, drawn up express!', for the present work, by the use oj which, the name of any mineral occurring in central Canada, may be easily ascertained. The two succeeding sections, Pahts III and IV, are introduero/y to P.\HT V, in which the geological features of Ontario and Quebec are passed under review. Part III discusses the classification, struc- tural characters and other technical points belonging to the study of rock masses generally, and that of minei-al veins ; and it includes also a brief outline of the Earth's rock-recorded history (pp. 199 to 207). Part IV comprises an epitome or systematic synopsis of Canadian Paheontology, w-ith figures and descriptions of our more characteristic * A synopsis of the crystallojfraphic characters of the niorf ini))ortant mineral sjiecies will be found in the Xotex attached to the Dctcruiinatifc Tahli'n of the author's Blnvinpe I'lactice. In these Notes, siiectrcscojiic characters, where readily determinable, are also yiven. VI. IMM-.KACK. fossils, iiud iiiiuiy oriifiiml y,iou|»iMi,'s iuiil yt'iierulizatious. TIh* tiyiiics are soiiit'wlmt rouglily exocutt'd, luit tlicy serve sutheiently tor the idontiliciitioM of the; forms to wliich they refer. Fiiwilly, ill Part V, tlio sulxlivisions, econoinic ininenils, chiiracte- ristic fossils, ami <,'eiieriil ilistril)Utiou of tlie rock forniiitioiis of the two Pr(ninces are given in systematic outline. Here, as clsowliere tln■ou^llOut the work, T have been careful to acknowledge my oljliga- tit)ns where information has lieen specially derived from other sources. The subdivisions adojited with regard to the geological areas of the Provinces are })ractieally the same as those given in the author's "Outline of the Cleology of Canada" published in ISTC) ; bnt their arrangement has been slightly altered, and the greater portion of this section has been entirely rewritten for the present work. An Index, containing ujjvvards of three thousand references to minerals, rock-formations, fossils, localities, etc., within the two Pro- vinces, concludes the volume, and will add much, it is thought, to its ntility. E. J. C. Tor..»NTo, April 30, 1.S88. CONTENTS. I'AOK Inthoih ( ii>i;v Notice PaIH I. ')1IK DiSTINtTIVK C'lI.VU At TKKS OF MlNT.lt.VI.S 3 Fieliiiiiii.'irv ItiuuirkH (.Si. Piivsic.u. ('iiakactkiss (4-18). Asiii'i'tor l.ustrt; (4). (.'oloiir (.")). Streak ((1). Konn (7). Stnictiiiv and (Jluavn^'e (l.'{). iianlne.ss ( 14). Sjiuuilic tjiavity (lt>). Miille;il)ilitv (17). 'i'aHte(18). ('iiKMU'Ai- C'nAHAtTEUs (1S-4,S'. .N oiuciKlaturo (IS). ActioiiH of Acids (■'()). Application of tlio lUowjiiin; (■2'_'-48). Mlowpipe appaiatu.s {22). Jilo\v])ipc Flames CJ.")-'.'?). Fu.siou Trial ('28). Water Test (.SO). Treatment with col)aIt nitrate (.'l-lL'L'). Carbonates ( I '22). Sulph.-ites ( 1 29). Phosphates and Arseniates ( I .S4i. Fluorides and Chlorides (IS"). Bodies of Assumed Organic (Jrigin (141). Part III. Rock.s anb Uock-producino Agencies 147 General Classilic.atiou of Hock Masses (147). Sedimentary Rocks (150- 16(5). Composition of Sedimentary Kocks (150). Formation of Sedi- mentary Rocks (I5S). Derivation, Deposition, and Consolidation of Sediments (154, 150, 157). Elevation above sea-level (158). iJenu- dation (161). Tilting and FVacturing (102). Production of Faults (104). Metamorjjhism (1()5). Metamorphic or Crystalline-stratiform Rocks (167-174). Massive cr Unstratitied Rocks (174-191). (iranites (177) Anortho- sites (181). Traps and (iroenstones (182). 0])sidians and Pitchstonea (191). Lavas (191). Mineral Veins (191-198). Classification of Rocks in accordance with their relative periods of formation (199-207). Table of Geological Ages and Periods (201). General Outline of the P^arth's history : Archaean Age (20.3) ; Paheo- zoic Age (204) ; Mesozoic Age (205) ; Cainozoic Age (206) ; Androzoic or Existing Age (206, 207). viil. ('ONTKNT.x. I'aKI I\'. l"'osrtII,I/EI> OutiAMC HoDIKS. 20» IMiiiit l.'ctimiiM ( 'J i ()-•-'•-'()). ThiillogtiiH ('Jl I ). Aoroueiis C-'l.')). < lyiniKi- siRTiiix C-'lil). Moiiocntyh'doiis (•_"_'(>). I ticiitvlftloMs C-'-'O). AiiiiiKil llciimiiis ('_".' i -•-•!>•_•). I'rutnzMiv ('."-'1). I'ulystdiimtii (223), Cii'lontiTat.'iCi'J.")). Kcliiiiuduniuitii ('-•:{()). \'cniu'H /-MM). ArtliroiKidii (•J.")(l). M.illusuoiclDu (.:«;.")), MtdluHf.il'JT.j). Tuniuntd ('J!in). \'urto- hrfttii (2tMl). I'uii \', SvsTK.MA'rii' OCTLINK iistrict (.'{44). Appendix: — Suiiuence of KocU Foriuatinns in Ontario ;ind Que))ec. . 3r>5 iNi.l'x Xyl ii 11 ADDITIONS AND COHIIKCTIONS. I'. V. V. V. ('., iiotu— for "than" rentl "tlint." r. 17, litic S -for "iwv" rciul "luvii." i'. -'-', lim: II — fur " lliiorliyilrii; " rciul " liyilrDllimrii!. " .■)l, insert in hnicki't 1>S — HM, on chiirufml, wiiitu inci'ustjitioii and arrtt'iiical (uliiiir Mis/iir/,1 1 (Hituni vurii'tim], Sn, '2'2. .'»7, iiisirt at tin; ciMiinit'nuL'iiit'iit (V/.'/ (aoiiie variutioa), No. '22. t;i. jinr I -^ for "SIMI'Li; SUl'.STANCK " rcml "SIMPf^F-] SUM- STANCKS." I*, (il, line ITi- add : " (;(day, l,aU(; of tin; Woods ; and (|uiti' rooeutly it has lietn discovered in the township of Dennison and elsewlure in the lliironiaii rocks of tlu; Sudlmry district." P. 04, line 'JS— after Kiviere du Loup, add (Heaiico Co). P. 71 — add Sudl)ury to the looalitios of I'urplo Copper PyritoH. P. 7. 1 10, line 1 ■)— for " Nepheletic " read " Nephelitic." P. 115 — add ShetHeld to localities of Phlog()[)ite, A valuable deposit of this species of mica has been recently discovered in the township. P. 126, line 6 from bottom— for "or" read "of." P. 127, line 2— for " Bentick " read " Bentinck." P. P28, last line— for " chlorite " read " chloritic." P. l.SO, line 8 from bottom — for " from " read " form." P. 148, line 4 — for "more limited" reatl "a more or less limited depth." P. 149, line 26— for " exhibit " read "exhibits." P. 163 — the cut, figure 88, is placed incorrectly. The lettering shews its pro- per position. P. 169, line B— add : a very tine-grained variety, with predominating feldspar, has been named granulite or feldspar-rock. P. 172, line 11— for " agillite " read "argillite." P. 172, line 24 — for " Uuronian rock " read " Huronian rocks." P. 173, line 5 from bottom— for " from " read " form." P. 189, line 17— add "at" before "Gros Cap." P. 191, line 22 — for " are not uncommon " read " have been found." P. P. P. P. P. 1?. 1;! X. ADDITIONS AND COKKECTIONS. P. 191, line o from bottom — insert "lava-like products " after " hut." P. '^O-t, line 21— for " Ecjuiseta " read '■ E(iuiseti." P. 205, line 10— for "Parts V. and VI." read " Part V." P. 207, lines 6 and 7 — erase " anenomena, as exhibited in these rocks, with the forces and agencies ^ . work in modifying the surface of the globe. As Geology is tL liially based on the study of rocks and their contents, and as rocks are not only made up of a certnin number of simple minerals, but contain also many of these latter in veins and other more or less accidental forms of occurrence, it is advisable at the outset to obtain a certain knowledge of the distinctive characters of minerals, and of the ap- plication of these characters to the determination of mineral bodies generally. This achieved, we may proceed to the study of the more extended mineral masses, or rocks proper : their classification, struc- tui'al characters, composition, modes of formation, and other related points of inquiry. The study of Organic Remains comes next in order — these bodies, the representatives of depai-ted for :s of life, occurring in great numbers in many sti'ata. They serve not only for the practical identification of the rock groups in which they are enclosed — thus enabling us to determine, for instance, whetlier a iji: i;| 1 III 2 INTRODUCTORY NOTICE. given bed lie above ov bolow the great coal formation or other geological horizon — but they make known also many interesting facts with regard to the climatic relations of tie Past, and serve to explain to some extent the embryology and development of existing forms. Finally, with the information obtained from these prelimi- nary sections, the reader may turn with profit to the study of our local geology. In accordance with these views, the subject-matter of the present treatise is discussed under the following sub-divisions : I. — The Distinctive Characters of Minerals. II. — The Minerals of Central Canada, or Provinces of Ontario and Quebec. III. — Rocks and Rock-producing Agencies. IV. — Fossilized Organic Bodies. V. — The Geology of Central Canada — comprising the Sub- divisions, Charactei'istic Fossils, Economic Materials, and Distribution, of the various Geological Formations oc- curring within the Provinces of Ontario and Quebec. PABT I. THE DISTINCTIVE CHARACTERS OF MINERALS. Preliminary Remarks : — The various bodies which occur in Nature are of two general kinds — Organic and Inorganic, respectively. The former constitute Vegetables and Animals, and all bodies of vege- table or animal origin. In the living state, they possess certain structural parts or organs by which they assimilate or take into their substance external matter, and thus increase in bulk or maintain vitality. Inorganic bodies, on the other hand, are entirely destitute of functional organs of this nature. They comprise all products of chemical, electrical, and mechanical forces, acting independently of life ; and thus include all metals, stones, and rocks, and also air and water. Mineral or inorganic bodies are in themselves, also, of two general kinds. Some possess a definite composition and definite physical chai-actex-s. Others are mixed bodies or compounds of more or less variable character. The former constitute simple minerals or min- erals proper ; the latter form rocks or rock-matters. In Parts I and II of this Treatise*, minerals proper are alone considered. Rocks and rock-producing agencies, come under review in Part III and in suc- ceeding portions of the work. Minerals are distinguished fi-om one another by certain characters or properties which they possess : such as form, degree of hardness, relative fusibility, (fee. Mineral character? ai'e of two principal kinds : physical or external, and chemical, respectively. Physical characters comprise the various properties exhibited under ordinary conditions by mineral bodies : colour, form, Ac, are examples, Chemical characters, on the other hand, comprise the properties developed in minerals by t^ t applica- tion of heat, or by the action of acids or other re-agents, by which, in general, a certain amount of chemical decomposition is effected. MINERALS AND GEOLOGY A. -PHYSICAL CHARACTERS OR PROPERTIES. The physical properties of minerals are somewhat numerous ; but many, although of the highest interest in indicating the existence of natural laws, and in their relations to physical science generally, are not readily available as a means of mineral discrimination. These, consequently, will be omitted from consideration in the following pages ; and the other characters will be discussed only in so far as they admit of direct application to the end in view —namely, the practical discrimination of minerals one from another.* The following are the characters in question : 1. Aspect or Luptre. 2. Colour. 3. Streak. 4. Form. 5. Structure. 6. Hardness. 7. Specific Gravity. 8. Relative Malleability. 9. Magnetism. 10. Taste. Aspect or Lustre. — In reference to this character we have to con- sider first, the kmd, and, secondly, the degree or intensity of lustre, as possessed by the mineral under examination. The kind of lustre may be either metallic, as that of a piece of copper, silver, &c. ; or sub-metallic, as that of most kinds of anthiacite coal ; or non-vietallic, as that of stones in general. Of the non-metallic thex-e are several vai'ieties, as, more especially : the adamantine lustre or that of the * Viewed coUectivelj-, the Physical Characters of llinerals may be arranjjed for the purposes of study, under six groups, as follows : First Group -.—Morphological Characters ;— 1, Form. 2, Surface-condition. 3, Structure. 4, Cleavage. 5, Fracture. Second Gvloi:? -.—Optical Characters :—l, Aspect or Kind of Lustr? 2, Degree of Lustre. 3, Colour, 4, Streak. 5, Degree of Transparency. 0, Refraction. 7, Polarization. Third Group ; — Cohesion Characters :—i, Hardness. 2, Tenacit}'. 3, Malleability. 4, Ex- pansibility. Fourth Gkovv -.—Sensationary Charactera :— I, Weight (Specific Gravity). 2, Feel. 3, Taste, 4, odour. 5. Sound. Fifth Group -.—Physical Characters, proper ;— 1, Magnetism. 2, Electricity. 3, Phos- phorescence. Sixth Group ; — Epigenic Characters :—l, Tarnish. 2, Ordinary Disintegration and Decon.- position. 3, Efflorescence. 4, Deliquescence. OF CENTRAL CANADA — PART I. 5 Jilt the !Con. diamond, carbonate of lead, itc; the vitreous or glassy lustre- example : rock ciystal ; the resinous lustre — ex.: native sulphur ; the pmrli/ lustre — ex.: talc; the s ilki/ luHtre (usually accompanying a fibrous structure) — ex.; fibrous gypsum ; the stoni/ aspect ; the earthy aspect, »fcc. These terms sufficiently explain themselves. Occasionally, two kinds cf non-metallic lustre are simultaneously present -either blended, as seen in obsidian, which exhibits a " resino-vitreous " aspect ; or distinct as regards different crystal faces or extornal and internal surfaces. Many of the so-called Zeolites, for example, pre- sent a pearly lustre on the surfaces produced by cleavage (see beyond), whilst the external lustre is vitreous. Tu Apophyllite, the basal or terminal crystal-plane is pearly, the others vitreous. Micas, and some few other minerals, pre.sent a pseudo-metallic lustre. This may be distinguished from the metallic lustre properly so-called, by being accompanied by a degree of translucency, or by the powder of the mineral being white or faintly coloured : minerals of a true metallic aspect being always opaque, whilst their powder is either black or dictinctly coloured. Very few minerals exhibit (in their different varieties) more than one general kind of lustre : metallic or non- metallic. Thus, galena (the common ore of lead), copper pyrites, &c., always present a metallic lustre ; whilst, on the other hand, quartz, feldspar, calc-spar, gypsum, tfcc, are never metallic in aspect. Hence, by means of this easily-recognized character, we may divide all minei'als into two broad groups ; and thus, if we pick up a specimen, and wish to ascertain its name, we need only look for it among the minerals of that group with which it agrees in lustre. The first step towai'ds the determinataion of the substance will irx this way be effected. The degree of lustre may be either splendent, shining, glistening, glimmering or dull ; but the character is one of comparatively little importance. Colour. — When combined with a metallic asoect, colour becomes a definite character, and is thus of much v.ilu j in the determination of minerals. As regards a substance of metallic aspect, for example, specimens brought from different localities, or occurring under different conditions, i*arely vary in colour beyond a slight difference of depth or shade. Thus, galena the common ore of lead is always lead-gray; copper pyrites, always brass-yellow; native gold, always 6 MINERALS AND GEOLOGY gold-yellow ; and so forth. When accompanied, however, by a vitreous or other non-metallic lustre, colour becomes a character of no practical value, as a mineral of non-metallic aspect may present, in its different vai-ieties, every variety of colour. Thus, we have col- ourless quartz, amethystine or violet quartz, red quartz, yellow quartz, &c. Also, feldspars, fluorspars, and other minerals of variable colour : just as in the Vegetable Kingdom, we have red, white and yellow roses, and dahlias, &c., of almost every hue. The more common shades of metallic colour are as follows. White., Grey. Silver-white ex. Tin- white ex. { Lead-grey ex. I Steel-grey ex. Native silver. Pure tin ; cobalt ore. Galena. Specular iron ore. Black Iron-black (usually with sub-metallic lustre) ex. Magnetic iron ore. ! Gold-yellow ex. Native gold. Brass-yellow ex. Copper pyrites. Bronze-yellow (a brownish-yellow) ex. Magnetic pyrites. Red Copper-red ex. Native copper. These metallic colours are often more or less obscured by a black, brownish, purple, or iridescent surface-tarnish. In noting the colour of a mineral, this must be constantly borne in mind, and if possible a newly-fractured surface should be observed. The non-metallic col- ours comprise, v/hite, grey, black, blue, green, red, yellow, and brown, with their various shades and intermixtures : as orange-yellow, straw- yellow, reddish-brown, greenish-black, «fec. In minerals of a non- metallic aspect, the colour is sometimes uniform ; and at other times, two or more colours are present together in spots, bands, &c., as in the varieties of quartz called agate, blood-stone, jasper, and so forth- In most varieties of Labradorite, or Labrador Feldspar, a beautiful play or change of colour is observable in certain directions. The finer varieties of Opal also exhibit a beautiful and well known iridescence. Streak. — Under this technical term is comprised the appearance or colour of the scratch, produced by drawing or " streaking " a mineral across a file or piece of unglazed porcelain. The character is a valuable one on account of its uniformity : as no matter how varied the colour of a mineral may be in different specimens, the streak will remain of one and the same colour throughout. Thus, blue, green, yellow, red, violet, and other specimens of fluor spar, quartz, «fcc., exhibit equally a white or "uncoloured" sti'eak. The streak is sometimes " unchanged," OF CENTRAL CANADA — PART I. 7 or of the same tint as the external colour of the miiieral ; but far riore frequently it presents a different colour. Thus, whilst Oinnabar, the ore of mercury, has a red colour and red streak, Realgar, red sulphide of arsenic, has a red colour and orange-yellow streak ; Copper Pyrites, a brass-yellow colour, and greenisli-black streak ; and so forth. In cer- tain malleable and sectile minerals, the scratched surfiice presents an increase of lustre. The streak is then said to be " shining." Finally, it should be remarked, that in trying the streak of very hard minerals, we must crush a small fragment to powder, in place of using the tile; because otherwise, a greyish-black streak, arising from the abrasion of the file, miglit very possibly be obtained, and so conduce to error. Form. — The forms assumed by natural bodies are of two general kinds: (1) Accidental or Irregular, depending rather on external conditions than on the actual nature of the body : and (2), Essential or Regular. Accidental forms occur only as monstrosities in Organic Nature. Amongst minerals, on the other hand, they are of frequent occurrence ; but the Mineral Kingdom possesses also its definite or essential forms. These, whether transparent or opaque, are termed crystals. This term was first applied to transparent vitreous speci- mens of quartz or rock-crystal, from the X'osemblance of the^e to ice ; but as it was subsequently found thac many opaque specimens of quartz present exactly similar forms, and that opaque as well as transparent forms of other minerals occur, the term, in scientific language, gradually lost its original signification, and came to be applied to all the geometrical or regular forms of minerals and other inorganic bodies, whether transparent, translucent, or opaque. As already remarked, mir"3rals of a metallic lustre are always opaque ; and many of these, galena, iron-pyrites, arsenical-pyrites, «fec., occur frequently in very regular and symmetrical crystals. As regards the regular or essential forms of Nature, two distinct and in a measui'e antagonistic form-producing powers — Vitality and Crystallization — thus appear to exist. Forms which arise from a development of the vital force, exhibit rounded and confluent out- lines ; whilst those produced b}' crystallization arc made up of plain surfaces, meeting, in sharp edges, t nder definite and constant angles.* * This law is affected within slijj'ht limits by isomorphoua replacements, and also by changes of temperature. The law itsell appears to have been discovered by Nicolaus Steno (a naturalized Florentine) as early as 16(59, but its true importance vas not appreciated until the 8 MINEIIALS AND GEOLOGV jl'1.1 M !:; Crystals oi-iginate in almost all cases in which matter passes fronx a gaseous or liquid into a solid state ; but if the process take ])]ace too quickly, or the matter solidify without free sjjace for expansion, crystalline masses, in place of regular crystals, will result. If a small fragment of arsenical pyrites, or native arsenic, be heated at one end of an open and narrow glass tube, the arsenic, in volatilizing, will combine with oxygen from the atmosphere, and form arsenious acid, which will be deposited at the other end of the tube, in the form of minute octahedrons (Fig. 3, below). In like manner, if a few par- ticles of common salt be dissolved in a small quantity of water, and a drop of the solution be evaporated gently (or be left to evaporate spontaneously) on a piece of glass, numerous little cubes and hopper- shaped cubical aggregations will result. Boiling water, again, satu- rated with common alum, will deposit octahedral crystals on cooling: the cooled water not being able to retain in solution the full amount of alum dissolved by the hot water. Finally, it may be observed that bismuth, antimony, and many other bodies, crystallize by slov/ cooling from the molten state. Although, as explained above, crystals usually originate when matter passes slowly from the gaseous or liquid condition into the solid state, crystallization and solidification are not actually identical. Various substances, such as silica in cei'- tain conditions, its hydrate (constituting the different opals), gums, many I'esins, &,c., appear to resist altogether the action of crystal- lization. The crystal forms and combinations met with in Nature, exclusive of those produced by the chemist in his laboratory, are exceedingly numerous, many thousands being known to exist. By the help of certain laws, however, and, more especially, by the aid of one, termed "the Law of Symmetry," we are enabled to resolve these multitudinous combinations into six groups or systems. The forms of the same group combine together, and may be deduced mathematically from each other; whilst those of distinct groups are unrelated. Thus, although the cube, the rhombic dodecahedron, and the regular octahedron (Figs. 1, 2 & 3) appear at first sight to be unconnected forms, their co-relations may re-announcement, or rather re-discovery of the law in 1772, by the French crystallographer, Rome de I'lsle. Many of the contemporaries of the latter— amongst others the celehrated Buffon — attempted to deny its existence ; but being susceptible of practical proof, its truth was soon established. OF CENTKAL CANADA — PART I. 9 he readily shown by tlie Law of Symmetry. This hiw, for instance, exacts one of three things, of whicli tlie most important is to this effect, viz., that if an edge or angle of a crystal bo modified in any way, all the similar edges or angles in tlie crystal mnst be modified in a similar manner. Now the cube lias twelve sin) liar edges and eight similar angles. C!onseqnently, if one edge or one ;ingle be truncated, or, to use a term more in conformity with the actual operations of Nature, if one of these be siippressed during the formation of the crystal, the other edges (or angles) must be supi)ressed also ; and if the new planes, which thus arise, be extended until they meet, the rhombic dodecahedron on the > le hand, and the regular octahedron on tlie other, will result.* These forms, moreover, as well as their intermediate oscillations, frequently occur in the same substancce : red oxide of copper may be cited as an exara])le. But between the cuV)e, a square prism, a regular hexagonal prism, and a rhombic prism, no relations of this kind exist. Neither are these solids I'elated physicially : their optical, thermal, and other physical charac- ters are equally distinct. By considerations of this sort, therefore, we are able to establish six (or really seven) distinct Crystal Systems. These (named chiefly in accordance with the relations of their axes, or certain right lines assumed to pass through the centre of each crystal, and terminate in opi)osite planes, edges, or angles) are enumerated in the annexed tabular view : K Crystal-axes of one length. / ^'''^^'^fl'"'"^^'■ ^"T^"'' '?^'^^*^'" (inchulmg the Refraction, single ....... 1 c»be, rhombic dodecahedron, octahedron, &c., ° \ with their various combinations. ) 'The Tetragonal System (including square-based prisms and pyramids with their various com- binations. ) The Hexagonal System (including regular hexa- gonal prisms and pyramids, rhombohedrons, &c. , with their combinations. ) Crystal-axes of two lengths. Kefraction, double, with one neutral line or optical axis * The Law of Symmetry, in its exact acception, may be thus expressed : (1.) If an edge or angle of a crystal be modified, all the similar edges or angles will exhibit a similar modification. Or (2.) One-hiilf or une-r. th of the corresponding angles or edges, in alternate positions, will be equally modified. £xa)injie.— Cube and Tetrahedron (Boracite ; Arseniate of Iron.) Or (3.) All the similar edges or angles will be modified by one-half or one-mth the normal or regular nuuiLer of planes. Example.— Cube and Pentagonal Dodenahedron (Iron Pyrites, Cobaltine. ) Conditions 2 and 3 produce hemihedrons or part-forms. 10 MINERALS AND UEOLOOV Crystal-axes of three lengths Refraction, double, with; two neutral lines or optical* axes Axes at right- angles. One axis ob- lii^ue. All the axes oblique. Th^ Rhomhk or Ortho'Rhomhk Si/ntcm (including right rectan- gu - prisms and pyramitls, rhombic prisms and pyramids, and combinations of these). The. Clino-Uhomhk or Monoclinic Si/.item (including obli([ue rec- tangular and rhombic com- l)inations). The Trlclinic or Anorthk Sijatem (including doubly -ol)li([ue com- binations). The study of these Crystal groups, and that of crystal forms and combinations generally, constitutes the science of Crystallography. To enter into the details of this science would extend our present discussion much beyond its proposed limits and object, the simple determination of commonly occurring minerals ; but it will be advis- able for the student to impress upon his memory the names of the groups in question, with the general aspect of their more common forms and combinations, as given in the following enumeration. The Isopolar or Regular System. — This group includes the cube (Fig. 1), the rhombic dodecahedron (Fig. 2), the regular octahedron (Fig. 3), trapezohedrons (Fig. 4), pentagonal dodecahedrons (Fig. 5), (fee. Figs. 6 and 6* are combinations of the cube and octahedron ; * 10. 1. Fio. 2. Fig. 3. Fio. 4. f^ J> J FiQ. 5. Fio. 6. Fio. 6*. Fio. 7. No. 7, a combination of the cube and pentagonal dodecahedron. Native gold, silver, copper, iron pyrites, galena, zinc blende, grey copper ore, red copper ore, magnetic iron ore, spinel, garnet, fluor spar, rock salt, and numerous other minerals, crystallize in this system. OF CENTRAL CANADA — PART I. u The Tetragonal Si/atem — This includes, j)nnci|)ally, squivre-lmsed prisms and pyramids, and their combinations. Figures 8 to 9 are ex- X^ (^ "^ FlO. 8. ^t^ Fio. 8». Klo. ».* KIO. 0. amples of Tetragonal crystals. Amongst minerals, Copper Pyrites, Tinstone, Eu^-'le, Anatase, Zircon, Idocrase, Scapolite Ac, may be cited as belongiiig to tliu group. The Hexagonal System. — Regular six-sibed prisms (Fig. 10, and pyramids (Fig. ri),combiriationsof these (Fig. 12), three- sided prisms, rhombohedrons (Figs. 13 and H), and scalenohedrons (Fig. 15) ; are included under this system. Graphite, Red Silver Ores, Cinnabar, Specular Iron Ore, Corundum, Quartz, Beryl, Tourmaline, Apatite or Phosphate of Lime, Phosphate and Arseniate of Lead, Calcite, r<;-=. ns alumi- iron, car- sed, they oxidized alumina, from car- Calcite I decom- If the the form le be ex- ;id fi'om Y be dis- orted to las been ery con- by the i eifervescence which is produced by the liberation of ca i-lionio acid from these salts. The test acids chiefly used, are nitric acid and hydrochlo- ric acid. Tliese must be kept in well-stopi)ered glass bottles provided with glass caps, as their fumes soon destroy cork, and are otherwise highly corrosive and deleterious. For geological purposes (testing calcareous rocks, ikc.) strong hydrochloric acid diluted with about an equal volume of pure water, is principally used. The small bottle in which this is kejit, may have a long stopper extending into the acid ; and a little nest or wicker-work pocket may be provided for its recep- tion near the upper edge of the sj)ecimen basket. In examining a mineral with an acid, the substance should be reduced, in ordinary cases, to a fine powder, and covered in a test-tube or small jjorcelain capsule with a few drops of the acid, the latter being .subsequently warmed or brought to the boiling point over the flame of a small spirit lamp. The following are some of the jn'incipal eflects pro- duced by this ti'eatment : ((/,.) SiiDple solutiou : — Example, gypsum, &c. {f).) Solution with effervescence and simultaneous evolution of a colorless inrxlorous gas : — Ex. carbonates generally. Some of these, as calc spar, mala- chite, &c., dissolve with effervescence in cold and more or less dilute acid ; but others, as dolomite or bitter spar, and carbonate of iron, only efl'ervesce, as a rule, in heated acid. Either acid may be used, except in the case of car- bonate of baryta or strontia ; as with these minerals, strong hydrochloric acid forms an insoluble coating of chloride of barium or strontium, by which the furttier action of the acid is entirely prevented. If the acid be used in a diluted state, however, this effect is prevented, chlorides of barium and strontium being readily soluble in water. (c.) Partial solution, with separation of a gelatinous residuum : — Ex. various silicates : these are said to " gelatinize in acids." Boiling hydrochloric acid is generally required to produce the effect. The gelatinous matter consists of silicic acid or silica. Some silicates (Vesuvian, Epidote, &c.), wlioh do not gelatinize under ordinary conditions, exhibit the effect after fusion or strong ignition. {d.) Partial soh%ion. with separation of granular silica, ex. harmotome, labradorite, &c. Boiling hydrochloric acid must be used, and the mineral should be finely pulverized. {e. ) Oxidation and solution, or partial solution, with evolution of sulphuretted hydrogen, known by its fetid odour. Example — Most Sulphides. The effect is most readily produced by boiling the mineral in powder with hydrochloric acid. (/. ) Oxidation and solution, or partial solution, without odour of sulphuretted hydrogen. Ex. red copper ore, native copper, native silver, and some other !' ; 1 1 00 MINEKALS AND GEOLOGY m\ M > ! minerals, when treated with hot nitric acid. The acid gives up part of its oxygen to the dissolving mineral, and tiie portion of the acid, thus altered, escapes in ruddy fumes. Sulphides and other non-oxidized bodies also cause the evolution of these coloured fumes. Acid cupreous solutioub mu green o greenish-hlue in colour, A piece of polished steel or iron immersed in ti diluted solution of this kind, becomes coated with metallic copper. {ij.) Solution, or jjartial solution, and production, with hydrochloric acid, of chlorine fumes. Ex, pyrolusite or black manganese ore, &c. The chloi'ine is, of course, derived from the decomposition of the acid. Care must he taken not to inhale its fumes, (h.) Solution, or partial solution, with production of fluohydric acid iu corrosive fumes. Example — Fluor spar, in powder, with hot sulphuric acid. The evolved fumes corrode glass. The experiment should be performed in a platinum or lead vessel. If a piece of glass coated on its under side with a thin layer of wax through which a pattern has been traced, be laid over the vessel for a few minutes, and then removed and washed in warm water, the lines of the pattern will be found more or less deeply etched on the surface of the glass. Great care must be taken to prevent the fumes from being ii' haled. (i.) The substance may remain undissolved and unattacked. Example — Quartz, orthoclase, zircon, &c. Ajiplication^pf the Blowpipe ; — Tlie blowpipe in its simplest fonn is merely a narrow tube of brass or other metal, bent round at one extremity, and terminating, at that end, in a point with a very tine orifice (fig. 2G). If we place the jjointed end of tliis instrument just within the flame (and a little above the wick) of a lamp or common candle, and then blow gently down the tube, the flame will be deflected to one side in the form of a long narrow cone, and its heating power will be wonderfully increased. Many min- erals, when held in the form of a thin splinter at the point of a flame thus acted upon, melt with the ^'o- 26. greatest ease ; and some are either wholly or partially volatilized. Other minerals, on the contrary, remain unaltered. Two or more substances, therefore, of similar appearance, may often be separated and distinguished in a moment, by the aid of the blowpipe. The blowpipe (in its scientific use) has, strictly, a three-fold appli- cation. It may be employed, as just pointed out, to distinguish fP^ '1 In : OF (ESTHAL CANADA — PAKT I. part (if its us altereil, I also cause lu green o erseil in v. ric acid, of ihlorine is, it be taken ic acid in luric acid, jrmed in a ide with a d over the rt'ater, the surface of g ii haled. Ixainple — !est form d at one eiy tine lent just e above 1 candle, le tube, to one narrow will be ly min- m of a a flame th the either ntrary, similar oment, appli- iguish minerals from one another : some of these being fusible, whilst others are infusible ; some attracting the magnet after exposure to the blow- pijie, whilst others do not exhil»it that reaction ; some imparting a colour to the flame, others volatilizing, and so forth. Secoiidly, the blowpipe may be employed 'to ascertain the general composition of a mineral ; or the presence or absence of some particular substance, as coj)p('r, load, Iron, cobalt, manganese, sulphur, arsenic, ami the like. Thirdly, it may be used to determine in certain si)ecial cases, the actual amount of a metallic or other ingredient previously ascertained to bo present in the substance under examination. In using the blowpipe, the mouth is tillerl with air, and this is forced gently Ijut continuously down the tul.tilized or dissipated in fumes, eithc wholly or partially, and with or without an accompanying odor. Thus, grey antimony ore volatilizes with dense white fumes ; arsenical pyrites vol .tilizes in part, with a strong odor of garlic ; common iron i)yrites yields an odor of brimstone, and so forth. In many cases the volatilized matter become.=3 in great part deposited in an oxidized condition on the charcoal. Antimcmial minerals form a white depoc't or incrustation of this kind. Zinc compounds, a deposit which is lemon-yellow whilst hot. and white when cold. Lead and bismuth are indicated by sulphur-yellow or crange-yellow deposits. Cadmium by a reddish-brown incrustation. I ' Ml! r ' '■ 'i!i ■;i I! 'iiil 30 MINERALS ASD GKOLOGY (wn i?i the annexed figure. If water l;-^ j:!t-> nt in the mineral, a thin film, conden in^' ra])idly into little drops, will be dei^ositeJ on the neck or ujjper part of the tube. As soon as the moisture ])egins to show itself, the tube must be held in a more horizontal i)Osition, otherwise a fractui'e mav be occasioned bv the watei' flowinc; Y^^ 3^^ down and coming in contact with the hot OF CENTRAL CANADA — PAUT I. 31 point and iml witli or uto a cauli- lerals abun- , and then ig- uul various Test) :— •rocess by bes are of ^k, and is •ocured, a 3ipally in )f narrow , point at •cury and the use mount of ondition. As the r test is ninative Tlie tly over ure, and )iece of )f about 1 it and wn i?i •!'(-* nt leu. IHL' posited 3 tube. 3 show I more acture owine; li'^^' hot ■:i :s- j)art of the glass. A small spirit-lamp may be made by passing a piece of glass tubing of about an inch in length, to serve as a wick-holder, through an orifice in the cork of a short, flat bottle. When the lamp is not is use the wick should be covered with a glass or other cap to l)revent the evaporation of the spirit. A mineral may also be exam- ined for water, though less conveniently, by igniting it before the blowpipe-flame in a ])iece of open tubing, as shown in Fig. 35. To prevent the tube -softening or melting, a strip of plati- num foil may be folded '^'°- ^^' round it where the test- fragment rests. The latter is puslied into its place l>y a thin iron wiie. The moistui-e condenses on each side of the test-matter. (3) Treatment with Nitrate of Cobalt : — This operation serves, in certain cases, for the detection of alumina, magne:iia, oxide of zinc, and some few other suV)stances; but it is not applicable to deeply coloui-ed or easily fusible bodies, nor to such as possess a metallic lustre or coloured streak. A fragment of the substance, under treatment, is reduced by the hammer and anvil, and afterwards by the use of the agate mortar, to a fine powder. This is moistened with a drop of the cobalt solution (nitrate of cobalt dissolved in water), and the result- ing paste is strongly ignited on charcoal by being held about an inch before the point of the flame, fusion being carefully avoided. Thus treated, alumina assumes on cooling a tine blue colour; magnesia (and the com})aratively rare tantalic acid), a flesli-red tint ; baryta, a dull brownish-red colour; oxide of zinc, bin-oxide of tin, antimony cxides, a green colouj-. With other substances, a grey, blueish-grey, brownish-black, or other indefinite coloration is ]>roduced, unless fusion take place, in which case a ghiss may be obtained, coloured blue by the dissolved oxide of cobalt. (4) Roasting : — Tne princii)al ol)ject of this operation is the elimi- nation of sulphur, arsenic, and certain other volatile bodies, from the mineral under examination, as these prevent the reduction of many suV)stances to the metallic state, and also mask, to some extent, their other characteristic reactions. By roasting, the substance is not only deprived of sulphur, &c., but is also converted into an oxidized con- I ' ■ I' mm Hi ilt'i 32 MINEKALS AND GEOLOGY dition. The operation is most readily performed as follows, A small fi'Hgment of the mineral is leduced to j)owder. Some of this is made into a ))aste by moistening with a drop of water, and is spread over the surface of a piece of charcoal, or broken fragment of a porcelain evaporating-dish or thin crucible. It is then ignited before the point of an oxidating flame (Fig. 32), the heat being kept low, at first, to prevent fusion. It is sometimes necessai-y to remove the ignited paste to the mortar, and to break it up again with a fine steel spatula (the end of a flattened wire, or knife-point), and renew the ojjera- tion. When the roasting is terminated, the ])owder will present a dull earthy aspect, and cease to oirit fumes or odour. It is then ready for operations 5 and 6, described below. By reducing the substance to powder before roasting, the risk of decrepitation and fusion is prevented, and the process itself is more efficiently performed. Roasting is sometimes effected in a piece of open glass tubing as in Fig. 35 — only tlie test object is placed near one end of the tul)e, and the tube itself is held in a more inclined position. Sulphur eliminated from bodies by this treatment, is converted into sulphur- ous acid (a compound of sulphux and oxygen, the latter taken up from the atmosphere) ; and arsenic forms arsenious acid, which de- posits itself in the shape of numerous microscopic octahedrons on the cool sides of the glass near the upper part of the tube. Sul^jhurous acid in escaping from the open end of the tube is easily recognized by its odour (identical with that emitted by an igniLed match), as well as by its property of changing the blue coloui- of a sUp of moistened limus paper to red. Antimonial compounds form a dense white uncrystalline sublimate. (5.) Foiination of glasses on platinum tuire or charcoal : — This operation is one of constant utility in the determination of th? con- stituents of minerals. The glasses, in question, are formed by the fusion of small portions of borax, jjhosphor salt, or carbonate of soda : the latter reagent, however, being only occasionally used. Most sub- stances, dissolve in one or the other of these glasses before the blow- pipe, and many communicate to them peculiar colours by which the nature of the test-matter is made known. If the matter to be tested contain sulphur or arsenic, it should be roasted before being subjected to the action of these fluxes. Metals and metallic alloys, as Avell as metallic oxides, chlorides, ifcc , of very easy reduction, must be exami- OF CENTRAL CANADA — PART I. 33 A small i is niiide eacl over )orcelaiii ;he point ; first, to } ignited (1 spatula le opera- )resent a is then cing the tion and irf'ornied. cubing as the tube, Sulphur sulphur- bakeu up l^hich da- is on the Iphurous icognized atcli), as slip of a dense .—This the con- by the of soda : ^ost sub- 16 blow- hich the w tested ubjected well as 3 exami- ned on charcoal, but in other cases it is more convenient to employ a piece of platinum wire as a supjiort. One end of the wire may be inserted into a cork or special handle, or, if the wire be from 2^ to 3 inches in length, it may be held in the naked fingers, as platinum conducts heat very slowly.- The other end is bent into a small loop or ear. This, when borax or phos[)hor-salt is used, is ignited by the blow-pijje fiame, and plunged into the flux, the adhering j)ortion of tlie latter being then fused into a glass. If a sutficient portion to till the loop be not taken up at first, the process must be repeated. With beginners, the fused glass is often brownish or discoloured by smoke, but it may be rendered clear and transparent by being kept in ignition for a few momeats before the extreme point of the flame, the carbonaceous matter becoming oxidized and expelled by this treat- ment. When carbonate of soda is used, a small portion of the flux must be moistened and kneaded in the palm of the left hand, by a knife-point or a small spatula, into a slightly cohering paste, which is placed on the loop of the wire, and fused into a bead. Whilst hot, the bead is transparent, but it becomes opaque on cooling. The portion of test-matter added to a glass or bead, formed by these rea- gents, must be exceedingly small, otherwise the glass may become so deeply coloured as to appeai quite black. In thi^ case, the coloiu" may be observed by pinching the bead flat between a pair of forceps, before it lias time to cool. It is always advisable, however, in the first instance, to take up merely a minute particle or two of the test- substance, and then to add more if no characteristic action be obtained. The glass, in all cases, must be examined first before an oxidating flame, and its colour observed both whilst the flux is hot, and when it has become cold ; and, secondly, it must be kept for a somewhat longer interval in a good reducing flame (Fig, 33), and its appearance noted as before. '"^ With certain substances (lime, magnesia, &c.) the borax and phosphor-salt glasses become milky and opaque when satu- rated, or when subjected to the intermittent action of the flame — the latter being urged upon them in short pufis, or the glass being moved slowly in and out of the flame — a process technically known as Jiam'mg. - The colour of the glass ou!,'ht not of course, to be examined by the transmitted li;fht of the lamp or candle rianie. Strictly, it should be observed by daylf^'ht. ,l!l' J 1\ ;i ■ Hi Hill r-' 34 MINERALS AND GEOLOGY Tlie colours, &c., communicated to these glasses by the more com- monly occurring constituent bodies, are shown in the annexed tabular view. Colour of Bead after exposure to an Oxiflatiiij,' Flame. BORAX. Compounds of : Violet or Amethystine Manganese , Nickel Violet-brown (whilst hot) , . Clear-brown (when) cold. . . Blue (very intense) Cobalt , , Copper . Uranium fireen (whilst hot Blue or greenish-blue (cold) . Green or blueish-green Cobalt -r Iron. . Green (dark) \ Copper + Nickel ^ ( Copper -f Iron . . Yellowish or reddish (hot). . . J ^.l, Yellowish-green (when cold. . \ ^'^'Omium Yellow (whilst hot) ) ,t !• „ Greenish-yellow (cold) P anadium Yellowish or reddish Iron Yellowish or redilish Enamelled by flaming Yellow (whilst hot) ) Pale yellowish (cold) > Cerium Itoamelled by flaming ) Yellow (hot) ) Colorless (cold) / Titanium Enamelled by flaming ) Yellow (hot) ) Colorless (cold) > Tnngstenum , . Enamelled by flaming ) Yellow (hot) ) Colorless or yellowish (cold) . . > Molybdenum Greyish and opaque by flaming ) Yellow or yellowish -red (hot) \ i^f^^'iC ' Yellowish or colorless, and s ^ • , " ' ' often opaline, when cold . . ( ;^nthnony. Yellowish (hot) ) Colorless (cold) > Cadmium Opaque-white when saturated. ) Colour of Bead after exposure to a Reducing' Flame. Colorless, if (juickly cooled. Violet-red if quickly cooled . . .Grey and opaque. . .Blue (very deow). ( More or less colorless or iu- ) distinctly colored whilst J hot ; brownish-red and ( opaque on cooling. . .Green or blueish-green. ) Brownish-red, opaque on ) cooling. . . Emerald-green. Brownish (whilst hot) Emerald-green (when cold). . Bottle-green. . .G"een (black by flaming). \ Colorless or yellowish. I Opaque-white, if saturated. Yellow or yellowish-brown. Enamelled light-blue bj' flaming. [low. V. under phosphor-salt be- Yellow or yellowish-brown. Enamelled by flaming. V. under phospher salt below. Brown or grey, semi-opaque, often with separation of black specks. [low. V. under phosiihor-salt be- f Grey and 0])aque on cool- ing but after continued subjection to the flame, -j the glass becomes clear : the reduced metallic par- ticles either collecting to- gether or volatilizing. Colorles s — the reduced metal being volatilized. OF CENTRAL CANADA — PART I. 35 (.' olorless ( pennauently clear) Slowly tlissolveil (.'olorless. Wlien saturated, opaque-white ou cooling or by riamiiig ( Aluminium \ Silicon . . . (Tin Tantalum . . Zirconium . . . ( iluciuum . . . Yttrium, &c. 'i'horium . . . , Magnesium . Calcium Strontium. . . Barium . . . . Lithium . . . . Natrium . . . . L Kalium .... I C ol o r 1 e 8 s : permanently clear. (Tin compounds dissolve in suiallquantity only. On charcoal, they ))ecV)me reduced to metal, especially if a little carb. soda be added to the glass. ) i- Colorless. When satu- rated, opaque-white on cooling or by flaming. See. Reactions, below. , I PHOSPHOR-SALT. The glasses produced by the fusion of constituent bodies with this reagent are for the greater part identical with those obtained by the use of borax, although somewhat less deeply coloured as a general rule. The principal ex- ceptions are the glasses formed in a reducing dame with compounds of Molyb- denum, Tungstenum, and Titanium, respectively. The molybdenum glass presents, when cold, a fine green colour, and the tungstenum glass becomes greenish-blue. If the latter contain iron, the colour of the glass is changed to blood-red or brownish red. Titanium in the presence of iron gives a similar reaction ; but when free from iron, the glass is yellow whilst hot, and violet- coloured when cold. Phosphor salt is an important reagent for the detection of silica in silicates, as the silica remains for the greater part undissolved in the glass, in the form of a translucent flocculent mass technically known as a "silica skeleton," the associated cnnstituents being gradually taken up by the tlux. A small amount of silica is also generally dissolved, but this is precipi- tated as the bead cools, rendering it semi-transparent or opaline. Phosphor- salt is likewise employed for the detection of chlorine, &c. (See Experiment 3, page 43. CARBONATE OF SODA. This reagent is principally used to promote the reduction of oxidized and other bodies to the metallic state, as explained under the description of that proctss. (Operation G, below.) It is also of frequent employment as a test for sulphur in sulphides and oxidized bodies. (See under Reactions.) It is rarely used, on the other hand, for the formation of glasses on platinum wire, except as a test tor the presence of manganese ; although when employed, in this man- ner, it serves to distinguish salts of the alkalies, and those of strontia and 1)aryta from all other salts : the alkalies, with baryta and strontia, dissolv- ing completely and rapidly in the bead, whereas lime, magnesia, alumina, and 36 MINERALS AND GEOLOGY other bases, remain ".uattacketl. Manganese compounds form by oxidizing fusion with this reagent a green glass, which becomes bhie or bluish-green and opaque on cooling. A very minute amount of manganese may ))e thus detected. The delicacy of the test is increased by the addition of a small (juantity of nitre, as this promotes oxidation ; and if the substance contain much lime, magnesia, iron oxides, or other bodies more or less insoluble in carb. soda, it is advisable to add a little borax to the test-mixture. The blue or bluifth-green bead thus produced, is technically known as a " tuniuoise enamel." Chromium compounds produce a somewhat .similar reaotion ; Init if the bead be saturated with silica or boracic acid, it will remain green in the latter case. If the green colour result from the presence of manganese, on the other hand, a violet or ametliystine glass will be obtained. Some other appli- cations of carbonate of soda as a blowpipe re-agent will be found under tiie head of Heaction.s. 6. Neihictio7t ; — This term denotes the process by \v}iich an o.xidizcd or otlier compound is converted into the metallic state. Some com- pounds })ecome reduced Vjy sinxple ignition ; others require for their reduction the addition of certain reagents ; and some, again, resist re- duction altogether. The reduced metal is in some cases so highly volatile that it connot be obtained except by a kind of distillatory process. In other cases, one or more fusible globules, or a number of minute infusible grains, are obtained in blowpipe operations. Re- ducible metals may be thus distributed into three groups, as shown (with omission of a few metals of rare occurrence) in the annexed Table :— A. Yielding metallic globules : — Gold, Silver, Copper, Tin, Lead, Bismuth, Anti- mony. B. Yielding infimhle metallic grains : — Platinum, Iron, Nickel, Cobalt, Molyb- denum, Tungstenum. C. Yielding metallic vapours only, when, treated on charcoal : — Mercury, Arsenic, Cadmium, Zinc. A metal of the first group may be obtained, unless present in very small quantity, by a simple fusion of the previously roasted test-sub- stance, with some carbonate of soda, on charcoal, in a good reducing flame (Fig. 33 above). In ordinary cases, metallic globules are rapidly produced by this treatment. By a little management the globules may be brought together so as to form a single large globule. This must be tested on the anvil as regards its relative malleability, &c. Gold, silver, copper, tin and lead are malleable ; bismuth and anti- mony, more or less brittle. Gold and silver (if pure) retain a bright ■"1 OF CENTRAL CANADA — PAUT I. 37 :)xiili/ing ish-greeii ■ V)e thus f a small i cnntiiin Kjluble ill The hliie turquoise m ; but if L'li in the je, on the tier appli- .imler tlie oxicli/ocl me ooin- for their resist re- highly jtiHatory . uumhor |ns. Re- sbowu uunexecl ith, Anti- Molyb- Arsenic, in very test-siib- •efhicing rapiiUy elobules This ity, &c. nd anti- a bright "\ suvfiice after subjection to an oxidating Haino. Copper becomes covered witli a hhick film, and tin with a white crust. Lead and bismuth volatilize more or less- readily, and deposit on the charcoal a yellow coat".ng of oxide. Antimony is rapidly volatilized with deposition of a t'ense white incrustation on the charcoal. It is not, of course always nec'ssary to sutyeot the test-substance to a previous roasting (Opera tion 4, above) but it is jilways safer to do .so. Sulphur in most, and arsenic in all cases, must be driven off by this preliminary treatment before the actual process of reduction is attempted. When the metal to be reduced belongs to the second group, or if the iimount of fusible metal in the test-substance do not exceed 4 or .') jier cent., the operation is performed us follows. A small portion of the substance in powder — subjected previously to the roasting j)ro- ce.ss. if it contain sulphur or arsenic — is mixed with 3 or 4 volumes of carbonate of soda (or neutral oxalate of potash, or a mixture of about eijual parts of carb-soila and cyanide of potassium — the latter, it must be remembered, a highly poisonous siibstance), and the mix- ture is expo.sed on charcoal to a good njducing Hame, until all the alkaline salt has become aljsorbed. Some more of the Hux is then added and the o[)eration is repeated until the whole or the greater part of the test-matter is also al»«orbed. The charcoal at this sjiot is tinaliy se})arated by a sharp knife-point and carefully ground to powder in a small agate mortar or porcelain capsule, whilst a tine stream of water i.s i)rotected upon it from time to time, until all the carbonaceous and other non-metallic particles are gradually washed away. For this pur[)ose, the mortar or capsule may be placed in the centre of an oi'dinary j)late ; an A if the operator be not provided with a chemical washing-l)ottle, he may use a small syringe, or, still more economically, a simple piece of glas.: tubing, five or six inches in length and a))Out the fourth of an inch in diiuueter, drawn out at one end to a point. This is filled by siiction, and the water expelled, with the necessary force, by blowing down the tube. The metallic grains or spangles obtained by this process • must be e.xamined l>y the magnet. Tho.se of iron, nickel and cobj'.lt are magnetic. Sometimes, however, when but a trace or very small percentage of reducible metal is contained in the test-substance, its presence is only indicated by a few metallic streaks on the sides and bottom of the mortar. Metallic markings of this kind can be removed by a piece of pumice. 38 MINERALS AND GEOLOGY ! Metallic comiiounds referable to the third group, yield no nietnl on charcoal, or by other treatment in open contact with the atmosphere. The presence of arsenic, however, is easily made known by the gai'lic- like odonr evolved during fusion with reducing agents (or alone) on charcoal. Cadmium and zinc may also be recognized by the oxidized sublimates which they deposit on the charcoal. The (Jadniium subli- mate is reddish-brown ; the zinc sublimate, lemon-yellow and phos- phorescent whilst hot, and white when cold. Mercury forms no incrustation on charcoal ; but its presence in any compotmd may be determined by reduction with carbonate of soda or iron-fillings in a glass tube of narrow diameter. A small test-tube or piece of glass tubing closed at one end before the blow-pipe, may be used for the experiment. The test-substance, in powder, mixed with 3 or 4 vols, of perfectly dry carb. soda, is inserted into the tube by means of a narrow strip of glazed writing-paper bent into the form of a trough, so as to prevent the sides of the glass from being soiled, and the mix- ture is strongly ignited by the spirit-lam}) or by the blowpipe-flame. If mercury be present, a grey metallic sublimate will be formed near the upper part of the tube. By friction with an iron wire, or the narrow end of a quill-pen, «fec., the sublimate may be brought into the form of fluid globules, which can be poured out of the tube, and are thus easily recognized as metallic morcuiy. 7. Ctcpellation: — Gold and silver are separated l)y this process from other metals. The test-metal is fused with several times its weight of pure lead. The button, thus obtained, is exposed to an oxidating fusion on a porous support of bone-ash, known as a cupel. The lead and other so-called base metals become oxidized by this treat- ment, and are partly volatilized, and partly absorbed by the bone-ash, a globule of gold or silver (or the two combined) being finally left on the surface of the cupel. For blowpipe o])erations, cupels are gen- erally made by pressing a small quantity of dry boneash into a cir- cular iron mould, the latter being fixed, when presented to the flame, in a special support, consisting essentially of a wooden foot and pillar with three or four short cross-wires (between which the cupel-mould rests) at the top of the latter. Instruments of this kind cannot be obtained in remote places, but the process may be performed equally well by the use of a small iron spoon, of about half-an-inch in dia- meter. Enough bone-ash to fill this, is taken up in it, and warmed OF CENTRAL CANADA — PAKT I. 30 netal on lOKj there. 10 garlic- ilone) on oxidized iin subli- ,nd phos- 'orms no 1 may be ings in a I of glass id for the Dr 4 vols, leans of a a trough, tlie niix- ipe-flanie. med neai- re, or the it into the 1, and are s process times its ,ed to an 3 a cupel, his treat - bone-ash, ly left on are gen- nto a civ- ;he flame, ind pillar )el-mould lannot be .1 equally :h in dia- warmed I over the spirit-lamp or by the blowpipe tlame. Tiio s[)Oon is then placed on the blowpipe anvil, and, whilst the smooth or unused end of the agate pestle (or other similar object, a glass button cemented to a cork, for example) is pressed firmly on the surface of the bone* ash, the handle of the spoon is moved three or four times from side to side. The surface of the cupel thus formed is then exposed for a few moments to the jtoint of the flame, so as to remler the boneash thoroughly dry ; and if its smooth condition be in any way aflected by this treatment, the pressure with the jjcstle is repeated. Another etpially good, if not better support consists of a cylindrical piece of pumice or well-baked clay with a small saucer-shaped depression for the bone-a.sh at its transverse end. The substance to be cupelled must be in the metallic state ; if not in this condition, therefore, it must flrst be subjected to the reducing process describeil above. In actual assaying or quantitative operations, this process is modiflt^d in various ways, but in the present work, in which merely a brief out- line of the use of the blowpipe is attempted, it would be out of place to enter into these details. The piece of test-metal, which may weigh about a couple of grains (or from 100 to 200 milligrammes) is wrapjted in a piece of pure lead-foil of three or four times its weight, and the whole is exposed on the surface of the cupel to the extreme j)oiiit of a clear oxidating flame. If the substance consist of argentiferous lead, as obtained from galena, &,c., the addition of the lead-foil is of course unnecessary.* Six or seven grains (or from 400 to 500 milli- grammes) may be taken for the experiment : a beginner, at least, will not find it advisable to operate on a larger quantity at one time. As • "III reducinfe't'alena, with a view to test the reduceil lead for silver hy I'uiicllation, the reduc- tion may be conveniently performed as follows : a small portion of the ffalena, crushed to i)owder, is mixed with about twice its volume of carb. soda to which a little borax has been added. This is made into a stifT paste by the moistened knife-blade or blowpipe spatula, and a short piece of thin iron wire is stuck throu),'h it. The whole is then placed in a tolerably deep cavity scooped in a good piece of charcoal, and is exposed for a coui)le of minutes to the action of a rediuinj,' flame. By a little management, the minute globules of lead, which first result, can easily be made to run into a single globule. The iron assists in taking up sulphur from the galena. When sutflciently cool the fused mass is removal by a sharp knife-point, and flattened (under a strip of pai)er) on the anvil. The disc of reduced lea^l, thus separated from the slag, is then ready for cupellation." Ciiai'ma.s's Blowimi-k 1'racticb. In the case of ordinary ores or matters suspected to contain gold or silver, tho roasted test- substance must be mixed with about an e((ual (luantity of pure litharge or granu' ited lead and a proper amount of flux, and subjected to fusion in a charcoal cavity. The Ii 1 1 or reduced litharge takes up any gold oj silver that may be in the ore, and this is set free .'V subseciuent cupellation as described above. 40 MINERALS AND OKOLOOV liii |l! I ii!''i! ■liMHIRM Hoon as fusion ti\kps place, tlie cupel must he moved soinowliat farther from tlio flame, so as to allow merely the outer envelope of the latter, or the wai-m air which surrouncls this, to play over the surface of the glol>ule. By this treatment, tiie lead will become gradually con- verted into a fusible and crystalline slag. When this collects in large (juantity, the position of the cui>el must be slightly altered, so as to cause the globule to flow towards its edge, the surface of tluf lead l)eing tlius kept free for continued oxidation. When the globule becomes reduced to al)out a fourth or fifth of its original bulk, the process is discontinued, and the cupel set on the anvil to cool.* This is the first or concentration stage of the process. Another cujiel is then prepared and dried ; and the concentrated globide (after being carefully separated from the slag in which it is imbedded) is i)laced on this, and again 8ul)jected to the oxidizing influence of the fllame. l)uring this second part of the proce.ss, the flame is made to j)lay more on the surface of the cupel around the lead button, than on the button itself, by which a complete absorption of the oxidized learesent, by an insufficient quantity of lead. In this latter case, a piece of pure lead must be placed in contact with the globule, and the two fused together ; the cupel being then * This is not always necessary, as in many cases the entire cupellation may he efTectcfl without interruption on the same cupel. OF CENTRAL CANADA — PAHT I. H silver sixtv- cfTectert moved backward from the tlanu', and tlie oxidizing iuocphr again ostablisliod. lii'ddionn : — (\'rtain reactions of the more commonly occurring (joustituonts of mineral bodies have alieady been mentioned in ilUis- tration of the various operations given al)Ove. In the present place :i few additional reactions are described, and the whole are ai-ranged ill systematic foiin.* A. — nKTKItMINATION OF THK CUKMICAL CHOCr TO WHICH A MINKAItL MAY lli:i;ON(i. In the examination of a mineral by the Idowpipe, it is advisable to look first to its general chemical nature — or, in other words, to deter- mine the chemical grouj) to whicn it belongs — and afterwards, to seek for the base or l)ases which it may contain. The more important chemical groups of natural occurrence, comprise: Sulphides, Ai'senidcs, Cldorides, Fluorides, Oxides, Sulphates, Silicates, Carbonates, IJorattis, Nitrates, Phosphates, and Arseniatcd. The groiij) of simple Oxides can only be determined by negative characters, l)ut the othei- groups are easly recognized by a few si uple exj)eriments. Kxperiment 1 . Fuse the suhxtaiice, in powder, ivith Q or 3 vols, of r(irb. soda and a little Ijorax, in a fjoud reducing jlaui<\ on rhnrco(d. This exi)eriment serves directly for the detection of Sulphides, Sul- phates, Arse7iidex, and Arseniates. a. A strong odour of garlic is emitted : — Ameyiidcs and Arseuiafes. The former possess a metallic aspect, and emit the gai-lic odour when ignited per se. The latter never exhibit a metallic aspect. As occur- ing in nature, arseniates are mostly of a green, blue, or red colour, depending on the nature of the base. h. A reddish or dark mass is produced. This, uhen moi.stened ;ind ])hiced on a bright silver coin or on a glazed visiting card, forms a dark stain. The moistened mass smells also of sulphuretted hydro- gen : Sulphides and Svlphates. The former possctss a nu'tallic aspect, or, if the lustre be non-metallic, the streak is always distinctly col- oured, f With few exceptions, they omit an odour of burning brim- stone (sulphurous acid) when ignited per se ; and in the open tube. ■ A more complete mcthort for the rai)i(l determiimtioii of theclibmical natiiie and I'Oiuiiosi- tioii of mineral liodies will lie found in tlie author's Klowi'M'K 1'kactick, pajics f;0-(i,'>. t Certiin Hiiecimens of Zinc Blende are the only exoeptions to this, so far at least ns rejfards naturally oc'currin^' minerals, to which alone the statements of the text apply. 42 MINERALS AND GEOLOGY '. I iHjl '% i> the evolved acid red ^ens moistened litinxis-paper. (See Operation i, above.) Tlie natural sulphates do not possess a metallic aspect, and the streak is either colourless or pale green or blue. They do nut omit the smell of brimstone when heated, Other results, if exhibited, may be noted down for after reference. Remarks : — Reactions a and b aro sometimes produced by the same mineral, from the simultaneous presence of sulphur and arsenic, (Arse- nical Pyrites, Realgar, Orpiment, itc.) Reaction b is also produced l)y Selenides and Seleniates, but these are of exceedingly rare occurrence, and they evolve at the same time a strong odour of cabbage-water ot decomposing vegetable matter. The rare telhirides also exhibit tho reaction. Experivient 2. Fuse a solid particle of the test-mineral with jihos- phor-salt on jtlcitinum toire. This experiment serves directly for the detection of Carbonates and Silicates. a. The substance dissolves rapidly and with marked effervescence : — Carbonates (essentially).* Note : — Sulphates, Phos[)hates, and various other compounds, also dissolve readily by fusion witii phosphor-salt, but produce no elier- vescence. h. The substance dissolves in part only, the undissolved portion retaining the original form of the test-fragment but becoming men or less translucent. (On cooling, the glass often becomes opales- cent) : — Silicates (see under " Phosphor-salt," page 35, above). Free silica, or quartz, melts into a clear glass with carb. soda, in expelling, with effervescence, tlie carbonic acid fronx the latter. Some silicates produce the same reaction. The test-substance should be added little by HtLle. Tf the soila be in excess, the glass remains opaque, ami with too much silica it becomes infusible. Note : — Other reactions that may ensue from this experiment, sucli as the coloration of the glass, itc. , may serve to detect the base or bases in combination with the carbonic or silicic acid. These reactions, therefore, should be noted tlown for after reference. •Nitrates timl certain Iwdiee (Pyrolusite or Black Mang'anese Ore, &c.) wliich evolve o\\ j;tii on i^fnition, also diHsolve in phosphoi-salt with efifervescence before the blowpipe ; but thesf bodies are of comparatively exceptional occurrence. To avoi.\ ytn ; ; but thpsi' ler, the sub- 9 treated, .ill ?Vi« II Kxprriment S. Dissolve a few particles of black oxide of copper in phosphor-salt on platinum loire, so as to form a strongly-coloured glass. (Or simply melt some of the salt in a loop of thin copper-ivire.) To this, add the test-siibstance, in powder, and expose the whole to the point of the hlw'. cone. This experiment, serves directly for the detection of chlorides. The fused bead is surrounded by a bright azure-blue flame. a. Xote : — Tlip coloi-ation is produced by the volatilization of chloride of copper. It ceases therefore, after a time, but may be renewetl by more of the te.st-substance being fused into the bead. The rare Bromides and Iodides can also be distinguislied by this experiment. The former produce a blue flame with green streaks and edges, the latter a bright emerald-green coloration. Eff Experiment Jf. Moisten the substance, in powder, with a drop of sul- phuric acid, and expose on platinum loire to the point of the blue aflame. This ex[ieriment serves for the detection of Phosphates and Borates. as the.se bodies impart, when thus treated, a clearly marked green colour to the flame-border. The borates communicate also a green colour — after previous treatment with a few drops of sulphuric acid — to the ilaine of alcohol. The phosphates and borates of natural occur- rence are without metallic aspect. All dissolve readily in boi'ax and phosphor-salt bofoi-e the blowpipe. Many communicate a green colour to the point of the flame when strongly ignited, per se. It must not be forgotten, however, that certain other bodies, oxide of copper, baryta, ikc, also colour the flame green. Phosphates may also be detected as follows : — Melt some of the substance in flue powder with about 3 vols, of carb. soda, on platinum wire, or in a small platinum spoon. Treat the fused mass with a few droj)s of boiling water (in a test-tube, or, better, in a small porcelain or plati- num capsule, over tlie spirit lamp), decant the clear solution from the insoluble residuum, add some nitric acid, and place in the solution a fragment of ammonium molybdate. This forms a canary-yellow pifoipitate with solutions of phosphates. In most cases the mineral may be treated directly (in i)owder) with nitric acid, and the diluted solution tested with ammonium molybdate. The yellow precipitate raj)idly forms on the solution being warmed. It is readily soluble in ammv)nia. Ill ■1 ! I I ] ;i Ai MINERALS AND GEOLOGY Experiment 5. Ileat.a small portion of the substance, in powder, at the bottom of a test-tube, with a few drops oj strong sulphuric acid. Tliis experiment serves for the detection of Fluorides and Nitrates. a. The inside of the tube is more or less corroded, Hnd also covered, wliere damp, with a deposit of silica : — Fluorides. The results ar(> best seen by washing out the tube, and then di'ying thoroughly in the flame of the spirit lamit. The corrosion arises from the formation of a compound of fluorine and hydrogen which readily attacks silica, pro- ducing a volatile compound of fluorine and silicon. This is decom- dosed by water, with deposition of silica. TIk; latter re-action may be seen on the dami^ sides of the glass, and still moi-e distinctly it' a piece of narrow tu))ing with a drop of water at the end (kept there by the pressure of the finger at the other extremity) be br()uglit within the mouth of the test-tube. The deposit of silica adheres to the glass with great tenacity. b. Brownish or oranfie-coloured fumes are evolved : — Nitrates. The fumes possess the peculiar sweetish smell of nitrous acid. All nitrates of natural occurrence are more or less soluble in water. They deflagi'ate when ignited on cliarcoal or in contact with other organic bodies. B. REACTIONS OF THE MORE COMMON MINERAL BASES. In many minerals, the so-called base — lead, for example, in sul- phide of lead (galena), copper in red or black oxide of copper, baryta in carbonate of baryta, and so forth — n^ay be easily rec 'gnized by the use of the blowpipe. This is especially the case, when the base con- sists of a single and easily reducible metal or metallic oxide, such as silver, lead, copper, tin, tfec, or wlicre it imparts a colour to borax or other reagents, as in the case of coi)per, iron, cobalt, nickel, manganese, «kc.; or foi'nis a deposit on charcoal, connuunicates ii colour to the flame, or exhibits other characteristic reactions. Even when several bodies of this kind are jjresent together in the base, their recognition, as a general rule, is easily effected. Earthy and alkaline bases, when in the form of carbonates, sulj lates, phosphates, fluorides, itc, can also be made out, in general, without difficulty, unless several happen to be present together, in which case it is not always possible, by the simple aid of the blowpipe, to distinguish them individually. When these bases are combined with silica, on the I >^ 4 OF CENTKAL CANADA — PART I. 45 Other hand, the blowpipe alone is rarely sufficient for their detection. This however, so far as practical purposes are concerned, is of little conse(|uence, as no economic value in silicates of this kind is depen- dent on tlic base. A complete scheme for the detection of mineral bases by the blow- pipe, does not fall within the province of the present work, but an arrangement of the more important of these bodies, in grouj)s, founded on blowpipe characters, is given below. Before referring to these groups, the unjjractised operator is I'ecomuiended to subject the S[)i'ci- men under examination to three or four sinn)le experiments, and to note down the results. These experiments comprise: — 1, Ignition in the bulb-tube, for detection of water. (This experiment may be omitted as a general rule, if the substance j)ossoss a metallic lustre.) 2, Treatment per se on charcoal or in the foreceps (see Operation 1, j)age 30 above), the characters more esi>ecially to be looked for, being coloration of the flame, formation of a coating on the charcoal, assumption of magnetism. Sic. 3, Treatment (after previous roasting [Operation 4], if sulphur, ifec, be present) with borax, phosphor-salt, and carb. soda, I'espectively : observing if the glass be coloured, if the substance dissolve entirely in it, if a reduction to metal take place, and so forth (Operations 5 and G, above). These exj)eriments will in general be sufficient to determine the nature of the base ; but occasionally, certain special opei'ations may bo required in addition, such as testing with nitrate of cobalt, or examination for mercury in the closed tube, as described on a preceding page (Operations 3 and G). Section 1. — Giving per se, or with caub. soda, on charcoal, METALLIC globules OU METALLIC GRAINS. Group 1. Yieldiiuj malleable metallic ylohules, without deposit on the charcoal. Gold. Kiilver. Copper. Gold is insoluble in the fluxes. Silver is not oxidized per se, but retains a bright surface after exposure to an oxidating flame. Copper becomes encrusted on cooling with a black coating. It imparts a green colour to the flame-border ; and forms strongly coloured glasses with borax and phosphor-salt : (green (hot) blue (cold) in O F ; red- brown, opatjue, in R F). Gold and Silver may be separated from copper, tfec, by fusion with lead, and subsequent cupellation (Opera- iji'i' 1 wB 46 MINERALS AND GEOLOGY tion 7). If gold and silver be present together, the bead is generally more or less white. By fusing it in a smull platinum spoon with bisulphate of potash, the silver dissolves, and the surface of the globule becomes yellow. If the globule be flattened out into a disc on the anvil, before treatment with bisulphate of potash, the silver is more rapidly extracted. The sulphate of silver must be removed by treating the spoon, in a porcelain or platinum capsule, with a small quantity of water, over the spirit lamp. By evaporation, and fusion of the residuum with carb. soda on charcoal, metallic silver can be again obtained. Group 2. Yidding infusible, metallic grains, without deposit on th charcoal : Platinum. Iron. Nickel. Cobalt. Platinum is not attacked by the blowpipe fluxes. Iron, Nickel. and Cobalt, are readily dissolved by fusion with borax or phosphor- salt, producing a coloured glass (see under Borax, page 34, above.) These metals are also magnetic. A.S a general rule, if a substance become attractable by the magnet after exposui'e to the blowpipe, the presence of iron may be inferred, cobalt and nickel compounds being comparatively rare. The presence of cobalt is readily detected by th(> rich blue colour of the borax and phosphor-salt glasses, in both an oxidating and reducing flame ; but if much iron be present also, the glass is blueish-green. With borax in the li. F., nickel compounds give reduced metal, and the glass becomes grey and troubled. It is also attracted by the magnet. Group 3. Yielding metallic globules, with lohite or yellow deposit on the charcoal. Tin. Lead. Bismuth. Antimoui/. Tin and Lead give malleable globules. The sublimate formed by tin, is white, small in quantity, and deposited on, and immediately around, the globule. The lead sublimate is yellow, and more or less copious. Bismuth and Antimony give brittle globules. The bismuth sublimate is dark yellow ; the antimony sublimate, white, and veiv abundant. Lead imparts a clear blue colour to the flame-border ; Antimony, a greenish tint. As a general rule, a yellow dei)Osit on the charcoal may be regarded as indicative of the presence of lead ;* * Some lead compouiul'i ;;(.'/• ,vt> tfive a white or jfreyisli siildiniate ; but if the test-substaiuo ))e mixed with eai'b. soda, the sublimate is always yellow. V \ OF CP:NTRAL CANADA — PART I. 47 generally )Oon witli ;e of the nto a disc the silver i removed th a smal 1 Liid fusion rer can be osit on th' m, Nickel. phosphor- ic, above.) substance vvpipe, the inds being ted V>y the both an also, the ompounds ed. It is )W deposit ormed by mediately e or less bismuth and veiy B-border ; e{)Osit on f lead ;* st-sul)staiu (-• whilst the emission of copious fumes, and deposition of a white coat- ing on the charcoal, may be safely considered to indicate antimony. The coating or sublimate formed l)y Zinc (see below), although white when cold, is lemon-yellow whilst hot. Bismuth compounds if fused in powder with a niixtui'e of sulphur and iodide of potassium produce on charcoal a vivid scarlet incrustation (Von Kobell). If metallic tin and lead, in about equal proportions, be fused together, the re- sulting globule imniediately oxidises, and on removal from the flame continues to push out wliite and yellow excrescences (Chapman's Blow- pijte Practice, p. 92). Section 2. — Reducible : but yielding no metal on chahcoal. (This arises from the rapid volatilization of the reduced metal.) Group 1. VolatilizviKj xoithoat odour, and ivithout formation of deposit on the charcoal. Merctirt/. For the proper detection of this metal, a small portion of the test- substance in powder must be mixed with some previously dried carb. soda, and the mixture strongly ignited at the bottom of a small tube oi' narrow flask. If mercury be present, a grey sublimate will be formed. By friction with a wire, &c., this runs into small metallic globules which may be poured out of the tube. Group 2. Volatilizing without odour, butforviiny a ^^vosit, on the charcoal. Cadmium. Zinc, The deposit produced by cadmium is dark brown or reddish-brown. That i^roduced by zinc is lemon-yellow and phosphorescent whilst hot, and white when cold. If moistened with a drop of nitrate of cobalt and ignited, it becomes bright green. Group 3. Volatilizing ivith strong odour of garlic. Ai'senic. See additional reaction under Operation 4, page 32, above. Section 3. — Not reducible before the blowpipe. Group 1. Imparting a (vlour to borax. Manganese Chromium. Manganes" compounds impart, before an oxidating flame, a violet colour to borax ; Chromium compounds, a clear green colour. See also under " Carbonate of Soda " page 3G, above. * 48 MINERALS AND GEOLOGY OF CENTRAL CANADA. t'VM .i!i-i, llili yif m i'l. i| The rare metals cerium, m-anium, &c., belong also to this groui). Reference should also be made to iron, nickel, cobalt and copper, lu the oxides of these metals, if in small (juantity, might escape detection -p by tlie reducing })rocess. Group 2. Imparthiy no colour to thu Jinxes. Slowhj dissolved hij borax, the ylass remainbiy pervianently dear : Alumina ^Moistened with nitrate of cobalt and then ignited, this base assumes on cooling a fine blue color. Grouj) 3. ImpartiiKj no colour to the jlaxcs. liapidlij dissolri'il I hi/ borax, the glass hecomincj opaqw. on cooUwj or when Jlanied : Mnij lesia. Lime. Moistened with nitrate of cobalt, and ignited. Magnesia becomes l)ale-red in colour ; Lime, dark-grey. Group 4. Entirely dissolved by fusion with carb-soda. Baryta. Strontia. Lithia. Soda. Potash. ■ Baryta coinponnds impart a distinct green colour to the point and border of the flame. Strontia and Lithia colour the flame deep car- mine-red. The crimson coloration is destroyed in the case of strontia if the substance be fused with chloride of barium. Soda colours the flame strongly yellow. Potash communicates to it a violet tint ; but this colour is completely masked by the presence of soda, unless the flame be examined through a deep blue glass.* * The presence of alkalies /^^ alkaline earths (magnesia excepted) is most readily ascertained in minerals by the use of a small pocket spectroscope. See the author's Bbnvpipe Practice. % IS group, iopper, iiH M detection ssolved h(i W t PART II. THE MINERALS OF CENTRAL CANADA. e Hssiuaes point and deep car- f strontia •lours the tint ; but nless the ascertaiiRHt Practice. dissolccti f ed : I becomes The i)reepding sub-division of this work is of a purely introd'i.ctory character,' exphmatory of the more common pro})erties possessed by minerals in general, and of certain technical terms employed in mine- ralogical definitions. In the present Part, the Minerals of Central Canada, comprising the Provinces of Ontario and Quebec, are classi- fied, and described. In these descriptions, in accordance with the stated plan of the work, mit\ute chemical and crystallographic details are purposely omitted : details of this kind being obviously out of place in a work intended for general use. Localities also except in a few instances, are only stated generally, i. e. without precise reference to lots and concessions ; but an attempt is made in all cases to give the localities in systematic order, based, as much ms possible, on geo- logical relations. The classification, adopted in the work, is founded essentially on composition, as being the most convenient for practical reference. It is preceded, however, by an Analytical Key, by means of which the name and place of any mineral described under the Classification projjcr, may be easily arrived at ; and a Simplified Key or Taljular Arrangement, including minerals of common occurence only, is also given for the same purpose. The method of application is explained fully at the end of tha principal key : a certain knowledge of techni- cal terms, and of the more common proi)erties of minerals as explained in the preceding division of the work, being of course supj)Osed on the part of the reader. ANALYTICAL KEY, Bij which the name of any Canadian Mineral may be easily ascertained.* N'oTK— III this Key, minerals of common or extensive occurrence are denoted by the name heiii),' printed in lar^'e capitals, and minerals of tolerably common occurence, by the use of * As regards the determination of minerals generally, the Reader may consult the Mineral Tabic* attached to the author's Blowpipe Practice. Also the author's Mineral Indicator Corr, Clark & Co., Toronto). 5 Hi ! ill 'i 60 MINERALS AND GEOLOGY 1 Huiall capitiil^. Names in ordinary t.vpu, refer to niincrnls of rare occurrenfe, or obsciiii character : so far, at least, as regards the [iresence of these minerals in Catiadn. The initialf BB, si«]il(.v "before the blowjiiiie." The number jilaeecl within braclicts after the name of ii mineral, refers to the position of the substance in the elussiHcation proper, in which its de>- cription is K'i^t'n, at the end of the key Aspect metallic or sub-rnetellic 2 Aspect nou-motallic (i. c. vitreous, stony, &c. ) Ii.") Occurring in detached grains or scales 3 Occurring under other conditions Soiling, or marking on paper GRAPHITE No, 1, ) Not marking or soiling 4 • I Yielding by trituration a white or light-grey powder. .MICA (Nos, 77-78.) I Not yielding a white powder by trituration 5 i Colour, yellow. Fusiljle Gold (No. 3. ) 5 < Colour, tin or greyish white. Infusible Platinum (No. 4. \ I Colour, black ; magnetic MAGNETIC IRON SAND (No. 31.) [Also Iserine (No. 32) „ \ Hardness sufficient to scratch glass 7 ( H \rdncss insufficient to scratch glass 15 F>r\ emitting fumes, or odour of garlic or brimstone 8 BB, no fumes or odour 10 Colour, light brass-yellow !) Colour, tin-white or greyish Ausenical Pyrites (No.22. ) In cubes or other Monometric (/rystals (p. 14), or massive IKON I'YUITES (No. 20.) In pointed. Prismatic Crystals of the Rljombic System (p. IG), nv ttly arranged in curved rows Marcasite or Prismatic Pyrites* (No, 21.) 10 BB, easily fusible Wolfram (No. 39. ) BB, infusible, or nearly so 11 \ Streak-powder, dull-red SPECULAR IRON ORE (No. 29. ) j Streak powder, black or brown 12 ^ I Strongly magnetic MAGNETIC IRON ORE {So. 31.) I Not (or very feebly) magnetic l.T 13 Streak, black, brown, reddiah-brown, or greenish 14 Streak, brownish-yellow. Yielding water in the bulb-tube. . . BROWN IRON ORE (No. 34.) ( Black, sub-metallic. BB, with phosphor-salt in R. F., a tine green glass 14] Chromic Iron Ore (No. 33.) ( Black, sub-metallic. BB, with phosphor-salt in R. F., a red-brown glass TlTANIKEKOU.S IrON OrE (No. 30.) 15 More or less distinctly malleable 16 Not malleable " 20 J p \ BB, no fumes, or deposit on charcoal 17 / BB, copious fumea, or incrustation on charcoal 18 * Iron Pyrites and Marcasite have •'.\aetly the same composition (Sulphur 53.3, Iron 4C.7) but their crystal forms are ()uite distincv Iron Pyrites is very abundant : Marcasite, in Canada, comparatively rare. Marcasite is especially prone to decomposition ; specimens are thus often ooated wit a (greenish-white efforescence, or 'iiinute hair-like crystals, of sulphate of iron. OF CKNTRAL fAXADA — PAHT II. ni Stnicturc ilistinctly scaly or micaceous, the substance admitting of sepa- ration into thill leaves, plates, or acales 'J I •Jl I.' i Colour, yellow (soft) ; (Joi,r» (No. .S. ) .- U". silver-white (soft) Silvek (No. .'».) ) f- copiKT-reil (soft) Con-F.i: (No. (>.) ' <*. steel-grey ; magnetio (hard) Meteoric Iron (No. 10. ) ■ u i HI*, on cliarwoal, a copious yellow incrustation !!( i MM, on cliarcoal, no incrustation. Colour, Mack. .Silver Glance (No. II.) ,,, \ Colour, luad-grey. Perfectly malleable Lead (No. 7. ) I ( 'olour, tin-white. Sligiitly malleable ' Mismuth (No. 8. ) •J - ( Struc.,,,. uot ,„ioaco.,u. or ,.aly j ^:^^::;'^^, ! ! ! ! ! ! ! . . ! =1 .,. )i Marking on paper. Streak, black 'J'J " i; Not marking. Streak, white or greyish (Mica) 21 hi". Not attacked by acids. . . MUSCOVITE or POTASH-MICA (No. 77. ) Decomposed (in powder) by sulphuric acid .... I'H L( »( JOi'lTE oi' MAGNESIA MICA (No. 7S.) ( Colour, black. HB. not dissolved by Hu.xca G H APHITE (No. I , ) 22 Colour, lead-grev, MM, giving sulpliur-reaction (see ]>. 44) with carb. i soda and borax ."^ MuLYBDEN ITE (No. 2:i.) ( Attracting the magnetic needle. Colour, brownish-yellow .... Ma(jnetk 2;i PvurrE,s(No. l!l.) f Not atlecting tiie magnetic needle 24 •\i ^ ^^'''' '''i=*dy fusible (with or without previous decrepitation) 2") \ MB, infusible, or nearly so . . ;54 .,. \ \\V>, a ma:;netio globule ^ 2(J / Fusion-globule uot magnetic 2S .^^ \ (.'('lour dark-lead grey Tennantite (No \ Colour metallic-yoUuw or red 20 /^/'.>.- .),. ; •^. 1 In acicular form only Millerite (No. 18. ) \ Not acicular 27 ( Colour brass j'ellow (sometimes with iridescent tar.iish CGPPEI! ! PYRITES (No. l(i.) .TT r Colour reddish, but with purple tarnish BUllNITE, (Horse- ' ^ tiesh Ore, No. 15.) I Colour pale-red or yellowish. BB, yielding arsenical fumes Nickelino I some examples, (No. 17.) oc S Colour pale-red or yellowish Nickeliue (most examples. No. 17. ) ( Colf)ur, metallic white or grey 2!) COPPEll GLANCE (No. 14.) ating on charcoal ,'JO OQ ) MB, a white coating on charcoal , 'M ( MB, a yellow incrustation on charcoal 32 .,j \ Lamellar or tine-granular in structure Native Antimony (No. !). ) I Filjrous or bladetl Antimony Glance (No. 25. ) j BB, with mixture of potassium iodide and sulphur forming on charcoal 32 , a vivid scarlet coating '.V,\ { BB, as above, no scarlet coating .33 Ola o(i \ ^^B, no coating r charcoal. . . \ BB, a white or yellow joating t)2 MINERALS ANI> OEOLOOV „., I Sji gr. DVtr 9, recUlish tin white Native Fiiainuth, (N<«. S.) I ^P' S""' ""'1^''' 7, light leail-grey, often iridescent Uisinuth Glance (N... '24.) , I . \ Hreftking into rectangular fragments GALKXA (Nm, 12.) .U '/s / 15H, yiehling autimonial funics... .Menighinite and Plumlngemus Antimony Ore, (Nfts. 2") and 25 bis.) t Lustre distinctly metallic ; streak greyish-hlack ; nnHtly rihrous or ., , \ iicicular ... Maiiir.inite (No. .Sr>. ) j Lustre auh-mctallic ; streak, mostly pale brown ; BM. H\ilj.luir-reaction, ( p. U ZINC \'AA-\S DK (No. 13.) Soluble or partially soluble in water. Taste l)itter or im tallic. Incur- ring chiefly as an etllorescence or inoru.statioii 3(5 35 \ { Occurring in earthly masses or crusts (which soil or mark Insoluble < more or less) 39 ( Occurring under other conditions 48 „.. \ BR, with borax, a coloured glass or bead 37 ( BB, with borax, a white or colourless beard 3S ( Solution giving a deep blue precipitate with red or yellow "prussiate of 37 ] potash.^'* Green Vitriol (Sulphate of Iron) (No. 100.) (Solution giving a j^reeuish-white precipitate with " yellow prussiate. " Sulphate 'of Nickel (No. 101.) ( BB, with nitrate of cobalt, a blue mass after ignition (see p. 34. ) .'W^ Alum (No. 102.) 39 ( BB, with nitrate of cobalt, a pale-red mass Epsomite (No. 99.) Colour, yellow or yellowish-brown 40 Colour, red, black, brownish-black, blue, or green 43 ,,, \ BB, taking fire and burning with blue flame Sulphur (No. 2.) ■*' \ BB, not inHammable 41 , . I BB, becoming black and magnetic 42 / BB, not rendered magnetic Uran Ochre (No. 37 .) ,,2 \ Occurring in thin crusts on bituminous shale Humboldthie (No, lOS.) \ Occurring under other conditions Yellow Ochke (No, 34.) ( Colour, red. BB, becoming magnetic .. RED OCHRE and Scaly Rep 43] Inox Oke(No. 2S ( C. black, dark-brown, blue, or green 9.) 44 j( \ C. black or dark-brown 4,") \ C. blue or green 4() !BB, inflammable Asphalt (No. 110.) BB, not inriammable. Forming with carb-soda a "turquoise enamel," ;). 39 Earthy Mangane.se Ore (No. 30. ) 4p \ Colour, blue 47 \ Colour, green. EflFervescing in acids Malachite (Green Carbonate of Copper) (No. 95.) ♦ As the iron is always ^xirtly peroxidized, a blue precipitate is produced by either of these reoffents. OF CFNTUAL CANAHA — PAKT II. o3 at) 39 48 37 3H ).) I.) I.) ).) 40 43 I.) 41 42 '.) 44 45 4() ( Kffurvfseiiii,' in aciila ; BB, reactions of Coppor (p. 37.). .BlucCftrbonato 47 ' ' of Copper (No. !»;'). ) ( liB, rondertd magnetic Vivinnite (rbosphate of Iron) (No. 104.) ,o i Manlnesa sufficient to scratch wimlow-glasa distinctly 49 I Hardness insutficicut to scratch glass distinctly «>9 ,,. ) l''usil)le or partially fusible, jwr sr* . \ Infusible, ]ier .xc . 01 . \ S](, gr. =- 3.0 or lisn. (Colour, mostly pale. ) ol ' I Sp. gr. over 3.0 ;»<> ,, j Yielding water by ignition in bulb-tube (see p. 34), .')'-' ' ( Not yielding water, or yielding traces only, on ignition 53 I Fusible uii tiiin edges, only. C. dark-green Cldnritoid (No. 81.) o2- Kasily fusil.le. C. light-green, greenisli- white. . . I'KEHNITE (No. 07.) (Easily fusible. C peach-blossom red . . , . Wilsonite : var. of Scapohte (No. «1) ..^ ) Kasily fu.Mil)le SCATOLllK OR WEUNEillTE (No. 03.) ' ' ) Fuaible on edges only, unless in thin splinters 54 I Wiiite, red, dte. In masses with smooth rectangular cleavage 54 j ORTH0CLASE(No. 57.) ( Cleavage not rectangular. Cleavage planes faintly striated 55 00 1 Wliite, reddish, &e. I'M, imparting a yellow colour to the flame ALBITE (No. 58.) ( Crey, often with coloured reflections LABKADURITE (No. UO.) I 111 rliondtic dodecahedrons or trapezohedrous (p. 14), or in imbedded .')0 . gramdar masses mostly of a red colour GARNET (No. 47.) ( In lihrous masses or prismatic crystals 57 I III black, l>rown, or green triangular prisms (often broken and disjointed 57 •! or in tibres with triangidar cross fracture . . . .T(.)URMALINE (No. 46.) ( In other forms 58 ( In tetr.agonal (sfpiare prismatic) crystals (p. 15). Sp. gr. 3.5 or more. . •"S Idocrase (No. 4.S. ) ( lu other forms 5 . r. j i, ni MINERALS AND OEOLOGV (V2 (iM fl4 en GO »>7 68 Hi) 70 71 7:j 74 75 8]). gr. miiltir '2.8 ; H — 7.0 ; vitreous ; fuailile with carb-soda into a clear ghaa QUARTZ (Nc 4a.) Sp, gr. over 3.0 '>•'< Hanicr than <|uartz 01 I ASS lianl tliau (luartz O.'i ( 'rystalli/atioii, Hexagonal ; H ^- 9.0 ; Hp. gr. 3.8 — 4.1 Cununliini (No. 41.) Crystallization, Octahedral (Regular System); }I = 8.0 ; ap. gr... . 3.") -- 4 ') Sjiinel (No. 42.) C'vHtallization, Sciuare-pyraniidal (Tetragonal .System) ; H = 7.''> ; sp. gr. '4.0 —4.7 Zircon (No. 44. j rrywtaUization, Rectangular-prismatic; H - 7.0 — 7.5; sp. gr. 3.1 — 3,2 Audalusite (No. 45. ) Red or orange ; Lustre inclined to semi-metallic ; sp. gr. 4.1 — 4.3 Rutile (No. 40.) Yellow ; in Hni.all granular masses (mostly with graphite in crystalline limestone); sp. gr. 3. 1 - 3.2 Condrodite (So. 5('>. ) fticen, l)r(nvnish-yelhnv ; in crystalline grains in eruptive rocks ; s]). gr. 3.3 — 3.5 Olivine (No. 55. ) Strongly magnetic MAGNETIC IRON OWE (No. 31. J FeeUly (or non-) magnetic G7 Streak-powder, Idack or brown OS Streak-powder, pull-red RED IRON ORE (No. 211. ) HH, with borax, an emerald-green glass Ouuo.mu' Ikon Ohe (No. 33.) HH, witli borax, a dingy-green glass. . .TiTANlFEitor.s Iiiox Ohe (No. 30.; BPi, fusible, or imparting di.stinct colour to the Hame, or both. J'.H, iufu«il)le (or fusible only at the external point) 70 VAi, easily dissolved by borax or phosphor-salt, the saturated glass be- coming opaijue on cooling or when tlamed (p. 37) 71 RB, slowly and ;. jmpletely dissolved by Imrax or phosphor-salt, a " silica skeleton (p. 39) separating in the latter reagent 74 BB, yielding sulphur-reaction with carb-soda and silver foil (p. 44). ... 72 BH. no suljihur-reactiou with carb-soda, &c. Mostly in cubical crystals . . FLUOR SPAR (No. 100.) Yielding a large amount of water )>y ignition iu bulb-tube • xYPSUM (No. 98.) No water on ignition ... . 7." BB, imparting an applo-grecn tint to the tlame-border. Fusible Avith . difficulty. BARYTINE(No. JH;.) BB, imparting a carmine-red colour to the Hame-border Celestine (No. 90, ) BB, imparting a grcon tint to point of tiamc Datolite (No, OS. ) BB, imparting a jellowish or indistinct colour to the Hame 75 BB, fusible quietly Analcime (No. 75. ) BB, intumescing 70 4 »3 OF CENTKAL CANADA — I'AKT II. 55 V into n f. (No. 4:^.1 (■.:< 04 «5.- iruixUnii (No. 41. i • «'•••• ■ ;l(No. 4'.'.) ; 81. . gr. 11 (No. 44.) r. '^. \ — B (No. 4.-..) 4.3 e(No. 40.) ystalliiie ,e(So. :>^>.) u (No. 5.").) ; (No. 31.) 07 08 : (No. Sit.) E(No.33.) E (No. 30.) ... 70 ... 77 lass !)c'- 71 r-snlt, a 74 |i4).... 7'-' ystals . . (No. IOC.) (No', lis. ) . . . / . I i with . : (No. <»0.) \ (No. 90. ) (No, OS.) 7"> (No. 75.) 70 > , ji CiyHtalli/atioii, T.traiional (p. IT).) .Aimpliyllito (No. 70.) ' / CryHtalli/.atioii, Klioiiil>ic (p. 10.) 'l^i'.iiiHoiiito (No. 70.) L HH, very caHily iliMHolvt'tl liy horax or phoHplior-salt, tlio «i!.tiirate«l glans -- ) liccoiiiiiig opa<|ii»' on I'ooling 78 \ KM, HJowlv ami iiiconii.h'ti'Iy (UhhoIvcmI hy l.orax or phoHphor-Balt, a f " Hilica HkL'U'toii" (p. 3!>) Hoparatin^ in tiic lattor (!u.\ 81 ( l'>Ii, \vitlicarl)-8oila and silver foil ()'. 44) yiL-ldinu Htroii^ Hulphur-rcac- 7,S ' tion I'i«lit coloured varietieH of ZINC HLKN DK (No. 13.) \ ni5, no sulphur-reaction 79 I H ^ .') 0. Sohihlc (in powilor) withf>ut eirerveHcenoc in heated nitric or 7!) ' hydro.hlorie aci.l. Al'.Vn IK (No. 10.3.) ^ JI ■ ;^.() — 3.7.'). Soluhlc with strong etl'erveHcence in heatetl acids. . NO Vii'ldiiig water hy ignition in Imlh-tuhe Dawaonitu (No. 04.) ISO water on ignition SO \n^. SO ^ . . 1 Soiulde with strong eir rvencencc in cold acids. . .CA!,( 'ITK (No. 88.) 80 tn^ \ j.;tj^.r^.^y^.iyy strongly only in heated acids. . . DDLO.MITK (No. !»0.) MAUNEsrn-:(No. 01.) o, ) Yielding merely traces of water on ignition (page .34) 82 ( Yielding a coiisidorahle amount of water 83 ( Foliated or scaly. Thin leaves, elastic. Lustre, mostly pseudo-metallic \ MICAS (Nos. 77 and 78.) ( 82 Foliated or compact. Not elastic. Soapy to the touch. No pseudo- metallic lustre TALC and STEATITE (No. 82.) j„ ) Fil)rou8, in soft silky masses.. (xIIUV.soth.e or Fihrouh Seri'KNTIXe (No. 83.) ' ' I Foliateil or compact S4 ^, \ Foliated or scaly 8.') I (iranular or compact 80 ( In soft uacretuis scales of light colour. Hecoming hlue hv ignition with 85 ] .itrate of cohalt (page .34) I'llOLKKlTK (No. 84.) ( In dark-green foliated or tino scaly masses. Mostly fusilde on the edges CHLUlUTE(No.'sO.) ! Assuming a pale-reil or greyish colour hy ignition with nitiate of cohalt (page 34) SKIIFENTIN E (No. S.3.) Assuming a hright-hlue colour hv ignition with nitrate of cohidt (p. .34.) PiNITE (No. 85.) AI'FLICATION OF THE ANALYTICAL KEY. The method of eini»loying the above Key is sliewn in the following exiimjile. Let tlie reader be supjiosetl to have a massive pioce of magnetic pyrites, of the name ami nature of which he is ignorant. Turning to the first bracket of the Key, he finds : , \ Aspect metallic or suh-metallic 2 I Aspect uou-metallic (*. e.., vitreous, stony, etc) 35 , 56 MINEKALS AND GEOLOGY As tlie . ubstance possesses a metallic aspect or lustre, he ti.- us to bracket 2. Ti.«re he finds : „ \ Occurring in detached grains or scales 3 " \ Ocourring under conditions G As the specimen is not in the form of loose grains or scales, but in that of a solid mass, he turns to bracket 0, which reads : ,. j Hardness sufficient to scratch ((lass 7 * } Hardness insufficient to scratch glass 15 As the mineral is not hard enough to scratch glass, bracket 15 must be referred to, which reads : , . \ More or less distinctly niallealile 40 ^^ / Not malleable 20 As the substance is not malleaVde — a small pie-^o breaking readily into powder under the hammer — tl)e incpiircr turns to bracket 20, He there finds : I Structure distinctly scaly f)r nii^'aceous, the aubst;,nce adniit- t>i) ^ tbig of separation into thin leaves, plates, or scales '21 " J ri, i. . • 1 J Markinu or soilinjr 21 / Structure not micaceous or scaly ,. -^ V <- i- r no f ■' ( rsot uuu-kuig orsoiluig. 23 As the mineral under investigation does not present a scaly or micaceous structure, and does not "oil the hands or leave a mark on ])aper, reference is made to bracket 23. This reads : i Affecting tho magnetic needle ; colour, browish-yellow, . . . 23] .Ma<;nktic Pykhes (No. 19.) ( Not magnetic 24 A small particle cir two being chipped off the specimen, and trietl by a common magnet — or the entire sjjecimen being held near a magnetic needle — attraction is found to ensue ; lu e the suljstance is shewt. to be Magnetic Pijrltes, No. 19 of the classified series ile- scribed in the following pages. By reference to the description there given, the various physical and chemical characters of the substance, its i)ercentage composition, localities, etc., may at once be ascertained. In using the Key, caio must be taken to pass regularly from one indio'ited bracket to the other, without attempting, on account of foregoi'e conclusions respecting the nature of the substance, to jump over any of them, or to refer to others than those actually indicated. If this be not attended to, errors and confu.sion may easily arise. As the above Key contains a good many minei'als of i-are or com- ])aratively excej)tional occurrence, the beginner may frequently avoid unnecessary trouble, in making out the name of an unknown sub- OK (JENTKAL CANADA PAKT II. sr Stance, by consiiltiug in tlio tirst instance the annexed simplitietl Key, in wliich Canadian ndnoralsof oonunon occurrence are alone included. Kcference slioiiM tiien be made, for contirniatory proofs, to the com- plete description of the species indicated by the Key. A TABULAR (UlOUl'INli UK CANADIAN MINERALS OF COMPARA- TIVELY FREQUENT OCCURRENCE. * Ax/ net MctitUir or Sitli-Mi'taltlc. ** Hard inouijh to .".•rdtrh ijlit-is iliMinctbi. Not icrittrhul, or rertj Kl'njhtlij airratrhiil, hi/ tin' j/oint of a knife. (Stnii/f ) Tiii-wliitc. or l)i't\veeii silver-white and pale-grey (Emitting a garlic- liki' ) : also L'liroiiiir Iron Ore (No. ,'•!.'}). *** Tiio f^o/i to scratch (/lass, Ea.-'l'i scrotr/ial hi/ a knife-pobit. \^ I (a) Colour, yellow : — A (.•'(('(' GoUl (No. 3). "= j (/>) Colour, silver-white (l)ut often with dark tarnish) ; — Natirt- -~ "j Silnr. ^ ((C) Colour, black ■.—Silrcr Glanrr (No. 11). I ((/) Hrownish-yellow ; slightly nuignetic : — Maijuetic Pyritex (No. 1S>. ) I (i') I>ra.ss-yellow (often with varig.ated tarnish) ; streak, greenish lilai.'k : — Copjii r Pi/ritis (No. 1(1.) (/) Reddish, with purple tarnish ; streak, greyish-black ■. — Pin-filti Coppir I'l/r'ifis (No. 1.").) j (;/) Dark-grey (ofthe with blue or green tarnish) ; cleavage indis- I tinct : — ('iijijii'r Glanc CSt). 14.) I (/() Lead-grey ; breaking readily, with rectangular cleavage, into •J cubical fragments ; very heavy : — Galciin CSo. 1'2.) ((■) Light lead-grey ; in scft scaly masses ; inarking : — Moli/hdcnite (No. '211) (/.') Black ; soft, uuistly in scaly or leafy masses ; marking and soiling, --fr'/'c/'^"'' ('^"- '•) (/) Lustre, metallic-pearly ; brown, lilack, silvery-white, &e. Iix foliated or scaly masses with white or light streak ; easily si'parated into thin leaves: — Mini, including chietly Mit-sro- rill' (No. 77) MUil /'/do'joj'iti: (No. 78.) t Asput : ritri'oiis, stony, or tartliy. tt Hard tnoiujh to scratch ijla.ss distinctly. Not scratched hy a knifepoint. (a) Vitreous : colourless, amethystine, browiish, &c. Mostly in he.\- agonal prism-pyramids, oringroupsof sliarply-pointed crystals; otherwise mas&ive. No lamellar structure'. (Infusible): Cry.^- tallinc. (Quartz, including liock Crystal, Anwthi/st, Smoky Quartz, &c. (No. 43). {h) Vitreous or stony. In nodular masses of grey, red, bluish, and other colours, two or more tints being often present together 3 58 MINEKALS AN'Ii GEOLOGY ('0 +++ in spots or bands. (Infusible) : — Cakeilonk (Jtiart::. incluiling the various Aijntm, kc. (No. 43). (c) Stony or pearly. Vitreous. White, grey, reil, gi ecu, &c. Mostly in lamellar masses, which cleave easily in several directions, presenting smooth and somewhat pearly cleavage-planes. Fusible, but as a general rule not very easily: the point of a thin splinter is soon rounde. ;"7) ; Alh'iti or Sodd-Feldnpar (No. ")8) ; and Lahriiili>rit( or LIiik -Fi-lilsjiar ^ (No. CO). Vitreous. Greonisii-white or pale-green. Mostly in botryoidal masses with crystalline surface. Kasily fusible. Yielding a little water in the l)ulb-tube -. — Pri'lnnti' (No- ()?». (e) Dark or bright-red. l>rown, ito. Mostly in rliondiic dodecahedrons or in small rounded masses. Fusilile. (Sp. gr. over 3.-1) : — Garvit (No. 47). (/) Black or dark-l)rown. Mostly in triangular (and often broken) prisms, or in acicular or fibrous groups. Kasily fusible; — TimrinnUiH: or >c/iorl (No. 4(5). (;/) Black, brown, green, greenish-white or colourless. In small crystals (mostly imbedded in crystalline limestone, oi' other- M'ise in trap rocks), and also in oleavable ami granular masses. Vusihle : —Pi/roxdic (including Anijltr, &c.) N;;. ")3 ; and also Ahipliiliole (including Hurnlihiuli , ik.c.) .^o. 52. Too soft to scratch glans. Kes. Fusible : —Fluor Sjiiir (No. lOC))., (»') White, yellowish, greyish, pale-n-d, &c. Mostly in eleav- ahle masses. X'ery heavy (sp. gr. - ; 4.4 — 4.7. Fusible, but not easily, tinging the liame pale-green ■.—Hear;/ Spar (No. 0(5)'. (/) White, piile-blue, reddish, t^c. Mostly in cleavable masses or small crystals in liujestone rocks. Fusible, tinging V JA •♦» 8 •i« S c '■Z M GJ TS ^ r OJ u ■— -^ c ■4^ -" C *' 2 o ^ ^ >i iC .<-> M ;s 1^ >> '?. u -tJ 9 • c > y. u O ^ i Xi -M p is .S .2° -• j£ Z ^"s ei ~ — j^ V r ^ u .-^ i) F— ■4.9 l- t. — < X II- jS-s « I icS-^ c - .M <4-t _M il 93 :- « I the flame carnune red : CihMiin' (No. 07) (.7) L White, greyish, kc. Scratched liy the nail. Fusible ; be- coming at once ojjafjue and iluU white when held at the edge of a candle-tlame ; yielding a large amount of water iiy ignition in the bulb-tulje : — G/jjisiiiii (No. 08). (h) White, greenish, green anil brown, &e ; often mottled. Vtry sectile, and more or less soapy to the toueli ; — yVt/f and Slmtiti (No. 8'i). Aho StrpcntiiK (No. 83|. («■) Dark or light green, scaly or earthy : — Chloriti . (k) I'early-white, brown, black, kc. In leafy and scaly masse- with more or less pseudo-metallic lustre. .Splitting ini tliin plates : — The various Mlrait, including more esp. ■ eially : Micn'oriti- ov Poltinli-Mira [So. 77), aiul Phloyu- pitt' or Maiftt'sia-Mira (No. 78). c -J s OF CENTRAL CANADA — PART II. 59 (/) Streak, pale-brown. Colour, brown, black, yellow, &c. Mostly in in- distinct crystals or small cleavable masses -.--Zinc Blende (No. 13). (ni) Streak, dull or bright-red. Colour, brick-red. Magnetic after ig- nition : — Bill Ochre and other varieties of Red Iron Ore (Xo. 29). (h) Streak, brownish-yellow. C, dark or light-brown, Magnetic after ignition, and yielding water in tlie l)ulb.tubc : — Yellow Ochre and lirown or Boij Imn Ore (No. M). (o) Streak, pale-green; colour, groeii •.— ^falachUe (No, 94). Some Chlorite.'* (No, 80). X L (p) Streak, pale-blue; colour, l)lue. Mostly in crusts or earthy masses: — Blue Carhouate of Co}>per (No. 95). Also Pho.sphote of Iron (No. 104.) SYSTEMATIC ARHANGEMENT OF MINERALS. Minenil bodies are cliaracterized partly l»y coni|ioHition, and partly by jthysici. properties. Composition alone, i.s not sutHeient in all cases to deHne or iiulividualize a mineral species, as certain snbstances — Carbon, for instance, in Graphite and the Diamond ; Carbonate of Lime, in Calcite and and Arragonite — may occnr in nature under two or more distinct j)hysical conditions. On the other hand, a close resemblance, in general aspect and other physical cliaracters, may be exhibited by minerals of very dissimilar composition. Minerals liave thus a double nature, so to say— chemical and jthysical : the one frequently in ajiparent opposition to the other; and in this lies the difficulty of framing a satisfactory chissification of minerals. A system of ai'rangement ba.sed on chemical composition, although un- avoidably artificial in many of its details, is esjiecially convenient for practical reference, and on the wliole is perliaps best suited t > meet the requirements of the general student. A system of this kind is adopted, therefore, in the present work. Tt compri.ses five leading groups or classes. 'r.st, a group of simjde or so-called Native Sub- stances, as Native .Sul[ihur, Native Gold, Native Silver, itc, the naturally occurring elementary bodies of chemical language (See under " Chemical Characters" in Part I). Secondly, a group of Sul- phides and Arsenides, or compounds of suli)liur, or of arsenic, with various metals : galena, iron pyrites, ar.senical pyrites, are examples. Thirdly, a large group of oxygenized compounds, including Simple Oxides, as red iron ore, ikc, and various so-called o.xy gen-salts, as Silicates, Carbonates, Sulphaces, and the like. (See explanation of Cliendcal Terms in Part I. Also the explanatory remarks prefixed to the different groups and sub-divisions, in the following pages.) GO MINERALS AND GEOLOGY :ll Fourthly, a group of Fluorides and Chlorides, compounds of fluorine or chlorine with buses. And, finally, a small group of carbonaceous matters, usually classed as Organico-Chemical substances, and re- garded commonly as products of alteration derived from Organic Natuje. The sub-divisions of the system adopted, are shewn by way of index, in the annexed tabular view. I. — Simple SrnsTAsrEs : A. Native Non-Metallic Substances (1 — 2). B. Na ,ve Metals (3-10). II. — Arsenides .\ni> Sulvuides : A. Sulphides of Silver, Leail, and Zinc (11-13.) B. Suiphides of Copper (14-lG). C. Arsenides and Sulphides of Nickel and Iron (17-22). D. Sulphide of Molybdenum (23). E. Sulphides of Bismuth and Antimony (24-20). -OxvdEN CoMroiNDs : A. Copper Oxides (27-28). Iron Oxides : (I) lli'iiiatitu ;rrouv> of Iron Oxkles (20 30). (•2) MauMetiti' u'l'oup of Iron Oxidts (81 -3U). (3) Liniouite K^oup of Iron Oxides (34). Manganese Oxides (35 3(5). Uranium Oxides (37-38). Tungstenum (Jonipounds (39). F. Titanium Oxides (40). (i. Alumina and Aluminates (41-42). Silica aiul Silicates : III. B. D. H. I. (1) (^niartz j^roup (43). (2) liroup of Bask- Silicates (44-.')l). (3) oioup of Pvroxcnie Silicates {t) (;roui> of Kelflspathic Silicates (fiT-.^O). 1 ti) ( Jroup of Calcareo-Feldspathic Silicates (60-64). (7) (iroup of Xephelitic Silicates (65-(iti). (8) (iroup of Zeolitic Silicates (67-76)' (9) (iroup of .Micaceous and Chloritic Silicates (77-81). (10) (iroup of Tal( ose Silicates (S-J-S3). (11) (iroup of Kaolinic Silicates (84-85). (12) (iroup of Copi)er and Nickel Silicates (S6-S7). Carbonates : (1) (irou)! of Anhydrous Carlion.ites (88-03). (2) (iroup of Hydrous Carbonates (94-9.^). K. Sulphates (96-102). L. Phosphates and Arseniates (103-105). IV. — Fluorides and Chlorides : A. Fluorides (106). B. Chlorides (107). v. — Bodies of A.ssumed Oro.vnic Orioin : A. 0.\alates (108). B. Carbc-:iaceou8 substances (109-113). OF CENTRAL CANADA — PAKT II. 61 I.— SIMPLE StJBSTANCK. [This group includes the Native Non-Metallic Elements and Native Metals of Canadian occurrence. Three of these, Graphite, — often termed Phimbago or " Black Load," but consisting essentially of carbon, — Native Gold, and Xatlvr Silver, are entitled to lank amongst the economic products of the country ; and Xative Copper may even- tually perhaps be added to the list. The re.st occur in small quantities only, or under more or less obscure conditions.] A. — NATIVE NON-METALLIC S HSTANTES. 1. Graphite (Plumbago) : — Iion-lilack or dark steel-grey, with black histrous streak, and metallic or sub-metallic aspect. Found occasion- allv in tabular hexagonal crvstals, but more commonlv in small scales, and in foliated and gi-anular masses, which soil the hands, and leave a dark metallic trace on pa^er. Very sectile, and greasy or soapy to the touch. H = 1.0 — 2.0; sp. gr. 2.0 — 2.3 in pure specimens, l)Ut sometimes as high as 2.5. BB, (piite infusible, and not dissolved by borax or ordinary fluxes. Consists essentially of carbon, with a variable amount of intimately intermixed siliceous or ferruginous matter, the so-called " ash." This, which becomes visible when the carbon is burnt off by long continued ignition, may vary from a mere trace to 40 or oO per cent. The actual amount of ash scarcely affects the value of the plumbago. Samples holding 40 or more j)er cent, may ])ossess as much marketable value as others in which no more than 8 or 10 per cent, is present. But a great deal depends on the composition of the ash, at least as regards certain uses. If the ash contain more than a very slight amount of lime or magnesia, the graphite is scarcely suitable for the manufacture of crucibles. A selected sample, from B;'ckingham, on the Ottawa, shewed the follow- ing composition : Carbon 80.12 f Silica 12.86 j Alumina i.'Mi A^u , Q -e Iron Oxide 1.07 ^^^ ^^•^^-jLin.e 0.10 I Magnesia trace Moisture l.."?!) l.Loss 0.18 Another sample yielded : moisture 1.14, ash 22.00, carbon 70.80. In tlie form of small scales and flaky masses, graphite is widely disseminated throughout the area occupied by the Laurentian series of rocks (Part V.) It occurs most commonly in the beds of crystalline limestone of this series ; but sometimes also in the gneissoid strata, 62 MINERALS AND GEOLOGY wlnn'o it iippears occasionally to rcplaco the mica of theso rocks. Ir occurs also in largo flakes in some of the beds of iron-ore associated with the Laurentian limestones, as at Hull, on tlie Ottawa. In other places, graphite forms large lenticular masses, or actual bods a foot or more in thickness, in theso limestones. Occasionally also, it occurs ill the form of distinct veins, traversing different strata of the Lauren- tian series. The more important localities comprise, the townships of Buckingham, Lochabar, Petite Nation, and Grenville, on the left bank of the Ottawa, where this useful mineral occurs in comparative abundance, and is more or less largely vorked. Other localities com- prise, more especially, the township of Burgess in Lanark county, and Loughborough and Bedford in Frontenac ; but small quantities are met with in almost every locality in which crystalline limestone occurs. Graphite is found also in thin coatings and finely disseminated scales amongst many of the altered slates of the metamorphic region south of the St. Lawrence (See Part V.), as in Melborne, Shipton, and elsewhere, but nowhere in workable (piantities. The chief em[)loyiiient of graphite or plumbago is in the manufacture of draw- ing pencils, and refractory crucibles, the common kinds and refuse being used as a polishing material for stoves, grates, ikc. It is also occasionally emiiloyed to remove friction in machinery. 2. Sidphur : — Normally, in Ortho-Rhombic crystals (chiefly acute rhombic octahedrons), and in granular masses of a j^ellow or yellowish- grey colour. H = 2.5 or less ; sp. gr. 2.0. Inflammable, burning with blue flame and sulphurous odour, and melting into brownish, yellow drops which become pale-yellow on cooling. In Canada, suljihur occurs very spaiingly in the simple state: chiefly as an efliorescent crust on specimens of dr^omposing pyrites from Lake Superior, and elsewhere. It is also cjcasionally deposited as an incrustation from s[)rings containing sulphuretted hydror';en. In this condition, mixed with carbonate of lime, it occurs in the Town- shid of Charlotte\ ille, (Lot 3, Con. 12,) Norfolk County, Ontario. It is found also here i^ad there, as first pointed out by Dr. Bigsby, in the form of minute crystals, and in earthy coatings, on some of the lower thin-beddeil limestones around Niagara Falls. B. — NATIVE METALS. 2 Native Gohl: — Golden yellow ; malleable: Regular in crystalliza- tion, but occuring chiefly in small granular or leafy particles imbedded OF rEXTllAL CAWUA — PAKT II. ea in (juiirtz or otlier rock-niiitit'rs, or in the form of .small nuggets or tine grain.s mixeil with suml and gravel. H = 2.0 — 3.0 ; sp. gr. lo.o — 19.'^ according to purity : u.sually about IG to 17.5. BB, easily fusible, but not oxydizable or otherwise affected. Insoluble in nitric acid, but soluble in aqua regia. Native gold is always alloyed with a small amount of silver, by which its colour is rendered paler, and its specHc gravity lowered. Tlie average amount of silver in specimens from the Eastern Town- sliii>s is about 12 j). c, or from 10 to 1.') p.c In the gold from the Hastings district, it appears to vary from about 2 to 10 p.c. ; whilst in much of the gold from Nova Scotia, it does not exceed 2 or 3 per CfUt. As regards Ontario and Quebec, gold occurs in rock formations of thioe distinct ages. First, in cpiartz veins or bands in the Lauren- tian Series.* more especially in the Townships of Madoc, Marmora and Elzevir, in the County of Hastings, in Ontario. Secondly in Vk'ins — mostly of quartz intermixed with ferruginous calcspar or ilolomite — in the Metamorphic Series of the Eastern Townships of the Province Quebec, south of the St. I,awi'ence (as well as in altered strata of the same general age in Nova Scotia) ; and thirdly, in gravel and other detrital accumulations of Post-Cainozoic age, or in part a|)[»arently of somewhat older date. These latter deposits occur chiefly at the base of the Drift-Formation (see Part V.) throughout the Eastern Townships and adjacent region generally. They xisually yield, by washing, a considerable i-esiduum of black ferruginous sand, with which the gold is intermixed — sometimes in nuggets weighing .several ounces, but more commonly in very minute grain. The sands of most ol the streams and rivers which traverse this dihtrict are, thus, more or less auriferous. The St. Francis, Chaudiere, Famine, Metgermet, Du-Loup, Guillaume or Des-Plantes, and Gilbert or Touffedes-Pins, may be mentioned more especially in this connexion. A good deal of alluvial gold has been taken out of cracks and hollows in the slaty rocks foi-ming the bed of these rivers, as at the Devil's Rapids on the Chaudiere; also on small streams near Ste. Marie and St. George and elsewhere. The gold-bearing veins of this disti'ict have been noticed chiefly in Vaudreuil, Aubert-Gallion, and Liniere, • The characters and relations of the various rock groups referred to in this Division, are- ully described in I'arts III and v. F-^ 61 MINKKALS AND (JEOLOGV in the County of Bemice ; St. fJiles. in Lotbiniero County ; find Leeds, in Mei,'antic (Nutbrown's lo<.'fition), iSic. Tlie gold is distriltuted vei-y iircu'idarly tlirnughont tlie veinstont:, some samples yielding upwards of 8100 per ton, and others nothing, or a mere trace (See a valuable l{e|)ort by A. Michel ami Dr. T. Sterry Hunt : Geological Survey of Canada, 18G6). In the older Laurentian area of Hastings and adjoining district, in Ontario, the gold occurs only in (juartz or (piartzo-dolomitic veins or l)ands in gneissoid strata. ^lost of these bands carry auriferous niispickel and pyrites, the so-called "" free gold " lieing comparatively rare ; but in certain localities, as at the Kichardspn and some other mines in the immediate vicinity of Eldor.ido in Madoc, in the ind and 9th concessions of Marmora, and i ])arts of Elzevir, some rich shews have been obtained. Up to the present time, however, gold- mining in this region has met with but very partial success. The presence of gdd in Arsenical and Iron Pyrites, Blende, etc., will be referred to in the descriptions of these niinei-als. Auriferous vai'ieties occur more esepcially in Hastings, and in veins on the north- west shore of Lake Superior, as well as in the Eastern Townships. Samples of Copper and Iron Pyrites mixed with much rock-matter, from the Lake Superior region, yielded the winter amounts of gold corresponding to nearly an ounce troy in the ton of 2,000 lbs. ; and some rich samples of crystalline mispickel from Marmora held nearly seven ounces per ton. 4. Native Platinum : — Tin-white or greyish-white. In small loose grains or scales. Sp. gr. 16 — 20. Infusible. Insoluble in nitric acid. Occurs very sparingly with native gold in the sands of the Riviere du Loup, and in some of the other iron-sands of the Eastern Townships, Province of Quebec, accompanied in places by steel-grey trrains of Irid-Osmium. 5. Native Silver : — Metallic-white, but usually with dark suiface- tarnish. liegular in crystallizatio:\ but found chiefly in small granu- lar, leafy, or filiform masses, usually imbedded in quartz or calcsi)ar. Malleable. H = 2.5 — 3.0 ; sp. gr. 10—11. BB, easily fusible, but not otherwise altered. Readily dissolved by nitric acid. A white curdy precipitate of chloride of silver, is tlirown down from the solu- tion by hydrochloric acid, or solution of any chloride as common salt. Tlie precipitate blackens on exposure to light, and is readily OF (ENTKAL CANADA — PAHT II. nn ■ jioUl anil jarlv solul)le in ammonia: clinractors wliioli distinyuisli it from cliloriilf ot' leail Native silver occurs in a broad vein of calc spar at Prince's Aline. Sjiiir Island, and on the adjacent main land, on the north-west shore of Lake Sui)erior. It is associated at this s])ut with blende, galena. aiiK'tliyst, quartz, ifec, and contains, according to Dr. Sterry Hunt, a small amount of gold ; but the mine has been prematurely abandoned. East of this location, around Thunder May. several broad veins occui-. in which native silver has been found in still larger ipiantities. The veinstouo consists in part of amethystine and colourless ijuaitz, and partly of crystalline calc spar, accompanied by heavy spar, fluorsjiai. blonde, galena, and pyrites. The silver is also associated hen.- and thei e with silver-glance or black sulphide of silver. It does not appear to con- tain gold. Silver Islet, near Thunder ('ai)e, is one of the more re- markable of these localities, but the accessible jtortion of the vein at this sjjot appears to be now woi-ked out. This metal occurs also in the native state, but in sparing quantities, associated with copper- glance in a calcspar and quartz vein on the Island of Saint Ignace ; and with native copper on the Island of Michi|)icoten, further east. Native silver has likewise been seen occasionally, in small filaments, among the copper ores of the Acton Mine, in the Province of Queljec. The occurrence of silver in gal aa, blende, i)yrites. and other min- erals, will be noticed under the descriptions of these suljstances. 6. Native Copper : — Copper-red ; malleable ; Regular in crystalliza- tion, but occurring generally iu arbore.scent groups of minute indis- tinct crystals, or in masses of irregular form. H = 2.") — 3.0 ; sp. gr. 8.8 — 8.95. BB, easily fusible into a shining globule which becomes covered, on cooling, with a coating of black oxide. Readily soluble in nitric acid. The diluted solution is rendered intensely bhu^ by addition of ammonia. Native copper, although so abundant on the south sliore of Lake Superior, has not been found, as yet, very abundantly in Canada. It occurs, however, in many of the amygdaloidal traps and green- stones, of the Upper Copper-bearing series of the north and east shores of the lake, associated with prehnite, e])idote, chlorite, kc. Here and there it has been obtained in irregular masses of the weight of several pounds ; but it occurs most commonly scattered through the nC) MINERALS AND tiEOLOOY tiiij) in sniiill sjnvins which frequently itrosent a roinnU'd or sonii t'lised uppourunce. The principal loculitit s coiii|)ri80 Tiattln Ishuul aiil th(< Islands of St. Ignacp and Michipicoten ; also Maiiuanse an.! Cape (iaryantua. According to the Report for 18G3 of th<; (JcoJugical Survey, Native Copper occurs likewist; iu thin plates in red sliales of tho (^uel)ec series, on the Ktcheinin iUver, below St. llenii. and at Point Levis, opposite Qucl)eo ; as well as in a kind of aniygdaloidal greenstone underlying these shales at St. Fiavien, in the same district- It is stated to have been found, moreover, iu simill dendritic and other )nas.ses, accompanying copper pyiitcs, apatite, and a silvery- white mica, in a (piartz vein in the Township of r),irford. 7. Xative Liuul : — Lead-grey ; soft and malleable. liB, fuses ensily, and becomes gradually volatilized, coating the charcfal with a yellow ring of lead oxide. Native lead is of very rare occurrence. The oidy specimen dis- covered in Canada, is iu the form of a thin string in colourless quartz. It was obtained by Mr. Mclntyre of Fort William, Lake Superior, from the vicinity of the Kaministiciuia, Thunder Bay. x\s the (juartz contains a few scales of sp dar iron ore iu a perfectly normal con- dition, it is evident t'.at the lead cannot have arisen from the reduction of galena by tlie action of heat. 8 Native Bismuth : — Sil ver- white with reddi.sli tinge, but usually tarnished. Sectile, but not malleable. Hemi-iiexagonal in crystalli- zation, but commouly in small masses of lamellar structure. H = 2.0 — 2.5 ; sp. gr. about 9.7. BB, melts easily and volatilizes, coating the charceal with yellow oxide. Soluble in nitric acid ; the solution yields a white ])recipitate of bismuthic oxide on the addition of water in excess. The only examples of Native Bismuth hitherto met with in Cana(hi, were recognized by the writer in some rolled pieces of quartz, obtained from near Echo Lake, on the north-west shore of Lake Huron. 9. Native Antimony ; — Tin or greyish-white. Brittle. Chietly in small masses of lamellai or fine granular structure. H = 3.0 — 3.5 ; sp. gr. 6.65 — 6.75. BB, melts and volatilizes, tinging the flame pale-green, and depositing a copious white crust du the charcoal. Tl e only known occurrence of Native Antimony in Canada, is in the Easte' n Township of South Ham (lot 27 of first range), where, mixed v-'+u antimony glance, itc, it forms several narrow veins in a clay ••^ lite of the Quebec Group. OF OEVTK.vr. CAVADA — PART II. «T APPENDIX TO OBOUP I. lU. Meteor II' Iron: — Dark steel-grey; niiilloahlo; strongly magiiotic; H _^ \J) ; sj). gr about, 7.4 ; fracture, hackly. 15B, iiifu.sil»le. An irregular mass of nialloaldo iron weighing about 750 lbs. was discovered in 1854, on the surface of the ground, in the Township of Madoc. Its examination by Dr. Sterry Hunt showed the jueHonce of C.35 per cent of sickel, with other characters belonging to ordinary examples of meteoric iron. It exhibits a daik coating of oxi»le, and contains a small amount of intermixed phosphide of iron (Schreiber- site) and magnetic j)yrites. Nitric acid brings out on the pnlislied suriace the so called Widmannsttidt's figures, or intersecting lines and zigzag markings indicative of an irregular crystalline structure. II.— ARSENII)E.S AND SULPHIDES. [This sub-division contains the various compounds of arsenic and sulphur with metallic bases, hitherto found in Central Canada. These may be corveniently described under five groups, as folloM-s : — Sul- phides of Silver, Lead, and Zinc; Sulphides of Copper; Arsenides and Sidphides of Nickel and Iron ; Sulpliide of Molybdenum ; and Sulphides of Bismuth and Antimony.] A. — SULPHIDES OF SILVER, LEAD, AND ZINC. 11. Silver Glance or Argentite : — Black, or per tieariiij,' io<'ks of thiit (listrift, JK'ave nie : 47. ."JO per cent, metallic- lead, 8.1(1 per cent, metallic copper (another sample gave 11.02 j)er cent.),with an amount of ^ro'd e(iuivalent to lOdwt.i. is ijrs. per ton of 2iiOi! 11)8. of ore, and 2 ox. 12 dwts. of silver. The amount of trold in different samiiles voried from 14 to 19 dwts. per ton. accordinjf to the amount of jiyrites. This vein is about 10 feet wide, and carries in its centre a solid lode at least 4 feet in %vidth, of a mixture ot copper pyrites and galena. OF CENTRAL CANADA — PART II. r>i» promiHe, with pmiguc! of Jiiuhly crystalliiH' calc-Rpiir heavy spnr, in irneias, in the Township of fralway, Petfihorous^h Cotmty. and in the ailjoininf,' Township of Sotmncrvillf ; in liRko, Tudor, rjinierick. and Marmora, when numerous veins occur in Ltneiasniil Ntnitii, * in the Towiifihip of IiOui,'hl»orou<,'h in Frontenac in l)road veins, traversing irufiss and orystalliiu' limestone ; under simihir conditions in Medford ill tiie same county ; in I.ans owne, Leeds Coinity; aiul Ramsay, in I^iiwii'k County, (ialena occurs also in nan-ow. deceptive, yash veins (hp(! under '"Mineral Veins" in Part ill.) in the Nia-,'ara dolomiteH of Mulmur (Simcoe County), Eramosa (Wellington County), and Clinton (Lincoln (.ounty). In the Province of Quehee, this mineral occurs esitecially in the copper-ore veins of the Eastern Townships, as in Acton. L^pton, and Ascot, and in many of the (piartz veins of the Chaudiere valley. (Jalenu, apparently in workable cpnintities has also l»eeii noticed hy the Geolojiical S\irvey at Gaspe Cove and Indian Cove, near CapO (iaspe (Report, 1803, p. 400'. Argentiferous galena (properly so- called) occurs, according to Di'. Sterry Hunt, at the St. Francis K^ipids on the Chaudiere, associated with Arsenical Pyrites and Blende, and at Moulton Hill, near Lennoxville. The actual amount of silver iippt'iirs to vary greatly, prohahly from intermixed particles of native silver. Three drfssed smnphs from the Chaudiere yielded respectively — '.Vl oz., 256 oz., and 37 oz., per ton of 2240 Ihs. A dressed .sample from Moulton Hill yielded 65 oz. per ton. (Ither argentiferous varieties are reported to occur on Lake Superior (Meredith's Location, Maimansc, and elsewhere), hut the silver, found in sonie of these may he due to intermixed scales and filaments of native silver and silver-glance. l.'i. Zinc BhndH or Sphalnriie : — Lustre, sub-metallic or resinous. Colour (in Canadian exampli'S) brown, black, yellow, &c. ; streak, mostly ])ale-brown. Reguliir in cry.stallization, but occurring com- monly in small irregular masses, or indistinct crystals, with well- marked lamellar structure. H ^= 3.5 — 4.0 ; sj). gr. 3.9 — 4.2. I3R, infusible, or fusible on the edges only; but when strouglv ignited with carb. soda on charcoal, it yields a white incru.station of zinc oxide, "which as-sumes a green colour when moistened with nitrate of *Sonie of these veina are apparently cut off, at a comparatively slight depth, hy the walls coming- toi,'ctber, and their workinjj has bceen thus abandoned ; but if the sinkinjf were con- tinued, they would probably be found to open out ajjain. ro MINERALS AND OEOLOCJY 'if cobalt and then subjected to ignition (see Part I, p. 35). Warmed, in powder with hydrochloric acid, it emits an odour of siulpimrettcd hydrogen. Some of the yellow blendes emit a phosj'horosce?it light when scratched or broken. 100 parts contain (normally) sulphur 33, zinc 67 ; but in the dark varieties a certain amount of iron is always present, and many specimens contain a small percentage of cadmium, manganese, Ac. This mineral occurs with galena in almost all the localities given in the description of that substance, (see under No. 12, above), smd lately it has been found in large qua!. titles north of Thundcn- liay. Brown and yellow vaiieties are scattered through all the silver-bear- ing veins of Thunder Bay, and some of the latter have yielded ti-aces of gold, not exceeding, however, 2 dwts. in the ton. Small crystalline masses and grains occur also in most of the lead veins of Peterl)orougli- Frontenac, Hastings, ttc, and some of a wax-yellow colour are occa- sionally seen in fossil sliells, or associated with gyj>sum in small cracks and cavities in the limestone beds around Niagara Falls, as well as in the older limestones of Kingston, Montreal, ifcc. Zinc Blende is seen lik(!wiso in many of the veins of the Eastein Townships, as in the vall(!y of the Chaudiere, and elsewhere. An auriferous variety is stated by Dr. Sterry Hunt to accompany argentiferous galena, .tc, in a (puirtz vein at the St. Francis Rapids on the Chaudiere. B. — SULPHIDES OF COl'l'EK. 14- Copper iilancn : — Dark lead.-grey, oiten with blue or green tar- nish ; streak, black and slightly shining. Crystallization Bhombic, but the crystals have nioscly a pseudo-hexagonal aspect. Found commonly, however, in spiall granular or other masses. H 2.5 — 3.0 ; sp. gr. 5.5 — 5.8. BB, melts with .strong bubbling or spitting, colours the edge and [>oint of the flame green, and yields a globule of metallic coj>per covered l)y a dark .scoria or crust. One hundi-ed parts contain : Sulphur 20.2, Copper 79.8. This ore, often termed '• vitreous copper ore " (although its lustre is perfectly metallic), occurs in small tpnintities in many of the mineral veins of lake Superior and Lake Huron : as on Spar Island, Pigeon River, St. Ignace, Point Porphyry, Michipicoten, Point-aux-Mines> Batchewahning Bay, Echo Luke, Bruce Mines, Ac, It occurs also in many of the copper-ore veiiis of the Eastern Townships, as in Leeds (at the Harvey Hill anyrite).- — Brass-yellow, often with varie- gated tarnish ; .streak, dark green, or gre«'nish-biack. Tetragonal in crystallizjition, but commonly found in irregular masses. Brittle. H = 3.5 — 4.0 ; sp. gr. 4.1 — 4.3. BB, melts into a dark magnetic globule ; after roasting, yields, with carb. soda, metallic copjier. One hundred parts contain : Sulphur 34.9, Copper 34. G, Iron 30.5 This is the common ore of copper. It is familiarly known as " yel- low copper ore." It occurs in small quantities, both in veins and in scattered masses, among tlie Laurentian strata of various localities : 72 MINEHALS AND GEOLOGY more ospecially in tlie townships of Lake, Madoc, Elzevir, Hungerford, «fec., in tlio County of Hastings ; North Burgess in Lanark ; Escott and Bastard in Leeds, and throughout the gneissoid region generally between tlie Ottawa and Lake Huron. The acconij)anying veinstone is mostly calcspar, hut in some places it consists of quai'tz, or is of a granitic nature. S])ecks of galena, blende, and iron pyrites, usually iiocomiiany the f^opper ore. This mineral has been found also in calc- spar veins traversing gneiss in Kildare, Joliette County, in the Pro- vnice of Quebec. In the Huronian strata, this ore is far more abundant. Numerous veins, with quartz gangue, occur on the north shore of Ljike Huron. Many of these veins carry workable q'.antities of copper pyrites, accompani* d in most cases by small portions of variegated pyrites, and albo by copper glance, iron pyrites, ikc. The best known are those of the Bruce and Wellington Mines ; but others occur at Cop[)er Bay, White Fish River, Spanish River, Gardea River, Root River, Echo Lake, and elsewhere in that district. Very large (juantities have lately been found .;i the vicinity of Sudbury. Copper Pyrites occurs also in many localities on the east and north .shores of Lake Superior, in veins traversing strata apparently of Cam- lirian age ( ice Part V). These are known as the Copper-Bearing series of Lake Superior. Among other localities may be enumerated : Bachewahnini: Bav. Maimanse, Point-aux-Mines. Mica Bav, Black River, Black Bay, Thunder Bay, and locations between Thunder Bay and Dog Lake on the Kaministiquia. Some of rhese veins carry but small quantities of ore, but others are exeedingly rich : those especially whicli occur in the vicinity of Black Bay, and in the countiy north of Thunder Bay. Samples from these latter districts, collecte.l per- sonally, and others obtaincnl by Mr. S. J. Dawson, have yielded amounts of gold varying from a few dwts. to about an oz. troy in the ton of 2000 lbs. of ore. The gangue of these veins is either cpiartz. or a mixture of calcspar, heavy spar, ameth.ystine quartz, antl fluor spar ; and the copper ore is generelly accompanied by galena, zinc blende, and iron i>yrites. Fiiiiilly, Copp'^-r Pyrites is widely distributed throughout many of the Eastern Townships in the Pro\iuce of Quebec. Jn some places, the cf I'per of this region is entirely in the form of yellow pyrites; in others, chiefly in the state of purple or variegated ore (No 15, OF CENTIIAL (!ANAI)A — PAUT II. 73 above). The more important localities of the y(^llow ore, lie in the townships of Stiikely (Grand Trunk)Mine, ic), Ely (Ely Mine, ic), Bolton (Huntington Mine, Ives Mine, Ac), Leeds (Harvey Hill Mine, (fee), Halifax (Black Lake Mine), Inverness, Tringwick, Chester, Hani, and others. Also in the townships of Ascot (Ascot Mine, Bt>lvidere Mine, Lower Canada Mine, Albert Mine, Capel or Eldorado ^line, Victoria Mine, Marrington Mine, Grilfith's Mine, Clark ]\Iine, 4o.), Sutton, Bronie, Melbourne (Coldstreatn iM., Balrath M ), and Cleveland.* Co])per Pyrites occurs also in true veins in this district. as at the Harvey Hill and Nutbrown mines in Leeds, as well as in Inverness, and elsewhere. C. — AUSENIDES AND SULPHIDES OF NICKEL AND IKON. 17 Arsenical Nickel Ore .••—Pale copper-red. with dull greyish tar- nish. Hexagonal in cry.stallization, but mostly in iiregidar masses. Brittle. H = 5.0 — 5.5 ; sp. gr. fi.T — 7.3- BB, emits a sti-ong otlour of garlic, and melts into a dark (soiiK^times magnetic) globule. One liundred parts contain : Arsenic 56, Nickel 44. but some of the nickel is commonly replaced by iron, and sometimes by cobalt. The above characters arc those of the ore in its normal state. In Canada, this ore, however, has only been found in admixture with other metallic compounds. A mixture of this kind, in small nodular ina.ssos as.sociatod with calcspar, occurs in amygdaloMal ti-apon Mich- ipicoten Island, Lake Superior. The amount of nickel according to analyses by Dr. Sterry Hunt and Prof. Whitney, vai'ies from about 17 to 37 per cent. The colour of this variety is lictwccn tin- white and bronze-yellow : sp. gr. 7.3 — 7.4. The composition indicates a mixture of arsenides of nickel with arsenides of copper (Domeykite). Another nicklefeious com)>ound of a steel-grey colour apparently a mixture of arsenide and sulphide of nickel with arsenical pyrites, occurs sparingly at the Wallace Mine, Lake Huron. It was tirst made known by Dr, Sterry Hunt. The surface is commonly covered, more or less, with minute hair-like crystals of nickel and iro.i sul- phates, arising from the partial decomposition of the ore. 18. Miller ite or Sulphide of Nickel : — Brass or bronze yellow. • A (k-tiiiled liat of all the copper ore localities of the Eastern Tow nships will he foimd in thi- valuable Appendix of the Geoloifical Surrvey Report for 1886. ^ 74 MINERALS AND GEOLOGY Hemi-hexagonal, tho crystals mostly acicular and very minute ; also found in imbedded grains and .small globular masses. H = 3.0, — 3.5 (but not easily ascertained) ; sj). gr. 4.6 — 5.6. BB, melts into a dark ^dobule. One hundred parts contain ; Sulphur 35, Nickel 65. Occurs very sparingly, in small specks, with calcspar and minute green crystals of chrome garnet, in the Township of Orford (Lot 6, Range \2), whore it was first recognized by Dr. Sterry Hunt. 19. Magnetic Pyrites (Pyrrhotine anil octahedron, in sim- octfilieilrons, pen- tagonal (lodecaliedrong, ivrc. (Figs. 37 — 41.) Found still more fre- (juently in granular, nodular, and other irre- H =^ ^. av. 4.8 ''ular masses. G.O «1 dr th 2. BB, emits sul- id niol us fumes, larts cont e iron is occasionally repla FlQrt. 37 to 41. into a dark ma^'netio 'dobule. One liun- r 53.3, Iron 40. 7, but a small portion of ced bv cobalt or nickel. Many varieties, also, contain traces of both gold and silver. (In t!i"s connection, it nii'.y l)e (jbserved that a percentage of 0.01 is CipiivaUint to 2 oz. 18 dwts. 8 grs. (troy) in the ton of 2000 lbs., or to 3 oz. i; dwts. 8 grs. (troy) in the British ton of 2240 lbs.) Iron Pyrites is of exce^^dingly common occurrence. It is present, more or less, in almost every mineral vein ; and occurs also, in cryGtals. grains, and irregular masses, in rocks of all ages and of various kinds. It souietimes forms the substance o. organic remains, as in examples of Trilobites, cV'C, from the Utica Slate of WJiitby and other localities. In this condition it arises most probably from the alteration of carbo- nate of iron. In the Laurentian rocks of North Hastings and adjacent counties, in the copper-bearing series of Lake Superior, and in the altered strata of the Eastern Townships south of the St. Lawrence, auriferous varieties have been noticed ; but the amount of gold in these Ik scarce- ly sufficient to defray the cost of its extraction. In Elizabethtown (Lot 19, Range 2), near Brockville, and elsewhere in this vicinity, some large beds or veins of a cobaltic variety occur. Lai'ge veins occur also in Clarendon, on the Ottawa ; in Terrebonne and Lanoraie ; in Hastings, and throughout that aper, and a dull greyish-green trace on smooth porcelain. H = 1.0 — 2.0 ; sp. gr. 4.4 — 4.8. 1U>, imparts (in the forceps) a distinct green coloration to the j)oint of the lian)e, but renuiins infusible. In a continued blast on charcoal, however, it deposits a white coating of molybdic acid on the support. Foims with carb. soda an alkaline sidphide (see Part I, p. 44), by which, with otner characters, it may be distinguished from Graphite. One Imndred parts contain : Sul pluir 41, Molybdenum 51). This mineral is at present of little connnercial value.* It occur> in small .scales di.s.seminaled through many of the crystalline lime stones of the Lanrentian series, in the Counties of Frontenac Hastings, Peterborough, Victoria, tfec. According to the Reports (A' the Geological Survey, it has been found in much larger quantity near the mouth of the River Quetachoo, in Manicougan Bay, on the north shore of the Gulf of the St. Lawrence. It occurs also in some abundance at Sea-beach Bay, near Black River, on the north shore of Lake Suj)erior, in several veins, accompanying copper pyrites in quartz. Samples from this locality Jiave yielded nearly 4 A per cent, of molybdenite, or about 100 lbs. per ton of ore, (C':in. Jour, Vol. X., p. 409). Terrace Cove is another locality in which molyl'- denite has been found on Lake Superior. This mineral occurs also in quartz veins at Harvey Hill, in the Township of Leeds, in small rounded masses of fine granular structure associated with coppir pyrites and crystallized dolomite. • As Molybdenite is quoted in cliemical price-lists at from "iit cents to a dollar or more \h'T lb., an idea is sometimes expressed that it would pay to work, if found in sufficient quantity . Inquiries, however, made in London, Paris, Hambursf, Berlin and other cities, lia\e denK ii strated the fact that a very few tons would completely oveistook the market. OF CENTKAL CANADA — PART 11. 79 E. SULPHIDES OF UISMUTII AND ANTIMONY. 24. Bismuth Glance : — Light leiid-fjrey, oft('T\ with y«'llow or l»lue- ish tiirnish ; strenk, black, lihoinbic in cryHtiilliziitioJi, l)Ut occurnnj; ooimiionly in huuelhir and filnous niassos. \\ ~ 2.0 ; .sj). gr. about 6.5. BB, melts very readily into a black ylolmle. which gradually volatilizes, with dei>usitiun of a yellow ling of oxide (and, beyond this, a greyisli-white coating of sulphate) on tht^ charcoal*. A sniiill residuin is sometimes left ; this ijeneially shews with borax or phos- |ilior-salt tho reactions of eojUHM- and iron (see Part I.). dissolves, with separation of sulphur, in nitric acid. Tlie solutiun dropi»f^l into excess of water forms a n\ilky »m" opaliu«» liijuid. Not atiecteif l.y caustic potash. t)ue hundred jHUtH of \\\v puiv mineial contain ; sulphur 18.75, bismuth Hl.:i5. Bismuth glance is a eompaviutx eiy mre uuneral It hutn uot hitherto been tUscovei"ed, at awy locality, in sufficient fjuantit) to fmiu a cononercial ore \\\ Tanada. it occurs in small lamellar and sub tibrous uiasses \t\ a quartz '. ein, with n\tiueiuus inter}ienetratin;; crystals of black tourmaline, at Hill's Mine, in the rear of Tudor, one of the northern townshii)s of the County of Hastings. Some small samples have also been found near Cornwall, Ont. 2."). Antimony Glance or Grey Antimony 0/v .-—Light lead-grey, often with dark, or iridescent, tarnish. Khombic in crystallization, but occurring mo.stly in fibrous or granular masses. H - 2.0, sp. gr. 4.52 — 4.62. Melts per sf in the flame of a candle. BB, melts rapidly, and becomes volatilized in dense white fumes, a white oxitlized coating being deposited on the charcoal. The i)oint of the tlamo, if directed on this, is tinged pale blueif-li-green. A hot solu- tion of caustic potash converts the powdered ore into an orange- coloured compound of similar composition. One hundred parts contain : sulphur 28.2, antimony 71.8. Of rai'c occurrence in Canada. Hitherto, found only in small quantities, with iron pyrites and mic.i, in a band of crystalline dolo- iiiit ', in the Township of SliellleM (Lot 28, Con. 1), in Addington County ; and in small masses mixed with tremolite, under similar conditions, in Marmora. Also, in radiating fibrous masses with Native Antimony in narrow veins traversing slates of the Quebec Series, in the Eastern Township of South Haui. *AII coiiiiioiiiuls of Bismuth when fused on cli.ircoal with a mixture of potassium iodide and sulphur form a vivid scarlet coating on the support, as first shewn by Merz and Von Kobell. so illNKRALS AND OEOLOQY Xole : — A pluiiibiferous variety of Antimony Oliuico, uppiiroiitlv u iiiixtiiro of that ore with Zinkenitt* or .Jainesoiiit*}, lisis i)(!on Hont to mo lately from Bolloville, witli the intimation that it was obtained in Klzevir. It forms small fil)r()UH or Hub-fihroiis maHHus, intimately iiiix('(l with calc-spar, antl with numerous acicular crystals of Tre- molite, and some massive Hornblende, in (juartz. Partially solul)le in caustic jwtash, hydrochloric acid precipitatin:^ orango-coloureil Hakt^H from the solution. 26 his. Mimighinite : — Lea.8 — 0.1. lUi, iiii|iartH u gnTii ooloiir to till' flaino, and lu't'oiiu-a rfihu'etl to iiictalUc copper. One liuiidrud parts contain : (Kxyi^'en 11.20, Copper 88.80. In Canada, this ujinoral occurs in tiac«'s merely, in some of tlio copper ore deposits of the Eastern Townships (Hiili'ax, Acton, ifec). Spots and stains of a more or less hri^^ht rtsd colour, are freipiently till' only indications of its pr<'.sence. Stains of ji similar appear- ance, ar(^ more commonly produc«'d, however, hy the weatherin^j; of iron or«'s. 28. lilack Copper (he (Melaconite) :— lilaok, with hlack streak. .Mostly in dull i^arthy nuisses. JHi, colours the flame green, and yields metallic copper. One hundred parts of tjie pure mineial con- tiiin : o.xygen 20.1.^), copper 79.8"). Occurs in traces only in some of the copper ore deposits of the Eastern Townships. H. IKON OXIDKS. [This group comprises the mineral species which consist simply of oxygen and iron ; and those, of a closely related character, in which part of the iron is replaced by titanium or chromium. These species fall into three natural groups: (1) The Ilnunlite group, consisting of anhydrous sescjui-oxides (or analogous conii)ounds), Hexagonal, or rather Heini-Hexagonal, in crystallization ; (2) the Maynetite group, compounds (apparently) of oxides and se.sijui-oxides, Eegular in Liystallization ; and (3), the Liinouite group, consisting of hydrated .sesqui-oxides. (1) Hrmatitb Oroip or Iron Oxidrb. 2i». Hematite {Specular Iron Ore, Bed Iron Ore, Red Ochre) : — This mineral occurs under several more or less distinct conditions, and especially : (1) In Hemi-hexagonal crystals, chiefly gro\ips of modified rhombohedrons, and in lamellar and micaceous masses, with steel-grey colour, often iridescent on the surface, and with strongly marked metallic lustre ( = Specular and Micaceous Iron Ore) ; (2) In botryoidal masses of fibrous structure, and in irregular lamellar masses, with blueish or brownish-red colour, and lustre between metallic and semi-metallic ( = Hematite of old authors, Red Iron Ore), and (3), In brick-red, more or less earthy and granular masses ( = Reddle o, Hed Ochre). In these varieties, the streak or powder is r^u«iiy of a red colour. H = 5.5 - 6.5 in the crystals and crystal- 7 ■ IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 I.I ■-IM |50 ™^ ■^ In ^ 1^ 112.5 12.0 1.8 1.25 1.4 1.6 ^ 6" ► -^ y M Photographic Sdences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. M580 (716) 872-4503 &? 3 -iSfe^JD % O^ 82 MINERALS AND GEOLOGY line or semi-crystalline niMsses, but only 1.0 - 2.0 in the earthy and ochreous varieties. Sp. gr. 4.3-5.3. BB, becomes magnetic, but on clmrcoal remains unfu^ed, although a very thin splinter in the forceps may be rounded at the point. One hundred parts contain, normally : oxygen 30, iron 70 ; but many specimens, it should be obs'irved, are intimately mixed with quartz, chlorite slate, or other rock matter, by which the parcentage of iron is much reduced. This valuable ore occurs in Canada in strata of various periods of formation. One of its more important localities is in the Township of McNabb, in Renfrew, where it forms a bed of about 30 feet in thick- ness, associated witli crystalline limestone of the Laurentian Series, and overlaid by a magnesian limestone of Lower Silurian age. It occurs also in the township of Bristol, and in Templeton and Hull, on the opposite side of the Ottawa. Other Laurentian localities comprise various spots in the counties of Addington, Hastings, Peterborough,* etc. ; and on Iron Island, on Lake NipLssing, where it also occurs in connection with crystalline limestone. In Huronian strata, it has been found near the Wallace Mine on Lake Huron, and still more abundantly on Lake Superior, a? in tJie Bachewah- nung District on the east shore of the lake ; on the north side of Michipicoten Harbour : and in widely-extended beds in the vicinity of Pic Hiver : mostly in green, chloritic, pyroxenic, or hornblendic slates. Micaceous and other varieties occur in the metamorphic strata of the Eastern Townshi])s : as in St. Armand, Brome, and Sutton, mostly in chloritic schists, as well as in the auriferous copper-ore veins of Leeds and Halifax. In Silurian strata, hematitic or specular iron ore has been noticed in small quantities in the Potsdam Sandstone of Bastard and Ramsay. Lastly, it may be mentioned, that an earthy im[)ure variety is found in bands and small masses interstratified with the red ferruginous shales of the Clintbn or Middle Silurian Series, near Dundas, in Flamborough West. Note. — Small octahedrons, and related crystals, having the com- position of Red Iron Ore, are occasionally found. These form the species Maitite of some authors, but they are probably due to the alteration of Magnetic Iron Ore. See under that mineral. No. 31. * Special localities in Hastiiitfs and Peterborough counties are glx'en in a paper by the author, with analyses o{ the ores, in \o\. III. of the Transactions of the Rnyal Society of Canada, 18SP OF CENTRAL CANADA PART II. 83 le coui- B)nii the to the o. 31. He author, iada, IBS.^ 30. Titaniferous Iron Ore (Ilmenite, Menaccanit'* in part) : — Iron-black ; streak-powder, brownisli-black to chooolate-brown. Hemi-Hexagonal, but commonly ux lamellar and granular masses. Wlien pure, not magnetic ; but sometimes feebly-magnetic, probably from intermixed magnetic iron ore. H=6-6; sp. gr. 4.3-5.0. BB, like Hermatite ; but the glass formed with phosphor-salt, after exposure to a reducing flame, has a distinctly red colour. Composi- tion, essentially iron, titanium, and oxygen, in variable proportions. The Titaniferous ore fi'om Baie St. Paul, on the Lower St. Law- rence, as deduced from Dr. Sterry Hunt's analysis, contains Titanium 29.63, Iron 36.11, Oxygen 29.10, in addition to 3.60 per cent, of magnesia. This ore occurs in Canada, in vast beds or masses interstratified with feldspathic rocks of the so-called Labrador or Upper Laurentian Series, at Baie St. Paul, below Quebec. At this locality, it exhibits a peculiar structure : an aggregation of coarse granular concretions composed of irregular lamellee. Small grains of rutile are scattered in places through the mass. The principal bed is ninety feet in thickness and of great extent, but the ore at present is comparatively useless. This substance occurs also in grains and th?.n bands in a similar anorthosite or feldspathic rock (see Part III) in the neigh- bouring pariah of Chateau Richer, and likewise under the same conditions in the Township of Rawdon, in Montcalm County. It has been detected also by the officers of the Geological Survey, amongst the iron ores of the metamorphic strata of the Eastern Townships : as in St. Francis, in Beauce County, and in Brome and Sutton. (2) Mao.nbtitb Group op Iro!» Oxides. 31. Magnetic Iron Ore or Magnetite: — Iron-black, with black streak, and in general a sub-metallic lustre. Strongly magnetic, most specimens exhibiting polarity (see under Magnetism, Part I). Regular in crystallization, and often found in octahedrons and rhombic dodecahedrons (Figs. 45 and 46), the faces of the latter commonly striated pai-allel with the position of the edges of a plane of the octahedron. Occurs also still more freqnently in lamellar, granular, and other masses, sometimes Fioe. 4.1 and 4fi. forming large beds or 84 MINEUALS AND. GEOLOGY "stocks." Also in the form of bluck sand. H = 5.5 - 6.5 ; sp. gr. 4.9 - 5.2. BB, on charcoal, infii.sil)le, l)ut a fine 8i)lintei' in the for- cejjs niaj' be rounded at the point. One hundred parts of the mineral contain : Oxygen 27.6, Iron 72.4 (or, oxide of iron 31.03, sesqui- oxide 68.07). This ore, tho most valuable of all the ores of iron, occurs in great quantity, and of good quality, in numerous localities of the Lauren- tian area of Canada. It is usually found in the form c2 lai'ge " stocks " or irregular masses, mostly associated with pyroxene, and in contact, as pointed out by Sir William Logan, with crystalline limestones of the Laurentian Series ; but it occurs also interstratified with gneissoid and schistose strata of tho same group, and in grains and small masses scattered through these rocks. Sometimes, like- v/ise, it forms true veins, traversing Laurentian strata. It occurs also in beds amongst the altered Silurian rocks of the Eastern Town- ships ; and, in the form of sand (usually mixed with Iserine), it belongs to comparatively recent deposits. The piincipal or more intei-esting Laurentian localities lie in the following Townshij.s : — Hull and Templeton in Ottawa County (several beds, one neiirly 90 feet in thickiiess ; the ore, here and there, mixed with layers of henuitite, and also v»'ith scales of graphite) ; Buckingham, i'.i tin. same county (in crystalline masses in broad feldspathic veins) ; Went worth, Grenville, and Grandison, in A.rgenteuil County ; Ross, in Renfrew County (in reticulating veins in cryst. limestone) ; South Crosby (bed of 200 feet in thickness), and Escott, in Leeds County ; South Sherbrooke, in Lanark County ; Bedford, in Frontenac County ; Madoc, Elzevir, Marmora, Tudor, Wollaston, Faraday, Herschel, etc., in Hastings County (many large and valuable deposits, although intermixed here and there with pyrites); Belmont, Cardiff, Monmouth, Glamorgan, Snowdon, Minden etc., in Peterborough and Haliburton Counties,* forming deposits of great extent. Magnetic Iron Ore in cleavable masses, associated with Hematite, occurs also near the mouth of the Little Pic River, on the north shore of Lake Superior, and minute octahedrons are sometimes observable amongst the layers of hematite from this region. The Eastern Townships of Sutton, Leeds, Bolton, Orford, «fec., like- wise possess deposits of magnetite, chiefly in masses and disseminated * Special localities in the Hastings, Peterborough and Haliburton district are given, with analyses of the ores, in a paper by the author in Vol. III. of the .Transactions of the Royal Society of Canada. OF CENTRAL CANADA — PAKT 11. 85 crystals, as well as in continuous bands, in dolomite, chlorite slate, serpentine, and other magnesian strata. Much of the ore from these localities, however, contains titanium or chromium. Lastly, in the form of black sand, alone, or mixed with Iserine, the ore occurs very commonly on the shores and islands of Lake Superior, Lake Huron, Erie, and Ontario, and on those of many of our smaller lakes. Also, here and there, on the north shore and gulf of the St. Lawrence ; and mixed with the auriferous gravels of the Chaudi^i-e, St. Francis, Gilbert, and other rivers of the Eastern Townships. Nott : — Magnetite occasionally becomes altered by liigher oxida- tion into Hematite^ without change of form. The streak is then more or less red, and the magnetism scarcely perceptible. Some small octahedrons (with truncated edges) of tliis character, the ^[ar- tite of some authors, were observed by the writer in a gneissoid boulder from Bass Lake, a few miles north of Orillia. 32. Iserine, or Titani/erous Magnetic Ore : — Black, witli black streak and sub-metallic lustre. More or less strongly magnetic. In minute octahedrons, sand grains and pebbles. Other characters like those of Magnetic Iron Ore, but the glass obtained by fusion in a reducing flame with phosphor-salt has always a distinct i-ed or red- brown colour. Composition, essentially, magnetic oxide of iron, with part of the iron replaced by titanium. A small amount of magnesia is also generally present. Forms a certaiiv portion of most of the bliick magnetic sands of our lake, island and river shores, referred t) under No. 31.* 33. Chromic Iron Ore : — Black or brownish-black, with, normally, a dark brown streak, and sub-metallic aspect ; but the streak is often greenish or greenish-grey, from the presence of intermixad ser| entine or other silicious matter. In genei'.il, slightly magnetic : if strongly magnetic, the substance is mixed with magnetic iron ore, and the streak is more or less black. Regular in crystallization, but occur- ring commonly in irregiilar masses, mostly of granular structure. H=5.5 ; sp. gr. 4.3 — 4.G. BB, like magnetite, infusible or but slightly rounded on the thin edges. With borax and phosphor-salt, yields a more or less pure green glass, the green colour becoming clearer and more distinct as the glass cools. CoLiposition, theoreti- cally, oxide of iron and sesqui-oxide of chroiaium, but the latter is * For the detection of Titanium in iron ores, generally, the reader is referred to the author's IHutvpii>e Practice, p. f>l. 86 MINERALS AND GEOLOGY always leplaced to soiue extent by alumina, &c., and the iron by a certain amount of magnesia. The snsqui-oxide of chromium thus varies from about 40 to about 60 per cent., in different samples. A variety from Bolton yielded Dr. Skerry Hunt 45.90 per cent., and another from Lake Memphramagog gave 49.75 per cent. Occurs abundantly in beds and scattered grains amongst the meta- mori)hic strata^f the Easter Townships and Gaspe, mostly in connec- tion with serpentine or other magnesian rocks, the green colour of these being partly due to the presence rf oxide of chromium. The principal localities compi-ise : Mount Albert in the Shickshock Eange of Gasp^, and the Townships of Bolton, Ham and Melbourne. Chromic Iron Ore is largely used in the prej)aration of chromate and bi-chromate of potash. (3) LiMONiTB Group of Iron Oxipbs. 34. Brown Iron Ore or Limonite (including Bog Iron Ore and Yellow Ochre) : — Brown, brownish-black, or dull-yell »w ; streak, yellowish-brown or ochre-yellow. Aspect, sub-metallic in some of the dark varieti.^s, silky and earthy in others. Occurs commonly in masses with boti'yoidal surface and fibrous structure, or in granular or earthy masses. H=1.0 — 5.5 ; sp. gr. 3.5 — 4.0. Heated in the bulb tube, it gives off water, and becomes converted into red oxide. BB, turns red, and then blackens and becomes magnetic. A thin scale, in the forceps, may be rounded on the thin edges ; otherwise infusible. Composition, essentially, hydrated sesquioxide of iron ; but the amount of water varies considerably, and the more earthy varieties always contain a certain percentage of phosphoric acid, with frequently silica, alumina, oxides of manganese, and humic or other organic acids. In the sub-metallic and silky varieties, the average amount of metallic iron is equal to about 58 or 60 per cent. ; in the avei'age bog ores it equals about 45 or sometimes 50 i)er cent. ; and in the ochres, it varies from about 10 to 4<> per cent. The average amount of water is about 15 per cent, or from 10 to 20 per cent. Bro\\a and Bog Iron Ores are often smelted, and the Iron Ochres are valuable as a paint material. The varieties of this mineral hitherto found in Canada, comprise the more earthy varieties. Bog Iron Ore and Yellow Ochre. These belong to comparatively modern deposits, and, in places, indeed, they are now under process of formation. The iron is taken up by water percolating through ferruginous strata, and is held in solution for a OF CENTRAL CANADA— PART II. 87 tiiro as bicarbojmte or in combination with organic acids ; and after- wards, by absorption of oxygen, it boconi s converted into insolu))le sesquioxide, and is thus deposited in a hydrated condition, mixed more or less with earthy and other impurities. In the Province of Ontario, Bog Iron Ore occurs in .small quanti- ties in almost every Township, but some of the more imjiortant de- potjits lie in the townships of Charlotteville, Middletown and Wind- ham, in Norfolk County, on Lake Erie ; also in Camden Town.ship in Kent, West (.Twillimbury in Simcoe, Bastard in Leeds, March and Fitzroy, and also Vaudreuil, on the Ottawa, and elsewhere. Ochres occur also at the la' ter locality, associated with the bog ore ; and extensive Vjeds have been discovered in various places in the County of Middlesex ; in Walsingham Townshij), Norfolk Co. ; at Limehouse in Halton Co. ; as well as near Owen Sound in the township of Sydenham in Grey County, and in Nottawasaga Town- ship in Simcoe. Also in Elzevir, Leeds and other Townships. Bog Iron Ore, in still more valuable deposits, occurs abundantly iu the Province of Quebec. The most important localities lie per- haps in the Three Rivers District, or between the Rivers St. Mau- rice, Batiscan and St. Anne. The old St. Maurice forges, so cele- brated for their castings, were fed by the ore of this neighbourhood ; and the more recently established Radnor forges, at Batiscan, draw their supj)ly from the same district. Otiier deposits of bog ore occur in Lachenaie in I'Assomption County, Kildare in Joliette County, and elsewhere in that section ; also in Templeton, Hull and Eardley, on the left bank of the Ottawa. South of the St. Lawrence, tlie ore occurs more or less abundantly in the Eastern Townships of Stanbridge, Farnham, Simpson, Ascot, Stanstead, Ireland, ^ Sulphuric acid trace only Phosphoric acid . . very sliglit trace Water 3.82 Silicious rock matter 36. 12 99.83* * The small amount of water held by this ochre is somewhat remarkable. As reg'ards the Dominion of Canada, workable amounts of Pyrolusite or Black Ore of Mangnhi-ic appear to 0"cur only in the Lower Carboniferous strata of Albert and King's Counties, New brnnswick. OK CKNTKAL CANADA — PAUT II. 89 D. UHANILM OXIDKS. .37. Uran Ochre : — Yellow, in earthy crusts. Bli, hlrtcken.s, l)ut does not fuse. Comi>osition, probiihly, sestjuioxide of unmiuni and Wiitei". In Canada, observed only as a coating on magnetic iron oro with intermixed actynolite, at the Seymour ^line in Madoc. 38. lilack Cranium Ore or Pitc/i-f'ende (Coracite, itc. ) : — Bliick, greyish-black, greenish-black, with greyish or brownish streak. Aspect Vjetween aub-nietallio and vitreo-resinous. Mostly in nodu- hir or other uncleavable masses. H = 5.5 when pure, but fretp.iently less from intermixed eartliy matters ; sp. gr. 0.0 — 7.0 when pure, but sometimes as high as 8.0, and often only 4.0 or 4.5, from impuri- ties. BB, infusible, or rounded only on the thinnest edges. Com- position, normally, jjrotoxide of uranium 32.10, sesqnioxide 07.90; but, in many instances mixed with carbonate or silicate of lime, lead, bismuth, copper and other compounds. The only known locality in which this substan<^e occurs in (.'auii da, is at ^laimanse, on the oast shore of Lake Supeiior. The variety found at this spot was tirst described by Dr. Le Conte under the name of Coracite. It is mixed with carbonate of lime and other impurities, by which its sp. gr. is reduced to between 4.3 and 4.4 (4.378 Le Conte), and its hardness to about 3.5 or 4.0. It yields also, according to the analyses of Whitney and Genth, about 5 or 6 per cent, of water (Dana's Mineralogy : 5th ed. p. 155). E. TUN'dSTENUM COMPOUNDS. 39. ]Volfram : — Brownish-bhick, with strong, sub-metallic lustre, and blackish-brown or red-brown streak. Rhombic in crystalliza- tion, but occurring frequently in irregular masses of lamellar or columnar structure. H=-5.0 —5.5 ; sp. gr. 7.1 — 7.6. BB, melts into a dull iron-grey globiile with striated or crystalline surface. Consists of Tungstic acid combined with oxides of iron and mangan- ese. The only known examples of Canadian wolfram, were found by the writer, some years ago, in a large boulder of gneiss, on the north shore of Chief's Island, Lake Couchiching. (See description in Canadian Journal, 2nd series. Vol. 1, p. 308. Also, for analysis by Dr. Sterry Hunt, Vol. V., p. 303). F. TITANIUM OXIDES. [See also Ilmenite and laeriius under the Iron Orea.l 40. Rutilc: — D irk-red, with peculiar adamantine lustre: strtak. f^' :'! 90 MINERALS AND UEOLOUY jiiile-brown or gniyisli. Totraj;. in cry.stiillization, the ci-ystals often in f^eiiiculated twin-combinations, Cuninionly, also, in coliiniiiai' and tibrouH masses, and sometimes in small yniins or scales (imperfect or flattened crystals). H=G.() —(5.,') ; sp. gr. 4.15 — 4.3. Bli, infu- sible. With borax in a reducing flame, it forms a dark, ametiiystine glass, which is transformed into a light-blue opa»]ue enamel by tx- po.sure to an intermittent Hame (see Part I.). Composition : oxygen 39, titanium Gl. Small grains or indistinct crystals of Rutile occur in the beds of Ilmenite at Jiaie St. Paul, below Quebec ; and at other localities, in Laurentian strata, associnted with this ore. Tolerably distinct crystals, half-an-inch in length, have been found in crystalline lime- stone on Green Island, Moira Lake, in Madoc* Acicular crystals occur sparingly in quartz cavities at the Wallace Mine, Lake Huron, Small crystalline grains and flattened crystals also, in tlie chloritic schists of some of the Eastern Townships, more esi)ecially in Sutton. Minute grains of Rutile occur likewise in many of the black ferru- ginous sands described auder Nos. 31 and 32, above. G. ALUMINA AND ALUMINATES. [This group includes bnt two minerals of Canadian occurrence : Corundum and Spinel. Tlie first, b}' o-ystallization and atomic constitution, is related to Hematite, amongst the Iron Ores, and the second to Magnetite\. 41. Corimdum: — Blue, blueish- white, red, brownish, gre'jnish, dark-grey ', streak, white or greyish ; aspect vitreous or stony. Hexagonal in crystallization, but occurring frequently in grains and small granular masses. H = 9.0 ; sp. gr, 3.9 - 4.2. BB, in- fusible. Not dissolved by carb. soda. Con sists, nornaally, of alumina. Transj)arent blue vw. 47. Fia. 48. varieties frohi the Sapphire of commerce, and red varieties, the Ruby. Coarse, dull-coloured varieties are known as Common Corundum or Adama)itine Spar ; and opaque, dark-giey, granular varieties (often mixed with magnetic iron ore) constitute Emery, a substance largely used as a polishing material. Some of the finer varieties of corundum exhibit, especially when cut, a peculiar opalescence, frequently in the shape of a six rayed star. These are known as asteria sapphires, rubies, (fee. * This locality was first pointed out by the late T. C. WallbridKe, of Belleville. OF CENTUAL VNAOA — PAHT II. •Jl Fui. 4!». Fl(». 50. In Canada, this niiiicral lias liitlicrto been nntii'cd only in the form of blueish and palt'-riMl (ji'ains in the crystallino Laun'iitian limestones of (he Township of Fiurgcss, Lanark County, Ontario. At one locality (Lot 2, Con. 9), it is associated with quartz, ortho- clase, pearly-white mica an arrange the silicates strictly in accordance with their bases, without separating, in many instances, substances which in general characters are closely allied ; and in some cases, an * For details respecting tiie crystallization characters of the silicates generally, the reader niny consult the Notes attached to the Mineral Tables in the author's Blowpipe Practice. 03 MINKKAr.S AND OEOt,0(lY arrangement of this kind wouM Ifiul to a Kfipanition of vari«'ti»'H of one anil the Hanio mineral. In the gariietH, for examph', cfr- tain varieties contain magnesia, ami others limo or oxido of iron, Ac, in place of magnesia, these hases l)oijig capable of mutual sultstitution without the general or essential chaiacter of the sul)- stance heing altered )»y the change^a peculiarity known as isomor- phism. The silicat(!s possess representatives of all the crystid sys- tems. In their hardness t'ley vary from 1.0 (in tale) to 8.0 (in topaz). Their aspect is most commonly vitreous, resinovitreouH, stony, or pearly, V)ut the micas and soiiki few other silicates (hronzite, ikc.) exhibit a p-seudo-mc^tallic lustre (see Purt I). The colour frequently varies greatly in examples of the same species, as it is due chielly to minute and accidcuital proportions of foreign matters, or to variations in the isomorphous bodies which form the bast;. Thus, where protoxide of iron or ferro-ferric oxide is lai'gely ))resent, the mineral will generally pos.sess a dark-green or black colour, but where these bases are replaced by lime or magnesia in greater or less proportion, the same mineral may be quite pale or light in coloui", or even cohnirless. The different garnets, pyroxenes, amphiboles, tourmalines, itc, are familiar examples of this fact. The streak, however, is always white (or nearly so) under normal con- ditions, but it may exhibit a slight or indefinite tinge of grey, green, or brown, in a very dark or ferruginous variety, especially if the sub- stance bo slightly altered or decomposed. Many silicates nnless pre- viously ignited or fused with j)Otash or alkaline carbonates, resist altogether the action of acids. Others becom 5 partially attacked or decomposed (some by boiling hydrochloric acid, and others by sul- plmric acid), the silica separating in a granalar, slimy or gelatinous condition (See under "Action of Acids," in Part [). Some silicates, which do not gelatinize in tlieir ordinary state, exhibit tliis peoili- ai'ity if previously fused or strongly ignited. Certain silicates are quite influsible in the blow-pipe flame. Others, .'i held, in the form of a thin or pointed splinter, in tlie platinum forceps (Part I), be- come rou ided and vitriKed at the point or edges ; and others, again, melt into a perfect globule. In some cases, the substance exfoliates, or swells up and forms an intumescent branching mass, on the first application of the flame ; and in many instances the fusion of a sili- cate is accompanied by continued bubbling. Silicates which contain a large proportion of silica form a clear transparent glass with carb. or (.'KNTKAI, ( ANADA — I'AUT II, 03 Mxlii, if tlio liit(r>r lie luMt'd litt'n liy little until tlm propor (|Uiuitity l»o olitaiiH'd ; Itut pliosplior-Hiilt is ii far iiioro cliuiut'tcriKtic reagent for tlicsc li()(li(!s. Wlicii a silicdtc is exposed in a head of pliosplior salt to the action of the lilowpipe. tlie liases (lime, magnesia, aliiniiua, i^i') li(H!oni(f ;,'radiially :akcn up, wliilst tlie silica remains wholly or ill chief part undissolved. A small porti(jn may he taken up hy the hut (lux, hut as this cools, the silica is iirecijiitated, renderinji,' the ylass opaline or milky. The undissolv«Ml silica, if u sniall fra<,'ment or scale-liko particlo of the ..lineral l)e suhjeoted to the tost, forms a thin, translucitly over 6.0)]. 44. Zircon : — Brown, red, reddish-yellow, with resino-vitreous aspect. In Tegragonal crystals, mostly square prisms, terminated at each extremity by a four-planed pyramid (Figs. 54, 55) ; occasionally also in small granular masses. H := 7.5 . sj). gr. 4.0 — 4.75. BB, quite infusible. Not attacked by acids. Consists of: silica 33.2, zii'conia 66.8. Occurs with plumbago, wollastonite, pyroxene, «fec.j in the crystalline limestone of the Township of Grenville, in Argent, ail County, and more or less throughout the phosphate deposit of Buckingham, Templeton, «fec., often in fine crystals. H^ Fio. 54. Fio. 55. OF CENTRAL CANADA — PART II. 97 Also in granitic veins, with tourmaline, on the North River, in St. Jer6me, Terrebonne County ; and, according to the Reports of the Geological Survey, in a syenitic rock, composed of red feldspar and black hornblende, on Pie Island, Lake Superior. Transpai'ent varieties of this mineral are employed in jewellery, under the name of Jargon or Hyacinth. 45. Ghiastolite : — Grey or pale-red. Occurs in rectangular and rhombic prisms, mostly of narrow diameter, and in compound groupings, which present the aj)pearance of a simple prism with dark cross on the transverse section (Fig. 56), the cross consisting of slate or other rock matter, in which the prisms are im- bedded. Found also in granular masses. H = 5.5 — 7.7 ; sp. gr. 3.1 — 3.2. BB, f.o. 66. quite infusible. The powder by ignition with nitrate of cobalt (p. 34) assumes a fine blue colour. General composition : silica, 37, alumina 03. Occurs in somewhat indistinct crystals imbedded in argillo-micaceous .slatei, in the immediate vicinity of intrusive masses of granite, on Lake St. Francis, in Megantic County. 46. Tourmaline : — Of various coloui's — green, blue, black, brown, yellow, red, and sometimes colourless ; but Canadian varieties are either black, brown or brownish-yellow. The black variety is com- monly known as Schorl, and is quite opaque. Hexagonal (or rather Hemi-Hexagonal) in crystallization, the crystals being almost in- variably three-sided prisms (or these, with bevelled edges, produc- ing a prism of nine sides). The cross fracture is thus as a rule more or less distinctly triangular. Tlie prisms are often longitudinally striated, and are frequently much broken, especially when imbedded in quartz (Fig. 58). Tourmaline occurs also very generally in columnar, acicu- lar and fibrous masses. H= Fia. 57. Fio. 68. 6.5—7.0 ; sp. gr. 3.0—3.3. BB, the black and most of the brown varieties melt very easily, the other varieties being for the greater part quite infusible. Nearly all exhibit electrical properties when heated. Composition somewhat variable, but the essential compo- nents consist of . silica (averaging about 38 per cent.), boracic acid 8 98 MINERALS AND GEOLOGY !| ■■% (4 — 9 per cent.), alumina (30 — 44 per cent.), with more or less ses- quioxide of iron, magnesia, i)rotoxide of iron, ])rotoxide of manganese, lime (under 2 per cent.), soda, potash and sometimes lithia. A small amount of fluorine is also generally present. Tourmaline is of comparatively common occurrence in the Lauren- tian strata of Canada. It is met with both in the crystalline lime- stones and in many of the gneissoid or quartz beds of that formation, as well as in some of the granitic veins by which these beds are traversed. In the Ottawa district, it occurs especially in crystalline limestones, as at Calumet Falls (yellowish-brown and black, with Idocrase, ^ Fio. 61. 48. Vesuvian or Idocrase : — Yellow, brown, yellowish-red, itc. Tetragonal in crystallization : otherwise, both in comi)Osition and general characters, identical with garnet. H = 6.5 ; sp. gr. 3.3 — 3.45. BB, more or less readily fusible. Occurs in some of the crystalline limestones of the Ottawa Dis- trict : principally in brown crystals, with tourmaline, at Calumet Falls, and in the township of Clarendon ; and also in small reddish-yellow crystals, with zircon, py- roxene, graphUe, ound, as in the liiore common twin coml)ination shewn in Fig 70. Found usually, however, in lamellar and granular masses. H = 6.0 ; sp. gr. 2.5 — 2.6. Hli, fusible with ditliculty, unless in the fornt of a thin pointed splinter, in which ease \\w edge and point become (puckly rounded. Practically, unattacked by acids. Average com- position : silica 64.8, alumina 18.4, potash 16.8 ; but many varieties contain a small percentage of soda, replacing a portion of the potash. Orthodase is on^) of the com- pon(;nt minerals of many crystalline rocks, granite, sy- Fio. 00. Fio. 70. In the Laurentian strata enite, gneiss, «fec. ; it occurs also in many trapi)ean rocks, and forms the essential com- f,o. qs. ponent of ti'achytes and ordinary lavas, so widely developed throughout the more northern poi'tions of Canada (see Part V), this mineral is consequently largely present ; and well defined cleavable masses, mostly of a flesh-i'ed or greyish- white colour, may be obtained in almost every district in which gneissoid rocks occur, more especially from the coarser granitic veins by which these rocks are so commonly traversed. Some of the more remarkable Laurentian localities comprise : the townships of North Burgess, Elmsley, Grenville, Chatham, &c. : also the township of Ross, and other places in the neighbourhood of Calumet Falls ; and several spots on the north shore of Lake Huron. In Burgess (Lot 3, Con. 6), among other varieties, a striped red and brownish ortbo- v-lase occurs. This presents iridescent reflections, and is the variety known as Perthite. It contains soda as well as potash. In Ross (Renfrew County) large white crystals occur with apatite and spinel OF CENTKAI, CANADA PAHT Jl. lo; in ciiloito veins. Palo-red and otlier vari«ti«!H an» foiiiul in tlio Ottawa region, eHpecially in tlio plioHphatn »lt'|K)HitH. OrthoclaHo oirurs also in tlio niHtaniorpliio Htrata south of the Ht. Lawronoo, ii.s in voinH cutting altorcil shites in tlio townshiiis of Inverness, Leeds, and Sutton; and it is liksn, ••^Z*"' 114 MINERALS AND GEOLOGY f ) ) 77. Muscovite or Potash Mica : — Silvery-white, grey, brown, green, black, with pseudo-metallic pearly lusti'e. Rhombic in crystal lizntion ; the crystals usually six-sided tables or prisms with strongly-pro- nounced basal cleavage, but distinct crystals are comparatively rare. Most commonly in foliated or scaly masses, tough and flexible. H = 1.5 — 2.0 or cleavage surface, somewhat higher ou edges of folia. 3p. gr. 2.7 — 3.1. BB, whitens, and melts on the thin edges. In the bulb-tube, usually gives off a small amoiint of water. Not attacked by acids. Average composition : silica 46, alumina 30, sesquioxide iron 4, potash 10, water (and traces of fluorine) 2 to 4.. Jn some bright green varieties, 3 or 4 per cent, of oxide of chromiuni is present. Muscovite is an essential component of ordinary granite, gneiss, mica slate, and other crystalline rocks. It occurs, thus, more or less- abundantly throughout the Laurentian area of Canada (Part V), and also amongst the metamorphic series of the Eastern Townships. Most commonly it forms small scaly masses, but, as stated by Sir William Logan, large crystals and plates occur in a vein of graphic granite (see Part III) on Allumette Lake, north of Pembroke in Renfrew County, and with black tourmaline on Yeo's Island, in the Upper St. Maurice. Large crystals of mica (apparently Muscovite) are also said by Dr. Bigsby to occur in granite at Cape Tourmente below Quebec. A green chromiferous variety in the form of small scales in magnesite and dolomite has been recognized by Dr. Scerry Kunt in the Eastern Townships of Sutton and Bolton. 78. Phlogopite (Magnesia Mica) : — Yellowish-brown, bi'ownish- red, olive-green, yellowish-green, blueish-grey, &c.,with pearly-metallic lustre. Rhombic : — r ut occurring mostly in six-sided plates and broad foliated masses, or in scaly particles, tough and elastic. Cleav- age strongly pi'onounced in one direction. H = 2.0 -2.5; sp. gr. 2.72 - 2.85. BB, whitens, and generally melts at the point and edges. In the bulb-tube, most varieties yield traces of moisture. Attacked, in powder, by hot sulphuric acid, the silica separating in fine scales. A.verage composition: silica 41, alumina 13 to 18, magneaia (with some oxide of iron (eatine and also to meerschaum. Uecurs in small (luan- titles, in a bod of steatite or pyraliolite (see under No. 02 above) in the town- ship of GrenviUe on the Uttavva. (11^ (Jkoii' (IK Kaolinic Silicates. [The minerals of this group much resemble in aspect and general characters the talcs and steatites of the preceding group. Foliated examples present a pearly lu.streand talco.se appearance, and compact and granular Aurieties are more or less soai)y to the touch and ailliPi-ent to the tongue. Th so Kaolinic silicates, how(!ver, dilfer from the talcose species in being ess(uitially non-magnesian. They aro hydrated silicates of aluminn, or of alumina and potash, and are evidently ])roducts of alteration, derived from the decomposition of feldspathic and other aluminous silicates. As in the case > f all substances of this kind, composition ami physical characters are necessarily somewhat variable, numerous so-called species might be made out of these products if slight |)oints of difference were taken into consideration ; but Canadian exam[)les may be referred to two or three types, as given below.] 84. KaoUnite or PhoJcrite ; — Pearly-white, pale-green, greenish- grey, and sometimes red from admixture with scaly red ir^n ore. Occurs in soft unctuous scaly masses, and also in a more or less com))act and granular condition. Very sectile, and soapy to the touch. H= 1.0 — 2.0: sp. gr. 2.33—2.63. BB, sometimes exfoliates or expands in bulk, but remains unfused. In the bulb- tube, yields a large amount of water. The light-coloured varieties assume a fine blue colour after ignition with nitrate of cobalt (See Operation 3, under the Application of the Blowpipe, in Part I.). Scarcely attacked by acids. Average composition : silica 46, alumina 40, water 1 4. Occurs in fissures of a sandstone of the Quebec group near Chaudi^re Falls (Dr. Sterry Hunt) ; also, according to Dr. Hunt, in films in the joints of some of the quartzose sandstones of the Huronian series. A red ferruginous variety in strongly soiling r I f 1' *!;;■ / J ll'O MINEKAL8 ASD (iEOLOOY particles which become lustrous whon rubbed, occurs in Miuloc unci elsowliere in tln> counties of Hustings iind Peterborough, unil pi-ob- ubly in other parts of thut region. Finally, it nuiy be observed that many of the nietnniorphic slates of tlie Kastern Townships appear to owe their nacreous tulcose aspect the presence of kaolinite, or to that of the related non-niagnesian silicates described under Finite, below. 85. Pinite (including Aliiini)ions-A(jalmn((>fite nnil htrophite^kc): —Greenish or greyish-white, dull-yellow, grey, gieen, brown, itc. In compact, granular, and sometimes slaty masses : also occasionally in pseudomorphous crystals. Very sectile, and more or less unctuous to the touch. H = 2.6 to 3.5 ; sp. gr. '2.05 — 2.8. DB, infusible, or fusible with difficulty on tho edges only. The light-coloured varieties assume a blue tint after ignition with nitrate of cobalt, In the bulb- tube, yields water. More or less attacked by aciils. Average com- position : silica 45 to 55, alumina ?5 to 35, iron oxides 1 to 4, j)otash 6 to 10, with small amounts of magnesia, soda, i!cc., ami from 5 to 8 per cent, of water. Tho term Pinite (from the Pini mine near Schneeljerg in Saxony) was originally restricted to certain brown pseudomorphous crystals apparently derived from the decomposition of ToHte, Imt it is now applied by Dana so as to include a number of related substances of various colours and modes of ocmirrence. These substances are essen- tially hydrated silicates of alumina and potash, much resembling the magnesian steatites and serpentines in their i)hysical characters. One of the best known is the Chinese Agalmutolite or Figure-stone, but many of the so-called agalmatolites are magnesian in composition, and identical with steatite. Dr. Hunt refers the Wilsonite (see No. 63, above) to this group, on account of its composition ; but its physical characters are quite distinct from those of the typical pinites and agal- matolites. It wants th > sectility and soapy feel, for example, so char- acteristic of these latter, whilst it possesses, on the other hand, a dis- tinctly spathoid structure. The agalmatolite variety occurs in beds and layers amongst the strata of the Eastern Townships of Canada, especially in St. Nicholas (L^vis), where it forms green and greenish- white layers in an indura- ted clay-slate of the Quebec group (see Part V.) ; also near St. Francis (Beauce), in yellow, waxy-looking, serai-translucent layers ; and on Lake Memphramagog in Stanstead, where it occurs in yellowish beds> -* '} '«» # (►F CKNTIIAI- CANADA — I'AKT 11. 121 ig the One le, but , and o. 63, rsical agai- char- a dis- idura- rancis nd on beds. ono of which proscnts a siib-fibrouH nilky aspoot, in chloritic shxto. Aimly«i.s of these; varicticH In' Dr. Stcny ITiint, will \h) found in tho elahorate Kcfport of tlie ( J(,'oh)gioal Survny for 1803. Ghticomte ((Jreen Hand) :— This substniicc occurs only in the form of RHial) grftiiiH anil apeckH of a green colour, di»tril)ut»'»l through sandstone and other nick.s. 'I hem; grainn api)oar to conaist esHfutially of ii hydrati'd silicate of iiluiiiina, potasli, and iron oxide. They occur in a Nandstoiiu of tho Queheo group near Point l,t5viH, and on the Island of Orleann. Certain l)right-green markings in tlio siliceous I'.lack Uiver limestones of Lake 8t. John, in Kama, have also been referred to (ilaucouite, (12) (iHorr OK Coi'I'KR AND N'UKKL SiLICATRH, [The luinorals of thi.s group, as rcgai-ds Canadian «>xaiuples, aro com- piiiativdy unimportant. Tliey aro es.sentially hyih-ated silioatos of an iinioiphous or earthy structure : products of docoiuposition of copjjor and nickel ores.] 80. Chrysocolla : — Green, grer!nishd)lue, occasionally passing into brown and black. In amorphous masses, and in earthy crusts on copp(!r ores, frocjuently mixed with malachite. H = 1.5 — 4.0; sp, gr. 2.1 — 2.3. BB, blackens, and imparts a green colour to the flame border, but does not fuse. In the bulb-tube yields a large amount of water. .Attacked and decomposed by heated acid.s. Average composition: silica 34, oxide of copper 45, water 21. The brown and black varie- ties are intermixed with iron and manganese oxides, or with black oxide of copper. In Canada, found 8])arin^ly amongst some of the copper ores of Lake Superior. b7. Oenthite (Nickel-Gymnite) : — Pale-green, greenish -yellow. Oc- curs in earthy crusts, and in amorphous masses sometimes with botry- oidal surface. H = 1.5 — 4,0; sp. gr. 2.2 — 2.5. BB, blackens, but remains infusible. In the bulb-tube gives off a large amount of water. A sofc earthy variety from Michii)icoten yielded Dr. Sterry Hvmt : silica 35.80, oxide of nickel 32.40, water 12.20; but in an- other specimen (less thoroughly dried before analysis) the amount of water was found equal to 17.10 per cent. Hitherto only recognized in Canada in a vein on the Island of Michipicoten, Lake Superior. The vein traverses amygdaloidal trap, and carries small grains and rounded masses of native copper and native silver. I. CARBONATES. [This subdivision comprises the natural compounds of Carbonic Acid (now commonly called carbon dioxide) with various bases, such r i' ':^f3 122 MINERALS AND GEOLOGY as lime, magnesia, and the like. In acids tliese conipoundf, become decomposed with strong eflfervescence, the latter eftect being due to the liberation of their carbonic acid, but in many cases the application of heat is required to develop the phenomenon. Tlie substance, in the form of a snuiU particle or two, or in powder, may be conveniently examined, with some diluted hydrochloric acid, in a test-tul)e or deep watch-glass sujiported over a common spirit-lamj). (See under "Action of Acids," in Part I.) The carbonates, also, when fused with borax before the blowpipe, dissolve with marked effervescence, their carbonic acid being driven off. Ui) to the })resent time, only eight carbonates have been recognized amongst Canadian minerals, and five of these are altogether unimportant. We arrange the whole, therefore, simply under two groups : Anhydrous an 1 Hydrous Car- bonates, respectively.] (1) OROII' of AXIIVDROIS CARItOKATES. [llie anhydrous carbonates belong pro[)erly to several distinct groups : more especially to a Iihombohedrn/ Group, typified by calcite or ordinary calc spar, and including di lomite, magnesite, siderite, itc. ; and a Prismatic Group of Ehombic and Monoclinic species, typified by Arragonite, and including carbonates of lead, baryta, strontia, it^. But in Canada, the latter group is only re^iresented, and that obscurely, by ari'agonite or prismatic carbonate of lime.] 88. Calcite or Calc Spar (Rhombohedral Carbonate of Lime) : — White, grey, reddish white, greenish-white, yellowish-white, red, black, etc., but mostly colourless or lightly tinted. Hexagonal or Hemi-Hexagonal in ci-ystallization, with stronjly pronounced rhom- bohedral cleavage. The crystals are chiefly obtu.se and acute rhombohedrous (Figs 72 and 74) ; combinations of a rhombohedron and hexagonal prism, the so-called " nail-headed " crystals (Fig. 73) ; and more or less acute scal- enohed r o n s (Fig. 75), the mineral in the latter form be- ing often popu- larly known as spar." Fio. Fio. 73. Fio. 74. F!0. *' dog-tooth Calcite occurs also abundantly in hnnellar. OF CENTRAL CANA'^A — PART II. 123 columnar, fibrous, granular, and earthy masses. The crystals and crystalline masses break readily into rhombohedrous which measure 105° 5' over a polar edge, and 74° 55' over other edges. In some of its conditions, this sj^eoies presents a more or less peai'ly or silky lustre ; and all transparent specimens exhibit in certain directions a strongly-marked double refraction, as in the so-called '' Iceland Spar." Tliis is best shown by placing a rhombohedron, as obtained by cleavage, with its broader faces over a ruled line or other thin object, and turning the crystal so as to make it revolve around this. In the direction of a line joining the obtuse plane angles of the rhombic face, the two images coalesce ; but in the opposite direction they are more or less widely separated, according to the thiv^kness of the crystal. II == 3.0 in crystals and cleavable masses, but less in earthy varieties, Sp. gr. = 2.5 — 2.75, mostly about 2.7. BB, infusible, but glows strongly and becomes caustic, the carbonic acid being expelled. Readily soluble with strong effervescence in diluted acids, without the aid of heat. Normal composition : carbonic acid 44, lime 5G, but a small ))ortion of the lime is very generally replaced by )nagnesia, protoxide of iron, protoxide of manganese, rocess constantly "oiuff on, stalactites and stalagmites originate, the two occasional Iv meet- ing in the form of a pillar (as shown in Figure 7G). These stalacti- tic dei)0sit3 usually exhibit a radiated fibrous structure, with fre- quently a botryoidal surface. Some large stalactites have been obtained from a cavern at the lower falls of the Nottawa Kivcr in Mono (Geological Report, 18G3, p. 334) j and others, of smaller size and less symmetrical form, have been found in adjoining town- ships. (c) Rock Varieties : — These come properly under review in Pai'ts III. and V. of this woi-k. They comprise the various kinds of lime- stone, including : Crystalline Limestone, the finer varieties of which are commonly known as Marble ; Oi'dinary Limestone ; Ijithogra])hic Linifstone ; Oolitic Limestone, composed of minute si>herical con- cretions ; Earthy Limestone or Chalk, and so forth. In Canada, valuable beds of marble occur in the Laurentian strata of Renfrew (Arnprior), McNabb, Grenville, Wentworth, Bastard, Marmora, Elzevir, &c. ; and in the metauiorphic region south of the St. Law- rence, as in St. Armand, St. Joseph, Melbourne, Orford, Diulswell aud elsewhere, many of the marbles from these localities being mixed with green and other coloured serpentine. In some of the unaltered Lower Silurian strata, also, red, grey, black and brown marbles occur; as at St. Lin, Caughnawaga, St. Dominique, Montreal, Corn- wall, Point Clare antl Pakenham. See further, under Part V. 89. Arragonite (Prismatic Carbonate of Lime) : — Colourless, and of various colours — yellow, blueish, brownish-red, &c. Rhombic in crystallization, and often iu compound crystals which sometimes present a pseudo-hexagonal aspect. Also in fibrous and stalactitic masses. H=3.5 — 4.0; sp. gr. 2.9 — 2.95. BB, infusible, but bacomes opaqu > and falls into powder. Soluble in acids with strong effervescence. Composition identical with that of calcite : carbonate of lime beiug thus a dimorphous body — i.e,, a substance capable of assuming two distinct sets of physical characters. Fibrous arrsigonite >- ^- ' ^^. '-*■■- . •^ I i 126 MINERALS AND GEOLOGY appears to occur sparingly amongst, tlie Lake Superior traps ; and occasionally in stalactitic coatings on the sides of cracks in some of our limestone rocks, as in the township of Tring, and elsewhere, but no very distinct or crystallized examples have as yet been found. 90. Dolomite (Pearl Spar, Bitter Spar) : — White, grey, brownish, (fee. Crystallization Hemi-Hexagonal, the crystals being, mostly, rhombohedrons, the faces of which are often more or less curved. Occurs also in lamellar cleavable masses, with cleavage angles of 106° 15' and 73° 45', and in granular and rock masses. H = 3.5 — 4.0 ; sp. gr, 2.8 — 2.95. BB, infusible, but becomes caustic. Slowly soluble in cold acids, but rapidly dissolved with strong effervescence if the acid be gently heated. Essential composition : carbonic acid, lime, and magnesia, forming carbonate of lime 54.35, carbonate of magnesia 45.65, but small portions of the lime and magnesia are very generally replaced by pi-otoxide of iron and protoxide of manganese, by which the cleavage angle is slightly altered. The various rhombo- hedral carbonates, Calcite, Dolomite, Magnesite, Siderite, Rhodochro- site, »fec., merge, in fact, into each other by intermediate transitional forms, to some of which distinct names have been given. The ferru- ginous and manganesian dolomites become brown by weathering. Crystals and crystalline varieties of d'^lomite occur in many of tlip metalliferous veins of Lake Superior and Lake Huron, and occasion- ally in those of the Eastern Townships and other parts of Canada. Groups of small rhombohedrons of more or less pearly aspect, have been obtained, more especially from the Wellington Mines on Lake Huron. Small rhombohedral crystals occur also in cavities and on the sides of cracks, tkc, in many limestone strata : as in the dolo- mitic limestones of the Calciferous formation near Prescott on the St. Lawrence, and Rigaud on the Ottawa ; and also in the dolomitic beds of the Niagara Formation in the vicinity of the Falls and else- where. In the form or rock-masses, dolomite is of very common occur- rence in many parts of Canada. A white fine-granular crystalline variety, or dolomite marble, occui's in Laurention strata at Lake Mazinaw, in the Township of Barrie, Frontenac County ; and many of the marbles from the altered strata of the Eastern Townships are more or less magnesian or dolomitic. In the unaltered Silurian series, beds of dolomite, of a more or less sub-crystallir.e texture. OF CENTRAL CANADA— PART 11. 127 iiiiike up tlie strata of the Guelpli P'oi-mation, as seen in tlie Town- ships of Elora, Guelph, Dumfries, Waterloo, Bentick, «tc. ; and dolo- mitic limestones, or mixtures of limestone and dolomite, belong to tlie various other formations of this series, more especially to Cal- ciferons, Chazy, Niagara, and Onondaga strata, as described under these divisions in Part V. 91. Maonesif.e : — White, brownish, kc. Hemi-Hexagonal in crys- tallization, the crystals mostly obtuse rhombohedrons ; but occurring commonly in cleavable masses (with cleavage angles = 107° 29' and 72° 31')' and in granular and rock varieties. H (in pure varieties) = 3.5 — 4.5 ; sp. gr 2.8 — 3.0, or slightly higher in the brown fer- ruginous varieties. BB, infusible. Soluble in heated acids with effervescence. Normal composition : carbonic acid 52.4, magnesia 47. ti, but part of the magnesia usually replaced by protoxides of ix'oii and manganese. In Canada, this mineral occurs only in rock masses? forming beds in the altered strata of the Eastern Townships of Sut- ton and Bolton, south of the St. Lawrence, where it is a.S30ciated chiefly with serpentine and steatite. 'J2. Rliodochrosite, or Carbonate of Manganese : — This . ^lecies has ^ not yet been found in Canada in distinct examples, but it occurs in { ' achnixture with many of the manganese ochres (No. 96), and is alsa present, in traces, in some of the altered strata of the Eastern Town- ships. Colour, rose-red or pale-red, weathering brown. 93. Siderite or Spathic Iron Ore (Spherosiderite, Clay Iron Ore, lire.) : — Yellowish, greyish, light and dark brown, green, &c. Occurs under several conditions, and more especially : ( 1 ), in rhombohe- drons, scalenohedrons, and lamellar masses, with cleavage angles of 107° and 73° (Spathic Iron, proper) ; (2), in spherical or concre- tionary masses with radiating fibrous structure in trappean rocks (Spherosiderite); and (3), in nodular masses and occasionally in layers, mostly of a brown colour and earthy or dull stone-like aspect (Clay Iron Ore). Crystalline varieties of this mineral have .>ot yet been recognized with certainty in Canada ; but nodules and thin- layers of clay ii'onstone or clay iron ore occur in the Devonian strata of Gasp«5, associated Avith a small seam of impure coal, and with fos- silized plant-remains. This variety is a mixture of carbonate of iron (more or less converted into bi*own iron ore) with argillaceous mat' i .JKI^ -i^W -*^ .j^" I 128 MINERALS AND GEOLOGY ter. Although rarely yielding more than 25 or 30 jier cent, of iron, clay ironstone, as occuriing in the Carhoniferous strata of Europe and the United States, supplies a large number of furnaces, and }ields metal of good quality. The nodules have usually a strongly- marked slaty structure ; and, when broken, they almost invariably ex]iil)it the impression of a fei-n frond, fish skeleton, or other organic body. Small fragments after ignition before the blow-i)ipe, or in ii glass tube held over a common spi.it lamp, assume at tirst a red colour, and then become black and magnetic. 93 his. Strontianite : — This carbonate is stated by Dr. B. J. Har- ringtoii to occur in the form of white fibrous tufts in cracks in some concretionary limestone masses in the Utica slate of St. Helen's Island, Montreal. It imparts a crimson colour to tliw blowpipe flame. (2) Groit of IIvDRor.s Carkox..tks. [This group is only represented in Canada by the somewhat proble- matical Dawsonite, and by the two cupreous carbonates Malachite and Azurite ; and these latter species do not occur in well character- ized examples, but merely as incrustations on Copper Ores, oi- in the form of stains and small earthy masses in copper-holding I'ocks.] 94. Dawsonite : — In white, thin-bladed aggregations or coatings on compact trachyte, Montreal, H = 3; sp. gr. 2.4, contains, according to Dr. Harrington, alumina, soda, lime, carbonic acid, and water. 95. Malachite or Green Carbonate of Copper : — Green of various shades, with pale-green streak. Monocliiiic in crystallization, but crystals exceedingly rare. Mostly in botryoidal masses of concentric lamellar, and fibrous structure ; in earthy coatings on copper ores ; and in the form of streaks and markings in copper-holding rocks. H = 3.5 — 4.0 (in the solid state) ; sp. gr. 3.7 — 4.0. BB, tinges the flame green, and becomes I'apidly reduced to metallic copper. Soluble in acids with eflfervescence. Essential composition : carbonic acid 20, oxide of copper 72, water 8. Occurs in small quantities with copper glanc?, native silver, &c., in a calc-spar vein on Spar Island, Lake Superior, and in small earthy incrustations and markings amongst many of the copi)er ores and associated veinstones of Lake Superior and Lake Huron, generally. Also under similar conditions in Madoc, Marmora, and various other localities in which copper pyrites occur in larger or smaller quantities ; and especially in the chlorite and OF CENTRAL CANADA— PART II. 129 otlier alteretl rocks of tlie metamorpbic country south of the St. Law- rence, as in tlie to\vn.shii)s of Leeds, Halifax, Liverne.ss, Ham, Shipton, Cleveland, Stukely, Bolton, Brome, Sutton, ifcc* 1)6. Azurite or Blue Carbonate of Copper : — This species has hither- to been recognized only in small incrustations and stains of a V)lue colour, associated with malachite, at most of the localities named under No, 95, above. The blue carbonate contains : carbonic acid 25.6, oxide of copper 69.2, water 5.2. K. SULPHATES. [The mineral substances placed under this division may be regarded, rtccoi'ding to the commonly received view, as compounds of sulphuric acid with one or more oxidized bases, such as baryta, lime, oxide of lead, alumina, and the like. As regards physical charactei's, these bodies exhibit a non-metallic aspect, and either a colourless or a very faintly-coloured streak, the colour in the latter case being green or blue, or occasionally yellow. They afford representatives of all the systems of crystallization : Rhombic and Clino-Pvhom))ic types being especially abundant. H = 1.0 — 4.0. The sulphates may be easily distinguished from carbonates, phosphates, silicates, ifec, by fusion in a reducing flame on charcoal with carb-soda ; or better with a mi-vture of carb-soda and a little borax, as the latter reaf^ent facilitates the decomposition of earthy sulphates, and prevents the absorption of the fused mass. An alkaline sulphide is formed by this treatment. When moistened, and placed on a piece of silver or on lead test-paper (a bright coin or glazed visiting cird may be used as a substitute), the fused mass pi'oduces a black or brown stain of sulphide of silver or sulphide of lea 1. The stain may be easily removed from the silver by friction with moist bone-ash. Amongst the sulphates genei-ally, several natural groups stand out with great prominence. The Rhombic group of anhydrous species, for example, containing the Sulphates of Baryta, Strontia, Lime, Lead, &c. ; the Gypsum group ; the Monometric group of Alums ; the Prismatic group of Vitriols ; and others of subordinate imi)or- tance. The sulphates hitherto found in Canada, are too few, however, to admit of distribution into special groujjs of this kind. In the descriptions which follow, the anhydrous species Barytine and Celes- 10 jf^ .^^ -* ^• 130 MINERALS AND GEOLOGY > tine are placetl rirst. To these, succeeds tlie hydrous sulphate, Oyp- sum ; and a few sapicl types of obscure or comparatively rare occur- rence, close the list.] 97. Bari/tine or Ifi'avy Spar : — White, yellow, reddish, pale-blue, grey, &.C. Crystallization Rhombic (Fi^'s. 77-78, and other combina- tions). Occurs very commonly in lamellar masses and aggregations of large flat crystals with cleavage angles of lOT 40', 78° 20\ and 90^ yielding a right rhombic prism. Also in masses of a granular or more or less compact structure. H = 3.0 — 3.5 ; sp. gr. 4.3 — 4.7, mostly about 4.4 — 4..'). BB, generally decrepitates, tinges the Hame pale-green, and melts with great difficulty, often at the point only, into a white enamel. Dissolves entirely in carb-soda before the blowpipe. Not attacked by acids. Normal composition : sulj)huric acid 34.33, l)arvta G5.67. This mineral ; . occurs abundantly in many parts of ^- Canada. In the Laui'entian strata, Fm. "7. F-u. 78. it occurs in veins per se, an I as a gangue or veinstone witli galena- more especially in the townships of Lansdowne in Leeds County ; Bathurst and North Burgess in Lanark County ; McNab, Renfrew County ; Dummer and Galway, in Peterborough County ; and Som- merville in Victoria County. A broad vein of white crystalline heavy spar is exposed along the side of the road in lot 7 of the lOtli concession of Hull, near the Gatineau River. Red crystals were discovered by Mr. Murray on Iron Island, Lake Nipissing ; and other examples have been met with in the copper-ore veins of Lake Huron. Isolated pale reddish-yellow crystals (Fig. 78) were found by the writer {Canadian Journal, November, 1885,) in veins in Neebing Township near Fort William, Thunder Bay, Lake Superior, and sub- sequently in other mineral veins in that region. Massive and sub- crystalline varieties from also large veins on Jarvis Island, near Pigeon River west of Fort William, and also on Pie Island ; and other veins of a similar character are said to Dccur east of Thunder Cape, as at Edward Island in Black Bay, and elsewhere. Heavy Spar has also been noticed in some of the serpentines and other altered strata of the Eastern metamorphic region south of the St. Lawrence, as on the Bras River, where a white variety occurs in small veins. Nodular masses of a red or reddish-yellow e:ilour occur with fibrous OF CENTRAL CANADA — PAHT II. 131 ( iind granular gypsum in the Hudson Rivor strata of Cajje Rich on Georgian Bay ; and small crystals and crystalline masses are occasion- ally found in cavities of the dolomitic limestones of tlie Calciferous and Niagara groups, as near Brockville, and in the vicinity of Niagara Falls. Heavy Sj)ar is employed in the manufacture of paints, and is too frequently used in this connnctioii as a fraudulent substitute for white lead. It is also the chief source of the baryta salts of the laboratory. 98. Celestiiie : — White, blue, grey, pa'.e-red, «Jcc. Rhonibic in crystallization, the crystals frequently bearing a close resemblance to those of heavy spar. Occurring also in lamellar and crystalline masses, with cleavage angles of about 10-t^, 76°, andOO^ yielding a right rhombic prizm ; and in masses of fibrous or graniilar struc- ture. H = 3.0 - 3.5 ; .sp. gr. 3.95 — 3.97. BB, imparts a crimson colour to the point and border of the flame, and melts into a white alkaline enamel. Dissolves entirely, by fusion, in carb. soda. Not attacked by acids. Normal composition : sulphuric acid 43.6, stron- tia 5G.4. This mineral occurs chiefly in sedimentary rock-forma- * lions : very rarely in mineral veins or in crystalline rocks. In Central Canada, it is found somewhat abundantly in the interior of f small cavities in the Black River or Trenton limestone of Kingston ; W and also, with crystals of dolomite, gypsum, fluor spar, Idende, and other minerals, in cavities in the Niagara limestone, as in the vicinity I of the Falls ; around Owen Sound ; on Drummond Island ; and on \ the Grand Manitoulin, Lake Huron. A red variety has been \ recently found by Mr. Roche in freestone of the Medina formation at < the forks of the Credit. Celestine is the principal source of strontia salts, used in pyrotechny to impart a red colour to rockets and signal ' lights, and for laboratory purposes. 99. Gypsum (Hydrous Sulphate of Lime, .Selenite, •$ / / "S ^ / >N a h J^ -^ ) 132 MINEIJALS AND GEOLOGV crystiil-ftices exhibiting a vitroous or peiirly-vitreoiis lustre. Granu- lar and rock varieties have mostly a dull earthy aspect. H = 1.0 2.0; sj). gr. 2.25 — 2.35. Sectile, and, in thin lauielhe, somewhat flexible. Becomes opariue when held at the edge of a lamp or candle- flame. BB, exfoliates, and melts into a white caustic enamel. In the bulb-tube yields a large amount of water. Soluble in hydro- chloric acid. Dissolves also, if in tine powder, in a large amount of watet', and more readily in a solution of rock salt. Normal composi- tion : sulphuric acid 46.51, lime 32.56, water 20493. The transpar- ent crystals aud cleavable varieties are commonly termed aeletiite ; and the fibrous and tine gi'anular varieties form the alabaster and satin spar of lapidaries, but these names are also bestowed on similar varieties of carbonate of lime. When deprived of its water by ex- posure to a low red heat, gyjisum is converted into plaster or Plaster of Paris. Crystalline and fibrous masses, and occasionally distinct crystals of gypsum, associated with cxystals of quartz, dolomite, ic, occur in cavities of many of the Silurian strata in Canada, and thin bands are interstiatified in places with the shales and limestones of some of these formations. Gypsum occiirs under these conditions in the Calciferous formation of Beauharnois, the Hudson River formation of Point Rich on Georgian Bay, the Medina formation of St. Vincent,, and in the Clinton and Niagara strata in the vicinity of the Falls,. Hamilton, Dundas, and elsewhere. Rock masses of granular and compact gypsum, more or less mixed with cai'bonate of lime, characterize the Onondaga Formation of Western Canada, and occur Lax'gely in the valley of the Grand River :. more especially in the townships of Dumfries, Brantford, Oneida, Seneca, and Cayuga ; as well as throughout the tract of country,, generally, between the eastern extremity of Lake Erie and the mouth, of the Saugeen. (See under the Onondaga Formation, in Part V.) The greater part of the gypsum from these localities is ground for agricultural use. 100. .£[p»omi, blackens and liecomes mag- netic. In the l)ulb-tulje yields a large amount of water, and gives oft' sulphurous acid. The aqueous solution gives a deep-bli'iC [)re- cipitate with " red prussiate of potash ;" and in genei'al also with the yellow prussiate, from the presence of more or less seacjuioxide of iron. Normal composition : sulphuric acid 28.8, protoxide of iron 25.9, water 45.3. Occurs on decomposing i)yrites and marcasite, and on the exposed surfaces of rocks in which these minerals are present. It is thus found, in small quantities, on many of the ores from the mineral veins of Lake Superior, Lake Huron, the Hastings region, and other parts of Canada. A specimen of iron pyrites from the Galway Lead Mine in the northern part of the county of Peter- borough, became covered in the course of a few weeks with delicate tufts of minute acicular crystals of this mineral. 102. Nickel Vit rial {yiovfiio=i[te)\ — Pale-green, greenish-white. In efflorescent tufts of minute crystals on nickel ores. Soluble : taste, strongly metallic. BB, evolves sulphurous acid, swells up, and forms a dark grey mass. With borax, gives reactions of nickel oxide (see Part I.). In the bulb-tube yields a large amount of water. If free from iron, the aqueous solution does not yield a blue precipitate with red or yellow " prussiate of [)otash." Normal composition : sulphuric V f r/^' :..*V 134 MINKIIALS AND (iKOl.oOY ftfid 28. f), oxitlo of nickfl 2('».7, water 44. S. Detectecl by Dr. Stt;ny Hunt, us iin t'lllorcHconce on an uroaeiiiciil nickel ore from tlie Walluoo Mine, Lake Ifufon. (8eo No. 17, above.) 103. Alum: — Normally, white, but .sometimes stained of a yel- lowish or brownish colour by ses((uioxido of iron and other impurities. Monometric in crystallization, but occurrinj,' commonly in earthy ettiorescent crusts. Soluble : taste, sharp and mori' or less bitter. BB, froths u[) and forms a white earthy mass which assumes a fnio blue colour if moistened with a di'op of nitrate of coltalt, and ayain ignited. Normal composition ; sulphuric acid 3.'^7r). alumina li*."^!", potash 9.95, water 45.48. Occurs in considerable abundance on the exposed face of some high blutl's of argillaceous shale (Itelonging to the Animikie series) on Slate River, a tril)Utary of the Kaministiquia, about twelve miles west of Fort William, Lake Superior. 1 L. PIIOSPIIATKS AND AUSENIATES. [These compounds are cotni)osed of phosphoric acid or arsenic acid with various bases. They present a vitreous or other non-metallic aspect. Phosphates when moi.itened with a drop of sulph ^ acitl (and many without this ad occuis in comparative abundance, and is a substance of great com- mercial value.] 104. Apatite (Phosphate of Lime) : — Green, blueish-green, violet- red, rose-red, brownish, greenish-white, itc. — shades of green and dull-red being often [)resent in the same specimen. Lustre, vitreous and vitreo- resinous, with frequently a sbght opalescence on one of the cleavage planes.- Ciystalliza ion, Hexagonal : the crystals con- sisting most commonly of six-sided prisms, often of large size, and OK (KNTUAf, CANAnA — PAKT II. 135 Kift. 70. fn'(|UPntly with rDumlcd edyos. (Occurs also in liiint'll.ir ricavalilo iimsscs, and occasionally in j^'loliular and other hIuiix's with tibrouH structure, H - 4.') - G.ft, normally 5.0. Sp. gr. 2.9 - 3.:5, most ' oinnionly al)out aJ>out 3.18 to 3. '2. HM, in nicst cnsos ((uito infuHiljlc, hut Hoino varieties vitrify sli;,ditly at tlio point of the asHay-fragnient after exjiosnro to a lonj,'-Hu.stainehurie acid tini,'(^s tho flanio-point distinctly green. Melts and dissolves readily in horax and phosphor salt, forniini,' a glass which hoconies opa(pie on cooling or when tlaiued. (See undei- lUowpipe-reaetions in Parf I.) Easily solubU; in idtiic or hydrochloric acid. The diluted solution, saturated with anuuonia, yields a copious white precipitate of jihos- pliatn of lime. This ]irecipitate a.ssunies a canary-yellow tint if treated with a solution of nitrate of silver, or if a crvstal of that substance bo laid in it whilst still moist. The presence of jthosplioric acid may also be rendered evident in the diluted nitric acid solution by tho formation of a clear-yellow precipitnte with niolybdate of ammonium.* A|>atit(^ consi.sts essenti ,l|y of plio8j)liat(! of lim«> (oi* nilcium, [diosphorus and oxygen) cond)ineil with in geiieral al)out 8 or 10 per cent, of fluoi'ide of calcium or chloride of calcium, or with a mixture of both, the fluoride usually j)reponderating. Canadian examples appear to be essentially fluor ajiatites. The normal com- position of an ajtatite of this kind is equivalent to : phosphoric acid 4"J.i26, lime 55.60, fluorine 3.37 ; or tiil)asic phosphate of lime 92.12G, Huoride of calcium 7.74 ; but samples even when dre.s.sed for shipping usually contain a good deal of intermixed calcite and mica scales, and rarely mm higlier in tribasic i)hosphate than about 80 per cent. Extensive deposits of this mineral, chiefly in the form of veins, occur in the Laurentian strata of North Burgess and North Elmsley in the County of Lanark. These veins cut the enclosing strata transversely, and vary in width from an inch or two to several feet. The apatite, in crystals, and in cleavable and granular masses, is associated with phlogopite, pyroxene, and other silicates. Where * The test-solution is preparetl by diasolvint' some of the crystallilzed niolybdate in a very small quantity of water, nitric acid being added to the solution until the clou.lniess or thick recipitate, which forms at first, becomes redissolved. When this is added to the solution of the mineral, the whole must be gently warmed. A yellow coloration, succeeded by a yellow precipitate, then quickly ensues. r r ^- 136 MINERALS AND GEOLOGY I 'I tiip veins occur in cditact with crvatallino limestones, these latter conlai'! in nuuiy places detached crystals and grains of apatite, with occasional masses of that substance. The most important phosphate region, however, lies or. the leit bank of the Ottawa, in Buckirighaiu and adjacent tov.nships. where the ajiatite occurs in the foi ni of large lenticular masses and crysta.ls in broad veins, with pyroxene, mag- nesian mica (phlogopite). calcite, and other minerals.* Apatite occurs also in connexion with crystalline limestone, associated with fluor spar and octahedrons of bHck spiziel, in the townshi]» of lloss in Renfrew county on the Ottawa ; and with quartz and and calcite, at Calumet Falls. Small shews also are seen in many of the lime- stone bands throughout the Laurentian country between the Ottawa and Georgian Jiay. Transparent pink and purple crystals are also reported b\ Di'. Sterry Hunt to occur in association with crystals of augite in a mass of erui)ted dolerite (see Part III) at St. Roch on the River Achigan. Ai)atitc has likewise been found, iu a quartz vein cari'ving co])per pyrites and native cojiper, with large plates of white mica, in the township of Burford, in the nietaniorphic district sottth of the St. Lawrence. Finally, it may be observed, small nodular masses consisting in great part of phos])hate of lime, mixed with carbonates of lime and magnesia, sand, and other matters, are scattered through u conglom erate of the (Lower Silurian) Chazy formation at the Allumette Rajjids ; and similar nodules occur in limestone strata of the same formation iu the townsliips of Hawkesbury and Lochiel, west of the Ottawii ; as well as in strata of the Quebec group at Point Levis, and on the River Ouelle. These ))hosphatic nodules pi'esent a chocolate or blackish-brown coiour, and contain in some cases fi-ag- ments of the shells of lingiiLe (see Part IV) and other organic bodies. They are sup[)osed to be coprolites or fossilized excrementous mat- ters. When heated, thej- emit an odour of burnt animal Uiatter, and evolve amjuonia. Phosphate of lime, when converted into supei-- phosphate by treatment with sulphuric acid, constitutes an agricul- tural fertilizer of the highest value. ' Crystals of ap.itite consist most commonly of a simple hexagonal prism with large has.il plane, hut our Canadian crystals, when uiihroken, are terminated by the planes of nn obtuse hexajjronal pyramid, the basal plane beinj; thus entirely suppressed. This combination h.is hitherto been only seen in the so-called ^iiargelntein of German mineralogists, from tlie •v.ountains near Jumillu in the south east of Spain, and in the variety known as moroxi'e from Aren lal in Norway. ■«' OF CENTRAL CANADA — PART II. 137 104. Vivianite (Hydratetl Phos]>hate of Iron) : — Blue, bluish-green (normally, colourless, but becomes blue on exposure) ; streak jialo- blue or blueish-wliite. Monoclinic in crystallization, with very per- fect cleavage in one direction, but found more commonly in bladed and tibrouH varieties, and in earthy masses, often forminir, when in tlip latter condition, beds oi' layers of a certain extent. H = 1.0 — 2.0; sp. gr. 2.55 — 2.7. BB, tinges the tlame-point pale-green (from presence of phosphoric acid), and yields a dark magnetic glol)ule. In tlie bull)-tube gives off a large amount of water. Normal composi- tion : phosphoric acid 28.30, iron protoxide 43.00, water 28.70, but the iron in the coloured varieties is always i)artly in the state of sesquioxide, and the earthy varieties moreover are usually mixed with a certain amount of clay, sand, iron ochres, numgane.se oclu'o. or other foreign matters. In Canada, this mineral has only been found in an earthy condition, und«'r]ying a bed of bog iron ore, in Vaudreuil, on tlie Lower Ottawa. 105. Cobalt Bloom (Erythrine, Arseniate o.' Cobalt) : — Occurs only (as regards Canada) in the form of a slight etUorescence or in- crustation, of a peach-blossoui red colour, on the silver-holding calc spar of Prince's Location, on the north-west shore of Lake Superior ; and also, but in traces only, in the more recently discovered silver bearing vein near Thunder Ca))e, Noi-mal comi)osition : arsenic acid 38.25, oxide of "obalt 37.85, water 23.90 ; but sometimes mixed with arsenious acid. IV. FLUORIDES AND CHLORIDES. [This subdivision comprises the compounds of Fluorine and Chlo- rine, respectively, with metallic bases, such as sodium, calcium, alu- minum, lead, silver, and the like. These compounds present a non- Hietaliic aspect ; and tliey exhibit a general reseml)lance, also, in other characters, to many so-called oxygen salts, more especially to certain phos[)hates, borates, carbonates, and sulphates. Amongst Canadian minerals, however, as at present discovered, we have but a single representative of each group.] A. FLUORIDES. [The only Fluoride as yet discovered in Canada, is the lluoride of calcium", long known under its popular name of Fluor Si)ar. In a strictly natural classification, tliis mineral should occupy a place in ^ **\ ^A %^ 138 MINERALS AND GEOLOGY J the immediate vicinity of the Ajjatite and Calc Spar groups. Tlie fluorides generally, when treated, in powder, with hot sulphuric acid, evolve fumes of hydrofluoric acid which exert a strongly corrosive action on glass. The j)owdered substance may be warmed with some sulphuric acid in a platinum or lead crucible covered with a glass plate, when the inuler surface of the latter will be quickly corroded. In making tlie exjieriment, great care must be taken not to inhale the evolved fumes, as these are highly injurious. See also under "Blow- pipe Reactions," in Part I.) 106. Fluor iSpar : — Occasionally colourless, but more commonly 'violet or amethyst-blue, dark blueisli-green, })ale-green, pale blueish- grey, yellow, brownisli, or rose-red, the edges and angles of many crystals Ijeing more deeply tinted than the other parts, or sometimes presenting a distinctly different tint or shade of colour. Streak, white. Crystallization, regular ; the crystals mostly cubes, or cubes with bevelled edges (Figs. 80 and 81.) The corners of these cubes break off very readily, in consequence of the sti'ongly-pronounced octahedral cleavage jjossessed by the mineral. H = 4.0 ; sp. gr. 3.1 — 3.2. Emits a blueish or other coloured i)hosphorescent light, when moderately heated in the form of powder. BB, generally decrepi- tates violently fsee Part I), and fuses into an opaque white bead, which becomes caustic after strong ignition. Decomposed, with evo- lution of corrosive fumes, by hot sulphuric acid. The evolved fumes consist of hydrofluoric acid, which sti'ongly coiTodes the surface of glass. Average com[)osition : fluorine 48-72, calcium (the metallic base of lime» 51.28. Fluor Spar occurs very generally in association with metallic ores in veins. It also forms per se, or in con- nection with calcite, the substance of many narrow / (< 3^ Fio. 80. Fio. 81. Fio. 82. veins ; and it occurs likewise in cavities and small Assures in lime* stone and other rocks, and is occasioiially disseminated tl. .'ougli beds of crystalline limestone. The finest examples hitherto discovered in Canada, have been obtained from a large vug or cavity in a vein of amethyst-quartz on the north-east shore of Thunder Bay, Lake Superior. The fluor spar from this spot forms large cubes of two or (*** /«*ii. OF CENTRAL CANADA — PART II. 139 three inches in diameter, wliich rest on equally large pyramids of amethyst-quartz, and are coated with ii'on [)yri^es in minute cubes* the whole bei)ig surmounted, here and there, by soa'.enohedrons of calcite. The fluor spar is partly of a pale greenish tint, but mostly of a violet or amethystine colour. Pale green and purple cubes occur also in most of the metalliferous veins of Thunder Bay and the surrounding region, mostly with quartz, calcite, blende, galena, and copper and iron pyrites, as at Prince's Mine, the Shuniah Mine, in several veins in the township of Neebing, and in others near Black Bay and Terrace Bay, on Fluor Island in Neepigon Bay, and else- wliere. Also in amygdaloidal greenstone, near Cape Gargantua. Fhior spar occurs likewise, according to Mr. Murray, in association with specular iron ore, in crystalline limestone on I,ake Nipissing. It occurs also, with apatite, in crystalline limestone in the township of Ross, in Renfrew county on the Ottawa, and also, with heavy spar, in Hull, and elsewhere in that district. Also in veins, with galena and calcite, in Trenton limestone in contact with gneiss at Bale St. Paul ; and in narrow veins In the Trenton limestone of the vicinity of Montreal, and the XJtica slates of Quebec. Small crystals have likewise been obtained, from fissures and cf.vities of the Niagara strata, in the neighbourhood of the Falls, and on the escar[>ment at Hamilton. B. CHLORIDES. [This group is represented in Canada by a single type, the highly important Chloride of Sodium, or Rock Salt. The i)resence of chlo- rine in mineral bodies is easily ascertained by the blowpipe. Some phosphor-salt, with a few particles of black oxide of copper, is fused in a loop of platinum wire, so as to produce a deeply-coloured glass. To this, a small portion of the test-substance, in powder, is added, and the glass during fusion is held just within the point or edge of the flame. The latter, if chlorine be present, will assume a rich azure-blue colour from the volatilization c.f chloride of copper. Many chlorides are soluble in water. None possess a metallic lustre, nor is the degree of hardness in any species sufficient to sci'atch ordinary glass.] 108. Rock Salt : — Colourless, and also variously coloured by acci- dental impurities, as sesquioxide of iron, organic matters, «fec., the 140 MINERALS AND GEOLOGY s% Flu. »:!. ' nopiicr-slKiiii.' cube of Siclt. imparted tints ))eing mostly red, brownish, violet-ljlue, yellowisli. or pale-green. Streak, white. Crystallization, Eeguiar : the crystals usually cubes, often with hopper-shaped depressions on each face — the larger crystals being coni[)osed of numerous minute cubes so arranged as to produce this jieculiarity. Occurs also in lamellar and and granular masses. Cleavage, cui)ical. H = 2.0 — 2.5; sp. gr. 2.1 — 2.25. Taste, strongly .saline. B15, decrei)itates strongly (unless very dry), and melts into an opaque bead, which colours the outer flame intensely yellow. Nor- mal composition : chlorine 60. CG, sodium SD.S-t; but usually, snuill portions of chlorides of magnesium and calcium, and sulphates of lime, magnesia, and soda, are ahso present. Most samples contain likewise a certain admixture of clay or other impurities. A deep boring on the bank of the River jNIaitland near the town of Godericii, commenced at the close of 18G5 in quest of rock oil, lias yielded an abundant sup{)ly of strong brine cf remarkable purity— thus indicating the prese ice of a very extensive deposit of salt below this section of the country. The boring lias l^een carried down iVoni the surface gravel and underlying (Jorniferous Formation into awl apparently tlu'ough the Gypsiferous or Onondaga strata (see Part v.), the total depth from the surface being a little over one thousand feet. According to Mr. Piatt, who conducted the boring, salt in solid layers was reached at 9C4 feet from the surface and the total thickness of these layers, exclusive of some thin partings of salt- bearing clay, avei'ages about thirty feet. An analysis of the brine by Dr. Sterry Hunt, shews it to be a satui'ated solution, containing over 26 per cent, of saline matter : 25.90 (equal to 99.018 per cent. ) of tliis, being pure salt or chlorid s of sodium. (See Geol. Reports 1868 anil 1869, for various comparative analyses, and much valuable information on the Goderich and other brines, by Dr. Sterry Hunt.) Salt has also been subsequently reached by other borings at Kincardine, Clinton. and Seaforth, in the same district. At Seaforth, from information received from Dr. N. Coleman, a more or less solid bed was stniok at a depth of about 1040 feet. Chloride of sodium occurs also in solution in many of our mineral springs, but only in small quantity, and always accompanied by much chloride of calcium or chloride of ■magnesium, sulphate of lime, and other saline compounds, which OF CENTRAL CANADA — PART II. 1.41 interfere with its separation for economic purposes. The Hallowell Spring contains from 3| to nearly 4 per cent. ; the St. Catharines' water about 3 per cent. ; and other springs still lower amounts. Quitf^ recently, an announcement of the discovery of rock salt in the townslii[) of Comber mere, in Renfrew County, has been made in the ncws})apers, but this requires verification. In all probability, the mass said to have been found was placed t) 3ve by some of the earlier settlers to prevent cattle from straying in the woods, or by hunters to attract deer. Lai-ge masses of rock salt are brought by Quebec ships from Liverpool, in bdllasfc ; and blocks of this salt, taken into the woods, have often given rise to pretended discoveries. A block of 80 or 100 lbs. weight will remain undissolved for many years. V. BODIES OF ASSUMED ORGANIC ORIGIN. This division includes many salts, resins, coals, and other carbona- ceous matters, to which an organic origin is generally attriV)uted ; but the supposed derivation of all matters of thi.? kind from organic bodies is by no means free from doubt. The group is represented in Cential Canada by a single salt, an oxalate, and by two or three bituminous and carbonaceous substances, one of which, the fluid petroleum or rock-oil, is of great economic value. 109. Hnmboldtine (Oxalate of Iron) : — Only known, in Canada, as a yellow incrustation on the bituminous (Devonian) shales of Kettle Point or Cape Ipperwash in the township of Bosanquet on Lake Huron. BB, becomes black and magnetic when gently heated, and is finally converted into red oxide of iion. In the bulb-tube, blackens, and yields a large amount of water. Normal composition : oxalic acid 42.40, protoxide of iron 41.13, water 16-47. 110. Petroleum or Naphtha (Rock Oil) : — Fluid, passing into a semi-fluid and viscous condition. Colour, yellowish-brown or brown- ish-black in petroleum : pale-yellow, occasionally with a blueish tinge, in naphtha. Highly inflammable. Essential composition : carbon 83 — 88 per cent, hydrogen 12 — 17 per cent. Occurs in rocks of various kinds and of diflferent periods of formation, and is usually thought to have originated from the slow decomposition of imbedded vegetable and animal matters. This view, however, is exceedingly problematical as applied ta petroleum generally : regard being had A# ^ 142 MINERALS AND GEOLOGY to the enormous (quantities of this substance occurring in so many diftevent parts of the earth ; to the uncfasing flow of vast nuniliers of petroleum .springs in many localities, ai,'e after age, from the earliest ])orio(ls of history ; to the fact that jioti'oleum occui's in many rock- formations — even in ancient gneissoid strata — which lie far l)elo\v the great Carbonif(>rous and Devonian series (tl;e irst, appnrently, in which land vegetation has l)een detected) ; and to the absence in petroleum-bearing rocks of any special organic remains or pecnii;ir charactei's suggestive of naphtha-forming capabilities, as comparei] with strata in which petroleum has not been found. Regard Ijcing had to these and other related facts, it is scarcely possible to refer the enormous quantities stored uj) in subterranean reservoirs, or ])Oured out in flowing springs from age to age, simply to the decom- position of sea-weeds or the soft parts ordinary moUusca, radiata, or lower types, entombed in rock deposits : evidences of these organic bodies being wanting, moreover, in many petroleum-holding rocks, and being far less abundant in othex'S than in various strata in wliieli no traces of petroleum are met with. It nught be pretended, with almost an equal show of probability, that all the water on the earth had come from organised bodies, simply because these bodies contain or yield water. A suggestion of this kind would probably have l)een attemi)ted if water were a substance of comi)aratively limited occur- rence. In the province of Ontario, petroleum occurs abundantly in springs or wells, arising apparently from reservoirs in the Corniferous (Devonian) Forniition, in many parts of the region lying between the more southern point of Lake Huron and the north-west shore of Lake Erie : more especially in the township of Enniskillen ; and, less abundantly, in Oxford, Mosa, and Dereham. Small quantities have also been obtained from a well in the Utica (Lower Silurian) Formation of the Great Manitoulin Island in Georgian Bay — the shales of this formation, both there and elsewhere, being more or less saturated with bituminous matter, and thus yielding petroleum on distillation. Many of the calcareous strata of the Niagara^ Trenton. and other Silurian Formations, are also more or less bituminous; and liquid and viscous petroleum is occasionally found in the cavities of fossil shells, enclosed in these beds, as well as fosilized corals. Jic. of Devonian rocks. Petroleum springs occur likewise in the Devon- OF CENTRAL CANADA — PART II. U3 ian strata of Gaspe in Eastern Quebec, as near Douglastown on the St. John River, and on a brancli of a small stream known as Silver Brook in the adjacent country, as first made known by the officers of the Geological 'Survey. Viscous petroleum is cited also, in the Geological Report for 1863, as occurring in cavitief , many of which are lined with chalcedony, ikc, in a greenstone dyke at " Tar Point" in Gaspe Basin. Indications of petroleum or asphalt have also been noticed in other eruptive dykes of that region. 111. Aophnlt: — Black, blacki.sh-brown. In solid and also in spongy or semi-viscous masses. H, in the solid varieties, = 1.0 — 2.0; sp. gr. 1.0 — 2.0. Very inflammable — melting easily, and binning with a yellow flame and emission of bituminous odour. Consists essentially of Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, and Nitrogen, in somewhat variable proportions. In many, if not in all cases, asj)halt is derived from petroleum, the two substances passing into each other by insensible transitions. Petroleum thickens and assumes a darker colour under certain conditions of exposure, and finally be- comes solid and partially oxidized. The so-called " gum beds " or " mineral-tar deposits " of Enniskillen may be referred to this variety. These beds, which have evidently resulted from the drying up of ancient overflows of petroleum, occupy, in the southern i)art of the township, two detached areas of about an acre, each, in extent ; and they present a thickness varying from a couple of inches to two feet. A sm-ill deposit, covered by ten or twelve feet of drift clay, and resting on gravel, occurs in the northern part of the township. This deposit is partly of a leafy texture, somewhat resembling the so-called " paper coal " from the lignite deposits of the Rhine, «fec., and its shaly layers exhibit the impressions of leaves and insects in various places. Being mixed moi'eover witli much earthy matter, or •' ash," the deposit has all the characters of a small coal-seam. 112. Anthraxolite : — Black, lustrous, resembling anthracite in general charaotei*s, but very brittle. H = 2.25 — 2.5; sp.gr. 1.35 — 1.55. Generally decrepitates when heated. BB, a small frag- ment loses its lustre, but exhibits no further change. Composition, essentially, carbon, with from 3 to 25 per cent, of volatile matter, including a small amount of moistui'e. The ash, as at present ob- served, varies from to 10 or 11 per cent. When present, it exhibits under the microscope no trace of ox'ganic structui-e. This substance, in all probability a product of alteration from petroleum I I .^ ^ 144 MINERALS AND GEOLOGY or asi>lialt, occurs in narrow veins in rocks of various kinds, and in small masses and thin layers or coatings in strata of the Utica and other formai-lons. Occasionally also, it is found in the interior of orthoceratites and other fossil shells. As it dilTers essentially l)y these conditions of occuri'ence from anthracite proper, the name an" thraxolite has been given to it, but sim^jly as a convenient term for present use. It occurs in narrow veins, associated with quartz, amongst the altered strata of Lotbinifere, in the Eastern Townships ; and also, in regularly banded veins with qiiartz and iron j)yrites, on Thunder Bay, Lake Superior. A variety fi-om the latter district, shewed a sp. gr. of 1.43, and gave the writer: moisture 2.08, addi- tional loss in closed vessel 3.56, ash 0.00, fixed carbon (by difler- ence) 94.36 (Canadian Journal, vol. x. 411). The substance occurs likev/ise in nan-ow bi'oken vjins, or filling small cracks, ^?er se, at Acton and other localities in the Eastern Townships, as well as on the Island of Orljans, at Beauport and Point Levis near Quebec, and elsewhei'e in the neighbourhood of the latter city. The variable percentage of volatile matter (exclusive of moisture) is evidently due to the greater or less amount of alteration to which the original bituminous matter has been subjected. 113. Coal: — Black (often with iridescent tarnish) in anthracite and bituminous coal ; brown, in brown coal or lignite. H = 1.0 (or less) — 2.5; sj). gr. 1.0 — 1.7. BB, anthracite is scarcely altered ; bituminous coals take fire, and many exhibit a kind of fusion. True coal, in its different varieties, occurs in regular beds or layers, mostly associated with bituminous shale, nodules of iron-stone or impure carbonate of iron, and numerous fossilized ]>lants. Anthracite con- sists almost wholly of carbon (exclusive of a small amount of mineral matter or "ash"). Anthracitic coals contain, in addition, a small percentage of hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen ; and in bituminous coals, these components are more largely present. Many coals also contain sulphur, derived in chief part, or perhaps wholly, from inter- mixed pyrites, A thin seam of bituminous coal occurs in the De- vonian sandstones of Gasp^, the only known locality within the ol'' limits of Canada in which true coal has been found.* * The great, workable, coal beds of the Dominion of Canada occur at two widely separated geological horizons, namely in the true Carboniferous Formation of Nova Scotia, and in the ' I Cretaceous and Cainozoic deposits of the North-'Vest Territories and British Columbia. Murh of this latter coal closely resembles ordinary bitv'minous coal in general character, and in some places anthracitic varieties occur. OF CENTRAL CANADA — PART II, 145 lit. Peat. — This substance is simply vegetable matter — consist- jug chiefly of semi-aquatic mossi's — in a peculiar state of ilecomposi- tion. It presents in its more typical form, a brown or blackish- brown colour, with an earthy, or, in phices, a sub-slaty or sub-fibrous, texture. 8p. ^v. 0.33 — 1.0 i ) . 1 ■ burning with a ))lea- siint odour ami yellow flanif. Composition, essentially carbon, hydro- gen, oxygen, and a largo amount of water (in dried peat, normally from 15 to 25 per cent.) with from 2 or 3 to 10 or 12 j)or cent, of mineral mutter or ash. This valual)le fuel, occurs in large bods of more or less modern origin, in various parts of Ontario and Quebec, mostly overlying deposits of shell-marl. Tlie jirincipal lo- culities lie within the townships of Huml)erstone and Wainlleet on Lake Erie ; Sheffield in Addington County; B fckwith, Huntly, Goul- boiwne, Westmeath, Nepean, Gloucester, Cumberland, Clarence, Plantagenet, Roxborough, Osnabruck, and Finch, between the west biuik of the Ottawa and the St. Liwreuce ; Grenville, Harrington, Millelsles, and adjacent localities on the east side of the Ottawa ; tlie Seigniories of Assumption, St. Suli)ice, Lavaltrie, and Ltmoraie, on the north shore of the St. Lawrence, above Lake St. Peter ; St. Etienne, Champlain, and other places between the St. Maurice and Quel)ec ; Slieriington, Hemuiingford, Longueuil, Ste. Marie de Mon- noir, Ste. Roselie, and other localities on the south shore of the St. Lawrence ; the Seigniories of Riviere Ouelle and Riviere du Loup, farther east : near the Metis, Rinaouski, and Madaswaka Rivers, in Gas[)«^ ; and largely in the Island of Anticosti. Peat i'i a properly dried and compressed condition, has been shown of late yt ars to form a good fuel for the use ot locomotives, and also for many metallur- gical operations. 11 \4 TJ stonj stoiif gravf Tiiei is ofji ii|pi)ii vallu) tliis r iiiiiid, ibrces or i>ro vcrtici cut. Of l)t't\V and in iiinl tJl takiii_^ Our to il g,., ill refei mass, f body, solid, an fluid or "lass ia PART III. ROCKS AND ROCK-PRODUCING AGENCIES. I. (lENEIlAL CLASSIFICATION OF lUK'K MASSES. Tlie term " rock " in its geological acceptation, includes all the stony and earthy maases — whether consolidated, as granite, lime- stones, ttc, or composed of loosely coherent particles, as s.iuds and gravels — wliich make up the outer or visible portion of the earth. The mean radius of the earth-mass, or distance from centre to surface is equal to ."iOoG miles. The elevations and depressions which occur \ipnn the earth's surface, forming mountain-chains and table-lands, valleys and the beds of seas and lakes, are thus, as compared with tills ra increase witii iniTi'ase of deitth. The ratio of increase is not uniform, being greater or more rapid in some places than in others ; l)ut an actual ami marked rise of the thermometer from point to point, below the zone of constant temperature, is always obsi.'rvable. The mean ratio of in-* crease, at the liniitiMl depths to which resc^arehes have been carried, may be assumed to eipial 1° Fahi'enheit for each descent of (10 feet. At this ratio even, andue may reasonably infer that it would be much ai;eelerated at lower levels, a temjiei'atiire suliieiently hi_ij;h to maintiun most mineral substances in a state of fusion, or in part even in a vajiorous condition, would soon be reached. {'2.) Water brought to *-!:e surface from great depths by narrow bore-hole:^ commonly known .is Artesian wells, always exhil)it a higher temperature than the mean temperature of the locality ; and if the boring be increased in deptli, the temperature of the water '■ jomes also increased. (.S.) Active V(dcanoes, which maybe regardeil as channels of communication between the surface and the internal ^larts of the earth, are more or less con- stantly pouring forth, from unknown depths, vast streams of molten rock or lava, accompanied by other products of igneous action. About two hundred and seventy volcanoes are now known to be from time to time in eruption, and many others are ai)parently in a permanently quiescent state. Eruptions alsn freipieutly take place on the bed of the sea. (4.) Certain rock-masses, in districts now remote from centres of volcanic action, have evidently been forced upwards, from deeply-seated sources, in a molten or more or less incandescent state, amongst previously consolidated rocks. The latter exlii)»it at the points of contact, and for some distance be- yond, changes of colour, and other effects, tliat can only have resulted from the direct or indirect action ot heat. These effects are not seen in all cases of rock-intrusion, l)ut in the great majority of instances they have undoubtedly occurred. OK CKNTKAL I'ANADA — PAHT MI. 140 In different lociiliti»^s, as a j^nuTiil rulo, the rocks which form the surface of the groiiml, or whicli hecninc visiMc to U8 on the HiH of dirt's and river-lianks, in (piarrios, railway cuttings ami tho like, aro more or less distinct in conjposition and other characters. This must l)e familiar to tho most casual observer. Thus, around tlie Falls of Niagara, and extending far and wide across that section of the Pro- vince, we find vast beds of dolomitic or magnesian limt stone |)re.sent- ing several varieties of textui'c. About Hamilton and Dundas, with other rock.s, ferruginous shaU^s and bods of red marl and grey santl- Btone are seen. At Toronto, our rock-ma.s.ses consist of layt^rs of gravel and clay, overlying grey and greenish sundHtoneshales. Near Collingwood, and again at Whitby, we oljsorvo dark-brown, highly- bituminous shahis, containing the impressions of trilobites and lin- guhe (see Part IV.), often in groat numbers. At Kingston, we meet with limestone rocks differing from those of the Niagara district, and giving place, as we proceed north and east of the city, to beds of crystalline rock of gianitic aspect, geologically known as Gnei.ss. Some of the *' 'J'housand Islands " consist of very ancient sandstone resting on gnei.ss. At iNIontreal, with beds of limestone, ic, wo see, in tho jncturesque Mountain, a dark, massive or unstratitied rock, a variety of the Trappean 8erie.s. more or less closely allied to the lavas of volcanic regions ; and rocks of a similar kinsits that have been altered or rendered crystalliuv. by hoiit or chemical agencies. Eruptive rocks are known in many instances to have cooled down from a state of fusion, and are thought in others to have been consolidated from a plastic condition due to aquijo-igneous agencies. They have been formed, or have been brougli t into this condition, Ijeneath, or deeply within, the Earth's crust, and have been forced upwards from time to time through fissu,v!S in tho overlying rocks. In each of these divisions — Sedimentary, Metamor- phic, and Erujitive — the in..luded rocks Ijelong to various periods of formation. II. sedimi-:n"I'.a!{Y hocks. The rocks of this divioion make up by far the greater portion of the Earth's surface. Having be(;n formed by the agency of water, they are often ealled Aqueuns lliKks. Tliey consist for the greater part of mudtly, sandy, and other d»!trital sediments, collected l)y the meclianical action of water, and subserpiently consolidated by natural proces.ses, as described a few pages fiuther on. Various limestones, however, and certain other rock matters of this division, have been deposited from water.* in which their materials were chemically dis.solved. These sedimentary oi' aqueous rocks are characterized e.s.sentially by occurring in beds or strata ; secondly, by exhibiting in many instances, a more or less clearly-marked detrital or sedimentary structui-e ; and thirdly, by often containing organic remains. The latter, compiising shelis, bones, leaf-impressions, ifec. (see Part IV.), are the fossilized parts of animals and plants which lived upon the Earth, or in its waters, during the periods in which these rocks were ixpder process of formation as described below. The "edimentary rocks may be conveniently discussed under the following heads : (1) Composition or miiirral characters ; (2) Mo(I>'s of formation ; (3) Subsequent chanyes and effects jn'odnced by geolo- gical agencies. (1) COMPOSITION OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS. As regards composition, these rocks tall mainly under the following sub-divisions : OF CENTRAL CANADA — PART III. 151 Sandstones, sands, and gravels — or arenaceous rocks. Clays and clay-slates— or argillaceous rocks. Limestones and Dolomi*,es — or calcareous rocks. Conglomerates and Breccias : rocks of variable composition (see below). Traj) tufas : stratified deposits formed out of materials derived from the denudation of trap and greenstone rocks. Rock matters of carbonaceous origin, as the different kinds of coal. To these may be added a few other substances of subordinate occur- rence, as gypsum, rock-salt, and bog-iron ore. Sandstones are nothing more than beds of consolidated sand. They are of various colours, but chieHy present dull shades of yellow, red, brown, or green, and some are nearly pure white. The colouring matter is either sestpiioxide of iron, or, in the case of the greenish varieties, a s'licate of the protoxid' The harder and purer kinds, as some e.xamples of our " Potsdam sandstone," are called qiiartzose sawlstones. In other kinds, a certain amo\int of carbonate of lime is present, cementing together the comi»oneut grains of sand, and thus forming calcdveoux sandstoues. For special Canadian localities of these and other rocks mentioned uudei- this division, consult Part V. Certain siliceous rocks, called ''ti'i|)oli" and (erroneously) " infusorial marls," are formed almost entirely of remains of diatoms, microscopic vegetable forms of low organization. (See Part IV.) Clai/ Slates are merely consolidated clays. They havj; a tissile structure, anil ai-e mostly of a grey, greenish, brown, or black colour — the dark tints beinj; chietlv derive 1 from the uresenei! of fiiiely dis- sendnated carbonaceous or bituminous nxatter. Clays an; also (jf various colours, as white, greenish, yellowish, blueish, black, and red. Those which contain little or no iron beeome white or pale yellow on ignition. Many clays are highly calcareous; others, bituminous, «S:c. The term ahale is often applied to tissile consolidated clays ; but this term, it must be rememl)ered, is applied ecpially to fissile or slaty limestones and sandstones. When the term is u.sed, therefori;, the kind of shale should also 1)0 signified : as an arf/i//aceous shah, an arenaceotia shah, and so forth. Bituminous shales, as regards their mineral base, may be also arenaceous, calcareous, d by .srHlium phosphate or by solution of the blowpipe flux known as " microcosmic or phosphor salt." OP CENTRAL CANADA — PART 111. 153 liytlraulic or water lime. Beds of this kind occur at Thorold. (!^ayuga, Loughboro', Kingston, Hull, Quebec, and other localities. See Piu-t V. Conglomerates consist of rounded |)ebble8 or masses of quartz, sand- stone, kc, cemented together, or imbedded in a paste of finer sand- stone, or other rock substance. They are oflen known as " Pudding stones." Examples are not uncommon amongst our Silurian and other strata. Breccias consist of angular masses or fragments of rocks, cemented together most commonly by calcareous matter. Whilst Conglomerates frequently contain imbedded water-worn materials derived from dis- tant souices, tni' breccias are necessarily composed of detrital matters derived from ne.ghbouring localities. Tnip-titfas are of comparatively ymv: or local occurrence. They are made up of materials derived fi'om the wasting of trap or greenstone rocks, and are mostly of a green colour, weathering red. Their tex- ture is generally more or less uniformly fine graiiu'd ; but some occur as conglomerates and breccias, as on the north-eastern shore of Lake Superior, and elsewhere. The other rock-substances enumerated above — Coals, Gypsum. Rock- salt, and Bog Iron Ore — occur only h»>re and there as stratified rock deposits. For descriptions and Canadian localities, see Part T. (i) FORMATION OK SEDIMENTARY ROCKS. The manner in which the ordinary sedimentary rocks, sandstones, shales, &c., have been formed, or built up as it were, is rendered clear by the observation of certain natural processes still in action. We find, for example, at the ) ^'sent day, that sediments of various kinds are constantly carried dowi l»y streams and rivers into lakes and sea.s, and art' there deposited. We find, moreover, that the cliHs of many sea ami lake coasts an- being continually abradeil and w ished away by tlieactiecially during the autumnal season, when dead leaves ami other decaying vegetable matters yield the water a large supply <>( carbonic acid. On the other hand, a mechanical waste is also veiy generally taking place to a greater or less extent ; and thus numerous rivers are continually cutting back their beds, and forming ravines. The Falls of the Niagara River have in thii- manner gradually receded from the face of the escarpment near Queenston to their present site ; OF CENTRAL CANADA — PART III, 155 and there is scarcely a river, or small stream indeed, in any part of Canada, that does not exhibit indications of having occupied at one period a wider bed and high level than at present. Tiiis erosive power of rivers has ])robably been assisted in many instances by a gradual elevation of the surrounding land. Some of the grandest examples of 1 iver erosion are exhibited by the caiions of the Colorado and other streams west of the Rocky Mountains. In some of these remai'kable ravines, the stream has excavated its channel, within almost perpen- dicular walls of limestone and other rock, to a depth of a thousand fcot or more. The amount of detrital matters borne down by some rivers to the sea, is exceedingly abundant. This is well shown by the formation of ileltas. The delta of the Mississippi ou this continent, for exnmplei like all other doltiis, is derived essentially from tlio sandy and other matters bi'ouglit down l>y the stream. (_)ii entering the sea, the velocity of the river is necessarily checked, and the sediments are thrown down. Much of the coarser matter is indeed de])osited on tlie bed of the river itself, raising this, and compelling the formation ot artificial banks, or levOes, to prevent inundations. Finally, as a well-known illustration of the immense amount of sedimentary nutters borne seawards by certain i-ivers, the case of the Ganges, as described so fully by Sir Charles Lyell, in his " Princii)les of Geology," may be here cited. That river, it has been demonstrated by actual observation and experiment, conveys annually to the .sea an amount of matter that would outweigh sixty .sol'd jtyramids of granite, supposing each, like the largest of the Egyi)tian pyramids, to cover eleven acres at its base, and to stand oOO feet in height. The delta of the Ganges, comj)Osed of mud, »kc., thus brought down by the river, extends for 200 inUes along the coast, and commences far inland. A considerable quantity of sediment is also produced by the slow movements of glaciers in Alpine and other districts in which these remarkable ice-rivers jjrevail. The glacier of the Aar, which covers with its tributaries an area of only six or seven square miles, thus furnishes daily, according to some recent researches of M. Collomb, at least 100 cubic yards of sand. This is carried oft' by its terminal stieam or torrent. Action of the Sea (and of large bodies of Water generally). — Vast in amount as are the sediments collected by rivers, they are far sur- 166 MINERALS AND GEOLOGY passed by the accumulation of detrital matters obtained by the waves and breakers of the sea. All who have resided for any length of time on an exposed and rocky coast, must be well aware of the des tructive action of the waves. The cliffs subjected to this action, gradually become undermined and hollowed out; and thus largo masses of rock are brought down by their own weight. These, sooner or later, are broken up, and spread in the form of sediment along the shore, or ovei" the sea-bottom. On some coasts, the amount of land destroyed in this manner almost exceeds belief.* On some ])arts of the eastern shores of England, and the opposite or western shores of France, for example, the sea has thus carried otf, within the present century, from fifty to over two hundred yards of coast — measured backwards from the shore-line — along a distance of many miles. Graveyards, shown by maps of no ancient date to have been located at considerable distances from the sea, have become ex- posed upon the cliff-face ; and ^orts erected by the First Napoleon on the French coast, at two hundred metres and upwards from the edge of the cliff, now lie in ruins on the beach, or have altogether dis- appeared. These localities are mentioned as being more especially known to the writer ; but in all parts of the world exiimples may I'C found of the same destructive process. In the clay and sandy bluffs of our own liakes, as at Scarboro' Heights on Lake Ontario, and elsewhere, effects of this kind may be equally studied. Confining our view iit present to these results only, it must l»e evident to all that an enormous amount of sedimentary matter is annually, or even daily, under process of accumulation. The question then arises as to what becomes of this. The reply is obvious. The detrital matter thus obtained, is deposited in lakes or at river moutlis or along the sea-shore, or over the sea-bed — contributing day by day to the formation of new rocks. In other words, existing rock massf'S, worn down by atmosphei'ic agencies, by streams and vivers, and by the action of the sea, supply the material for other and of course newer rock deposits. Deposition of Sediments. — AW sediments diffused through deeper quiet water, arrange themselves under general conditions, in horizontal or nearly horizontal beds : the latter, if deposited on gently-sloping * It would obviously be out of place in an Essay like the present to enlarg^e on this poiTit. The reader unfamiliar with geological details of this character, should consult, more esiiei'ially hy^iVa Principles of Geology, and also the CourH El'Hnentaireot the late Alcide d'Orbigny. II' I OF CENTRAL CANADA — PART III. 157 1 this point. I espt' I'iully rbipny. O^VVV. nNXxl ^ 35rv5- ->•^^>^o. '-->s\^ shores. Professor H. D. Rogers, in his Report on the Geology of Pennsylvania, contests to some extent this usually-received view, and maintiiins that certain inclined strata of mechanical formation were oii<,'inally of iiiclincKl deposition. This may be true under local or exi'i'ptional, but certainly not under genenil, conditions. (See proofs* fiutlier on.) Wheie, however, sands ami gravels are thrown down by currents and running streams, an oblique arrangement commonly takes place ; but this is more or less confined to the subordinate layers of wliich the larger beds consist, as shewn in the annexed figure. The inclined layers have sometimes different (lei^rees of inclination, and even dip (in dif- ferent beds of the same strata) in opposite (liiections, in 'or CENTRAL CANADA — PART III. 159- Tlie sinking of iiifcft' sea would appeur at fii-st thought to be the more rational explanation of this phenomenon ; hut if we look to existing Nature, we timl no instance of the actual falling of the sea, whilst we have many well-proved examjiles of the actual rising and sinking of the land. In connection with this inquiry, it must he borne in mind that the sea cannot go down or change its level at one jtlaee without doing the same generally all over the world. To afford a few brief illustrations, it may be observed that on several occasions within the present century, large jjortions of the Piicitic coast of South America have been raised bodily above the sen, leaving beds of oysters, n)uss«'ls, Sic, exposed above high-water iniuk. The phenomenon, to the inlial)itants of the coast, appeared luUiirully to be due rather to a sinking of the waters thiin to an actual elevation of the land ; but at a certain distance north and south of the raised districts, the relative levels of land and .sea remain |)i';ictically unalteriMl : and hence, if the sea had gone down within the intervening space, to the extent indicated, its surface must have incsented an outline of this character " V / ^ : a mani- fest impossibility. The land is also known to be slowly rising and sinking in countries far removed from centres of volcanic activity, ('arefu! obsc'-vations have shown, for example that the northern parts of Sweden and Finland are slowly rising, and the south ami south- eastern shoies of the Scandinavian peninsular are slowly sinking ; whilst around Stockholm there is no apparent change in the levels of hind and sea. The whole of tiie western coast of Greenland is inferred to be slowly sinking : buildings erected on the shore by early missionarie.s, being now in places under watei*. A slow move- ment of depression is likewise taking place along tlu^ shores of CVipe Breton and Nova t*'cotia generally ; and, prol)ably also, to sonie extent, on the Atlantic .sea-board of the United States. On the shores of Newfoundland, of Cornwall, and other districts, examples occur of sub-marine forests, or of the remains of modern trees, in their normal positions of growth, below low-water mark j whilst in neighbouring localities no change of level appears to have taken place. Besides which, without extending these inquiries further, wo know that many fossiliferous strata are hundreds, and even thou- sands, of feet above the present sea-level. On the top of the Colling- wm 160 MINERALS AND GEOLOGY ■wood esciirpiiiont, for ('xiiini)le, we find stnum •^.luiiniiig niHrino foHsilH at iiii olovation of ovtM- 1,500 feot above tlie sea ; and on the Montreal mountain, shells of existing species occur at an elevation of about 500 feet. Hence, if tliew strata had been left dry land by the sinking of the ocejinie wuti^rs in wliieli they wore depof'ted, iiii immense body of water, extending over the whole globe, must in some unaccountable manner havtf been euused wholly to disuppeui. It is therefore now universally admitted, that the sedimentary rock-N, as a rule, have come into their present jjositions, not by the sinking and retiring of the sea, but by the actual elevation of the land. Many strata aflbrd proofs of liaving been elevated and depressed above and beneath the sea, sucee.ssively, at ditl'erent intervals. Many sandstones, for example, exhibit lipple-marked surfaces, and occasionally impressions of reptilian and other tracks, throughout their entire thickness. This indicates plainly that they were fornicil slowly in shallow water, and that they were left dry, or nearly .so. between the tides. And it indicates, further, that the shon- on which they win'a deposited. ' lyer by layer, was undei'going a slow and continual movement o depression : otherwise tlie process of formation would neces.sa)ily ha\e ceased, and the strata would present a thickness of a few inches only, or of a few feet at most. Afterwards a period of upheaval must have commenced, bi-inging up the rocks to (heir present level. In certain strata, also, the upright stems of fossil trees occur ;it various levels; and in some localities. beds containing marine fossils are overdaid l)y others holding huiis- trine or fresh-water species; and these again by others with marine remains. Finally, to bring this section to a close, we have a striking example of alternations of land-upheaval and depression in the geology of ('anada generally. Around Toronto, for example, we have certain strata of old date, belou'dnjr to the Lower Silurian Series, overlaid by deposits of cla}', gravel, and sau.l of the Drift Epoch, a comi)aratively modern period. Between the two, a vast break in the geological scale occurs. Many intervening formations, indicating the lap.se of long [)eriods of time, are present in other parts of th's continent; and lience, it is concluded that the Silurian dei)o its rf this locality, after their elevation abo^e the sea, romaintsd drv land for many ages, whilst the intervening groups were under process of deposition in other spots ; and that, finally, at the com- ^ OF CKNTRAL CANADA PAKT llf. Ifil imnno an tlie ;ioti of Ity the (5(1, itll lUsL in rocks, sink i I II,' I. presst'd itervals. 368, lUul ! t'oruicil I'avly so, ihori- on >t A hIow rocoKS of I wovilil ul most. luin^r U)) iipriglit )Ciilitios. hg laoiis- |i marine striking in the liplo, we Isiluriiin lie Drift a vast Illations, ier parts 1 Silurian lomaintnl [e under Lhe coni- mencetnont of\p«/Drift Period, tlio country w is again tlpjtii>sH»'«| beneath the ocean, and covered with the clays, sands, and bould' is of this hittor time. AnothtM- period of elevation nnist then have succeeded, bringing up both the Silurian and the Drift formations to their present levels above the «ea. (h) Denudation ; — Thia term, in its geolo<,'ieal oniployment, signi- ti<'H the romov.d or paiiial removal of rock mass( by the agency of water. The abrading action of the sea, of rivers, itc, a«ting under ordinary conditions, has already been alluded to ; but the t'ro^ivo efleutH of water may be seen in numerous localities in which this action is no longer in force. Section.s of the kind shewn in the accompanying tigure, for instance, are met with almost everywhere, producing un- „ dulating or roll- ^'"■"■""■^ ing countries. Here it is evi- dent that the ^^£i strata were once Fia. 85. continuous in the space between A and B. Valleys which thus result from the re- moval of strata, are termed " valleys of denudation." Some of these valleys are many miles in breadth. Their excavation, consecpiently, could not, in the majority of instances, have been elfected by atmos- pheric agencies, or by the streams which may now occupy their lower levels ; but must have been caused es-seutially by the denuding action of the sea during the gradual uprise of the land, or durini; alternate movements of elevation and depression, in former geological epochs. If the bed of the Atlantic, for example, were now being raised from beneath, at the rate of a few inches in a year or series of years, an enormous valley would probably be scooped out along the coui'se of the Gulf Stream ; and in other places where currents prevail, more or less continuous valleys would also be formed. Isolated patches of strata have been frequently left by denudation at wide distances from the rocks of which they originally formed part. These are termed "outliers." Thus in Western Canada, small isolated areas, occupied by bituminous shales of the Devonian series, occur in the townships of Bosanquet and Warwick, and constitute outliers or outlying portions of the Chemung and Portage group (see Part V.) largely developed in the adjoining peninsula of Michigan. The 12 ^ 162 MINKHALS AND (»KOLOOY j^ niatti'i' »'iiiTi<'o«'n thuH produced, the pint phiyed by tlie (h^nudinj; agencies of former periodH in providintf the materialH of newer strata, may he readily appreciated. (c) Tilt'Uff lip 11 mixed ti;,Min>. Wlion tin- ii|t|)cr (mIj^o of tlin coiiipiiHH is held liorizontiilly, tlio index (■ll^s tlio ztM'o |i()int of tlit';,'riidii- :itt'd arc. From cacli sidt; of this jioint, tlio j^radiiatioii is cjirrioil up to to 9(i . If, con- Hoiiuontly, the u|tp('r edge of tiin instninu'iit l)o placod par- :dlel with tli(* inciiiHMl licds of any strata, the angle of tlie (lip will Ijo at oni'ij shewn hy tiie indo.v. A contrivaiit'e of Flir. 88. tliis kind, exclusive of the compass, may he easily made out of a semicircle of hard wood. The index may consist of a piece of twine extcMiding helow the graduated limh, and kept taut l»y a lead plumb or liy a stone. Ill a compass used for taking l»earings, it is convenient to mark tlio treat side kast, and the east side we.st, as in tlie figure. If tlie narfh side of tho. inxtrnnient he then ke|)t always in advance, and the anyle bn always taken fi'om tlie north end of the neeillf — no matter what the actual direction of the line — the true magn(!tic hearing i.s olttained at once, and without lisk of error. The compass is most readily held by passing the thumb through a short strap or loop, or through a hinged ring, attachtnl to its under side. Where very ac- curate bearings are recpiired, sights may be used, the instrument l)eing fixed on a support ; or a prisnuvtic compass may be more con- veniently emj)loyed. When strata dip in two directions, as at A, in Fig. 89, the line along the culminating jioint of the strata is termed an Anticlinal or Anticlinal Axis ; and the line from wliich the strata rise in opposite directions, as at aS' in the figure, is called a Si/nclinal or Synclinal Axis. Synclinals when of a certain magnitude, constitute *• valleys of un- didation." Anticlinals are often hollowed out by denudation, form- ing valleys or troughs calleil " valleys of elevation," lus shewn at E in Fig. 89. The term •' elevation " applies here, it shoidd be observed, to the raised strata, and not to the actual position of the valley, as f f I I'r .^ • '• \i 164 MINERALS AND GEOLOGY many of these so-called valleys of elevation lie in thfe beds of rivers,, or occupy cl iparatively low ground. The River Humbei- near To- ronto, for example, flows at the lower ))art of its course over a denuded anticlinal of this chm-acter,* Finally, it may be observed^. Fig. 89. that when strata lie in parallel beds (as in Figs. 85 and 89), tluv stratification is said to bo conij'ormable or concordant. When on tlie other hand, the beds are not parallel, the stratification is said to be unconjorinahJe. TJie aecoinpany- ing section, in which the inclined beds l)elong to the Laurentian, and the overlying bert'H')riilly received view respectlnjr the nature of these stratif^efi, oi at leatit lainiiiuted, (.lystivlliiii' roiks. lUit thu iissmiied inetiiiiioriiliic chiinictcr of these rocks 's eontested hy t--'\nv ohserveis-in Ciuindu, iiotuliiy tiy .Mr. Tlioiims Macfiirliiiie -who rv):\\\\ them a8 orisii / formations. Tinpartinlly considered, tliis view is not without stronsf (frounds of proha!)ility. « • V i i OF CENTRAL CANADA — PART 111. 167 It is usually attrihuteil to mechanical presRure acting laterally upon the rock (lurin*,' elevations or is exhibited by many of the clay-slates of the Eastoi-n Townships, as tho.se of Mel- Imurne, Cleveland, Kingsey, itc. : but the clay slates of Lake Superior and other parts of the province, though more or lesn finely laminated, appear to be entirely destitute of true cleavage i)lanes of this character. k run- in a not from ' the I,' of com- n by dded the rcct ; ri''in. 1, or at ocks 'S rounds III. MiyrAMoiUMiic o;; cry.staluse stratiform rock.s. The rocks of this series are stratified or laminated rocks of a more 01' less ciystalline aspect. In their mineral charactei-s they freipiently bear a great resemblance to eruptive rocks, to which indeed they are closely allied — almost every metamorphic rock having its repre- stMitative in the eruptive series ; but they diffei- from these latter by their general conditions of occurrence. As explained above, many sedimentary strata are seen to have a.s.samed a crystalline texture, or to have lost more or less completely their normal sedimeniary asi)ect, in the vicinity of intrusive mas.ses of gr.mite, greenstone, or other eruptive rocks. An alteration of this kind is known as local meta- morphism. Earthy or ordinary limestones and dolomites are thus occa.sioiially converted into hard crystallirc uiarljle, often veined with green and other coloured streaks and patches of sei-pentine, and tilled in many cases with crystals and crystalliiit' [larticles of graphite;, lyroxeue, amphibole, various micas, tourmalint-, garni'ts, i)yrites and other minerals, foreign to the rock in its sedimentary condition. In like manner, .sandstones are changed in colour and texture, and are often converted into cpiartz-rock or some variety of gneiss ; and clay- slates are transformed into mica-slate, talc-slate, hornljlende-rock, and other so-called crystalline schists and gneissoid aggregations. These metamorphic results are probably due in part to the agency ut' various gases and heated vajjours which accompanied the protu- sion of the eruptive mass. Alterations of a similar kind, but ex- pn" ^ v 168 • i I MINERALS AND GEOLOGY toiuUng over wide areas, are nssuined, on the otlier hand, to hiivo taken j)lace in many localities, without the direct intervention of ei'uptive rucks. This widely extended nietanior))hisni has probably beoi ort'ccted by alkaline and other soUitions acting on the lieated I'ocks, or by the agency of superheated steam and other vajiours on deeply-seated strata, or by other causes more or less immediately connected with the presence of subterranean heat. In many ca.ses there Ciin he no questiou as to these crystalline strata being i-eally altered sedimentary deposits, and thus, by inference, a similar origin is generally attributed to all r cks of this character. Whilst sedi- mentary rocks, proper, are the products of surface action, and erup tive rocks — as regards tlieir present condition, if not in all cases their actual origin — are pi-oducts of internal or subterranean forces, meta- nu)rphic f'ormaticViS may be regarded as the result of both external and internal agencies. The metamorphic rocks ot' f 'anada Vx long, as regards their geo- logical jtosition. lo two e.s.sentially ilistinct series. TIk; oldi^r series of Arclueau age, comprises the rock formations of the LaurentiaM and Huronian periods, and occupies all the more northern and north- western portions of Quebec and Ontario, its strata consisting chietly of enormous beds of gneiss, ciystalline limestone, siliceous slates, and otiier rocks, enumei'ated l)elow, and described more fully in Part V. The higher or le.s.s ancient series Is apparently intermediate in posi- tion between the Huronian and Cand)rian formations. Its stratii are chiefly developed in the foi-m of chloritic and talcose slates and beds of sei'pentine. throughout the Eastern townships and adjoining region south of the St. Lawrence, in the Province of Quebec. 'i'he following are the more im]>ortant metamorphic rocks of Cann- dian occurrence : — Gneiss : — This lock is made up normally of three minerals — quarlz feldspar and mica ; the two latter being gene. 'ally the common i)otasli sp(!oies, orthocla.se and niuscovite (See Part I.). In some districts, Jiowever, the rock consists almost entirely of quartz and feldspar, mica being ab.sent or very sparingly present. In coarsely crystalline varieties of the rock, the component minerals are easily recognized. The feldspar is usually white or red, and is present in distinctly cleavable grains or nmsse. : the mica is in leafy masses or small scales of a silvery white, brown or black colour; and the quartz in / i OF CENTRAL CANADA — PART IH. 169 colourless vitrooiia grains. Tho striped or banded aspect of tlie rock generally servos to distinguif'i it, in hand specimens, IVom* granite; ami when scimi in position, its stratified stn.eture is in most oases very .ipparent. Vast beds of gneiss, and strata of gneissoid rock in wliicli the component minerals are more o.- less indistinct, occur throughout the wide area occupied by the Laurentian rocks of the more nortlun-n regions of Canada (see Part V.), and also here and tlierc, in tho less ancient crystalline distiict south of the St. Law- rence. Most of the boulders scattered so abundantly over the sur- face of Canada, consist of micoeous gneiss, or of the hoi-nblendic variety described Ixjlow. In some localities th(( mica of ordinary gneiss is partially replaced by scales of graphite. Sjii'iiitic or /f(>rnhlfu(fic (i^u'lss : — This rock only dillens Irom oitlinary gn(Mss by containing horul)len(h^ in place of iii!na ; but the two rocks freenish "rev fiom admix- tine with chlorite. Some cheits are l»hick fiom the |)resence of antlnacitic mattei-. pjiormous beds of ([u-irtzite, freiiuently very |)iirt*, occur in the Laun-ntian series of stiata, as on the Hiver Rouge in the county of Argent(niil, and el.sewhere ; and the.se rocks are still more characteristic of Huronian strjita. I.aurentiaii ipnirtzoso coiiuiomeiates occur in the townships of Bastard and Hawdon ; and a very remarkable conglomerate of the Huionian .series, consisting of p('l»bles of colourless (piartz jind vcd jasper in a colouiless, green- ish-white or pale-y«*Ilowish quartzcse base, is met with in the Bruce Mines district. The.se crys-hilline conglomeiates show unniistakaldy till' iiietamorphic oi'igin of the lock. IVds of chert and jaspery (|iiiiitz occur also in places on Lake Su|)erior. and in the crystalline region south of the St. Lawrence (see Part V). kiilici.'ous Slate : — This rock is prolKibly an altered clay-slate. It passes into impure (juartz-rock or jasper ; consists es.sentially of a siliciite of alumina; is h.ird or more or less slaty, and usually of a grcenisli-grey colour, or dark green from intermi.xed chlorite, and occasionally striped or zoned with lines of black, green, or red. K.x- aniples of siliceous slates are of common oocurrence on the noi'th shore of Lake Huron, and amonyst the Huronian strata of the Rive Dore and other localities on Lake Sujterior. In many places, these slates hold rounded pebbles or masses of gnei.ss, syenite, (fee, and thus form " shite conglouierates." Ani/illi/e : — This is one of the least altt;red I'ocks of tlit? metamor- phic series. It i.s sim{)ly a more or less indurated clay-shite, and commonly presents a black or Ijluish-black or dark-grey colour, but ^ 4 172' MINERALS AND GEOLOGY some vftvietit'S are dull chocolate-rod, and otlieis greenish-grey — the I'ock passing by insensible transitions into ordinary nnaltercd shales on the one-hand, and into silicious and niicaeous slates on the other. ISIany argillites are liighly lustrous from intermixed graphite, and some contain small straw-like crystals of chiastolite or andalusitc. as described under that mineral in Part IT. Dark and mort; or l( ss lustrous varieties are common in Iluionian strata, and are still ukuv abundant in the highei- Animikii; .series of Thunder JJay, Liikc Bujierior (see Part V), and in various jiarts of the ii]teree(ls contain intercalated scales and layers of specular or niici- ceous iron ore ; and in the Townships of liolton and Brougliton, more or less compact or subfoliated beds of greenish-grey chloiite, known as " potstone," foini woi'kable beds of good (juality. (See Part II, No. 80). Steatite or Sonpstone-Rork : — This rock consists of granular or slaty talc, frequently in'ermingled with carbonate of lime or doio- mite. It usually presents a greyish or greenish-white colour, ainl when pure is very sectile. A bed of somewhat inferior quality, from intermixture with calcareous matter, occurs in the Laui-entian strata of Elzevir, The closely related substance known as Pyrallolite (see OF I ..VTKAL CANADA — PAKT III. 173 umlor No. 82, in Part II), also forrus beds among Laurentian strata, tis in Grenville. RaniHay, and clsmvliere. Many dt'itosits of more* or less coni|)uct .soa[)st<)nn occur liktiwise in tlit) higher crystalline scries of tho Eastern Townships, as iji various parts of Bolton more especially, and also in Potton, Siuton, Stanstead, Leoda, and Vuu. (hfuil. <>/ihi()Ute or Si'ipHutint; Rock :- This rock consists essentially of the iiydruti'd niagnesian silicate, Serpentiins dosorihed fully in Part II. It usually presents a gr< eu, lirown, greenish-grey, or pale yellowish colour, often veii\ed or n\ottle'l with lines and pateheH of (linker or lighter green, red or reddish ln.«\vii ; an\l it forms more or less compact Inds, frecpiently of giH'at »»\leut and ihiekneHs. f*ub- onlinate examples occur in the LuueuUan strula of nn\ny I'M-iilities, mostly associatetl with bands of crystalline limestont^, as in tlie town- siiio of Grenville, and at Talwuvet Island on the Ottawa; also in iJiugess, ;\nd elsewhere; h\\\ \he crystalline districts south of the St. Lawrence contain the u»ost abundant and important deposits of ser- jientine rov*ki as at Mount Albert in Uaspe, and in tho Eastern Townships of Melbourne, Oxford, Brougham, Bolton, Hani, and (larthby, more especially. The serpentine of these districts is very oiiimonly associated with beds of chiomic iron ore ; and many ex- amples are intermixed with crystalline calcite or dolomite, forming ornamental " s(!rpentine-marbles " of green, chocolate-brown and other colours. Crijstallin'i Limestone : — This rock consists of carbonate of lime in a crystalline or semi-crystalline condition. It is usually white, light grey, or pale reddish, in colour, and is sometimes veined or spotted with yellow, green, blueisli-grey and other tints. It presents most eonimonly a fine or coarse granular structure, much resendiling that of loaf sugar, whence the name " saccharoidal limestone " by which this rock is often known ; but some varieties are more or less com- pact ; and others present in places a fibrous aspect, from inter- mingled tremolite or white hornldende, or liglit varieties of [lyroxene. The finer kinds from the ordinary marbles of commerce. In Canada, large beds of crystalline limestone, often containing scales of graphite, and crystals of apatite, pyroxene, anipliibole, mica and other njinerals, occur among tho Laurentian and Iluronian series of strata in numerous localities (See Part V) ; and also among tiie crystalline < 174 MINEHALS AND GEOLOGY Strata south of tho St. Lawrpnco. In the latter district, as alrwulv montionetl, soinn of tlioso linicstitnc licdH art) intoriiiixcMl with friwn and oth(!r coloured scrpontinos, l>ut many of tho so-called sorpnntinc niarl)l(!8 from the Eastern Townships are mixtures of serpentine with dolomite or magnt'site. Cri/ntalllne Dolomite: — This rock nisemhlos crystalline limestone in colour and other external characters, hut consiBtn of carbonate of lime and carbonate of magnesia, and only effervesces when tested with heated acid (See Part I). It occiii"S, here and there, amoniiNt the Laurentian strata, as at Lake Mazinaw in the County of Front'-nac, and elsewhere. Al.so among the strata of the Eastt-rii Townships, in which district ))0(ls of O'l/sfaffiw! maijitoHile (See Part II), mixed with mica, ser))entine, Jlic, are likcnvi.se present. These magnesiafi beds, as pointed out by Dr. Sterry Hunt, a.ssume ;i yellowish or dull-red colour l)y weathering. Cri/sts "dykes," which frequently terminate at their upjier extremity in ■izcd ill inasHcs ; ii(Uliti(iii HCtlMS I if Part 11. Eriip- neinlit'i'i* actuiil in groat of trno tratitied lor over- tortuous ■own as Imity ill i OF fKNTRAL CANADA — PAUT III. 17.') overlying Htoii like and columnar shoets of nmttor. And in tlicso conilitions, they aro fr»M|uontly swn to travjn-so older rooks of tlie Hiiiue class, or to pcnotrato various stratificid formations. Tlicy aro tlnis essentially intnisi'va rucks ; and they are also, in the words of Humboldt, essen- r ■ Fill. \)i. tiuUy eHn buked into brick-like masses ; .suiulstonos rendered more or le.ss vitreous ; and various limestones, to cite no further instances, have been hardened and altered into marbles of crystalline texture. Intrusive veins and masses of granite and syenite are also known to have jn-oduced nietamorphic etli'cts on tlie rocks which they traverse. But in many instances no alterations of tliis kind have followed the intrusion of a vein or mass of tnistra. titled rock amongst sedimentary deposits. Hence it is clear that idtliough the intrusive rock must have been in a soft oi- plastic comlition, it could not in these latter cases havc^ been in a molten or intensely heated state. Occasionally also, solid granitic iiiiisses iipiicar to have been th)".ist u|) among.st overlying strata, the intru- sion being followed necessai'ily l)y signs of great mechanical tlistiirbai.ee. The condition of the quartz in granite and .syenite, is IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) h. m do its A :/. C/j 4e\ 1.0 I.I 1.25 f ^ Ilia '" 1^ 12.0 1.4 1.6 P ^> A //A w^^i '/ Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSVER,N.Y. 14580 (71i>) 872-4503 ^•^ :v ^ .^\^ \\ ^9) V ^> ^O \ / M'^ ^ ////J W^ \ 176 MINERALS AND GEOLOGY opposed to the view of igneous fusion ; and yet quartz of the same character does occur sparingly in many trachytes, and under condi- tions not favoural)Ie to the idea that it may have been subsequently introduced by aqixeous agencies. Through these trachytes, moreovor, tliere is a gradual passage into actual lavas or known fusion-products; whilst, on the other hand, many syenites (containing free quartz) merge gradually into greenstone and basalt, products intimately related to augitic lavas. It is, of course, impossible to say in what form a rock belonging now to the eruptive class may actually have originated. It may have been produced from an earlier formed igneous or crystalline mass, or from a sedimentary deposit buried deeply under overlying beds. The endogenous or subterranean agencies, whatever they may have been, that rendered granite and syenite plastic and crystalline, also produced the crystalline texture and other related characters of gneiss, mica schist, hox-nblende rock, aad otJier members of the metamorphic series. It is now very generally assumed that whilst ordinary lavas and most trachytes and trappean (or basaltic) I'ocks have solidified from a molten condition, other rocks of this class, the granites and syenites more especially, have been rendered plastic and crystalline by "hydro-igneous" agency. These rocks, in other words, are thought to have under^rone a kind of aqueous fusion and subsequent crystallization, the water, originally present in them, having been retained for a time by the pressure exerted on the plastic mass at great depths. But this view, it must be understood, is entirely hypoth'etical, and in many respects is far from satisfactory. All that is really known may be thus expi'essed : — Two sets of forces are concerned, either alone oi con jointly, in the production of rock masses generally. One set, entirely external, or consisting essentially in the action of the atmosphere and waters on the surface of the earth-mass, produces the sedimentary or stratified rocks proper. The other forces, of internal or subter- ranean origin, produce the unstratified rocks, as we now see these latter, and lead to the crystallization and metamorphism of sedimen- tary strata brought within their influence. But whether granites, syenites, traps, and trachytes, be igneous or non-igneous rocks, they are evidently related products, and members of a common class. These rocks are arranged by Sir Charles Lyell in two broad divisions : Volcanic and Plutonic rocks ; but it is impossible to draw k" OF CENTRAL CANADA — PART III. 177 he same )r condi- equ'iiitly loreovor, n'oducts; i quartz) itimately ^ in what ally have !V formed sit buried iterranean ranite and le texture ende rock, now very .chytes and condition, especially, I'O-igneous " undergone the water, ime by the this view, ny respects ly be thus >ne or con iet, entirely atmosphere edimentary or subter- w see these ,f sedinien- ir granites, rocks, they class. I two broad alo to draw a distinct line of demarcation between the two. Gran.te and syc-nite for exami)le, are placed in the Fiuconic series, and trachyte, green- stone, basalt, ifec, in the Volcanic division; but certain granitic tracliytes connect the granites with the volcanic rocks; and in like manner, certain greenstones merge on the one hand into syenite, and o:i the other (the distinction between augite and hornblende, except in a i)urely mineralogical or crystal lograj)hic point of view, being practically of little moment) they pass into augitic lavas. Tliis equally affects the sub-division into A''olcanic, Trappean, and Granite rocks, adopted by other observers. 1 would therefore propose, as an arrangoment of convenience, the dist'-ibution of our Canadian Erup- tive rocks into the following groups: — 1. Granites and Syenites ; 2. Anortliosites ; 3. Traps and Greenstones ; 4. Trachytes ; 5. Ob.si- dians ; 6. Lavas. 1 . Granites v — The rocks of this group pos.sess, normally, a crystal- line aspect and strongly-marked granular structure, the term granite l)eing derived from the latter character. Granites are also especially characterized by tlie presence of free silica or quartz in a crystalline condition. They occur occasionally in broad, straight veins or dykes, but are most commonly seen in the form of complicated, ramifying veins, or in large in-egular nuisses which have often broken through and tilted up t'le surrounding rocks. Where a granite mass lies in contact with another rock, the latter will necessarily be the older formation if it be tilted up or otherwise mechanically aftected by the granite ; or if it be chemically altered near the points of contact ; or if portions of its substance (in a more or less altered state) be enclosed within the granite mass ; or if the granite run into it in the form of veins (Fig. 93). On the other hand, if the adjacent rock rest in un- disturbed position on the surface of the granite, and ex- hibit no chemical alteration, it may ^"'- ^^- ^'°- ^^• be inferred to be the more recent of the two (Fig. 94). Granitic veins frequently cross or intersect each other : intei'sected veins be- ing necessarily older than those by which they are intersected. The diagram (Fig. 95) exhibits three veins of different ages. No, 1 is the oldest vein, as it is cut and also displaced or " faulted " by the other two. No. 3, again, is the most recent of the series, as it tra- 13 BOnR •m 178 MINERALS AMD GEOLOGY Fio. Of). verses and displaces both Nos. 1 and 2. Granita rocks, by tlie deconiijosition of one of their es- sential com[)onents, feldspar, have heoome converted in some dis- tricts into white or light-colonrcil clays, largely used, under tlip name of kaolin, in tne manntac- ture of porcelain. Granife, pro})Prly so-called, is composed of three minerals : quartz. feldspar and mica. The feldspar is usually the potash species Ortlio- clase (see No. 57, Part II), but is occasionally represented by the So hi species Albite (Part II, No. 5S), or by Oligociase (No. 59). The mica is generally the common potash species Muscovite (Part II, No, 77), but is sometimes mixed with, or occasionally i-eplaced by, one ot the magnesian micas. As a general rule, the quai'tz, in granite, occurs ii! vitreous colourless grains ; the feldspar, in red, white, pink, or occisioually green or grey, lamellar masses, which exhibit smooth and somewhat ])parly cleavage ))lanes ; and the mica is mostly in small scales, or largei- foliie, of a pearly-metallic aspect, and silvery white, black, bi-own, pea.'1-grey, or greenish in colour. In coarse. grained granites, these component minerals ai*e readily distinguish- able ; but in roL-ks of tine-grain, they becouie blended into a cominou granitic mass. The mica freipu^ntly dies out, or is very spaiiiigly present, in which case the rock is sometimes known as Pegmatik, but this name is applied by German lithologists to coarse-grained granites contaiuiug a small amount of silvery-white mica in compiU'- atively lai'ge scales or leaves. Occasionally also in these quartzo- feldspathic gi-anites, the (juartz is arranged in the form of narrow, irregular crystals in more or less distinct bands, producing, in transverse sections, the appearance of a cuniform or Assy- rian inscription : whence the term "gra- phic granite " sometimes bestowed on this variety. When, again, the quartz and feldsjiar become intimately blended, so as Fig. 96. to possess more or less the appeaiance of a simple mineral, the rock has been termed Fnhlte or Petrosilex. Very frequently, through a OF CENTRAL CANADA — PART III, 17!) Flo. 97. Tjase of this, or of ordinary granite, numerous crystals of feldspar are distril)uted. when the rock is known as porphyry, or, better, as por- phi/rilic gra rite ov porphyrit'ic felsite (Fig. 97). The imbedded crys- tals often show the twin or compound structure so common in feldspathic sili- cates. The term " ])orphyry " (from ■rop- fvf'a), as the name would indicate, was originally Mi)plit;d to rocks of this kind, in which either the base or the imbedded crystals presented a deep-red colour ; but it is now bestowed conven- tionally on all rocks containing distinct crystals of felds|)ar or other minerals. We have thus porphyritic granites, por[>hyritic syenites, porphyritic trachytes, porphyritic greenstones (the original por- phyry having been prol)ably one of these latter), porphyritic lavas, Arc. Finally, as regards other granite varieties (to many of which special names of uncertain or mei-ely local a))plicatiou have been use- lessly given), it may be observed that the mica of ordinary granite is occasionally replace(l Ijy talc, giving rise to talcose granite (the Protogine of some authors), or is accompanied at times by hornblende, the rocks in the latter case being known as syenitic or hornblendic ynuiite. By the gradual diminution of quartz, the granites projjor puss into granitic trachytes, described below ; and they are repre- sented in the metamorphic series by gneiss and gueissoid rocks gen- erally, into which also they a])pear locally to merge. Exam})les of intrusive granite occur in most parts of the large area occupied by the Laurentian rucks of Canada (sea Part V.). Porphy- ritic felsite, in which the base is mo.stly duU-i-ed or greenish-black, and the imbedded feldspar crystals red or pink, is seen in connection with a large mass of syenite in the Township of Grenville on the Ottawa. This variety, sometimes termed Orthophyre, is scarcely perhaps a true granite, but as it contains free quartz it must be referred couvention- aliy to the granitic series. A broad dyke or vein of graphic granite (consisting of quartz and orthoclase-feldspar) is tlescribed in the Keports of the Geological Survey as occurring on AUumette Lake, north of Penabroke, and other examples of a similar character have been recognized in the neighbouring Township of Ross. Veins of both ordinary and quartzo-feldspathic granite, in some cases holding crystals of tourmaline or schorl, occur also more or less abundantly, in St. R9 iff': 180 MINERALS AND GEOLOGY Jerome, Escott, Lansclowne, Burgess, Madoc, Marmora, Gal way, aiKi indeed throughout the Laurentian region generally, lying between tlic Ottawa and Greorgian Bay. In Laurentian strata, likewise, on thf River Kouge, east of the Ottawa, and at Stony Lake, in the Townslii]) of Dunimer or Burleigh, as well as in Bathurst and Burgess, granitic veins containing albite or soda-feldspar replacing or accoinpanyiiiL; orthoclase, have long been known. The oi)alescenfc variety of Alliiti^ known as Peristerite (see Part II., No. 58) coe^/s from a vein of this kind in Bathurst. Other veins and some ''considerable masses of granite occur on the north and north-east shores of Lake Superioi'. as in the vicinity of Michipicoten, at Point-aux-Mines, and here inn! there about Bachewahnung Bay, and elsewhere. A muss of ici granite, inferred by Sir William Logan to be of Huronian age, i^ described as having broken through and tilted up Laui'entian giieissoid strtta south of Lake Pakowagaming on the north shore of Lako Huron; and gi-anitic dykes and veins occur in the Bruce Klines District. A flesh-red granite underlies beds of Trenton limestone in the Township of Storrington, north of Kingston. Finally, intriisixc masses and dykes of white or light-coloured granite occur on Lake Memphremagog in the Township of Stanstead, and others in tlic Townships of Hereford, Barnston, and Burford, of that district. Similar masses have been noticed on Lake St. Francis, Lake Megantic, and in the intervening townships. Some of these granitic masses, as described in the Revised Report of the Geological Survey (18Gi3), cover areas of from six to twelve square miles. A granite which contains hornblende in place of mica, was formerly defined by most geologists as Syenite, but this term is now generally restricted to a granitic greenstone, or mixture of orthoclase and horn- blende. Keeping to the latter definition, we have in syenite a more or less distinctly granular or granite-like aggregate of potaah-feldspur, and hornblende : the feldspar being usually red or white, and the hornblende green or black. Quartz in small amounts is also occa- sionally present. As in ordinary granite, both coarse and fine-grained varieties cf syenite occur. In the latter, the component minerals are blended into a more or less uniform dark-green mass, and the rock resembles, and can rarely be distinguished fi'om, an ordinary greenstone. From this trappean rock into well-defined syenite, indeed, an evident transition may be occasionally traced. On the other OF CENTRAL CANADA — PAKT III. 181 liaiul, syenite is re|)reseiited in the Metamorpliic Scries by syeuitic gnt'iss, ami to some extent by aniphibolite oi- honibleiule-rock. Syenite, as already explained, is veiy frequently porpliyritic — red or occasionally white crystals of feldsfjar appearin.; on a dark or black groun 1, or green or black crystals of liornbloude being imbedded in a reddish granular mixture of the usual components. I:i Canada, eruptive syenites ai)pear to be confined mostly to Laurentian areas. The most remarkable example is the great syeuitic mass described by Sir William Logan as covering a space of ub )ut thirty -si:: square miles in the Townships of Grenville, Chatham, and Wentworth, near the left bank of the Ottawa. It consists chielly of red and white orthoclase, with black hornblende and a little quartz ; mica being also j)resent in one ])ortion of the mass, which thus shows a transition into syeuitic granite. Dykes pass from the iiiaiu body of the syenite into the surrounding beds of crystalline limestone and gneiss. Two other series of dykes or eruptive masses occur in connection with the syenite of this locality. Some of these in;iS!^es, consisting of a coini)act base of ))etro-silex, or intimate mix- tuie of quartz and feldspar, with imbedded crystcds of I'ed orthoclase and fragments of gneiss and other rocks, traverse the syenite, and lieuce are of newer origin ; whilst others, consisting of trap or green- stone, are cut off, or interrupted in their course, by the syenite, and are therefoi-e of anterior date. Dykes of syenite also occur, hei-e and there, throughout the L.uirentian country between the Ottawa and Lake Supei-ior. Anorthosites : — The term " anorthosite " was tirst appUed by Dr. Sterry Hunt to a rock-mixture of various anorthic or triclinic feld- Sjiars, at that time regarded as a stratified crystalline formation or lock of the metamorpliic series })roper. Feldspathic rocks of this character occur in the counties of Argenteuil, Terrebonne and Mont- luoiency, in the Province of Quebec, where they were thought to represent the so-called Ui)})er Laurentian, Labrador or Norian for- mation, but they are now regarded by Dr. A. C. Selwyn, the present director of the Geological Survey of Canada, as eru[)tive products of Luuentian age, and this opinion, although not ab.solntely free from doubt, ia probably tae correct view. As stated in the previous sdition of this work, their suj)i)0sed stratification is exceedingly 182 MINERALS AND OEOLOOY obscure. They consist essentially of iubfadorite or alhite, or of mixtures of these nnd other triclinic feldspars. Their olour i.« mostly white, light-grey, pale lavender-blue or greenish-white ; but some are pale-red or yellowish ; and the cleavage [jlanes occasionally show the green or greenish-blue reflected tints characteristic of hi- bviidorite. All become o|)a(jne-white l)y weathering. Bronze-colourtnl or dark-green hypersthene, in foliated oxaniples, is somotinu's present in them, as at Chateau Richer and elsewhere. This variety has been termed Hyper ite or Hypersthene rock. 3. Traps and Greenstones : — The rocks of this series present a somewhat variable composition, but coiisi.st essentially of some kind of feldspai* — usually Labr;,dorite or All)ite — or a mixture of feld- spars, with augite, hornblende or chlorite. Many also contain in addition, a mixture of zeolitic minerals, nepheline, magnetic and titaniferous iron ores, grains of olivine, scales of mica, carboiuites of lime and iron, and other substances. But free silica or quartz is altogether absent, or is present only as an accidental or inessentiid constituent. The texture of these locks is of two general or princi pal kinds: (1), compact or homogeneous; and (2), distinctly granu- lar or granitic; but fine-grained examples otffr a transition i'roni tiif granitic to comi)act structure. In the latter, the component mineralK are blended into a common or uniform mass, chiefly, unless weathered, of a grey, gi'een or black colour. In each of these varieties of texture, a pori hyritic structure (see F"g. 97, above) may also be i)rosent — the imbedded crystals consisting of albite, oligoclase, augite, horn- blende or some other mineral. The compact varieties also frequently exhibit an amygdaloidal structure. Fig. 98, the rock being full ot oval or irregularly-shaped cavities, usually of small size, and com- monly lined or filled with amethyst, agate, or other varieties of quartz, or otherwise with calcspar, vai'ious zeolites, green- earth, itc. These compact varieties, moreover, of both trap and gi-eenstone veiy often asf;ume a columnar or ba.salti- forni structure, as in figure 99. In tliis case the rock exhibits a kind of roui^li crystallization, and contains numeron.s Fi'i. '•)£'. OF fKNTRAL CANADA — PART HI. 183 joints or partings in the direction of wliidi it so})iinitf's more or less rt'iuHly, forming prisms or prismatic masses of from three to eight or nine sides : and as these ])0sscss also transverse joints at right angles to the axis of a prism, a fiat, tabuhir, and step-like outline is very gener- ally j)resented V^y columnar or sub- Fm- 09. columnar varieties of this kind. Hence the term " trap " or '* trap- poan rock," from trappa, a Swedish word signifying a set of steps — attention having first been called to this peculiarity by Swedisli oliservers. A good example is i>resented by the promontory of Thunder Cape, Fig. 100, on the north- west shore of Lake Superior, in which five very distinct steps are observ.ible, kid. hid. more especially when viewed from a certain distance. The eruptive mass of McKay's ^Fountain on the other side of Thunder Bay, as well as similar rocks on Pie Island and elsewhere in that district, exhibit also well-nulrked illustrations of this stej)-like outline, al- though most of these rocks jtresent only a sub-columnar structure. A -similai step-like outline is exhiV)ited by some large dykes of col- umnar dolerite in the township of Grenville on the Ottawa, as first pointed out by the late Sir William Logan. As regards their general conditions of occurrence, greenstones and traps are seen very commonly in the form of more or less broad and .straight or simply-forking veins (Fig. 101), technically known as ihjkHS. This term originates in the fact that trappejin veins usually possess greater powers of resistance to the decompos- inir influences of the atmos- phere or the destructive action of water than the rocks which they traver.se ; in conse- (juence of which they often 184 MINEHALS AND OKOLOGY p ■ i ^-bJ^-f'-'-r-^'P project fiom tho fuco of cliffs or liill-sidea, or stand up aliovo the general surface of the yrouiul, and thus rosoniblo in many caaos tlin stone fences or walls known in certain localities as " dykes." The anne.\e(l H^'ure exhil)its ii diagram-view — the surrounding foliage, &c., lieing omitted — of a pro- jecting dyke of this kind, as seen on Slate Rivei', a small rocky stream which enters tho' Kaministicpiia ahout twelve miles ahove Fort William on Thunder Bay, f.ake Superioi-. The high clifl's of aluminous slate or shale on each side of the ravine through which the river flows, have been wasted by atmospheric action to a much greater extent than the ^^^- ^"-• dyke; and the latter thus stands out from the fuce of liie clifl" on each side of the ravine, and i)resents the appearance of an old Gothic wall. On one side, it comes down close to the l)ank of the stre:ini, as seen in the figure ; and the arch, there sliewn, must have been hollowed out, when the water flowed with fuller volume and at a somewhat higher level, during the gradual excavation of the valley. Most of the projecting j)oints, reefs, and rocky islets on the chores of our northern lakes, consist of denuded portions of trappean dykes. Occasionally, however, trap and greenstones decompose more readily than the surrounding or encasing rock. Trench-like depressions in the ground, or clefts and open fissures on the face of the rock, are thus produced. Exami)les may be seen on some of the islands and parts of the coast of Lake Superior, near Neepigon Bay, and else- whei'e. Traps and greenstones occur also, in many districts, in the form of flat tabular masses, resting upon hill-tops. These are merely por- tions of ancient dykes, exposed and isolated by denudation. Finally, mountain-masses composed of trappean and greenstone rocks ai-e of frequent occurrence, but these also may be regarded in most cases as the more salient portions of enormous dykes, several being often seeix to lie in the same general direction, as though along an ex- OF CKNTUAL CANADA — PART MI. 185 tpiiilotl lino of fissure. Tho picturosipio niounttiiii of Moiitroiil, imd tli(( mountains of HoUimI, Monnoir, Kougitnicnt, itc, arc (>xanij)loH. TliCHO siilieut masses exhibit in i>lat'€'s a distinctly conical or partly trnncatod form, as seen in tlio outline of the -"Paps," (Fij,'. 103), on tlio east sitlo of Black Bay, Lake Superior, and to some extent, also, in many of tho ^'rceiistone hills of tho Kastern Townships. A stop-like and moi'o oi- loss tabular outline, iis iilready re- Fio. 103. marked, is likewise very charac- teristic of rock masses of this group. The variable composition and diversities of structure exhibited by trappean rocks have given rise on the part of lithologists to the formation of a great number of so-called species, each provided with a distinct name, usually of Greek derivation. But thes(» attempted (li.siinctions are in many instances of purely local application ; and in very few cases can they be regarded as indicating definite aduiix- tures of ready recognition. Names applied to particular varieties by one author, ai-e applied quite differently by others. The terms melaphyre, porphyrite, diabase, tfec, might be cited as examples. In many cases also, the same rock, if presenting slight differences of texture, or if assumed, without any jjossibility of ))roving the assump- tion, to contain augite in one case and hornblende in another, is described under diflferent si)ecias. In this manner, fanciful distinc- tions whic have no true foundation in Nature, and which cannot be rigorously or definitely applied, are attempted vainly to be curried out in many so-called systems of lithology. If minvite cliemical or mineralogical differences were regarded as essential, our Canadian varieties of this group of rocks might add many names to the already uselessly extended list. It is not possible however in the present state of the question, nor is it desirable in an elementary work of this character, to depart altog(;tlier from the beaten track. Retaining therefore some of the more gene- rally recognised names and distinctions, whilst duly admitting the more or less arbitrary and uncertain character of these, we may refer our Canadian rocks of the Trappean series to the following varieties : (1) Trap or Basalt; (2) Dolerite or Granitoid Trap; (3) Greenstone 186 MINGKAL8 AND OKOLOOY or Apliaiiitc) ; (4) Diorite or Granitoiqual juHtice to two or more of thoir included types. T/ap or Basalt may he defined conventionully as a hlack, ;^nu!nisli- hlack or Iack nr diuk- gicy tint. When much olivine is present, and occasionally in other ciisfs, the rock assuinijs a greenish-grey or hrownish-grjien colour ; and w(Nithered examples are fre(|uently rusty-red, or otli(!r\visc dull white. 8p. gr. = 2.7. - 3.0. This granitoid condition of trap presents, as in ordinary hasalt, massive, slaty, columnar, amygilaloidal, and porp'iyritic varii-ties. Kxamplcs occur generally throughout (Canadian districts in which trappean rocks prevail ; especially in the Townships of Grenville^ Cli;itliam and Wentworth \\\ the Ottawa region ; also in parts of the Montreal Mountain and in the mountains of Montarvilh- and Itougo- iiiDut. and other l)arts of that district; abundantly also on the slion^s and i.slands of fiake Superior, (Gros Cap, Goulais Bay, Montreal River, ifec.) and throughout the northern lake region genei-ally. Tlio dyke on Slate River, .shown in figure 102, consists of grey ilolei'ite. Gretnslone or Aphanite is a compact tra[)pean rock ot a more or less decided green colour. i)assing into greenish-black. It i ; assumed froia its general composition to be made up of an intimate mixture of liia(i and soda feldspars and hornblende, with very generally a certain amount of magnetic and titaniferous iron ore, and some carl)ouate of lime. Strictly, it cannot be distingui.shed, except conventionally by its green colour, from ordinary trap. It presents massive, slaty, colinnnar, anygdaloidal, and pophyritic varieties, and i)a8ses into dioi'ite anil diabase, the latter by the addition of chlorite, as well as into common trap. Dykes of this green variety of trap occui' here und theie on Lake Superior, but most of the so-called greenstones of that region are evidently chloritic, and hence would be n^garded by systeniatists as compact and amygdaloidal varieties of diaba.se. Dykes of somewhat similar character occur also in the Madoc and Marmora region, and undoubtedly in other districts. The terms Greenstone and Aphanite, it should be observed, are applied by some authors to 188 MINERALS AND GEOLOGY compact varieties of llorublemle Rock and other hornbleuilic examples of the Metamorphic Series. Diorite is the name commonly given to a granitoid tra])peau rock made up of more or less distinctly visible grains or imperfect crystuls of a soda-feldspar (or lime-feldspiir) and hornldende, and contaiuinij very frequently, in addition, small grains of cai-bonate of lime, {)articles of magnetic iron ore, scales of mica, sphen^, and otliei' minerals. It passes into com])act greenstone by almost insensible transitions ; and in many cases it cannot Ije distinguished readily, if at all, from varieties of dolerite or granitoid trap. Its feldspathio portion is usually white or grey, or sometimes reddish, and the hoiu- blende black or green ; but line-grained examples have vciy commonly a distinct green colour throughout. Mr.ssive, slaty, columnar, amygdaloidal, and porphyritic varieties occur, as in ot!i(>r kinds of trappean rock. The specific gravity varies froni about 2.6 to 2.9. Examples of diorite, of a more or less granitic aspect from the frequent presence of small scales of brown mica, occur in the eruptive masses of Belceil, Monnoir or Mt. Joh.nson, Rigaud, and Yamaska, nt" the Eastern Townships of Canada. Other examples, passing here and there into diabase, are seen at several spots on the shores of Lake Superior, a.^ near Micliipicoten Harbour and elsewhere in that neighboui'hood, Batchewahmung Bay, etc. The term diorite, it oiust be remembered, has also been ai)plied by certain authors to sou.e of the stratified hornblendic rocks of the Metamorphic Series - tlie^e crystalline strata i-epresentin.g, as regards general composition, many diorites and other intrusive rocks containing hornblende, just as the gneissoid strata represent the granites and syenites. To avoid con- fusion, however, the term if employed at all, should be restricted, in accordance with common usage, to iiatrusive or eruptive rocks. If the same term is to be a])plied indefinitely to a stratified and eruptive form of rock, it follows logically that the term gneiss should be abandoned, and all the micaceous examples of gneiss should lie known as granite, and the hornblendic varieties as syenite — a system. we presume, that few geologists, aj)art from those of a certain school. would be inclined to follov. Diabase or Chloritic Trajy — as defined by most authors — is an eruptive, feldspathic rock, containing augite or hornblende with a OF CENTRAL CAXAr-A — PART MI. 189 •ubleuilic »eau rock t erystiils ontaiiiiuu' of linii', iTul other insensible readily, if elilspivtliic the horii- .ave vtM'v ve, sliity, \s in other L'oni iilumt t from the IP eru\»tive 'aniaskii, of issinij; here e .shores of ere in thiit te, it '3UiHt to son.e of Iries - these |tion, many Ijust as the avoid con- Istricted. in rocks. It |id erni'Hve shouhl he should he 11 system. ,aia schoiil. lors — IS it" [de with a certain amount of chlorite : carbonate of lime being very generally present as an a^lditional constituent. The term '* diabase " is often applied, however, to chloiitic and other varieties of liornblendic and iuigitic rocks lielonging to the Metamorphic Series. Some kinds of eru[)tive diabase have i^.Iso been described as melapliyre, but this term is also vaguely applied to many diorites and other granitoid rooks of the pj'e.sent group. Com])act varieties, which are mostly of a decided i^qven colour, |)ass into compact trap and greenstone by insen.sibl© tnmsitions. Granitoid varieties merge also into dolerite and diorite. Both kinds olfer amygdaloidal, prophyritic, and other exam])les. The feldspar in coarse-grained examples is either greyish-white, greenish, I'eddish, or l)ro\vnish ; and the chlorite presents the form of small scales and j)articles of a green colour. Weathered examples are usually dull-brown or red. Varieties of diabase, as thus defined? occur both in the form of dykes and in intercalated bedded masses among the Hnronian strata of Lake Superior, as in MichiiJicoten Island, as well as Cros Gap, Cape Mainuinse, Pointaux-Mines, Goulais River, and elsewhere. The bedded examples may perhaps be really metanior|>hosed strata, but they consist most probably of portions of ancient trappean overflows formed during the gradu>^i building up of the Huronian deposits. Some contain epidote others enclo.se well-defined crystals of augite ; and many ax'e in t condition of calcareous amygdaloids. Trachytes : — The rocks of this division are essentially feldspathic in composition, the more typical or charactaristic examples consisting almost wholly of orthoclase or potash-feldspar. Many of these are more or less poi'ous or vesicular in texture, and are thus peculiarly har.sh or dry to the touch, when the name "trachyte," from Tpayh':, rough. This character, however, will only api)ly to certain varieties, as many trachytes do not differ in this respect from other rocks, Most trachytes are white, light-grey, or pale reddish in colour ; but in the granitoid varieties the jjresence of scales of brown mica, .small crystals or particles of green or black hornblende, and other accessory minerals, gives rise to a darker and variable tint. These trachyte rocks merge into membei's of the granitic and trappean series on the one hand, and into ordinary feldspathic lavas on the other. The substance known as pumice, for example, may be referred both to trachyte and to lava. Thus, roan^ trachytes, occuring in connection 190 MINERALS AND GEOLOGY with active or extinct volcanic cones, are actual lavas in the common sense of the term; but otliers, although undoubtedly of similar origin, occur in localities to which the term volcanic lias ceased to appl)'. Viewed generally, although no marked lines of demarcation can be drawn between them, the Trachytes present the following leading varieties : — Common or Porous Trachyte ; Compact or Massive Trachyte ; Slaty Trachyte ; Granitoid Trachyte. Examples •of porphyritic structure occur in each of these varieties; and in the trachytes of some localities the feldspar consists partially or wliolly of soda or lime species. Common Trachyte is met with chiefly in regions in which active or extinct volcanoes are distributed. It is move or less porous, or of an open granular texture, and is frequently porphyritic from enclo:ied crystals of glassy feldspar. Scales and specks of mica, 'Onolite. These examples are partially in an earthy state, a condition sometimes recognized by a sjjecial name, that of Domite, a term applied to the earthy or semi-decomposed trachytes of the Puy-de-Dome in the ancient volcanic district of Central France. A porphyritic variety of pale-red or yellowish trachyte, holding large ci'ystals of feldspwr, occurs also at Chambly. Examples oi Granitoid Trachyte are especially abundant in the Eastern Townships of Broine and Sheflford where they form eruptive masses of considerable extent and elevation. The trachytes of these mountains are both eoarse and fine granular, and are composed of orthoclas ■ or other feldspais with intermixed scales of black or brown mica, grains of yellow sphe 16 and magnetic iron ore. Some crystalline particles of black hor ijlende are also occasionally present. In the Yamaska Moun- tain of the same district, a micaceous rock of this character clumges OF CENTRAL CANADA — PART III. 191 common f similar ceased to iiarciition following mpact or Examples md in tlie 01" wlioUy licli active irons, or of m encloied , are some- )me grains ncciu'vence, itli granitic r "feklspav older tnip urian linip- ,ties a con- a related I, is partly many litli- ,1 an eartliy e, tluit of [l tracliytes ,ral France. ilding large If Granitoid |S of Brouie lable extent lOth eoarse ■r feldsjiais of yellow- is of black ika Monn- 3r changes somewhat in the composition of its feldspar, and becoming strongly hornblendic, passes into a variety of diorite; but the distinction between granitic trachyte and diorite is in many cases purely arti- ficial. ."). Obsidions and Pitchstones : — This division includes lavas and other rock matters of igneous origin which occur in a more or less vitreous or glassy state, and present an essentially feldspathic conii)0- sition. The term obsicHan is usually restricted to grey, green, brown, or black rocks of this character, occurring in actual connection with volcanoes, whether active or extinct. A vai'ieiy containing small spherical secretions of a somewhat pearly aspect is known as Pearl- stone. These rocks break with sharp edges, and the fractured sur- face shows conchoidal markings. Pitchstone occurs chiefly in the form of dykes in trappean districts. It is mostly of a black colour, and pitchlike or resinous aspect, but some varieties are dull -green, ■grey or red. A porphyritic variety, traversed by small veins of agate, occurs near the deserted copper workings on the fslautl of Miohipicoten, Lake Superior ; and some of the dykes and bedded t\\[\)H near Michipicoten Harbour on the mainland, ai)pear to be intermediate in character between pitchstone and ordinary basalt. Although not recognized in Ontario or Quebec, examples of obsidian are not uncommon in British Columbia. 13. Lavas : — These comprise the actual rock-matters which issue in a molten condition from volcanoes. They present vesicular, compact, columnar, porphyritic, and other varieties, and are of two general kinds as regards comi)osition : felds{)athic, and feldspatho-augitic. The first, and by far the more coumion of the two, are composed essentially of feldspar, and are mostly of a light or dark grey colour. They pass into trachytes. The second, composed essentially of feld- spar and augite. are dark-yreeu or black in colour and are uiidis- tinguishable, except by their actual conditions of occurrence, from many traps and greenstones. Examples of the group, as thus defined, are unknown within the limits of Ontario""and Quebec, but occur in British Columbia. V, MINERAL VEINS. In a review of the characters and conditions of occurrence of rock- inasses, the subject of mineral veins cannot be altogether passed over,. k \ 192 MINERALS AND GEOLOGY but the scope of the present work admits only of a general reference to this subject.* Minei'al veins may be defined as cracks or fissures in the Earth's crust, filled or partially filled with stony and metallic matters. In some veins, stony or sparry matters, as quartz or calc spar, are aloiio present ; but these matters are very generally accompanied by metallic sulphides, oxides, or other compounds, and occasionally by nativo metals. The sparry or stony substances are then known as ganyups or veinstones. The more common veinstones comprise : quartz, calc spar, fiuor spar, and heavy spar — two or more of the.se being frequently presetit together. In the higlier part of a vein, frequently to a depth of several fathoms from the surface, the gangue and ores are often in a partially decomposed or earthy condition. A mineral vein thus forms a more or less compressed sheet of mineral matter, extending often to nnknown depths, and being frequently traceable for several miles across a line of country. Some veins are less than an inch bi'oad, whilst others occasionally exceed twenty or even fifty feet in width. Many of the veins containing native silver in the district around Thunder Bay on Lake Supei-ior, ai'e at least twenty feet wide, and some are wider. A vein of calc spai*, carrying galena, at the Frontenac Mining Location in the Township of Loun;li- borough (north of Kingston) is very nearly as wide, although the workable poi'tion is limited to about twelve feet in breadth. As a general rule, however, few veins exhibit a greater average width than three or four feet; and in nearly all cases a vein contracts and expands more or less at different depths, or in different parts of its course. Many veins traverse the enclosing rocks, or "country," almost or quite vertically ; others incline at a greater or less angle, the inclination being commonly termed the " underlie " or " hade ;" and some again run almost horizontally, or like a narrow bed, for certain distances. The sides of a vein are known in mining language as the walls. These are very often separated from the enclosing rock l y a band of brown ochreous matter or gossan, arising from the decomposition of pyritew, or by a layer of clay or other soft or earthy material. This is techni- * Althou(fh true veins are of not uncommon occurrence among Canadian rock-formations, It should be pi imised that manj- of our metalliferous deposits, our iron ores especially, are chiefly present in the form of larfje irregular masses or "stocks." OF CENTRAL CANADA — PART HI. 193 eference Ear til's evs. In re aloiK! metallic y native; (jawjni's artz, calc •equently a tlei>tli e often in )f rainoral frequently veins are twenty or .tive silver •e at least r, carrying of Lougli- [hough the th. As a tvidth than id expands lits course. »st or quite inclination tome again distances. lis. These of brown lof pyrites, is teclmi- jjk-formations, especially, are :ally known as a " selvage." It usually facilitates the woi'king of the vein. A broad selvage of this chai-ac- ter lines the soutli wall of the Fron- tenac vein, referred to above. In inclined veins, the upper wall is ' generally termed the " hanging j wall," and the lower, the "foot wall" J or floor. A and B, in Fig. 104, il- lustrate these positions res})ectively. Fm. 104. ^Mineral veins occur chiefly in mountainous or geologically-disturl>ed districts ; and although present in certain localities among unaltered strata, they prevail mostly in metamorphic regions, 08i)ecially where thf'.se are broken through by eruptive masses and dykes of granitic or tra[)pean rock. In the Provinces of Ontario and Quebec, they occur chiefly in four districts : — First, in the Laureutian oountr}' lying between the Ottawa and Lake Huron, as, more especially, in the counties of Carleton, Lanark, Leeds, Frontenac, Hastings, Peter- borough, and Victoria; secondly, in the allied Huronian strata on the north shore of Lake Huron ; thirdly, in somewhat higher rocks on the shores and islands of Lake Superior; and fourthly, in metamorphic strata of apparently Pre-Cambrian age, in the Eastern Townships and adjoining region south of the St. Lawrence. These districts, as regards their geological relations, are described in Part V. In reference to form and geological position, four diflerent kinds of veins have been recognized. These comprise: — (1) Independent or ordinary veins, consisting of well-defined fissures which pass through rocks of various kinds, and generally hold a more or less straight course, whilst extending at the same time to great depths. In mining localities, several veins of this kind are commonly found to run in the same direction at greater or less distances apart. If crossed by another series of veins, the latter are usually found to carry ores of a different nature. The course of these veins may often be traced by trench-like depressions in the ground, arising from the atmospheric decomposition to which the surface of the vein has been subjected; but in some cases, especially when the gangue consists essentially of quartz, the vein has weathered to a less extent than the surrounding rocks, and thus stands 14 194 MINERALS AND GEOLOGY up in ridge-like form above the surface of the ground. (2) Stock- werka. This term, borrowed fi-om German miners, is used to denoie a series of usually narrow veins, ramifying amongst each other, and uniting occasionally into bunches or pockets of ore. (3) Contad veins. These are ordinary veins lying in immediate contact uitii eruptive masses, or between two different kinds of rock. Very frequently, for example, a band of metalliferous matter is fi und to lie between the edge of a mass of granite or trap and the enclosing stratified rock, in which case it is said to occur in the " contact country" of the two. (4^ Gash veins. These are simply surface clefts or fissures of slight depth or extent. They are commonly filled with galena, and differ usually if not always from ordiiiaiy veins by the absence of veinstones properly so-called. In many cases they form mere strings of metalliferous matter. Attempts have been made to work deceptive veins of this character, in the townsliips of Eramosa, Clinton, and Mulmur. Mineral veins may also be arranged to some extent as regaitls their structure or texture in five groups, as follows: — (1) Coin pad veins. In these, the fissure is filled entirely with a solid and more or less uniform mass of ore. (2) Open i r ins. The fissure, in tlic^e veins, is only partially occupied by mineral matter, open spaces occurring throughout the vein generally. Large cavities or " vugs, ■ often lined with fine crystallizations, occur here and there in veins of various kinds ; but in these open veins, so-called, the insterstices or free spaces are especially numerous. (3) Banded veins. These are filled or lined with distinct bands or zones of different substances, the bands of the two walls corresponding in character, as in the annexed figure. The two outer bands, or those against the walls, may consist, for example, of brown feri'Uginous gossan, the two next of quartz, the two within these, of copper pyrites, succeeded by zinc blende, quartz, calcspar, galena, or other sub- stances, in regular, banded alter- nations. Veins of this kind are exceedingly abundant in many mining districts, but characteristic 1 t Fig. 106. '^jljjy* w ^ OF CENTRAL CANADA — PART 111. 195 examples are rai'e in Canada. (4) Spheroidal Veins. In thcso the ore lies in the gangue in the foi'm of spheroidal masses composoil of concentric layers. Well-defined examples of Canadian occurrence do not appear to have been recorded, (5) Brecciated Veins. These form the great majority of mineral veins , hitherto observed in Canada. The gangne contains angular and other fragments of well-rock, with the metalliferous portions of the vein arranged between and around these, occasionally in more or less distinct layers. The rock-frag ments are often traversed by thin strings of ore. Wheii of large size, they form the so-called " horses " of the miners. Those horses sometimes cause a good deal of trouble by coming in a direct line with the shaft, as happened at the Shuniah vein on Thunder Bay, Lake Superior, and in one of the shafts at the Ives Mine in the Eastern Township of Bolton. Great obscurity prevails with regard to the processes by which vein-fissures have been tilled with their contents ; but, in the majority of cases, several distinct agencies, acting both simultaneously and consecutively, have evidently been concerned in the repletion of these tissures. Some observers have sought to maintaiii that all the various matters found in veins were originally diffused thi'ough the mass of the surrounding' rocks, and were drawn into the fissures by electrical currents passing through these : although they fail to explain how currents of this kind could possibly eflfect the operation in question. Others assume the mineral matters, in veins, to have been extracted from the surrounding rocks by the solvent power of water, and thus to have been giadually carried into the fissure. Many of the sparry, and some of the metallic matters, occurring in veins, may have been derived in this manner from the surrounding rocks ; but the supposed presence of diflfused metallic matters in these rocks, considered generally, is, it must be remembered, entirely hypothetical, and open to many objections. On the other hand, we have undeniable proofs in volcanic and other districts, that metallic matters, in many respects similar to those fcnnd in veins, or capable of being converted into such by known chemic 1 changes and decom- positions, are actually brought from deeply -seated sources, both as sublimed products, and in solution in thermal springs. The weight of evidence, therefore, leads to the inference that the contents of veins generally, are due to endogenous action, rather than to surface ? i 196 MINERALS AND GEOLOGY l! foroes ; or th.vt veins, in other words, have boen filled essentially from below, in this connection, it must be remembered that manv veins penetrate to unknown depths, and have yielded sulphurized or other ores, without being yet exhausted, to the amount of thousiinds of tons. Whilst many products found in veins are probably due in pai't or wholly to sublimation, the great majority of these products would certainly appear to have been deposited from solution : not necessarily in the condition in which thny now appear, but in some other form from which their present condition has Vjeen derived. According to certain theorists, the whole of these bodies have been deposited from aqueous solution, but it is not easy to reconcile facts in all cases with this assumption. Such changes and decompositions as now take i)lace in vcnns, lead to the conversion of many sulphur- ized ores into sulphates, carl)onates, and other oxidized compounds ; but do not bring aV)out, as the above hypothesis would recpiirc the conversion of these latter on the largo scnle into vast bodies of galena, copper i)yrites, arsenical pyrites, and other non-oxidized ores. But if the.se ores, now found in such vast quanities in mineral veins, I'eally originated from soluble sulphates, chlorides, «kc., the latter must undoubtedly have come from some deeply-seated source ; and their conversion into non-oxidized bodies could .:0t have taken place on this enormous scale without the further collaboration of endo- genous agencies. Mineral veins are generally opened by shafts and adits, or by both of these methods combined. In the case of veins with con- siderable underlie, the shafts, or openings from the surface of the ground, are often carried down along the slope of the vein ; but in general, shafts are sunk vertically, and cross- cuts are carried from the sides of the shaft at regular intervals to the intersection of the vein. Galleries ai'8 then driven along the course of the latter at these points, and the slieet of ore lying Fro. 106. m: ,f^ "i OF CENTRAL CANADA -PAtt,T HI. 197 between each pair of galleries or "levels" as these are comiuonly called, is extracted by a system of step-like excavations, technically known as ''stoping." When a vein is nearly vertical in its position, a shaft may of coui'se be carried down to a great. dei)th upon the substance of the vein itself, and the material thus taken out of tlu- shaft will often pay for the sinking of the latter. Shafts are usually rcctangu- jiiv in form, and are not only strongly framed at the sides, at least for a certain depth, but are commonly sub-divided vertically into two or more compartments by brattice-work or planking ; one of these eoiiii)artments being reserved for the nump rods and also for the l)itckets or kibbles used for sending up the ore, or bringing it, in technical j)hraseology, to grass ; and another being fitted with laddeis 01" with a special lifting a])i)aratus for the miners. An adit is a hori- zontal or nearly horizontal gallery driven from the side of sloping or escarped ground, so as to strike the vein at a certain depth from the .surface outcrop of the latter. It serves in many cases, esi)ecially whei'e it opens out on a river bank, or on ground suitable for a tram- way, tkc, as a convenient roadway for bringing out the ore; and if at a sufficiently low level it may greatly facilitate the drainage of the mine, and assist in the ventilation of the works. Where two shafts are .sunk ui)0u the vein, they shoulil be located, if possible, on high and low grouud, respectively, in order to promote ventilation. The ore, when brought to the sui-face, is usuiilly " cobbed ' or hand- dressed by children, and the assorted portions, thus broken up by haimners, are brought into the state of powder by subjection to stamps or crushers. Tho powder is then agitated with water in long narrow troughs or flat circular tubs called "Ituddles," the latter kind l»eing furnished with I'evolving arms or sweeps to which brushes are attached ; or it is shaken up with water in "jiggers " or tubs pro- vided with movable sieves, uncil the metallic particles by reason of their greater weight collect together, and so become se[)arated, more or less thoroughly, from the lighter earthy particles or refuse, com- monly known as waste slimes or tailings. The dressed or concen- trated ore is then ready for the furnace or reducing works. % V i 198 MrNKHALS AND GEOLOGY Veins ot'toii cut or cross each otlicrorarecut byeruptivoilykes. In tliis case the iiitevsected vein is vet'y g(;nerally faulted or dis- ])laced. In mining language, a break of this kind in the con- tinuity of the vein is conunonly termed a "trouble," "heave," or •' thrust," or an " upthrow " or " downthrow " as the case may be. The displacement nuiy be very slight, or it may exceeil Fio. 107. many fathoms ; and great expense is often incurred in seeking for the displaced portion of a vein thus affected. As a general rule, if the intersecting vein or dyke be entered at its hanging-wall, as in working from A to A', Fig. 107, the continuation of the broken vein may be looked for " up-hill ;" whereas, if the interoecting vein or dyke be entered at its foot-wall, or at B', the search for the displaced vein should be made "down-hill." This rule is not without its exceptions, but the exceptions are comparatively rare. In order to ascertain the depth at which an inclined vein or bed of any kind may be reached by vertical sinking at a given depth from itfi outcrop, as at S", for example, in Fig. 108, we have the for- mula ; s = tan i x Fio. 108. vein in degrees or minutes ; and d = the distance between the out- crop and the mouth of the shaft. If \,he ground at the proposed site of the shaft be higher or lower than ».t the outcrop of the vein oi bed, the difference of level must of course be added to or deducted from s, as the case may require. .? .5 , --'u st which a(|natic types necessarily preponderate. The sedimen- tary deposits of former jjeoloj^dcal periods have enclosed in like manner various organic forms peculiar to those periods. In the vcfry lowe>f or earliest formed deposits, it is true, no traces of organic types liave yet b"en met with, hut above these beds, each groiip of strata holds its own characteristic fossils. Regarded })roadly, the higher groups contain the higher organisms ; and nn\ny structural conditions which are now emln-yonic or transitory, were numifested as alult or perma- nent forms of development in tho periods represented liy lower groujis. Type after typo lived through its allotted time, and then died out to be leplaced by other and in general by higher forms of life. 'I'hese facts are discussed more fully in Part IV. of this Essay, in which the leading que.stions connected with the subject of Organic Remains conic under review. For present pui'poses, it will be sufficient to observe that by the careful study and comparison of these remains, geologists have sub-divided the series of rock-masses of which the Earth's ciust or outer portion is composed, into a certain number of so-called F m- mations, — each Formation representing an interval or period in the ancient history of the Earth. These periods are thus made known to us by the various rocks produced by aqueous and other agencie.s during their continuance ; and by the organic lemains, deriv d from the living forms of the periods in question, which are enclosed in these rocks. Each Formation, as already stated, holds its own organic types ; although, when viewed apart from local distinctions, consecutive Formations appear to mei'ge into each other, — as aii ordinaiy historic period blends insensibly with that which precedes and that wliich follows it. This is the case in natural groupings or classifications of all kinds : hard or shar^ ly-defined lines being strictly unrecognized by Nature. The divisions however adopted by geolo- gists, although overlapping as it were at their common boundaiie.s. are distinct enough in the main ; and as some of these divisions are linked together more or h'ss closely by the presence of certain related types of life, as well as by the generMl aV)sence of other types. ;< grouping of Formations into larger divisions, repie.senting longet ■^ f rorks \, liver- lU) IllOlf miinuls, I'diinen- iniumt'i" lowest tOH llHVC ta \wVU • gr()\ii»s iH wliifli [• penim- • 5,q'oni>H, il out i<^ . TllCS." ,'hicli till- liuH COUK' 3 observe jeologists th's crust Hod F M-- in the known asrenties osed ill itH own ,inctioiis. ^ — us an precedes pings 01 strictly 5y yeolo uidaries. sions aie Il related [types. !.. longei ♦V *■ \ X' ^ or CENTRAL CANADA — I'ARl III. 201' ^{eological periods or '• agos," IB eonv»Mitionally adopted, aH in the annexed taliular view. KORMATIOSH OK TUB AN|i|11)/.()U' OH MoiiKHN Auk. MixltM'll l>l'|K>»IU. Pottt-(;laiiiil Fortimtion. Drift or (iliu'iiil Koriiiatlon. F'>RMA'ri<).Mt OK TUB CviNoZnlt .\(1K. I'llori'lic Forirmtlnti, .MicK'fiii' Koriimfloii. Koii'iif Fornmtloii. Cretnteoui Formation. JuraMic Formation. piillMArMNrt OK THK .MKHoZoIC A(1K. TrlttHslc Formation. Permian Formation. Carboniferous Formation, Fdumaii'ins ok tub l'AL,K07.olc A(IK. Devoiilnii Formation. Silurian Formation. Camliriaii Fornmtlon, FORMATIO.NH OK TIIR AllCII.KA.N AOK. Huroninu Formation. , I.anrentian Formation. | Xotes on the above Table. As the rock-formations enumerated in tliis table comprise a known thickness of many thousands of feet, it is evident that tliey can never exliii)it a complete series at any one locality. But they are known to occur in this order, by a comparison of their relative positions at (litVorent places. Thus, in one distiict. we find (in ascending order) the Silurian and Devonian series ; in another, the Devonian and Ciuboniferou.s, and so on. \'l) One or more of several consecutive formations ai'e often want- ing or absent at a given spot. The Carboniferous rocks may thus, in certain districts, be found resting on the Silurian, without the inter- vention of the Devonian series. But the relative positions of these groups are never reversed. The Devonian beds are never found uiult.r tlie Silurian, for example, nor the Cretaceous under the Jur. iisbic. The absence of particular strata, at a given locality, is accounted for by the elevation of the spot above the sea-level during the period to which the strata in question belong ; or otherwise it is exjiliuned by denudation; or by the district having been situated X % IP, PI r '/ 202 MINERALS AND GEOLOGY beyond the area of deposition to which the sedi-nents extended. (Soc some of the preceding obsei-vations under " Formation of SodiincMi- tary Rocks," " Denudation," itc.) (3) A formation of a given age may be rejn-esented in one |)liice by a limestone ; in another, by a sandstone ; in a third, by argil liiec- ous shales, and so on. This will be easily understood, if we roHoot that at the present day tliese different kinds of rock are being forincil simultaneously at different places. Many of our preceding observa- tions b.ave amply illustrated this, but the fact may be rendered still clearer by the accomjjauying diagram. In this sketch, the dark out- ■" line is intended to represent a so ni c- what extended line of coast, with a river debouching into a deep bay. In the latter, the ai-gilla. Fig. 110. ceous Or muddy sedi- ments (a), brought down by the river, may be deposited. At G. we may suppose a granitic headland. The arenaceous or siliceous scili- ments («) derived from the disintegration of this, will be arranged along the shore beyond it, by the set of the current. Finally, at L, we may suj)pose the occurrence of exposed cliffs of limestone, yielding calcareous sediments (c). These various sedimentary matters will lie also in places more or less intermingled, producing rocks of inter- mediate or mixed composition. But these rocks will be shown t) lie of the same period of formation, by the identity of some, at least, of the organic bodies contained in them : although many of the enclosed shells, &c., will necessarily be distinct, owing to the diverse natme of the sediments, the more or less exposed character of the coast, and the varying depths of water prevailing at different places. We might expect, moreover, to find in one and all of these deposits, coins, pieces of potter}--, and other objects of human workmanKhip. proving both their contemporaneous and their recent origin. Hence, the age of a rock, it must be remembered, is in no way indicated l»y mineral composition : sandstones, limestones, ifec, are of all geological periods. (4) From time to time, during the gradual deposition of tliese sedimentary formations, various eruptive rocks were diiven up laisHafirirt^^iU .-^\^ OF CENTRAL CANADA — PART III. 203 nuiongst them, ))roducing (in general) chemical or mechanical altera- tions of greater or less extent. This action is still going on, as seen in volcanic phenomena. (,')) It is very genei-ally assumed that the comj-onent matters of the earth and other cosmical bodies existed originally in a dift'used nebulous condition, and gradually became condensed or solidified after passing through a state of igneous fluidity. And it is assumed, further, that this early molten condition of the earth is still retained in subterranean depths. This view — proposed by Immanuel Kant .and maintained by Laplace — is necessarily b 'pothetical, but it is supported by many collateral facts, and lias been very generally iuiniitted.* If it be in the main correct, the rock-matters resulting from the first consolidation of the earth's surface must have been more or less akin to lavas and other volcanic products, although probably of a somewhat denser character from the greater density of the atmosphci-e then existing. No traces of these early lava-like rocks are now, howevei-, visible. They must have been converted, long since, into other products, or have been re-melted and re-con- solidatod, proliably time after time, beneath increasing thicknesses of superincumbent deposits. Sooner or later, after the first process of consolidation had set in, the continued radiation of terrestrial h at would allow the condensation of water to take place on the cooling surface of the earth. Then, a new ' set of phenomena woiild arise. The more exposed rock-surfaces would be worn down by aqueous and atmospheric agencies, and the materials thus ol)tained would form over the sea-bed a gradually increasing thickness of stratified deposits —most of which would undoubtedly be converted by subterranean agencies into crystalline or metamorphic formations. The earliest known rocks — those which underlie all other sti'ata — are of this metamorphic character. Thoy form vast beds of gneiss, mica-slate, hornblende-rock, chlorite-slate, quartzite, and other crystalline rocks, interstratified here and there with beds of crystalline limestone and dolomite, and are largely represented in Ontai'io and Quebec (see Part V.) In some of their strata, within the last few years, some \ % * "There are the strongest grounds for believing that during a certain period of its history tlie earth was not, nor was it fit to he, the theatre of life. Whether this was ever a nelmlous period, or merely a molten period, does not much matter: and if we refer to the nehulous condition it is because the probabilities are really on its side."— Prokkssoh Tv.sdall : Address before the British Association : Liverpool, 1S70. i. 204 MIVEUALS AND GEOLOGY obacui-e and fragmentary examples of a supposed Protozoan, belong- ing or related to the Forminifera, have been discovered in Canada and at several European sites. A special genus has been framed for their reception under the name of Eozoon* ; and the crystalline strata in which they occur, and which were formerly classed as formations of the Azoic age, are now generally known as " Architiun strata." (6) Viewed broadly, the rock-representatives of the earlier portion of the Palaeozoic age — comprising ordinaiy slates, sandstones, lime- stones, (kc. — are characterized, more especially, by the presence of graptolites, cystideans, and trilobites, associated with tabulated corals, a great abundtince of bi-achiopods (including species of the still surviving genus livgida), and many examples of orthoceras — an extinct cephalopod with straight shell, and simple, unlobed septa. These earlier Pakeozoic formations are also distinguished, negatively, by the general absence or extreme rarity of land plants and veite- brated animal remains. The middle and higher portions of ihe Paheozoic series — including the Upper Devonian, Carboniferous, and Permian formations — contain, on the other hand, the remains of an abundant terrestrial vegetation, especially characterized by the pres- ence of ft-rns and large equiseta (ccdamites), accompanied by peculiiiv t3'pes (lepidodenclra, sigUlarioi, &c.), some of wliich apparently indicate extiiK transition groups between the liigher acrogens and the gymnosperms of existing nature. In these higher Palajozoio strata also, the remains of cuii-assed and other ganoid fishes, all of heterocercal type, occur more or less commonly ; together with numerous tabulated corals, crinoids, brachiopods, and cephalopods, related generally to earlier or lower forms — whilst graptolites and cystideans are no longer met with, and trilobites die out at the base * Examples of the Eozoon Canadense were first discovered in the Laurentian strata of Ontario by the late Uii. Wilson, of Perth, and others svere subsequently found in the crystal- line limestone of Grand Calumet Island on the Upper Ottawa, by the officers of the Canadian Survey. Although their organic origin was strongly suspected at the time by Sir William Logan, it was not definitely admitted until the publication of Dr. Dawson's microscopic researches, followed by those of Dr. CARrKNTBR in England. By many observers, howe\er, the organic nature of these remains is still contested, and it cannot certainly be regarded as fully proved. One point, and a great point, in its favour, is the undoubted resemblance of the better preserved Eozoon structures to examples of Paleozoic Stroniatopora. On the other hand, it is somewhat remarkable that no other form of undoubted organic structure sbonld as yet have been discovered in these Laurentian strata or in the less crystalline limestontb of the succeeding Huronian series. r*-uphytonj cauda-gallL Climactichnites Wilsoni (Loijan). Portatfe-Chenmnjj Formation, Potsdam Forniatioii. with numerous transverse furrows. Protichnites consists of a oentral groove, more or less interrupted, with on each side, at nearlv i-egular Fio. 117. distances apart, a series of small pits or indentations, varying in number in diflferent impressions, or being occasionally absent.* * The central grroove, by those who consider these impressions to be crustacean tracks, is supposed to have been made by the caudal spine of the creature, and the lateral pit marks by its claws. But these pit marks differ in number in different impressions, and as the number of the feet in the Crustacea is a very important and constant character, Professor Owen has 'S r' 2U MiNKUALS AND (iEOI.OCJV Of the microscojiic forms, hero separutod under the nuine of Aficro. phytcH from the Alr/a; proper, the (liatoms only iiro of palffiontological interest — representatives of the otlior groups being unknown, or only doubtfully known, in the fossil state. The diatoms, which abouml in modern seas and in most fresh waters, sooroto a siliceous test or shell. Umler the microscope*, they present circular, stellate, triangu- lar, sigmoid, and other shapes. Many siliceous deposits of cainozoic been forced to refer the iin|irc»Hioii8 to four or live distinct Hpeclcs— one iniprexHion helnjc with- out tlie intcrni iiideiitatiotiH. An stited by the writer more than ten yeiirs auo (Canniiinn Journitl, IH77 ; alto, Annalnnf Sat. IliHlnrii, of tliu Siune year), tlie iisnociation of no rii:iii\ ditfiTcnt species, if tlie Mupposeil tracks licrcailyof anitiiiil nriifin, is at least a very reinark.illi' circuMistancc ; one, indeed, that iniKlit cause doubt in unprejudiccit minds as to real natun of these im))re8sion8. On the other hand, there is really nothing; in them to conflict with tlir view that they may be simply the impressiniis of laritc fucoids. Many of the existing MvUin.- itpeniKr (,'row to a threat lentfth : and in many i;<'nera with (latteni'd or rii>and-like fronils tliiTi' is a well-detlned midril), siitfliietitly hard to make a distinct impression when the frond is pressed upon damj) sand. The lateral indont.itions of our Potsdam examples may have lii-tii made by (froups of spores or sporangia arranjfed (as seen in many existing sea-weedg) alonu tlit Bides of the fronds. Kven apart from these, the air-bladders in many al^'tD ore capable of mokinjf \ery distinct impressifjus on moist saiie fucoidal, the otherwise remarkable character of these lateral pit- marks, in differing in number and grouping in different impressions, becomes ensily explaineil without the necessity of liaving recourse to imaifinary specific distinctions. In the impressions in which they do not appear, it may be inferred that the fucoid had already scattered its spores, or that the development o' the latter had not taken place, when the frond was cast upon the ripjtle-marked shore of the old Potsdam sea. The 8upi)08ed fucoidal origin of these impressions would not, I confess, however, have been thus advanced, were it not for their association or connection in at least one locality— tlie vicinity of Perth, in Eastern Ontaiio- with impressions of an analogous character to which an animal origin can scaicely be attributed on any rational grounds. These are the impressions known as Climactichniti'ii. It is probable that the supposed animal origin of these lattir impreesions would never have been conceived, but for their general relations to the I'rutkh- nitcH impressions. They may be described, generally, as being in the form of a band, several feet in length, although clea -y fragmentary, w ith a width of from live to six inches. In their general dimensions they ag.ee, therefore, very closely with the J'rutichnitcs impressions. But they differ from the latter in being traversed transversely by a series of narrow parallel ridges, about an inch and three-ciuarters apart, and by having a kind of beaded edge or border —the impression, as remarked by Sir William Logan, thus somewhat resembling a rope-ladiier, whence the name CUxiactichnitcs. In some examples there is a central groove or ridije running roughly parallel with the length of the impression. The points, here, to which attention should be chiefly directed, are, first, the presence of these numerous transverse ridges ; secondly, their constancy, and the uniform clearness of their outline, throughout the impression ; and thirdly, the unbroken continuity of the impres- sion throughout its entire length. It must be evident that there are only two ways— both exceedingly improbable— by which these impressions could by any possibility have been made by any animal. If the impression be really a track, the animal must either have had, or have been able to assume, the form of a complete sphere or cylinder with ribbed surfoce, and it must have possessed sufHcient internal force to roll itself over and over throughout a length of or CKNTRAL CANADA — PART IV. 216 caiiiozoic mill recoiit ug(! cdnHiHt iiliuoHt ontiroly of theHe luiuute foriiiH, The woU-knowu "Tripoli," uhihI uh a polishing iiuiteniil, Ih of tliih clmrac- ter. ' 'iatoiuiiL-eoiis depositn were for- iiieily called " iiifuHoiial marls," di- iitoms having been at tii-Ht regarded as iiiiiiiiid infusoria. Fig. 118 shews a few (jf these forms, highly magnified. In Cunaila, diatonificeous lieds are all l)ut unknown. The only iccorded example (Rep. Geo). Survey, ISO.S) is in the val- ley of the Petewiihweh, in the Up[)er Ottawa region ; hut a bed of this nature ■■''"• "**■ IS said to occur at Westhury m ( 'ompton <,„,„,,,, „,„,,,„>•.■,/. County, Quebec. Thin sections of chert nodules from our corniferous (Devonian) limestone, have also shewn the presence of diatoms. Acro;/em : — Whilst in Tiiallogens, the plant, so to say, is pnicti- Cidly all leaf or all stem, and growth takes place from no definite point, in acrogens there is a distinct difierentiation of stem and leaf, and the growth is acrogenous or terminal. The division falls into two subdivisions : Cellular Acrogena and Vascnlnr Acror/eiis. In cellular acrogens, the plant, as in the thallogens, is composed of cellular tissue only. The sub-division comprises : C/inrnceif, Jfossen, and Ilepaticaceif^. Fos.sil representatives of these (with the exception of the " nucules," of certain charte) are exceedingly i-are, and of no s[)ecial interest. The nucules of chara' (fresh-water plants) are minute seed-like organs, encased in five spirally-twisted filan»ents, the many fcft ; or otherwise the creature imist have moved forward hy a series of spasinodic jerks or jumps, alightinj,' always in an exact line with the eii. 107), the one impression simply conceals or lies over the other at these points, as would happen if two fucoid-fronds, or other similar bodies, were drifted together to a sandy shore, and were there covered simultaneously with sediment. In attributing: these impressions to lar|,'e fucoids, we encounter, on the other hand, no real riitficulty. Many algfe, it is well known, present transverse furrows ; and a salient examjile of this character may be seen in our Arthrophycus Harlani, so abundant in many of the Medina and Clinton beds. ; I i.«. liim^t' 216 MINERALS AND GEOLOGY free ends of wliich form a kind of coronal on the top of the nncule. These little bodies, when first found as fossils, were taken for forani- inifera and called " gyrogonites." They occur in Triassic and many higher (especially Cainozoic) fresh-water deposits. Vascular acrogens comprise the more typical acrogenous forms, those in which vascular tissue is present. They include : Equisetacea, Ferns and Ophioglossacece, Ili/dropterulee or Rhizocarps, Lycopodiaceic, and LepidodendracecB. Tiie latter are usually placed with the lyco- podiaceae, but although more or less closely allied to these, their true affinities are still uncertain ; and their comparatively large size and other characters warrant their separation as a distinct and higher group. All are extinct; and their remains are apparently confined to Palseozoic strata. The Equisetacece comprise only one living genus, Equiseium, com- mon species of which are familiarly known as " Dutch rushes," horsetails, &c. The Equiseti form hollow-jointed stems, arising from creeping rhizomes or root-stalks, with, in fertile examples, a terminal cone or spike containing the sporangia. The stem in most cases is longitudinally striated, and the joints (in which, more especially, silica is deposited) are surrounded by a toothed sheath of uniteil Fio. 119. Calamites inornatun (Da.'-on). Virtaire-ci^emung Formation. leaves or scales, and also in some examples by a whorl of slender branchlets. Fossil forms are chiefly represented bv Calamites, although undoubted equiseti are known in carboniferous and higher strata. Calamites are abundant in many Devonian and Carboniferous beds. They occur usually in the form of stem -fragments (or impres- sions of these), transversely jointed and longitudinally furrowed, and as a rule more or less flattened or compressed. These stems vary from about an inch, or less, to more than a foot in diameter, the average width being from two or three to about six inches. Fig. 119 represents an example of a oalamite from the dark bituminous shales (Devonian) of Cape Ipperwash or Kettle Point in the town- OP CENTRAL CANADA — PART IV. 217 ship of Bosanquet on Lake Huron. Other examples occur in the Devonian rocks of Gaspe. A*, the latter locality, some impressions of radiating leaves (annularia laxa, Dawson) belonging probably to a related type of plant, have also been found. The narrow radiating leaves (often attached to furrowed stems) known as AsterophyUitesf and which are so abundant in many Carl)ojiiferous and iii some Devonian strata, have not yet been recognized within the area of Ontario and Quebec. They are commonly regarded as calamite leaves, but on very uncertain evidence. Ferrs (Filices), although so abundant in the higher Devonian, Carboniferous and other strata, mostly in the form of leaf or frond impressions, have not as yet been discovered in a fossil condition within the limits of the Provinces referred to in the present work. The IlydropteridcB or Rhizocarps, sometimes known as water-ferns, comprise merely a few fresh-water forms (Marsilea, Piluria, Salvinia, ifcc.) without fossil i-epresentatives in our strata. The LycopodiacecH of existing Nature coujprise a small number of inconspicuous forms belonging to both land and fresh-water types. The former (lycopodium, selaginella) are small, moss-like cryptogams, (lie lotomously branching, and with narrow, more or less clasping or imbricating leaves. The aquatic types (Isoetes) are rush-like forms. True lyco{)ods occur in Devonian au'' higher strata ; arid some apparently related forms from the Devonian rocks of Gaspe have been referred by Sir William Dawson to this division. The principal of these form the genus Psilophyion (Fig. 120), represented by frag- mentary impressions of nai-row, stem-like plants, circinate (as in ordinary ferns) at their terminal points. The leaves are very small and thorn-like. The LepidodendracecR, represented typically by the fossil genera, Lepidodendron and Sir/Ularia, are entirely Palaeozoic. They consist, in most cases, of casts or impressions of tree-stems, usually frag- mentary, but found occasionally in lengths of more than thirty or forty feet. The lepidodendraceai, proper, are regarded as closely allied to the lycopods, whilst thr sigillariaj are thought by some authorities to constitute a higher type of vegetation, more nearly allied to the cycads. The two, however, are very closely alike,* and * I:: : eir dlchotomons branching, their supposed leaves, their leaf-scars, woody structure, roots, ^ , See a comparative tabular view of these homologies by Proiessor Schimpfer, in Zittel's Handbuch der Palaeontologie (1880), p.p. 209, 210. 218 MINERALS AND GEOLOGY they appear in cei'tain intermediate forms ( Lycopodendron vasculare, Sig'dlaria De/rancii, S. tesselata, »fec.) to niei'ge into each otlier, Typically, the sigillarije have the outer surface marked with strongly- detined, longitudinal ribs and furrows, whilst these are absent in the lepidodendra ; but ribs are also absent in many sigillarise, at least upon the outer surface : whence the two groups cos- take and acostatie of the latter, as commonly adopted. The oval, rhombic, or other shaped impressions on the stem-surface of both types, indicate the original sites of leaves, and are thus known as "leaf-scars." Within these, generally towards the up})er part, lie in most cases, three small indentations known as " vas- cular scars," but in some genera only one is present. Typically, in lepidodendra the central vascular scar is more pronounced than the lateral soars ; whilst in sigillarife the reverse of this occurs, or the central scar may be alto- gether wanting. Veiy probably these extinct types represent con- necting links between the higlier cryptogams and the gymnosperins of existing Nature. Remains of lepidodendroids are unknown in Ontario, but a species of lepidodendron (Fig. 121) occurs in the Devonian rocks of Gasiie, Fio. 120. Psilnphjitum princcpn (Dawson).'*/', elegann. (Id.) Devonian : Gaspe. FiQ. 121. Lepidodendron Gc.npianum (Dawson), Devonian : Gaspe. together with impressions of long, narrow, parallel- veined leaves referred to Cordaites* (Fig. 1 22). * Some of the more characteristic lepidodendroid and sigillarioid fossils of Devonian mhI Carboniferous roclts, are comprised in the following- synopsis : 1. Lepidodendron .•—Stem-forms, often of jjreat length, bifurcating, the surface marked with oval, cordiform, or rhomboidal leaf-scars. Upper Silurian (?), Devonian, Carboniferou.s Piirmian. 2. Lcpidostrobus : — Oval or cylindrical bodies with more or less distinctly he.xagonal surface- markings. Supposed " fruit cones " of lepidodendroids, Dev., Carb. 3. Corrfrti7c« .—Long-pointed leaves with comparatively broad base and parallel venation- Supposed leaves of lepidodendroids. OF CENTRAL CANADA— PART IV. 219 Jevonwii PHANEROGAMS. All flower-bearing vegetaV)le forms belong to this division ; but in many, the flowers are exceedingly inconspicuous, being destitute of corolla and other parts of the floral enve- lope 01' psrianth, and thus reduced to parts directly concerned in the production of seed. The phanerogams fall into two principal series : Gymnosperms and Angiosperms. In the first, the seeds are "naked," that is, tliey are not developed within a special ovary ; and these types present in other re- spects certain peculiarities of organization which, notwithstanding the exogenous struc- ^^^ ^^o tui'e of the wood, render them more or less Cordaites anfiitoti/nUa (Dsiwson). , . 1 1 • 1 T 1 Devonian : Gaspo. akin to the higher cryptogams. In the an- see prece. Stigviaria ;— Sten-.-like casts with irregular, more or less rounded, surface-markings. Supposed roots of sigillariie and lepidodcnilra. m 220 MINERALS AND GEOLOGY Fio. 123. Circular discs of conifer- ous wood. within the limits of arboreal vegetation, although certain types are confined to special localities. Fossil examples date from the Devo- nian (or perhaps Upper Silurian period). Those of Carboniferous and Jurassic strata are thouglit to have been closely allied to the Araucaria;, now limited to Australia and the more southeru portions of South America. Pines and fiis, proper, first appear in Lower Cretaceou sheds, ami are lai'gely present in the Upper Cretaceous and Lower Cainozoic brown-coal deposits througli- out the North-West Territories and British Columbia; whilst juni- pers, yews, and gnetacese are comparatively modern types. In the Devonian rocks of Gaspd some casts of comparatively large stems have been referred by Sir J. W. Dawson to coniferai, under the name of Prototaxites, but this view is disputed by other authorities. Angiosperms : — The plants of this subdivision, as explained above, comprise all flowering types in which X/he seeds are enclosed in an ovary. They fall into two leading series : Monocotyledons and Dico- tyledons. In the first, as the name implies, the embryo-plant has but one cotyledon or seed-leaf ; whilst in the second, the embryo has two cotyledons. Monocotyledons : — These (formerly known as endogens) comprise grasses, lilies, palms, and other representatives with (typically) straight-veined leaves, flowers composed of parts in threes or sixes, and wood made up of irregularly disposed vascular bundles. Obscure examples are cited from Carboniferous strata, but the earliest undoubted examj)les are Mesozoic. No fossil examples occur in the strata of Ontario or Quebec. Dicotyledons : — In these plants, the leaves are typically net-veined, the flowers composed of parts in fives or fours, or multiples of these numbers, and tne woody stem made up of rings of vascular bundles traversed by medullary rays. The greater number of the flowering plants, and all the trees (conifers excepted) of temperate regions belong to this subdivision. Fossil examples appear first in Lower Cretaceous strata. In Canada so far as regards the Provinces referred to in this book, the only fossil examples consist of modern leaves. &c., as those of populua balsamni/era, and our common species of OF CENTRAL CANADA — PART IV. 221 maple, oak, and other trees — impressions of which occur in many Post-Cainozoic clays, shell-marls, calcareons tufas, &,c., as at Green's Creek ou the Ottawa, and elsewhere, at numerous localities, in both Ontario and Quebec. ANIMAL REMAINS. The forms of the Animal Kingdom may be classed under nine leading divisions or so-called sub-kingdoms, namely: 1. Protozoa; 2. Polystoinata ; 3. C(elenterata ; 4. Ech'inodermata ; 5. Vermes ; 6. Arthropoda; 7. Molhisca ; 8. Tttnicata ; 9. Vertebrata. SUB-KINGDOM I. PROTOZOA. This sub-division — apart from a few fossil representatives — com- prises a numbei of minute, and in great part microscopic, types, consisting of gelatinous sarcode-matter, destitute of true tissues and special organs, and either naked, or protected by an external test or shell of a horny, calcai"eous, or siliceous natui'e. Nearly all are atjuatic, but some few are internal parasites. They have no true body-cavity, the sarcode-matter fhsorbing nutriment ti.ough its entire substance, although in some of the higher forms (Infusoria) certain portions of the body are more permeable than other parts — an approach towards an alimentary canal being thus indicated.* The Protozoa admit of a sub-division into three natural groups : — Pseudopodifera, in which the body substance is extensible into long or short pseudopodia (see preceding note) ; Gregarina, entozoic types, pseudopodous only at an early stage of existence ; and Ciliata, including the ordinary infusorial forms, furnished with long or short cilia, or, in one section, with retractile tubular suckers. Of these three groups, that of the Pseudopodifera alone presents fossil representatives. This group includes four classes : 1 and 2, Monera (?) and Amcebina, both soft-bodied and without fossil forms ; 3. Foramini/era, mostly with calcareous shell, and long, anastomos- * The amceba of our ponds and ditches will convey a good idea of a typical protozoan. Under the microscope, this is seen to consist of a small gelatinous mass which possesses the power of extending itself into short irregular projections, technically known as pseudopodia. By the aid of these it moves along and captures passing infusoria or particles of nutrieeous matter, over which the body closes until digestion is effected. The creature thus improvises a a temporary stomach. In actinophryg, a related form, often found in rain puddles, gutters, Jtc, the pseudopodia are long and thin, and regularly radiated. w 222 MINERALS AND GEOLOGY ing pseudopodia* ; and 4, Radiolaria with siliceous, highly foraniiii- ated test as regards the more tyi)ical forms. Remains of Foramini/era, all belonging to living species, were detected some years ago in the leda clay formation (immediately above the true drift deposits, see Part V.) by Sir J. W. Dawson in the vicinity of Montreal, and at Beaujjort, near Quebec. The most com- mon form is the Pohjstomella (or Nonionina !). shown at B in the following highly magnified figure. Another, but much less common form, „ ,„, from Beauport, observed by the writer in some Fio. 124. r ' J ^ B Poii/^tmiielia (or No- Sandy matter in the interior of a fossil bttlanus, is nioniiia'.') uiiibilicata. , , » t, • • p m . t i* ; A Textniari,, (cnria- s^^^wn at A. It IS a species of Texuforia : a livni- hUinO- genus, dating from the Carboniferous epoch. In addition to these essentially microscopic forms found in our post-cainozoic deposits, some comparatively gigantic types, refened rightly or wrongly to the foraminifera, have been discovered in our Archtean and Palaeozoic (Cambrian and Lower Silurian) rocks. These comprise, chiefly, the Eozwn of Dawson, ih^t ArcJueocyathm and some related forms together with the ^asceolus of Billings, and the Receptaculites of Ferdinand Roemer. The true nature of these fossil torms, however, is exceedingly obscure. The Eozoon is I'egarded by Mobius, King, and other high authorities, as entirely of inorganic origin, notwithstanding the able meraoirs of Dawson and Carpenter in defence of its assumed foraminiferous character. It occurs, with us, in the crystalline Lauren tiau strata of North The Foraminifera may be sub-divided, practically, as in the foUowinj,' synopsis :— Group L — Imper/orata : Body -covering or shell with single external opening for passaire of pseudopodia. §1. Chitonosa: With chitonous (or indistinct) body-covering : Fam. 1. Gromidfe (e.ff., Gromia, Lieberkuhnia). § 2. Arenacea : With body-covering made up of agglutinated sand-grains, &c. Fam. 2. Litxiolidce (e.g., Lituola, SaccaminaV § 3. Porcellanea : With calcareous, non-foraminated, porcelain-like shell. Fam. 3. Miliolido! (e.rj., Cornuspira, Miliola, &c.). Group 11.— Perforata : with distinctly foraminated shell : § 4. Vitrea : Shell more or less distinctly hyaline ; calcareous ; foraminated : Fam. 4. Lagenidce: Shell with very minnte foramina (e.g., Lagena, Crislel- laria, &c.). Fam. 5. Globigerinidce : torMnina. comparatively large; shell thin (e.;i., Textilaria, Globigerina, &c.). Fam. 6. Ninnmulinidce : foramina comparatively large; shell solid (t'.g., Nummulina, Fusulina, &c.). OF CENTUAL CANADA — PART IV, 223 nioniua Fio. 12,-). Pasceolun. Trenton Fornin. Ha.stings, and elsewhere, in the form of concentric, wiivy, partially constricted or irregular layers, made up of calcitt* or dolomite with intervening layer.s or areas of serpentine. The more jjerfcct examples are of circular shape, and vary in diameter from three or four inches to nearly a foot. Arch(foci/at/iiiH is cyathiform in shape, much resembling many corals and some sponges, to the latter of which groups it was ut tirst (and ])rol)ably correctly) referred. It occurs in the Potsdam and Calcifcr- ous formations (see Part V".) of Eastern Quel)ec. Pasceulus (Fig. 125) forms oval or small glolnilar masses, an inch or two in diameter, witli the surface covered with hexagonal markings. It occurs in the Trenton (Lower Silurian) formation of Ottawa. Keceptnculites ))resents shallow, saucer-like or circular forms, often a foot or more in diameter. The surface, as shewn in Fig. 125, is di'ided into small, rhombic areas by tine (uKually somewhat dotted) lines, curving in opposite directions, like the lines on "engine-turned" watch-cases, from a cen- tral root-like nucleus. It was at first placed with Ddctijlopora, now regarded as a calcareous fucoid. It occurs in our Lower Silurian strata, both in Central Canada and in ManitoV)a. The fourth group of the Pseudopodijh'ous Protozoa, the siliceous- shelled Radiolaria, also known as Polycystina, have not as yet been recognized in Canadian strata, although their remains in a fragmen- tary state probably occur with sponge spicules, »tc., in some of our postcainozoic deposits. Fio. 12(i. licccptacidites. Lower Silurian. SUB-KINGDOM II. POLVSTOMATA OR SPONGIDA. The representatives of this division are aquatic and mostly marine organisms, consisting of ciliated gelatinous matter, with internal cavity traversed by numerous inhalent pores or canals, and having one or several outlets or oscula. In the great majority of sponges, the gelatinous matter is strengthened by a tibrous, horny framework ¥ 224 MINERALS AND GEOLOGY •t (tlie sponge of commerce), or by spicules or a spiciilar-skeleton of silica or of carbonate of lime. The spicules are of various forms — mostly needle-like, or three-pointed, anchor-like, irregularly-branching, or stellate ; and the shape, and in some cases the arrangement, of these spicules is found to be a more or less constant character, whilst the outer form of the sponge is exceedingly variable. Hence, the modern classification of sponges is based essentially on spicular char- acters ; but these, in fossil examples, are as a rule of somewhat difficult observation. Occasionally, they may be made out if the sponge be dissolved in dilute acid ; but this method of observation is very frequently inapplicable from the entire body of the sponge having become silicified by fossilization. The internal sti'uctures can then only be detected by the microscopic examination of thin slices or chippings (ground down with emery powder on a cast-iron plate) under an object glass of tolerably high power. Sponges are thus commonly classified as in the annexed table : I. Myxospori'/ire — gelatinous, only. II. Fibrosponyice — with horny framework, or separate or united siliceons s})icules, or both. III. Calcisponyw — with calcareous spicules. Classes II. and III. are sub-divided further into families — as (in Class II.) Ceraosponguha (with horny framework, sometimes con- taining simple spicules) ; MonactinelliJce (with simple, unbranched siliceons spicules) ; Tetractinellidee (with siliceous four-pronged spicules) ; Lithistidce (with branching, often united, spicules) ; and Hexactinellidce (with six-armed siliceons spicules). The Calcispongicf fail into : Aacones (with thin •• wall," and regularly-arranged three- rayed and other calcareous spicules) ; Leucones and Phareirones (with thick wall, traversed by irregularly-branching canals, and with scattered or united spicules) ; and Sycones (with thick wall, tra\erhcl by radiating canals, and with regularly-arranged spicules). The fossil sponges, or bodies regarded as soonges, hitherto found in the strata of Ontario and Quebec, are very few in number, and all are more or less obscure in character. The principal comprise: Stromatopora ; Archeocyathus (already mentioned under the foram- inifera, but which is i)robably a calcareous sponge of the order Sycones); Eoapongia ; &Tid Astylosporrgia. OF CENTRAL CANADA — PAKT IV. •J 25 n of silica I — mostly ching, or , of these er, whilst [ence, tlie iular chiir- somowhat out if the irvatiou is he sponge ictures can thin slices iron plate) Stromatopora ia of not uncommoa occurrence in our Silurian for- mations. It has been referred to tlie Foramini/era, tlie Sponges, the Zoantharia and the Hydro-.oa. It forms hemi- spherical or more or less irregular masses, often many inchfs in diameter, made up of numerous concentric, wavy iamellre. Our most common species is the S. rugosa, found especially in the Trenton (including the Black River) formation of various parts of Ontario and Quebec. Another closely related species S. concentrica occurs in the Niagara formation. Fid. 1-27. StriDiiatii/inrn ru'iDHd. Tretitoii Formation. Archeocyathus occurs in expanding, beaker-like or horn-shaped forms, with deep central cavity, the sides of which are marked with what appear to be the openings of radiating canals. The form has thus a general resemblance to a Zaphrentls or other cyathiform coral. Species have only been found, at present, in the Pots(Uvm and Cal- ciferous formations of the Straits of Belle Isle and the Mingan Islands of Eastern Quebec. Eospongia is mostly pyriform or siib- globular in aspect, with central depression and radiating j)ores. Sjjecies occur in the Chazy formation of the Mingan Islands. Astylospongla occurs in small, globular or sub-globular forms, without a central cavity, or with only indications of this ; but with radiating lines or pores at the somewhat flattened upper portion, and without any signs of a stem-attachment at the under side. Species liave been found in the Trenton and Niagan formations, but are of compara- tively rare occurrence. SrH-KlNGPOM .li. C(eLENTERATA. The ty[)ical ccelenterates are distinguished from lower forms by the possession of a distinct body-cavity with single mouth-opening ; and from higher forms, by the absence of a distinctly sejiarated stomach — the body-cavity and stomach being practically identical. The mouth-opening is surrounded by tentacles. All cu3lenterate8 are aquatic types. They may be classified conveniently, as shewn in the annexed tabular view : 16 I 226 MINERALS AND GEOLOGY A. Without natatory cilia : A.' Stoniach-CHvity completely identical with body-cavity; (i.) Without internal calcareous corallum : Class I. llydrozoa. iii.) With internal calcareous corallum : Class II. ITydrocoralla. A.- Stomach partially separated fi'om body-cavity : (i.) Mouth-opening with eight fringed tentacles : Class III. Crossocoralla or Alcyonaria. (ii.) Mouth-opening with numerous simjde tentacles . Class IV. Anthocorallu or Zoaiitharia. B. With natatory cilia : Class V. Ctenophora* HYDROZOA. This class, as here defined, is composed of soft-bodied aquatic types, without internal stony "coi'allum."t In some of its representatives, however, a chitonous or hoi'ny, cellular support is present. Tlie class may be sub-divided broadly into the following orders : — 1. Hydrida (e.g., the fresh- water Hydra); 2. Ilydromedusce (e.y., Tubidaria, Sertulaiia, &c., and extinct Graptolites ) ; 3. Discomedimf (e.g., the true Medusce, Rhizostoma, &c.) ; 4. Lucernarida (e.g., Lvcernaria, «fec.) ; and 5. Siphonophora (e.g., Physalia, Velella, itc). Of these, the Hydrida, Lucernarida, and Siphonophora, have no fossil representatives. The Discomedusce, being entirely soft-bodied, gelatinous types, are most rare in the fossil state ; but their impres- sions have been occasionally found in Mesozoic rocks, as in the lithographic slates of Solenhofen in Bavaria. The remaining Order, that of the Hydromedusce, represented by the living sertularians, ic, contains, on the other hand, an extinct group of forms, the Grapto- lites, of great palseontological interest. These forms are exclusively of lower palaeozoic age, and are typically characteristic of Silurian strata. Graptolites : — The extinct forms, thus known, were apparently * An aberrant group, forming a passage-group into the echinodermata. Fossil representa- tives are unknown. t The Milleporidce are Hydrozoids with secreted calcareous corallum, and should thus h placed with the Hydrocoralla, as in the present classification. See page 229. OF CENTRAL CANADA — PART iv. 227 ivity : cles iitic types, ientatives, ent. The rders :— 1. usee (e.g., icomedustf iila (e.g., lella, &c.). have no jft-bocUeil, ir impres- as in tlie ing Order, rians, i'C, e Grapto- xclusively f Silurian apparently Isil represeiita- Ihould thus h free-floating marine types, living in colonies of inilivltluals which secreted in conunon a horny or chitonous cellular support. The latter, in a more or less fragmentary condition, has alone been preserved, forming markings or impressions, mostly in argillaceous slates. It is technically known as the " stipe." Most commonly it presents a narrow, liiu'ar shap(^, " toothe>l " or serrated along one or botii of its edges. Frequently, those linear sti|)es l)ifurcate, and in some forms (^Rastrites, &,c.) become partially enrolled or even .^spiral, and a.ss\ime in others a leaf-like form. Occasionally, the lateral serratures are obliterated by transverse comjiression. These serra- tures are the mouths or openings of minute cells, and thus much resemble those of modern sertularians. They are pointed or even mucronate in some genera, and obtuse in others. A somewhat prominent thread-like line nins up the centre of the stipe (or along the outer edge in the forms with one row of serratures) and often projects beyond the stipe. This thread-like line is known as the axis. Where its projecting extremity, or in bifurcating forms the united extremities of two axes, forms a sharp or blunt point, this is known as the "radicle" or "sicula." In some examples from the Quebec slates of Point Levis, several bifurcating stipes radiate from a common centre around which there a})pears to be a thin connecting membrane or supposed " float." In the leaf-like forms from this locality, as first pointed out by Professor Hall, of Albany, two, or more properly four, stipes were united originally in a cruciform mode of structure, although now generally separated. Graptolites may be arranged under five groups. These comprise : (1) Monoprionidians* with single stipe celled on one margin only (e.(/., Monograptus, Spirograptus, Rastrites) ; (2) Dichoprionidiansi with dichotomously-branched stipe, celled on one margin, only {e.g., Didymograptus, Tetragraptus, Loganograptus, «fec., — all Lower Silurian) ; (3) Metaprionidifms,f stipe bifurcating, with single row of cells on the separated portions of the forks, and a row on each margin where the forks come together (e.g., Dicranograptus, Lower Silurian) ; (4) Diprionidians, with cells on each side of stipe (e.g.^ Diplograptus, Climacograptus, Phyllograptus) ; and (5) Retioprioni- dians, with comparatively broad, bi-serrated, stipe, net-veined or dotted on the surface (e.g., Retiolites, Retiograptus). * npiovurht, serrated, saw-like. t Mcrd, between, intermediate—as retfards the group. 228 MINERALS AND OEOLOOY The annexed figures shew some of our more common or charm- teristic forms: Kio. 1'28. GrapUAUhun ( Didymi>;fruiitn») jU'xilU: Hall. Fiu. 120. G. (Luganoffraptuii) Lugani : Hull Fif). 130. O. (Didymugraptus) pennatuluB : Hall. FiQ. 131. O, (Dicranoora (including in part, Stenopora and Chcetetes), with narrow, capilliform cell-tubes, in branching and rounded or hemispherical examples. Fig. 130. (3) Favosites, in irregular and pyriform, sometimes branching, masses, composed of polygonal cell-^ubes with perforated walls and straight tabulaj, Fig. 137. (A) Alveolites Fig. 137 a. with obliquely-opening cell-mouths and perforated walls : (5) Michelinea, with short, wide * The sulxlivision of the Hydrocoralla, as here adopted, may he thus defined :— Hvdrozoa or allied types with internal calcareous corallum : the latter oontainiuK— (1) tahula;, with or with- out radiating septa ; or (2), vesicular tissue, with or without tahultn and septa; or (3), a dis- tinctly tetraiuerous system of septa ; or (4), indications of hilateral symmetry. 232 MINERALS AND GEOLOGY cells, and convex tabulte, Fig 138. (6) Hnlyaites (the "chain corals"), with oval or round cell-tubes united in chain-like groupings, Fig. 130. Syringopora, with round, reed-like cell-tubes, united by short trans- verse tubes, Fig. 140. Fio. 13ti. a. Monliculipora(Stenup(ira or Chfetetin)jibrn>ia; b. M. petropolitana. Trenton and Hudson River Formations. Fio. 137. FaroHiti'D Gothlandica. Silurian ami Devonian. Fio. 138. MichtUnca convexa. Devonian. Fio. 137* Alvenlitcn cryptodeii>i Devonian Fio. 139. Halyxite i catenttlatnx. Niagara Formation. Fig. 140. SyrinuojMtra Maclurea. Devonian. Fio. 141. S. Hmngeri. Devonian. § 2. Tahulo-Stellata : — Tabulaj and radiating septa both present No vesicular tissue, or traces merely. Both compound and simple forms are included in this section. The more common Canadian genera comprise : (1) Columnaria Fig. 142, with compound corallum made up of hexagonal or polygonal cell-tubes, with short septa and horizontal tabulte. Distinguish from Favosites, which it much resembles in general aspect, by the border of short radiating-septa at the cell-walls and the abcence of pore.s ; OF CENTRAL CANADA — PART IV. 233 Favistella is identical or closely allied, but with longer septa, none of which however reach the centre of the cell. (2), Amplexus, Fig. 143, mostly with simple coralliim, in the form of a round, often more or less contorted tube, bordered with short septa and divided trans- versely by horizontal tabulae. (3), Zaphrentis, (Fig. 144,) a genus of common occui'rence in our Devonian strata, in simple horn-like forms with well-developed radiating septa, and a septal fossette. One species, Z. gigantea is of compai'atively large size, but the smaller species Z. prolifica, figured below, is more abundant. In both, the septa reach the centre of the cup. Streptelasma, a sihirian genus, is of very similar conformation, but some of its sej)ta form in the centre of the cup a kind of twisted axis or " pseudo-columella." FlO. 142. Columnaria alveolata (doldfuss) Black River (Trenton) Formation. Fio. 143. Amplextis laxatus (Billings), Devonian. Fio. 144. Zaphrentis prolifica (Bill- ings). Devonian. § 3. Vesiculo-Stellata :- — Tabula? contined to central or inner part of cell, the outer part filled with vesicular tissue. Radiating septa always present. This section includes a large number of both simple and com- pound forms, belonging in part to somewhat ill-defined genera. The more common examples of Canadian occurrence, comprise: (1) C i/athophyllum, simjjle and compound, septa with smooth sides and edges; (2) Heliophyllum, Fig. 145, like Cyathophgllum. but with ridges or projections on the sides of the septa ; (3) Clisiophylhim, simi>Ie, horn shaped, with conical elevation in centre of the cu|) or cell,* and (4), Phillipsastrea, Fig. 146, compound, astneiform, with radiating septa prolonged beyond the outer walls of the cells. ' A vertical section shews in CliiiiophyUum three areas : a central area indicated by the laistd ends of the united septa ; an outer or marginal area of fine vesicular tissue ; and an in- termediate area represented by more or less irregular tabula; or diaphragms. I 234 MINERALS AND GEOLOGY Fio. 146. Fio. 145. PhilUp»a«trcea. Devonian. Ileliophyllum Ilatli Devonian. § 4. Vesiculusa .• — Tabulae replaced by irregular vesicular-tissue. Radiating septa absent or quite rudimentary. The only Canadian genus referrible to this section, is Cystiphylliun, in which the entire cell is filled with short vesicular tissue. Exainple.s. one of which is shewn in figure 147, are mostly simple and more or lesss horn-shaped; but at least one compound species, C. aggregatum, is known. §5. Operculati,: — cup or cell furnished with an operculum com- posed of a single valve or of several pieces. Septa more or less rudimentary. Canadian representatives of this section have not as yet been discovered. Among other types it in- cludes the curious slipper-like, triangular form, Cal- ceola, until lately regarded as a brachiopod. This genus is especially characteristic of Devonian rocks in Europe. § 6. Integri-Stellata : — Radiating septa well devel- _ oped. Tabulae and vesicular-tissue entirely absent, or cygtiphyiium Sou-- il,„ 1 ..„. i 1 • i. ca«H»e(Billintf.s.) the latter present only in mere traces. Devonian. Petraia, Fig. 148, with dee[) cup, in simple horn-shaped or turbinate forms, appears to be the only example of this group hitherto recog- nised in Canadian Strata. Species, however, are often confounded with Zaphrentis, owing to the difficulty of determin. ing the internal structure without obtaining arti- ficial sections of the fossil. The typical represen- tative of the group is the genus Cyathaxonia, in which a central columella is present ; but of this ^ ' Fio. 148. form we have no examples. Petraia. Lower Silurian OF CENTRAL CANADA — PAKT IV. 235 III. uluiu COIll- CROSSOCORALLA OR ALCYONARIA. This division is composed largely of living forms. In these, the polyps possess eight fringed tentacles, and there is a partial separa- tion of the stomach from the general. body-cavity. The corallum is sclerodermal or thecal in some forms, and sclerobasal in others.* The Crossocoralla may be arranged under four Sections, O), Tubuli- fera ; (2), Spiculosa ; (3), Incellata ; {\),Pinniyera. §1. Tubulifera : — Corallum sclerodermal, tubulai-, without septa or other internal structui'es. This section includes the living Tubipora or " Organ Corals," and most probably the extinct (palajozoic) Aido- pora. The latter genur; is of not uncommon occurrence in Canadian strata. Figure 149 represents a Devonian form. § 2. Sjnculosa : — Corallum slerodermal, coriaceous, with imbedded calcareous, branching, spicula; fixed. Includes the Alcyonidce, doubtfully represented in the fossil state. § 3. Incellata : — Corallum sclerobasal, horny or calcareous ; fixed. Includes the Gorgonidoe or " sea fans," the Isidacece, and the Corallidoe — the latter represented by the well-known '* Red Coral " v. the Mediterranean and Red Sea. No fossil representatives in Canadian strata. § 4. Pinnigera : — Corallum sclerobasal, horny ; free. Includes the Pennatulidos or " sea pens " — Pennatula, Renilla, Virgularia. No fossil Canadian representatives, unless the Graptolites, as inferred by some palaeontologists, belong to this section. Fio. 149. Aulnpora cor- nuta(Bi\\it\gs). Devonian. IV^ ANTHOCORALLA OR ZOANTHARIA. The general absence of tabulae, and the typically hexamerous character of the radiating septa, are the leading characters of this class. The Anthocoralla include a great number of existing corals and many Cainozoic and Mesozoic genera and species ; but Ptilseo- * See explanation of these terms in the iutroductory remarks prefixed to the Ilydrocoralla on a preceding page. * 236 MINERALS AND GEOLOGY zoic types are exceedingly rare, and fossil examples in our strata aie of very doubcful occurrence. Viewed broadly, the Class may be sub- divided into four sections : Aporosa ; Perforata ; Sclerobasica ; aiul Malacodermata. § 1. Aporosa : — Tissues of the corallum ("sclerencliyme ") compara- tively or essentially solid and compact. Includes the families of tlie TurhinoUdce, Astrrnidce, Ocnlinidce, and Fungidce. No fossils in sti-ata of Central Canada. §2. Perforata: — Substance of the corallum essentially porous; cell-walls perforated. Includes the families of the Evjisammidm ami Porltid(e (placing the Madreporid(e with the latter). No fossils in rocks of Centi-al Canada. §3. Sclerobasica: — Corallum sclerobasal, horny or spicular; Polyp- tentacles sim[)le, 6, 12, 18, or 24 in number. Includes properly only one Family, that of the Antipatlmhe or so-called " black corals. ' No fossils. § 4. Malacodermata : — No corallum : entirely r;oft-bodied. Includfs the Families of the Actlnidte or " sea anenionies," Ibjanthida', and Zo(inthi(U>'. No fossils. SUB-KINGDOM IV. F.CHINODEK.MATA. The representatives of thi.. division are marine, and, in the adult state, typically radiated forms, with stomach distinctly separated from the general body-cavity. The latter (with its system of appen- dages, when present) is protected by an external calcareous tost, composed of numerous plates ; or otherwise, by a coriaceous integu- ment strengthened by calcareous plates, tubercles, or spicula. In some foi-ms, the body is attached to the sea bottom, either i)ei- manently or during the earlier period of life, by a long or shct stem made ui) of numerous calcareous plates, mostly round or pentagonal in shape, and perforated through the centre by a circular, Stella to. pentagonal or quadi'ate, orifice. The structural parts are almost in- variably in fives cr multiples of five. In the more typical forms, the test or skin carries numerous movable spines, whence the naim' OF CBNTRAL CAS ADA — PART IV. 237 EchinoJermata, The more common existing forms comprise " star- rislies," " brittle stars," " sea-urchins," and holothurians. Peduncu- lated forms were especially characteristic of the earlier periods of the Earth's history, but are now comparatively rare, or, as regards the greater part, entirely extinct. The Echinoderms are distributed under the folio ing classes : 1. Crinoidea. 5. Ojihiuroiden. 2. Ci/stidea. 6. Asteroidea. 3. Blastoidea. 7. Ecliinoidea. 4; Edrioasteiida. 8. I/o/otlmroidea. I. CKINOIDEA. This class comprises the various so-called "sea-lilies," now nearly extinct. The Ciinoids are attached, typically, to the sea-floor by a comparatively long, flexible stem ; but some become free in the adult condition. They consist essentially of three i»arts : the body or "calyx, the "arms" or tentacles, and the stalk or stem, as indicated in the annexed sketch, figure 150. The body, oval (^'"^ 01' cyathiform in sha])e, is protected externally by a number of calcareous plates, meeting, and in some cases partialis interlocking, at their edges. These plates comprise: (1) a series of " basals," usually three or five in number, immediately above the stem, but often forming two horizontal rows, known respectively as lower and upper basals ; (2) a series of *' radials " often in more than one zone ; (3) a series of " inter-radials," more or less nume- rous, but sometimes absent ; and (4) a series of '"brachials," from which the arms or tentacles immediately spring, (see figure 151). The upper part of the calyx is covered in many genera by numerous small, more or le.ss irregularly arranged plates, and is termed the " vault " or " roof," hnt this in most of the more modern forms is simply coriaceous, or desti- tute of plates, properly so called. The calyx has a central opening, Fio. 150. 238 MINERALS AND GEOLOGY » « Fki. Ifil. Siinplifled dissoctioii of a criiioidal calyx, viewed from below. usually regfvrded tn: the mouth, and, in living forms, an excentiic anal opening; but in most fossil genera only one opening is jjics- ent. This is situated centrally or sub-centrally, and is frequent- ly placed at the summit of n so-called "proboscis" or ele- vated, tubular portion of the calyx roof The arms are in some cases short and simple; in others, long and dichotomoiisly branched. As a rule, they are free or separate, but sometimes they are more or less united. Commonly, also, they are pro- vided with attached pinnula;, among which in living forms genera- tion-products are developed. The plates which protect these arms externally, form either a single regular series, as in a, figure 152; or a single alternating series as at b ; or a double interlocking series as at c. The same arm, however, sometimes presents two of these conditions. The plates which compose the stem, are circular or pentagonal (more rarely tetra- gonal) in form, and usually shew a radiately ^.^ striated surface on their planes of junction. pm_ 150. They are either of one diameter throughout the stem, or of alternating diameters ; and they have always a central perforation, round, penta- gonal, five-rayed, or rarely quadrate, in shape. Occasionally, addi- tional orifices are also present. The Crinoids are usually sub-divided by palseontologists into two leading groups, named respectively, Tesselata and Articulata. The Tesselata are distinguished essentially by the calyx-roof being closed in with calcareous plates ; and by the calyx-plates, generally, being comparatively thin and but loosely attached to each other : whilst in the Articulata the roof has merely a coriaceous covering (strength- ened in some forms by small plates or tubercles), and the calyx-plates, as a rule, are compamtively thick, and in a measure locked together. All the Tesselata are extinct ; and their remains (with the exception of two Ci etaceous genera) are exclusively confined to Palaeozoic strata, OF CENTRAL CANADA — PART IV. 539 All the Articulata, on tlie other haiul, are Post-jiahi'ozoic types, fossil genera being found especially in Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous fonnations ; and about eight living genera ai'e known.* Nuierous exanifjles of crinoid sten»s in a more or less fragmentary condition occur in our Silurian and Devonian rocks. Figure 153 repre- sents a piece of shale, from the vicinity of Toronto, covered with portions of Crinoid stems, some seen in transverse Via. ihS. Crinoid steni-fraK'ineiits. section, and Others longitudinally ; and similar examples are abundant in the Chazy, Trenton, Niagara, and Corniferous limestones, of other parts of Central Canada. Well pre- served or entire examples of crinoids, and especially of the calyx (or which, distinctive characters, as regards genera and specie.s, are chiefly based) are, on the other hf ], comparatively rare. The stems, un- fortunately, are of little u.se in the determination of genera, as the character of the stem differs frequently in different species of the same genus ; and occasionally the same stem is found tu vary in different parts of its own length. Next to the stems, fragments of crinoid arms are of most frequent occurrence. In tin- following enumeration, therefore, of some of our more commonly occurring forms, the genera are arranged after the more easily recognised arm- characters : § 1. Arms with pinnidce, Glyptocrinus : — Pinnulse very fine; arm-plates in single row; calyx-plates radiately ridged ; stem generally round, the plates alternating in diameter, (sometimes pen- tangular) ; stem-orifice, five angled. Figure 154. Thysanocrimis : — arms long and thin, bifurca- ting ; arm plates in a double row, otlierwise much like Glyptocrinus : Silurian and Devonian, Dendrocrinus : — arms thin, long, much branch- ing; calyx-plates, large; stem fi' e-angleii. Lower Silurian. Heterocrinus : — arms long, simple or bifercat- ing, with strong pinnulse ; arm jjlates in single Fia. 154. row; stem variable. Lower Silurian. ' 'l«#.''^Haii.'*si'iurian.'''' * In 1882, the Author proposed a new clatisificatioii of the Crinoida in three {groups and twenty- 240 MINERALS APD OEOLOOY § 2. arma without pinnnlfe. Pahnocrinua .—arms long and tliiii, of equal size, without i innulu', bifurcating. Lower Silurian. II ybocrinna : — arms very long anil thin, not bifurcating, and with- out pinnuUe ; Lower Silurian. 67teirocri/mff (including Calcecrinus, Ac): — arms very long, d»>ciMu- bent, unecjual in size, with single row of plates. Silurian, Devonian. Ichthyocrimta : — arms short, without pinnulre, more or less in close contact throughout their length, gradually merging into the calyx ; arm plates in one row ; stem round, with small circular orilice. Roof of calyx composed of small, imbricating plates. Upper Silurian to Carboniferous. Figure lof) represents our principle species. Lecanocrinus : — Closely allied to Ichthijocrinus (if not really identical), but calyx plates larger and less numerous. L, elegans, Trenton Formation, is our best known si)ecies. p,g jgg Other typical genera of the tesselated crinoids, ichthxjoennu* in-vis. comprise ; Pisocrinus, Marsupitea (a stemless form ), '''**?»•'* o""'"'^ ' Actinocriims, Crotalocrinus, 41 r less m with calcareous plates united at their edges, without, or with merely nuliineutary- anus, and attached to tjjo sea-floor hy a short stem. Some, however, appear to have had no stem ; and in one or two gen- eiii closely related to the crinoids ( Purocrinus, Caryocrinus) a well- din-eloped system of arms was present. Two other salient characters ar(! commonly pn'sent, also, in all typical cystidoana. These com- prise a so-called " pyramidal orifice," and a system of pores or mi- nute lissures, by which some or all of the i)Iates are traversed. The '' pyniiuidal orifice" is an opening, usually near tlie summit of the liuijy closed by several triagular plates, forming a five or si.>c-sided elevation. It was most probably the oval orifice*. A second opening is generally present at the upper part of the bo\ imbricating plates, but of somewhat larger size ; and a "pyrainidiil orifice," resembling that of a cystidean, is situated in one of these inter- radial spaces. The principal genera comprise : (1) Ayelacrinitep, with curved rays, like the "arms" of many ophiurian star-fishes ; and (2) llemicystitrs, with short, straight ."ays.* Species of both genera occur in our Silu- 'The generic nauio Agel > erimis (now more commonly written Agclacriniten) was t'ivfii by Vaniivcin to these forms, from the Greek, aYfAi, a herd or crowd— thi' first found exampii's consisting of several indi» iduals heaped or crowded totrether. Hut this ndition of o<'curriii(T is purely accidental. 1'- was also thought that these forms, although without a steiH, "irt alway'5 attached to shells vjT other submarine objects by their broad l)a.se ; and this idcu is still retained by many writers. Hence the term Edrina^erida of Billings, from efipatotr ti\iil, sessile. E.vamules arc found now and then attached to fossil shells, but tl'.at condition is l>.v no means general. Out of fourteen or fifteen exam|)Ies belonging to several species exuinliicil liv the writer, only one otcurr'il in contact with a brachipod shell, and accidental contacts of tliiit kind are connnon among fossil bodies generally. The structural characters of the Kdiinas- tei'i-.-'S are still very imperfectly known. The iiiouth for instance, is almost universally rt';,Mriliii as lying in fhe centre of the ambulacroid area at the summit of the disc. In a connnunicatioii publishei. in the Canadian .lournal, and in thi' A'lnalu of XaUivrl Ilintorii, so long ai;o as 1860, the writer strove to maintain that this was not its true |K>sition, but that it was to lif looked for, as in ordinary asterians, &c., in the centre of the disc, l>elow. No little support seems to be lent to this view, by the subsequent discovery by Wyville Thompson of his Echinocystiteif, regarded by him as a transitional type between cystideans and echinida. Tlu' body is covered (apart from the ambr.lacra, &c.) with imbricating, irregularly arranged jilntis; the mouth is central, on the under side of the body ; and the anal opening, with prutecli'") pyramid of plates, is interradial in position (Edinburgh Xew Philosophical Journal, imW). A magniflcent specimen of Ayelacrinites—\>rohably the best in Canada, if not on this Conti nent— ii in the collection of Dr. Grant of OUawa. OF CKNTRAL CANADA — PART IV. 245 ses a vi'iv connect tlif jirculiir, ilf li to a little 18 unknown, inposed of a velate-covered, but in some forms they are coriaceous only, or partially tuberculated. The month is in the centre of the underside of the disc, and there is no sepamte anal orifice. Two orders are generally recognized : Euryalida, with coriaceous integument, and mostly with branching arms which are capable of being curled towards the mouth ; and Ophiurida, the true brittle stai-s, with plate-covered disc and arms. K.xamples of both orders tliite from the Silurian period ; and some few genei'a {Protaster. Euyas- ter, ikc.) are exclusively Paheozoic. T(fnlaater cylindricus (Billings), with narrow arms and partially overhn»i»iMg, spinous jdates, from the Trenton Formation, is our best known representative. VI. AsrEKOIDEA. The representatives of this class comjjrise the starfishes proper, in which the stomach cavity is continued into the so-called arms or rays. In most, there is an anal orifice ; and, in all, the ambulacral groove 246 MINERALS AND GEOLOGY is open or uncovered. The mouth is in the centre of the under-side, and the body-covering is chiefly coriaceous, or partly tubercuhited or plate-covered. The star-fishes date from the Silurian period, lj>it fossil examples in the lower rocks are comparatively rare. The class is usually subdivided into two orders : Briaingida, connecting tlio class with that of the Ophiuroidea, the arms being distinct to some extent from the body cavity ; and Stel/erida, comprising the true star-fishes. The Briaingida are unknown in the fossil state. The Stelleridn may be conveniently arranged under tliree sections as follows: §1. Multiradiata, with more than five, usually from 13 to over 2U arms or rays (e.g. LejAdaater, Upper Silurian ; Solaster, a living tyi>e, dating from the Jurassic period; Luidia, ikc. ) § 2. Curtiradiata, witli very short or in .some cases almost suppressed rays, the shape lieing then pentagonal (e.g. Palasterinus, Lower Silurian; /*a/«0':;o/na,Ui)[)er Silurian ; Goniaster, the " cushion-stars," first appearing in Liassic strata ; Aaterodiscus, &c). § 3. Quinqueradiata, with five well-devel- oped rays (e.g. Pahrciater, Stenaater, Cambrian and Lower Silurian to Carboniferous ; Anterias, Oreaater, ifcc). The genera Palaaterina, Palceaater and Stenaater are occasionallv represented in our Lower Silurian strata, more especially in the limestones of the Trenton formation. In Palaaterina, the rays ex- tend a very little way beyond the central part of the body : P. Stel- lata, a ])entagonal form, is our best-known species. In Pakeaster (including Petraster) the form is dis- tinctly five-rayed, and the ambulacral furrows are bordered by two row.s of small plates ; whilst in S'enaxtcr ( = Uraaterella), also a distinctly five- rayed form, the ambulacral grooves aie margined by a single I'ow. Our prin- cijml species comprise, Palceaater rvji- dna from the Trenton, and P. beliidux from the Niagara formation ; Stenaater pulchellua, with very narrow rays, ami S. Salteri with comparatively broad rays, both from Trenton strata. Full descriptions of these species, by the late Mr. Billings, will be found in Decade IIL of "Canadian Organic Remains," issued in 1861 by the Geological Survey. Fig. 161 bi». Petraster Bclluluii, after liillinxs. agara Formation. Griiii8l)y, Out. Ni- OF CENTRAL CANADA — PART IV. 247 VII. ECHINOIDEA. The representatives of this class are the "sea-urchins " or "sea-eggs " of ])Opular piirhincp. They present a globular, disciform, oval, heart- sliiiped, or other form of boily, entirely enclosed in calcareous plates. In II small number of both ancient and living genera, the plates are overlapping, but in the great majority of echinids, they are joined at their edges. These plates are of two general kinds : ambulacral and interavihnlacral, respectively. The ambulacral plates, in all ediinida. form five separate, converging, linear or petaloidal areas, each composed o. two rows or zones of perforated plates. The inter- anibulacral plates, lie also in five separate areas ; but in all Palseo- zoic types, with a single exception (Bothriocidaris), each area contains more than two rows, commonly five or six ; whilst in all succeed- ing with only two known exceptions {Anaulocidaria ? and Tetrad- daris) these interambulacral areas contain two rows only.* The perforations in the ambuiacral plates give pas.sage to delicate sucker- feet ; and movable spines — in some cases hair-like, in othoi-s club sliaped or cylindrical and comparatively large — are borne on both the ambulacral and interambulacral plates, more especially on the latter, these being more or less distinctly tuberculated for the support or attachment of the spines. The mouth, in echinids, is always on the under-side of the body, and either central or sub- marginal in position. The anal orifice is situated in some forms at the apex of the shell or test, but in others it is at or near the under margin. H^chinida are very nnmtious in existing seas. They abounded also in the seas of the Cainozoic and JMesozoic Ages, but app«!ar to hase V>oen rare in Palaeozoic times. No certain evidence of their remains in the stratx of (Jentral (Janada ha.s yet been obtained : it is unnecessary tin refoi*e in the present work to dp.sci'ibe their leading subdivisions and genera. ' 111 the palwozoic Bothrioeidari*. the interaiiihtilaorala form asintcle row. In Tetracutarin, a I.dwer Cretaceous type, there art- f.mr ro\vn of ititcranibulacrals at the lower part of the test, but these merge into the typical two rows at the upper part. 248 MINERALS AND GEOLOGY VIII. HOLOTHUROIDEA. ^. This class comprises a small number of elongated, more or less vermiform types, protected by a thick, coriaceous integument, strengthened by calcareous wheel-like, anchor-shaped, and other spicules. The mouth is situated at one extremity of the body, and is surrounded by t circle of quinary, usually branching tentacles. The anal orifice in all the typical forms is at the opposite end of the body ; but in the ^^enus Rhopalodina (Gray) it is at the same extrem- ity as the mouth. Wheel-shaped spicules, thought to have belonged to holothurans, have been found occasionally in carboniferous and higher strata, but apart from this, fossil forms are of very doubtful occurrence. SUBKINGDO.M V. VERMES. This division, comprising the various parasitic and other worms, with some related memberless types, is of comparatively little palie- ontologicif.l interest. It may be subdivided into the six following classes : Turbellaria, Platyelvuntha, Nematelmintha, Noii/era, Gejih- l/rea, Chcetognatha, ..::d Annelida. The Turbellaria are non-parasitic, mostly marine or fresh water forms, more or less depressed in shape, but of great length in certiiin gent-ra (Linus, Borlasia). Fossil forms are unknown. The Platyelmintha comprise the so called " flat worms " mo&t of which are internal parasites. Fossil forma unknown. The Nematelmintha comprise the so called •' round worms " most of which are also permanently, or for a time, pai-asitic. Of late years some supi)osed representatives of this class have been discovered in amber and brown coal, both of Cainosoic age ; but otherwise there are no known fossil representatives. The Rotifera are very minute aquatic forms, with one or more ciliated discs at the front end of the body. They are commonly known as " wheel animalcuhe." There are no recognized fossil foi'ms. OF CENTRAL CANADA — PART IV. 249 The Gephyrea, represented principally by the Sipunculus, are marine, worm-like forms with thick skin. They present in some respects connecting links between the worms and the holothurians, whence the name of the class, from ysipvpa, a bridge. Some supposed fossil forms have been cited from the Upper Juraf;sic Strata of Bavaria. Otherwise the class is unknown in the fossil state. The Cluetoynntha, comprise the single genus Sayitta, a small, some- what fish like form from the Mediterranean, with fin- representative at the posterior end of the body. Fossil forms unknown. The Annelida compi'ise earth-worms, leeches, serpulre, *kc., and are thus classified : Abranchiata — without visible branchiie. 1. Siictoria (leeches). Foss. Rep., unknown. 2. Terricola (earth worms). Foss. Rep. unknown. Branchiata — with distinct branchial organs. 1. Tuhicola or Cephalo-branchiata : 2. Errantia or JJorsi-branchiata: The Tubicola are mai'ine worms with a circlet of thread-like branchiae ai'ound the rudimentary head. Some secrete a calcareous tube or shell, and others form a protecting sheath of agglutinated grains of sand, «fec. Two genera, Se.rpula, with cal- careous wavy or contorted tube, and Spirorbis, Fio. 162. •w'\\.\\ regularly eni'oUed shell (Fig, 162) are of ,(. serpuia. h. Spirorbis. fj-equent occurrence in the fossil state. They date from the Cambrian or Silurian period, and are found mo.stly on the external or internal surface of fossil shells. The Errantia are marine worms with tufts of thi*ead-like branchire alonf^ the sides of the body, and without a shell or protecting sheath. Thev date from the Cambrian period, but many fossil examples referred to the genera Xereites, Nemertites, «kc., are of somewhat doubtful nature. The narrow, cylindrical cavities found occasionally in the Potsdam sandstone of the County of I«eds, Ontario, and at some other localities, and which are commonly known as " Scolithus cavities," are thought by some observei-s to have been made by boring iniielids, but others regard them as of fucoidal origin. Minute, horny 250 MINERALS AND GEOLOGY WBmm^ or chitonous bodies (Fig. 1G3) recognized as the jaws of species of Errantia, were found a few years ago in the Hudson River Strata and other Lower Sihirian rocks of Ontario by ^Ir, J. G. Hinde. Two of these, greatly magnified, are sliewn in figure 103. Similar bodies from the same strata in Ohio had been previously regarded by Grinel as tli lower jaws of JSrrantia. Km. UiM. Jnws o( Errantia. SUB-KINGDOM VI. AUTHROPODA. The Arthropoda or Articulata (as they are al.so called) comprise a large series of animals, characterised tyj)ically by their jointed legs. more or less distinctly segmented body, and bilateral symmetry. They include both aquatic and terrestrial forms. Some are of gi-eat palwoutological interest ; but many in their relations to geology are comparatively unimportant. Four classes are universally recognized. The.se comprise: 1. Crustacea; 2. Arachnida ; 3. Myriapoda ; and 4. Insecta or Hexapoda. CRUSTACEA. The crustaceans are mostly aquatic types, with respiratory organs (when present) in the form of branchite. They include: barnacles, crabs and lobsters, wood lice, kc, among living forms ; and an extinct group, the Trilobites, with some other extinct forms, of great geologi- cal interest. By uniting some of the more closely connected orders we may arrange the crustaceans, generally, under ten leading sub- divisions, comprising: 1. Cirripedia ; 2. Ostracoda ; 3. Phyliopoda ; 4. Trilobita ; 5. Merostomata ; 6. Phyllocarida ; 7, Amphipoda ; 8. Isopoda ; 9. Stomapoda ; 10 Decapoda. 1 . Cirripedia : — The cirripeds form a small grouji of marine animals, sedentary in their adult condition, and more resembling mollusks at first sight than members of the articulated series. They secrete an external, many-valved, calcareous shell ; and possess a number of delicate, plume-like cirrhi, capable of protrusion beyond the shell for the creation of currents in the surrounding water. Some of the OF CENTRAL CANADA — PART IV. 251 Kio. I(i4. Livlnif Halaiius. move common tyjies are pedunculated, others are sessile. In the for- mer, to which the well known barnacles belong, the animal is attached to ships' bottoms, floating timber, ike, by a flexible, coriaceous stem ; whilst in the latter, typitied by the bahmns or " sea-acorn," the shell is fixed directly l»y its base to rocks and other submarine bodies, especially to those which lie between the tide marks. Fig. 164 shews the general form of a living bala- uus with its cirrhi protruded between the smaller opercula-like valves of its shell. Fragments of comparatively large shells, which must have aver- aged an inch or more in diameter, belonging to one or two species of Balanus ( B. Undevallmais, 11. llavieri ?) occur in the Post-Cainozoic " Saxicava Sand Formation " of Beauport near Quebec ; but no cirripeds are found in our lower rocks, nor have any undoubted examples been discovered in Palteo- zoic strata. 2. Ostracoda : — The Ostmcods comprise a large number of gene- rally minute aquatic forms, in which the entire body is enclo.sed in a bivalve shell, whence the name of "bivalve entomostracans" by which tliey are often known. Natatory antenna', and several pairs of small feet (which do not serve as swimming organs), j)roject in living forms beyond the shell. The latter is smooth in some genera, and more or less embos.sed or tuberculated in others. Most living forms are ma- rine, but some {Cypri's, ikc,) are fresh-water types. The best known Paheozoic genera comprise Leperditia and Beyrlchia. In Lepurditla, the shell is comparatively thick, with straight dorsal edge ; and it commonly averages from one- fourth to three-fourths' of an inch in lerigth. Fig 165 is an example from the Trenton formation In Bf't/richin, the shell is very similar in shape but nuich snmller, rarely exceeding the 12th of an inch in length, and its surface is tubercidated or embossed. 3. PJkyllopoda : — This sub-division may be made to includt e.irly jiiilii'ozoic as.'e, nre now separated from the Fhjllopcxls, proper, and placed in a distinct jfroiip, the I'hjillo- rarida o( Packard. As shewn by Packard and Claus, they ap[>ear to form a coiinectinjf link lietween the lower and higher crustaceans : the Entoiitontraca and Malacoiitraca of many classifications. They form the 8ul)-loiitriica of Claus. Km. UV>. I.i'jtentitia Caiiadeimiii, Nat. size : Trunton For- mation. 202 MINERALS AND GEOLOGY with flattened, natatory feet. The Copepoda represented by tlio modern Cydopa, Argulua, &i;., liave no known fossil-representatives, and the Cladocera are also of very douljtful occurrence in the fossil state. The PhyllopoJs, rejtresented l»y the living Apua, Branchipns, £stheria, iic, date ajtparently from the Devonian period, but no fossil examples have been found, as yet, in Ontario or Quebec. 4. Trilobita : — The Trilobites form an entirely extinct series of Crustacea, related to the Phylldpods on one hand, and to the Mero stomes on the other. Their remains are found in Cambrian, Silurinn, and Devonian strata in great numV)ers, and sparingly in the Lowor Carbonifei ns beds, above which, no ti-aces of the grou[) have been discovered. The trilobites present a jjenorally oval, tri-lobed form of body, averaging aVjout .an inch an^-a-half to three inches in length ; but some examples are scarcely the fourth of an inch, whilst others occasionally shew a length of eight or nine inches. The upper surface of the trilobite was protected by a chitonous or crustaceous shell composed of numerous pieces, in part free, and partly united by sutures. The underside of the body seems to have been covered essentially by a soft or semi-coriaceous integument, and to have carried numerous feet, some of these being "jaw feet" as in the merostomes and copepods, and others probably branchial and natatory in their functiona. As shewn in the annexed Figure (16G), the upper covering or " back " of the trilobite consists of three principal parts: (1) the Buckler or Bead- shield, II; (2) the Body or Thorax, T; and (3) the Pygidiuvi or Caudal-shield, P. The head-shield is always more or less of a cres- cented or horse-shoe shape, with the convex side pjS in front ; and its posterior or so-called genal angles, thoiigh rounded in some species, v^ry commonly terminate in points or spines. Its central portion is generally in the form of a distinctly raised ana known as the glabella (= G, Fig, 166'. The surface of this is sometimes smooth, but is more commonly lobed, furrowed, or granulated. In certain genera (Phacops, tkc.J the glabella is enlarged or expanded anteriorly, and in othei-s (Calymene, Fio. 160. OF CENTUAL CANADA — PART IV. 253 (tc.J it is contracted in tlmt direction. In some, aj^ain, ( Triarlhrua, ((•c.^, it Is of nearly uniform width throughout. Very prominent, also, in some genera ; and in otliers, hut ft-ebly elevated and compara- tively inconspicuous. The head-shield exhiltits likewi.se, in most examples, on each side of the glahella a sutural lino (=/ ./! in Fig. 160) called the " facial suture." The hinder extremity of this sutural line terminates either at the postei-ior margin of the head-shield (asa- jjhus, iL'c); or at the angles of this ( calipnene, /. of figure 166.) These latter have their free ends rounded in some species, and pointed or even prolonged in part or wholly into spines, in others. In some genera (e. g. ceraurus or cheirurus) there is a raised band on each pleura, and in othera a narrow groove. The degree of mobility with which the thoracic segments were endowed, at least in most cases, enabled the trilobite to bring the under parts of the caudal and head shield together, both for the protection of the branchial feet or more or less undefended portions of the body, and also, in all probability, to 254 MINERALS AND OEOLOOY Kiu. 107. C'litipiii'ni' SfiKiriit in " rcilli'il up" oim- enable the creature to sink with greater rapiil- ity into deeper water in uionicntB of danger or ahirin. Fig. 1G7 is an example of a trilobite in this " rolled up" condition. The |>ygidiurn, or slielly covering of the tail or ahdonien, consists of a single piece, arising probably from con.solidated segnierits. Very commonly, it is found detached from other portions of the body cither rounded, with smooth or digitated margin, or is more or less pointed ; anil it sometinies terminates in a long spine, or in seveml spinous proces.ses. It shows voiy fre«juently a distinct axis, with pleuraj-like, latenil furrows, but is quite smooth or without furrows in some species. In some genera, also, it is exceedingly small ( Paraduxides, d'c), whilst in others ( IW^nxis, Aaaphm, li'c. ), it equals the head-shield in size. The trilobites may be airanged broadly under four leading groups : — Pusdll/ormes, Lntl/ormes, Frontwaes and Conifrontea. The I'xmlliformes constitute a group of very small and somewhat doubtful trilobites represented y the genus Agnostua. In this form the thorax consists of caly two segments, whilst the head-shield and pygidium ai'e (juite large in comparison and of nearly equal size. The type is es.sentially Camitrian, but lower Silurian exninjdes are also known. Several s)p('cies have been obtained from the limestone bands intercalated with the graptolitic states of the L«^vis formation (Quebec), but usually without the thorax. Figure 167 shows the head-shield and pygidium of Agnostua Cann- denaia from that formation. The group of Latiformea comprises a series of un- doubted trilobites, mostly of considerable size and broad form, with large head-shield and pygidium — thus differ- ing essentially from the more elongated many-ringe'' forms of the typical FronUmea and Conifrontea. The principal genera of Canadian occurrence, comprise : Aaaphiia and Illaenua ; but the group includes, also, Bathyurua, Bront<'ns, Lichas, Dikelocf jhalua and other genera. Aaaphua is distinguished by its eight ^ ody-Begments, its large head-shield with feebly-elevated and (as e T\x\fi) unfurrowed glabella, its forked or horse-shoe-shaped hypostoiua, its large and broad pygidium, and other characters. The Fio. 167 bin Agnogtu» Canadtn»i» . HiUings. Lt'vis For- mation. . Itl7. iSfiKirin ill mt" I'liii- tioii. ntline is e or less n several xis, with ; furrows ly small lix'.), it g groups ; loinewliat this form Jiiekl and jual size, iijtles are iinestone brniation fio. 167 6i'« Agnottun panademis. Hillings. iLtvis For- mation. i)hn8 and Lichas, by its ked and le-shaped h. The OF CENTRAL CAN.\DA — PART IV. 255 Hide cheeks are often broken off, and the pyg\diuni is frecjiiently f1 Kio. If.S. Amphux plaiiiri'iiliahiH ( - I/iiiti'liiii ijiijait) : Stoki's. Tifiitdii Fornmtioii. //. =Tlie hyiHjstor a. Fid. \m. Aiaphxm fniuidennit : Chaj)- man. I'tioa Formation. found without '■ho otlier portions of the body. The geiiu.s appears to be exclusively Lower Silurian. Our most common species com- prise ; A. platycephalus, a more or less smooth species with rounded head angles and pieurw, very abundant in the Trenton limestone, l)iit occurring also in the Chazy and Hudson River Formations, and A. Canadensis, with horned head-shield, pointed pleura>, and furrowed pygidium, of common occurrence in tlie Utica bitumi- nous schists of CoUingwood, Whitby, Ottawa and other localities. Closely related to Anaphns is the genus Ogygia, distinguished by its shield-shaped or pointed hypostoma, and its laterally-furrowed pygi- dium, but it is essentially a European type. The genus Hhnmis is represented by smooth, oval species, with largo head-shield and pygi- dium, feebly-raised glabella, far-aj)Hrt eyes, ten (or rarely nine) body- segments, and rounded pleura;. It is essentially a Lower Silurian type but ranges from Upper Cambrian into Upper Silurian strata. Figure 170 represents a species in a rolled up condition from the Chazy Formation. / Ameri- C'lHUS (= /. crassicauda 1) from the Trenton limestone of the Ottawa district, is another Canadian species; and fragmentary examples of additional species occur in the Levis forma- Fio. 170, tion of Quebec. Bathyurus is also chiefly from ^"''"chM'*'*F^naS."^''*'^e Same formation. Its buckler, thorax (with 256 MINKKALS AND OKOLOCiY nine Hi-ginnntH) ami pyj^uHuiu, '^I'o iKiarly of etjual sizo. The axis usually oxtcnds to within a short ili.stanc« of tlio extrcnnty of tlir |>ygis : its broad, backward-curving, and pointed pleune ; and its compara- tively largo pygidium with short axis, largely-serated margin ainl almost longitudinal furrows. The genus Dikf/orep/ia/n^ in exclusi- vely Cambrian. From this latter circumsUmce it is comm nly placed in tho family of the Olnnidtf, in despit'- of its very dissimila? aspect and structural characters. Whilst Olenus (with otiiii members of tho Olenidie family)has a very small pygidium, comparcil with tho broad head-shield, in Dikelocephnlus the pygidium is as large as tho head-shield or even larger, and it has a very short nxis as in Lichas and Bronte.ua of this group. Tho genus, however, is still very imperfectly defined. The number of the V)ody-segments is not yet known ; and the glabella, as regards its ti-ansverse furrows, appears to differ very considerably in diffei-ent species. Figure 171 rtpre.sents the pygidium of D, inagnijicus (after Billings) from the Levis or Quebec formation. In some other sj)ecie3 referred to this genus, tho outline of the pygi- dium is simply rounded. Fio. 171. DUceliiCfphalits mn;iiiii' ■ ciix : l'yj,'i(liuiii, afti'i Billintrs. Li'vls Koriiiation. The Frontones are distinguished by a very large head-shield and small, or comparatively small, pygidium. The glabella is more or less broad and prominently developed, and the posterior angles of the head-shield are almost always in the form of long spines or horns. The more typical genera comprise : Paradoxides, with from sixteen to twenty spinou> body-segments and very small pygidium ; Trinuchua, with six body- segments, large oval glabella, and head-shield surrounded by a per I ill I OF CKNTRAI, (ANAPA — PART IV. 257 riie axis y of tlif I furrow, inn typi'. nmiislifi'i '(( i)f fill • [•8|u'ciiilly wed Hur- cclusivcly iegments : comparit irgiii luul H cxcUisi- i.'(iiiim lily (lihsiiiiilai itli otlii-r C01l»l»iUt' I six boily- by a per- Flu. l'.i Triiiiii'liiiii riiiicfiilricim Trenton niid IIu(Inoii liivfr KorniiitionK. foiiitetl inurj,'in ; Chfifurus or CeiuiurnH, with ch'vcn body lingH, and faiialsutnre ti:(ivvvn. Treti J i ^ i i i n •. i t..n Foiiiiiitii.M. and usually gramilated gialiella ; its coarsely- t.artted eyes : and its rounded pleune. A common Devonian species, 17 258 MINERALS AND OEOLOOY Fid. 174. PhncopM htifii : tiri'Cii. Coniiterous aii'l ll;i- iiilltoii Kortimtion P. Bufo, is represented in Figure 1 74, The genus Dalmanitos is closely allied to PI>^coj)3, possessing like the latter an anteriorly ex-j/anded gla- bolla, with coarsely-reticulated eyes, and facial suture terminating at the sides of the head-shield. But it is distinguished by distinctly marked lateral fur- rows on the glabella and by its i)ointed pleurae The head-shield is also horned at its genal angles, f id the pygidium in some species ends in a long spine. This is the case with our D. limulurus, Figure 175, from the Niagara (Upper Silurian) formation, but the caudal spine is only seen in well preserved examples. The genus is exclu- sively Silurian. In the group of Conifrontes, the distinguishing character is the conical form and comparatively small size of the glabella, but in other respects these trilobites closely approach the Frontones — the head-shield as a rule exceeding the })ygidium in size, and the body-axis l^eing continued into the latter, so as to ror, dor the line of sojiaration between the thorax and pygidir.m scarcolv distingiiishablo, Some ot the more typical geneni comprise : Olenuo. liar pes, CoiiocephaHtes, Triarthrus, Calymene and Ilomalonoltis. The genus Olenus, with from twelve to sixteen narrow, pointed body-rings, and very short l>ygi dium, is of doublt'ul occurrence in Central Cana- dian strata, unless the " Loganellus," discovereil by Mr. T. F/cvine in the Levis formation of Quebec belongs to it. The type is essentially Cambrian. The genus Jlarpes is both Silurian and Devonian. It hii.s a very large horse-shoe-shaped head-shield, with bi'oad, perforated border, but the glabella is short and conical. The body-segments vary from twelve to twenty-five or twentv-six in number. DaimaniUKiimaivnis: and the pygidium is very small. Figure IT'l "'^^'"'' iiiaUon!'* ""^ shews the head-shield (with eyes connected by ii raised band, as in Olenus) and part of the many-ringed thorax of Uarpes Ottwaensis (Billings) from a specimen obtained from tin; Trenton Formation by .Dr. Grant of Ottawa. The genus Conocepha OP CENTRAL CANADA — PART IV. 259 Fid. 176. JlarjxHOltnn'iicnuh : after Hillin(;8. Trt'iiton Konnatioii Htea h a Cambrian and Lower Silurian type, but as regards the area treated of in the present volume it occurs only in fragmentary examples in tlje Levis formation of Quebec. It pos- sesses fourteen or fifteen body-segmeiits and a glabella which narrows anteriorly and has short lateral furrows as in Ca y viene, a genus with which in other respects it has close afliuities. The genus Triar- thrus is j)eculiar to this continent, and its species are apparently confined to the Lower Silurian, Utica formation. The body -segments vary from foui'teen to six- teen in number, and in our most common species T. Bcckii, each seg- ment l)ears in the centi-e a short spine, as shown in figure 177. In another species, T. spinosus (Billings), a very long spine is attached to the eighth or ninth thoracic segment, and another to the nock seg- ment.* The glabella in this genus is of nearly uniform width, not much raised, and is marked on each side Ijy several short furrows. Impressions of the glabella of T. Beckii occur in the shale beds west of Colling- vood and at Whitby and Ottawa, in great abundance. A third Canadian species, T. glaber, is destitute of spines. The genus Calymene is exclusively Silurian. its species are about equally numerous in the Lower and Upper Silurian bods, and several range from the lower into the higher .series. The genus is distin- gul-jhed by its thirteen body-segments ; its lobed gla- i>olla, narrowing upwards ; and by the posterior ends of its facial suture terminating at the corners of the head-shield. Our common species is C. Blunienbachii ( = (7. senaria) with rounded head-angles and pleurae, strongly lobed glabella, .and little appai*ent distinction between the end of the thorax and commencement of the p'-gidium. Via. 177. Triarlhruii ftccltii: Katon. rtica Funiiatioii. • See a revised description of this species l)y Henry M. Ami, of the Geolo;;ioal Survey, in a pape on the Utica Slate Konnation puijlished in the Transactions of tiit Ottawa Ficl Naturalists' Club : 1882 N 260 MINERALS AND GEOLOGY Fio. 178. IllulsOtI fl.iviT, mill Niiiirara Konimtioiis. Examj)les :ire often found in a " rolled up " condition. The genus Homalonotus has also thirteen body-seg- ments, and facial suture terminating at the posterior corners of the head-shield as in Calymene. But the glabella is unlobed and feebly pronounced, and the axis or central part of the thorax is scarcely defined — the longitudinal furrows, by which in most trilo- bites the axis is marked off from the pleura^, being in this genus very indistinct. The Iloinalonoti ^&1T-^Z^ are typically Devonian and Upper Silurian forms, but some occur in Lower Silurian strata. Fiirure 179 represents //. (Ielphinoc>'m,iii>tiMi,him- , . , , , . .. 11 ,1 1-11 cr/i/icii/x; (irt'Ci). Niii- shield, a thoracic portion covereil by anotJier shield, .aia Konuatioti. and an abdominal portion in the form of a lonjj spine or " telson. the whole presenting a trilobitic aspect. In the young stj'.te, the tel- son is absent, and the trilobitic aspect is especially marked. Thf genus dates from the Triassic period, but fossil examples are unknown as regards Canadian strata. The Belhmrid(e much resemble the Lhmd'uhn in general characteix, but the thorax and abdomen in most forms are distinctly segmented. llemiasph from Silurian strata, and the Carboniferous types Beliitu- ru8 anil Prestivkhia, are the principal genera. Examples have been discoveret"' in the United States but none in Central Canada. The dorsal aspect in these forms is more or less distinctly tri-Iobed. OK CENTRAL CANADA — PART IV. 261 The.. EH7')/p(>'r{dae are sometimes known as (iiyantostraca from the large size presented by some examples. The head is covered by a single plate, and carries on the under side several pairs of mastica- ting, and a single pair of swimming feet. The long thorax and abdo- men (including the telson) consist of tliirteeu movealde segments. The principal genera con) prise Kuryjitprnn and Pteri/yofus, in Ijoth of which (although only seen in well preserved exam] >les) the sui'face of the shelly coveting shews scale- like markings. In J'Jnri/pteriis, the an- terior feet aie slender and antenna'-like ; whilst in Pturiiyotus the front pair are very long, and are terminated by claws or nippers. In Kunjjderus, also, there is a long thorn-like telson, and in Plerj/- gotiis a comi)aratively short and flattened teiminal-segment. {Examples of JCuri/j)- terns in a more or less fragmentary con- dition are not uncommon in the Oriskany (Devonian) Formation of Soutli-wo.stern „ ^ ' Flo. isn. Ontario. A restored exami)le of B, re. Km.ii^unis ivmijin inipes is represented in Figure 1 80. The cephalic shield and the long thorn-like telson, are the parts generally found. The genus ranges from the I'pper Silurian into Carboni- ferous strata. J't''ri/(jofi(x is an r]iper Silurian and Devonian tyjie. 6. PhjiUocarlila : — This sub-division is of comparatively recent ado|»t"on. principally fri)m the researches of Packard and Chius. It includes the moileru Xehaliu (a sm:tM shrimp-like crustacean with stalked eyes) and a series of extinct forms of related character but uiuch larger size. In the.se, there appears to be a blending of characLers belonging to Ijoth the lower types (often grouped together unhjilo-tlioracic shelly covering) composed mostly of two pieces, and a jointetl or ring-foimed aljdomen terminating in a telson of three or seveial spines. Ex- hex onian. a. (I, lire the s« iniiiiiiiy foot. 262 MINERALS AND GEOLOGY aniples have not been detected in our strata, although found in the Palajozoic rocks of the United States. 7. A mphipoda : — This Order (which may bo made to include the Laenwiii'poiia of some systems of classification) comprises a series of small shrimp-like crustaceans, i*epresented by " water-fleas," " sand hoppers," " spectre-shrimps," Ac, with sessile eyes and typically seven pairs of legs, the front pairs directed backwards, and the hind pairs forwards, whence the nauic! of the group. Marine, fresh-water, and terrestrial types are known. Fossil forms {Gampsonyx, (kc.) only date with certainty from the Carboniferous period, and the amphipods are unrepresented in our strata. 8. Isupoda : — The isopods are small crustaceans, very similar in character to the amphipods, and iuclnding, like the latter, marine, fresh-water, and terrestrial types ; but the form instead of beiiin laterally compressed, is generally flattened from above downwards. The Oniscus or " wood-louse " is the typical terrestrial representative. Fossil forms of the group, date from the Devonian period, but are ^'f comparatively little interest. 9. Stoinuj)oda : — This division comjtrises small shrimp-like crus- taceans with stalked eyes, and with branchiie suspended from the abdomen or attached to the thoracic feet. Squilla and Mysia are typical e.xam[)les. Species of the latter are familiarly known as " opossum shrimps." Fossil forms date from the Jurassic period, but ai"e rare and of no special interest. 10. Decapoda : — In the Decapods— the type-forms of the Crus- tacea—the true feet are always in five pairs; the eyes are stalked : the head and thorax are united into a cephalo-thorax ; and the branchise are in special cavities at the sides of the latter. Thre<> leading groups are recognized : — (1) Macrura or long-tailed decapods, in which the abdomen is well-devoleped, forming a powerful swim- ming organ. Typical repi-esentatives comprise lobstei's, cray-fish, and true shrimps. Fossil forms date from the Carboniferous period. (2) Anomura, or defenceless-tailed decapods, in which the abdomen is unprotected by a shelly covering, and does not serve as a natatory organ. The Payur'ulae or " Hermit-crabs " are examples. These insert the abdomen into the vacant shells of whelks or other gastero- pods, or keep it buried in the sand of the sea shores on which they live. Fossil forms date from the Jurassic period. / Modem bryozoa are generally divided into Entoproeta and Ect - procta, according as to whether the anal orifice is within or without the tentacular area. The Entoproeta have no fossil representatives. The Ectoprocta are subdivided into two leading sections : 1, Ph)/l « k\ t • I'inurni'i of a tvj)ifu\ linuhiopod W hllat \\\OHt 01 tU^^ liuUMV.Oie in nornml ixwition. OP CENTRAL CANADA — PART IV. 267 bryozoons. Tlioir chief characteri.stio is the |)08s«!asion of a pair of long, ciliated " arins," coiled up within the shell, and Hupi)ortcd in some forms by calcified structures. These so called " arms " undoubt- elly represoi t to some extent the t(Mitiicular organs of the bryozoons. Living brachiopods are for the great(3r part attarlu>d to tlu< sj«a-floor by a flexible pedicel, passing throunh a foramen in the shell or b?twepn the bivalves ; but in some cases the attachment is made by the shell itself, without a pedicel. In the seas of the Pnlieozoio Age, brachipods abounded and far exceeded in nunil)ers the lanicllibranohiutt* mdluHoa During the Mesozoic p«»riods, thoy \ve»"t» still numerous, but tlmy diniinished yn'rttlN in the succeeiling Cainozoic Ag«, and at present about 100 living species only are known. genera aru extinct, souve tVnv — as liiif/ula, rhfftv'uunUa, t*'rel>ratida, in: — still o<\\M' living representatives. The two valves of the brachiopod are of unoijual size, but always e(juj|atpral. As regards the latter character, therefore, a straight line drawn vertically through the middle of each valve will divide the sh(;Il into two symmetrically estance of the slidl may be "punctate" or " iinpuiu'tate " — i.i'. traver.scil, or not. liy minute pores ; but this character often becomes inconsjdcuous thruiigli foHsilization. The anus or tentacles in the interior of the shell are always attached to the sniiiller valve. In some genera (orthin, ffr.), tlicso are without supporting calcareous structures. In other gen(!raf'r/(//«- coiielfa, (i'c.) they are attached to two very shoi't processes or " cnn-a." In others (uplrij'trr, tic), they are wound around two calfaicoiis spires. \u other.s, again, (ferdhra'elic, ivaltUu'iiUKt, i(r.J they are supjiorted by a short or long calcareous loop. Unfortunately, tlicso internal structures in fossil e.Kamples are often not directly ob.stTV- able. As a rule, the shell must be carefully grouml down with line emery on an iron pliite, or artificial sections must l)e j)repare(l lor their recognition. In like manner, the muscular impressions on the inner suiface of the valves are only occasionally observaMc. These imj)re.ssions difl'er in shape and mode of arrangement, but an usually in pairs ; four to six in number. The brachiopods are classed under two jjrincipal divisions. In one {Artinilnta of Huxley, Arthropoinata of Owen, Testicardinis ot' Brown, Clistfuterata of King, Apygia of Zittel) the valves have a more or less hninrni(l(f ; 0, J'roduetido'. Fiiniily 1. S/iiri/trufa : Shell with hoth viilvcs convex. Siimllor valvo with int 6^ 23 we:>t main street webster, n.y. 14580 (7tfi\ 872-4503 ^^^ 6^ r 270 MINERALS AFD GEOLOGY hi I Family 2. A trypidoe : Shell with internal spires attached to the hinge-line of the dorsal valve. No area. Shell bi-convex. This family differs from that of the Spiriferidae by the direction of the spiral supports. The only typical genus Atrypa ( = Spirigerina) much re- sembles the spirifers with curved hinge-line. Our most common species is A. reticularis, fig. 188, an Upper Silurian and Devonian type of wide , . , Fro. 188. geographical range. atrypa reticularis Upper Silurian. Family 3. TerebratuUdce : Shell with both Devonian, valves convex. Internal arm-supports in the form of a short or long calcareous loop. This family has several living representatives, notably, Terehiatula, dating from the Devonian period, and Waldheimia, fi'om the Triassic, Iix tlie former, the internal loop is short, and in the latter compara- tively long and deeply recurved. The genus Gentronella^ an extinct Devonian type is the principal if not the only Canadian representa- tive of the family. Fig. 189 represents C. glans-fagea of Hall. Family 4. RhynconellidcB : Shell with both valves convex ; usually strongly ribbed. Internal ai*m-supports in the form of very short, more or less inconspicuous points. This family includes the typical genus Rhynconella, dating from the Silurian period and still surviving, and the extinct genera Pentamerus (Sil- urian to Carb.), Stricklandia, and Gamerella : the two latter, Silurian only. Several species of Rhynconella and a common Pentamerus are represented in figures 190 to 193. Fig. 189. Centronclla-glans fagea. (Hall.) Devonian. IM). OF CENTRAL CANADA — PART IV. 271 Devonian. short or long Rhynconella vlena, Chazy E. increbescens, Trenton Fig. 190 Formation. Fig. 191 Foimation. Fig. 192. R. ( C amerella ) varians, Chazy Formation. Fig. 193. Pentamerus oblongus, Clin- ton and Niagara Formations. Family 5. Strophomenidm : — Shell, mostly, with one valve convex and the other flat or concave, but in some forms 193 biconvex. No internal arm-supports. Hinge-line straight. This family is entirely extinct and almost exclusively palaeozoic. Its more characteristic genera comprize : (1) Strophomena, with Concavo-convex or plano-convex shell and greatest width at hinge- line : the four most distinct muscular impi'essions in a single row : Silurian to Carboniferoixs period : (2) Leptcena, much like strop- homena but muscular impressions very long : Silurian to Liassio period. (3) Orthis, shell flatly bi-convex or plano-convex, with gi-eatest width below the hinge-line ; the four most distinct muscular impressions no^. in a single horizontal row : Cambrian to Carbon- iferous. (4) Platystrophia, with strongly bi-convex shell : one valve depressed in the centre and the othei' with mesial fold, thus greatly resembling a spirifer shell. Surface of shell strongly ribbed : Silurian to Carboniferous. Representatives of these genera are shewn in the following figures. 194. 196. 197. Fig. 194. Strophomena alternata : Trenton and Hudson River Formations. Fig. 196. Zepto«a «encea: Trenton and Hudson River Formations. Fig. 197. Orthis testudinaria : Trenton and Hudson River Forms. 0. elegantula, an Upper Silurian form, much resemble this species. 272 MINERALS AND GEOLOGY : '■! 198. 195. Fig. Fig. 190. 200. Fig. 195. S. rhotnboidalis ( = S. deijressct) : Upper Silurian and Devonian. 198. 0. tricenaria : Trenton Formation. 199. 0. vanvxemi: Devonian. Fig. 200. Platystrophia lynx, the Delthyris lynx, afterwards Splrifer lynx, and Orthis lynx, of old publications : Tr' iiton forma- tion. The plications on t^^e mesial fold and sinus serve as a distinc- tive character. Family 6. Productidm : Shell concavo-convex, free or attached by surface of larger valve. Area absent or very narrow. Hinge-teetli often rudimentary. No internal arm- supports. This family is entirely extinct. Its chief repi'esentatives comprise : Productus, with very convex ventral valve and spiny surface, a characteristic Carboniferous genus, but occurring also in Devonian and Pernian strata ; and Chonetes, with flat, transversely elongated shell, bearing spines along] the hinge-margin. The latter ganus ranges from Silurian into Carboniferous strata, but the family is unrepresented in the rocks of Central Canada. Division II. Inarticulata or Tretenterata : — Brachiopods with hingeless shell. In living forms, the intestine terminates in an anal opening on the right side of the body. There are no calcified arm- supports. This Division comprises the following families: 1, Trimerellidct ; '2, Crw iadoe ; 3, Discinid(e ; 4, Lln(/ulid(K. or cr.NTKAL CANAOA — PAIIT IV, ■3 Silurian and attached bv rimerellidoi ; FlK. 'JOl. Cast ot' Tiiiiturella (icKiiiinatn (Hilling's.) (luclidi Forinatioii Family 1. Trimerellidte : — Shell, thick, calcaicou.s, without fora- iiien. Kutliinentary liinge-teeth sonietiines ineseut. A broach l)ij)artite plate, with sujjporting septum, in the interior of each valve. This family is entirely of Silurian age. It is represented chiefly by the genera, Monomerella, with Hat, central plate ; and Linobofus and TrimnreUa, with the edges of the central {date curved outwards. In all, the ventral valve has a li.rge area and deltidium, and the smaller valve is nearly circular. Both valves are smoo.h or with- out external ril)S, and moderately convex in form. Several species of these genera occur in our Silurian strata, more esi)ecially in the Upper Silurian (Juclph Formation. Kxamples are coiuiuonly in the form of casts. These shew two or three deep sinusses at or near the beak of the slieil. Family 2. Craniado; : — Shell thick, calcareous, fiuely-perforatetl, more or less circular or square-sluiped, without foramen. Beak of both valves, sub central. This family dates from the Silurian period, but its tyjiical genus Crania is es[)ecially characteristic of Cretaceous strata. Tlie internal muscular impressions and presence of a nose-shaped sei)tum [)roduce the aj)i)earance of a face or skull — whence the name of the genus. Our strata are without recognized represt ntatives of the family. Family 3. Diacinidrh : — Shell composed of horny and calcareous layers, more or less circular in form, with central or sub-central beak, and foramen (usually in the forai of a narrow slit) in the larger valve. This family is represented chiefly l,>y Discina, Orhlculoidea, and Trematis. The horny part of tlie shell in these genera (as in the liuyididic) is com])Osed essentially of calcium phosphate. Examples, mostly of small .size occur in our Silurian strata. The genus^ Disciiia has living representatives. The other genera are extinct. Family 4. Liw/idUhe : Shell composed of horny antl calcareous layers, the horny por. tion consisting of calcium phosphate. Com- monly oblong or oval in shape, more rarely Fio 202. Dinciua for Orbiculoitlea) Circe .' Trenton Formation. 18 274 MINERALS AND GEOLOGY circular. Usually smooth, or marked sim)»ly by concentric lines of growth. This family^ of the highest antiquity, still ofibrs living representa- tives. The principal genera comprise TAngvIa, Linyulella, and Obolns. The shell in Im/ula is without a foramen, the pedicel, us seen in living species, passing out l)etween the valves. Tn Ihujuldhi. and in oholus, there is a narrow marginal foranum in one vaho. These genera date from the Cambrian |)erio.l. In the strata of Ontario and Quebec, examples of lingula' are of frequent occurrence. Usually the shell is dark and lustrous ; but in examples from tlie Medina formation of Hamilton, Ontario, it preserves its normal sub- pearly and iridescent aspect. Some of our more characteristic species are shewn in the .'xunexed figures. •207. 203. -21)4. -20;). 200. -"'• -207 (/is Fig. 203. Lingula acuminata {= L. antiqua) Potsdam (Cambrian) formation. Fig. 204. L. Quebecensis : Levis formation. Fig. 205. L. Lydli : Chazy formation. Fig. 206. L. quadrata ; Trenton formation. L. obtusa : Utica and Hudson River formations. bi. L. oUoriffa (Conrad) : Medina and Clinton forma- tions.* Fig. 207. Fig. 207 * This small species of liiijrnla is abundant in some of the red, Medina strata of Hamilton, Ontario. In many examples the substance of the shell is preserved. OF CENTUAL CANADA —PART IV. 275 I'ic lin(!s of Lta of Hamilton, B. MOLLUSCA VERA. The molluHcti propui", its distinguished from the molluscoidea, ])ossess distinct brauchia?, or, in default of these, a puhnonary cac ; and they liave also, typically, a systematic heart. In most, the body is enclosed in a calcareous shell, as in the oyster, whelk, *fec.; but in some forms the shell is internal, and in others it is absent or rudi- mentary. They fall primarily under two sections : Aylossata, in which the moDusk has no " lingual ribbon " or odontophore ; and Glossophora or Odontophora, in which the animal is provided with a long, narrow " tongue " or " radula " thickly set with rows of minute, rasping teeth, of variable form and mode of arrangement in different genera. The Aylossata compi'ise a single class, Lamellibranchiata. The Glossophora are sub-divided into th(! following classes : Scapho. poda ; Pteropoda ; Gasteropoda ; Ileteropoda ; and Cephalopoda. CLASS 1. LAMMELI.IBKANCHIATA. ( ^ CONCHIFKRA, PELECYPODA, &C.) The lamellibranchs are entirely aquatic, and mostly marine types. They secrete an external, calcareous shell composed of two separate valves, united, in most forms, by interlocking points or teeth, and by a narrow elastic ligament. All are headless. They are commonly classed under two leading sections : Asiphonida and Siphonida. In the latter the animal possesses a pair of long or short siphonal tubes, capable, more or less, of extension beyond the shell. One of these tubes serves for the ingress of water, and the other for the expulsion of this after the air has been extracted from it, as well as for the removal of effete matters generally. The Asiphonida are without these siphonal tubes, although there is an approach towards them in one of their families, the Union{d(e. These sections are again sub- divided into TWO groups or Oi-dei'S, as in the following arrangement : . , •! ( 1. Pleuroconcha. Asphonida { [ 2. Orthuconcha. ^j. , . , r 3. Integripalliata. \ 4, Sinupalliata. 1. Pleuroconcha : In this subdivision, the valves of the shell are mostly of unequal size ; and, in normal positi-^n, one valve is the under, and the other the vpper valve. In the interior of each valve there is one large muscular impression, or one large and one 270 MINKUAI.S AND GKOLOCiY small iiiipre.ssioii — wluinco tlio terms AfotKunijai'la luul Ilflrrinnifarin, often iippliod to the members of this ,<,'roup. Some of the more comirion geneni comprise : Ostrmi (dating from tlio Cai honiferous period) ; Spondi/his (diiting from the Triassic period) ; Pt'cf.en (datiiii,' from the Devonian pf^riod) ; Linia (dating from the Carboniferous period); Avictda ((latiug from the Sihu'ian perioil) ; Myt'dus (datiu;; from the Triassic ])eriod) ; and Pinna (dating from the Devonian period), Among the most frequent forms of Palieozoic age, occurriiif,' in onr strata, Aiubowjchia rndiata (Family Arir.id.ida), and MoiUo- lopsis modiolaris (Family jMi/fifidfn) may be especially cited. Moiliolopxin inodiiila rln. Ilitdaoii Kh'er Korination. Kio. -JUS. Aiiili(iii!irli!ci rittliiitn. Trenton anranchiates. OK (!ENTKAL CANADA — PART IV. 277 deposits — known, aftor Dnwson, as tlio Loda clay roruiation — of the Province of (Quebec. iriiial position of Kui. -llv. Cast of Mc;i(iliiiiiii.i (Ci/rtiKliiiitii) Canmhunti.-i . (Hall). (Juoliih Koniiatioii. Fid. -211. '.td» Ininvaln. i'ost (ilac-ial. 3. lnf>;/jri.j)a/l!(ita : — TIir shell fiml normal position of the animal in this group are the same as in the Ortliocuwha, but the animal possesses a |)aii- of siiort siplional tnl»es. The muscular impressions are connected In- w narrow lincai- depression, marking the fidge of the nmntel, and this is continuous or without any l)end or sinus — whence the term " Integripalleata." Tridacna (dating from the Miocene period), Cardliim and Lticina (dating from the Silurian l»('riod), CycJan and Cyrcna (dating from the Jurassic period), and Crnssafclla (from the Cretaceous), are some of the more tyj)ical genera. The annexed figures rejiresent two of our Palaeozoic forms. Fio. 212. Liicina prmtviu : (Mall). Devonian. Fi((. 213. Ciiitwardhtiii trifjaiinlc : (Conrad). Uevoniati. 4. Sinitpalliata : — In this group the anin)al possesses a |)air of long, more or less extensible, si[)honal tubes ; and the muscular impressions are connected by a {)arallel groove with a fold or sinus where the tubes occur. Repvesentatives of the group are hardly known in Paheozoic strata, but are abundant in Mesozoic and Caino- zoic formations and in existino; seas. Some of the more characteristic 278 MINERALS AND GEOLOGY genora ccinprise : VenuH, Cytherea, Telllnu, and Mactra (all tlatinrf from tlio JurasHic period), Donax and Solen (both dating from tlio Eocene) and Mya, Saxicava, ikc. (dating from tlio Miocene period). Species of Mya, l^ellina and Saxicava are very characteristic of tlip Saxicava-Sand formation (Post-Glacial) of tlio Province of Quebec. Mijn trnncata. I'oHt-Gliiciiil. Flo. 215. Ti'lliitd ijrwiilaiKllca. I'ost-Gliu'ial. Km. aid. Saxicava fiifiiua. I'ost-GliK iul. CLASS II. SCAI'HOPODA. This class coin[)risds but one family, that of the Dentalidte, in which the head is rudimentary (but furnished with a lingual ribbon or radula) and the foot in the form of a hollow, conical organ, adapted for boring — whence the name of the class, from c^w^o?, a spade. The typical genus Dentalium, in which the shell is in the form of a hollow cone, straight or curved, and open at both ends, dates from the Silurian or Devonian periods, but is without representatives in our strata. CLASS III. PTEKOPODA. The Pteropods form a small series of pelagic, fiee-swimming mol- lusks, freijuenters of the o\nin ocean. They poss(;ss a rudimentary head, with a fin-like, natatory organ on each side. Some are naked types, others secrete a light shell of variable form. They are com- monly classed in two orders : 1. Thecosomata, with, typically, a thin external shell ; and 2. Gymnosomata, including the naked forms, with more or less distinct head. The modern genera Hyalaea and Limacina (both dating from the Miocene period) are types of the first Order ; and the recent genus Clio is the principal representa- sive of the second Order. OF CENTRAL CANADA — FAKT IV. 279 Two essentially piilujozoie forms, 7^entaculites (Silufiun, Devonian), and Conularia (Hilurian to Lower Jnrassic), are cDninionly regarded as thecosoniatons pteropods, but their true [josition is still uncertain. Kid. 217. Tcntaviilitcx Omatiin I'pper Silurian. Vm. 'JIS. CiiHiilnria Tri'iitdiU'iiiiiH : Lower Silurian. The shell, in TentacuUtes, is tubular, of narrow diameter, tapering to a J'ounded point, and transversely ringed. In Conularia, it is more or less conical and four-angled, but usually flattened by com- pression. Its surface is marked by a few longitudinal furrows, and by numerous One lines, i-esembling rows of punctures, arrange transversely in zigzag form as shewn in figure 210. Some exainples are sevei-al inches in lencth. CLASS IV. GASTEROPODA. In the lollusks of this class there is a more or less distinct head and all i .-e furnished with u radula or lingual ribbon, thickly set with minute teeth. The number, form and arrangement of the latter constitute valuable classification-characters as regards living species, but are without, or of only indirect, pakeontokgical application, Typical ga.steropods possess also a fleshy expansion or so-called foot on the under side of the body, by which locomotion is effected : hence the name of the class. The greater number secrete an external uni- valve shell, mostly spiral in form, but some few, as the slugs, ai'e naked, or possess merely a rudimentary shell ; and in the chitons, an exceptional group, the shell is composed of several pieces. In many of the spiral forms, the mouth or aperture of the shell can be closed when the animal has retired within it, by a shelly or horny plate, known as an " operculum." Some gasteropods, as the common 280 MINKKALS AM) OKOMHlV Hiiiiils, iini turrcstriiil ; otliors, us tlic liiimiut, and ]iln)ii>rl)is^ s|»f('i(»H of which uro of coiuiiion occurrcnco in our liiktts iiinl HtrtJiiiiiM, iuhahit fn^sli-watei' ; l)Ut the gicutc!!' imnilKM- are niiiiiiu' types. Tlic olasH limy Ix! sulKlivided into luiii' suli-chisHCS : Pnhnutialti. O/iisf/ioliranchiatii, /'/(H'o/>f ores in which the branchia' are situated beliind tlie heart. Like tlie I'lilmon (ltd (and the preceding class of J'teropods) ail -.iw lienmiiln'odites. Tlu^y arc commonly divided into Xiulih ranch iata {>•. and in that condition their specific distinctions are not, in all cases, easily determined. Many so-called species, OF CENTRAL CANADA — PART IV. 283 moreover, are founded on very slight difl'erences, and should rank as varieties only. Sij)ho7ios(omata : — The representatives of this section are essen- tially carnivorous types. They are distinguished by having the iiperture of the shell knotched at both of its extremities, oi otherwise by the aperture being extended intt) a slit tube or so-called Ciiual. Their remains are apparently unknown in Palaiozoic strata^ but become abundant in 3Iesozoic and Cainozoic beds, and their representatives are still more abundant in the .seas of the existing period. The nion; typi- cal families comprise : the Cerithindce, Pur- jmriihe, and Fusidtv, dating from the Triassic period ; the S*oinbuI(f', Buccinidiv and Neri- widce, dating from the Jurassic period ; the Miiricidif', Volutidic, Cancellaridiv. ('o?t/(/f/', and C'y;>?'«*'/(/(f','dating from Cretaceous times. The annexed figure represents a species of Buccimim from the Post-Glacial, Saxicava-sand formation of Beauport, near Qubec. Fid. •22(5. Ihicclinun u mint u III Post t^ainozoii' and liviiij^f. CLASS V. — IIETEROPODA. The mollusks of this class are regarded by many zoologists simply an Order (=Xuc.li'obra)ichiata) of the Gasteropods. Th. are free swimming, pehigio types, and thus resemble in habit the Pteropods, but are of much higher organization. They possess a well-developod head, with jierfectly formed eyes, itc, and tin sexes are distinct. Some are without a shell ; others have a vei'y small, thin shell, protecting only a portion of the body ; and in those of the Family Atlantida', there is a light shell of sufficient size to contain the entire animal, and this in some cases is furnished with an operculum*. Two families are commonly recognized: 1, Flrolida; (or Ptero- trarfueidoe.), in. which natation is partly performed by a so-called "tail tin, ' inchuUng the naked genus Firola, and also the Cnrinaria with small, delicate, patelliform shell ; and 2, Atlantid(f, in which there is a light, hyaline shell into which the animal can withdraw its body. The only known fo.ssils are some small shells of two species of Garinaria, fvoiu European strata of Miocer. - age. The extinct genera, Jiellerophon, 284 MINERALS AND GEOLOGY Cylolites, Maclurea, &c., formerly regarded as beloiiging to this class, are now jjlaced under the holostoniatoiis gasteropods. CLASS VL CEPHALOPODA. Tliis class is represented by highly-organized inollusca, furnished with a distinct lioad, large eyes, and a central mouth (with horny, beak-like jaws) surrounded by a series of tentacles, or so-called " arms," which servo as organs of ))rehension and locomotion. The Nautilus, Argonaut, Octopus, Sepia or Cuttle-Fish, and Loligo or Squid, are its principal living repi-esentatives. These are commonly classed under two leading sections or orders, Tetrahranchiata aiul Dibranchiata, in accordance with ch ; number of theii- bi'anchia'. The Nautilus is the only living I'epreseutative of the Tetrabran- chiate Cephalopods, but many extinct genera in which the character of the shell is more or less akin to that of the Nautilus, ai-e usually regarded as belonging to the same order. Of late years, however, doubts have arisen on this point with respect to some of these extinct forms, which are now supposed to have been moi-e nearly related (as regards the animal, a[)art from the shell) to living Dibranchiate types. They are chiefly represented by the extinct ammonites and related genera. Hence, the recent adoption of three sections or ordeis in the classification of the Cephalopoda — namely : (1) Tetra- brauchiata ; (2) Ammonoldia, and (.'*) Dibranchiata. The Tetra- branchiata are essentially ancient types in a state of dacadence, the Nautilus (with greatly diminished species) Vieing the only living representative. The Ammonoidea are extinct, typically Me.sozoic, forms. The JHbranchiata, on the other hand, although including some extinct genera (as the Belenniite of Mesozoic age,) are essen- tially recent types. These relations are shown ir the following diagi'am : Existing Period. Caiiio7.oic Periods. Mesozoic Periods. Palicozoic Periods. Fio. 227. Biaj{ram, shewing geological relations of the 'letrabranchiate, Aminonitoidal, and Dibrant'hiate Cephalopods, respectively. OF CKNTKAL CANADA — PART IV. 285 Tetrabranchiata : In this nearly extinct Order, tlie shell — judging from the single surviving genus, the NautUus — i.s external, and is divided into numerous chambers by concave or slightly sinuated par- titions, known as " septa." These are formed successively during the growth of the cephalopod — the animal inhabiting the last-formed outer chamber. The septa are traversed by a long tube or " siphun- cle," i)assing through all the chambers, and serving to keep the t'arlier-formed portions of the shell in connection with the animal's body. This tube or siphuncle varies in size, shape and position. In some forms it is of narrow diameter ; in others, comparatively wide. In some, again, of uniform, gradually tapering shape ; in others con- tracted at regular intervals, in which case it is known as a " beaded " Fi«. iil. Sfctioii of shell of SiuitiliiK (N), ;ui mammoth, an extinct elephant of the Asiatic type ' robably Ekplvia piimigeniua*), and the common mastodon {M. Ohtoticua), Fia. 2S8. Molar tooth of Elepttan ptimigeuiui. Fio. 230. Molar tooth of Maxludoii Ohiutkn^ ' It ho* been proposed to subdivide the ^enua £{ej>/ia« into two (llstiiict genera : thicU^ilms^ for the Asiatic; type, with narrow, linear tooth-bands, short ears, Uc.\ and Loxodon, for the African type, with tooth -hands of lozenge-like form, large ears and other more or Ies»divir- gent characters ; but this subdivision is not generally adopted. E. priinijeniuH, again, is ^iil<- divided by some authorities into several species or sub-species, as E. Jackmii, E. Aimii- canus, &c. i PART V. dun Uliioticii- SYSTEMATIC OUTLINE OF THE GEOLOGY OF CEN- TRAL CANADA, COMPRISING THE PROVINCES OF ONTARIO AND QUEBEC. Aa explained in preceding sections of this work, the various rock- t'ormutions which make np the outer portion or so-called crust of the earth do not form a single unbroken series, but belong to various e])0ch8 of formation. These epoclis comprise five primary divisions or ages : determined partly by the superposition of their rocks, and j)artly by the fossilized organic bcdies which many of these rocks contain. The ages thus recognized are as follows : 5. The Present or Existing Age. 4. The Cainozoic Age. .'<. The Mesozoic Age. 2. The Palseozoic Age. 1. The Archsean Age. Tliese ages, although distinct in the main, offer, as in all historic periods, a gradual passage from their older iu+o their newer epochs. The rocks by which (hey are made known to us are of three princi- pal kinds : Sedimentary or Stratified rocks, represented by ordinary sandstones and limestones, clay-slates, clays, sands, &c., many of which contain the fossilized remains of plants and animals living on the earth when the rocks in question were formed ; Foliated or Stratiform-crystalline rocks, represented by gneiss, mica-schist, crys-;- talline limestone, tfec; Eruptive rocks — partly crystalline, as granites and syenites ; partly compact or aphanitic in texture, as ordinary traps and basalts ; partly scoriaceous, as ordinary lavas ; and partly vitreous, as obsidian. In the Dominion of Canada, viewed in its entirety, examples occur of all these rocks, and each of the five great geological ages is repre- sented by rock-formations ; but in the separate Provinces of the Dominion, the rock-representatives of some of the geological ages are unknown. Thus within the boundaries of Ontario and Quebec there are no known rock-formations of Mesozoic or Cainozoic age. Viewed 294 MINERALS AND OROLOOY hroiuUy, the older rockfoiinations Ho in the northern and ciisti'in portions of the Dominion ; the newer, in the west.*' I PROVINCE OP ONTARIO. INTRODUCTORY NOTICE. The southern limit of this Province oxteiuis westward along tin St. Lawrence River, from a few miles above the junction of the St Lawrence and the Ottawa, through Lake Ontario, and the greater |nur of Lake Erie to the River Detroit. Its soutli-western and westt-i ii limit runs through Lake St. Clair, Lake Huron and Lake Supcrini as far as the mouth of Pigeon River, and from thence to tlic north-west angle of the Lake of the Woods. Its north-west Mini northern boundary runs from that point to Winnipeg River, and then north-easterly by Lac Seul and St. Joseph's Lake, along the Albany River to James' Bay, the southern point of Hudson's Bay ; and its eastern botmdary passes from the latter directly south to Lake Tom- iscamingue, and fi'om thence down the Ottawa to near the junction of that river with the St. Lawrence. The area of the Province (ex- clusive of the portions of the great lakes within its boundary) is com- puted to equal 181,S00 square miles. On passing south-westerly, parallel with the River St. Lasvrencr from the County of Glengarry, the eastern extremity of Ontario, we traverse a gently undulating district, rising from about 100 to 2') ' feet above the sea-level and extending from the Province boundary to the vicinity of Brockville. This district is underlaid by limestones and sandstones of Silurian and Cambi-ian age, and is of good fertility. The Nation River flows through it in a north-easterly direction and falls into the Ottawa. A little west of Brockville, a gneissoid, crys- talline district, comparatively wild and rocky, is traversed for about 40 miles to the neighborhood of Kingston. This extends northwards into the great Archiean region, which it connects, south of the St. Lawrence, with the mountainous district of the Adii-ondacks. West of Kingston, a gently-undulating, agricultural district, underlaid mostly by Lower Silurian limestones, is again traversed. This ex- tends, with an avergage elevation of about 250 feet near the shore of * The rock-formations of Ontario and Quebec alone cor.ie under review in the present work. A synopsis of the geology of the other Provinces will be found in the author's " Outline of the Geology of Canada. OP CKNTHA.L CANADA — PARTT V. 29^ iiud eastfiii Lake Ontario, to Hamilton at the head of the I^ake NorthwanlH the gvound riHes in a Huccession of terraces to aboiit 1,000 feet, ami then deacends towards Lake Simcoe to about 700 feet above the level of the Hca. The northern edge of this Lower Silurian area, from Kingston to Georgian Bay, abuts against the Archtean, gneissoid region, and the junction of the Silurian limestones with the gneissoitl liiuirentian rocks of the latter is marked by an almost continuous line of small lakes. At Hamilton the ground rises abruptly into the Lfv«>at escarpment known as the Niagara escarpment, which exttuidtj from the Niagara River to Cabot's Heaer Silurian and Devonian age, belongs essentially to the great Archtean region of Canada, and is underlaid by Huronian and Lau- rentian gneissoid I'ocks, with a comparatively small development of Lower Cambrian strata about Thunder Bay and a few other points on Lake Superior. This vast Archjean region, although densely wooded. is of a more or less wild and inhospitable character, and as a rule ill adapted for agricultural occupation : but it abounds in mineral wealth, and especially in ores of iron, copper and silver. From this lapid outline of the topography and genei'al features of (hitario, it will be been that three great geological areas may be recognized within the limits of the Province. A line drawn from James' Bay southwards to Lake Ontario will traverse these three leading areas, as shewn in the annexed sketch-section : South. Fig, 240. North. With the exception of the remote and unsettled region around 296 MINERALS AND GEOLOGY '>ii: James* Bay, these large areas may be conveniently divided, in ordei to facilitate their description, into several smaller areas or districts, as in the following distribution : 1. The Archaean Area. 1*. The District of the Upper Lakes. 1". The Eastern Archaean District. 2. The Southern Paleozoic Area. 2*. The Lower Ottawa Disti-ict. 2^ The Lake Ontario District. 2°. The Erie and Huron District. 2"*. The Manitoulin District. ^. The Northern Pal^.ozoic Area. ^ '/yyyx/'jO' iTlf 3 i k ^^ mmM^. ^ ^^^M ^^^^Mi\ ^8 ^^^Si£i£=S^^ 1 ^^ib=;^=->r 1 /'V Fio. 241. Sketch Map of Province of Ontario, shewing jfcological areas. Explanation : The diagonally shaded space shews the great Archiean area ; 1" indicating the District of the Upper Lakes, and P the Eastern Archa'aii District. The horizontally shaded space shows the Southern PaliBOZoic area : '2» de- noting the Lower Ottawa District ; 2'', the Lake Ontario District ; 2'=, tin- Erie and Huron District ; and 2<^, the Manitoulin District. The vertically-shaded space (3) indicates the portion of the Northern Pale- ozoic area lying within the Province boundary. S=:Lake Sujerior ; M=Lak3 Michigan ; H=Lake Huron ; £=Lake Erie ; and 0= Lake Ontario. The unshaded district on the right is part of tlie l-'rovince of Quebec. r,K :'# OF CENTRAL CANADA — PART V. 297 forthern Pain DISTRICT OF THE UPPER LAKES. This district may be described iu general terms as extending west of Lake Temiscamingue, over the almost entire north-west portion of Ontario, exclusive of the still little known Palaeozoic region around James' Bay. It forms for the greater part a densely-wooded, but rugged and mountainous region, broken up by numeious bodies or" water, and underlaid eRs«ntially by crystalline and semi-crystalline rocks of the Laurentian and Huronian series. The surface of Lake Temiscamingue is 612 feet, that of Lake Huron 57S feet, and that of Lake Superior 600 feet above the sea. From these levels the ground rises more or less abruptly to an average height of 1,000 to 1,500 feet, with here and there a few j)oints of still gi-eater elevation. The rocks within its area comprise : (1), representatives of the Lauren- tian and Huronian series, occupying, as remarked above, the greater part of its surface ; (2), some succeeding strata of supposed Lower Cambrian age J (3), many eruptive granites and trappean masses; and (4), overlying Glacial and Post-Glacial superficial deposits. Laurentian and Huronian rocks : — The I^aurentiau rocks of this district consist for the most part of ordinary red and gray gneiss, in more or less inclined and often nearly vertical beds, or presenting a highly contorted lamination. These alternate with darker beds con- taining hornblende, or in some cases augite, and with occasional bands of crystalline limestone. Black tourmaline or schorl and opaque dark red garnets are among the more commonly-occurring accidental minerals of these gneissic rocks. The Huronian repre- sentatives, although distinct enough in their entirety, closely resemble in many cases the Laurentian rocks of the district, and caimot always be readily sejiarated from these. As a rule, however, the texture is less crystalline or less granitoidal, and slaty or semi-crystalline con- glomerates appear among tiiem. Quartzites, varying in tint from colorless or pale green to dark gray and black, are especially abund- ant ; and many of these hold pebbles or fragments of jasper or of gneiss, or pass into siliceous slates or slaty conglomerates. In some cases also they are more or less feldspathic, and consist of an intimate mixture of quartz and orthoclase or other feldspar. In addition to tliese quartzites and slate conglomerates, dark green chloritic and hornblendic rocks form the more characteristic representatives of the Huronian series. 298 MINERALS AND GEOLOGY FlO. 242. The stratigraphical relations of the two series, Laurentian and Huronian, in this district, have not yet been clearly made oxit. The mineral characteristics, and especially the presence of conglomerates holding gneissoid and other fragments, inT'cltesrilveU"iowwS ^^^^ Undoubtedly to the conclusion tha. rocks are concealed. ^\^q Huronian beds are of later formation than the Laurentian; but, as pointed out by Dr. Selwyn, the Huronian appear in many places to pass under the latter. This can only be explained by the assumption of great overturned or reversed dips* as shewn roughly in fig. 242. As regard? distribiition, whilst the Laurentian rocks cover perhaps the greater portion of the district now under description, large are:is within it are occupied by Huronian beds. The latter form essen- tially a series of wide bands ranging in a north-east and south-west direction. The largest perhaps of these Huronian areas lies immedi- ately west and south-west of Lake Temiscamingue, extending in the latter direction to near Killarney on Georgian Bay, and along the north shore of Lake Hui'on and the back country to beyond Goulais Bay in t)ie south-east angle of Lake Superior. This area is traversed for about miles by the Canadian Pacific Railway, from the Wah- nahpitao River, by Sudbury, to Spanish Forks, where Laurentian rocks come up ; d fine sections may be seen in the railway cuttings, especially in the vicinity of Sudbury Junction, and westward, where large deposits of -copper ore occur. The copper pyrites of Eagle Lake (near Lake Huron) and that of the Bruce Mines, now apparently exhausted, occur in quartz veins traversing the same Huronian for- mation. About Sudbury and along the branch line to the Algonia Mills on Georgian Bay the Huronian quarvzites and conglomerates are broken through by many dykes and erruptive masses of diorite and syenite. Another Huronian area of considerable size extends around Michipicoten Harbour, and along Michipicoten, Magpie and Dog Rivers, for some distance inland. Here the rocks are more or less ferruginous, and are broken through by some large granitic masses. Huronian beds occur also further west on Lake Superior along the course of Pic River. And again, with granitic intrusions, in the back country, between Black Ba,y and the International boun- i h. OF CENTRAL CANADA — PART V. 299 clary on Pigeon River. Long belts of Huronian rocks range also towards the north-eaat from the eastern shore of Lake Nepigon, Still further west, Huronian beds, mostly in the form of hornblendic, chloritic and nacreous schists, with some clay-slates and quartzites, extend around the shores and through the numerous rocky islets of the Lake of the Woods. On the north-east shore and adjacent islands of this lake, especially round Big Stone Bay, gold-bearing quartz veins have been opened at several localities. Eruptive gran- ites are of common occurrence also throughout this portion of the Huronian area. Lower Cambrian Strata : Animikie arid Keweenian Forma'ions : — The actual age of these formations is still somewhat uncertain, but they belong most probably to an early .Cambrian period. But although of post-Archeean age, they form part of the great Archaean region of North-western Ontario, and are thu*. legitimately described with the latter. They were designated originally by Sir William Logan as the " Upper Copper-bearing Rocks of Lake Superior." Two series or separate formations are recognized. The lower forma- tion, now known as the Animikie formation,* is made up principally of black slates with subordinate stratifications of white, gray and black chert (in places anthracitic), dark gray ferruginous dolomite, occasional layers of altered sandstone, and bands of trappean matter, mostly composed of dark hornblende and greenish white feldspar, and frequently porphyritic. An enormous trappean overflow, with well-marked sub-columnar structure, caps the entire formation, as seen in the bold promontary of Thunder Cape, as well as at McKay's Mountain, and on Pie Island and elsewhere around Thunder Bay. The higher formation, known as the Keweenian (or Keweenian and Nepigon), consists of white and red calcareous sandstones and marls, beds of conglomerate, and numerous interstratified trappean bands, the whole overlaid as in the lower series by a great trappean overflow- These traps or greenstones are more or less compact or fine-granular in texture as regards those which occur west of Thunder Cape and which are thus associated with the Animikie series ; whilst the more east- ern displays, or those connected more especially with the higher * The earliest name bestowed on this series was that of the Kaminintiquia Formation, in the first edition of this work, published in 1864. The name was derived from the Kaiainis- tiquia River of the Thunder Bay country, along the course of which these rocks are princi- pally developed. acta MINERALS AND OEOLOOY Keweenian series are very generally amygdaloidal (see page 182) Both series are traversed by numerous trappean and dioritic dykes (often distinctly porphyritic) in which a transverse columnar struc- ture, as first pointed out by Sir William Logan, is very conspicuous. Both series also are interpenetrated by mineral veins carrying native silver, silver-glance, galena, zinc blende, copper-pyrites, and other ores, some of which are more or less auriferous. These are referred to below. The Animikie formation extends from Pigeon River eastward across the Kaministiquia and around the shore of Thunder Say to a little beyond Thunder Cape. The Keweenian formation stretches from this point around Bldck Bay (on the west shore of whicli it abuts against a largo muss of granite), and across Nepigon Bay, St. Jgnace and adjacent islands ; and it occupies also a broad area on the south, west and north sides of Lake Nepigon. Michipicoteu Island with its cupreous greenstone dykes, and one or two headlands on the east shore of Lake Superior, likewise belong to this series. Superficial Deposits : — Over the floor of crystalline rocks by which this vast region is essentially underlaid. Drift clays and boulders, and Post-Glacial clays and sands, with other recent acctimulations, are spread in many places. Glacial fun'ows and striee also are seen in numerous localities. The prevalent direction of the striae is decidedly towards the south-west, although some run nearly south, others east of south, and others, again, almost east and west. "Where commonly seen two or more sets of strise occur together and thus intersect each other. Drift clays are seen in many of the river channels, and boulders are of very general distribution. The latter are accumu- lated in some places in long ridges or morains at the opening of ^alleys or along the lower slopes of hills. Whilst many of these boulders ai-e of essentially local origin — and thus consist on the north shore of Lake Huron of jasper-conglomerate, quartzite, and other Huronian rocks, and of Laurentian and Copper- Bearing rocks about Lake Superioi* — examples of limestone boulders, containing Middle or Upper Silurian and Devonian fossils, occur in places throughout the region. These latter rjust have come generally from the northern country which lies beyond the height of land and extends north-east- erly to Hudson's Bay. The Post-Glacial deposits of the district con- sist in their lower beds of stratified clays and sands, referred by the OF CENTRAL CANADA — PART V. 301 Survey to the " Saugeen " division ; and in their higher beds, of ridges and widely-spread accumulations of fine sand on.y, referred to the " Algoma " series. The stratified clays (of gray, red, and buff" colors) are seen in places on the north shore of Lake Huron and St. Mary's River, and prominentl}' in the high te)-i*acefl around the Sault, as well as on the Pic River, and in the ancient banks of the Kaminisciquia and other rivers of Lake Superior. The higher sands are also displayed in the Kaministiquia banks, and more or less throughout the Nepigon country, where they foi-m in places hills and ridges of considerable elevation. Also on the Pic River, and largely around Michipicoten Harbour, and on the Goulais River ; and along nearly all the river valleys, and over many intervening tracts of country north of Lake Huron. Economic Minerals : — At many localities within this vast region, and notably in the Huronian, Animikie and Keweenian areas, the presence of great minei-al wealth has been fully proved. But very little has been done in the way of actual mining. Many of the so- called mines of the district are merely mineral looations on which caly a few test pits have been sunk. And where mining has been attempted, it has in several instances been pi-ematurely abandoned owing to want of capital or other causes. Somewhat extensive opera- tions, however, are now being carried on in the vicinity of Sudbury, and at the Rabbit Hill and Beaver Mines north of Thimder Bav. The more important metalliferous localities are given in the following list: Gold : — This metal has been found both in the free state, and in small quantities vai7ing fnm a few pennyweights to over an ounce per ton, in the copper-ore deposits of Sudbury and surrounding ooun- tiy, in Huronian rocks. Also in the same geological formation at the Lake of the Woods, chiefly around Big Stone Bay, where it occurs in quartz veins with iron and copper pyrites, zinc blemle, &c. The principal " mines " are known as the George Heenan, Winnipeg Consolidated, Keewatin, Gold Hill, Pine Portage, and Sultana Mines, but of late little or no work has been done upon them. Gold- bearing pyrito-quartzose veins occur also in Huronian rocks at Vic- toria Cape, Lake Superior ; and in the dark slates of the Animikie formation north and west of Thunder Bay, but in that district the ores are chiefly argentiferous. In a vein carrying galena, zinc blende 302 MINERALS AMD OEOLOUY and copper pyrites in the Keweenian formation of Black Bay (Enter- prise mine), the author found a small percentage of gold, averaging about 18 dwts. iu the ton of ore. Silver: — Nearly all the pyritous veins of this district hold small quan- tities of silver, more especially when the vein-matter carries intermixed copper pyrites, iron pyrites, zinc blende and galena ; but paying amounts are confined almost wholly to the calc-spar (or calc-spar and quai'tz) veins around or in the vicinity of Thundev Bay. These veins traverse, as a rule, the black slates of the Animikie formation, but some occur in the Keweenian series. The most remarkable of these veins is that which runs through Silver Islet, a small rock lying a lew miles east of Thunder Cape, where the slate is in contact with a comparatively broad and pei-sistent dyke of sub-crystalline diorite. The vein cuts this transversely and carries native silver, silver glance and galena, with subordinate shews of pyrites, blende, plumbago, &c., in a gangue of calcite mixed in places with quartz and a little fluor spar. Although now abandoned, the vein has yielded an amount of ore (mostly native silver) valued at the lowest estimate at more than three millions of dollars. The workings extended far under the level of the lake; and when the mine was closed in 1884 its shaft had been carried down to a depth of 1,230 feet. Other silver-bearing veins traverse the Animikie formation immediately north and west of Thunder Bay. Many of these have shewn very rich bunches of ore, and several, comprising more especially the Rabbit Mountain, Beaver Mountain, Badger, and Silver Mountain veins, are now being successfully worked. A good deal of work has also been done on the Shuniah or Duncan vein, but the work on this vein is now stopped for a time. Other mining locations in this neighborhood, on most of which, however, merely trial pits have been sunk, comprise the Silver Creek, Singleton, Porcupine, Crown Point, Spar Island, and other properties. Silver-bearing veins are also known on Pie Island in Thunder Bay. The gold-bearing veins of the Shebandowan district and the Lake of the Woods are likewise more or less argentiferous.* Many of the Huronian copper ores of Sudbury also hold small amounts of silver ; and a vein of argentiferous galena (some portions of which hold over 100 oz. of silver in the ton) has been worked, of! * In Bome ot the Shebandowan ores the presence of tellurium was first detected by Dr. W. H. Ellis of the School of Practical Science, Toronto. OF CENTRAL CANADA — PART V. 303 [rst detected by and on for some years with fluctuating results, near Garden River, east of the Sault. Other argentiferous galena veins have been recog- nized in the vicinity of Lake Temiscamingue. Copper ; — The Keweenian formation on Michipicoton Island, Lake Superior, has yielded native copper in disseminated masses and small strings, and somewhat extensive mining operations have been carried on at the north-west of the ialand, although with not very encourag- ing results. The same formation at Black Bay is traversed by veins containing intermixed copper pyrites and galena, carrying small tiniounts of gold and silver ; and at Prince's Location, west of Thun- der Bay, both copper pyrites and copper glance occur in the dark Animikie slates which there form the country rock. Veins contain ing promising amounts of copper pyrites have been discovered also in Neebing and other townships in the Thunder Bay district ; but the most important deposits of copper ore lie in the Huronian rocks of th*> region now under review. The veins at the Bruce and Wallace mines, Lake Huron, after yielding large supplies of copper (in the form of the yellow and horseflesh ores) for many years, are now thought to be exhausted, and mining operations at that immediate locality are abandoned. Some promising veins, however, ai-e now being opened at Echo Lake, a short distance inland. Vast deposits of copper ore, probably in the form of both veins and stocks, occur to the north-east, in the Sudbury district, and these are now beginning to be largely worked. Lead and Zinc Ores and Other Economic Minerals of the District : — Promising amounts of galena occur in many of the veins which tra- verse the Animikie, Keweenian and Huronian rocks around Thuri- der Bay and adjacent country, as in Neebing Township, and at Silver Lake and Black Bay. Also at Garden River, east of the Sault Ste. Marie and elsewhere In most of these veins the galena is inter- mixed with blende and copper pyrites, and carries more or less silver. Some comparatively broad veins carrying workable quantities of zinc blende have been discovered at Blende Lake iind Silver Lake immediately adjacent to Thunder Bay, and also a few miles inland on the line of the Canadian Pacific Railway. Large iron deposits, at present only partially explored, occur at various localities within this region, as in the vicinity of the Pic River, and at Michipicoten, Eagle L ike, and elsewhere ; but some of these deposits hold a good deal of W.m 304 M1VERAL8 AND GKOLOOY siliceous rock-uiatter, and are ratiier fenniginoue schists than work- able ore. Many however are ricli in metal, and are especially free from titanium and phosphorus. Finally, it may be mentioned, the granite masses which occur so abundantly within the district, yiekl excel! Jnt building stone, and have been largely quarried near the Lake of the Woods and at other Hpo' s for use in the construction of the Canadian Paoilio Railwav. THE EASTERN ARCHiEAN DIS'RICr. This disfcticr. is a south-eastern extension of the great archteau discrict of the northern lakes, described above. It is separated only conventionally from the laUer, and chiefly for facility of description. At the same time, it presents certain points of difference : more especially in the absence of any clearly I'ecognised Huronian strata, and in the apparently total absence of the Animikie and Koweenian Formations. Its bands of ci'ystalline limestone difler also very generally fi'om those of the more northei'n and western region by containing vaiious crystalline silicates and other minerals : pyroxene, zircon, ganiets, brown iourmaline, phlogopite mica, apatite, and graphite, being especially prevalent. Its north-western boundary is a conventional line running from Lake Temiscamingue to a short distance beyond French River on the north shore of Georg'an Bny. Its northern and north-eastern boundary is the river Ottawa to the vicinity of Arnprior ; and frcm this point its eastern limit runs south by Pakenham, Carleton Place, Perth, and Charleston Lake, to the St. Lawrence. The rocks of the district form a narrow-belt along the St. Lawrence, roughly, between Brockville and a few miles west of Gananoque. From the latter point, its southern boundary passes through the back townships of Frontenac, Addington, Hastings, Peterborough, and Simooe, and strikes Georgian Bay near the mouth of the Severn. The average elevation is about 800 feet above the sea. Lake Nipissing lies at an elevation of 640 feet, but the ground to the south and east of the lake is considembly higher. Around Haliburton, for instance, the elevaticm above the sea-level exceeds 1000 feet. Lake Nipissing is its largest body of ■water. Nxiraerous smaller lakes, as Lake Opiongo OF CENTRAL CANADA — PART V. 305 ea*; archjeau and the Muskoka lakes, lie within its area ; and un almost continu- ous chain of these extends along its southern border. As a rule, the country is of a broken, hilly character : vast masses of gneissoid rock standing in many places his:jh above the ground. The entire district, however, is more or less deuf^ely wooded. Gneissoid, Laurentian rocks underlie the district generally. These consist for the greater part of ordinary and hornblendic gneisses, traversed by numerous granite veins, and interstratitied with subor- dinate beds of dark-green pyroxonic rock, crystalline limestone, quartzito, and siliceous slate, — some beds of conglomerate appearing in places near the upper part of the ser'es. The green pyroxenic bimds are mostly associated with deposits of iron ore. In some parts of the district, long rugged belts of red syenitic granite (as seen in the Huckleberry Hills near Marmora, and elsewhere) traverse the country in a general N.E. and S.W. direction, and produce a syn- clinal striicture in the intervening tracts. At many spots, as around Stoney Lake and elsewhere, the gneiss is almost free from mica ; antl where it is traversed by gi-anite veins, the latter arc usually very feldspathic and more coarsely gianular than the gneiss. Good exposures occur more tr less all over the district, especially on the lake .shores and islands, and along the high ridges which traverse the disti'ict generally. The V)eds at most spots are tilted at high angles, and are frequently much corrugated and contorted, as shewn in the annexed sketch. Outliers: — The Laurentian rocks of this district are overlaid here and there by outlying patches of Lower Silurian strata. On the Bonnechere Eiver in Renfrew, and in the vicin- ity of Pembroke, outliers of this kind, composed of light colon red Portion of a prranite vein traversing oon- ,-„ , ^ 1 -ni 1 TT torted micaceous-gneiss. Vicinity of Hali- (Jhazy sandstones and rJlack Kiver burton, Ontario, limestones, rest directly on the Laurentian gneiss. Several outliers of Black River and Trenton limestone (see under the Lake Ontario District) cover detached ai'eas of considerable extent in the gneissoid country immediately north of Madoc in the county of Hastings. Drift deposits : — Over many portions of the district, unstratified clays with boulders of gneissoid rock, and higher or post-glacial 20 Fio. 243 306 MINERALS AND OEOLOUY stratified clays and sands, are lai-goly distributed ; and it i.s cliit'tly where these occur that the district admits of agricultural occui)atiuii. Glacial strire of this j>eriod are seen on the exposed surfaces of many of the harder rocks. In some localities, as in most parts of Renfrew and other eastern sites, the stria) have a very general south- easterly direction ; whilst in the west, as about Lake Nipissiug mvl Georgian Bay, and in the northern parts of Hastings, Petei-boi-ouLrh. and Victoria, the prevalent direction is towards the south-west. Economic Minerals: — This district is especially rich in uei)osits n\ iron ore; and, in addition, it contains auriferous mispickel, gah'iin. apatite, marble, and mica, in workable quantities The iron ore rou- sists chiefly of magnetite (see page 83), but valuable deposits of hematite replace this at some localities. As a rule, these oxidized ores form large irregular masses or "stocks," and are very generally associated with the green pyroxenic rocks and the crystalline lim(>- stones of the district. Many are exceedingly rich and pure, holding from 65 to 70 per cent, metallic iron,* with consequently very littlo intermixed rock-matter ; and although pyrites is occasionally present, the amount of sulphur and phosphorus is in general quite low. But some of these magnetites are I'endered unmarketable in consequence of the presence of titanium in comparative excess. An enormous de))08it of titaniferous magnetite occurs on lot 35 of the 4th con- cession of Glamorgan ; and another in the Township of Tudor in North Hastings. t The deposits of workable ore, however, fur exceed in number those which are unavailable from the presence of titanium. These workable deposits occur all over the district, and their presence in new localities is constantly being discovered. Some of the best known occur in the townships of McNabb, Bedford, Crosijy, Sherbrook, WoUaston, Faraday, Glamorgan, Tudor, Madoc, Marmora, Belmont, Limerick, Minden, and Snowden.J *The maximum percenta)je of metallic iron in perfectly pure magnetite is 72.41. and in hematite, 70. See descriptions of tliese ores in Part II. t See descriptions and analyses by the author, in Transactions of the Royal Society of Canada for 1S84. Analyses and brief descriptions of many of the iron ores of Central Canada, by tht; author, will also be found in the Transactions of the Royal Society for 1885. { Other townships will no doubt be rapidly added to those of the present list. It should be pointed out, however, that as these iron ore deposits are essentially in the form of "stocks,'' great care should be exercised in determining the probable dimensions of a deposit, before purchasing, or putting up expensive works in connection with it. Happily, in the diamond drill, we have the means of readily testing the sise and purity of ore-masses of this character. OF CENTRAL CANADA — PART V. 307 n ueposits nf iron ore loii- is 72,41. ami in The auriferous nii8i)ickel of the district occurs in the form of veins, running mostly imrallel with the stratitication, in the township of Marmora. The mispickel (see page 77) is essentially in a quartz veinstone in which " free gold " is often visible. Bitter spar or dolomite usually accompanies the quartz; and iron pyrites, brown and blackish-green mica and other minerals are also commonly ])rt'Hent. The veins have a general N.N.W. and S.S.E. direction, and dip westerly at an average angle of 30" or 35°. A layer of talcose slate forms in most cases one or both of the walls. The annexed sketch- section, fig, 244, shews the general character of the ground in the ^O R. RM v//y/y! Climactichnites impressions, figures 116, 117, occur); at Otty Lake in Drummond ; and at various l)laces in the township of Nepean, where the formation is represented by a white, fine-grained sandstone. Fossils are rare, but at some spots, the small, narrow-beaked brachiopod, lingula acuminata, and the still i)roblematical " scolithus cavities," are present in the sand- stone beds. The Protichnites and Climactichnites impressions occur more especially on ripple-marked sandstones in the immediate neigh- bourhood of Perth. The Calciferons strata, which consist chiefly of dolomitic and sandy limestones — the " bastard limestones " of the country parlance — ex- tend over a considerable area along the inner edge of the Potsdam belt more especially in the Counties of Leeds, Grenville, Lanark, Carleton, and Russell. The principal fossils in these strata, compri.se, a small narrow iingula, L Mantelli ; a low-spired gasteropod Euomphalus f'or Ophileta) compacta ; some Pletirotomarirp,, not unlike fig. 219 ; and the orthoceras 0. Lamnrkl. Exposures occur on the river-bank near Prescott ; at Smith's Falls and elsewhere on the Kideau canal ; and at various i)oints in the townships of Oxford, Young, and Edwardsburg; but throughout its extent it is much obscured by overlying Drift deposits. "* Near Brockville, at several spots, the lower Potsdam conglomerates may be seen to rest utiocnformablj' on Laurcntlan gneiss. A small outlier of these conglomerates was observed by the writer under similar conditions at the western extremity of the gneissoid belt near Gananoque. 310 MINERALS AND GEOLOGY The other portions of this district, extending to the Ottawa river, are occupied by Lower Silurian formations. The first of these in ascending order, the Chazy formation, is made up principally of light-coloured, thin-bedded sandstones, followed in places by grey oi- dark-brown limestones largely employed in the manufacture of hy- draulic cement or " water-lime." In these limestones, examples of the ostracod Lejnrditia Canadensis (fig. 165), or a closely allied species, are especially numerous. The brachiopod Rhynconella plena (fig. 190) is also vexy characteristic, and examples occur in great pro- fusion throughout most of the Chazy strata. Camerella varians (fig. 192) is another chai'acteristic Chazy type. Many other brachi- opods, with Illenus glohosus (fig. 170) and other trilobites, and numerous gasteropods ( Murchisonia, Pleurotomaria, etc.) are of common occurrence in these strata. In outlying patches on the gneissoid rocks near Pembroke, etc., in Renfrew, some of the lower Chazy beds contain small nodular masses of a dark-brown colour, regarded as fish-coprolites. They consist of impure phosphate of lime mixed with shells of lingulse in a fragmentary condition. In these beds also examples of Lingula Lyelli (fig. 205) and pleuroto- marife are abundant. Good exposures of the Chazy formatio'\ generally, occur elsewhere at L'Orignai and Hawkesbury on the lower Ottawa, and at various points in Lochiel, Cornwall, Nepear, Huntly, and adjacent townships. The Chazy beds are succeeded by Black River and Trenton strata, mostly represented by very fossiliferous limestones of a dark grey colour. These occur in force about O't'vwa C:ty, as well as in Cum- berland township, and throughout the Counties of Russell, Stormout, and Carleton, generally. Among the more typical fossils, the follow- ing may be especially cited: Glyptocriuus decadactylus (fig. 154), Lecanocrinus elegans, and other crinoids, mostly however in the form of stem fragments; many cystideans as Glyptocystites Logani, etc., ((fig. 158); Hemicystiti-is Billing sii (^g. 161); numerous brachiopods, Si% Strophomena alternata (fig. 194), Orthis testudinaria (fig. I'Jl) ; various species of modiolopsis and other lamellibranchiates ; numerous gasteropods, as Maclurea Logani (fig. 222), Fleurotomaria Progiie (tig. 219), Subulites elongatus (fig. 225), and others; various ortho- ceratites; and several trilobites, more especially Asaphus platycephalus (fig. 168), Cheirurus pleurexanthemus (fig. 173), and Trinncleus con- OF CENTRAL CANADA — PART V. 311 centricus (fig. 172). Characteristic exposures of these strata occur at Barrack Hill (Ottawa City) ; Green's Creek in East Gloucester ; neir Dunning's Mills in Cumberland; near McCaul's Mills in Clarence ; at the High Falls of the South Nation Eiver in Cani- V)riilge ; and at various sites in L'Orignal, West Hawkesbury, Lochiel, Kenyon. Cornwall and adjacent townships. The Utica formation, consisting essentially of dark-brown or black liituminous shales, overlies the Trenton, but occurs only in small areas around Ottawa City, and in parts of Cumberland, Claience, and Plantagenet. Its more characteristic fossils, as occuring in the sliale.s of the Rideau and elsewhere in the immediate vicinity of Ottiwa,* include several graptolitos, as J}iplo(/raptus j^ristis (Hg. 132) and other species ; various criuoids, brachiopods, lamellibranchiates and gasteropods; and the trilobites, A saph us Canadensis (&g. 169) and Triarthrus Beckii (fig. 177). The Hudson River Formation, which follows the Utica Formation in ascending order, is also but slightly developed in this district. It is represented essentially by thin-bedded calcai'eous sandstones, seen here and there in the town- shijis of Osgoode and Russell, and at points near Ottawa City. The more characteristic fossils of the Formation ( Leptcena sericea, fig. 19G ; Strophotnena alternata, fig. 194 ; Amhonychia radiata, fig. 208; Col/fmene Bhimenbachii, fig. 178; etc., etc.), are referred to more fullv under this formation as occurring in the Lake Ontario District. These various strata, as stated above, are overlaid very generally by Drift deposits and other siiperficial accumulations. The Drift for- uiHiion is represented by bouldtr clays in some places, and by gravel heajts and scattered boulders ii; others. These latter are arranged here and there in long ridges which occasionally cause obstructions and rapids in the river courses, as at Green's Creek and L'Orignal on the < )ttawa. At Barrack Hill and other places around Ottawa, and also in other parts of the district, the limestones beneath the boulder clay often shew ice-grooves and other signs of glacial action. The grooves and stiiae have mostly a south-east direction, but some are only a few degrees east of south. To these Drift or Glacial dejiosits proper, succeed in numy places beds of stratified clay, sand and gravel, as a rule free, or practically free, from boulders. They contain shells - See a complete list in papers by Mr. Ami, contributed to the Field Naturalists' Association of**, wa. 312 MINERALS AND GEOLOGY 1 of marine or estuary species of mollusca now living in the St. Lawrence Gulf, At Green's Creek, and at spots on the Madawaska, 200 feet above the present sea-level, some of these later deposits contain also calcareous nodules inclosing well-preserved examples of the capelin ( Mallotus villosua), lumpsucker (Cyclopterus Imnima) and other small fishes of existing s))ecies, with occasional impres- sions of modern leaves, as those of the pcypulus balsamnifera, etc. To still more recent formations belong the deposits of shell-ini\rl and peat, indicating the sites of ancient ponds and swamps, which overlie the surface rocks of the district in Cumbei'land, Plantagenet, Clarence, Gloucester and other townships. ' Several of these }»eat deposits are of wide extent. In addition to good building-stones, the more important economio products comprise : The white sandstone of the Potsdam formation of Nepean, available as a glass material ; the dolomitic limestone of the Chazy formation of the same township, which furnishes the celebrated " Hull Cement ;" the " shell limestone," also belonging to the Chazy strata, which is largely dressed at L'Orignal foi- manteltoi)S, tombstones, etc. ; and the great peat beds referred to above.* )^! LAKE ONTARIO DISTRICT. This district, separated from the palaeozoic district of the Lower Ottawa by the intervening gneissoid belt which crosses the 8t. Lawrence between Brockville and Kingston and extends south- wards into the wild region of the Adirondacks, is underlaid essentially by Lower Silurian formations in nearly horizontal beds. Viewed generally, the strata present a dip of about half-a-degree, o' less, towards the south-west ; and, thus, in i)roceeding westward from Kingston to Hamilton >/e pass from older to newer formations, as shewn (but with necessarily exaggerated dip, as in all ordinary sections) in the annexed diagram. The latter, however, extending still further westward, shews the outcropping strata of the Erie and Huron district, as well. The southern limit of the present district forms the entire Can- adian shore of lake Ontario. Its eastern and northern limits are "•^r Robert Bell, of the Geolojfical Survey of Canada, has recently expressed the opinion (Ottawa Evening Journal, Feliuary 4th, 1888) that a supply of " natural gas " would probal)ly be obtained by boring at suitable sites around Ottawa City. n the St. [adawaska, er deposits samples of ',s lumpus) lal inipies- ni/era, etc. ' shell -marl npa, which lantagenet, these peat it economic I formation J limestone 1 furnishes belonging )rignal for referred to the Lower ;8 the St. nds soutli- underlaid mtal beds. L-degree, o' westward brmations, ordinary extending e Erie and sntire Can- limits are d the opinion ould iirol)al)ly OF CENTRAL CANADA — P.VRT V. 313 bounded by the crystalline, Archrean regions already described. Its ^ western boundary is the high escarpment which S runs from the Niagara river, near Queenston, in a " general westerly direction beyond Grimsby, to the back of Hamilton, then northwards by Dundas, Georgetown, Bellefontaine and Orangeville, to the northern j)art of Nottawasaga, and from thence north-westerly by the " Blue Mountains," etc., to Cabot's Head on Georgian Bay. From the latter jroint, eastward, the district includes the shore of the Bay to a short distance beyond the mouth of the River Severn, where the crystalline rocks of the Archsean region come up from beneath its strata. The Lake Ontario District thus includes portions of the Counties of Frontenac, Addington, Hastings, Peterborough, Victoria, Simcoe, Peel, Halton, Wentworth and Lincoln, with the whole ^ of York, Ontario, Durham, Northumberland and ic l^ennox. Numerous lakes, of which Lake Simcoe is the largest, lie within its area, or form a more or les.s continuous band along its northern edge where the Archieau country commences. The River Trent, which rises in the latter, and flows through a series of small lakes into the Bay of Quints and Lake Ontario, is its most important river. Among other streams flowing southwards . are the Salmon or Shannon, the Moira, the Don, Himiber, and Credit. Northward-flowing rivere include the Scugog, which flows from the small lake of that name, 800 feet above the sea-level, into Sturgeon Lake ; the Holland river which flows into Lake Simcoe, the northern waters of this . lake communicating by the Severn with Georgian I Bay ; and the Nottawasaga, on the extreme west of the district, flowing into Nottawjisaga Bay, a broad inlet of the Georgian Bay waters. In its surface features the disti'ict is generally of an imdulating chai'acter, with but few abrupt inequal- ities of level. The ground rises gradually from Lake Ontario (232 .\\^ \ !jT f f- 314 MINERALS AND GEOLOGY feet above the sea) in a series of ridges or terraces running in a general east and west direction. These ridges are composed of Drift materials, mostly sand and gravels filled with boulders of various kinds, brought down from northern sources duriiig the Glacial and Post-Glacial epochs, by glaciers or by floating icebergs, when the land was necessarily beneath the sea {vide page 207). The highest ridge in Albion and King townships has an elevation of from 700 to 7r)0 feet above Lake Ontario, but becomes gradually lower in its east- ern extension. Near the village of Stirling, in Hastings County, it averages 515 feet above the ordinary level of the lake; and a few miles east of this spot it merges into the general levels of the country. Lake Simcoe to the north is 704 feet above the sea, and Balsam Lake (the northern part of which lies within the crystalline area already described) is still higher, its elevation being 820 feet above the sea. Belmont Lake and Rice Lake are each nearly 600 feet, and Scugog Lake (in the midst of the Drift ridges) is nearly 800 feet above the sea level. The strata of the District consist esse itially of Lower Silurian formations, overlaid extensively by Glacial and Post-Glacial deposits ; but on its extreme eastern border a few indications of the (Upi)er Cambrian) Potsdam formation have been recognised ; and along its western limits, the (Upper Silurian) Medina and Clinton formations outciop beneath or upon the great Niagara escarpment, and connect the Lake Ontario District with the Erie and Huron region of tlie Province. These sti-ata, apart from a few subordinate anticlinalf., exhibit a slight inclination only towards the west or south-west; and they are altogether free from intrusions of trappean or other eruptive rocks. In ascending order, and succeeding each other in successive outcroj)s from east to west, they com])rise representatives of the Potsdam, Black River and Trenton, Utica, Hudson River, Medimi, and Clinton formations. The Potsdam formation is very sjiaringly represented. It occurs in the form of a thin band (or in broken patches) of sandstone and conglomei-ate lying along the south-western edge of the crystalline gneissoid region in tlie townships of Loughborough and Storrington. Exposures occur on Loughboi'ough Lake and on Knowlton and Eel Lakes Some of the beds in Storrington are readily friable, and yield a refractory sand employed as a lining for iron furnaces. The CF CENTRAL CANADA — PART V. 315 iver Silurian best (lispluy is at the north end of Knowlton Luke, wliere the Potsdam strata form a high clift' composed of thin-bedded, more or less ferru- ginous sandstones of a red and brownish-green colour. A sandstone bed of the same formation, available as a material for furnace hearths* occurs at the Frontenac mining location in Loughborough township, about 12 miles north of Kingston. The Calciferous and Chazy Formations which intervene, in the Pa- laeozoic area of the lower Ottawa, between the Potsdam and the Tren- ton formations, have not been recognized within the present district. The Trenton (78 feet above the sea-level) in the west. Its surface, except where cut by river-valleys, is generally even ; and the district presents a marked contrast to tlie lower region of Lake Ontario by the almost total absence of iidand bodies of water. It is ti'aversed, however, by nuiny important rivers, and especially by the Grand Kiver, flowing into Lake Ei-ie ; the Thames, flowing into Lake St. Clair ; and the Maitland and Saugeen, flowing into Lake Huron. The eastern ami north-eastern boundary, along the gre.it escarpment, is also cut through by numerous smaller .streams. The.se enter the Lake Ontario Disti-ict, consequently, through deep ravines, many of which are of a V(H-y wild and picturestjue character. The strata of the district consist, in its nioi-e eastern portions, of Upper Silurian represtiutatives, with various Devonian formations in the west. They follow each other (in ascending order) from north- east to south-west, generally, and comprise • The Niagara formation (with some Upjier Clinton beds), the Guelph formation, the Onondaga or Gypsiferous, and the Eurypterus or Lower Helderberg foiiaations, of the Upper Silurian series; and the Oriskany, Corniferous. Hamilton or LamV>ton, and Chenning-Portage formations, of Devonian age. These strata, although practically undisturbed, are affected by several moderate anticlinals running across the more central j)art of the district in a genei-al east and west or south-west direction ; and 21 322 MINERALS AND OKOLOGY \ it is thought that tho potroloum of this part of the rogioii has bocn brouj^lit towunlH the surfiico l)y li.s8»in?H roHultiiif^ from these aiiii- cliiials. A ti-anHvei-He or nearly nortli ami south fold, foriniiiji,'a troiiyli or synclinal tillcnl with higher Devonian strata (of the Hamilton or Lamhton formation), also occurs in tli(> south-western portion of tin.' district butweeii Lako Ki i(^ and the south [»oint of Lakc! Huron. The Xiaynra Foriantioii in this district, is madc^ up of dark-gray calcareous shales ami thick-bedded limestones, l)oth of which are mor • or less nuignesian and bituminous. Its lower limit is reganled, con- ventionally, as indicateil by a magnesian limeston*' hoMiiig shells ot the brachiopod I'entameruit oUoikjus (fig. 1!) ); but this " Pen! timerus bed" is referred by the New York geologists to the ufipti part of the underlying Clinton formation. At Niagara Falls, tin- dark shales pi-esent a thickness of al)0ut 80 fecit, and fortn the lower portion of the escarped face over which thct cataract breaks, whilst the upper [)ortion of tlie clifl' is comi)osed of thick-ljedded limestone>. Along the gorge, tho shales are mostly concealed by the slojje or talus of detrital matter which rests against the clift" face ; but they may be seen on the side of the steep road whicli leads fron he old ferry to the Clifton Houge, and at several other spots. S' f the beds of this formation yield excellent hydraulic lime, nuicn of the " Thorold cement " being nuuiufactured from the lime obtained froiii them. Many of the Niagara beds are rich in fossils. The more common species comprise : The coi'als : Favosites Gothlundica (=^1'- Niagarensis tig. 137 J; and Ilalysites catenulatns (the so-called "chain coral" fig. 139); the Bryozoon, Fenestella elegans (fig. 181) ; the Brachiopods : Pentainenis ohlongus (^g. 193); Orthis elegantu/a (fig. 197) f Spirifer Niagarensis and aS'. radiatus (fig. 184) ; and tho Trilobites, Cahjmene Blnmenhachii (ranging U])wards from earlier strata, fig. 167, 178); Hornalonohis delphinocephalus (fig. 179) and Dalmannites limulurus (fig. 175). Tlie formation extends a few miles westward from the edge of the great line of escarpment — already described as running from the Niagara River, by Hamilton, Georgetown, etc., to Cabot's Head on Georgian Bay — and then passt^i under the succeeding Guelph formation. It thus marks the eastern and northern limits of the table-land of which the Erie and Huron district largely consists. Good exposures occur more especially at the Niagara Falls and on the adjacent banks of the river (where the OF CENTHAL CANADA — PART V. 323 HmpHtonoR are overlaid by torniccs of frcHli-wnttM- clay ntid Hand of Po.st(}laoial aj,'i') ; also on tlio Wi^lland Canal near Tliorold ; along the npitcr part, of the e.sc'arj)ni()nt or " nionntain " l»y (irinisl)y, Hamilton, Diindaw, Ancaster, Kockwood, etc. ; on the Hiver Credit in Caledon, ah at Bellet'ontaine and elsewhen;, and on the Nottawa and Beaver Rivers, where it forms high and |»reei|)itouH clitl's ; at varions other j)oints in Mulnuir, Nottawasaga, Artemisia, and Eu- phrasia ; about Owen's Sound ; and at Cape Paulet, Cape Chin, and the upper |)art of Cal)ot'.s Head. In the immediate vicinity of Kock- wood, .somi! larg.rse cell tubes, fig. 140) and S. Uisin- i/eri (with narrow-cells, Hg. 1 H); and the simjde horn-shaped types Zaphrentis prolifica (fig. 144) and Z. yiyantea, the latter often a couple of inches in diameter and five or six inches in length. The brac.iiopods, Strophoinenn rhoinboidalis (tig. 195); Atrypa reticularis (fig. 188) ; Spirifer niucroTiatus {tig. 185) ; *S'. greyarius {tig. 184 bin) ; Spirigera, concentrica (fig. 187) and Stricklandia elongata — most of vvhich occur also in higher Devonian strata. The trilobite Phacops I 326 MINERALS AND GEOLOGY bufo (fig. 174) is also a common Corniferous type. In the district under review, the formation occupies two large areas, separated by a broad intervening belt of the succeeding Hamilton or Lambton for- mation. The more eastern of these areas extends over portions of Welland, Haldimand, Norfolk, Brant, Oxford, Perth, Huron and Bruce ; and the western area occupies parts of Lambton, Kent and Essex. Exposures occur more particularly on or near the shore of Lake Erie in the following townships : Bertie, Humberstone (as at Rama's farm, near Port Colborne, a noted fossil locality), Dunn, Riiiidiam, \Valj)ole and Woodhouse. Also in North and South (.'ayuga ; near Woodstock village ; and at St. Mary's (another locality e.s])ecially rich in fossils). The formation outcrops likewise at various places in Carrick, Brant, Bruce and Kincardine ; and again, farther south, as near Port Albert and Godtu-ich, and in the vicinity of Amherstbui'g in Maiden. At many of these localities, and especially at the large exposure in Maiden, building-stones of very superior quality are obtained. The Hamilton or Lambton Formation* as defined in Canada, represents merely the middle portion of the " Hamilton foi-mation " of the New York .geologists. It consists mainly of soft calcareous shales associated with some beds of encrinal limestone. The fossils are identical for the greater part with those of the Corniferous forma- tion ; Ijut the brachiopods, Spirifer m.ucronatiis (fig. 185) ; Spi> if/era coticeutrlca (fig. 187); Atrypa reticularis (fig. 188); and Orthis Vanuxend (fig. 199) are especially abundant in these higher '>eds The fornuition in this district is estimated at about 250 feet in thick - lU'ss. It extends across the counties of NorfolK, Elgin, Kent. Middlesex and Lambton, and also the south pait of Huion, but is uuich obscured throughout this area by overlying clays, sands, and other Drir't and superficial deposits. The best exposures occur in the township of liosancjuet, in the north-west corner of Lambton. The formation is cliicfly of interest as constituting the essential petroleum 'The name by which this formation is commonly linown, is derived from the villa>{e of Hiunilton, in Madison county, New Yorlt. It is often supposed, in Canada, to reft to our city of Hamilton, on the western extremity of Lalte Oiitario. where the strata Velong to a much lower horizon— that of the Medina formation, lying at the base of the Upper Silurian series. In consequence of this very prevalent misconception (of which some curious instances miKht be given), the writer proposed some years ago to call this group of strata, as occurring in Canada, the Lambton formation, after the county in which it is principally developed In Western Ontario. the district pa rated by a jauibton for- f portions of Huron and n, Kent and tlie shore of •stone (as at dity), Dunn, I and South )ther locality ise at various gain, further e vicinity of .nd especially ery superior I in Canada. II formation " ft calcareous The fossils erous fornirt- ) ; Spiiiijera and Or this [higher '>eds. feet in thick- llgin, Kent. [iron, but is sands, anil occur in the iibton. The id petroleum pni the village oi I reft to our city |elon^ to a much Silurian series, liiistuuces luiKht I, as occurriiiw: in lly develoi)ed in OF CENTRAL CANADA — PART V. 327 area or oil district of Western Canada, although the deeper borings, from which the jjetroleuui is chieHy obtained, appear to pass through its strata into the underlying Corniferous toruiation. Natural springs have been noticed in various parts of the district, as in ^losa, Einiiskillen, Zone, Orforil, etc. In the to\vnslii|) of Enniskillen, ovi'rflows from springs of this kind have formed deposits of solid Ititunien or " mineral tar," varying in thickness from an inch or two to neai'ly a coui)lo of feet, and extending over an iicre or more of giouud. One of these de])osits or " gum beds," in the northern part of the townshij), is covered by sevei-al f«et of Drift clay ; and in places it presents a leafy or shaly texture, and contains impre.s.sions of leaves and insects. As proved by the very ditierent results obtained in many instances from clo.sely contiguous boiings, the petroleum is evidently confincnl to comparatively narrow and tortuous channels, within linuted belts of country. These belts are characterized, both in the Uruted States and Canada, by the presence of anticlinals, by which a more or less fissured condition of the strata has been ))ro- duced. The petroleum in these fissures is almost always accompanied by salt or brackish water, and inllammable gas is usually emitted on the first tai)ping of the tissui-e. As a rule, the wells become gi'adu- ally iuipoverished, and frequently end by yielding water only. The petroleum, as fir.'-.t obtained, is of a dark colour and more or less viscid consisteii.cy. When decolourizt^l and purified it loses about fort}' per cent — five barrels of crude oil yielding about three barrels of refined oil. The Portage, or Portage-C hevmwi Formation,, as seen in Canada, is made up of dark bitununous shales, holding in jdaces hirge cal- careous concretions, and also much iron py'-ites, with occasional fish- scales and si)ines, and imi)ressions of long-flattened stems of a calamite (fig. 119). Here and there th'se shales become coated, by weathering, with a yellow crust of oxalate of iron. The formation extends pro- bably over a considerabh; area around Lake St. Clair and the adjoin- ing country ; but it is thickly overlaid by Drift and suj-erficial de])osit3 thi'oughout the greater part of this area, anli's Island, C'ampenu'nt d'Ours, itc, farther west. Drummond Island belongs also, geologically, to the district, but lies beyond the Canadian boundary. The more noi-thern j)ortion of the Great Manitoulin contains numerous lakes, and its north shore is indented by comparatively deep bnys. These appear to lie in synclinal folds, formed by a series of undulations (with north and south axes) which traverse the Island throughout its length.* The strata of the district succeed each oilier from north to south, the - See " Reports on the Manitoulin Islands," by Ur. Robert Bell, by whom these anHclinals were first pointed out, in Geological Survey Reports for 1866 and 1867. 330 MINEUALS A\D GHOLOGY m I ♦ II ■ ■•!; general dip being in the latter direction. They comprise a sligln development of Huronian quartzites, with rej)*esentative8 of tli(> Chazy, Black lliver and Trenton, Utica, Hudson River, Clinton. Niagara, and Guolph formations. The Huronian outcrops occur princij)ally in the form of liare, rocky linlges, but are only seen ai one or two ])laces, principally at Shcquenandod village, near the eastern extremity cf the Great Manitoulin, on La Cloche Island, anil on the Island of Cam}>om('nt d'Ouis, near the entrance to St. Marys Rivei-. Exposures of I'eddish marls and light-coloured sandstones on the north side of La Cloche Island are commonly )-efeired to the Chazy division ; and the thin bedded sandstones (piovisionally known as the 8te. Marie sandstones), which occur in small outlying; patches on Campement d'Ours and St. Joseph's Island, are thought, ;»s regards their geolo.;ical positon to represent the same formation. The southern ])ortions of La Cloche Island, and the smaller islets imme- diately west, are occupied entirely, or essentially, by daik giay dolomitic limestones ( f the lower i)art of the Trenton (or so-called Black lliver) series — the higher beds merging into the Trenton division proj)er, and sujijtorting at one or two ])oints small strijis or ]tatc]ies of Utica s^halc. The Bigsby, 'J'liessalon, iind other locky islands farther west, iuul a large \)dvt of Campement d'Ours and St. Josej)h's Island, belong to the Siime series. Fiom the La Cloche grou]) of islantls tiiestt Trenton strata extend across tlie ijitervening channel, and crop out in several places as a fringe along the north coast of the Great Manitoulii. They show jjrincipally in the INIani- towaning headland, and also between Little Current and West Bay. Southwards, the dark bituminous shales of the LTtica formation come uj), and range entirely throtigh the islands. Good exposures occur at Shequenandod village (where the shales incline against an outcro]i of Huronian quartzite), aud ai Cape Smyth. At the latter spot the foimation is capped by a considersible thickness cf arenaceous shales and sandstones, very rich in fossils, belonging to the Hudson Rivei series. This latter formation ranges also entirely through the Grciit Manitoulin, and extends over Barrie Lsland on the north. It is fol- lowed along its southern border by a series of strata holding Clinton fossils. These strata consist mostly of light-coloured dolomites cai)pod by a bed of red marl — the best soil on the island, according to Dr. Bell, resulting from the disintegration of the latter. South of these OF CENTRAL CANADA — PART V. 331 e La Cloclii- ijiterveiiiui; Clinton beds, a steep escarpment of Niagara limestone runs through the central |>»rtof the island, facing the north, following in its strike the same east and west direction as the other formations of the district- From the top ot the escarpment, the limestones extend in a series of steps to the south shore, where they become covered in places by piitches of scmi-crystallii.e dolomites belonging to the Guoli»h for- mation. The southern poition of the Great IManitoulin is thus occupied entirely by these Upper Silurian strata, and broad shelves of bare limestono-rock form large portions of its surface. A con- tinuous: uutcvop occurs along this south shore ; but tlie i»ost exposures u'e seen in the lower beds along the line of escarpment, more especially about Lake Manitou and Lake Wolsey (and intervening country), and around the south shore of Bayfield Sound. Cockburn Island' immediately west of the Gi'eat Manitoulin, is also underlaid through- out its whole extent by Niagara limestone. The other formations recognized within the district consist of Drift clays and higher sanil deposits — the " Algoma Sand " of the Geological Survey. The clays api)ear to belong essentially to the lower or unstratified Drift. They occur in gri-at thickness upon St. Joseph's Island, and are overlaid \ ery generally on Cockburn Island 1)V the hirlying rock, according to Dr. Bell (Report of 187")) consists of bituminous grcty and drab limestone, liilding Devonian fossils* ; and on the banks cf this river Dr. Bell observed a deposiv of spathic-iron-ore weathering into brown hematite, and also grey and white gypsif. reus deposits. In the post-glacial clays (Report tor 1877) the same observer discovered a considerable IkhI of lignite, varying in thickness I'rom eighteen inches to six feet. These })ost- glacial deposits couUiin also in many places detached crystals ot gypsum (see page 131), and shells of mi/a truncaia, tdliaa yrtnn- landica, snxirava riujosa, (tigs. 214, 215, 216, page 278), so character- istic of the post-glacial deposits of Kastern Canada. Our knowledge of the country around James' Bay is derived principally from the valuable Heports on Hudson's Bay by Dr. Bell of the Gpiological Survi-y of Canada, but t\w region rcterre I to in these Reports lies mostly beyond the area now under consideration, and, indeed, beyond the Province of Ontario. f The following ex- tract, however, from the Report for 1871) applies in chief part to the present district. " To the south and south-west of Jame.s' Bay, in the latit\ide of Devonshire and Cornwall, thsre is a large tract ii. which much of tlie land is well-wooded, but although little or no rook comes to the surface ovei' an immense area, neither the soil nor tlie * In addition to the Devonian species cited in Dr. Bell's report, the author has fonnd in col- lections made by the stipendiary majfistrate, Sir. E. H. Borroxx—Zaiihrcntis jiroUfica, Z. giija, tea, CyxtiphyUuin Scnacaeiue, Amidcxus laxitxis, Phxaymoceras (Hector f), and the pygidium of Dalmanites limidunix or a closely allied species. t Useful information may also be derived from the Report presented to the Ontario Govern- ment by Mr. Borron, in '.882, on the portion Oi" the Hudson's Bay basin Ijing within the pro- vince boundary. OF CENTRAL CANADA — PART V. 333 climate is suitable for carrying on agriculture as a pinncipal occu- pation until we have passed over more than half the distance to Lake Winnipeg. This region appears to ofter no engineering ditHculties to the construction of a railway from the sou-coast to the better country beyond. Some of the timber found in the country which semis its waters into James' Bay nuiy prove to be of value for ex- port. Among the kinds which it produces, nuiy be mentioned white, red, and pitch pine, black and white spruce, balsam, lurch, white cedar, and white birch. The numerous rivers which converge to- wards the head of James' Bay offer facilities for " driving " timber to i)oint8 at which it may be shipped by sea-going vessels." PROVINCE OF QUEBEC. INTRODUC'TOUY NOTICE. This Province is separated from Ontario on the west by almost the entire course of the Ottawa River, and by a line drawn directly north from Lake Temiscaminguo : but a suuill area on the Ontario side of the Ottawa at its junction with tho St. Lawrence, although properly within the limits of the western province, is given to Que- bec. This area includes the small counties of Vandreuil and Sou- I'lnges. On the south, the Province of Quebec is bounded by the northern portions of the States of New York, Vermont, New Hamp- shire, and Maine; and by the New Brunswick ccunties of Victoiiu and Restigouche, and the Cay of Chaleurs. The St. Lawrence Gulf, Labrador, and Hudson's Bay bound it on the east and north, but its limits in the latter direction are still [jractically undefined. Its area is approximately stated at 190,0^0 square miles. The river St. Lawrence, widening into its majestic Gulf, traverses the province from south-w^st to north-e.ist, and receives, as principal affluents on its northern bank, tb'i Ottawa, tho Assomption, the St. Maurice, the St. Anne, the Montmorency, and the Saguenay ; and on its southern bank, the Riclielieu, the St. Francis, the Chaudiere, the Du Loup, Metis and other rivers. Two mountain ranges follow roughly the course of the St. Lawrence : and to these, in con- 334 MINERALS AND OKOLOGY m' j auction witli tlie grout river and its artluents, tlio pliysiciil cluiractci of the province iscliieHy 8iil)or mouth, when the ran','o curv s towards the (^ast, and skirting th'' St. Lawrence a short diKtance inland, strikes the river at CapeTournientf a little Ix'low the city of Quebec, From tliis i)oint it follows the north shore of the liver and Gulf to beyond the province boundary in Lal)rador. This range and the country which it traverses consist of greatly corrugated arcluean gneiss, Itroken through by various dioritio and feldspathic rocks. The southern range is prop(!rly a continuation of the great App ilachian chain of the United States. It is known in Canada sis the Notre Dame and Shickshock Mountain Range. It traverses the Eastern Townships, and gradually approach- ing the St. Lawrence, runs along the south shore, but at a distance of from 30 to about 10 or 12 miles inland, until it termiimtes in tin- high table-land of Gaspe at the extremity of the Province. This range, consisting of several roughly j)arallel lines of mountainous country, presents one or two points of nearly 4000 feet in altitiulc, and in the Gaspe peninsular the elevation averages 1500 feet. It is made up largely of crystalline, maguesian rocks, including talcose and chloritic schists and beds of serpentine, associated in plac(>s with micaceous and gneissoid i-ocks and other crystalline i-epresenta- tives, the true age of which is still more ov less uncertain. On passing from the Laurentide Mountains southwards to the St. Lawrence, the gneissoid Archsean I'ocks become overlaid unconform- ably by Cambrian and Lower Silurian strata. Where the river enters the province, and for some distance eastward, the h'tter occur on both shores, and they continue along the north shore to beyond the city of Quebec. They reappear further east in tlie Mingan Islands, and also, with accompanying Upper Silurian strata, in the Island of Anticosti. On the south side of the river, Cambrian slates and other strata have been brought up by a great fault into a position apparently higher than that of the Hudson River beds. This fault, first indicated and traced out by Sir William Logan, extends along the bed of the gulf and river to the immediate vicinity of Quebec, and then turns inland towards the southwest, and continues in that OK CENTIIAL CANADA — PART V, 335 (liroctiou to tlio head of Liiko fJhampliiiii, hoyoiid tho jn'oviuce boun- • liry. All tho .strata to tho aoiitlj and east of this fault havo been greatly distnibod and broken up, and havo beoii nioro or less altered by niefcauiorphio agoii(;ies. Crystalliue, giioissoi(l mid iingucsiau rocks appear in part to nndorlio them, and [)artly to l»u mixed up with thorn in intricate foldings, by which their stratigrMphic relations become greatly oitscured. In many places also they are l)r((k('n through by trachyiic and granitic masses. As regards its geology therefore, tlu) Province admits of a sub. division into three natural areas: the Arcliieau ariMi of the north; the typical Paheozoic area; and tho disturlted Appalachian district including the Kasttu'u Town.ships and tho Gaspe peninsula. For con- venience of description, however, the Island (»f Antic )sti and the Mingan I.slands may 1 separatein|ili'ton, Loclmber, iind Groiiville, on tho Ottiiwii,* ami tliroiij^'hout that section of country, gcnnrally. About 20,000 tons weio olttain^d fioni tlieso dopusits in 18SG, ami tliey are Htill Ixnny Iai'j,'»'ly worked. Veins and largo UMiticuIar masses of graphite occur also in tiie rocks of this district, and mica of good (|uality has been obtained from localities in Grenville, Templeton, and adjacent townships. Iron ore in workable quantity occurs also in Hull, and elsewhere in the same district. The ortlioidase gnoiss-rocks which form the prevailing strata of this archiean region north of tho 8t. Lawrence, are overlaid in some tew localities l)y comparativc^Iy limited areas of feldspathic rock com- posed of labradorito or other triclinic liuje-feldspars ; and here and theie these labradoritic rocks or " anorthosites," see page 181, are apparently interstratified with the upper beds of the ordinary otho- clase gneisses. They were at one time, and are still by some ob.servers, regarded as indicating a newer or higher series of Liiuren- tian strata, and were known as the Upper Laurentian, Labrador, or Norian formation, But in the main mass of these anorthosites there is no apparant stratification, and they are now regarded by Dr. Selwyn as essoncially erujjtive rocks of Laurentian age. Tliis view, although not ab.solutely free from doubt, will probably meet with general acceptance. A large area of these anorthosic rocks occurs in the counties of Aigenteuil, Terrebonne, Montcalm, and Joliette ; and another, equally large, lies around the north-east and south sides of Lake St. John, at the head of the Saguenay River. SnnvUer areas occur on the north shore of the St. Lawrence in Montmorenci and Charlevoix, and a large exjiosure lias been recognised on the branches of the liver Moisie, off the Gulf. These feldspatliic rocks present generally light shades of colour, and vveather dull white. In most examples, some of the cleavage planes shew a l)lue or green oi)ale.s- cent play of coloui', as in typical examples of labradorite ; and occasionally, as at Chateau Richer and elsewhere, they contain scales and folise of bronze-coloured or green hypersthene or bronzite. Gar* nets, also, ai'e frequently present in them ; and they are associated in many localities with titaniferous iron ore. A very large deposit of the latter mineral occui's in these rocks near Baie St. Paul ; and * The distinotive characters etc., of this valuable mineral (known commercially as "phos- phate ") are given on page 135. ,1 -v i 338 MINERALS AND GEOLOGY tittuiiferous iron c^mh are abundant around the moutli of the Moisie river on the Gulf. ±».ttempt8 to utilize these titaniferous ores have been made, hut hitherto without success.* In addition to t!ie gneissic and other crystalline forniations of thi> northern archwan region, a few outlying patches of Lower Silurian strata, consisting mostly of Trenton limestone and Utica shales, occur here and there within its area. Tiie largest of the.se Silurian outliers is seen around Lake St. John on the Up[>er Saguenay. A> remarked by Sir William Lo'j^an, the limestones at this locality slu'w characteristic Black River fossils associated with those of the Trenton formation proper.j and comprise princi|>ally : Maduirti Lot/dui (fig. 222); Strouiatopora rwjosa (fig. 127) (Jfthoceran /U;// r Siluriiiu icii shiile;^, e Silurian L'liay. A> ality shew le Trenton »rt Logani ilti/i ; L>'/- 'urchisoiiit' -witli, nciii pioally, an L shrtUiS in- JtsC(7ta,i.to., . 177). A ;e Islaiul in sands imd of Canatla. ny of til'- ly eithei leir (Urcc- loved from on ron\ some ;her strata. )\vingr reasons : le ore very ii- • in of slai?. To this fills ui> the |tal, even when by the author, hiatioM oannot wliich retain their original sedimentary aspect, and occur, for the greater i; irt, in undisturbed beds. It extends along both side^ of the St. Ljiwrencs troni the western boundary of the Province to the neighbourhood of Quebec. In the west, it inchide.s the counties of Vaudreuil and Soulanges, lying in the point of the triangular space immediately west of the junction of the Ottawa and St. Lawrence Rivers. From the county of Vaudn-uil, its northern boundary crosses the Ottawa, and theii, keeping entirely on the north side of the St. Lawrence, runs along the southern edge of the Laurentide district already de,scribed, and gradually a|)proaching the river, strikes it a short distance below Quebec. Its southern limit runs from the south-west corner of Huntingdon (south of the St. Law- rence), along the boundary-line between the Province and the State of New York, to a little beyond the River Richelieu at the northern extremity of Lake C'hamplain ; iid east of this, the tlistrict is bounded by the disturded and metamorphic area of the Eastern Townships — its actual limits in this direction being a remarkable line of dislocation, with accompanying fault, miming (as first traced out by Sir William Logan) from near the north-eiust end of Lake Champlain to the vicinity of Point L^vis, and from thence, by the City of Quebec, along the north side of the Island of Orleans, and down the river and Gulf, between the Island of Anticosti and the Gasp*^ shore. The rock-formations of the district belong to three distinct series, namely : stratified Palajozoic formations ; eruptive rocks ; and Glacial and other Post-Cainozoic deposits. The stratified rocks, pi-o- per, consist of representatives of the Potsdam, Calciferous, Chazy, Black River and Trenton, Utica, and Hudson River foi'mations — with some small exposures, south of the St. Lawrence, of strata re- ferred to the Metlina group ; and a few outlying patches of Upper Silurian strata (belonging to the Lower Helderberg formation) in the vicinity of Montreal. These formations are broken through in places by large eruptive masses of trachytic and trappean rock, forming a series of picturesque mountains, which rise abruptly from the generally level surface of the district in the more southern and western portions of its area ; and in addition to tliese Palaeozoic and Eruptive rocks, Glacial and Post-Glacial accumulations, with deposits of comparatively ^ modern origin, occur throughout the district generally. If' ■ ■• 340 MINERALS AND GEOLOGY The Potsdam beds consist of coarse conglomerates and fine-grained siliceous sandstones — tlie latter in many localities sufficiently pure for glass-manufacture and for the hearths of furnaces. The formation is largely displayed in Heramingford Mountain, and over large portions of Huntingdon, Chateauguay, and Beauharnois, from whence it crosses the St. Lawrence, and spreads over a large part of Soulanges and Vaudreuil ; and from thence, passing across the western end of the Island of Montreal and Isle Bizard, it wraps around a large outlying mass of Laurentian gneiss (forming Mont Oalvaire on the north shore), and continues uninterruptedly along the edge of the Laurentide district as far east as the River Chicot, where the continuity of the strata is broken by a fault, and limestones of the Trenton formation are let down against the Potsdam beds. East of this point, the formation unly appears at one or two places — notably on the St. Maurice, where it exhibits a slight thickness of nearly horizontal beds of conglomerate and sandstone, resting upon gneiss. Throughout its range, as far east as the Chicot, it is accompanied by sandy and dolomitic limestones of the Calciferous formation, and these cover lai'ge areas south of the St. Lawrence, and in the country around the junction of the St. Lawrence and Ottawa. East of this formation, on the south side of the St. Lawrence, limestones of the Chazy and Trenton series, and dark bituminous shales of the Utica formation, with succeeding .sandstones and arenaceous shales of the Hudson River formation, largely prevail — the latter, especially, east of Riche- lieu River. These formations cross the St. Lawrence, and range in regular sequence along the north shore l)etween the Calciferous out- crop and the river bank. The intervening Island of Montreal, Isle Jesus, Isle Bizard, etc., consist essentially of Chazy, Trenton, and Utica strata — the Hudson River beds coming up farther east. The Chazy limestones of Caughnawaga and St. Domenique on the south shore, those of Ste. Genevieve on the Island of Montreal, of Isle Bizai'd, and of St. Lin on the north shore, yield marbles (red-spotted or uniformly red) of good quality. East of the River Chicot, which enters the St. Lawrence on the north shore, near the upper or western extremity of the expansion known as Lake St. Peter, the comparatively narrow strip of country between the Laurentian gneissoid rocks and the river margin is occupied almost entirely by Trenton, Utica, and Hudson River strata — one or two small ex- '"3 OF CENTRAL CANADA — PART V. 341 {•osnres of the Potsdam formation on the St. Maurice and at St. Ainbroise alone representing tlie lower beds as seen west of the Cliicot fault. In this eastern portion of the district, the strata are tilted in many places at considerable angles, as near Pointe aux Trembles, Montmorenci Falls, etc., and their continuity at these spots is more or less disturbed by minor faults.* As stated above, the Lower Silurian strata of the more southern and western portions of the Upper St. Lawrence district are bi-oken through in places by trachytic and trappeau masses, forming a .series of isolated mountains which rise above the generally level surface of the country to elevations of from 000 to >00 feet. Most of these occur appan'rit^ly upon a single lin(5 of fissure traversing the district in a general .south-easterly direction. They comprise: (1) the Mountain of Kigaud in Vaudreuil, composed partly of a purely felilspathic, and partly of a dioritic or hornblendic trachyte, porphy- ritic in places ; (2) the Montreal Mountain, composed essentially of augitic trap or dolerite, but traversed by dykes of compact and granitic trachyte ; (3) Montarville or Boucherville Mountain, also essentially trappean in composition; (4) Belceil, a dioritic and micaceous trachyte ; (')) Mounoir or Mount Johnson (.south of Behoil), of the same mineral character ; (G) Rougeraont, in Rouville County, a trappean mass like that of Montreal in general composition : and (7), tiie Yamaska Mountain, <;ssentially a micaceous trachyte. The Mountains of Bronie and ShelFord belong to the same erui)tive stnies, but lie within the crystalline district to the east. In addition to these j)rinci ^al masses, many dykes of similar character traverse the surriiinuling strata; ;ind some of these in the neighbourhood of Montreal and Lachim ire intercalated with the soft shales of the Utica series, which have become more or less worn away, leaving the associated trap bauds in the form of projecting ledges. Most of the rapids in this part of the St. Lawrence have been thus ))roduced. The superticiai depo.sits of the district compri.se Glacial boulders and reiiited clays and gravels, with Post-Glacial and recent accumu- lations. Drift or Glacial deposits, proper, are of general distribution ; and in some places, as on the Higaud Mountain, the l)Oulders form roughly parallel ridges, several feet in height. The Glacial strim of the country have two jji-evailing directions — south-west and south- "The foBsilB in these various Lower Silurian forviations are practically identical with those of the same formations in Ontario : see ante, poyes 3ia to 317. 342 MINERALS AND OBOLOOY east respectively. The Post-Glacial deposits belong chiefly to two series, as firet detetmined by Sir J. W. Dawson of Montreal: a lowe^" deep-sea formation, known as the " Leda Clay ;" and a succeedingdeposit' apparently a shallow-sea or shore-line accumulation, known as " Siixi- cava Sand." These occur widely within the district, and at various elevations.* On Montreal Mountain, beds of Saxicava sand, for example, form a series of terraces, one of which is at an altitude of nearly 500 feet above t^e present sea level. Beauport, below Quebec, is another locality at which these dejiosits are well exposed ; but they occur also, and over large areas, around Murray Bay, as well as on the Lower St. Mauri«.o, and elsewhoi-e. The more recent formations of the district comprise, principally, the bog iron ore and ochres of the St. Maurice and other localities on the north shore of the St. Lawrence ; the great peat-beds of Lanoraye, Lavaltrie, St. Sulpice, &c., on the same side of the river ; and those of Sherrington, Long- ueuil, and St. Dominique, with others on the south shore. Most of these peat beds overlie deposits of shell marl. THE ANTICOSTI AND MINGAN DISTRICT. This division belongs strictly to the palieozoic area of the upper St. Lawrence, of which it forms a detached, eastern portion. It in- cludes the large island of Anticosti in the St. Lawrence Gulf, and the group of the Minyan Islands on the opposite northern shore, together with a narrow strip of the latter east of the Mingan River. Its strata consist of Upper Cambrian and Lower and Upper Silurian formations. On the Mingan coast and islands, and throughout Anticosti, these strata are practically undisturbed. They dip, at slight inclinations, in regular sequence towards the Gulf. The great line of dislocation, referred to on page iVdo as passing from the head of Lake Champlain to the St. Lawrence in the vicinity of Quebec, and from thence eastwards along the river and the Gulf, runs between Anticosti and the Gasp^ coast ; and appears to have produced ' The leda clay formation Is characterised by the presence more especially of the lamelli- branchiate, leda truneata (flg. 211, pajre277); whilst the characteristic fowils of the hinher deposit comprise : naxicava rugota (flg. 216), v\ya trwveata (t»i. 214), and bucoinwn undatuiii (226). OF CENTRAL CANADA — PART V. 843 (as in other places) much disturbance and contortion in the strata of the latter between the month of the Marsouin River and Cape Rosier at the extremity of the Gasp^ j)eninsula. The Island of Antioosti extends in a general north-west and south- east direction, with a length of about 150 miles, and a breadth in its broadest part, of about 35 miles, gradually tapering at the extremities. Tlie northern coast presents bold ranges of clifi's, from 200 to 400 feet in height, cut through in places by deep water-courses. The interior of tlie island is thickly wooded, but is dest''ute of lakes and impor- tant streams. It appears to coraist of a series of plateaux or broad terraces, gradually descending to the south shore. The latter, altliough showing in places high clitFs of drift clay, is mostly of a low and swampy character, and this part of tho island is es[)ecially characterized by the presence of extensive beds of j)eat. The Mingan Coast consists of arenaceous limestones and dolomites of the Calciferous formation, and similar strata on the islands are succeeded by Chazy beds composed of reddish and pale-gray lime- stones, with interstratitied arenaceous shales. On the principal island (Large Island) of the Mingan group, light-coloured lime- stones, liolding characteristic Lower Trenton or Black River fossils, overlie the Chazy beds — the whole dipping, at a slight angle, south- wards or towards the Gulf. The next exi)osure (in the regular sefjuence of Lower Silurian formations) occurs along the opposite north coast of Anticosti, and consists of grayish and other coloured limestones, with interstratitied shales and conglomerates, having an inland or southerly dip of very slight amount. These beds belong to the upper part of the Hudson River formation, and it may thus be h'gitimately infei-red tha^ the intervening area of the Gulf is occupied uninterruptedly by other Hudson River beds, with Utica and Tren- ton strata cropping out to the north successively from beneath them. In some of these Hudson River strata, examples of the curious steui- like corals (Bea ricea itndata), resembling the petrified trunks of large trees, occur in considerable abundance. The succeeding area of the Island to the south, is occupied by argillaceous and other lime- stones, the equivalents apparently of the Medina, Clinton, and Niagara formations of the West; but characteristic Niagara fossils are associated in some of these strata with Lower Silurian types. The other rock-formations of Anticosti and the northern islands of 344 MINERALS AND GEOLOGY the district consist of Post-Cainozoic deposits. Kaised beaches, in the form of a series of terraces, extending to a height of about 10(> feet above the sea, occur on some of the Mingan Ishinds ; and other evidences of elevation are seen in the pillared rocks left here and there upon the surface, at heights of fifty or sixty feet above tla- present sea level. Drift clays, holding limestone pebbles, overlie the calcareous strata of some parts of Anticosti, especially on the south- west coast, where they form cliff's of considerable height. But the more remarkable of the Post-Cainozoic formations of Anticosti are tlu: great peat-beds, which cover large areas on the southern part of the Island. One of these extends in a narrow band along the south-east coast, between Heath Point and South Point, over a length of nearly eighty miles. [■(■ ,v: i THE APPALACHIAN OR EASTERN TOWNSHIPS* AND GASPli DISTRICT. The term " Appalachian region " was fiist bestowed on this part of Canada by Dr. Sterry Hunt, The district forms, indeed, a pro- longation into Eastern Canada of the Appalachian region of the United States : the Appalachian chain, with its tilted, contorted, and in great part metamorphosed series of rocks, extending into the Stoko Moun- tains and other elevations of the Eastern Townships, and appearinn further east in the Shickshock Mountains of Gaspe. The distrior comprises all that portion of the Province which lies east and south of the great line dislocation referred to under the preceding distiict as running north-easterly from Lake Champlain to Quebec, and from thence along the bed of the river and the Gulf. Whilst to the west and north of this dislocation, the strata are practically undisturbed, those which lie directly east and south of it have been greatly tilted and uplifted, and generally reversed in dip ; and towards the more central ])arts of the district many of the beds have been altered or rendered crystalline by mb..amorphic agencies, and have been fohled up with one another, and with an older system of crystalline rock.s forming the axes of the higher elevations so as to produce great com- plications of structure. As regards physical features, the district is more or less throughout of a mountainous character, but also, as a rule, of good fertility — differing remarkably in this respect from the OF CENTRAL CANADA — PART V. 345 DISTRICT. mountainous Lauventian region of the northern [)ortion of the Pro- vince. The average elevation of the Gaspe peninsula is about 1500 feet, and that of the other parts of the district about 800 to 1000 feet above the sea ; but several j)eaks in the Shiokshock ranges of Gaspe approach 4000 feet in height, nnd the summits of some of the mountains in the Eastern Townships are appai-antly ovei" .3000 feet. Many lakes, but none of large size, occur within the district. Among the«e, Lake St. Fiancis lies at an elevation of 890 feet, and Lake Memphramagog at an elevation of 760 feet above the sea. In Grasp«5 Lake Temiscouta and Lake Matapedia lie respectively at altitudes of 470 and 480 feet. The district is greatly intersected by streams and rivers. Some of the principal comprise : the Yamaska and the St. Francis, the Chaudiere (with its tributaries, the Famine, Des Plantes? etc.,) and the Etcheinin, in the more western portion of the district ; and the Riviere du Loup, Trois Pistoles, Rimouski, Metis, Matanne, Cliatte, St. Anne, Magdalen, Cascapediac, Matapediac, and other rivers of the Gaspe peninsula, most of which flow in deeply excava- ted channels. The geology of this district, so far as regards the actual sequence and relations of the rock groups within its area, is still very imper- fectly known, and much diversity of oj)inion prevails res})ecting the true age and position of some of these formations. Viewed broadlv, the district mav be regarded as divisible into three sub-areas : ( 1 ) a comparatively narrow central zone of mountainous country composed of crystalline and essentially metalliferous rocks, ranging from the Dominion boundary near fiake Champlain, through Sutton, Brome, Stukely, and other " Eastern Townships," in a north- easterly direction ;< cross the Chaudiere River as far as the County of Kamouraska, anu re-appearing farther east in the Shickshock Mountains of Gaspe ; with (2), a somewhat broader band between it and the St. Lawrence, composed of Cambrian and Lower Silurian strata ; and (3), a still broader area, underlaid essentially by Upper Silurian and Devonian beds, along its southern border. These areas are broken through in places by eruptive dykes and mountain- masses ; and are overlaid very generally by Drift and other sur- fiice-deposits. Four series of rock-formations are thus recognizable within the district. These comprise : (1), Ciystalline and sub-crystalline forma- ' 1 } 346 MINERALS AND OEOLOOV^ ih^ VJ.Y V '1 ; dons ; (2), FosRiliferous PhIsbozoic formationH ; (3), Granites, Tia. chytes, and Trappean masses ; ami (4), Superficial Post-Cainozoie deposits. Cri/stalline and Sub-cnjstaUine formations : — These as descrilieil above, form tlie main axis of the Appahichian District, extending in a belt of mountainous country from the Dominion boundary, a litth' east of Lake Champhiin, througli the Eastern Townships, and noitli- easterly, beyond the Chuudiero River to the border of Kamouni.ska. Sutton Mountain, the Owl's Head in Lake Meniphraniagog, Victoria. Mountain in Oxford, Pinnacle Mountain in Shipton, Ham Mountain, the Stoke Mountains, and other elevated ])oints, lit' within this area, and are composed essentially of crystalliuf schists or related feldspathic and quart ze rocks. Still farther towards the north-east, these rocks re-appear in the Shickshock Mountains of the Gaspe peninsula. Good exposures are seen at numerous spots in Sutton, Potton, HrouK;, Bolton, Sheftbrd, Stukely. Orford, Melbourne, Acton, Shipton, Stoke, Ham, Cleveland, and throughout the Townships generally. \lso around Mt. Albert in Gasp«5, and at many other spots along the Shickshock Kange, where serpentines especially predf minate. Almost everywhere, these crystalline strata are greatly tilted, folded, and otherwise disturbed. They consist essentially of gneissoid and micaceous beds, talcose and chloiitic schists and potstones, serpentines, amphibolites and epidosites, crystalline limestones and dolomites, giaj)hitic argillites, quartzites, specular-iron schists, and other rocks of related character, holding in many places large masses or "stocks" of copper ore or magnetite, or containing these ores in veins or in dissemi. nated grains, togethei* with chromic iron ore, gold (in quartz veins,; galena, antimony ores and nickel sulphide. Many of the crystalline dolomites are intermixed with serpentine, forming green, chocolate- brown and other coloured "serpentine marbles." These crystalline schists and their arsociated quartzites, serpentines, dolomites, etc., are now regarded as plainly of Pre-Cambrian, pro- bably Huronian, age ; but it may be inferred that portions of Trenton and higher palaeozoic strata are enclosed here and there in a metamorphosed condition, among their foldings.* * Until recently, them metamorphio or crystalline formationB were regarded 08 consistin)!: euentially of altered portions of Sir William Logman's " Quebec Group." The latter represents a series of strata of about the a^e of theCalciferous formation, but holdin); peculiar trroptolites OK CKNTRAL CANADA — PART V. 347 franites, Tra. ost-Gainozoic as desci'iljed extendinsj in clary, a little IS, and north - Kamouiii.skii. ;og, Victoria, pton, Hum 1 j)oints, lit' f crystal lint- Still fartlier 3 Shickshock i are seen at brd, Stukely, eveland, and VI t. Albert in iliock iiange, I everywhere, id otherwise cacoous beds, aniphibolites gta))hitic cs of related 8 " of copper in dissemi. uartz veins,; e crystalline n, chocolate- serpentines, nbrian, pro- of Trenton there in a sd ae consistiiii; atter represents uliarxraptolites The more important economic mineralfi belonging to these crystalline areas, are enumerated briefly in the following list : Copper Ores — These comprise chiefly the Yellow Copper Pyrites, Bornite or Horse riesh ore, and Copper Glance, occasionally n\ixeil with small portions of native copper and native silver. They occur mostly in lenti- cular or irregular masses ("stocks") often of considerable size, or in thickly disseminated grains, in chloritic schists and other rocks of the country. Indi^'ations occur in almost the entire series of the Eastern Townships, but copper mining has been carried on at a few 8|)ot8 only: notably at the Harvey Hill mine in Leeds, the Hunting- don and Ives mines in Bolton, the Hepburn, Suttield and Ascot mines in Ascot, and at sj)ots in Acton, Sutton and Brome. Chromic Iron Ore— in beds in serpentine, in the townships of Ham, Bolton, and Melbourne ; and largely at Mt. Albort in Gasp^. May- uetic Iron Ore — chiefly in bed.s, in Bromf), Sutton, Leeds, and other townships, but often titaniferous. Antimony — native, but associated commonly with Antimony Glance and Kerniesite, the red oxy-sul- phide (page 80), in Ham township. Nickel — as sulphide, but in small quantities only, with chrome garnet in calcite. Township of Orford. Gold — native, in quartz veins in Leeds, Garth by, etc., but apparently in little more than specks or traces. Grapkitt; — i*\ crystalline limestone, in WakeHeld. tierpentine and Serpentine- marble — in Orford, Melbourne, Ham, Broughton, etc., and around Mt. Albert in Gas])^. '^Asbestos" {Chrysotile, pag.- 118) — in veins or bands varviny from about half-an-inch to three or four inches in width : Townships of Thetford, Coleraine, Leeds, Melbourne, Bol- ton. Potstone and Soapstone — in beds in Sutton, Potton, Bolton, :tii(l some other distinct fossils. It was thou);ht l),v Sir William Lo^an to admit of a separation into three parts, named by him (in supposed ascending' order)the Levis, Lauzun, and Sillery forma- tions—the Lauzen formation, or sub-formation, beini,' the especially metalliferous portion of the series. It is now pretty well established that these subdivisions cannot be maintained. The so-called Levi strata are shewn to overlie the Sillery beds, if the two can properly be separateil ; and although both may be much altered in places there is certainly no evidence to support the .tjisumption that they have been altered into the gneissoid and micaceous schists, the serpen- tines and other crystalline rocks of the Eastern Townships and central ■ Gaspt- ; or that what were thought to be the lower beds of these Quebec strata pass under the crystalline series. Sir William Logan's opinion was first objected to by Mr. Macfarlane (now of Ottawa), and was subsequently opposed very strongly by Dr. Sterry Hunt, who had originally endorsed Sir William's interpretation. But the now general acceptance of the essentially 1 re-Canibrian age of these crystalline rocks, is mainly due to the present Director of the Geological Sur\ ey, Dr. A. R. C. Selwyn. Whether these rocks should he regarded as Huronian, or as constitu- ting a somewhat higher, or " Montalban " series, distinguished especially by their predomina- ting magneBlan, chromiferous oharaoter, is still an open question. 348 MINERALS AND GEOLOOY ■■I ■' Wolfcstown, Htimstoad, IjocmIh etc. lioofhirf Slate (in part heloni^iui,' to iiIt(M"e(l Silurian beds) — Melltonrnc, Oi-fonl, Cleveland, Hichmonil WhetHtoiiPS — Stanstead, Hoi ton, Kinsey. Fosxilifenrnx l\ifivoztnc Formatiims : — A.8 rocognisod wit': mi tlif Appalachian district, these eoniprise, in ascending order, reproscii tatives of th«* Calciterous Foriiintion, with Lower Si'urian, Uppi'i Silurian, Devonian ami Lowcsr ( 'arhoniferous strati. The Calcifc'tonn Forinntion — or geological horizon correspondiii^ practically to the higher |)rtrt of this — is repi'csentod by the uncrvst il- line portions of Sir William Logan's " Quohec Group." Tiiis scrii- of strata is made up essentially of groy and greenish (in places glau- conitic) sandstoms, many of which hold small jtehhlcs of wliite (piartz. interstratified with olive-green, red, purplish, and gray shales, farm- ing the so-calhid " Sillery formation " ; and of grey, red. and black graptolitic sliales ussociated with limestone conglomerates and yelhjw- ish-groy dolomitic beds, making uj) the " Levis formation." The sub- divisions of Sillery and L<3vis, however, should ])roperly be abfindoncil. the two Sits of strata forming ictically but a single series of vaiifil mineral composition. T'.ie sandstones along ])arts of the TJiispe coast — as between the St. Anne des Monts and Grand Michaud rivci-,. more especially — have been worn 1)V denudation into more or li >s isolated pillars which form prominent oV)jects as st-cn from the Gult. Hence the name of ' pillar saiulstones," by which they were at vw time known. 'Die IjJack and other coloured shales are especiall;. characterised by the presenee of " compound graptolites," representvil by L(M/anoyraptus. Phi/lfoyraphis and related types {ante, page '2'2><}: and the calcareous beds contain many p"culiar trilobites — species ut" Agnostus (Mg. 107 bis.) Dilclocephalns (tig. 171), liathjfurus, Arioio;!- his, etc. The shales and limestones contain also, in many placo. examples of characteristic brachiopods, as OboMla pretioxn, Liw/i'/" Quebecencis (tig. 204), and small species of Orthis, Lejdcena, and C'nnt erella. As regards general distriljution, these Calciferous (Quebec) strata form a practically continuous band along the western and northern edge of t,in central crystalline areas of the district, from the provino-- line at die i ead of Lake Chainplain to the extremity of Craspe ; and they !.re wall displayed at Sillery on the St. Lawrence, and along the southern and central portions of the Island of Orleans. Throughout i\, Hiclunouil ■<1 wit'i'ii till' iler, reproscii- uriiin, Uj>|n'i COITCS|)OluUl»U the iincrvstil- ' This scrio II phices gliiu ■ white . inoi'«" or Itsj, roiii the Gult. were at oin- e es|>eciallv ropreseiittil te, page 2l'^); s — species of rus, A7'{oui.'l- nuuiy placo. (i.srt, Lini/iili' (, ami Coiir uebeo) strata iiiii northt'iii the province (jras|M^ ; and lid along tlio Througliout OF CENTRAL CANADA — PART V. the greater part of their course they are more or less intimately asso- ciated in complicated stnitigraphic relations, with the Lower Silurian Utica shales, the latter appearing in many places to dip under them. They are distinguished however from these Tltica beds by their pecu- liar graptolites. In Brome and Sheflbrd the forniation is broken through by trachytio mountain-masses which cover areas of many S(puire miles in extent (see below). These trachytic areas lie })etwoen the central crystalline range an»l the great Chauiplaiu fault, and they belong to the same eruptive series as the trachytic and tiappeaii masses of the upper St. Lawrence Pistrict, described on a prect^ding page. The formation appears ahso along the southern edge of the crystalline country west ot Kamouraska in contact with alteretl Upper Silurian strata, as seen about St. Joseph on the Chaudiere and in the townslups of Wolfestowu, Ham, Richmund and Sherlirook. The Louder Silurian Jorinafiona within the Appalachian District lie on the western and northern limit of the Calciferous (Quebec) series, and in many tilaces are mi.xed up with these latter in complicated relations. They consist mostly of Hudson River and Utica strata, but some Trenton (^and perhaps Chazy I) beds ha\f been recognized in ]MisHis(juoi, at the extreme south-western limit of the district, and the steeply-dipping black slates winch occur on the St. Lawrence near Point L^vis, and which were originally thouglit to occupy a geological position below the Potsdam horizon, may unloiig to the same formation, if not to the succeeding Utica and Hudson Kiver .series. Representatives of these latter — consisting mostly of grey and black slates and greyish sandstones, whilst the associated Calciferous (Quebec) beds are chieHy in the form of red and greenish, or more rarely black, shales, with limestone conglomerates, yellowish dolo- uutes, and greenish-grey sandstones — occur largely along the coast as far east as the Magrinci|>Hl part of tlie " tias| . LiinoHtono serieH " of the lat« Sir VVilliaiii I^ogan, are hut KlightK (lev»'loj>P(l in (raHpi* proper, tlie Hii|»po8e(l ITpper Sihirian hj'tlsof tlia' region heiiig now sliown hy tlieir fossils to ho chioHy of Uevoniai. age. But Upper Silurian strata —if rightly ourno, and to some e.xteut also in Cleveland and adjacent townships. The Chaudi^re slates in the country around St. George, and elsewhere in Beauce County, exactly re.senil)le the hai'd black slates on the St. Lawrence oppositi Quebec, and shew no trace of fossils. They form the broken floor or " bed-rock " on which the alluvial gold of this part of the Chaudii'iv valley essentially rests ; and here and there they are traversed by quartz veins carrying small quantities of gold. In Gasp^ propi-i. the Ui)|)er Silurian strata are composed mainly of calcareous bed>. consisting of grey limestones and shales ; but according to Mr. Ells. to whom our recent knowledge of the geology of the Gasp^ coast is chiefly due, these strata occupy a much smaller area then thar formerly assigned to them, most of the Gasp^ limestones holding De- vonian fossils. Those to which an Upi)er Silurian age may beattribii- ted, are exposed chiefly on the Grand River of the south coast, and along the shore between the Pabos River and Cape D'Espoir, At these points they underlie unconformably the Lower Carboniferous Bonaventure beds. The Devonian formations of the region now under review, besides comprising the great body of the "Gasp^ limestones and sandstones.'' occur imdoubtedly in the more southern of the Eastern Townships, but, as a rule, in a more or less altered condition, and not clearly sepaiable from associated Silurian strata. Many of the grey, black, and marbled limestones, however, of this area, as those of Weedon, Dudswell and Lake Memphi-emagog, as well as the micaceous lime- stones of Compton and adjacent townships, are apparently Devonian. OP CENTRAL OAMADA — PAKT V. 301 ict, althoiiLih the "(4tis|. hut Hiighllv I bi'ds of tlia' of Devoniiti. -occur HOiii-' . to Mr. Ells. Hsp^ coast is then thar holding De- be attrihu- coast, and !spoir. At irboniferous iew, besides sandstones." Townships. not clearly grey, black, of Weedon. iceous lime- r Devonian. Some of the Duds well beds form veined marbles of considerable beauty, black mid y«'llow, and white and yellow, in colour; and tlinso limeHtoui^H in their less altered portions shew Devonian fossils, or mixtures of these with Upper Silurian types. In (iaspe, proper, Devonian rocks occupy wide ureus, and coiiHist of limeKtones, hiind- stones, and conglomerates. Where in contact with I'pper Silurian strata (Itelow), and with Lower Carboniferous conglomeratcis (uliove), as in Perct^, etc., they are unconformable to both of these formutions. The arenaceous lieds constituto the mor»* typical strata of this Devonian series, anut borings put down in the vicinity of these have failed to obtain a profitable supply. At Tar Point, a grey amygdaloidal dyke con- tains pitch-like jietroleum in some of its cavities. Other eruptive dykes break through tlm Devonian strata on this part of the Gaspd coast and on the Bay of Chaleurs, as described below. The Carboniferous strata of the district belong to the lower part of the Coal Measures, but are entirely destitute of coal. They form the " Bonaventiire formation " of the late Sir William Logan, and consist essentially of conglomerates, associated with red and brown sandstones and shales, many of which contain fossilized vegetable remains or casts of these. The conglomerates are made up of rounded masses or pebbles of limestone, sandstone, syenite, agate, quartz and other i-ock-mattei-s, held together by an arenaceo-calcareous cement. These beds rests nnconformably on the Devonian and Silurian strata of the Gasp^ coast. They occupy the entire area of Bonaventure Island, and occur in comparatively narrow strips along the Bonaven- ture and Perc^ shore of the mainland. They form also the upper portion of the Perc^ mountain, but the lower conglomerates for- 352 MINERALS AND GEOLOGY '! ' merly assigned to them, both at this spot and at localities along tho Bay of Chaleui's, are now i-egarded as Devonian * Eruptive Rocks : — The more imj)ortant eruptive focks occuring within the Appalachian and Gasjn? District, comprise ; (1) llie tra- chytic mountains of Broine and Siiefford ; (2), the granites of the Great and Little Megantic Mountains, and other granitic masses of the Eastern Townships; and (3), the trappean dykes and liills of Eastern Gaspt5 and the Bay of Chaleurs. The Brome and Shefford mountains consist essentially of granitoid ti'achytes, com|)Osed of greyish white ' r light-coloured feldspar with scales or grains of brown oi* l»lack mica and dark hornblende, anil some minute crystals and specks of sphene and magnetite. The fehi spar, according to Dr. Sterry Hunt's analyses, contains both ))otasli and soda but shews the cleavage of orthoclase. The Brome (and Gale) Mountain covoi-s an area of about twenty scpiare miles, and the closely adjacent Sheflbrd Mountain, abouL nine square miles. Both belong to the same ei-uptive series as the trachytic and trapj)ean mountains (Yamaska, Chambly, Montreal, etc.) of the Uppei- St. Lawrence District described on a preceding i)age, all of which are apparently of Upj)er Silurian or Devonian age. Tlie granites of this region are also of Devonian or later age. Tli<'\ present a \ ory general resemblance in asjject and composition, consist- ing almost uniformly of white orthoclase-feldspar and colourle.'