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'^i^'yeiVs The^L-en^^^^^^^ master painting of Paul Sinibal.li. explains tlie secret of the wonderful progress of tl,e oast
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Thfl: AlMII-VliMKNTS {)V OM: HUNDKlil) YCAKS
Fcimoiis Men- Great Events
of the Nineteenth Century
Embracin^Je^ the Ijecisiv c battles of the Century and the Great Soldiers Who
lW|tJM^JJhcJ|scj.n^^^
Causes Which Contributed^^ ^^^^^^^riVnri^^;^^^;^
EjMplorers^^^ -|d JM^elrl^^^
By CHARLES MORRIS, LL. D.
A.tl.or of Tke Ary.a Race." •• Ci v.li^tion. Its History. Etc.." •• The Greater Repablic." Btc.
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')0fl939
A
I
LIST OF CHAPTERS AND SUBJECTS
Intfoduction
^TJT I-Tr'^JT"'^ "^ ^PP'"'""'" '" '^^ ^^S^^^^"^^ Century-Government
and the Rights of Man m 1900-Prisons and Punishment in looo-The Factory
System and Oppres.,ion of the Workingman-Suffrage and Human Freedom-
Cnmmal Law and Pnson Discipline in i8oo_The Era of Wonderful Inventions-
The Fate of the Horse and the Sail-Education, Discovery and Commerce ....
CHAPTER I
The Threshold of the Century
The Age We Live in and its Great Events-True History and the Things Which Make It
-rwoof the World's Greatest Events-The Feudal System and Its Abuses-The
Chmax of Peudahsm in France-The States General is Convened-The Fall of the
fhef ~t'"f . ^"''" ^"^''" '^' Guillotine-The Reign of Terror-The Wars of
he French Revolution-Napoleon in Italy and Egypt-England as a Centre o
Industry and Commerce The Condition of the German Statef-Dissension in Italy
and^Decay :n Spam-The Partitic .f Poland by the Robber Nations-Russia and
CHAPTER II
Napoleon Bonaparte j The Man of Destiny
^ Remarkable and Wonderful Carcer-The Enemies and Friends of France-Move
CHAPTER III
rr^. P ^''*'*''^ ^ *^^ ^^'P °^ *^ I*-*^" Hand
Treaty of Peace t'hlu^;! P 7 ^"^^^^^''^"'^he Dreadful Lake Horror-
at Jena and a1 tadr Na~r""'n 7^1" ''^ ^ield-Defeat of the Prussians
Struggle at ^^t^:^:!^Z.^::^^,''r''^'i^ of Victo.y-The Frightful
EmperorsatTilsitandtheFateof Pru^sl" Th. V"' T''-'' ''' ^uss.ans-The
A3dr.a. Hofer and the wll ^ ~ ''P' ^ Captive at Fontainebleau-
and the War m lyrol-Napoleon Marches Upon Austria-The
(S)
PAGB
23
33
44
PAGB
6 LIST OF CHAPTERS AND SUBJECTS
Battle of Eckmr.hl and the Capture of Ratisbon-The Campaign in Italy-The
Great Struggle of Essling and Aspern-Napoleon Forced to His First Retreat-The
Second Crossing of the Danube-The Victory at Wagram-The Peace of Vienna-
Ihe Divorce of Josephine and Marriage of Maria Louisa
57
CHAPTER IV
The Decline and Fall of Napoleon's Empire
The Causes of the Rise and Decline of Napoleon's Power-Aims and Intrigues in Por-
tugal and Spain-Spain's Brilliant Victory and King Joseph's Flight-The Heroic
Defence of Saragossa-Wellington's Career in Portugal and Spain-The Invasion of
Russia by the Grand Army-Smolensk Captured and in Flames-The Battle of
Borodmo-rhe Grand Army in the Old Russian Capital-The Burning of the Great
C.ty of Moscow-The Grand Army Begins its Retreat-The Dreadful Crossing of
the Beresma-Europe in Arms Against Napoleon-The Battle of Dresden, Napo-
leon s Last Great Victory-The Fatal Meeting of the Armies at Leipzig-The Break-
up of Napoleon's Empire-The War in France and the Abdication of the Emperor-
Napoleon Returns From Elba-The Terrible Defeat at Waterloo-Napoleon Meets
^i
CHAPTER V
Nelson and Wellington, the Champions of England
England and France on Land and Sea-Nelson Discovers the French Fleet in Aboukir
Bay-The Glorious Batde of the Nile-The Fleet Sails for Copenhagen-The Danish
Lme of Defence-The Attack on the Danish Fleet-How Nelson Answered the
^ignal to Cease Action- Nelson in Chase of the French Fleet— The Allied Fleet
Leaves Cadiz-Off Cape Trafalgar-The "Victory" and Her BrilHant Fight-The
Great Battle and its Sad Disaster-Victory for England and Death for Her Famous
Adm.ral-The British' in Portugal-The Death of Sir John Moore-The Gallant
Crossing of the Douro-The Victory at Talavera and the Victor's Reward-Welling-
ton s Impregnable Lines at Torres Vedras-The Siege and Capture of the Portuguese
Fortresses-Wellington Wins at Salamanca and Enters Madrid-Vittoria and the
Pyrenees— The Gathering of the Forces at Brussels-The Battlefield of Waterloo-
The Desperate Charges of the French-Bliicher's Prussians and the Charge of
Napoleon's Old Guard
CHAPTER VI
From the Napoleonic Wars to the Revolution 1830
A Quarter Century of Revolution— Europe After Napoleon's Fall-The Work of the
Congress-Italy, France and Spain-The Rights of Man-The Holy Alliance-Revo-
lution m Spain and Naples-Metternich and His Congresses-How Order Was
Restored in Spain-The Revolution in Greece-The Powers Come to the Rescue of
Greece-The Spirit of Revolution-Charles X. and His Attempt at Despotism-The
Revolution in Paris-Louis PhiUippe Chosen as King-Effect in Europe of the Revo-
lution-lhe Belgian Uprising and its Result-The Movements in Germany-The
nndit!on of Poland^Thc Revolt of the Poles— A Fatal Lack of Unity— The Fate
of Poland . .
lOI
ii6
57
83
lOl
u6
LIST OF CHAPTERS AND SUBJECTS
rAGi
CHAPTER VII
Bolivar, the Liberator of Spanish America
How Spain Treated Her Colonies-The Oppression of the People-Bolivar the Revolu-
tionary Leader-An Attempt at Assassination-Bolivar Returns to Venezuela-The
Savage Cruelty of the Spaniards-The Methods of General Morillo-Paez the
Guerilla and His Exploits-British Soldiers Join the Insurgents-Bolivar's Plan to
Invade New C r, a-The Crossing of the Andes-The Terror of the Mountains-
Bolivar s Metho. A Fighting-The Victory at Boyaca-Bolivar and the Peruvians-
The Freeing of the Other Colonies
128
CHAPTER VIII
Great Britain as a World Empire
Nat ^Iconic Wars' Influence-Great Awakening in Commerce-Developments of the Arts
-Growth of the Sciences-A Nation Noted for Patriotism -National Pride-Con-
scious Strength-Political Changes and Their Influence-Great Statesmen of Eng-
land
141
CHAPTER IX
The Great Reform Bill and the Com Laws
Demands of the People— The Struggle for Reform in 1830— The Corn
Causes of Unrest
Laws-Free Trade in Great Britain-Cobden the Apostle of Free Trade-
Promoters of Reform— England's Enlarged Commerce
-Other
'47
CHAPTER X
Turkey the "Sick Man" of Europe
The Sultan's Empire in i8oo_Revolts in Her Dependencies-Greece Gains Her Free-
dom-The Sympathy of the Christian AVorld-Russian Threats-The Crimean War
and Its Heroes-The War of 1877-The Armenian Massacres-The Nations AVarn
tL "sicrMan •". .' ;"' .'':";'. "" ^'^^-''^ ''^''^'^^ ^^^^^^ «^ ^-^^^-
CHAPTER XI
The European Revolution of 1848
"^"Tevow"'' and Rulers-The Spirit of Liberty Among the People-Bourbonism-
Revolu lonary Outbreak m France-Spreads to Other Countries-The Struggle in
I a ly-In Germany-The Revolt in Hungary-The Career of Kossuth the Patriot
Statesman and Orator-His Visit to America-Defea^ of the Patriots by Austria and
Hungary-General Haynan the Cruel Tyrant-Later History of Hungary
CHAPTER XII
Louis Naooleon and \\\e- .<I«.^/>«/4 n-«>,-u n :...
„ — — . — ,„ ^ iviivii umpire
The Power of a Great Name-The French People Love the Name Napoleon-Louis
Napoleon's Personalitv-Elected President-The Tricks of His Illustdous Ancestor
»S6
167
8
LIST OF CHAPTERS AND SUBJECTS
Imitated— Makes Himself Emneror— Th^ Wo, w*u * . •
Mexico-Attempt to Y.^t.h\T.Tl . '^^ Austna-Sends an Army to
the New Wor ^I^s Sad F t^ w^^ ^^^^ Emperor in
rtis bad Pat._War With Ge.many-Louis Napoleon Dethroned .
178
CHAPTER XHI
Garibaldi and Ae Unification of Italy
Count Cavour-Garibaldi in Arn.« tki. I Sardinia-Victor Emanuel and
• 194
CHAPTER XIV
Bismarck and the New Empire of Germans
Paris-William I. Crmvned Emnerl 7"/™^''='^»"-Von Moltke-The Fall of
Kaiser-Peeullarities of wlllrrae^lt^ror '''■""* '"^ '"^ ^"""^
' 207
CHAPTER XV
Gladstone the Apostle of Liberalism in England
'"-^nrr X:Xn"^^^^^^^^ Power-Becomes Prime Minister
Disraeli-Early Con^rvaSm La^er l"^^^^^^^^ "°"^^^^ ^^^^^
Gladstone's Labors i^iDeralism-Home Rule Champion-Result of
243
CHAPTER XVI
Ireland the Downtrodden
Other Patriots- TlTeFtln %f, """' 0'C°™"1-Gra.ta„, Curran and
Leader i„ Z^lJZ::^"^^^::"'' "" '-'-"-f"-'- '^= '*h
CHAPTER XVII
England and Her Indian Empire
'''''^t'rl'u W ';;t""M "' ''"^^ ^"^ '"^^ ^''' ^"d- Company-Sir Arthur Wei
S .~U-R LTo L ^^^'^^^-S"^J"g--" «^ Indian States-The Great S iny-I.
Oueen Vict r Lucknow-Repulse From Afghanistan-Conquest of Burmah-
Queen Victona Crowned Empress of India-Whnf En-^l.-^u p.-u H- r- - .
Orienf- 4 ■\;■oo^ /-' ^ -» . ^ — £>'•■•" «^aiC xlus Lruiic lor tile
Or,e„,-A Vast Country .eem.n. With Population -Tts Resources and fts Prospe'tl ,C8
lister
1
With
i
It of
1
TACB
LIST OF CHAPTERS AND SUBJECTS
CHAPTER XVIII
Thiers, Gambetta and the Rise of the New French Republic
^'^^V2T%:1 Character Modern Statesmen of France-Thiers-MacMahon-
(,ambetta-The New Repubhc-Leaders in Politics-Dangerous Powers of the
Army Moral and Religious Decline-Law and Jnstice-The Dreyf.rCase as an
Index to France's National Character and the Perils Which Beset the Republic .,,
CHAPTER XIX
Paul Kruger and South Africa
Review of the Boers-Their Establishment in Cape Colonv Th. R,<= a ^
CHAFPER XX
The Rise of Japan and the Decline of China
.7chTn, I H ""^u ' "^ ""= East-Coiditfons of Conservatism Holds on
;:e?n'«„t" ";"4""i,??aro™:r-i:;' '"it --^'--^-°-
Army Invades the Celestia Em "i ri, ^""~'"^'^"'^ ''o'^ Victory-Japanese
Open Commerce-TlretnedTrMo, Surrenders-Enropean Nations Demand
CHAPTER XXI
The Era of Colonies
and Germany-Partit on ^/'T "'-'"*'-A»^tal,a_Africa-Colonies of France
the Czar's Governmen" ThtfT^T"' "' ''"^''^ '" ^sia-Aggressiveness of
co,onia>Po,vers::di"-^;,r:ft.fSLrtr^^^^^^^^^
CHAPTER XXII
How the United States Entered the Century
Nlnro7stat?r^^^^^^^^ ^^^^^'-^eace With France-
Influence of Wasllg^r^^^^^^^^ '": ^--^' Congress-The
Than Four MillionsiNo C^lTTL^T'f^^ ^ts Powers-Population of Less
Country_Savages-Trouble"with"A''i'^' ■"'"'' ^"5'^»uant5 lu America-Sparsely Settled
son Elected p^f^/.^J'^^^^'^W^th Algiers -War Declared by Tripoli-Thomas Jeffcr-
343
lO
LIST OF CHAPTERS AND SUBJECTS
^ CHAPTER XXIII
S.a.e._F,„H,, T™.fet:r "I u„ta L^" /'™^' ■8°3-Ad„i.,o„ of ,he
Indians Ceda Their Illinoi., Landsin ,8,„ , '.«'9-The First Railway in ,8=6-
Expeditions to the Pacific sCe::<^^;~;'rr°' ■'''^^"'''' ■^^'-^--"••»
From Ocean to Ocean ,84S_Tl,e IZ1°L '"'"'^"-O-'r Bomain Established
Rap,d Internal Growth-Cities So L f "''"""' ''""^ «■«'!» ■S67-
Peace-Through the Spanish.rJr„',V V r " *'/'»'— ^ Marvelo„s Era of
Territory-From East to West AmenV n™' """ '^'^"l"''""™ °f First Tropical
Wortd-Three Cities Each wS OvTroo^^r^US^r .":':--. ^™".'""
~ CHAPTER XXIV
Col„n,.,i„„ a„:it!t:^X:ns w"""': '""•"•»- '^ America
Legislatures-The Mone/'"^ Jorr^ra^o^c'^f '=-""''*=''°---'^*"-'
Property Qualifications-Growth of Western iln'"""-'^'"^ Franchise-
'he Begin„,„g and Close of the Century "'^f'^"""^'' B"»e« Institutions at
CHAPTER XXV
Sailors-Insults and 0...^^'!:^^^^^^^^ A.e.can
Injury to Commerce-Blockades Em .^''''"P^"'^^'' ^»d "Leopard "-
Canadian Campaign-^Cot,^-^:,!^^^^^^^ Glory-Zailure of
he "Frolic "-other Sea Duels-Privateers Parr r""'"^'^ "'^^^P" -"^
;^ons The "Shannon" and the "Chesl are^'^'r' Great Victory-Land Opera-
The Burning of Washington-Baltimore ?!, -^""^^^ L^ne and Plattsburg-
Treaty of Peace. .... '™ ^^^^^^-J^^kson's Victory at New OrleanL
CHAPTER XXVI
Fi.. Foreign .I^ZT.'T" '"''"" "= "^""^ A"-''
Thrashes the AlgeL Pirates-Alp.eMS^l''"* ,^'"'-"-'' San> Aroused-
-Austriaand the Koszta Case-Cap,;^^ ^2™" h""^''""''' ='""«'" 'o ^"-
S,nk You"_Austria Yields-The Par"',, i . '^'■''"^'y-" Deliver or I'll
The Chilian tabroglio-Bainta™ a-SeCl^r r^?"" ''°'"'' '° Te™3-
• |'7™ Attacked-Matta's Impudent Letter 1 L "^""^ States-American
Ends Well, Etc ^^ "' """—P^ckdown— Peace— All's Well That
, CHAFFER XXVII
' °''° ^'"^-'^^°'=' ^'"-er-Henry ClayZjoh'n^c. Caih::!:
369
382
3 Giant
Admission of the
Railway in 1826—
1832 — Fremont's
main Established
' Russia 1867
arvelous Era of
of First Tropical
vay Around the
^erica
ations— Colonial
>ie Franchise —
1 Institutions at
Search
sing American
"Leopard" —
Ty— Failure of
"Wasp" and
-Land Opera-
■ Plattsburg—
ew Orleans —
369
1 Aroused—
:ht to Terms
sliver or I'll
to Terms — •
' — American
Well That
382
■The Great
C. Calhoun
/-/^7 OF CHAPTERS AND SUBJECTS
We'sTer "nT^rn ^nr^: T "T^^'''' ^"^^^^^ «" ^'^^^ ^-ension- '-"
Union Must and SharbeWvIr^""'""-'"''^'"'^ ^'^'' ^° Hayne-The
398
CHAPTER XXVIII
Texa- „ a P^" ^"'♦'°'' »' Texas and the War Wift Mexico
Mexican, arsl°;,S'=°;;f;,''='''°"tf ''"-™= ^'"'"° «— _R„„, „f
-TheWarWithMexi" "^rr " 1, "'•■■''"-'^■>"«-«°n to the United States
CHAPTER XXIX
^^^ ^^^'*° ^" America and the Slavery Conflict
The Negro in America— The First Carcm r. ■ • . ,
-Increase in Numbers-^averv i7Tv?""'"^;,' ''' '^''^ Traffic-As a Laborer
cal Disturbances-Ag tation and aV / "t^u "- ""'^'^ '" ^'''^^^"^ States-Politi-
pated the Slave-Th^e ^ Crr^tpr^c^r "^^ ^^ "^^ '' —
425
CHAPTER XXX
Abraham Lincoln and the Work of Emancipation
Lincdn s Increasing Fame-Comparison With Washington Th^ m a •
Orleans— "If I Ever Get n rn,.., . » ^^-isnmgton- Ph.- Slave Auction at New
Pohtician-Elected L^p^e en^^^^^^^^^^^ T c '^"''' ' ""'" ^' '' ^^^^ "-'^^^e Young
Famous Debates WifhToug, f Th^ Co^T"'^ ''^^"''°" ^^ Slavery-Hif
i86o_The Surprise of Hn m ^^' ^"'"'"''^ Speech-The Campaign of
of Secession-F^ on S mtr^ Th^^'nt n~"' '""'"^'^"^ Election-Th'reats
rx ■ ^""o on sumter — Ihe Dark Davs of the VVnr Tv,^ f
Quest.on-The Great Proclamation-End of the Wa The 7 . ^^™'""P'''°"
Beauty and Greatness of His Character . ;^"'-^^« ^reat Tragedy-The
' 4^0
CHAPTER XXXI
Grant and Lee and The Civil War
knowledged GreatneL Hi n" , " '^'="=»""8 Man "-Lee a Man of Ac-
tion of the Son, .-gZ Lip ''°''"'°' ^'^"'-"'"tit^.de and aL-
No. Exclusively a SouTer, H T ^"'°""* °°°'' '■''"ng-The War-Secession
coln-A Naton ta A r fV ,'"'""*''= Conflict-Coming Events-Lin-
Thnn- R- "orrnnac -Antietam-Sliiloh-Buell-Gmnt-Ge-rse H
FiSrrs,:efzr;~l"Tr?"rr-'':f°"-""-°«'^*"8-^^-. ,
mattox-Ue. S:„end:;r^:: ;;:/:f C ^''"^-'"^-"- Victones-Appo.
449
la
LIST OF CHAPTERS AND SUBJECTS
•■AGl
CHAPTER XXXII
The Indian in the Nineteenth Century
Our Relations and Obligations to the Indian-Conflict between Two Civilizations-Indian
Bureau-Government Policy-Treaties-Reservation Plan-Removals Under It^
Indian Wars-Plan of Concentration-Disturbance and Fighting-Plan of Education
and Absorption-Its Commencement-Present Condition of Indians-Nature of
Education and Results-Land in Severalty Law-Missionary Effort-Necessity and
Duty of Absorption '
460
CHAPTER XXXIII
The Development of the American Navy *
The Origin of the American Navy-Sights on Guns and What They Did-Opening Japan
-Port Royal-Pass.ng the Forts-The "Monitor" and "Merrimac" '-In Mobile
Bay-I he " kear.sarge " and the "Alabama "-Naval Architecture Revolutionized
Zl W Tr ""7'^^"!-^^"ilding a New Navy-Great Ships of the Spanish Amer-
ican War-The Modern Floating Iron Fortresses-New ' 'Alabama " and " Kearsarge "48.
CHAPTER XXXIV
America's Conflict With Spain
A AVar of Humanity-Bombardment of Matanzas-Dewey's Wonderful Victory at Manila
-Disaster to the ' • Winslow ' ' at Cardenas Bay-The First American Loss of Life-
Bombardment of San Juan, Porto Rico-The Elusive Spanish Fleet-Bottled-up in
Santiago Harbor- Lieutenant Hobson's Daring Exploit-Second Bombardment of
Santiago and Arrival of the Army-Gallant Work of the Rough Riders and the
Regulars-Battles of San Juan and El Caney-Destruction of Cervera's Fleet-
General Shafter Reinforced in Front of Santiago-Surrender of the City-General
Miles in Porto Rico-An Easy Conquest-Conquest of the Philippines-Peace Nego-
Uations and Signing of the Protocol-Its Terms-Members of the National Peace
Commission-Return of the Troops from Cuba and Porto Rico-The Peace Com-
Zir "' ^'"'-^^°"'^"'^°" °f ''^ Work-Terms of the Treaty-Ratified by the
406
CHAPTER XXXV
The Dominion of Canada
^"^^ cIIIaT%^Z'"''T ."' ^^"^d^-C-ada's Early History-Upper and Lower
Ouarrel~F T'^ ^8— John Strachan and the Family Compact-A Religious
Quarrel-French Supremacy in Lower Canada-The Revolt of i837-Mackenzie>s
fl ""tv,^7'i.°^';°P"^''°"'"'^ Industry-Organization of the Dominion of
Canada-The R.el Rcvolts-The Canadian Pacific Railway-The Fishery Difficulties
-The Fur-seal Question-The Gold of the Klondike-A Boundary Question-
An International Commission-The Questions at Issue-The Failure of the Com-
mi^ion-Commerce of Canada with the United States-Railway Progress in Canada
-Manufacturing Enterprise-Yield of Precious Metals-Extent and Resourres of th.
Dominion— 1 he character of the Canadian Population ' . '.
5 — Indian
ider It—'
:i^ducation
Mature of
issity and
■■AG!
460
ng Japan
1 Mobile
Litionized
ih Anier-
arsarge" 48?
t Manila
f Life—
;d-up in
ment of
and the
Fleet-
General
e Nego-
1 Peace
e Com-
by the
406
Lower
iligious
enzie's
lion of
iculties
ition —
Com-
;!anada
of the
509
L/ST OF CHAPTERS AND SUBJECTS
CHAPTER XXXVI
Livingstone, Stanley, Peary, Nansen and other Great Discoverers and
Explorers
13
rAoa
Ignorance of the Earth's Surface at the IJeginning of the Century-Notable Fields of
N.neteenth Century Travel-Famous African Travclers-Dr. Livingstone's Mi son
ary Labors-D.scovery of Lake Ngami-Livingstone's Journey from the Zambesi to
he We.t Coast-^I' e Great Victoria Falls-First Crossing of the Continent- living
tone d,scovers Lake Nyassa-Stanley in Search of Livingstone-Other aS
Iravelers-Stanleys Journeys-Stanley Rescues Emin Pasha-The Explora i o
he Arctic Zone-The Greely Party-The Fatal " Jeanette " Expeditioi-F " di
.onsof Professor Nordenskj6,d-Peary Crosses No'rth Greenland-^ n en and h ;
Enterprise— Andrdes Fatal Balloon Venture
523
CHAPTER XXXVII
Robert Fulton, George Stephenson, and the Triumphs of Invention
Anglo-Saxon Activity in Invention-James Watt and the Steam Engine-Labor Savins
Machinery of the Eighteenth Century-The Steamboat and the Locl.otive- Th^F irst
soT" r; t' "'' '" Hudson-Development of Ocean Steamers-George Stenl n
-GiVRtiitra^tr""'':? "^^^ ^^^-^^^^^ ,, i ttr,
tzreat Railroad Bridges- 1 he Electric Steel Railway-The Bicycle and the Anfn
mobile-Marvels in Iron and Woodworking-Progress' in Illumina n and H ll"
-Houoand he Sewing Machine-Vulcanization of Rubber-Morse and the Tee
graph-The Inventions of Edison-Marconi and Wireless Telegraphy-Inrease of
\vorking Power of the FTrm^r tk^ a • t, ° ^ ■^ increase 01
ofthe United States "^"""-"'^ ^'"^"-» ^-P"^ -d Mowers-Commerce
535
CHAPTER XXXVIII
The Evolution in Industry and the Revolt Against Capital
Medieval Industry-Cause of Revolution in the Labor System-Present Aspect of the
^^r,^:T:^^^^:'''l r"'°"-^^'^ ^"^^-"'^-^^ Workingmen.s AsLlti n-
in LoC'ef Co on 7 t'"^^ ''"'' Sharing-Experiments and Theories
Secukr Tr r' ;'' Assocations-The Theories of Socialism and Anarchism
S^da^^t Pa?v™T' n' ^''P-^-^^-Development of Socialism-Growth of t"
bociahst Party-The Development of the Trust-An Industrial Revolution
CHAPTER XXXIX
Charles Darwin and the Development of Science
Scientific Activity of the Nineteenth Century-Wallace's "Wonderful Centurv" IT..
f«l and Scientific Steps of Progress-Foster's View« of P.^nt Prtre D ~
I'lmir h'7''^ Spectroscope-The Advance of Chln^^yl^ttTn^r^r
nomena-Heat as a Mode of Motion-Applications of Electricity Jhe Prt;!:
554
TAOi
'* ^''''''^ ^^- ^^APIERS AND SUBJECTS
Magnetism-Progress in Geology-The Nehnlor ^ ^,
^al S..ences-ni.scovories in PhUogy-P^^^^^^^^^^^^ Hypotheses-Bio.og-
the Comma BaciUus-The Science of Hygiene-Dar "n ^''^^"^^"'-'^-Koch and
nygiene— Darwm and Natural Selection ... 569
CHAFFER XL
Llferoture and Art in the Nineteenth Century
Literary Giants o\ For-^ci Times— Th*. <5m„^- r ,
Present- Kar, AmericanTvr J^VhrP,:;^ ;/^;;^;^ ^ '" '^^ ^-^ -cl the
ists-American Historians and Orators-^he Poet. or r" .f^'"-^'""'"'^^" ^-^J"
-d Historians-Other British Wri rs-FrencrNi ^t ^'""-'"'''^^ ^
Poets and Novelists-The Literature If R ru ""^ Historians-CJerman
and Denmark-Writers of talv Oth ^^T^-''^' ^"'^'^^"^ of Sweden, Norway
Development-TheTextlotd^S^^^^^^^^^^ ^--el and 1
and Newspapers ' ^'^'' "'^ ^^^"^^''°"-^Vide-spread use of Books
591
CHAPTER XLI
The Ameriean Church and the Spirit of Human Brotherhood
l,i,ar,ty_An Advanced Spirit of Braevolence 6oj
CHAPTER XLII
The Dawn of the Twentieth Century
TT.« Ce,„„ry. Wonderful Stages-Progres, in Education Th. PH •
Occupation and SulTrage for Women P,., '^;""""™-'h'= Education of Women-
The Peace Conference a. ThrHa"ep '"''°"''''" °''''' Emperor of R„,,i„_
Territorial Progre., of the Nat ons-l'bTMe ?T '" f*"— Po'i'ical Evolntion-
Ne,„paper_Among the D,i,, M„d * M^Lil ."'''* '""^-^ ■>*■"--
Lines of future Activity-Industry in .."^"P""-™""""'' '» Progress-Probable
and the Cash Box-The New ClZgy " * '='="'-''-The King, .he Pries.
61J
^r
!es — Riolog-
-Koch and
:tion . .
569
St and the
can Novel-
1 Novelists
— German
1, Norway
-1 and its
3 of Books
591
006
'Vmerican
fissionary
r^abor in
;iitions —
evolence 60^
omen— .
lussia — .
ution —
lephone
robable
e Priest
61,
LIST OF FULL-PAGE ILLUSTRATIONS
Progress of the Nineteenth Century
«^)uke of Chartres at the Battle of Jemappes /^^-.^/^AW.
Battle of Chateau-(;ontier . . 2,
,, Death of Marat ^^
Last Victims of the Reign of Terror ..'31
Mane Antoinette Led to Execution 3a
The Battle of Rivoli ^^
Napoleon Crossing the Alps ' .' .' 38
Napoleon and the Mummy of Pharaoh 47
Napoleon Bonaparte ... g
The Meeting of Two Sovereigns .' .' .' 53
The Death of Admiral Nelson 54
Murat at the Battle of Jena ...".'. 59
The Battle of Kylau ...
The Battle of Friedland 6^
The Order to Charge at Friedland .' .' 70
Napoleon and the Queen of Prussia at' Tilsit.' 79
Marshal Ney Retreating from Russia 80
General Blucher's Fall at Ligny 89
he Battle of Dresden, August .6 a'ndaVxSxJ 90
amous English Novelists ....
"he Eve of Waterloo
etr:;rT"'°r""^ *="""'•■>' -■''™- ' "
etreat of Napoleon from Waterloo 100
he Remnant of an Army jo^
"strious Leaders of England "s Na;y'and A;my • ' • no
-es Watt, the Father of the Steam Engine ' ^9
reat Enghsh Historians and Prose Writers ' 120
Famous Popes of the Century ,2.
Great English Statesmen (Plate I) ' .' ' ,,0
ritain's Sovorf-Jw-i ^.^ i tt ■
M9
»« ^^ST OF FULL-PAGE ILLUSTRATIONS
Great Knglish Statesmen (Plate II) '*"'
Potentxites of the l-last
• 159
Landing in tiic Crimea and the Battle of Alma /■
•••••••• ••••••I,, 1 00
The Congress a\ Herli Jufx^ • ' 1878
' ,1. • / i5(^
Ihe Woiinding of (ieoeiM T >8«juet
The Battle of <'Mft»nv>v , v . ,
^^f^ ' • . . , ly^
Noble Sons of **Mtond and Hungary jg
Noted I-rrwh Authors ...
189
Napole<*;) I IT. at ihr Battle of Solferino
,, , • 190
Ureat Italmn Patriots
The Zouaves Ch.Tj^iiHj ''\« Barricades at Mentana
Noted German Emperors . ,
„ , 209
Kenowned Sons of Germany .
' 210
1 he Storming of Garsbergschlosschen
219
Crown Prince Frederick at the Battle of Froschwiller
Present Kings of Four Countries .
229
Great Men of Modern P'rance '
• 230
Russia's Royal Family and Her Literary Leader
Four Champions of Ireland's Cause
,. . 258
Hreyfus, His Accusers and D( fenders
The Dreyfus Trial ...
' 282
The Bombardment of Alexandria
,. , 291
;bttlc 'tween England and the Zulus, South Africa
■•■ ZQ2
i'he Bauie of Majuba Hill, South Africa
Two O. ponents in the Transvaal War
302
Typical American Novelists
307
Two Powerful Men of the Orient
308
Pour American Presidents
409
Great American Orators and Statesmen
410
The Battle of Resaca de la Palma
419
Great American Historians and Biographers
Great Men of the Civ 1 War in America
445
The Attack on Fort Donelson .
446
(Jeneral Lee's Invasion of the North
455
The Sinking of the Alabama, etc.
, . 45^
The Surrender of General Lee
465
The Electoral Commission Which Decided Upon Election of President Hayes '466
Prominent American Political Leaders
475
Noted American Journah^ and M.iga?ine Contributors
The U. S. Battleship "C-ep-. "^^
483
. 150
. »59
. 160
. 169
■ I?*
. 179
. 180
. 189
. 190
• 199
300
, 209
. 3IO
319
320
229
230
358
281
283
391
393
301
302
307
308
409
410
419
420
445
446
455
45<»
465
466
475
476
483
L/Sr OF FULL-PAGE ILLUSTRATIONS ,7
In the War- Room at Washington '*""
Leading Conimano'crs of the American Navy. Spanish-American War .' .' , \ . ' * 487
Leading Commanders of the American Army
Prominent Spaniards in 1808
Popular Heroes of the Spanish-Aiuerican War '
The Surrender ')f Santiago
L'nited States Peace Commissioners of the Spanish-American War
ilhistrious Sons of Canada
^, ,, , 521
(.«reat hxplorcrs in the Tropics rnd Arctics
Inventors cf tiie Locomotive and the Electric Telegraph . . ^"
Edison Perfecting the First Phonograph \ ^'^^
The Hero of the Strike, Coal Creek, Tenn * ***''
Arbitration "^
■ , •...,, , cc8
Tllustro,, . Men of Science in the Nineteenth Century
P'steur in His Laboratory ^^^
Great Poets of England ^^^
Great American Poets ^
/, ^ .11 , , . .... coo
Count I olstoi at Literary Work ....
New Congressional Library at Washington, D. C ^
Famous Cardinals of the Century ^^
Noted Preachers and Writers of Religious Classics ^\
Greater New York
Delegates to the Universal Peace Conference at The Hague, 1899 .' . ..... To
Key to above ^
631
n
I)
J)
I)
])i
i)<
J)(
i)i
i)i
I)r
Do
Dri
ALPHABETICAL LIST OF PORTRAITS
Abbott, Lyman . . .'
Adams, John Qiiincy "^^^
Agassiz, Louis 409
Agtiinaldo, JMnilio '^75
Albert Kdward, (Prince of Wales) " " ' ?°^
Austin, Alfred ^ ' ' ' '4°
589
Balfour, A. J
Jiancroft, (;eorge '. '^o
Barrie, James M. ^20
Heecher, Henry Ward '49
Hesant, Walter 4io
liismarck, Karl Otto Von ''^^
I51ack, William ... ^lo
Blaine, fames (i. '49
Blanco, Ramon 475
Bright, John . . . . ' 497
Browning, Robert '^^
Bryan, William Jenninfis ^^^
Bryant, William Cullen 475
Bryce, James 59©
150
Caine, T. Hall .
Carlyle, Thomas . ." '49
Cervera, (Admiral) .' ] '^9
Chamberlain, Joseph """
Christian IX., (King (,f i^enmark)' '
Clay, Henry ^ '
Cleveland, drover
Cooi)er, James Fenimore
numas, Alexander
I>iiMaurier, (ieorge
I'^gglcston, Edward
Kmerson, Ral],h Waldo' ' ' ' *
Ksterhazy, Count Ferdinand W*
Lverett, Kdward
I'arrar,
Francis
Froude, Richard H
l^Vye, AVilliam P.
r, Frederick W., (Canori)
:'sJoseph,(Kmi,eror of Austria)
Gambetta, Leon
Caribaldi, Guisepjie *
CJibbon, Kdward
(Gladstone, William Kwart
('ough, John B. .
Grady, Henry W. ] ' *
Grant, Uly.sses S.
(iray, George
Greeley, Horace . * ' '
PAon
, 189
149
307
590
281
410
616
229
129
502
230
199
129
139
410
410
445
502
476
497
302
229
410
475
307
Dana, Charles A.
Darwin, Charles 476
Davis, Ciishman K 575
Davis, Richard Hardinir 502
Davitt, Michael 47^
M.
Day, William R
Del.esseps, Ferdinand
Depew, Chauntx-y
J)owcy, (Joorge
Dickens, Char
Disraeli
Dreyfus
l>oyle, A. C
les .
Ik'njamin
(Captain),
Alfred
Dn
onan
258
502
230
410
487
95
139
281
Hale, ]':dward Kverett
Halstead, Murat
Hawthorne, Nathaniel *
Hawthorne, Jidian
Healy, T. M. ...'"'
Henry, Patrick ...'**'
Henry, Lieutenant-Colonel "
He. .son, Richmond I>earson
Holmes, Oliver Wendell
Howclls, William Dean
Hugo, Victor
Hi.mi.ert, (Ring of Italy)
[•■■nboldt, !-•. H. Alexander^
Huxley, 'i'homas H.
von
Jack.son, Andrew .
Jefferson, 'I'homas
mmond, Henry '49
I^ipling. Rudvard
Kosciusko, Thaddeus
Kossuth, Louis .
616 I Kruger, Paul
• 307
• 47('
• 307
■ 476
• 25s
• 410
. 281
498
590
367
189
22y
575
575
409
409
149
r8o
180
302
(«9)
;Ji
20
ALPHABETICAL LIST OF PORTRAITS
,\\
Labori, Maitre 281
Laurier, Sir Wilfrid 521
Lee, Robert E ^45
Lee, Fitzhugh .'!.'! 488
Leo XIIL, (Pope) 130
Li Hung Chang 308
Lincoln, Abraham 44c
Livingstone, David 522
Longfellow, Henry W ^go
Loiibet (President of France) .... 230
Lowell, James Russell . '. ^go
Lytton, (Lord) Bulwer , \ g^
McCarthy, Justin j^o
Macaulay, Thomas B \ 120
MacDonald, Sir John A 521
MacDonald, George ... 140
McKinley, William • • " • 475
McMaster, John B 43©
Manning, Henry Edward (Cardinal; . . 615
Mercier, (General of French Army) . . 281
Merritt, Wesley ^88
Miles, Nelson A 488
Moltke, H. Karl B. von 210
Morley, John \ [ [ j^q
Morse, Samuel F. B. . c,q
Motley, John I .' ." .' ." .' ^^^
Nansen, (Dr.) Frithiof 522
Napoleon Bonaparte r.
Nelson, (Lord) Horatio
Newman, John Henry (Cardinal) . . ]
Nicholas H. and Family, (Czar of Russia)
119
615
257
O'Brien, William
258
Oscar n., (King of Sweden and Norway) 220
Otis, Elwell S .498
Parnell, Charles Stewart 258
Parton, James ] 420
''asteur, Louis, in his Laboratory . . . 576
Peary, Lieutenant R. E. . 1522
Phillips, Wendell ." ' " " 410
Pitt, William, (Earl of Chatham) . [ [ i-,q
Pius IX., (Pope) ,ll
P'escott. William H.
420
Reid, Whitelaw 475
Rios, Montero '.'.'. 497
Roosevelt, Theodore .....*!.'! 498
Ruskin, John [ ] J29
Sagasta, Praxedes Mateo 407
Sampson, Wilham T .' .' 487
Schley, Winfield Scott ....'*' 487
Scott, Sir Walter .... " ' qc
Shafter, William R ! .' .' 488
Shah of Persia jcq
Shaw, Albert W ! ! ! ! ! 476
Shelley, Percy B . . . . 589
Sherman, William T 44c
Spurgeon, Charles H ! .' ! 616
Stanley, Henry M C22
Stephenson, George c,g
Stevenson, Robert Louis .... 140
Sultan of Turkey . . . 159
Taylor, Zachary .^^
Tennyson, Alfred ^39
Thackeray, William Makepeace .... 95
Thiers, Louis Adolphe 2'zo
Thompson, Hon. J. S. D ' 1521
Tolstoi, Count Lyof Nikolaievitch . . . 603
Trollope, Anthony gc
Tiipper, Sir Charles -21
Victor Emmanuel (King of Italy)
Victoria (Queen of England) . .
199
140
Wallace, General Lew ........ •J07
Watson, John (Ian Maclaren) .* .* * ' 616
Watson, John Crittenden . .87
Watt, James ! ." ! . 120
Watterson, Henry W .75
Webster, Daniel .".'.". 410
WeUington, Arthur Wellesley, (Duice) . ng
Wheeler, Joseph .^^
Whittier, John G ego
Wilham L, Emperor of Germany . . ." 209
William IL, Emperor of Germany . . 209
Wordsworth, William 589
1 f
476
497
498
129
497
487
487
95
488
I50
476
589
445
6i6
522
539
149
159
409
589
95
230
521
603
95
521
199
140
307
616
487
120
476
410
119
498
590
209
209
589
BATTLE OF CHATEAU-GONTIER (Rcign of Terrob, 1792)
INTRODUCTION.
IT is the story of a hundred years that we propose to give ; the record
of the noblest and most m?'-velous century in the annals of mankind.
Standing here, at the dawn of the Twentieth Century, as at the summit
of a lofty peak of time, we may gaze far backward over the road we have
traversed, losing sight of its minor incidents, but s =eing its great events loom
up in startling prominence before our eyes ; heedless of its thronging mil-
lions, but proud of those mighty men who have made the history of the
age and rise like giants above the common throng. History is made up
of the deeds of great men and the movements of grand events, and there is
no better or clearer way to tell the marvelous story of the Nineteenth Cen-
tury than to put upon record the deeds of its heroes and to describe the
events and achievements in which reside the true history of the age.
First of all, in this review, it is important to show in what the great-
ness of the century consists, to contrast its beginning and its ending,
and point out the stages of the magnificent progress it has made. It is one
thing to declare that the Nineteenth has been the greatest and most glorious
of the centuries ; it is another and more arduous task to trace the develop-
ment of this greatness and the culmination of this career of glory. This it
is that we shall endeavor to do in the pages of this work. All of us have
lived in the century here described, many of us through a great part of it,
some of us, possibly, through the whole of it. It is in the fullest sense our
own century, one of which we have a just right to feel proud, and in whose
career all of us must take a deep and vital interest.
Before entering upon the history of the age it is well to
take a bird's-eye view of it, and briefly present its claims to "^gye'view
greatness. They are many and mighty, and can only be glanced
at in these introductory pages ; it would need volumes to show them in full.
They cover every field of human effort. They have to do with political
development, the relations of capital and labor, invention, science, literature,
production, commerce, and a dozen other life interests, all of which will be
considered in this work. The greatness of the world's progress can be
most clearly shown by pointing out the state of affairs in the several
2^
H
INTRODUCTION
V\
branches of human effort af fK,.
placing them in sharp contrast Th!rit"? '"'' ''°"'"S "' "'^ «"'-/ and
fory sketch. ^ *'""'• ^l^'^ " '^ P^POsed to do in this introduc
• different tmtC-: Tr^^. 'f^ ^^ f ^""^ *°^'^ "^ -"'-'<^bly
as a rule, were slaves-in fact i n^; ^ °' "'""' '"'"' '^^"'^ ; Peoples
of the Middle Ages had beer,; a m aTur^r; ""^ f °""^ ^---n'
Tyr«„„y,„d still immense power and hpf,. ''^''^<=; b"' the throne had
)PPr«.,„„,„ the people were crusheH '^■1'"'=™.""= ^'ngs and the nobles
itfjfr- nether .'iiiston:. Tytly'tpf::: ''rr ''^ -pp^--^
rampant ; poverty was the/ '^ , "'^ ' "PP'-ession was
to the rich ; law was merciless Zi h T" '°' ' '°"''°" "as confined
and cruel ; the broad senttem'of '::" fe";: '"^^""--^ "as swfft
develop ; the sun of civilization shone onlvon'^ ''"'' '"'' ''<=g™ '»
bad two ^™;,^:er*sXiti;a':/::f ,^t.^"^' ^^'^^^ ^-o-
the West the republic of the Ui 'a Sta.« ^""^^/«h"'ands, and in
The so-called republic of France was vltualv^'th t '". ''== '^^"^ y^""".
the autocratic First Consul and Th!! '""^"Z ,"'<= ^mgdom of Napoleon
were the slaves of his imper '^ w 11 cIv """ "f '"""^^"^ ^'--l^ere
autocratic and arbitrary. In Lea , R ^ T'"' ''''"°^' ^^'^'-J'where was
the king, will could stiil s a^de Lw an7', t' '™"' °' "^^ ""'--'>ies
parhament represented only a tithe of th 'T^ '" "'"y '"^'""ces and
suffrage unknown, but som'e of the grlate'srcV ' M°"'^ "^^ ""'•—•
voice m making the laws. *^ '"' """' °' 'h^ kingdom had no
Qovernmentand In IQOO a r^^nfi,^., i ^
r,tr '"'He poi-ti.! rr Tr'rZrrthru'f;."'^"
-e system o^g^ovrm"e:;Tad%S '■:t\r " 1 «"'"^" ^ ^^^^
Amenca. Every independent nation of^ w *'°'' «^'''^=" ""''nent of.
and Canada still a British colony ts a '^ hT"' ''f '^™"'^ => -P""-
the name. In Europe, Franc7wradd:d".o"tr r "°1 ^^">'"''"g •=«
republics, and throughout that condnent et '°/.''"J'" °f fi™ly-founded
power of the „,onarchs had decl ned th,' TT '" ^T'" '"^ '^"^'^'^y- the
.800, the kings almost everywhere setmedfi7'°P''^^ "''™"^'=''- '"
In .900, the thrones everywhere werert'' T""^ ™ "^«'^ thrones,
.nstitution of kingship Jas rembl fg te'tt" ■ '" *'"'^ ""^^-S'-"
popular will. "°""S o^^^^ the nsmg earthquake of the
The in,.uence of the people in the government had made a marvelous ■
INTRODUCTION
advance. The riVht of <;iiffrQrr^ i
universal in „,ost!f .l,e c 3/T ^ T"''^^ '" '^°°' ^^^ ''«"■"«
tlle American cent Lent eve v if" •'" '\' '^'"^^'^ ^"'i' Througl,out
same was the case in mosroTr LrE:" of J "'"'' °' r""«' '^'^^
which a century before had been TpM a ^ ' ''™" '" '="-°'f J-''P^"-
less tvrann,, u ■ '"^''' "''''='' ^ seemnglv heln. , „
less tyranny. Human slavery, which hpW ^=,„,- •,• «""">«« «"<i
upon millions of men and wnL„ <, . , P'"^'' """'°"' """■«"
the realms of civilization in ^rT '■ ''"'' '"""''"'^ f™" '"■"''°"'
banish it from ever; re Jo o X Tarth "i°™"?, f °" ™^ '^^'"^ ^"^ '»
retrospect, the ri<,hts of man T,A J *'" ''^ '^'=" f™'" *is hasty
centur^fargreate^lnin™ ytLrcttuVoTh"''' V^''"^^ '""'"^ '"'
In the fppi;n,r ^f k v "^ner century of human history.
benevlnce, 4 Trowth o7:"tr^i r''"=; '''^. ='="'™™' «' '^-P-^V -^
an equal progress At the belni"' , T °' '"""'''"''• ""^^^ ^ad been
severe, punishment fri'htfuIWruer S n' T'''' '='" "^^ ^'^^"' J^''-
bution. Men were hun7fr, » ^ °'^'"'^^" ""<=' "'"' ^«vere retri-
punishment. T^lt"^ht\t t;oTHrse*;^y";:„- t'e^ ""'^ ^ "■^^'
L\rHu°„;rw:inT;:trentht '"d '° '^^"^°" — -
murder. Thfn they were hZ for fift "'"°"'' ""'^ ^"^ ?'""'"•'"
as to seem oettv A f ,k ^ ,? ^ "'""=^> ^°""= 5° flight "<'°
• chiidr:: ex'::;T;t''p urattr"^^ "^^^■^'-"■^ ---g
death on the scaffold ^ '""■ °' '"P^-nn-ent, or, possibly, of
And imprisonment then was a H;ff^r«nf ^ff • / ,
prisons of that day were often horrrwT '"■ ''■°" ^'"" " '^ """-^ The
vermin, their bes[ rooms unfit foTh^ ' "°/°'"'' '*'"'>'■ ^^'^-gwith
a hell upon earth. Th s not on Iv n h f '"'^"''•=' "'^''^ "°^" ''""geons
enlightened England, New't" P ri"o , In f' ',"."' "^"°"^' ''"' ^-" '"
iniquity, its inmates give^^er ,0 th^.'^'l" ■?''""'"''• *"'"''"'' °'
forced to pay a high price for the least ""' '"^^°' ™"'''=^^ g^°'«'=.
brute cattle^f des'titu^e of m ney a d ri^f ^l^'dlh'""^' *°^^^ "^="'
felons who had broken some of ,h. ,^ "'"^ "^'''^ "°' ^'""e
guilt was not yet proved Ind not d ht "^ 7'""""' '^"^' '^'" "en whose
fortune. And all'thilin England wth t" b" " T'J '"""^ "^^ '"^'^ "-■
people were not ignorant of d^ec-dl T\ "^ '''^^ '=i"'i^ation. The
appealed to a doz e'n tin"es L tmedv °\ **= ??" "= ^ Parliament was
years passed before it could b: indu:ed' to act"""" "' "^ '""'' ■ >'^' "-^
Compare this state of criminal l„„inH ■„.:-... , ,
the present day. Then crnel r,„„r'i; '"""" "'=''='P""e with that of
no. the lightest puts,ii-::iibt :■ ^: ihf ::,ii:-[' -- • .
26
INTRODUCTION
mumty are the rule. The sentiment of human compassion has become strong
and compellmg; ,t ,s felt in the courts as well as among the peon" S
opm,o„ has grown powerful, and a punishn.ent to-da/too severe fo'r the
Prison., and crime would be visited with universal condemnation Tl,„
TnTor-' '''T'^' °< '<='<>- '- b-n remarkably ameZatd! ^h
niodern prison is a palace as compared with that of a centnrv
ago The terrible jail fever which swept through the old-time prison. lileT
tamped out. he idea of sanitation has made its way into the cell and
he dungeon, cleanliness is enforced, the frightful crowdh!, of thl t
:LZ '" "° "'^"''°" '''' '"^ ^^'^ -"^ => g--- and mot'radical
recently begun. The independent hand and home work of the eMi^r cen
The Factory '■"""'' '™'' being replaced by power and machine work The
System and the steam-engine and the laborisavini; machine whil^ K.;„„-
Oppression of blessings to mnnkinrl 1„ 1 K i "'"^"'"''' *""<= bringing
the Working. ""='='""§'* '° mankind, had brought curses also. Workmen
were crowded into factories and mines, and were poorly
paid, ,11-treated, ill-housed, over-worked. Innocent little chil
o'presrve kind. "' '""'" '''' ""' "' ^^'^'"= ^'-^^ °< '^e m'osi
To-day this state of affairs no longer exists, Wages have risen the
hours of labor have decreased, the comfort of the artisan^ has grow ,^vhat
Youn. chtlH ''°"' ''" "^^' '^^^^ "°^" ''«°-« necessfrielof ife
Young children are not permitted to work, and older ones not hevnn^fk •'
nrSLrllf t .'"«-"- which have brought ThL^rutrtt:
nere concerned. Their consideration must be left to a later chaoter It ,•=
enough here to state the important development that has tlken pC
Perhaps the greatest triumph of the nineteenth century has been'in the
domain of invention. For ages past men have been aid „g the work of
their hands with the work of their brains. But the progress of .-nvendon
continued slow and halting, and many tools centuries old were ncommo"
use until the nineteenth century dawned. The steam-engine came eX
and It IS this which has stimulated all the rest. A power^as Ten to man
enormously greater than that of his hands, and he Tt once beSn to devise
means of applying ,t. Several of the important machines used" manuflc!
invent.. ......c louu, out it was after that year that the great era
f
le most
INTRODUCTION
of invention began, and words are hardly strong enough to express the
marvelous progress which has since taken place ^
To attempt to name all the inventions of the nineteenth .
century would be like writing a dictionary. Those of great ' Wo'nrrlu,
importance m.ght be named by the hundreds; those which ^^^^^
nave proved epoch-makinP" bv the do7pn« T^ ., r
well named thp imn K«. u ^""^'^'^^"'' ^"^ SWltt locomotive, Horse and the
the earX hauijr '7 '? °"^'''^' ^°""^ ^""^ ^^e ends of ^a"
tne earth, haulmg men and goods to right and jpft w,>K . j
to take the place of the horse carr aT' The steZnl T'""^" T '°™'"^
horse plough. The time seems app^chlg : eT f tZ "fj "'"^ ''^
be seen ,„ our streets, and may he'^elegatef to le lodogTa 't^T "
fact. Vtn r;^"t: :::T, t^ f f P-nt is mie like^mS;: than
could run or the shlo co.nH . r M ''^ "'^"^Po"^'' faster than the horse
through ,n!'» t'c "^han ■ " " ""''' °' '"^ "^^^ b= carried
^- -^. — la^.ex tiian one can breathe. By the aid nf ^K.a - i i
-n can speak to his friend a thousand miles Utrt^ ;lt::PjZ:
28
INTRODUCTION
fools, but now .hey seem like everyday news " """""'"" "' '"^^"^
These are by no means all the marvels of the cent„rv A, •, k ■
nmjj the constitution of the atmosphere h»H '""= """"^y- A .ts begm-
In the preceding period it was merellr '""""y '"^^vered.
I-o-day'we can c'ar'ry this 1: ablt ^ cklu h^: 7"",""^ ^'" "'"=" '"■
it into a solid like ice I„ :,. f'^kets like so much water, or freeze
power to move si; :• .nd : nSs" Tl\'V°"' ''^'=" "-" ^' ""=
become a leading source of Dower'nt ■ ^""^ ""'''' 't may also soon
power of the century before ' '" ' '"'''"' '"^^''^^ ^'"•'™' "'^ i^^'
of tha"t If "hf ninttn'ti^ cttv^' W "^ '"^'"'"" ■^'='"'' '^ '" ="^™"«
with the electric lighr'tl"" L' oriolV^witr^thar T^ ''"'''
ed„c,i„„, ,«.. ago, the methods and the extensir of H " 'T"^
have goneon^lrrrst'!:.^ ""rl""'""™ -''-- °' '^^ "^'^
enormous, and the product, o' eold [„'': P™?^«^ '" """'-"S has been
surpasses that of all prev"ou me ^p'' '" ">" "meteenth century perhaps
increased, and comm'eTe ^w e;;ends toTh t '" ''"'^ "" ™"""'"='y
bearing the productions of all cl", t t°h tnTrrUeS"^ T "' ^"'''
^upplymg distant and savage tribes with theTrl^I^'of tetm"::^::^
ninett::?h^:nt:^::Xtfwrt^re.rste^ ^' ^^-.^ - '■-
:x^o:x;:etn^::ir '?/--«"
of this century asrcLrious Ni:::i„:hr™'^^"' "" ''' '"^^ '^^^'^ ^^^"^
sired, a thoiis-
ir forefathers
cers or insane
At its begin-
^ discovered.
,'^as called air.
ter, or freeze.
used as the
ay also soon
im, the great
ir in advance
How candle
a century
on and the
. Discovery
)f the V orld
ig has been
ury perhaps
enormousiy
f the earth,
ization, and
om and the
end of the
ming. No
h has been
"airly speak
:iAPTER I.
19
C
a
o
a
a
hJ
H
h.
a
X
li.
o
(0
&
The Threshold of the Century.
AFTER its long career o^ triumph and disaster, glory and shame, the
WO! id stands to-day at the end of an old and the beginning of anew
century, looking forward with hope and backward with pride, for it
has just completed the most wonderful hundred years it has ever known,
and has laid a noble foundation for the twentieth centur-, now tx its
dawn. There can be no more fitting time than this to review tlie marvelous
progress of the closing century, through a portion of which ^he a
all of us have lived, many of us through a great portion of inanJuT ''*
It. Some of the greatest of ! -s events have taken place before ^'^^ ^^""t*
our own eyes ; in some of them many now living have borne a part ; to
picture them again to our mental vision cannot fail to be of interest knd
profit to us all.
When, after a weary climb, we find ourselves on the summit of a lofty
mountam, and look back from that commanding altitude over the ground
we have traversed, what is it that we behold ? The minor details of the
scenery, many of which seemed large and important to us as we passed, are
now lost to view, and we see only the great and imposing features of the
landscape, the high elevations, the town-studded valleys, the deep and
wmdmg streams, the broad forests. It is the same when, from f he summit
of an age, we gaze backward over the plain of time. The myriad of petty
happenmgs are lost to sight, and we see only the striking events, the critical
epochs, the mighty crises through which the world has passed, r h, .
These are the things that make true history, not the daily ZTtZ^
domgs m the kmg's palace or the peasant's hut. What we ^•"'^'^ ^""^^ '*
should seek to observe and store up in our memories are the turning points
m human events, the great thoughts which have ripened into noble deeds
the harids of might which have pushed the world forward in its career ; not
the trifimg occurrences which signify nothing, the passing actions which
have borne no fruit in human affairs. It is with such turning points, such
critical periods in the history of the nineteenth century, that this work pro-
lT"Z\nt t^t \^T '° ^"^l"'^'' '^^ passing bubbles on the stream of time, but
^„*. „i which have sailed un that stream lade
*ir.Jii|i
up
leep
(3A)
34
i i
m
THL THRESHOLD Of THE CENTURY
with a noble freip-ht Thf«; ;= f,,v«.„ • .
have set our camera to pt o 'a h oI"f, ''"' \"'' '^^' ^^P^"^' ^^^ -
events which constitute his true hL.^^ fl "'" '"''" '^'•''"^ ""<^« ^"^ 'he
On the threshold of the ce„turv Ih *.\"'"<^'r"'' <=^"'"y-
events stand forth ■ two of ^h ^ w'th wh.ch we have to deal two grand
moM the wor,; 'lidisCre r^rr.:!,":::;'^-' '=™"'"".^^'''-^''
T»o„;.. states, .n^r:h:,e' Tiit/of t,; ;:r,:' °^ "^^ '^-''^'^
World's Great- that surname tJn^.^ • • ^ ^^°'^''^' ''^^^''e are no events
. --"'^ "I- -:r f ncirtirrer'i; tt "^^ ™-^^ ^"'^ ^= ^-'^
>ng to build. The French Revoh Z, T ^ , *; '"■""'"■= "<= "^ ^eel<-
nearly a quarter century aftfg^lThfA'" '" p"""'^ °' '^""P"-' '-
hL^toryof An,erica for a' still lo '" perT'd andl""" h"'"'"'°" ^"'•'P^'' "'^
history of the world. It is imDorf„ft rh f ? besj.nn.ng to slrape the
events sufficiently to slow " e 'ar . ^ ' '"' "' ''*'" °" "'°^^ '""
age. Here, however, we .ha IconfiL o'' ' P''^^'" '" "'" '"^'-y "f '''«
France. That in Am rica ,n L b ft™;. a""°" '° '"^ ''"™'"''™ '"
The Media=val Age was he aVe oV f1 dl'"'™?" ''"'°" °' °"^ ™-k.
of government based on n..it::;::g:Lr*^:otti;i;t;;::r ^^^^^^^^
^""^ people its rank ^Td fit As 7 H <;°™"«" J-m-cWef, the
were hardly considered at all. They were hthe f "' '^'°""' "^'=>'
of water for the armed and fi^^htl cL a h 7 """'^ '"^ '''''''"'
multitude, destitute of rights and Drfviletj H ' i°*"-"-odden, enslaved
to provide food for and ply tals o tif ""'^ '"'^''°" '" "'^ ^^d
starve in the midst of the ^:U7^:;^^:':^;^:::^/'- "'"'■-^ -
count':;r;htirh:7ti;:rot^:ta^-^i!rr '■" r ^■■^'''-- *^
of the nineteenth century withlt, el ef f m i ":;L ™ '° '"^^ ^"^^^^
see before us in that country the spectacle of. , '^^^"'o"'^- We
crushed by tyranny, robbed of all p'ol ical rLtrTd ""'7''^ '" ""'''"y^
make their sufferings known • and of an 1 / " , ''""'°"' => ™'<^<= 'o
vain, insolent, lavish with the peolle's mrer'hT'"' '" '-"V^ P-"d,
blood, and blind to the spectre of':et':!buti tL" rhi:^'' "■" T"'"'^''
before their eyes, ^^ nigher year by year •
prev°,:r^Ti: rbiirrnd^r "tir :^^" '\' ^"•^'""" '--i-'- '-at
wealth Of the community, we. relieved tf J^X'- :^role"^tlt
'M
THE THRESHOLD OF THE CENTURY 35
which fell upon the mercantile and laboring classes — an unfair exaction that
threatened to crush industry out of existence. And to picture the condition
of the peasantry, the tyranny of the feudal customs, it will serve to repeat
the oft-told tale of the peasants who, after their day's hard labor in the
fields, were forced to beat the ponds all night long in order to silence the
croaking of the frogs that disturbed some noble lady's slumbers. Nothincr
need be added to these two instances to show the oppression under which
the people of France lay during the long era of Feudalism.
This era of injustice and oppression reached its climax in ^u ^»
the closmg years of the eighteenth century, and went down at Feudalism in
length in that hideous nightmare of blood and terror known F^a""
as the French Revolution. Frightful as this was, it was unavoidable. The
pride and privilege of the aristocracy had the people by the throat, and only
the sword or the guillotine could loosen their hold. In this terrible instance
the guillotine did the work.
It was the need of money for the spendthrift throne that precipitated
the Revolution. For years the indignation of the people had been growincr
and spreadmg ; for years the authors of the nation had been adding fuel tS
the flame. The voices of Voltaire, Rousseau and a dozen others ifad been
heard m advocacy of the rights of man, and the people were growin<T daily
more restive under their load. But still the lavish waste of money wruno-
from the hunger and sweat of the people went on, until the king and his
advisers found their coffers empty and were without hope of filHng them
without a direct appeal to the nation at large.
It was in 1788 that the fatal step w"as taken. Louis XVI, King of
France, called a session of the States General, the Parliament ^n st t
of the kmgdom, which had not met for more than a hundred GeneraHs
years. 1 his body was composed of three classes, the repre- Convened
sentatives of the nobility, of the church, and of the people. In all earlier
instances they had been docile to the mandate of the throne, and the mon-
arch blind to the signs of the times, had no thought but that this assembly
would vote him the money he asked for, fix by law a system of taxation for
Ills future supply, and dissolve at his command.
He was ignorant of the temper of the people. They had been given a
voice at last, and were sure to take the opportunity to speak their mind.
1 heir representatives, known as the Third Estate, were made up of bold
earne^st, indignant men, who asked for bread and were not to be put off
W! a crust. They were twice as numerous as the representatives of the
nobles and the clergy, and thus held control of the situation. They were
ready to support the throne, but refused to vote a penny until the crying
36
THE THRESHOLD OF THE CENTURY
1 1
I
ill!
S il
I'!
The Fall of
the Bastille
evils of the State were reformed. Thev broke Ioo^p fr...,. .u .1,
E..ates established a separate paHia^en': unt 1^^™" 'the^NaTioTal
Assembly and begun that career of revolution which did not cease un.^H
had brought monarchy to an end in France and set all Europe aflame
had lal ed° in o°"^ ' " '"""""' "'"^ "^^ '="S'"'= °f d-'™«i°n which it
had called mto existence, prevaricated, played fast and loose and with
every false move riveted the fetters of revolution more tightly round its
neck. In July, ,789, the people of Paris took a hand in the game Th v
rose and destroyed the Bastille, that grim and ferrible State
ridTr-^rt ^^eTi^al^ t' rna^h"::;;^-
o;;::ssi:^ a^^tr "-^-^ '-^^^ -- - ^-^ --" - - ^
of th^R'' ""."!'" "' ""=,'^^=="•11'= discord everywhere broke loose the spirit
of the Revolution spread from Paris through all France .„d I. "^
Assembly, now the sole law-making body of ^.he Stltrrepea ed the "°''
sjve laws of which the people compiled, and w h a "ord ove«-ned
abuses many of which were a thousand years old It took from ,T u^
1 he Revolution grew, month by month and day, by day New and
more radical laws were passed ; moss-grown abuses were swep awav in an
hours sitting; the king, who sought to escape, was seized and held as a
hostage; and war was boldly declared against Austria and Prussia wWch
showed a disposition to interfere. In November, :yg., the French arm!
gamed a brilliant victory at Jemmapes, in Belgium wMck eventually led to
he onquest of that kingdom by France. It was the first important eve^
^Wio^usTnThelnTaroV^af '" ''' '°'"'"^ ^^ ^ ^ "-«= ^^
"ilL'"',?"'" 1^'^'' hostility of the surrounding nations added to the
a'JZ^l revolutionary fury in France. Armies were marching to he
rescue of the king, and the unfortunate monarch was seized
■rJml ^"Vr"""' '^ **= ■"'"'■ ^"'^ i"carcerated in the prison "lied tt
iZ^va .•..4^™;- r^"^ ^"'°'"«="^' "-^-^'^ °f ''•= Emptor ^
year 1 kirard T "T '"" P'"'" '" "'"= P"^""' '" '^e following
year. .703, king and queen alike were taken to the guillotine and their
le other two
the National
:ease until it
aflame,
tion which it
e, and with
ly round its
ame. They
irrible State
!t of France
nd his min-
ess of their
e, the spirit
:he popular
the oppres-
overturned
the nobles
)le citizens,
iced nearly
ixes, which
later date,
and sought
St.
New and
away in an
held as a
isia, which
;nch army
ally led to
ant event
^e France
ed to the
ig to the
as seized,
called the
iperor of
following
ind their
«i
T'
i !
ri
!
ii
.f
M
H
•o
a
a
SI
w U O
"8
c e o
_ « v^
O =-tS
I; ai-"
> o u o
tt --S *
!■ tJ3 t >v
O 73 g U
'^ -^ (3
J •£ «<;
J? « a
B
o
: -■■=
s.s «
. «
(4 a
■z
>z
eg.
3'2i
«
TiYiS" THRESHOLD OF THE CENTURY 35.
royal heads fell into the fatal basket. The Revolution was consummated
the monarchy was at an end, France had fallen into the hands of the
people, and from them it descended into the hands of a ruthless and blcod-
thirsty mob.
At the head of this mob of revolutionists stood three men, Danton,
Marat, and Robespierre, the triumvirate of the Reign of Terror under
which all safety ceased in France, and all those against
whom the least breath of suspicion arose were crowded into ^^t '^^'*^" °'
prison, from which hosts of them made their way to the ^"*""
dreadful knife of the guillotine. Multitudes of the rich and noble had fled
from France, among them Lafayette, the friend ana aid of Washington in
the American Revolution, and Talleyrand, the acute statesman who was to
play a prominent part in later French history.
Marat, the most savage of the triumvirate, was slain in July, 1701, by
the knife of Char otte Corday, a young woman of pious training who
offered herself as the instrument of God for the removal of this infamous
monsten His death rather added to than stayed the tide of blood, and in April
1794. Danton, who sought to check its flow, fell a victim to his ferocious
associate. But the Reign of Terror was nearing its end. In July the
Assembly awoke from its stupor of fear, Robespierre was denounced, seized
and executed, and the frightful carnival of bloodshed came to an end The
work of the National Assembly had been fully consummated, Feudalism
was at an end, monarchy in France had ceased, and a republic had taken
its place, and a new era for Europe had dawned.
Meanwhile a foreign war was being waged. England had ^. ^ ,
formed a coalition with most of the nations of Europe, and ^^^^rll
France was threatened by land with the troops of Holland Revolution
Prussia, Austria. Spain and Portugal, and by sea with the fleet of Great
Britain. The incompetency of her assailants saved her from destruction.
Her generals who lost battles were sent to prison or to the guillotine, the
whole country rose as one man in defence, and a number of brilliant victor-
les drove her enemies from her borders and gave the armies of France a
position beyond the Rhine. i:^ ranee a
oarte'^arnof'r '"" ^'"'f'l ' ^''"' "^"" '" '^^ ^^°"^' ^^P^^^- B-a-
S n th. f"ir'- '''''':''''''' "'"^^-"^h century career .e shall deal at
ength in the following chapters, but of whose earlier exploits some-
irof^h y:: T? "'^ -^^^^^ ^^-^^^ ^^^^^ ^" ^^94. when, under re
..ders of the National Convention-the successor of th. N.H-nn| a....^u,^
fi^al e'nd to1h'V"°' " I'Vr^^ °^ ^^^'^ ^^'^ loaded'canno; aJ^un
hnal end to the Terror which had so long prevailed
40
THE THRESHOLD OF THE CENTURY
Napoleon In His wars here at an end Nannlp.^M'c. uv- i , ,.
Italy and Ep-vDt \x^'^r.\r.^ K ^"^'/^apoleon s ambition led him to
. Consuls at its head, was Ton d. N.poieo^ asTirft°Corr"J'>7'" .''"^
.0.':.:^: :r-t"t^z/:zr] no.hi„gtoco.pa.e with the
gone through its two revlu; iL^l f^antlrurv befr ^H^'^"" 'f
were the freest of any in Europe. Recentlv !t h7d ? T- '"'' T^""^'"
America, but it still held in tW f '"='^""y '' ^ad lost ,ts colonies in
and was building or itsel a t "■ '^. '"'""^ ''"■^^'■" "' Canada,
in twenty other lands ilc„,n ""'"'■.' '" '"^''"' "'"'^ '"""^"g ^'''""'e
y otner lands, in commerce and manufactures it entered the nine
E...and.s, '<^<=nth century as the greatest nation on the earth "^f;
"."uXan. r„r^ "1 ''"' '°°-" ^^^°"-'«' '™- end to end of 1
c„„™Jce. '^'^"d ""ghty centres of industry arose where cattle had
great ,uantitirf:l:heXtI^freri l^d tT ^^ 'f"^ ^^^
an endless bustle and whirr The shins 5' F iTu''"™"^ '=^'=''>'"''e'-<=
visited the most remote norK t.^ u u ^^'^'"'^ ''™"'ed all seas and
bringing hack rlZatr ^7^' w"fr:: rles^ rd'C; ^ '^-vor.shops and
lated, London became the money marketTf the wirldth f ^ ''/"""■
perity of the island kingdom were growing to bl ?f "' '"'' P™"
nations of the earth. growmg to be a parable among the
On the continent of Europe Prussia whi^i, k„
recently emerged from its medieval ^.W ''^^."°«'g™wn so great, had
hand of F^rederick thrCreaT ^^ ^'=.''^''=""3. mamly under the powerful
ambition, -^.ri:; ^'^i;"^^^^';:^^''^:!' ''''T' ^'""'
Napoleon the Great, who so soon s uc^eded L ,■„ '^"^ predecessor of
Unscrupulous in his aims, this warriok'ghai Torn Si/ ' "f"^ f ™'"-
aA^^A f^ u:„ i-:_. 1 . . "^'"s "^" ^orn bilesia from AnQ^t-n'a
a,.,.. t„ hi. ..uguon, a port.on oi unfortunate Poland, annexed the prkci!
y astonished
le Austrans
city of the
A republic
'um and the
» led him to
i to realize.
e Directors,
I Napoleon,
^ them and
with three
Jing- almost
Eighteenth
e with the
igland had
1 its people
:oIonies in
3f Canada,
g colonies
1 the nine-
rth. The
id of the
:attle had
g torn in
/erywhere
1 seas and
shops and
I accumu-
and pros-
Tiong the
^reat, had
powerful
id whose
cessor of
of war.
Au^l'fJa
T//E THRESHOLL OF THE CENTURY 41
pality of East Friesland, and lifted Prussia into a leading position among
the European states.
Germany, now— with the exception of Austria— a compact ^^e Condition
empire, was then a series of disconnected states, variously of the German
known as kingdoms, principalities, margravates, electorates, ^***®*
and by other titles, the whole forming the so-called Holy Empire, though
it was " neither holy nor an empire." It had drifted down in this fashion
from the Middle Ages, and the work of consolidation had but just begun,
in the conquests of Frederick the Great. A host of petty potentates ruled
the land, whose states, aside from Prussia and Austria, were too weak to
have a voice in the councils of Europe. Joseph II., the titular emperor of
Germany, made an earnest and vigorous effort to combine its elements into
a powerful unit; but he signally failed, and died in 1790, a disappointed
and embittered man.
Austria, then far the most powerful of the German states, was from
X 740 to 1780 under the reign of a woman, Maria Theresa, who struggled
m vam agamst her ambitious neighbor, Frederick the Great, his kingdom
bemg extended ruthlessly at the expense of her imperial dominions.
Austria remamed a great country, however, including Bohemia and Hun-
gary amon its domains. It was lord of Lombardy and Venice in Italy, and
was destined to play an important but unfortunate part in the coming
Napoleonic wars.
The peninsula of Italy, the central seat of the great Roman Empire
was, at the opening of the nineteenth century, as sadly broken up as
Germany, a dozen weak states taking the place of the one strong one that
the good of the people demanded. The independent cities of the medieval
period no onger held sway, and we hear no more of wars between Florence.
Genoa. Milan, Pisa and Rome ; but the country was still made up of minor
states- Lombardy, Venice and Sardinia in the north, Naples
in the south, Rome in the centre, and various smaller king- '"'l^T^Z'''
doms and dukedoms between. The peninsula was a prey to Decay in
turmoil and dissension. Germany and France had made it ^P""
their fighc r.g ground for centuries, Spain had filled the south with her
armies, and the country had been miserably torn and rent by thes-. frequent
wars and those between state and state, and was in a condition to welcome
tne coming of Napoleon, whose strong hand for the time promised the
blessing of peace and union.
^P^'"' "«^ "^any centuries before the greatest nation in Europe, and, as
, "","■""? uauuii on rne giobe, had miserably declined in power and
place at the opening of the nineteenth century. Under the emperor Charles I.
42
THE THRESHOLD OF THE CENTURY
ful m Europe, but with his death its det/se T„ , /r""'"' P°"^'-
■ts growth in civilization, the gold broueht LI T "'°'<=''='"'^« '^''"ked
by more enterprising states, its^trengthtls apnfd^h"" "'' '^'^' ^'^^^
ble monarchs, and from first place it fe 1 ll!! T f '' '"'^'^^^^'°" "f fee-
of Europe. It still held its vast co ontl arl' 1 J 'T ""°"^ "'^ "^"""^
weakness rather than of strength .n^^^ ' ,"' *'"' P''"^'^'' => »"■■« of
a.ed by injustice and oppS', wete'tar t fhe''^ colonies, exasper-
was soon to take place. Spain presented rht J . f ^''""■^' '■^^°'' "^ich
by its innate vices, impoverish bvfffi! fP ,°' ' ^"■'^^ "='''°" "'"^d
-ndustry, and fallen i„to;thedrt:roIafv:^in7dt:ry'''"'' "'^ ''-"^ °^
..pr;;:r„°L^proftt5i:prfi-i---^
J^... Polan, hi., Lodl'a;^.- -:--
lence of the nobHi tv and ^h ""'7 ' °' "'" '^'"S^' "'^ '"^b""
brought that state into such a c '"dit T^'^^^^^^"' °f 'he People had
log amid the powers of Europe ''""^ "'"' '' '^^' '*« a rotten
advan^a^eTf' • ::rnr rrffr \"1^^-'- -'^ ''--^^^^^
Poland that bordered on itrowtro's .T "'"';"'' P°"'°" "'
dom the influence of Russia srrew 1 ! u , '■'^'"amder of the king.
Warsaw became the rea T ef n Pola^nd" A sT ^ ',''"""" =""''^=^--'<^" ^'
■n .79.. Kosciusko, a brave soldier who ht> f "^^ ' '«""'- '^"^''=' t^^gan
America, being at the head o h pat^ts BuTlh' ""'^ ^^^'""8'°" -
fed the hands of the soldiers the P^ ^ , "^^kness of the king
despair, and in the ^::t;Z°tj£'Z f '''''" "f"'' '-<» i"
div.s.on of the state, Russia sLln^, u T "'"^ "'"'<= a further
ooo inhabitants. ^ ^ ^'°^'^ '""'°'y ^i'h more than 3,000,.
In 1794 a new outbreak beiran TI,» „ . • >
struggle took place. But Poland wald ^ T c""""'* ='"'' => ''•^^P^-'ate
the Russian generals, swept the land witf^' Z"™'"""' '"^ «^-"=^' -f
wounded, crying, " Poland' end hfs 'me "an'dw"'''- ''°^"'"^''° '^"
desolated by its assailants Ti, ' ^ Warsaw was taken and
What remained o Poland was dvided"" T "''''' **= '"" ^ad come.
Russia, and only a name remained "" '"='"'^"' ^"^'"^' P™--' and
Russfa'aTd T^rlTy "' uTtil ti'" '°^"' "' u^"""^ °' "'^'^'^ ^ ">-' ^Peak,
main of barb,.;!? ... ","'''7 V="="':"'^«""' century Russia had been I do! t
" " ^"' "■ "■"'" "'"' ''"""'^=<^' ^"d f°^ a long period the vassafof
id two-thirds
nued power-
nce checked
swept away
ssion of fee-
: the nations
a source of
ies, exasper-
-evolt which
ition ruined
decline of
nt part, one
he name of
now stands
the turbu-
people had
ke a rotten
issia — took
portion of
f the king-
issador at
ssia began
liington in
f the king
e land in
a further
an 3,000,.
desperate
eatest of
usko fell
iken and
ad come,
ssia, and
Russia and
Turkey.
THE THRESHOLD OF THE CENTURY 43
the savage Mongol conquerors of Asia. Under Peter the Great (1689-
1725) it rose into power and prominence, took its place among
civilized states, and began that career of conquest and expan-
sion which is still going on. At the end of the eighteenth
century was under the rule of Catharine II., often miscalled Catharine the
Great, who died in 1796, just as Napoleon was beginning his career. Her
greatness lay in the ability of her generals, who defeated Turkey and con-
quered the Crimea, and who added the greater part of Poland to her empire.
Her sf ength of mind and decision of character were not shared by her
successor, Paul I., and Russia entered the nineteenth century under the
weakest sovereign of the Romanoff line.
Turkey, once the terror of Europe, and sending its armies into the heart
of Austria, was now confined within the boundaries it had long before won,
and had begun its long struggle for existence with its powerful neighbor!
Russia.^ At the beginning of the nineteenth century it was still a powerful
state, with a wide domain in Europe, and continued to defy the Christiani
who coveted its territory and sought its overthrow. But the canker-worm o\
a weak and barbarous government was at its heart, while its cruel treatment
of its Christian subjects exasperated the strong powers of Europe and
invited their armed interference.
As regards the world outside of Europe and America, no part of it had
yet entered the circle of modern civilization. Africa was an almost unknown
continent ; Asia was little better known ; and the islands of the Eastern seas
were still in process of discovery. Japan, which was approaching its period
of manumission from barbarism, was still closed to the world, and China lay
like a huge and helpless bulk, fast in the fetters of conservatism and blind
self-sufficiency.
St speak,
!en a do-
/assal of
1 u
CHAPTER II.
Napoleon Bonaparte; The Man of Destiny
' of Eu ope Zjle" the Cor, " ""'T'"' ''""^^ "'-"' ">« centre
affairs of .„ .'„e' na.iot::;^:.'^:^;:,:;:::: :r.Mr "' '"-r ^" "^^
was respected feared hater? • I, i ,^ " around tins jjen.us of war. He
cloud on' a ciek I "r o„ a d tt^ "-"-''' .'''<^ -<l<'enness of a thunder-
eyes of the nation! AlH e ev 1 of .'f "'"'7' ^'"°^^ '" '''^ '^^^^
one great event, and the name of L/ I'«"~' jere concentrated into
incarnate war, ;rgani.e: d^ru t o 'sr; Tl '^^rt" d "^ 'T'
nations, and victorv snf nn Mc k , . ^ "^ dominated the
sense the n,an of Xr^n^td EurpTr^:';:';^"- "« - '" ^ fu„
...:::: 'cLtToXViratr::;- K.:HeonT: -r -r
Man and a bottom. Alexander wnc 1 • ^^''P°'^o" began his at the
-~ '"e Roman '::;tic rKaS;' f^rr ;! f °r^' "1
His e.pioits. ;r tr"o? m-r "' ''' ''t -'■■^•^™-- tH^^:
the highest place among ma k id ! 'l T''^ ''""' "'" ''""' *^ '-«' '°
shuddered a-: his name^r tle^'b r/e^ ^^ 1:7 of T^^^ "^ <=
"'we httie^rep^tot^-ff: 7"°- "^ 'eftrui:i::r d™;:;-
Revolution, in Italy and ""e:!!^"""",^' ''^'^ '"«^^' ^'" ^°'"«s '" 'he
his military genius rk^sed if foTheTa^k ^ f": r " '^."""'^ ™^^'''P "^
effect the power of a kinc. No one d ., S""'"'' ^"'l «"<= '"m in
at his beck' and call, th mation lay p rrte'ri'"", '" ""'' ""^ ••'™^ --
admiration. Such was the state of affv t "~"°' '" '^" •"" i"
the eighteenth century The Revol ,H '" "''"'" '" ""= ''°''"S ^ear of
only as a name ; Napoleo was "e TtrrL'' T r'"' ' '""^ ""^"""'^ ^'''^'«' '
T.ee„e„./ EngrandandTustr;rtr:sr^ '"° ^"T'" '" "'"^ "^l^.
."d Friend, „, the friendship of In,',I Vu "eutral.and he had won
"-'""• move. Wh e ie o L 7""°' f ''"^"^' "^^ ^ ^"^-"^
Russian prisoners thej he Id N-n ■ " ,""' '"^"'"'^ '° ^^^"^^"^e the
(44) '^ - . -> l.eid, ^.po,eon sent home 6,ooo of these captives
NAPOLEON nONAPARTli—THE MAN ^F DESTINY
45
yield us the
! the centre
-e. All the
^ war. He
■ a thunder-
thc dazzled
t rated into
"le seemed
inated the
'IS, in a full
rlier great
his at the
istocrat of
eople, and
2 scene of
lowest to
rs Europe
marching
Jismay,
?s in the
'orship of
^e him in
irmy was
ir but in
year of
c existed
terror of
le field,
had won
shrewd
^ge the
aptives,
newly clad and armed, under their own leaders, and without demanding
ransom. This was enough to win to his side the weak-minded Paul, whose
delight in soldiers he well knew.
Napoleon now had but two enemies in arms to deal with. He wrote
letters to the king of England and the emperor of Austria, offering peace.
The answers were cold and insulting, asking France to take back her Boui
bon kings and return to her old boundaries. Nothing remained but war.
Napoleon prepared for it with his usual rapidity, secrecy, and keenness of
judgment.
There were two French armies in the field in the spring of 1800,
Moreau commanding in Germany, Massena in Italy. Switzerland, which
was occupied by the French, divided the armies of the enemy, and Napo-
leon determined to take advantage of the separation of their forces, and
strike an overwhelming blow. He sent word to Moreau and Massena to
keep the enemy in check at any cost, and secretly gathered a third army,
whose corps were dispersed here and there, while the powers of Europe
were aware only of the army of reserve at Dijon, made up of conscripts and
invalids.
Meanwhile the armies in Italy and Germany were doing their best to
obey orders. Massena was attacked by the Austrians before
he could concentrate his troops, his army was cut in two, and
he was forced to fall back upon Genoa, in which city he was
closely besieged, with a fair prospect of being conquered by
starvation if not soon relieved. Moreau was more fortunate,
the Austrians in a series of battles and drove them back on Ulm, where he
blockaded them in their camp. All was ready for the great movement
which Napoleon had in view.
Twenty centuries before Hannibal had led his army across the great
mountain barrier of the Alps, and poured down like an avalanche upon the
fertile plains of Italy. The Corsican determined to repeat this brilliant
achievement and emulate Hannibal's career. Several passes across the
mountains seemed favorable to his purpose, especially those of the St.
Bernard, the Simplon and Mont Cenis. Of these the first was the most
difficult ; but it was much the shorter, and Napoleon determined to lead the
main body of his army over this ice-covered mountain pass, despite its
dangers and difficulties. The enterprise was one to deter any man less
bold than Hannibal or Napoleon, but it was welcome to the hardihood and
daring of these men, who rejoiced in the seemingly impossible and spurned
cit ndiusiupb uiiu perns.
The task of the Corsican was greater than that of the Carthaginian.
Movements of
the Armies In
Germany and
Italy
He defeated
I
4« NAPOLRON BONAPARTE-THF. MAN OF DESTINY
He had cannon ,„ transport while Hannibal's men carried only swords and
Napoleon ^^™^- "'" "'<= gen.us of Napoleon was equal to the task
AlZTi!" I ,11'' ''''?,"°" '"'""' ,"''"^'; ''■°'" '■^^" ""'■'■'■•'S'^^ ■-'"d placed in'the
SJCd*^.. ''"l''>«"=d-out trunks of trees, which could be dragged with
ropes over the ,ce and snow. Mules were used to draw the
gun-carnages and the wagon-loads of food and munitions of w" Sore!
of prov,s,ons had been placed at suitable points along the road
Thus prepared, Napoleon, on the i6th of M.ay. ,800, began his remark
able march, whde smaller divisions of the army werL sent ove^the S mpion
the St. Gothard and Mont Ccnis passes. It was an arduou entZ ise'
The mules proved unequal to the task given to them ; the peasants reS
o a,d m tins severe work; the soldiers were obliged to har'^ess thet^se ves
o the cannon, and drag them by main strength over the rocky ami ice
overed mountain path. The First Consul rode on a mule at theTeid o^
he rear-guard, serene and cheerful, chatting with his guide as wi ha find
and keepu,, up the courage of the soldiers by his own indomitable spWt'
A few hours rest at the hospice of St. Bernard, and the descent L
begun an enterprise even more difficult than the ascent. For five dav, ^^-
dread journey continued, division following division, corps sue eed nt^^ps
1 he pomt of greatest peril was reached at Aosta, where on Tn eLTo
r;„"«r ^ ""'^ ^-'"■^" '-' °^ ^-'- '^ -lleryMmrnrg'r
n=,== 'i ■'■'", "'t'r^''" '^^ ^='"2"'"'' '•<==«=h«d 'his threatening spot It was
passed m dead s.l^nce. tow being wrapped round the wheels ff the carr ages
troo ^l^ . '"■'" ""^ '^'"^"^ ^P^^^"' °" 'he frozen ground whHeS
break thfoT ' ""-"P="h -- the neighboring mountains By dai! .
break the passage was made and the danger at an end
the AusIrhnf'VtLT"" 1 '}r.^ ''"''' '" '"'^ ^'^ ^'" """ -^P-e to
Tnl ^ J , ^^ descended like a torrent into the valley seized Ivrv
and five days after reaching Italy met and repUsed an Austrian f'ce Th'e
The si.„..,„„ ~"' "h.ch had crossed by other passes one by one joined
Napoleon. Melas. the Austrian commander, was warrled of
the danger that impended, but refused to credit the seemln„l„
preposterous story His men were scattered, some besielg ta^t
Genoa, some attacking Suchet on the Var. His danger w!s immrent for
Napoleon, leaving Massena to starve in Genoa, had formed theTesi ';„
annihilating the Austrian army at one tremendous blow ^
I,W T^^t "' \°'"^"^y- "'■•^'•y °f the Austrian yoke, and hoping for
I.berty under the rule of France, received ,h» n„„,^omers wifl, ^
and lent them what aid they could. 0„-J-unV,th.~LTtar:7;;
swords and
to the task,
lacod in the
agged with
to draw the
ar. Stores
his remark-
le Simplon,
enterprise,
nts refused
themselves
:y and ice-
he head of
h a friend,
le spirit.
2scent was
e days the
ling corps.
)recipitous
nding the
t. It was
carriages
while the
By day-
urprise to
ized Ivry,
ce. The
ne joined
arned of
eemingly
Lssena, in
nent, for
[esign of
>ping for
"ansport,
nes met
NAPOLEON CROSSING THE. ALPS
• TaXriS'°l^: ^{:Zt\hTAZ^TZT:.- t^ kfiV and frozen^passe, o, .he Alps, .as emulated b,
Austriau, in I.aiy, and 'defeated Vhem^n Vhe"g;e;t"linle''oTMaren'go" '"""" "' ""=
l.^
a,
>>
if
a
9
■5
(A
•S
X
o
<
<
z
a.
h.
O
>
z
3
■'■a
MS
.SC
. o
«!!
u "^S
z si
O a *
Ul §■•
O E-2
;§
3
a
r.
NAPOLEON DONAPARTE-THE MAN OF DESTINY 49
^nA defeated the Austrians at Montebello, after a hot eniragement. "I
heard the bones crackle like a hailstorm <.n the roofs." he said. On the 14th.
the two arm.es met on the plain of Maren^^o, and one of the most famous
of Napoleon s battles began.
Napoleon was not ready for the comin.c. battle, and was taken by sur-
prise. He had been obliged to break up his army in order to guard all the
passages open to the enemy. When he entered, on the 13th. "the i,lain be-
tvvcen the Scnv.a and the Bormida. near the little village (,f ^^ ,,
Marengo, he was ignorant of the movements of the Austri- ^X^TT
ans, and was not expecting the onset of Melas. who on the Marengo
following morning, crossed the Bormida by three bridges, and made a fierce
assault upon the divisions of generals Victor and Lannes. Victor was vi<ror-
ously attacked and driven back, and Marengo was destroyed by the Aus-
tnan cannon. Lannes was surrounded by overwhelming numbers, and. fight-
nig furiously was forced to retreat. In the heat of the battle Bonaparte
reached the field with his guard and his staff, and found himself in the thick
of the terrific affray and his army virtually beaten.
The retreat continued. It was impossible to check it. The enemy
pressed enthusiastically forward. The army was in imminent danger of
being cut in two. But Napoleon, with obstinate persistance, kept up the
fight, hoping for some change in the perilous situation. Melas, on the con-
trary,-.an od man, weary of his labors, and confident in the seeming vic-
t«ry,-withdrew to his headquarters at Alessandria, whence he sent off
despatches to the effect that the terrible Corsican had at length met defeat
He did not know his man. Napoleon sent an aide-de-camp in all haste
after Desaix, one of his most trusted generals, who had just returned from
tgypt, and whose corps he had detached towards Novi. All depended upon
h.s rapid return. Without Desaix the battle was lost. Fortunately the
alert general did not wait for the messenger. His ears caught the sound of
distant cannon and, scenting danger, he marched back with the utmost speed.
Napoleon met his welcome officer with eyes of joy and hope. "You
see the situation," he said, rapiaiy explaining the state of affairs. " What
is to be done ? "
" It is a lost battle," Desaix replied. " But there are some \^ , « ,,.
hours of daylight yet. We have time to win another." ^^T.T'
While he talked with the commander, his regiments had ^""
Ijasti y formed, and now presented a threatening front to the Austrians.
1 iitir presence gave new spirit to the retreatin^r troops
" '^f'^'^'^ ^^^ fnends." cried Napoleon to'them, " remember that it is
my custom to sleep upon the field of battle "
50
NAPOLEON BONAPARTE— THE MAN OF DESTINY
Back upon their foes turned the retreating troops, with new animation,
and checked the victorious Austrians. Desaix hurried to his men and placed
hmiself at their head. ^
;'Go and tell the First Consul that I am about to charge," he said to
an aide. " I need to be supported by cavalry."
A few minutes afterwards, as he was leading his troops irresistibly for-
ward, a ball struck him in the breast, inflicting a mortal wound. " I have
been too long making war in Africa ; the bullets of Europe know me no
-Tiore, he sadly said. " Conceal my death from the men ; it might rob them
n spirit.
'^^rf'^T. ^^"^ '^^" ^""^ ^^"' '^"'' ^"^^^^^ °^ b^i"& dispirited, they
were filled with fury, and rushed forward furiously to avenge their beloved
leader At the same time Kellermann-arrived with his dragoons, impetuously
hurled them upon the Austrian cavalry, broke through their columns, and
ell upon the grenadiers who were wavering before the troops of Desaix
It was a death-stroke. The cavalry and infantry together swept them back
in a disorder y retreat. One whole corps, hopeless of escape, threw down
etre.r tT l""^"^^^^^' ^he late victorious army was Everywhere in
•TT K r ^^"f''''^"^ ^'^^^ ^'■^^^ded back upon the Bormida, here block-
ng the bridges, there flinging themselves into the stream, on all sides flying
from the victorious French. The cannon stuck in the muddy stream and
were ef to the victors. When Melas. apprised of the sudden change in the
aspect of affairs, hurried back in dismay to the field, the battle was irretriev-
ably lost, and General Zach, his representative in command, was a prisoner
m the hands of the French. The field was strewn with thousands' of the
dead. 1 he s ain Desaix and the living Kellermann had turned the Austrian
victory into defeat and saved Napoleon.
The Result of A few days afterwards, on the 19th. Moreau in Germany
S Marr/o ''"" " ^^^"'^"; ^'^^«^y ^' Hochstadt, near Blenheim, took 5.000
prisoners and twenty pieces of cannon, and forced from the
Austrians an armed truce which left him master of South Germany A still
more momentous armistice was signed by Melas in Italy, by which the Aus-
trians surrendered Piedmont, Lombardy, and all their teiritory as far as the
Mincio leaving Prance master of Italy. Melas protested against these
severe terirs, but Napoleon was immovable.
" I did not begin to make war yesterday," he said. " I know your situa-
tion. You are out of provisions, encumbered with the dead, wonpded --n^'
sick and surrounded on all sides. I could exact everything. Task o'.iy
what the situation of affairs demands, I have no other terms to offer "
your situa-
Moreau and the
Great Bat'
of Hohen
linden
NAPOLEON BONAPARTE-THE MAN OF DESTINY 5,
During the night of the 2d and 3d of July, Napoleon re-entered Paris,
which he had left less than two months before. Brilliant ova- ^, ,
tions met him on his route, and all France would have pros- Ret'sto
trated itself at his feet had he permitted. He came crowned P""^«
with the kind of glory which is especially dear to the French, that gained on
held ot battle. **
Five months afterwards, Austria having refused to make peace without
the concurrence of England, and the truce being at an end, another famous
victory was added to the list of those which were being inscribed upon the
annals of Prance. On the 3d of December the veterans under Moreau met
an Austrian army under the Archduke John, on the plain of Hohenlinden
across which ran the small river Iser.
The Austrians marched through the forest of Hohen-
linden, looking for no resistance, and unaware that Moreau's
army awaited their exit. As they left the shelter of the trees
and debouched upon the plain, they were attacked by the
French in fo,-e. Two divisions had been despatched to take them in the
rear, and Moreau held back his men to give them the necessary time.
The snow was falling in great flakes, yet through it his keen eyes saw
some S10--0 of confusion in the hostile ranks.
" :epanse has struck them in the rear." he said. " the time has come
to charge.
Ney rushed forward at the head of his troops, driving the enemy in
confusion before hun. The centre of the Austrian army was hemmed in
between the two forces, Decaen had stmcl^ their left wing in ti, ■ rear and
forced ,t back upon the Inn. Their right was driven into the v. ■ The
whiWhe°%'° '|>«A''^trians, whose killed and wounded numbered 8,000,
Tf cannon. "'"^ ^"""'"' '""^ -ighty-seven pieced
Vi.n!^,r''T'™' ^'"""^ advanced, sweeping back all opposition, until
Hil^^,^f< I ^"^'^'^VJ"-'. % before them, only a few leagues away.
H,s staff olftcers urged Moreau to take possession of the city. ^
I hat would be a fine thing to do, no doubt," he said ; " but to mv
fancy to d.ctate terms of peace will be a finer thing still " ^
.800 .„.™"' were ready for peace at any price. On Christmas day
■ 800, an armistice was s.gned which delivered to the French
t-1e valley of the Danube, the country of the Tyrol, a numb-r ™"'»«««'
of fortresses, and im,„p,,„„ _.,..,.:„/_ r ' "''a'mniD.r LonevlUe
. ', '""• ^ '"■"ia^incb ol war materials. The
mere and the conflict was at an vr.d.
52
NAPOLEON BONAPARTE— THE MAN OF DESTINY
S 11
Thus the nineteenth century dawned with France at truce with all her
foes except Great Britain. In February, 1801, a treaty of peace between
Austria and France was signed at Luneville, in which the valley of the
Etsch and the Rhine was acknowledged as the boundary of France. Austria
was forced to relinquish all her possessions in Italy, except the city of
Venice and a portion of Venetia ; all the remainder of North Italy falling
into the hands of France. Europe was at peace with the exception of the
hostile relations still existing between England and France.
The war between these two countries was mainly confined to Egypt,
where remained the army which Napoleon had left in his hasty return to
France. As it became ev dent in time that neither ^he British land forces
nor the Turkish troops could overcome the French veterans in the valley
The Pea f °^ ^^^ ^*'^' ^ ^^''^^^^Y ^^^ arranged which stipulated that the
Amiens French soldiers, 24,000 in all, should be taken home in English
ships, with their arms and ammunition, Egypt being given
back to the rule of the Sultan. This was followed by the peace of Amiens
(March 27, 1802), between England and France, and the long war was, for
the time, at an end. Napoleoi had conquered peace.
During the period of peaceful relations that followed Napoleon was by
no means at rest. His mind was too active to yield him long intervals of
leisure. There was much to be done in France in sweeping away the traces
of the revolutionary insanity. One of the first cares of the Consul was to
restore the Christian worship in the PVench churches and to abolish the
Re^jublican festivals. But he had no intention of giving the church back
its old power and placing another kingship beside his own. He insisted
that the French church should lose its former supremacy and sink to the
position of a servant of the Pope and of the temporal sovereign of France.
Establishing his court as First Consul in the Tuileries, Napoleon
began to bring back the old court fashions and etiquette, and attempted to
restore the monarchical customs and usages. The elegance of royalty
reappeared, and it seemed almost as if monarchy had been restored.
A further step towards the restoration of the kingship was soon taken.
Napoleon, as yet Consul only for ten years, had himself appointed Consul '.
for life, with the power of naming his successor. He was king now in
everything but the name. But he was not suffered to wear his new honor
in safety. His ambition had aroused the anger of the republicans, conspi-
racies rose around him, and more than once his life was in danger. On his
way to the opera house an infernal machine was exoloded. killinp- several
/ersons but leaving him unhurt.
with all her
ce between
lley of the
:e. Austria
the city of
taly falling
ition of the
to Egypt,
r return to
land forces
the valley
id that the
i in English
eing given
of Amiens
^ar was, for
eon was by
ntervals of
r the traces
isul was to
ibolish the
lurch back
le insisted
link to the
of France.
Napoleon
;empted to
of royalty
ed.
oon taken.
:ed Consul '■
ng now in
new honor
ns, conspi-
'. On his
np" several
WAPOLEON BONAPARTE
I !
u »
ir - 2 S-
!r •-.»'W
b! o-
V ■< V
y U O (fl
:?■?
i=S
ja
at
(0
z
o
ui
K
u
>
o
(0
xr
•o-^
U n
B o
3 *"
cr-
o u
u 3
ti
O u
5 °-^.E
f')'! P
e s 0.
a a
o a u
g (A 3
V •< 4;
is
S 2
O C4
i/i O*
O (4
1 a
>i
Conspirators
and the As*
Aassinatlon
of the Duke
d'Enghien
NAPOLEON' BONAPARTE—THE MAN OF DESTINY tx
Other plots were organized, and Fouch^, the police-agent of the
time, was kept busy in seelving the plotters, for whom there -^ ,
was brief „,ercy when found. Even Moreau, the victor at m%!;,""„Mho
Hohcnimden, accused of negotiating with the conspirators
was disgraced, and exiled himself from France. Napoleon dealt
with his secret enemies with the .same ruthless energy as he
did with his foes in the field of battle.
His rage at the attempts upon his life, indeed, took a form that has
been universally condemned. The Duke d'Enghien, a royalist French
nobleman, grands™ of the Prince of Conde, who was bdieved'by Nap^ ot
to be the soul of the royalist conspiracies, ventured too near the borders of
France, and was seized in foreign territory, taken in haste to I^arls. Ld
shot without (orm of law or a moment's opportunity for defence The
outrage excited tlje deepest indignation throughout Europe. No name was
given It but murder, and the historians of to-day speak" of the act by „"
The opinion of the world had little effect upon Napoleon. He was a
o hinTto r" "^- '^f '' °' ™^ ■"^" °^ °' ^ "-"-"d men weTghed
nothing to him where his safety or his ambition was concerned. Men were
the pawns he used in the great game of empire, and he heeded notlow
many of them were sacrificed so that he won the game.
The culminatio,, of his ambition came in ,804, when the hope he had
:H:i:r ^h rSe'tf'cLsTr'r ^ '"-^^■^' "-^ -^^
I I . iiiipit. 01 i_a:sar, the Koman conqueror n
seeking thecrewn as a reward for his victories, and was elected T'°°".
einperor of the French by an almost unanimous vote. T at B™;r „,
dill! MP "" *""" '"«'" ''^ °'^'--^ f- 'he new "■'^--'•
e:n;r o: Dr^rrrsr" " ^""^^ " '^'^'^ =-'' '^^^^ ^"■"--•^ "'-
lon-shot the mob thnt „,„ ■ , ^ sweeping away with can-
lad swept awrtheltoulL"r T^°'' °' '^ "^"S" °' "T-^^™^- ^ow he
i.nself L itstfead as Cleon I """ ""* '°""'^^'' ^ '''^^"''' ^'P'-' -''>
^.V..,,!"',!''.:"?'""'""/^';"'""'^' •■' *^^ "°' " -y-"v of the old tv„.
*ha?lffe;e 'a;d abltable l^stT 'llTit w '''="°^'*=' '^'*^ '^" "^^^
I 4 ^ *= s>ystem, and it was an empire on new and
1 1
5«
NAPOLEON BONAPARTE— THE MAN OF DESTINY
modern lines which Napoleon had founded, a royalty voted into existence
by a free people, not resting upon a nation of slaves.
The new emperor did not seek to enjoy in leisure his new dignity. His
restless mind impelled him to broad schemes of public improvement. He
The Great sought glory in peace as actively as in war. Important
Works Divised changes were made in the management of the finances in order
^m^ror^^ ^° provide the great sums needed for the government, the
army, and the state. Vast contracts were made for road and
canal building, and ambitious architectural labors were set in train. Churches
were erected, the Pantheon was completed, triumphal arches were built,
two new bridges were thrown over the Seine, the Louvre was ordered to b(i
finished, the Bourse to be constructed, and a temple consecrated to the exploits
of the army (now the church of the Madeleine) to be built. Thousands of
workmen were kept busy in erecting these monuments to his glory, and
all France resounded with his fame.
Among the most important of t^ ese evidences of his activity of intellect
was the formation of the Code Napoleon, the tirst organized code of French
law, and still the basis of jurisprudence in France. First promulgated in
1801, as the Civil Code of France, its title was changed to the Code Napoleon
in 1804, and as such it stands as one of the greatest monuments raised b)
Napoleon to his glory. Thus the Consul, and subseruently the Emperor,
usefully occupied himself in the brief intervals between his almost incessant
wars.
TINY
J into existence
ew dicfnlty. His
)rovement. He
van Important
inances in order
S^overnment, the
ide for road and
train. Cliurciies
:hes were built,
is ordered to be
d to the exploits
Thousands of
) his glory, and
ivity of intellect
code of French
promulgated in
2 Code Napoleon
nents raised by
^ the Emperor,
ilmost incessant
>-p}
CHAPTER ni.
Europe in the Grasp of the Iron Hand.
M-IE peace of Amiens, which for an interval left France without a.
open enemy m Europe, did not long continue. England failed to
carry out one of the mam provisions of this treaty, holdin.. on to the
island of Malta .n despite of the French protests. The feelin^. between
the two nations soon grew bitter, and in 1803 England a<^ain declare vv.^
to the head of the mm.stry in 1804. and displayed all his old • ^
activity in organizing coalitions against the hated Corsican England
1 he war thus declared was to last, so far as England was con" ^"""■"' ^"'
cerned, until Napoleon was driven from his throne. It was conducted bv
lable Obstacle t^Napoleon in his ^i^^: J! "^^^^^ -/--
llieTo r ;n the way of revenge was to launch his armies ag in t th
allies of Great Britain, and to occupy Hanover, the domain of the EM si
king on the continent. This he hastened to do ^
^... in C.,e .Z Should .hese ha^Jn.Lt' ^Z tlA;:L: ' .t'd
d<=fy h>.s arn„es ? He determined to play the role of William of N ,
centuries before and attack the,n on ^hX own hores tI" 1 slThThad
d.. lared. An army was eneamped at Boulogne, and a great
fl'Jtrlla prepared to convey it across the narrow sea The w;,r "'t" '^'"»"-
m.er,a gathered was enormous in quantity ; the'army nuT ti^t ^
bucd ,20,000 men, with ,0,000 horses; ,,800 gunboats of ="»'»"''
various kinds were ready; only the suonorr nf fl,„ a .
|nable the crossing to be achieved in safety ^^ """'"=' "
^Idl; "stlt™ Th^F '"'!"' 7"", "r «"^' •="'"f--' -- i' failed .0
Ck sick an di d . , ' '''"""' "''°'" ™n-rrence was depended upon
Ctr ='"'', *'=^' ="1^ ">« &■•>=" expedition was necessarily postponed
i^T.;:!™ P>"f ^°"">^ '^'•'" 'he indefatigable Pitt had LcTX f'
wr;tisVrm;"o:T,::::„;,^e'nr^' "' ^^''°'^°" ^°""'' ^-'-pv
(57)
58
EUROPE IN THE GRASPE OF THE IRON HAND
i i
In April, 1805, ^ treaty of alliance was made between England and
Russia. On the 9th of August, Austria joined this alliance. Sweden sub-
sequently gave in her adhesion, and Prussia alone remained neutral among
the great powers. Hut the allies were mistaken if they expected to take the
astute Napoleon unawares. He had foreseen this combination, and, while
keeping the eyes of all Europe fixed upon his great preparations at Boulogne,
he was quietly but effectively laying his plans for the expected campaign.
The Austrians had hastened to take the field, marching an army into
Bavaria and forcing the Elector, the ally of Napoleon, to fly from his capital.
The French emperor was seemingly taken by surprise, and apparently was in
no haste, the Austrians having made much progress before he left his palace
Ra idM r h ^^ Saint Cloud. But meanwhile his troops were quietly but
on Austria rapidly in motion, converging from all points towards the
Rhine, and by the end of September seven divisions of the
army, commanded by Napoleon's ablest Generals, — Ney, Murat, Lannes,
Soultand others, — were across that stream and marching rapidly upon the
enemy. Bernadotte led his troops across Prussian territory in disdain of the
neutrality of that power, and thereby gave such offence to King Frederick
William as to turn his mind decidc^dly in favor of joining the coalition.
Early in October the French held both banks of the Danube, and
before the month's end they had gained a notable triumph. Mack, one of the
Austrian commanders, with remarkable lack of judgment, held his army in
the fortress of Ulm while the swiftly advancing F"rench were cutting off
every avenue of retreat, and surrounding his troops. An extraordinary
result followed. Ney, on the 14th, defeated the Austrians at Elchingen,
cutting off Mack from the main army and shutting him up hopelessly in
The Surrender Ulm. Five days afterwards the desparing and incapable
ofaenerai general surrendered his army as prisoners of war. Twenty-
three thousand soldiers laid their weapons and banners at
Napoleon's feet and eighteen generals remained as prisoners in his hands.
It was a triumph which in its way atoned for a great naval disaster which
took place on the succeeding day, when Nelson, the English admiral,
attacked and destroyed the whole French fleet at Trafalo-ar.
The succeeding events, to the great battle that closed the campaign,
may be epitomized. An Austrian army had been dispatched to Italy under
the brave and able Archduke Charles. Here Marshal Massena commanded
the French and a battle took place near Caldiero on October 30th. The
Austrians fought stubbornly, but could not withstand the impetuosity of the
French, and were forced to retreat and abandon northern Italy to Massena
and his men.
"If j
w
England and
Sweden sub-
neutral among
ted to take the
ion, and, while
IS at Boulogne,
d campaign,
an army into
■om his capital.
)arently was in
left his palace
;re quietly but
5 towards the
■visions of the
[urat, Lannes,
pidly upon the
disdain of the
ing Frederick
coalition.
: Danube, and
ick, one of the
J his army in
re cutting off
extraordinary
at Elchingen,
hopelessly in
and incapable
var. Twenty-
id banners at
in his hands,
disaster which
glish admiral,
the campaign,
;o Italy under
la commanded
sr 30th. The
ituosity of the
ly to Massena
lil t
EUROPE m THE GRASP OF TUB IRON HAND «,
In the north the ki,,,; „f Prussia, f„riou. at the violatinn o( hi, n<:,„ral
temtory by tl,o French unrler Hernadotte, gave free passage .„ the Russian
and Swed,sh troops, and forme,! a league of friendship with the Car
Alexander. He then d,s,,atchcd his minister Haugwitz ti Napoleon, with
a demand hat concealed a threat, requiring him, as a basis of peace, to
restore the former treaties n, Gern,any, Switzerland, Italy and Holland.
With utter disregard of this de„,and Napoleon advanced along the
Danube towards the Austrian states, meeting and <lefeating the AusVrians
and kuss,ans m a senes of sanguinary conllicts. The Russian army ,va, the
most ably commanded, and its leader KutusofI led it backwaM in slow but
resolute retreat, fighting only when attacked. The French under Mortier
were caught isolated on the left bank of the Danub... and fiercely assailed by
the Russians, losing he.ivily before they could be reinforced
Despite all resistance, the I'rench continued to advance
Murat soon reaching and occupying Vienna, the Austrian' ™^ *''™"'=«
capital, from which the emp.-.->r had hastily withdrawn. Still °° "'""'
FrlnTlT'' ''"ir" ™ '•'"""'■• "'^ ■•'"'"^ "^"'""^ '° Moravia, whither the
Fench laden with an ...mens booty from their victories, rapidly
ollowed. Futile negotiations fc, peace succeeded, and on th^ ,4 of
December, the two armie., ooth concentrated in their fullest strength
(9^.000 of the allies ,0 70,000 French) .ame face to face on the fielcfo
Austerht., where on the following day was to be fought one of the memor
able battles in the history of the world.
The Emperor Alexander had joined Francis of Austria, and the two
nonarchs, with their staff officers, occupied the castle and village of Aus^-
V Jt" T""^^ ''^''™"' '° °^'="Py "'« Pl--'"^^" °f Pratzen,
which Napoleon had designedly left free. His plans of battle ™« Eve Before
was already fully made. He had, with the intuition of *"""""
bemus foreseen the probable manoeuvers of the enemy, and had left onen for
fchem the position which he wished them .0 occupy/ He even announced
their mov.ement in a proclamation to his troops announced
theenInvmar!h?o\""' "' -T"? "'' f°™Wable," he said, " and while
tne enemy march to turn my right they will present to me their flank •'
mon f V ,."°T'"' ■'? '^T "^^' """ ""'«■'' "^^ ""'= that had been decided
I olati^r ■ "'"' "^^ P"'''^"^'^ °f ^""'"8 °ff 'he road to ViennTby
Isolating numerous corp.s dispersed in Austria and Styria. It had been
khremMy divined by Napoleon in choosing his ground
ion If -" """ ""^ -'^ °' ^'""'''''^' "^^ "^'-- •-'""iversarv of the eoron,.
IZf T ''"'^'"' """='' "'<= '''■™'='' "-ooP^ *i'h ardor. 'They celebrated
It by making great torches of the straw which formed their beds'and H u n'
f —
63
EUROPE IN THE GRASP OF THE IRON HAND
P .
natin^r their camp. Early ihe next morning the allies began their projected
movement. To the joy of Napoleon his prediction was fulfilled, they were
advancing towards his right. He felt sure that the victory was in his hands.
He held his own men in readiness while the line of the enemy deployed.
The sun was rising, its rays gleaming through a mist, which dispersed as it
^u « * * # rose higher. It now poured its brilliant beams across the
The ureatest of =» » i. »> tm
Napoleon'* field, the afterward famous "sun of Austerlit/. Ihe move-
Victories j^^^.^t (jf ti^e allies had the effect of partly withdrawing their
troops from the plateau of Pratzen. At a signal from the emperor the
strongly concentrated centre of the French army moved forward in a dense
mass, directing their march towards the plateau, which they made all haste
to occupy. They had reached the foot of the hill before the rising mist
revealed them to the enemy.
The two emperors watched the movement without divining its intent.
" See how the French climb the height without staying to reply to our fire,"
said Prince Czartoryski, who stood near them.
The emperors were soon to learn why their fire was disdained. Their
marching columns, thrown out one after another on the slope, found them-
selves suddenly checked in their movement, and cut off from the two wing«
of the army. The aMied force had been pierced in its centre, which was
flung back in disorder, in spite of the efforts of Kutusoff to send it aid. At
the same time Davout faced the Russians on the right, and Murat and
Lannes attacked the Russian and Austrian stiuadrons on the left, while Kel-
lermann's light cavalry dispersed the squadrons of the Uhlans.
The Russian guard, checked in its movement, turned towards Pratzen,
in a desperate effort to retrieve the fortune of the day. It was incautiously
pursued by a French battalion, which soon found itself isolated and in
danger. Napoleon perceived its peril and hastily sent Rapp to its sup-
port^ with the Mamelukes and the chasseurs of the guard. They rushed
forward with energy and quickly drove back the enemy, Prince Repnin
remaining a prisoner in their hands.
The day was lost to the allies. Everywhere disorder p^Vevailed ami
their troo[)s wi;re in retreat. An isolated Russian division threw down its
arms and surrendered. Two columns were forced back beyond the marshes.
The soldiers rushed in their fligh; upon the ice of the lake, which tbr
intense cold had made thick enough to bear their weight.
And now a terrible scene was witnessed. War is mere!
The Dreadful j^.^^. . ^-^^..^^1 |g j^g ^im ; the slaughter of an enemy by any
means is looked upon as admissible. i3y rNapoleun s oraer tne
I'rench cannon were tur -d upon the lake. Their plunging balls rent and
EUROPE IN THE GRASP OF THE IRON HAND flj
splintered the ice under the feet of the crowd of fvi^iritjves. Soon it broke
with a crash, and the unhappy soldiers, with shrill cries of despair, sunk to
death in the chillinjr waters beneath, thousands of them perishin^r. It was a
fr:.i,rhtful expedient— one that would be deemed a crime in any other code
than the merciless one of war.
A portion of the allied army made a perilous retreat alonjr a narrow
embankment which separated the two lakes of IVIelnitz and Falnitz, their
exposed causeway swept by the fire of the French batteries. Of the whole
army, the corps of Prince liajrration alone withdrew in order of battle.
All that dreadful da\- the roar of battle had resounded. At its close
the victorious French occupied th(; field ; the allied army was pourin^r back
in disordered flight, the dismayed emperors in its midst ; thousands of dead
covered the fatal field, the groans of thousands of wounded m(m filled the
air. More than 30,000 prisoners, including twenty generals, remained
in Nai)oleon's hands, and with them a hundred and twenty pieces of
cannon and forty flags, including the standards of the Imperial Guard of
Russia.
The defeat was a crushing one. Napoleon had won the most famous
of his battles. The Em,.eror rVancis, in deep depression ^ , .
asked tor an interview and an armistice. i wo days afterward Peace with
the emperors, — the cr n-^-ieror and the conquered, — met and Austria
an armistice was granted. While the negotiations for peace continued
Nai>oleon shrewdly disposed of the hostility of Prussia by offering the state
of Hanover to that power and signing a treaty with the king. On Decem-
ber 26th a treaty of peace between France and Austria was signed at
Presburg. The Emperor Francis yielded all his remaining possessions in
Italy, and also the Tyrol, the Black Forest, and other districts in Germany
(Which Napoleon presented to his allies, Bavaria, Wurtemberg, and Baden';
|vhose monarchs were still more closely united to Napoleon by marriages
between their children and relatives of himself and his wife Josephine.
Havana and Wurtemberg were made kingdoms, and Baden was raised
in rank to a grand-duchy; The three months' war was at an end. Air tria
•lad i)aid dearly for her subserviency to England. Of the several late
iiemies of France, only two remained in arms, Russia and England
nd in the latter Pitt, Napoleon's greatest enemy, died during the next
onth, leaving the power in the hands of Fox, an admirer of the Corsican
apoleon was at the summit of his glory and success.
..„^^.7A ''"r''' P^';^'.*''''^ changes did not end with the partial dismember-
en. '.^ .^ui-^tna. lus ambition to become supreme In Europe and to rule
rywhere lord paramount, inspired him to exalt his family, r
ing
re
h.
6d.
EUROPE IN THE GRASP OF THE IRON HAND
i!
I: i
I
1 I?
ii
II
Napoleon
Awards King-
doms to His
Brothers and
Adherents
tives to the rank of kings, but keeping them the servants of his imperious
will. Holland lost its independence, Louis Bonaparte being named its king.
Joachim Murat, brother-in-law of the emperor, was given a
kingdom, on the lower Rhine, with Diisseidorf as its capital.
A stroke of Napoleon's pen ended the Bourbon monarchy in
Naples, and Joseph Bonaparte was sent thither as king, with
a French army to support him. Italy was divided into duke
doms, ruled over by the marshals and adherents of the emperor, whose hand
began to move the powers of Europe as a chess-player moves the pieces
upon his board.
The story of his political transformations extends farther still. By rais-
ing the electors of Bavaria and Wurtemberg to the rank of kings, he had
practically brought to an end the antique German Empire— which indeed
had long been little more than a name. In July, 1806, he completed this
work. The states of South and West Germany were organized into a league
named the Confederation of the Rhine, under the protection of Napoleon.
Many small principalities were suppressed and their territories added to the
larger ones, increasing the power of the latter, and winning the gratitude of
their rulers for their benefactor. The empire of France was in this manner
practically extended over Italy, the Netherlands, and the west and south of
Germany. Francis II., lord of the " Holy Roman Empire," now renounced
the title which these radical changes had made a mockery, withdrew his
states from the imperial confederation of Germany, and assumed the title
of Francis I, of Austria. The Empire of Germany, once powerful, but long
since reduced to a shadowy pretence, finally ceased to exist.
These autocratic changes could not fail to arouse the indignation of the
monarchs of Europe and imperil the prevailing peace. Austria was Ii no
The Hostile condition to resume hostilities, but Prussia, which had main-
irritation of tained a doubtful neutrality during the recent wars o-rew more
Prussia 1 1 1 1 •"" 1 , 1 , ?.
and more exasperated as these high-handed proceedmgs went
on. A league which the king of Prussia sought to form with Saxony and
Hesse-Cassel was thwarted by Napoleon ; who also, in negotiating for ; Mce
with England, offered to return Hanover to that country, without con; dting
the Prussian King, to whom this electorate had been ceded. Other causes
of resentment existed, and finally Frederick William of Prussia, irritated
beyond control, sent a so-called ultimatum " to Napoleon, demanding the
evacuation of South Germany by the French. As might have been expected,
this proposal was rejected with scorn, whereupon Prussia broke off all
pornmuiiication with France and "began preparaiions for wai;
EUROPE IN THE GRASP OF THE IRON HAND
nation of the
It
65
The Prussians did not know the man with whom they had to deal. It
was an idle hope that this state could cope alone with the power of Napo-
leon and his allies, and while Frederick William was slowly ^he Prussian
prepari.ig for the war which he had long sought to avoid, the Armies In
French troops were on the march and rapidly approaching the *''* '''*'*'
borders of his kingdom. Saxony had allied itself with Prussia under com-
pulsion, and had added 20,000 men to its armies. The elector of Hesse-
Cassel had also joined the Prussians, and furnished them a contingent of
troops. But this hastily levied army, composed of men few of whom had
ever seen a battle, seemed hopeless as matched with the great army of war-
worn veterans which Napoleon was marching with his accustomed rapidity
against them. Austria, whom the Prussian King had failed to aid, now looked
on passively at his peril. The Russians, who still maintained hostile relations
with France, held their troops immovable upon the Vistula. Frederick
William was left to face the power of Napoleon alone.
The fate of the campaign was quickly decided. Through ^^p^.^ <,, t^e
the mountain passes of Franconia Napoleon led his forces French Upon
against the Prussian army, which was divided into two corps, ''•'"s^'a
under the command of the Duke of Brunswick and the Prince of Hohen-
lohe. The troops of the latter occupied the r»)ad from Weimar to Jena.
The heights which commanded the latter town were seized by Marshal
Lannes on his arrival. A second French corps, under Marshals Davout
and Bernadotte, ma.ched against the Duke of Brunswick and established
themselves upon the left bank of the Saale.
On the morning of the 4th of October. 1806, the conflict at Jena, upon
which hung the destiny of the Pru.ssian kingdom, began. The troops under
the Prince of Hohenlohe surpassed in number those of Napoleon, but were
unfitted to sustain the imp- uosity of the French assault. Soult and
Augereau, in command of the \vings of the French army, advanced rapidly,
enveloping the Prussian forces and driving them back by the vigor of their
attack. Then on the Prussian center the guard and the reserves fell in a
compact mass whose tremendous impact the enemy found it impossible to
endure. The retreat became a rout. The Prussian army broke into a mob
of fugitives, flying in terror before Napoleon's irresistible veterans.
They were met by Marshal Biechel with an army of 20,000 men, advanc-
ing in all haste to the aid of the Prince of Hohenlohe.
Throwing his men across the line of flight, he did his utmost pJJsrians*
at
Jena and
Auerstadt
£0 rally the fugitives. His effort was a vain one. His men
were swept away by the panic-stricken mass and pushed back
by the triumphant pursuers. Weimar w^s reached by the French and the
M
FMROPE IN 7 HE GRASP OF THE IRON HAND
Germans simiiltaneosly, the former seizing prisoners in such numbers as
seriously to hinder their pursuit
While this battle was going on, another was in progress near Auer-
stadt, where Marshal Davout had encountered the forces of the Duke of
Brunswick, with whom was Frederick William, the king. Bernadotte,
ordered by the emperor to occupy Hamburg, had withdrawn his troops,
leaving Davout much outnumbered by the foe. But heedless of this, he
threw himself across their road in the defile of Kcicsen, and sustained alone
the furious attack made upon him by the duke. Throwing his regiments
into squares, he poured a murderous fire on the chargir.g troops, hurling
them back from his immovable lines. The old duke fell with a mortal
wound. The king and his son led their troops to a second, but equally
fruitless, attack. Davout. taking advantage of their repulse, advanced and
seized the heights of Eckartsberga. where he defended himself with his
artillery. Frederick William, discouraged by this vigorous resistance,
retired towards Weimar with the purpose of joining his forces with those
of the Prince of Hohenlohe and renewing the attack,
Davout's men were too exhausted to pursue, but Bernadotte was
encountered and barred the way, and the disaster at Jena was soon made
evident by the panic-stricken mass of fugitives, wiose flying multitude,
hotly pursued by the French, sought safety in the ranks of the king's corps,
which they threw into confusion by their impact It was apparent that the
battle was irretrievably lost Night was approaching. The king marched
hastily away, the disorder in his ranks increasing as the darkness fell. In
that one fatal day he had lost his army and placed his kingdom itself in
jeopardy. "They can do nothing but gather up the debris" said Napoleon.
The French lost no time in following up the defeated army, which had
The DemorUiza. '^'"o^^^" into several divisions in Its retreat. On the 17th,
tlonofthe Dukt Eugene of Wurtemberg and the reserves under his
Forcei*" command were scattered in defeat. On the 28th, the Prince
of Hohenlohe, with the i2,cx)o men whom he still held to-
gether, was forced to surrender. Bkicher, who had seized the free city of
LUbeck, was obliged to follow his example. On all sides the scattered debris
of the army was destroyed, and on October 27th Napoleon entered in
triumph the city of Berlin, his first entry into an enemy's capital.
Napoleon ^^^^ battle ended, the country occupied, the work of
Divides the revenge of the victor began. The Elector of Hesse was driven
vfctory' ^''^'" ^^'^ throne and his country stricken from the list of the
powers of Europe. Hanover and the Hanse"tic towns were
occupied by the Frencli. The English merchandise found in ports and
EUROPE IN THE GRASP OF THE IRON HAND
67
numbers as
warehouses was seized and confiscated. A heavy war contribution was laid
upon the defeated state. Severe taxes were laid upon Hamburg. Bremen
and Leipzicr. and from all the leading cities the treasures of art and science
were carried away to enrich the museums and galleries of France.
Saxony, whose alliance with Prussia had "been a forced one, was alone
spared. The Saxon prisoners were sent back free to their sovereign, and
the elector was granted a favorable peace and honored with the title of
king. In return for these favors he joined the Confederation of the Rhine,'
and such was his gratitude to Napoleon that he remained his friend and ally
in the trying days when he had no other friend a. jng the powers of Europe.
The harsh measures of which we have spoken were not the onl)- ones
taken by Napoleon against his enemies. England, the most implacable of
his (oes, remained beyond his reach, mistress of the seas as he was lord of
the land. He could only meet the islanders upon their favorite element,
and in November 21, 1806, he sent from Berlin to Talleyrand, his Minister
of Foreign Affairs, a decree establishing a continental embargo against
Great Britain.
"The British Islanders." said this famous edict of reprisal, "are declared
in a state of blockade. All commerce and all correspondence with them are
forbidden." All letters or packets addressed to an Englishman or written in
English were to be seized ; everv English subject found in ^u ^ *,
,, , , -^, • ° J The Embargo
any country controlled by Prance was to be made a prisoner on British
v)f war ; all commerce in English merchandise was forbidden, Commerce
and all ships coming from England or her colonies were to be refused
a.lniittance to any port.
It is hardly necessary to speak here of the distress caused, alike in
Europe and elsewhere, by this war upon commerce, in which England did
not fail to meet the harsh decrees of her opponent by others equally severe.
1 he effect of these edicts upon American commerce is well known. The
commerce of neutral nations was almost swept from the seas. One result
was the American war of 1812, which for a time seemed as likely to be
directed against France as Great Britain.
Meanwhile Frederick William of Prussia was a fugitive
kmg. He refused to accept the harsh terms of the armistice
offered by Napoleon, and in despair resolved to seek, with the
remnant of his army, some 25,000 in number, the Russian
camp, and join his forces with tliose of Alexander of Russia,
still in arms against France.
— 1«- •_«_.. t, nxji uuutcn!, wiuic iiii enemy remained in ariub,
Frederick
William a
Fugitive in
the Russian
Camp
th infi
i ---', ''v-w ^w..wv-4»>, .viitii^ an «-mjiuy icmaineu ui ariUb, \vitn innex*
ible resolution resolved to make an end of all his adversaries, and mrct in
■
wm
"
■
Mi
ji
i
1
^X \',v'
•"v^J
m
^3
68
EUROPE IN THE GRASP OF THE IRON HAND
I
battle the great empire of the north. The Russian armies then occupied
Poland, whose people, bur.ung under the oppression and injustice to which
they had been subjected gladly welcomed Napoleon's specious offers to
bring them beck their lost liberties, and rose in his aid when he marched
his armies into their country.
Here the FVench ?. ind themselves exposed to unlooked-for privations.
They had dreamed o abundant stores of food.- but discovered that the
country they had invaded .vas, in this winiry season, a desert ; a s^^.rics of
frozen solitudes incapable of feeding an army, and holding no reward fcr
them other than that of battle with and victory over the hardy Kussians.
Napoleon advanced to Warsr-v, the Polish capital. The Rii .r.ians v/ere
entrenched behind the Narew and the Ukra. The Fnrnch continued to
advance. The Russians were beaten and forced back in every batlic, several
furious encounters took place, and Alexavler's ;atr, fell back upon the
Pregel, intact and powerful still, despite the French successes. The wintry
chill and the character of the country seriouslv interfered with Napoleon's
plans, the troop.s being forced to make their way through ihick and rain-
soaked forests, and inarcl? cvtir desolate and marshy plains, '{he Vv'nter of
the north fou ■at ; or^inst them like a strong army and many
the Dreary of them fell d^iid Without a battle. Warlike movements
Plains of became ahnoi^t i>rpossiblo to the troops of the south, though
Poland ^j^^ hardy v.ortheners, accustomed to the climate, continued
their military operations.
By the end of January the R^issian army was evidently ap>>roaching in
force, and immediate action became necessary. The cold increased. The
mud was .:onverted into ice. On January 30, 1807, Napoleon 1( ft Warsaw
and marched in search of the enemy. General Benningsen retreated,
avoiding battle, and on the 7th of February entered the small town of
Eylau, from which his troops were pushed by the approaching French. He
encamped outside the town, the French in and about it ; it was evident that
a great battle was at hand.
The weather was cold. Snow lay thick upon the ground and still fell
in great flakes. A sheet of ice covering some small lakes formed part of
the country upon which the armies were encamped, but was thick enough to
bear their weight. It was a chill, inhospitable country to which the demon
of war had come.
Before daybreak on the 8th Napoleon was in the streets of Eylau,
forming his line of battle for the coming engagement. Soon the artiller)
of both armies opened, and a rain of cannon balls began to imate the
opposing ranks. The Russian f^^^ was concentrated on th 'rown, which
n occupied
;e to which
Si
s offers to
le marched
s-
5 cr
privations.
d that the
*i.
a series of
^1
reward for
usssans. OT
B
v^ians were |||
•iitinued to m^
3?
ttic, several sm
3^
<. upon the H
— 00
rhc wintry W&
S-g"
Napoleon's ■■
1?
k and ram- H
'i
e v.^nter of H
>B
and many H
0" >
movements H
ith, though |H
5 -n
, continued ^9
33 <
cld r
aS- J
oaching in Wt
Is
ised. The J
(R (A
ift Warsaw ■■
•• ft
11
retreated, ^
ill town of H
-ench. He m
vident that M
•^3
id still fell 1
= 3
» n
n '*
led part of 1
^1
enough to 1. J
el
the demon |a
^1
; of Eylau,
he artillery
rmate tht:
own, which
c
o »
III
U
o --•
, . Mr:
U aC
i,
I
8
a
I
Q ".a
a ♦g
E §-2
u. g«
o --•
u si:;
o
S 5
^
.5 13
It
0->
■a
a
JS
•8
a
3
EUROPE IN THE GRASP OF THE IRON HAND 71
vv;is soon in (lames. That of the French was directed against a hill which
the emperor deemed it important to occupy. Tiu.' two armies. The Frightful
nearly equal in numbers,— the French havinjr 75.000 to the struggle at
Russian 70,000,— were but a short distance apart, and the ^y''"
slaughter from the fierce cannonade was terrible.
A series of movements on both sides began, Davout marching upon
the Russian flank and Augereau upon the centre, while the Russians
mancEuvred as if with a purpose to outHank the French on the left. At this
interval an unlooked-for obstacle interfered with the French movements, a
snow-fall beginning, which grew so dense that the armies lost sight of each
other, and vision was restricted to a few feet. In this semi-darkness the
French columns lost their way, and wanilered about uncertainly. !• or half an
hour the snow continued to fall. When it ceased the I<>ench army was in a
critical position. Its cohesion was lost ; its columns were straggling about
and incapable of supporting one another; many of its superior^officers were
wounded. The Russians, on the contrary, were on the point of executing
a vigorous turning movement, with 20.000 infantry, supjjorted by cavalry
and artillery.
"Are you going to let me be devoured by these people?" cried Nape-
leon to Murat, his eagle eve discerninir the dan<rer.
He ordered a grand charge of all the cavalry of the army, consisting
of eighty squadrons. With Murat at their head, they rushed Murat's
like an avalanche on the Russian lines, breaking through the Mighty
infantry and dispersing the cavalry who came to its suppcjrt. Charge
The Russian infantry suffered severely from this charge, its t-"'o massive
lines being rent asunder, while the third fell back upon a wocu! u; the rear.
Finally Davout, whose movement had been hindred by the weather,
reached the Russian rear, and in an impetuous charge drove them from the
hilly ground which Napoleon wished to occupy.
The battle seemed lost to the Russians. They began a retreat, leaving
the ground strewn thickly with their dead and wounded. But at this critical
moment a Prussian force, some 8,000 strong, which was being pursued by
Marshal Ney, arrived on the field and checked the French advance and the
Russian retreat. Benningsen regained sufficient conlidti.ce to prepare for
final attack, when he was advised of the approach of Ney, who was two or
three hours behind the Prussians. At this discouraging news a final retreat
was ordered.
^ The French were left masters of the field, though little attempt was
made to pursue the menacing columns of the enemy, who withdrew in mili-
tary array, it was a victory that came near being a defeat, and which,
!^1
M
72 FA J ROPE IN J HE GRASP OF THE IRON HAND
indeed, both sides claimed. Never before had Napoleon been so stul>
bornly withstood. His success had been bought at a frightful cost, and
■ru r . 4 Konigsberg, the old Prussian capital, the goal of his march,
The Cost 01 fe o' * ... TU^
Victory was Still covered by the compact columns of the allies. I he
Frightful j^^,^ ^g^j. in no condition to pursue. Food was wanting, and
they were without shelter from the wintry chill. Ney surveyed the terrible
scene with eyes of gloom. " What a massacre," he exclaimed ; "and with-
out result."
So severe was the exhaustion on both sides from this great battle that
it was four months before host\ resumed. Meanwhile Danzig,
which had been strongly besi( -'jU. s. Jered, and more than 30,000 men
were releasi-d to reinforce tho French army. Negotiations for peace went
slowly on, without result, and it was June before hostilities again became
imminent.
Eylau, which now became Napoleon's '- ' ^ers, presented a very
different aspect at this season from that of lour months before. Then all
was wintry desolation ; now the country presented a beautiful scene of green
woodland, shining lal.e.s, and attractive villages. The light corps of the army
were in motion in vavious directions, their object being to get between the
Russians and thei-- magazines and cut off retreat to Konigsberg. On June
13th Napoleon, with the main body of his army, marched towards Fried-
land, a town on the River Alle, in the vicinity of Konigsberg, towards which
the Russians were marching. Here, crossing the Alle, Benningsen drove
from the town a regiment of French hussars vhich had occupied it, and fell
with all his force on the corps of Marshal Lannes, which alone had (.-ached
the field.
Lannes held his grouna with his usual heroic fortitude, wlule sending
Na Icon on successive messengers for aid to the emperor. Noon had
X Field of passed when Napoleon and his staff reached the field at full
Friedland • gallop, far in advance of the troops. He surveyed the field
with eyes of hope. " It is the 14th of June, the annr/crsary of Marengo,"
he said ; " it is a lucky day for ."
"Give me only a reinforcement," cried Oudinot, ' and we will cast ill
the Russians into the water."
This seemeL possible. Beaningsen's tr ps were perilously concen-
trated within a bend of the river. Some of the Fre.ich genen': adv'sed de-
ferring the battle till the next day, as the hou^ vas late, but Napoleon >vas
too shrewd to let an advantage escape hi-
" No," he said, " one does not surpri- ii« lemy twice , ^uk\ a uiun-
der." He swept with his field-glass the .uas^c^ of the enen before him.
EUROPE IN THE GRASP OF THE IRON I mO 73
then seized the arm of Marshal Ney. •• You see the Russ. .ns and the town
of Friedland," he said. " March strai^fht forward ; seize the tov. n ; take the
bridges, whatever it may cost. Do not trouble yourself with what is takin^^
place around you. Leave thaf ^o me and the army."
The troops were comin.ir I ipidly, and marching to the places assigned
them. The hours moved on. i was half-past five in the afternoon when
the cannon sounded the signal of the coming fray.
Meanwhile Ney's march upon Friedland had begun. A terrible fire
from the Russians swept his ranks as he advanced. Aided by ^hc Assault of
cavalry and artillery, he reached a stream defended by the the Indom-**
Russian Imperial Guard. Before those picked troops the •ta»''e Ney
French recoiled in temporary disorder; but the division of Gcner il Dupont,
marching briskly up, broke the Russian guard, and the pursuing I'rench
rushed into the town. In a short time it was in flames and the fugitive
Russians were cut off from the bridgc^s, which were seized and set on fire.
The Russians made a vigorous effort to recover their lost ground,
General Gortschakoff endeavoring to drive the French from the town, and
other corps making repeated attacks on the French centre. All their efforts
were in vain. The French columns continued to advance. By ten o'clock
the battle was at an end. Many of the Russians had been drowned in the
.tream, and the field was covered with their dead, whose number were
estimated by the boastful French bulletins at 15.000 or 18,000 men, while
they made the improbable claim of having lost no more than The Total
500 dead. Konigsberg, the prize of victory, was quickly occu- Defeatof the
pied by Marshal Soult, and yielded the French a vast quantity Russians
A food, and a large store of military supplies which had been sent from
E dand for Russian use. The King of Prussia had lost the whole of his
puasessi'-ns with the exception of the single town of Memel.
Vi -ious as Napoleon had be n, he had found the /Russians no con-
temptib.. X At Eylau he had come nearer defeat than ever before in
his career. He was quite ready, therefore, to listen fo overtures for peace.
and early in July a notable interview took place betwc(;n him and the Czar
of Russia at Tilsit, on the Niemen, the two emnerors meeting on a raft in
the centre of the stream. What passed betw. ..a tb 1/ is not
known. Some think that they arranged for a <l vision of atTlTsU^d
Europe between their respective empires, Alexander taking •' ^ ale of
all the east and Napoleon all the west. However that was, ''""**'*
the- uc.uy of peace, signed Jul) 8th, was . disastrous one for the defeat d
Prussian king who was punished for his temerity in becking to fight
! I
„ EUROPE IN THE GRASP OF THE IRON HAND
Napoleon alone by the !os, of more than half l^'' ''■"^^r" "'''" '" ■"""•
tion a heavy war indci nity was laid upon his depleted ■•calra5_^
He was forced to yidd all the co.mtries between '>- Rh.ne and the
Elbe, to consent to the establishment of a dukedom o Waj^. jd«
the supremacy of the king of Saxony, and to the loss of Danz.„ aal tne
surrounding terrUi.ry, which were converted mto a free State. A new
kinXm named wS.phalla. was founded by Napol.on, made up of he
terrfo.^ taken from Prussia and the states of Hesse. Brunswick and So^.
HanovX. His youngest brother. Jerome Bonaparte, was made .ts king.
It was a further step in his policy of founding a western ^'"P'J^-
Louisa, the beautiful and charming queen o F-'^J^'-f W'"'=";' Xe
Tilsit hopin<r by the seduction . her beauty and grace of address to .nducc
N^oleon ""mUigate his harsh terms. But in vain she brought to bear
uoon hir^ In "he Lour, .s of her intellect and her attractive charm of man-
ner h" continVed cold and obdurate, and she left Tilsit deeply morttBed
""'"nt^hern Europe only one enemy of Napoleon remained. Sweden
retained Its hostility to France, under the fan.atical enmuy of Gustavus V
who believed himself the instrument appointed by Providence «° re'"«'^
The Bourbon monarchs upon their thrones, f-mark. which refusd^^o^^^^^^^
itself with England, was visited by a British fleet, which bom
barded Copenhagen and carried off all the Damsh ships of
war, an outrage which brought this kingdom into close alliance
with France The war in Sweden must have ended in the conquest of
That country had not the people revolted and dethroned their obstmatc
S.' S'es XII... his un'^le.'was placed .n the 'hrone b- - m^
to adopt Napoleon's marshal Bernadotte as his son The latter, as ctown
nrince oractically succeeded the incapable king m 1810.
■^ Event followed each other rapidly. Napoleon, in his desire to ad,l
kinedom after kingdom to his throne, invaded I'ortuga and interfered ...
elths of Spain' from whoso throne he removed 'he >ast c^ t e B r^
kincrs reolacine him by his brother. Joseph Bonaparte. The result was^.
St'rthe's'panishpLple which all his e«orts proved una e to que
Aided as thev were eventually, by the power of England. In Italy n.s
Sue continued. Marshal Murat succeeded Joseph Bonaparte o„ the
.hrone of Naples. Eliza. Napoleon's sister, was made queen of ruscany.
TTl The temporal sovereignity of the Pope "-^/-"-^'^ "'""
^clT.\, f.r.d with and finally, in .809, the pontiff was forcibly
Foiutaebleau „moved from Rome and the states of the Church were .-.aaca
to the French territory, Pius VU.. the pope, was eventually brought to
Denmark and
Sweden
EUROPE IN rirn ckasp or the iron hand 75
France and ohli^a-d to reside at l-oiu.iiiicI)l<;au. where he persistently refused
to yield to Napoleon's vv'.hes or perform any act of ecclesiastical authority
while held in captivity.
These various ai bitrary acts hail their natural result, that of activi;
hostility. The Austrians beheld them with growing indignation, and at
length grew so exasperated that, despite their many defeats, they decidea
again to dare the power and genius of the conqueror. In April, 1809, the
Vienna Cabinet once more declared war against France and made all haste
to put its armies in the field. Stimulated by this, a revolt broke out in the
Tyrol, the simph^-minded but brave and sturdy mountaineers gathering under
the leadership of Andreas Hofer, a man of authority among them, and wel-
coming the Austrian troops sent to their aid.
As regards this war in the Tyrol, there is no need here to go into
details. It must suffice to say that the bold peasantry, aided Andreas Hofer
by the natural advantages of their mountain land, for a time and the vvar
freed themselves from I-Vench dominion, to the astonishment '"the Tyrol
and admiration of Europe. But their freedom was of brief duration, fnsh
troops were poured into the country, and though the mountaineers won
more than one victory, they proved no match for the power of their foes.
Their country was conquered, and Hofer, their brave leader, was taken by
the French and remorselessly put to death by the order of Napoleon.
The struggle in the Tyrol was merely a side issue in the new war witl
Austria, which was conducted on Napoleon's side with his usual celerity of
movement. The days when soldiers are whisked forward at locomotives
speed had not yet dawned, yet the French troops made extraordinary prog-
ress on foot, and war was barely declared before the army of Napolemi
covered Austria. This army was no longer made up solely of Frenchmen.
The Confederation of the Rhine practically formed part of Napoleon's
empire, and Germans now fought side by side with Frenchmen ; Marshal
Lefebvre leading the Havarians, Bernadotte the Saxons, Au-
gereau the men of Baden, VVurtemberg. and Hesse. On the "^ Naporo^'n ""^
other hand, the Austrians were early in motion, and by the loth Marches
of April the Archduke- Cliark-s had crossed the Inn with his ^P«« Austria
army and the King of Bavaria, Napoleon's ally, was in flight from his capital.
The quick advance of the Austrians had placed the French army in
danger. Spread out over an extent of twenty-five leagues, it ran serious
risk of being cut in two by the rapitlly marching troops of the Archduke.
Napoleon, who reached the front on the 17th, was not slow to perceive the
peril and to take steps of prevention. A hasty concentration of his forces
was ordered and vigorously b(.'gun.
i I
I
r I
t i
m
} !l
P%
A Grave Peril
Overcome
76 EUROPE IN THE GRASP OF THE IRON HAND
Never was there need for more rapidity of movement than now." he
wrote to Massena. '' Activity, activity, speed !"
Speed was the order of the day. The French general, ably seconded
the anxious activity ot their chief. The soldiers fa.rly rushed together
A brief hesitation robbed the Austra.ns of the advantage
which they had hoped to gain. The Arcluluke Charles one
of the ablest tacticians ever opposed to Napoleon, had the
weakness of over-prudence, and caution robbed him ot the opportun.ty
eiven him by the wide dispersion of the French,
^ He was soon and severely punished for his slowness. On the ,9 h
Davout defeated the Austrians at Fangen and made a junction w.th the
Bavtrians On the 20th and 2.st Napoleon met and defeated them m a
ser™so engagements. Meanwhile the Archduke Charles fell on Rat.sbon
held by a single French regiment, occupied that important place, and
attacked Davout at Kckmuhl. Here a furious battle took p ace. Davout
o tnul^ed, n,aintained his position for three days. Napoleon, warneo
the peril of his marshal, bade him to hold on to the death, as he was
hastening to his relief with 40,000 men. The day was well advanced wl e^,
the emperor came up and fell with his fresh troops on the Austr,a,,s, who
still br. vely fighting were forced back upon Ratisbon, Dur.ng the n.ght
hArchdLwisdy withdrew and marched for Hohemu, where a large
reinforcement awaited hi,n. On the .3.I Napoleon attacked the town, and
carried it in spite of a vigorous defence. H ,s proclam.ation to
'^^^'"hi^ad his soldiers perhaps overestimated the prizes of th.s brief but
fn'^caprr a^ive campaign, which he declared to be a hundred cannon,
ol RMisbon ^ 1,,^ ^11 j|„. enemy's artillery, 50,000 prisoners, a large
number of wagons, etc. Half this loss would have fully justified the Arch-
"""'tnTt'Ily affairs went differently. Prince Eugene Ikauharnais, for the
first time in command of a FVench army, found hnnself opposed by the
Arcluluke John, an,l nvt with a defeat. On Apnl .6th, seekn g
Thecmpalm retrieve his disaster, he attacked the Archduke, but the
'"'""' Austrians bravely held their positions, and the French were
again obliged to retreat. General Macdon.ald. an officer of tried ability.
noT joined the prince, who took up a defensive pos t,on on the Adige^
whithir the Austrians marched On the .st of May Macdonald perceived
among them indi.ations of with.lrawal from their po^'t>on.^_ .
"Victory in Germany I" he shouted to tile prince. i.o» .-• v,". .....
for a fonvani march !"
now," he
seconded
together.
Eidvanta<xe
larles, one
1, had the
oportunity
I the 19th
1 with the
them in a
; Ratisbon,
place, and
Davout,
, warned ol
as he was
inced when
rians, who,
r the ni^ht
ire a large
e town, and
1 imation to
is brief but
ed cannon,
lers, a large
d the Arch-
lais, for the
osed by the
6th, seeking
ike, but th(>
:^rench were
ried ability,
the Adige,
d perceived
EUROPE IN THE GRASP OF THE IRON HAND -j-j
He was correct, the Archduke John had been recalled in haste t(j aid
his brother in the defence of Vienna, on which the French were advancing
in force.
The campaign now became a race for the capital of Austria. During
its progress several conflicts took place, in each of which the French won.
The city was defended by the Archduke Maximilian with an army of over
15,0c -> men, but he found it expedient to withdraw, and on the 13th the
troops of Napoleon occupied the place. Meanwhile Charles had concen-
trated his troops and was marching hastily towards the opposite side of the
Danube, whither his brother John was advancing from Italy.
It was important for Napoleon to strike a blow before this junction
could be made. He resolved to cross the Danube in the suburbs of the
capital itself, and attack the Austrians before they were reinforced. In the
vicinity of Vienna the channel of the river is broken by many islets. At the
Lsland of Lobau, the point chosen for the attempt, the river is broad and
deep, but Lobau is separated from the opposite bank by only a narrow
branch, while two smaller islets offered themselves as aids in the construc-
tion of bridges, there being four channels, over each of which a bridge was
thrown.
The work was a difficult one. The Danube, swollen by ^i. n ..
*i K- •nil,..' '' I he Bridges
the meltmg snows, imperilled the bridges, erected with diffi- over the
culty and braced by insufficient cordage. Bur. despite this ^^"""be
peril the crossing began, and on May 20th Marsha! Massena reached the
other side and posted his troops, in the two villages of A.spern and Essling,
and along a deep ditch that connected them.
As yet only the vanguard of the Austrians had arrived. Other corps
soon appeared, and by the afternoon of the 21st the entire army, from
70,000 to 80.000 strong, faced the I'rench, still only half their number, and
in a position of extreme peril, for the bridge over the main channel of the
river had broken during the night, and the crossing was cut off in its midst.
Napoleon, however, was straining every nerve to repair the bridge, aiul
Massena and Lannes, in commaml of the advance, fought like men fighting
for their lives. The Archduke Charles, the ablest soldier Napoleon had yJt
encountered, hurled his troops in masses upon Aspern, which covered the
bridge to Lobau. Several times it was taken and retaken, but the I-Vench
held on with a death grip, all the strength of the Austrians .seeming insuffi-
cient to break the hold of Lannes upon lissling. \\\ advance in force,
which nearly cut the communication between the two villages, was checketl
.)y an .nipctuous cavalry charge, and night fell, leaving the situation
unchanged.
hj
I
,s iWKorK /,v nu< CRAsr or riui iron hand
1 .K.M "jnnoo l-'rcnch hail crosscil llu.'
A. a.wn ..r Ihc n,.xl a.,y "'"-/''•'' /_^X nillcry a,ul most of the
stream ; Marshal Davoufs corps, w, h l"" ' ' ^ ; ;, „„,„,„^ ,,,0 large
a,n,nunitiun. being still on the r.ght bank. ^^^ ^^^^ ,„j,„ ,,;.„
bridge, against which the A--^^ ^'^ '.;,*' tl time, and the engin-
roft *;t:c;:r>^:r::i"ted to t,. „.. strent.. and ..stv
"^ir:::Sr^r:heda.thathad^t..n;^
valor and obstinacy. Men ucnt the Austrians,
rhedreat Austrians now the I'rench, were repulsed , the Austria.u,
struKRieof the Austnins, Lannes was pre-
...... X't ^:t:'out:l'ln; designed to ..erce their
„„..., „,en rrtas brought N^Heon that the g.eat.,.ge.^^^^^^^^^
yielded to the lloating Mr,s, carrying w.tl ^JJ^^^^^ „^j^,„, ,„
Ld cutting off the supply of an,mun,t,o„. '^^l^^^^^^ ,„,,, a
Call back upon the villages. -"'^l^f^'Va checked with great
powerful assault on the French <='-""^'- 3?" , „,„ ,,, ^^e enemy was
:„fficnlty. l-ive times the ^'^-^--^^^l''^^ first time i'n his
finally repelle.l, it became ev.dent that ^^ "^ ' reluctantly
career, had met with a ecded checL N git f 11 t ^^ ^^^^^ _^^ ^^^^ ,^^^
he gave the order to retreat. He had los , ^^^ ^^^^
- ^^ ;^^:[^u;b:ut:r. rV^.r M^sen. m cha^e ^
rrf r :lgnard, '->.;- -j'^'rurrr-i^fir;.. "u
Retreat ^^an 40,000 men la> tU.ati anu wuu. uii.ri..l to
„hlch remained in\ustrian hands. N^.;.;^'- -^ --; '^ .l
r :':Sr::::i C^ l^h^;- ;r d that .. cUan was
""' ';r of Napoleon, generals deep, dish.«.neda^^
.te retreat, but the en.penn- had no -->:":;" ,,„ ,|,^ „,„^,„,, h.
„.„u!d have brought a thous..nd ^l'»-'-^- "^ ".;„ , ;,>,„ht all his resources
held the island of '-"'^='». -''V' T" ' 1 aVw" Id ^^ '^^^^^^^ current of th.
to bear on the construction of a brulge ^> ' ' "'^ '^ ,,„.^^,,„,,, ,„„il by
s,r..tn,. At the same tinte -" "-:^""="":,7 „ " ' ' „ ooo unn. Th,-
the .St of July, he had aroun.l V'-- " ; ■^"' }^^ ^^;^^, h,.,.
Austrians had pn>l,ably fron. ,35.000 " 't";°^ . '4,^. ,, „,,h,g ,h,.
morever. strongly fortified the pos.t.ons of tue recent uattk. e^ , .
attack upon them to be resumed.
MM
•osscil the
lost of the
t the large
adcn with
the cngin-
and hasty
;raor<.linary
iides ; now
Austrians,
;s was pre-
)ierce their
J had a^^iiii
cuirassiers,
ordered to
ans made a
with great
; enemy was
time in his
i rehictantly
he had lost
Back to the
:harge of the
ifety. More
It fatal field,
.s t)bliged to
rope held up
Corsican was
:d an immedi-
ovemcnt. It
i contrary, li«'
his resourc(s
:urrent of tin
>vard, until hy
)0 men. l he
irchduk*'. hail,
expecting the
M'i^^'isiam*
miM>nmkiti('-ii/tiiiAW^''*^i^^^ i^i'^
NAPOLCO.N AND THE QUEEN OF PRUSSIA AT TILSiT (r«o« TMt ,.».f.T.Na my oi.o»;
■r.l.it i. a .iA- .,f «I,.M„ ,..«« i„iu.l.ii...u. i.. K.ttMcn J-ru-iu. U.r.- tl,= Treaty <,f I'en.:.. between th« 1-rcncli
" ' i„d K..»Mun Kmj«rur.Bnd aU- ()etw«i. Kian.e and I'.us.ia wa» .itJiHa ."July, .So;
■MM
EUROPE IN THE GRASP OF 77//: IRON HAND 8i
Napoleon hid no such intention. He had seh-cted tin: hei-hts rantjinfr
from Neusiedl to \\\-ijrram, stronL,dy occupied hy the Austrians ^h
hut net fortind. as his point of attack, and on the nij,dn of lolZ^oi
July 4th hrid<rt;s were thrown f-'om the island of Lobau to the the Danube
mainland, and the army which had been gatherinjr for several days on tl e
island began its advance. It moved as a whole against the hei<rlns of
VVagram, occupying Asp(;rn and Essiing in its advance. *
The great battle began on the succeeding day. It was hotly contested
at all pomts, but attention may be confined to the movement a.^ainst the
plateau of Wagram, which had been entrusted to Marshal Davout The
height was gained after a desperate struggle ; the key of tlie
battlefield was held by the I'rench ; the Austrians, impetuously The Victory
assailed at every point, and driven from every point of vantage "* ^"'"■'""
began a retreat. The Archduke Charles had anxiously looked for the com-
ing of his brother John, with the army under his command. lie waited in
vain the aggard prince failed to appear, and retreat became inevitable The
battle had already lasted ten hours, and the French held all the strong points
of the field ; but the Austrians withdrew slowly and in battle array, presenting
a front that discouraged any effort to pursue. There was nothing resem
bling a rout. ^ " '
The Archduke Charles retreated to Bohemia. His forces were dis-
persed during the march, but he had 7o,cx)o men with him when Napoleon
reached h.s ront at Znaim, on the road to Prague, on the nth of July
Further lK,st,lities were checked by a request for a truce, preliminary to a
peace. I he battle, already begun, was stopped, and during the ni-du an
arm.stice was signed. The vigor of the Austrian resistance\.nd the^doubt-
? ul attitude of the other powers made Napoleon willing enough to treat for
The peace, which was finally signed at Vienna, October 14. 1800 took
from Austria 50.000 scjuare miles of territory and 3.000.000
[inhabitants, together with a war contribution of $85 000000 The Peace of
hvhi e her army was restricted to ,50,000 men. The overthrew ""'"""
5 the several outbreaks which had taken place in north Germany, the defeat
n ' f;;'t,"''f'r'V^'''"'^-'^"'""^ ''^'^^ '^''^ suppression of the revolt
n the lyrol.ended all organized opposition to Napokon. who was once
lore master of the European situation.
lonn^'^'rw^^ this signal success to the summit of his power, lord para-
ount of Western Europ., only one thing remained to trouble the mind of
the victoriou.^ emperor. His wif,- Io..>.,K;n ..K:|,n,.„,. . , • ,,
h.eate„<xl to b. left .vitl.ou, a. h.ir. Much as he had seen.ed to lov« his
'm
m f
82 FMROPE IN THE GRASP OF THE TRON If AND
wlf.. the comi>ani<,n of his early days, when he was an unknown -"^ uncon-
sidered subaltern, seekin^r humbly enou^d. for m.htary employment ,n 1 as.
yet ambition and the thirst for glory were always the ruhng passions nj h,s
nature, and had now grown so dominant as to throw love and w.fe y devo-
tion u terly into the shade. He resolved to set aside h.s w.fe and seek a
new bride among the princesses of Europe, hoping m th.s way to leave an
heir of his own blood as successor to his imperial throne.
Negotiations were entered into with the courts of Europe to obtain a
dau.dner of one of the proud royal houses as the spouse of the plebeian
emtreror of France. No maiden of less exalted rank than a princess of
the imperial families of Russia or Austria was high enough to meet the
ambitiius aims of this provid lord of battles, and negotiations were entered
into with both, ending in the selection of Mana Louisa, daughter of the
Emperor Francis of Austria, who did not venture to refuse a demand for
his daughter's hand from the master of half his dominions.
Napoleon was not long in finding a plea for setting aside
"^jChTne'and the wife of his days of poverty and obscurity A defect in
Marriage of the marriage was alleged, and the transparent farce went on.
Maria Louisa ^^^^ divorce of Josephine has awakened th< sympathy of a
century. It was. indeed, a piteous e.vample of state-craft, and there can be
no doubt that Napoleon suffered in his heart while yielding to the dictates
of his unbridled ambition. The marriage with Mana Louisa, on the 2d of
April. 1810. was conducted with all possible pomp and display, no less than
five queens carrying the train of the bride in the august ceremony. The
purpose of the marriage did not fail ; the next year a son was born to
Napoleon. But this imperial youth, who was dignihed with the title of
King of Rome, was destined to an inglorious life, as an unconsidered teiant
of the gilded halls of his imperial grandfather of Austria.
id uncon-
: in Paris,
tns in his
fely devo-
kI st;ek a
leave an
obtain a
i plebeian
rincess of
meet the
•e entered
ter of the
2mand for
:tin*^ asic
le
defect in
i went on.
;)athy of a
ere can be
le dictates
the 2d of
o less than
ony. The
as born to
;he title of
ered te' »ant
The Causes of
the Rise and
Decline of
Napoleon's
Power
CHAPTER IV.
The Decline and Fall of Napoleon's Empire.
AMBITION, unrestrained by caution, uncontrolled by moderation, has
its inevitable end. An empire built upon victory, trusting solely to
military genius, prepares for itself the elements of its overthrow
This fact Napoleon was to learn. In the outset of his career he opposed a
new art of war to the obsolete one of his enemies, aid his path to empire
was over the corpses of slaughtered armies and the ruins of fallen king,
doms. But year by year they learned his art, in war after war their resist-
ance grew more stringent, each successive victory was won with more
difficulty and at greater cost, and finally, at the crossing of the
Danube, the energy and genius of Napoleon met their equal,
and the standards of France went back in defeat. It was the
tocsin of fate. His career of victory had culminated. From
that day its decline began.
It is interesting to find that the first effective check to Napoleon's
victorious progress came from one of the weaker nations of Europe a
power which the conqueror contemned and thought to move as one of 'the
minor pieces in his game of empire. Spain at that time had reached almost
the lowest stage of its decline. Its king was an imbecile ; the heir to the
throne a weakling ; Godoy. the " Prince of the Peace," the monarch's
favorite, an ambitious intriguer. Napoleon's armies had invaded Portugal
and forced its monarch to embark for Brazil, his American
domain. A similar movement was attempted in Spain. This ^trituTs'' In "
country the base Godoy betrayed to Napoleon, and then, Portugal and
nghtened by the consequences of his dishonorable intri.rues ^P"'"
_c.ught to escape with the king and court to the Spanish' dominions in
|Amenca. His scheme was prevented by an outbreak of the people of
^Madrid, and Napoleon, ambitiously designing to add the peninsula to his
^mpire. induced both Charles IV. and his son Ferdinand to resign from the
hrone He replaced them by his brother. Joseph Bonaparte, who, on lune
>, 1808, was named King of Spain.
Hitherto Napoleon had dealt with emperors and kings, whose overthrow
larried with if flmf «f fU^:.. k. i_ o • . . r '-.n„ww
' ''"-" F^"F'- Hi opam m- iiau a new element, the
(83)
i ?
I* 1
(
!
f
:,
i 1 *
;
• '.:
1
'
i
i
. i
84
rnii DECLINE AND FALL OF NAPOLEON'S EMPIRE
[x'oplc itself, to (leal with. The very weakness of Spain proved its strenj^th.
Deprived of their native monarchs, and j^'iven a kini^ not of their own choice,
The Dord DcfU ^he whole people rose in rebellion and defied Napoleon and
anceofthe his armies. An insurrection broke out in Madrid in which
Veopleof 1,200 I'Vench soldiers were slain. Juntas were formed in dif-
ferent cities, which assumed the control of affairs and refused
obedience to the new king. I'Vom end to end of Spain the people spranij
to arms and bej^jan a guerilla warfare which the troops of Napoleon sought
in vain to quell. The bayonets of the I'Vench were able to sustain Kin"-
Joseph and his court in Madrid, but proved powerless to put down the peo-
ple. Each city, each district, became a sej)arate centre of war, each had to
be conquered separately, and tlu; strength of the troops was consumed in
pett)- contests with a people who avoided ojien warfare and dealt in surprises
and scattered fights, in which victory counted for little and needed to be re-
peated a thousand times.
The Spanish ilid more than this. They put an army in the field which
Spain's BHI. ""^^^ defeated by the I'rench, but they revenged themselves
liant victory brilliantly at Baylen, in Andalusia, where General Dupont.
"r^'n'^J n/ht ^^'''^ '^ corps 20,000 strong, was surrounded in a position from
which there was no escape, and forced to surrender himself
and his men as prisoners of war.
This undisciplined people had gained a victory over France which non<.'
of the great powers of Europe could match. The Spaniards were filled
with enthusiasm ; King Joseph hastily abandoned Madrid ; the I'rench armies
retreated across the b^bro. Soon encouraging news cam(! from Portugal.
The English, hitherto mainly confining themst;lves to navai warfare and to
aiding the enemies of Napoleon with money, had landed an army in that
country under Sir Arthur W'ellesley (afterwards Lord Wellington) and other
generals, which would have captured tlu: entire French army had it not
capitulated on the terms of a free passage to France, b'or the time being
the peninsula of Spain and Portugal was free from Napoleon's power.
The humiliating reverse to his arms called Napoleon himself into the
field. He marched at the head of an army into Spain, defeated the insur-
The Heroic .^f^'Uts wherever met, and reinstated his brother on the throne.
Defence of The city of Saragossa, which made one of tne most heroic
arajfossa defences known in history, was taken, and the advanct; of the
British armies was checked. And yet, though Spain was widely overrun,
;.he people did not yield. The junta at Cadi/. A^'iwjX the PVench, the
guerillas continued in the field, and the invaders found themselves baffled
i>y "iH eneiir," v.rso was ft:it
ti:it on
man seen.
its striMisrtli.
own choice,
[ipolc'on and
id in which
rnK,'d in dif-
and refused
ople spr.'int^
Icon sou<^ht
istain Kinj^
wn the peo-
LMch had to
onsumed in
in surprises
id to be re-
field which
themseivf's
al Dupotit.
>sition from
der himself
which none-
were filletl
LMich armies
n Portui-al.
•fare and to
rmy in thai
) and other
had it not
time being
ower.
elf into the
d the insur-
the throne,
nost heroic
uice of the
ly overrun,
'Vench, the
Ives baffled
I
77//- mCUN/; M'D FALL OF NAPOUMNS KMriRP. „
Tlu- Austrian war calle.l away tl„. ,M„|,en,r and the l,„lk of hi, troop,
Imt aft T ,t was ovr h,- fill,-,! Spain with his veterans incrensim- 7h
s^ren^th of ,ho army ,h,.re to 3cx,,cxx, „,e„. nn.ler his ablest' ge, , 'so h
Massena, Ney, Marn.ont, MaclonaW an,l others. The). .n.^cl.H im f
Sl«M, fron, en.l ,o end, yet, thou.rh the,, hehl all the salien ,i t
P-Pl.' refused to snl.nit, but fron, their n,ountai„ fastnessel ' • i '
petty and annoymir war. ' '
Massena. in 1811, invaded Portugal, where Wellintrfnn wWi, i- i- .
anny awaited hin, behind the s.ron.^line, CrTor;";"^:;:: "" '■-"*-"""'
winch th.. e-ver-v,ctorious I'Vench soujjht in ,ain to carry hV- *"""«»"''
assault Massena was co„,pelled to retreat, and Sotdt' b^ P^C^.n,
whom the en,|,eror ..placed him, was no more successful ^i"'"
agamst the shr.'w.d iJn.dish .rener il At l,.,v,M, « '"" ,
her patriotic defence Th,r u "^ '' '^l'''"" """ ""• '•'="■'"1 of
emperor todele, hi "" . '^T'^"'" '^^'Paign of ,S,j con.pelled the
forc«, Kin/joseph once .^ IX fr^, ^f^t 'thr' "^"^'"' ^
"f.King Joseph .0 a ^tX^^z:z^:-^tJ:^ ^"^";
soil of VvllT"' '"'"'"' "'™""^™"-^ ""-■ '*>•—■ -'' -' '-t "Pon the
men a river that Hows between Prussia a,! an h':':,:' "' "" ''''=■
.shed on the desert soil ,n- in the frole i^^ i u '*-; '•-'"a.nder had per-
viving as prisoners in Russian hand" Sc^ was thT'"' °\ "'"' "'"
catastrophe th.it broke th , T ■ f ehar.icter of the <lread
Europe 'fron, hi! au;;;c:at,:7r::7 "" ""^""^-"'1"-- and delivered
Ihe breach of relations between Naooleo,. ,„„1 al..,.,.,._.. , ,
'"^ '" ""^ "^""™^>' ■-• H^i'-'™"'"" p-eedingsof';,tF;:cir';l;'^
hi
86
t
U )
i
) milt
'////-: DECLINE AND FAU, OF NAPOLEON'S EMPIRE
the Czar at
Enmity
who w.'i^ accustomrd to deal with the map of Europe as if it represented his
private domain. He offended Alexander by <nlar^rin^r th.- duchy of War iw
Napoleon and —One of his own creations 1 deeply incensed him by < x-
tending the French empin- to the shores of the lialtic. thus
robbinir of his dominion the Duke of Oldenburg, a near rela-
tive of Alexander. On the other hand the Czar declined to submit the com-
mercial interests of his country to the ri-or of Napoleon's "continental
blockade," and made a new tariff, which interfered with the importation of
French and favored that of English goods. These and other acts in which
Alexander chose to place his owr. I'nt-rests in advance of those of Napoleon
were as wormu'ood to the haughty s nl of the latter, and he deermined to
punish the Russian autocrat as he had done the other monarch.s ol I-urope
who refused to submit to his dictation.
I- or a year or two before war was declared Napoleon had been prepar-
ing for the greatest struggle of his lif.-, adding to his army by the most rig-
orous methods of conscription and collecting great magazin(;s (,f war mate-
rial, though still professing friendship for Alexander. The latter however
was not deceived. Me prepared, on his part, for liie thr^.-atc-ned struggle
made peace with the Turks, and formed an alliance with Hernadotte the
crown prince of Sweden, who had good reason to he offended with his former
lord and master. Napoleon, on his side, allied himself with Prussia and
Austria, and added to his army large contingents of troops from the German
states. At length the great conflict was ready to bc^gin between the two
autocrats, the EmpcTors of the East and the West, and Europe resounded
with the tread of marching feet.
In the closing days of June the grand army crossed the Niemen, its last
The Invasion of regiments reaching Russian .soil by the opening of July Na
SS^aL? T^T'' ''*''' '^ "''''''"'"' 1'''"^'^^'^^ "" ^« ^^""^^' the capital of
' Lithuania. Or. ,ii ,ides the Poles rose in enthusiastic hope
and joined the ranks of the m.^, whom they looked upon as their deliverer
Onward went the great army, r,arching with Napoleon's accustomed rapid-
ity, seeking lo prevent the concentration of the divided Russian forces, and
advancing daily deeper into the dominions of the czar.
The PVench emperor had his plans well laid. He proposed to meet the
Russians m force on some interior field, win from them one of his accus-
tomed brilliant victories, crush them with his enormous column.s. and force
the dismayed czar to sue for peace on his own terms. But plans need two
sides for their consummation, and the Russian leaders did not propose to
lose the advantage given them by nature. On and on went Napoleon
deeper and deeper into that desolate land, but the great army he was t.i
THl; DtiCUm AND r.tU. OF AAPOI.IiON-S niiiriRE
«7
crush faf!e<l ^to loom up l„.fore him, tho broad plains still sDreicI on- ,.
;.::' r';,: i™' :::;T ' """"■'■' "--^^^ t "■"^'^' '- '"'"-™"' -"',:;.,
he Kussian hosts U-.-p,n>r constantly beyond his reach, lurini;
Ijim .vcr de..pc- mto their vast terri,. ,-y. I„ truth Barclay de ''Lfl"t
loll . the car's c „cf in c„n,man., had adopted a policy .^«t.»l
wnch was sure to prove fatal to Napoleon's pur,,ose, that of '^•"^
permstently avoubn;; battle and keeping, the French in pursuit of a llc-tin..
:i:":';:;ht;;rci;L'''"^ -^ -'-" - '- "--' ^'■•-•-'-"" "
He was correct m his views I)#.v;,.r. , ;ii- .1 1
rec.,!. who onid not endn. t;::-ha:i;h,; of i'^ ' 1 iiiL^iit the ^::::f
neat ol midsummer, bcL'an the r fTfil .f,^,l. mi., »i-vcre
proved a total fnilnn- T , i^ , ^^l'"''--"" ^ PLi" "I campaign
inch l.v' • , Kussians would not wait to be defeated and
each days marcu opened a wi.ler circle of oi; -rations before the .I ■
host, whom the interminable plain filled witl', a sent of ' "o el n:'""Tht'
^H:;;:„:i:rj:Stir''r;itf.b:r:;' '- '"^ -^» - -^■'"'^ -
emperor was alarmed a'theraoi Id "."^.'•7 ""^ mspeeted, and the
slois had lost more , an aZ ,1 , ii" t "^^ '"'" "',"" '""■
w'^re depleted, and reinforcement'lb ,y hadT bTsroT t^mal^r^"''
On the 14th of August, the army crossed the Dnieper and marched
f.;?r :=rjrr L?S' ,r sd-;r ■» " "•
advanced "'; TL'rir ■ ''^''"■"'" •^"^ '"" '""""'^ "- -"^ '-^
Russia, redu ed „ I'"! "/„..""'^""'^'l'.';' ■^'.«' »- -"" "' 'he heart of
as fat offaseve;;'A::n.::.. :''.'"• ""'''=, ""= "oi^"""^ ^«='°^y seemed
the short summer of the nortli
was nearmg its end.
MICROCOPY RESOLUTION TEST CHART
(ANSI and ISO TEST CHART No. 2)
1.0
I.I
1.25
Ui, ill 2.8
2.2
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A APPLIED INA^GE Inc
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S'.S Rochester. Ne» York 14609 USA
•-as (716) 482 -0300- Plione
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■.■t'7TTriP-r^--'iii
88
THE DECLINE AND FALL OF NAPOLEON'S EMPIRE
II
PI ■■
n I-
The Battle of
Borodino
The severe winter of that climate would soon begin. Discouragement
everywhere prevailed. Efforts were made by Napoleon's marshals to
induce him to give up the losing game and retreat, but he was not to be
moved from his purpose. A march on Moscow, the old capital of the
empire, he felt sure would bring the Russians to bay. Once within its
walls he hoped to dictate terms of peace
Napoleon was soon to have the battle for which his soul craved. Bar-
clay's prudent and successful policy was not to the taste of many of the
Russian leaders, and the czar was at length induced to replace him by fiery
old Kutusoff, who had commanded the Russians at Austerlitz. A change
in the situation was soon apparent. On the 5th of September the French
army debouched upon the plain of Borodino, on the road to Moscow, and
the emperor saw with joy the Russian army drawn up to dispute the way
to the " Holy City" of the Muscovites. The dark cijlumns of troops were
strongly intrenched behind a small stream, frowning rows of guns threat-
ened the advancing foe, and hope returned to the emperor's heart.
Battle began early on the 7th, and continued all day
long, the Russians defending their ground with unyielding
stubborness, the French attacking their positions with all
their old impetuous dash and energy. Murat and Ney were the heroes of
the day. Again and again the emperor was implored to send the imperial
guard and overwhelm the foe, but he persistently refused. "If there is a
second battle to-morrow," he said, "what troops shall I fight it with ? It is
not when one is eight hundred leagues from home that he risks his last
resource."
The guard was not needed. On the following day Kutusoff was obliged
to withdraw, leaving no less than 40,000 dead or wounded on the field.
Among the killed was the brave Prince Bagration. The retreat was an
orderly one. Napoleon found it expedient not to pursue. His own losses
aggregated over 30,000, among them an unusual number of generals, of
whom ten were killed and thirty-nine wounded. Three days proved a brief
time to attend to the burial of the dead and the needs of the wounded.
Napoleon named the engagement the Battle of the Moskwa, from the river
that crossed the plain, and honored Ney, as the hero of the day, with the
title of Prince of Moskwa.
The First Sight ^'^ ^^^^ '5^^ the Holy City was reached. A shout of
of the Holy " Moscow ! Moscow ! " went up from the whole army as they
Rufs°i ga^z&d on the gilded cupolas and magnificent buildings of that
famous city, br-illiantly lit up by the afternoon sun. Twenty
miles in circumference, dazzling with the green of its copper domes and
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T//£ DECLINE AND EALL OF NAPOLEON^S EMPIRE gt
Hsin^'^r'' •?^ ^1'"" ''"?• '''" '"^"'^ ""^^ ^"-^"^ "^ '1^^^ f^"^""« Kremlin
nsn.g above its pa aces and gardens, it seemed like some fabled city of the
Arabian Nights With renewed enthusiasm the troops rushed towards it'
whde whole regiments of Poles fell on their knees, thanking God for dehve i
ing this stronghold of their oppressors into their hands
It was an empty city into which the French marched ; its streets
de.ertecl its dwellings silent. Its busy life had vanished like a morning
mist. Kutusoff had marched his army through it and left it
to his foes The inhabitants were gone, with what they could '"""IZTL^,
carry of tke.r treasures. The city, like the empire, seemed o.d RussL':
likely to be a barren conquest, for here, as elsewhere the ^^p'*^'
policy of retreat, so fatal to Napoleon's hopes, was put into effect The
eniperor took up his abode in the Kremlin, within whose ample precincts he
found quarters for the whole imperial guard. The remainder of the army
was stationea at chosen points about the city. Provisions were abundant
the houses and stores of the city being amply supplied. The army enjoyed
a luxury of which it had been long deprived, while Napoleon confidently
awaited a triumphant result from his v'ctorious progress.
A terrible disenchantment awaitea the invader. Early on the followinp-
mornmg word was brought him tlvu Moscow was on f^re. Flames arose
from houses that had not been opened. It was evidently a premeditated
conflagration. The fire burst out at once in a dozen quarters, and a hth
cTurchTo "h r 'r". ^"" ^'"^' '° '"'^^'^ ''""^ h-- '- house, from
cnurch to church. Russians were captured who boasted that they had fired
the town under orders and who met death unflinchin<rly The
governor had left them behind for this fell purpose The '^';^ »"'•"«"««'
poorer people, many of whom had remained hidden in their City T
huts, now fled in terror, taking with them what, cherished "°''"^-
possessions they could carry. Soon the city was a seething mass of flames.
^ 1 he Kremlin did not escape. A tower burst into flames. In vain the
tmperial guard sought to check the fire. No fire-engines were to be found
n the town. Napo eon hastily left the palace and sought shelter outside
the city, where for three days the flames ran riot, feeding on ancient palaces
and destroying untold treasures. Then the wind sank and rain pourH upon
the smouldering embers. The great city had become a desolate i.^ap of
smoking ruins, into which the soldiers daringly stole back in search of
valuables that might have escaped the flames.
This frightful conflagration was not due to the czar, but to Count
Rostopchin the governor of Moscow, who was subsequently driven from
Russia by the execrations of those he had ruined. But it served as a procla-
f:l
gi
THE DECLINE AND FALL OF NAPOLEON'S EMPIRE
51 '
%
I i(
iimtion to Europe of the implacable resolution of the Muscovites and
their determination to resist to the bitter end.
Napoleon, sadly troubled in soul, sent letters to Alexander, suggesting
the advisability of peace. Alexander left his letters unanswered. Until
October i8th the emperor waited, hoping against hope, willing to grant
almost any terms for an opportunity to escape from .he fatal trap into which
his overweening ambition had led him. No answer came from the czar.
He was inflexible in his determination not to treat with these invaders of
his country. In deep dejection Napoleon at length gave the order to
retreat— too late, as it was to prove, since the terrible Russian winter was
ready to descend upon them in all its frightful strength.
The army that left that ruined city was a sadly depleted one. It had
The Grand been reduced to 103,000 men. The army followers had also
iti Retreft"^ become greatly decreased in numbers, but still formed a host,
among them delicate ladies, thinly clad, who gazed with terri-
fied eyes from their traveling carriages upon the dejected troops. Articles
of plunder of all kinds were carried by the soldiers, even the wounded in the
wagons lying amid the spoil they had gathered. The Kremlin was destroyed
by the rear guard, under Napoleon's orders, and over the drear Russian
plains the retreat began.
It was no sooner under way than the Russian policy changed. From
retreating, they everywhere advanced, seeking to annoy and cut off the
enemy, and utterly to destroy the fugitive army if possible. A stand was
made at the town of Maloi-Yaroslavitz, where a sanguinary combat took
place. The French captured the town, but ten thousand men lay dead or
wounded on the field, while Napoleon was forced to abandon his projected
line of march, and to return by the route he had followed in his advance
on Moscow. From the bloody scene of contest the retreat continued, the
battlefield of Borodino being crossed, and, by the middle of November! the
ruins of Smolensk reached.
Winter was now upon the French in all its fury. The food brought
from Moscow had been exhausted. Famine, frost, and fatigue had proved
more fatal than the bullets of the enemy. In fourteen days after reaching
The Sad Rem- Moscow the army lost 43,000 men, leaving it only 60,000 strong.
nant of the On reaching Smolensk it numbered but 42,000, having lost
18,000 more within eight days. The unarmed followers are
said to have still numbered 60,000. Worse still, the supply
of arms and provisions ordered to be ready at Smolensk was in great part
lackiny. onlv rvp-fjmir nnrl nV^ bci'T^ foimH C«-arv-«-)Vr *^l '- 1 ' • ' •'
winter cold in the destruction of the feeble remnant of the "Grand Army."
Army of
Invasion
THE DECLINE AND FALL OF N.IPOLEON'S l-.MriRh: q,
Onwa^d went the despairing host, at every step harassed by the Russians,
••ho followed like wolves on their path. Ney, in command of the rear-
guard, was the hero of the retreat. Cut ofT by the Russians from th. main
column, and apparently lost beyond hope, he made a wonderful escape by
crossing the Dnieper on the ice during the night and rejoining his compan-
ions, who had given up the hope of ever seeing him again.
On the 26th the ice-cold river Beresina was reached, destined to be the
most terrible point on the whole dreadful march. Two bridcres ^. ^
were thrown in all haste across the stream, and most of the c^ornrof
men under arms crossed, but 18,000 stragglers fell into the the Beresina
hands of the enemy. How many were trodder death in the press or were
crowded from the bridge into the icy river cannot be told. It is said that
when spring thawed the ice 30,000 bodies were found and burned on the
banks of the stream. A mere fragment of the great army remained alive
INey was the last man to cross that frightful stream.
On the 3d of December Napoleon issued a bulletin which has become
famous, telling the anxious nations of Europe that the grand army was anni-
hilated, but the emperor was safe. Two days afterwards he surrendered the
command of the army to Murat and set out at all speed for Paris where
his presence was indispensibly necessary. On the 13th of December some
16.000 haggard and staggering men, almost too weak to hold the arms to
which tney still despairingly clung, recrossed the Niemen, which the errand
army had passed in such magnificent strength and with such abounding
resources less than six months before. It was the greatest and most astounct
ing disaster in the military history of the world.
r ^"^T .T^": .""^ ^''"'°' "'^y ^^ ^^^y ^^°^^^^ ^y a dramatic story told by
General Math.eu Dumas, who. while sitting at breakfast in Gumbinnen
saw enter a haggard man, with long beard, blackened face, and red and
glaring eyes.
" I am here at last," he exclaimed. " Don't you know me ?"
" No," said the general. " Who are you ?"
" I am the rear-guard of the Grand Army. I have fired the last musket-
shot on the bridge of Kowno. I have thrown the last of our arms into the
JNiemen, and came hither through the woods. I am Marshal Ney "
"This is the beginning of the end," said the shrewd Talleyrand, when
Napoleon set out on his Russian campaign. The remark proved true the
disaster in Russia had loosened the grasp of the Corsican on the throat of
t.urope, and the nations, which hated as much as thev feared their mth^s
enemy, made active preparations for his overthrow. While he was in
France, actively gathering men and materials for a renewed struggle signs
94
Tim DECLINE AND FA EL OF NAPOLEON'S EMPIRE
ii!
I !
U I f
of an implr-cable hostility began to mcinifest themselves on all sides in the
surrounding states. Belief in the invincibility of Napoleon had vanished,
and little fear was entertained of the raw conscripts whom he was forcing
Europe in Arms ''^^'^ ^^^^ ranks to replace his slaughtered veterans.
Against Prussia was the first to break the bonds of alliance with
Napoleon France, to ally itself with Russia, and to call its people to
arms against their oppressor. They responded with the utmost enthusiasm,
men of all ranks and all professions hastened to their country's defence, and
the noble and the peasant stood side by side as privates in the same regi-
ment. In March, 1813, the French left Berlin, which was immediately
occupied by the Russian and Prussian allies. The king of Sa.xony, how-
ever, refused to desert Napoleon, to whom he owed many favors and
whose anger he feared ; and his State, in consequence, became the theatre
of the war.
Across the opposite borders of this kingdom poured the hostile hosts.
The Opening meeting in battle at Liitzen and Buntzen. Here the French
oftiie held the field, driving their adversaries across the Oder, but
na strugge j^^^ j^^ j.|^g ^^jj^ dismay seen at Jena. A new spirit had been
aroused in the Prussian heart, and they left thousands of their en-mies
dead upon the field, among whom Napoleon saw with grief his especial
friend and favorite Duroc.
A truce followed, which the French emperor utilized in gathering fresh
levies. Prince Metternich, the able chancellor of the Austrian empire,
sought to make peace, but his demands upon Napoleon were much greater
than the proud conqueror was prepared to grant, and he decisively refused
to cede the territory held by him as the spoils of war. His refusal brought
upon him another powerful foe, Austria allied itself with his enemies,
formally declaring war on August 12, 181 3, and an active and terrible
struggle began.
Napoleon's army was rapidly concentrated at Dresden, upon whose
The Battle' of ^^^^^s of defence the allied army precipitated itself in avigor-
Dresden, Na- ous assault on August 26th. Its streno^th was wasted against
poieon's Last t;he vigorously held fortifications of the city, and in the end
Great Victory , ^ "^ ,, , , . , , ,
the gates were flung open and the serried battalions of the
Old Guard appeared in battle array. From every gate of the city these
tried soldiers poured, and rushed upon the unprepared wings of the hostile
host. Before this resistless charge the enemy recoiled, retreatine with heavy
loss to the heights beyond the city, and leaving Napoleon master of the field.
On the next morning the battle was resumed. The allies, strongly
posted, still outnumbered the French, and had abundant reason to exnect
I
sides in th«
d vanished,
was forcinjr
iliance with
> people to
enthusiasm,
lefence, and
; same regi-
mmediateiy
ixony, how-
favors and
the theatre
)stile hosts,
the French
't Oder, but
it had been
iir en-^mies
lis especial
lering fresh
an empire,
ich greater
ely refused
jal brought
s enemies,
nd terrible
pon whose
in a'vigor-
ted against
in the end
ions of the
city these
the hostile
with heavy
Df the field.
s, strongly
1 to expect
...;yrt
■! ! !!
• !
i
f
If
1
J
r
f
I 1
*
n ?
i
I
"■■if
THR DECUS'E AND rALL OF NAJ\>/./-:o\ S IJll'lKI: ^5
victory. I^.t Napoleon's eacrle eye quickly saw that tluMr left wi.ur lackc-d
the strength of the remainder of the line, and upon this he poured the bulk
ot h,s forces, whde kccpin- their centre and ri-ht actively e.i-aired. TIk.
result just.hed the instinct of his genius, the enemy was ciriven back in
disastrous defeat, and once again a glorious victory was inscribed upon the
banners of I^ ranee— the final one in Napoleon's career of fame.
Yet the fruits of this victory were largely lost in the events of \h.
remainder of the month. On the 26th Hliicher brilliantly defeated Marshal
Macdonald on the Katzbach. in Silesia ; on the 30th General ^ , , ,
\andamme. with .0,000 French soldiers, was surrounded and French
captured at Culm, in Bohemia; and on the 27th Hirschfi^ld, at D'sasters
Hagelsberg, with a corps of volunteers, defeated Girard." The Prussian-
SwedLsh army simdarly won victories on August 25th and September 6ih
and a few weeks afterward the Prussian general, Count York, supported l>v
the troops of General Horn, crossed the Elbe in the face of the enemy
and gamed a b.illiant victory at Wartenburg. Where Napoleon was
present victory inclined to his banner. Where he was absent his lieuie-
nants suffered defeat. The struggle was everywhere fierce and desperate
but the end was at hand.
The rulers of he Rhine Confederation now began to desert Napoleon
and all Germany to join against him. The first to secede was Bavaria,
which allied Itself with Austria and joined its forces to those of the allies
During October the hostile armies concentrated in front of
Leipzig, where was to be fought the decisive battle of the war. "^ MeeJfni of
Ihe struggle promised was the most gigantic one in which the Armies
Napoleon had ever been engaged. Against his 100.000 men "^ L«'P^»»
was gathered a host of 300.000 Austrians, Prussians, Russians, and
Swedes.
We have not space to describe the multitudinous details of this micrhty
struggle, which continued with unabated fury for three days, October r6th
17th, and i8th. It net : carcely be said that the generalship shown by Na-
poleon m this famous contest lacked nothing of his usual brilliancy and
hat he was ably seconded by Ney, Murat, Augereau. and others of his
famous generals, yet the overwhelming numbers of the enemy enabled them
to defy all the valor of the French and the resources of their great leader
and at evening of the i8th the armies still faced each other in battle array'
the fate of the field yet undecided.
Napoleon was in no condition to renew the combat. During the loner
affray the French had expended no less than 250,000 cannon balls. They had
but ,6,000 left, which two hours' firing would exhaust. Reluctantly he gave
1 -v
*^^^
9«
rilK DF.CI.INE AND l-AI.L OF A'.irO/./i(WS IMI'IHR
t c „r ler t„ r- r.-at, an,l all that „ij;ht the wcarie<l and .lisheartc-ned troop,
f nd 1 T','' ;' ■'-'■■"•" "' '"'■''"*-'• '"•'^'"^' ••' ^^•••'^•*.'"='«l ^•" ">e city, whoX!
mde<l , bravely a,.a,nst the swar,nin<j multitude of the fo-. A disastrous
under tomunatcd their stubh.rn .lefen,:e. Orders had been left t,> 1^. p
h brulK,. across the Elster, but the mine was, by mistake, set off too ,Z
wounded, was forced to surrender as prisoners of war
the Rhin'l"' T I""''"? ""y- Vigorously pursue.l, the French reached
he Rh ne by forced marches, defeating with heavy loss the army of Austri-
' I thl ;rT" " "" '°"''''" '° ""'=' ""''■• '"^y- ''"'■^ ^'^-" was cross i
^nd the I rench were once more upon their own soil. After years of contest
Germany was finally freed fron, Napoleon's long-victorious XZ ' '
nolief " i", "r u ' °""'- ■'"'"■• '^"^^'""y "'•«'-'"i^«l work of Napoleon's
pohcy qu,ckly fell to p.eces. The kingdon, of Westphalia was di'ssolved!
The Break-up ' !'<= el<^ctor of Hesse and the dukes of Brunswick and Olden-
t^Cr'' ^.7;='7"«l t° 'he thrones fron, which they had been driven.
Empire \ l^^ Confederation of the Rhine ceased to exist, and its states
allied themselves with Austria. Denmark, Irng faithful to
France, renounced its alliance in January, ,814. Austria regained oses
3; Af ' f h«'d captive by Napoleon, came back in triumph to
r a d tlil'"°" " "'"'"'' '° '"••'' ''°"" '"^ "'i«- °f -"F->e slowly
rcaed through so many years, and almost all Europe outside oi France
united Itself m hostility to its hated foe
frontrer'bt°his"oTd°''rf """■ '^^ "°"''' ^"^P' "^^ "^'"^ ^ '^e French
rontier, but his old infatuation and trust in his genius prevailed over the die
ates of prudence, he treated the offer in his usual double-dealin . way a d
the allies, convinced that there could be no stable peace while he%em:ined
on the throne decided to cross the Rhine and invade France
Blucher led his cohnuns across the stream on the first dav of iSi.
Schwarzenberg marched dirough Switzerland into France, aid VVellingtot
crossed the Pyrenees. Napoleon, like a wolf brought to bay
sought to dispose of his scattered foes before they would unite'
and began with Blucher, whom- he defeated five times within
as many days. The allies, still in dread of their great
robb»d him °^^°T'' 1,°"? ™°? °'^""'' '''™ ?'=="=«• >="' W"^ ^^cess
robbed him of wisdom, he demanded more than they were willing to give
and his enemies, encouraged by a success gained by BlUcher broke off the
'^^Z^t!^'^' °" '-^' "''" "-' - '^^ ^ethroiiemL'^o"
1 he War in
France and
the Abdica-
tion of the
Emperor
IKE
Ttened troops
city, v'lio de-
A disastrous
eft to blow up
off too soon,
! of -iciv and
;nch reached
ny of Austri-
n was cross i
rs of contest,
ts.
f Napoleon's
as dissolved,
c and Olden-
been driven,
ind its states
faithful to
ined posses-
tal, and the
triumph to
np'.re slowly
i ov ^'rance
; the French
Dver the die-
ng way, and
le remained
ay of 1 8 14,
Wellington
ight to bay,
vould unite,
mes within
their great
his success
ng to give,
)ke ofT the
^nt of their
/•///• FAl.r. AND DECUNR OF NAPOLEON'S EMPIRE qy
A few words will bring thn story of this contest to an end. France
was exhausted, Its army was incapable of coping with the serried battalions
marshal' -d against it, Paf-is surrendered before Napoleon could come to its
defence, and in the end the emperor, vacillating and in despair, was obliged,
on April 7, 18 14, to sign an unconditional act of abdication. The powers of
Europe awarded him as a kingdom the diminutive island of I<:iba. in the
Mediterranean, with an annual income of 2,000.000 francs and an army
composed of 400 of his famous guard. The next heir to the throne
returned as Louis XVIII. France was given back its old frontier of 1492.
the foreign armies withdrew from her soil, and the career of the great
Corsican seemed at an end.
In .spite of their long experience with Napoleon, the event proved that
the powers of Europe knew not all the uidacity and mental resources of the
man with whom they had to deal. They had made what might have proved
a fatal error in giving him ai. asylum so near the coast of France, whose
people, intoxicated with the dream of glory through which he had so long
led them, vvould be sure to respond enthusiastically to an appeal to rally to
his support.
The powers were soon to learn their error. WhK. the Congress of
Vienna, convened to restore the old constitution of Europe, was deliber-
ating and disputing, its members were startled by the news that the de-
throned emperor was again upon the soil of France, and that ^^ ^, „„
Louis XVIII. was in full flight for the frontier. Napoleon Returns
had landed on March i, 1815, and set out on his return to '•'o'" Elba
Paris, the army and the people rapidly gathering to his support. On the
30th he entered the Tuileries in a olaze of triumph, the citizens, thoroughly
dissatisfied with their brief experience of Bourbon rule, going mad with
enthusiasm in his welcome.
Thus began the famous period of the " Hundred Days." The powers
declared Napoleon to be the "enemy of nations," and armed a half million
of men for his final overthrow. The fate of his desperate attempt was
soon decided. For the first time he was to meet the British in battle, and
in Wellington to encounter the only man who had 'definitely made head
against his legions. A British army was dispatched in all haste to Belgium
Blucher with his Prussians hastened to the same region, and the mighty
final struggle was at hand. The persistent and unrelenting enemies of the
Corsican conqueror, the British islanders, were destined to be the agents of
his overthrow.
The little Wino-Hom of Rialn-i'iirn iiroo fUo „«.,-. / ^i. . ..
- — c "- ■-••a*"^" "S= ^"^ =^c"^ ui Liic momentous contest
that brought Napoleon's marvelous career to an end. Thither he led his
-rflf
98
THE DECLINE AND EALL OF NAPOLEON'S 7':MP/RE
llllf *
Ih
M ?!
U i
?
'f K' II
army, largely made un of new conscripts; and thither the En-di.sh and the
Pi-uss.ans hastened to meet him. On June 16, .815, th(. prelude to the
The Gathering .£r''<-at battle took place. Napoleon met Bliicher at Licrny and
V^:xXT I'^^^'^'^'^Y'""'' '''""' '"""'"§^ ^'"°"^'^y ^" P"'--^"^ '^^ Pr-.ssians,
he turned against his island foes. On the same day Ney en-
countered the forces of Wellington at Quatre Bras, but failed to drive them
back. On the 17th Wellington took a new position at Waterloo, and awaited
there his great antagonist.
June iSth was the crucial day in Napoleon's career, the one in which
his pow 3r was to fall, never to rise again. Here we shall but sketch in out-
line this famous battle, reserving a fuller account of it for our next chapter,
The Terrible ""tier the story of Wellington, the victor in the fray The
WatriJo «t"Pe"^lo"« struggle, as Wellington himself described it,
K 1 AuT ,"'' l'^"" °^ -'-''"''•" ^°"- ^'^^ ''^^"'t wavered in the
balance. All day long the British sustained the desperate assaults of their
antagonists. Terrible was the contest, frightful the loss of life Hour
after hour passed, charge after charge was hurled by Napoleon against the
British lines, which still closed up over the dead and stood f^rm ; and it
seemed as A night wquld fall with tne two armies unflinchingly face to face
neither of them victor in the terrible fray.
The arrival of Blucher with his Prussians turned the scale. To Napo-
eons bitter disappointment Grouchy, who should have been close on the
heels of the I russians. failed to appear, and the weary and dejected French
were left to face these fresh troops without support. Napoleon's Old Guard
in vain flung itself into the gap, and the French nation long repeated in
pride the saying attributed to the commander of this famous corps-
llie guard dies, but it never surrenders."
In the end the French army broke and fled in disastrous rout, three-
fourths of the whole force being left dead, wounded, or prisoners, while all
Its artillery became the prize of the victors. Napoleon, pale and confused
Napoleon Meets ??!' 'f^ bySoult from the battlefield. It was his last fight.
His Fate ^'^ abdication was demanded, and he resigned the crown in
f n . !f''7 ?^ ^'^ ^°"' ^ hopeless and unnerved fugitive, he fled
trom Fans to Rochefort. hoping to escape to America. But the British fleet
held that port, and in despair he went on board a vessel of the fleet, trustino-
himself to the honor of the British nation. But the statesmen of En^dand
had no syinpathy with the vanquished adventurer, from whose ambition
Euroj3e had suffered so terribly. He was sent as a state prisoner to th.
island of St. Helena, there to end his days. His final hour' of glory came
42, when his ashes were "
in
brought in pomp and display to Paris.
^/;
lish and the
ilude to the
it Ligny and
le Prussians,
day Ney en-
3 drive them
and awaited
)ne in which
:etch in out-
ext chapter,
fray. The
escribed it,
ered in the
ilts of their
Hfe. Hour
against the
irm ; and it
ace to face,
To Napo-
ose on the
ted French
Old Guard
epeated in
ous corps :
rout, three-
3, while all
confused,
> last fieht.
: crown in
ve, he fled
ritish fleet
it, trusting
f England
: ambition
ner to tlie
jlory came
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as
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mm^^:.
CHAPTER V.
Nelson ?/.A Wellington, the Champions of England.
FOR nearly twenty years went on the stupendous struggle between
Napoleon the Great and the powers of Europe, but in all that time,
and among the multitude of men who met the forces of France in
battle, only two names emerge which the world cares to remember, those
of Horatio Nelson, the most famous of the admirals of England, and Lord
Wellington, who alone seemed able to overthrow the greatest military
genius of modern times. On land the efforts of Napoleon were seconded
by the intrepidity of a galaxy of heroes, Ney, Murat, Moreau, Massena, and
other men of fame. At sea the story reads differently. That era of stress
and strain raised no great admiral in the service of France; England and
her ships were feebly commanded, and the fleet of Great France on
Britain, under the daring Nelson, kept its proud place as Land and Sea
mistress of the sea.
The first proof of this came before the opening of the century, when
Napoleon, led by the ardor of his ambition, landed in Egypt, with vacnie
hopes of rivaling in the East the far-famed exploits of Alexander the
Great. The fleet which bore him thither remained moored
in Aboukir Bay, where Nelson, scouring the Mediterranean in
quest of it, first came in sight of its serried line of ships on
August I, 1798. One alternative alone dwelt in his cour-
ageous soul, that of a heroic death or a glorious victory.
" Before this time to-morrow I shall have gained a victory or Westminster
Abbey," he said.
In the mighty contest that followed, the French had the advantage in
numbers, alike of ships, guns, and men. They were drawn up in a strong and
compact line of battle, moored in a manner that promised to bid defiance to
a force double their own. They lay in an open roadstead, but had every
advantage of situation, the British fleet being obliged to attack them in a
position carefully chosen for defence. Only the genius of Nelson enabled him
to overcome those advantages of the enemy. "If we succeed, what will the
world say ?" asked Captain Berry, on hearing the admiral's plan of battle.
• There is no if in the case," answered the admiral. " That we shall
is certain : who may live to tell the story, is a very different question.
Nelson Dis-
covers the
French Fleet
in Aboukir
Bay
succeec
themselves a dozen
, and Wellington
f Napoleon.
(lOl)
-SS
m I
rrf ^1
i; 1
w
I02 A^^^L^^A^ ^ATZ? WELLINGTON, THE CHAMPIONS OF ENGLAND
The story of the "Battle of the Nile" belongs to the record of
The Glorious eighteenth century affairs. All we need say here is that it
Battle of the ended in a glorious victory for the English fleet. Of thirteen
ships of the line in the French fleet, only two escaped Of
four frigates, one was sunk and one burned. The British loss was 895 men
Of the French. 5.225 perished in the terrible fray. Nelson sprang in a
moment from the position of a man without fame into that of the naval
hero of the world-as Dewey did in as famous a fray almost exactly a century
later. Congratu ations and honors were showered upon him, the Sultan of
Turkey rewarded him with costly presents, valuable testimonials came from
other quarters and his own country honored him with the title of Baron
Nelson of the Nile, and settled upon him for life a pension of ^2,000
The first great achievement of Nelson in the nineteenth century was
the result of a daring resolution of the statesmen of England, in their
desperate contest with the Corsican conqueror. By his exploit at the Nile
the admiral had ry seriously weakened the sea-power of France But
there were powers then in alliance with France-Russia, Sweden and Den-
mark-which had formed a confederacy to make England respect their
naval rignts and whose combined fleet, if it should come to the a-'d ol
h ranee might prove sufficient to sweep the ships of England from the seas
The weakest of these powers, and the one most firmly allied to France*
was Denmark, whose fleet, consisting of twenty-three ships of the line and
about thirty-one frigates and smaller vessels, lay at Copenhagen. At any
moment this powerful fleet might be put at the disposal of Napoleon This
possible clanger the British cabinet resolved to avoid. ' A pkn was'laid to
destroy the fleet of the Danes, and on the :2th of March, 1801, the B^'i h
fleet sailed with the purpose of putting this resolution into effect
^t !;'T , ]^''''°"' '^^" ^^^"'"^^ ^he rank of vice-admiral, went with
SpenhU '\\t^^'^ '^"^^"^y '-^^ ^^^«"d in command. To the disgust
of the English people. Sir Hyde Parker, a brave and able
seaman, but one whose name history has let sink into oblivion, was given
ton if'rr V. "'"'^ "'"^^ ^^^^ '"^"^^^ ^^^^ f^'^"- «f ^1- 4edi.
tion If Nelson had not set aside precedent, and put glory before duty
Parker, indeed, soon set Nelson chafing by long drawn-ou' negotiation's'
which proved useless, wasted time, and saved the Danes from being taken
leLI'T" ^ T' '", 'I' "°^""^^ '' ^^^'' 30th, the British fleet a
length advanced through the Sound and came in sight of the Danish line
of defence, they beheld formidable preparations to meet the,.
i^ighteen vessels, including full-rigged ships and hulks, were moored in
a line nearly a mile and a half in length, flankea to the northward by t Jo
B^aH
LAND
NELSON AND WELLINGTON, THE CHAMPIONS OF ENGl.AND 103
record of
2 is that it
Of thirteen
caped. Of
s 895 men
)rang, in a
the naval
}' a century
; Sultan of
came from
i of Baron
2,000.
2ntury was
i, in their
t the Nile
.nee. But
and Den-
pect their
:he aid ol
I the seas,
to France,
; line and
At any
on. This
as laid to
le British
vent with
e disgust
and able
/as given
e expedi"
3 re duty,
otiations,
ng taken
. fleet at
nish line
cored in
\ by two
artificial islands mounted with sixty-eight heavy cannon and supplied with
furnaces for heating shot. Near by lay two large block-ships, j^e Danish
Across the harbor's mouth extended a massive chain, and Line of
shore batteries commanded the channel. Outside the harbor's defence
mouth were moored two 74-gun ships, a 40-gun frigate, and some smaller
vessels. In addition to these defences, which stretched for nearly four
miles in length, was the difficulty of the channel, always hazardous frop-" its
shoals, and now beaconed with false buoys for the purpose of luring the
British ships to destruction.
With modern defences — rapid-fire guns and steel-clad batteries — the
enterprise would have been hopeless, but the art of defence was then at a
far lower level. Nelson, who led the van in the 74-gun ship Elephant, gazed
on these preparations with admiration, but with no evidence of doubt as to
the result. The British fleet consisted of eighteen line of battle ships, with
a large number of frigates and other craft, and with this force, and his in-
domitable spirit, he felt confident of breaking these formidable lines.
At ten o'clock on the morning of April 2d the battle began, two of the
British ships running aground almost before a gun was fired. The Attack on
At sight of this disaster Nelson instantly changed his plan of the Danish
sailing, starboarded his helm, and sailed in, dropping anchor '^'®®'
within a cable's length of the Dannebrog, of 62 guns. The other ships fol-
lowed his example, avoiding the shoals on which the Bellona 2S\6. Russell \\-a.A
grounded, and taking position at the close quarters of 100 fathoms from the
Danish ships.
A terrific cannonade followed, kept up by both sides with unrelenting
fury for three hours, and with terrible effect on the contesting ships and
their crews. At this juncture took place an event that has made Nelson's
name immortal among naval heroes Admiral Parker, whose flag-ship lay
at a distance from the hot fight, but who heard the incessant and furious fire
and saw the grounded ships flying signals of distress, began to fear that Nel-
son was in serious danger, from which it was his duty to withdraw him. At
about one o'clock he reluctantly hoisted a signal for the action to cease.
At this moment Nelson was pacing the quarter-deck of the Elephant,
inspired with all the fury of the fight; " It is a warm business," he said to
Colonel Stewart, who was on the ship with him ; '* and any moment may be
the last of either of us ; but, mark you, I would not for thousands be any-
where else."
As he spoke the flag-lieutenant reported that the signal to ce.ase action
was shown on the mast-head of the flag-ship London, and asked if he should
report it to the fleet
i!
»04 NJiLSON AND IVFII mrTn^r .
.. No •' W.S the t '''' CHAMPIONS Or .NOLANO
for ' close'acZ ' V\'^Yn^~ ' " ^^^^^^^^ 'Acknowledge it. Is our signal
"^es," replied the officer.
How Nelson " Then see that- vr>,, t
;; No. What dot. ft Sa„ ?^ ''' ■'''°"" "^^ ''-^er's ships ?" ' '"
" To leave off action i" H
"Now damn me if f Jo r ' "" '^'^ '*''«'« ^ foment, then burst out
^'^P'X^::^^:^^ -r n^-. -- said: ..Ko,e,, ,o„'
^;- -ope, applied it to his ^:^t: Z^'^^^^T::^^ ""-V
* ^ ^ really do not see the
In half an hour more the fire of th n "'' '^'''"'^ ■■«"' 'he Danish shins
■' «d nearly ceased. They had ^\ T, '"^^ '''' ^^^-k.nin^. In an hour
only the continued fire o L s,l ' w! '»'"'""'•' '" ^'"P^ -^ li a j
was impossible to take pos es'ion of H '^ "°^' "^"^P' "'<= »'"«t ahve It
truce ashore „,ith a letter in wZ, he ,1 ''"""' '"'' '^'='^°" ^«" - la? o
all on board, unless the shore fi 7 ""■«^'«"«d 'o burn the vessels with
-e, ti,e fire ended, the ^7 baUirLtr end'"''' '"^^^' « *'
■^t tour o c bck lV«?o^ ^" ^"a-
He w. depressed In" S aX^d^^t^^f '^ '° "^ "^ ^^™>al.
™ay be hanged ; never mind, let them " "^'" '°"'^^'->' '° "^ders. and
There was no danger of this ■ P ' t
and endurance. Until ;„, ' nh' Z, "'"" '°'"^ '° >'■''=''' '° British lei
it r'r 'L'r ^r "^ ^^lu'strntv: tTfir" ^-ni'-^ -^^''^ --£
Nelson fo^r ^^ -^ l.^^ -->- him that h'el^d bt^atdt::::
J here remains to ri
.exploits, that in which he putTn f^ ^T '"^ "^°^^ f^"^ous of Nekon'
"^^^ the remainder of h T ''"'^ ' ° '^^^ sea-power of Fnnre K !! '
victory. Four vl.r h I "' '' '^''''^'^^'' '-^-^ "-t death "th; ' ''''^■
TMchnf fi, . ' ^^'^'^ P'A-'^-^'^d since thn G 1 . 7^ ""^ moment of
' "^ ^^ ^^^^ ^""^ Nelson had kept h flee -n ' 1 ^J^P-^'^a^-n. Durln.
" guard off Toul
on,
'nipatiently
A^^«<W AND WnUJNGTON T„r. CHAMPWNS OF nMC.r.AND ,05
Hntish colonies. He followed them thither in nil hn=f. . , '^^''*'" '" ^'"•^«
suh.,e<,u.,u„,, „„ U,ei. .u,.n ,0 France!' h:X:':V:, -« "'""■
"™o :■::"• r'TA^'f '='''-^'=™<=^' '- •'^s.- them to b.:;
any fo.ce the Bn:,""",:," ,, „" ,f r^ 1:"= A^a :::7'f, T^ '■' '° "'-'
s;.ps of the a,nes SPr:^:'^;.^^::^^ ::zi:::^ :::" '^ '-'^'
the movements, and hastened to Lord Nelson with the wcl '"'^!1i.
come news that the long-deferred moment was at hand On ^'^
I'o^tL'lth^S^ttr:,,?'" ^'-- - -'°-. ^.>a, was
loading guns, std'in h ir Ml 7''' T"'.,'''"'' ^"'''' '^"""'"S" ''^-'=1-
bowedrnngai ly hufo vi 1 beH n '"T' '"'"' °' ''''' "'°^« ^^^ "uff-
the sea as if to m^r'!'' '"'"' '°""i"g like black walls above
sho::fi;2reCd n „ :?rf',3^p:f "^f?^ '-i''^ ^"°'' -'"• -^ ■'^--
and spreadin.. sails °SW„ .1, f ' "'"''= "^-^''^ad rose lofty spars
bottol-n te^ninu;estf filht b ;T ,'''" '"'^^ ""^''"^ ""= -"* to'the
build were caoable -f -^ ' n "■"'''■ '™"='' ^^ainst others of the same
t wa! off H u f ,"?-'' ^'"'"' ''"°'"" °f themselves,
extremih of Sn t° , ^■'''"' "^"'''■^'S"' ""-'^'^ ">e southern
1 , ---^i --v., owns llclS^SIlip, t
U^rl'T'' °f 'he iintish isles:. ■England
Ja Jus
duty,
ich has bccomt
expects that every man will
ili
iiifii'
^^c/or^ in her course, in which Ne ^', """'' '^'''^ ^'^ ^""^^^ the
T.e..v,ctor... the heart o'filt::,^^r'^ "l'-'^ ^ '""^^ '^''"■^^'^ ■"^"
aadHerBrll. He Was nof 1 ' "-" ''^'''^'' '" '^''^ n^'^^^t for victory
upon his devoted vessel, which ou'ld no h '' "' "" ^"^""'"'^^ ^'"'^ «-
the wind having died cWav and h "° • ^'■'"f '-^ S:un to bear in return.
the waves. ^ ^ '"^ '^^ ^'^'P ^y'"^^ almost motionless upon
Before the Vufory \w^^ ablp fr.fi. i.
kiM«l or wounded, and he™,! "^T ^^''^ °' ''^^ "'^" ''^d f-^^en
series of fishing nets. lUnZT^n^rr' ","'. ^^"' "" '' '-^ed like a
tenacity, and at lengtl, tl,eir opport n rln^ 7 T' "!"' "">'''^''''"S
loaded vv.th a round shot and oo mn^L? il «'*-l"'""<ler carronade,
windows of the Bure,,,,,,,.^. w tlf^.c J; ""i ""' '^^"' """ ""^ ^^'b'"
and locked spars .iU:Ti2,^^;; ^^ a trrifi^ f ' ,'"' ^''^ ^°"*''
opposite side of the Av/„W./.^/, can e L S 'f ''' 'i':'-'^"' .0"the
opposite it ai;ain a second shin of ,1, , '"? ^«'«'-«'«. and
bow, and rending one "no ek' if '"T'' "^ '°"'- ^'--'^ 'ving bow to
tl>e ^'W«.^the gunners e"de;;: 1 " 'T"'" '"" "f''^''^- ^n
shonld not go tI,ron,d, an7wom,d H, 'o <iepress the.r pieces, that the halls
their cannon fairly touch" Ih f""":"'" '''^^>'°"<'- '"'e ">"z^les of
of >..ater was das/,ed i,fto h ' reu Tt tit ""' '''"'' """' »"°' ^ "^k-
whici, they confidently expected t^ 'take as a pril?' ""' "' "" '° "'^ >---'
Brass "svW::,:';te1n:u;ted''i:° he F^'T ','" '"^'^"'^^ ^"--^^ '^P°'<» of.
fire the deck of their foe, and a Nelson d t""" '"PJ '° '"'^'P "'"' ">eir
tl>eir poop deck, regard e's of dttr T ,"'••"," "'"''>' P"""" '"Sether
from one of these guns had re.chej' e %"^""''\ -''denly fell. A ball
™e a... B.„,e ■' They hav don or°m"' Tt °" **= '^*'^'-
and its sad ,„an said ™= "" '^"' Hardy," the fallen
Disaster
-,;f;;t;.,-;;t;:: ;■;,.!;:; -tst,- - -. - -.
I hope none of our ships have struck H.rdv " h f 11 - .
later interval of the tight. "^rdy. he feebly asked, in a
ENGLAND
liAt stupentfous
" to follow the
List himself into
est for victory.
2 found himself
'rinnr their fire
>ear in return,
otionless upon
men had fallen
t looked like a
ith unyielding
ler carronade,
nto the cabin
able 400 men
ibtable, of the
It she collided
s,^an. On the
meraire, and
lying- bow to
of balls. On
that the balls
le muzzles of
hot a bucket
to the vessel
y spoken of.
ip with their
:ed together
ell. A ball
St. '
the fallen
lay.
: from that
asked, in a
NELSON AND WELLINGTON, T/IL C/L^MPIONS OF ENGLAND .07
•' No, my lord. There is small fear of that,"
•' I'm a dead man. Hardy, but I'm glad of what you say. Whip them now
vou • ..rot them. Whip them as they've never been whipped before."
i Another hour passed. Mard)- came below again to say that fourteen
I or fifteen of the enemy's ships had struck.
I " That's better, though I bargained for twenty," said the dying man.
I 'And now, anchor, Hardy — anchor."
I " I suppose, my lord, that Admiral Collingwood will now take the direc-
f tion of affairs."
" Not while I live," exclaimed Nelson, with a momentary return of
; (Miergy. " Do j)w^ anchor. Hardy."
" Then shall we make the signal, my lord."
"Yes, for if I live, I'll anchoV."
That was the end. Five minutes later Horatio Nelson, victory for
England s greatest sea champion, was dead. He had won England and
both prizes he sought for in the battle of the Nile— victory ^^ath for Her
and Westminister Abbev Famous
(-.■,■,. ^ Admiral
Cohngwood did not anchor, but stood out to sea with the eighteen prizes
of the hard fought fray. In the gale that followed many of the results of
victory were lost, four of the ships being retaken, some wrecked on shore
some foundenng at sea, only four reaching British waters in Gibraltar Bay'
Hut whatever was lost, Nelson's fame was secure, and the victory at Trafalgar
IS treasured as one of the most famous triumphs of British arms
The naval battle at Copenhagen, won by Nelson, was followed, six years
ater. by a combmed land and naval expedition in which Wellington. En.r.
land s other champion, took part. Again inspired by the fear that Napoleoli
might use the Danish fleet for his own purposes, the British government
though at peace with Denmark, sent a fleet to Copenhagen, bombarded
and captured the city, and seized the Danish ships. A battle took place on
land in which Wellington (then Sir Arthur Wellesley) won an easy victory
and, captured ic^ooo men. The whole business was an inglorious one, a
dishonorable mc.dent m a struggle in which the defeat of Napaleon stood
f^rst, honor second. Among the English themselves some defended it on the
plea ot policy, some called it piracy and murder.
Not long afterwards England prepared to take a serious
part on land in the desperate contest with Napoleon and sent ''^''e British In
a British force to Portugal, then held by the French army of '''"**"^"'
invasion under Marshal lunot. This force loooostrr--- -n- a 1
hx, q;^ a,.^u A\r 11 1 ' , , , , '-'^'=' '"."oo strouj^, wa^i commanded
by Sir Arthur Wellesley, and landed July 30, 1808, at Mondego Bay H
M
soon joined by Gen-ial Spencer from Cad
iz, with 13.000 men.
'T'
ji
lie
at thrL-ait ;,I?u::;;;''r ri"''''"''' "■";"""• ''-- -"•"-'>• ai...,,,,.,
Vimcira, and wouM pr^ U hat been 7" "'; ' '''=''-^' ''" '^ ^"'^n' '>'-'"''^ "'
war ha,l not th. troops b! n cXd Tf " '" ''"•'''■"''"'■ ■''^ P"'^"""'^ "'
«'l>o had been sent o t to p ! , 1 w, r'"/ '"!"'"' ''>' -'''^ ""'^^'y ""--L
a-I was a trnce, and a co::!:tT;n ',,',' th^o: ZZ":;:- r"" ^ " °^ "
were permitted to evacuate Porfn.r-I vi ^^""^e terms the I'rench troops
to France. This rj""^ no^' ' "" """ ""' '"^^^^^^ -^'' -^u n
so disgusted Welle L^ytt^ hi :;: r'^"'"" ^^^^'^'^ '--'-'-^ --pe
THeneatHo. I-:n,land' ()te troops St . "T""-' ''^"' ^^'^"^"-^ ^"
Sir John Sir Dnvirl M ^ *'"^ ""''^''' ■^"" f^hn Moore and
Moore ^"-/^avui Ba.rd met a superior force of I<rencii in S.vn'n
their expedition ended in dis'ist..r M ' "' '''""
the troops were embarkin.Mo return onrt "h ""' ""' ^i'led while
Has been preserved in th^ fan.ou od " Th '^^TTT' '' ^^^'^ '^''^'
from which we quote : ' "^ ''""^^' ^^ ^^'^ Jo^n Moore."
" Wo huried him darkly at dead of night,
The sod with our bayonets turning
By the ghmmering Mioonl.eams' misty hght
And the lanterns dimly burning "
.o hel-n?:;';,;:;;:' :(^:tz ::z' " 'rr -"' ^"■■-^^ ■- -"™"''.
were at .hat th^.t ab„o<;'°,° "::,"!"'' "-/"',' °' ^■•■P"'''- T^^-
Had in Spain „,ore than 300,^0 men ,n I V" '^''T "'"■'^' "''^ '''•«"^''
Victor. Tl,e Uritish, indeTwere V > "' ,' ^"""'"'^ '' '^'^'J' ^°""' '"'"'l
theDouro , . " retreat they burned the brido^ of Ko^f. o
fanced tl,at l,e had disposed of Welleslev ancl m a H K^r '"""'' ''" ™-^'
time Sonlt was inforn.e^c.r (7'- 'w u7' 1"^' ""■"• '""' ^V the i
and controlled a good supp,; o, bots A b ,![ fu'"'"' ' '^^«<= '"^ '
Frenen were ronted and forced to retreat, But the on,; r:^ b;:;-;], the'i:
!"g9UR1>fi*=-- '--
ENGLAND
seriously alarmed
a sharp batth: at
■ as prisoners of
Harry Burrard,
rile end of it
I'rench troops
.ya.^^e and return
rechided escape
nd returned to
ohn IVIoore and
1^ in Spain, and
'as killed while
y of this afTair
John Moore,"
f in command,
polcon. There
ilc the French
^ey, Soult, and
of natives in
useless in re^-
held by Mar-
rton marched
river Douro.
boats across
nd rested in
Hi^di he was,
s on the sea-
1 attack.
'Ured, arid 2
ich attacked
, and by the
I lar^re force
i wliich the
which theif
I
n d
It.
p- 'J)
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a B
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tr."
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r
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a
N/iLSOX AND WnUJNCTON, THE af.lMP/OIVS OF ENCI.AND m
artillery or ha-'i^M^^L' could Ik: inovf-d had been sci/cd hy ( ■.(•ii.ral n.-rcsford.
ami was stron^dy h(dd. In consequence Souk was forced to abandon all his
wagons anil cannon antl make his escape by bye-roads into Spain.
This sinrnal victory was followed by anoth(!r on July 27, r;,09. wIkmi
Welleslcy, with 20,000 British soldiers and a!' ut 40,01)0 Span-
ish allies, met a I'rench a my of 60,000 n p t Talavera in TaIlvo?7ami
Spain. The battle that succeeded lasted two days. The brunt the \ ktor's
of it fell upon the British, ihe Spaniards provinj,^ of little use, '^'•'^■"'■''
yet it ended in the defeat of the I'rench. who retired unmolested, the Hritisii
being too exhaust(;d to pursue.
The tidings of this victory were received with the utmost enthusiasm
in England. It was shown by it that British valor could win battles against
Napoleon's on land as well as on sea. \V(dlesle)- received the wa^rmest
thanks of the king, and, like Nelson, was rewarded by being raised to the
peera--, being given the titles of Baron Douro of XVellesley and X^iscount
WelHngton of Talavera. In future we shall call him by his historic titk- A
Wellington.
Men and supplies just then would have served Wellington bett( r tha
titles. With strong support he could have marched on and taken A.adrid.
As it was, he felt obliged to retire upon the fortrc ,s of Badajoz, n(,'ar the
frontier of Portugal. Si)ain was swarming with bVrnch soldiers, who w(;re
gradually collected there until they exceeded 350,000 men. Of these 80,000,
under the command of Massena, were sent to act against the British. Before
this strong force Wellington found it necessary to draw I)ack, and the frontier
fortresses of Almeida and Ciudad Rodrigo were taken 1 y the l-nnch. Well-
ington's first stand was on the heights of Busaco, Sept^^mber, 1810. Here,
with 30,000 men, he withstood all the attacks of th(i French, who in the end
were forced to withdraw. IMassena then tried to gaii the road between
Lisbon and Oporto, whereupon Wellington quickly retreat. xl towards Lisbon.
The British general had during the winter been very usefully employed.
The road by which Lisbon must be approached passes th. village of Torres
Vedras, and here two strong lines of (;arthworks were on-
structed, some twenty-five miles in length, stretching fr )m impregnate
the sea to tlie Tagus, and effectually securing Lisbon aga ist Lines at
attack. These works had been built with such secrecy :. id '^''"^^^^'^^^^
despatch that the French were (^uite ignorant of their existence, and
Massena, marching in confidence upon the Portuguese capi-.al, was amazed
and chagrined on finding before him this formidable barrier.
Il was strongly defended, and all his efforts to take it proved in vain.
He then tried to reduce the British by famine, but in this i e was equally
!j.i
i
-^:. ^
«
The Siege and
Capture of
the Por-
tuguese
Fortresses
l>afflecl, food being poured into Lisbon from tl,e se-, H , ■ ^ u
retreat to draw the Britisli from fl„ . °'", "V^"' "<= "•'«d by a fciyne.l
feet, and for f„„r .no„t „ ore t ™™ r' ''f- '"''''^'"' ''''''' "<
the exiiaustion of the eountrv nf ' ■^'•'"'■•"n"! mactive. At lencrtl,
and Massena witl,drcl 2 theTplriT? "'1'' "T'^'y ^ -' -'-;
Of the proud force with which N.po' ' Y""^ ""=^'' S='l'-""anca.
leopards into the sea/^nore tha^ha f Lr"""","' ,'? "'''•''^^ "'^ ^''^'^^
paign. '"'f ''^'l ™n'shed in this luckless cam-
™.s,.„.. Wders,was tH:1rs':-To^:;e!ract 'bTv^J;;;:^,^^^^^ '"^
Mass<..na advanced with 50,000 n,en to ks relief "drl"'
arm,cs „,et at Fuentes-de-Onoro, May 4 8n Th t '"?
made attacks on the sth and fiti, 'b, f ' " ^"'"''^''
and on the 7th Massen ret Ln ^f ''f ' '"''' '""<= '''^P"'^"!.
fortune of the day was turnTd into 1;^ ," T""''''''^ ''^f^'^'' ^"1 the
'luently Ciudad Rodri.o asltta ked .X ' ' "'-'T" ^'"''^»"^- ^ubse-
' 8 . .. Wellington th'en returned t' B d """l" u ''^ ''"'"' '" J"""""'
■storm after a desperate con,battiich the So;:t'; "'" ''^° '^'^" '''•
exce«l,„g that of the whole French garrison '•°°°"'™' =* '"""'"='•
Inese continued successes of fC. R.v i
"ance with the usual exploTs of N o'l "'•' ''™"''>' °"' °f »"-
'•is marshals, blan,ing tl em everelv ':T"-T"'r- "" "«' f"™- "''"•
the struggle with Wdlington but d at his f -f ' ''? '^'"" ""''^ P'-"-* "'
We.u„..„„ to begin, '^ The L re s ta ;,; W^li'' '° """^t ^"^ ''^""^
WtosatSM,. Spain, and on lulv JTl Wellmgton advanced into
B^i. Marm'ont ^^l^^'^lZTTt:^:'^ '"'''-'-
<"■> Had yet be^er ^^^t^tTI^'^^T-^T-- '^S Well n !
-th the liritish a?n„ch d ,^o mH r ,'''='^""^'''"'''°"At,g„st
•ng them at Vittorii
n
ear the boundary of
X
i
i.
" ENGLAND
NELSON AND WELLINGTON, THE CHAMPIONS Of ENGLAND 113
France and Spain, on June 21, 1813. The French were for the first time
5n this war in a minority. They were also heavily encumbered with baggage,
the spoils of their occupation of Spain. The battle ended in
a complete victory for Wellington, who captured 157 cannon ^'"yj'e'l.eef '^
and a vast quantity of plunder, Including the spoils of Madrid
and of the palace of the kings of Spain. The specie, of which a large sum
was taken, quickly disappeared among the troops, and failed to reach the
treasure chests of the army.
The French were now everywhere on the retreat. Soult, after a vigor-
ous effort to drive the British from the passes of the Pyrenees, withdrew,
and Wellington and his army soon stood on the soil of France. A victory
over Soult at Nivelle, and a series of successes in the following spring, ended
the long Peninsular War, the abdication of Napoleon closing the long and
terrible drama of battle. In the whole six years of struggle Wellingto'n had
not once been defeated on the battlefield.
His military career had not yet ended. His great day of glory was
still to come, that In which he was to meet Napoleon himstdf in the field,
and, for the first time in the history of the great Corsican, drive back his
army in utter rout.
A year or more had passed since the events just narrated. In June,
1 815, Wellington found himself at the head of an army some 100,000 strong,
encamped around Brussels, the capital of Belgium. It was a The aatherin''
mingled group of British, Dutch, Belgian, Hanoverian, Ger- o"f the Forces
man, and other troops, hastily got together, and many of them ** Brussels
not safely to be depended upon. Of the British, numbers had never been
under fire. Marshal Blucher, with an equal force of Prussian troops, was
near at hand; the two forces prepared to meet the r-oidly advancing
Napoleon.
We have already told of the defeat of Blucher at Ligny, and the attack
on Wellington at Quatre Bras. On the evening of the 17th the army, re-
treating from Quatre Bras, encamped in the historic field of Waterloo 'in a
drenching rain, that turned the roads into streams, the fields into swamps.
All night long the rain came down, the soldiers enduring the flood with what
patience they could. In the morning it ceased, fires were kindled, and active
preparations began for the terrible struggle at hand.
Here ran a shallow valley, bounded by two ridges, the
northern of which was occupied by the British, while Napoleon ^he battlefield
4. A y- . ;., ^ 01 Waterloo
posted his army on it-, arrival along the southern ridge. On
the slope before the British centre was the white-walled farm house of La
Haye Sainte, and in front of the right wing the chateau of Hougoumont
'iiihl
' !i|ii
1:. ,
i;i, s
ii<. i
It-
It was nine o'doa t c,;, " '^'/"""f '" "'"^ ^""»K'<= "' "-■ day,
army made its appearance onZlZ^^t"'- ""/'•'"•'-"I °f 'he FrencI,
ten 61,000 soi.liers,-infantry IvX 1 rn '"■'; "'^"-■' "^ '''''f-P-'
«ght. About half.past eleven came h T ■'"'"'=,'•>■-'••'>' encamped in full
'1-ing which the Fench wiled '"' "■' 'T'' "' "''•" remarkable day
the defensive. '^"'' '" ■•'SS'-ess.ve battle, the British stood on
This first attack was directed a<n;„., u
The De.per«e ™s a desperate contt°r Artl"'"""'™"^' '"'""'"^ '"'"''^l' "'ere
Chafes of successive waves of attack l, '";"" "'^ ^'^''^>' >^ent on, in
'"^ "-"• the British h Id t e ": Mi "s "'r'^n' t" '''^^ '°"» ' ^et still
Frencl, failed to gain them a foolhoM withfii' '" "" ''<'"'= ^'^ "^ ">«
nonade:po::™ir^rtir'i:;t-\::rc"eit"e'"i^"^"'"' ">'■■' ^^'■^'■"'"' «"■
Ney, poured steadily forward straLdu f' ,7"^'"■•'sslve columns, led by
around the farm-steid of La H .e ta „ ^ but' "'f ' ^^^^«P'"» "P°" aud
sabres and bajonets of the British line W,'" "' "'"^^ P°"" ^^^ "'e
this great movement, the stru.T,de k,!, '' ^'*'°°° '"<=" took part in
French staggered ba^k in r ff T "f f""" f"'/" '""" ''''°'-' "-
stupendous cavalry charge, the massive c I " " ' '■™'^'' ""'=•'= ^ame a
forty sqt,aclrons of cuiras ilrs and H "".' '"'"P"-^"' "' "» 'ess th,„.
between Hougou.nont a d U Aal sTt""" 'f"' "'■""^^ ^" '"« space
"Pon the British lines. Torn "rartd " '"'^ P'^'^" "^"^ =' '--nt
reformed; charging again, and a Jn ;?' T",''^' ;""^'^^'^>' ■ ^''-l^ed,
strength and their lives on the infant , ' ""-'>' expended their
the gri,nn,est obstinacy. Once Ce n""" "'" ',"" "'^^^ ^-™"d with
of the I„,perial Guard, they can," o^' °" ^'^''■"»"'-^'' '^Y the cavalry
themselves against tho e unyield '. sou """T ""'" ''^••'"'' ^''^"ering
frightful loss. .ny.cldmg squares, and m the end repulsed with
""onlthe'XS Z reen";:rrS'3Lt''"l 'f^ '^ '" "^ •^^-
B,..r.. ^;ench,. when, em^g't: tt t ^ 7 if ^ "I '^'
On the answer to thkn 7 ^\°"d^y^ Pursuing French?
terrible day. Tl° t tion" '^'",""'"' "'*= '^''"'^ "' 'hat
D • J' ^ "t, question was soon denVlf^rl . <-i,
Prussians ; no sign appeared of the French th I ^' "''? ""=
I'gh with hope and ihnse -f ".I , ' I " ''*=""'' "^ 'he
Blticher's
Prussians
and the
Charge of
Napoleon's
Old Guard
British beat high with h^.e^LTrif °"'; "^^T'
for these fre^h fr..^... „ " i , ' / ^^ ''^^ i^rencli
lese fresh troops coiild
not fail
sank low in d
to decide the fate of
that
espair.
mio"
hty
•/•^ P.IVGLAND
-^ occupied by mer;
rnyfgle of the day,
ird of the French
Ig^^'- By half-past
encamped in full
t remarkable da)-,
British stood on
ound which there
ffray went on, in
ly lonor ; yet still
-rce valor of the
a fricrhtful can-
columns, led by
-ping upon and
ry point by the
sn took part in
our before the
1 lines came a
^f no less tha:.
■ all the space
like a torrent
-try; checked,
xpended their
r ground with
y the cavalry
th, shattering-
repulsed with
NELSOM AND WELLINGTON, THE CHAMPIONS OF ENGLAND 115
/ield of battle. Soon the final struggle came. Napoleon, driven to despera-
tion, launched his grand reserve corps, the far-famed Imperial Guard, upon
his enemies. On they come, with Ney at their head ; on theui pours a
terrible torrent of flame ; from a distance the front ranks appear stationary,
but only because they meet a death-line as they come, and fall in bleeding
rows. Then on them, in a wild charge, rush the British Foot Guards, take
them in flank, and soon all is over. " The Guard dies, but never surrenders,"
says their commander. Die they do, few of them surviving to take part i.i
that mad flight which swept Napoleon from the field and closed the fatal
day of Waterloo. England has won the great victory, now nearly a century
old, and Wellington from that day of triumph takes rank with the greatest
of British heroes.
7
* in the after-
efforts of the
St. Lambert,
Who were
ling French?
issue of that
liey were the
bearts of the
IV in despair,
that mighty
T f;
I I i,
ml
m
'11 't
I ;|;
li!
CHAPTER VI.
Fron, the Napoleonic Wars to the Revolution of 1830
THE terrific struo-p-Je of tJi« «< t r , , ^
'eon's return hoi E,ba a^Kl prelT'l P-''-"./^'"^'' f°"°wed N.po.
a serious break in .l,e elibera ,W of t' T'" '° ^'^ "^''="-''' "-<«
vened for tl,e purpose of recas ' ^ ^ „a , J E™'"" t T'^""'"' »""
had so sadly transformed, of setting- ZmTX f'^T' "'''''='' Napoleon
A Quarter Revolution and in a worf ." '"^"''^ """■'^ "' "'^ ^^ench
Century,,, clock of tin e TwentJfi ■ "''"'"'■' ^'""^ *<= ''^"^^ "f the
^"°""""" disturbance ts ^^0 'ifaT '"^ f ""'' '"™°" ■->-' ™'-nic
ruling powers were secure of leTr ^t T ' T"" ""= " ••"' ^^ • ">e
'he long and bitter struggle we cold ""^T \'^"' P™'^'^' ^™™-°"« ™h
^nd the emperors and kh^g ' eltd it Tf •^'m "= "'"" °' ^^^'^^ -'l P-ce ;
the load of new ideas u,rder which he E ""\ '° "'™" °^^''^«^^'l
to them likely to founder. European ■• ship of state " seemed
1 he ConpTess of VI
included mainly- as hands^e rjamei;: "Z' " '"''""" ¥"^<=""=- "
Austria, the kings of "russi-, r,.„" ,T' emperors of Russia and
its working element, thel rdi^rratesmer"/ p'™' ^^"-"^"^' ^ -". as
™ec„„„., f Castlereagh and S™, U.^Xn'df'S'^ "'^f T
of Vienna I'ru.ss.an Hardenber.r and tC 4 . \, Talleyrand, the
i" its delibrations fo; , ;, ^T"" ""''-''■"i'^h. Checked
days' death struggle, it quickly set ledZn'^ 7'"^"'" "^^^^^ '^""''-d
" the vast task of undoing the mk Itv r- r ""^ •■'^''■""' ''"'"- before
revolution. For the French ReTo f \°' ''' 'i"'"'""- °' ^ century of
revolution, with Napoleon^'lnd " miet'' s i^ """' ■'"" ■•'" ^"™P-"
whole cont,nent had been sown thickly urint t T ""'™"'<--'«s. The
Napoleonic ideas, and a crop of new dema H^ li- ''^, "'' "' ^-^ *"h 'he
not ea.ily to be uprooted. "''' ^"'' ™"'litions had grown up
Reaction was the order of the d-,v ;„ ,1, v
shaken power of the monarchs wa ,0 be res^or t J"""' ^°"''"'''- ^'"^
readjusted, the people to be put back into th' '™P °' ^"'"P'^ '° ^e
they occupied before that e^emf ,l7-o ' K "'\^"'^'"'»s.ve condition which
l^egan its momentous work of ovXr'.^tV ^'.f "-General of France
("« ovcuurnmg th^ equilibrium of the world.
FROM THE NAPOLEONIC WARS TO 1830
117
ion
of 1830
followed Napo.
:. Helena, made
of Vienna, con-
'hich Napoleon
of the French
le hands of the
)il and volcanic
It an end ; the
worn-out with
est and peace ;
-ow overboard
state " seemed
^'athering. It
f Russia and
Ijeror ; and, as
•ng the Eng.
alleyrand, the
ch. Checked
;rce hundred
aving before
a century of
an European
nents. The
^var with the
id grown up
g:ress. The
urope to be
lition which
l1 of France
the world.
A;i for the people, deeply infected as they were with the new ideas of
liberty and the ights of man, which had made their way Europe After
far beyond the borders of France, they were for the time worn- Napoleon's
out with strife and turmoil, and settled back supinely to *"^*''
enjoy the welcome era of rest, leaving their fate in the hands of the astute
plenipotentiaries who were gathered in their wisdom at Vienna.
These worthy tools of the monarchs had an immense task before
them — too large a one, as it proved. It was easy to talk about restoring to
'" the nations the territory they had possessed before Napoleon began his
career as a map-maker ; but it Wc j not easy to do so except at the cost of
new wars. The territories of many of the powers had been added to by
. the French emperor, and they were not likely to give up their new posses-
'; sions without a vigorous protest. In German) the changes had been
' enormous. Napoleon had found there more than three hundred separate
" statfis, some no larger than a small American county, yet each possessed of
. the pars ihernalia of a court and sovereign, a capital, an army and a public
': debt. And these were feebly combined into the phantasm known as the
Holy Roman Empire. When Napoleon had finished his work this empire
had ceased to exist, except as a tradition, and the great galaxy of sovereign
states was reduced to thirty-nine. These included the great dominions of
Austria and Prussia; the smaller states of Bavaria, Saxony, Hanover and
Wurtemberg, which Napoleon had raised into kingdoms ; and a vastly
reduced group of minor states. The work done here it was somewhat
dangerous to meddle with. The small potentates of Germany were like so
many bull-dogs, glaring jealously across their new borders, and ready to fly
at one another's throats at any suggestion of a change. The
utmost they would yield was to be united into a confederacy The Work of
called the Bund^ with a Diet meeting at Frankfurt. But
as the delegates to the Diet were given no law-making power, the Btind
became an empty farce.
The great powers took care to regain their lost possessions, or to
replace them with an equal amount of territory. Prussia and Austria spread
out again to their old size, though they did not cover quite the old ground.
Most of their domains in Pola..d were given up, Prussia getting new terri-
tory in West Germany and Austria in Italy Their provinces in Poland were
ceded to Alexander of Russia, who added to them some of his own Polish
dominions, and formed a new kingdom of Poland, he being its king. So in a
shadowy way Poland was brought to life again. England got for her share in
the spoils a number of French and Dutch colonies, including Malta and the
Cape Colony in Africa. Thus each of thegreat p ■)wers repaid itself for its losses.
i
fi8
J'JiOAf THE NAPC.EOmc WARS TO .Sjo
Genoa, was resto «, ^'l k : '"";\-<',.V the Republic ,
«ates were formed, as Parma, Mode "a „d I ' ".':''""'• ^°'"^ '=■"='""
Ven,ce, much the richest re nons „ I "^ ""■ .^'"='">'' Lombardy and
country was made ,),e doming rpowerillTM- ^"''" ■'" ^"^'"^'^ ^^ich
Louis XVIII the Rr.. .1 , ■'^^^'^" peninsula.
-i^ned whiie Nap<;,l™ t" °E,b:"?;mt™"'T °^ "^'^ ^^'- ""o >^^.l
The t,tle of Louis XVII. was given 'to T.* ? ""= "'^"^ °f F'ance.
who d,ed from cruel treatment f th ? '^°°'' ''°>'' '°" °f Louis XVI
the feeble Ferdinand retu^ed to the &:M f ^;°'--- ^ Sa!n
^ protest at t],e co.nmand of Napoleo P , ' '^'^ S'^™ "P ^>^^om
- - <«."ast, ^„ _, .„ P-";^ -nuga, was .-„ a m.arch oi
-en t5 fw:;f r .bi 1^^ -r: otr r 'r- "' '^^™ ' "- '^^y
qutte. The fren.ied en.husiasn, f °r Hbe rtv'aTf I ™ '■:°"»'" ''^'^'^ ' ^o
TheR,,... twenty-five years could n"',o:''";r 7""'' °' '"^ ?-'
lingering relics of feud"n „f b ^ ^' u' ^" "°"""&- The
. . ^ France but fron, all Europe "nd' ™""''f ' "°' ""'^ f™m
brmg them back again. I„ i.s place he orfnc T "TT"^ °' '°"S^^- '"uU
from France far among the peonls nfp ^ °' ''^"'ocracy had spread
pnvilege had been destroyed i^F„e1 anT'tb /^ '"""^'^ "' ^"-
replaced tt. The principle of the libertv'ortb I ° '°"'='' ^^"^"ty had
rehg^ous opinions, and the doctrine of fbe '"'^""'""'' «^P«!='"y ■" his
been proclaimed. These had la bit k ^r'T' °^ "'^ P«°P'<=. had
fight their way Absolutism and the spirit 7 /'?i '^'>«y "-ded to
agamst them. But they were too dl i '^ ,°' f^'^lalism were arrayed
people to be eradica^ed.'and their es ab L:"''''""=' ''" "'^ """^3 of the
-n t. most important part of the ;Sr:io; ^^ ^Z^J^
and 'f r;hrwri°::;::rat'i:L-whrTT °' ^-- ^-d
d.rected its efforts. The cause of q!de "^d o rd ' l' ^°"^^^^^ "' ^'-"a
estabhshed state of things, the authoritv If , ' ^' P-'^^'^rvation of the
peoples, must be firmly mS, tained and iLl /"'""'' ,""= ^"hordination of
trz": 1!-^ '-'■ «-^ - tt:To!ra?dLt'"i-t ™r "<= p-
.• . 3p.te o, us assembled wisd.n and the'';;;^;,::^"^;
•asm
830
'ope got back tlu,
; the same was the
tn from his throne
>y the Republic cf
iia. Some smaller
Hy, Lombardy and
to Austria, which
nsula.
5 XVI., who had
:hrone of France.
1 of Louis XVI.,
olution. In Spain
given up without
ven a monarch of
'e old conditions \
hem ? Had the)-
'ughtback? Not
rhts of the past
r nothing. The
not only from
r congress could
racy had spread
•inciple of class
al equality had
specially in his
he people, had
'hey needed to
were arrayed
minds of the
conditions has
the nineteenth
Europe feared
iss of Vienna
■vation of the
ordination of
s must be put
ne Congress,
-s it promul-
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t tlill
It is to the stea
JAMES WATT-THE FATHER OF THE STEA
M ENGINE
lo 't t^rs"e.,!^!„'^.^.-"t-^,f"> P™<^"ctive p.o«.ess of recen, hZ; ,;„.,. H,.
tfTective steam enRine.' ' His ^1^^ of ?^'„'^'"''""*''* ^^'^ ^°'""' °^ inventing !he first'
a separate vessel came to Mn^in .^fic h'"'^-*^u''^?'" '■'•°"' '''' ^"8'"' i"
lion began the wondernil Zritt^r^f '^ "^"^ *'"" '^"'''""'"'^ crncep-
given urthe rn^^nfi ^''"P''."'''='"''"'^*hichhave
e c 1 us tne magnificent engine of to-dav.
and
it4^:
FROM THE NAPOLOENIC WARS TO 1830
121
gated, the nineteenth century has been especially the century of revohitions,
actual' or virtual, the result being an extraordinary growth in the liberties
and prerogatives of the people.
The plan devised by the Congress for the suppression of revolution
was the establishment of an association of monarchs, which became known
as the Holy Alliance. Alexander of Russia, Francis of ^,^^ ^^^
Austria, and Frederick William of Prussia formed a cove- Alliance
nant to rule in accordance with the precepts of the Bible, to
stand by each other in a true fraternity, to rule their subjects as loving
parents, and to see that peace, justice, and religion should flourish in their
dominions. An ideal scheme it was, but its promulgators soon won the
name of hypocrites and the hatred of those whom they were to deal with
on the principle of love and brotherhood. Reaction was the watchword,
absolute sovereignty the purpose, the eradication of the doctrine of popular
sovereicrnty the sentiment, which animated these powerful monarchs ; and
the Holy Alliance meant practically the determination to unite their forces
ac-ainst uemocracy and revolution wherever they should show themselves.
It was not long before the people began to move. The attempt to
re-establish absolute governments shook them out of their sluggish quiet.
Revolution lifted its head again in the face of the Holy Revolution in
Alliance, its first field being Spain. Ferdinand VH., on Spain and
returning to his throne, had but one purpose in his weak "•'^^
mind, which was to rule as an autocrat, as his ancestors had done. He
swore to govern according to a constitution, and began his reign with a
perjury. The patriots had formed a constitution during his absence, and
this he set aside and never replaced by another. On the contrary, he set
out to abolish all the reforms made by Napoleon, and to restore the monas-
teries, to bring back the ipquisition, and to prosecu'v the patriots. Five
years of tms reaction made the state of affairs in Spain so intolerable that
the liberals refused to submit to it any longer. In 1820 they rose in revolt,
and the king, a coward under all his show of bravery, at once gave way and
restored the constitution he had set aside.
The shock given the Holy Alliance by the news from Spain was quickly
followed by another coming from Naples. The Bourbon king who had
been replaced upon the throne of that country, :>ther Ferdinand, was one
of the most despicable men oi his not greatly esteemed race. His govern
ment, while weak, was harshly oppressive. But it did not need a revolution
to fri'^hten this royal dastard. A mere general celebration of the victory
of the liberals in Spain was enough, and in his alarm he hastened to give
his people a constitution similar to that which the Spaniards had gained.
li
133
rj^oM r;,E mpoi.Eomc waiis to ,.,„
Metter„,cl, ,he Austrian advocate of roTetbH h ; T "^^' "' '^'"S-
::r„rc r^' '" "'°- ""^ another ,";,tk '° '••'" ^ "^^^ c^-
r.."^ <=„„. these assemblies was. Should r vo u ion b ' '"""'■ ''°'' ^' P"' ' "
„nl,„U ^"'■°P'= '"'^■•fe'-e in Spain and Mn f ™'"ed, orshoul.l
uphold .verywherc the sacred power of I. v^' '"'' P'"=''Ke herself ,„
fnends „f the Holy Alliance backed V '^?"™'-"<= monarchs ? Hi, old
gresses adopted it. a policy of 1,1'" :? '" "','' ^"S^^'""". ^oth Co
pmme, and Austria was charrd , '•'=™'"t'on» became ^V ,„
"order" in Naples. '""^^^^ '° ^-'o--- what Metternich called
power:f^t:i 'Thi'SLlSr. '-'-^-^ - -PPose th..
anny appeared, and the in,potent but c el F 'T'"' ? ^°°" '•'^ the Austria
k'n.j; aga,n. The radicals in Piedmo ' '■■'"'''"••'"<' was made an absolut
.u.ck,yputdow„,andAustri:a\ XlS
Proud of his success, Metternirir I 7^ ''''■'''■»"'' "'•'^'e'- of Italv
wh.ch it was resolved to repett " Sn. 1 ■'' "f" ^°"?^«»^ "' '^^ l<
Howor..r„« France was now made .he l^ ) ■" '^^ '"""' ^'°- '" Naple
tir '" I^--h army marche \cros t rC "' "= "^'^ ""--^ A
ernment of the liberals .nd * ^[ '''^'- P"' '''■'-i tlie n-ov-
"«• He .„Ub,ated his return to^SCby frw *:.'^ ^^ "^ ^--f^
-le. He celebrated his return to ^o werbvf "• .^'"^ '"''' '"^ ''-P"f-c
Holy Alhance was in the ascendan^Z lib TT ?' ""'=' ^^-"t.ons. The
the.r daring, terror seized upon 'hrKt ''•'"""='^" Utterly repaid for
seemed thrown fully into the^a p' f^ I^Z^:^^''^""'-- -'' E-op:
Only ,n two regions did the spirit of I »'
r^e Rev„,„.,o„ °f feaction. These were Greece anH"'^""''-'',"?^' ""'^ P'"''"^
i»areece historic land of Greece h»d l! \ ^Pamsh America. The
,, ^ potism with which even the hT f f," "' "'^ ''^"^s of a des
%-that of Turkey Its very name as If ^"''"^'= ™^ "<" ''n »ympa-
'shed, and Europe heard with "Iston Lment "T ™"'"^>'- ''="J almost van.
the ancent Greeks had risen aga nTt th- '" ""= '^^^^''dants of
:^rushed for centuries. ^ "'' "'" '^^""y ""^r which thev had been
The struggle was a bitter one The c I,
t'es. In the island of Chios alone he bruta , " T "'^°^'°"= ■" ^'<^ ""el-
the sp,r,t of the old Athenians and c: "^ """-dered 20,000 Greeks But
^ept on fighting i„ the face of def:'. To'r'r ^'^ '" "" P<=°P'=- ^^ they
the powers of Europe looked on w 'thon^ '■'' ^'"' '^'" "'="' <"'. while
P|:f '"deed took part, among "him Lo /t'"" ' 'T'' ""'^ "' "' >
1824; but the ^overnm-nf- -^ .5^, ^"^ ^^^^ Byron, who H.'^r? j„ c- •
g-vernm.nt. xaiied to warm up to their duty.""' "^ '''
'JO
ty of those states,
ic right of kings.
to call a new Con-
[uestion he put (,,
•rmitted, or should
pledge herself to
narchs? His old
t-'stion, both Con-
became .•!:c p.,,.
fetternich calJc
F/iOAf THE NAPOLEONIC Wa.
) tJijo
123
JCCi
k to
oppose th(!
as the Austrian
lade an absolute
ction which was
[master of Italy.
2-ss in 1822, in
■^oiie in Naples,
aijs Jutists. A
d-vM'n the gov-
=k his despotic
cecutions. The
•erly repaid for
and Europe
^S this period
^menca. The
mds of a des-
'ot in sympa-
l almost van-
2scendants of
hey had been
in his cruel-
Greeks. But
»le, and they
It on, while
'Tie of their
1 Greece iij
Their apathy vanished in 1825, when the sulian. growing veary of the
struggle, and bent on bringing it to a rapid end, call' J in he aid )f his power-
'* ful vassal. Meh(.'med Ali, Pasha of Egypt. Meh( n 'respond by sending a
strong army under his son Ibrahim, who landed iie More, (th ! n i -nt
Peloponnesus), where he treated the people with shocking crueLy.
A year of this was as much as Christian Europe could stand. England
first aroused herself. Canning, the English prime minister,
persuaded Nicholas, who had just succeeded Alexander as Come to the
Czar of Russia, to join with him in stopping this horrible busi- Rescue of
ness. France also lent her aid, and the combined powers
warned Ibrahim to cease his cruel work. On his refusal, the fleets of Eng-
land and France attacked and annihilated the Turkish-Egyptian fleet in the
battle of Navarino.
The Sultan still hesitated, and the czar, impatient at the delay, declared
war and invaded with his army the Turkish provinces on the Danube. The
next year, 1829, the Russians crossed the Balkans and descended upon Con-
stantinople. That city was in such imminent danger of capture that the
obstinacy of the sultan completely disappeared and he humbly consented to
all the demands of the powers. Servia, Moldavia and Wallachia, the chief
provinces of the Balkan peninsula, were put under the rule of Christian
governors, and the independence of Greece was fully acknowledged. Prince
Otto of Bavaria was made king, and ruled until 1862. In Greece lib-
eralism had conquered, but elsewhere in Europe the reaction established by
the Congress of Vienna still held sway.
T.he people merely bided their time. The good seed sown could
not fail to bear fruit in its season. The spirit of revolution was in the air,
and any attempt to rob the people of the degree of liberty
which they enjoyed was very likely to precipitate a revolt against The Spirit of
the tyranny of courts and kings. It came at length in France,
that country the ripest among the nations for revolution. Louis XVIII.,
an easy, good-natured old soul, of kindly disposition towards the people,
passed from life in 1824, and was succeeded by his brother, Count of
Artois, as Charles X.
The new king had been the head of the ultra-royalist faction, an advo-
cate of despotism and feudalism, and quickly doubled the hate which the
people bore him. Louis XVIII. had been liberal in his charlesX.and
policy, and had given increased privileges to the people. His Attempt
Under Charles reaction set in. A vast sum of money was at Despotism
voted to the nobles to repay their losses during the Revolution. Steps
were taken to muzzle the press and gag the universities. This was
134
r^o,f r„e NAPotBomc iv^^s to „,,„
I
fash,o„. a,Kl „„ j„,y ,6, ,g ;';■ ,1^^,^; 'h^'", h"".self in ,h. old arbi.ary
mm,.,c.r, four decrees, which Imi^edrVT ""= ■•'''™« "' ^'^ l.rime
thu fre«l,„n of ,he p'ress. !• ac ctllv th "' ™""' ''"'' P"' »" end "o
work of the Revolution ignored aid h," ?'"''^"""i°" ^'^ »=t aside th"
King Charles had taken tteptof:""." ^•^-f'"'"'^''"' - France ^
the French. I„ a moment Pari, bhTed , "* ""' '"■°" "^'- ''Pirit of
on every side. VVorku,en anj tudents , ".'T''^'-'"'™- Tumult arose
a.st,c cheers for the constitution tuX'rf ""•' "™^'» -"• -'hu:^
heard deeper and more ominous erie "" :"""' '^'^''^ ^'^'^ -on
the demand. And then as the ,u ■ "'" "'"' "'<■ ministers i" cimn
-o- the revo,utionar;;C^/^::„^X-«' and ,re. more^iot.:
rh» R.„,„.,„„ ated olcl king tas amusin™ h se In hi" ^'^ •'" 7'"-- ''"''''"■
lnP«-l, and did not discover that thl '"'''"^'^ °' ^t. Cloud,
. , , head. He knew that ,hV , 7" r""^ '""'^^''"K "pon hi
ooked upon it as a passing ebulhtbLfFrrT "' ^'''"^ ''^^ "U but
to the true signifieance of °the movement „:;';^' T^'"'- "<= did not a vake
gh.,ng between his troops and thTpeo'l t ^ "' ""^' '"<=^= ''-' '«-
dead m the streets, and that the sold^, "^ f """'>' "' '^e citizens lav
;43. could be set^™dXra:::r/Tif ;::-'- ^^r '^e Revolution of
the demon .^e had called into life u/h ' ^''""'''^ "^f""^ to lay
decrees. Finding that this would not h"ve th f •"'r"^'^ ""^ 'y^-'n-al
tlie throne in favor of his grandson R 7 „ """^ ''"'='''• '■« abdicated
had enough of him and his'ho e Hif ^n™ "" °' "° '■'™"- ^-nee 1 ad
ptes of Paris unheard. RememberinJ th f^' Z"" '"■■""' ''ack from the
■brother, Charles X., turned WsbacTf,no' r'' "' '-""'^ ^V'- >>- -happv
refuge in England. ""^ "P°" '''•ance and hastened to seek a
-.t"o?t;^Ls:::;:fo:/ s'xtirr '^' '- ^- ■•- '^-^ -
deposed and the crown offered to Lods Phi "' ^, f "^ '"'^ ''^'^^ -h°">d b=
tou., p,„„^ had been a Louis Philippe ,n he R^ , °' °'^''"'- ^here
K „r " '^' •^t^'- of the royal house o b! > . °^ ' 7«»' ^ radical
, / . of Egalite, had joined the re , °"' ^^°- ""^^r the title
^f Lou XVI., and l.the enj hadlifLThtrcr:^^"'^' -'"^ ''^ <*-■'■
as a youu, man had served In the -,;vXti:;r;^"':/:r;::
'infl it was uis-
went on, bjind
■ could not get
he old arbitary
e of his prime
put an end to
set aside, the
d in France.
>vv the spirit of
Tumult arose
' with enthusi-
>ere were soon
ni'^tersT'came
more violent,
The infatu-
of St. Cloud.
'irig upon his
atl risen, but
'icl not awake
ere had been
e citizens lay
oni the city
evolution of
^forts to lay
e tyrannical
le abdicated
France had
ck from the
lis unhappy
J to seek a
1 Paris, the
5 should be
IS. There
?, a radical
ir the title
the death
guillotine.
■ and ha<J
FMO.Vf THE NAPOLEONIC WARS TO 1830
"5
been one of its leaders in the important victory of Jeinappes. But when
the terror came he hastened from France, which had become a very unsaf(i
place for one of his blood. Me had the reputation of being I'beral in his views,
and was the first man thought of for the vacant crown, When the Chamber
of Deputies n)''t in August and offered it to him, he did not hesitate to
accept. He swore to obs., ve and reign under the constitution, and took
the throne under the title of Louis Philippe, king of the I'Vench. Thus
speedily ai.d happily ended the second Revolution in France.
But Paris again proved itself the political centre of Europe. The
deposition of Charles X. was like a stone thrown into the seething waters
of European politics, and its effects spread far and wide be- offect In Europe
yond the borders of France. The nations had been bound of the Revo-
hand and foot by the Congress of Vienna. The [leople had '"*•»"
writhed uneasily in their fetters, but now in more; than one ' -^ality .hey rose
in their might to brt.'ak them, here demanding a greater degree of lil)erty,
there overthrowing the government.
The latter was the case in Belgium. Its people had sulTered severely
from the work of the Congress of Vienna. Without even a pretence of
consulting their wishes, their country had been incor[)oratecl with Holland
as the kingdom of the Netherlands, the two countries being fused into one
under a king of the old Dutch House of Orange. The idea was good
enough in itself. It was intended to make a kingdom strong enough to
help keep France in order. But an attempt to fuse these two stages was like
an endeavor to mix oil and water. The peoi)le of the two countrie;? had long
since drifted apart from each other, and had irreconcilable ideas and inter-
ests. Holland was a colonizing and commercial country, Belgium art indus-
trial country ; Holland was Protestant, Belgium was Catholic ; Holland was
Teutonic in blood, Belgium was a mixture of the Teutonic and French,
but wholly P>ench in feeling and customs.
The Belgians, therefore, were generally discontented with the act of
fusion, and in 1830 they imitated the French by a revolt against -p^e Belgian
King William of Holland. A tumult followed in Brussels, Uprising and
which ended in the Dutch soldiers being driven from the city. '*^ Result
King William, finding that the Belgians insisted on independence, decided
to bring them back to their allegiance by force of arms. The powers of
Europe now took the matter in hand, and, after some difference of opinion,
decided to grant the Belgians the independence they demanded. This was a
meddlino" with his royal authoritv to which Kin"" W^illi.am. did not oror-f^s" to
submit, but when the navy of Great Britain and the army of France ap-
proached his borders he changed his rnind, and since 1833 Holland and Be{-
ff ('
126
"""^""■— -''---.... ro.,„
ffium l,av„ g„„„ „, . , --"■■5- 7-0 .,^„
throne. ""- ^•'^""•-'" house of Saxe-Cobimr ^ ''"'~"=''^' ^"d
™=«ov.„o„. Thespiri, of , ^ - -» P'-«l upon .he
Inacrmaiiy |,.,l„ , ' , "' revolut on (.vt„„rl„l ■
a demand J^^T, ' '"" P''"''''' «■>• ''"t i nnv .'i; h" '" ''"'''•' "-
thoprinceshXo ■'"'''''''•'''■"" on liberal S ■'''"•■'"'■■' «««
t-tio„, .naki-;;,r ,■;;";■ r "■■'""""■ "--. . r t,T/""' ""••■■' ^■'--
monarch. " "=" "' <""& ''"t promish,., to n,? """ •"'""'"■»-
•'"''is did not ,n,- f , ' '■" ■■' "■'^"■"'"•onal
cravp,! Ti ^'^'"'fy *e Poles Tf
"'■ ""^^r"" ""' ^-^-' thtt the' , d\""' "'^ '■-'--■Pendence they
Tl-e Revolt ■„, when Russia »vas still ,, '"'"f "^^^n a great power in F, ^
...po.. When the war^i::::: •=;-,;:;::' ^^^^^^^
the outbreak in Ptance wat i^^e'atet^ld
FROM THE NAPOLEONIC WARS TO T830
127
''"i'>ccl monarchy,
^ the powers, and
' Placed upon the
" C;crmany and
■ "1 Austria nor
- -sinaller states
1 every instance
1 representative
^ilone retaining
ig; but Austria
^'itch upon the
^' .i^rcat secret
aJJ Italy in a
ii" efforts. In
=it their ruJers,
Jieir territory,
Jiatred of the
had not yet
opportunity.
-alJed forth a
^''g'lt of the
unfortunate
isnienibered
' "eio;hbors.
^'arsavv, and
Jenna. The
e unJiappy
^"fl Prussia
areas else-
'1 achiiinis-
stitutionaJ
pnce they
'" Europe
Muscovy.
tl-h(!arted
angerous
firebrand
thrown in their midst. In November, 1830. a few youni; liot-heads soundtul
the note of revolt, and Warsaw rose in insurrection aij^ainst the Russians.
For a time they were successful. Constantint;, the czar's brother,
governor of Poland, was scared by the riot, and deserted the caiMtal,
leaving the revolutionists in full control. Towards the frontier he hastenetl,
winged by alarm, while the provinces rose in rebt^llion behind him as he
passed. Less than a week had passed before the Russian power was with-
drawn from Poland, and its people were once more lords of their own land.
They set up a provisional government in Warsaw, and prepared to defend
themselves against the armies that were sure to come.
What was needed now was unity. A single fixed antl resolute purpose,
under able and suitable leaders, formed the only conceivable condition of
success. But Pc^land was, of all countries, the least capable
of such unity, The landed nobility was full of its old f(nidal '^o^Unlt?^''
notions; the democracy of the city was inspired by modern
sentiments. They could not agree ; they quarreled in castle and court,
while their hasty levies of troops were marching to meet the Russians in
the field. Under such conditions success was a thing beyond hope.
Yet the Poles fought well. Kosciusko, their formc^r hero, would have
been proud of their courage and willingness to die for their country. But
against the powerful and ably led Russian armless their gallantry was of no
avail, and their lack of unity fatal. In May, 1831, they were overwhelmed
at Ostrolenka by the Russian hosts, In September a trait(jr betrayed
Warsaw, and the Russian army entered Its gates The revolt was at an
end, and Poland again in fetters.
Nicholas the Czar fancied that he had spoiled these; people by kindness
and clemency. They should not be spoiled in that way any longer. Under
his harsh decrees the Kingdom of Poland vanished. He
ordered that it should be made a Russian province, and held ^"l^oland' "'
by a Russian army of occupation. The very language of the
Poles was forbidden to be spoken, and their religion was to be replaced by
the Orthodox Russian faith. Those brief months of revolution and inde
pendence were fatal to the liberty-loving people. Since then, except during
their brief revolt in 1863, they have lain in fetters at the feet of Russia,
nothing remaining to theni but their patriotic memories and their undyini'
aspiration for freedom and independence.
lU
III
i
CHAPTER VII.
Bolivar, the Liberator of Spanish Anaerica
[N the preceding chapter mention wa. .„ade of u ■ ■
1 =|..r.t of revolt triumphed during Ae ertd of r T"": '" "'''^'' ""^
)eon,c wars-Greece and Spani,^ America ^1 ", "'" ""'^ ^='P°-
there described ; that in Spanish Amer cT • f '■"'°'' '" "^■■<='=« ™»
h-o. one of the great sol hers of t|"e S n T"' '''■■■^^■•'>»°"- 't had its
and ab est of guerilla leaders ;.;Bo,ivtfl''-f '"'"'■ T'^^?^ ''- greatest
h's native soil. ""= ^''^'^''a'"'-," as he was known on
Spain had long treated her col •
Ho„ Spain high-spirited people "o 'end'" ''' ""Tf ^^ ""''' '^'^"'^^ ("^ a
--".. to rule in .hei'r n.^lragt^nt h^ o^e" eirt^^--^^'^^^"^^'^
colomes all possible profit for ,1, ° ^''"'''= f™'" "'«
other to „,ake use of them as a n,ea s b' wl ' r?"'"""" ^' ''°"><=. 'he
pay their political debts. The former n '^^ '"''"'"^ '" Spain could
by severe taxation, comntercia « cUon''"d T '"^^'^ '° '^^ --'-d »"'
a. short-sighted country seeks to enrid "t •eif"b "' ""T ™"''°''^ '" "''-h
>"S the industries of its colonists To a l'^ T^ f"" ''""* "^"'l <='«=!<.
portant official positions in the colonies t % f. 'f''' '^"■''^"•'^'^ ^" ""•
Posts u, the government, in the e> stt" „ !,? , ' ^ "'•"'^^^ "^ ^pain.
to strangers, who knew nothin.. o H ' ,^" , =^=''^"'=d offices were give,,
ditions of the country to w h'th '"er* ^ ^^ '° do or thereon:
grow r,ch speedily, and Lryin.md^fH"''™!'" /'-■■■■ '="•'«— '»
'o the „,other land. Add to tlti ,t sevc r "' ""= """'O' back
con>n,erce, the prohibition of trlde e. eo TT'""' °" '"^"'^'^ ^"^
every k,nd, legal .nd ille,.,! t. „,S, "'"''' 7"' ^pam, the exactions of
thetr deep-seated dissatisfaction is ea" t "Zt:"? '°'''^^ '° -tmlt, and
("iJ;
easy to understand.
nca.
in which the
:r the Napo.
Greece was
It had its
he greatest
is known on
fficult for a
lits seemed
'e from the
home, the
'pain could
carried out
Is in which
ind check-
3se all im.
of Spain,
ere given
r the con-
i thought
ijoy their
^'al Span-
iwarni of
i> practic-
-rness to
I try back
'stry and
;tions of
•mit, and
I
'■^:':
:ii t
U)
u
111
(0
u
m
I
BOLIVAR, THE LIBERATOR OF SPANISH AMERICA
13^
The war for Independence in the United States had no apparent
influence upon the colonies of Spanish America. They remained loyal to
Spain. The French Revolution seemed also without effect. But durin^^;
the long Napoleonic wars, when Spain remained for years in the grip of the
Corsicati. and the people of Spanish America were left largely to govern
themselves, a thirst for liberty arose, and a spirit of revolt showed itself
about 1810 throughout the length and breadth of the colonies.
Chief among the revolutionists was Simon Bolivar, a native of Caracas,
the capital of Venezuela. In 1810 we find him in London. Bolivar, the
seekin<'- the aid of the British government in favor of tlie Revolutionary
rebels against Spain. In 181 1 he served as governor ot
Puerto Cabello, the strongest fortress in Venc/.uela. He was at that time
subordinate to General Miranda, whom he afterwards accused of treason,
and who died in a dungeon in Spain. In the year named Venezuela pro-
claimed its independence, but in 1813, Bolivar, who had been entitled its
'* Liberator," was a refugee in Jamaica, and his country again a vassal
of Spain.
The leaders of affairs in Spain knew well where to seek the backbone
of the insurrection. Bolivar was the one man whom they feared. He
removed, there was not a man in sight capable of leading the rebels to
victory. To dispose of him, a spy was sent to Jamaica, his
. , 1 T -I . 1-f -ru- u .- AnAttemptat
purpose bemg to take the Liberator s life. 1 his man. alter Assassination
gaining a knowledge of Bolivar's habits and movements,
bribed a negro to murder him, and in the dead of night the assassin stole up
to Bolivar's hammock and plunged his knife into the sleeper's breast. As
it proved, it was not Bolivar, but his secretary, who lay there, and the hope
of the American insurrectionists escaped.
Leaving Jamaica, Bolivar proceeded to San Domingo, where he found
a warm supporter in the president, Petion. Here, too, he met Luis Brion,
a Dutch shipbuilder of great, wealth. His zeal for the principles of liberty
infused Brion with a like zeal. The result was that Brion fitted out seven
schooners and placed them at Bolivar's disposal, supplied 3,500 muskets to
arm recruits who should join Bolivar's standard, and devoted his own life
and services to the sacred cause. Thus slenderly equipped, Bolivar com-
menced operations in 1816 at the port of Cayos de San Luis, where the
leading refugees from Cartagena, New Granada, and Venezuela Bolivar Re-
had sought sanctuary. By them he was accepted as leader, turns^to^^
and Brion, with the title of " Admiral of Venezuela," was given ^"®^"® *
command of the squadron he had himself furnished. The growing expedi-
tion now made for the island of Margarita, which Arismendi had wrested
f-»«r
■ , '
-' J
,•!•.'
*
(1 i
11
■ 1 ft :
.1 I
1
1-i:
t32
^OUV^^. THE USEHATOR OF SPANISH AMBHICA
lro,n the Spanish governor; and her<L ^> ■.
was named "Supreme Chief" and ?h, ,^ T v'""°" "' "'^'« ■•^' '*°"v.t
was marked by many a dikster ,o r ""''^ .V-«"'='-" war began. ],
vicissitudes that, unt,' the uTm'a in, '• ^"T ,'T' "''"^ =° ""--°"^
'8>9. it remained doubtful'uporwh h^'sid"'"''^ °' ^''''''' "" ^"2"^' 7th
The war was conducted'on :tltoTTV''"-' r"'""^'^ ^<=^'
fiend.sh cruelty, prisoners taken in w.r , ? ^P""'"-"-* "■"> the most
country alike being tortured n 1 m rd:;;,'!' ' ^!. """'"^^' P'=°P''= "^ '^^^
barbanty •• The people of Mar"Irkx" , "'^"'^[^'■''"ces of revolting
served in Vene^uela^- saw theiHiblrtie^.'' T ^"^^'"^^ °«'^'=^ -^^
The sav.« wives, children and kTudredrrT' ?' -'''-g-^d ; their
Crueltyofthe and the reekincf I daily butchered and murdered'
Spaniards , '^ekmg members of beintrs mn^f ,u . , •
exposed to their iTa?e on „, "'""k^ most dear to them
forests and mountains- nor wL It ,1 , ? ?" """^ """« °< 'l>«r native
that they pursued the' sle cou I Th "^ !"' '"""' "^"^ ^'-^htered
were routed , ,„y,elf saw upwaMs oV \ ""^ "'"' ""= Spaniards
rfned and t.eaped togetheT T o„e 1/ T- ' '°."'^"'' "' "'-> skulls.
• Golgotha.- as a trophy of WcJory" '^ ' "''"'' '^ "°' "'^P"y '-"ed
Another writer tells ii<; • " T .o, i
"ad been cut off, their ey s lorn froL M ""' "?"'=" ^'"^^ ''^"^ '"'' ""-s
and the soles of the.r f^et pared bv T ''.' ''"■ '°"^"""^ ™' °"''
btigadier-general." The rtsukof tht^ °"'%°^ Monteverde. a Spanisl
hatred of the Spaniard, an ' de L'rmC^^rtT °' ""'^'r^"" ""P''-^^'^
^ 'n '8.5 Ferdinand of Spain derm""..!'"^" ""=7" ""^o death,
the movement for independence tl .r ■ / ^" ™'' °"« '"' all to
for five years the whole of Spanth A ™ •""^' 'l""'' '"'' '^^<='' ^'S'tating
forcements to the royalist arm7erwere:::?-ouf"°d''"^r^' "™"' -'""
These arrived at Puerto Cabello 27^-^, ' '""^'='' '"'="<=''a' Morillo.
troops-a force in itsel many tCs iarlrlh ''^r' i™^' ""'P^^'^^ -■«»
patriots then under arms put to2he 'v , ^f ' '^-' .""""'==' ''^""'^ °f
"■s thumb, and, planting garr.W,rtr i "°°" ''^^ Venezuela under
, ^ diiLi,,^ garrisons throufrhout t nrorpf^r^Prl <-^ i •
The Methods Cartagena. Capturincr thf. ..v • '"' P'^^^^^^^^d to lay siege to
ir-' "-pposed to srVe 'dr^B;;o:"tirt;itiT rt^^
despatch to KfrS;Xhwfs;!::r:rd" f-- -^ p"- 'ni
either sex who was capable' o Teadl an'd '• *™'' ' " '^^">' P«'^°" °f
thus cutting off all wLwe:ertv^:;'eS7r^ '^>'
arrest the spirit of revolution." educated, I hoped to effectually
, An insight into Morillo's merhodc„f „„,,:„ ^..... ., , . .
W..on ,s furnished by his treatm^nro. 2:::;:^:Z t::'Zi:L:'^
CA
BOLIVAR, THE LIBERATOR OF SPANISH AMERICA
133
"ice-s, Bolivar
ar beiran. It
so numerous
' August 7th,
lately rest,
th the most
eople of the
of revolting-
ofificer who
?ered; their
murdered;
11" to them
their native
slaughtered
- Spaniards
heir skulls,
'tly termed
and noses
s cut out,
a Spanish
implacable
nto death.
- for all to
agitating
ong rein-
1 Morillo.
ed 12,000
bands of
ela under
siege to
marched
of New
3s. In a
)erson of
ith. By
f^ectually
of revo-
ent city
of Maturin on its capture. Dissatisfied with the treasure he found there, he
suspected the people of wealth to have anticipated his arrival by uurying
their property. To find out the supposed buried treasure, he had all those
whom he regarded as likely to know where it was hidden collected together,
and, to make them confess, had the soles of their feet cut off, and then had
them driven over hot sand. Many of the victims of this horrid piece of
cruelty survived, and were subsequently seen by those that have narrated it.
At the commencement of the war, with the exception of the little band
-,x\. the island of Margarita, the patriotic cause was represented by a few
scattered groups along the banks of the Orinoco, on the plains of Barcelon.-'.
and of Casanarc. These groups pursued a kind of guerilla warfare, quite
independently c*" one another, and without any plan to achieve. They were
kept together by the fact that submission meant death. The leader of one
of these groups, Paez by name, presents one of the most pic- p^gz the Quer-
turesque and striking characters that history has produced. iilaandHis
He was a Llanero, or native of the elevated plains of Barinas, "Pots
and quite illiterate. As owner of herds of half-wild cattle, he became chief
of a band of herdsmen, which he organized Into an army, known as the
" Gui(^ s of the Apure," a tributary of the Orinoco, and whose banks wer^
the base of Paez's operations. Only one of his many daring exploits can be
here recorded. That occurred on the 3rd of June, 1819, when Paez was
opposing the advance of Morillo himself. With 150 picked horsemen, he
swam the river Orinoco and galloped towards the Spanish camp. "Eight
hundred of the royalist cavalry," writes W. Pilling, General Mitre's trans-
lator, " with two small guns, sallied out to meet him. He slowly retreated,
drawing them on to a place called Las Queseras del Medio, where a bat-
talion of Infantry lay In ambush by the river. Then, splitting his men into
groups of twenty, he charged the enemy on all sides, forcing them under
the fire of the Infantry, and recrossed the river with two killed and a few
wounded, leaving the plain strewn with the dead of the enemy."
While Paez's dashing exploits were inspiring the revolutionary leaders
with fresh courage, which enabled them at least to hold their own, a system
of enlisting volunteers was instituted in London by Don Luis Lopes
Mendez, representative of the republic. The Napoleonic wars being over,
the European powers were unable to reduce their swollen armaments, and
English and German officers entered Into contracts with Mendez to take out
to Venezuela organized corps of artillery, lancers, hussars, and rifles. On
enlisting, soldiers received a bounty of £20 ; their pay was 2s. a day and
rations, and at the end of the war they were promised ^i:?5 and an allot-
ment of land. The first expedition to leave England comprised 120 hussars
i I
134
• Ik
If ;■■ ;
6 t'
M
BOUyA^. THB UB^,ATOn OF SP.mSH AMURICA
"%
BH.u.so,.,e™ by Lionel clbeil and r,"'''™="""= '^'^■- -'
Join .he ,„. „,e title of colonel LIh •T''""""' "=""=d Gilmour, witi,
, '"«"'» of artillery. General EnrfitlTl: 'I T ''^ ""'''' °' '^ brigad.
War nnder Wellington, »„,racted w th M ''. '' T'^ '" ''"' P*'"''"'"'-
Engi;.hn,en ; 500 more went ™t under c", ",%!'''' °"' ' '"^^ °f ''-^
out 300 Ger„,ans under Colone U W Ge„e,a M°c '''"' '''"' "'^""i''"
General DevereuK took out the InJh I „ MacGregor took Soo, an<l
Irish tribune, Daniel O'Conne II Smalle^ ' - '" '''"'='' ™^ * =°" <>f 'h<=
o? war; these mentioned, ho"* 2T7T ^1" •?"' '" "'^ ^-'
sent ,,.00 -nule^rd a'! rp' rofficTf r '"''T^' "*= '^"^ ^'-"V
.he leader of the patriots'on'h'e plait of Ca "'"' t"'^""^"' "''° -'
ander to increase his forces from Inn f T'"''- ^^" •="^"<=d Sant-
neighborhood. He thereupon be' "^H ''"'f^'^'' P^"'°'^ ■'" 'h'-"*
Granada, with the result tha" General 1 '"'u "'" '™""^^ °f New
mand of that province by Morilk deled ir?' t° """"^ "^^^ '^^^ ■" ™-
?nd crush his growing power s;„t-,d'r'f\'' '" ""^'^ ^?="'"^' W"'
in number, were too full of Ithus a:^^^ T""- ^°'"''"- "'°"g'' '"f^^io.
a half-hearted condition from ^1^,0"/;' 1'"°' ^°Wiers_reduced to
gained nothing from, except the odim of the T!" "-'''- t^^t they
BoHvar-s P,.„ Barreiro. according^ was d, iven b" k "/ "°''' """""S^'
of New GranaT °Th :r Trotd^ t^th'"^ "^'^''"^ ^^^^^ -
paign for the patriots. A^rTa y^Xey Ha^l sA^e "^ ""^ "'=>" °' «-
deavor,ng to dislodge the Snaniard7fr °l . «mpa.gns through en-
were in Venezuela ^ow,b/.anng N^ ' "^ f'-"g-^ positions, Ihich
:iSritdr '^^'^ ---- "'^^^^^^^^:^t-:i-^
^ndslt^filttst-ofu^^tlt^^^^^^^^^^^ ^°'r'= --•
Ht;„^;::t:tay^.rcr^^^^^
the sun has again run'his annul co rfe altar! "t r .' ''™"''^™^«- ^'^°^-
out your land." ""^^ ^"^'^ '° liberty will arise through-
l.,J°o'^\'"'"}'^'^'^^y P^^Pared to carry out his id„ a- - •• • -
h'n-. .o,y,„e jomed Santander at the foot of he Anderb • ""^ °^
Lxie /indes, bringing with
'':"^"'"'''Z12T'''~~T
BOLIVAR, THE LIBERATOR OF SPANISH AMERICA
135
e basis of a corps
n was taken out
sd Gilmour, with
)a.sis of a brig-adc
in the Peninsular
: a force of 1,200
lo also brought
or took 800, and
as a son of the
went to the seat
thout their aid
ie had already
ander, who was
5 enabled Sant-
3atriots in that
)ntier of New
:en left in com-
ch against him
hough inferioi
rs— reduced to
ilties that they
3ved amongst.
receiving the
rmed the con-
Spaniards out
plan of cam-
s through en-
sitions, which
iwin prestige
circumstances
•livar's eyes ;
the people of
IS come; no
■nee. Before
'ise through-
' the lith of
ringing with
him four battalions of infantry, of which one — the "Albion " — was composed
entirely of Entjlish soldiers — two squadrons of lancers, one of carabineers,
and a regiment called the " Guides of the Apure," part of which were Eng-
Ijg]^ In all 2,500 men. To join Santander wns no easy task, for it involved
the ci ossing of an immense plain covered with water at this season of the
yeai, and the swimming of seven deep rivers — war materials, of course,
having to be taken aldn-- is well. This, however, was only a foretaste of
the still greater difficulties that lay before the venturesome band.
General Santander led the van with his Casanare troops, and entered
the mountain defiles by a road leading to the centre of the province of
Tunia which was held by Colonel Barreiro with 2,000 infantry
J ' „,, ,. til r The Crossing
and 400 horse. The royalists had also a reserve of 1,000 of the Andes
troops at Bogota, the capital of New Granada ; at Cartagena,
and in the valley of Cauca were other detachtnents, and there was another
royalist army at Quito. Bolivar, however, trusted to surprise and to the
support of the inhabitants to overcome the odds that were against him. As
the invading army left the plains for the mountains the scene changed. The
snowy peaks of the eastern range of the Cordillera appeared in the dis-
tance, while, instead of the peaceful lake through which they had waded,
they were met by great masses of water tumbling from the heights. The
roads ran along the edge of precipices and were bordered by gigantic trees,
upon whose tops rested the clouds, which dissolved themselves in incessant
rain. After four days' march the horses were foundered ; an entire squad-
ron of Llaneros deserted on finding themselves on foot. The torrents were
crossed on narrow trembling bridges formed of trunks of trees, or by means
of the aerial " taravitas."* Where they were fordable, the current was so
strong that the infantry had to pass two by two with their arms thrown
round each other's shoulders ; and woe to him who lost his footing — he lost
his life too. Bolivar frequently passed and re-passed these torrents on horse
back, carrying behind him the sick and weakly, or the women who accom-
panied his men.
The temperature was moist and warm; life was supportable with the aid
'of a little firewood ; but as they ascended the mountain the scene changed
again. Immense rocks piled one upon another, and hills of snow, bounded
the view on every side ; below lay the clouds, veiling the depths of the
abyss ; an ice-cold wind cut through the stoutest clothing. At these heights
no other noise is heard save that of the roaring torrents left behind, and the
I 1
♦Bridges maje of several thongs of hide twisted into a siou! Top^ =.-i=l! =:; r
the rope is suspended a cradle or hammock to hold two, and drawn b»ekward» and for
»lso thus conveyed, suspended by long girths round their bodies.
8
wuid» by lou{( Uuet. HorMs «ud nmlem wcr«
IJ«
eoUl^A/!. THE LIBERATOR Ofi SPANISH AWMCA
out by croJes crcctecrr„ J""'" '''""'^ ^"' "><= ?="!> -•''^ '"-keel
^^^^ y crosses erected .n memory of travellers who had perished by the
had b°"u:r;wrt'h:.,if :f;L?r T ""^"""^ •^-^'^ -"' ^ "- -«■« "-3-
reached the su, mit b tt P "■'T'"''" '°"''' «" "" f'-'^'^^''- The
in check. I Ta" he d b a^ot.t';"'; ^ ' '"'"''''"" ™"''' ''"''' ^ -"i'
.He va„,,ard undert,,.' nlr^lZtl,,^:;: dr:.;;" -' ''''"^'^' ^^
t.ln, 'P""'" ° "•-. t° «'h,ch he showed that still .rreater difficul
return. AU J^: ^l^Z ^2 '1 'fr' '''''' ^""^ ^"^'^^^
fresh spirit into tl^e X; ",*;' '''=^^"""''' «" ""• ^ "-'-" "'-h infused
were'Lt,t^nTnXr:^^d":::r T-wfrti:::;!: f «>; - -r
spare arn.s, and even some of those that wer carri bv tl' ^^ '^,'
From this point Bolivar ent blck "slt.n ?"' "u" ""^ *"' °' J"'''' '^'^
cllected ilorses, and detTcld p:^ ^ ^ s^our Ihr'''"'^^ '"" '^'""^'
^°""Met:hilf B -- ^™ ^-f- wlo'ttiZL^^d aZr •^™""" -'^
As soon, however, as he did learn of hi! • '"'"°" ""P°^'*ible.
forces and took possession'of'r ;;:-;r:Ze\r;H;:-':rv"''^"''','''^
■nterposmg between the patriots and the town JV ■ W' "'""
tached to the independent' cause, Bolivar was anxL?:'n::^'-i,:"'^' ^^
ing armies met on the 2cth nf I,,!,, o i , . ' ^^^^ oppos-
1 ne patriots won. chieflv thrn,u.N .i r- * v , . ^ *°' "^^ hours.
James^Rooke, who'wrl!^: t„ :d :^'td'"'"'"'' "j" '>' ^°'°"'='
the action had been indecisive Zuh , "" ""■"' "'"" "'f' Still,
B.w.„e.. Bolivar „t:d::;i::it2ftyrrLir]rt^r'^^
where he found an abuncfance of "t matertal'an'd b , ''f,=''P'",-'' T"nj\
Barreiro-s communication with Bo.o'I heclpital It "" ''°''''"^'.7'"^'' ^e cut
like these that the strength of Ll ; C 2 it,,.!"^!'" ^''^ "?°-™™.s
^- n^.a..hip lay. Freed irom the
l*ti*Kf-.JW.vWeft*15*Si«S«!»*.«« A3!^u^
BOLIVAR, THE LIBERATOR OF SPANISH AMERICA
137
shackles of military routine that enslaved the Spanish officers, he astonished
them by forced marches over roads previously deemed impracticable to a
regular army. While they were manoeuvring, hesitating, calculating, guard-
ing the customary avenues of approach, he surprised them by concentrating
a superior force upon a point where they least expected an attack, threw
them into confusion, and cut up their troops in detail. Thus it happens
that Bolivar's actions in the field do not lend themselves to the same im-
pressive exposition as do those of less notable generals.
Barreiro, finding himself shut out from Tunja, fell back upon Venta
Quemada, where a general action took place. The country was mountain-
ous and woody, and well suited to Bolivar's characteristic tactics. He placed
a large part of his troops in ambush, got his cavalry in the enemy's rear, and
presented only a small front. This the enemy attacked furiously, and with
apparent success. It was only a stratagem, however, for as they drove back
Bolivar's front, the troops in aminish sallied forth and attacked them in the
flanks, while the cavalry attacked them in the rear. Thus were the Sjjan-
iards surrounded. General Barreiro was taken prisoner on the field of battle.
On finding his capture to be inevitable, he threw away his sword that he
might not have the mortification of surrendering it to Bolivar, His second
in command. Colonel Ximenes, was also taken, as were also almost all the
commandants and majors of the corps, a multitude of inferior officers, and
more than 1,600 men. All their arms, ammunition, artillery, horses, etc.,
likewise fell into the patriots' hands. Hardly fifty men escaped, and among
these were some chiefs and officers of cavalry, who fled before
11 11 T^he Victory
the battle was decided. Those who escaped, however, had ^^ Boyaca
only the surrounding country to escape into, and there they were
captured by the peasantry, who bound them and brought them in as prisoners.
The patriot loss was incredibly small — only 13 killed and 53 wounded.
At Boyaca the English auxiliaries were seen for the first time under fire,
and so gratified was Bolivar with their behavior, that he made them all mem-
bers of the Order of the Liberator.
Thus was won Boyaca, which, after Maypu, is the great battle of South
America. It gave the preponderance to the patriot arms in the north of the
continent, as Maypu had done in the south. It gave New Granada to the
patriots, and isolated Morillo in Venezuela.
Nothing now remained for Bolivar to do but to reach Bogota, the capi-
tal, and assume the reins of government, for already the Spanish officials,
much to the relief of the inhabitants, had fled. So, with a smal\ escort, he
rode forward, and entered the city on August loth, amid the acclamations
of the populace.
•i'
n
nouKw. rnn unr.RAnm or- sp.-wis,, a.w-rica
. .. " m.re tnc jin:ini:ij-rlc .«,.* ,..;ki. ..... i i ^ . . »
Hotlvar and the
Peruvians
'„T ' , ,■ ""' ""^ '""'S;-'"'^' ">« Spaniar.l.s withdrew
.8.3 he aide. L Z^' "" ''^^:-'?''^"' "'"' ""!-- - P-^'dent. Iti
dared thei 1 -r or >, ■'"' '" ''"""'"''' ""-''^ -''<--i'<=nJence, and wa.s dc
a. dictator ad 1 ™ ; . ,!;'7" '^r'^'''? '•'""'""'y- F™ '"o years he ruled
The peopl . o hi pp . ' :: ^"71 "" '"■'"'^>' " ^'^''"'■''■-" --'itution.
own. which tl ey naS B r '"' '"f """' " ^"'"'"nwealth of their
■n, P r"'"of Ma" '"■"',"°" "^ ''■'^^■">''" ■^■/asare.ultof the victory
Colonies ".'"t™ ^'"^ '>"'' g--"ned independence. In North America a
Centra, Amer^:: ^d So ''^ '•'"'^1 '"V'"""-- °"' ^"^^ -'" "^^ ^ '^
and .cones oY d::l^;^r;re',"t^' sld^a ",!"'" t' '"'''' °' ^'^"^'«'^
the oneninfr of tho nl., . , cruelty such as those above mentioned. At
din,e„'™ns^n Aitr a r hrd^^'rl" Y' "" "°"'"'°" "^ ---nental
aresultof herniXvahnc^ odso "T ■"-' "' T""' °' ""= '™'-y- =■=
sions on the wesVe n con n n, ■^'^'"',"'^'-"™' ^l"= had lost all her posses-
Ric. Yet lelrn Lrnoth r / 7' ,"'' '*° '■'^'■''■"'' "' ^uba and Porto
;n these fr^^nlfof-tlLT'er^^^^
«nal relics , r:J:'::::^:;^^l^i:^:^ - own lamt, had .os. the
RICA
J I at Carabobo,
'slntr nu)ro than
iards withdrew,
president. In
e, and was de-
years he ruled
n constitution,
wealth of their
while the con-
of the victory
1 had similarly
■th America a
h like result,
rs of struggle
:ntioned. At
jf continental
le century, as
ill her posses-
a and Porto
ime methods
the century
1 had borne
had lost the
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i^BIII^IH
BENJAMIN D1SR^\E1.1 WILLIAM I'lTT
GxsEAT ENGLISH STATESMEN
CHAPTER VIII.
Great Britain as a World Empire.
ON the western edge of the continent of Europe lies the Island of
Great Britain, in the remote past a part of the continent, but long
ages ago cut off by the British Channel. Divorced from the mainland,
left like a waif in the western sea, peopled by men with their own interests
and aims, it might naturally be expected to have enough to attend to at
home and to take no part in continental affairs.
Such was the case originally. The island lay apart, almost unknown,
and was, in a sense, "discovered" by the Roman conquerors. Buc new
people came to it, the Anglo-Saxons, and subsequently the
Normans, both of them scions of that stirring race of Vikings ^lltoisplsi'
who made the seas their own centuries ago and descendc;d *'»" of the
in conquering inroads on all the shores of Europe, while their Bi^'t'sh People
darings keels cut the waters of far-off Greenland and touched upon the
American coast. This people— stirring, aggressive, fearless—made a new
destiny for Great Britain. Their island shores were too narrow to hold
them, and they set out on bold ventures in all seas. Their situation was a
happy one for a nation of daring navigators and aggressive warriors.
Europe lay to the east, the world to the west. As a result the British
islands have played a leading part alike in the affairs of Europe and of the
world.
France, the next door neighbor of Great Britain, was long its prey.
While, after the memorable invasion of William of Normandy, France never
succeeded in transi^orting an army to the island shores, and HostiHt of
even Napoleon failed utterly in his stupendous expedition, England to
the islanders sent army after army to France, defeated its France
chivalry on many a hard-fought field, ravaged its most fertile domains, and
for a time held it as a vassal realm of the British K'\n<.^.
All this is matter of far-past history. But the old feeling was promi-
nently shown again in the Napoleonic wars, when Great Britain resumed
her attitude of enmity to France, and pursued the conqueror with an
unrelenting hostility that finally ended in his overthrow. Only for this
aggressive island Europe might have remained the bound slave of Napo-
(141)
i
if
. 1
142
GREAT BRITAIN AS A WORLD EMPIRE
enterpnse of Vvllt^^: "no X °b:r,7 hT""^' ''= r"^"' '° ''^'-•" "^<=
had put to sea it would probaWv h;v. ,u ^^'''l '^°'''°8^"'= ^Pedition
Great Britain was imp2 fwe "^ Tr '''^°' ""^ '^™'"^=' °f Spain.
its assaults in vain, ' ?h L " .e L an'of ".7" °' ''''"""' '"'^''^'^ ^s''-^
main agent in overtl,rowi„g tC^gr~t ZtlT T '''''"'' '° ""^ '""^
The vaa ,„. Great Britain smal7 7, "',''"">■£'="!"= had built.
dustrtes ol inp. „f ,|„ ? '^'"'' ''^d S™*"!. by the ODen-
areatBrlula "^ "^ "'<- "'""eenth century, to be the leading n.!
Europe. Its indiisfriVc -.t 'taaing power ni
panded enormously. It hid beZ'e th'°'""'"'='' ''' -"'"V"-- ^^d ex-
distributor of the world Th.ZZ,,''TJ°''''^°'''"^ ">« ^hief
its ports, the finished ptodLt ZZ^^^^;;::- r^' f"""''
becan,e the great money centre of the world an, l/^ °°'"'' ^°"'^°"
pr.sn,g islanders grew enormously rfcrwhile'w T'^'r" ""' ^"'^^■
enterprise showed themselves in inv of th. . l"^"" °' P^^jress and
It was with its money-bat that EnMH?-' """"""■
It could not conveniently sendmen h f ? ?."''" "="'"^' ""= '=™queror.
to the warring nations, and b" i^ 'flue ce 7^ '/"^ """"7 '"' ^PP""
coalition against Napoleon, eLv harder to ov '' ^f™"'' ^■•'""■°" ^^'^
peace that the Corsican won bv hi! vtt ''"'""■■°" "^^" the last. Every
influence. Her envoys h unte'd Ve y cTurt" wh-'""™"'i "" ^"^'and'!
ears of monarchs oknn n l- ".'"'P=""g ^^tility i„ the
ing. in a tho and wiy, l^ ri.';': r^"'"^' T"^?'"»' '''"'^'^"■
ientingly bent upon lloTerth L ^""^ /^''"" ""• ""^^■
an English general sho.dd m ' '^"'"- "'«"■ that
and that he should lie a p'risoTe'r ttliZ^f''"'' '"^ ^''^ ^^^-.
Pitt, ^^:2:s^7Z:^sz rr ''-■ °r'- -- *™^™
quest, and his unrelentinf, enemv "^I '^''''P"'f °' ^^ career of con-
against hin,, that kept the British fleet'aTerf 'and "Tff '^"™P'=
revenues without stint airainst thi« ^"? u /? expended the British
and that fonued the po tc^which ct ^ BritV "f '"='? °' '"<= "="--•
of the ministry of l4x, continued ' ' .'" """ =''°" '"'"™"
achieved. continued to pursue until his final defeat was
Whether this policy was a wise one i= „„„ ...,,._.. ,
nat ureal Britain caused n,ore harm than i^t cured ^"oTT"- " ""^ ^^
i>ost.l,ty the rapid succession of NapoleonictT:^,,,^:^^ .Ir-Xtr,'
How England
Fought
Against Na-
poleon
GREAT BRITAIN AS A WORLD EMPIRE
143
and much of the terrible bloodshed and misery caused by them might have
been obviated. It seems to have been, in its way, disastrous Yy,j,g England's
to the interests of mankind. Napoleon, it is true, had no Policy a wise
regard for the stability of dynasties and kingdoms, but he ^"®
wrought for the overthrow of the old-time tyranny, and his marches and
campaigns had the effect of stirring up the dormant peoples of Europe, and
spreading far and wide that doctrine of human equality and the rights of
man which was the outcome of the French Revolution. Had he been
permitted to die in peace upon the throne and transmit his crown to his
descendant, the long era of reaction would doubtless havv° been avoided
and the people of Europe have become the freer and happier as a result of
Napoleon's work.
The people of Great Britain had no reason to thank their ministers for
their policy. The cost of the war, fought largely with the purse, had been
enormous, and the public debt of the kingdom was so greatly increased
that its annual interest amounted to $150,000,000. But the country
emerged fi )m the mighty struggle with a vast growth in power and pres-
tige. It was recognized as the true leader in the great contest and had
lifted itself to the foremost position in European politics. The Prestige
On d it had waged the only successful campaign against Gained by
N -»n previous to that of the disastrous Russian expedi- QreatBrtain
tion. At sea it had destroyed all opposing fleets, and reigned the unques-
tioned mistress of the ocean except in American waters, where alone her
proud ships had met defeat.
The islands of Great Britain and Ireland had ceased to epresent the
dominions under the rule of the British king. In the W^ Tp^lies ^ew
islands had been added to his colonial possessions. In the East Indies he
had become master of an imperial domain far surpassing the mother
country in size and population, and with untold possibilitie.s of wealth. In
North America the great colony of Canada was growing in population
and prosperity. Island after island was being added to his possessions in
the Eastern seas. Among these was the continental island of Auiitralia,
then in its early stage of colonization. The possession of Great Extension
Gibraltar and Malta, the protectorate over the Ionian Islands, ot England's
and the right of free navigation on the Dardanells gave Great **"'^*
Britain the controlling power in the Mediterranean; And Cape Colony,
which she received as a result of the Treaty of Vienna, was the entering
wedge for a great dominion in South Africa.
Thus Great Britain had attained the position and dimensions of a
144
vn ..
•
I
C^JTAT BAVrAM AS A WORLD UMPm.
Jl
^ , '''"O". and natural wealth t,, d V '°"^' P°P"-
the heart, the vital centre of The !r'at' svit K-f' ''^'""''^ ""^^^ "-■•^'y
lay afar, in Canada. India, Sou h AfrTca Au r"i- '^^ '^ ''"''^ ^""^ '^ti
But the world-empire of Grea Rr I '""' elsewhere,
trade and rapid accu,nltion o^:: ,fh tu"t 7 "°' '"'""'^ ""■= °' P--'"'
contments, war becoming a permanent f ™/' "■^'"'"^ ""'""s'^ ^11 the
teenth century. After the NapoTeoni A °J "' ''"'"^^ i" ">e nine-
-r in Europe, tie Crimean -u^ewrerh f''^"' ^'''''' ""'^ °-
stantly engaged. Now they v^ere fi^hHn ■ . , ''°°P' ""='''-' ^'™«t ™n.
o South Africa, now with tL Trabf o Th Jn , ' ''°"' ^"'^ *^ ^ulus
of the Himalayas, now with the nadves of M ' 7"*; "'''' "'^ ""'' '^*-
half savage Abyssinians. Hardly at 'Thaf , "t"'*' "°" *"'' 'he
sort, far from the centre of th Jta^jlv P"^^^'' r.'*"^"' « fight of some
and Russia have stood face to facl on h " ' ^"'" ^"^land
threatening at any mo„,ent to be ome "nvolv 7 " '"'"'"' °' '""'-■
dominion. oecome mvolved m a terrible struggle for
And the standing of Great Tintr>;„
her vast colonial dominion aTd he erth^wMr"' T" ''' ""' ^'°- '"
ordmary enterprise that carried her shinrf ,7'' ^"' "''° '" '^' <=«ra.
commercial emporium of the world No^ n„7 f T'"' '"'' '"="'« I-- 'he
a I lands, sailed her enormous fleet t' ™ ^^ '° ^" °"'" <=°'°"''<=^. b"t to
of the earth, to be consumed at home r istHbr",' '^''"'"^ '"^ P^^""^
Europe and America. She had assumed h ''^""" '° "'" "'•"'""^ «'
carrier for mankind. """='' ""= P°""on of the purveyor and
for mal W "M^ufa^ulf etr^prise" aVd'^'^H"'"-'.!' '"^ P™^-"
mensely on her soil, and countless flct^r! f '""■'' '^''"' S--°*" hn-
turned out finished goods with a speed and " f"'-'' '"'' """'^ """''^^''"P^
rhe preceding century had beenTne of 1-™ " ""dreamed of before,
bemg the steam engine, that wonder^wo ker ^7'""°"' "= "'^' P^°<i"«
turn the old individual laborrystem If th u ''/ '""'^ ^^' '» over-
congregate, factory system thafhrr ■"" ^'' ""'' '"'^P'^''^^ " '"'th the
-^ind. Thesteame^giLsL"^:edL Ho '::;:: ''."= '"'"^^r "< ™"-
Manufacturing spinning, weavin<r iron T.l '"'"f'^'"^"h- Machines for
::J-- J^s^caLrapi^irinTo-rerX^l:;;^^^^^^^^^
.rand nine.ee;:^^:;^--::^ -- JSIf ^^^^ir*^' p'- ^
■■ 'i^-'l -l^Vit^pwK-'^^,
ad through ail
ury until they
ensions, popu-
Is were merely
ody and limbs
lie re.
ne of peaceful
hrough all the
f in the nine-
jed only one
'e almost con-
^"d the Zulus
he wild tribes
ow with the
ight of some
•ars England
2rs of India,
struggle for
not alone in
1 the extra-
ade her the
)nies, but to
he products
i nations of
irveyor and
e producer
grown im-
workshops
of before,
al product
IS to over-
t with the
5 of man-
chines for
ther pur-
- greatest
>lace, the
GREAT BRITAIN AS A WORLD EMPIRE 145
Great Britain did not content herself with going abrcad for the ma-
terials of her active industries. She dug her way into the bowels of the
earth, tore from the rocks its treasures of coal and iron, and thus obtained
the ne .essary fuel for her furnaces and metal for her machines. The whole
island resounded with the ringing of hammers and rattle of wheels, goods were
produced very far beyond the capacity of th island for their'' consump-
tion, and the vast surplus was sent abroad to all quarters of the earth, to
clothe savages in far-off regions and to furnish articles of use and luxury
to the most enlightened of the nations. To the ship as a carrier was soon
added the locomotive and its cars, conveying these products
inland with unprecedented speed from a thousand ports. And <^o'"'nerciai
from America came the parallel discovery of the steamship, '^"*^''P"«®
signalling the close of the long centuries of dominion of the sail. Years
went on and still the power and prestige of Great Britain grew, still its
industry and commerce spread and expanded, still its colonies increased in
population and new lands were added to the sum, until the island-empire
stood foremost in industry and enterprise among the nations of the world,
and its people reached the summit of their prosperity. From this lofty
elevation was to come, in the later years of the century, a slow but inevi-
table decline, as the United States and the leading European nations
developed in industry, and rivals to the productive and commercial supre-
macy of the British islanders began to arise in various quarters of the earth.
It cannot be said that the industrial prosperity of Great Britain, while
of advantage to her people as a whole, was necessarily so to individuals.
While one portion of the nation amassed enormous wealth, the bulk of the
people sank into the deepest poverty. The factory system brought with it
oppression and misery which it would need a century of indus-
trial revolt to overcome. The costly wars, the crushing taxa-
tion, the oppressive corn-laws, which forbade the importation
of foreign corn, the extravagant expenses of the court and
salaries of officials, all conspired to depress the people. Manu-
facturies fell into the hands of the few, and a vast number of artisans were
forced to live from hand to mouth, and to labor for long hours on pinching
wages. Estates were similarly accumulated in the hands of the few, and
the sipall land-owner and trader tended to disappear. Everything was
taxed to the utmost it would bear, while government remained blind to
the needs and sufferings of the people and made ..^ effort to decrease the
prevailing misery.
Thus it came about that the era of Great Britain's greatest prosperity
and supremacy as a world-power was the one of greatest industrial oppres-
Disastrous
Effect on the
People of the
New Condi-
tions
146
,ii i
GREAT BRITAIN AS A WORLD EMPIRE
tt"pelir'ToT '''■"^' ^P«"°/^ -"^-d by rebellious uprisings among
tne people, to be repressed w.th cruel and bloody severity It was \
people tufftr^'r ■"'",""; '" "'''^^ '"= Sover„„,Lt flourished and he
sent I''nditirn°/ f !''^''.^^""°' "^^ ^^^^ «» h-e ended. In truth the pre-
sent cond.t on of affairs is one that tends to its aa.rravation Neither the
manufacturing nor co,„„,ercial supremacy of Great Br'itain are whaU y o
pet tor andl °f •• "'"^ ""^ ^°"^ '"'° "■<= «<='" ^ » formidable co,,!
s " Imust b *- >' ? ^°,f J'^'^'='°l™'='" in manufacturing industry. The
have increased^ a!' " """=' ^'""=^' "^<^ P™'^-'' "^ ^^ose workshop
sunmss h' 'f . '"°"' ''"™'' ^'"'^ *''°^<= commerce has grown o
Gr'^'arL : h:rse°: r:i;trthe" ' « Ti , •'""= '^''"'"^' '^°'"^-'°" -^
slowlv .,1 .• • ^Z ^''^^ '^'' *« effects of this active rivalry, and is but
s ow but "^ *-' "f '^ '° .""= "™ ^°"^'"'°- "■'-•' " h- l^^ught abou the
slow but sure revolution in the status of the worlds industries
CHAPTER IX.
The Great Reform Bill and the Corn Laws.
AT the close of the last chapter we depicted the miseries of the people
of Great Britain, due to the revolution in the system of industry,
the vast expenses of the Napoleonic wars, the extravagance of the
government, and the blindness of Parliament to the condition of the
working classes. The situation had grown intolerable ; it was widely felt
that something must be done ; if affairs were allowed to go on as they were
the people might rise in a revolt that would widen into revolution, A
general outbreak seemed at hand. To use the language of x Period of
the times, the " Red Cock " was crowing in the rural districts. Riot and
That is, incendiary fires were being kindled in a hundred "•"" *
places. In the centres of manufacture similar signs of discontent ap
peared. Tumultuous meetings were held, riots broke out, bloody collisions
with the troops took place. Daily and hourly the situation was growing
more critical. The people were in that state of exasperation that is the
prelimir=ary stage of insurrection.
Two things they strongly demanded, reform in Parliament and repeal
of the Corn Laws. It is with these two questions, reform and repeal, that
we propose to deal in this chapter.
The British Parliament, it is scarcely necessary to say, is composed of
two bodies, the House of Lords and the House of Commons. The former
represents the aristocratic element of the nation; — in short, it The Parliament
represents simply its members, since they hold their seats as of Great
a privilege of their titles, and have only their own inter- Britan
ests to consider, though the interests of their class go with their own.
The latter are supposed to represent the people, but up to the time with
which we are now concerned they had never fully done so ; and they
did so now less than ever, since the right to vote for them was reserved to
a few thousands of the rich.
In the year 1830, indeed, the House of Commons had almost ceased to
represent the people at all. Its seats were distributed in accordance with
a system that had scarcely changed in the least for two hundred years
(141)
148
■',.w
Pi
THE GREAT REFORM BILL AND THE CORN LAWS
Disfranchised
Cities and
Rotten Bo.
roughs
'^^i tSf:^ itTstr jrrT; "'■ ^ '"<= ^'-p-'---
absurd as it was untust For ,1, • u " ''''"' ^""=" '"^'"'^ "as as
T»o c„.„. had iitn p,: e riM::d"™wr'"' ^-^^^^ ^^-^^^ ^'""s-
riesof onr.n.l • 1 ,u ^^'^aod- What were mere villarres or
other centres o' i, "s rv h^d h ' "^""t' ^'"■'^'^'''' ^--P-'. and
On the other hanc rkh t , t \''f ^^ ''"'''' "'"' '^"^>- l-P^lations.
become practically LvtFhnh'rehHr'''' *''"'™' '°™"»'" ''■•"'
tribution of population but tl e T ^'^<=" g--^^' flanges in the dis-
the same. ' ' ' ">='''^"'kut,on of seats in Parliament remained
ter, Blrmin^allheffi^d 'llf ''V';^"" '",''"='^'''" '°-^- ^'-'^''-
sands of ptopio did not send f' I ° ? "'"' '^^" "^""''^"'^ "' t''°"-
with only a iKndfu of vo er ""^ ', '"'"^'^ '° Parliament, while places
> lanaiul ot voters were duly rep-esented, and even olac,.! with
o.,™„...„. no ™,ers at all sent members to Parliament, Land- old !
oun.:;T:r''1 ^"f, ^'r^ "^o-^ »—% selecting ,:
ouger sons of noble families, and thus a large number of
But the gentryt w,3r;rd itx^^- ^tl7.f -'1 -r-
were justly called, but they were retlnec h! ,1 ,yT °"*^''' ""==<=
John Russ' n i : spe h nis':: ™? '""--l-'y P°""e'l ou't by Lord
that this country sunlta Led' t,'"'"",^"'"'" '"= ^^'''' " "''° "^'^ «°W
ande„,i,dnened^ha:r;ttr;r iTet'lS^
prides itself upon its freedom ,L IT r""' " '^ * <=°""try which
sentatives fro, its Population ^ T^'^ """^ '" '""=" ^""^ ■='<="= ^«P^«-
freedom_.would be anl s .n7 ■'' ^""'"'"^ ""' P^""'"^"^ °f "-at
formed and how the^;: :iirth:ir reprse:;::^^ --— -
ruined :o:fd'r„Tt';i7thatH 7' "'"f "'""■■""='' '' '^ ""« '^^en to a
TH -- nit "''' T""'' ^'="' '"° representatives to Parlia-
tn^H^*^™- ' • ' " ''''''=" '° ^ ='°"<^ ""11 and told that these
C"S:r/„ ::^'::V" " ^r 'r -P-^entatlves to Parliament; if he te
■*"•"" that tl "t" ""'l ■ "''''' "° '"""^^^ "^^-^ '° 1^^ ^^-^n' and told
he would bestni mo :LC ^fT '"^P^^^"'-'"'" '« Parliament. But
full of enterp eand fnTu ! d *,?" '° "*= '^^^" ''"'' °P"'-' •™-.
„f „..»... — ^r r ^ """^ intelligence, containinL' vast m.-,™„-p„:
»o ;ep;^srti:ef t:'p::;re;t ^"' ^"' '^^" '°'^ '^^ "^- '— -•
2 population
^hich was as
reat changes
- villages or
manufactur-
erpool, and
populations,
roughs had
' in the dis-
nt remained
s, Manches'
:ds of thou-
vhile places
places with
md-holding
lecting the
number of
ted no one
ughs these
atism with
3ast.
t by Lord
3 was told
e civilized
itry which
cts repre-
-rs of that
ntation is
iken to a
to Parlia-
lat these
f he were
and told
nt. But
It towns,
— o '•• ■•
^ns sent
WILLIAM BLACK,
WALTER KESANT.
POPULAR WRITERS OF FICTION.
GEORGE MACDONALD.
IMi
JOHN MORl.EY. a. J. BALFOUR.
ENGLISH STATESMEN IN LITERATURE.
'i^mtkm
'■''•^■-•■■■tofef^^. .■-'i»5^(y¥'-««^.f^¥;'M*>4i
.;;=^K
THE GREAT REFORAf nnj. AND THE CORN LAWS
i5»
"Such a person would be still more astonished if he were taken to
Liverpool, where there is a large constituency, and told, ' Mere you will
have a fine specimen of a popular election.' He would set; bribery
employed to the greatest extent and in the most unblushing manner; he
would see every voter receiving a number of guineas in a bag as the price
of his corruption ; and after such a spectacle he would be, no doubt, much
astonished that a nation whose representatives are thus chosen, could per-
form the functions of legislation at all, or enjoy respect in any degree."
Such was the state of affairs when there came to England the nt;ws of
the quiet but effective French Revolution of 1830. Its effect in I'Lngland
was a stern demand for the reform of this mockery miscalled House of
Commons, of this lie that claimed to represent the English people. We
have not told the whole story of the transparent falsehood. Two years
before no man could be a member of Parliament who did not belong to the
Church of England. No Dissenter could hold any public office in the
kingdom. The multitudes of Methodists, Presbyterians, Baptists, and
other dissenting sects were excluded from any share in the Qigggn^g^g ^^^
Ufovernment. The same was the case with the Catholics, catholics
few in E norland, but forming the bulk of the population of Admitted to
Parlisment
Ireland. This evil, so far as all but the Catholics were con-
cerned, was removed by Act of Parliament in 1828. The struggle for
Catholic liberation was conducted in Ireland by Daniel O'Connell, the most
eloquent and patriotic of its orators. He was sneered at by Lord Welling-
ton, then prime minister of Great Britain. But when it was seen that all
Ireland was backing her orator the Iron Duke gave way, and a Catholic
Relief Bill was passed in 1829, giving Catholics the right to hold all but the
highest offices of the realm. In 1830, instigated by the revolution in
France, the great fight for the reform of Parliamentary representation began.
The question was not a new one. It had been raised by Cromwell,
nearly two hundred years before. It had been brought forward a number
of times during the eighteenth century. It was revived in 1809 and again
in 1 82 1, but public opinion did not come strongly to its support until 1830
George IV., its strong opponent, died in that year; William IV., a king
more in its favor, came to the throne ; the government of the bitterb' con-
servative Duke of Wellington was defeated and Earl Grey, a Liberal
minister, took his place ; the tinii: was evidently ripe for reform, cmd soon
the great fight was on.
The people of England looked upon the reform of Parliament as a
j-g^torint>" tn them of their lost liberties, and their feelino^s were deenly
enlisted in the event. When, on the ist of March, 1831, the bill was
III
«3«
TflE GREAT REFORAf BILL AND THE CORN LAWS
If
S '!
';!l
I I,
!5;
Th. Reform Bill ' ••"^H'lment house were opened ev„ry inch of room in the
entire ys V two o ,h l! f"''"' .''^ ''"" '■*-" ''^"'"'''^'' '" 'li^f^nchise
c-niirti) sixty-two of the rotten borouo-hs eirh nf wh.Vk 1,11 .
The b,II was debated, pro and con. with all the eloquence then in Par
was Th. n P ■■ ■' ''" ^'''"""<="'. 'imited as the suffrage then
Th n the bi 1 : "•'""-"" '""?■"'=' =• '''^^'" '"-^i-'^'y "f -fornxr^s, and
hen the b,|] was again presented it was carried by a majority of ,06 On
he evemngof its passage it was taken by Earl Grey „ to Ihc House of
...ows and the Keforn. ilU^i^ln^oTby a^:.; rfo^!::' '^
Instantly, on the news of this action of the I nr^c !i , ^ ''"^-
■r arvr^''^ 1 -'r-' -" ^-"'•^' oStr rss:^ty r ':^
war. The people were bitterly in earnest in their demand for re onn
"T"J7 "" InZ ''-■tr^''-"»;"°"g'>t up to an intense pitch of e.xcite:
Rev„.«i„„ "^"': ^'°'l broke out in all sections of the country-
London seethed with excitement. The peers were mohb? I
1 in.. L-o.Tim..., ..,, „Kc a Oear-pit. a mass of furiously
THE GREAT REFORM li/LL AND THE CORN LAWS
'53
?nsc. For
>rs of the
'm in the
others no
■om which
sfranchise
h.in 2,000
habitants,
unseated
I" liad no
>piilation.
tncd, and
;n in Par-
were too
ht. Par-
, and an
Med the
\gc then
ers, and
06. On
louse of
bitterly
ly over-
of his
3ne.
country
that of
reform,
excite-
ountry.
nobbed
e their
Those
2 beine
Angry
3ok an
riously
How the Re-
form Bill
Was Passed
wran.^llnir opponents. Ennrland was shaken to the centre by the defeat of
the bill, and Parliament r(>rlected th(; sentiment of the people.
On December I3th, Russell presented a third R<'form Bill to the
House, almo!:t the same in its provisions as those which had been d( feated.
The debate now was brief, and the result certain. It was felt to be no lonjrer
safe to juggle with the people. On the i8th the bill was passed, with a
greatly increased majority, now amounting to 162. To the Lords again it
went, where the Tories, led by Lord Wellington, were in a decided majority
against it. It had no chance of passage, unless tlu; king woulci create
enough new peers to outvote the opposition. This King William refused to
do, and Earl Grey resigned the ministry, leaving the Tori( s to bear the brunt
of the situation they had produced.
The r( ..ult was one barely short of civil war. The people rose in fury,
determined upon reform or revolution. Organized unions
sprang up in every town. Threats of marching an army
upon London were made. Lord Wellington was mobbed in
the streets and was in .,..-*l of his life. The maddened populace went so
far as to curse and 'tone lIi-^ king himself, one stone striking him in the
forehead. The coi ntry was indeed on the verge of insurrection against
the government, and luless quick action was taken it was impossible to
foresee the result.
William IV., perhaps with the recent experience of Charles X. of
France before his eyes, gave way, and promised to create enough new
peers to insure the passing of the bill. To escape this unwelcome necessity
Wellington and others of the Tories agreed to stay away from Parliament,
and the Lords, pocketing their dignity as best they could, passed the bill
by a safe majority, and reform was attained. Similar bills w(-re passed for
Scotland and Ireland, and thus was achieved the greatest measure of reform
in the history of the British Parliament. It was essentially a revolution,
the first great step in the evolution of a truly representative assembly in
Great Britain.
The second great step was taken in 1867, '" response to a popular
demonstration almost as great and threatening as that of 1830. The Tories
themselves, under their leader Mr. Disraeli, were obliged to bring in this
bill, which extended the suffrage to millions of the people, The Extension
and made it almost universal among the commercial and oftheSuJ-
industrial classes. Nearly twenty years later, in 1884, a new ^'"^*^*
crusade was made in favor of the extension of the suffrage to agricultural
laborers, previously disfranchised. The accomplishment of this reform
ended the great struggle, and for the first time in their history the people
I
»54
THE GREAT REEORAf BILL AND THE CORN LAWS
\ ti
*8 t-x
The Corn
Laws
of Great Britain were adequately represented in their Parliament, which
had ceased to be the instrument of a class and at last stood for the whole
commonwealth.
The question of Parliamentary reform settled, a second ^rreat question,
that of the Corn Laws, rose up prominently before the people. It was one
that appealed more immediately to them than that of repri:sentation. The
benefits to come from the latter were distant and problematical ; those to
come froi \ a repeal of the Corn Laws were evident and inuuediate. Every
poor man and woman felt each day of his life the crushiuir effect of these
laws, which bore upon the food on th(;ir tables, making- still more scarce
and hiy;-h-priced their scanty means of existence.
For centuries commerce in grain had been a subject of legislation. In
1361 its exportation from England was forbidden, and in 1463 its
importation was prohibited unless the price of wheat was
greater than 6s. 3d. per quarter. As time went on changes
were made in these laws, but the tariff charges kept up the
price of grain until late in the nineteenth century, and added greatly to
the miseries of the workinir classes.
The farming land of England was not held by the common people, but by
the aristocracy, who fought bitterly against the repeal of the Corn Laws, which,
by laying a large duty on grain, added materially to their profits. But
while the aristocrats were benefited, the workers suffered, the price of the
loaf being decidedly raised and their scanty fare correspondingly dim-
inished.
More than once they rose in riot against these laws, and occasional
changes were mad(; in them, but many years passed after the era of parlia-
mentary reform before public opinion prevailed in this second field of
Cobdcnandthe ^-ffort. Richard Cobden, one of the greatest of England's
Anti-Corn orators, was the apostle of the crusade against these misery-
Law Crusade 1 ■ 1 it 1 1 . • ' . . .
producmg laws. He advocated their rept?al with a power
and influence that in time grew irresistiblt?. He was not affiliated with
either of the great parties, but stood apart as an independent Radical, a
man with a party of his own, and that party, I'Vee Trade. For the crusade
against the Corn Laws widened into one against the whole principle of
protection. Backed by the public demand for cheap food, the movement
went on, until in 1846 Cobden brougnt over to his side the government
forces under Sir Robert Peel, by whose aid the Corn Laws were swept
away and the ports of England thrown open to the free entrance of food
from nny p:\rt of tile vvorlu. The result was a serious one to English agri-
culture, but it was of great benefit to the English people in their status as
It, which
be whole
]uestion,
was one
n. The
those to
Every
of these
e scarce
Tim GREAT REFORM BILL AND THE CORN LAlv's 155
the greatest of maiuifactiiring and commercial nations. Supplying the
world with goods, as they did, it was but just that the world should supply
them with food. With the repeal of the duties on grain oreat Britain
the whole system of protection was dropped and in its place Adopts Free
was adopted that system of free trade in which Great Britain ^'"^"^^
stands alone among the nations of the world. It was a system especially
adapted to a nation whose market was the world at large, and under it
British commerce spread and llourished until it became one of the wonders
of the world.
ion. In
1463 its
leat was
changes
t up the
reatly to
J, but by
s, which,
ts. But
J of the
l\y dim-
casional
f parlia-
field of
ngland's
misery-
i pow<?r
ed with
adical, a
crusade
ciple of
)vement
^rnment
l; swept
of food
:ill agri-
tatus as
i
CHAPTER X.
Turkey, the "Sick Man" of Europe.
AMONG the most interesting pl,ases of nineteentli-century l,istorv
.s tl,at of tlle conflict between Russia and Turlcey a stru Jl for
The "Sick Man" ''"''. tl'ey (entered tlie nineteenth century witli their ancient do'
o, Europe .m"'°" '■''^««'>' '""«• ""' 'h^-T "'ere declining, in strength
oftheS,,!, "'7"/^"'^','=' '^-^^ Showing, and long before ,900 the empire
of the Sultan would have becon,e the prey of the Czar had not the other pZers
•■ ht'l^rnr.'^ f°F " ""'", ■'"'" ^'-^ '^'^''o'- ^'-isnatedl Sul an!
the s,ck man of Europe, and such he and his empire have truly become
I he ambitious designs of Russia found abund un warrant in rh. 1
north by Slavs; their people treated always with harshness and tyrinnv
heir every attempt at revolt repressed with savage cruelty We h/jr '
how the Greeks rebelled against their oppressorsNnTr.'^m cr^Ti^hl elld
.hew.r„, gle Russia declared war against Turkey in ,828, and in the
.he independerr^fi;::: bral^' e^trif tu'i'^urf-ir' °?
ern principalities of Servia. Moldaviarand'\;.'a^,a1l- "'•; Ly w^Cd
m a measure to loosen her grip on Christian Europe But the R, n
Kn;;:d:::;ri:::':;^ste::-!:i^x;7-'^'r"^^^^
sion of Constantinople, had <o..':!Z:i!'^:' ^^^^^1: ^
the great Muscovite Empire. ^ threatening growth of
■S6
TURKEY, THE " S/CAT A/AAT" OF EUROPE ' ,57
The ambitious Czar Nicholas looked upon Turkey as his destined prey,
and waited with impatience a sufficient excuse to send his armies a-ain to
the Balkan Peninsula, whose mountain barrier formed the great natu^'ral bil-
wark of Turkey in the north. Though the Turkish government at this
time avoided direct oppression of its Christian subiects, the fanatical Mo-
hammedans were difficult to restrain, and the robbery and n . ,
,-r.....^U.- ^f r^u • ^' f ^ Oppression of
murder ot Christians was of common occurrence. A source theChristians
of hostility at length arose from the question of protecting ""^ '^'"'^^y
these ill-treated peoples. By favor of old treaties the czar claimed a certain
right to protect the Christians of the Greek faith. France assumed a simi-
lar protectorate over the Roman Catholics of Palestine, but the greater
number of Greek Christians in the llolv Land, and the powerful support of
the czar, gave those the advantage in the frequent duarrels which arose in
Jerusalem between the pilgrims from the East and the West.
Nicholas, instigated by his advantage in this quarter, determined to de-
clare himself the protector of all the Christians in the Turkish Empire, a
claim which the sultan dared not admit if he wished to hold ^he Bala
control over his Mohammedan subjects. War was in the PoweMn*"
air, and England and France, resolute to preserve the Europe
"balance of power," sent their fleets to the Dardanelles as useful
lookers-on.
The sultan had already rejected the Russian demand, and Nicholas lost
no time in sending an army, led by Prince Gortchakoff, with orders to cross
the Pruth and take possession of the Turkish provinces on the Danube.
The gauntlet had been thrown down. War was inevitable. The English
newspapers demandec f their government a vigorous policy. The old
Turkish party in Constantinople was equally urgent in its demand for hos-
tihties. At length, on October 4, 1853, the sultan declared ^^
war against Russia unless the Danubian principalities were at dafei w."^"
once evacuated. Instead of doing so, Nicholas ordered his Against
generals to invade the Balkan territory, and on the other hand '^""'*
Wance and England entered into alliance with the Porte and sent their
fleets to the Bosporus. Shortly afterwards the Russian Admiral Nachi-
moff surprised a Turkish squadron in the harbor of Sinope, attacked it,
and— though the Turks fought with the greatest courage— the fleet was
destroyed and nearly the whole of its crews were slain.
This turned the tide in England and France, which declared war in
March, 1854, while Prussia and Austria maintained a waiting attitude. No
event of special importance took place early in the war. In April Lord
Raglan, with an English army of 20,000 men, landed in Turkey and the
I if
tl
'S«
TURKl-Y. Tim -SICK MAN" OF EUROPE
crossed the Danube, found it advisable to retreat and withdraw
i:ngla„d and l^'<'^^_ the Pruth, on a threat of hostilities from Austria and
"ZTaTo? "^^"Tk " r'" '''' Pnncipalities were evacuated.
naval poweHn „k iC Sel """'• '"' "^' '° ''^^'^°^ "'= «-^'-
Turk, ,t n ? f " """ 50.000 British and 1-rench and 6 000
int west coast of the Crimean peninsula, on the 4th of Sep-
Thc w.r ,n the ."^'""^r, 1854. Southwar.ls of Eupatoria the sea forms a ba
"""" I'Mel ■ T-", ""■ '"'"' "' ""^ °'^ '-" °f > nkeriil:,^^
liesthefortifie tow' of ' ? "•''>^ '""^ ''-"■ «" its southern side
tionswere'tVfo: h^dtLt °o7 hrfl'^"f"'"'™ f'^ f"' '°""'^"-
the bay. Farther north ,,, "" "' ""= ''^«'' "' «""■ ^^l'":!. lay at anchor in
river Ataa, ;v wli^cl fti e mT !x T""'"" "';-■;■ ''^ '""^^^^«<=<' '^>- ">«
the heights with .n n. f "™^'''°'f' governor of the Crimea, garrisoned
direcrel tleTr at^-^ci: '', • '°' -"^ '""'• '^»'""^' "'« '^"" "'«'"■■- first
on teror^C^ ,'•■;" r/''' °' ""= ^'™"« P"»'"™ "^ ^^e Russians
from en;^]estuctl' :,;:',■"" '"'""r""' '" "'^^^'' °«'"S '^'^ "-'I-
This dearly bouSu'Tdbo'^ 1 '' 7"' ° ''"''^^ '" ""= "^'"y "' ""= ='"i^^-
s,>eedy ter^.- rtfoi: ^"t^^^ ™ ^ '"iT ''"'', ''"' ,'° """^^ "' ^
by the fearful stru.r.rlM ,m! f ', ''""'"' ^^''^■^ened and wearied
tions. tvhen e';rsT,;pro ^W ^h^ 't'"'"'"' """ "™"''' '""'«-
.-.ny attacl< on s,„-h ? ''I'P™-'*^' "' the town they were soon convinced that
nufst awat the I ri -d " 'f f r'"" """''* "" '"''"^^=' ''"'' "'»' "-X
lish took „n ,h reinforcements and ammunition. The fJ.
wett on .reKli:::-'.'"" °" ""-' '^^ °^ "^"■''-' -" "^ I^--" '" ''-
histoJy'^rthTlrhr" t",: fi ^^"*'" ""' •'"' "='^ ^'^'''°'" -■-"•'•'' "' "-
land army and Zee. showed m"""'" '" ''""" ''^ " """"' ^"^'^ "' "'*^
tl>an had been exUc.ed v H I'r """"l'^"'"' '° '''= """-'> '"'^^'^ f-'-idable
: , "'-^" ."-M^eced by .he allies. Eijrht days later the Kn.d:= -e
...... »eu .. tneir strong position near Balakla^a by Gene^arLiprandl
Russians,
1 withdraw
ustria and
1 advance
expedition
d fortress
554, when
Utack the
: Russian
Vith the
nd 6,000
ded near
of Sep-
ns a bay,
sann, the
ern side
fortifica-
nchor in
1 by the
rrisoned
lies first
Russians
escape
e allies,
es of a
wearied
ed time
art i Hea-
led that
It they
e Eng-
to the
in the
of the
lidable
■ *^ V 1 1_
)randi.
o
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2S
HI
V
H'5
TURKEY, THE '' SICK MAN'' OF EUROPE
i6i
The Battle of
Balaklava
The battle of Balaklava was decided in favor of the allies, and on the 5th
of November, when Menzikoff had obtained fresh reinforce-
ments, the murderous battle of Inkermann was fou'dit umler
the eyes of the two Grand Princes Nicholas and Michael, and
after a mighty struggle was won by the allied armies. I-'ighting in the
ranks were two other princely personages, the Duke of Cambridge and
Prince Napoleon, son of Jeron- r, former King of Westphalia.
Of the engagements here named there is only one to which special
attention need be directed, the battle of Balaklava, in which occurred that
mad but heroic "Charge of the Light Brigade," which has become famous
in song and story. The purpose of this conflict on the part of the Rus-
sians was to cut the line of communication of the allies, by capturing the
redoubts that guarded them, and thus to enforce a retreat by depriving the
enemy of supplies.
The day began with a defeat of the Turks and the capture by the
Russians of several of the redoubts. Then a great body of j^e Highland-
Russian cavalry, 3,000 strong, charged upon the 93d High- ers'"Thin,
landers, who were drawn up in line to receive them. There *^®'* ^'"®"
was comparatively but a handful of these gallant Scotchmen, 550 all told,
but they have made themselves famous in history as the invincible "thin,
red line."
Sir Colin Campbell, their noble leader, said to them : " Remember,
lads, there is no retreat from here. You must die where you stand."
"Ay, ay. Sir Colin," shouted the sturdy Highlanders, "we v.'ill do
just that."
They did not need to. The murderous fire from their " thin, red line "
was more than the Russians cared to endure, and they were driven back in
disorder.
The British cavalry completed the work of the infantry. On the
serried mass of Russian horsemen charged Scarlett's Heavy Brigade, vastly
inferior to them in number, but inspired with a spirit and courage that
carried its bold horsemen through the Russian columns with such resistless
energy that the great body of Muscovite cavalry broke and fled — 3,000
completely routed by 800 gallant dragoons.
And now came the unfortunate but world-famous event of tne day.
It was due to a mistaken order. Lord Raglan, thinking that the Russians
intended to carry off the guns captured in the Turkish redoubts, sent an
order to the brigade of light cavalry to " advance rapidly to the front and
prevent the enemy from carrying off the guns."
\-\
i;lif
ii 1 1
|r I
;?5
f
ill
J 63
TURKEY, THE " SICK MAN" OF EUROPE
Lord Lucan, to whom the command was brought, did not understand
Captain Nolan 't- Apparently, Captain Nolan, who conveyed the order, did
and the Order not clearly explain its purport.
to Charge ,, j i r> i , .
,. , ^^^^ Kaglan orders that the cavalry shall attack im-
mediately," he said, impatient at Lucan's hesitation.
" Attack, sir ; attack what ?" asked L.can.
"There, my lord, is your enemy; there are your guns," said Nolan
with a wave of his hand towards the hostile lines.
The guns he appeared to indicate were those of a Russian battery at
the epd of the valley, to attack which by an unsupported cavalry change
was sheer madness. Lucan rode to Lord Cardigan, in command of the
cavalry, and repeated the order.
*; But there is a battery in front of us and guns and riflemen on either
nank, said Cardigan.
" I know it," answered Lucan. " But Lord Raglan will have it. We
have no choice but to obey."
''The brigade will advance," said Cardigan, without further hesitation
In a moment more the "gallant six hundred " were in motion-going in
the wrong direction, as Captain Nolan is thought to have percieved At
all events he spurred his horse across the front of the brigade, waving his
sword as if with the intention to set them right. But no one understood
him and at that instant a fragment of shell struck him and hurled him dead
to the earth. There was no further hope of stopping the mad charge.
On and on went the devoted Light Brigade, their pace increasino- at
every stride, headed straight for the Russian battery half a league away.
The Charge As they went fire was opened on them from the guns in flank
Srlgade'^'* ^,°°" ^^^^ '""""^ '''''^'" '^"^^ ^^ ^^^ g""^ '" f'-ont. which
also opened a raking fire. They were enveloped in "a zone
of fire, and the air was filled with the rush of shot, the bursting of Jiells
and the moan of bullets, while amidst the infernal din the work of death
went on, and men and horses were incessantly dashed to the ground."
But no thought of retreat seems to have entered the minds of those
brave dragoons and their gallant leader. Their pace increased ; they
reached the battery and dashed in among the guns ; the gunners were cut
down as they served their pieces. Masses of Russian cavalry standing near
were charged and forced back. The men fought madly in the face of death
until the word came to retreat.
Then, emerging from the smoke of the battle, a feeble remnant of the
•' gaiiant six nundred " appeared upon the plain, comprising one or two large
groups, though the most of them were in scattered parties of two or three
TURKEY, THE " SICK MAN'' OF EUROPE
»63
im-
One group of about seventy men cut their way throu-h three squadrons of
Russian lancers. Another party of equal strength broke through a second
intercepting force. Out of some 647 men in all, 247 were killed and wounded,
and nearly all the horses were slain. Lord Cardigan, the first The Sad End
to enter the battery, was one of those who came back alive. «J*|^JJ'*
The whole affair had occupied no more than twenty minutes.
But it was a twenty minutes of which the British nation has ever since been
proud, and which Tennyson has made famous by one of the most spirit-
stirring of his odes. The French General Bosquet fairly characterized
it by his often quoted remark : "C'est magnifique, mais ce nest pas la
guerre." (It is magnificent, but it is not war.) ^ ^
These battles in the field brought no changes in the state of affairs.
The siege of Sebastopol went on through the winter of 1854-55. during
which the allied army suffered the utmost misery and privation, partly the
effect of climate, largely the result of fraud and incompetency at home.
Sisters of Mercy and self-sacrificing English ladies-chief among them the
noble Florence Nightingale-strove to assuage the sufferings brought on
the soldiers by cold, hunger, and disease, but these enemies proved more
fatal than the sword.
In the year 1855 the war was carried on with increased energy, ^.arcii-
nia joined the allies and sent them an army of 15.000 men. Austria broke with
Russia and began preparations for war. And in March the obstinate czar
Nicholas died and his milder son Alexander took his place. Peace was de-
manded in Russia, yet 25,000 of her sons had fallen and the honor of the
nation seemed involved. The war went on. both .des increasing their
forces Month by month the allies more closely invested t!.- besieged city.
After the middle of August the assault became almost ^>:.cessant, cannon
balls dropping like an unceasing storm of hail in forts and streets.
On the 5th of September began a terrific bombardment, continuing
day and night for three days, and sweeping down more than 5,000 Russians
on the ramparts. At length, as the hour of noon struck on The Assault on
September 8th, the attack of which this play of artillery was --^^^^^^
the prelude began, the French assailing the Malakoff, the
British the Redan, these being the most formidable of the defensive works
of the town. The French assault was successful ^ u.' -ebastopol became
untenable. That night the Russians blew up their remaining forts, sunk
their ships of war. and marched out of the town, leaving it as the prize of
victorv to the allies. Soon after Russia gained a success by capturing the
Turkish fortress of Kars, in Asia Minor, and, her honor sai.siied w.Lii tnis
succe-^s X treaty of peace was concluded. In this treaty the Black S..-a was
I-^-
s?
I
164
ill
tf
rC/A^A'/iy, THK -SICA' MAN^
OF liURorn
The Revo.. ,„ I""--' Kussi,-. was fairly s;ouUd n,^ '" '"""'^ >"-'-'"'
Bosnia rehdlecl in c„„s^° t „f h' :■'""'^' .T-*^- '" '«75
. , °f 'He Turkisl, tax-coll, ctorsri i""-' '"•';"'^''-'''''''''" "PPrcssi,,,,
hemselves so sturdily in their ,„„ tTpls ''''r """'''"'^ '"aintainc.!
despa,rcd of s„l,cluing then, an '""■''r. "'■'" "'^ ''''"'^^ "''"'-t
quar^.rs became so stirred „p tl,„t a' -^cne.al'^evo t""^ 1 "'' ■''"""' '•" ■'"
The lurks undertook to , , venrtM 7 '■" tl'rcalened.
troops vvere sent into Christia , ll.rarh tlH, "",'" "'"•'' ^•■'''"'""- '■•'■<-«"l^"-
was an order to the Mohan,™ed n t.;,™ "'- ' "t'^ '" ^'" '•'" ""--y '"«'■ "
l,ar,a were entered and their inin n't ''•''-"'-less villages of M„|.
fi"ed with horro^r. Thrsnur;:!!/::::;:;, "t'^ "•"= -"-- --
itoEffec. ^^."""^ ' " t^^mble as this could not l>e .7 , * ""•""
Disraeli, then prime mlniJ r ^ condoned so easilv.
d'spose of these report , as nn ter. f f ^""'''' '^'•''^i". sought .'„
-tirement, arose in' his l^^tlTt '' '"' ^^'f*'""^' ••" "'at time
Horrors "so aroused public" -in',. ,U if; V'T"''", °" ""= "«"'«-•"
dared not back up Tt.rkey in the c:m;;:g':,f "^"^*"" ""' "'^- ^°--- "'
;oussect^:i'ti:;ri:rir:t,Srb'^"-7-^''---
Alexander 11, declared war.gai^st f rtv 'n ~"'"''' •••"'' '" ^P^'. ^^V.
been so flagrant that no alWe c,me t7,l ! ''^7'^••'J."^« °f "'e Turks hn
'He.r em^re was shown by the ra^ . dv „''"; !'l ' ^;'"'-. "" ™"^"-- "'
They crossed the Danube in 7 ? '^"'"'•■" """'es.
occupied the principal passes of th .j"u „ " """"' '"'" 'hey had
t.on to descend on the broad plain h, tie I't'l ,"""'"' ^"'' "'^^'^ H, posi-
Po.nt m their career they n,lt ""t Z ^-"«™tinople. But at this
g, neraJH vv(.Tt> f.|(j
in
while the
assured by
JtCCtif)!! of
ory. But
nty years'
In 1875
pprcssioii
aintainctl
s almost
tan in all
frreoriilar
met. It
5 of Huj.
uod, till
ns wen:
oloniacy
t a nias-
' easih-.
:ght to
time in.
Igarian
rn': ,nt
tlreliLT-
ks had
less of
y had
I posi-
t this
1, the
i the
jngly
For
Id in
TURk'HY, TlfE " srCK .V.W" OF Hl ^^^OPE ,«,
check by this brave n.a.i and his few followers, nntil Kurope and America
alike looked on w.th admiration at his remarkable defence, in view of which
the cause of the uar was almost forgotten. The Russian o,„„„ ^ ,
general krf.dener was n, Ised with the loss of S.ooo men. ""IZIZT
1 he daring Skobeleff stro in vain to launch his troops over 'enceof Wevna
Osman's walls. y\t length ( .eneral Todleben undertook tl.- sieg6. adontin.^
the slow but safe method of starving out the defenders. Osman Pacha noC
showed his courage, as he had already shown his endurance. When hun.^er
and disease be.oran to reduce the strength of his men. he resolve on a fmal
desperate effort. At the head of his brave .^^.rrison the "Lion of Ph-vna"
sallied from the city, and fought with desperate courage to break throti.d>
the circle of h.s foes. He was finally driven back into th. city and co'nv
pelled to surrender.
Osman had won glory, and his fall was the fall of the Turkish cause
I he Russians crossed the Balkan. cai,turing in the Schipka Pass a Turkish
army of 30,000 men. Adrianople was taken, and the Turk- ^^ ^
ish line of retreat cut off. The Russians m.arched to the ^tTx^lV
Bosporus, and the Sultan was compelled to sue for peace to Turks
save his capital from fal'^l.ir into the hands of the Christians, as it had fallen
into those of the Turks lour centuries before.
Russia had won the game for which she*ha<l made so long n struo-o-le
1 he treaty of San Stefano practically decreed the dissolution of" the TurTisli
Lmpire. But at this juncture the other nations of Europe t< .k p u-t
Ihey were not content to see the balance of power destroyed bs Russia
becoming, master of Constantinople, and England demanded that the treaty
should be revised by the European powers. Russia protested, but Di'^raeli
threatened war, and the czar i,rave wa)-.
The Congress of Berlin, to which the treaty was referred, settled the
que. ,n in the following manner : Montenegro. Roumania. and Servia were
deck. \ independent, and Buli^^aria became free, except that
It had to pay an annual tribute to the sultan. The part of "^^^ ^"""^^^^^^
old Bulgaria that lay south of the Balkan Mountains was *" ^"■""
named East Roumelia and given its own civil government, but was left
under the military control of Turkey. Bos . an.' Herzegovina wer. placed
under the control of Austria. All that Russia , ..ained for her victories
were so,„e provinces in Asia Minor. Ttirkey was terribly shorn, and since
then her power has been further reduced, for East Roumel . has broken
loose from her control and united itself again to Bulgaria.
Anotlicr twenty y-.-y, pass( d, and Turkey found its :if at war again It
was the old storv, the oppression - " the Christin s This time the trouble
'I !l
|('!
» »■
m ■
If I
166
TURKEY, THE '' SICK MAN'' OF EUROPE
began in Armenia, a part of Turkey in Asia, where in 1S95 and 1896
terrible massacres took place. Indij,rnation rci<rned in Euro[)e, but fears
The Turks In "f a general war kept tiiem from using force, and the sultan
Armenia and paid no heed to the reforms he promised to make.
In 1896 the Christians of the island of Crete broke out in
revolt against the oppression and tyranny of I'urkish rule. Of all the powers
of Europe little Greece was the only one that came to their aid, and the great
nations, still inspired with the fear of a general war, sent their fleet and
threatened Greece with blockade unless she would withdraw her troops.
1 he result was one scarcely expected. Greece was persistant, and
gathered a threatening army on the ^ cntierof Turkey, and war broke out in
1897 between the two states. The I'urks now, undJr an able commander,
showed much of their ancient valor and intrepidity, crossing the frontier, de-
feating the Greeks in a rapid series of engagements, and occupying Thessaly,
while the Greek army wis driven back in a state of utter demoralization.'
At this juncture, when Greece lay at the mercy of Turkey, as Turkey had
The War Be- 'a'" at that of Russia twenty years before, the powers, which
tween Turkey had refused to aid Greece in her generous but hopeless effort,
ana tireece ^ 1 • ^ , , . ,^ .
stepped in to save her from rum. Turkey was bidden to call
a halt, and the sultan reluctantly stopped the march of his army. He de-
manded the whole of Thessaly and a large indemnity in money. The former
the powers refused to grant, and reduced the indemnity to a sum within the
power of Greece to pay. Thus the affair ended, and such is the status of
the Eastern Question to-day. Hut it may be merely a question of time
when Russia shall accomplish her long-cherished Jesign, and become master
of Constantinople ; possibly by the way of Asia, in which her power is now
so rapidly and widely extending.
and 1896
but fears
he sultan
ke out in
e powers
the great
1f*et and
r)ops,
ant, and
ke out in
inlander,
nticr, de-
rhessaly,
ilization.
rkey had
"s, which
3S effort,
n to call
He de-
2 former
thin the
tatus of
of time
i master
r is now
CHAI'TKR XI.
The European Revolution of 1848.
THE revolution of 1830 did not bring peace and quiet to France nor
to Europe. In France the people grew dissatisfied with their new
monarch; in Europe generally they demantled a greater share of
liberty. Louis I*hihppe delayed to extend the suffrage ; he used his high
position to add to his great riches ; he failed to win the hearts of the
French, and was widely accused of selfishness and greed. There were
risings of legitimist in favor of the Bourbons, wliile the republican element was
opposed to monarchy. No less than eight attempts were made to remove the
king by assassination— all of them failures, but they showed opposition in
the disturbed state of public feeling. Liberty, ecjuality, fra- France to
ternity became the watchwords of the working classes, social- Louis Philippe
i>Uic ideas arose and spread, and the industrial element of the various
nations became allied in one great body of revolutionists known as the
" Internationalists."
In Germany the demand of the peop.'j for political rights grew until it
reached a crisis. The radical writings of the "Young Germans," the
stirring songs of their poets, the bold utterances of the press, the doctrines
ot the " Friends of Light " anion*, the Protestants and of the " Cierman
Catholics" among the Catholics, all went to show that the people were
deeply dissatisfied alike with the state and the church. They were rapidly
arousing from their sluggish acceptance of the work of the Congress of
Vienna of 18 15, and the spirit of liberty was in the air.
The King of Prussia, Frederick William IV., saw danger ahead. He
b(!came king in 1840 and lost no time in trying to make his
rule popular by reforms. An diet of toleration was issued, s^enSmTnTrn
the sittings of the courts were opened to the public, and the Germany and
Estates of the provinces were called to meet in Berlin. In '**'^
the convening of a Parliament he had given the people a voice. The
Estates demanded freedom of the press and of the state with such eloquence
and energy that the king dared not resist them. The people had gained a
great step in their progress towartls liberty,
('67)
It "1
ill-
1 68
THE liUROPEAN REVOLUTION OF iS:^
In Italy also the persistont (Icmancls of the people met with an encoiir-
a-in<,^ response. The Pope, Pius IX . extended Die fr(H;doni of the press
.i^ave a liberal charter to the City of Rome, and be-.in the formation of an
tahan confederacy. In Sicily a revolutionary outbreak took place, and the
Kin.i,^ of Naples was compelled to .irivc his p(;ople a constitution and a
parliament, llis example was followed in Tuscany and Sardinia. The
tyrannical Duke of Mo.lena was forced to fly from the ven^reancc of his
people, ami the throne of Parma became vacant by th(; death in i8j7of
Maria Louisa, the widow of Napoleon Bonaparte, a woman little loved and
less respected.
The Italians were filled with hope by these events. I'r(>(!dom and the
unity of Italy loomed up before their eyes. Only two obstacles struul in
their way. the Austrians and the Jesuits, and both of these were bitterly
h.ited. (;ioberti, the enemy of the Jesuits, was Lrrcet(-d with cheers, under
which mi<,dit be heard harsh cries of " Death to tlu- (icTmans."
Such was the state; of affairs at the Ix'.oinnini,^ of ,848. The measure
of liberty .i,rr:inte(l the people only whetted their app.-tite for more, and over
all Western luirope rose an ominous murmur, the voice of the people
demanding the ri^^dUs of which they had so Vm^^ bc^en deprived. In I'rance
this demand was ,o;rowin,i,r dan.i,^er<)usly insistant ; in Paris, the centre o(
European revolution, it threatened an outbreak. Reform bancpiets were
the order of the day in I'rance, and one was arranged for in Paris to signa
lizc the mc(;ting of the Chambers.
Guizot, the historian, who was then minister of foreign affairs had
deeply offended the liberal party of France by his reactionary policy ' The
government threw fuel on the fire by forbidding the baiujuet and takin^
The Outbreak f''^'^ ^'' suppress it by military force. The people were enrage?!
in Paris |'>' iH's false step and lujgan to gathcT in excited groups.
Throngs of them— artisans, students, and tramps— were soon
niarching through the streets, with shouts of " Reform ! 1 )own with Guizot ' "
I he crowds rapidly increas(;d and grew more violent. The people were tcio
weak to cope wil.; them ; the soldiers were loatli to do .so ; soon barricades
were erected aiul fighting bt;gan.
I'or two days this went on. Then th.: king, alarmed at the situation
dimissed (Miizot and promised reform, and the ptjople, satisfied for the time
and proud of their victory, paraded the streets with cheers and .sonos All
now might have gone w<.ll but for a hasty and violent act on the pai^t of tlu-
troops. ^ About ten o'clock at night a shouting and torch-ln^aring throng
marclu (1 through the P.uiilevards, singing and waving flags. Re.u-hin.-- the
Ministry of Foreign Affairs, they h(dled and called for its illumination.
II entoup
he i)ross,
[^n of an
;, ami the
>n and a
ia. The
c of liis
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and the
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77/£" EUROPEAN RE VOL UTION OF 1S48 , 7 1
The troops on duty there interfered, and, on an insult to their colonel and
the finno: of a shot from the mob, they replied with a volley, before which
tifty-two of the people fell killed and wounded.
This reckless and sanguinary deed was enough to turn revolt into
revolution. The corpses were carried on biers through the streets by the
infuriated people, the accompanying torch-bearers shr)utin<- ^ ,^
" 1 o arms ! they are murdering us !" At midnight the tocsin Beimel
call rang from the bells of Notre Dame ; the barricades, which Revolution
had been partly removed, were restored ; and the next morning, February
24, 1848, Pans was in arms. In the struggle that followed they were
quickly victorious, and the capital was in their hands.
Louis Philippe followed the example of Charles X., abdicated his
throne and (led to England. After the fate of Louis XVI. no monarch
was willing to wait and face a Paris mob. The kingdom was overthrown,
and a republic, the second which France had known, was established, the
aged Dupont de TEure being chosen president. The poet Lamartine
the socialist Louis Blanc, the statesmen Ledru-Rollin and Arago became
members of the Cabinet, and all looked forward to a reign ^h s
of peace and prosperity. The socialises tried the experi- French"
ment of establishing national workshops in which artisans Republic
were to be employed at the expense of the state, with the idea that this
would give work to all.
Yet the expected prosperity did not come. The state was soon deeply
in Gebt, many of the people remained unemployed, and the condition of in-
dustry grew worse day by day. The treasury proved incapable of jjaying the
state artisans, and the public workshops were closed. In June the trouble came
to a crisis and a new and sanguinary outbreak began, instigated by the
hungry and disappointed workmen, and led by the advocates of the " Red
Republic." who acted with ferocious brutality. General Hrea and the Arch-
bishop of Paris were murdered, and the work of slaughter grew so horrible
that the National Assembly, to put an end to it, made General Cavaignac
dictator and commissioned him to put down the revolt. A terrible struggle
ensued between the mob and the troops, ending in the suppression of\he
revolt and the arrest and banishmeiic of many of its ringleaders. Ten or
twelve thousand people had been killed. The National Assembly ad()i)ted
a republican constitution, under which a single legislative chamber and a
president to be elected every four years were provided for. The asstnnbly
wished to make General Cavaignac president, but the nation, blinded by
"• '" ^"^ Jiamc oi iiic greac conqueror, elected by an aiiuosL unani-
mous vote his nephew, Louis Napoleon, a man who had suffered a long
'»>iW*i.fl«M«S»J
173
THE EUROPEAN REVOLUTION OF 1S4S
term of i,„prison.nent for his several attempts against the reign of the late
The effect of this revoh.tion in France spread far and wide through
Lurope. Outbreaks occurred in Italy, Poland, Switzerland and Ireland
Rffectofthe •^"'■' "^ Cicrmany the revolutionary fever burned hot Baden
onsts^r T ?''' ^'f "'''''' '" ■''•'^^^ '" '^'^ ^'^'"-^"^^ °f ^^^^^ P^^ople for
Europe freedom of the press, a parliament and other reforms and
f.., 1 1 .• ""xl' '"^ /'"' ""' '" •'^°'''''' ''^^ "^1^°^^^ ^^'" remaining from
feudal fmes. I he other mmor states followed its example. In Saxony
WUrtemberg and other states class abuses were abolished, liberals given
prominent positions under government, the suffrage and the legislature
reformed, and men of liberal sentiment summoned to discuss the formation
of new constitutions. 'auiuu
But it was in the great despotic states of Germany^Prussia and Aus-
tria -tha the liberals gained the most complete and important victory, and
went farthest in overthrowing autocratic rule and establishing constitutional
government 1 he great Austrian statesman who had been a leader in the
Congress of \ lenna and who had suppressed liberalism in Italy, Prince Met-
Metternfch and ^^Z"''^^''. '''^^ ^^''^^' ''^^''^ '""''c than thirty years, at the head of
His System 'iJ^airs in Vienna. He controlled the policy of Austria- his
word was law in much of Germany ; time had cemented his
authority, and he had done more than any other man in Europe in maintain-
ing despotism and building a dam against the rising flood of liberal senti-
But the hour of the man who had destroyed the work of Napoleon was
at hand. He had failed to recognize the spirit of the age or to perceive
that liberalism was deeply penetrating Austria. To most of the younirer
statesmen of Europe the weakness of his policy and the rottenness of his
system were growing apparent, and it was evident that they must soon fall
before the onslaught of the ailvocates of freedom.
An incitement was needed, and it came in the news of tiie Paris revolu-
tion. At once a hot excitement broke out everywhere in Austria From
riungary came a vigorous demand for an independent parliament, reform of
the constitution, decrease of taxes, and relief from t!ie burden of the na-
tional debt of Austria. r>om Bohemia, whose rights and priviU.ges had
been seriously interf(M-ed with in the preceding year, came similar demands,
in \ .enna itself the popular outcry for increased privileges grew insistant
1 he excitement of the people was agLTavated hv thflv Al^t^-^^^i q( fU.~.
paper money of the realm and by a great depression in commerce and indT
— SiSfaasi'.'ssriT
THE EUROPEAN REVOLUTION OF 1848
17.^
na-
had
The Outbreak
in Vienna
tu«
try. Daily more workmen were thrown out of employment, and soon
throngs of the hungry and discontented gathered in the streets. Students,
as usual, led away by their boyish love of excitement, were
the first to create a disturbance, but others soon joined in,
and the affair quickly became serious.
The old system was evidently at an end. The policy of Metternich
could restrain the people no longer. Lawlessness became general, excesses
were committed by the mob, the dwellings of those whom the populace
hated v/ere attacked and plundered, the authorities were resisted with arms,
and the danger of an overthrow of the government grew imminent. The
press, which had gained freedom of utterance, added to the peril of the
situation by its inflammatory appeals to the people, and by its violence
checked the progress of the reforms which it demanded. Metternich, by his
system of restraint, had kept the people in ignorance of the first principles
of political affairs, and the liberties which they now asked for showed them
to be unadai)ted to a liberal government. The old minister, whose system
was falling in ruins about him, fled from the country and sought a refuge in
England, that hav^m of political failures.
In May, 1848, the emperor, alarmed at the threatening state of affairs,
left his capital and withdrew to Innsbruck. The tidings of his withdrawal
stirred the people to passion, and the outbreak of mob piigiit and Re-
violence which followed was the fiercest and most danj/erous turn of the
that had yet occurred. Gradually, however, the tumult was Emperor
appeased, a constitutional assembly was called into being and opened by the
Archduke John, and the Emperor Ferdinand re-entered Vienna amid the
warm acclamations of the people. The outbreak was at an end. Austria
had been converted from an absolute to a constitutional monarchy.
In Berlin the spirit of revolution became as marked as in Vienna. The
King resisted the demands of the people, who soon came into conflict with
the soldiers, a fierce street fight breaking out which continued with violence
for two weeks. The revolutionists demanded the removal of liie troops
and the formation of a citizen militia, and the king, alarmed _ ,^ .
• • • re • 1 -ri Rcvoit in
at the dangerous crisis in affairs, at last assented. 1 he troops Prussia and
were accordingly withdrawn, the obno.xious ministry was dis- thederman
missed, and a citizen-guard was creat<;d for the defence of the
city. Three days afterwards the king promised to govern as a constitu-
tional monarch, an assembly was elected by universal suffrage, and to it was
given the v^^ork of preparing a constitution for the Prussian state. Here,
;.:> \\\ Austria, 'uj. ^r. ilutiunists hau won the uay and irresponsible govern
inent was at ai? t:t;d.
i':
'74
THE EUROPEAN REVOLUTION OF 1S4S
V'
I
1 ,
IClsewhcre in Germany radical chant,'cs wore takin^^ place Kin.i,; Louis
of Bavaria, who had deeply offended his people, resigned in favor of his son.
The Duke of Hesse-Uarmstadt did the same. Everywhere the liberals
were in the ascendant, and were gaining freeilom of the press and constitu-
tional government. The formation of Germany into a federal empire was
proposed and adopted, and a National Assembly met at Frankfort on May
28, 1848. It included many of the ablest men of Germany. Its principal
work was to organize a union under an irresponsible (;xecutive, who was to
be surrounded by a responsible ministry. The Archduke John of Austria
was selected to fill this new, but brief imperial position, and made a solemn
entry into Frankfort on the nth of July.
All this was not enough for the ultra radicals. They determined to
found a German republic, and their leaders, Hecker and Struve, called the
people to arms. An outreak took place in Baden, but it was quickly sup-
pressed, and the republican movement came to a speedy end. In the north
The Schieswig- ^^''^'" broke out between Denmark and Schleswig-Holstein,
HoSstein united duchies which desired to be freed from Danish rule
Affair ^^^ annexed to Germany, and called for German aid. But
just then the new German Union was in no condition tocome to theirassistance,
and Prussia preferred diplomacy to war, with the result that Denmark came
out victorious from the contest. As will be seen in a later chapter, Prussia,
under the energetic leadership of Bismarck, came, a number of years after-
wards, to the aid of these discontented duchies, and they were finally torn
from Danish control.
While these exciting events were taking place in the north, Italy was
swept with a storm of revolution from end to end. Metternich was no
longer at hand to keep it in check, and the whole peninsula seethed with re-
volt, Sicily rejected the rule of the Bourbon king of Naples, chose the
Duke of Genoa, son of Charles Albert of Sardinia, for its
and Sardinia '^•'^^S '^'''<-^ during a year fought for liberty. This patriotic effort
of the .Sicilians ended in faihu'e. The Swiss mercenaries of
the Neapolitan king captured .Syracuse and brought the island into subjec-
tion, and the tyrant hastened to abolish the constitution which he had been
frightened into granting in his hour of extremity.
In the north of Italy war broke out between Austria and Sardinia.
Milan and Venice rose against the Austrians and drove out their garrisons,
throughout Lombardy .ae [people raised the standard of independence, and
Charles Albert of Sardinia called his people to arms and invaded that coun-
try, sttiving to free it and the neighboring state of Venice from Austrian
rule. For a brief season he was successful, pushing the Austrian troops to
THE EUROPEAN REVOLUTION OF 1S4S
175
the frontiers, but the old Marshal Radctzky ilefeattfd him at Verona and
compelled him to seek safety in llight. The next year he renewed his at-
tempt, but with no better success. Uepressed by his failure, he resi_Ljned tiie
crown to his son Victor Emmanuel, who made a disadvanta<j[eous peace with
Austria. Venice held out for several months, but was finally subdued, and
Austrian rule was restored in the north.
Meanwhile the pope, Pius IX., offended his people by his unwillingness
to aid Sardinia against Austria. He promised to grant a constitutional
government and convened an Assembly in Rome, but the ^. „
Y^ . , , , ^ . , The Revolution
Democratic people of the state were not content with ,„ i^^^^
feeble concessions of this kind. Rossi, prime minister of the
state, was assassinated, and the pope, filled with alarm, iled in disguise, leav-
ing the Papal dominion to the revolutionists, who :it once proclaimed a
republic and confiscated the property of the Church.
Mazzini, the leader of " Young Italy," the ardent revolutionist who had
long worked in exile for Italian independence, entered the Eternal City, and
with him Garibaldi, long a political refugee in America and a gallant parti-
san leader in the recent war with Austria The arrival of these celebratetl
revolutinnists filled the democratic party in Rome with the greatest enthu-
siasm, and it was resolved to defend the States of the Church to the last
extremity, viewing them as the final asylum of Italian liberty.
In this extremity the pope called on P>ance for aid. That country
responded by sending an army, which landed at Civita-Vecchia and marched
upon and surrounded Rome. The new-comers declared that they came as
friends, not as foes ; it was not their purpose to overthrow the republic, but
to defend the capital from Austria and Naples. The leadens of the insur-
gents in Rome did not trust their professions and promises and refused them
admittance. A fierce struggle followed. The republicans capture of
defended themselves stubbornly. For weeks they defied the Rome by the
efforts of General Oudinot and his troops. But in the end F'-«"«=h Army
they were forced to yield, a conditional submission was made, and the P'rench
soldiers occupied the city. Garibaldi, Mazzini, and others of the leaders
took to night, and the old conditions were gradually resumed under the con-
trolling inlluence of French bayonets. For years afterwards the French
held the city as the allies and guard of the pope.
The revolutionary spirit, which had given rise to war in Italy, yielded
a still more resolute and sanguinary conflict in Hungary, _. ^ ^^ .
. , , .pi TVT The Outbreak
whose people were divided against themselves. I he Magyars, j„ Hungary
the descendants of the old Huns> who demanded govern-
mental institutions of their own, separate from these of Austria, though
f
m
9;
10
?•*■
176
THE EUROPEAN REVOLUTION OF 1S48
'U
1-!
under the Austrian monarch, were opposed by tlic Slavonic part of the
population, and war bcLjan between them. Austrian troops were ordered
to the aid of Jellacliich, the ruler of the Slavs of Croatia in South Hunj^^ary,
but their departure was prevented by the democratic people of Vienna,
who rose in violent insurrection, intluced by their sympathy with the
Magyars.
The whole city was quickly in tumult, an attack was made on the
arsenals, and the violence became so great that the emperor again took to
flight. War in Austria followed. A strong army was sent to subdue the
rebellious city, which was stubbornly defended, the students' club being the
centre of the revolutionary movement. Jellachich led his Croatians to the
aid of the emperor's troops, the city was surrounded and besieged, sallies
and assaults were of daily occurrence, and for a week and more a bloody
conflict continued day and night. Vienna was finally taken by storm, the
Vienna Cap- troops forcing their way into the streets, where shocking
tured by scenes of murder and violence took place. On November 21,
Storm 1848, Jellachich entered the conquered city, martial law was
proclaimed, the houses were searched, the prisons filletl with captives, and
the leaders of the insurrection put to death.
Shortly afterwards the Emperor Ferdinand abdicated the throne in
favor of his youthful nephew, Francis Joseph, who at once dissolved the con
stitutional assembly and proclaimed a new constitution and a new code of
laws. Hungary was still in arms, and offered a desparate resistance to the
Austrians, who now marched to put down the insurrection. They found it
no easy task. The fiery eloquence of the orator Kossuth roused the
Magyars to a desperate resistance, Polish leaders came to their support,
foreign volunteers strengthened their ranks, Gorgey, their chief leader,
showed great military skill, and the Austrians were driven out and the
fortresses taken. The independence of Hungary was now proclaimed, and a
government established under Kossuth as provisional president.
The repulse of the Austrians nerved the young emperor to more
The Hungarian strenuous exertwns. The aid of Russia was asked, and the
Revoitandiu insurgent state invaded on three sides, by the Croatians from
Suppression j|^^. south, the Russians from the north, and the Austrians,
under the brutal General Haynau, from the west.
The conflict continued for several months, but quarrels between the
Hungarian leaders weakened their armies, and in August, 1849, Gorgey,
who had been declared dictator, surrendered to the invaders, Kossuth and
the other leaders seeking safety in flight. Haynau made himself infamous
by his cruel treatment of the Hungarian people, particularly by his use of
THE EUROPEAN REVOLUTION OF /84S
177
the lash upon women. Misconduct raised such wide-spread indinrnation
that he was roughly handled by a party of brewers, on his visit to London
in 1850.
With the fall of Hun<i;ary the revolutionary movement of 1848 came to
an end. The German Union had already disappeared. There were various
other disturbances, besides those we have recorded, but finally all the states
settled down to peace and quiet. Its results had been great in increasing
the political privileges of the people of Western PLurope, and with it the
reign of despotism in that section of the continent came to an end.
The greatest \\v.ro of the war in Hungary was undoubtedly Louis
Kossuth, whose name has remained familiar among those of the patriots of
his century. From Hungary he made his way to Turkey, where he was
imprisoned for two years at Kutaieh, being finally released through the inter-
vention of the governments of Great liritain and the United States. He then
visited England, where he was received with enthusiastic, popular demon-
strations and made several admirable speeches in the English language, of
which he had excellent command. In the autumn of 185 i he came to the
United States, where he had a flattering reception and spoke on the wrongs
of Hungary to enthusiastic audiences in the principal cities.
CHAPTER XII.
II;
if
1^''
-i
Louis Napoleon and the Second French Empire.
THM name of X.ipolcoii is a name to conjure with in Fra icc. Two
j^eiK-'iations after the fall of Napoleon tin; Gn at. the people of that
country had practically forj^^otten the misery he had brout,dit them,
and renit'mbered only the ^lory with which he had crowned the name of
France. When, then, a man whom W(; may fairly designate as Napoleon
the Small offered himself for their suffrai^es, they cast their votes almost
unanimously in his faxor.
Charles Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, to give this personage his full
name, was a son of Louis Bonaparte, once king of Holland, and Hortcnse
de Beauharnais, and had been recognized by Napoleon as, after his father,
Louis Napoleon the direct successor to the throne. This he math; strenuous
and His Claim efforts to obtain, hoping to dethrone Louis Philippe and in-
tothe Throne ^^.^jj iij^^^^.if j,^ i^i^ pi^^^, j,, jj^^g^ ,^1^1^ ^ few followers, he
made an attempt to capture Strasbourg. His effort failed and he was
arrested and transported to the United States. In 1839 he published a
work entitled " Napoleonic Ideas," which was an apoiog)' for the ambitious
acts of the first Napoleon.
The growing ilnpopuln ly of Louis Philippt; tempted him at this
time to make a second attesni-: to invade France. He did it in a rash way
almost certain to end in failure, Followed by about fifty men, and bringing
v/ilh him a tame eagle, which was expected to perch upon his banner as the
harbinger of victory, he sailed from lingland in August, 1840, and landed
at Boulogne. This desperate and foolish enterprise proved a complete
A Rash and failure. The soldiers whom the would-be usurper expected
Unsuccusstui to join his standard arrested him, and he was tried for treason
Invasion ^^ ^j^^ House of Peers. This time he was not dealt with so
leniently as before, but was sentenced to imprisonment for life and was
confined in the Castle of Ham. From this fortress he escaped in disguise
in May, 1846, and made his way to England.
The revolution of 1848 gave the restless and ambitious adventurer a
more proniising opportunity. He returned to France, was elected to the
National Assembly, and on the adoption of the republican constitution
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offered himself as a candidate for the Presid< cy of the new repubh-c And
now the mag,c of the name of Napoleon told. General Cavai^^nar* his
chief competitor, was supported by the solid men of the country/who dis-
trusted the adventurer; but the people rose almost .olidlv in his support
TLIV^T f"'"-^ P''''^'"' ^"' ^°"' >""" '^>' 5-562.834 votes, al^ainst
1,469, 166 for Cavaisfnac. *
Tlie new President of France soon showed his ambition. He became
engaged m a contest with the Assembly and aroused the dis- , .
trust of the Republicans by his autocratic tones. In 1S49 He 'p'e"So5
still further offended the Democratic party by sendincr an ^'■^"^^
army to Rome, which put an end to the republic in tha?city. He soucri.t
to make his Cabinet officers the pliant instruments o. his will, and thus
caused De Tocqueville, the celebrated author, who was minister for forei^ni
affairs^ to resign. " We were not the men to serve him on those terms"
said De I ocqueville, at a later time.
The new-made president was feeling his way to imperial dignity. He
could not forget that his illustrious uncle had made himself eniperor and
his ambition instigated him to the same course. A violent controversy
arose between him and the Assembly, which bod>' passed a law restrictin'
universal suffrage, and thus reducing the popular support of the presideni"
In June, 1850, it increased his salary at his request, but granted the increase
only for one year-an act of distrust which proved a new source of discord
Louis Napoleon meanwhile was preparing for a darincr act He
secretly obtained the support of the army leaders and prepared'covertly for
the boldest stroke of his life. On the 2d of December 185 i —
the anniversary of the establishment of the first empire and '"S'lZs''*^'
of the battle of Austerlitz,— he got rid of his opponents by Napoleon
means of the memorable coicpd'elai, and seized the supreme power of the state
The most influential members of the Assembly had been arrested during
the preceding night, and when the hour for the session of the House came
the men most strongly opposed to the usurper were in prison Most of
them were afterwards exiled, some for life, some for shorter terms This
act of outrage and violation of the plighted faith of the president roused
the Socialists and Republicans to the defence of their threatened liberties
insurrections broke out in Paris, Lyons, and other towns, street barricades
were built, and severe fighting took place. But Napoleon had secured the
army, and the revolt was suppressed with blood and slaughter. Baudin one
of the deposed deputies, was shot on the barricade in the Faubourg St
Antoine, while waving in his hand the decree of the constitution. I Ic was
afterwards honored as a martyr to the cause of republicanism in Prance
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The usurper had previously sought to gain the approval of the people
by liberal and charitable acts, and to win the goodwill of the civic authori-
How Napoleon ^'^^ ^Y numerous progresses through the interior. He posed
Won Popular as a protector and promoter of national prosperity and the
"ppor rights of the people, and sought to lay upon the Assembly all
the defects of his administration. By these means, which aided to awaken
the Napoleonic fervor in the state, he was enabled safely to submit his acts
of violence and bloodshed to the approval of the people. Thi .,ew consti-
tution offered by the president was put to vote, and was adopted by the
enormous majority of more than seven million votes. By its terms Louis
Napoleon was to be president of France for ten years, with the power of a
monarch, and the Parliament was to consist of two bodies, a Senate and a
Legislative House, which were given only nominal power.
This was as far as Napoleon dared to venture at that time. A year
Louis Napoleon I^ter, on December i, 1852, having meanwhile firmly cemented
Is Elected Iris power, he passed from president to emperor, again by a
mperor ^^^.^ ^£ ^.j^^ people, of whom, according to the official report,
7,824,189 cast their votes in his favor.
Thus ended the second French republic, an act of usurpation cf the
basest a-id most unwarranted character. The partisans of the new emperor
were rewarded with the chief offices of the state ; the leading republicans
languished in prison or in exile for the crime of doing their duty to their
constituents ; and Armand Marrest, the most zealous champion of the
republic, died of a broken heart from the overthrow of all his efforts and
aspirations. The honest soldier and earnest patriot, Cavaignac, in a few
years followed him to the grave. The cause of liberty in France seemed lost.
The crowning of a new emperor of the Napoleonic family in France
naturally filled Europe with apprehensions. But Napoleon HI., as he
styled himself, was an older man than Napoleon I., and seemingly less
likely to be carried away by ambition. His favorite motto, "The Empire
is peace," aided to restore quietude, and gradually the nations began to
trust in his words, " France wishes for peace ; and when France is satisfied
the world is quiet."
Warned by one of the errors of his uncle, he avoided seeking a wife in
the royal families of Europe, but allied himself with a Spanish lady of noble
rank, the young and beautiful Eugenie de Montijo, duchess of
theElnDeror '^^b^- ^^ ^he same time he proclaimed that, " A sovereign
raised to the throne by a new principle should remain faithful
to that principle, and in the face of Europe frankly accept the position of
a parvenu, which is an honorable title when it is obtained by the public
THE SECOND FRENCH EMPIRE
183
suffrage of a great people. For seventy years all princes' daughters mar-
ried CO rufers of France have been unfortunate ; only one, Josephine, was
remembered with affection by the French people, and she was not born of a
royal house "
The new emperor sought by active public works and acts of charity
^^ v/in the approval of the people. He recognized the necessity of aiding
the working classes as far as possible, and protecting them from poverty and
wretchedness. During a dearth in 1853 a "baking fund " was organized in
Paris, the city contributing funds to enable bread to be sold at a low price.
Dams and embankments were built along the rivers to oveicome the effects
of floods. New streets were opened, bridges built, railways constructed, to
increase internal traffic. Splendid buildings were erected for d u.. «, .
... J '^ ° Public Works
municipal and governmeuc purposes. Paris was given a new in Paris and
aspect by pulling down its narrow lanes, and building wide f«*a"ce
streets and magnificent boulevards — the latter, as was charged, for the
purpose of deprivi.ig insurrection of its lurking places. The great exhibi-
tion of arts and industries in London was followed in 1854 by one in
France, the largest and finest seen up to that time. Trade and industry
were fostered by a reduction of tariff charges, joint stock companies and
credit associations v;ere favored, and in many ways Napo'eon III. worked
wisely and well for the prosperity of France, the gmwth of its industries,
and the improvement of the condition of its people.
But the new emperor, while thus actively enraged in labors of peace,
by no means lived up to the spirit of his motto, "The Empire is peace."
An empire founded upon the army needs to give employment to that army.
A monarchy sustained by the votes of a people athirst for xiie Ambiti
giory needs to do something to appease that thirst. A throne of the Em-
filled by a Napoleon could not safely ignore the " Napo- p®™""
leonic Ideas," and the first of these might be stated as " The Empire Is
war." And the new emperor was by no means satisfied to pose simply as
the " nephew of his uncle." He possessed a large share of the Napoleonic
ambition, and hoped by military glory to surround his throne with some of
the lustre of that of Napoleon the First.
Whatever his private views, it is certain that France under his reign
became the most aggressive nation of Europe, and the overweenint^-
ambition and self-confidence of the new emperor led him to the same end
as his great uncle, that of disaster and overthrow.
The very beginning of Louis Napoleon's career of greatness, as presi-
dent ot the French Republic, was signalized by an act of military aoi^ression,
in sending his army to Rome and putting an end to the new Italian repub-
\ I y.
ft:.
! i
I't
184
THE SECOND FRENCH EMPIRE
lie. These troops were kept there until
1866.
and the aspirations of th(
y ,. . - ,, ' '- '""^" 'o"". ana tne aspirations o the
nnd ,r T" ^'f '" '^'"'^ ""'" "'^" y^^'- ""'>• -'"" U"i'ed Italy
Stood menacngly at the gates of Rome were these foreign troops with
In .854 Napoleon allied himself with the Rritish and the Turks against
Riiss.a, and sent an army to the Crimea, which plajctl an effective ptt in
The French In ""' S'^^at struggle in that peninsula. The troops of France
the Crime. had the honor of rendering Sebastopol untenable, carrying
upon the city. ' ''"" °"' "' '"' '"° »""^' '°'"^''' '"'' '-"'"S ''^ S^Z
tria '^A^r'" ="=' °f ■•'Kt"«'»" of ">= French emperor was against Aus-
tria. As the career of conquest of Napoleon I. had begun with an attack
upon the Austnans m Italy. Napoleon III. attempted a similar enterp Se
and w,th equal success. He had long been cautiously preparing in secre;
for host,l,t,es „.th Austria, but lacked a satisfactory'excuL for declari"'
"7emnLl'; Tr ^ ''■'"!'' '" '^^^ ''°"' =*" ^"'='"I>t « ' assassination':
ISaln ^'"=\°''r.!'.» f='"="'<^^' "alian patriot, incens.d at Napoleon
ev„l ■ , , ■" , "^ '" """'^ '° "'<= ^'"^ °f "a'y. launched three
explosive bombs agau,st his carriage. This effect was fatal to many of the
people ,n the street, though the intended victim escaped. Orsini won .syn>
pathywhde m prison by his patriotic sentiments and the steadfastness of
1. love for h,s country. " Remember that the Italians shed their blood for
Napoleon the great," he wrote to the emperor. " Liberate my country, and
the blessmgs of twenty-five millions of people will follow you to oosteWty "
Lou.s Napoleon had once been a member of a secret political society
o Itay; he had taken the oath of initiation; his failure to come to the al
of that country when m power constituted him a traitor to his oath and one
doomed to death ; the act o' Orsini seemed the work of the society. That
he was deeply moved by the attempted assassination is certain, and the re-
suit of h,s combmed fear and ambition was soon to be shown
On New Years Day, .859, while receiving the diplon.atic corps at the
Tmlenes Napoleon addressed the following significant words to the Aus-
T r"°'-- "' ■-'^S^^' "'^' o" relations are not so cordial as I could
w,sh, but I beg you to report to the Emperor that my personal sentiments
towards hnii remani unaltered."
TheWarlike . Such is the masked way in which diplomats announce an
F^'ne-.'.^i """"'7 °' ™*■'^ ■^''^ ""=^"1"? °f 'he threatening words was '
Sardinia ■'"°" =''""'"• "'''en Victor Emmanuel, shortly afterwards
announced at the openiug of the Chambers in Turin
Sard
inia could no longer remain indifl
crcnt to the cry for help wliich
that
was
ms of the
ited Italy
ops with-
es against
e part in
'f France
carrying-
^ its guns
inst Alis-
on attack
Uerprise,
in secret
declaring
sination.
lapoleon
2cl three
y of the
I'on sym-
>tness of
•lood for
I try, and
sterity."
society
the aid
md one
. That
1 the re-
s at the
le Aus-
I could
timents
nee an
*ds was
rvvards,
n that
ch was
THE SECOND ERENCH EMPIRE q
nsmg from all Italy. Ten years had passed since the dcfe.t of flu c,
chn.ans on the plains ot Lombardy. Durin. thu timrth. v h 1 . ^^
a hope of retribution, and itwas'now vid^e. d. t "^^ h^^^^^^^ t^t
made with France and th-if tli. 1,^ f ^viue. t tnat an alliance had been
Austria was 4 • ^ e Z^'rZTl "" '' ''T''- ,
serious state, but she had a 1 "earn in I o b^rX'^Tl" ' ""' '" ^
Til , . ""&^ diui^ in ivOmoarc v. 1 his was inrrf>nco/^j
put ],er army on a peace footing or war would ensue
A re usal came from Turin. Immediately field-marslml Gvniai re
ce,.ed orders to cross the Ticino. TIu.s. after ten years of peace he u
t.ful plams of Northern Italy were once more to endure the '
ravages of war. This act of Austria was severely criticised ^Ts^C'"'
b) the neijtral powers, wh.ch had been seeking to allaj' the *™y
rouble. Napoleon took advantage of it, accusing Austria of breaking the
peace by mvachng the territory of his ally, the king of Sardinia ^
1 he real fault committed by Austria, under the circumstances was not
m precp.tat.ng war, which could not well be avoided in the temper of he
antagomsts, In,t ,n putting, throtigh court favor and privileges o^ ra,^ an
.ncapable leader at the head of the army. Old Radetzky, the victor „' the
Ia,st war, was dead, but there were other able leaders who'were u as e
n favor of the Hungarian noble Franz Gyulai, a man without expert e
as commander- :i-chief of an army. ^
By his uncertain and dilatory movements Gyulai gave the Sardinians
time to concentrate an army of 80,000 men around the fortress of Aless-
andria and lost all the advantage of being the first in the field. In early
May the French army reached Italy, partly by way of the St. Bernard Pass
part y by sea ; and Garibaldi, with his mountaineers, took up a position thai
would enaole h.m to attack the right wing of the Austrians
Later in the month Napoleon himself appeared, his presence and the
name he bore inspiring the soldiers with new valor while his
first order of the day, in which he recalled the glorious deeds ''ua^Tn^Jlhe
which their fathers had done on those plains under his great March oV''
uncle, roused them to the highest enthusiasm. While assum ^"^"
ing the title of commander-in-chief, he left the conduct of the war to his able
subordinates, MacMahon, Niel, Canrobert. and others.
The Austrian general, having lost the opportunity to attack, was now
put on tlie defensive, in which his incompetence was equally manifested.
; lii-
ill I.
!,!.:?».!
186
THE SECOND FRENCH EMPIRE
ill i
i'! i
Being quite i,c,rnorant of the position of the foe, he sent Count Stadion. with
12,000 men, on a reconnoisance. An encounter took place at Montebello
on May 20th, in which, after a sharp engagement, Stadion was forced to
retreat. Gyulai directed his attention to that quarter, Icavin- Napoleon to
march unmolested from Alessandria to the invasion of Lombardy Gyulai
novv, aroused by the danger of Milan, began his retreat across the Ticino
which he had so uselessly crossed. '
The road to Milan crossed the Ticino River and the Navitrlio Grande
a broad and deep canal a few miles east of the river. Some disttancc farther
on lies the village of Magenta, the seat of the first great battle of the war
Sixty years before, on those Lombard plains, Napoleon the Great had first
A Campaign '"•''^' ''^"'^ ^'^''": ^^ "" ^^^PPy chance, won the famous battle
of Blunders o[ Marengo. The Napoleon now in command was a very
different man from the mighty soldier of the year iSoo, and
the French escaped a disastrous rout only because the Austrians were led
by a worse general still. Some one has said that victory comes to the army
that makes the fewest blunders. Such seems to have been tlie case in the
battle of Magenta, where military genius was the one thing wanting.
The French pushed on, crossed the river without finding a man to dis-
pute the passage,— other than a much-surprised customs official,— and
reached an undefended bridge across the canal. The high road to' Milan
seemed deserted by the Austrians. But Napoleon's troops were drawn out
in a preposterous line, straddling a river and a canal, both difficult to cross,
and without any defensive positions to hold against an attack in force. He
supposed that the Austrians were stretched out in a similar long line.
This was not the case. Gyulai had all the advantages of position, and
might have concentrated his army and crushed the advanced corps of the
French if he had known his situation and his business. As it was, between
ignorance on the one hand and indecision on the other, the battle was
/ought with about equal forces on either hand.
The first contest took place at Buffalora, a village on the canal where
the French encountered the Austrians in force. Here a
bloody struggle went on for hours, ending in the capture
of the place by the Grenadiers of the Guard, who held on to
It afterwards with stubborn couraL'"e.
General MacMahon, in command of the advance, had his orders to
march forward, whatever happened, to the church-tower of Magenta, and,
in strict obedience to orders, he pushed on, leaving the grenadiers to hold
their own as best they could at Hu.ffalora, and heedless of the fact that the
reserve troops of the army had not yet begun to cross the river. It was
duffalora and
Magenta
«>
THE SECOND FRENCH EMPIRE
187
»
Cainou's Delib>
erate March
the 5th of June, and the day was well advanced when MaciMahon came in
contact with the Austrians at Ma.^renta, and the great contest of the day
It was a battle in which the commanders on both sides, with the ( xcep-
tion of MacMahon, showed lack of military skill and the soldiers on both
sides the staunchest courage. The Austrians seemed devoid of plan or
system, and their several divisions were beaten in detail by the French On
the other hand, General Camou. in command of the second division of
MacMahon's corps, acted as Desaix had done at the battle of
Marengo, marched at the sound of the distant cannon. But.
unlike Desaix, he moved so deliberately that it took him six
hours to make less than five miles. He was a tactician of the old school
imbued with the idea that every march should be made in perfect order '
At half-past four MacMahon, with his uniform in disorder and followed
by a few officers of his staff, dashed back to hurry up this deliberate reserve
On the way thither he rode into a body of Austrian sharpshooters For-
tune favored him. Not dreaming of the presence of the French creneral
they saluted him as one of their own commanders. On his way back he
made a second narrow escape from capture by the Uhlans.
The drums now beat the charge, and a determined attack was made by
the French, the enemy's main column being taken between two fires Des-
perately resisting, it was forced back step by step upon Magenta. Into the
town die columns rolled, and the fight became fierce around the church
High in the tower of this edifice stood the Austrian general and his staff
watching the fortunes of the fray ; and from this point he caught sioht of
the four regiments of Camou. advancing as regularly as if on plrade
They were not given the chance to fire a shot or receive a scratch, ea<rer as
they were to take part in the fight. At sight of them the th p " k
Austrian general ordered a retreat and the battle was at an Victory at
end. The French owed their victory largely to General '*^^senta
Mellinet and his Grenadiers of the Guard, who held their own like lull-doo-s
at Buffalora whde Camou was advancing with the deliberation of the oTd
mditary rules. MacMahon and Mellinet and the French had won the day
Victor Emmanuel and the Sardinians did not reach the ground until after
the battle was at end. For his services on that day of glory for France
MacMahon was made Marshal of France and Duke of Magenta.
The prize of the victory of Magenta was the possession of Lombardy
Gyulai, unable to collect his scattered divisions, gave orders for a general
retreat. Mdan was evacuated with precipitate haste, and the garrisons
were withdrawn from all the towns, leaving them to be occupied by the
1.'^
i
i;^:
1 88
THE SECOND FRENCH EMPIRE
Vrench and Italians. On the 8th of June Napoleon and Victor Hmmanuel
rode into Milan side hy side, amid the loud acclamations of the people
who looked upon this victory as an assurance of Italian freedom and unity.'
MHanandthe ^^^^'^nwhile the Austrians retreated without interruption, not
Quadrilateral malting until they arrived at the Mincio, where they were pro-
tected by the famous Quadrilateral, consistim-- of the four
powerful fortresses of Peschiera, Mantua, Verona, and Leguano, the main-
stay of the Austrian power in Italy.
The French and Italians slowly pursued the retreatintr Austrians and
on the 23d of June bivouacked on both banks of the Chiese River about
fifteen miles west of the Mincio. The Emperor Francis Joseph had
recalled the incapable Gyulai, and, in hopes of inspiring his soldiers with
new spirit, himself took command. The two emperors, neither of them
soldiers, were thus pitted against each other, and Francis Joseph, eacrer to
retrieve the disaster at Ma-enta, resolved to quit his stron- positfon of
defence in the Quadrilateral and assume the offensive.
At two o'clock in the morning of the 24th the allied French and
Italian army resumed its march, Napoleon's orders for the day being based
upon the reports of his reconnoitering parties and spies. These ted him
to believe that, although a strong detachment of the enemy mi^ht be
encountered west of the Mincio, the main body of the Austrians was^await-
mg him on the eastern side of the river. But the French intelli<rence
department was badly .served. The Austrians had stolen a march "upon
The Armies ^^PO^^""- Undetected by the French scouts, they had re-
on the Mincio crossed the Mincio, and by nightfall of the i^il their leading
columns were occupying the ground on which the French
were ordered to bivouac on the evening of the 24th. The intention of the
Austrian emperor, now commanding his army in person, had been to push
forward rapidly and fall upon the allies before they had completed the
passage of the river Chiese. But this scheme, like that of Napoleon was
based on defective information. The allies broke up from their bivouacs
many hours before the Austrians expected them to do so, and when the
two armies came in contact early in the morning of the 24th of June the Aus
trians were quite as much taken by surprise as the French.
The Austrian army, superior in numbers to its opponents, was posted
in a half-circle between the Mincio and Chiese, with the intention of press-
ing forward from these points upon a centre. But the line was extended
too far, and the centre was comparatively weak and without reserves.
Napoleon, who that morning received complete intelligence of the [uvsition
of the Austrian army, accordingly directed his chief Strength against the
r
»5!
J ":,■
THE SECOND FRENCH EMPIRE
191
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enemy's centre, which rested upon a hei<,dit near the villaj^'e of Solferino.
Here, on the 24th of June, after a jnurclerous contlict, in wiiicli the French
commanders hurled continually renewed masses a<,a\inst the decisive posi-
tion, while on the other side the Austrian reinforcements failtnl throuirh
lack of unity of plan and decision of action, th(> heii^^dits were at len^rth won
by the French troops in <pite of heroic resistance on the part of the Aus-
trian soldiers; the Austrian line of battle being cut through, and the arinj
thus divided into two separate mass(!s. A second attack which Napolecni
promptly directed against Cavriano had a similar result ; for the commands
given by the Austrian generals were confused and had no general and
definite aim. The fate of the battle was already in a great
measure decided, when a tremendous storm broke forth that Ti.e Battle of
, , , . Solterino
put an end to the combat at most pomts, and gave the Aus-
trians an opportunity to retire in order. Only Benedek, whv; liad twice
beaten back the Sardinians at various points, continued the struggle for
some hours longer. On the French side Marshal Niel had pre-eminently
distinguished himself by acuteness and bravery It was a day of bloodshed,
on which two great powers had measured their strength against each oth(;r
for twelve hours. The Austrians had to lament the loss of 13,000 dead
and wounded, and left 9,000 prisoners in the enemy's hands ; on the side of
the French and Sardinians the number of killed and wounded was even
greater, for the repeated attacks had been made upon well-defended heiglv s,
but the number of prisoners was not nearly so great.
The victories in Italy filled the French people with the warmest
admiration for their emperor, they thinking, in their enthusiasm, that a
true successor of Napoleon the great had come to bring glory the Feeling in
to their arms. Italy also was full of enthusiatic hope, fancying France and
that the freedom and unity of the Italians was at last assured. '^^'^
Both nations were, therefore, bitterly disappointed in learning that the war
was at an end, and that a hasty peace had been arranged between the
emperors, which left the hoped-for work but half achieved.
Napoleon estimated his position better than his people. D'^spite his
victories, his situation was one of danger and difficulty. The army had
suffered severely in its brief campaign, and the Austrians were still in pos.
session of the Quadrilateral, a square of powerful fortresses which he might
seek in vain to reduce. And a threat of serious trouble had arisen in Ger-
many. The victorious career of a new Napoleon in Italy was alarming. It
was not easy to forget the past. The German powers, though they had
declined to come to the aid of Austria, were armed and readv and at anv
moment might begin a hostile movement upon the Rhine.
hf
I '•■■
V::-#fer^
192
THE SECOND FRENCH EMPIRE
Napoleon, wise enough to secure what he had won, without hazarding
its loss, arranged a meeting with the Austrian emperor, whom he found
A Meeting of "^"'^^ ^^ ready for peace. The terms of the truce arranged
the Emperors between them were ':hat Austria should abandon Lombardy
andTreaty to the line of the Mincio, almost its eastern boundary, and
that Italy should form a confederacy under the presidency of
the pope. In the treaty subsequently made only the first of these condi-
tions was maintained, Lombardy passing to the king of Sardinia. He
received also the small states of Central Italy, whose tyrants had fled,
ceding to Napoleon, as a reward for his assistance, the realm of Savoy and
the city and territory of Nice.
Napoleon had now reached the summit of his career. In the succeed-
ing years the French were to learn that they had put their faith in a hollow
emblem of glory, and Napoleon to lose the prestige he had gained at Ma-
genta and Solferino. His first serious mistake was when lie yielded to the
voice of ambition, and, taking advantage of the occupation of the Ameri-
cans in their civil war, sent an army to invade Mexico.
The ostensible purpos" of this invasion was to collect a debt which the
Mexicans had refused to pay, and Great Britain and Spain were induced to
take part in the expedition. But their forces were withdrawn
when they found that Napoleon had other purposes in view,
and his army was left to fight its battles alone. After some
sanguinary engagements the Mexican army was broken into a series of
guerilla bands, incapable of facing his well-drilled troops, and Napoleon
proceeded to reorganize Mexico as an empire, placing the Archduke Maxi-
milian of Austria on the throne.
All went well while the people of the Uiiited States were fighting for
their national union, but when their war was over the ambitious French em-
peror was soon taught that he had committed a seriouo error. He was given
plainly to understand that the French troops could only be kept in Mexico
at the cost of a war with the United States, and he found it convenient to
withdraw them early in 1867. They had no sooner gone than the Mexicans
were in arms against Maximilian, and his rash determination to remain
quickly led to his capture and execution as a usurper.
The inaction of Napoleon during the wars which Prussia fought with
Denmark and Austria gave further blows to his prestige in France, and the
Napoleon ^oses opposition to his policy of personal government grew so
Prestige in strong that he felt himself obliged to submit his policy to a
rrancu ^^^^ ^^ ^^ people. He was sustained by a large majority.
Yet he perceived that his power was sinking. He was obliged to loosen the
Tile Invasion
of Mexico
THE SECOND FRENCH EMPIRE 193
reins of government at home, though knowing that the yielding of increased
liberty to the people would weaken his own control. Finally, finding him-
self failing in health, confidence, and reputation, he yielded to advisers who
told him that the only hope for his dynasty lay in a successful war, and un-
dertook the war of 1870 against Prussia.
The origin and events of this war will be considered in a subsequent
chapter. It will suffice to say here that its events proved Napoleon's in-
capacity as a military emperor, he being utterly deceived in the condition cf
the French army and unwarrantably ignorant of that of the Germans. He
believed that the army of France was in the highest condition of organiza-
tion and completely supplied, when the very contrary was the case ; and was
similarly deceived concerning the state of the military force of Prussia.
The result was that which might have been expected. The German troops
admirably organized and excellently commanded, defeated the French in a
series of engagments that fairly took the breath of the world by their
rapidity and completeness, ending in the capture of Napoleon and his army.
As a consequence the second empire of France came to an end and
Napoleon lost his throne. He died two years afterwards an exile in Eng^
land, that place of shelter for French royal refugees.
m
m
S|-
, \i (ft '
jl -i
i
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r
CHAPTER XIII.
Garibaldi and the Unification of Italy.
:n
tti
I
! !
'I n iii
u
FROM the time of the fall of the Roman Empire until late in the nine-
teenth century, a period of some fourteen hundred years, Italy re-
mained disunited, divided up between a series of states, small and
large, hostile and peaceful, while its territory was made the battlefield of the
surrounding powers, the helpless prey of Germany, France, and Spain. Even
the strong hand of Napoleon failed to brinsj it unity, and after his
Lrdck of Itflli&n o y '
Unity ^^^' ^^^ condition was worse than before, for Austria held most
of the north and exerted a controlling power over the remainder
of the peninsula, so that the fair form of liberty fled in dismay from its shores.
But the work of Napoleon had inspired the patriots of Italy with a new
sentiment, that of union. Before the Napoleonic era the thought of a
united Italy scarcely existed, and patriotism meant adherence to Sardinia,
Naples, or some other of the many kingdoms and duchies. After that era
union became the watchword of the revolutionists, who felt that the only
hope of giving Italy a position of dignity and honor among the nations
Italian Unity ^^Y "^ making it one country under one ruler. The history
and Its of the nineteenth century in Italy is the record of the at-
tempt to reach this end, and its successful accomplishment.
And on that record the names of two men most prominently appear,
Mazzini, the indefatigable conspirator, and Garibaldi, the valorous fighter ;
to whose names should be added that of the eminent statesmen, Count
Cavour, and that of the man who reaped the benefit of their patriotic •
labors, Victor Emmanuel, the first king of united Italy.
The basis of the revolutionary movements in Italy was the secret
political association known as the Carbonari, formed early in the nineteenth
century and including members of all classes in its ranks. In 1814 this
powerful society projected a revolution in Naples, and in 1820 it was
Tlie Carbonari strong enough to invade Naples with an army and force from
the king an oath to observe the new constitution which it had
prepared. The revolution was put down in the following year by the Aus-
trians, acting as the agents of the '' Holy Alliance/' — the compact of
Austria, Prussia, and Russia.
(194)
GARIBALDI AND THE UNIFICATION OF ITALY ,95
An ordinance was passed, condemning any one who should attend a
meetmg of the Carbonari to capital punishment. But the society continued
to exist, despite this severe enactment, and has been at the basis of many
of the outbreaks that have taken place in Italy since 1820. Mazzini, Gari-
baidi, and all the leading patriots were members of this powerful onrani/a-
tion, which was daring enor ^ to condemn Napoleon III. to deadi and
almost to succeed in his ass. nation, for his failure to live up to his obliira-
tions as a member of the society.
Giuseppe Mazzini, a native of Genoa, became a member of the Car-
bonari in 1830. His activity in revolutionary movements caused him soon
after to be proscribed, and in 1831 he sought Marseilles, where he or,.anized
a new political society called " Young Italv." whose watchword
was "God and the People," and whose basic principle was the ^^^^'"' ***«
union of the several states and kingdoms into one nation as
the only true foundation of Italian liberty. This purpose he avowed in hie
writings and pursued through exile and adversity with inOexible constancy anc
It IS largely due to the work of this earnest patriot that Italy to-day is a single
kingdom instead of a medley of separate states. Only in one particular did
w. .,"',7^'':^'?^^"^ P^>'-P«-'^^ ^vas to establish a republic, not a monarchy.
VVhde Mazzini was thus working with his pen, his compatriot, Giuseppe
Uanbakh, was working as earnestly with his sword. This
daring soldier, a native of Nice and reared to a life on the ^^i^'y Career of
sea, was banished as a revolutionist in 1834, and the succeed- '''"''"''"
ing fourteen years of his life were largely spent in South America, in whose
wars he played a leading part.
The revolution of 1848 opened Italy to these two patriots, and they
hastened to return, Garibaldi to offer his services to Charles Albert of
Sardinia, by whom, however, he was treated with coldness and distrust
Mazzini, after founding the Roman republic in 1849, called upon Garibaldi
to come to its defence, and the latter displayed the greatest heroism in the
contest against the Neapolitan and French invaders. He escaped from
Rome on its capture by the French, and, after many desperate conflicts and
adventures with the Austrians. was again driven into exile, and in 1850 became
a resident of New York. For some time he worked in a manufactory of
candles on Staten Island, and afterwards made several voyages on the Pacific.
1 he war o 1859 opened a new and promising channel for the devo-
tion of Garibaldi to his native land. Being appointed major-
general and commissioned to raise a volunteer corps he '^he Hunters
organized the hardy body of mountaineers called the " Hunters *"* ^"^ '^'''*
of the Alps," and with them performed prodigies of valor on the plains
I. ;
., 1 1
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m
196
GARIBALDI AND THE UNIFICATION OF ITALY
: 1)
4-J
I
of Lombardy, winnin;;^ victories over the Austrians at Varese, Como
and other places. In his ranlcs was his fellow-patriot Mazzini.
The success of the French and Sardinians in Lombardy during this
war stirred Italy to its centre. The grand duke of Tuscany fled to Aus-
tria. The duchess of Parma sought refuge in Switzerland. The duke
of Modena found shelter in the Austrian- camp. Everywhere the brood of
tyrants took to flight. Bologna threw off its allegiance to the pope, and
proclaimed the king of Sardinia dictator. Several other towns in the
states of the Church did the same. In the terms of the truce between
Louis Napoleon and Trancis Joseph the rulers of these realms were to
resume their reigns if the people would permit. But the people would not
permit, and they were all annexed to Sardinia, which country was greatly
expanded as a result of the war.
It will not suffice to give all the credit for these revolutionary move-
ments to Mazzini, the organizer, Garibaldi, the soldier, and the ambitious
monarchs of France and Sardinia. More important than king and emperor
was the eminent statesman, Count avour, prime .minister of Sardinia from
1852. It is to "this able man that the honor qf the unification of Italy most
Count Cavour f"-''')' belongs, though he did not live to see it. He sent a
the Brain of Sardinian army to the assistance of France and England in
^ the Crimea in 1855, and by this act gave his state a standing
among the powers of Europe. He secured liberty of the press and favored
toleration in religion and freedom of trade. He rebelled agamst the
dominion of the papacy, and devoted his abilities to the liberation and
unity of Italy, undismayed by the angry fulminations from the Vatican.
The war of 1859 was his work, and he had the satisfaction of seeing
Sardinia increased by the addition of Lombardy, Tuscany, Parma and
Modena. A great step had been taken in the work to which he had
devoted his life.
The next step In the great work was taken by GaribaHi, who now
struck at the powerful kingdom of Naples and Sicily in the south. It
Qaribaldi's In- seemed a difficult task. Francis II., the son and successor of
vasion of the infamous "Kino- Bomba," had a well-orpfanized armv of
SicHv * & .,
' 150,000 men. But his father's tyranny had filled the land
with secret societies, and fortunately at this time the Swiss mercenaries
were recalled home, leaving to Francis only his unsafe native troops. This
was the critical interval which Mazzini and Garibaldi chose for their work.
At the beginning of April, i860, the signal was given by separate
insurrections in Messina and Palermo. These were easily suppressed by
the troops in garrison ; but though both cities were declared in a state of
Como
GARIBALDI AND THE UNIFICATION OF ITALY ,97
s|e,?e, they gave occasion for demonstrations by wliich the revohitionary
chiefs excited the public mind. On the 6th of May, Garibaldi started with
two steamers from Genoa with about a thousand Itah-an vohinteers, and on
the nth landed near Marsala, on the west coast of Sicily. He proceeded
to the mountains, and near Salemi gathered round him the scattered bands
of the free corps. By the 14th his army had increased to 4.000 men He
novv issued a proclamation, in which he took upon himself the dictatorship
of .Sic.ly. in the name of Victor Emmanuel, king of Italy. After wa-in'r
various successful combats under the most difficult circumstances, Garibaldi
advanced upon the capital, announcing his arrival by beacon-fires kindled
at night. On the 27th he was in front of the Porta Termina of Palermo
and at once gave the signal for the attack. The people rose
in mass, and assisted the operations of the besityers by capture of
barricade-fighting in th- streets. In a few hours half the *''"''""'*
town was in Garibaldi's hands. But now General Lanza, whom the young
king had dispatched with strong reinforcements to Sicily, furiously bom-
barded the insurgent city, so that Palermo was reduced almost to a heap of
ruins. At this juncture, by the intervention of an English admiral, an armistice
was concluded, which led to the departure of the Neapolitan troops and war
vessels and the surrender of the town to Garibaldi, who thus, with a band
of 5 000 '>adly armed followers, had gained a signal advantage over a
regular army of 25,000 men. This event had tremendous consequences
for It showed the utter hollowness of the Neapolitan government, while
Garibaldis fame was everywhere spread abroad. The glowin<r fancv of
the Italians beheld in him the national hero before wliom evx^-y enemy
would bite the dust. This idea seemed to extend even to the Neapolitan
court Itself, where all was doubt, confusion and dismay. The kincr hastily
summoned a liberal ministry, and offered to restore the constit'ution of
1848, but the general verdict was, "too late," and his proclamation fell flat
on a people who had no trust in Bourbon faith.
The arrival of Garibaldi in Naples was enough to set in blaze all the
combustible materials in that state. His appearance there
was not long delayed. Six weeks after the surrender of ^^'k"^ '"
Palermo he marched against Messina. On the 21st of * ^"
July the fortress of Melazzo was evacuated, and a week afterwards all
Messina except the citadel was given up.
Europe was astounded at the remarkable success of Garibaldi's handful
of men. On the mainland his good fortune was still more astonishin<r He
had hardly landed— which he did almost
— than R
face of the Neapolitan fleet
Jl
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■II
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eggio was surrendered and its garrison withdrew H
is progress
tm
li
198
GARIBALDI AND THE UNIFICATION OF ITALY
'-. f
n
ii I
through the south of the kin,<rd()ni w,is like a triumphal procession. At the
Flight of Francis ^"^^ "^ AUj,!:ust ho was at Cosenza; on the 5th of September
11. and Coil, at Hl)oh\ near Salerno. No resistance appear(;(l. His very
quest of Naples 1 1 i-i
name seemed to work hke maL,nc on the population. The
capital had been declared in a state of sie.L,^e, and on September 6lh the
king took Hi-ht, retirinc,^, with the 4,000 men still faithful to him. behind
the Volturno. Tlie next day Garibaldi, with a few followers, entered
Naples, whose populace received him with frantic shouts of welcome.
The remarkable achievements of Garibaldi filled all Italy with over-
masterin.<r excitement. He nad declared that he would ])roclaim the
kingdom of Italy from the heart of its capital city, and nothing less than
this would content the people. The position of the pope had become
serious. Me refused to grant the reforms suggested by the
The Army T7 i i i i • i
of the Pope ^ ''^"^" t-'inperor, and threatened with excommunication any one
who should meddle with the domain of the Church. Money
was collected from faithful Catholics throughout the world, a summons
was issued calling the recruits to the holy armV of the pope, and the exiled
I'Vench General Lamoriciere was given the chief command of the troops,
composed of men who had flocked to Rome from many nations.. It was
hoped that the name of the celebrated French leader would have a favor-
able influence on the troops of the French garrison of Rome.
The settlement ')f the perilous situation seemed to rest with Louis
Napoleon. If he had let Garibaldi have his way the latter would, no doubt,
have quickly ended the temporal sovereignity of the pope and made Rome
the capital of Italy. But Napoleon seems to have arranged with Cavour to
leave the king of Sardinia free to take possession of Naples, Umbria and
the other provinces, provided that Rome and the "patrimony of St. Peter"
were left intact.
At the beginning of September two Sardinian army corps, under Fanti
and Cialdini, marched to the borders of the states of the church. Lamor-
'ciere advanced against Cialdini with his motley troops, but
Victor Emman- ,.,^ • i 1 1 r 1 , '■
uel in Naples )^^^ quickly defeated, and on the following day was besieged
in the fortess of Ancona. On the 29th he and the garrison
surrendered as prisoners of war. On the 9th of October Victor Entmanuel
arrived and took command. There was no longer a papal army to oppose
him, and the march southward proceeded without a check.
The object of the king in assuming the chief command was to com-
plete the conquest of the kingdom of Naples, in conjunction with Garibaldi.
For though Garibaldi had entered the capital in triumph, tlie progress on
the line of the Volturno had been slow ; and the expectation that the
lii
f i ::
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. ^1
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^t'^ ' 1
L'
.„ «« r K M . THE ZOUAVES CHARGING THE BARRrCADES AT MENTANA
French Zouaves i„ a dashing ba^-onet chargratinsMt ba'ricaHet.f '.h': re"-,[uti?,n" r'"'""' ""=
OARWALDI AND THE UNIFICATION OF ITALY „,
lZ°d'"Thr'"?""-^° °'T ,'" '"^ '■""■"''■^^ '" ^ '"•-'- I^-d "°' been
tha Gar,balc., though his irregular bands a.nounted to ,nore than .5°;^
men, could not hope to drive away King I-Vancis, or to take titc fortr!C
statesnian Cavour who fostered no illusions, and saw the cond tions of
afl.,rs m ,ts true hght the simple, honest Garibaldi cherished a deep aver-
native "wnll .h''r '"f'^n'™," ''^ '■='^'"= ^''^"' "P ^''^'=' G-i^aldis
natne town, to the French. On the other hand, he felt at-
tracted toward the king, who in his opinion seemed to be the "'"il'aldl Yields
man raised up by Providence for the liberation of Italv "'"^"""l"'*"
Accord.ngly, when Victor En,mannel entered Sessa, at 'tl',; head of his
army, Ganba d, was easdy uuluccd to place his dictatorial power in the
hands of tlje kmg, to whon, he left the completion of the work Of the unLn
01 taly. After greetmg Victor Emmanuel with the title of Kin., of Italv
and gmng the required resignation of his power, with the worcH "Sire I
obey he entered Naples, riding beside the king; and then, aft^r recom-
rnend.ng h,s companions in ar„,s to his majesty's special favor, he retired
o h,s home on the ,sland of Caprera, refusing to receive a regard, in any
shape or form, for h,s services to the state and its head ^
The progress of the Sardinian army compelled Francis to give up the
me of the Volturno, and he eventually took refuge, with his bes°t troops „
the ortress of Gaeta^ On the maintenance of this fortress hung thi fa e
of the kmgdom of Naples.. Its defence is the only brhdit
pomt HI the career of the feeble Francis, whose coura-e was Capture of
aroused by the heroic resolution 01 his youmr wife the^Biva *^"°
nan Princess Mary. For three months the" defence continued. But no
European pow-er came to the aid of the king, disease appeared with scarcity
of food and o munitions of war, and the garrison was at length forced to
capitulate The fall of Gaeta was practically the completion of the grel°
work o the unification of Italy. Only Rome and Venice remained fo be
added o the united kmgdom. On February ,8, ,86., Victor Emmanuel
assemb ed at Turin the deputies of all the states that acknowl- „. ,
edged his supremacy, and in their presence assumed the title .";«»:»"""■
ot King ol Italy, which he was the first to bear. In four Kins of Italy
months afterwards Count Cavour, to whom this great work was lar.^ely
due, died. He had lived long enough to see the purpose of his life
practically accomplished.
Great as had been the change which two years had made, the patriots
of Italy were not satisfied. " Free from the Alps to the Adriatic V was their
-ii
'*i:
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ill;
I
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aoi
GAJilBALDI AND THE UNIFICATION OF ITALY
cry; "Rome and Venice!" became the watchword of the revolutionists.
Mazzini, who had sought to found a repubUc, was far from content, and the
aj4itation went on. Garibaldi was drawn into it, and made bitter complaint
of the treatment his followers had received. In 1862, disheartened at the
inaction of the king, he determined to undertake against Rome an expedi-
tion like that which he had led against Naples two years before.
In June he sailed from Genoa and landed at Palermo, where he was
Garibaldi's Ex- quickly joined by an enthusiastic party of volunteers. They
pedition supposed that the government secretly favored their design,
gans ome ^^^ the king had no idea of fighting against the French
troops in Rome and arousing international complications, and he energetic-
ally warned all Italians against taking part in revolutionary enterprises.
But Garibaldi persisted in his design. When his way was barred by
the garrison of Messina he turned aside to Catania, where he embarked
with 2,000 volunteers, declaring, he would enter Rome as a victor, or perish
beneath its walls. He landed at Melito on the 24th of August, and threw
himself at once, with his followers, into the Calabrian mountains. But his
enterprise was quickly and disastrously ended. General Cialdini despatched
a division of the regular army, under Colonel Pallavicino, against the volun-
teer bands. At Aspromonte, on the 28th of August, the two forces came
into collision. A chance shot was followed by several volleys from the
regulars. Garibaldi forbade his men to return the fire of their fellow-
subjects of the Italian kingdom. He was wounded, and taken
prisoner with his followers, a few of whom had been slain
in the short combat. A government steamer carried the
wounded chief to Varignano, where he was held in a sort of honorable im-
prisonment, and was compelled to undergo a tedious and painful operation
for the healing of his wound. He had at least the consolation that all
Europe looked with sympathy and interest upon the unfortunate hero ; and
a general sense of relief was felt when, restored to health, he was set free,
and allowed to -return to his rocky island of Caprera.
Victor Emmanuel was seeking to accomplish his end by safer means.
The French garrison of Rome was the obstacle in his way, and this was
finally removed through a treaty with Louis Napoleon in September, 1864,
Florence the ^he emperor agreeing to withdraw his troops during the succeed-
Capital of ing two years, in which the pope was to raise an army large
^ enough to defend his dominions. Florence was to replace Turin
as the capital of Italy. This arrangement created such disturbances in Turin
that the kinpr was forced to leave that city hastily for his new c:
December, koo, the last of the French troops. departed from
Sent Back to
Caprera
u„l
I
T .-
Ill
GARIBALDI AND THE UNIFICATION OF ITALY 203
despite of the efforts of the pope to retain them. By their withdrawal
Italy was freed from the presence of foreign soldiers for the first time
probably in a thousand years.
In 1866 came an event which reacted favorably for Italy, thoutrh her
part in it was the reverse of triumphant. This was the war between Prussia
and Austria, ^aly was in alliance with Prussia, and Victor
Emmanuel hastened to lead an army across the Mincio to The War of
the invasion of Venetia, the last Austrian province in Italy. ^^^^
Garibaldi at the same time was to invade the Tyrol with his volunteers.
The enterprise ended in disaster. The Austrian troops, under the Arch-
duke Albert, encountered the Italians at Custozza and gained a brilliant
victory, despite the much greater numbers of the Italians.
Fortunately for Italy, the Austrians had been unsuccessful in the north
and the emperor, with the hope of gaining the alliance of France and
breaking the compact between Italy and Prussia, decided to cede Venetia to
Louis Napoleon. His purpose failed. All Napoleon did in response was
to act as a peacemaker, while the Italian king refused to recede from his
alliance. Though the Austrians were retreating from a country which no
longer belonged to them, the invasion of Venetia by the Italians continued,
and several conflicts with the Austrian army took place.
But much the most memorable event of this brief war occurred on the
sea, in the most striking contest of ironclad ships between the American
civil war and the Japan-China contest. Both countries concerned had fleets
on the Adriatic. Italy was the strongest in naval vessels, possessing ten iron,
clads and a considerable number of wooden ships. Austria's
ironclad fleet was seven in number, plated with thin iron and ^'JJ ^'^®** '"
with no very heavy guns. In addition there was a number * ^'^'''■'""*=
of wooden vessels and gunboats. But in command of this fleet was an
admiral in whose blood was the iron which was lacking on his ships, Teget-
hoff, the Dewey of the Adriatic. Inferior as his ships were, his men
were thoroughly drilled in the use of the guns and the evolutions of the
ships, and when he sailed it was with the one thought of victory.
Persano, the Italian admiral, as if despising his adversary, engacred in
siege of the fortified island of Lissa, near the Dalmatian coast, leaving the
Austrians to do what they pleased. What they pleased was to attack him
with a fury such as has been rarely seen. Early on July 20, 1866, when the
Italians were preparing for a combined assault of the island by land and sea
their movement was checked by the signal displayed on a scouting frigate ':
" Suspicious-looking ships are in sight." Soon afterwards the Austrian fleet
appeared, the ironclads leading, the wooden ships in the rear.
' ■:;■!■»
M
304
GARIBALDI AND THE UNIFICATION OF ITALY
li )
The battle that followed has had no parallel before or since The
wiiole Austrian lleet was converted into rams. Tet^^ethoff ^rave one final
order to lus captains: "Close with the enemy and ram everythintr k-rev "
(.rey was the color of the Itali.^n s ps. The Austrian were painted black
so as to prevent any danj,^*'- of err* t.
Fire was opened at two (MJWs u';.sta,^ce. tlie balls beiti^ wasted in tho
waters between the fleets, •• |. t*Jl steam aiiead," signalled Te^r-thoff On
came the fleets, firing stei,</ily. the balls now beginning to tell. ' ' Ironclads
will ram and sink the ennny/* s.gii.lled Tegethofr It was the last order he
gave until the battle was wtin^
Soon the two lines of ir,;n(f;Mlf closed amid thick clt)-ds of smoke
regethoff. m his flagship, the Fcniincutci Max, twiced rammed a -rey iron-
clad without effect. Then, out of the smoke. loomed up the tall masts of
The Sinking tli^' Re iriiaha, Persano's flagship in the bco-innincr of the
S'lSta""' ^'■''^'- '^^''''''""' "^'' ^'^'^^^'^ ^'^^ Fcrciinand Max x^^^^ at full
speed, and struck her fairly amidships. Mer sides of iron
were crushed in by the powerfid blow, her tall masts toppled over, and
down beneath the waves sank the great ship with her crew of 600 men.
I he next minute another Italian ship came rushing upon the Au.strian, and
was only avoided by a quick turn of the l.(dm.
One other great disaster occurred to the Italians. The Palestro was
set on lire, and the pumps were put actively to work to drown the magazine.
The. . Palestro- ^'\ '''''* '^""^^^^^ the work had been successfully performed,
is Blown Up '^nd that tiiey were getting the fire under control, when there sud-
denly can.c a terrible burst of tlame attended hr a roar that
crowned all the din of the battle. It was the death knell of 400 men for
the Palestro had blown up with all on board.
The great ironclad turret ship and ram of the Italian fleet, ihe.A/fonda.
tore, to which Admiral Persano had shifted his flag, far the most powerful
vessel in the Adriatic, kept outside of the battle-line, and was of little ser-
vice m the fray. It was apparently afraid to encounter Tegethoff's terrible
rams. The battle ended with the A Mstrian fleet, wooden vessels and all pass-
ing practically unharmed through the Italian lines into the harbor of Lissa
leaving death and destruction in their rear. Tegethoff was the one Aus-
trian who came out of that war with fame. Persano on his return home
Venetia Ceded '''.''^ ^"^ °" ^''''' ^^'^ cowardice and incompetence. He was con-
to Italy victed of the latter and dismissed from the navy in disgrace.
, , , ^^'^ -t^^y. though defeated by land and sea, gained a
valuable prize from the war, for Nape ^0.1 ceded Venetia to the Italian
king, and soon afterwards Victor Eiuii.. ac entered Venice in triumph,
li!
GAKWALDl AND THE VNIPICATION OF ITAl. Y
^t.:'"^T,,,;r„lor;;:f:.,'':^' '-'-r' ■- "^'•' -"'' ■-'-« of Z.
-on o R„,„e, „s tl,e his,,,™ capital . ^~t ' - 86,' ""T""
second attemot to nr.fiMv. T^ i , ^ 1" '""^^"'i • 'S'J? "<' mail(; a
was taken pri,„,",^t,c I e , rn f '''^'^ "'""■'' "'''"«-"^-^. »"■! he
to Caprera."^ H ,-, led „ ,L p ''"''i' ''" " "T' '^'"^^ ^^'■'='' l-^- >™» -"' '-'ck
tab'. Ti,e pnpe was re.pteste.^ to ^ e T cjf, ,k "« ""'^ '"'"
tion. As lie ru.,s,.,| tiiis, tlie States of ,l,e n , 1 R»m. B«»„e,
pied up to tlTO wail, of the rnnlM , ■ , '''"'"' °'™- "" '"""»'
ade of^the ci,, ^^^CS:^:^ Ti ^1"^ "' 7
one king. *^'"- "^' '^''""ntrated ,nto a single nation, under
tt
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•
CHAPTER XIV.
Bismarck and the New Empire of Germany.
WHAT was for many centuries known as " The Holy Roman Empire
of the German Nation " was a portion of the great imperial do-
main of Charlemagne, divided between his sons on his death in
814. It became an elective monarchy in 911, and from the reign of Otho
the Great was confined to Germany, which assumed the title above given.
This great empire survived until 1804, when the imperial title, then held by
Francis I. of Austria, was given up, and Francis styled him- The Empires of
self Emperor of Austria. It is an interesting coincidence that Germany and
this empire ceased to exist in the same year that Napoleon, Fi'ance
whvT in a large measure restored the empire of Charlemagne, assumed the
imperial crown of France. The restoration of the Empire of Germany,
though not in its old form, was left to Prussia, after the final overthrow of
the Napoleonic imperial dynasty in 1871.
Prussia, originally an unimportant member of the German confedera-
tion, rose to power as Austria declined, its progress upward being remark-
ably rapid. Frederick William, the ''Great Elector" of Brandenburg,
united the then minor province of Prussia to his dominions, and at his death
tn 1688 left it a strong army and a large treasure. His son, jhe Rapid
Frederick I., was the first to bear the title of King of Prussia. Growth of
Frederick the Great, who became king in 1740, had under him f^russia
a series of disjointed provinces and a population of less than 2,500,000. His
genius made Prussia a great power, which grew until, in 1805, it had a popu-
lation of 9,640,000 and a territory of nearly 6,000 square miles.
We have seen the part this kingdom played in the Napoleonic wars.
Dismembered by Napok on and reduced to a mere fragment, it regained its
old importance by the Troaty of Vienna. The great career of this kingdom
began with the accession, in 1862, of King William I., and the appointment,
in the same year, of Count Otto von Bismarck as Minister of the King's
House and of Foreign Affa'rs. It was not King William, but Count Bis-
marck, who raised Prussia to the exalted position it has since assumed.
Bismarck began his career by an effort to restore the old despotism,
setting aside acts of the legislature with the boldness of an autocrat, aiid
(207)
II,
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208
BISMARCK AND THE NEW EMPIRE OF GERMANY
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seeking to make the king supreme over the representatives of the people.
Bismarck's ^^' disdained the protest of the Chamber of Deputies in con-
Despotic Acts chiding a secret treaty with Russia. He made laws and de-
AgtresTioS! '""'^'''^ budget estimates without the concurrence of the Cham-
bers. And while thus busily engaged at home in altercations
with the Prussian Parliament, he was as actively occupied with foreign
affairs. ' ^
In 1864 Austria reluctantly took part with Prussia in the occupation of
the duchy of Schleswig-Holstein, claimed by Denmark. A war with Den-
mark followed, which ultimately resulted in the annexation to Prussia of
the disputed territory. In this movement Bismarck was carrying out a pro-
ject which he had long entertained, that of making Prussia the leading power
in Germany. A second step in this policy was taken in 1866, when the troops
of Prussia occupied Hanover and Saxony. This act of aggression led to a
war, in which Austria, alarmed at the ambitious movement's of Prussia, came
to the aid of the threatened states.
Bismarck was quite ready. He had strengthened Prussia by an alliance
with Italy, and launched the Prussian army against that of Austria with a
rapidity that overthrew the power of the allies in a remarkably brief and
most brilliant campaign. At the decisive battle of Sadowa fought July 3,
1866. King William commanded the Prussian army and Field-marshal Bene-
dek the Austrian. But back of the Prussian king was General Von Moltk,
one of the most brilliant strategists of modern times, to whose skillful conv
binations, and distinguished services in organizing the army of Prussia, that
state owed its rapid series of successes in war.
At Sadowa the newly-invented needle-gun played an effective part in
bringing victory to the Prussian arms. The battle continued actively from
7.30 A.M. to 2.30 P.M., at which hour the Prussians carried the centre of the
Austria Over. Austrian position. Yet, despite this, the advantage remained
3aTow"a^' with the Austrians until 3.30. at which hour the Crown Prince
Frederick drove their left flank from the village of Lipa. An
hour more sufficed to complete the defeat of the Austrians, but it was 9 p.m.
before the righting ceased. In addition to their losses on the field, 15,000
of the Austrians were made prisoners and their cause was lost beyond possi-
bility of recovery.
There seemed nothing to hinder Bismarck from overthrowing and dis-
membering the Austrian empire, as Napoleon had done more than once, but
there is reason to believe that the dread of France coming to the aid of the
deteated realm made hrm stop short in his career of victory. Napoleon III.
boasted to the French Chambers that he had stayed the conqueror at th^
e people,
es in con-
i and "de-
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tercations
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BISMARCK AND THE NEW EMPIRE OE GERMANY
2tl
gates of Vienna. However tl.at be, a treaty of peace was si.med in w],ic],
Austr,a consented to witlulraw fro™ the German Confedera.io f^ s k
Grmanv '^"™>' "^^ '^<;!'-^/°'- -king Prussia the supreme power in
to tint cower -f"-^" ^"'«.°f Austriasuffered severely for tl,eir assistance
Hanover H Saxony kept ,ts k,ng, but fell under Prussian control; and
^::^:::^^^^--' --' '^^ '- ^^y °' ^--^furt-on-the-Main
In tiJ^r'^nrol^rs '^'zi:i:^:^;.::[- ^^^ ^^'y'^'-''-
i-u • '"e>&'^ aiLcr peace iiaa been made betwppn
expected under the crcumstances. Though the Bavarians and Wurtem-
bergers showed great bravery in the several conllicts, the ,
r^Tr^ ''TfV"'"''''"^- '""^ "'^ South Gern,an ^s/rsTnTe
rmy was finally obhged to retire beyond the Main wliile "'«••
.Vurzburg was captured by the Prussians. In this citj." a truce was effected
wh,ch ultnnately led to a treaty of peace. Wurtenrberg. Bavaria and Baden
I were each required to pay a war indemnity, and a .Secret nieasure of the
reaty was an offensive and defensive allianL with Prussia re mnl ac
tion in case of a foreign war.
_ Mention was made in the last chapter of the long disunion of Italy its
d ..on .ntoanumberof separate and frequently hostile states from 'tie
fa 1 of he Roman Empire until its final unification in 1870. A similar con-
dit.on had for ages existed in Germany. The so-called Ger-
man hmpire of the mediaeval period was little more than i »'«""'«" o^
league of separate states, each with its own monarch and'dis- ''"■'"'"''
tmct government And the authority of the emperor decreased with time
until .t became but a shadow. It vanished in ,804. leaving GernTanlcom
posed of several hundred independent states, small and lan^e ^
Several efforts were made in the succeeding years to restore the bond
o union between these states. Under the influence of Napoleon ley we e
organized into South German and North German Confederacies, a kI tl e
effect of his interference with their internal affairs was such that they be!
came greatly reduced in number, many of the minor states being swal owed
up by their more powerful neighbors. "^ ^waiiowecl
The subsequent attempts at union proved weak and ineffective The
Buu^ or bond of connection between these states, formed after
the Napoleonic period, was of the most shadowy character ^""••ts^t
Its congress being destitute of power or authority The ''"'''"
National Assembly, convened at Frankfurt^after the revolution of 1848,
I ,, t
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217
BISMARCK AND THE NEW EMPIRE OF GERMANY
1^
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with the Archduke John of Austria as administrator of the empire,
proved equally powerless. It made a vigorous effort to enforce its author-
ity, but without avail ; Prussia refused to be bound by its decisions ; and the
attitude of opposition assumed by this powerful state soon brought the new
attempt at union to an end.
In 1 886 the war between the two great powers of Germany, in whicli
most of the sm.aller powers were concerned, led to more decided measures,
in the absorption by Prussia of the states above named, the formation of a
North German League among the remaining states of the north, and the
offensive and defensive alliance with Prussia of the South German states.
By the treaty of peace with Austria, that power was excluded from the Ger-
man League, and Prussia remained the dominant power in Germany, A
constitution for the League was adopted in 1S67, providing for a Diet, or
legislative council of the ■■ .ague, elected by the direct votes of the people,
and an army, which was to be under the command of the Prussian king and
subject to the military laws of Prussia, Each state in the League bound
itself to supply a specified sum for the support of the army.
Here was a union with a backbone — an army and a budget — and
Bismarck had done more in the five years of his ministry ii: forming an
united Germany than his predecessors had done in fifty years.
Unify " **'' ^^^ ^^^^ idea of union and alliance between kindred states was
then widely in the air. Such a union had been practically
completed in Italy, and Hungary in 1867 regained her ancient rights, which
had been taken from her in 1849, being given a separate government, with
Francis Joseph, the emperor of Austria, as its king. It was natural that
the common blood of the Germans should lead them to a political confed-
eration, and equally natural that Prussia, which so overshadowed the smaller
states'in strength, should be the leading element in the alliance.
The great increase in the power and importance of Prussia, as an out-
come of the war with Austria, was viewed with jealousy in Fiance, The
Emperor Napoleon sought, by a secret treaty with Holland, to obtain
possession of the state of Luxemburg, for which a sum of money was to be
paid. This negotiation became known and was defeated by Bismarck, the
King of Holland shrinking from the peril of war and the publicity of a
disgraceful transaction. But the interference of Prussia with this underhand
scheme added to the irritation of France,
The Position ^^^ ^^'^^^ '^"'"^ passed on until the eventful year 1870.
of Louis By that year Prussia had completed its work among the
Napoicoii North German states and was ready for the issue of hostilities,
if this should be necessary. On the other hand, Napoleon, who had found
empire,
i author-
; and the
the new
in which
leasures,
ion of a
and the
1 states,
the Ger-
any. A
Diet, or
people,
:ing and
i bound
et — and
ning an
y years,
ites was
actically
s, which
nt, with
ral that
confed-
smaller
an out-
2. The
obtain
as to be
.rck, the
ty of a
derhand
ir 1870.
Dng the
stilities,
d found
BISMARCK AND THE NEW EMPIRE OF GERMANY 213
his prestige in France from various causes decreasing, felt obUged in* 1870
to depart from his poHcy of personal rule and give that country a constitu-
tional government. This proposal was submitted to a vote of the people and
was sustained by an immense majority. He also took occasion to state that
"peace was never more assured than at the present time.' This assurance
gave satisfaction to the world, yet it was a false one, for war was probably
at that moment assured.
There were alarming signs in France. The opposition to Napoleonism
was steadily gaining power. A bad harvest was threatened— a serious
source of discontent. The Parliament was discussing the reversal of the
sentence of banishment against the Orleans family. These indications of a
change in public sentiment appeared to call for some act that would aid in
restoring the popularity of the emperor. And of all the acts that could be
devised a national war seemed the most promising. If the Rhine frontier,
which every French regarded as the natural boundary of the empire, could
be regained by the arms of the nation, discontent and opposition would
vanish, the name of Napoleon would win back its old prestige, and the
reign of Bonapartism would be firmly established.
Acts speak louder than words, and the acts of Napoleon were not in
accord with his assurances of peace. Extensive military preparations
began, and the forces of the empire were strengthened by
land and sea, while great trust was placed in. a new weapon, ^T'^T^TZ
f 1 11 1 , . .. '■ tor nostilities
ot murderous powers, called the mitrailleuse, the predecessor
of the machine gun, and capable of discharging twenty-five balls at once.
On the other hand, there were abundant indications of discontent in
Germany, where a variety of parties inveighed against the rapacious policy of
Prussia, and where Bismarck had sown a deep crop of hate. It was believed
in France that the minor states would not support Prussia in a war. In
Austria the defeat in 1866 rankled, and hostilities against Prussia on the
part of France seemed certain to win sympathy and support in that com-
posite empire. Colonel Stoffel, the French military envoy at Berlin,
declared that Prussia would be found abundantly prepared for a struggle ';
but his warniy ^s went unheeded in the French Cabinet, and the warlike
preparations continued.
Napoleon did not have to go far for an excuse for the war upon which
he was resolved. One was prepared for him in that potent
source of trouble, the succession to the throne of Spain. In
that country there had for years been no end of trouble,
revolts, Carlist risings, wars and rumors of wars. The government of Queen
Isabella, with its endless intrigues, plots, and alternation of despotism
The Revolution
in Spain
• ■
\'V.
ii. V
H.
I
h )
■f"
214
BISMARCK AND THE NEW E^fPIRE OF GERMANY
J
m
and anarchy, and the pronounced immorality of the queen, had become so
distasteful to the people that finally, after several years of revolts and aimed
risings, she was driven from her throne by a revolution, and for a time Spain
was without a monarchy and ruled on republican principles.
But this arrangement did not prove satisfactory. The party in opposition
looked around for a king, and negotiations began with a distant relative of
the Prussian royal family, Leopold of Hohe-uollern. Prince Leopold ac-
cepted the offer, and informed the king of Prussia of his decision.
The news of this event caused great excitement in Paris, and the Prus-
sian government was advised of the painful feeling to which the incident
The Spanish '^^^ ^'^^" ^'^^- '^^^^ answer from Berlin that the Prussian
Succession government had no concern in the matter, and that Prince
Leopold was free to act on his own account, did not allay the
excitement. The demand for war grew violent and clamorous, the voices
of the feeble opposition in the Chambers were frowned, and the journalists
and war partisans were confident of a short and glorious campaign and a
triumphant march to Berlin.
The hostile feeling was reduced when King William of Prussia, though
he declined to prohibit Prince Leopold from accepting the crown, expressed
his concurrence with the decision of the prince when he withdrew his accept-
Napoleon's De- ^"^^ °^ ^^^ dangerous offer. This decision was regarded as
mandand sufificient, even in Paris; but it did not seem to be so in the
RlfusT'* palace, where an excuse for a declaration of war was ardently
desired. The emperor's hostile purpose was enhanced by the
influence of the empress, and it was finally declared that the Prussian king
had aggrieved France in permitting the prince to become a candidate fo^r
the throne without consulting the French Cabinet.
Satisfaction for this shadowy source of oiYence was demanded, but King
William firmly refused to say any more on the subject and declined to stand
in the way of Prince Leopold if he should again accept the offer of the
Spanish throne. This refusal was declared to be an offence to the honor
and a. threat to the safety of France. The war party was so strongly in the
The Declaration ^^^^"^^"t ^^^^t all opposition was now looked upon as'lack of
of War patriotism, and on the 15th of July the Prime Minister Ollivier
announced that the reserves were to be called out and the neces-
sary measures taken to secure the honor and security of France. When the
declaration of war was hurled against Prussia the whole nation seemed in
harmony with it, and public opinion appeared for once to have become a
unit throughout France.
-'coine so
id at med
me Spain
pposition
ilative of
)pold ac-
the Prus-
incident
Prussian
It Prince
allay the
le voices
iurnalists
jn and a
, though
xpressed
s accept-
irded as
?o in the
ardently
d by the
ian king
idate for
•ut King
to stand
■ of the
e honor
ly in the
; lack of
Ollivier
e neces-
hen the
2 med in
niSiXfARCK AXD THE NEW EMPIRE OE GERMANY 215
Rarely in the history of the world has so trivial a cause given ri.e to
^uch stupendous military and political events as took place in France in a
bnef mterva! following this blind leap into hostilities. Instead of a tri-
umphant march to Berlin and the dictation of peace from its palace, Franco
was to find Itself m two months' time without an emperor or an armv and
HI a few months more completely subdued and occupied by foreign tmops.
while Pans had been made the scene of a terrible siege and a frigluful com-
.mm.st.c not and a republic had succeeded the empire. It was such a series
ot events as have seldom been compressed within the short interval of half
a year.
In truth Napoleon and his advisers were blinded bv their hopes to the
true state of affa.rs. The army on which they depended, and which they
assumed to be m a high state of efficiency and discipline, was lackin<r in
almost every requisite of an efficient force. The first Napo-
eon was his own mii.ister of war. The third Napoleon, whc=n ^FreVcVand
told by his war minister that "not a single button was want- German
jng on a single gaiter," took the words for the fact and ^'''"'^^
hurled an army without supplies and organization against the most thor-
oughly organized army the world had ever known. That the French were
as brave as the Germans goes without saying ; they fought desperately, but
from the first confusion reigned in their movements, while military science
of the highest kind dominated those of the Germans
Napoleon was equally mistaken as to the state of affairs in Germany
1 he disunion upon which he counted vanished at tlie first threat of war
All Germany felt itself threatened and joined hands in defence. The
declaration of war was received there with as deep an enthusiasm as in
hran^and a fervent eagerness for the struggle. The new popular song,
e^d% ,T f^^'^C'Th^ Watch on the Rhine") spread ripidly from
end o end of the country, and indicated the resolution of the German
people to defend to the death the frontier stream of .heir country.
1 he French looked for a parade march to Berlin, even fixing the day
of their entrance into that city-August 15th, the emperor's b'-hday. On
he contrary, they failed to set their foot on German territurv. and soon
iound themselves engaged in a death struggle with the invad'ers of their
own land. In truth, while the Prussian diplomacy was conducted by Bis-
marck, the ablest statesman Prussia had ever known, the movements of the
army were directed by far the best tactician Europe then
possessed, the famous Von Moltke. to whose s^rat—y ^'-^ Bismarck and
rapid success of the war against Austria had been dTe ^In ^°"-^°'*'^«
the war with France Von Moltke, though too old to lead the armies in per.
'HI
t r
il', ■
r,i
r«'
V
)
2l6
BISMARCK AND THE NEW EMPIRE OF GERMANY
■■*!
^4-.-.*
S !!]
Strength of
the Armies
fwi. .
son, was virtually commander-in-chief, and arranged those masterly combina-
tions which overthrew all the power of France in so remarkably brief a
period. Under his directions, from the moment war was declared every-
thing worked with clocklike precision. It was said that Von Moltke had
only to touch a bell and all went forward. As it was, the Crown Prince
Frederick fell upon the French while still unprepared, won the first battle,
and steadily held the advantage to the end, the French being beaten by the
strategy that kept the Germans in superior strength at all decisive points
But to return to the events of war. On July 23, 1870, the Emperor
Napoleon, after making his wife Eugenie regent of France, set out with his
son at the head of the army, full of high hopes of victory and triumph. By
the end of July King William had also set out from Berlin to join the
armies that were then in rapid motion towards the frontier.
The emperor made his way to Metz, where was stationed his main
army, abou: 200,000 strong, under Marshals Pazaine and Canrobert and
General Bourbaki. luirther east, under Marshal MacMahon,
the hero of Magenta, was the southern army, of about 100,000
men. A third army occupied the camp at Chalons, while a
well-manned fleet set sail for the Baltic, to blockade the harbors and assail
the coast of Germany. The Ge, man army was likewise in three divisons,
the first, of 61,000 men, under General Steinmetz ; the seeond, of 206,000
men, under Prince Frederick Charles; and the third, of 180,000 men, under
the crown prince and General Blumenthal. The king, commander-in-ch-Vf
of the whole, was in the centre, and with him the general staff under the
guidance of the alert Von Moltke. Bismarck and the minister of war Von
Roon were also present, and so rapid was the movement of these great
forces that in two weeks after the order to march was given 300,000 armed
Germans stood in rank along the Rhine.
The two armies first came together on August 2d, near Saarbriick, on
Battles of saar- ^^'^^ frontier line of the hostile kingdoms. It was the one
brick and success of the French, for the Prussians, after a fight in which
Weissenburs: u 4-u -j 1 . n ... s >• '" wmi^u
both sides lost equally, retired in good order. This was
proclaimed by the French papers as a brilliant victory, and filled the people
with undue hopes of glory. It was the last favorable report, for they were
quickly overwhelmed with tidings of defeat and disaster.
Weissenburg, on the borders of Rhenish Bavaria, had been invested
by a division of MacMahon's army. On August 4th the right wing of the
army of the Crown Prince Frederick attacked and repulsed this investing
force after a hot engagement, in which its leader. General Douay. was
killed, and the loss on both sides was heavy. Two days later occurred a
B/SMARCk' AND THE NFAV EMPIRE OF GERMANY «,-
b.mle which decided the fate of the whole war. that of Worth-. n-shofen
where the army of the crown prince met that of MacMahon. and after a
desperate struggle, which continued for fifteen hours, completely defeated
hun. with very heavy losses on both sides. MacMahon retreated in haste
towards the army at Chalons, while the crown prince took possession of
^...a.c, and prepared for the reduction of the fortresses on the Rhine, from
Strasburg to Belfort. On the same day as that of the battle of Wo.th
Genera. Ste.nmetz stormed the heights of Spicheren. and. though at great
loss of hfe, drove Frossard from those heights and back upon Met7
The occupation of Alsace was followed by that of Lorraine, by the
Prussian army t.nder King William, who took possession of Nancy and the
country surrounding on August nth. These two provinces had formerly
belonged to Germany, and it was the aim of the Prussians to
retain them as the chief anticipated prize of the war. Mean- "^ "STnu'
while the world looked on in amazement at the extraordinary Lorraine
rapidity of the German succe.ss. which, in two weeks after Napoleon left
rans, had brought his power to the verge of overthrow
Towards the Moselle River and the strongly fortified town of Metz.
ISO miles northeast of Pans, around which was concentrated the main French
force, all the divisions of the German army now advanced, and on the 14th
of August they gamed a victory at Colombey-Neuvilly which drove their
opponents back from the open field towards the fortified city
It was Moltke's opinion that the French proposed to make their stand
before this impregnable fortress, and fight there desperately for victory
But finding less resistance than he expected, he concluded
on the 15th. that Bazaine, in fear of being cooped up within '^''^ ^""^"°"
the fortress, meant to march towards Verdun, there to join his "* '^'''
forces with those of MacMahon and give battle to the Germans in the plain
1 he astute tactician at once determined to make every effort to prevent
this concentration of his opponents, and by the evening of the i.th a
cavalry division had crossed the Moselle and reached the village of Mars'la-
Four, wl^re it bivouacked for the night. It had seen troops in motion
towards Metz, but did not know whether these formed the rear-guard or the
vanguard of the French army in its march towards Verdun
In fact. Bazaine had not yet got away with his army. All the roads
from Metz were blocked with heavy baggage, and it was impossible to move
so large an army with expedition. The time thus lost by Bazaine was
diligently improved by Frederick Charles, and on the morning of the 16th
the Brandenburg army corps, one of the best and bravest in the German
army, had followed the cavalry and come within sight of the Verdun road
%
,i.,*'>
. /(
I \y
\\ '!
(
1'
i ■'
1:!
'1 - ;
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rtl'
2l8
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BISAfARCk' AND THE NEW EMriRE OE i.EKMANY
K was qu.cky ,,erce.vc-cl that a I'Vcnch force was hcf,.rc them, and some
prcljmnKiry.sk,rmish,M.,.clcvolopccltheenomyin such str.nj,ah as to convince
tie leader of the corps that he had in his front the whole or tl)e greater part
of Bazames army, a.ul that its escape from Metz had not been achieved
1 hey were desperate odds with which the brave Hrandenbur.rers had
to contend, but they l,ad been sent to hold the French until reinforcements
The Battle of '"""''' '"''■'''*■' ''^'^^ ^^^^X ^cre determined to resist to the death
Mars.la.Tour I'or nearly sr. l.ours they rc^sisted, with unsurpassed coura-v
the fierce o ..daughts of the I'Vcnch, though at a cost in life
that perdously depleted .he gallant corps. Then, about four o'clock in the
afternoon, Pnnce Trederick Charles came up with reinforcen.ents to their
support and the desperatt; contest became more even
Gradually fortune decided in favor of the Germans, and by the tinx-
mght had ccm.e they were practically victorious, the field of Mars-la-Tour'
alter the days struggle, remaining in their hands. But they were utterlv
exhausted, the.r horses were worn out. and most of their ammunition w^as
Defeat of the •''^'"^^' ^^"'^ t'^ougH their impetuous commander forced them to
French a new attack, it led to a useless loss of lif.,, for tlu-ir powers
of fightmg were gone. They had achieved their purpose,
that of prevenlmg the escape of Bazaine, though at a fearful loss, amount^
mg to about n>,ooo men on each side. " The battle of Vionville TMars-la-
lourj IS without a parallel in military history." said Emperor William "see-
ing that a smg.e army corps, about 20,000 men strong, hung on to and re-
pulsed an enemy more than five times as numerous and well equipped
Such was the glorious deed done by the Brandenburgers, and the Hohen-
zollems will never forget the debt they owe to their devotion "
n../r i'r' ^^,^^'•"•''^'■^1^ (^^^'^-'^t i6th). at Gravelotte. a village somewhat
nea er to Metz. the armies, somewhat recovered from the terrfble stru<nde
of the 14th. met again, the whole German army being now brought urso
«reat Victory ^"''^*- "^'^r 200,000 men faced the 140,000 of the French V
Inr.?"' ""'''• "'' ^'T- ''^'"'^ °^ "-^'^ '''''■ ^°'" f«"'- J^o""-^ the" two"
aravelotte """""J'-' '^""'' hghtin- face to face, without any special result
neither being able to drive back the other. The French held
their ground and died. The Prussians dashed upon them and died. Only
late in the evening was the right wing of the French army broken and the
victory, which at five o'clock remained uncertain, was decided in favor of the
Germans. More than 40,000 men lay dead and wounded upon the field thc«
Ins army behind the fortificat
M alien had ended in fail
ions at Metz. His efiort to
are.
oin Mac-
anil soino
convince
roator part
hicvf.'d.
iryers had
■orc<jnu:nts
the death
1 courage,
ost in life
ock in the
s to their
' the tinu;
'.s-la-Tour,
re utterly
lition was
d them to
ir powers
purpose,
, amount-
[Mars-la-
ani, " see-
:o and re-
jquipped.
e Hohen-
omewhat
stru^j-frle
It up, so
inch. It
the two
il result,
nch held
1. Only
and the
Dr of the
field, th(?
ne with-
)in Mac-
-I
s: Z
^5
3 O
» n
n O
3 n
a. >
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c 0)
§ H
2 *'
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r
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1
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;
im
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"l^ S
"83
a. a o
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W O O B
3 11 M C3
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•5 2 >.
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4J irjB
ttJI
BISMARCK AND THE NFAV EMPIRE OF GERMANY 221
It was the fixed purpose of the Prussians to detain him in that stron<r.
hold, and thus render practically useless to France its lar^jest army. A siec'i;
was to be prosecuted, and an army of 1 50,000 men was extended
around the town. The fortifications were far too stron<r to '^'^«S'«««
be taken by assault, and all depended on a close blockade "' ""'''
On August 31st Bazaine made an effort to break through the Gernian lines
but was repulsed It became now a question of how long the provisions of
tne l-rench would hold out.
The French emperor, who had been with Bazaine, had left his army
before the battle of Mars-la-Tour, and was now with MacMahon at Chalons
Here lay an army of 125,000 infantry and 12,000 cavalry. Onit the Ge-
mans were advancmg, in doubt as to what movement it would make whether
back towards Paris or towards Metz for the relief of Bazaine. They sou<rht
to place themselves in a position to check either. The latter movement was
determmed on by the French, but was carried out in a dubious
and uncertain manner, the time lost giving abundant opportu- ""Sh'eTto
nity to the Germans to learn what was afoot and to prepare to Relieve
prevent it. As soon as they were aware of MacMahon's inten- ^^""^'"^
tion of proceeding to Metz they made speedy preparations to prevent his re-
hevmg Bazaine. By the last days of August the armv of xW~, crown prince
had reached the right bank of the Aisne, and the fc'.urth division Gained
possession of the line of the Maas. On August 30th the French'under
General de Fadly were attacked by the Germans at Beaumont and put to
flight with heavy loss. It was evident that the hope of reaching Metz was
at an end, and MacMahon, abandoning the attempt, concentrated his
army around the frontier fortress of Sedan.
This old town stands on the right bank of the Meuse, in an angle of
territory between Luxemburg and Belgium, and is surrounded by meadows
gardens, ravines, ditches and cultivated fields ; the castle rising on a cliffl
like eminence to the southwest of the place. MacMahon
had stopped here to give his weary men a rest, not to fioht ^^^ ^^^"""^
but Von Moltke decided, on observing the situation, Thai ^"'■"""'''
Sedan should be the grave-yard of the French army. " The trap is now
closed, and the mouse in it," he said, with a chuckle of satisfaction
Such proved to be the case. On September ist the Bavarians won the
village of Bazeille, after hours of bloody and desperate struacrk- Durin.^
this SPVf-ro fi.ri-if Mn,-..K.,1 AT^„l\T..l .. . ^ , .*'? l^UllIlg
his severe fight Marshal MacMah
obliged to surrender the chief
on was so seriously wounded that h
eral Wimpffen, a man of recoimized b
command, first to Ducrot, and th
ized bravery and cold calculation
e was
en to Gen-
1 .1 n
1 '■ M
222
BISMARCK AND THE NEW EMPIRE OF GERMANY
m
i ■.''
II
The Battre of
Sedan
Fortune soon showed itself in favor of the Germans. To the north-
west of the town, the North German troops invested the exits from St.
Meuges and Fleigneux, and directed a fearful fire of artillery against the
French forces, which, before noon, were so hemmed in the valley that only
two insufificient outlets to the south and north remained open. But Gen-
eral Wimpffen hesitated to .seize either of these routes, the
open way to Illy was soon closed by the Prussian guard
corps, and a murderous fire was now directed from all sides
upon the French, so that, after a last energetic struggle at Floing, they
gave up all attempts to force a passage, and in the afternoon beat a
retreat towards Sedan. In this small town the whole army of MacMahon
was collected by evening, and there prevailed in the streets and houses an
unprecedented disorder and confusion, which was still further increased
when the German troops from the surrounding heights began to shoot
down upon the fortress, and the town took fire in several places.
That an end might be put to the prevajling misery. Napoleon now
commanded General Wimpffen to capitulate. The flag of truce already
waved on the gates of Sedan when Colonel Bronsart appeared, and in the
name of the king of Prussia demanded the surrender of the army and
fortress. He soon returned to headquarters, accompanied by the French
General Reille, who presented to the king a written message from Napo-
leon : " As I may not die in the midst of my army, I lay my sword in the
hands of your majesty." King William accepted it with an expression of
sympathy for the hard fate of the emperor and of the French army which
had fought so bravely under his own eyes. The conclusion of the treaty
of capitulation was placed in the hands of Wimpffen, who, accompanied by
General Castelnau, set out for Doncherry to negotiate with Moltke and
Bismarck. No attempts, however, availed to move Moltke from his stipu-
lation for the surrender of the whole army at discretion ; he granted a
short respite, but if this expired without surrender, the bombardment of
the town was to begin anew.
At six o'clock in the morning the capitulation was signed, and was
ratified by the king at his headquarters at Vendresse (26. September). Thus
the world heheld the incredible spectacle -of an army of 83,000 men sur-
rendering themselves and their weapons to the victor, and being carried off
as prisoners of war to Germany. Only the officers who gave their written
word of honor to take no further part in the present war with Germany
were permitted to retain their arms and personal property. Probably the
assurance of Napoleon, that he had sought death on the battlefield but had
not found it, was literally true; at any rate, the fate of the unhappy man,
■^■•-y<im»^ wi'"x iir.''~ , r -•-
BISMARCK AND THE NEW EMPIRE OF GERMANY
223
the north-
from St.
Tainst the
that only
But Gen-
3utes, the
an guard
all sides
ing, they
n beat a
acMahon
ouses an
increased
to shoot
eon now
; already
d in the
rmy and
i French
m Napo-
rd in the
2ssion of
ly which
le treaty
anied by
Itke and
lis stipu-
-anted a
ment of
and was
•). Thus
nen sur-
rried off
■ written
lermany
ably the
but had
py man,
bowed down as he was both by physical and mental suffering, was so solemn
and tragic, that there was no room for hypocrisy, and that he had exposed
himself to personal danger was admit .d on all sides. Ac- surrender of
companied by Count Bismarck, he stopped at a small and Napoleon and
mean-looking laborer's inn on the road to Doncherry, where, "'^ ^^^'^
sitting down on a stone seat before the door, with Count Bismarck, he
declared that he had not desired the war, but had been driven to it through
the force of public opinion ; and afterwards the two proceeded to the little
castle of Bellevue, near Frenois, to join King William and the crown
prince. A telegram to Queen Augusta thus describes the interview:
" What an impressive moment was the meeting with Napoleon ! He was
cast down, but dignified in his bearing. I have granted him Wilhelmshohe,
near Cassel, as his residence. Our meeting took place in a little castle
before the western glacis of Sedan."
The locking up of Bazaine in Metz and the capture of MacMahon's
army at Sedan were fatal events to France. The struggle continued for
months, but it was a fight against hope. The subsequent events of the war
consisted of a double siege, that of Metz and that of Paris, with various
minor sieges, and a desperate but hopeless effort of France in the field,
As for the empire of Napoleon III., it was at an end. The tidings of the
terrible catastrophe at Sedan filled the people with a fury that soon became
revolutionary. While Jules Favre, the republican deputy, was offering a
motion in the Assembly that the emperor had forfeited the crown, and that
a provisional government should be established, the people were thronging
the streets of Paris with cries of " Deposition ! Republic !" Revolution
On the 4th of September the Assembly had its final meeting. and the Third
Two of its prominent members, Jules Favre and Gambetta, Republic
sustained the motion for deposition of the emperor, and it was carried after
a stormy session. They then made their way to the senate-chamber, where,
before a thronging audience, they proclaimed a republic and named a
government for the national defence. At its head was General Trochu,
military commandant at Paris. Favre was made minister of foreign affairs ;
Gambetta, minister of the interior ; and other prominent members of the
Assembly filled the remaining cabinet posts. The legislature was dis-
solved, the Palais de Bourbon was closed, and the Empress Eugenie quitted
the Tuileries and made her escape with a few attendants to Belgium, whence
she sought a refuge in England. Prince Louis Napoleon made his way to
Italy, and the swarm of courtiers scattered in all directions ; some faithful
followers of the deposed monarch seeking the castle of Wilhelmshohe,
where the unhappy Louis Napoleon occupied as a prison the same beautiful
^ i
^■•"i"
224
BISMARCK' AND THE NEW El, TIRE OE GERMANY
•rti
third French Rcnublic hnri M "-ench Empire was at an end ; the
J»k. F,vre-s '"™'7'' ■?"''"'= remainder of the soldiers in the field wel^e
""" foclZil" E "■'■ ^"' "^™'^"'^""' *"" ••"' --■'«"' -En-
rolled in the nat onaT. 1, T'l ^'''°" '^"P-^'^''^ "' ''--'"S -"« was en-
need of haste TeT^'toTtirr """'"""I ^°?'°°° ■"="• ''""-^ --
capital, inspir d wit i. I ho « from",ir-" •"'>' '"''"'^'"■" "P°" "^«
Thev kne J fl,„ P P their previous astonlshin.r success
lines'ofd fence l^^ZT]"^ 'T''''' "^'"^ -^'-'^1 b)' Powerful
to terms Th, ""=>7""'t«' "■•''t Ininger would soon bring its ..arrison
:.TZ\2::r """ ™^ '°°''^' ^^ ^' ^-^^ -^ - s.:sbur;, w;i:h
the d]i!jc:,ti:f It'r::?!" "r:'^^"? ^=™^'' ""•"-— .-ntary siege
winter camt^Vn i f , : r ^'"'''"'T °' "''""' '"'P'^'^^ «-" "-^« °f the
balls.cha!ndfarlo hi ""'';, ''°7^ '' "'^ '"^"P"^'^ '° "'^ =-"y's
the ffects of bad weaMiir '1' 'r:""''"' •''"'' '"^°"^''' '^'"' -"^"''"g f™"
soldiers were com e' to!," I '""""' '°"' ='"'' ^'""""S. ">« German
the fortificatio ,sT w il t:^lTJTr'''''"'^"''""''""S' ^^f°-
manysuccumbedtotv v., / J "'^f'■'=1"«"^ skirmishes and sallies,
mutilated, orbroklV^iri;::^;;' ''''""" """'^' ^""^ ^^"-^ -'--<' ^ome
Whilftiria'ri-tl:"? "'""""S "^^ "'^ ^°"*'-" °f "- besieged.
death in , ocC : ,a, Lr- r'l '""'' ,T'' ^°'"'^""^ ™™P^"=<' '" '-=
octurnal saMes, or led a pitiable existence in damn huts havincr
M.rd,l,ips „, '"ev.table surrender constantly before their eyes, and disarma"
..eCo„,„c. men and impr sonment as the reward of all their stutX
dren, were in "ott^uT^ "f'u"' '" "" '°^™^' "'« — " -^'^h^^
sl>ell , or of ein"tu L t^,^ f?""° f""''"^ '° ="°"- ^^ "'« fearful
of th; popula.io,r-aw with d" 7 "'"', '""' ™°'^ ' ''"^ "^^ P°orer part
ries of life, and we;eofte^ r I f '''^'"'^ ''""'""''°" "' "'« "^cessa-
or Horses, ;nd'^d::;:t°:ran7r;;:t::rr-'^ ^-^-^^ •>- "-h
none b': aTeely t-LlTrS r'^^n"' "'I'f T "''"''"' P°-^' ->"
the French natio^, Such a as u ' ' 'T'^' ;'"="^" ^'^ '" "'^ ^^'^ of
i6th of October T^ ee m ",1 /^ T '^'""'""^ """'"""^^ ^^r the
er. 1 nree members of the government -Cremieux, Fou-
passed six
I end ; the
leh
many
islied.
fortresses
n to the
field were
able rein-
s was en-
"here was
upon the
■ success,
powerful
garrison
rg, which
ary siege
se of the
enemy's
ing from
German
s before
1 sallies,
id home
esieged.
to face
having
lisarma-
:ruggles
nd chil-
f earful
'er part
lecessa-
e flesh
:r, and
fate of
, Fou'
BISMARCK AND THE NEW EMPIRE OF GERMANY aag
richon, and Glais-Vizoin-were despatched before the entire blockade of
the town had been effected, to Tours, to maintain communication with the
provinces. An attempt was also made at the same time to induce the creat
powers which had not taken part in the war to organize an interventio'n as
hitherto only America, Switzerland, and Spain had sent official
recognition. For this important and delicate mission the old "^"'f" *"*'
statesman and historian Thiers was selected, and, in spite of his """''"''
three-and-seventy years, immediately set out on the journey to London St
Petersburg, Vienna, and Florence. Count Bismarck, however, in the name
ot Frussia, refused any intervention in internal affairs. In t 'o despatches
to the ambassadors of foreign courts, the chancellor declared that the war
begun by the Emperor Napoleon, had been approved by the representatives
of the nation, and that thus all France was answerable for the result Ger-
many was obliged, therefore, to demand guarantees which should secure her
in future against attack, or. at any rate, render attack more difficult Thus a
cession of territory on the part of France was laid down as the basis of a treaty
of peace. The neutral powers were also led to the belief that if they fostered in
the French any hope of intervention, peace would only be delayed The mis-
sion of Thiers, therefore, yielded no useful result, while the direct negotiation
which Jules Favre conducted with Bismarck proved equally unavailing
Soon the beleaguered fortresses began to fall On the 23d of Septem-
ber the ancient town of Toul, in Lorraine, was forced to capitulate, after a
fear ul bombardment ; and on the 27th Strasburg, in danger of the terrible
results of a storming, after the havoc of a dreadful artillery fire hoisted
the white flag, and surrendered on the following day. The 'Jupposed
impregnable fortress of Metz held out little longer. Hun<rer did what
cannon were incapable of doing. The successive sallies made bv Bazaine
proved unavailing, though, on October 7th. his soldiers fou^rht with des-
perate energy, and for hours the air was full of the roar of" cannon and
mitrailleuse and the rattle of musketry. But the Germans withstood the
attack unmoved, and the French were forced to withdraw into the town
Bazaine then sought to negotiate with the German leaders at Versailles
offering to take no part in the war for three months if permitted to with-
draw. But Bismarck and Moltke would listen to no terms
other than unconditional surrender, and these terms were rlZTo^^""'
finally accepted, the besieged army having reached the brink ^«*^
of starvation. It was with horror and despair that France learned on the
30th of October, that the citadel of Metz. with its fortifications and'arms of
defence, nad been yielded to the Germans, and its army
150,000 men had surrendered as prisoners of war.
li
Wm
'■ ' {
n !•
more
226
BISMARCK AND THE NEW EMPIRE OF GERMANY
'((
The ae™.„, 3et ,ng up h,s homely camp-bed in the sime apartments om
.tve™,„„ wh,chLou,sXIV.had once issued his despotic edsaZ
labors and Mo~:utd hi^rec't^'f^'r^-^' '""''"^'^^ '''^ "^^
week to week .nd mon h T ,"'*= '"=«•=■ ™'''^''' P-^ofacted from
neighbonjot withTt :pe:orv^,:t''ru:r^c7f "r '^^'"■■'"'
Parislas surrou'irTnd cut 7. Lt tt IC ZlrLeT^hf'f '
ground telegraphs, through which communication Ta ^r I, T
mamtained with the provinces, were by degr^'dLrert. „d"oy: ^
liut to the great astonishment of Europe which lonl.. I f'estroyed.
Pitchea e.citen„ the might, str.ggii; 1^^^:^:^^^ ^
-~ -- ' r. , ^ '^'''' P'^^'"'" ^"^"^ observable from without
or any lessenmg of resistance from within. On account of *
.main at suchtd^r tl:! t^l!^ ^r^ZZ firT"^^ '
rrsSicHrrihfti'-r °"'- -'- ^0^:^;:,'^^::=
bucu sacrifices, that the humane temper of the icintr rpvolf^.! f. i
tlieless, the declamations of the Frenrh nf ^h^ Vo,i i- r , ^^^^er-
harb^ians met with assent ^^^:::;:^;i;^ :::f^2:i:Xn'^:::
and detenuined opposition to the Pn^siarn'ms tt he e, ;rh:rrr
1 he government of the nationi! 'i-fpn- -^-^ ' ' • , '"t^"^^ ^'^a done.
tio.. : ■• Not a foot, breadth ^^^ u^t:;;;:;.^::-^;:':;— ^^
The Siege of
Paris
BISMARCK AND THE NEW EMPIRE OF GERMANY
227
and positively rejected all proposals of treaty based on territorial conces-
sions. Faith in the invincibility of the republic was rooted as an indisputa-
ble dogma in the hearts of the French people. The victories and the com-
manding position of France from 1792 to 1799 were regarded as so entirely
the necessary result of the Revolution, that a conviction prevailed that the
formation of a republic, with a national army for its defence, would have an
especial effect on the rest of Europe. Therefore, instead of summoning a
constituent Assembly, which, in the opinion of Prussia and
the other foreign powers, would alone be capable of offering Resistance
security for a lasting peace, it was decided to continue the
revolutionary movements, a- J to follow the same course which, in the years
1792 and 1793, had saved France from the coalition of the European powers
— a revolutionary dictatorship such as had once been exercised by the Con-
vention and the members of the Committee of Public Safety, must aarain
be revived, and a youthful and hot-blooded leader was alone needed to stir
up popular feeling and set it in motion. To fdl such a part no one was bet-
ter adapted than the advocate Gambetta, who emulated the career of the
leaders of the Re\ lution, and whose soul glowed with a passionate ardor
of patriotism. In order to create for himself a free s[)here of action, and
to initiate some vigorous measure in place of the well-rounded phrases and
eloquent proclamations of his colleagues Trochu and Jules Favre, he quitted
the capital in an air-balloon and entered into communication with the Gov-
ernment delegation at Tours, which through him so'on obtained a fresh im-
petus. His next most important task was the liberation of the capital from
the besieging German army, and the expulsion of the enemy from the
" sacred " soil of France. For this purpose he summoned,
. , , . . f . . /• 11 1 1 r Qambettaand
with the authority 01 a minister ot war, all persons capable 01 ^jg yvork
bearing arms up to forty years of age to take active service,
and despatched them into the field ; he imposed war-taxes, and terrified the
tardy and refractory with threats of punishment. Every force was put in
motion ; all Fran'^e was transformed into a great camp. A popular war was
now to take the place of a soldiers' war, and what the soldiers had failed to
effect must be accomplished by the people ; France must be saved, and the
world freed from despotism. To promote this object, the whole of France,
with the exception of Paris, was divided into four general governments, the
headquarters of the different governors being Lille, Le Mans, Bourges, and
Besangon. Two armies, from the Loire and from the Somme, were to
march simultaneously towards Paris, and, .aided by the sallies of Trochu and
his troops, were to drive the enemy from the country. Energetic attacks
were now attempted from time to time, in the hope that when the armies of
nl
■ i 'M !
( J
L.'M ■
228
BISMARCK AND THE NFAV r^fPIRE OF GERMANY
^.
\ \
no.tering troops, under Prince Albrecht. the south easulist ''' ""'°":
y a WUrten,l,er, CeCachn.ent through ihe .rssf^b 'rrNZ^r:
the Sen,e, wh.le a d.v.sion of the third ar.ny advanced towards tfu
^he Southward accompanied by two cavalry divisiotm A ,^^. r
r=., i;~"- '--ver, for tL^ivi •::. „iTc:::r:n
all communication with the outer world for flu> r.. * i
destroyed the telegrapl.s. Hut even this obstac e vL; o e o.ne ^ri"'- f
vent,ve gen.us of the Trench. liy n,eans of pigeon letter",Xs \nd ai "
balloons, they were always able to n.aintain a p^^tial thou.d oTe i.W a^ d
mperfect comnnuncation with the provinces, and the aerostatic ar 1 1
veloped and brought to perfection on this occasion in a u.anner wh , had
never before been considered possible. ' -'nner uftich had
The whole of France, and especially the capital, was aln-ad-,- in a state
of .ntense exctement when the news of the capituh'ttion of .Mei. .:,; „
o,m w. add fresh fuel to the flame. Outside the wall. Gau,i, .tta was
7 srr.':; r ■;: - r,:::;;z i —-■;•;;::, EH
faded, and the prov.sional go^-ernn.ent felt so elated with its victory that i
determ,ned to continue at the head of affairs and to oppose the cZ " a
chamber of nat.onal representatives. The members p oclaimed ob vitn for
what had passed, broke off the negotiations for a tr'ce begun J Xr/
TheNerotla. and demanded a vote of confidence. The indomitable soiri;
oXro,, ^'-"" >»';>.= French people did not, on the other hand in!
Ri I 1 ?"'", *^"'"^"'= ^""1 a very lenient or conciliatory temper
B,n,arck declared ,„ a despatch the reasons why the nego.iatbns ad
faded : Ihe mcredible demand that we should surrender the fr it ,f aU
wnici existed at the begmnuig of the blockade of Paris, only affords fnsh
proof that ,n Par,s pretexts are sought for refusing the nation the n do
elecfon. 1 h.ers ntournfully declared the failure o! his undertaking b h
. ans the popular vntmg resulted in a ten-fold n.ajority in favor of tl e" ov
ernnient and the policy of postponement. . ^
.rJCi.
I (
KING OSCAR II. OF SWEDEN AND NORWAY.
KING CHRISTIAN IX. OF DENMARK.
EMPEROR FRANCIS JOSEPH OF AUSTRIA. KING HUMBERT OF ITALY.
PRESENT KINGS OF FOUR COUNTRIES
il
»':
LEON GAMRFrj"lA
LOUIS ADOLPHE THIERS
M'''
FERDINAND DeLESSEPS
GREAT MEN OF MODERN FRANCE
PRESIDEN'l LOUBET
lilSyfARCA' AND THE NEW EMriKi: 01- (;/':R.]fANy
!.^I
After the breaking off of the n«;<r(,tiations, the world anticipated some
enerjretic action towards the besieged city. The efforts of the enemy were
however, principally directed to drawing the iron girdle still ti.rhter en^
closing the giant city more and more closely, and cutting off eve^ry means
of communication, so that at last a surrench.-r might be brought about by
the stern necessity of starvation. That this object would not be accom-
phshed as speedily as at Metz. that the city of pleasure, enjoyment and
luxury would withstand a siege of four months, had never been contem-
plated for a moment. It is true that, as time went on, all fresh meat disap-
peared from the market, with the exception of horsoHesh ; that white bread
on vvhich Parisians place such value, was replaced by a baked compound of
meal and bran ; that the stores of dried and salted food began to decline
untd at last rats, dogs, cats, and even animals from the zoological gardens
were prepared for consumption at restaurants. Yet to the''p
amazement of the world, all these miseries, hardships, and "mZ^t
sufferings were courageously borne, nocturnal watch was kept, ^'"'^^^
sallies were undertaken, and cold, hunger, and wretchedness of all kinds
were endured with an indomitable steadfastness and heroism. The coura<re
of the besieged Parisians was also animated by the hope that the military
forces in the provinces would hasten to the aid of the hard-pressed capital,
and that therefore an energetic resistance would afford the rest of France
sufficient time for rallying all its forces, and at the same time exhibit an ele-
vating example. In the carrying out of this plan, neither Trochu nor Gam
betta was wanting in the requisite energy and circumspection. The forme-
organized sallies from time to time, in order to reconnoitre and discover
whether the army of relief was on its way from the provinces ; the latter
exerted all his powers to bring the Loire army up to the Seine. But both
erred in undervaluing the German war forces; they did not believe that the
hostile army would be able to keep Paris in a state of blockade, and at the
same time engage the armies on the south and north, east and west. They
had no conception of the hidden, inexhaustible strength of the Prussian
army organization— of a nation in arms which could send forth constant re-
inforcements of battalions and recruits, and fresh bodies of disciplined troops
to fill the gaps left in the ranks by the wounded and fallen. There could be
no doubt as to the termination of this terrible war, or the final victory of
German energy and discipline.
Throughout the last months of the eventful year 1870, the northern
part of Franr<=> frnm the Tun tn f'^" r"!-.™-,--! C- .1 t^ 1 . ,
^ -- , !i uie jura 10 rii-_ v^n.tuiici, uum the J3eigtan frontier to
the Loire, presented the aspect of a wide battlefield. Of the troops that
had been set free by the capitulation of Metz. a part remained behind in
^
H,
I
' ^^1
:MA
233
BISMARCK AND THE NEW EMPIRE OF GERMANY
s 1'
J %
garrison, another division marched northwards in order to invest the pro-
vinces of Picardy and Normandy, to restore communication with the sea,
and to bar the road to Paris, and a third division joined the second army,
whose commander-in-chief. Prince Frederick Charles, set up his head-
quarters at Troyes. Different detachments were despatched against the
nortliern fortresses, and by degreesSoissons, Verdun, Thionville,
Fortresses ^ ^ J''^'^'' wiiere Napoleon had once been a prisoner, Pfalzburg and
Montmedy, all fell into the hands of the Prussians, thus open-
ing to them a free road for the supplies of provisions. The garrison troops
were all carried off as prisoners to Germany ; the towns — most of them in a
miserable condition — fell into the enemy's hands ; many houses were mere
heaps of ruins and ashes, and the larger part of the inhabitants were suffer-
ing severely from poverty, hunger and disease.
The greatest obstacles were encountered in the northern part of Alsace
and the mountainous districti; of the Vosges and the Tura, where irre*'-ular
warfare, under Garibaldi and other leadeHs, developed to a dangerous
Querilla War- extent, while the fortress of Langres afforded a safe retreat to
fare in the the guerilla bands. Lyons and the neiehborinof town of St
Etienne became hotbeds of excitement, the red Hag being
raised and a despotism of terror and violence established. Although many
divergent elements made up this army of the east, all were united in hatred
of the Germans and the desire to drive the enemy back across the Rhine.
'1 hus, during the cold (\'iys of November and December, when General
Von Treskow began the siege of the important fortress of lielfort, there
burst forth a war around Gray and Dijon marked by the greatest hardships,
perils and privations to the invaders. Here the Germans had to contend
with an enemy much superior in number, and to defend themselves against
continuous firing from houses, cellars, woods and thickets, while the im-
poverished soil yielded a miserable subsistence, and the broken railroads
cut off freedom of communication and of reinforcement.
The whole of the Jura district, intersected by hilly roads as far as the
i'lateau of Langres, where, in the days of Caesar, the Romans and Gauls
were wont to measure their strength with each other, formed during
November and December the scene of action of numerous encounters
which, in conjunction with sallies from the garrison at Belfort, inflicted
severe injury on Werder's troops. Dijon had repeatedly to be evacuated ;
and the nocturnal attack at Chattillon, 20th November, by
Dilwcr Garibaldians, when one hundred and twenty Landwehrmen
and Hussars perished miserably, and sevent\' horses were lost,
affording a striking proof of the dangers to which the German army was
BISMARCK' AND THE NEW EMPIRE OF GERMANY
83.1
the pro-
tlie sea,
id army,
is head-
linst the
lionville,
iurjj a nil
us OJXMl-
n troops
lem in a
;re mt;r(;
•e suffer-
f Alsace
irregular
Ln«{C'rous
streat to
n of St
g beinjr
r\\ many
n hatred
^Iiine.
General
rt, there
irdships,
contend
against
the hn-
•ailroads
ir as the
d Gauls
during
:ounters
inflicted
Lcuated ;
iber, by
^ehrmen
ere lost,
my was
exposed in this hostile country ; although the revolutionary excesses of the
turbulent population of the south diverted to a certain extent the attention
of the National Guard, who were compelled to turn their weapons against
an internal enemy.
By means of the revolutionary dictatorship of Gambetta the whole
French nation was drawn into the struggle, the annihilation of the enemy
being represented as a national duty, and the war assuming a steadily more
violent character. The indefatigable patriot continued his exertions to
increase the army and unite the whole south and west against Qambettaand
the enemy, hoping to bring the army of the Loire to such the Army
dimensions that it would be able to expel the invaders from oftheLotre
the soil of France. But these raw recruits were poorly fitted to cope with
the highly disciplined Germans, and their early successes were soon followea
by defeat and discouragement, while the hopes entertained by the Paris
garrison of succor from the south vanished as news of the steady progress of
the Germans were received.
During these events the war operations before Paris continued un-
interruptedly. Moltke had succeeded, in spite of the difficulties of trans-
port, in procuring an immense quantity of ammunition, and the long-delayed
bombardment of Paris was ready to begin. Having stationed with all
secrecy twelve batteries with seventy-six guns around Mont Avron, on
Christmas-day the firing was directed with such success against the forti-
fied eminences, that even in the second night the French, after great losses,
evacuated the important position, the " key of Paris," which was immedi-
ately taken possession of b^- the Saxons. Terror and dismay spread
throughout the distracted ciiy when the eastern forts, Rosny,
Nogent and Noisy, were stormed amid a tremendous vollev '^•'^ •*<""*'a''d-
c a ■ \T • \ \-A ^v \ 1 , r M ment of Paris
ot hrmg. Vamly did 1 rochu endeavor to rouse the failmg
courage of the Nation il Guard ; vainly did he assert that the government
of the national defence would never consent to the humiliation of a capitu-
lation ; his own authority had already waned ; the newspapers already
accused him of incapacity and treachery, and began to cast every aspersion
on. the men who had presumptuously seized the government, and yet were
not in a position to effect the defence Df the capital and the country. After
the new year the bombardment of the southern forts began, and the terror
in the city daily increased, though the violence of the radical journals kept
in check any hint of surrender or negotiation. Yet in spite of fog and
snow-storms the bombardment was systematically contin' .ed, and with every
day the destructive effect of the terrible missiles grew irore pronounced.
! i
|!,1
IMS
? !''■
234
}r'
'*[
i <•.
BISMARCK AND THE NEW EMPIRE OF GERMANY
^oJ^Zl^V""' '--"^,-J-^^k-^ only small sallies, which
couiu have no result. I he commander-in-chief ventured no opposition to
fi n rof H '"\'"?' °^ ^'"'" ^'-'^•^ '^^^^^'- T'^^ threatening famine, the
otirof 7^^^^^^ ' t'"'"" '^^'I^ necessary. Consequently, on the
I9t of January-, a ^reat sally was decided on. and the entire armed forces
of the cap.tal were sumn.oned to arms. Early in the mornin<. . bcdv o
n::; rc^^^r ;v'r f ^- ^^"" °^ ''-'--^ '-- --^ ^ ^^^
tne «ecis,vt conlhct. 1 he li:ft wing was coinmaiHled by General Vinov tl...
nglu by Dncrot, w ,ile Troclu, fro„, tl,e watch-tower clirccte;, th,!.;,
t.X"r" ;l,',"°''^ f \V,th great co,„-age Vinoy dashed forward with his
Sa|iy.ron. ,,h,n n of attack towards the fifth ar,„y corps of General
trenchment ,h ' 'T, •'.""'^"'«> ''" capturing the Montretout en-
to CO e to !'":■", "'"'■'"■ ''f^'>"' ^>"''^' '^■••■--••"'- "• "•<-■ "-ets. failed
l,a,.r f! ••■ ^'»'^",'ce at the appointed time, the attack was driven
>..ck after seven honrs' herce fighting by the besieging troops Havim
U«t 7,ooo dead and wonnded, the I.'rench in ,ho .-venin.. ijrt a "trit
wh.ch alniost resend,led a (light. On the following day 'IVochu de,-vmded
"cid, might be mterred. 1 ho victors, too, ha.l to render the Last rites to
many a brave soldier. Thirty-nine officers and si.x hundred a"d xtee
soldiers >vere given In the list of the .slain
nu ,1 er of I f I'l "'.'■ i"""," '"'""'" '" '"' '"" -K"ir,can«t when the
ithe fir t ? ""Ml"";' '° '''-' '"•«■■"""■ '^^«" "'-' !>-' 1-=" ^t."«:
«hid, m.xt bioke forth into violent abuse against Trochu "the traitor"
dX;: r;;;: ;::: ir '"'"""^"'^ '"" ^'» "-^ coii,man:L-;,t:h'ierh d
by the „ ■ '"'T ;""' ''>' bo."bardn,ent from without, terrified within
by the pale spectre of famine, paralysed aiul distracted by the violent dis-
sensions among tlie people, and without prospect of effecLe aid from tt
provinces, what remained to the proud capital but t<, desist
Iron, a conllict the continuation of which only increased the
Graduallv ,1, ".";'""''^'" ■ "'''"■>■■ "'""'"' ""= "'"^'"''■'" ''"P<= of Jeliverance ?
A Truce at
Paris
-my
most with the cry of "n
CI It Mas the niinmt<'r Ud'-s I<'n.M-.. ^i-U^ U-^A ! t
--.. ji.i..y> !,!r!v., wno nau been lore-
o surrender" four months before wl
lio was now com-
'K
■alHes, which
'ppositioii to
ivcnty arroii-
\ famine, the
adherents of
nt!y, on the
u-mcd forces
g, a body of
't. Cloud for
1 Vinoy, the
1 the entire
artl witli his
of General
itretout en-
1 hohiino- it
reets, failed
was driven
s. Having
.t a retreat,
demanded
the battle-
ast rit(.'s to
md sixteen
great sally.
N when the
)een stated
lished city,
)e traitor."
i-chief had
-'signed his
fied within
/lolent dis-
d from the
' to desist
reased the
liverance ?
igotiations
been forc-
now com-
niSMAkCK AND Till-: NEW J-MPIKE Of GERMANY 23,
lirougl. tl e German outposts to his interview with Hisn,arck at Versailles
He bronglu the proposal for a convention, on the strength of wl,ich 1^:
Karr,son was to he permitted to retire with tnilitarj. honors to a part ,^
ranee not h,ther,:o nwested, on promising to abstain for several i.onti,
1 TT\ ''"," '■! ""^ ='"'S.'i.'le. But such conditions were positivch
stlan a'n 1 M V T"" --'■I'-ters, and a surrender was den.anded as ,u
hcdan and Met.. Completely defeate.l. the n.inister returned to Paris A
a second n,eetn,g on the following day, it was agreed that f,on> the .,th
at twelve o clock at night, the f.ring on both sid^s should be d.scontinued
lh,s was the prelnnmary to the conclusion of a three weeks' truce .0
n^rtialed."""""'" "' ' "■■"'"""' ^"""'''>-' "'•'"' '''"^'' >"=-^ ^^ '-■
in the"''" Tf 7' '""r'" '"'' '° ''"■ -"^ ''•'"■'^ ""'■' ""^'-■'•"erf- n»t it continued
e e "v ? I • T'" '"''""" ''='"•'' '"'"' ''^^'"^ 0.,uh.n^, indon,itable
b n^*^'; n- ■ " ' "'", '™°'" <^""»'^""'y ■■•=Pla'«l those put to rout. Gari-
akh, at D,j,,n, succeeded in doing what the I.rench had not done <h,rin.r
he war, m the capture of a Prussian banner. But the progress of the
(-ermans soon rendered his position untenable, and, frnding his exertions
un.avaibng, he resigned his contmand and retired to his island
of Caprera. Two disasters completed the overthrow of PVance. T^'l^,
liourbak, s ar,«y, 85,000 strong, becan,e shut in, with scanty .he si^;; of
lood and ammunition, among the snow-covered valleys of the '^"""^
Jura, and to save the di.sgrace of capit.dation it took refuge on the neutral
so.l o Switzerland ; and the strong fortress of Helfort, which had been
defended with the utmost courage .against its besiegers, finally yield,.! with
the stipuhation that the brave garrison should march out with th'e honors „
war. Nothing now stood in the way of an extension of the truce. On' the
suggestion of Jules l.-avre, the National Assembly elected a commission of
l.fteen members, which was to aid the chief of the executive, and his mil,,
sters, 1 icard and Pavre, in the negotiations for peace. That cessions of
erntoryaiK nuleinnity of war expenses would have to be conceded had
.>ng been acknow edged in principle ; but protracte.l and excited discussions
took place as to the extent of the former and the amount of .p„ „ ,
the latter, while the demanded entry of the German troops ^"IZ
into 1 aris met with vehement ojiposition. Hut Count IJis- ■•««»
i.iarck resolutely insisted on the cession of Alsace and German Lorraine
.nduding Metz and D.edenhofen Only with difficulty were the German;
f! '
in.
2,36
BISMARCK' AND THE NEW EMPIRE OF GERMANY
\w
h.|,
persuaded to separate Belfort from the rest of Lorraine, and leave it stili
in the possession of the French. In respect to the expenses of the war.
the sum of five milHards of francs ($1,000,000,000) was agreed upon, of
which the first milliard was to be paid in the year 1871, and the rest in a
stated period. The stipulated entry into Paris also-so bitter to the French
national pnde-was only partially carried out ; the western side only of the
• city was to be traversed in the march of the Prussian troops, and ac.ain
evacuated in tvvo days. On the basis of these conditions, the preliminaries
of the Peace of Versailles were concluded on the 26th of February between the
Imperial Chancellor and Jules Favre. Intense excitement prevailed when the
terms of the treaty became known ; they were dark days in the annals of French
history. But in spite of the opposition of the extreme Republican party led
by Quinet and Victor Hugo, the Assembly recognized by an overpowerincr
majority the necessity for the Peace, and the preliminaries were accepted by
546 to 107 votes. Thus ended the mighty war between France and Ger-
many—a war which has had few equals in the history of the world.
Had King William received no indemnity in cash or territory from
France, he must still have felt himself amply repaid for the cost of the
brief but sanguinary war, for it brought him a power and prestige with
which the astute diplomatist Bismarck had long been seeking to invest his
name. Pohtical changes move slowly in times of peace, rapidly in times of
war. 1 he whole of Germany, with the exception of Austria, had sent
troops to the conquest of France, and every state, north and south alike
The Glory of ''^'''^^ '" ^"^ P^'^^ ^'^^^ -^'ory of the result. South and North
Qermany Germany had marched side by side to the battlefield, every
difference of race or creed forgotten, and the honor of the
German fatherland the sole watchword. The time seemed to have arrived
to close the breach between north and south, and obliterate the line of the
Main, which had divided the two sections. North Germany was united
under the leadership of Prussia, and the honor in which all alike shared
now brought South Germany into line for a similar union.
The first appeal in this direction came from Baden. Later in the yea-
plen.potentiaries sought Versailles from the kingdoms of Bavaria and Wur-
temberg and the grand duchies of Baden and Hesse, their purpose being to
arrange for and define the conditions of union between the Soath and the
North German states. For weeks this momentous question filled all Ger-
many with excitement and public opinion was in a state of high tension
Ihe scheme of union was by no means universally approved, there being a
large party in opposition, but the m.m'nritv ;n jtc fTvnr Jn rh-~« <
sutticient to enable Bismarck to carry out his plan.
leave it still
s of the war,
eed upon, of
the rest in a
'o the French
e only of the
s, and again
preliminaries
/ between the
iled when the
als of French
:an party, led
)verpowering
: accepted by
ice and Ger-
rld.
irritory from
cost of the
irestige with
to invest his
y in times of
ia, had sent
south alike,
h and North
efield, every
onor of the
have arrived
2 line of the
was united
alike shared
r in the year
ia and Wur-
3se being to
ith and the
led all Ger-
gh tension,
lere being a
jcrs proved
BISMARCK AND THE NEW EMPIRE OF GERMANY ' 237
This was no less than to restore the German Empire, or rather to estal>
lish a new empire of Germany, in which Austria, long at the d * *> .
u ^ J r ^1 r • , , , , t> "'^ '^"^ Restoration of
head ot the former empire, should have no part, the imperial theOerman
dignity being conferred upon the venerable King William of ^-^pire
Prussia, a monarch v/hose birth dated back to the eighteenth century, and
who had lived throughout the Napoleonic wars.
Near the close of 1870 Bismarrk concluded treaties with the ambassa-
dors of the Southern States, in which they agreed to accept the constitution
of the North German Union. These treaties were ratified, after some op-
position from the "patriots" of the lower house, by the legislatures of the
four states involved. The next step in the proceeding was a suggestion
from the king of Bavaria to the other princes that the imperial crown of
Germany should be offered to King William of Prussia.
When the North German Diet at Berlin had given its consent to the
new constitution, congratulatory address was despatched to the Pruss-
ian monarch at Versailles. Thirty members of the Diet, with the president
Simson at their head, announced to the aged hero-king the nation's wish
that he should accep* the new dignity. He replied to the deputation in sol-
emn audience that he accepted the imperial dignity which the German nation
and its princes had offered him. On the ist of January. 1871, the new con-
stitution was to rome into operation. The solemn assumption of the im-
perial office d' ,< take place, however, until the iSth of January, the day on
which, one huiiored and seventy years before, the new em- tu ^
, -T" 1 • 1 T ^ crowning
perors ancestor, Frederick I., had placed the Prussian crown of William 1.
on his head at Konigsberg, and thus laid the basis of the at Versailles
growing greatness of his house. It was an ever-memorable coincidence, that
in the superb-mirrored hall of the Versailles palace, where, since the s
of Richelieu, so many plans had been concerted for the humiliation of Gci-
many, King William should now proclaim himself German Emperor. After
the reading of the imperial proclamation to the German people by Count
Bismarck, the Grand Duke led a cheer, in which the whole assembly joined
amid the singing of national hymns. Thus the important event had taken
place which again summoned the German Empire to life, and made over the
imperial crown with renewed splendor to another royal house. Barbarossa's
old legend, that the dominion of the empire was, after long tribulation, to
pass from the Hohenstaufen to the Hohenzollern, was now fulfilled ; the
dream long aspired after by German youth had now become a reality and a
living fact.
The tidings of the conclu^,Ion of peace with France, whose prelimi-
naries were completed at Frankfurt on the loth of May, 1871, filled all Ger-
:f!
t
M r
1^
'I'M
23^
SfSAfAA'CA- AND THP. NEW EMPIRE OF GERMANY
patriotisn, was shown, v.nn^^e.'nansonril '"''rT "^""-^^ 'P''''' "^
ADecadeof equal len^rth. The temoonl rlmr,;.' ** /'/ "^'^^"^ Peiiod of
Remarkable ished and all Itilv^.nT ^"'"'"'O" ^^ the pope had van-
Changes , . '^"^ ^'' ^^^^^ '^'^^I been united under the rule of a nncrl.
J^ing. I he empre of France Ind I.. --^ -i>\i,de
republic established in its L . whih Hw T °"^'"''^'-°^^" ^"J '-^
prominence among the nipt 's as ^^^^\^!^^";^7^'' -"k greatly in
in war, had lost it? last ho d'on I r^nd its '^7" ""^^^>' ^^^^^^^^
the German states. And al, t^.^e ^^mli t Ger^::; 'irj h':^'^"^^ ^^^
great and powerful empire of such evtro ,^''""^'\ .^"^'•'' ^ad united into a
tim new and potent power introd„ced into thdr m\ht °'"
liismarck, l.owever, showed ai, earnest desire to ,„'n:„, • •
peace and good relations, seel^in. to win he confide, I" ■""=™'^"™^'
raents, while at the same time inmroWn" n„ I '.°""'J'=' « °^ '"''^'ff" govern-
Which had heen proved to b^Tr-iI^^ren^rrr ''^' '"'"'-^ '"^
In the constitution of the new empire two lecrisjative' K r
vded for. the Bu,uies,-atk or Federal cLncil, w io'sf n ,ber '^a m! T
THeUe„s,a.„re ,«P1-""=<I ^y "'« ^-pective state governme" a d tt i ''
«..heE„,p,re Z-^: or Representative body, whose membe ' a e f jf "
. . universal suffrage for a perLi of tlireevea's nn f ^^'
sion bemg required. Germany, therefore In i ' """'■'' ^^'-
practically a federal union of sta e a h wi 1^ ts n"""' "^^'=""-''°". ■•'
government, and with a co-„,mon le^r ll •''°"'"'''' "^ '""^'■"^'
and House of Representatives '"*'"'•""'= appro.x„natn,g to our Senate
The remaining incidents of Bisimrrl-'Q r«.^ i i 7
briefly given. It consisted largely ilasrullH ?%'"''=^^ '"='>' "^
organisation, which had attained 1:%,'™^^:; c'''''"'''^ ^''"^^'■
aggressive to an extent tliat roused tLlllZ^^ G^^rmnny, and was
r^ P„„„ „, cellor of the empire, who walfr: h 'Hrr "' l'^ '''"'■
Prussia '''""^'"'''^'''''^^^^'"'am IV.. the predecessor of fh. • ■
monarch, had made active efforts . ^ ^'^'^^''^''^^fhe reigning
Church in Prussia its clercrv .r.\Jn strengthen the Catholic
state than thev nllJ^' f ^'"7.^1^^^^. P^''^^-^ in that Protestant
" ^" "' ^"^ "^ ''''' Catholic states. They had estab-
ANy
■ extended from
arnest spirit of
^orld'sent home
ization of their
kable poh'tical
ther period of
pope had van-
ile of a sino-Je
thrown and a
nk greatly in
tcriy defeated
uence amon<>-
united into a
ngth that the
trouble from
international
2ign govern-
nilitary force
es were pro-
are annually
1 the Relchs.
elected by
annual ses-
mization, is
of internal
our Senate
sr may be
jHc Church
', and was
the chan-
vledge any
lereia-nin'*'
e Catholic
Protestant
had estab-
BISMARCK AND THE NEW EHPIRH OF GERMANY 23,
and'tv lr-"'"T '■ ^"'' ^^^■-'"y "«- congregations and n,onas,er^.
and by the.r control of public education, seemed in a fairway to eventuallj
make Catholicism supreme in the empire. eventually
^ This state of .-ffairs Bismarck set himself energetically to reform The
by talk a sagacious statesman, who introduced a new scho 1 law brin.nn..
e whole educational system under state control, and carelully rcn laU '
h power of the clergy over religious and moral education. This taw mej
ith such violent opposition that all the personal inlluence of .^h ^ ,
I ismarck an<l balk were needed to carry it, and it gave such ^Zll'^'''
iltep ollence to the pope that he refused to receive the German '^'■"■■"' Pow^r
uni.;::;"''"', '!" ?'^'''"''. "^ /'"""^ '••^^^ ""■■■•''''• -"J '■- German bishops
unitul I. a declaration against the chancellor, liismarck retorted by a law
expelling the Jesuits from the empire. ^
In 1873 the state of affairs became so etnbittered that the ri.dits and
.berties of the citizens seemed to need protection against a p;i;^,hood
armed with extensive powers of discipline and excommtinication co"
seqtience B,si„arck introduced, and by his eloquence ami inlluence carr e
e lucation of the Cadiohc clergy, the confirmation of clerical appointments
bLi. ■ ""' '' """■"' '° '""'''" ^'"^ --- "- -niict o" tt
■'■''=•;<= enactments precipitated a bitter contest between church and
sta e, while the pope declared the May Laws null and void and threa ened
rett'edTrwidrr"'"" " ' ^r^^",'^° =''°"''' -•^"- X' "-"■ •'•■- smt
retorted by withdnuving its financial support from the Catholic church and
abolishing those clauses of the constitution under which the chii. claimed
o of' Lrxi l'";""" '"'' '■"'•' '^- "■«' '" "^'' -"' "" "- ™e'
tionol Leo XIII. attempts were made to reconcile the evist-
ing differences. The reconciliation was a victory for the ■''■= ™umpl, „,
church, the May Laws ceasing to be operative, the church """■""-
revenues being restored and the control of the clergy over education in
cousiderab e measure regained. New concessions were granted h 886 an
opponents, wh„ had proved too strong and deeply entrenched for him
Leonomic questions became also prominent, the revenues of the emnire
requiring some change in the system of free trade and the adopt, no pT
m^: m"' "'I' r "7 "''""^''^ ''"" ""• ''«^'' '•>• "- various' ta of 7e
vhiTwas .dd"Jd ; ', "'"'' ^'™"'" "' ^°"^""" ^^""='' "PP-'-nsion.
wmch was added to when two attempts were made on the life of the era^
I-"
" I
t- ii
r-.
Is ^1
t.;
240 BISMARCK AND THE NEW EMPIRE OF GERMANY
peror. These were attributed to the Sociah-sts. and severe laws for the
suppression of socialism were enacted. Bismarck also sought to cut the
The Socialists ground from under the feet of the Socialists by an endeavor
"rance'u;^ 1° '""^''^^^ "^'^ ^^^^'^'^^ ^^ ^^e working classes. In 1881
laws were passed compelling employers to insure their work-
men m case of sickness or accident, and in 1888 a system of compulsory
insurance against death and old age was introduced. None of these
measures however, checked the growth of socialism, which very actively
continued. ^ cv._nvci^
In 1882 a meeting was arranged by the chancellor between the emper-
ors o Germany, Russia, and Austria, which was looked upon in Europe as
a poll ical_ alliance In 1878 Russia drifted somewhat apart from Ger-
many but m the following year an alliance of defence and offence was con-
cluded with Austria, and a similar alliance at a later date with Italy This
which still continues, is known as the Triple Alliance In 1S77 Bismarck
announced his intention to retire, being ,worn out with the great labors of
h.s position. To this tl.e emperor, who felt that his state rested on the
shoulders of the ' Iron Chancellor," would not listen, though he gave him
.ndefinite lea- e of absence. ^
On March 9 1888, Emperor William died. He was ninety years of
age, having been born in 1797. He was succeeded by his son Frederick,
hen incurably ill from a cancerous affection of the throat, which carried him
to the grave after a reign of ninety-nine days. His o! lest son, William
succeeded on June 15, 1888, as William II.
The liberal era which was looked for under Frederick was checked b)'
his untimely death, his son at once returning to the policy of William I. and
William 11. and Bismarck. He proved to be far more positive and dictatorial
iS'^ra^r '" ^'^'^f^-^ than his grandfather, with decided and vigorous
views of his own, which soon brought him into conflict with
the equally positive chancellor. The result was a rupture with Bismrrck
and his dismissal from the premiership in 1890. The young emperor subset
quently devoted himself in a large measure to the increase of the army and
navy, a policy which brought him into frequent conflicts with the Reichsta^
whose rapidly grovv.ng socialistic membership was in strong opposition t"
this development of militarism.
.n '^^K °[f .^t^t^^n^an. to whom Germany owed so much, was deeply ag-
grieved by this lack o gratitude on the part of the self-opinionated young
emperor. Subsequently a reco.iciliation took place. But the political career
of the great B.smarck w.as at an end, and he died on July 30, ,898. It is an
interesting coincidence that almost at the same time died die equally great
~'"^ «s=^-.
BISMARCK AND THE NEW EMPIRE OF GERMANY 341
but markedly different, statesman of England, William Ewart Gladstone.
Count Cavour, the third great European statesman of the last half of the
nineteenth century, had completed his work and passed away nearly forty
years before.
The career of William II. has been one of much interest and some
alarm to the other nations of Europe. His eagerness for the development
of the army and navy, and the energy with which he pushed forward its
organization and sought to add to its strength, seemed significant of warlike
intentions, and there was dread that this energetic young monarch might
break the peace of Europe, if only to prove the irresistible strength of the
military machine he had formed. But as years went on the ^he Develo -
apprehen5.ions to which his early career and expressions gave mentof the
rise were quieted, and the fear that he would plunge Europe German Army
into war vanished. The army and nav) began to appear rather a costly
plaything of the active young man than an engine of destruction, while it
tended in considerable measure to the preservation of peace by rendering
Germany a power dangerous to go to war with.
The speeches with which the emperor began his reign showed an exag-
gerated sense of the imperial dignity, though his later career indicated far
more judgment and good sense than the early display of overweening self-
importance promised, and the views of William II. now command far more
respect than they did at first. He has shown himself a man of exuberant
energy. Despite a permanent weakness of his left arm and a serious affec-
tion of the ear, he early became a skilful horseman and an untiring hunter,
as well as an enthusiastic yachtsman, and there are few men in the empire
more active and enterprising to-day than the Kaiser.
A principal cause of the break between William and Bismarck was the
system of partial state socialism established by him, of which
the old chancellor strongly disapproved. This was a system ^t**® Socialism
of compulsory old age insurance, through which workmen and their em-
ployers — aided by the state — were obliged to provide for the support of
artisans after a certain age. The system seems to have worked satisfacto-
rily, but socialism of a more radical kind has grown in the empire far more
rapidly than the emperor has approved of, and he has vigorously, though
unsuccessfully, endeavored to prevent its increase. Another of his favorite
measures, a religious education bill, he was obliged to withdraw on account
of the opposition it excited. On more than one occasion he has come into
sharp conflict with the Reichstag concerning increased taxation for the army
and navy, and a strong party against his autocratic methods has sprung up,
and has forced him more than onqe to recede from warmly-cherished measures.
n' )
il li
-«WBSSt»
-^'
242
BISMARCK AND THE NEW EMPIRE OF GERMANY
lilii
the German people," and places the supreme direction of mill
:.ry and poimcal affairs in the Kin. of Prussia, under the tit ko Deu schor
I c Felr Co' d 'f '? *-"?' '? "'''•'"■" "'^ ^°"^="' °f "«= Eundesrath
' tic realm. His autlionty as emperor, in fact, is much les^ than th=f
1 '-"l^n o 1>". , he havmg no power of veto over the laws passed by it.
the Stat s i7ti " "'"T °' '"° '°''''^'' ">= »"-l--'h. repres'entin,
ssioTbv d,e ?"■ " "" '"""'''''• 5S '" "'""ber, are chosen for each
ss.on by the several state governments; and the Reichstag, representing
he people, whose men,bers, 397 in number, are elected by^unl'er saT "f
frage for per.ods of five years. The German union, as now con Uuted
ompnses four kingdoms, six grand duchies, five duel ies, sevl pr n ipah'
^irlr: r'"-" ^r' 'l^ ''^'^"■^'-'' "< Alsace-Lor;aine tw nty-
::profih::e':fi,stria.'"'"'^^ "' '"^ "-- p--"- ^"^ ^^^ -
veryII.L''Tir,°'?r"'T ";'''"" "•' «n'-y under review has been
c 7of t e N o Zi ;" "' "" """^^ "' ""= ^■"P'^^'' ^^'^^'.ooo at the
-bled in nu,nl :f Xh p,;,: ^Tl J^ .f^Co^i?; ^^ ^
Th.Pro!Ere.„„f ■■■■"."• ^'"d Germany to-day is the most active manufa«urin«
u.rm.„, "anon on the continent of Europe. Agriculture has similar^
been greatly developed, and one of its products the sncmr
bee , has become a principal raw material of manufacture, the pr;ducti Jo
beet-root sugar having increased enormously. The comme e of tt , ■
.::ir:":fti:''""ti""',' " ""'-« '^^■™'"" -- °' '"^zractivlo 13
nations of the earth. Its imports, considerable in quantity consist hn'elv
UnlTd S:r IM"' '°°t""?' -"'t '' ''- -"^ Greatrtaira7ur
united states in the quantity of twiished products sent abrmrl Tn u .
CHAPTER XV.
Gladstone, the Apostle of Liberalism in England.
Vl^ "" wM,^^ "\"'^' '"'"''^''' ""' '^'^'"'""-^^ '^'''- .^^■'"^^•t'^ "f the human mind.
I that Wi ham hwart Gladstone, the great advocate of luigHsh Liberal-
ism made h.s first political speech in vigorous opposition to the Reform
13.11 of 1831 He was then a student at Oxford University, but this boyish
address had such an effect upon his hearers, that Hishop Wordsworth felt
sure the speaker -would one day rise to be Prime Minister of Encrland "
Ihis prophetic utterance may be mated with another one, ,., , " .
by Archdeacon Denison, who said : "I have just heard the F^Xftica,
best speech I ev(T heard in my life, by Gladstone, against the '^^'"'^^^
Reform Bill. But, mark my words, that man will one day be a Liberal
tor he argued against the Bill on liberal ground."
Both these far-seeing men hit the mark. Gladstone became Prime
Mmister and the leader of the Liberal Party in England. Yet he had been
reared as a Conservative, and for many years he marched under the banner
of Conservatism. His political career began in the first Reform Parlia-
ment, ,n January, 1833. Two years afterward he was made an under-
secretary in Sir Robert Peel's Cabinet. It was under the same
Premier that he first became a full member of the Cabinet, in "" Payment
1845, as Secretary of State for the Colonies. He was still a ""dthe
Tory in home politics, but had become a Liberal in his com- ^"'''"^'
mercial ideas, and was Peel's right-hand man in carrying out his great
commercial policy.
The repeal of the Corn-laws was the work for which his Cabinet had
been formed, and Gladstone, as the leading Free-trader in the Tory ranks
was called to it. As for Cobden. the apostle of Free-trade. Gladstone
admired him immensely. "I do not know," he said in later years, "that
there is in any period a man whose public career and life were nobler or
more admirable. Of course. I except Washington. Washington, to my
mind, IS the purest figure in history." As an advocate of Free-trade Glad-
stone first came into rnnn»^rtinp "m>i-. o,-...j-u„^ .-> ii- c •< ' i !
P . " 1-.-1...1. „!i,i ctiiwEiier nuuic rigure, tnat ot John
Bright, who was to remain associated with him during most of his
career. In 1857 he first took rank as one of the great moral forces of
243
I I
:.M
i,
! f
244
I
[4 ■
GLADSTONE, THE APOSTLE OF LIBERALISM
i
The Letters
from Naples
In 1852 he first came into opposition with th^ tv,o„
a speech made up of scoffs, gibes and b tin. sTrl'n , so i ' ' ,'"
Firstcontest f"^^ l^^d left among his hearers. In a few minutes thl
Between aiad. House was wildlv rhp^^rmn- tU^ ■ ^ -i 1 '"'"uies me
stoneand „^,u,h 1. ^ f '"^f ''"§^, '^^ '"trepid champion who had
Disraeli ^^'^.^^ '"^^ ^he breach, and when Mr. Gladstone concluded
.onowed Hi. r ^,ri:i:':tbt:7Mr'ot:i',i rri -^ --■^^
Lord Derby resigned at once, and politics were plunged into a conrli
t.on of the wildest excitement and confusion Mr ClSf , ,
of Protectionist execration. He was ne , be'in,/^I 'rn r"?' "'" "'""
at the Carlton Club by twenty ext,e , e Tori • " °"' °' "'" "'"''°"
dinner, found him alone i„ thJdr" oo ^ 'Thr; Z'l "'f"' ^^:^
-eng.,, though they threatened to do^ so. but clTentV'lSr :::,:
s..cce:rderota^rL'^triro'f Sc^r^u^a tif -■■ "'f rr
was to n,a.e a great mark. ,„ April, .s'lt:"!:::; n d Ms" fi^stlutef
a marvel of mgen.ous statemanship, in its highly successful efforfto^'
.e taxation. It remitted various taxes which had p . d h!rd upon' the
Door and rf-c<T'V^«d ^■•":: ---1 ! 1 . h-'csscu nara upon the
a u . .r.c.,.cl t..o:ncr.:,, and replaced them by applyincr the succe<.^;nn
duty to real estate, increasing the duty on spirit, and'ex'en-ding the income
""^l!-^
GLADSTONE, THE APOSTLE OE LIBERALISM
245
e barbarous
mous King
Jreathed in
) its depths
:s gave the
to do with
neration of
whom he
sraeh', who
ime Chan-
the House
;ad la>:k of
replied in
and auda-
down Mr.
2 historic,
the cowed
5 perform-
lutes the
who had
oncluded,
majority
5 govern-
■ between
' a condi-
i the butt
: window
lirs after
; go this
ves with
ladstone
vhich he
Budget,
:o equal-
pon the
ccession
income
tax. The latter Gladstone spoke of as an emergency tax, only to be
applied in times of national danger, and presented a plan to extinguish it in
i860. I lis plan failed to work. Nearly fifty years have passed since then,
and the income tax still remains, seemingly a fixed element of the British
revenue system.
Taken altogether, and especially in its expedients to equalize taxation,
this first Budget of Mr. Gladstone may be justly called the Gladstone's
greatest of the century. The speech in which it was intro- Great Bud-
duced and expounded created an extraordinary impression on get Speech
the House and the country. For the first time in Parliament figures were
made as interesting as a fairy tale ; the dry bones of statistics were invested
with a new and potent life, and it was shown how the yearly balancing of
the national accounts might be directed by and made to promote the pro-
foundfst and most fruitful principles of statesmanship. With such lucidity
and picturesqueness was this financial oratory rolled forth that the dullest
intellect could follow with pleasure the complicated scheme ; and for five
hours the House of Commons sat as if it were under the sway of a magi-
cian's wand. When Mr. Gladstone resumed his seat, it was felt that the
career of the coalition Ministry was assured by the genius that was discov-
ered in its Chancellor of the Exchequer.
It was, indeed, to Gladstone's remarkable oratorical powers that much
of his success as a statesman was due. No man of his period was his equal
in swaying and convincing his hearers. His rich and musical voice, his
varied and animated gestures, his impressive and vigorous delivery, great
fluency, and wonderful precision of statement, gave him a Gladstone's
power over an audience which few men of the century have Powers as
enjoyed. His sentences, indeed, were long and invol\(d, an Orator
growing more so as his years advanced, but their fine choice of words, rich
rhetoric, and eloquent delivery carried away all that heard him, as did his
deep earnestness, and intense conviction of the truth of his utterances.
We must pass rapidly over a number of years of Gladstone's career,
through most of which he continued to serve as Chancellor of the Ex-
chequer, and to amaze and delight the country by the financial reform.s
effected in his annual Budgets. Between 1853 and 1866 those reforms ♦•"p-
resented a decrease in the weight of the burden of the national re/enue
amounting to ^13,000,000.
Meanwhile his Liberalism had been steadily growing, and reached its
ailrninntinn in tJ^^C -nrli^n t\\f^ rrrpa'l" To>*^' nni\r<3rcit-\r of Ovfnrd \A;hi<^li Itf^
had long represented, rejected him as its member. At once he offered him-
self as a candidate for South Lancashire, in which his native place was situ-
•■ '. I
i# I
Pfl
ifP
1:1 '
H-
H
946
i| ,
?:r '';
rp
• 11
.i ',
GAM>srow-. rm apostle of ubbrausm
f-i"""- a„J is not 2y.X' oZ;::T""'""™'''^'' "••'»■-— j'
zl«l.- -^^ ''°"'-"' ' "'" "">e amontf you unmu/-
Ha., ''n::il^';;™;;r,:;:;:;:::« t:;-^"?- - ^'■"^ ^^^-^^
<IW«„„e..e c.x,,re.,,s on ,o hi,ri J'nl ^I , r"" ^''^''; ,'" ^""^ "'o fullest
otti,cH„„,e . ^, >-. t.'-cat apostle of reform. In i866 h,: |,ccan,e for ,\l
Lord Russel, t 'p r 'l^Z'Z} '''''', "'^'^ ''""- "^ ^-™- "
his friends feared f, him n thU r fi"' '," ■ °"-'" °^ ''°"'''- ^'"">- "f
that they had „o occas'rfor al r,„ h" , ''"■""T'' ^"' "'^ "^"' P™-''
suceessful leaders th. House had e:;.':,:,'""""-' '""''"" "^ <" '^e most
oughs that would have added about ?,1 '" '°""'''^' "'"' •'°'--
the deba... that follow,; Glad, one ,,'^7 7'"' '" ""= '^''^""^■••"=- '"
each other in a , rand o..:^:;':::^^'-^:-'^^^^;^;-^^^ ^^
™.s„„„« y"-hf„l speech at OxfonI agai srt e Rt , Bll Tf V"
Re.™ o,„ G a ,, ,^, .„ ^ ,^^^^ S, vigorous etn ,^ . h.^h
which the spe ker XrtjTn h"'°""b' '"' '"'"'"^ '" ^' -"--atisn, fr™
the Cabinet were p£ed „ "T ^Tn"''""^ '"""^h to break. He and
.0 survve and triumph in the future. He ended witl "trl'llirri::;;^
sociai'fl^es ircL'fove'^"'"' f'' 'T^' '''"'' '^ °" °- -'l- The great
social forces are a-.a^nrv^ ,, ''"' ""P'^'''= °' 'H^'"''. those great
ner which e ow orrv J^^^VZ 'T^'f''^ "" ""' '''''= ■ -"' 'h^a -
may droop overTr Jnk 1,' i^'- '""«'' P'^^'^^'P^ ^' =°'^<= ™°">ent it
three kingdoms, perhaps n" o an easy but lol V"""' f^^''^ °' "-
distant, victory." ^' "' '° * "Certain, and to a not far
■ ^usedTe'Jei'aLCasT- 7',?'" "" ''^^'='''"=''- ""' "^ ''efeat
riot broke out in London TeT th Z ™""f '" ''''■ "" f°™"d-hle
. past Gladstone's ^eslTee. Wil':":"^ L™?'!. '"-;-" '" P™-ssio„
William... There were demonstrations in7,is''fa;o7:nd°;n sull^rt'^ofte
GLADSTONE, THE APOSTLE OF I IDERaHSM
o.\-
n.n thro, f;hou the country. Tl,. aK'ltation rontJnucl .lurlntj the wine.r
us fire eel by the eloquence of another of .he ^-eat orators o7 the century'
the tnhune of the people," John Bri^^ht. This <lis,in..u. p„ , . *
.»l»=cl n,an and powerful pul.lic speaker, throu.d. all his 'tS.a „„
lire a strenuous advocate of moral reform and political '<«'»™
progress had begun Im parliamentary career as an advocate of the Reforn,
Hdl of ,83.-32. He now became one of the great lc^■,ders in the new cam-
paign, and through h,s eloquence and that of Gladstone the force of public
op,n,o„ rose to such a height that the new Derby-Disraeli mini.stry found
lo overthrow '" "*'' " "'" "'"'''' '° "'"■" "''"'' '' '■"' ""^'^^'^ ^^ '>'"''
And now a striking event took place. The Tory Reform M,||
was satisfactory to Gladstone in its general features, but he proposed n.any
nnprovements-lodger franchise, educational an.l savings-b nk franchises
enlargement of the redistribrno,, „f seats, etc.-ev,.ry "one of which vas
yielded m committee, until, .s one 1, -d remarked, nothing of the original
Bill remained but the opening v . .-d, ■• Whereas." This bill, really th,. work
of Ghadstone and more liberal -i „> the one which had bee-n defeated, w.as
passed, and Toryism, m the very success of i, . n„:.asure, suffered a crushing
defeat. 1^0 Ghadstone, as the people perceived, their right to vote was due
But Disraeli was soon to attain to the exalted office for which he had
long been striving. In February, .868, failing health caused „, '.
Lord Derby to resign and Disraeli w.is asked ,0 form a "Z!.'?;,™
new administration. I hus the " Asian Mystery," as he Ind "'"l^fr
Mrist:r:ft,:k;'nr '"^^ ^""""" -' "^^ "'■""'''"■'■ '" ^-^^^^ '•^™e
He was not to hold this position long. Gladstone was to reach the
same high eminence before the year should end. Disraeli's government
beginning in February. .868. was defeated on the question of The disesLb:
lishment of the rish Church ; an appeal to the cotuury resulted in a We
Liberal gam ; and on December 4.h the (Jueen sent (or Mr. (;i,,dstone and
commissioned him to form a new ministry. The task was con.pleted bv
the 9th, Mr. Bright, who h.ad aided so greatly in the triuin o thl
Libera s entering the new cabinet as President of the Board of Trade
Thus at last, after thirty.five years of active public life, Mr. Glad-
stone was at the summit of power-lVime Minister of Great tTV^.
Britain with a strong majority in Parliament in his support "'"'•""
Bishop Wilbe, force, who met him in this hour of triumph, wrote of him
thus .n his journal: "Gladstone as ever great, earnest, 'and hoi^est . Ts
w u
v\
I
"'Wl^.JJli",^
24S
GLADSTONE, TITE APOSTLE OE LIBERALISM
Jl
ii>
hi
unlike the tricky Disraeli as possible. He is so deli^rjufully true and the
sam(.' ; just as full of interest in every good thing- of every kind."
The period which followed the election of 1868— the period of the
Gladstone Administration of 1868-74— has been called "the golden age of
Liberalism." It was certainly a period of great reforms. The firstr the
most heroic, and probably— taking all the results into account— the most
completely successful of these, was the disestablishment of the Irish
Church.
^ Though Mr. Gladstone had a great majority at his back, the difficulties
which confronted him were immense. In Ireland the wildest protests eman-
ated from the friends of the F:stablishment. The "loyal minority" declared
that their loyalty would come to an end if the measure were pas.sed. One
synod, .speaking with a large assumption, even for a synod, of inspired
knowledge, denounced it as "highly offensive to the Almighty God." The
Orangemen threatened to rise in insurrection. A martial clergyman pro-
posed to "kick the Queen's crown into the Boyne " if she assented to such
a Bdl. Another announed his intention of fighting with the Bible in one
hand and the sword in the other. These appeals and these threats of civil
war, absurd as they proved to be in reality, were not without producing
some effect in Great Britain, and it Wc.s amid a din of warning.s, of misgiv"*-
ing counsels, and of hostile cries, that l\r. Gladstone proceeded to carry out
the mandate of the nation which he had received at the polls.
On the first of March, 1869, he introduced his Disestablishment Bill.
Disestablish- ^"^'^ Speech was one of the greatest marvels amongst his ora-
Schurc'h ^"''''''''' achievements. His chief opponent declared that,
though it lasted three hour.s, it did not contain a redundant
word. The scheme which it unfolded— a scheme which withdrew the tem-
poral establishment of a Church in such a manner that the Church was
benefited, not injured, and which lifted from the backs of an oppressed people
an intolerable burden— was a triumph of creative genius. Leaving a.ide
his Budgets, which stand in a different category, it seems to us there is no
room to doubt that in his record of constructive legislation this measure for
the disestablishment of the Irish Church is Mr. Gladstone's most perfect
masterpiece.
Disraeli's speech in opposition to this measure was referred to by the
London Times as " flimsiness relieved by spangles." After a debate in
which Mr. Bright made one of his most famous speeches, the bill was car-
ried by a majority of 1 18. Before this strong manifestation of the popular
will th«' HoiiQf* nf T r»r.Io tirK;^K - , 1.. J!..l:i i ^i. . rj-n r i. . .■
,j rr.ii-..:! uccpiy aioURca liic bill, ieic ODiigeu to u^ive
way, and passed it by a majority of se\'en.
•ue and the
GLADSTONE, THE APOSTLE OF LIBERALISM 249
In 1870 Mr. Gladstone introduced his Irish Land Bill, a measure of
reform which Parliament had for years refused to <rrant. By
it the tenant was given the right to hold his farm as long as ^eiu'Ena^rd"
he paid his rent, and received a claim upon the improvement
made by himself and his predecessor^— a tenant-right which he could sell.
This bill was triumphantly carried ; and another important Liberal measure,
Mr. Forster's Education Bill, became law.
In the following sessions the tide of Liberal reform continued on its
course. Among the reforms adopted was that of vote by ballot. A
measure was introduced abolishing purchase in the Army ; and on this ques-
tion Mr. Gladstone had his third notable conflict with the Lords. The Lords
threw out the Bill. The imperious Premier, having found that purchase in
the Army existed only by royal sanction, advised ^he Queen to issue a Royal
Warrant cancelling the regulation. By a single act of executive authority
he carried out a reform to which Parliament had, through one of its branches,
refused its assent. This was a high-handed, not to say autocratic, step, and
it afforded a striking revelation of the capacities in boldness and resolu-
tion of Mr. Gladstone's character. It was denounced as Cicsarisin and
Cromwellism in some qi c"-cers ; in others as an unconstitutional invocation
of the royal prerogative.
But the career of reform at length proved too rapid for the country to
follow. The Government was defeated in 1873 o" a bill for University Edu-
cation in Ireland. Gladstone at once resigned, but, as Disraeli declined to
form a Government, he was obliged to resume office. In 1874 „, * . «. .
i^iiiti /-I'l-T^t. iwieat of ulad>
he took the bold step of dissolving Parliament and appealing stone and the
to the country for support. If he were returned to power he Liberals
promised to repeal the income tax. He was not returned. The Tory party
gained a majority of 46. Gladstone at once resigned, not only the Premier-
ship, but the leadership of the Liberal party, and retired to private life— a
much needed rest after his many years of labor. Disraeli succeeded him is
Prime Minister, and two years afterwards was raised to the peerage by the
■Queen as the Earl of Beaconsfield.
Mr. Gladstone was never idle. The intervals of his public duties were
filled with tireless studies and frequent literary labors. Chief amoncr the
latter were his " Homeric Studies," works which showed great erudition and
active mental exercise, though not great powers of critical discrimination.
They adopted views which were then becoming obsolete, and their conclu-
sions have been rejected by Homeric scholars. Gladstone's greatness was
as an orator airu a moral reformer, not as a great logician and brilliant
thinker.
'fit
\i
«50
GLADSTON/C, THE APOSTLE OF URERAUSM
4it
i ,
In the period at wliich we have nrn'v..,! i,;^ i
fervor were both callo.l Z^''''''''''^^'^^^^
aiadstoneeon statesman from his retiremenf ^n^ f ,, ^
the Bulgarian " Biihrnrlrin \\ retirement, and his pamphlet entitled
HorroJ ,,^T^ "^''''^''^ '-^"^ the Question of the East" rincr
through England like a trumpeT-c-ill " I .f 7l t i' ^
carry awav their ihn<;o<: Jn fi, i ^'^^nipt-t caJi. Let the Turks now
selves," he wro e ■ ThLir 7' °fl ''°"','''? '"••""'— I'M ^^'"ying off then,-
their Vuzbnchi :;hoir kI nfaCs and . ";'\''''"' ""'^ ''"^''^'''^^ ^"'^
baggaffe shall I hnl . r the>r Pashas, one and all, bag and
and^pSaned." "^ ' ' "" °"' ''""^ ""= P™^'"- "-X '>-« desolated
grea"n:eeiran7to'';heT'''''"^^ '""''' °' ^P"-'-"-' "^''---d '«
he soui^hV a, h . , • °' Commons, with which for four years
or 13 VeLtZurt:' i-'ctdet tir t-"^™-^^ "-^ "---
■ ■(- succeeaea, tngland was prevented hv ]i,<,
Hts Second eloquence from joinincr the TiirU In fi,„ "-""-"tea Dy his
ar..iconte,t the furv of fhe L. : , ^ ""■■■ ''"' '"= <='";'ted
»..hDUr.ei, ,;, '^ °' '■'f^ 7'^^ P.^">- '° =-'' -^n extent that at one time
Nor was he q tl^lf Tn h^Hou Hf C '''""'' '","" ''''"'' °' L°"''--
hated him so'bitterly a to ee"a, 1 in c^rl'T"' T ""^ "'? ^^ »'--
party of them went L far ail^ ^MriC' C™ ^^^^ "^ ^"°^'=' =""" ^
of ti:f:i t iTwir it ;::tr ^n^if -r/'ri '™" '- ^---
adventures ,n which Lord Bea onsfie Icl f^ , ''r '° ""'' "'"= '<=^'''^'-
rXh'i-i::=r:a55H^^^^
inthltra^£::r.\n!:s;ttr';;r::;''r-"^^^^^^^
the great Liberal victory that follow^rMml'^f t'Ctenvl tir!;
Premier- """ ^'■'^■'■to"e a second -une was called to the head of the
government. '-
.uestVrrei:::;t:m:d'':;':b^o:n^;::^"'\tr'"r^''™/','!
.em^Uned Premier Ireland was I'ost sight tl. ^itrdwald t'^ltT!! !
quesuo,, upon wa,c„ the two life-long adversaries n,easure.l iheir'stVengt'h.'
« iM
and literary
luse. The
i the aged
et entitled
^ast," rang
rurks now
r off them-
hashis and
h bag and
desolated
livered to
four years
e purpose
-d by his
le excited
: one time
f London.
Jervatives
ke, and a
: greatest
he lesser
ssions he
gypt. an
inounced
1 Afghan
3 true an
1, that it
■ elected
do with
helminj":
d office,"
i of the
ion the
onsfield
:rength.
GLADSTONE, THE APOSTLE Of LlliERALlSM 25 r
But as Turkey went down in public interest Ireland rose. The Irish pcopU;
were gaining a vivid sense of their power under the Constitution. And
another famine came to put the land laws and government of Ireland to a
severe test. Still more, Ireland gained a leader, a man of r(;markal)l(;
ability, who was to play as great a part in its history as O'Connell had done
half a century before. This was Charles Stewart Parnell, ihe
founder of the Irish Land League-a powerful tradenmion '^The Uader'
of tenant farmers — and for many years the leader of the «* the Irish
Irish party in Parliament. In the Parliament of 1880 his '*"'"**'
followers numbered sixty-eight, enough to make him a power to be dealt
with in legislation.
Gladstone, in assuming control of the new government, was quite
unaware of the task before him. When he had completed his work with
the Church and the Land Bills ten years before, he fondly fancied that the
Irish question v/as definitely settled. The Home Rule movement, which
was started in 1870, seemed to him a wild delusion which would die away
of itself. In 1884 he said : " I frankly admit tliat I had had much upon my
hands connected with the doings of the Beaconsfield Government in every
quarter of the world, and I did not know — no one knew— the .severity of
the crisis that was already swelling upon the horizon, and that .shortly after
rushed upon us like a food."
He was not long in discovering the gravity of the situation, of which
the House had been warned by Mr. Parnell. The famine had brought its
crop of misery, and, while the charitable were seeking to relieve the dis-
tress, many of the landlords were turning adrift their tenants Th»c .
/•„ , ^,, . ' I he Famine an«l
tor non-payment of rents. 1 h- Irish party brought in a the Bill for
Bill for the Suspension of EviLi.ons, which the government Wsh Relief
replaced by a similar one for Compensation for Disturbance. This was
passed with a large majority by the Commons, but was rejected by the
Lords, and Ireland was left to face its misery without relief.
The state of Ireland at that moment was too critical to be dealt with
in this manner. The rejection of the Compensation for Disturbance Bil!
was, 10 the peasantry whom it had been intended to protect, a message of
despair, and it was followed by the usual symptom of despair in Ireland'
an outbreak of agrarian crime. On the one hand over 17,000 persons were
evicted ; on the other there was a dreadful crop of murders and outrage.s.
The Land League sought to do what Parliament did not ; but in doing se
it came in contact with the law. Moreover, the revolution — for revolution
it seemed Lo be— grew too formidable for its control; the utmost it succeeded
in doing was in .some sense to ride without tlireciing the storm. The first
M^fil
i'^
1
1
1
I
1
; ■
\
' 1
1
,H
1
■
i
1
: fi'^iiiH
•
ri
|j
1
\
p ![■
t
1 ^1^1
3
f
.uH^
M
«
\
I'^l
t
1
252
GLADSTONJ:, the APOSTLh OF UTiERAUSM
ins .
decisive step of M^ Forster, the chief secretary for Ireland, was to strike
a blow at the Land League. In November he ordered the prosecution of
Mr. Forster'8 ^r. I^arnell, Mr. Bijrgar, and several of the officials of the
Coerdo°n ^''ganization, and before the year was out he announced his
intention of introducinjr a Coercion Bill. This step threw
the Insh members under Mr. Parnell and the Liberal Government into rela-
tions of definitive antagonism.
Mr. Forster introduced his Coercion Bill on January 24. 1881. It was
a formidable measure, which enabled the chief secretary, by signing a war-
rant, to arrest any man on suspicion of having committed a given offence
and to imprison him without trial at the pleasure of the government It
practically suspended the liberties of Ireland. The Irish memb(.Ts ex-
hausted every resource of parliamentary action in resisting it, and their
tactics resulted in several scenes unprecedented in parliamentary history. In
order to pass the Bill it was necessary to suspend them in a body several
times. Mr. Gladstone, with manifest pain, found himself, as leader of the
House, the agent by whom this extreme resolve had to be executed.
The Coercion Bill passed. Mr. Gladstone introduced his Land Bill of
Gladstone's i^'^Si, which was the measure of conciliation intended to
•New und balance the measure of repression. This was really a great and
sweeping reform, whose dominant feature was the introduction
of the novel and far-reaching principle of the State stepping in between
landlord and tenant and fixing the rents. The Bill had some defects, as a
series of amending acts, which were subsequently passed by both Liberal
and Tory Governments, proved ; but, apart from these, it was on the whole
the greatest measure of land reform ever passed for Ireland by the Impe-
rial Parliament. ^
But Ireland was not yet satisfied. Parnell had no confidence in the
good intentions of the government, and took steps to test its honesty
which so angered Mr. Forster that he arrested Mr. Parnell and several
other leaders and pronounced the Land League an illegal body. Forster
Nvas well meaning but mistaken. He fancied that by locking up the ring-
leaders he could bring quiet to the country. On the contrary, affairs were
Stirring Events r""] ^'"' ^'^''''' ^''"^'^ ^'''"'' '^'''"'^ ^"'^ outrage spreading widely.
In Ireland I" despair, Mr. Forster released Parnell and resigned. All
now seemed hopeful ; coercion had proved a failure • peace
and quiet were looked for; when, four days afterward, the who'" country
was horrified by a terrible crime. The new secretary for Ireland Lord
Cavendish, and the under-secretary. Mr Burke, were attacked and h.-W.-d
to death with knives in Phccnix Park.
t
The Bombard-
ment of Alex,
andria and
Death of
Gordon
GLADSTONE, THE APOSTLE OF LIBERALISM 253
Everywhere panic and Indi<rnp.tion arose. A new Coercion Act w;is
passed without delay. It was vigorously put Into effect, and a state of
virtual warhc'tween England and Ireland again came into existence. Gre^it
Britain, in her usual fashion of seeking to carry the world on her shonld(;r.s
had made the control of the Suez Canal an excuse for meddling with tlv;
government of Egypt.
The result was a revolution that drove Ismail Pasha from his throne
As the British still held control, a revolt broke jut among the people
headed by an ambitious leader named Arabi Pasha, and Afexandria wa?,
seized, the British being driven out and many of them killed. Much as
Gladstone deprecat(;d war, he felt himself forced into it. John Bright, tn
whom v/ar was a crime that nothing could warrant, resigned from the cabi-
net, but the Government acted vigorously, the British fleet being ordered
to bombard Alexandria. This was done efftxtively. The city, haFf reduced
to ashes, was occupied by the British, Arabi and his army
withdrawing in haste. Soon afterwards he was defeated by
General Wolseley and the insurrection was at an end. Egypt
remained a vassal of Great Britain. An unfortunate sequel
to this may be briefly stated. A formidable insurrection
broke out in the Soudan, under El Mahdi, a Mohammedan fanatic, who
captured the city of Khartoum and murdered the famous General Gordon.
For years Upper Egypt was lost to the state, it being recovered only at the
close of the century by a military expedition.
In South Africa the British were less successful. Here a war had been
entered into with the Boers, in which the British forces suffered a severe
defeat at Majuba Hill. Gladstone did not adopt the usual fashion of seek--
ing revenge by the aid of a .stronger force, but made peace, the Boers gain-
ing what they had been fighting for.
Disasters like this weakened the administration. Parnell and his fol-
lowers joined hands with the Tories, and a vigorous assault
was made upon the government. Slowly its majority fell
away, and at length, in May, 1885, It was defeated.
The scene which followed was a curious one. The Irish raised cries of
*' No Coercion," while the Tories delivered themselves up to a frenzy of
jubilation, waving hats and handkfi chiefs, and wildly cheering. Lord Ran-
dolph Churchill jumped on a bench, brandishc, his hat madly n'ove his
head, and altogether behaved as if he were beside himself. Mr. ' ' idstone
calmly resumed the letter to the Queen which he had been writing on his
Knee, while the clerk at the table proceeded to run through the order» A
the day, as if nothing particular had happened. When in a few moments
The Defeat of
the Liberals
if^
i;- I
-«ac5eia
254
GLADSTONE, THE APOSTLE OF LIBERALISM
L* '•
%
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i
111, [
1
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1
throu^,h the cloonvay, tuni^.ously cheerh, :' " Conservatu.. sur,.d
the new Tory G„vern,m-nt „, II S^'lisbury becuno h. .vl of
l>.-.a a very si or fc P^ ^d ! Tn "' '''"'"-'""^ '" '^''^'' "'""■ ''
sent for to form a new ,,r„vernmen.. On IvO r ^^1 t , ■"' ""'
I'rune Minister of Great Britain fo:- the .hinit in,. "^ ' ' ''' """"'"
'^'"■'"t' the brief interval his opinions h-..l s„ff,.,-,..' .. . , .
He no longer thon^ht that Ireland iad alii , d' :'.;,C; ^rtl''""-
uirned to power as an advocate of a tnost radical ,Cs , t ^ .. ',:::
-he. . r besi;^:^ --;;;:- ■:---.-^
.... 1886, he .ntrodnced to Parliament his Heme Rule Bill '
either .1 ptibl^c or ^e nen brot "^CT i:""?"' '" '^ ^'••'•"'<-- ''>■
plaees, n,en,i..ers arrived at St. Stlbe 's at ixo'c c-L H """'"■ ">"^
.-t the day ., the ,.n.is. ; a,^,:^,- ::;;;:';;;;- ^;i;:-;;::^;,;^;^
eers' nd : ■ "n '''""'■ ^^''^ ^^V^^< diplo.nats',
a spontaneous ,n,pulse. sprang, to their feet andcheered In ,1 a,-,, ^
scheme of construetiv; i^isia;h;;i^,:re.:s;:;:;:,;;:r:;i x,-;^
holding his
tivc.s surged
>rofit by his
Jiio Iv ad of
1 votes. It
I" I ''nr^uinii
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lie uoc.iirie
revolution,
d. lie rc-
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I'aHianjtiit
■o buy out
ry by state
ot hesitate
On April
ir Parlia-
tlchate by
:ur(' their
■ninj;, and
members
e /loor of
iplomats',
ig. Men
e floor of
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1 I'alace
Icome as
rom the
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il-. by
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•ccasion.
nendous
n lire in
GLADSTONE, THE APOSTLE OF LIBERALISM
255
I'^lii
Ireland, but one subordinate to the Imperial Parliament, and hedged round
with every safeguard which could protect the unity of the Em[)Ire. It took
three hours In delivery, and was listened to throughout with the utmost
attention on every side of the House. At its close all parties united In n
tribute of admiration for the genius whl( a had astonished them with such an
exhibition of Its powers.
Yet it is one thing to cheer an orator, another thing to vote for a revo-
lution. The Bill was defeated — as it was almost sure to be. Mr. Gladstone
at once dissolved Parliament and appealed to the country In a new election,
with the result that he was decisively defeated. His bold d<;claratIon that
the contest was one between the classes and the masses turned the aristocracy
against him, while he had again roused the bitter hatred of his opponcMits.
But the " Grand Old Man " bided his time. The new Salisbury ministry
was one of coercion carried to the extreme In Ireland, wholesale eviction, arrest
of members of Parliament, suppression of public meetings by force of arms,
and other measures of violence which In the end wearied the British public
and doubled the support of Home Rule. In 1892 Mr. Gladstone returned
to power with a majority of more than thirty Home Rulers In his support.
It was one of the greatest efforts in the career of the old Parllam.en-
tary hero when he brought his new Home Rule Bill before the 11. use.
Never in his young days had he worked more earnestlv and
-- Cjiiulstonc s
incessantly. He disarmed even his bitterest enemies, none of Last and
whom now dreamed of treating him with disrespect. Mr. Bal- Greatest
four spoke of the delight and fascination with which even his ■'"'"P
opponents watched his leading of the House and listened to his unsurpassed
eloquence. Old age had come to clothe with its pathos, as well as with its
majesty, the white-haired, heroic figure. The event proved one of the great-
est triumphs of his life. The Bill passed with a majority of thirty-four.
That it would pass in tlie House of Lords no one looked for. It was de-
feated there by a majority of 378 out of 460.
With this great event the public career of the Grand Old Man came to
an end. The burden had grown too heavy for his reduced strength. In
March, 1804, to the consternation of his party, he announced
his intention of retiring from public life. The Queen offered, oreat^Career
as she had done once before, to raise him to the peerage as an
earl, but he declined the proffer. His own plain name was a title higher
than that of any earldom in the kingdom.
On May 19, 1898 Vvilliam Ewart Gladstone laid down the burden of his
life as he had already done that of labor. The greatest and noblest figure in
legislative life of the nineteenth century had passed away from earth.
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f^OUR GREAT MODERN ,R,SH
T. M. HKALV-
I-EADER8
CHAPTER XVI.
Ireland the Downtrodden.
TIME was when Ireland was free P.iit it was a barbarian fnctlom.
The island had more kin<,rs than it had counties, each petty chief
bearing the royal title, while their battles were as fretjiient as thns<:
of our Indian tribes of a past ajrc. The island, despite the fact that it had
an active literature reachini,r back to the early centuries of the Christian
era, was in a condition of endless turmoil. This state of affairs was i;radu-
allyputan end to after u ■ En.,dish conquest ; but the civili- ,reiand Tn the
zation which was introduced i . the island was made bitter PastCen- *"
by an injustice and oppression which has filled the Irish heart *"■■'**
with an undying hatred of the English nation and a ceaseless desin ,
break loose front its bonds.
I'or centuries, intleed, the rule of England was largely a nominal om
til- EngHsh control being confined to a irw coast districts in the east. In
the interior the native tribes continued under the rule of their chiefs, were
gov*, -ned b> their own laws, and remained practically independent.
It -as not until the reign of James I. thai England became master of
all Ir^ 1. !n the last days of the reign of Elizabeth a g!\;at rising against
the . jglisl-. ! taken place in Ulster, under a chief named O NeTll. The
Earl of Esse lil.-d to put it down and was disgraced bv the queen in con-
sequ'.nce. The armies of James fmally suppressed th/ rebellion, and the
unr.Jy island now, for the first time, came fully under the
control of an English king. It had given the earlier monarchs "^ReSnand
nothing but trouble, and James determined to ucakeu its the Confisca.
power for mischief. To do so he took possession ,r six »'«" ""J"****''
counties of Ulster and filled th<m with ScotJi and English colonists. As
for the Irish, they were simply crowded out, and left to seek a living -'here
they could. There was no place 1. ft for them .ut the marshes.
This act of ruthless violence filled the Irish with an implacable hatred
of their oppressors which has not vanished in the years ince it took place.
rhev treasured un their wrnn .^ fi-ir i-hirf»/ v ^rs hut \n 1/^ 1- .- •' - 1
» — — '/ >• ■•»» ""t m 10^.1. v. iiCii i:,ngiari
was distracted by its cix il - ar, they rose in their wrath, fell upon the;
colonists, and murdered all who could not save themselves b)- flight. I'or
259
m
'mil
iimil
ii.i
tw^JmSIt
^J^''I3iRJLU
ffil
>.
/ ,.,
260
IRELAND THE DOWNTRODDEN
Cromwell's ^^^'nanity. and no more to be consldcrc-d tinn 1 CJT •
Hioody beasts, and they deilt with fh '^"^^y'^n -^ J>erd of wild
seve^an. noxious animals "" "' ^^""'^''^ '"'^^^^ '-'^'^
the Fate of ,
the Irbh 1 He severity of Cronnvdl was threefold .^reater thnn thnt
.hrown, .hi., ti,„e i„ tl,e n.cnorabl. Battle o .1,: Bo™" Wilr "Tr """•
completed the work „f cnfiscntion. The g eater '"« o7 '■"" '• " "'
province of Connati.rht wi« f,l-,.„ f • , . , ^ ' ""^ i-emarnins;
colonists. The na ite ll thl , T, ''"''''? ""'^ ''''^'=" '° English
own land. ""' '''""'' '"="™« "^ '^"dless people in their
din, them to trade W othe co „tr ::'"?h • "T"'-^'-' 'y '-•>'''
interfered .ith the pro.s of E::>rh';;od:c'r ar:!::;':-^ st::
of England ' ^" " ^^^'-^nts laborers and be^^i^ars, and such thev still
remaui, downtrodden onnrf^^..,! tN ^ v . ^ *
being their hatred of the Entdkl^Toir , "'°'' ''^'■'^' ■'^™"""="'
degradation. *" ' '° "'""" ""^y J""'y ""P"'« their
The time came wlien England acknowledged with shame ...i
t"Hng ind„.str;had C iUZ'S cro"w "ed'ort '"^ T"' "'■^""'^=-
nundin^r. ''"'> crowded out, the evil done was past
teentir tnt;! " Ar^ h'aTTT'n 7 ^°"^ '° '^^ ^"^^ °' "^ "-■
independence. This acsti red '>'""" ^"''''='"'' ''"'" g^'^ned
The island had always "sL^^^^^^ "•'^^yin 'he Irish.
value to the natives U r, ' ^"'^f'"""' "' "' °™"' ^"^ " "='' "f "o
owners, and could ^ats no a« wit"h"o f ,h"^ ""^ «"=" ''™'"'-' '-*
„f T7 . , . *^^^^ "° ^ct Without the consenf nf fk^ d....... .- ..
wj iingjanci. "' •""- * »■• v \>,ounciJ
mm
IRELAND THE nOWNTRODDEN
361
A ilematnl for a national Parii.mu-nt was mailo, and the English
government, having its experience in America Ixfore its eyes „ ....
^ , . 1 . , . "^ ^)'^. Home Kuic and
granted it, an act hein^^ passed in 17S2 which maile Ireland the Act of
independent of En-^land in legislation, a system such as is ^"'°"
now called Home Rule. It was not enough. It did not pacify the island.
The religious animosity between the Catholics and Protestants continued,
and in 1798 violent ilisturhances broke out, with massacres on both sides,
The Irish Parliament was a Prot(!stant body, and at first was elected
solely by Protestant votes. (Irattan, the eminent Irish statesman, through
whose efforts this body had been made an indejjendent legislature. — " The
King, Lords, ami Commons of Ireland, to make laws for the people of Ire-
land," — carried an act to permit Catholics to vote for its members. He then
strove for a measure to permit Catholics to sit as members in the Irish
Parliament. This was too much for George III. He recalled Lord Fitz-
william. the viceroy of Ireland, who had encouraged and assisted Grattan
and blighted the hopes of the Irish Catholics.
The revolt that followed was the work of a society called the United
Irishmen, organized by Protestants, but devoted to the interests of Ireland.
Wolfe Tone, one of its leading members, went to France and induced Napo-
leon to send an expedition to Ireland. A fleet was dispatched, but this, like
the Spanish Armada, was dispersed by a storm, and the few ti. ir u .
renchmen who landed were soon captured. The rebellion irishmen and
was as quickly crushed, and was followetl by deeds of remorse- Ac* »' Union
less cruelty, so shameful that they were denounced by the commander-in
chief himself With this nnolt the independt-nce of Ireland ended. An
act of union was offered and carried through the Irish Parliament by a very
free use of money among the members, and the Irish Legislature was incor-
porated with the Hritish one. Since January i, 1801, all laws for Ireland
have been made in London.
Among the most prominent members of the United Irishmen Society
were two brothers named Emmet, the fate of one of whom has ever since
been remembered with sympathy, Thomas A. Emmet, one of these
brothers, was arrested in 1798 ' s a member of this society, and was impris-
oned until 1802, when he was released on condition that he should spend the
remainder of his life on foreign soil. He eventually reached New York, at
whose bar he attained eminence. The fate of his more famous brother,
Robert Emmet, was tragical. This young man, a schocl-iellow of Thomas
Moore, the poet, was expelled from Trinity College in 1798, when twenty
years of agf as a member of the United Irishmen. He went to the conti-
!|li
If!
263
IRELAND THE DOWNTRODDEN
W
l"'5
n™t, in.ervic-we<l Na|,ol,.„„ „„ |,e|,aif .,f ,h, IHsh cause, and returned in
.^oa wuh a w,ld ulea of freein. Ireland l,y his own efforts fron, K,Ssh
Orira,min« a plan for a revolution, and expending his small for.une in
the purchase of u,uskets and pikes, he forn.ed a plot to seize Dublin O^tlc
capture the v.ceroy and .lon.ina.e .he capital. At the head of a small t! J
Th.rat^„f of followers he set out on this hopeless errand which .nd,.]
- " ha : h.'"'r ^''-^i "'r'"^ '•'""^'"' '' '^"^"^ "'-" '•'» "™''-''- '•-
h.istily dispersed, h rnmet, who had dressed himself for the
occass,on u, a f,.reen coat, white breeches and cocked hat, was de.M K mort,'
-;d at the cotnplete failure of his sche.ne. 1 le lied to the W kl Zl
a,ns, whence, perceivinjj that success in his plans was in pc. , hj
.^oived to escape to the continent. Hut love led hiu, to death was
•eeply attached to the dan,d,ter of Curran. the celebrated orator nd h
esp,te of the a<lv,ce of his friends, would not consent to leave Iran n
l.e had seen her. The attempt was a fatal ,u>e. f)„ hi, ret, „ „ '
mterview with his ladydove he wis arresi,.,! .,„ 1 ■ '"^ "-turn from the
hiLdl tre-,s„n II ^ , " , ""1"'™'"-''' "" ''cliarire of
mj,h treason lie w.as condemned t,. death September r„ iSo! and
was hang(!d the ne.Nt ilay. ■'•
liefore receivins; «'ntence l,e made an .uhlress to the court of surl,
noble au<l pathetic elo,uence that it still thrills the reader with yl^Ll eti
emotion. U ,s fre,uently reprinted amon. examples of soul-stirr ^ „;'
e consoUe woman, Sarah Curran. perishcl of a broken heart a trM^
.mm ly death. his event is the .hemie of one of Moore's fin.-st pol s"'
She IS far fnun the land where her young hero li.-s." '
1 lie (h-ath of !■; mmct and ihe dispersal of the United Irishmen l,„
".«..« ended the troubles in Ireland, but r„lh,.r added the" "r ', e
'" -Hi l'-n«land, unlike in the character and religion of their people Id
" .1.™- instm.,o„s, continued in a slate of hostili.;, masked or Tc:!! IVu.e
''''^y Z, I- • ^ P«>«mlry .and the clergy. The country
them bein. le^t' '^ T """ " '""'f ''"""'"' "' """■ '^'™-^' ""— '» "'
u,m t>ung less than live acres each in si.e. I'or these the landlords
. a y of w urn, the tenants never saw and some of whom had ever s,™
I el.„d-often exacte.1 extravagant rents. Again, while the .reat m- i, Ht
of the pe.iple w.is Catholic, the Catholic cl<r,rvhid to . ""-'""•'J" '>'
'■;« voluntary contributions of the ^^^Jl^^^::;::;^^:^^ 'Z
church ta.vs, were exacted by law for the oavme.o J ...L.....'.. ?' ,"
l.ngi,.sh Church, who remaiue.l aln,ost without cougregat'ifu,;"^"l.-ln'r
the Catholics were disfranchised. After the abolishmtnt of th Tris^i
mm
IRELAND THE noWNTRODDEN
263
Parliament they were without representation in the government under
which they Mved. No Catholic could be a member of I'arliament. It is not
surprisi ij^ that their protest was vigorous, and that the British government
had m. .y rebellious outbreaks to put down.
It was the disfranchisement of th<^ Catholics that first roused oj)position.
r.rattan brought u[> a bill for "Catholic Emancipation "—that oXonnell and
is, the admission of Catholics to the British Parlianu-nt and the Catholic
repeal of certain ancient, and opprt^ssive edicts -in 181 3. The l^mantlpation
bill was lost, but a new and greater ailvocate of Irish rights now arose, Daniel
O'Connell, the " Liberator," the greatest of Irish orators and patriots, who
for many years was to champion the cause of ilowntrodden Ireland.
The "couns«llor"— a favorite title of O'Connell among his Irish
admirers — was a man of remarkable powers, noted for his boisterous Irish
wit and good humor, his fearlessness and skill as a counsel, his constant tact
and readiness in reply, his unrivalled skill in he cross-examination of Irish
witnesses, and the violent language which \\v. often employetl in coiu't.
This man, of burly figure, giant strtMigth, inexhaustible energy and power
of work, a voice mighty enough to drown tlu" noise of a Ti,...r „ 1
crowd, a fine commaml of telling language, coarse but effec- lor "and His
tive humor, ready and telling retort, and master of all the Oratory
artillery of vituperation, was just the man to control the Irish ptjoj^le,
passing with the ease of a master from bursts of passion and outbreaks of
buffoonery to passages of the tendert;st pathos. Thoroughly Irish, he
seemed made by nature to sustain the cause of Ireland.
O'Connell was shrewd enough to deter revolt, and, while awakening in
the Irish the spirit of nationality, he taught them to keep political agita-
tion within constitutional limits, and set.-k by legislative means what they
had no hope of gaining by force of arms. His legal practice was enor-
mous, yet amid it he fouml time for convivial relaxation and for a deep
plunge into the whirlpool of politics.
The vigorous advocate was not long in rising to the chiefship of the
Irish party, but his effective work in favor of Catholic emancipation began
in 1825, when he founded the "Irish Association," a gigantic system of
organization which Ireland had nothing similar to before. The
clergy were disinclined to take jjart in this movement, but ^''stKlatkMi^"'
O'Connell's elocpience brought them in before the end of the
year, and under their influence it became national, spreading irresistibly
throughout the land and rousing everywhere the greatest enthusiasm. To
obtain funds for its support the "Catholic Rent" was established- -one
penny a month — which yielded as much as /."^oo per week.
M
f i I
^\
26-1
IRELAND THE DOWNTRODDEN
m ■
I'll •
Iff!
W
In alarm at the c^rowth of this association, the government brought in a
Mil for us s.ppress.on but O'Connell. too shrewd to come into confbct with
the authorities, forstalled them by dissolvint^ it in 182. H. h. , ' ,
;;n" rolling. The ,H.h fo.,.,,,,,,:,, U.^.h::iZ^ ^^::^X
OCo„n.lM„„s.lf stood as member of parliament for Clare and was
elected a.nid the intense enthusiasm of the people
This triun.ph set the whole country in a flame. The lord-lieutenant
looked or an ,ns,irrect,on, and even Lord Wellinijton, pri„„. n.ini t,'
|.n,dan.l, was a armed at the threatening; outlook. But o'connel Z-wi
hat an outbreak wouhl he ruinous to the Catholic cause, used his ma ve l™";
Cathohcs toparhament. and under it O'Connell made his appearance in th
House of Commons May „, ,839, He declined to take 'the „ld ,'Iths
<)'Co»„.ll In ™ ^"^.'' "^1 been repealed by the bill. The House refused to
l'.rli.mQ« •idniit hun on these con.litions, and he went down to Clare
a!r.un, wind, sent hi,n back like a conqueror. At the bcLdn^
n.ng of 1830 he took his seat unoppos<-d. *"
O'Connell's career in parlian.ent wa.s one of persistent labor for the
epeal of t e " .Act of Union " with Great Hritain. an.l Home Kule or
Ireland. ,n the advocacy of which he kept the country stirred up for '.-a
The aboht.on of tubes for the support of the Anglican clergy was another
o h,s great subjects of agitation, and this one m.Mnber had the streZ o
a host as an a.lvocate of justice and freedom for his co,„,try
Ihe aKUation on the Cath.dic ..uestion had quickened the sen.se of
the wrongs of Ireland, and the Catholics were soon engagetl in a crusade
agam., t.thes an.l ,he established Church, which formed tlJ^. most ofes ve
synd,ols of the.r inferior position in the state. In ,830 the potato crop in
reland was very poor, and wide-sprea.l misery and desti.nt on prevX
O Council a,lv,sed the people to pay no tithes, but in this .natter they p.assed
beyond li,s control, and for months crime ran ramjiant The
farmers refused to pay tithes or rents, armed bands marcln^d
through the island, and murder and incendiarism visite.l the
.".mes of the nch. A stringent coercion bill was enacted an.l the troubles
were put down by the strong han.l of the law. .Subsequently the Whi.. p ty
F^Z^d CI '"r"'''r '"""^''r' """" ^""'"-l"-" 'I- -venueof the
The Tithe
rrouble«
: '^i^i**.- J !*W!^j«ifein)iwi.j»a, M
IRELAND THE DOWNTRODDEN
365
In 1832 O'Connell became member for Duljlin, and nominated most of
the Irish candidates, with such effect that he had in the ne^^t Parliament a
following of forty-five members, known sarcastically as his "tail." He
{gradually attained a position of great eminence in the House of Commons,
standing in the first rank of parliamentary orators as a debater.
When a Tory ministry cam^ into power, in 1841, O'Connell began a
vigorous agitation in favor of rep(;al of the Act of Union and of liome
Rule for Ireland, advocating the measure with all his wonder-
ful power of oratory. In 1843 ^^^ travelled 5,000 miles through "^""crSe '^"'*
Ireland, speaking to immense meetings, attended by hun-
dreds of thousands of people, and extending to every corner of \\\v island.
Hut thanks to his great controlling power, and the inllu<;nce of I'ather
Mathew, the famous temperance advocate, these audiences were never
unruly mobs, but remained free from crime and drunkenness, Tiie greatest
was that held on the Hill of Tara, at which, according to the Nation, three-
quarters of a million persons were present.
O'Connell wisely deprecated rebellion and bloodshed. " He who com-
mits a crime adds strength to the enemy," was hfs favorite motto. Through
a whole generation, with wonderful skill, he kept the public mind at the
highest pitch of political excitement, yet restrained it from violence. Hut
with all his power the old chief began to lose control of the enthuisastic
Young Ireland party and, confident that the government must soon yield to
the impassioned appeal from a whole nation, he allowed himself in his
speeches to outrun his sober judgment.
Fearful of an outbreak of violence, the government deternjincd to put
an end to these enormous meetings, and a force of 35,000 iu<n was sent to
Ireland. A great meeting had been called for Clantarf on October 5, 1843,
but it was forbidden the day before by tiie authorities, ami O'Connell,
fearing bloodshed, abandoned it. He was arrested, however, trietl for a con-
spiracy to arouse sedition, and sentenced to a year's imprison-
ment and a fine of ^2,000. This sentence was set aside by "*imJ",so„ed
the House of Lords some months afterward as erroneous,
and at once bonfires blazed across Ireland from sea to sea. IJut the three
months he passed in prison proved fatal to the old chief, then nearly
seventy years old. He contracted a disease which t-arried him to the grave
three years afterwards.
During his withdrawal the Young Ireland party began to advocate
resistance to the government. In 1846 nr.d 1S47 came th;- potato famine,
the most severe visitation Ireland luul known during the century, and in
1848 the revolutionary movement in luirope made itself fell on Irish soil.
if
V
266
IRELAND THE DOWNTRODDEN
^b IH 7 ^'f ^^^^''^'"^^'"^ ^°""g: I'-^Jand party carried the country into
rcbelhon ; but the outbreak was easily put down, hardly a drop of bll^i'd be^
^tla^r O-l •'" '? ^"l>P';-«ion. The popular leader. Smith
ReterL Ol^nen was banished to Australia, but was eventually
/w /, P'-i^-^l^ned. John Mitchell, editor of the Nation and the United
The wronjjs of Irehuul remained unredeemed, and as lon.r ,, ,hi,
-.s the case ^uiet could no. be looked for in tl,e island. In .8 8 T I>L^x
c nsp.racy was <l,scovered and suppressed. Me.uuvhile Jolu, O^ ^ f
Kof l,e .nsur^^ents of ,848, organized a formidable .secret society amon :
e Ir.b ,„ tbe United States, wbich he nanted the Fenian Brotl erZf
..fter ..„n the hero of Irish lej-end. This organisation was opposed btle
«o:,st:f[; f"' TT '''"'"' ''"'" ""■"™"""' ■■•^ ■"-"'- ^-n ,^
iiuinerous and its funds lani'e.
Its leader in Ireland vv'as James Stephens, and its orjjan the Ms/, Peo
pie newspaper. B.t there were traitors in the camp and in ,865 thcLuTr
Th.Fe„l,„ "■■''■'* suppressed and the headers were arrested. Stephens
Brotherhood escaped from prison ten days after his arrest and ma.le his
tion was sn,dr%h° '^'""■'''- ''''"■ '''-■"'''"'""■"y '•'"ivity of this associa-
1 r- ,^ ? "'^'■'' '""'" """"'• """"••-■•'ks and an abortive attemut
to sc,.e Chester Castle, and in September, ,867, an attack was made on
pohce van „, A anchester, and the prisoners, who were I-'enia were
waT'tvtth'^r" "' •■"'""''' "!^' """''= '° '^'"^' ''°"" Cl-'k-nvell 'Prison
wall, with tile same purpose in view.
The Fenians in the United States or.i;anized a plot in ,866 for a raid
upon Canada, which utterly failed, and in ,871 thi «over„m™ of hi
country put a summary end ,0 a similar e.xpedition. \Vith th-'s the L- tve
existence of the Fenian organization ended! unless we may as r b „ , le
dim,"!"' """"'"' '° '''°" '""" ""P"""" ■^'™"-- i" London with
. ''I'^se movements, while ineffective as attempts at insurrection Ind
heir mfluence in arousing the more thoughtful statesmen of linglan I '„ 1 e
causes for discontent an.l need of reform in Ireland, and since that per od
.he Irish question has been the most prominent one in Parliament. Such men
I-.1KI HoUln» as .Mr. Cladstone and Mr. Bright look the matter in hanH
«-. . Gladstone presenting a bill for the hnal aboli.io, "urirh tL
and the disestablislinient of the En^dish Church in Ireland
il^is .as adopted m 1868. and the question of the reform of ln.,1 k'u:
wu. uexc taken up. a series of measures being passed to improvrtho V
I
..mM^ M mm mmrn x m immesmBmef^^ssKis.
'us: ',»! JH«l«rt£iV(ii«
IRELAND THE DOWNTRODDEN
267
nitry into
blood be-
T, Smith
:ventuaJly
le United
stralia to
l as this
I Phoenix
Mahony,
y amoni:
herhood,
i'J by the
•ecoming
risk Peo-
10 paper
Stephens
Kuie his
associa-
atttnnpt
de oil a
s, were;
1 Prison
condition of the Irish tenant farmer. If ejected, he was to be compensated
for improvements he had made, and a Land Commission was formcid with
the power to reduce rents where this seemed necessary, and also to fix the
rent for a term of years. At a later date a Land Purchase Commission was
organized, to aid tenants in buying their farms from the landlords, by an
advance of a large portion of the purchase money, with provision for Grad-
ually repayment.
These measures did not put an end to the agitation. Numerous ejec-
tions from farms for non-payment of rent had been going on, and a fierce
struggle was raging between the peasants and the agents of the absentee
landlords. The disturbance was great, and successive Coercion Acts were
passed. The peasants were supported by the powerful Land Lc^ague, while
the old question of Home Rule was revived again, under rhe active leader-
ship of Charles Stewart Parnell, who headed a small but very determined
body in Parliament. The succeeding legislation for Ireland, engineered by
Mr. Gladstone, to the passage in the Mouse of Conmions
of the Home Rule Bill of 1893. Has been suff.riently "^ AgUaSon'*""
described in the preceding chapter, and need not be rvpeated
here. It will suffice to say in conclusion, that the deraand for Home Rule
still exists, and that, in spite of all efforts at reform, th,.- position of the Irish
peasant is far from being satisfactory, rhe most proli/lc crop in that long-
oppressed land seemingly being one of beggary and Si«m» ulajvation.
! r
r a raid
of this
! active
o it the
Jn witii
AX
n, had
1 to the
period
:h men
hand,
tithes
eland.
-...nig
e the
I- t;
,4n
0?
CHAPTER XVII.
yy
t i ■
J i f i'
I ■ I '
M
England and Her Indian Empire.
p .756. i" th. town of Calcutta, the hea.l^uarters of the British in Incli.
an 1 cap urcd the town, taken- prisoner all the Enyiish wlio had not
escaped to the.r ship,. The whole of these unfortnaat^es, , 6 ° H l '
The Black Hole «'<^'-«^/l'™^t "H,, the " hlack hole," a small room about eLd,!
o. cicutu teen feet square, with two small windows. It was a niirht'-of
soon 1 "°r '■'' '','"'• ■'"'"-• •■"■'■ °' "'^- "--"1-1 »"'! unventilated 00m
con became unfit to breathe. The victin.s fou,^du each other tecey to
^r^,::t2 "^'^ ".•=-/"?,-"'«. when tL. door was opelT^;
•■ wacth::ie^ofca;:;:;t:"'"''"' '''"■ ""^" " "-^ '="-- -«>• of ,i
,1 fi !'i ";",|,"""""'»' >■<;•'"• ('757) this barbarism was aven^.ed. On the bat-
tlefield of I lasscy stood an am,)- of about ,.000 British and ,.,00 Sen v
w,th nn,e p.eces of artdlery. Opposed to them were 50,000 native inW
Cllveand tire and l8,o<DO cavalry, with fifty cannon. The disnrooortinn ,.,n'-
-.0, . -.ous ... at the head of the British In!:;^ ^^^ J
•-•'^^1-'''. Kol^^-'rtChve.whohadcomeoutto India as a humble
cerk. but..s now conunandcr of an army. A brief conllict e,u Jt .
affair. I he unw.eldy native arn^y fled. Clive's handful of n^en'ttd vie
tonous on tiie most famous field of Indian warfare.
This battle is taken as the bc-inning of the British Empire in Ind'a It is
re reached the most perdous point in its career, in the outbreak of the L^rett
dKm nn,t,ny. Plas.ey settled one question. It ,ave India to thc^E;^^
n prefe.ence to the Isench. in whose interest the natives were fi.duin. The
mp.re wh.ch Chve founde 1 was or,.anized by Warren Hastin.t th 'ablel
it the most unscrupulous or the governors of India. At the openiuir of
the nmeteenth century the British power in India was firndy established
Welie.Hiey's Ca. /" ^79^ the Marquis of Wellesly— afterwards known as
reer In Inula Lord VVellin,irton -was made .irovernor. Ever there he had
., .,, . ..„ . '^'^^:f^'^"'-e k^reat antagonist to.^a.ard a.L,rainst, for Napoleon w:,.
.«t .^ u,uc m Egypt, and was thought to have the design of driving the
ENGLAND AND HHR INDIAN EMPIRE
269
in India.
led upon
had not
number,
3ut ei<rh.
ni^ht of
ed room
ercely to
led, only
' of the
the bat-
Sepojs,
ill fan try
tion was
1 a gfiat
humble
■led tile
ood vic-
'a. It is
hat eni-
le great
Enjrlisli
g. The
-; ablest
ling of
bed.
own as
he had
:on was
ing the
British from India and restoring that great dominion to France. Wellesley's
career in India was a brilliant one. He overthrew the powerful Mar-
hatta Confederacy, gained victory after victory over the native chiefs and
kings, captured the great Mogul cities of Delhi and Agra, and spread the
power of the British arms far and wide through the peninsula.
In the succeeding years war after war took place. The warlike Mar-
hattas rebelled and were again put down, other tribes were con(iuered, and
in 1824 the city of Bhartpur in Central India, believed by the natives to be
impregnable, was taken by storm, and the reputation .f the British as in-
domitable fighters was greatly enhanced. Rapidlv the British power
extended until nearly the whole peninsula was subdued. In 1837 the con-
querors of India began to interfere in the affairs of Afghanistan, and a Brit-
ish garrison was placed in Cabul, the capital of that c(iuntry, in 1839.
Two years they stayed there, and then came to them om: of the great-
est catastrophes in the history of the British army. Surrounded by hostile
and daring Afghans, the situation of the garrison grew so perilous that ii
seemed suicidal to remain in Cabul. and it was determinetl to evacuate the
city and retreat to India through the difficult passes of the Himalayas. In
jan.iary, 1842, they set out, 4,000 fighting men and I2,o<do camp followers.
Deep snows covered the hills and all around them swarmed th t .u.
.1 „ Ai 1 , ine lerrible
tlie Alghans, savage and implacable, bent on their utter de- Retreat
struction. attacking them from every point of vantage, cutting ''"o'" Cabul
down women and children with the same ruthless cnielty as they displayed
in the case of men. One terrible week passed, then, on the afternoon of
January 13th, the sentinels at the Cabul gate of Jelalabad saw approaching
a miserable, haggard man, barely able to sit upon his horse. Utterly ex-
hausted, covered with cuts and contusions, he rode through the gate, and
announced himself as Dr. Brydan, the sole survivor of the army which had
left Cabul one week before. The remainder, men, women, and chiklren,—
except a few who had been taken prisoners,— lay slaughtered alonu that
dreadful road, their mangled bodies covering almost every foot of its^blood-
stained length.
The British exacted revenge for this terrible massacre. A powerful
force fought its way back to Cabul, defeated ihe Afghans wherever met, and
rescued the few prisoners in the Af<,rhan hands. Then the soldiers turned
their backs on Cabul, which no Bristish army was to see again for nearly
forty years.
Three years afterwards the British Empire in India was seriously threat-
ened by one of the most warlike races in the peninsula, the Sikhs, a cour-
ageous race inhabiting the Punjab, in northern India, their capital the
M
! 'i
■ft
^WWBKj!
870
F.NG/.ANn AND l/KK INDIAN F.AfPI/tF.
city „f Lahore 1„ , S45 . Sikh ar.ny, 6o.c«, stn,,,,,, with , 50 «„„.,. crossed
Th.w.rWlth '"'• •^■"I'^J K'vtr and invaileil Uritish l,.rrit<.ry. Never before
thesikh. had the Hntisli in India encountered men hke tliese Four
pitched battles were fought, in each of which the British lost
That en<led the war for the time being, but in 1848 the brave Sikh,
were .n arms agau, and pushing the British as Imrd as before. On the field
"f Chd,anwala the British were repulsed, with a loss of ^oo men a h1 the
colors of three regunents. This defeat was ,p,ickly retrieved. Lord g'„ gh
net the enemy at Ouzerat and defeated them so utterly that their arn,y >«„
practically destroyed. They were driven back as a shapeless mass of fit
iuns. W,.h this victory was completed the conquest of the Punjab. The
Skhs became loyal subjects of the queen, and afterwards supplied her armies
with the most valorous and high-spirited of her native tro.'ps
power in'l',;r "™'.°" "'"■" "^'' '-"'="""' ^'^'"^ "^ "^57. when the British
fhel I d > "'' " ■■"""-' "' ""■"' '"•■^"""^ ^'""^k. Kor a long time
there had been a great and continually increasing discontent in India
Complaints were made that the treaties with native princes were not O
we'a tirr'T "'' P'"',"T.' ''•""'"^'" '"^^'•■>'^ grew rapidly and mysteriously
weaUhy, looking upon India as a field for the acquisition of riches, an,l that
the natives were treated by the governing powers with deep ;ontempt
TheC.««.„f "'"'*= •=^'=0- license was granted to the soldiery. The hidden
the Mutln, cause of the discontent, however, lay in tlie deep hatred felt by
the natives, Hindu and Mussulmen alike, for the doinin,»u
race of a lens to whom they had been oblige.1 to bow in common subjJctbr
and he fanaticism of the Hindus caused the siuouldering elements of^don^
ent to burs, out into the flames of insurrection. A secret conspiracy C
formed m which all classes of the natives participated, its cbecfber;
heT "n "";'°"","'"" "f "- '"-"gl-''. ■' l>a.i been prophesLi among
he na ives that the rule of the foreign masters of India should last only fo'
at Plasse ^""^ ' * """'""' ''"'' ^"" "^"^"'^ ''"'"= ''"= '""'"P'' "^ ^livt
h.jTl ''"!'""""• "^f " °f unleavened bread, were secretly passed from
hand to hand au.ong the natives, as tokens of comradeship in the enter
Theare.^ P''""=- ''"''"' "'"'*P"'»<:y "as the more dangerous from making
CrtrM,.. Its way into the army, for India was a country governed by
the sword. A rumor ran through the canlonments „f
Denial army that cartridges had been served 'out greased with the fat "of
ENGLAND AND HER INDIAN EMPIRE
zyt
animals unclean to Hindu and Mussulman alike, and which tin; Hindus could
not bito without loss of caste, the injunction of their reli<,d()n ohjit^ing
them to abstain from animal food uniler this penalty. After this nothing
could quiet their minds; fires broke out nightly in their quarters; officers
were insulted by their men ; all confidence was gone, and discipline became
an empty form.
1 he sentence of p-iial servitude passeil upon some of the mutineers
became the signal for the breaking out of the revolt. At Meerut, on the
Upper Ganges, the Sepoys broke into rebellion, liberated their comrades
who were being led away in chains, and marched in a body to Delhi, the
ancient capital of India and former seat of the Mogul empire.
Here they took possession of the preat militarv mairazinc; and '^''*"''' ["-"1"
seized its stores. 1 hose among the British inhabitants who
did not save themselves by immediate flight were barbarously put to death ;
and the decrepit Akbar, the descendant of the Moguls, an old man of ninety,
who lived at Delhi upon a pension granted to him by the East India ComjKuiy,
was drawn from his retirement and proclaimed Hmj)eror of Hindostan by
the rebels, his son, Mirza, being associated with him in the government.
The mutiny spread with terrible rapidity, aiul massacres of the luiglish
took place at Indore, Allahabail, Azimghur, and otht-r towns. Foremost in
atrocity stands the massacre perpetrated at Cawnpore by Nana Sahib, the
adopted .son of the last Peishwa of the Marhattas, who, after The PriRhtful
entering into a compact with Gene^ral Wheeler, by which he Massacreat
promised a free departure to the English, caused the boats in Cawnpore
which they were proceeding down the river to be firetl upon. The men were
thus slain, while the women and children were brought back as prisoners to
Cawnpore. Here they were confined for some days in a building, into
which murderers were sent who massacred them every one, the mutilated
corpses being thrown down a well.
In Oude, the noble-minded Sir Henry Lawrence defended himself
throughout the whole summer in the citadel of Lucknow against the rebels
under Nana Sahib with wonderful skill and bravery, until he was killt.'d by
the bursting of a bomb, on the 2d of July. The distrt;ss of the besi«:ged,
ainong whom were many ladies and children, was now extreme. But the little
garrison held out for nearly three months longer against the greatest odds
and amid the most distressing hardships. At length came that ^he Scotch
eventful day, when, to the keen ears of one of the despairing Slogan at
sufferers, a Scotch woman, came from afar a familiar and most ^"♦^•^now
hopeful sound. " Dinna ye hear the pibroch ?" she cried, springing to her feet
in the ecstacy of hope renewed.
■I li
f .'
h.:
If
«73
ENGLAND AND HER INDIAN MPIRE
\\i
It ^
w
Hi.
'A
!i ^
•! 1 J
; t
On h,s way Havdock had encount^u, " the mutineers .f F...r
gained a hnlhant victory Three d-iv. Uu . '""^'"'"^ '^'^ ''^ Fi.tt.pnr and
^1 . -v-iwi^. 1 iirf.e u.iys latei L-awiiDon was rfirln.rl ''m,
..air were scattered aU.ut. .shreds of wo^en' '^^i „ ■- ^.^^f , 'f ^ "1
shoos, torn hooks and broken nkavthin.r. 'n l r '^""'''^" '^ ''="'' an<l
limbs dis„K..n,bered. I have sL ceth in ., ''""n """ ""'''=''■ ""'
not gaze on this terrible scene of bfood" '"^""^ '"""' '"" ' ^""''^
so,dier!^:i,::';js;;t- .::: -"^■'-^'^ --:«='' ">■ "- ■•-'-■ated
I uic ptopie ot L-awnpoK.- and on the pr soners fhfn. Kn i f.i
with the reinforcen,ents under Gen, O*! "a,n a, ,i n I } " ~''''"""
towards Kncknow, which was reach, :!;.;tre:dr;sXb:.;''^-^' "'-'''^'
An especial act of heroism was achieved .lurintr the sie.^e'of I „ i
by Mr Kavana,d., .- „ official, who onered, disguised as a .fa.ivl ,
trate thr.,us;h a region swarn.inj; with enemies ^o.^, ' ,''™''"
general of the approaching relieving fori H T """"'"""''"' *'"' ""=
.^^o„se^£.,..l,.---^
or dS':.::;rL- rsotro7;,::;: Srrhirr'^ 'r ;^ ^^''^ --
-ching their gladdened ears. Vet the ^Z Hs e' wa Te^: .:i?:a
TH. R.,^, „, "» =-«- ™- far fro,n assured. Havelock ad Out a
of panic an,onl;,rntr"t: ;tf !h"n'''"'^"^^''^■^^ "^"^ ^-^^^--^^
.ook to «ight; some crowing thfri^vLI; Z"^:;^ ^ ti.^
( ,
ENGLAND AND HER INDIAN EMPIRE
273
At two o'clock the stroke of the guns was visil)le in the subirhs and the
rattle of musketry could be heard. At five o'clock heavy firinj^^ broke out
in the streets, and in a few minutes more a force of Highlanders and Sikhs
turned into the street leading to the residency, in which the bcsiegfil garrison
had so long been confmed. Headed bv TitM .] Ontram, th<'\ ran at a
rapid jjace to the gate, and, amid wild clu;< is -in those within, made their
way into the eleaguered enclosure, and the first siege of Lucknow was
at an end.
The garrison had fought for months behind slight d(;fences and against
enormous odds. They were well supplied with food and water, i)ut they
had been exposed to terrible heat and heavy and incessant rains. The
Sepoys had been drilled by fkiiish officers, were well supplied
with arms and ammunition, and from the housetops of the T"''*-' SuWcrinR
1 r \ 11 /• ■' Lucknow
town kept up an incessant fire that s* h^d every corner of
the defended fortress. Sickness rage the crowded and underground
rooms in which shelter was sought . nst the constant musketry, and
death had reaped a harvest among the gallant and unyielding few who had
so long held that almost untenable post.
Havc'ock's men were able to do no more than reinforce the gar-
rison. Ai r fighting their way with heavy losses into the citatlel, they
found th.'i it was impossible, with their small army, to force a retreat
through the ranks of the enemy with the women, children and invalids,
surrounded by the swarms of rebels who surged round the walls like a
foaming sea. They were compelled, therefore, to shut themselves up, and
await fresh reinforcements. Provisions, however, now began to tliminish,
and they were menaced with the horrors of starvation ; but
matters did not reach this last extremity. Sir Colin Camp- The Coming; of
1 11 1 I • I • /• • I .1 Campbell
bell, the new commander-in-chief, with 7,000 wiMl-ecjuipped
troops, was already on the way. He arrived at Lucknow on the 14th of
November, made a bold and successful attack on the fortifications, and
liberated the besieged. Unable to hold the town, he left it to the enemy,
being obliged to content himself with the rescue of the people in the resi-
dency. Eight days afterwards Havelock died of cholera. His memory is
held in high esteem as the most heoric figure in the war of the mutiny.
Meanwhile Delhi was under siege, which began on June 8th, just one
month after the original outbreak. It was, however, not properly a siege,
for the British were encamped on a ridge at some distance
from the city. They never numbered more than 8,000 men. ^-^s^ snd Crr-j-
,., -.t • .1 11 , . . ture of Delhi
wnile witnin the walls were over 30,000 of the mutineers.
General Nicholson arrived with a reinforcement in middle August, and on
I
. \.
Ifi^:
MICROCOPY RESOLUTION TEST CHART
(ANSI and ISO TEST CHART No. 2)
I.I
1^
I3J
2.8
1^ Ilia
J^ u
2.5
Z2
2.0
1.8
^ APPLIED IfVMGE
1653 Eosl Main Street
Rochester, New York 14609 USA
(716) 482 - 0300 - Phone
(716) 288-5989 -Fax
274
ENGLAND AND HER INDIAN EMPIRE
p 'ill
! -^
,j ■
fl^l^l I
J k J f
I'l J
September ,4th an assault was made. The city was held with desperation
tied Ni^,1' ',";r^' ^T'"f °", '" "" ''^^"^ '°^ ^=^ ^^y^ '^=f°- "-'sepoys
fled N.cholson fell at the head of a storming party, and Hodson, the leader
of a corps of .rreytdar horse, took the old Mogul emperor prisoner and
shot down his sons in cold blood. & f p "er, ana
It was not until three months and a lialf after the release of the garri-
th mudl '°"t f^'t''" ^■'""''''^"' ''■•'^'"S ''-" -" P"nish„,ent o
he mutineers a many of the stations where they still kept together and
hav.ng received large reinforcements of men and artillery from \ome p e
pared for the crownmg attack upon that place. On the 4th of Februai-y he
afrTd fi?r" ,""'"°"'' "''," "'-'^'"---^ °f i"f-try, a division of cav!
a ry, and fifteen batteries, and on the ,st of March operations began ; Gen
eral Outram, with a force of 6,000 men and thirty guns, crossing 'he Goom-
tee, and reconnoitering the country as far as Chinhut. On the followin,. dav
Fln.loper.. he invested the king's race-house, which ho carried the'next
S,r-" '•->' by assault, and on the 9th Sir Colin Campbell's main force
captured, with a slight loss, the Martiniere, pushed on to the
bridges across the river, and carried, after some hard fighting, the Be.um's
palace. Two days later the Immaumbarra, which had been convertec! into
a formidable stronghold and was held by a large force, was breached and
s ormed, and the captors followed so hotly upon the re;r of the fl nt foe
a they entered with them the Kaiserbagh, which was regarded b^- the
rebls as their strongest fortress. Its garrison, taken wholly by surprise
made but a slight resistance. The loss of these two positions, on whi, u they
had greatly relied, completely disheartened the enemy, and throughout the
night a stream of fugitives poured out of the town
The success was so unexpected that the arrangements necessarv for
cutting off the retreat of the enemy had not been completed 'an 1
very large numbers of the rebels escaped, to give infinite troubl llr
on. Many were cut down by the cavalry and horse artillery, which set out
the next morning in pursuit; but, to the mortification of d,e army, a con-
Thes,„™i„g siderable proportion got away. The next day a number of
of the Fort- palaces and houses fell into the hnnd» ^f ,!,„ , i •
resses . , . ^"^ nanus ot the advancing troops
without resistance, and by midnight the whole city along the
nve bank was in their possession. In the meantime Jung Bahadoor, the^Brit!
sh all>^ was attacking the city with his Goorkhas from the south, and pushed
forward so far that communications were opened with 1 im halfwav
across the city. The following day the Goorkhas made a fiirtl™ ^at ^i
ENGLAND AND HER INDIAN EMPIRE
lesperation
the Sepoys
the leader
^oner, and
the garri-
shment to
ether, and
lome, pre-
:bruary he
on of cav-
^an ; Gen
he Goom-
jwing- day
the next
lain force
)n to the
Begum's
irted into
ched and
lying foe
;d by the
surprise,
hica they
hout the
ssary for
ted, and
ble later
set out
y, a con-
niber of
g troops
long the
the Brit-
1 pushed
halfwa)'
id Vance,
to the
27S
The han' fighting was now over ; the failure to defend even one of the
fortresses upon which for months they had bestowed so muc! ;are, com-
pletely disheartened the mutineers remaining in the city. Numbers effected
their escape; others hid themselves, after having got rid of their arms and
uniforms ; some parties took refuge in houses, and defended themselves des-
perately to the end. The work was practically accomplished on the 21st,
and Lucknow, which had so long been the headquarters of the insurrection,
was in British hands, and that with a far smaller loss than could have been ex-
pected from the task of capturing a city possessing so n;any places of
strength, and held by some 20,000 desperate men fighting with ropes round
their necks.
The city taken, the troops were permitted to plunder and murder to
their hearis' content. In every house were dead or dying, and the corpses
of Sepoys lay piled up several feet in height. The booty which the soldiers
carried off in the way of jewels and treasures of every kind was enormous.
The widowed queen of Oude set out for Enp-land, to proclaim
the innocence of her son "in the dark countries of the West," the Soldiers
and to preserve to her house the shadow of an independent
monarchy. She never saw her sunny India again, however; k)<c\ the return
journey she died of a broken heart. Though the rebellion gradually lost
force and cohesion after this period, the vengeance continued for a year
longer. But the chief rebel, Nana Sahib, and the two heroic women, the
Begum of Oude and the Ranee of Jansee, escaped to Nepaul. In the
course of the year 1858, peace and order again returned to the Anglo-Indian
Empire, and the government was able to consider means of reconciliation.
By a proclamation of the queen all rebels who were not directly implicated
in the murder of British subjects, and would return to their duty and allegi-
ance by January, 1859, were to obtain a complete amnesty. The East India
This proclamation also announced that the queen, with the Company
consent of Parliament, had determined to abolish the East Abolished
India Company, to take the government into her own hands, and to rule India
by means of a special secretary of state and council. The Indian Empire,
both within and without, had assumed such gigantic proportions that it could
no longer be properly ruled by a mercantile company, and came properly
under the control of the crown. In 1876 Queen Victoria assumed, by act
of Parliament, the title of Empress of India. The most re- victoria is Made
cent important event, in the acquisition of territory in this Empress of
part of the world, was the invasion of Burmah in 1885, and '"^^*
its capture after a short and decisive campaign. The Indian Empire of
Victoria has now grown enormous in extent, its borders extending to the
•■
!. !
■■\w'
276
ENGLAND AND HEM mOfAN EMPIRE
'f
the two great rivals will yet JZ T f ^''l""'"^'' '" Asia Whether
which only .he future I'decide ' ° ™""'" °" '"'^ ''-''" '» a que^io,:
'"dependent states, the popuLt'.V n ,„ v i^r ." "'" "''"'■™ '""l Pa'-'i.'"v
'"tal for the whole empiri, ncu dil R, '"T^"'^ ««.°50.479. n,al<i.„r a
eontrol the country hrs be r^^Zt l'''^^'^'' ""''- Brit sh
w.th means of internal co,n„n^,iclt, ' I '° "" ' 7'f ^""'"'^"''>' -^"PP''"'
o about .7,0.0 miles, and its teC ph , r "''' ''"« ^^ering a length
telephone has also been widely introCS °"<-'-- «.°oo nn'ies, while the
numbers to nearly $500,000.0^0 annual! " """"'""'' ^'"^'"^ '" round
-.« a ■;: •;^;r ^d;;, rLfd^ctJx::^-' 1 1--'- ^'--- >-
millions in value of property I, L, ,,"'*= '""P'-^ a"d destroyed
fully from fau,ine, being the fif ^e h' " ' ,"" '°''"'''' ^"'^^-'l fn'gl t
■^une year a plague broke out ^ ,"? ''"""' "'« ^''''u-v- In the
.i-dfu, ravages-'aurong i.s ZZ puTlf " f^ °' '™''^>- ='-' ^^-^
--. and se,e„ee did its utl^ L^' tt ^irja,: ^ ^ ^ ^'^e
i 1 »!'
; »
>undaries of
Wliether
s a question
anountino-
ncl partially
?, niakln^ a
iflc;r British
y siippiiei!
ig a len^^th
while the
s in round
Lsters. In
destroyed
'ed fright-
'• In the
•d caused
has been
he po\yer
lid of the
le.
CHAPTER XVIII.
Thiers, Gambetta, and the Rise of the French
Republic.
IT has been already told how the capitulation of the French army at Sedan
and the captivity of Louis Napoleon were followed in Paris by the
overthrow of the empire and the fonoation of a republic, the third in
the history of French political changes. A provisional government was
formed, the legislative assembly was dissolved, and all the court parapher-
nalia of the imperial establishment disappeared. The new
government was called in Paris the " Government of Lawvers " ^,P'"«^'^'«"«'
^^ I. I- ',. 1 1 r^ . 1 , , . J ■ ^ (jovernment
most o; Its members and officials belonging to that profession.
At its head was General Trochu, in command of the army in Paris ; among
its chief members were Jules Favre and Gambetta. While upright in its
membership and honorable in its purposes, it was an arbitraiy bocfy, formed
by a cotip d'etat like that by which Napoledn had seized the reins of power,
and not destined for a long existence.
The news of the fall of Metz and the surrender of Bazaine and his
army served as a fresh spark to the inflammable public feeling of France.
In Paris the Red Republic raised the banner of insurrection'' against the
government of the national defence and endeavored to revive the spirit of
the Commune of 1793. The insurgents marched to the
senate-house, demanded the election of a municipal council
which should share power with the government, and pro-
ceeded to imprison Trochu, Jules Favre, and their associates. This,
however, was but a temporary success of the Commune, and the provisional
government continued in existence until the end of the war, when a nationa"
assembly was elected by the people and the temporary government was set.
aside. Gambetta, the dictator, "the organizer of defeats," as he wa?
sarcastically entitled, lost his power, and the aged statesman and historian,
Louis Thiers, was chosen as chief of the executiv , department of the nevv
government.
The treaty of peace with France, including, as it did, the loss of Alsace
and Lorraine and the payment of an indemnity of $1,000,000,000, roused
once more the fierce passions of the radicals and the masses of the great
277
Excitement in
Paris
i||r
m
llifit
278
THE RISE OF THE FRENCH REPUBLIC
iri!
\\
'lii
.i
m
election Th'r ^^'^ ^"'1^"'^'^'°" ^y the assembly and called for a fresh
blaze'" Tr"""','',' "" ^^™'""°"'^0- elen,.n.s of the great city were in a
Outbreakofthe ^'^^ National Assembly, and broke into open revolt An
commune attempt to repress the movement only added to its violence
msurrectionists, went over in crowds to their sic et'he ^ °^*''
fell into the hands of the wildest deC<'o A eXr^'r^" '"'^
:ratd"fi'-'" '"^ ^^-'-^ '"'^ ^vhich%he Ger,.^a/rT,ad : tr/Ur
evacuated firing once more resounded ; the houses .rarden, .n,' -M
around Paris were again surrendered t; destrucl '.and tS eat of ^j
at, mdustry, and civilization, and the abodes of weal h and pleasu e we e
once more transformed into dreary wildernesses Pleasure were
The wild outbreaks of fanaticism on the part of the Commune recalled
the scenes of the revolution of ,789, and in these spring day, o" 87, Paris
added another leaf to its long history of crime and violen e. ThI iLu
gents, roused to fury by the efforts of the government to sunn , !!
murdered two generals, Leco„„e and Thonts, and telrrrnarmrd
outrage of the ':.'"2e"s who. as the "friends of order," desired a reconcilia-
la^urgents t.on with the authorities at Versailles. They formed a eovern-
.onfi , A J"™' °""' ^'"°"«' '"'"'^ f™'" wealthy citizen,
confiscated the property of religious societies, and seized and t U as
hostages Archbishop Darboy and many other distinguished clergymen and
Meanwhile the investing troops, led by Marshal MacMahon eraduallv
ought their way through the defences and into the suburbs of th; d y all
he surrender of the anarchists in the capital became inevitab! 't1 h
"ecessity excited their passions to the most violent extent and with the
wild fury of savages, they set themselves to do all the damage o he h orica
THE RISE OF THE FRENCH REPUBLIC
279
id treaso".
>. in which
3r a fresh
assembly
se unruly
were in a
itral com-
ment and
/olt. An
violence,
A new
ffered so
n troops
innon on
g on the
ver Paris
'ar com-
' before
villaofes
tions of
re were
recalled
71 Paris
2 insur-
5 them,
narnied
oncilia-
jovern-
itizens,
leld as
en and
idually
:y, and
This,
th the
torical
monuments of Paris they could. The noble Vendome column, the symbol
of the warlike renown of France, was torn down from its pedestal and
hurled prostrate in the street. The most historic buildin^^s in the city were
set on fire, and either partially or entirely destroyed. Among these were
the Tuileries, a portion of the Louvre, the Luxembourg, the Palais Royal,
the Elysee, etc. ; while several of the imprisoned hostages, foremost among
them Darboy, Archbishop of Paris, and the universally respected minister
Daguerry, were shot by the infuriated mob. Such crimes excited the Ver-
sailles troops to terrible vengeance, when they at last succeeded in repress-
ing the rebellion. They went their way along a bloody course ; human life
was counted as nothing ; lu. streets were stained with blood and strewn
with corpses, and the Seine once more ran red between its banks. When
at last the Commune surrendered, the judicial courts at Ver- „ , ^
. ■' , , . Punishment of
Eailles began their work of r :tribution. 1 he leaders and parti- the Commune
cipators in the rebellion who could not save themselves by
flight were shot by hundreds, confined in fortresses, or transported to the
colonies. For more than a year the imprisonments, trials, and executions
continued, military courts being established which excited the world for
months by their wholesale condemnations to exile and to death. The
carnival of anarchy was followed by one of pitiless revenge.
The Repulican goverment of France, which had beer accepted in an
emergency, was far from carrying with it the support of the whole of the
assembly or of the people, and the aged, but active and keen-witted Thiers
had to steer through a medley of opposing interests and sentiments. His
government was considered, alike by the Monarchists and the Jacobins, as
only provisional, and the Bourbons and Napoleonists on the one hand and
the advocates of "liberty, equality and fraternity" on the other, intrigued
for its overthrow. But the German armies still remained on French soil,
pending the payment of the costs of the war ; and the astute chief of the
executive power possessed moderation enough to pacify the passions of
the people, to restrain their hatred of the Germans, which was so boldly
exhibited in the streets and in the courts of justice, and to quiet the clamor
for a war of revenge.
The position of parties at home was confused and distracted, and a
disturbance of the existing order could only lead to anarchy and civil war.
Thiers was thus the indispensable man of the moment, and so president
much was he himself impressed by consciousness of this fact, Thiers and
that he many times, by the threat of resignation, brought the the Assembly
opposing elements in the assembly to harmony and compliance. This
^^ccurred even during the siege of Paris, when the forces of the government
»r I
1 ,'
I
IW
280
T/fj; R/SE OF THE FRENCH REPUBLIC
\\ W
' '
' i '' I
w
ffovernment and ™ ""^ °' ''''^"'^ "'™"8;'' "^ sharp centralization of the
When therefo e n^X -^"""^ -T™"'"^ '" "" P™^'-" -"1 "wn.
dc„,anded t at UtV mlvo r T ""''r' =" '"^e part of the assen,i,ly
thoniand. In t e 2 ons fo ^h " "T ^^^^ """'^'^^"'^' -" '-">'
triumphant. ^^^Z^l^::^t^'T' '^'''^^ ^'°^^^
Den,ocratic.Rep„blican';arty , d , ?c Mo .rets 7 Wh'" T' ^'"'="' ""=
vored to establish a " lea^t,e of Repubhcr Jw ^^ th a te.^^^ ^m"'"
a.s .Uegal ; and when the decree of banishment again the Boubo ? , To I "
princes was set asi.Ie, and the latter returned to F.nce TlX ,
postpone tlie entrance of the Ilnr rV a i , J ' ' ''"^"^^ ''"<^™ ''o" 'o
been elected depmies huo th^ , kI" T '^""'^'^ ''" ■'°''"^'"<=' ^^'>° l>=''l
Th„ , .,.^1'"'"='' ""° '"<^ assembly, at least until the end of the vear
posit^o \^t' ■: s^^rr I -iroff-^'f-^' '°r' *-' '- - strelSe^^The
c- .- ine.haus;ibi:ti;:f of°r : -o: t:z ti. trittt::^:
s^a.. The fro-rr-f-'oTtti- :: ^'ri^f ^d ^"F°' '-"^
that Ko 1-,., 11 ^ount de Lhambord, who derlprprl
that he had only to return with the white banner to be made IL
France, brou.du all reasonable and practical men to the s de^^^^ 1
he had. durino- the list rbv= ..f a . n , ^ "'^""S' ^"^1
Caimed " Prestl':: orLXl RSic""'"' ''^ '"'""P'' °^ ""^'"^ ^^^
The new president aimed, next to the liberation nf ,h»
provinces from the German troops of occupation Tt the g.^'-™°"'='I
the French army. Yet he could iot bri^r.C f to t e decXo^'T "'
.ng m ,ts entirety the principle of general armed .,erv ce sucTa h/l™ ";
Pr„ss,a from a state of depression to°o„e of military re^n'e ation lt"'"1
m.l.tary service in France was, it is true, adopted fn n^me and th "'''
en the part of the clero-v .JT i Principles, he experienced
violent • , P '^'^'' champion, Bishoo Dup.nloun ^nch
Violent upposinon. that the government dropped the measure
The National
Loan
was show Pi
Ltion of the
and towns,
e assemhiy
ted by the
fficulty was
overnment
ver twenty
ans proved
etween the
-tta endea-
'< forbidden
md Orlean
ew how to
', who had
the year,
ij^then the
hich indi-
3f France
nnity, the
1 army of
es of the
declared
ereign of
liers, and
'ing pro-
irrisoned
nation of
f enforc-
td raised
Universal
rmy was
citations
'es from
of pro-
Simon,
rienced
P, such
w
. ^^ ■"'^^''"S. HIS ACCUSERS AND DEFENDERS
3 •
> :•
i^B^dilil
i
1
^^^^^■ftl'''
^^^^^^^^^^K&iti ' 1 '
"k.
THE DREYFUS TRIAL
Dreyfus ip the act ot declaring " / am Innocent.'
THE RISE OF THE J'RENCH REPUULIC
283
In order to place the army in the condition which Thiers desired, an
increase in tlie military biid>,^et was necessary, and conseciuently an en-
hancement of the general revenues of the state. I'\)r this purpose a return
to the tariff system, which had been abolished under the empire, was pro-
posed, but excited so great an opposition in the assembly
that six months passed before it could be carried. The new KeorRnnizntion
organization of the army, undertaken with a view of placing ** * "^""^
Trance on a level in military strength with h(;r late conqueror, was now
eagerly imdertaken by the president. An active army, with five years'
service, was to be added to a "territorial army," a kiml of militia. And so
great was the demand on the portion of the nation capable of bearing arms
that the new French army exceeded in numbers tiiat of any other nation.
But all the statesmanship of Thiers could not overcome the anarchy in
the assembly, where the forces for monarchy and republicanism were bit-
terly opposed to each other. Gambetta, in order to rouse
public opinion in favor of democracy, made several tours *^"'"*'^"f«»
4.1 I ..1 I • r , *" Agitator
tlirougli the country, his extravagance of language giving
deep offence to the monarchists, while the opposed sections of the assembly
grew wider and more violent in their breach.
Indisputably as were the valuable services which Thiers had rendered to
France, by the foundation of public order and authority, the creation of a
regular army, and the restoration of a solid financial system, yet all these
services met with no recognition in the face of the party jealousy and politi-
cal passions prevailing among the people's representatives at Versailles.
More and more did the Royalist reaction gain ground, and, aided by the
priests and by national hatred and prejudice, endeavor to bring about the
destruction of its opponents. Against the Radicals and Liberals, among
whom even the Voltairean Thiers was included, superstition and fanaticism
were let loose, and against the Bonapartists was directed the terrorism of
court martial. The French could not rest with the thought that their mili-
tary supremacy had been broken by the superiority of the Prusso-German
arnib their defeats could have proceeded only from the treachery or incapa-
city of their leaders. To this national prejudice the Government decided
to bow, and to offer a sacrifice to the popular passion. And thus the world
beheld the lamentable spectacle of the commanders who had ^ , , ^ ^
1 1 1 T- 1 f irial and Con-
surrendered the French fortresses to the enemy being sub- demnation of
jected to a trial by court-martial under the presidency of Mar- the Generals
shal Baraguay d'Hilliers, and the majority of them, on account of their
proved incapacity or weakness, deprived of their military honors, at a mo-
ment when all had cause to reproach themselves and endeavor to raise up a
r
if
ii!
' ■!
984
THE mSE OF THE FRENCH KEPUni.lC
\\
blow fe„ upon .he c::;:::j.:;;:r:,:i::r" r M,.r;';xfM '"" ""^ f"^'
"treachery" the whole mi.fnrf.n f i ^^arshal Hazaine, to whose
/ iiiv. wuoie niisiortune of r ranee was ^ftri^ll^,wI i; i
he was retained a orisnn^.r ',f v -ii "",^/^^-^ '^"'^'"uted. hor months
under the presidency of the Due d'Au,,' 'l. ""-' >'""' '™'' '*'"=
AlaclWalioii experienced the unexpected .ill<rhf „f I, • • .
Eleced ,|,„ „„|„^;,„ , "expectet slijrht of havuig it accepted by
Pr.,iae„. l^JZrV^ ' •'''"■'"'''>'• ""= monarchist MacMahon
President in h'e "rhei::? , "'"' "",''= "' "■^^'^'"''' -^-ng --"lectej
vices to Kran e b n;^.in T, t ^" •' ^'n'""""' ""^ °' '"'' S''^^'-' -'-
--;;.. the soi,^.jf Tirii':,':;;!;;^^^^^^^^^^^^^ '"->->• =•-
bein,, off r'eJ „ he ct "."deVV*-''';'"'': '"« "'^°" '^"^ '"™-- 'h- honor
t, -it-u CO tne L-ount de Chambord, e.andson of Chnrl^^c y w
old ,nan, unfitted for the thorny seat offeref hi.n, ::^ ^f^, Lord 'with
n.ec„„„.,e 'he sp.r.t of the tunes, put a sudden end to the hopes of h^
c..„... ^^~ by his „,edi.val conservatisn,. Their purpi:;^':
Demand establish a Constitutional government, under tlie tri-colored flao-
stand th.t I, °f 7™'''"°'«'-y F'-^'nce ; but tlie old Bourbon gave them to undef
their schemes elected M^-'m? ^'°"^'-,<='"^ts, ,n disgust at the failure of
seven yea" andfor L ^ ? ' PT"*™' °' "^" ^'^^"''""^ '"' ^ """ "f
was made secure ""^ "'*= ^'='^'" "^ «P"blicanism in France
formeT'ctfadf Ba°" "" ""^ ""='"« ^^'^^^ '" "^« ?'""-'« "' bonor, his
mer comrade Bazaine was imprisoned in another part of the palace at
'"^zif- r?„r; ofMeT'^T "r' °" i"" ^""^"= °' '^"^^^^ '-"^^ -"
Bazaioe ^''^". "' '^''^t^- '" the trial, in which the whole world took a
prove that the :?.'"• Frlf "^ "' M ''-°^^'"'°" "^^'^ "■^"'^^ ^°
nq.e.t oi fiance was solely due to the treachery of the
i
THE RISE OF THE FRENi // REPUnUC
285
c('I(.'l)rat(Hl
street in
the chief
to whose
>r months
made for
-^ok place
y> '873. a
leir resi*r-
o
iers, who
cpted by
icMahon,
I elected
itest ser-
mity and
)iit their
is honor
He, an
3rd with
:s of his
- was to
'red flag
.0 under
remain
Je " the
h ideas
r to be
ilure of
2rm of
France
or, his
lace at
le sur-
took a
ted to
3f the
Honapartist marshal. Despite all t)\'it could be said in his defence, he was
found guilty by the court-martial, sentenced to degradation from his rank in
the army, and to be put to death.
A letter which Prince Fretlerick Charles wrote in his favor only added
to the wrath of the people, who cried aloud for his execution. But, as
though the judges themselves felt a twinge of conscience at the sentence,
l!'ey at the same time signed a petition for pardon to the president of the
r.-public. MacMahon thereupon commuted the punishment of death into a
twenty years' imprisonment, remitted the disgrace of the formalities of a
military degrailution, without cancelling its operation, and appointed as the
prisoner's place of confinement the fortess on the island of St. Marguerite,
opposite Cannes, known in connection with the "iron mask." Bazaine's
wealthy Mexican wife obtained permission to reside near him, with her fam-
ily and servants, in a pavilion of the sea-fortress. This afforded her an op-
portunity of bringing about the freedom of her husband in the following
year with the aid of her brother. After an adventurous escape, by letting
himself down with a rope to a Genoese vessel, Bazaine fled to Holland, and
then offered his services to the Republican government of Spain.
In 1875 tl^t^ constitution under which France is now governed was
adopted by the republicans. It provides lor a le,<,Mslature of two chambers;
one a chamber of deputies elected by the people, the other a senate of 300
members, j^ of whom are elected by the National Assembly tu ^ ^
d^i ^1 t 1 11... ^ IneNewCon-
the others by electoral colleges m the departments of stitution of
France. The two chambers unite to elect a president, who France
has a term of seven years. He is commander-in-chief of the army, appoints
all officers, receives all ambassadors, executes the laws, and appoints the
cabinet, which is responsible to the Senate and House of Deputies,— thus
resembling the cabinet of Great Britain instead of that of the United States.
This constitution was soon ignored by the arbitrary president, who
forced the resignation of a cabinet which he could not control, and replaced
it by another responsible to himself instead of to the assembly. His ac'
of autocracy roused a viole'nt opposition. Gambetta moved that the repre^
sentatives of the people had no confidence in a cabinet which was not free
in its actions and not Republican in its principles. The sudden death of
Thiers, whose last writing was a defence of the reoublic « ., ..
.•j.ti^f, , ,,.. '■ ' MacMahon
Stirred the heart of the nation and added to the excitement. Resigns and
which soon reached fever heat. In the election that followed Q^evy Elected
the Republicans were in so great a majority over the Conservatives that
the president was compelled either to resign or to govern accordino- to the
constitution. He accepted the latter and appointed a cabinet composed
286
THE RISE OF THE FRENCH REPUBLIC
8M.. (
Ifi 1
km\
i ' '\
of Republicans. But the acts of the le^c^islature, which passed laws to pre
vent arbitrary action by the executive and to secularize education so
exasperated the old soldier that he finally resi.<rned from his hi^rh office. '
Jules Grevy was elected president in his place, and Gambetta was
made president of the House of Deputies. Subsequently he was chosen
presiding minister in a cabinet composed wholly of his own creatures. His
Gambetta as career in this high office was a brief one. The Chambers
Prime nin. refused to support him in his arbitrary measures and he
resigned in disgust. Soon after the self-appointed dictator,
who had played so prominent a part in the war with Germany, died from a
wound whose origin remained a mystery.
The constitution was revised in 1884. the republic now declared per-
manent and final, and Grevy again elected president. General Boulanger,
the minister of war in the new government, succeeded in making himself hi-dily
popular, many looking upon him as a coming Napoleon, by whose genius
the republic would be overthrown.
In 1887 Grevy resigned, in consequence of a scandal in high circles
and was succeeded by Sadi Carnot, grandson of a famous general of the
first republic. Un ler the new president two striking events took place.
General Boulanger managed to lift himself into great promi-
nence, and gain a powerful following in France. Carried
away by self-esteem, he defied his superiors, and when tried
and found guilty of the offence, was strong enough in France to overthrow
the ministry, to gain re-election to the Chamber of Deputies, and to defeat
a second ministry.
But his reputation was declining. It received a serious blow by a duel
he fought with a la-vyer, in which the soldier was wounded and the lawyer
escaped unhurt. The next cabinet was hostile to his intrigues, and he fled to
Brussels to escape arrest. Tried by the Senate, sitting as a High Court of Jus-
tice, he was found guilty of plotting against the state and sentenced to imprison-
ment for life. His career soon after ended in suicide and his party dis-
appeared.
The second event spoken of was the Panama Canal affair. De Lesseps,
the maker of the Suez Canal, had undertaken to excavate a similar one
across the Isthmus of Panama, but the work was managed with such wild
The Panama ^^^ravagance that vast sums were spent and the poor in-
CanarsTandal ^'^stors widely ruined, while the canal remained a half-dug
ditch. At a later date this affair became a' great scandat
dishonest bargains in connection with it were abundantly unearthed, bribery
was shown to have been common in high places, and France was shaken
The Career of
Boulanger
THE RISE OE TIIR FREN> lEPUDLIC
287
to its centre by the startling exposure. De Lesseps, fortunately for him,
escaped by death, but others of the leaders in the enterprise were con^
demned and punished.
In the succeeding years perils manifold threatened the existence of the
French republic. A moral decline seemed to have sapped tlie foundations
of public virtue, and the new military organization rose to a dangerous
height of power, becoming a monster of ambition and iniquity whiclf over-
shadowed and portended evil to the state. The spirit of anarchy, which
nad been so strikingly displayed in the excesses of the Parisian
Commune, was shown later in various instances of death and '^ Fran^'ce Ind
destruction by the use of dynamite bombs, exploded in Paris Murder of
and elsewhere. But its most striking example was in the "'e P'^e^'dent
murder of President Carnot, who was stabbed by an anarchist in the streets
of Lyons. This assassination, and \.\\^i disheartening exposures of dishon-
esty in the Panama Canal Case trials, stirred the moral sentiment of France
to its depths, and made many of the best citizens despair of the perma-
nency of the republic.
But the most alarming threat came from the army, which had grown in
power and prominence until it fairly overtopped the state, while its leaders
felt CO 1 -'tent to set at defiance the civil authorities. This despotic army
was an outgrowth of the Franco-Prussian war. The t(=rrible punishment which
the French had received in that war, and in i)arLicular the loss of Alsace
and Lorraine, filled them with bitter hatred of Gennany and ^^ „
1 • , . f , r . ' T^"^ Reorgani-
a burning desn-e for revenge. Yet it was evident that their zation of
military organization was so imperfect as to leave them help- the Army
less before the army of Germany, and the firt thing to be done was to place
themselves on a level in military strengh with their fo(>. To this President
Thiers had earnestly devoted himself, and the work of army organization
went on until all P>ance was virtuallj- converted into a great camp, defended
by powerful fortresses, and the whole people of the country were practically
made part and portion of the army.
The final result of this was the development of one of the most complete
and well-appointed military establishments in Europe. The immediate
cause of the reorganization of the army gradually passed away. As time
went on the intense feeling against Germany softened and the danger of
war decreased. But the army became more and more dominant in France,
and, as the century neared its end, the autocratic position of its leaders was
revealed by a startling event, which showed vividly to the world the moral
decadence of France and the controlling inlluence and dominating power of
the members of the General Staff. riiis was the C(
hi
16
)rated Dreyf
us
288
THE RISE OF THE FRENCH REPUBLIC
W)\
im-
Case, the cause cclebre of the end of the century. This case is of such
portance that a description of its sah'ent points becomes here necessary
Albert Dreyfus, an Alsatian Jew and a captain in the Fourteenth Regi-
ment of Artdlery of the French army, detaile.' for service at the Informa-
The Opening tion Bureau of the Minister of War, was arrested October m
?uVcLe"'' ^^^4, on the charge of having sold military secrets to a fo':
e.gn power. The following letter was said to have been
found at the German embassy by a French detective, in what was declared
to be the handwriting of Dreyfus : ueciarcci
" Having no news from you I do not know what to do. I send you in
the meantime the condition of the forts. I also hand you the principal in-
structions as to firing. If you desire the rest I shall have them copied The
document is precious. The instructions have been given only to the officers
of the General Staff. I leave for the manceuvres."
For some time prior to the arrest of Dreyfus on the charge of being
the author of this letter, M. Drumont, editor of the Libre Parole, had been
carrying on a violent anti-Semitic agitation through his journal. He raved
about the Jews in general, declared Dreyfus guilty, and asserted that there
was danger that he would be acquitted through the potent Juiverie "the
cosmopolite syndicate which exploits France."
Public opinion in Paris became much influenced by this journalistic as-
sault, and under these circumstances Dreyfus was brought to trial before a
military court, found guilty and condemned to be degraded from his mili-
tary rank, and by a special act of the Chamber of Deputies was ordered to
be imprisoned for life in a penal settlement on Devil's Island, off the coast
ot French Guiana, a tropical region, desolate and malarious in character The
sentence was executed with the most cruel harshness. Durincr part of his de
tention Dreyfus was locked in a hut, surrounded by an iron" cage on the
IS and. This was done on the plea of possible attempts at rescue. He was
allowed to send and receive only such letters as had been transcribed by one
ot his guardians. ^
He denied, and never ceased to deny, his guilt. The letters he wrote
to his counsel after the trial and after his disgrace are most pathetic asser-
tions of his innocence, and of the hope that ultimately justice would be done
him. His wife and family continued to deny his guilt, and used every influ-
ence to get his case reopened.
The first trial of Dreyfus was conducted by court-martial and behind
closed doors. Some parts of the indictment were not communicated to the
accused and his lawyer. The secrecy of the trial, the lack of fairness in its
management, his own protestations of innocence, the anti-Jewish feeling
i of such im-
?cessary,
teenth Regi-
the Informa-
October 15,
•ets to a for-
have been
^as declared
send you in
principal in-
copied. The
the officers
^e of being
U, had been
He raved
that there
iverie, "the
rnalistic as-
al before a
m his mili-
ordered to
f the coast
icter. The
rt of his de-
ge, on the
-. He was
bed by one
5 he wrote
letic asser-
Id be done
:very influ-
nd behind
ted to the
ness in its
h feeling,
THE RISE OE THE TRENCH REPUBLIC
289
and the course of the government in the affair aroused a strong suspicion
that Dreyfus, being a Jew, had been used as a scapegoat for some one else
and had been unjustly convicted. Many eminent literary men „ .. . . .
fT' 1 HT01 T, /' Belief in the
of France, and even M. Scheurer-Kestner, a vice president of Innocence •
the Senate — none of them Jews — eventually advocated the °* Dreyfus
revision of a sentence which failed to appeal to the sense of justice of the
best element of France.
It was asserted by some that Dreyfus had sold the plans of various
strongly fortified places to the German government, and by others that the
sale had been to the Italian government. It was also said that he had dis-
closed the plans for the mobilization of the French army in case of war,
covering several departments, and especially the important fortress of
Brian9on, the Alpine Gibraltar near the Italian frontier.
The bordereau, the paper on which the charges against Dreyfus were
based, was a memorandum of treasonable revelations concerning French
military affairs. The ^/^.tj/V;' was the official envelope containin^r ^^\ .
4.1 1 • 1 , . , , *^ 1 he Bordereau
the papers relative to the case, which embraced facts alleged to and the
be sufficient to prove the guilt of the accused officer. The bor- tJoss'sr
dereau was examined by five experts in handwriting, only three of whom testi,
fied that it could have been written by Dreyfus. The papers in the dossier were
not shown to Dreyfus or his counsel, so that it was impossible to refute them.
In fact, the court-martial was conducted in the most unfair manner, and many
became convinced that some disgraceful mystery lay behind it', and that
Dreyfus had been made a scapegoat to shield some one higher in office.
It was in the early part of 1898 that the case was again brought promi
nently to public notice, after the wife of the unfortunate prisoner had, with
the most earnest devotion for three years, used every effort to obtain for
him a new trial. Lieutenant-Colonel Picquart, in charge of the secret
service bureau at Paris, became familiar through his official duties with the
famous case, and was struck with the similarity between the handwriting of
the bordereau and that of Count Ferdinand Esterhazy, an officer of the
French army and a descendant of the well-known Esterhazy
family of Hungary. Shortly afterwards M. Scheurer-Kestner '^'^^ Accusation
declared that military secrets had continued to leak out after °' ^^^^''''^^y
the arrest of Dreyfus, that in consequence a rich and titled officer had been
requested to resign, and that this officer was the real author of the bor-
dereau. ^ This man was Count Esterhazy, whose exposure was due to
Picquart's fortunate discovery. Others took up this accusation, and the
affair was so ventilated that Esterhazy was subjected to a secret trial by
court-martial, which ended in an acquittal.
I \
m
. ' L
•■-III
m
i
290
,! !'.
THE RISE OF THE FRENCH REPUBLIC
try of war, who were an " 2 .Infr' ^'"^'^;i'"^^^ '" "^ ■""-■
not possibly make an error, "'"''' ""'"">' i"»"':== could
This letter led to the arrest and tri ,? „f 7 i
paper, their trial bein.. conducted in n '' ""'' "'° '"''"■•'?" "f "«=
tl.e facts fro™ becomh^^Tnow , Tlfe " r"f' '"'''"''' '" I—"
the officers of the cour^nrarH 'and -te^S IZ"' ''f' "' '"'' ^S^'"^'
■mprisonnient. On appeal thev 1 I 1 "^' "'"^'^ '■>"'' ""= Star's
..nd received the s.^ sentence 7 "', *F'" '" "'^ '"""'^ ""fair way,
f™m France, that the se c" Jf ave ""'' '^ '^''^'="''"» """-''
executed. sentence of a years impnsonment should not be
fact, one of the ,nost important paper intfs "^7"" "f' " '"'"^'"S
Henr,., Por. hin,. He confes ed tint he 1 f ,°-""' '"^'"^ '^■•'«'' '°
s^yand ease a.^ainsf n. 7 ■■ ^"''°"' " '" ''"•engthen the
•"ou,ht. Pie,uart was punish d bytin^tnT t^lf '"""'"T"' /" '"""^
imprisoned. He made H,o c,' -r ^ ''^^'^'''''' ^'^"^' afterwards
dead in his .ell it ^ J ot TjT::! T'^ ['"' P '"= ^"""'^ '^ '"""<'
have acknowled.red to a 1 n„ I ■ , "'*'■ ^sterliazy was said to
dereau, and it 1° rovLdi.;;!' h ",'■''•'" ""^ "" ^""'"^ "^ "^« ^or-
the paper on whici i v L ' tten f "''™';:""i"'- '''-"i-l with his and
'894. The papers in t e , Ifdoss'" I"'' ",'"'' ''= ''•^'' "^^'l -
forgeries, " ' ''°''"='^ ''<=■■<= also alleged to be a mass of
interJsl:irelt';:''::f';Ltren:i;c?'tV^'''"'' "--'--™Hd had taken
the development of ti e f.c.s " 7 ^"^'-'^rsMy condemned, -and
of the FreLh governmen o 'io p" ','' '"■'^"' ^"^'^''^ "'^- °«-aIs
sidered by the lbinet:':d ^^fyL^T^^^]::^' ^'^ ^ -n-
cabmet res.gned and a new one was chosen A '=°"\«<I'"-'"« the
brought before the Court of CaLTfl l? fi ^ " ''"'""' ""^ '"^"^ "^"-^
after full consideration ordered nTT' r ,"'' '°"" °' 'PP"^^- ^^^'^K
Caotiin n. r ""^"'"^ ^ ""'■'' tnal of the condemned officer
,,,„ , PI"" '^'^'^>'f"f "■->» accordingly brought from Devil's IHand and
July I, .oyy, reached the city of Rennes wher^ ,u °"
> ivennes, where the new court-martial was
Dreyfus stepped
c an open letter
" (" I accuse "),
In it lie boldly
y the members
:fs in the minis-
■y justice could
lanager of the
ncd to prevent
f libel against
and one year's
nc unfair way,
anting himself
should not be
d Henry, who
h a damaging
;ing traced to
rengthen the
offence, and
■ed, as some
d afterwards
uld be found
■ was said to
^ of the bor-
'Vith his and
had used in
3e a mass of
1 had taken
mned,— and
the officials
le case con-
iquence the
le case was
)ea], which,
icer.
nd, and on
martial was
Th.
THE BOMBARDMENT OF ALEXANDRIA
le Egyptian patriots of 1882, wlio nislied to arms at tlie tall of Arabi Pasha for the exoulsion of th^ lnt„,l l!,u;.i, e ,%. ■
made the.r most vigorous stand behind the strong fortifications of A exandria where thev fom^i^t Ji^^^^^ Iheir country.
But the cannon of the British fleet proved too heavy for their powers of ^eCe and tL c tf /e" into the h^nd '
of the mvaders. It was plundered and partly burned by the Egyptians in their retreat.
i \
! ■
JKI^SSSSSSTj
he South, who
er of these
streets
rn
THE RISE OF THE FRENCH REPUBLIC 41^3
to be held. It is not necessary to repeat the evidence given in this uial.
which lasted from August 7th to September 7th, and with which the world
IS sufhciently familiar. It will suffice to say that the evidence against Drey-
fus was of the most shadowy and uncertain character, being lartrely conjec-
tures and opinionsof army officers, and seemed insufficientto convict a criminal
for the smallest offence before an equitable court ; that the evidence in hii
favor was of the strongest character; that the proceedings ^5
were of the loosest description ; that much favorable evidence Co^iTmna-
was ruled out by the judges, the presiding judge throughout *'*'"
showing a bias against the accused ; and that the trial en'Iled in a conviction
(^f the prisoner, by a vote of five judges to two, the verdict beina the ex-
traordinary one of "guilty of treason, with extenuating circumstances "—as
if any treason could be extenuated.
This is but an outline sketch of this remarkable case, which embraced
many circumstances favorable to Dreyfus which we have not had space to
give. The verdict was received by the world outside of France with
universal astonishment and condemnation. The opinion was everywhere
expressed that not a particle of incriminating evidence had been adduced
and that the members of the court-martial had acted virtually under the
commands of their superior officers, who held that the "honor of tlie anny"
demanded a conviction. Dreyfus was thought bv many to have h.cn made
a victim to shield certain criminals of high importance in the army which
so dominated French opinion that the great bulk of the people pro-
nounced in favor of the sacrifice of this innocent victim to
the Moloch of the French military system. It was widely The World's
felt in foreign lands that the great development of mill- ^'"""'"
tarism in France, and the vast influence of the general staff of the army
formed a threatening feature of the governmental system, which micrht
at any time overthrow the republic and form a military empire upon'its
ruins. Two republics have already been brought to an end in France
through the supremacy of the army, and the safety of the third is far from
assured. The Dreyfus case has thrown a flood of light upon the volcanic
condition of affairs in France.
The general condemnation of this example of French "justice" by
the press of other nations, and very probably the recognition by the
governing powers of France of the inadequacy of the evidence led, shortly
after the conclusion of the court-martial, to the pardon of the con-
clemned. The sentence of the court in no sense affected his position be-
fore the world, he being looked upon everywhere outside of France as a
victim of injustice instead of a criminal. The severity of his imprisonment
mw
.••!
f
1*"
;_ii '
|!,;!j|(
'!
m i''.
1
1
& :
894
T/fS Ji/SE OF THE FRIiNCIt REPUBLIC
however had seriously affected his healch, and threatened to brin. his life to
the Lt ""tXl '';■' T' "''"■'' "'■'''° '•'" "''^™"^ "««■■ of "■<= F^<="cl> arn,y
earth "tleento H ^°"'""T''' ""''" """"« •■■" "^<= ?-?'<=' <>' "-■
ii" i r "'? "'"<^'f "'I' <^<='«"ry, is of f„rtl,er interest from the
a; 1„ sf "P"" ;'; 'T'"^-^''™ °f P^='"^= - »™I'-ed with .l,a. of
Anglo-Saxon nat.ons, Dreyfus, it is true, was tried by court-martial but the
proce<lure was snnilar to that of the ordinary Frencif cour s, ^,"^1 , >I
by jury does not exist, the judge having the double functi™ oT decid .^J
T^^z^^izT- "' ''' '''''-' ^"' p-^'"^' r^teterwh f
criorts are made to nduce the prisoner to incriminate himself which would
be considered utterly unjust in British and American legal practice T e
Frenc legal systen, is a direct descendant of that of ancienf Rome T I
Brmsh one represents a new development in legal methods. Doubtle , both
have hejr advantages, but the Dreyfus trial seems to indicate tha the sy
tem o£ France opens the way to ,cts of barbarous injustice. ^
|i I!
CHAPTER XIX.
Paul Kruger and the Struggle for Dominion in
South Africa.
AT the close of the nineteenth century, not the least important among
the international questions that were disturbing the nations was the
controversy between the English and the Boers in South Africa,
concerning the political privileges of the Uitlanders, or foreign gold miners
of the Transvaal. A consideration of this subject obliges us to go back
to the beginning of the century and review the whole history of coloniza-
tion in South Africa.
That region belongs by right of .settlement to the Dutch, who founded
a colony in the region of Capetown as early as 1650, and in ^^^ ^
the succeeding century and a half spread far and wide over Settlement in
the territory, their farms and cattle ranches occupying a very South Africa
wide area. Th(i first interference with their peaceful occupation came in
1795, when the English took possession. In 1800, however, they restored
the colony to Holland, which held it in peaceable ownership until the Con-
gress of Vienna, in 1815, came to disturb the map of Europe, ai, d in a meas-
ure that of the world. As pait of the distribution of spoils among the
great nations. Cape Colony was ceded to Great Britain. Since then that
country, which has a great faculty of taking hold and a very
/' ri • 1 1 u • 1 u u 1 Great Britain in
poor faculty ot lettuig go, has held possession, and has pusnecl Cape Colony
steadily northward until British South Africa is now a terri- and tiie Emi-
tory of enormous extent, stretching northward to the borders |'|^*rs" ** * *
of the Congo Free State and to Lake Tangan) ika.
This vast territory has not been gained without active and persistent
aggression, from which the Dutch settlers, known as Boers, and the African
natives have alike suffered. In truth, the Boers found the oppression of
British rule an intolerable burden early in the century, and in 1840 a great
party of them gave up their farms and " treked " northward — that is, traveled
with their ox-teams and belongings — eager to get away from British con-
trol. Here they founded a republic of their own on the river Vaal, and
settled down again to peace and prosperity.
295
:'l
iliil
296
PAUL A
I :
■J \
i I
;■ i
■mcHR .m> rnn s„uc.c,,.n w sour,, ..„„c^
He.ghO a„.e,op,. „f .evt.a, .^Z f^ ^Z^'^^l '" ^T ''" '"
A »„„.„„,„, ™'^->- -d plain. „f ,,„ ,„„ ;„„ r//he ""ff'''', '" ""'
Paradise buffalo, l,on and other Ur„ 7 K'^ile. elephant,
, rivers were fnll of mZ^Z;^ "'" '''^""^"'- T'-
comers fonnd abun.lance nf food -t 'T , I 'r '"'P?'^""' "'■'•<= '!"= "ew-
tl- farm anin.,ls they brought nc'reed ^1 1 ""'' P"'°™' "-"' 'hat
stream of Boers continued 'to enter t T r,"''""'!':- , ''"■• >---^ » «eady
farms in the British territory, hrmes^in" | "'° '","'" '■•""'• ''^'^'^^''''^ 'heir
■ng wagons, and brin.-injf titl^ h eml 7,""": '" "»='^ '""«■ '"'"ber-
-.pply of powder and le^d fo u ", I," '"■ \^' '>""""^y- '^"rf => good
hunting experience brought tl ,. „ 1,'""/ '"" '""■''^''' '^"-^ -'i-
men in the world. '""'^ '° ""1^ ^"'"ng the best marks
^iercixifr,t";::i;-';;;'^r„r'r.'";^' --'^ ■"- - "^"•
soon at war. A number of san.^ in- rTlrH "'"' "'"'' ""= "^^''^ *«^«
TheBcr, slaughter on both lie" L ? "'"'" '""»'"■ *'"> '""^h
rB,r '°x to give way trtt'!;;- eTa d cZl t ^^ ™- --
mto Matabeleland, to the nortl, , , ^""Popo River
occupy. Others of the natives were ubdue " ' """ ^"'^'-■"dan.s still
Boers. The latter were essentia K, >:°ntmued to live with the
but divided up the land i no rren?'"^" ^'''' ''" "^ ''» "^e so
abundant herds. And tl,ey Ik^I i sM-netf" '"T'' ""''"''^ "'"' 'hei
the country possessed falli.fg into B^ ," 'a Ts ^' ™''' ""'"^ ™'"--<=
Two settlements were mirlp ^. u
rivers, and the other nortV: he v^.'^^^r f" °""="'= ='"'' "^ ^-I
wtth the British previous to ,854 i„ which " ''"'' ""'''' '™"We
dence. ,t is known as the Orange RirrFreisTate ^tVT" '" '""'^P^"-
The South Afrl. the name of Tran^vnnl ^ ^^/^^ate. 1 he latter was mVen
-oir- 7t"- »utTn™;r;h : TifrL^r 'd- r-'^
of the South African Ren„W,/ t-, ""''•='' '^e title
covered with the shadow of Bri i I, so" J", ''"'*^^= ^"'^ '"' ^ '""e
extending up to the 25th de^rero hi, °rP^'-'''' <='^''"'^ "^ "'e British
and in 185= it was withdra^ Grt B td r'"^ "'" —"7 on paper,
over the country north of the Va A d o "v"^ '' ?"°"""'"» ^" ^'^hts
lived on here free and undisturbed ^ "■■' afterwards the Boers
and ^^:-:2.r-f:%:t' '"- '-"' - --^^-d. ■
years to come. Under their soilTav^rn'told':™,.? .!"" "^ '^-'''^ - 'he
lay untold riches, which
in time brought
PAUL KRUGER AND THE STRUGGLE IN SOUTH A I- RICA
297
The Discovery
of Diamonds
hosts of unruly strangers to disturb their pastoral peace. The trouble
began in 1867, when diamonds were found in the vicinity of the Vaal River,
and a rush of miners i;egan to invade this remote district.
But the diamond mines lay west of the bord(;rs of th(;
Transvaal, and brought rather a threatening situation than
immediate disturlnmce to the Boer state. It was the later discovery of gold
on Transvaal territory that eventually overthrew the quiet content of the
pastoral community.
In 1877 the first intrusion came. The British were now abundant in
Griqualand West, the diamond region, and on the Transvaal borders
lay a host of native enemies, chief among them being the warlike Zulus,
led by the bold and daring Cetewayo. Only fear of the British kept
this truculent chief at rest. Meanwhile the Boer Republic had fallen
into a financial collapse. Its frequent wars with the natives had ex-
hausted its revenues and thrown it dee[)ly into debt. A shepstone's
serious crisis seemed impending. On the plea of preventing Annexation of
this, Sir Theophilus Shepstone, secretary of Natal, made his ^^^
way to Pretoria, the capital of the republic, and issued a proclamation
annexing the Transvaal country to Great Britain. The public treasury he
found to be almost empty, it containing only twelve shillings and six pence,
and even part of this was counterfeit coin. His act was arbitrary and unwar-
ranted, and while the Boers submitted, they did so with sullen anger,
quietly biding their time.
In the following year the Zulus, who had been threatening the Boers,
broke out into war with the British, and with such energy that the whites
were at first repulsed by the impetuous Cetewayo and his warlike followers.
In this onset Prince Napoleon, son of the deposed emperor Louis Napo-
leon, who served as a volunteer in the British ranks, was killed. The British
soon retrieved the disaster, and in the end decisively defeated ^^^ ^uiu War
the Zulus, capturing their king, who was taken as a prisoner
to London. After the Zulu war Sir Garnet Wolseley led his troops into the
Transvaal, telling the protesting Boers that "so long as the sun shone and
the Vaal River flowed to the sea the Transvaal would remain British terri-
tory." Other acts of interference, and the attempt of the British officials
to tax the Boers, added to their exasperation, and at the end of 1880 they
resolved to fight for the independence of which they had been robbed.
Wolseley had before this left the territory, and the troops had been reduced
to a few detachments, scattered here and there.
The first hostile action took place on December 20, 1880, a detachment
on its march to Pretoria, 1:
111
;f ' i
/•"I
ir
tJ;
of the Ninety-fourth regimer
ig waylaid by
I,.
2^8
\f
I '
t 'I
/^^/^/^ A'A^^C;,,^ ,^^ y,,, ,^^^^^^^^ ^^ ^^^^^^ ^^^^^^
for nMnforccments, the force it 1,1. ]; T '•''' ^^'^'^oi't waitinLr
de.H, f,. His ..eVi, .„rc::u'::r;. .:;:;"" ^ •"'- "^- .^^^
"le was encountered by the Boers if, „I. ' " J'"»'ary jS, ,88i,
a bloody defeat. In about a week V^ T' '"r''" '''^'' ^""' ""^' -'"^
place, in wind, the British lost , g offi " , "'°"'", «"»"«--H took
'"- »as ,4. IVactised hun,,',, tit r^r "T"' "'"''= "" ^'"'^^ '--
shot found its mark. " "''' '" '''^'''''ly 'hat r,lmor,t every
The war was goi,,,; badlr f6r the British r,
Rece.vmg rei„f„rce„,ents, Colley ,„nde a t ,'„l ' '"'" ''?" '" «° '""'''■
known as Majuba Hill, whose sun,„,it vas .000 feet", ''"^7'' """''""
m s.„<, „ l-l'l by the Boers and its as entTs c eo "iT ""=''«'""-
m.iuba.«,l .sold.ers had to clin,b it in sin.ll fi e M -P ""=
ascent the .rrassv «!„„ ° ^■'"' ''"^ '"I' <>' the
and loose stones, over whiWtUeTrv,:"! "'"^T'^^" ^y boulders, crags,
->l knees. In this ,vay about" me 'f '," ^'^« "'='"-lves on hand
of February .7th. ThI ,00 of'tt t'" '"T" °" '"« '"-"'•%'
MOO yards wide, with an elevated \''"''-"''"'^"P'='' P'^t'-'au, about
posted. ''"="<=J ""' ""h.n which the British were
in the^'t'^ta'c'rrfre'of XTr"" '"' ""= '^""^ "-- ''■^' -' '-itate
below-pickedshotsrdy toVr ' n:'::,:? '1'^"T' " ^^^^ ^ "« -^^
of the hill. The younger men be^n to ■":'''r^^l-,»''""ld appear on the rim
shrub and stones Tlte a sault was A ""= ''°P"' ""''^ '^^^ of the
too weak in ntnnbers .0 Md I e w orelrof^T^' f"' '""' ""= '''='-'^"^.
from point to point to meet and atTemnt r^! 'j'''"''™' ''^'' '" 1"= ™°ved
Slowly and steadily the hosti e s ^ her I "'^ '""'' °' '^"^ J*--
.0 cover, while the supports bei: r" Ll'rir'^m "''""* '™™ ^°--
and accurate fire. Dunn,, the hou s ro,r^ '"°^«"";nt with a steady
^^uffer very heavilv. notwiths,',; i " , '"" '° "°°" "'« "'•'■"^h did not
t -..he long strain of the bJ; ^^ c oVesVo,,';- "T °' '"-' ^^-^ '"-ksmanship.'
close .shootmg began to tell on the mor^U of
i
^i^^tst^.-^-jtrr;
PAUL A'AVV/AVv' IXn I HI-. STRIHUJ.E !iW SOUTH AI-RlC.i
■Z(f,
rs
BritiHii Camp
the liritish soldiers, atul vvIumi tho enemy at lenj^'th rt^ached the crest aiul opened
a deaiUy fire at short range the officers had to exert thenis(;lves to tht; utmost
in the effort to avert disaster. The reserves station<,'d in the ciMitral (lip of
the plateau, out of reach until then of the enemy's fire, were ordered up in
support of the figh'/i'ig Mne. Their want of promptitude in obeying this
order did not augur .,«. li. and soon after reaching the front they wavtrinl and
then gave way. The officer;-; temporarily succeeded in rallying th(Mn, hut the
"bolt" had a bad effect. To use th(! exprt:ssion of an eye-witness, a "funk
bet.ime established."
It was struggled against very gallantly by the officers, who, sword aiul
revolver in hand, enoouragcil the soldiers byword and by action. A num-
ber of men, unable to confront the deadly fire ( ' the Boers, had IuicUIUhI
for cover behind the rocky reef crossing the platca and ;u) -y^^ ,j,,e„
entreaty or upbraiding on the part of their officer would Storm tii
induce them to face the enemy. What then happ(Mi( ' one
does not care to tell in detail. F.verything count t^d v ih this disastrous
enterprise went to naught, as if there had be-en a .rse on it. W hatever
may have been the object intended, the force inph d was absurdly inade-
quate. Instead of being homogeneous, it consiste>i
ments with no link or bond of union — a disposition of tr< ><
has led to more panics than any other cause that the ai
tory can furnish. Fragments of proud and distingu
from victt)ry on another coniinent shared in the \
seasoned warriors behaving ni better than mere recr
pulsed philosopher a panic is an academic enigma. Nf
it — much less shared in it — can ver forget the infectioi
stricken soldiers.
In the sad ending, with a crv of fright and despair th*r remnants of the
hapless force turned and filed, r-gardless of the efforts . f the officers to
stem the rearward rush. Sir G-orge Colley lay dead, sIk through the
head just before the final flight. A surgeon and two hos] il attendants
carincr for the wounded at the ba;;daging place in the dip of
the plateau were shot down, probab y inadvertently. The elder ^®^ ^qqJs "
Doers promptly stopped the firin. in that direction. But
there was no cessation of the fire o rected on the fugitives. On them the
bullets rained accurately and persistently. The Boers, now disdaining
cover, stood boldly on the edge of the plateau, and, firing down upon the
scared troops, picked off the men as if shooting game. The slaughter would
have been yet heavier but for the entrenchment which had been made
by the company of the Ninety-second, left overnight on the Nek, between
j'arate detach-
i wiuch notoriously
, of regimental his-
1 regiments fresh
c of the Majuba,
Is. To the calm-
lan who has seen
natlness of panic-
l
ji
M
3of>
• i,
i "• >
■: ^
fii I
^■W/. KKUGRR A.W IHF STDirrr, ^ ,.,
i rA UGGI.F. IN SOUTH AF/i/CA
tne Inqucla anc] th,- Miiuhi r
•■■"'"i^ by a con,pany of' h.'sixtii'ir'" Y'T"'' "^' J'"'"<='1 ''^ J™" f^om
-nVed at the .ntrr„chm::„ 7l N "k ^t™ '^'•"'; ■^'"';'°- ^ater the.:
'"dor the c„,„ma,Kl of Captain S^llfv,, Af?" "^'^ '^"'-"th Hussars,
finn. on the Majnba rapid y incre d and^.^' '""'''"^' ""-* »""'' <>' tl>e
B-rs had captured ti:? p^' „ tw'l t^'f ^ '" ''" '''""»' ^^'^^ '"
Pnsoners, and that the jjenertl wa^ , ° ""-' "■""P'^ ''"'' billed or
^ Woun<led n,en pre , 'k " ,e "" ^""'' "'^""S'' ''- ''--l.
S..r,.eon-Major Corniih. Tl e 1 ' ,1 ''""""'' '"' ""' ^^'-'^'^ ""^J^d by
outposts were thrown out. whi 3,7'' ""T"' ''>' "'<= »™P=>nies, and
;-"n.ed Boers, under wh^se f, n:en fe 1 hit F", '" '^' '"'»" '°'''« «'
' '"'; ™'"I»"y 'lown tl,e ravine towards ,h '^°';'=^ff<"> dispatched the
-■tl> the contpany „f t|,,, Ni,"ety sect, i""''' ""' ' ""'" '"" '""""'"I
Boers, who had reached and I^ , , " " •'', """•''-o"' ^re fron, the
AP.„.™,,. lost ,,eavi,y in ti'T ::,!'-"'"■.;'''" "'»'''■•'-'-»
killed. Th,. survivinrr , Surgeon-Major Cornish was
laager finally reached can,p u dl " Tf '™"" "^'J"''=' ^""1 f™"' 'he
""■■•■ately stopped the 7^.::^''^^/ "' ^"'""'^ "" f™'" ■•'■ -'^-1'
temporary hospital was establishe a ' f" ™?'"" "' ""= '^'"-^ l«'<Iers a
mountain, and throughout the col t f"'"-.''°"-^<= "ear the foot of the
ceased to search forlnd 1 r , tl "'l ',"''^'" "'« ""=*«' ^'^^ "ever
was brought iutocamponll ,;""?""'■• f'^ George Colley's body
honors. ^ '"'"'='■ '^'. and buned therewith full military
in fp°o:s ■::;■ ;;•::el^rs'4'':^r 'j;'^ '"t'™"-^ -^^''^^^ "- --
and five wounded. Majuba H 1 w ' ^ ' ' P""''-' '''•"' """ ">an killed
'!-)■ u-ere in an unjust caus^ An "mil":'' ' "", '''■'■"'^"' «»'"■"•" as
a treaty of peace on March 2,d iTr T"' "■'*'"''="' "''""• '"""^^-ed by
"Wch wotdd have given the Hritish ^' ^enforcements had been sent out!
P"ce Declared ""ers, capable of bearing , ^"^', " '°-°°^ '"-'''"^' '!'« «-°°o
"'«. British „f ,,„ , . ''• "' ''•-a '"g arms ; but to fight longer in defence
J"-'"'^ Lon,"" ,;;:tr;: f 7-- -eh brafe defenders of thei
Mr. Gladstone, and he l„st n^ti f , "■"' '''P'"' '° "'« conscience of
terms of the treaty the ::^ '^^'^^J "- war to an end. By the
would, they acknowledgin,. thl o ue ' . ''°'"'" "'e'"=elves as they
eontrol of its foreign relatTons ^ '"'"'"" "' ''""'" eon"try, with
pioita^i: :rfc':!:M: -irr :, "^ i^'"°^>' °^ "- •'-----i «- 1,. e.
ing of the diantond n i s turn t u": I ""'""' ''"' '"°" "''-• "- open-
N not under very promising conditions. It exists
iFR/CA
I at dawn from
Later there
enth Hussars,
sound of the
■unnino- down
'"gs tJiat the
^ere killed or
his head.
attended by
npanies, and
g:e bodies of
•spatched the
Iter followed
ire from the
Hin-hlandcrs
Cornish was
kI from the
3m it, which
-r leaders a
foot of the
staff never
>lley's body
• 11 military
lir the loss
nan killed
\L,diting as
llovved by
sent out,
the 8,000
n defence
s of their
science of
13 y the
i as they
try, with
s the ex-
he open.
It exists
THE BATTLE OF MAJUBA HILL, BETWEEN THE ENGLISH AND BOERS, SOUTH AFRICA
The greatest disaster ever experienced liy the Itriiisli in Afriiii was at Majubn Hill, in the South African Repuhlic. In the war
of 1880 81 with the Hners, a liritish force occupied tlie ilat top of this steep elevation, but was driven out with ureal
slaughter. The atlempl to recapture the hill in the face of the skilled liocr marksmen was simply
a diml) to death, and the day ended in a serious defeat for the invaders.
»' 1
:*i!
? I
PAUL KRUGER AND THE STRUGGLE AV SOUTH AFRICA
303
0, ^
/^ a
< 2
a: 5
S3 1
in a conglomerate rock, whose beds extend over an area of seventy by forty
miles, and through a depth of from two to twenty feet ; but years passed
before the richness in metal of these roc's was discovered, jhe Gold Dig-
and it was not until after the Roer war that mining fairly gingsofthe
beuan. No one in his wildest dreams foresaw that these Transvaa
"banket" beds would in time yield gold to the value of more than $60,000,-
000 a year. The yield of the diamond mines was also enormous, and these
two incitements brought a steady stream of new settlers to that region,
destined before many years greatly to outnumber the sturdy farmers and
herders of Dutch descent.
In the vicinity of the gold mines, not far from Pretoria, the Roer capi-
tal, rose the mining city of Johannesburg, which now has a population of
more than 100,000 souls, of whom half are European miners and nearly all
the remainder are natives. The great event in the history of the
diamond mines was the advent thither of Cecil Rhodes. This cecil Rhodes
remarkable man, the son of a country parson in England, who
was ordered to South Africa for the benefit of his failing lungs, displayed
such enterprise and ability that he soon became the leading figure in the dia-
amond mining industry, organizing a company that controlled the mines, and
accumulating an immense fortune.
This accomplished, he entered actively into South African politics, and
was not loncT in immensely extending the dominion of Great Rritain in that
region of the earth. He obtained from Lord Salisbury, prime minister of
Great Britain, a royal charter giving him the right to occupy and govern the
great territory lying between the Limpopo River on the south and the Zam-
besi on the north, and extending far to the north and the west of the South
African Republic. With an expedition of a thousand men, volunteers from
the Transvaal and the Cape Colony, Rhodes marched north through a coun-
try filled with armed Zulus, — the best fightinj stuff in Africa, — and reached
the spot where now stands the flourishing town of Fort Salisbury without
firin*)- a shot or losing a man. Here gold mines were opened, the resources
of the country developed, and within three years as many important town-
ships were founded and settled.
Not until July, 1893, did trouble with the natives arise. Then a rupture
took place with the Matabele chief, Lobengula, who sent against the whites
powerful bands of his dreaded Zulu warriors, numbering in
Wfl,r With the
all over 20,000 armed blacks. These were met by Dr. Jameson, Matabeles
the administrator of the chartered territory, and dealt with so
vigorously and skilfully that in two months the power of the Matabeles was at
an end, their army was practically annihilated, their great kraals were occupied,
;,
V ,
111
304
PAUL ICRUGER AND THE STRrrrrr n r
"""^ ^T^^UGGLE IN SOUTH AFRICA
A 1 ^'^uiti AFRICA
a territory as large as France »nrl r *" doni.nion of Great Britain
-i. in gold and ftl,er ^^aTs ■'"' ^^""='"^' -^V f-fle and healthrun„d
^ambesia-or Rl,odesia, as it is often called
TheD„,^,„„, north of the Zambesi River , „'!""'r'"°"' ^"ends far to the
c„™^„, by Lake Nyassa. and embracing .he^'lelrtofl °" "l' ""^
AfnV=. r^ '■' fs'-ritory was chartered in ,ss k . Soim, Africa.
Afnca Company, with Cecii Rhodes hen 'e ' ^,"'' ^'•'"■■''' South
.ts managn,g director and practical cr^ltor ' " °' "" <^^P« Colony, as
sition o; S'orti:':^:::":: '^■•"■■^'^ '----^ - south Afnca, the accui
which was compie'tely^^cut or o r:r' f "« '°""> ^'■■'"" ^^p b c'-
'ory,-and the groJth of a ^e ZZ f ^'f^ -^ Portugue'se te'ri-
repubhc .tself, could not fail to be a so ur^e f °P"'='"°" °" "'e soil of the
who deeply distrusted their new neith I 1?' T^'"^^ '° "'^ '^--.
the Bnt,sh had been a failure. Thev were ?" '° 2^' ='"»>' f^''"i
"^-. It is true, the coming of thl^o.dT, u^sTd b'^' ^"' "^'=^™" "^
Wh« the the Boer in one way. From h J „ ^ ^'■''*' '^°°" '<>
P«re„».™ „o„ ,„ overflowin.. one T e r^ ■■■" "."^^'^ "'''"^"'■J'' ''^ ^ad
rr i:„, -de the government rth. ' h f^r:"..;: f "d T'""' '^^^
the railway, the electrl. I; Z '"["'^^""^ had also brought
abundant articles of ever -dav use „ ^ ' "" "=''^g'-aph, cheap and
age. of civili.ation, but uTs IVb ;iTtTr:;r:''°°'-\^"<' "''^ ''PP "^
as the cash contribution, since they tended to h T 1°""" '° "^^ '^oers
archal style of living and destroy the r th« 1 ono . "' '^'''" ""?'<=• P^'""
The question that particularly rouj^hBo """'"J'
one. Paul Kruger. the president of the republic """^ ""' => P^''^^'-'^''
character, an astute statesman, a shrewdp'o tiari^r" "' ""^^'^^
l^een judgment, a personage strikino-ly capable o I T ^" "'°" '"'" ^"^
s.tuat,on. While ignorant in book Le he ,1 "'^ "'"' ' ^'''"'^'"g
secretary of state an educated Hollande; Dr TT''"^ "'"' ''"" =>?
ablest and shrewdest statesmen in Souttlfrica. fhl Z'^T, °"^ "' '"^
Paul Kruger close match for the bold and . • • P^"^°' t'lem were a
w,th was the following : The C/i//aJrtn ^^ '° '''=^'
element ,„ the republic had grown^so enorm™! as ^ar ' " '°^"'^">
Dutch. I he country presented the ano„„l,. .f ' „ / """'"'"ber the
-t and unprogressive Dutch burghe. r^i^g ^ r^ri^of 'f^ "ortt
tSt,
'1
""RICA
2 He died two
Great Britain
'ealihi'ul, and
s far to the
he north by
on the east
oiitn Africa,
itish South
2 Colony, as
i. the acqui-
Republic,—
guese terri-
soil of the
the Boers,
away frcm
>verrun by
at boon to
'0'. he had
■oduct had
brought
heap and
:r append-
the Boers
pie, patri-
1 poh'tical
markable
will and
isturbing
' him as
e of the
1 were a
es, then
• to deal
foreign)
iber the
o igno-
or five
PAUL KRUGER AND THE STRUGGLE IN SOUTH AFRICA
305
times their number of educated, wealthy and prosperous aliens, who, while
possessing the most valuable part of the territory, were given no voice in
its government. They were not only deprived of legislative functions in the
country at large, but also of municipal functions in the city of their own
creation, and they demanded in vain a charter that would enable them to
control and improve their own city. President Kruger, fearing to have his
government overwhelm'id by these Anglo-Saxon strangers, sternly deter-
mined that they should have no political foothold in his state until after a
long residence, forseeing that if they were given the franchise on easy terms
they would soon control the state. In this sense the gold which was making
them rich seemed a curse to the Boers, since it threatened to bring them
again under the dominion of the hated Englishman.
In 1895 the state of affairs reached a critical point. The British in
Matabeleland, north of the Transvaal, were in warm sympathy with their
brethren in Johannesburg, and between them a plot was laid to overthrow
Kruger and his people. An outbreak took place in Johannesburg, led by
Colonel F. W. Rhodes, brother of Cecil Rhodes, by whom it was thought
to have been instigated. It was quickly followed by an invasion from
Matabeleland, led by Dr. L. S. Jameson, Cecil Rhodes' lieu-
tenant in that region. The movement was a hasty and e Jameson
ill-considered one. The invaders were met by the bold Boers,
armed with their unerring rifles, were surrounded and forced to surrender,
and their leaders were put on trial for their lives.
Paul Kruger, however, was shrewd enough not to push the matter to
extremities. Jameson and his confederates were set at liberty and allowed
to return to England, where they were tried, convicted of invading a friendly
country and imprisoned — Cecil Rhodes going free. This daring man soon
after suppressed an extensive revolt of the Matabeles, and gained the
reputation of designing to found a great British nationality in South Africa.
At a later date he devised the magnificent scheme of building a railroad
throughout the whole length of Africa, from Cairo to Cape Colony, and
threw himself into this ambitious enterprise with all his accustomed energy
and organizing capacity.
The victory of the Boers over Jameson and his raiders did not bring
to an end the strained relations in Johannesburg. The demand of the
Uitlanders for political rights and privileges grew more The Demands
earnest and insistant as time went on, and the British govern- of the Uit-
ment, on the basis of its suzerainty, began to take a hand '^"''ers
in it. The right to vote, under certain stringent conditions as to period
of residence and declaration of intention to become citizens, was accorded
14
306
f .J,
't
PAC/L k'RUGER AND THE STRTirrr ^- r.r
^Mt. i>rRUisGLh IN SOUTH AFRICA
by the Boer government, but was far from .• c
dents who demanded th; suffrage tdHe^^^^^^^^^^ '^^'^ '°^^^^" -'-
Jn 1899 the stite of .ff • ^.^ ^^^^ '^'STorous conditions.
decided 3,:„'d, a„d':::o:;,;';;::siTe: T^- ^"«'='"'' -^-^ ^ "-'-
Bnt,sh residents under he, suzlra „tv H ■='!"'", "/ ™'« '" the status of
her no right to interfere in the d'm Stirs' o':/'" "'" "" '^""^^ ^^-^
berla,n, secretary of state for the co oniem , T"'' ^"^'^P'' C''^"'"
arrangement than that existing and M '^"'^^'"^'"^ ^ ^°'^ equitable
between the Boer authoritie J^d hose o^cr" r ^^ '° ^ ""'=-"-
Kruger refused to yield to the ilZ^Lt T ^°'°"y- ^"^ ^'-'^^'''ent
cessions which he offered were no satTsl T" ''""■ "'"'« "'« «n.
Negotiations went on dur^^ ^^^^^^"-y '° 'he British cabinet,
but at the same time both side, wieac"T'' '""^ '"^'^ ="""'"" °f '899,
Britain had begun to send large col/erf r"'''""^ '" ^--^ -'^ ^rea
state of indecision came to a s,?d7 ^'^''P" '° ^outh Africa. The
Kruger apparently feadng that Joseol CI °"k "^""""^^ '°"'- P--''™'
negotiations, was deceiving him indT eki^!I f ""' "''" '""''"^'^^ "«
overwhelming force in Soufh Af'rica sen a^. '' ,"•"'" ^^ ""''' '^''^ ^"
cabinet. They were bidden to re„o„ f. "" "'"»""'" t° 'he British
borders of his state before five "crdofrh'™"''^ f '"' "^^^^'--<J "^=
the alternative, '""^ "^ ">« "ext day or accept war as
plied':- 1^ XXrwernt 'ZTj' 71 T "°' "^^'^ ^ "= ™-
the borders into Natal on the east and r ' r'^ ^°^- P™™?"/ crossed
Orange River Free State had t !> , T ^°'°">' °" 'he west. The
a"itude of hostility, and he Br t hi h b"'," ""r" '^^P"'^'- '" "
numbered and outgeneraled. T ftowns of M f'T ■ '"""' """^^^'^^ °"'-
the west were closely besieged and „„., "^'^''='^'"8 ^""i Kimberley on
driven back on -Ladysmitl Ihte Gener T wT> '"^ "^''^''"^ '™°P^ --
met with a severe repulse osin!. nv. ! "=• ""^ ^"'''>^ commander
Meanwhile Genera Bdler'irBAr ''''''"^'^ " P"^°"«-
Cape Town and a powerfu rmy wa^ o th:'""""''^"'",-^'"'^'' ''=''" --''^''
that the successes of the Boers weTebut crel ■ ' ""'' " ""^ ^^''i'='>' '^h
gle whose issue only time could dedde P'''""'"""^= '° ^ desperate strug-
'!.i
W*'
''H AFRICA
3 the foreign resi-
iditions,
fid taking a more
ce in the status of
lat the latter gave
e- Joseph Cham-
i more equitable
to a conference
'• But President
n, while the con-
sh cabinet,
autumn of 1899,
T war, and Great
uth Africa. The
loth. President
^ conducted the
le could land an
m to the British
threatened the
r accept war as
ikely to be com-
romptly crossed
the west. The
Republic in its
:hemselves out-
Kimberley on
ig troops were
'h commander,
ioners,
sf. had reached
^vas widely fell
asperate strug-
\vm
S|X TYPICAL AMERICAN NOVELISTS.
CHAPTER XX
The Rise of Japan and the Decline of China.
ASIA, the greatest of the continents and the seat of the earliest civiliza-
tions, yields us the most remarkable phenomenon in the history of
mankind. In remote ages, while Europe lay plunged in the deepest
barbarism, certain sections of Asia were marked by surprising activity in
thought and progress. In th»-ee far-separated regions— China, India, and
Babylonia — and in a fourth on the borders of Asia — Egypt Asia the Orli-
— civilization rose and flourished for ages, while the savage nalSeatof
and the barbarian roamed over all other regions of the earth. Civilization
A still more extraordinary fact is, that during the more recent era, that of
European civilization, Asia has rested in the most sluggish conservatism,
sleeping while Europe and America were actively moving, content with its
ancient knowledge while the people of the West were pursuing new knowl-
edge into its most secret lurking places.
And this conservatism is an almost immovable one. Eor a century
England has been pouring new thought and new enterprise into India, yet
the Hindoos cling stubbornly to their remotely ancient beliefs and customs.
For half a century Europe has been hammering upon the gates of China,
but the sleeping nation shows little signs of waking up to the fact that the
world is moving around it. As regards the other early civili- ^^^^ giu Ish-
zations — Babylonia and Egypt — they have been utterly ness of Hod-
swamped under the tide of Turkish barbarism and exist only *'"" ^^^^
in their ruins. Persia, once a great and flourishing empire, has likewise
sunk under the flood of Arabian and Turkish invasion, and to-day, under its
ruling Shah, is one of the most inert of nations, steeped in the self-satisfied
barbarism that has succeeded its old civilization. Such was the Asia upon
which the nineteenth century dawned, and such it remains to-day except in
one remote section of its .2a, in which alone modern civilization has gained
a firm foothold.
The section referred to is the island empire of Japan, a nation the people
of which are closely allied in race to those of China, yet which has displayed
a progressiveness and a readiness to avail itself of the resources of rnodern
civilization strikingly diverse from the obstinate conservatism of its densely
«7 309
t'"l
i ' '
310
rm ,,s,: opj,rAN .wn thh n.a.mn or cnmA
i|
7 I
tions, prolnbitin- the entr-inr,. „f '"->^ """^^ /^o"' closed na-
proud of their own form of civHi. „, ^1 t he "" • "**='' '•'"'' P™?''"-^'
reso ved to keep out the disturbin":™; '"»'''"''''-. ^"'' ^'-"v
result, they reu.ah.cd lockrd a.ains t ,' n ''""'''' ""'• ^s a
n.neteenth century was wel, adJ C c .""'"'"™ ""'" ^''^^ "-
aln,ost no pro^.ess durin,. the ct " hn c^T ""'°"-' P"'°<'' '^"t ■",, made
■deas, methods and institutions u hi ^ :;',:'';! r"'"' '° "'"'" "^ °"
™e Ope„.„. to 'hose of the western na i ' G r^' ^^i:" "^ '^^ r^^r''"
o, c.,„. hold in China as early as the se^^n^e^Mtc: "rfr,:' h' '""'"
. sistent attempt to flood the countrv wi, ,1 ^' ^^ P'^'-
■n disregard ofthe laws of the hn.l ""■ "'"" O' ""h the opium of India,
opium of the British sto es a Can o , '' L'" ""P""^ "'■■" ''^ ''ad the
stroyed. This led to t^ZZ^^^'jT .*-^°;°°°''^- --^ and de-
and was forced to accept a^nh"^'' '" r'- '''''"■''"''■' '''•■'-'-■J
world, five ports bein<. made ree to th t^""" °' ""'^'^""'^^ with the
ceded to Great Britain Jn iS-r!n """"'■'''^ ™'"'"<='-'=e and Honjj Kon.
at Canton, i„ forcibi; boar in f B ,' h r^^"- ' 1 *•= ^'"-^ -'^ontiet
new war, in which the FrenroLdirJnTf '","',' ^'"'°" '^'■^^^' '^^ to a
cessions from China. In ,850 t , I,ar wa '" "',' '"'''S^'"-'^ f'--^'' con-
pied by the British and Fren h o cjs n ,«6 'T""'' ^"^ ""'^'"^ "''^ «»-
being destroyed. " "*'^°' '^^ <=mperor's summer palace
of s.2TonZi Sn'h j'the:.;,;:ri"f ^ rf "^, ^°-" "- ^^'"- -1,
course, and also in'contpel ing he "Zor to V' foreign trade and inter-
at his court in Peking. I„ tWs the h,'^ = *= '°""^" ambassadors
cessful of the nations! fro t U Ht haT^f "" ^"'°"« "^^ ™-' --
relations with China Ini87fin\ ? ^^ ^ ^'™>" ""intained friendly
linewasestablished-lntA °r;-ntrT^
service was widely extended but tl,„ T .7 , '"^"""'J' ""e telegraph
posed, and not un^il the e.uurv haS r ."'' "' 'f'^^"^' *^= ^"""S'^ OP"
to the importance of th s metI,od of T "' '" '"' ^'""^^ ^^^1^-
admit stean, traffic to their "t" ^J^ ':^."^.P°"^!'°"- T^^y ''«. however,
naval vessels in Europe. ' ' i'-'^'asea some powerful ironclad
arm A
place within tho
was as resistant
both closed na-
leas and peoples,
tions, and sternly
ess west. As a
until after the
on to avail itself
inlil the century
:>oo, attained to
cl, but has made
to retain its old
as far superior
1 gained a foot-
ry, but the per-
pium of India,
hat he had the
seized and de-
^ was defeated
>urse with the
d Hono- Kong
ise authonties
River, led to a
ined fresh con-
ing was occu-
Jinmer palace
Chinese wall
le and inter-
ambassadors
the most suc-
ned friendly
7 a telegraph
he telegraph
strongly op-
nese awaken
id, however,
ful ironclad
THE RISE OF
J 'V . VD T^rE DECLINE OF CHINA
3"
The isolation of Japai was mai it u'ned longcM* than hal of China,
trade with that country b( mi of less in .ortancr and f-n i.^u nations know-
ing and caring less about it. The United Statt has th. "--edit of breaking
down its long and stubborn seclusion and set -nir in tra ihe „ .
Ill • 1 1 , , , , ** H»»w Japan Was
remarkably rapid development of the Japanese island empire. Opened to
In 1854 Commodore Perry appeared with an American fleet Commerce
in the bay of Yeddo, and, by a show of force and a determination not to be
rebuffed, he forced the authorities to make a treaty of commercial inter-
course with the United States. Other nations (piickly demanded simikr
privileges, and Japan's obstinate resistance to foreign intercourse was at an
end.
The result of this was revolutionary in Japan. I-'or centuries the Shogun,
or Tycoon, the principal military noble, had been dominant in the empire,'
and the Mikado, the true emperor, relegated to a position of obscurity. The
entrance of foreigners disturbed conditions so greatly— by developing par-
ties for and against seclusion— that the Mikado was enabled to re<,ra1n his
long-lost power, and in 1868 the ancient form of government was restored.
Meanwhile the Japanese began to show a striking activity in the accept-
ance of the results of western civilization, both in regard to objects of com-
merce, inventions, and industries, and to political organization. The latter
advanced so rapidly that in 1889 the old despotic government
was, by the voluntary act of the emperor, set aside and a lim- ««•««* develop.
• -„ 1 1 1 !• 1 1 . mentor Japan
ited monarchy established, the country being given a constitu-
tion and a legislature, with universal suffrage for all men over twenty-five.
This act is of remarkable interest, it being doubtful if history records any
similar instance of a monarch decreasing his authority without appeal o^
pressure from his people. I indicates a liberal spirit that could hardly
have been looked for in a nation so recently emerging from semi-barbarism.
To-day, Japan differs little from the nations of Europe and America in its
institutions and industries, and from being among the most backward, has
taken its place among the most advanced nations of the world.
The Japanese army has been organized upon the European system,
and armed with the most modern style of weapons, the German method of
drill and organization being adopted. Its navy consists of over fifty war
vessels, principally built in the dock-yards of Europe and America, and of
the most advanced modern type, while a number of still more powerful
ships are in process of building. Railroads have been widely extended ;
telegraphs run everywhere ; education is in an advancing stage of develop-
ment, embracing an imperial university at Tokio, and institu'tions in which
foreign languages and science are taught ; and in a hundred ways Japan is
-
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r
■)
}
li
!-
!i'l
■'•1
1
j.
3ia
M
ui. .1
IM
it
^fin ui^LLixF . '/T arm 4
Itr If „ ^ . . . .
^^•■""ry. This is particularly " 'f,l e i"„ ^'"''"'^\ '"^"^^''^ "' "'" "--t-enth
''-e.o,.scHU.a.e::;^;:^:r,;,;-;- '"•••-™ "-wo „..•„„, ...
A Kem.rk.Me "'"''I ^'^ given of the' practicti VZ''\ ""'^"l'^ '^viclencos that
Ev.„. t.on. Near the end „T ,h. ■"'''•■""'«'' "f m»,K,r„ civili.,,
. , . 'w,.en China and ]Zn L """"■^' "■•"■ '"■"^^ ""> I" -
f'nKular circumstance of a natio, „T "^ ""•" '''""'"' '" '!'.• world ,
'"" -'1. .ts an„y orjfanized on al 4oo,ooo,ooo-equally brave
-en. in the con'th ,1::? I^^J^TT ' ^"'"'^-^^'^^ c™di ir^;
■Teak^ofatsome length. ' " °^ ''■'"'"'"' '"'"est and importance to
nve. ''pl^l::,^'.!^^ a'taf „f'7'°'" "^ *-^"-' -P— . by
claimed as a vassal state by both ve n °'"-''" '■■"'" "'= l»'ter and
aganrst the pair. Japan in^declthls T *-' "" ''"^^'P^'lence as a tate
Corea long pursued the s-im^ ,.^1-
"s ports against foreigners s: Tely'^t ^ittec "'"t ''"' J"'-"' '-^-^^
core,ope„«. Nation and the Forbidde la d n'T "°"" ^"^ ">« "-''"'^
?l^::2;e 77. '"^e, i's neighbors, 'it open i: tfT ^"^^^'^ '° «'-
What CommodtrPerr "h:d'^d„:^^,ir- ^''^ '" '''^^ ^^"^^Hin^Vr:
=-t a fleet to Seoul, the Corea„ a jt'al'" '7T'^-'"° '^^'^ ^<^fore. Th "
government to open to traded portp ' "f"' "' '™^ ^o-ed the
made an open port. Later on he Uni?! 1 r'"' '" "^° Chenn.lpo wa!
obtamed similar privileges. Soon af T' ''"' " ''•^'=' ■here'^.vh cl
Europe were admitted to trade ard t e '■ • """"' °' ""^ -'-ns o
-as at an end. Less than te^ years hd«" "' """ "-'"■' Nation
|so atton which had lasted for centuries „ , ' ^''^ '" ''^«* down an
'" Ae year iSgg-an electric tro lev Ll ' "'''" '""^'''^ V^ars after!!
-eets of Seoul-aremarkable'tM^en" :Tr rA.'",°P-ti„n in the
ro-.c/. - t"- i.c^i ciiunge in Corean
4i.
iriNA
THE RISll OF JAPAN AND THE DECLINE OF CHINA
zn
rth
o. ninctoenth
'i'it<. adhorence
d t'le slowness
wo nations, we
evidences that
lodern civilian
"*"'<<- out J), -
tlu: world the
1 with mo(I,rn
•qually brave,
defeat innr ft
the I-'ranco-
conth"tion of
'iiportance to
separated by
'e latter, and
'ce as a state
eriods in the
th the same
: end of the
le two rival
ail locking
tlie Hermit
-ed to give
was due to
d kingdom
are. They
forced the
muJpo was
lere which
nations of
lit Nation
down an
rs after—
^n in the
1 Corean
Corea was no sooner opened to foreign intercourse than China and
Japan became rivals for influence in that country — a rivalry in which Japan
showed itself the more active The Coreans became divided into two
factions, a progressive one that favored Japan, and a conservative one that
fav ed China. Japanese and Chinese soldiers were sent to the country,
and tlie Chinese aided their party, which was in the ascendant among the
Coreans, to drive out the Ja^xmesc troops War was threatened, but it was
averted by a treaty in 1885 under which both nations agreed to withdraw
their troops and to send no officers to drill the Corean soldiers.
The war, thus for the time averted, came nine years afterwards, iii con-
sequence of an insurrection in Corea. The people of that country were
discontented. They were oppressed with taxes and by tyranny,
and in 1894 the followers of a new religious sect broi<e out in '"-'"'"e'^tion
, , . 'n Corea
open revolt. Their numbers rapidly i jreased until they were
20,000 strong, and they defeated the government troops, captured a provincial
city, and put the capital itself in danger. The Min (or Chinese) faction
w.s then at the head of affairs in the kingdom and called for aid from
China, which responded by sending some two thousand troops an^. a num-
ber of war vessels to Corea. Japan, jealous of any such action on the part
of China, responded by surrounding Seoul with soldiers, several thousands
in number.
Disputes followed. China claimed to be suzerain of Corea and Japan
denied it. Both parties refused to withdraw their troops, and the Japanese,
finding that the party in power was acting against them, advanced on the
capital, drove out the officials, and took possession of the palace and the
king. A new government, made up of the party that favored Japan, was
organized, and a revolution was ac^^omplished in a day. The new author-
ities declared that the Chinese were intruders and requested the aid of the
Japanese to expel them. War was close at hand.
China was at that time under the leadership of a ^talesman of marked
ability, the famous Li Hung Chan-', who, from being made viceroy of a
province in 1870, had risen to be the prime minister of the empire. At the
head of the empire was a woman, the Dowager Empress Tsu u Hung Chang
Tsi, who had usurped the power of the young emperor and and the Em-
ruled the state. It was to these two people in power that P*"®**
the war was due. The dowager empress, blindly ignorant of the power
of the Japanese, decided that these "insolent pigmies" deserved to be
chastised. Li, her right-hand man, was of the same opinion. At the last
momeaL, indeed, doubts began to assail his mind, into which came a dim
idea that the army and navy of China were not in shape to meet the
« I
i I il
(
f
f
Ll'
1
^1
fi 1
I'l
/
\ It
iftf'i
4'
■ 1
I; '.
314
troops of C,„,abe,njf removed, reinforcement" f''™'- ^"'L instead of the
There followed a ,startlin<. event ot "" '""' '° ""-' f^ce at Asan
»-. cr,>,s,ng in the Yellow S^a came U." ■"' 'f' "-- J-'-Pane.se m™ o":
Ch.nese troop, and convoyed 'bv "o ,hi,« f°' T '^^'P^" '"»''«' "'i"
Transport f""' forces, but lie took it to be h i. , . °' ^''""' ''>• "'e
•£: •; ." :=; i r :r s f ''"•■-.=; s:r
thou ana men. Only about one hundred n H °"'' ■='■"■■•>"■"» with it
On the same day that this terrible acftookV"™'^' '^"^^P^'^'
>;.. ~k H.™ ,',';,,:':'„t;°s,;,l:; r" "'™""« -■■■ -". «».
■■•'■<••'■■' ™,.o.. .„j o J,'.,r4:„":', : -i -»". i» i»»o, ;.i
ond occasion i„ which a n ode „ 1"'.! n"'^\ '"""''''' "^ '"""'ng the sec!
bemtr that alreidv -I- •• 'ronclad lleet had „„., :„ .,_.., *" , ^'•'^
aireaaj dcscnoed n which the A,,., • , "•'"le— the t,rst
""^1' the Austnans defeated the Italians at
THE RISE OF JAPAN AND THE DECLINE OF CHINA
315
Lissa. Backward as the Chinese were on land, they were not so on the sea.
Li Hung Chang, progressive as he was, had vainly attempted to introduce
railroads into China, but he had been more successful in regard to ships,
and had purchased a navy more powerful than that of Japan. The heaviest
ships of Japan were cruisers, whose armor consisted of deck and interior
lining of steel. The Chinese possessed two powerful battle- The Chinese
ships, with 14-inch iron armor and turrets' defended with 12- nndJapanese
inch armor, each carrying four 12-inch guns. Both navies had ®®**
the advantage of European teaching in drill, tactics, and seamanship. The
Ting Ytieti, the Chinese flagship, had as virtual commander an experienced
German officer named Van llanneken ; the Chen Yuen, the other big iron-
clad, was handled by Commander M'Giffen, formerly of the United States
navy. Thus commanded, it was expected in Europe that the superior
strength of the Chinese ships would ensure them an easy victory over those
of Japan. The event showed that this was a decidedly mistaken view.
It was the superior speed and the large number of rapid-fire guns of
the Japanese vessels that gave them the victory. The Chinese guns were
mainly heavy Krupps and Armstrongs. They had also some machine guns,
but only three quick-firers. The Japanese, on the contrary, had a few heavy
armor-piercing guns, but were supplied with a large number of quick-firing
cannon, capable of pouring out shells in an incessant stream. Admiral Ting
and his European officers expected to come at once to close quarters and
quickly destroy the thin armored Japanese craft. But the shrewd Admiral
Ito, commander of the fleet of Japan, had no intention of being thus dealt
with. The speed of his craft enabled him to keep his distance and to dis-
tract the aim of his foes, and he proposed to make the best use of this ad-
vantage. Thus equipped the two fleets came together in the month of Sep-
tember, and an epoch-making battle in the history of the ancient conti-
nent of Asia was fought.
On the afternoon of Sunday, September i6th. Admiral Ting's fleet,
consisting of 1 1 warships, 4 gunboats, and 6 torpedo boats, anchored off
the mouth of the Yalu River. They were there as escorts to some trans-
ports, which went up the river to discharge their troops. Admiral Ito had
been engaged in the same work farther down the coast, and early on Monday
morninir came steaming towards the Yalu in search of the
. The Fleets off
enemy. Under him were in all twelve ships, none of them the Yalu River
with heavy armor, one of them an armed transport. The
swiftest ship in the fleet was the Voshino, capable of making twenty-three
knots, and armed with 44 (juick-firing Armstrongs, which would discharge
nearly 4,000 pounds weight of shells every minute. The heaviest guns wer(i
;.
,i
ITT^
316
,.li
,!'I
m 1;
I'l!
(• 1
;!
(• i
i ■
■ .i. i'.
. n '
I
'°ng ■3-inch canno " '"" ^^^^^^-^ O/r c«w^
"f a breeze to rippie 1 " 1'°'"^ ''^'■^'''"'y. ^nd tl,ere wa^ „' ""' ^ «"«'
cleaving thp.V , ' , ""'f^':': of ti.e water Ti ? '^ •'"'" «n°"gh
agrandspec c?e i'" "V"" "'"'^ f™"' e e IZ'h"' 'T' """ "-
i""s of Alanc u W. , "' '"''"^^ ^"^^ '» Port rose t|,e roc '""" ''"^<= '^"<="
a ii«le bay wt ";''",'"' "'"' "^"^ -" -land a d To ' '"'f '"'' "'^ '^i"-
wide Coreal r ""''■' ^'"=''''<^''- O" the other ?""T ^'""' ^"'' ""■■'•«
orean Gulf stretched to an „„l, 7 ^"''=' '''= "aters of the
TtoCrubeof o'clock the hJil. , ? ""broken horizon. Toward. I
Admiral ito's ,, , ,."'■, ""'^ at the head of the u °*^'* eleven
'to i.ad ,n his leading ship the vJ ^^^ ^"^^'^ '° '■'->=■
would have b ""'^ ' ^P'^'^ -ot i^IT il ^™'-^ ">at would
,^eing east-north-east It Inn . '""^ °" '^'"^ starboard bou theT •
^^"e, on the Jiorizon Th ^ ^ ""'^ '° ^°"^^ ^^^"^ a number o^' ""''"^
" ^Vlonclay inornino- the Chin.
wmsmmm
«tnt- 5-'^"- - ch;:tetf-;::,^° ^;^--- --^. ^s his
that r r^d"' 'r' " ""= "°' "'-' ' e-qtatr";' '"t"™' --^
range. tC.^.^._ ="f "''-'"">■ ""=" f^ " "o ^ '""' ^
CHINA
■ protected by 12.
'antage over the
north-westward,
^ai-yun-tao. At
It was a fine
*"Jy just enough
line of warships
white paint, the
^y how, and the
"ust have been
^st and the bhie
here and there
waters of the
owards eleven
a^an to rise,
'er that wouJd
^■an navy yj^^
with, perJiaps,
signals. I to
'hijJs in single
quadron. At
'. the bearing
steamers in
^I'eased. I to
e was rigJu.
in line, with
'^d at their
t'ng ch'nner
alJ out that
south-west,
^t once he
•"an up the
ter, as his
anient was
hour Jater
'n at long
md eager
TB£ RISE OF JAPAN AND THE DECLINE OF CHINA
Z-^1
%
expectation for both Chinese and Japanese. Commander McGiffen of the
Chen Yuen has given a striking description of the scene when " the deadly
space" between the two fleets was narrowing, and all were watching for the
flash ind smoke of the first gun : — "The twenty-two ships," he says, "trim
and i.esh-looking in their paint and their bright new bunting, and gay with
fluttering signal-flags, presented such a holiday aspect that one found
difficulty in realizing that they were not there simply for a friendly meeting.
But, looking closer on the Chen Yuen, one could see beneath this gayety
much that was sinister. Dark-skinned men, with queues tightly coiled
round their heads, and with arms bared to the elbow, clustered along the
decks in groups at the guns, waiting impatiently to kill or be jhe Chinese
killed. Sand was sprinkled along the decks, and more was on the "Chen
kept handy against the time when they might become slip- Yuen"
pery. In the superstructures, and down out of sight in the bowels of the
ship, were men at the shell whips and ammunition hoists and in the torpedo
room. Here and there a man lay flat on the deck, with a charge of powder
— fifty pounds or more — in his arms, waiting to spring up and pass it on
when it should be wanted. The nerves of the men below deck were in
extreme tension. On deck one could see the approaching enemy, but below
nothing was known, save that any moment might begin the action, and
bring in a shell through the side. Once the battle had begun they were all
right ; but at first the strain was intense. The fleets closed on each other
rapidly. My crew was silent. The sub-lieutenant in the military foretop
was taking sextant angles and announcing the range, and exhibiting an
appropriate small signal-flag. As each range was called, the men at the
guns would lower the sight-bars, each gun captain, lanyard in hand, keeping
his gun trained on the enemy. Through the ventilators could be heard the
beats of the steam pumps ; for all the lines of hose were joined up and
spouting water, so that, in case of fire, no time need be lost. Every man's
nerves were in a state of tension, which was greatly relieved as a huge
cloud of white smoke, belching from the Ting Yuens starboard barbette,
opened the ball."
The shot fell a little ahead of the Yoshino, throwing up a tall column
of white water. Admiral Ito, in his official report, notes that this first shot
was fired at ten minutes to one. The range, as noted on the Chen Yu<n,
was 5,200 yards, or a little over three ?nd a half miles. The
heavy barbette and bow guns of the Chen Yuen and other ships ^^^. <^P«"'"2 of
° ^ the Battle
now joined in. but still the Japanese van squadron came on
was
th
e side o
f th(
ithout replying. For five minutes the firii
Chinese. The space between the Japanese van and the hostile line had
III''
•\
l|:!i
3^8
hi, >|l
.rrir-:''^''"""™— »
HotchkissP. 1 V '^"^^ ^t'" diminished fh. ri^^ '^ ^'"^ ^P^^^d
'hin lined hulls of ^h^ «^™°^" ''" '''« ""'ck pla Is R , J^ '^''''^^
Admiral „„.« ''"Perior speed of his shins n^J ,'"^ '° '^'^'^ advantage of the
-..e., the Chinese tight wi g's .TptThf "■;"'',l"'^ ^''^<=^-°>'- P-
. the shells from her nnti fi "^ ^'"f' JW//««, pourinc. in
> aTfot'Vr "' ""■■^"' '"e'^C'^^r: "" '".« ""P-'-^^l -sse
^ori:s:r,r^'--"^^
Th. ,. • r , , "" '=''P°^<^J to the fire nf f , "•'"• '^'"'='> f<-'l>
t?:nL ^;f '■'""■"■•' ''-^ captain di',;?,"] f : ".'»'« Chinese fleet. In
•■He„e,.?' f°"°>v,ng his consorts, he daslted '^ T^ ''""''■ '"^'^^''^ "f
^-ds distance "7' P"="« ''"-- two of L?'^ ,' '"' "" ""^ "^ ""-■
nark R,u ^"'° '"rpedoes were hi, i"", '"S'^'' ^^=^<-''^ at 500
""-ft i'f, :r r ^ '^^ -»-- °f Xi.:'a :;'"' t'^^'^ "'-^'^
all on^Board. ^^ ^' ^^ ''>^ ^'a.ing „. k^.t't tTZ'^ wll!
--^-a.ships,the,apa„ese^:^---^.^-.^^
^ CHINA
F^j///«^, the leading
obliquely, so as to
• At five minutes
5 Chinese, sending
ahead of the Ting
cks, barbettes and
flung up by their
deck was soaked
mese line opened
se machine-guns,
g reports to the
5 Chinese battle-
leoretically they
"m they received
But through the
s through glass,
md scatter their
2 b'ne, with the
■to's ships came
dvantage of the
idversary. Past
^^o^ pouring in
otected vessels
-s. The ships
eir shells, and
Japanese fleet
ijei, which fell
inese fleet. In
t- Instead of
le line of the
essels at 500
missed their
through with
: bottom with
closed in on
'■ious phase.
THE RISE OF JAPAN AND THE DECLINE OF CHINA
319
battered each other with their great guns, the wood-work of the latter being
soon in flames, while a heap of ammunition on the Matsiishinia was ex-
ploded by a shell and killed or wounded eighty nifMi. The ^.
' o / The "Matsu-
Chinese flag-ship would probably have been destroyed by the shtnia"and
flames but that her consort came to her assistance. By five ^^^ "Ting
Yuen"
o'clock the Chinese fleet was in the irreatest disorder, several
of its ships having been sunk or driven in flames ashore, while others were
in flight. The Japanese fire was mainly concentrated on the two large iron-
clads, which continued the fight, their thick armor resisting the heaviest guns
of the enemy.
Signals and signal halyards had been long since shot away, and all the
signalmen killed or wounde/ ; but the two ships conformed to each other's
movements, and made a splendid fight of it. Admiral Ting had been insen-
sible for some hours at the outset of the battle. He had stood too close to
one of his own big guns on a platform above its muzzle, and had been
stunned by the upward and backward concussion of the air ; but he had re-
covered consciousness, and, though wounded by a burst shell, was bravely
commanding his ship. Von Hanneken was also wounded in one of the bar
bettes. The ship was on fire forward, but the hose kept the flames under.
The Chen Yuen was almost in the same plight. Her commander, McGiffen,
had had several narrow escapes. When at last the lacquered woodwork on
her forecastle caught fire, and the men declined to go forward and put it out
unless an officer went with them, he led the party. He was
, , . 1 f 1 1 McCiiffen's Ter-
stoopmg down to move somethmg on the torecastle, when a ^ibie Danger
shot passed between his arms and legs, wounding both his
wrists. At the same time he was struck down by an explosion near him.
When he recovered from the shock he found himself in a terrible position.
He was lying wounded on the forecastle, and full in front of him he saw the
muzzle of one of the heavy barbette guns come sweeping round, rise, and
then sink a little, as the gunners trained it on a Japanese ship, never noticing
that he lay just below the line of fire. It was in vain to try to attract their
attention. In another minute he would have been caught in the fiery blast.
With a great effort he rolled himself over the edge of the forecastle, drop-
ping on to some rubbish on the main deck, and hearing the roar of the gun
as he fell.
The battle now resolved itself into a close cannonade of the two iron-
clads by the main body of the Japanese fleet, while the rest of the ships
kept up a desultory fight with the three other Chinese ships and the gun-
boats. The torpedo boats seem to have done nothing. Commander
McGiffen says that their engines had been worn out, and their fittings
ll i
i!.i
t-'l
If' 'I
320
: I
■i
ll
u, in
m, j^^sa OFMPAN ^^n the decline oe cm^A
battleships were fe. in ler ' ,1 'ZV 'ri' '™"' "-^ '"''- »' "^^
gomg I,a„„|e,ss,y under a sl,ip ' t t, ^ "ff "-^ "'-k, one, at least,
yards. The Japanese used no -tor, edoes ', "' ' ^'"^'^ °' ""'^ ^f')'
take they had sailed without a s^p ' tfth " ""' '"'^ "''"• '^>' ^ ■"-
u^ed anywhere. Once or twice a Ch nes "f P™'' '^" ""^ '^^ ■"a."
'-t '1- swifter and handier ves^':, t'' ' '.^ "•"" ''°'^" " >'«--•
such attacks. The Yalu fi.du wis fro,, fi ,? sq^dron easily avoided all
And the end of it camt Llwl '"'' "" '"'■"<='■>' ''at'le.
;l.e 7)V r„« were b„ I run h J o^t"?''"""^''- ■ '"'^'= ""' ^»« -d
been hit more than four hundr ■ t' ! an,n,un,tion. The latter had
and the fonner at least a "of en' t^ :i1rn" r'^"' >>-? P--ed,
;ts n,ountings damaged, but otherw e sh waf r ""' '"*^>' ^""^ ''^^
had been severely battered, had lo t a 4 ^ ".t'! T"''"'"" ^'"'' "^"^
fie must have told the Japanese that ,h, ^ ""'"' ''"'' "•=■■ ^'o"
wh,ch was now all solid shit, Bu tab^ S'^T"'?^'"^™'"""''-"'
THea„.„,... fleet to retire. The t: °C i tTo^clId r^f*'™^^ " '^'^
Battle a couple of miles sendintr ,„ ™nclads followed them for
the Japanese main 1 lo °"n'°r' '''"' '''" "-" ^ "-en
renew the action, and, toward six o'do. J! "'^ """^"^ ™""'' as if to
fire at long range. VVhenlto, ■' ,"'"'= "^^ ^ '"•''^k exchar, e of
three projectiles 'eft'tVer if^^'g^r ,?- ^ /f' >- had jui:
mmutes longer the two Chinese shins toU , u ""P' °" f"'' a few
Just why Ito retired Ims n ? ^^""^ '"='=" ^' '''^ ™>=rcy.
exhaustion of his crew a^d tt p . fof'^T t"'^ '^^P'"^'"^^' P^-^ably
i.e«„„, ,.„„ onists had much to do with I Th ' " "''*•''" "'"' ^""^'^ ^"'asT-
«•>« Valu fi„,.t I,., , ,. '" ,° ""tn 't. The iiext mornin.r the Chin..l
Sea.Fteht , " ''fd disappeared. It had lost four shins in Th fi u
had taken to fliaht an,J„n„ , P " the fight, two
blown up Two of ,|,^, ,,"'»'"'/"^ ""'^ ''a" ashore after the battle and was
lost, while their loss u^M ed ,,d l^Jr/^''^ '^'"^'^'^''' ""' '™- were
the Chinese. An in,porta its' ^n Tro , th 7?^ """' '"' "'^" "■°- "^
much wood-work in ironclad sh ps and anoth T ""= ''^"^^^^ "^ '°°
warfare of rapid-firing guns But the ""' *' 8^'''='" ™'"^ '" "aval
the battle of the Yalu L ;hat it tnl T' ^'"^^'^able characterist.c of
had the war broken out foty years earli/ u'?"™ '"° '""°- "''-h,
""' ^'' stron ;'cs ' •^-^,; r -i^^rr «-' '^" -■- ■-
coast of China. He;e a or e TtZ " "!" '''"■ "" "-■"otthern
of 25,000 men was lauded successfully, and
=iife__
^ CHINA
ry steam launches
1 the tubes of the
ark, one, at least,
ange of only fifty
id that, by a mis-
Nor was the ram
tlovvn a Japanese,
easily avoided all
llery battle.
s Chen Yuen and
The latter had
ir being pierced,
heavy guns had
-able. Still, she
2w, and her slow
her ammunition,
signalled to his
ilowed them for
fter them ; then
round as if to
ik exchar e of
Ytien had just
t on for a few
> mercy,
led. Probably
th such antag-
ig the ChineSi
the fight, two
battle and was
but none were
than those of
ianger of too
^alue in naval
iracteristic of
lations which,
:heir fight'ng
d against the
the northern
:essfully, and
THE RISE OF JAPAN AND THE DECLINE OF CHINA
321
attacked the fort in the rear, quickly capturing its landward defences.
The stronghold was thereupon abandoned by its garrison and occupied by
the Japanese. The Chinese fleet lay in the narbor, and surrendered to
the Japanese after several ships hatl been sunk by torpedo boats.
China was now in a perilous position. Its fleet was lost, its coast
strongholds of Port Arthur and Wei Hai Wei were held by the enemy,
and its capital city was threatened from the latter place and by the army
north of the Great Wall. A continuation of the war promised to bring
about the complete conquest of the Chinese empire, antl Li Hung Chang,
who had been degraded from his official rank in consequence of the disasters
to the army, wa*. now restored to all his honors and sent to Japan to sue for
peace. In the treaty obtained China was compelled to acknowledge the
Independence of Corea, to cede to Japan the island of F"or-
mosa and the Pescadores group, and that part of Manchuria Peace
occupied by the Japanese army, including Port Arthur, also to
pay an indemnity of 300,000,000 taels and open seven new treaty ports.
This treaty was not fully carried out. The Russian, British, and French
ministers forced Japan, under threat of war, to give up her claim to the
Liau Tung peninsula and Port Arthur.
The story of China during the few remaining years of the century may
be briefly told. The evidence of its weakness yielded by the war with Japan
was quickly taken advantage of by the great powers of Europe, j^iq impending
and China was in danger of going to pieces under their attacks, Partition of
which grew so decided and ominous that rumors of a partition China
between these powers of the most ancient and populous empire of the world
filled the air.
In 1898 decided steps in this direction were taken. Russia obtained a
lease for ninety-nine years of Port Arthur and Talien Wan, and is at
present in practical possession of Manchuria, through which a railroad is to
be built connecting with the Trans-Siberian road, while Port Arthur aff"ords
her an ice-free harbor for her Pacific fleet. Great Britain, jealous of this
movement on the part of Russia, forced from the unwilling hands of China
the port of Wei Hai Wei, and Germany demanded and obtained the cession
of a port at Kiau Chun, farther down the coast. France, not to be outdone
by her neighbors, gained concessions of territory in the south, adjoining her
Indo-China possessions, and Italy, last of all, came into the Eastern market
for a share of the nearly defunct empire.
How far this will go it is not easy to say. The nations
are settling on China lik
ilti
may tear the antique
ures on
commonwealth
a carcass, anc
>rh
A Palacs
Revolution
apj;
Ml
to pieces between the
m.
With
m
322
''f (
,1 ri i I
I
.1 . —■^'-x-z/vzi c/* (SHINA
orc« ,„-s abdication, w',, " a ' ^n Thf h': "' ^'" '^"^^'^ ■""■ ">- -'^
°2 f'^- --inced th.u .rt ; :;r':rcr ''V''''^ '^-p'-' -- -^-e
open to Western science and art hL. , "" '"=' '" ^''^ being thrown
Pbns, the conservative op osWon I """ ^'""'" '■''''<= "> "■''■y "ut thei
-suit of this is seen in r^T r dirt;;:^; "^Tf' '1'°^'^" "-"■ ^^
Pr«.r«. ,„ P'f ^'y forbidden, have now , line dlr^t' '?*>' ■■"'""«' -"»■
be ore n,any years pron,!,! to t' 1 "*■ °^ ""^•" ^"''
theYang-tse-Kiang; en<dneers nr. 1 '""V™^ '""^ •'' "'ousand miles uo
of the Flowery Kingdomrgr at ,0^-' " "'' "" ""' '"' '^™ ™'" '
machinery, are springing np!, tL f ' "'"'P'^"'' '^'"' ""^ best moder,
beingtranslatedand^rea°d '^n, 'el ''" ^'="''='"™'^ .• foreign bool^^ a ^
even gone so far as to rec;i e o In'TX ""f "'^, ''°-g" -npress haJ:
on a oot,ngof outward equality [„rhe ' „ i n ' •'" P""''= ''""''•«'>ce an<i
-cred y secluded centre o'f an e'^pi locked f" "'\ " °' ^'"'"^^ '""S "-
. All this is fud of significance ^ ^, f'^.'' '^Sfa.nst the outer world,
"s victory, if it starts it^po a Creelrf f °' ^'''"^ ''" '««5 may prove
-hich s all, before the tv^entfe h t ir^ HfL"' 1 '^'''"'"' "^''^^'^
eve of Japan. It „ust be borne in mi, Wh ?„ advanced, raise it to the
the -sland empire has been made ^ tl abo! ! ^'"'•^-*"-y Progress of
body and in consequence less easy " move hf •'''" ^hina is a larger
W..a,.HaF„. practical and the press ire of c' ' P^°P''= ^■''^ ''""ately
xt^c... f --d; Within thr::: a Te:r"h-" '°'""' ">-"
despite its thousands of ve-ir, I ? ^. '^ ^reat empire,
take a wonderful bound in advance and . ""^^"'^' ^""'''fons, inaJ
Pol'tical and industrial development 7' "^ '° -""P^" ''" "'e race of
t'on of China must cease, anr. will lu ' T' ^" '^"^ "' 'be parti
powers of the world. '" '^'"^ "^ P'ace among the gr.uest
CHINA
pee, the clowao-er
ver aiul then en-
^ China, is now
etl to become its
: receni •, ar. Li
empire, wi'o have
its being thrown
carry out their
ien down. The
ono- ahnost coin-
:'it of way," and
country far and
>u;;and miles up
and iron mines
he best modern
eign books are
:!■ empress have
c audience and
eking, long the
T world.
895 may prove
-rn civilization
raise it to the
try progress of
'ina is a larger
- are innately
forcing them
jreat empire,
idi'tions, may
1 the race of
of the parti-
the gr^atest
CHAPTER XXI.
The Era of Col
onies.
SIi.CE civilization began nations have endeavored to extend their
dominions, not alone by adding to their territory by the conquest of
adjoining countries, but also by sending out their excess population
to distant regions and founding colonies that served as aids to and feeders
of the parent state. In the ancient world the active commercial nations,
Phoenicia and Greece, were alert in this direction, some of their colonies,
Carthage, for instance, — becoming powerful enough to gain the status of
independent states. In modern times the colonial era began with the dis-
covery of America in 1492 and the circumnavigation of Africa immediately
afterwards. Spain and Portugal, the leaders in enterprise at that period,
were quick to take advantage of their discoveries, while France, Great Bri-
tain and Holland came into the field as founders of colonies at a later date.
At the opening of the nineteenth century Spain and Portugal still held
the great dominions they had won. They divided between them the conti-
nent of South America, while Spain held a large section of North America,
embracing the whole continent south of Canada and west of the Mississippi
River, together with the peninsula of Florida. Portugal held, in addition
to Brazil, large territories in east and west Africa and minor
possessions elsewhere. As regards the remaining active *^coio?iUtlon
colonizing nations.— Great Britain, France, and Holland, —
some striking transformations had taken place. Great Britain, while
late to come into the field of colonization, had shown remarkable activity
and aggressiveness in this direction, robbing Holland of her settlement on
the Atlantic coast of America, and depriving France of her great colonial
possessions in the east and the west.
France had shown a remarkable activity in colonization. In the east
she gained a strong foothold in India, which promised to expand to imperial
dimensions. In the west she had settled Canada, had planted French Activit
military posts along the great Mississippi River and claimed in Founding^
the vast territory beyond, and was extending into the Ohio Colonies
Valley, while the British still confined themselves to a narrow strip along the
Atlantic coast. The war which broke out between the English and French
m
Vi
324
THE ERA or COLONIES
3 M'
colonists in 1754 put an end to this ^rand promise. \Vh(m it ended France
had lost all her possessions in America and India, Great Britain becominjr
heir to the whole of them with the exception of the territory west of the
Mississippi, which was transferred to Spain. As regards Holland, she had
become the successor of Portugal in the east, holding immensely valuable
islands in the Malayan archipelago.
The colonial dominion of Great Britain, however, suffered one great
loss before the end of the eighteenth century. It failed to regconize
the spirit of Anglo-Saxon colonists, and by its tyranny in America gave rise
to an insurrection which ended in the freedom of its American colonies. It
still held Canada and many of the West India Islands, but the United States
was free, and by the opening of the nineteenth century had fairly begun
its remarkable development.
Such was the condition of colonial affairs at the beginning of the cen-
tury with which we are concerned. Spain and Portugal still held the great-
est colonial dominions upon the earth. France had lost nearly the whole of
her colonies, Holland possessed the rich spice islands of the eastern seas,
and Great Britain was just entering upon that activity in colonization which
forms one of the striking features of nineteenth century progress.
At the close of the century a remarable difference appears. Spain had
lost practically the whole of her vast colonial empire. She had learned no
Spain's Colo. ^^^^°" [''°"1 England's experience with her American colonies.
nial Decline ^"t maintained a policy of tyranny and oppression until these
far-extended colonial provinces rose in arms and won their
independence by courage and endurance. Her great domain west of the
Mississippi, transferred by treaty to France, was purchased by the United
States. Florida was sold by her to the same country, and by the end of
the first quarter of the century she did not own a foot of 'land on the
American continent. She still held the islands of Cuba and Porto Rico
in the West Indies, but her oppressive policy yielded the same result there
as on the continent. The islanders broke into rebellion, the United States
came to their aid, and she lost these islands and the Philippine Islands in
the East. At the end of the century all she held were the Canary Islands
and some small possessions elsewhere.
Portugal had also suffered a heavy loss in her colonial dominions, but
in a very different manner. The invasion of the home state by Napoleon's
armies had caused the king and his court to set sail for Brazil, where they
establislied an independent empire, while a new scion of the family of
Braganza took Portugal for his own. Thus, with the exception of Canada,
i
"^SAc.
rilE ERA OF COLONIES
325
it ended France
•itain becoming
ory west of the
olland, she liad
ensely valuable
L>red one great
:d to reg-conize
nerica gave rise
incolonies. It
I United States
id fairly begun
ing of the cen-
held the great-
ly the whole of
3 eastern seas,
)nization which
^ress.
rs. Spain had
lad learned no
irican c 'lonies,
ion until these
and won their
tin west of the
by the United
by the end of
f land on tlie
id Porto Rico
le result there
United States
ine Islands in
Canary Islands
ominions, but
jy Napoleon's
il, where they
the family of
3n of Canada,
other Coloniz-
ing Powers
Guiana, and the smalK-r islands of the West Indies, no colonies existed in
America at the end of the century, all the former colonies having become
independent republics.
The active powers in colonization within the nineteenth century were
the great rivals of the preceding period, Great Britain and I'Vance, though
the former gained decidedly the start, and its colonial empire ^^ „ . , .
1 r 1 . r 1 • 1 T . Tlie Colonial
to-day surpasses that ot any other nation of mankind. It is Development
so enormous, in fact, as to dwarf the parent kins/dom, which ®' Great
, , J , . ,.,,.. ' "=• . . Britain
IS related to its c(jlonial tHMninion, so tar as com[xirative size
is concerned, as the small brain of the elephant is related to its great body.
Other powers, not heard of as colonizers in the past, have recently
come into this field, though too late to obtain any of the great prizes.
These are Germany and Italy, the latter to a small extent. But there is a
great power still to name, which in its way stands as a rival to Great Britain,
the empire of Russia, whose acquisitions in Asia have grown enormous in
extent. These are not color.'es in the ordinary sense, but rather results of
the expansion of an empire through warlike aggression, but
they are colonial in the sense of absorbing the excess popula-
tion of European Russia. The great territory of Siberia was
gained by Russia before tHe nineteenth century, but within n.'cent years its
dominion in Asia has greatly increased, and it is not easy to t(dl just when
and where it will end.
With this preliminary review we may proceed to consider the history
of colonization within the century. And first we must take up the results
of the colonial enterprise of Great Britain, as much the most important of
the whole. Of this story we have already described some of the leading
features. A chapter has been given to the story of the Indian empire of
Great Britain, far the largest of her colonial possessions, and anothe'' ♦^^
^lat of South Africa. In addition to Hindostan, in which the Growthofthe
dominion of Great Britain now extends to Afghanistan and British
Thibet in the north, the British colony now includes Burmah Colonies
and the west-coast region of Indo-China, with the Straits Settlements in the
Malay peninsula, and the island of Ceylon, acquired in 1802 from Holland.
In the eastern seas Great Britain possesses another colony of vast
dimensions, the continental island of Australia, which, with its area of nearly
3,000,000 square miles, is three-fourths the size of Europe. The first
British settlement was made here in 1788, at Port Jackson, the site of the
nresent thrivino" citv of Svdnev. and the island was lonf ma.int.ained as a.
penal settlement, convicts being sent there as late as 1868. It was the dis-
covery of gold in 1851 to which Australia owed its greiit progress. The
18
\\
^0
Ir;
326
r//i; liRA OF COLONIES
incitement of the y.„o„ „, ,, ,,„,. ,,^ ^„^,^,^ ,,,,^^ ,^ ^^^^^^^^^
A<„tr.u..„d '""' .""= P"P"l-ition of tli<; colony is now more than 7 cooooo
N.W z„l,„d an.l ,s growing at a rapid rate, it having devclonecl Jther
valnable resources besides that of ijold. Of Its cities Mel
bourne the ca,j,tal of Victoria, has more tl,an 30,000 ,x,,,ulation Sydney
he ap, al of New South Wales, probably .50.000, w'hile there- are othe';
c.t es o rapal growth. Australia is the one in.portant Ifritish coony
It stood at a low level of development, and it was taken possession o
without a protest from the savage inhabitants possession of
tint !!ouro'fV'i ""r,"'-' ""'' °' f' '"'"'''"""^ of New Zealand, an inipor-
tat group of slands lying east of Australia,- which was acquired by Great
Britain as a colony in .840. The Maoris, as the people of these islamb ^al
themselves, are of the bold and sturdy Polynesiki, Lice, a brave „u
"oubl I '"'°^ • T" '"^^ i^'^--" ""'^ ""' '-''^ --I niaste s^, mie
intnS6o since", ,";■""?'' "^' "^''™^ ' ^^"^^ "■ ■«« and continued
until 1S69, since winch tune the colony has enjoyed pe.ace. It can have no
more trouble with the Maoris, since there are Lid'to be no more MaoHs
i oJe 111,?",;:'":' 'f "^ "r " "'''"= -"^"'^ f--'-" ^t present this coTo y
larth so f ?f '"''] ''"''"'=^'">' "' ""y «Si°» on the face of the
earth, so far as attention to the interests of the masses of the people is con-
rot\h:t:i:r ^■''' ^'=^''""^°- °"--'-'"' °wect lesson Jo t^r^^^^^^^
no~^t^V-fT^^'T '■''""'' '^"'"'"'""^ '■" •'"= '''•"='"^' Great Britain
possessess the 1- 11 Islands, the northern part of Borneo, and a large section
of the extensive ,s and of Papua or New Guinea, the remainder of wWch is
other Britteh '"','. '">' Holland and Germany. In addition there are various
Coloale. coaling stations on the islands and coast of Asia In the
anH ;„ 4 • "^'f "•'■'■»"<-•'"' "» possessions are Gibraltar. Malta, and Cyprus,
and in America the great colony of Canada, a considerable number o the
GuTanl Of T' "'"t "'"' "" ''"""^ °' British' Honduras and British
wil he d ?f 'u ' "°" ■'"Po«="'t is Canada, to which a chapter
will be devoted farther on in our work.
,nd ^.".''"^^^.'o deal with the colonies in two of the continents. Asia
Thoi^l ?■ ?' 'u' ''''""■^ P''"''^""^ '='='''^'" f'==""^='' of singularity.
iLow? r-lT" " '^' "°'' ='""'"' '''"<^^' ™'^"'= America was quite un--
known until four centuries ago, the striking fact presents itself thai at the
beginning of the nineteenth century the continents of North and South
AsTf'TAT- ■' ™'^'' ''""^" f™"' -^=' 'o centre, while the interior of
Asia and Africa remained in great part unknown. This fact in regard to
4
ir by thousands.
than 3,000,000,
leveloped other
its cities, Mel-
ation ; Sydney,
here are other
British colony
inais generally,
possession of
land, an impor-
lired by Great
ese islands call
ave, generous,
sters no little
and continued
It can have no
more Maoris.
;nt this colony
le face of the
people is con-
to the remain-
Great Britain
large section
er of which is
■e are various
^sia. In the
, and Cyprus,
jmber of the
s and British
ch a chapter
tinents, Asia
singularity.
/as quite un-'
that at the
I and South
interior of
n regard to
THE ERA OF COLONIES
327
Asia was due to the hostile attitude of its people, which rendered it very
dangerous for any H uropean traveler to attempt to i)enetrate its interior.
In the rase of Africa it was due to the inhospitality of nature, which had
placed the most serious obstacles in the way of those who sou^^rht ^^^ ,„jg^,
to penetrate beyond the coast regions. This state of affairs cS "kux^^
continued until the latter half of the century, within which a"** Asia
period there has been a remarkable change in the aspect of affairs, both con-
tinents having been penetrated in all directions and their walls of isolation
completely broken down.
Africa is not only now well known, but the penetration of its interior
has been followed by political changes of the most n.-volutionary character.
It presented a virgin field for colonization, of which the land-hungry nations
of Europe hastened to avail themselves, dividing up the contin(MU between
them, so that, by the end of the century, the partition of Africa was
practically complete. It is one of the most remarkable circumstances in the
history of the nineteenth century that a complete continent
remained thus until late in the history of the world to serve as ^'""ll^ Colonies
a new field for the outpouring of the nations. The occupation
of Africa by Europeans, indeed, began earlier. The Arabs had held the sec-
tion north of the Sahara for many centuries, Portugal claimed— but scarcely
occupied— large sections east and west, and the Dutch had a thriving settle-
ment in the south. But the exploration and division of the bulk of The con-
tinent waited for the nineteenth century, and the greater "part of the work
of partition took place within the final cpiarter of that century.
In this work of colonization Great Britain was, as usual, most energetic
and successful, and to-day the possessions and protectorates of this active
kuigdom in Africa embrace 2,587,755 square miles; or, if we add Egypt and
the Egyptian Soudan— practically British territory— the area occupied or
claimed amounts to 2,987,755 square miles. France comes
next, with claims covering 1,232,454 sauare miles. Germany '^»'«^ '^«/t'"°"
1 1 • . T , * .^ or Africa
lays claim to 920,920; Italy, to 278,500 ; Portugal, to 735,304;
Spain, to 243,877 ; the Congo Free State, to 900,000 ; and Turkey (if Egypt
be included), to 798,73« square miles. The parts of Africa unoccupied or
unclaimed by Europeans are a portion of the Desert of Sahara, which no
one wants ; Abyssinia, still independent though in danger of absorption ;
and Liberia, a state over which rests the shadow of protection of the
United States.
Of the British colonial possessions in Africa we have already sufficiently
described that in the south, extending now from Cape Town to Lake Tan-
ganyika, and forming an immense area, replete with natural resources, and
rll
328
THE ERA OF COLONIES
capable of sustainin.cr a very larcre future population. On the east coast is
anot er W,e ac,uisition. British East Africa. extenCin, nord. T^Z
and the Soudan and west to the Con^o Free State, and inch.din,. jLt of
British cofonies ,"'' f^""^ Victoria Nyanza. Further north a lar-e slice
In Africa has been carved out of Somaliland, facinir on the Gulf of
th. x. r t ,"■ . T!" '■^'"^'■"f'e'- of this section of Africa is clainied-
d F it^e"' \ "^'-^y ''-'y^ -'-- possessions include Son.aliland
i V din; X T "' "T^ ^ '' ^'>'"'"'" ^''''^' ^^^•^-"' - -Edition,
lays chum to Sierra Leone and the Ashantee country on the west coast anc
Next to Great Britain in activity in the acquisition of African territorv
comes France, which within the recent period has enormouslv extende iti
claims to territory in this continent. Of these the most difficult in acquire
men was Al^^ena, on the Mediterranean, which Ti-ance first invaded inls3o
but did not obtain quiet possession of for many years and then only at the cosi
African Colonies "1 '°"^ '^""^ sanguinary wars. At a later date the adjoinincr
of France Moorish kingdom of Tunis was added, and since then the
'^''"'"^°f ^^''''^"ce have been extended indefinitely southward
to include the greater part of the western half of the Sahara-the Atlantic
coast district of the Sahara being claimed by Spain. Of this g eat dese
region ahnost the whole is useless to any nation, and France hofds it n.ainly
as a connecting link between her possessions in Algeria and the Soudan
I rench Soudan has nad a phenomenal growth, the French displayin.r"the
same enterprise here as they did in America in the rapid extension of dieir
Canadian province. Claiming, as their share in the partition of Africa the
Atlantic coast region of Senegal and an extensive district facing on the Gulf
of Guinea and the South Atlantic, and known as French Congo, thev have
made an enormous spread, northward from the latter, westward from Sene-
gal, and southward from Algeria, until now their claims cover nearly the
whole of the Soudan-a vast belt of territory stretching from the Atlantic
nearly across the continent and bordering on the Egyptian Soudan in the
on M .^^^^J^^^^^'^^'.'"' '"deed, extended as far as the Nile, being based
on Major Marchand s journey to the river in 1898. liut the EnolTsh con-
quests .n that region barred out the French claim, and it has been abandoned
In addition to the territories here named. Fiance has taken possession of a
portion of the coast region of Abyssinia, between the Italian and the British
regions, and completely shutting out that ancient kingdom from the sea
1 no latest ol the nations to develop the colonizing spirit were Italy and
Germany. VVe have described Italy's share in Africa. Germany's is far
i^-t
"^^.
THE ERA OF COLONIES
339
e east coast is
:h to Abyssinia
cludinor part of
a larsj^e slice
ii the Gulf of
:a is claimed—
le Somaliland
n, in addition,
vest coast and
iding- far back
rican territory
r extended its
ult in acquire-
^aded in 1830,
nly at the cost
the adjoining*-
ice then the
ly southward,
-the Atlantic
Jjreat desert
ilds it mainly
e Sou'lan.
isplaying the
ision of their
•f Africa, the
y on the Gulf
j-o, they have
d fro in Sene-
:r nearly the
the Atlantic
»udan in the
being- based
f^nglish con-
i abandoned,
isession of a
:1 the British
I the sea.
2re Italy and
lany's is far
larger and more imporant. In East Africa it holds a large and valuable
region of territory, on the Zanzibar coast, between British East Africa
and Portuguese Mozambique, and extending westward to „
I „K,, M 1 --f •. . . _ vJerman and
Lake JNjassa and I anganyika and the Congo Eree State, Italian
and northward to the Victoria Nyanza. It cuts off British' Colonies
territory from an extension throughout the whole length of Africa, and
if Cecil Rhodes' Cairo to Cape Town Railway is ever completed, 'some
hundreds of miles of if will have to run through German territory.
In South Africa Germany has seized upon a broad region h'ft unclaimed
by Great Britain, the Atlantic coast section of Damaralnnd and Great
Namaqualand, and also an extensive section on the right of the Gulf of
Cniinea, stretching inward like a wedge between British and Erench posses-
sions in this region. On the Gold Coast it has also a minor territory, lyino-
betwe(;n British Ashantee and I'Vench Dahomey. '^
The broad interior of the continent, the mighty plateau region watered
by the great Congo River and its innumerable affluents, first traversed by
the daring Stanley not many years in the past, has been
erected into the extensive and promising Coneo I<>ee State "^'ifConRo
]i * f c> r> I Free Stfltc
er the suzeramty of the- king of Belgium. It is the most
populous and agriculturally the richest section of Africa, whih' its remark-
able extension of navigable waters give unintrrrupted coniir.iir.ication
through its every part. It has probably before ii a great future.
Off the east coast of Africa lies the great island of Madagascar, now a
Erench territory, b'rancc; has had military posts on its coast for more than
two hundred years, and in 1883 ^'^gan the series of wars The Fren i
which resulted in the con(p.est of the island. The principal Conquest of
war of invasion began in 1895 'ind ended in a complete over- '^^'JaRascar
throw of the native government, Madagascar being declared a bVench col-
ony in June, 1896.
Of these European possessions in Africa, all are held with a stroncr
hand except those of Portugal, which unprogressive state may soon give up
all claim to her territories of Angola and Mozambique. Great Britain and
Germany have been negotiating with Portugal for the purchase of these ter-
ntories— to be divided between them. As one part of the bargain. Great
PMitain will get the important Delagoa Bay, and definitely shut hi the Boer
Republic from the sea.
This division of Africa between the European nations, '^*''' '" '^^'•'*=*
with the subsequent takinir possession of the acquired territories, has not
been accomplished without war and bloodshed ; England, Erance and
Italy having had to fight hard to establish their claims. In only two seo
<-;; k:
V''\\
ft ''I
|i
If
330
THE ERA OF COLONIES
tions. Abyssinia and the Egyptian Soudan, have the natives been able to
dnve^out their invaders, and the wars in these regions call for some fuller
The firr,t war in Abyssinia occurred in 1867, when England, irritated by
an arbitrary action of the Emperor Theodore, declared war against him,
and invaded h.s rocky and difficult country. The war ended in the conquest
of Magdala and the death of Theodore. In ,889 Italy aided Menelek in
gaming the throne, and was granted the large district of Eritrea on the Red
Defeat of the ^ea, with a nominal protectorate over the whole kin<rdom
fbyS: f "^^.^-q"-^tly Menelek repudiated the treaty, and in 18^4 the
Italians invaded his kingdom. For a time they were success-
ful but in March, 1896, the Italian army met with a most disastrous defeat
and in the treaty that followed Italy was compelled to acknowled<re the
complete independence of Abyssinia. It was the one case in AfHca in
which the natives were able to hold their own against the ambitious nations
ot 11 u rope.
In Egypt they did so for a time, and a brief description of the recent
history of this important kingdom seems of interest. Egypt broke loose
.n large measure from the rule of Turkey during the reign ot the able and
ambitious Mehemet Ah, who was made viceroy in 1840 In 1876 the inde-
pcmence of Egypt was much increased, and its rulers were given the title
of khedive, or king. The powers of the khedives steadily increa^ .:nd in
The Expansion ^^74-/5 Ismail Pasha greatly extended the Egy^..:,.., terri-
of Egypt tory, annexing the Soudan as far as Darfur, and'^finally to the
shores of the lately discovered Victoria Nyanza. Egypt thus
embraced the valley of the Nile nrartiVnlKr f-^ ,Vc •
. 7 ^' "-"^ ^^"^ practically to its source, presenting an
aspect of immense length and great narrowness.
Soon after, the finances of the country became so involved that they
were placed under European control, and the growth of English and French
mfluence led to the revolt of Arabi Pasha in , 879. This was repressed by
Great Britain, which bombarded Alexandria and defeated the Egyptians
France taking no part. As a result the controlling influence of France
ended and Great Britain became the practical ruler of Egypt, which posi-
tion she still maintains. '
In 1880 began an important series of events. A Mohammedan prophet
arose in the Soudan, claiming to be the Mahdi, a Messiah of the Mussulmans.
The Rise of the ^ ^'"'•^''^ ^'''^y «^ devoted believers soon gathered around him,
Mahdi and he set up an independent sultanate in the desert, defeatinfr
^, . , , ^°'"" Ey:ypt'an expeditions sent against him, and capturin- E\
Obeid. the chief city of Kordofan which he made his capital in TsSa
THE ERA OF COLONIES
Zl^
Then against him Great Britain dispatched an army of British and Egyp-
tian soldiers, under an English leader styled in Egypt Hicks Pasha. These
advanced to El Obeid, where they fell into an\amhush prepared by the
Mahdists, and. after a desperate struggle, lasting three days, were almost com-
pletely annihilated, scarcely a man escaping to tell the disastrous tale.
"General Hicks," said a newspaper correspondent, "charged at the head of
staff. They galloped towards a sheikh, supposed by the ^^ m
T? ^- ^1 ii\Ti,. .X.. ^^ -' • ne Massacre of
Egyptians to be the Mahdi. Hicks rushed on him with his Hicks Pasha
sword and cut his face and arm; this man had on a Darfnr and His Army
steel mail-shirt. Just then a club thrown struck General Hicks on the head
and unhorsed him. The chargers of the staff were speared but the English
officers fought on foot till all were killed. Hicks was the last to die." '^
Other expeditions of Egyptians troops sent against Osman Digma
("Osmanthe Ugly"), the lieutenant of the Mahdi in the Eastern Soudan,
met with a similar fate, while the towns of 3inkat and Tokar were invested
by the Mahdists. To relieve these towns Baker Pasha advanced with a
force of 3,650 men. 'I'here was no more daring or accomplished officer in
the British army than Valentine Baker, but his expedition met with the
same fate as that of his predecessor. Advancing into the desert from Trin-
kitat, a town some distance south of .Suakim, on the Red Sea, the force
was met by a body of Mahdists, and the Egyptian soldiers at once broke
into a panic of terror. The Mahdists were only some 1,200 strong, but
they surrounded and butchered the unresisting Egyptians in a frightful
slaughter.
" Inside the square," said an eyewitness, " the state of affairs was almost
indescribable. Cavalry, infantry, mules, camels, falling baggage and dying
men were crushed into a strugglin surging mass. The
Egyptians were shrieking madly, hai.
away, but trying to shelter themselves one behind another."
"The conduct of the Egyptians was simply disgraceful," said another officer.
"Armed with rifle and bayonet, they allowed themselves to be slaughtered,
without an effort at self-defence, by savages inferior to them in numbers and
armed only with spears and swords."
Baker and his staff officers, seeing that affairs were hopeless, charged
the enemy and cut their way through to the shore, but of the total force
two-thirds were left dead or wounded on the field. Such was the "massa-
cre" of El Teb, which was followed four days afterwards by the capture of
Sinkat ;ind ^lail'Thter of ifs fyarricr»r> T'-ii'" !-!-«--' = <•- '
..i.i.i^Mirr ui Kb garrison, i 1II3 but;.jiciy vvao suun alter avcngea.
General Graham was sent from Cairo with reinforcements of British troops,
which advanced on Osman's position, and, in two bloody engagements sub-
attempting to run The Battles
^ *= Near Suakim
Tl^'i'!
v\ I J
. 11 : If
.' 1
I I
332
THE ERA OF COLONIES
;i. ft
\ \
III the .sa:ne year in which these events took place M?,A General
exploits m the Flowery K.ngdom-advanced by the Nile to Khartoum, th
(iardonooes , '='P"='' "' "'e Mohammedan Soudan, of which he had
.« Khartoum ^een governor-general in former years. His purpose was to
h. f,-I A T ? , '" EgyPti^i" garrison of that city— in which desi.rn
thV:;i:fdar : 1;' H^rtLt Ktrt"'""- ''"^''' - --' -"'''"^- -
nunication with Vl! Khartoum was soon cut off from all corn-
were let ■ "T'/'' '° "^^ ""'■"'■ ''"d Go^'Jo" ^"d 'I>e garrison
on o'',: ehVf ,°H " "'■■"• " "'^^ ''^"=™"'"«' '° -"" - expedi-
wo-iip:;;':!:^ ttZhirrzu^tr:" '-"^^^- °' '-'
was tIcroTs'f itl "T fT'f, T '"" =^"'°"^' ■■' 'I--' -'"""> which
"tolmneh on the N 1 ! '""' "'"' "'^ "''' "' '^""'^^- f™'h Korti to
luctamneh, on the N,le, thus cutting off a wide loop in the stream • and a
Engknd Tl e desert column found its route strongly disputed.
On the 7th of January, ,885, it was attacked by the Arabs in
overwhelming force and fighting with the ferocity of ti<xers
some 5,000 of them attacking the 1,500 British drawn uo in
square, round which the fanatical Mahdists^raged lile storm drteTwaves
The penl was imminent. Among those who fell on the British idewa;
Colonel Burnaby, the famous traveler. The battle was a remarkably bHe
one the .m.etnous rush of the Arabs being repulsed in about five n^„u"s
of heroic effort, during which there was imminent danger of their pene" a in<
the square and making an end of the British troops. As it was the'A'abTlosf
Mooin deaa and a large number of wounded, the British
ess than 200 m all. A few days afterwards the Arabs at-
On the ,oth of I "Sain, but as before were repuLsed with heavy loss.
b°:o:,a:keTontst:kT "^ "'" '"'' ''''"''■ ^"^ '"^ --'-^--p^
th, ^r J''^^ T"." "'";' ^^ '°'" ^"'''"'"' which Gordon had sent down
the Nile, after plating their hulls with iron as a protection agai" A rib
bu lets. Various circumstances now cause.l delay, and several clay pa sed
before General Wilson, in command of the expedition, felt f safe o
advance on Khartoum. At len<rih „,, in„M,.,. -..1, „- , . ^ '°
with a snvill f„,..« „f . j.inua.j ^^d\, two 01 tnc steamers,
a small force of troops, set out up the river, but met with so man,;
To the Rescue
of Gordon
The Desert
Fights
THE ERA OF COLONIES
333
^h^ng one, the
le killed alone
1884) General
is memorable
vhartoum, th
vhich he had
nrpose was to
which desicni
nultitudes to
rom all com-
the garrison
id an expedi-
hip of Lord
olumn which
rom Korti to
ream ; and a
)ats was sent
jly disputed,
the Arabs in
ty of tigers,
drawn up in
■iven waves,
sh side was
.rkably brief
five minutes
penetrating
e Arabs lost
the British
: Arabs at-
heavy loss.
:ary troops
sent down
ainst A^rab
ays passed
it safe to
; steamers,
fi so many
'\''i\
obstacles that it was the 28th before they came within sight of the distant
towers of Khartoum. From the bank came a shout to the effect that
Khartoum had been taken and Gordon ki''.ed two days before. As they
drew nearer there came evidence that the announcement was true. No
British flag was seen Hying ; not a shot came from the shore in aid of the
steamers. Masses of the enemy could be seen in all directions. A storm
of musketry beat like hail on the iron sides of the boats. Wilson, believing
tlie attempt hopeless, gave the jrder to turn and run at full speed down the
river. They did so amid a rattle of bullets and bursting of shells from the
artillery of the enemy.
The news they brought was true. The gallant Gordon was indeed
dead. The exact events that took place are not known. Some attributed
the fall of the town to the act of a traitor, some to the storming of the
gates. It does not matter now; it is enough to know that
the famous Christian soldier had been killed with all his Death of Gen-
men — about 4,000 persons bemg slaughtered, in a massacre
that continued for six hours. That was the end of it. The British soon after
withdrew and left Khartoum and the Soudan in the undisputed possession
of the Arabs. The Mahdi had been victorious, though he did not live long
to enjoy his triumph, he dying some months later.
And so matters were left for nearly twelve years, when the British
government, having arranged affairs in Egypt to its liking, and put the
country in a prosperous condition, decided to attempt the reconquest of
the Soudan, and avenge the slaughtered Gordon. An expedition was sent
out in 1896, which captured Dongola in September and defeated the der-
vish force in several engagements. The progress continued, slowly but
surely, up the Nile. In 1897 other advantages were gained. But it was
not until 1898 that the Anglo-Egyptian force, under Sir Herbert Kitchener,
known under his Egyptian title of the Sirdar, reached the vicinity of
Khartoum. The Egyptian soldiers under him were of other .^. . ,
rr 1 1 i 1 1 1-. 1 T^ 1 T- , The Advance of
stutt than those commanded by Baker Pasha. From a mob the British
with arms in hand they had been drilled into brave and steady »"'' Recapture
soldiers, quite capable of giving a good account of themselves
At Omdurman, near Khartoum, the dervishes were met in force and a
fierce and final battle was fought. The Arabs suffered a crushing defeat,
losing more than 10,000 men, while the British loss was only about 200.
This brilliant victory ended the war on the Nile. The fight was taken out
of the Arabs. The Soudan was ics^ored to Egypt by British arms, four-
teen years after it had been lost to the Mahdi.
iii-f J;
'li 'I
-II ■
HP
■■
,,^^,..^
pip-!
334
THE ERA OF COLONIES
II M
' ■..i'l;
t 'i
Ml
as P^. tr. trn^^e ^.^o:::,::t::e:i tar- -y - -'^-'^
greater part of that vast continon, I T r •'''l'='"<--=<-' tnipires, fartlie
.ant independent sec.ilr b .^rrlr ^ aS'" P^™'™'' 17^' ""P"^"
As matters now^o, a„ of tHese^ Chi„:V„.tded: befrtH^tw^ilSr '
^^-r- r.iireritt!r'z:^^^^^^^^^^^ -rF
Prance, wHHe Hrani^t-t-^^f t" ^^^ --"■ -^ -
already spoken. The etepiseo;7; '" 7'"'"f"" ""' ^"""=''' ""= '--
p,e„... over .he^sou'::: :E:Tand hi::: vtT^^i™^'- -r'^'^'
British Meth. but far more surelv Tl,„ f^ "'"''' '"°'''= '''""■'y
odsofColon. t|,„3^ , d,' ' P^- T'>= ^'erpnses of the one are brilliant,
le An Wo S., "" '',''• ""'' '■' ''^ ""-- «'•"'"«=- with which
dominantpowe o,f f:tT"Tr;r 1 h"'" ',"" ""''-■^ " '-^^>' "-
themselve with forehn, , eo, le, n c ^ ''"^''.''^i^^ "'= '^"'"'y of assimilating
becoming their frien<;:':,!d:nt;T,!:';^i;:r:rtr^^' r' "'"°"'^ ^"'
to treat tl>eir colonial subjects as infeWo h ■ "!""■'■"■''• "■' '°° '''P'
haughtiness with justice, ad wi, re : It Zf V ' '""""'^ ""'^
distrust and fear. ' '''" ""'"« '""= as they inspire
China. This wa: L"": . "^^Z^ of'T'l "T" " ""= i^"'"-"^ "' ^"^o-
once safe to meddle with ^^^^Zl ll^ZV^^l "',' "'"^' '^^^ "
peror of Annam accepted French a d i^ th ' ,'" ' '■'^S ""= em-
Oper.«„„. „, states of'cochin Ch na and Tonn '""""n' °' ','" "^'J""""*?
France in influence th„« „„, J ^""'- '^'"^ ^'<=dge of French
— "• .„!::"£. rr,r;,:d"irti:r7'^''- , ''r-'-^"™^ ^--s'"
treated by the natives. As usu in ch ase „il°f " f'""'^" ""^">'
vasion and annexation -,nd in iSfi, . <:ases th.s formed a pretext for in-
by France, the renSd:r';:i f^rxH^^ s'r''M''''7.r^"^^'' "'°''
c.n^-^:;--:SXin-St:d1a^^^^^^^
THE ERA OF COLONIES
335
states mentioned constitiu>. the eastern half of Indo-China. The western
portion is formed by the kingdom of Burmah, now a British possession.
Between these lies the contracted kingdom of Siam, the only portion of the
peninsula that retains its independence.
The attention of France was next directed to Tonqiiin, the northern
province of the Annamite Empire, which was invaded in 1873, and its capi-
tal city, Hanoi, captured. Here the French found foeman worth}' of their
steel. After the suppression of the Taii)ing- rebellion in
China certain bands of the rebels took refuge in Tonquin, pFajcs
where they won themselves a new home by force of arms, and
in 1868 held the valley of the Red River as far south as Hanoi. These,
known as the *' Black Flags," were bold, restless, daring desperadoes, who
made the conquest of the country a difficult task for the French. By their
aid the invading French were driven from Hanoi and forced back in defeat.
The FVench resumed their work of conquest in 1882, again taking the
city of Hanoi, and in December, 1883, a strong expedition advanced up the
Red River against the stronghold of Sontaj', which, with the
.... Ti M- 1 111 • •!• The Seige of
neighbormg Bac JNmh, was looked upon, in a military sense, sontay
as the key to Tonquin. The enterprise seemed a desperate
one, the expeditionary force consisting of but 6,000 soldiers and 1,350
coolies, while behind the strong works of the place were 25,000 armed men,
of whom 10,000 were composed of the valiant Black Flags. But cannon
served the place of men. The river defences were battered down and
preparations made to storm the citadel. During the succeeding night,
however, the French ran imminent risk of a disastrous repulse. At one
o'clock at night, when all but the sentries were locked in slumber, a sudden
shower of rockets was poured on the thatched roofs of the huts in which
the soldiers lay asleep, and with savage yells the Chinese rushed from their
gates and into the heart of the camp, firing briskly as they came. The
French troops, fatigued with the hard fighting of the preceding day, and
demoralized by the suddenness of the attack and the pluck ^ ... ,, ,,^ ,
^ ^ . A Night Attack
and persistent energy of the assailants, were thrown almost into
panic, and were ready to give way when the Chinese trumpets sounded the
recall and the enemy drew off. As it appeared afterwards this attack was
made by only 300 men. It would undoubtedly have stampeded the
invading forces but for the vigilance of the sentinels.
On the next day, December i6th, the fort was stormed, and taken after
a desperate resistance. 1 here is but one incident of the assuull liiafc wc
need relate. As the French rushed across the bridge that spanned the wide
dii.ch and approached the gate of the citadel, there was seen an instance of
illi
t
iW
I -"ll 1
1 i,li !,
336
THE ERA OF COLONIES
''•■'.^
m
i;!
cool and .levotecl bravery hardlv exccllpfl hv n, . . • i
fan.ous ■■ captain of tl,e g'.te " v^^," e d he T I, ' t '. ™' '"^P'-'*^"' ""^ '^'
i>os.. There, told off tol.ard tic" narrow n.! /"'^' again.st the Tuscan
the wall, stood a gallant lilac Fla::o ^rer' kTvv''T'" "'"'-^-'^ ->''
found its billet ot ve tt^ve crT^'^r.l f '■"'^' ■^"'' =-" """-
Legion, with a ball thro ^h s ' . a Td " 1, ' 'T'" °' "" ''°-'*''"
when the stormers rushed' in at Last he hero Rl TfT ""^ ''"" ' ■^"''
died with his face to the foe, as a solXr si™ d 1 f T? T" 1 "" '™^''
recognize bravery either in friend „. ^"°"W the. The French, quick to
similarly taken by storm comoIetPrl th^ . 7 ^'^c-Nmh, which was
■ished the Frencl! in th.rXl:Lf:f Ttqlr"^"^^' '"'' ^■™"' --^•
They had, however, still the Chinese to deal with TV . • ,
the previous year the Hlack .^Z iigedlr-rorrlids ^::-;hf
^-r- rorna:i::'ch,::ttr^' ;: tiii'tit-^, r^t --"
-. . .ontrS"^;r-s^:;i t; ri£f r-^^^
chini;;ai:Lrro:xr::i7rSt:t:7rst^h?'^^^^^^^^^^^
possession of the adjoining pro;ince In rfnrn / ""' ""=" "'
these two powers, which fixed the Meko g ^ Can^brdiV" '"''"'? '""'^^"
■"g hne. As a result those powers now hold alTnf f ' ru '' ""="■ *^''^-
much diminished kin<rdon, of Silm L '"do-Chma except tlie
the old governn,ent to ont^ue r ' P "' P"'"'"'='' "'^ f°™ of
though hf does not IX. sTn': X r I p^r ™ in" he h^ d "f" T'^;?''"^-
governor-general at Hanoi ^""^^ °^ ^'^^ F'-ench
of the continent. The 1^! I'^t „:r„7=4: . '"«= """" =";" ^^-'''^
w.dth of the continent in ,1,. p.h, " a ° „ , ' d °'""^ ""-" "''"'^
teenth century, after which h^ nro^ ess nfR^ ■*'/"'"" '" "'<= ^«^"="-
tjie progress of Russia in Asia ceased until the
THE ERA OF COLONIES
337
nineteenth century, within which the territory of the Muscovite empire in
that continent has been very ^rreatly extended. Two provinces were wrested
from Persia in 1828, as the prize of a victorious war, and in
1859 the conquest of the region of the Caucasus was completed "^'"^ Advance of
by the capture of the hreoic Schamyl. In 1858 the left bank '^"'""'^ '" '^*'«
of the great Amur River was gained by treaty with China, after having
been occupied by force.
Soon after this period, Russia began the work of conquest in the region
of Turkestan, that long-mysterious section of Central Asia, inhabited in
part by fierce desert nomades, who for centuries made Persia the spoil of
their devastating raids, and in part by intolerant settled tribes, among
whom no Christian dared venture except at risk of his life. It remained in
great measure a ^erra incognita until the Russians forced their way into it
arms in hand.
The southern border of Siberia was gradually extended downward
over the great region of the Mongolian steppes until the northern limits
of Turkestan were reached, and in 1864 Russia invaded this region sub-
duing the oasis of Tashkend after a fierce war. In 1868 the march of
invasion reached Bokhara, and in 1873 the oasis of Khiva
was conquered and annexed. In 1875-76 Khokand was con- The invasion
quered after a fierce war, and annexed to Russia. This °* '''"'*''®**^"
completed the acquisition of the fertile provinces of Turkestan, but the
fierce nomades of the desert remained unsubdued, and the oasis of Merv
and the country of the warlike Tekke Turcomans were still to conquer.
This, which was accomplished in 1880-81, merits a fuller description.
A broad belt of desert lands stretches across the continent of Asia
from Arabia, in the southwest, to the rainless highlands of Gobi, or Shamo,
in the far east. This desert zone is here and there broken by a tract of
steppe land that is covered with grass for a portion of the year, while more
rarely a large oasis is formed where the rivers and streams, descending
from a mountain range, supply water to a fertile region, before losing them-
selves in the sands of the desert beyond.
Eastward of the Caspian, and south of the Aral, much of the waste
land is a salt desert, and the shells, mixed with the surface sand, afford
further evidence that it was in times not very remote part
of the bottom of a large inland sea, of which the land- The Deserts of
locked waters of Western Asia are a survival. Central Asia
Along the Caspian the steppe and desert sink gradually to the water-
level, and the margins of the sea are so shallow that, except where extensive
I ,1
338
'li,.'*'
tr.
,-i~,
THE ERA OF COLONIES
the shore. '^ ^°" '"'° ''^'•S<=» '"° >-■- three miles from
Ru.sifeS'irrntr'rrtt'-vr'^^"^ "•" ^™"'-" ''-■' -^ "-=
obstacle to an Eurooe^n In .Y ^'■'■™ ''^'"= '' ■' '""'■'= f"rn,id.-,ble
tribes of the oat not onl r "I "" r"""'^"' '""' ">= •'■"•^"n'-
White Czar, bu I ucees^ful Iv '" , ^ " ■''t"°-l^''«'= 'I- ''""""ion of .he
in the spring, wherthe , r!i M "^ ° ""= "">' ^""'"^ "' '"^ '"^J- f°n»
The first sue es u adv-fnc , ^''T' ""'""^''^ '°^*^"= '"' "«- l'°^-»-
whose expeditiotfot^d rr,;':ft«i?er"'=, "T-Tt^- '?• ''=""™""'
where the A,nu Uarii Al,/o "*"' "V>-'"'l<: 'and which breaks the desert
central higldan s of As ' to th "' ff''"' '""^^^ ""^^ '■°^™ '"'"^ ''"^
tbe Russia°,s be.'an a,x, he series'T' "^'^ "' "" ^'''^ ^''- «'" '" '^^S
on the Oxus, but fro n th! r 1 ^ "'"''""!'• ''"""''' "°' '■•""' "'^'> '"«»
Caspian. " '"" ''""'^ ™ ""= southwestern shore of the
Tekkes 'of theTkh:" ^'^is^^^n T"'"'"', °' "'^ ^"^'''""»" '^'^^^ --''he
™ec„„„., thert :ls Tesert r,: ,' rLr""^",'"'" f'f ""^ "■^^"■■'•""
Turkoman. ° '"^l^opet Dagh Mountains. The desert, which stretcher
waste, partly':; r T't" ''T °' ,""= '^'^^'^ '^'^'-•' '^ P^'' -^
broken 'by cr'ac s ^d crevicrii: t' 7 ^"'' ''"'='', '""' ''' "^ -" '
brickfield when it rains. The wer^f '^' ""°"' ' " ''••'''■"""''<=■'
drink. It flows in a deVn ., n ''"''"' " '"="'">'• '''"^l "<" !?<""i to
the desert ap^'o h i th't or",'n I ''='"^'=".t"'". '■•■"''• ^"'' » '^'"-'>' ''°-
of its cla^-banke,^ .U ""*= ""»'" ''''''^ "'""" => hundred yards
•the Su,! e 'r tt ruTs iZ'tHr^rT H "i;"" "'"'^^ "»^ '^^ --• *"-
the earthwork fort 7 Tchad w^utts" t"'"", '"'' ="' ••"^""'^'='' P"^'"
Sumber, one enters the \r\A n <--'yht-aun battery Following the
precipitous rocky walls Af fh« f . r """"tains form for miles a hne of
villagL of the Telke Tuliranf '"'""' "'"''"' '^^ "'^ '""'««''
""""Tst^^ '"?'"; '™'" '?« ''°P^' ^^g''- «--"^ to the north.
Ind th./ f'' '^"'" '*"'""• '''='^^<=«" the n,ountain wall
oasis-the lan:l;'Aktr^tfwf^"r!,!^7;— '"™\^'""^'' "—
Adan. hetook himself when he' was ' d -^1"^;';^ ;;:;tr"4^^L^^^^^^^
The Land of
Akhal
r*!?*yu
THE ERA OF COLONIES
339
much of the praise that has bc^cn ^riven to the beauty aiui fertility of this
thrce-hundrcd-mile strip of well-watered garden ground conies from the
contrast betw(;en its green enclosures and the endless waste that closes in
the horizon to the north-eastward. Corn and maize, cotton and wool, form
part of the wealth of its people. They had the fuiest horses of all Turkes-
tan, and great herds and flocks of cattle, sheep and camels, ti. .. .
'iM .... J Ml . . inellertls and
I he streams turned numerous mdls, and were led by a net- ViiiaRcsof
work of tunnels and conduits through the fields and garden. theTekkes
The villages were mud-walled quadrangles, with an inner enclosure for the
cattle; the kibitkas, or tents, and the mud huts of the Tekkes filling the
space between the inner and outer walls, and straggling outside in tem-
porary camps that could be rapidly cleared away in war time. The people
were over 100,000 strong— perhaps 140,000 in all— men, women and chil-
dren. They were united in a loose confederacy, acknowledged the lordship
of the Khan of Merv, who had come from one of their own villages. Thev
raided the Russian and Persian borders successfully, these plundering e.xpe-
ditions filling up the part of the year when they were not busy wis ^ more
peaceful occupations. Along their fertile strip of land ran the caravan
track from Merv by Askabad to Kizil Arvat and the Caspian, and when
they were not at war the Tekkes had thus an outlet for
their surplus productions, among which were beautiful car- ^w^rrilre
pets, the handiwork of their women. In war they had proved
themselves formidable to all their neighbors. United with the warriors of
Merv, the men of Akhal had cut to pieces a Khivan army in 1855 and a
host of Persians in 1861.
The conquest of Akhal had long been a subject of Russian ambition.
It was not merely that they were anxious to put an end once for all to the
raids of the Turkomans of the great oasis, but they regarded the posses-
sion of this region as a great step towards the consolidation of their power
in Asia. From Baku, the terminus of their railways in th Caucasus, it was
easy to ferry troops across the Caspian. What they wanted was a secure
road from some port on its eastern shore to their provinces on the Upper
Oxus, and anyone who knew the country must have felt that this road would
eventually run through the Akhal and the Merv oases.
The first effort to subdue the Akhal va rj^rs proved a "^Lolakine
complete failure. As soon as peace wa- concluded with and the
Turkey, after the war of 1877-78, General Lomakine was '^"««'«"«
sent with a strong force to the Caspian, whence he made his wav bv the
caravan route over the desert to the strong nomade fortress of Geok
Tepe ("blue hills"), at the foot of the mountain range mentioned. We
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7//yT /i/iA OF COLON/ KS
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Shall say nothin.,. more concerning this expedition than that the attempt to
Wd ;:> ::: I-T i;--^ — p'^*^^- ^-'-^^ and the Russians we
lorceci to retreat m disorder.
To retrieve this disaster General Skoheleff. the most daring of the Rns-
^.an generals, who had gained great glory in tlie siege of Plevna was
selected, and set out in 1880. On the ist of luu.irv rSS, hi
ci'.rVif « f *.!, f . • 1 j.uuiar), is.Si, he came in
sight o he ort. with an army of 10,000 picked troops, and f.fty-four can-
non. Hchmc the clay ramparts lay awaiting him from 20,000 to 30000 of
valiant nomades. filled with the pride of their recent victory. The fi3,Ht
"ihetL";? '"""' TT^ ^'^r. '^' ^''^' ""^^ '^^^' ^'^^^'-' ^^^•■'^^ ^-'•^ P"^1>^'^1
Qeok rr '^ 71"f >' "••^^'•^•■^^ '^'^' ^>^e Russians had gained all the out-
the TnrL ''°'*^' ^ ^ '^"'- '^'^'^ ''"^^y P'-^^''-^^^ ^^^^-^ depressing to
the Turkomans, who were not used to such a method of fightincr. The can-
nonade continued resistlessly, the wall being brenched on the "l^.X and the
assault fixed for t e next day. Two mines had been driven under the ram-
part one charged with gun-powder and one with dynamite, and all was
ready for the desperate work of the storming parties
fake attack was made on the west side of the fort, the men firing inces-
san ly to distract the attention of the Turkomans, while the actual Llumn
of attack was formed and held ready on the east. Another column. 2 000
strong, waited opposite the south angle, the soldiers read)' and eager for' the
n..n^^ ^'"'^^ ^^'''' ""'""^T '^'^ ""'""" ^^""^ ^'^'^- '^^^ explosion caused mo-
n,entary panic among the garrison, and in the midst of the confusion the
two storming columns rushed for the breaches. But before they could climb
The Fort Car. ^''^ ^'^^P' ^^ smoking dedns the Tekkes were back at their
ried by storm Posts, and it was through a sharp fire of rifles and muskets
Th fi 1.. • T ^"f ''^"^ P^^'^^'d i" through the first line of defence.
The fight in and around the breaches was a close and desperate stru.ade •
but as the stormers m front fell, others clambered up to replace themttand
at the same time Haidaroff, converting his false attack into a real one
escaladed the southern wall.
'• No quarter !" had been the shout of the Russian officers as they dashed
forward at the head of the stormers. The Tekkes expected none They
. fought in desperate knots, back to back, among the huts and
tents of the town, but at last they were driven out by the east
^ side Skobelcff did not make Lomakine's mistake of block-
inpf their wnv Hp \(^t i-'^'in-i - . l <- 1
t)t r-H„'17/"__. , ! ? : ^"*^ ""ce they were out on the plain
A Frightful
Massacre
the Cossack cavalry was launched in wild
pursuit, and for ten long miles
7-//A I-:RA of COLOiV/hS
341
sword and .-.pcar (Iraiik deep of th. blood of the fui^dtives. VVoineii as
well Uh men were cut down or spean'd as the horses overtook them. More
than 8,000 Tekkes fell in the pursuit. Asked a yeai after if this was true,
Skobeleff said that he had the slain counted, and that it was so. Si.x thousand
five hundred bodies were buried inside the fortress ; eight thousand more
strewed the ten miles of the plain.
Skobeleff looked on the massacre as a necessury element in the con-
quest of Geok Tepe. " I hold it as a principle," he said, " that in Asia the
duration of peace is in dirci t proportion to the slaughter you inflict on the
enemy. The harder you hit them 'he longer they will keep quiet after it."
No women, he added, were killed by the troops under his immediate com-
mand, and he set at liberty 700 Persian women who were captives in Geok
Tepe. After ten miles the pursuit was stopped. There was no further re-
sistance. Not a shot was fired on either side after that terrible day. The
chiefs came in and surrendered. The other towns in the eastern part of the
oasis were occupied without fighting; nay, more, within a month of Geok
Tepe Skobeleff was able to go without a guard into the midst
of the -sry men who had fought against him. We in America Submission of
ca!inot \ nderstand the calm submission with which the Asiatic *''® ' "'''*•*"'""*
ac ttpts as the decree of fate the rule of the conqueror whose hand has been
heavy upon hiin and his. The crumbling ramparts of Geok Tepe remain a
memorial of the years of warfare which it cost the Russians, and the in^i track
on which the trains steam past the ruined fortess shows how complete has
been the victory.
Skobeleff looked upon his triumph as only the first step to further con-
quests. But within eighteen months of the storming of Geok Tepe he
died suddenly at Moscow. Others have built on the foundations which he
laid ; and, for good or ill, the advance which began with the subjugation of
the Tekke Turkomans has now brought the Russian outposts in Central
Asia in sight of the passes that lead across the mountain barriers of the
Indian frontier.
This conquest was quickly followed by the laying of a railroad across the
desert, from the Caspian to the sacred Mohammedan city of Samarcand,
the former capital of the terrible Timur the Tartar, and the iron horse now
penetrates freely into the heart of that once unknown land, its shrill whistle
perhaps disturbing Timur in his tomb. Acioss the broad stretch of Siberia
another railroad is being rapidly laid, and extended downward through
Manchuria to the borders of China, a stupendous enterpise, the road beiW
thousands of miles in length. Manchuria, the native land of the Chinese
emperors, is now held firmly by Russia, and the ancient empire of Persia,
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THE BRA OF COLONIES
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on the southern bonier of Tt.rkestan, is threatened with absorption
When and where the advance of Russia in Asia will end no man cailay
areatDevei. perhaps not until Hi.ulostan is torn from British hands and
R«r."a in^sln ^ "•'"P.'''"' "^ '^''^ "^''^^^ '^^^ '"--•^-l the southern sea. While
Kussia m hurope comprises about 2.000.000 square miles
'freaTf thi "'l '^"\''^""'"^^^ ^'^ ^'^^ "^ ^•564778 square n.iles. and the total'
North Amldc!:^ ""^^^ " ""^' ^^"'^ '' '"^ "^ '^^ ^"^'^^ ^-^''-"' ^'^
The final step in colonization-if we may call it by this name-be-
on,s to t e Un.ted States which at the end of the century laid its hand on
tuo Ksland groups of the hastern Seas, acquiring Hawaii by peaceful an-
nexat.on and the Philippine Islands by warlike invasion. What will be tlie
result o th.s acquisition on the future of the United States it is impossible
to say, but It brmgs the American border close to China, and when the
estmy of that great empire is settled, the republic of the West may
have something to s;!y. ^
At the end of the nineteenth century the work of the colonizing powers
was fairly at an end. Nearly all the available territory of the earJh had
The Future of been entered upon and occupied. Hut the work, while in this
EnC'rse r""; '°'"P^^^^'''' ^^« •" ^ f"!!-"- ^--nse only begun. It was left
for the twentieth century for those great tracts of the earth
to be brought Koperly under the dominion of civilisation, their abundant
resources developed, peace and prosperity brought to their fertile soils, and
the.r long turbulent population taught the arts of peaceful progress and
civihzed industry. i" b => '"'u
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CHAPTER XXII.
How the United States Entered the Century.
HITHERTO our attention has been directed to the Eastern Heml-
sphere, and to the stirrin^r events of nineteenth century history in
that great section of the earth. But beyond the ocean, in North
America, a greater event, one filled with more promise for mankind, one
destined to loom larger on the hori/on of time, was meanwhile taking
place, the development of the nobh; commonwealth of the United States o}
America. To this far-extending Republic of the West, a nation almost
solely an outgrowth of the nineteenth century, our attention The Great
needs now to be turned. Its history is one full of great steps RepubUcof
of progress, illuminated by a hundred events of the highest the West
oromlse and significance, and it stands to-day as a beacon light of national
progress and hunan liberty to the world, "the land of the brave and the
home of the free."
A hundred years ago the giant here described was but a babe, a new-
born nation just beginning to feel the strength of its limbs. It is with this
section of its history that we are here concerned, its days of origin and
childhood. Two events of extraordinary significance in human history ri.se
before us in the final quarter of the eighteenth century, the French Revo^
Jution and the American Declaration of Independence and its results. The
first of these revolutionary events we have dealt with ; the second remains
to be presented.
There is one circumstance that impresses us most strongly in this great
event, the remarkable group of able men who laid the foundation of the
American commonwealth. Among those whose hands jrave x., n * „
,1,„ r,„^,^ :.„ 1 ■ .. ^1 I • r » "1IV4.T j^civc The Great Men
llic hrst impulse to the ship of state were men of such noble who Founded
proportions as George Washington, the greatest man of the """• Nation
century not only in America but in the whole world ; Benjamin I'ranklin.
who came closely to the level of Washington in another field of human
greatness; Patrick Henry, whose masterpieces of oratory still stir the soul
like trumpet-blasts; Thomas Jefferson, to whose t-enius w.> nwf- the inJmlf.
able " Declaration of Independence;" Thomas Inline, whose pen had the
point of a sword and the strength of an army; John Paul Jones, the hero
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HOW THE UNITE I) STATES ENTERED THE CENTO RV
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After the
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Li*
of the most hrilHant feat of daring In the whole era of naval warfare, and
Alexander Hamilton, whose financial genius saved the infant state in one
of the most critical moments of its career. These were not the whole of
that surpassing coterie, but simply in their special fields the greatest, and it
is doubtful if the earth ever saw an abler group of statesmen than those to
whom we owe the Constitution of the United States.
It is not our purpose to tell the story of the American Revolution.
That lies back of the borders of time within which this work is confined.
But some brief statement of its results is in order, as an introduction to the
nineteenth century record of the United States.
It was a country in almost an expiring state when it emerged from the
Weakness of ^^^^^ death struggle of the Revolution. It had been swept by
the states fire and sword, its resources destroyed, its industries ruined,
its government financially bankrupt, its organization in a state
of tottering weakness, little left it but the courage of its
people and the aspirations of its leaders. But in courage and aspiration
safety and progress lie, and with those for its motive forces tiie future of
the country was assured.
The weakness spoken of was not the only or the worst weakness with
which the new community had to contend. Though named the United
States, its chief danger lay in its lack of union. The thirteen recent
colonies — now states — were combined only by the feeblest of bonds, one
calculated to carry them through an emergency, not to hold them together
under all the contingencies of human affairs. Practically they were thirteen
distinct nations, not one close union ; a group of communities with a few
ties of common self-interest, but otherwise disunited and distinct.
"Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union" had been adopted
in 1777 and ratified by the agreement of all the states in 1781. But the
Confederation was not a union. Each state claimed to be a sovereign com-
monwealth, and little power was given to the central government. The
weak point in the Articles of Confederation was that they
^"confederaUon ^^"^"^ Congress no power to ! .y taxes or to levy soldiers. It
could nuTcily ask the states for men and money, but must
v/ait till they were ready to give them — if they chose to do so at all. It
could uike treaties, but could not enforce them; could borrow money, but
could not repay it ; could make war, but could not force a man to join its
armies ; could recommend, but had no power to act.
The states proposed to remain independent e.xcept in minor particulars.
They were jealous of one another and of the general Congress. "We are,"
said Washington, "one nation to-day and thirteen to-morrow." That well
NOW THE UNITED STATES ENTERED THE CENTURY
345
expressed the state of the case ; no true union existed ; the states were
free to join hands more closely or to drift more widely asunder.
The time from the revolt against the stamp duties in 1775 to the
inauguration in 1789 of the National Government under which we live has
heen called the critical period of American history. It was a perivxl which
displayed all the inaptitude of the Americans for sound financiering. There
is hardly an evil in finances that cannot be illustrated by some event in
American affairs at that time. The Americans began the war without any
preparation, they conducted it on credit, and at the end of fourteen years
three millions of people were five hundred millions of dollars or more in
debt. The exact amount will never be known. Congress and the State
Legislatures issued paper currency in unlimited quantities and upon no
security. The Americans were deceived themselves in believing that their
products were essential to the welfare of Europe, and that all
European nations would speedily make overtures to them for ^j^ pinan^e
the control of American commerce. It may be said that the
Americans wholly over-estimated their importance in the world at that
time ; they thought that to cut off England from American commerce
would ruin England ; they thought that the bestowal of their commerce upon
France would enrich France so much that the French king, for so inestimable
a privilege, could well afford to loan them, and even to give them, money.
The doctrine of the rights of man ran riot in America. Paper currency
became the infatuation of the day. It was thought that paper currency
would meet all the demands for money, would win American indei)endence.
Even so practical a man as Franklin, then in France, said : "This effect of
paper currency is not understood on this side the water ; and, indeed, the
wl;oie is a mystery even to the politicians, how we have been able to con-
tinue a war four years without money, and how we could pay with paper
that had no previously fixed fund appropriated specifically to redeem it.
This currency, as we manage it, is a wonderful n ichine : it performs its
office when we issue it ; it pays and clothes troops and provides victuals
and ammunition, and when we are obliged to issue a quantit> '-xcessive, it
pays itself off by depreciation."
If the taxing power is the most august power in government, ibuse
of the taxing power is the most serious sin government can commit. No
one will deny that the Americans were guilty of committing most grievous
financial offenses during the critical period of their history. They abused
liberty by demanding and by exercising thf> rights of nationality, and at the
same time by neglecting or refusing to burden themselves with the taxation
necessary to support nationality.
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^o^ T^.. u^rrno states mrs^^o the cbmtvry
exigencies of war luad forcrclLcT" ■;""«"''■"«■"; for while the
Co„,«,„„„„, league of friendship, ■•-they'hd ^^l\ ""'""'-^'.'P^Petual
«fc„i„„te, sons in the theory nn.r ' f^."!"' '''''° '«'"-"ed additional les-
•nd Confcder. f,,^ ..ch nf 'r"''',"" ' "''""".stration of local government ■
«-' ^'"" and Rhdf,:;td ::;:;" "-, ^-^p'- <>f connX;
government under a constitutLn T e ;:o;:;:t; M^' f r™'"'^"' ""°
.•mperia,%tr;;tt;.r :: nortrirCed''^ "■'■"^^" -'^^^ ^'^ '"^
tendencies in A.nerica, the ZC-^Z \ '"'° '■". =^'"'»S'<^ ""^'^-^-'n 'wo
the tendency toward natL!: ' CfirttTl:^' ^°T,-""^=""'-^ -"<'
did not acknouIed<re the sunrnL .T commonwealth constitutions
lacking that essential t, " e" r'lL: ''"TT'' ' '"-^ ™^ y-
■nent, the power of the sreneral Z ' "^ "' ""^^"' =<=""'''' g"vern-
individuak Interstate reS if r'""' '° """" ''^^'^ *-"'y 'o
tl-ey had been fifteen yearblfore Ih/ T ''''^"'^ '""^^ P^'^^"' '^an
was more con,mon. but int ma e politSl ""'''^^"""''"'g "^ An.ericnn affairs
wealths was still unknown The bcrtv of""?"" "'"^^" ""= -"■"-
w-n. A peculiar tendency i„ Ame ca"affn "f "''"'^ ''-'^ "'" >'^' l'^-'
in the succession of writte^, con itutr„: ? ' "'""■ '^"=^'"'"'%' '^ ^«-'
The comn,onwealths of ^"e old CoXe '"^'"'™^''"^ P-"l''ar to America,
for a clearer definition of heirrehtfolfr '", ''"r°"'"''""' "-<= "^---''y
tion of the American people I nati'rht; ' """•' """ °' '"' ^'°"^-
A sense of the nec(-<i<.itxr f^- „ • , .
.he Philadelphia Conr;;;7t ° „ rdThT^ ^ff 'f^ '?' '" '"^ -"'"g °'
vention assembled it was founc! 1 ", ^ ''''' '"" "'"=" "^e Con-
problem of nationality could not be fo h''"''"'^ '°'"""'' °' ■'•<= '-■•««
"Articles of Co„feder.rtio:l'bra;eif';V:e:\;;rr'"™' °^ '^^ °'"
Thec„„s,,.„. stitution. This Convention comrL „ " "»°''°"' *^""-
.lo„.l Con. into a stron.dv united „. <=°"'hmed the associated states
«ntio„.„<, na,i„,„,: ° *> ■ "'";'='' ".="™"' possessed of all the powers of
preme Legislative, an'd C m^ I ,d dll "f '"P""" '-''^■^""-' ^u-
power "necessary to make fc,^^ ,'''P'""'=",''' '^'^ *'."> «" the
House of Congre'ss still reprel^ed t Jl"!."!'"^"'-'''-" ^"'"'^ "- Upper
.ne Uwer Mouse represented the-peopl^rhuS" ■:"2:Z;!1::
HOW THE UNITED STATES ENTERED THE CENTURY
347
(or a group of distinct communities, but for a nation of people. And to this
House was given the sole power "to lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts
and excises, and to pay the debt, and provide for the common defence and
general welfare of the United States."
With this Constitution the United States of America first came into
existence ; a strong, energetic and capable nation ; its government possessed
cf all the powers necessary to the full control of the states, and full ability
to make itself respecter' abroad ; its people possessed of all the civil rights
)et known or demandeci.
Yet the people, in their political privileges, were still controlled by the
constitutions of the states, and these fixed close restrictions op. the r\'y\\t of
suffrage, the electorate being confined to a small body whose ownership
of real estate and whose religious opinions agreed with the ideas existing in
colonial times. The property each voter was required to possess differed
in different commonwealths. In New Je»'sey he must have o^^^ri ti
property to the value of fifty pounds, in Maryland and the the Right of
Carolinas an estate of fifty acres, in Delaware a freehold Sufferage
estate of known value, in Georgia an estate of ten dollars or follow a
mechanic trade ; in New York, if he would vote for a member of Assembly
he must possess a freeholu of twenty pounds, and if he would vote for State
Senator, it must be a hundred. Massachusetts required an elector to own a
freehold estate worth sixty pounds or to possess an annual income of three
;^jounds, Connecticut was satisfied if his estate was of the yearly value of
seven dollars, and Rhode Island required him to own the value of one hun-
dred and thirty-four dollars in land. Pennsylvania required him to be a
freeholder, but New Hampshire and Vermont were satisfied with the pay-
ment of a poll-tax.
The number of electors was still further affected by the religious opin-
ions required of them. In New Jersey, in New Hampshire, in Vermont,
in Connecticut, and in South Carolina, no Roman Catholic could vote ;
Maryland and Massachusetts allowed ''tho£ ; of the Christian religion" to
exercise the franchise, but the "Christian religion" in Massa- Religious Ouaii-
chusetts was of the Congregational Church. North Carolina ticationsof
required her electors to believe in the divine authority of the Voters
Scriptures ; Delaware was satisfied with a belief in the Trinity nnd in the
inspiration of the Bible ; Pennsylvania allowed those, othcrwis " i^ialified,
to vote who believed "in one God, in tlu^ reward of good, and the punish-
ment of evil, and in the inspiration ot the Scriptures." In New York, in
\r Hi
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Virginia, in Georgia, and in Rhode Island, t"e Protestar*
ivitn was
pre-
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I^OU^ THE UNITED STATES ENTERED THE CENTURY
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New Jersey or of South Ca oUna 1,1 ' . T" T"^'^'' " ""^ S°^""- "'
--..ount to ten thousand cloU : „No „ "a oh': /"""f ^'"'"''^ '""^'
-^ Georgia to two Hundred and ^Cut^^rZIX "r'^Cr^'^^
"sr'- r, *■;■:: f- ''-"^^- - ^ve in.,„dr,,fptun t tv:::!
'^""" b. o land -r n", "'" ■ "' ^ ''"" ••' ""^"■'-'' pounds „,t
York he „,ust b.lnh'a' nd'^rer;::: 'l^ "^^7 Z™';-- ' ^^ ^ew
and thirty-four dollars; and In Maracus'-'t. n ^ :'''"''' ""'^ '"""''•"I
ticut required her Candida., for ^ , "'^"'' P°""''^- Connec-
did New Hampshir. Verm :, ^ ^ T'"- '° ''' •^"■■'"«^'' ^''^ -' ='«""^ &«
"onweaiths th! ca:did'l:™ ^ffi^ 'z r::,.:::'",;:;:'.'^';.-- '-,. the c;,„.
required of electors. "^ ''''' «-''B'<'"s qualifications
From ijese statements it is evident tinf ,1, r
St£.tc. was greatly limited when T I '"'^"""Se >n the United
dene.. ,h. <.^,,s,i.^Jo„of h1 l) "^^ '•"= ^■'""'"g of American indepen-
wealth, had .<)opt d h!. r st et'^.f?'" T '^"""'' ='"'' '^e con.m'on-
-■d th>,t ;. . ;«, fhe coun y w s b p 'Tn dl '■'°'"""""'' " ^^ ''«=
c»„.H,.„„,.h. and that of a population' thrl-n™' ""^"''''°"' ^^^'l'''
-"'" KL^'v™ ^---' - Hunred°;;^:urj:°j Xr
- vote. Afrii: s a^y": Tptpe^^'f 'f-fi''" ■'^^"'' P°---'' ^^
hundred thousand „,en 'from "ercit'.^tr°f" T-^'"'^' ^"'"^^ '°-
then, that at the time when Am ITn f^anch.se. It is evident,
only begun ; the office! of tt c n r 'Z'^ ^^7" ^'""'■^'^" "''^">' '>'"'
scarcely any provision existed f,,." ^ , "" Possession of the few,
try may be de'scribe'Tas h, ll^ e r":,: " 7"°"' "" '"''"''^ °' ''- -"n^
commerce as feeble, ,f Z^J^Z^JZ '^7"''^'"'' '-"^^ -'d
m vain, the people of the United Sm, "'"'•">' '," '^'"'=''"^'' "=>= not to be
.0 the paym^ent'of ^^r^::tJT:Zt:^ ^T^T '''"'^'
provements in transportation inrl fo th ^^'"' ''^ "* ^^''' franchise, to ini-
of a national system-^of rZo^la^a!! ,"1 Ts";^ ^'^h^"'' '"T"
•^sk :r:r^ '^ '"^'°^' " ^^'^ countrrdut- i^ttrt::.;-
tension of All «.u
'"•"" con.,^L!!:,r"=T ::;.''!:" .' :-<• ^'"^ "- adoption of .he
Hamilton-bv ..vhich U;ercru;hin: i"; :^i;b,"'■■;t"^;^'::" "^ ^'---der
£, '^'^'"^t»^"^"w nation was funded.
HO IV THE UN/TED STATES ENTERED THE CENTURY 349
for payment in after years a customs tariff estahlished as a means of obtain-
mg revenue and provision made for payin.<,r the claims of the soldiers
of the Revolut.on-saved the credit and secured the honor of the nation
As re-ards the franchise, it was orreatly extended during the nineteenth
century. I>y the tmie the Erie canal was excavated property qualif.cations
for suffrage had disappeared in nearly all the states, and by the middle of
the century s- Ii qualifications had been abandoned in them all. Those of a
religious character had vanished thirty years earlier.
As jet however, the right to vote was limited to "free, white, male
citizens. Iwenty years afterwards, on March 30, 1870, a further great ex-
tension of the right of suffrage was made. when, in accordan. e with the
hifteenth Amendment to the Constitution, it was proclaimed by Hamilton
Fish Secretary of State, that the right of citizens of this country to vote
could not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on
account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude.
Universal suffrage, so far as male citizens were concerned, thus became
the common condition of American political life in 1870. But the strug-rle
for liberty in this direction was not yet ended. Female citizens, about tlie
middle of the century, gave voice to their claim to the same right, and with
such effort that they had gained the right to vote at all elections in four of
the States— Wyoming, Colorado, Utah, and Idaho— by the end of the cen-
tury, and partial rights of suffrage in a majority of the States. The outlook
IS that before many years universal suffrage in its fullest sense will be estab-
lished in the United States.
With the westward movements of the millions of human beings who
have occupied the North American continent have gone the institutions and
constitutions of the east, modified in their journey westward by the varyin^r
conditions of the life of the people. The brief constitutions of 1776 have
developed into extraordinary length by successive changes and additions
made by the more than seventy Constitutional Conventions which have been
held west of the original thirteen States. These later consti- „ .
tutions resemble elaborate legal codes rather than brief state- S^St"
ments of the fundamental ideas of government. But these *""°"^
constitutions, of which those of the Dakotas and of Montana and Wash-
mgton are a type, express very clearly the opinions of the American people
in government at the present time. The earnest desire shown in them for an
accurate definition of the theory and the administration of government proves
try at ail times consider the ii
tion of their liberties, and with what h
th(
ir
rpreta-
esitation, it may be said, they delegate
powers in government to legislatures, to judges, and to governo
rs.
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350 //OJV THE UNITED STATES ENTERED THE CENTURY
The struggle for liberty will never cease, for with the progress of civili-
zation new definitions of the wants of the people are constantly forming in
the mind. The whole movement of the American people in government,
from the simple beginnings of representative government in Virginia, when
the little parliament was called, to the present time, when nationality is en-
throned and mighty commonwealths are become the component parts of
the "more perfect union," has been toward the slow but constant realiza-
Pro ressin th ^'°" °^ ^^^ rights and liberties of the people. Education, for
United states which no commonwealth made adequate provision a century
ago, is now the first care of the State. Easy and rapid trans-
portation, wholly unknown to our fathers, is now a necessary condition of
daily life. Trade has so prospered that the accumulated wealth of the
country is more than sixty billions of dollars. Newspapers, magazines,
books and pamphlets are now so numerous as to make it impossible to con-
tain them all in hundreds libraries, and the American people have become
the largest class of readers in the world.
A century ago there were but six cities of more than eight thousand
people in this country ; the number is now more than five hundred. Three
millions of people have become seventy-five millions. The area of the origi-
nal United States has expanded from eight hundred and thirty thousand
square miles to. four times that area. With expansion and growth and the
aitielioration in the conditions of life, the earnest problems of government
have been brought home to the people by the leaders in the State, by the
clergy, by the teachers in schools and colleges, and by the press.
But though we may be proud of these conquests, we are compelled in
the last analysis of our institutions, to return to a few fundamental notions of
our government. We must continue the representative idea based upon
the doctrine of the equality of rights and exercised by representative assem-
blies founded on popular elections ; and after our most pleasing contempla-
tion of the institutions of America, we must return to the people, the founda-
tion of our government. Their wisdom and self-control, and these alone,
will impart to our institutions that strength which insures their perpetuity
CHAPTER XXIII.
Expansion of the United States from Dwarf to Giant.
IN 1775, when the Ikitish colonies in America struck the first blow for
independence, tliey w(;re of dwarfish stature as compared with the
present superb dimensions of the United States. Thou^jh the war
with France had given them possession of the great Ohio Valley, the settled
portion of the countr)' lay between the Alleghaniesatid the Atlantic, and the
thirteen confederated States were confined to a narrow strip along the ocean
border of the continent.
But before and during the Revolutionary War pathfinders and pioneers
were at work. Chief among them was the noted hunter Daniel Boone, the
explorer and settler of the "Dark and Bloody Ground" of Kentucky.
Before him daring men had crossed the mountains, and after him came
others, so that by the end of the Revolution the hand of civilization was
firmly laid on the broad forest land of Kentucky and Tennessee. The rich
country north of the Ohio, where the British possessed a number of forts,
wari captured for the United States by another daring adventurer, George
Rogers Clark, who led a body of men down the Ohio, took and held the
iiritish forts, and saved the northw. st to the struggling States. The bound-
\r;es of the United States in iSoo, as established by the treaty of peace
vvith Great Britain, extended from the .lantic Ocean to the Mississippi,
ani^ from the Great Lakes on the north to F"lorida on the south. Florida,
then held by Spain, included a strip of land extending to the Mississippi
Rivtv, so that the new republic was cut off from the Gulf of Mexico by
donii'.in belonging to a foreign country. The area thus acquired by the new
nation was over 827,000 square miles. It was inhabited in 1800 by a popu-
lation of 5,300,cx)o.
The vast and almost wholly unknown territory west of the Mississippi,
claimed by Fraiice, in virtue of he* uis. overies and settlements on the great
river, until lyfij, when it was ceded to Spain, was held by that country in
1800. This cession gave Spain complete control of the lower course of the
Mississippi, since her province of Florida extended to the east bank of the
strean;. And she held it in a manner that proved deeply annoying to the
American settlers in the west, to whom free navigation of the Mississippi
was oJ great and growing iinportance.
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352
EXPANSION OF THE UNITED STATES
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These settlers were increasing in numhe.rs with considerable rapidity
The dann<,r enterprise of Daniel Boone and other fearless pioneers had
opened up the fertde l.tnds of Kentucky and Tennessee. The warlike
boldness of Colonel Clark had ^ained the northwest territory for the new
The Settlement T^'""' ^"''' ^''" "''''' '"^'""■>' J''*"^^''" '^^'"'^''"^ P«"''*=d. over
of the West ^^^ mountains and down the Ohio, and by the opening' of the
century villages and towns had been built in a hundred places,
and farmers were widely fdlmg the virgin woods and planting their grain
in the ler* . entucky and Tennessee had already been onrani/ed as
states .nu tr ni admission was quickly followed by that of Ohio which
entend the Union in 1803. In the same year an eN.nt of the hi<.hest
impoaance took place, the acquisiti„n of the great Louisiana territory by
the United States. ^ ^
It has been state.' ,t tlu- action of Spain gave great annoyance
to the settlers in the country west of the Alleghanies. To these the natural
commercial outlet to the sea was the Mississippi River, and the free use
Spalnciosesthe of this stream was forbidden by Spain, throu^rh whose
nississippito country ran its lower course. Spain was so detennined to
.u • o. u""'""" '°''J^^^''self the exclusive navigation of the great river
that ,n 1786 the new American republic withdrew all claim upon it, agree-
ing to withhold any demand for navigation of the Mississippi for twenty-
nve years. ^
This action proved to be hasty and unwise. The West filled up with
unlooked-for rapidity, and the settlers upon .;,e Mississippi soon began to
insist on free use of its waters, their irritation growing so g .t th tt the
United States vainly sought in ,793 to induce Spa.,, o open the stream to
American craft. This purpose was attained, however, in 17' when a
treaty was made which opened the Mississippi to the sea for a t- rm of ' ee
years, with permis"ion for Americans to use New Orleans as a free p. .f
entry, and place goods th -re on dejjosit.
Five ars 1 xter (i o), by n article in a secret treaty between Spain
and France, the vast province of Louisiana, extend.ag from the source to
the mouth of the Mississij.pi River, and westward to the Rocky Mountains
France Obtains ^^^ 'T^'^f. ^' ' '^l'"'" '° ^'''^'""^' ^''^^'" ^^'^'^^ country Spain had
Louisiana received it in 1-63. Towards the end of 1801 Napoleon Bona-
parte, then at the iiead of Fixndi auairs. sent out a fleet and
army ostensibly to a g, ,t San Domingo, but really to take possession
o* New Orleans.
When the secret of this treaty leakt-l out, as it soon did, there was
great excitement in the United States, the irritation bein^r increased by .
£XP.4NS/OA' Of ///i UNITED STATES
(' ''I
355
.Spanish order which withdrew the ritjht of deposit of American merchan-
dise in New Orleans, granted by the treaty of 1795, and faihrd to substitute
any otb r place for that city, m accordance with the terms of the treaty.
So strc) was the feeling that a Pennsylvania Senator introduced a resolu-
tion int Congress, authorizing Pr( ;ident Jefferson to call out 50,000
militia and occupy New Orleans. Hut Congress wisely decided that it
would be better and cheaper to buy it than to fight for it, and in January,
1803, "^ade an appropriation of $2,000,000 for its purchase. Th<! President
thereupon sent James Monroe to Paris to co-operate with Robert R. Living-
ston, United States Minister to France, in the proposed purchase.
Fortunately for the United States a new war between England and
France was then imminent, in the event of which Napoleon felt that he
could not long hold his American ac<iuisiti(>n against the powerful British
navy. Not only New Orleans, but the whole oi Louisiana,
would probably be lost to him, and just then money for his The Louisiana
f 1.1...... Purchase
wars was ot more consequence than wild lands beyond the
sea. Therefore, to the surprise of the American Minister, he ..as :'sk(;d to
make an offer for the entire territory. This was on April nth. On the
I2l.i Monroe reached Paris. The two commissioners earnestly debated on
the offer. They had no authority to close with such a proposition, but by
the time they could receive fresh instructions from Washington the golden
opportunity might be lost, und Great Britain depriv(.' us of the mighty West.
An ocean telegraph cable would have been to mem an invaluable boon. As
it was, there was no time to hesitate, and they decided to close with the
offer, fixing the purchase price at $10,000,000. Napoleon ilemanded more,
and in the end the price fixed upon was $15,000,000, of which $3,750,000
was to be paid to American citizens who hekl claims against Spain. A
treaty to this effect was signed April 30, 1803.
The news fell upon Spain like a thunderbolt. She filed a protest
against the treaty — based, jirobably, on a secret condition of her cession of
Louisiana to France, to the effect that it should not be parted with by that
country. But Napoleon was not the man to pay any attention to a protest
from a power so weak ^ Spain, and the matfr was one with which the
United States was not conc( ; A. President Jefferson highly How the Pur-
api)roved of the purchase, and called an extra session of the chase Was
Senate for its consideration. It met with some viL^orous Received
opposition in that body, based upon almi..-,t absolute ignorance of the value
of the territory involved; but t was ratifiec in October, 1803, and
Louisiana became ours. Tlie territory thus easily and cheaply acquired
added about 9:0,000 square miles to the I aited States, more than
11,
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354
EXPANSION OF THE UNITED STATES
H
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doubling its area It is now divided up into a large number of States
and includes much of the most productive agricultural land of the United
The members of the Senate who opposed the ratification of the treaty
of purchase were m a measure justified in their doubt. Almost nothing was
known of the country involved, and many idle legends were afloat concerning
I . Hun ers and trapper, had penetrated its wilds, but the stories told by
them had been transformed out of all semblance of truth. In order to
Ignorance of 'J'^''^^ l'^'^' 'i^^norance and satisfy these d.^ubts, the President
the Country determined to send an exploring expedition to the far West
with the purpose of crossing the Rocky Mountains, seeking
he head-waters of the Columbia kiver. and following that stream to it!
mouth. The men chosen to lead this expedition were William Clark-
b, .ther o George Rogers Clark, of Revolutionary fame -and Merriwether
l^ew.s. Both of these wer.. army officers, and they were well adapted for the
arduous enterprise which they were asked to undertake
Lewis and Clark left St. Louis in the summer of 1803. They encamped
for the winter on the bank of the Mississippi opposite the mouth of the
The LewU Missouri R.ver The company included nine Kentuckians
"xpedul "'!^. "^'■^ "^^^ '° ^"^'i^^" vvays and frontier life, fourteen
soldiers, two Canadian boatmen, an interpreter, a hunter and
a negro boatman. Besides these, a corporal and guard with nine boatmen
were engaged to accompany the expedition as far as the territory of the
Mandans. ^
The party carried with it the usual goods for trading with the Indians-
looking-glasses beads, tnnkets, hatchets, etc.. and such provisions as were
necessary for the sustenance of its members. While the greater part of the
command embarked .n a fleet of three large canoes, the hunters and pack-
horses followed a parallel route along the shore. In this way, in the spring
of 1804, the ascent of the Missouri was commenced. In Line the
country of the Osages was reached, then the lands occupied by the Ottawa
nbes. and finally, .n the fall, the hunting grounds of the Sioux. Here the
eaders of the expedition ordered cabins to be constructed, and camped for
the winter among the Mandans, in latitude 27 degrees 21 minutes north
They found in that country plenty of game, lu.ffalo and deer being abun-
dant ; but the weather was intensely cold and the expedition was hardly
prepared for the severity of the climate, so that its members suffered greatly
In April a fresh start was made and the party continued to ascend the
Missouri, reachinir the p-reat f;ilk Kv [.jn*. u^^^ tu„,. „,,_. , .. ...
waters and ascended the northernmost, which they called the Jefferson River,
EXPAf^S/OI^ OP THE UNITED STATES
2>SS
iin'al further navigation was im|»os.sil)lc ; then Captain Lewis with three com-
panions left the expedition in camp and started out on foot toward the
mountains, in search of the friendly Shoshone Indians, from whom he
expected assistance in his projected journey across thfj - i-mtains.
On the 1 2th of August he discovered the source af the Jefferson River
in a defile of the Rocky Mountains and crossed the oividin-; ridge, upon tiie
other side of which his eyes were gladdened by the discovery of a small
rivulet which flowed toward the west. Here was proof irrefptahle " that
the great backbone of earth " had b(;cn passed. The intrepitl explorer saw
with joy that this little stream danced out toward the settin<r xk m ^
sun— toward the Pacific Ocean. Meeting a force of Sho- Waters of the
shones and persuading them to accompany him on his return Columbia
to the main body of the exi)edition, Captain Lewis sought his companions
once more. Captain Clark then went forward to determine their future
course, and coming to the river whi^ch his companion had discovered, he
named it the Lewis River.
A number of Indian horses were procured from their red-skinned
friends and the explorers pushed on to the broad plains of the western
slope. The latter part of their progress in the mountains had been s'ow
and painful, because of the early fall of snow, but the plains presented all
the charm of early autumn. In October the Kaskaskia River was reached,
and, leaving the horses and whatever baggage could be dispensed with in
charge of the Indians, the command embarked in canoes and descended to
the mouth of the Columbia River, upon the south bank of
which, four hundred miles from their startiu'-- point upon descending: the
1.U' .. ^L 11 1 • 1 . , , . Columbia
this stream, they passed the second wmter. Much of the
return journey was a fight with hostile Indians, and the way proved to be
much more difficult than it had been found while advancing tuward the
west. Lewis was wounded before reaching home, by the accidental dis-
charge of a gun in the hands of one of his force.
Finally, after an absence of two years, the expedition returned to its
starting point, the leaders reaching Washington while Congress was in session.
Grants of land were immediately made to them and to their subordinates.
Captain Lewis was rewarded also with the governorship of Missouri. Clark
was appointed brigadier-general for the territory of Upper Louisiana, and in
1813 was made governor of Missouri. When this Territory became a State
h?. was appointed superintendent of Indian affairs, which, office he filled till
Uis death.
The second acquisition of territory by the United States embraced the
peninsula of Florida. The Spanish colony of I'lorida was divided into two
I I
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356
EXPAMsrOt^ OF Tlth: imiTR
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sections, known as Eastern and Western l-lc,ri,l-. ,i i
'"' *"'°" T^ t "- A"-ica„s of ,,„H.,a an., Ala„a,l,.', I^Z^^Z
country up ,l,n. I.ream ^' ''"'"='' °" ^""'^ '" ^ '™"> "'e
w„.„„.„.. ^>""";-y of K,oHua-an. in ~.::Tt:^i^'::: ^^z
co.nn,an.,e.in.^:i , ft:,, ' "r, "Z :]' """"''''' ""'^^ ^^''"^■•"-".
between .He Pe...K, an. .,,e";';,:;i:fo'J:::i:^
to take temporary possession " of I.:ast I- jorid i TU
appo.nted under these acts. Matthews and Mi I both C "^'""'^^":"^'-
up insurrection in the cov..t,.rl . v ''"^7'"' '^"^h Gcor^rjans, stirred
refused to sustai tl tr'^l 7r'' '" ' "'"'^ '''"-^'^'^^"^ ^^-"-'^
can t leni the state of G(..orL,na formally pronounced I<lorid-i
QeneralJackson 'K^edfu to Its own nf-ir^. m I , ir i ""^«^i' ' loruia
.nva.es ,:ar war on its vrlvZ ^^ -'H welfare, and practically declared
ern Florida " '^'' l'[^.^'^^^" «»^count. But its expcxiition against Florida
came to noth nir In i^i. r i x , * "K«i'"''i » .'orula
command of United S, ,t L~ I u' , f"''™' '^"'^"''' >'"'''"'"■ '1"^" •"
and drove out a Br i^ ' or J ,, , 1 n"^"' """''' ' ™''' """ ''"-•■'™l'-'.
restored tl,e place o th, S ! ""'" '''""' ""^'■'^- "'^ •'f-war.ls
after, durin,, th Seminl ^u-'f T "■' '""' '"""^''- '■■"""• >'-«
given to the Indians r>in.."' /;'■''"■ i-','""^""' '">' '^l--'"'^'' ■''-'•^'••'"ce
I'ensacola, h.,^Ar{^Znt'^ IT"' "'"■■'''■■'' -I""-' -S'- Marl<s an.l
suspected of a'di^ t ' sl: eC''; "'.^'";, '"" ''T'^""'^" ^""" --
de„,onstrated the fact tlut Kl r '," ' ■""' P'''''''^^'" ""•I "K«i"
The action oT.r "'■" '" ""^ ""^'''^J' "' ""^ l-"'"'"! States
Th.P„rch.,e •'"'>'"(>' the I'.nKlishu,,.,, witlunit taking the trouhle to ,ml<o
°'"°"" via'nd Tut*--:," n'^r' ". '"'""'^ "' '■'-"'^ -"-■-'•
both that it coi'ft h"; ::: •:;:^;:T'■«^'T^'''"■7:^■^'''■■•-
very little value to it InT ' '-' '""' """ """ ''"'"">• «■-<» »■'
> value to ,t. in consequence ,t agreed to sell the peninsula to the
KXJ'ANS/ON OF TIIF. VNITl-.P STATKS
35:
United States for the sum of $5,oa).ooo. tlur treaty beiii^r si<r,H,cl I<ebruary
22. 1S19. By this treaty Spain also jrave up all claim to the country
west of the Louisiana purchase, extending frcm tin- Rocky Mountains
to the Pacific Ocean. The purchase <.f I-Morida acklecl 59.268 square miles to
the United States, and the way was cleared for the subse.iuent acquisition
of the Oregon country.
The next accession of territory came in 1845. when Texas was added
to the dominion of the United States. This country had. since 182 1 been
one of the states of the Mexican Republic. Hut American frontiersmen
of the kind calculated to foment trouble, soon made their way across the
borders, increasing in numbers as the years passed on. until Texas had a
considerable population of United States origin. Iifforts wen; made to
purchase this country from Mexico, $i.oco,ooo being (,ffered in uS-*; an.l
$5,000,000 in 1829. These were declined, and in 1833 Texas adopted a
constitution as a state of the Mexican republic. Two years
later Santa Anna, t' e president of Mexico, was made dictator,
and all state constitutions were abolished. Irritated by this!
the American inhabitants declared the independence of Texas
in 1836. and after a short war. marked by instances of savage
cruelty on the part of the Mexicans, gained freedom for that country. Texas
was organized as a republic, but its people soon applied for annexation to the
United States. This was not granted until 1S45. The territory added to
this country by the admission of Texas amounted to 376.133 square miles.
In the following year anoth.r large section of territory was added to
the rapidly growing United States. The Louisiana purchase rnn indeli-
nitely westward, but came to be considered as bound(;d on the west by the
Rocky Mountains. Spain r(;taining a sJKuh.wy claim over the country west
of that range. I his exceedingly vague claim was abandoned in the Florida
purchase treaty, and the broad Or(;gon country was left
without an owner. The United States, indeed, might justly "^"if O''*^"''
have claimed ownership on the same plea advanced for new '*""*''^
regions elsewhere-namely, that of discovery and exploration. Captain
Urey. in his ship, the Columbia, carri.-d the starry Hag to its coast in
1792. and was the first to enK.-r and sail up its great river, which he
named after his vessel. In 1805 tlu^ country was traversed and explored by
Lewis and Clark. In 181 1 John Jacob Astor founded the settlement of
• Astoria at the mouth of the Columbia, and sent hunters in search of furs
Texas (iaiii»
l-reedom and
is Aiini>;xcd to
the United
States
ta
tough the back country. And in 18 10 th
«i vaijiie n
held by Spain was transfc.rred by treaty to the United
jht ove
States.
r th
e count
ry
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358
KXPANSMA- or Tim VNirnD states
rl,l„ !l " "'■'^"'"''"'"<=« ^"""W have estaWisl.ed a prescriptive
ngl.t to the country ccccrned a. against oth.r countries, had an, thought of
claunmg such a nght been entertained, liut no man statesman ,r"
moner thought the country worth the value of ev'f a pa , : cl. „ and"";
T^: r /rr H^f ^-'ir')!"'"."" "'r'^' '"<^ centurALwei, :,;.::'.
hi;, .In "ay Co,npany had gained control of Astoria and
h.u begun to fill the country with fur hunters, a living sense of the vjlue
of this great reg.on came to the mind of one man
IndianfofX Col ^."""^.^V"'"""!"- ^ "--"ary physician among the
Indians of the Columbia ,<,ver region. He .liscovered that the Hudson
Bay Company was n,aking efforts to bring permanent settlers tund
tha It proposed to claim the country for Great Britain. At one ■ he
energetic doctor set out for Washington, crossing the vast stretd. of
Whl,m.n'. '^""""•J- f™'" the Pacific to the Atlantic on horseback and
Rid. traversing the Rocky Mountains in the dead of winter It
h„f 1, T1 " "."*-' '"'"'' "''■'■'''''-■ J°"'""'^>' f"" "f P"ils and hards'hio,
Washington to lay claim to the country. Even then it was hard to arouse
an interest in the statesmen concerning this far-off territory so the brave
pioneer went among the people, told them of the beauty of ^lecountrv
einigrant tram of nearly a thousand persons. This settled the question
The newcomers formed a government of their own. Others fo lowed nd
hequc^tion of ownership was practically settled. In ,845 there were some
,000 Americans n Oregon and only a few British. By that iinH t^n
determination had ari.sen in the people of this country to retain Oregon A
40 minutes, the southern boundary of Russian America, and the pS
war-cry of that year was -fifty-four forty or fight." ,n\846 th^ .leltion
Or.,„„ „ "••'.'' 5«'1<=< hy treat)- with Clreat Britain, the disputed country
Aculred being .hvuled at the f.,rtyninth ,,arallel. The northern nor-
tion became British Columbia, the southern Oregon In this
way It was that the United States spanned the continent and e^stlbiished
dominion roin ocean to ocean. The tract ac.,uir..d measured al c>,i J ,0^
square miles. It now constitutes the States of Oregon, Washi:;c^''.::^
The United States grew with extraor<linary rapidity in the decade with
loiiowul in 1848 by another L^reat .-irlrlifinn nf f«r.:.^.„ ^.._l , . '^
cither. This came as the result of the annexation 'of fe;:r ''" "'-"
EXPANSrOlV OF THE UNITED STATES 359
Mexico had never acknowled^red the iiuUpendeiice of the " Lone Star
Repubhc," and was deeply dissatisfied at its acquisition by the United
States, which it looked upon as an unwarrante.i interference in its private
affairs. The strained relations between the two countries were made more
stringent by a dispute as to the western boundary of Texas, both countries
c aiming the strip of land between the Rio CVrande and »,,, ^,,,
Nueces Rivers. The result was a war, the description of MexTcoand
which must be left for a later chapter. It will suffice here '** Results
to say that the American troops marched steadilv to victorv.'and at the
end of the war held two large districts of northern Mexico, those of New
Mexico and California. The occupation of these Mexican states gave this
country a warrant to claim them as the prizes of victory.
Hut there was no disposition shown to despoil the defeated party with-
out compensation. An agreement was made to pay Mexico $15,000,000
for New Mexico and California, and to assume ciebts owed by Mexico to
United States citizens amr>unting to about $3.cwooo. The territory thus
acquired was 545.783 square miles in extent. Of its immense ^ „, .
value we need scarce speak. It will suffice to say tliat it gave ZZt.To
the United States the gold mines of California and the silver ^^urchased
mines of Nevada, together with the still more valuable fertile fields of the
Can orn.a lowlands. Five years afterwards, to settle- a border dispute
another tract of land, .south of New Mexico. 45.535 square miles in extent!
was purchased for the sum of $10,000,000. This is known as the C.adsden
purchase, the treaty being negociated by Jamc ; Gadsden. Thus in less
than ten years the United States acquired more than ,,220.000 square
miles of territory, increasing its domain by nearly three-fourths. These
new acquisitions carried it across the continent in a broad band, giving it
a coast line on the Pacific nearly equal to that on the Atlantic, and adding
enourmously to its mineral and agricultural wealth.
Still another extensive acquisition remained to be made. Long before
vyhen the daring pioneers of Russia overran Siberia, parties of them crossed
the narrow Bering Strait and took possession of the northwestern section
of the American continent. This territory, long known as Russian America,
embraced the broad peninsular extension west of the 141st degree of west
longitude, and a narrow strip of land stretching down the coast tk . . .
as far south as the parallel of 54 degrees 40 minutes. It of RrJ^"
included also all the coast islands and the Aleutian Archi- A"'«''»'^«
pelago. with the exception of Copper and Bering Islands on the Siberian
coast. \ his terr.tory was of little value or advantage to Russia, and in 1867
M
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360
t'XPANS/ON OF THE UNITED STATES
that country offered lo sell it fn \\^^ TT^^ ^ c. r .
square miles to our territory ^ aciclition of 577,000
territory was „:r,Ltrherr„"r 7-' 'r'"'" '"^^h-''^ ""^ '"-
was like the story of Ca,if„r'rre;r.ed Sl^ihlV ^r! "' ,"
wh.ch haunted certain islands of I erin,r Set ThZ\ I , '"''''•
the mainland. To these must J Tl 1 l ,1 ^ '"=' ^'''^ ""^ f^"" 'inimals of
were found to .warm ti^h" ^ ,„ ^o. ': 1:^,1 '''' T''- "'-'■
named the fo.^ „,,., co.er the coas^'ll^^lf t^dr^Hf '^ ^
The Wealth „, ""''=^. 1" "ally, the country proved to be rich in .ninertl
wealth, and especially in gold. The recen.lv discovered "ol
Klondike di^^i^-d :C';;;''is:; "r """^"^'^'^ °' "-• ''-^- '"'
been mined iTAlaska f ,r y's nd o oT hi'"'' '■" ^'""''''- "'" »'"''' ''-
taries of the Yukon Rive s"' T.t Zf'T'^ ""'""'' "' "'^ '"''"-
second California in its goUen treats '""""^ "'"' ''' '^^°^<' '" ^^ '^
I he final ac(iuisition of territory hv fh.^. TT«;.- i c.
the future owlrZ of thtbrotr'"'r'r''V''':v "'"'■'•''"-■ "'"'■ '"'^ P^-i^ly
In .898 there ca.n'b; p ceM n^::^ to I "''' '"''"" '''''"' "' ''"'''■
Hawaiian group of i.slLd:rtr;..r"^^ ■■'•,■1^'"" M "="''"T ""^
of n,inor in.portance-including Gua n , 'he Ladrl e"' " ' T'™" "'""'^
from Spain-constitute the reX-n, Ladrone group, also acquirec'
1 nstltute the recent ,sland accessions of the United States
U..n.Ac,u.,.. '^^.- -eas are: Porto Rico, 3,530: Hawaii, 6,564 ; and t^e
Ph,l,pp,nes, ,,6,000 square miles; making a otal of about
.ions of territ ;rEl::;es'?T"-''"-'- "''"'- ^"-^
373^,000 square' miles, more thafnrMn" •'," '"" " ' '" ""'"' """'"'''■
of the.se several acquisitions ^:JZ'::ZZ:^Z T„, tC ' "T"
nations to nearly the hr.rf>«f ,,.,f- • .^ro.vn rrom onr of the smaller
has i..creasedr' 5^1,8" r*-";"" ""= """'' '"''''^ ''^ P"l>"lation
small cities at the tCZ.. f fl ""', 75.«».«° "■ -900. its few
siderable nuntber of arCo us hre of"^;"' { '""" ""''""'' '^^^ '' ^""■
habitants each, while New York le,,, T'" T" "'»" '•°°^.«» "'-
J.uion on the earth "'■"''• " ""* ""= '=™'"' "'X "' FT""
i
CHAPTER XXIV.
The Development of Democratic Institutions in
A,
merica.
MODhRN deniocracy is often \nokvA upon as something neculiarlv
secular, unrelicrious. or even irreli<,rious in its oriirin. In truth how-
ever, It has Its origin in n«ligious aspirations (iuit(,' as much as modern
art or architecture or h'terature. To the theology of Calvin, the founder of
the Republic of Geneva, grafted upon the sturdy independence of English
and Scotch middle classes, our American democracy owes its birth fames I
well appreciated that the principle's of uncompromising Protestantism were
as inconipat.ble with monarchy as with the hierarchy which they swept
aside. Each man by his theology was brought into direct personal respon-
sibility to his God, without the intervention of priest, bishop, or pope and
without any allegiance to his king except so far as it agreed with his alleiri-
ance to the King of kings. Macaulay has struck \h\s note of Puritan
republicanism when he says that the Puritans regarded them-
selves as " Kings by the right of an earlier creation ; priests '"oti^rn'o!;'"
by the interposition of an Almighty hand." As John I-iske Modern ttem.
says. James Stuart always treasured up in his memory the day "'''■"*^^
when a Puritan preacher caught him by the sleeve and called him •' God s
silly vassal." " A Scotch Presbytery." cried the king. " agrees as well with
monarchy as God and the devil. Then Jack and Tom and Will and Dick
shall meet, and at their pleasure censure me and my council and all our
proceedings ! "
But the democracy which was founded in New England as the logical
outcome of the religious principles for which the Puritans h-ft Old England
was not democracy as we know it to-day. The Puritans. f<,r the most part
believed as much in divinely appointed rulers as the monarchs against whom
tliey rebelled ; but these divinely appointed rulers were to be the "elect of
-those who believed as they did. and joined with their organizations
to establish His kingdom on earth. I'(,r this reason we find the Massachu-
setts Lojony as early as 1631 deciding that. " no man shall Im admitted to
the freedom of this body politic but such as are members of some of the
same. l lie I'^overnment, in short, wa.-i
go^
361
•W»^SH«.$mi0ff^'ll^
■1?
{ ;]
362 DEVELOPMENT OF DEMOCRATIC INSTITUTIONS
ays truth that Ihomas Hooker, who led from Massacluisetts int,
ThePomic., Connect.cut the colony which establisl,e<l itself at Hartfor.l
o.7hX,":« '■'" ■'""■" "^« Pnnciple „„o„ which the An,erica„ a"; o )
Win.l • ^'T'"""" •■'''" ^''^"^ '" ^' «tablishe.l. When Governor
on "''• '"/'''"!" ""°ker, defended the restriction of he s.I^e
on the ground that ■■ the best part is always the least, and of that b"t frt
replied n matters which concern the common TOod, a .rener-il council
chosen by all to transact business which concerns i\\ I rLt '
able to rule, and most safe for the relief ,7 th:": I e. ■ T rpHn"-!?:';
G^tt:.!; ;:;;::;rir^" "T^-'r -'''"'' """' '-'"-in in ir„; ':
the , Ifi hint f t' "■'•'" '^■" i"^' "•■"'"" ""S'« l^<^ consecrated anew in
t e liilhmnent of its mission, and that government " from the peoi.le for
d nT i 1' T '"°P'' " "''^''" "<" '"-•"»'- f-" 'he earth. Bo I I^o;,^:
and I^incoln had a supreme belief in the wisdom of the nl,i„ """Her
.natters which affect their own lives. The'nmrall '^e' ' hTe" r,;',,.; e'
:r:rzr:iir^''^-™'-'-''--^^-----'h-in'^
besides 'that'orN'' "'?- ''r"',""'°".' however, there was another democracy
r^iilThetv „m::tor,^rii 1"^^
of the South. The drmocr4To h/s r t"^^^^^^
1 le aemocracj ot the .Southern colonies was not like that
Democr«, "fN<-w England, the democracy of collective self-golerninem
.ug^ ^tr:: 1^ i::h^';:-7iiEt:r^:'r--- ;; r^iLi::;;
wealthiest merchants were str;„gly " Tory i„ Vhrsyrpa'ti iirl rC
DEVlil.OPMENT OF DEMOCRATIC INSTITUTIONS
l<^i
York it was afTiriiiL'tl by C.ciu^ral Grec-iu; that two-tliirds of the land belonged
to men in sympathy with the English and out of sympathy with their fellow
countrymen. In these cities it was the plain peoi>le and the poorer classes
who furnished most of the uncompromising patriots, but in the South men
of fortune risked their fortunes in the cause of independence. These men
were slave owners, and the habit of mastery made them fiercely rebellious
when George III. attempted in any way to tyrannize over them. Many of
them were the descendants of the English nobility, and as such they acknow-
ledged no superiors. Naturally, then, in the struggle for liberty they
furnished the leaders of the colonists, both North and South; and the agri-
cultural classes, whether rich or poor, were naturally on the side of self-
government, for their isolation had from the first compelled them to be
self-governing.
The first half century of the political history of the United States con-
sisted rather in the development of the political rights of the individual
citizen than of the loyalty which all owed to the American nation. Nothing
is so difficult as to keep in mind thit the government of the colonies at the
close of the Revolution was not what it is to-day, and that
democracy as we know it was regarded as the dream of
theorists. Some of the members of the i'ederal Convention
deeply distrusted the common people. l':ibridge Gerry, of
Massachusetts, declared that "The people do not want
suffrage, but are the dupes of pretended patriots;" and those who were at
all in sympathy with him prevented, as they imagined, the election of the
President by the people themselves, and did prevent the election of the
United States Senators by the people. Some of them were even opposed
to the election of the House of Representatives directly by the people; but,
fortunately, even Hamilton sided with Madison and Mason, when they
urged that our House of Commons ought to have at heart \\\v. rights and
mterests of, and be bound, by the manner of their election, to be the repre-
sentatives of every class of people. But by " every class of people " the
framers of the Constitution from the more conservative of the States meant
simply every class of freeholders.
In Virginia none could vote except those who owned fifty acres of land.
In New York, to vote for Governor or State Senator, a freehold worth $250
clear of mortgage was necessary, and to vote for Assembly- property Quail,
men a freehold of $50 or the payment of a yearly rent of ficntlonsfor
$10 was necessary. Ev«;n Thomas Jefferson, who was the Suffrage
Demoirratic philosopher of the; Revolutionary period, did not strenuously
insist that the suffrage must be universal, and it w;is not for a half century
What Was
Thought of
Democracy in
the Federal
Convention
f,4!
t> <
it m'
364 '^''■^'''■'■OPMENT OF DF.MOCK.iriC INSrrrUTIONS
^° . a ev";, t'h r ""■''"' """ "" ■'"'°""°" °' ""^ Constitution o"
owners Oil Ch..ncdlor Kent, the author of "Kent's Commentaries"
declared n, th.s convention that he would not "how before the Ulol of u^'i-
Ch.„„llor ''«™l suffrage, the theory which he said had " been re.rarded
Kent's Vl«w, with terror by the wise mi-n of ,.,„.r„ ■• t . ^^^."^
on Universal u,,,, ,„ , / ,, .""-" '" '""y •'(>"-■. ""d wh.Miever tried
s.«r.„ .'^■'1 '^':""t''' corruption, injustice, violence, and tyrannv "
would I r ""'^7 s^l «'ff'-^'t'e were adopted," he decland, " prosper tv
would deplore in sackcloth and ashes the delusion of the day " Tl i
horrors of the f-rench Revolution were always held up by conse v-itives .0
Lomm ntanes, which every lawyer has pored over, maintained that if
universal suffrage should be adopted, "The radicals of En, id wh 'he
force of hat mighty engine, would sweep away the property te llw 1„<
the people o that island like a deluge." 'wot i^ntil b'etr^K £ d", o
did^universal suffrage among, the whites come to be accep.e.l in the old^
par.5''t"he"lr'tv'of';eff'"" 'TV "' °" '''^'"^>' '' '^^ "^ '^-»--'-
popul'a riZ ''/.,f*^'^"'''"'"*'f';vaso„ the .side of these extensions of
popular rights. The principle of this party was that each State ou^^ht to
10 De strong, should war become inevitable, was bv the devofinn nf .1/
po«ersof Europe in the strength of their armaments. In the year Sol
the party which r.a lied to his support-then called the Ke, blicarpar^'
but ijenera V SDoken of nc tU^ r\ • '■^^Hnuin.aii party,
Federalists. Democratic party-triumphed over the
In New Kngland alone did Federalism remain strong .u the close of
F.der.,ian. and J^«^rson s first administration. In that section the calvinistic
^Z"b.I 7>'' "'■" '''' ^°-, - ■"-'> for the estalilishment of An! i!
,.„, can del locracy, fought fiercely against its e.xt,.nsion. Jcffer-
.„„, t,„ „,.,.r'^ '°"™<-■^^'l™'«^'l'•'l the separation of Church an.l Sia„.
«ere hpn''"Z"'"^ ""= '■f^'""' "l"^''""-»"'o'« for office holding, which
«cre then almost as general as properly ..ualifications. He was kn^wn "o
DEVELOPMENT OF DEMOCRATIC INSTITUTIONS
365
ill
bo in sympathy with the IVcnch revohition, and was therefore denounced
as a Jacobin, both in religion and in politics. We cannot wonder, then^fore,
that in the section in which the clergy were the real rulers, Jcffersonian
democracy was regarded with hatred and contempt. W'rmont alone, among
the New England States, was from the first thoroughly democratic, and
this was because in Vermont there was no established aristocracy, either of
education or of wealth. In Connecticut, which under clerical leadership had
once been the stronghold of advanced democracy, we find President Dwight
xpressing a sentiment common not only to the clergy but to the educated
classes generally, when he declared that "the great object of Jacobinism,
both in its political and moral revolution, is to destroy every race of civili-
zation in the world." " In the triumph of Jeffersonianism," he said, "we have
now reached a consummation of democratic blessings ; we have a country
governed by blockheads ami knaves."
But the ideas which in New lingland were at first received only by the
poor and the ignorant, were in the very air which Americans breathed. The
new States which were organized at the West were aggressively democratic
from the outset. In the Northwest Territory the inequalities ^^^ ^^^^^ ,„
against which Jeffersonian democracy protested never gained the New
a foothold. Here, where the State of Ohio was organized ^***
during Jefferson's first administration, the union of Church and State was
not thought of, and no religious qualifications whatever for the office of
Governor were exacted. Property qualifications were almost as completely
set aside. While in some of the older States the Governor had to possess
;/^5,ooo, and even /io,ooo, Ohio's Governor was simply recjuired to be a
resident and an owner of land. As regards inheritances, the English law
of primogeniture which remained unaltered in some of the older States,
and in New England generally took the form of a double portion to the
oldest .son, was completely set aside, and all children of the same parents
became entitled to the same rights. That Ohio thus led the way in the
democratic advance was due to the fact that its constitution was framed
when these ideas had alreatly become ascendant in the hearts of the people,
and the failure of the clergy of New England was due to their trying to
keep alive institutions which were the offspring of another age, and could
not long survive it.
For its distrust of the new democracy New England Federalism paid
heavily in tht; isolation, defeat, and destruction which shortly awaited it.
\V lien tus Tjew cjcniocratic avuiiinistration ruin luuy rcviuccu I'ederai taxation
and shown its capacity for government, the more liberal-minded of the
Federalists went over to the Oemocrals. Even Massachusetts gave a
V-' A
m
r:i
i.f
!> m
! i
tkiL^A I
n
ii
^66 OHVh.i . I\\II,NT OF DHMOCHA TIC I VSmUlh WS
majority f„r Jefferson in 1804. and when the extreme Federalists bc^came
The Decay and '""''*• ^'-^treme throiinrh the loss of their Liberal contin<,rent,
In^oM-'d '"f'' '''"'''' ^'''' Hartford Conviction, in 1814, I'cderalisnrdiecl
eralism "^ ' "' '^^ "'''" ^^«'^^cs. The policy of the u.-niocratic adniinis-
tration toward En^rjand may not have been wise, but the pro-
posal of secession in order to resist it made I'cderalism almost synonymous
with toryisn and disloyalty.
For a number of years after the close of the war of 181 2 there was
really only one political party in the United States. In 1S24. vNlien the con",
test was so close between Jackson. Adams and Clay, each of the.se contest,
ants was a " Democratic Rei.ublican," and it would have been hard to tell
what questions of policy divided their followers; though Jackson's foHowers
as a rule, cared most for th". extension of the politic.d rights of the poorer
classes, and least for that policy of protection which the war had made an
important issue, by cutting „ff commerce and thus calling into being exten-
A Period with, f"^^ manufacturing interests. That the followers of Clay
out a Party fi'i^lly Voted for Adams may have been due to sympathy upon
this question of the tariff. In 1828 something akin to party
hnes were drawn upon the question of the national bank, and the victor^■ of
Jackson proxoked the hostility of the masses toward that institution, vv h
certain y enrichecl its stockholders to such an extent as to make the a a
favored class The Tariff Act, passed in .828. nad. the tariff question
thenceforth the dividing question in our national politics until slavery took
Its puivi:. ^
Most of the absolute free-traders were supporters of Jackson, but when
bmiru ( arohna passed its Nullification Act as a prote.st against the - tariff
of abonnnat.ons." as it was called. President Jackson promptly declared that
the Union must and shall be preserved." and forced the recalcitrant State
to renevv its allegiance to the National Government. By the end of Jack-
son s administration there were again two distinct parties in the United
btates; the one advocating a high tariff and extensive national improve-
ments by the Federal Government, and the other advocating a low tariff
and the restriction of national expenditures to the lowest possible limit
The former party-the Whig-was, of course, in favor of a liberal construe^
'nl ! ^.""■'^^''"^7" ^"^l tl^^- extension of powers to the National Gov-
crnment, while the latter advocated "strict construction" and "State
Jackson belonged to the latter partv. and in iX.ft u..c .^]y\^ to — ^ ,-
the succession to Van Huren. Hut in 1840 the Whigs swept'the c^untn-
dect.ng Harrison and Tyler after the nu,.st picturesqui Presidential
ft
n/iVFj.op.yr.NT or nrjnxRATic /NSTrrurioxs
367
f ampairjn ev( known in Amorica. AH the Imnncial ills from which the
country was suffering were for the time attributed to Wan iUiren's economic
policy, and his all'ijfed extravagance at the White House; ... . .
Wise of tno
enabled the White's t^ ''(Hise the; enthusiasm of the poor for DcnKKratk
their candidate. \vi > claimed t«) li\ in a lotr cabin and and wiiIr
tlrink hard cid<r. D in^ the next four years however, there ""^ *"*
was a reaction, and .n 1844 Vo\k was elerte<l upon the platform on which
Van Ruren had stood. It is true that in I mnsylvania the Democratic cam-
paiy^n cry was, " Polk, Dallas and the taril; of '42," \ hich was a high tariff;
but in most of the country D' -nocracv meant " fre** trade and sailors' riLdu.."
I'roin this time on, the \Vhig part\ grew weaker and the I)(;mocratic
party stronger. It is true- that the Whigs elected (ieneralTaylor in 1848.
The revenue tariff law passed by the Democrats in 1846 was not changed
until the stil' rr tariff of 1857 was enacted. Hy 1852 the Whig party
had so declini it it was hardly stronger than the old Federalist party at
the close of J* rson's first term. But just as the Democratic party became,
able to boast of its stnMigth, a new party came into being which adopted the
principles of the free-soil wing of the old Democratic party, chose the
name of " Republican Party," swept into its ranks the remnants of various
political organizations of the? past, and in its second national ^. . .
f 1 M 1 II , . , , . . T^he OHjtln an<x
campaign elected Abraham Lmcoln to the pr<;snlency. In this character of
readjustment of parties the; pro-slavery Whigs went over to ^^^ RcpublU
the Democrats and the anti-slavery Democrats went over to *""" ^^ *
the Republicans. The bolting Democrats claimed, with truth, to maintain
the principles held by their party from the time of Jeffe^rson down, but the
party as a whole followed the interests of its most powerful element instead
of the principles of its founder. In the States from Ohio west, where upon
economic questions the Democratic party had swept everything by increas-
ing majorities since 1840, the bolting element was so great that all of these
States were landed in the Republican column. One great Church- -the
Methodist — which before had been, as a rule, Democratic in politics, now
became solidly Republican.
From time to time, in the succeeding ycNirs, a variety of political organ-
izations, of minor importance, rose and declined. But none of national sig-
nificance were added to the two great parties until the Presidential campaigns
i)f 1892 and 1896, when a new organization, known as the Pef)ple's party,
came into prominence. The principles distinguishing it from The Peoole's
the old Dciiiocratic arid Republican jjarties ucre il:, di-niaiul Party ana its
for a currency issued by the general Government oidy, without •^'■•nciples
the intervention of banks of issue, and the free and unrestricted coinage of
li
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MICROCOPY RESOLUTION TEST CHART
(ANSI and ISO TEST CHART No. 2)
1.0
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150
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1.4
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S^ 1653 [as! Main Street
=*.= Roctiester, New York 14609 USA
'■^S (716) 482 - 0300 - Phone
^= (716) 288 - 5989 - fm
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368
DEVELOPMENT OF DEMOCRATIC INSTTTUTIONS
silver and gold at the ratio of 16 to i, regardless of foreign nations. It de-
manded further that the Government, in payment of its obligations, should
use its option as to the kind of lawful money in which they were to be paid ;
should establish and collect a graduated income tax ; and should own and
operate the railroads and telegraph lines in the interests of the people. Its
general tendency was to favor what is known as " Paternalism in govern-
ment," the existing form in America of what is known as Socialism in
Europe. This party found its chief strength among the farmers, who be-
lieved it possible and right for the Government to^ pass laws to suppress
"trusts "and monopolies, and also to favor the agricultural and laboring
classes.
The history of American politics up to the time of the introduction of
the new economic questions by the labor unions in the East, and the farmer's
unions in the West and South, has been the history of the gradual extension
of political rights. The Federalist party gave us the Constitution ; the old
Democratic party gave us white manhood suffrage ; the Republican party
gave us universal suffrage. What the People's party may giVe us remains
for the future to demonstrate. The glory of America's past is that she has
been continually progressing ; that she has proven to the world the capacity
of the whole people for self-ifovernment.
i -m
V >
m
ons. It de-
ions, should
to be paid ;
Id own and
people. Its
in govern-
ocialism in
:rs, who be-
to suppress
id laboring
odiiction of
:he farmer's
l1 extension
)n ; the old
lican party
us remains
lat she has
he capacity
CHATPER XXV
America's Answer to the British Claim of the Right
ot Search.
BY their first war with Great Britain our forefathers asserted and main-
tained their right to independent national existence ; by their second
war with Great Brit^.in, they claimed and obtained equal considera-
tion in international affairs. The War of 1812 was not based on a single
jause; it was undertaken from mixed motives, — partly political, partly com-
mercial, partly patriotic. It was always unpopular with a great number of
the American people ; it was far from logical in some of its positions ; it was
perhaps precipitated by party clamor. But, despite all these facts, it remains
true that this war established once for all the position of the United States
as an equal power among the powers. Above all- — clearing away ♦^he petty
political and partisan aspects of the struggle — we find that in xhe Causes
it the United States stood for a strong, sound, and universally of the War
beneficial principle, that of the rights of neutral nations in " ' '^
time of war. "Free ships make free goods" is a maxim of international
law now universally recognized, but at the opening of the century it was a
theory, supported, indeed, by good reasoning, but practically disregarded by
the most powerful nations. It was almost solely to the stand taken by the
United States in 1812 that the final settlement of this disputed principle
was due.
The cause of the War of 181 2, which appealed most strongly to the
patriotic feelings of the common people, though, perhaps, not in itself so
intrinsically important as that just referred to, was unquestionably the
impressment by Great Britain of sailors from American ships. No doubt
ureat numbers of Eng-Hsh sailors did desert from their naval vessels and
avail themselves of the easier service and better treatment of the American
merchant ships. Great Britain, in the exigencies of her des-
perate contest with Napoleon, was straining every nerve to impressment
strenpfthen her already powerful navy, and the press-gang was f^* American
1 1 • T7 1- 1 . /^ 1 J teamen
constantly at work m English seaports. Unce on boara a
British man-of-war, the impressed sailor was subject to overwork, bad rations^
and the lash. That British sailors fought as gallantly as they did under
369
ii
^^-'-
370 ansiv/;a^ ro British claim of the right of search
this regime will always remain a wonder. Hut it is certain that they <lesertecl
in considerable numbers, and that they fo.md in the: rapidly-growincr co,ii-
merc.al prosperity of our carrying trade a tempting chance of' employment.
C.reat Br.cain, with a large contempt for the naval weakness of the
United States, assumed, rather than claimed, the right to stop our merchant
vesse son the high seas, to examine their crews, and to take as her own
any British sailors among the-. This was bad enough in itself, but the
way m which the search was carried out was worse. Every form of insolence
Outrages Upon ^"^ overbearing was exhibited. The pretense of claimin<>-
American British deserters covered what was sometimes barefaced and
sJo'rs outrageous kidnapping of Americans. The British officers
went so far as to lay the burden of proof of nationality in each
case upon the sailor himself; if he were without papers proving his identity
he was at once assumed to be a British subject. To such an extent was this
insult to our flag carried, that our Government had the record of about
torty-five hundred cases of impressment from our ships between the years
of 1803 and 1810; and when the War of 181 2 broke out the number of
American sailors serving against their will in British war vessels was vari-
ouslycomputed to be from six to fourteen thousand. It is even recorded
that ,n some cas.^s American ships were obliged to return home in the
middle of their voyages because their crews had been so diminished in
number by the seizures made by British officers that they were too short-
handed to procceed. In not a few cases these depredations led to blood-
shed.
The greatest outrage of all, and one which stirred the blood of Ameri-
cans to the fighting point, was the capture of an American war vessel, the
Chesapeake, by the British man-of-war, the Leopard. The latter was by far
the more powerful vessel, and the Chesapeak as quite unprepared for
The Affair of action; nevertheless, her commu .c refused to accede to a
^eakl-^anT '^'''"''"'' *''^^ '''^ ""'^^^ ^^ overhauled in search for Bntish
fhe.Lopard-'f''^^'''''''- thereupon the Leopard ^^ox^x^A broadside after
broadside into her until her flag was struck. Three Americans
were killed and eighteen wounded ; four were taken away as allecred desert-
ers ; of these, three were afterwards returned, while in one case "the charge
was satis actorily proved and the man was hanged. The whole aftair wts
without the slightest justification under the law of nations and was in itself
ample grovind for war. Great Britain, however, in a quite ungracious and
tardy way, apologized and offered reparation. This incident took place six
years before the actual declaration of war. But the outrage rankled during
all that time, and nothing did more to fan the anti-British feeling which wat
ANSWER TO imnSH CLAW OF 77//-: A7r,7/r OF SF-IA'C// ^ji
already so stron.ir in the rank and file of American., especiall)- in the Demo-
crat.c (or as it was then often calh.d, the RepubHcan) partv. It was such
deeds as th,s that led Henry Clay to exclaim. " Not content with sei.in^
upon all our property which falls within her rapacious grasp, the personal
rights of our countrymen-rights which must forever be sacred-are tramp-
led on and violated by the impressment of our seamen. What are we to
gain by war ? What are we not to lose by peace ? Commerce, character, a
nations best treasure, honor !"
The interference with American commerce was also a serious thr(>at to
the cause of peace. In the early years of the century Great Britain was at
war not only with France, but with other Euroi)ean countries. Both Great
bntain and France adopted in practice tlie most extreme ^h p
theories of non-intercourse between neutral and hostile ofPrper
nations. It was the era of "paper blockades." In 1806 B'ockades
Fngland, for instance, declared that eight hundred miles of the European
coast were to be considered blockaded, whereupon Napoleon, not to be out-
done declared the entire Kingdom of Great Britain to be under blockade
Up to a certain point the interruption of the neutral trade relations
between the countries of En^ope was to the commercial advantage of
America. Our carrying trade grew and prospered wonderfully. Much
of this trade consisted in taking goods from the colonies of European
nations, bringing them to the United States, then trans-shipping them and
conveying them to the parent nation. This was allowable undel- the inter-
national law of the time, although the direct carrying of goods by the
neutral ship from the colony to the parent nation (the latter, of course
being at war) was forbidden. But by her famous "Orders in Council"
Great Britain absolutely forbade this system of trans-shipment as to nations
with whom she was at ^var. American vessels engaged in this form of trade
were seized and condemned by English prize courts. Naturally, France
followed Great Britain's example and even went further. Our merchants
who had actually been earning double freights under the old system now
found that their commerce was woefully restricted. At first it was thou<rht
that the unfair restriction might be punished by retaliatory measures and a
quite illogical analogy was drawn from the effect produced on Great Britain
before the Revolution by the refusal of the colonies to receive croods on
which a tax had been imposed. So President Jefferson's administration
resorted to the most unwise measure that could be tl ,ught of-an absolute
embargo on our own ships, which were prohibited from leavincr port
ihis measure was passed in 1807, and its immediate Result was to
reduce the exports of this country from nearly fifty million dollars' worth to
i
373 ^NsmcA' TO tiRiTisn claim of the right of search
nine million dollars' worth in a single year. This was evidently anythi.c.
but profitable, and the act was chan.^^ed so as to forbid only commercial
Jefferson intercourse with Great Britain and France and their colonies
Emba'r^o ''"/' "" P/"'''^" '^'"^^ ^^^^^ '^^^^' ^'^"^'''l ^^ abandoned as regards
e.ther of these countries which should repeal its objectionable
decrees The French government moved in the matter first, but only con-
cl.t.onally. Our non-intercourse act, however, was after 1810 in force only
agamst Great Britain. That our claims of wrong were equally, or nearly
so, as-great agamst France in this matter cannot be doubted. But the
popular feehng was stronger against Great Bri-un ; a war with EnHand
was popular with the mass of the Democrats; and it was the refus'al of
England to accept our conditions which finally led to the declaration of war
l^y a curious Cham of circumstances it happened, however, that between the
tmie when Congress decL-ed war (June 18, 1812) and the date when the
War Declared news of this declaration was received in En.'^dand the latter
Gfeireritarn T""''^' "^^^ "'''"^'''^^' '^^'^'^^^^ '^^' ^''^'"°^'^ " ^^''^l'^'-'^ '" Council."
In pomt of fact. President Madison was very reluctant to
fr "":'^rt '^^ ^?^'''''^'''^ ^'--y-^ ^«°k great pleasure in speaking
of this as <'Mr. Madison's war." The Federalists throughout considered
thenar unnecessary and the result of partisan feeling and unreasonable
prejudice.
It is peculiarly grateful to American pride that this war, undertaken in
defence of our maritime interests and to uphold the honor of our fiag upon
the high seas, resulted in a series of naval victories brilliant in the extreme
It was not indeed, at first thought that this would be chieflya naval war*
\ resident Madison was at one time stronglv inclined to keep our war vessels
in port ; but, happily, other counsels prevailed. The disparity between the "
American and British navies was certainly disheartening. The United
States had seven or eight frigates and a few sloops, brigs, and gunboats,
while the sails of England's navy whitened every sea, and her ships cer-
tainly outnumbered ours by fifty to one. On the other hand, her hands
were tied to a great extent by the stupendous European war in which she
was involved. She had to defend her commerce from formidable enemies.
The British and ^"^ ^^"^^ spare but a small part of her naval streno-th for
American battle with the new foe. That this new foe was despi^sed by
pared^ *""" ^''.^ ^^^^^ P°'^^=^ ^^^'ch claimed, not without reason, to be the
mistress of the seas, was not unnatural. But soon we find a
mment raised in Parliament about the reverses of its navy, which were such
as ''English officers and English sailors had not before been used to
particularly from such a contemptible navy as that of America had always
ANSWER TO BKITISH CLAIM OF TIIK KK.IIT OF SliARClt 373
aby fine body of nat.ve An^rican sea.ncn, naturally brave and intdlio.„,.
and thoroufjldy well trained in all seamaniike experiences. Thes, ,nen were
jn many mstances filled with a spirit of resentment at British insolenc..
havmge.ther themselves been the victi.ns of the affgressions which we hav.'.
described or havn,,^, seen their friends compelled to submit to these insolent
acts. 1 he very smallness of our navy, too, w-as in a measure its stren-^th •
the competition for active service amonj; those bearim; commissions was
great, and there was never any ouble in finding officers of prov.xl sa-Mcitv
and courage. *
At the outset, however, the policy determined on hy the administration
was not one of naval aggression. It was decided to attack England from
her Canadian colonies. This plan of campaign, however reasonable it nii^ht
seem to a strategist, failed wretchedly in execution. The first ^h v. "
year of the war, so far as regards the land campaigns, showed the crada
nothmg but reverses and fiascoes. There was a lon^r and ^"'•^^■••
thuily settled border country, in which our slender forces strug.-led to hold
their ovvn against the barbarous Indian onslaughts, making futile expeditious
across the border mto Canada, and resisting with some success th!> similar
expeditions by the Canadian troops. One of the complaints which led to the
war was that the Indian tribes had been incited against our settlers by th,.
Canadian authorities and had been promised aid from Canada. It is c< rtain
that after war was declared British officers not only employed Indians as
their allies, but, in some instances at least, paid bounties for the scalps o.
American settlers.
The Indian war planned by Tecumseh had just been put down by Gen-
eral (afterward President) Harrison. No doubt Tecumseh was a man of
more elevated ambition and more humane instincts than one often finds in
an Indian chief. His hope to unite the tribes and to drive the whites out
of his country has a certain nobility of purpose and breadth of view But
this scheme had failed, and the Indian warriors, still inflamed for war were
only too eager to assist the Canadian forces in a desultory but bloody bor-
der war. The strength of our campaign against Canada was dissipated in an
attempt, to hold Fort Wayne. Fort Harrison, and other garrisons against
Indian attacks. Still more disappointing was the complete „ ii h ♦k
failure of the attempt, under the command of General Hull, SurTenderof
to advance from Detroit into Canada. He was easily driven ^«t'-«'t
bark t*^ Oftfo'*' ^nrl "'l-..'!-, 4-u„ ^_.l!_.- ^ y \ . . ,
L„ — L.!.,,, ^loa, vvimc tuc nuLioii was conndentiy waiting to hear of a
bold defence of that ^lace, it was startl-d by the news of Hull's surrender
f
w
II
\4
y
■II: i'
374 ANSWER TO BRITISH CLAIM OF THE RIGHT OF SEARCH
without firing a gun, and under circumstances which scened to indicate
either cowardice or treachery. Hull was, in fact, court-martialed and con-
demned to death, and was only pardoned on account of his services in the
war of 1776.
The mortification that followed the land campaign of 1812 was for-
gotten n, the joy at the splendid naval victories of that year. Pre-eminent
among these was the famous sea-duel between the frigates CoHslKution and
Guerrtere Every one knows of the glory of 0/d Ironsides^ and this
though the greatest, was only one of many victories through which the
name of the Lonstilution became the most famed and beloved of all that
have been associated with American ships. She was a fine frigate, carryincr
forty-four guns, and thcn.gh English journals had ridiculed her as "a bunch
of pine boards under a bit of striped .bunting," it was not long before they
were busily engaged in trying to prove that she was too large a vessel to be
properly called a frigate, and that she greatly out-classed her opponent in
rhe-Constitu- "H,'tul and men. It is true that l\\v. Constitution carried six
'XSre'' ";;"■'' ^""' '"'^'^ "" ^^''' "^^"-^ ■"«" than the Guerrih'e, but all
allowances being made, her victory was a naval triumph of the
first magnitude. Captain Isaac Hull, who commanded her, had iust before
the engagement proved his superior seamanship by escaping from a whole
squadron of British vessels, out-sailing and out-manoeuvring them at every
point. It was on August 19. 1812, that he descried the 6^...rm'r^. Both vessels
at once cleared for action and came together with the greatest eagerness on
both sides for the engagement. Though the battle lasted but half an hour it
was one of the hottest in naval annals. At one time the Constitution v^as
on fire, and both ships were soon seriously crippled by injuries to their
spars. Attempts to board each other were thwarted on both sides by the
close fire of Kmall arms. Here, as in later sea-fights of this war, the accu-
The Glorious ''^^^ and skill of the American gunners were somethino- mar-
fhS-c!'; ^C^T' -^^ '^' '"^ °^ ^'^^^ "'^ ^^°"'" '^'^ Gucrriere had lost
stuution" ' ,°t'' mainmast and foremast, and floated as a helpless hulk in
the open sea. Her surrender was no discredit to her officers
as she was almost in a sinking condition. It was hopeless to attempt to tow
her into port, and Captain Hull transferred his prisoners to his own vessel
and set fire to his prize.
In this engagement the American frigate had only seven men killed and
an equal number wounded, while the British vessel had as many as seventy-
nine men killed or wounded. The conduct of the American seamen was
hroughout gallant in the highest degree. Captain Hull put it on record
that From the smallest boy m the ship to the oldest seaman not a look of
i8i2 was for-
Pre-emineiU
. ANSWER TO HRiriSII CLAIM OF THE RIGHT OF SEARCH 375
fear was seen. They all went into action ^ivin- three cheers nn,I .-
ing to be laid dose; alon<rsicle the enemv " Tl " T ' ,^ , .^'"/'"^^ '^'^^'^-^t-
America and Kn.rl.n I f- ^^ ''''" "^'^^'"'^^ "'^ ^'^''^ ^'^tory in both
.ixiiicuLa ana unp^laiKl was extnmnl mr^' T7„ r 1 1
vcbj,t,i, captain, ollicers, and men
battiJ!::; d?:;;::[ :i" ''"""''' ""'"'v" "- "■"-■•^i«"«' --'t -f .i- sea-
^yas convoynig; a Ik.t „f m.rcl.ant.ncn. The fVht was one o c 'r"";!
the ,n„st desperate in the wa,- ; the two ships were W," t --^'
^../. h, the m.s,. which ohtainefti/Xtr::!:^::,. e;tr"::,r
rakmg of the ene,„y s vessel, rushed upon her decks without orders and soo
tl aTofT . •■ ""'"'" "" """^" '°^^ '" '^'"«' -'• wounded wrt::.
tl at of the An,er,cans very small. I, i„ „o wise detracted from tl,e .d^rv'
of th,s vctory tl,at boti, victor and prize were soon captured y a Brit l'
man-of-war of immensely superior strenjrth. ^
Following this action, Commodore Stephen Dec-,t„r i„ ,1, f ■
Uuae,S,a<.s. attacked the Macedonia,, a British "es^d "f tl, '""'
same class, and easily defeated her, brinjjing her into \ew ''I'' "^"'"^
York harbor on New Years Dnv ■« , ,.1 / """''"-»' states-.nj
„, ,• , , "^"'^^ "^y^ '0'3. wbtre he received an ihe "Mace.
ovat.on equal to that offered Captain Hull. The same result '"'°'°""
dore Bambridge, upon the British yaza. The latter lr,d I,,.. ^.°'"'"°
fifty men killed and about one huncCd wounded nd was left sZrir::^
that ,t was decided to blow her up, while the Cns.^.Z Ir d so Itt
that she was ,n sport dubbed OM Ironsides, a name now ennobled by a poem
wh,ch has been m every school-boy's mouth. Other naval combats resZd
1 Tk T^""'' °' '^'^'- '" "^^ ^^™^ '"^y • ■■" =>" -stinted prai e wat
awarded by the nations of the world, even includin.r En.dand hie ? toTl
admirable seamanship, thewonderful gunnery, and the pet na MnS ■ ':i
only^e^erihipt^^r;;:; ^nl"'"^''^'''^^"^'"^ " ^^' '-
■(
T ii'^
MU
if- J
376 ANSlVIiR TO BRITISH CLAIM OF THE RIGHT OF SEARCH
But, if the Iiighcst honors of the war were thus won by our navy, the
most serious injury niaK.'rially to Great Britain was in the devastation of her
commerce by American i)rivateers. No less than two hundn^d and fifty
American Pri- <'f tii<^se sea guerrillas were adoat, and in the first year of the
Thdr W^k '^.''' '''''^ captured over three hundred merchant vessels, some-
times even attackin<,r and overcomini,^ the smaller class of war-
ships. The privateers were usually schooners armed with a few small guns,
but carrying one long cannon mounteil on a swivel so that it coufd be
turned to any point of the horizon, and familiarly known as Long Tom
Of course, the crews were infiuenced by greed as well as by patriotism.
1 nvateering is a somewhat doubtful mode of warfare at the best ; but inter-
national law p<;rmits it, and, though it is hard to dissociate from it the
aspect of legalized piracy, it is recognized to this dav. In the most recent
war, however, the Spanish-American, neither of the belligerent nations
mdulged in this relic of barbarism.
If privateering were ever justifiable it was in the war now under con-
sideration. As Jefferson said, there were then tens of thousands of seamen
cut off by the war from their natural means of support and useless to their
country in any other way, while by "licensing private armed vessels, the
whole naval force of the nation was truly brought to bear on the foe." The
havoc wrought on British trade was widespread indeed ; altogether between
fifteen hundred and two thousand prizes were taken by the privateers. To
compute the value of these prizes is impossible, but some idea may be
gained from the single fact that one privateer, the Vaukee, in a cruise of
less than two months captured five brigs and four schooners, with cargoes
valued at over half a million dollars. The men engaged in this form of
warfare were bold to recklessness, and their exploits have furnished many a
tale to American writers of romance.
The naval combats thus far mentioned were almost always of single
vessels. For battles of fleets we must turn from the salt water to the fresh,
The Fleets on ^''°"' '^^"^ "f':''" ^" ^^'^ ^'^""^ ^^^'''" '^^^e control of the waters
the Lakes o|" Lake bLrie, Lake Ontario, and Lake Champlain was ob-
viously of vast importance, in view of the continued land-
fighting in the West and of the attempted invasion of Canada and the
threatened counter-invasions. The British had the great advantage of
being able to reach' the lakes by the St. Lawrence, while our lake naviel had
to be constructed after the war began. One such little navy had been built
at Presque Isle, now Erie, on Lake Erie. It comprised two brigs of twenty
guns and several schooners and gunboats. It must be remembered that
everything but the lumber needed for the vessels had to be brought through
fSARCH
our navy, the
istation of hc*r
Ircd and fifty
•St year of the
vessels, sonie-
r class of vvar-
!W small guns,
It it could be
s Long Tom.
3y patriotism,
ist ; b'.it inter-
i from it the
; most recent
jrent nations
vv under con-
ids of seamen
leless to their
1 vessels, the
be foe." The
ther between
vateers. To
idea may be
n a cruise of
with cargoes
this form of
shed many a
lys of single
to the fresh,
3f the waters
lain was ob-
tinued land-
ida and the
d vantage of
e navies had
id been built
gs of twenty
mbered that
ght through
ANSWER TO BRITISH CLAIM OF THE RIGHT u/' SEARCH 377
the forests by land from the eastern seaports, and the mere pr(>bKin ..f
transportation was a serious one. When finished, the lleet was put in com-
mand of Oliver Hazard Perry. Watching his time (and, it is said, taking
advantage of the carelessness of the British commander, who went on
shore to dinner one Sunday, when he should have been watching Perry's
movements), the American commander drew his ile^.-t over tlw; bar which
had protected it while in harbor from ihr. onslaughts of the British Ihet.
To get the brigs over this bar was a work of time and great difficulty ; an
attack at that hour by the British would certainly have emled in the total
destruction of the (leet. This feat accomplish.-il, Perry, in his lla-ship, the
Lawrence, headed a lleet of ten vessels, fifty-five guns and four hundred
men. Oi)posed to him was Cai)tain Barclay with six ships, si.\ty-five guns,
and also about four hundred men. The British for sev(n-al we(;ks avoided
the conflict, but in the end were cornered and forced to fi-ht. It was at
the beginning of this battle that Perry displayed the- lla*r ,> , ,, ,
1 • T < r , . J i 3 '^i^ Perry 8 Great
bearnig Lawrences famous dymg words, "Don't give; up the Victory on
ship !" No less famous is his dispatch announcing the result "-ake Erie
in the words, "We have met the enemy and they are ours." The victory
was indeed a complete and decisive one ; all six of tlu; enemy's ships were
caprared, and their loss was nearly double that of Perry's forces. The
compiste control of Lake Erie was assured ; that of Lake Ontario had
already been gained by Commodore Chauncey.
Perry's memorable victory opened the way for important land opera-
tions by General Harrison, who now marched from Detroit with the design
of invading Canada. He engaged with Proctor's min-lcd body of British
troops and Indians, and by the battle of the Thames drove
back the British from that part of Canada and restored '^'ihe'riamrs
matters to the position in which they stood before Hull's
deplorable surrender of Detroit— and, indeed, of all Michigan— to the
British. In this battle the Indian chief, Tecumseh, fell, andlibout three
hundred -f the British and Indians were killed on the field. The hold of
our enexuies on the Indian tribes was greatly broken ov this defeat.
Previous to this the land campaigns had been mi., .ced by a succession
of minor victories and defeats. In the West a force of Americans under
General Winchester had been captured at the River Raisin, where there
took place an atrocious massacre of prisoners by the Indians, who were
quite beyond restraint from their white allies. On the other hand, the
Americans had captured the city of York, now Toronto, though at the' cost
of their leadei", General Pike, who, with two hundred of his men, was
destroyed by the explosion of a magazine. Fort George had also bee-
378
ANSl^RK TO nKlTlm CLAIM OF THE RIGHT OF SI-.ARCH
ill
gallantly n.pnls,:,:, I-„ lowmj; the battle „f the Thames, extensive cerv
...ns „f an agjjress.ve ki,,,! uxTe ,.Ianned, UMn^ toward the Ztu e o
P a,n. Unha,, „!;, j,,,l„„sy between the American Gene-rals Wilkinson an^l
Ham,,ton resulted in a lack of concert in their „,ili,ary oneratb ,s "d the
cxi)ed.tron became a complete fiasco. <-rations, and the
evpechtlLTthe","""/'!^'"" '""" ""= "'""''>''"*>' ^'-•^""'"f Wilkinsons
e p I.fon to the story of the contmuons successes which accompanied the
naval operat.ons o ,8.3. Captain Lawrence, in the //„„-/. won a com'
r di zr''-'^ "-• f"*^'"^'' i',"^^— ^•.- "- bris, theyr«...;:,i,':;:
0™™,^' "h T r ■••^"■^''-"■■" °f "- fine briir, the a^^^X
co„, nan<led by Captan, Lawrence, whicl, was captured after one of ,h,
n,ost hard.fou,d,t contests of the war l,y ,h. British bri,. the Snl,^,
L.wr™ce-sF,. l"'^"™ce h.mself fell mortally wounded, e.xclaimin.r as he
Uptheship... «>''" h'.r .1 she su,ks." It was a paraphrase of this exclama-
Lake Erie T 11 ' "■"Vf '' "' ' ■■^'">''"t' ^'«""' '" ">- ''^'"l--- <>"
Lake Lne Dcsp, e h,s one defeat, Captain Lawrence's fan,e as a iralhnt
seaman and h,,d,.„,inded patriot was untarnished, and his death was more
deplored throughout the country than was the loss of his ship
for r ""r '^T °^ "'° '™'' '^"S'''""' ^^••'•' <^'"Wed to send lar..e rein-
forcements both to her army and navy engaged in the A„,erican cant, ai'ns
Events n, Europe see„,ed in ,8,4 to insure peace for at least a i nf N^
poleons power was broken ; the Enrporor hi„,self was exiled at Elba- and
Great Br.tam at last had her hands free. But before the reinfo cement
mihta y sk.ll by far than were evmced in its earlier operations. Alon.. the
I.ne of the N.agara River active fighting had been going on. In That e
of Ch.ppewa, the capture of Fort Erie, the engagement at Lundy's Lane
and the defence of Fort Erie the troops, under%he command of Genera s
Wmfield Scott and Brown, had more than held their own against supe rio
forces, and had won from British officers the admission that ?hev fou.du as
Macdonoush's '^=" ""der fire as regular troops. More encouragin° still
S^a:. ""■'^ '^i '°'t' ^t"-' °^ "'" P'"" °' '"^"»'°" f™™ Canada
phin undertaken by the now greatly strengthened British forces
Ihese numbered twelve thousand men and were supported
lU I "".'r^'^ ^'""P'""- ^'^-'^ °l--"°- -- directed Iganst
■ ^' '^""^ '" ^''^ '^^^'■^^ "" the lake, usLiaily called by the name of that
•iRCH
or h.ul h('(!n
nsive ojxjrii-
e ca[)tiirc' of
' and Cham-
ilkinson and
)ns, and the
Wilkinson's
npaniod the
von a coin-
^rpj'isc, cap-
Ttcd. One
Chesapeake,
on(; of tli(;
e Shannon.
linjr as he
le shii), l^iit
is exclania-
: battle on
s a g-allant
was more
lar^^e rein-
campaigns.
:inie. Na-
Klba ; and
brcements
lown more
A.Iong the
the battle
dy's Lane,
Generals
t superior
fougiit as
ging- still
I Canada
?h forces,
supported
d against
le of that
ANSWER TO l.RlUSll CLAIM OF THE RIGHT TO SEARCH
0/9
town, the Ain(Tican flotilla, under the command of Commodore Mac-
donough, completely routed the British fleet. As a result the ICnglish army
also beat a rapid and undignified retreat to Canada. This was the last
important engagement to take place in the North.
Meanwhile e.vpeditions of considerabh; size were directed by the British
against our principal Southern cities. One of these brought General Ross
with five thousand men, chiefly the pick of the Duke of W(;llington's army,
into the Bay of Chesapeake. Nothing was more discreditable in tlu; military
strategy of our administration than the fact that at tiiis time Washington
was left unprotected, though in evitlent danger. General Ross marched
straight upon the capital, easily defeated at IMadiMisburg an inferior force
of raw militia — who fought, however, with much courage — s(Mzed the city,
and carried out his intention of destroying the public buildings and a great
part of the town. IVIost of the public archives had be{;n removttd. Ross's
conduct in the burning of Washington, though of a character common
enough in modern warfare, has been condemned as semidxarbarous by many
writers. The achievement \vas greeted with enthusiasiu by the b^iglish
papers, but was really of much less importance than they sujjjjosed. Wash-
ington at that time was a straggling town of only eight thousand inhabit-
ants ; its public buildings were not at all adequate to tht; TheBurnlnRof
demands of the future; and an optimist might even consider the American
the destruction -of the old city as a public benefit, for it Capital
enabled Congress to adopt the plans which have since led to the making of
the most beautiful city of the country, if not of the world.
A similar attempt upon Baltimore was less successful The people of
that city made a brave defence and hastily threw up extensive fortifications.
In the end the Britis'i (leet, after a severe bombardment of Fort McHenry,
was driven off. The British admiral had boasted that Fort McHtMiry would
yield in a few hours ; and two days after, when its flag was still flyinjr,
Francis S. Key was inspired by its sight to compose our far-famed national
ode, the "Star Spangled Banner."
A still larger expedition of British troops soon after landed on the
Louisiana coast and marched to the attack of New Orleans. Here General
Andrew Jackson was in command. He had already distinguished himself
during the war by putting down with a strong hand the hostile Creek Indians,
who had been incited by English envoys to warfare against our southern
settlers; and in April, 1814, William Weathersford, the half- jackson and
breed chief, had surrendered in person to Jackson. General the Creek
Packenham, who commanded the five thousand l-5ritish sol- '"'•>»"«
diers sent against New Orleans, expected as easy a victory as that of Gen-
\w
!:l
■I
.y.
380 ANSIVJ-e TO BRiTlSH CLAIM Ot THE K1GHT OF SEARCH
era! Ro-^ at Washington. But Jackson had summoned to l,is aid the
stalwart front,ersn,.:n of Kentucky and Tennessee-men used from bo"
hood .0 the r„le and who made up what was in effect a splend d orce o(
sharp-shooters. Both arn.ies threw up rough fortifications • GeneralTack
the st.U les solid niater.al of sugar barrels. As it proved neither of thesS
were su.table for the purpose, and they had to be replaced by ea tlnvorks-
been s.gned. lie Br.t.sh were repulsed again and again in persistent and
Jackson's Kallant attacks on our fortifications. General Packenhani
%1Zltr """'-■' "r f'ft '°«''-'^'" "'■■'■ ™''"y "f '>'= °ffi-- and
NewOrlaans ^'-^<^" hundred of li,s men. One British ofiicer pushed to the
top of our earthworks and demanded their surrender where
™ f he eart h ' n" ''^^7'P°^'='' '" •>« -PPorting h.in. "had vanished
were WUed "^ "'"" "P' °' "'^ ^'""''^"^ ""'V ^^ '<=" ■"="
rM- T''! l"'''"^ "' P'^"'-''^' ^''^"'"^ " '^''<='"' December 24, ,814 has been
r,d,culed because it contained no positive agreement as to ntny of he
. uesfons ,„ d.spute. Not a word did it say about the im™ent ^
t.e mui^r r " "'^ 7'"^ °' "^"'"' '"''P'- ''^ '"-f »tip ki ons were
were .^d of h w H ' '• ^''"^ '™"^ ''^ "^•■'' '^""^ "="'°'«
were tued of the war: the circumstances that had led to En-^land's air-res-
1 o" 111: -^^'.f"'' ''°''> ""-- were suffering enormous co^t-
Ts i ed b; is diet ^;jt: '■ "" V";'^" '''T^ "^-^ <=™p''"'-">-
y Its deeds ,ts ckum to an equal place m the council of nations.
I'olitically and materially, further warfare was illo-ical If
the two nations had understood each other better in the first
,,. , • ■'^ ■ '' '^""""^ '^'■''•■'■" '"J feated our demands with rour
S akcHhr T^'r' "* !"^°'^-'"'=^ ''■ '" ^""'' i"'-natio: om ty
Jiad taken the place of international ill-temper, the war might have been
avoided altogether. Its undoubted benefits to us were inciden talratler
than direct. But though not formally recognized by treaty the ridno
One political outcome of the war must not be ovPrlooked TUp Mp,,
Slt^rlo" f^' ^'^""' ' '^^"^ ^^^^ beginning/had ;aU.S
t.ctttd at the.r loss of commerce, and had bitterly upbraided the Demo-
The Results
of the War
CH
is aid the
from boy-
id force of
leral Jack-
employ in (^
:r of these
irthworks.
ne of the
1 tries had
istent and
ickenhani
icers and
led to the
tv, where-
i he after-
vanished
few men
has been
ly of the
sment of
ons were
lission to
nations
s ap-ofres-
commer-
hatically
nations,
•ical If
the first
th cour-
1 comity
ve been
.1 rather
ights of
ifringed
he New
aturally
Demo-
ANSWER TO BRITISH CLAIM OF THE RIGHT OF SEARCH 381
cratic administration for currying popularity by a war carried on mainly at
New England's expense. When, in the latter days of the war, New
England ports were closed, Stonington was bombarded, Castine in Maine
was seizt^d, and serious depredations were threatened everywhere along
the northeastern coast, the Federalists complained that the administration
taxed them for the war but did not protect them. The outcome of all this
discontent was the Hartford Convention. In point of fact it was a quite
h-.rmless conference which proposed some constitutional
amendments, protested against too great centralization of The Hartford
dower, and urged the desirability of peace with honor. But ^""''^""''"
the most absurd rumors were prevalent about its intentions , a regiment of
troops was actually sent to Hartford to anticipate treasonable outbreaks ;
and for many years good Democrats religiously believed chat there had
been a plot to set up a monarchy in N(;w i':ngland with the Duke of Kent
as king. Harmless as it was, the Hartford Convention caused the death of
the Federalist party. Its mild debates were distorted into secret conclaves
plotting treason, and, though the news of peace followed close upon it, the
Convention was long an object of opprobrium and a political bugbear.
I
If
Hi
CHAPTER XXVI.
The United States Sustains Its Dignity Abroad.
r.'^rT'r*''" '?"'' "" ^"^ """P °' Af"« he will see on the northern
* Mo'r • 1 'a',"° ^''V". ''"" '""''^ °f "'^ Mediterranean, four St.ate,
of .800 e,' Tr"' '"'■" r',T""°"' '"""'•"•" -^' -'' --^^ ••• distant
TnHe! \ ■' ''°""''' ''■"' '"' "'"'""'^^ maintained a state of semi
ndependency by pay.ng tribute to Turkey. But this did not s' it Ai. e ia'
the strongest and most warlike of the North Afrir-,n S,»f . , ■
year .7.0 the natives overthrew the rule ofthe'Tu^h PaTa ; x™ led ht
from the country, and united his authority to that of the Dev 11^11 ,
monarch. The Dey subsequently governed the 00':;^ i; ,^ ^7:
"irjr' f'^:e:L°:He'°"'The° Af ^'" ''"''" /™" '^^ P^'-"«' ^^^
North Atric " ""■°^-^"e.. The Algerians, with the other " liarbarv
States, as the piratical States were called defied the oower^
of Europe ; their armed vessels sweepin<T the waters of theM '^
committing .a thousand ravages upon 'he^ne^cirnr; e of othr™:::'
and almcst drivincr commerce from its wpt.^r. F i nations,
depredations, a.l this only part" llyXX slfeTa^d rtltedT^^astS
he Algerians, the strongest of the piratical States, and had indu d hToev
The truth IS, this conflict was no less irreoressihlp fl.. , .1 .
conflict which a century later deluged the K-i^d Tn b lo . 'b f ^ h^T:r
W thr'fla f"r, "' ^''.'^ ''"" ''''" '^"P'^"^- '- American ves' els fl";
ingthefl.igof thirteen stripes and thirteen stars instead nf ,hlt I r
stars w ich now form our national constellation whiesani,! the M d'" '™
ranean had .alien a prey to the swift, heavily-anned AlCian^,, L'e ' ;"
vessels were confiscated, and their crews to tl e number of 7 .
"'^^ ™s su:rT' '- '''-"' - enorit zttrrr ''^™"^'
1 us sum o ir Government was by no means wiilincr to nav as to do
wouM be to establish a precedent not only with Alge^a.^u^ To :^::-^
•road.
northern
ur States,
a distance
- of semi-
t Alo-eria,
id in the
elled him
Algerian
ans of a
ipal civic
' Harbary
5 powers
^rranean,
■ nations,
ed these
chastised
the Dey
nity and
:i United
.i; immu-
-'st took
greater
he Con-
sels, fiy-
)rty-five
iediter-
3. The
•ersons,
3 do so
Tunis,
THE UNITED STATES SUSTAINS ITS DIGNITY ABROAD 383
Tripoli, and Morocco, for each of these African piratical States was in league
with the others, and all had to be separately conciliated.
But, after all, what else could the Government do ? The country had
no navy. It could not undertake in Improvised ships to go forth and fight
he powerful cruisers of the African pirates— States so strong that the com-
mercial nations of Europe were glad to win exemption from their depreda-
tions by annual payments. Why not, then, ransom these American captives
by the payment of money and construct a navy sufficiently strong to resist
their encroachments in the future ? This feeling on the part o{ the Gov-
ernment was shared by the people of the country, and as a The War with
result Congress authorized the building of six frigates, and by the pirates
another act empowered President Washington to borrow a ^^ Tripoli
million of dollars for purchasing peace. Eventually the ransom money was
paid to the piratical powers, and it was hoped all difficulty was at an end.
But, as a necessary provision for the future, the work of constructing the
new warships was pushed with expedition. As will be seen, this proved to
be a wise and timely precaution.
We are now brought to the year 1800. Tripoli, angry at not receiving
as much money as was paid to Algiers, declared war against the United
States. Circumstances, however, had changed for the better, and the repub-
lie was prepared to deal with the oppressors of its seamen in a more digni-
fied and efficient manner than that of paying ransom. For our new navy, a
small but most efficient one, had been completed, and a squadron consisting
of the frigates Essex, Captain Bainbridge, the Philadelphia, the President, and
the^ schooner Experiment, was in Mediterranean waters. Two Tripo'litan
cruisers lying at Gibraltar on the watch for American vessels were blockaded
by the Philadelphia. Cruising off Tripoli, the Experiment fell in with
a Tripolitan cruiser of fourteen guns, and after three hours' hard fighting
captured her, the Tripolitans losing twenty killed and thirty wounded. " This
brilliant result had a marked effect in quieting the turbulent pirates, who for
the first time began to respect the United States. A treaty was signed in
1805, in which Tripoli agreed no longer to molest American ships and
sailors.
This war was marked by a striking evidence of American pluck and
readiness in an emergency. During the contest the frigate
Philadelphia, while chasing certain piratical craft into the har- ^1ndS"of
bor of Tripoli, ran aground in a most perilous situation. t'le "Phiia-
Escape was impossible, she was under the guns of the shore **^'p'''*"
batteries and of the Tripolitan navy, and after a vain effort to sink her.
all on board were forced to surrender as prisoners of war. Subsequently
1
V'
I i
384 TAfE UNITED STATUS SUSTAINS ITS DIGNITY ABROAD
the Tripolitans suceeded in floating tlie frigate, brought her into port
not b. re? fT'" T ^""'"^ '° ^""=""" P™''=' ^■"'' »= 'he vessel could
not be re cued .t was determined to mai<e an effort to destroy l,er. One
n gl a ,loor,sh merchantman (captured and fitted for the purpose) entered
the harbo- and n,ade her way close up .0 the side of the y%LL/4. Only
a few men, dressed ,n Moorish garb, were visible, and no suspicfon of th r
purpose was entertamed. As these men claimed .0 have lost their anchor
m re'lTttrtl rr '="' '^T T ^^^^<='' '"'' "'^'^ '^^''^ '-'■ '" =' '^"^
more a sta.thng change took place. A multitude of concealed Americans
sudden y sprang ,nto s.ght, clambered to the deck of the PMaMM'a. and
drove the surprised Moors over her sides. The frigate was fairly recapt .red
escape by the l.ght of her blaznig spars and under the guns of the Tripoli-
ment, nd gave fame to Decatur, its leader.
But peace was not yet assured. In 1815. when this country had just ended
ts war w.th Great Britain, the Dey of Algiers unceremoniously ^dismissed
hatl;™"^"^"^ Z' '"'^^^' '-'' '''''''' '''' ^-^^^ ^^-^-' - the plea
that he had not received certam articles demanded under the tribute treaty
War Declared ^'"^^ ^^^ government was well prepared for the issue. The
by Algiers population of the country had increased to over eight millions
with r . R f'^ 'P'"' °^ '^^ "^'^°" ^^^ ^^^'^ ^^o^sed by the wa;
vv.th G eat Bntam endmg in the splendid victory at New Orleans under
General Jackson Besides this, the navy had been increased and made Z
more effective The admu.,stration. with Madison at its head, decided to
submit to no further extortions from the Mediterranean pirates, and the
President sent in a forcible message to Congress on the subject, taking h^t
deXatbu^r ' ^l' "^"^^ ^'' ' P^°"^i^^ '^^^^^^^^--^ ^' ^'- Algeritn
dec aration of war. Events succeeded each other in rapid succession.
Ships new and old were at once fitted out. On May i. 181, Decatu
sailed from Ne. York to the Mediterranean. His squLroi'. :!^,^:^Z
frigates Guerr^ere Macedonian and Constellation^ the new sloL of war
Ontario, and four brigs and two schooners in addition.
The Dey Sues ^" /,""'' ^^th, the second day after entering the Mediter-
for Peace ranean. Decatur captured the largest frigate in the Algerian
navy having forty-four guns. The next day an Algerian brig
was taken, and in less than two weeks after his first capture Decatur, with
his entire squadron, appeared off Algiers. The end had conae. The Dey's
courage. like that of Bob Acres, .ozed out at his fingers' ends The
into port
lieir navy.
:ssel could
ler. One
j) entered
hia. Only
n of their
r anchor,
a minute
Americans
'phia, and
captured,
ade their
e Tripoli-
t achieve-
-ist ended
iismissed
I the plea
te treaty,
ue. The
millions.
r the war
ns under
made far
cided to
and the
ing high
'Algerian
^cession.
Decatur
ised the
of war
Vlediter-
Ugerian
ian brig
ur, with
e Dey's
>. The
THE UNITED STATES SUSTAINS ITS DIGNITY ABROAD
38:
terrified Dey sued for peace, which Decatur compelled him to sign on the
quarter-deck of the Giierriere. In this treaty it was agreed by the Dey to sur-
render all prisoners, pay a heavy indemnity, and renounce all tribute from
America in the future. Decatur also secured indemnity from Tunis and
Tripoli for American vessels captured under the guns of their forts by
British cruisers during the late war.
This ended at once and forever the payment of trib-te to the piratical
States of North Africa. All Europe, as well as our own country, rang with
the splendid achievements of our navy ; and surely the stars and stripes
had never before floated more proudly from the masthead of an American
vessel — and they are Hying as proudly to-day.
One further example of the readiness of this country to defend itself
upon the seas in its weak, early period may be related, though it slightly
antedated the beginning of the century. This was a result of AmeHcan
indignation at the ravages upon its coinmerce by the warring
nations of Europe. About 1798 the depredations of France ^ Naval War
antmen became so aggravating that, without
the formality of a declaration, a naval war began. The vessels of our new
navy were sent out, "letters of marque and reprisal" were granted to
privateers, and their work soon began to tell. Captain Truxton of the Con-
stellation captured the French frigate L Insurgcnte, the privateers brought
more than fifty armed vessels of the French into port and France quickly de-
cided that she wanted peace. This sort of argument was not quite to her taste.
Seventeen years after the close of the trouble with Algiers, in 1S32,
one of the most interesting cases of difficulty with a foreign power arose.
As with Algeria and Tripoli, so now our navy was resorted to for the pur-
pose of exacting reparation. This time the trouble was with the kingdom of
Naples, in Italy, which had been wrested from Spain by Napoleon, who
placed successively his brother Joseph and his brother-in-law Murat on the
ihrone of Naples and the two Sicilies. During the years 1S09-12 the Nea-
politan government, under Joseph and Murat successiv(;ly, had confiscated
numerous American ships with their cargoes. The total amount of the
American claims against Naples, as filed in the State department when
Jackson's administration assumed control, was $1,734,994. They were held
by various insurance companies and by citizens, principally of Baltimore.
Demands for the payment of these claims had from time to time been made
by our government, but Naples had always refused to settle them.
Jackson and his cabinet took a decided stand, and determined that the
Neapolitan government, then in the hands of Ferdinand II.— subsequently
r'cknamed Bomba because of his cruelties — should make due reparation for
i.M
'I
Ji
386 THE UNITED STATES SUSTAINS ITS DIGNITY ABROAl^
the losses ^ustained by American citizens. Tiie Hon. John Nelson, o^
hredenck, Maryland, was appointed Minister to Naples, and required to
insist upon a settlement. Commodore Daniel Patterson, who had aided
Theciaim m the defense of New Orleans in 1815. was put in command
NMes ° .'^.^ Mediterranean squadron and ordered to co-operate with
Mmister Nelson in enforcing his demands. But Naples
persisted in her refusal to render satisfaction, and a warlike demonstration
was decided upon the whole matter beinjr placed, under instructions, in the
hands of Commodore Patterson.
The entire force under his command consisted of three f^ftv-fv^jn
fn-ates and three tvventy-gun corvettes. In order not to precipitate
matters too hastily, the plan adopted was that these vessels should appear
m the Neapolitan waters one at a time, and instructions were given to that
effect. 1 he Brandyzoine, with Minister Nelson on board, went fir.t. Mr
Nelson made his demand for a settlement and was refused. There was
nothing in the appearance of a Yankee envoy and a single ship to trouble
King Bomba and his little kingdom; The Brandywine cast anchor in the
Harbor and the humbled envoy waited patiently for a few days. Then
How King another American flag appeared on the horizon, and the
BrTu'/htT ^'^^T ^""'^'"^ ^^^^'' ^°^'"^ ^"^° ^he harbor and came to
Terms anchor. Mr. Nelson repeated his demands, and they were
again refused. Four days slipped away, and the stars and
stripes once more appeared off the harbor. King Bomba, looking out from
his palace windows, saw the fifty-gun frigate Concord sail into the harbor
and drop her anchor. Then unmistakable signs of uneasiness becran to
show themselves. Forts were repaired, troops drilled, and more cannon
mounted on the coast. The demands were reiterated, but the Neapolitan
government still declined to consider them. Two days later another war-
ship made her way into the harbor. It was the John Adams. When the
fifth ship sailed gallancly in, Nelson sent word home that he was still
unable to collect the bill. The end was not yet. Three days later, and the
sixth American sail showed itself on the blue waters of the peerless bay It
was the handwriting on the wall for King Bomba, and his government
announced that they would accede to the American demands. The nego-
tiations were promptly resumed and speedily closed, the payment of the
principal ,n installments with interest being guaranteed. Pending nego-
tiat.ons from August .8th to September 15th the entire squadron remained
in the Bay o Naples, and then the ships sailed away and separated. So
happily and bloodlessly. ended a difficulty which at one time threatened
most serious results.
4Iy
Nelson, c:
equired to
had aided
command
lerate with
ut Naples
onstration
3ns, in the
fifty.g'jn
precipitate
Id appear
en to that
irst. Mr.
here was
o trouble
or in the
s. Then
and the
came to
liey were
stars and
out from
e harbor
)egan to
t cannon
^apolitan
her war-
/hen the
was still
and the
bay. It
ernment
he nego-
t of the
g nego-
smained
sd. So,
eaten ed
THE UNITED STATES SUSTAINS ITS DIGNITY ABROAD
387
Another demonstration, less imposing in n-Mnbcrs but ciuite as spirited
and, indeed, more intensely dramatic, occurred at Smyrna in
1853. when Captain Duncan N. Ingraham. with a single ''Trltm'nd
sloop-of-war, trained his broadsides on a Heet of Austrian the Koszta
warships \n the harbor. The episode was a most thrilling '^"''"'
one, and our record would be incomplete were so dramatPc an affair left
unrecorded on its pages. This is the story :
When the revolution of Hungary against Austria was put down, Kos-
siith koszta, and other leading revolutionists tied to Smyrna, and the
lurkish government, after long negotiations, refused to give them up
Koszta soon after came to the United States, and in July, 1852, declared
under oath his intention of becoming an American citizen. He resided in
New York city a year and eleven months.
A year after he had declared his intention to assume American citizen-
ship, Koszta went to Smyrna on business, where he remained for a time
undisturbed. He had so inflamed the Austrian government against him,
however, that a plot was formed to capture him. On June 21, 1853, while
he was seated on the Marina, a public resort in Smyrna, a band of Greek
mercenaries, hired by the Austrian Consul, seized him and carried him off
to an Austrian ship-of-war, the Huzzar, then lying in the harbor. Arch-
duke John, brother of the emperor, is said to have been in command of this
vessel. Koszta was put in irons and treated as a criminal. The next day
an American sloop-of-war, the St. Louis, commanded by Captain Duncan N
Ingraham, sailed into the harbor. Learning what had happened, Captain
Ingraham immediately sent on board the Huzzar and courteously asked
permission to see Koszta. His request was granted, and the captain
assured himself that Koszta was entitled to the protection of the American
flag. He demanded his release from the Austrian commander. When it
was refused, he communicated with the nearest United States official. Con-
sul Brown, at Constantinople. While he was waiting for an answer six
Austrian warships sailed into the harbor and came to anchor in positions
near the Huzzar. On June 29th, before Captain Ingraham The-st
had received any answer from the American Consul, he Louis "and
noticed unusual signs of activity on board the Huzzar, and the "Huzzar"
before long she began to get under way. The American captain made up
his mind immediately. He put the St. Louis straight in the Huzzar's
course and cleared his guns for action. The Huzzar hove to, and Captain
Ingraham went on board and demanded the meaning of her action.
" We propose to sail for home," replied the Austrian. " The consul
has ordered us to take our prisoner to Austria."
i m
388
THE UNITED STATES SUSTAINS TTS DIGNITY ABROAD
i %
-You will pardon me." said Captain Ingraham, " but if you attempt to
eave tlm port w.th that American on board I shall be compelled to resort
to extreme measures." ^ "
.Jncl Ja' ^"''''""i ^'""^'^ ""^""^ "' '^" ^'""' °^ ^''^'''^^ ^''^'•-hips and the
smgle American sloop-of-war. Then he smiled pleasantly, and intimated that
the Hv.zar would do as she pleased.
Captain Ingraham bowed and returned to the St Louis He had no
soone- reached her deck than he called out : "Clear the jruns for action '"
The Archduke of Austria saw the batteries of the St. Louis turned
upon him and suddenly realized that he was in the wronrr. The Huz^ar
was put about and sailed back to her old anchorage. Word was sent to
Captain Ingraham that the Austrian would await the arrival of the note
from Mr. Brown.
The consul's note, which came on July ,st, commended Captain InRra-
hams course and adv.sed him to take whatever action he thought the situa-
tion demanded. At eight o'clock on the morning of July X Captain In-
graham =ent a note to the commander of the Huz^ar. formally demanding
the release of Mr. Koszta. Unless the prisoner was delivered on board th^
^z; Z«„. before four o clock the next afternoon, Captain Ingraham would
take 1 .m from the Aus.r.ans by force. The Archduke sent back a formal
refusal. At e.ght oclock the next morning Captain Ingraham once more
Ko.zta Is Given ordered the decks cleared for action and trained his batteries
^«»l"8"- on t\.<t Huzzar. The seven Austrian war vessels cleared their
decks and put their men at the guns.
At ten o'clock an Austrian officer came to Captain Ingraham and began
to temporize. Captain Ingraham refused to listen to him
,„ .k" f° "'? r"'' T''i '" "^'^' " ' *'" "^■■'^^ '° '^' "^« ■"=>" be delivered
to the French Consul at Smyrna until you have opportunity to communicate
w th your government. Rut he must be delivered there, or I will take him
I have stated the time.
I . ^l T^"^" f'n"""^" ^ ^""^^ ^'^' '^" ^^^^^^ '''''^' K^^^t^ J" it. ^nd an hour
later the French Consul sent word that Koszta was in his keeping. Then
several of the Austrian war-wessels sailed out of the harbor. Long neeotia-
tions between the two governments followed, and in the end Austr^ ad-'
mitted that the United States was in the right, and apologized
Scarcely had the plaudits which greeted Captain Ingraham's intrepid
course died away. when, the next year, another occasion arose where our
government was obliged to resort to the show of force. This time Nica
ragua was the country involved. Various outrages, as was contended, had
been committca on tne persons and property of American citizens dwelling
attempt to
id to resort
ips and the
mated that
He had no
action ! "
'uis turned
he Huzzar
v'as sent to
'f the note
:ain Ingra*
the situa-
•aptain In-
lemandin^
board the
lam would
c a formal
3nce more
! batteries
ared their
ind began
delivered
municate
take him.
I an hour
\. Then
negotia-
istria ad-'
intrepid
here our
le Nica-
ded, had
dwelling
THE UNITED STATES SUSTAINS ITS DIGNITY AHROAD 3S9
in that country. The repeated demands for redress were not complied
with. Peaceful negotiation, having failed, in June. ,854. .. ^^ [^
Commander Hollins. with the sloop of war Cyan., vvt "wUhri^a.
ordered to proceed to the town of San Juan, or Greytown «"«
which hes on the Mosquito coast of Nicaragua, and to insist on favorable
•iction from the Nicaraguan government.
Captain Hollins came to anchor off the coast and placed his demands
before the authorities He waited patiently for a response, but no satisfac
ory one was offered him. After a luu.ber of days he made a final appeal
and then proceeded to carry out his instructions. On the morning o July
Until f ^"'^TV'^'-? ^'T'r "^ ''^^ ^^^"^ ''' ^'-^'^ J--^ -^1 -P--1 fi-'
Until four oclock in the afternoon the ship poured out broadsides as
ast as Its guns could be loaded. By that time the ^^reater part of the
town was destroyed. Then a party of marines was ^^ut on 'shore, and
completed the destruction of the place by burning the houses
A lieutenant of the British navy commanding a small vessel of war was
in the harbor at the time. England claimed a species of protectorate over
the settlement, and the British officer raised violent protest against the
action taken by America's representative. Captain Hollins. however paid
no attention to the interference and carried out his instructions. ' The
United States government later sustained Captain Hollins in everythin<r
he had done, and England thereupon thought best to let the matter drop"
in this that country was unquestionably wise.
^ At this time the United States seems to have entered upon a period of
international conflict ; for no sooner had the difficulties with Austria and
Nicaragua been adjusted than another war-cloud appeared on the horizon
Here again only a year from the last conflict had elapsed, for in 185s an
offense was committed against the United States by Paraguay.
To explain what it was we shall have to o-q back three years '" »*araguayan
In 1852 Captain Thomas J. Page, commanding a small ii-dit- ^"'^'^
draught steamer, the Water Witch, by direction of his government started
for South America to explore the River La Plata and its large tributaries
with a view to opening up commercial intercourse between the United
States and the interior States of South America. We have said that the
expedition was ordered by our government ; it also remains to be noted
that ,t was undertaken with the full consent and approbation of the
countries having jurisdiction over those waters. Slowly, but surely the
little steamer pushed her way up the river, making soundings and charting
cxxe river as she proceeded. All went well until February i. 1855. when the
first sign of trouble appeared.
22 - , ,
1'^'
390 THE UN/T/W STATES SUSTAINS ITS DIGNITY AliROAD
^ It was a lovely day in early summor-thc summer b<.^rins In February
m that i;^t.tucU-and nothing appeared to indicate the sli.^dUest disturbance
The httle Uatcr IVUck was quietly steamin.^ up the River Parand. which
forms the northern boundary of the State of Corrientes. separating, it from
ara-uay. when suddenly, without a moment's warninLT. a battery fmm Fort
Itaparu. on the Para^juayan shore, opened fire upon her. unmediately killing
The Assault on ^^'1^* of her crew, who at that time was at the wheel The
the^.. water /F./.. Witch was not fitted for hostilities ; least of all could
f . A sh^/^^^;^""^ the risk of attemptin<,r to run the batteries of the
fort. Accordmgly, Captain Page put the steamer about, and was soon out
of range. It should here be explained that at that time President Carlos
A. Lopez was the autocratic ruler of Paraguay, and that Ik- had previously
received Captain Page with every assurance of friendship. A few months
previous, however, Lopez had been antagoni.^.d by the United States con-
sul at Ascencion. This gentleman, in addition to his official position acted
as agent for an American mercantile company of which Lopez disapproved
and whose business he had broken up. He had also issued a decree
forbidding foreign vessels of war to navigate the Parana or any of the
waters bounding Paraguay, which he clearly had no right to do, as half the
stream belonged to the country bordering on the other side.
Captain Page, finding it impracticable to prosecute his exploration any
further, at once returned to the United States, where he gave the Washin^non
authorities a detailed account of the occurrence. It\vas claimed by^ur
government that the Water Witch was not subject to the jurisdiction of
Paraguay, as the channel was the equal property of the Argentine Republic.
It was further claimed that, even if she had been within the jurisdiction of Para-
guay, she was not properly a vessel of war. but a government boat employed
for scientific purposes. And even were the vessel supposed to be a war
vessel. It was contended that it was a gross violation of international right
and courtesy to fire shot at the vessel of a friendly power without first
resorting to more peaceful means. At that time William L. Marcy. one of the
foremost statesmen of his day, was Secretary of State. Mr, Marty at once
MarcyDemands ^l^'^f ^ ''^^'''"^ ^^"^^ ^^ ^he Paraguayan government, stating
Reparation the facts of the case, declaring that the action of Para^^uay in
firing upon the Water Witch would not be submitted "to, and
demanding ample apology and compensation. All efforts in this direction
however, proved fruitless. Lopez refused to give any reparation ; and no^
only so, but declared that no American vessel would be allowed to ascend
the Parana for the purpose indicated.
n February
disturbance
irand. which
tint; it from
y from Fort
itely killing
heel. The
jf all could
iries of the
IS soon out
:lent Carlos
l)reviously
"ew months
States con-
itlon, acted
isapp roved
I a decree
uiy of the
IS half the
ration any
''ashint'-ton
ed by our
diction of
Republic.
311 of Para-
employed
) be a war
anal right
;hout first
Dne of the
-y at once
It, stating
raguay in
id to, and
direction,
; and not
to ascend
T,„.: UN,TKD STA TES SUSTAINS ITS DtCNm' ARKOAD 3,,
The event, as it b.xa.n,. known, aronsed not a littlo ,-xcit,-ment • and
«h,le here were- s„n,e who cU-precat,.! a r.sor. to ...xtn-n,,. n.e." 4 ' c
assertion of our nsfhts n, the ,.rcnmes. Accordh,^.|y, I'n.si.U-nt l'i,.r,e sen
a message to Congress, statin^^ that a peaceful adjus^nlnt of th e li fie kv w^
unpossible, and askin. for authority to send such a naval force to 'a, ay
as w>ndd con,,,el her arbitrary ruler to ,dve the full satisfaction deuK»ul;7
'" "'» '■"■"'f Congress promptly an,l almost unaninmuslv .^,ve
Un I s';;"" '"^ ^'""'^"^' "'™' -M-litions ever rttted ,„n V he
1 lata K vcr. I he fleet was an unposiuf; one for the purnose a,„l com
pnsed n.neteen vessels, seven of which were steamers special v ;,
chartered for the purpose, as o.ur largest war vessels were o'f 'nr.t:',,,
too deep draujfht to ascend the l.a Plata and Parana Th,- ''»'-"i-'"»>
entire squa.lron carried .00 yuns and 2.500 men, and was commands l,y
11a,' officer, a ter^vard rear-admiral, Shubrick. one of the oldest officers o^
otir navys and one of the most gallant men that ever trod a quarter, eck
lag Oftcer Shubrick was accompanied by United States Co mmissioi ..
diffitlt'y. ""' """""''' "%-tiations for the settlement of th"
Three years and eleven months had now passed since the- //•„/„• Witch
was (ired upon, and President Buchanan had succeeded Pranklin Pi,.rce
The winter of .859 was just closing in at the north ; the streams were closed
by ice, and the lakes were ice-bound, but the palm trees of the s. „ h v re
displaying their fresh green leaves, like so many fringed banners in tl !
warm tropica air when the United States squadron .assembled a^'Mon
vKleo. 1 he fieet included two United States frigates, the SMnc and the
f.- t;'"Tv'' 'T° ^ °"P^-°f-*-"-. the l-'clmouth and the Preble: three bri.^s
.V.Ba,nMse, .\.. Do/„i„ .„i rhe/l..,,.,. seven steamers especiallv'ar m i
fortle- occasion, the J/„«//.,,,-, the QMonia. the .Waula, the Sou/hern 'ilar
the Wcsta-npor, the ^/. IK O.apin, and the .,/.W,«/.. two 'Zl^l
ships, the Supply and the Release: the revenue steamer, HarrietJ ane-7Z
ast y the litt e fF.... WiM herself, no longer defencdess, b.: t gh i '"
tnm for hostilities. ^'''-'''i,
On the 25th of January. 1859, within just one week of four years from
the firmer wv * the Wafpv iVUrl, ^k j , /^" •-> nuiu
.nrhnr ^ff A ' u ' , ^^^adrou got Under way and came to
anchor off Ascencion. the capital of Paraguay. Meanwhile ^^ ,,.
President Urquiza, of the Argentine Republic, who had Anchroff
uucreu his services lo m.rl.nt. .K. ^;A;„..jjy^ j^^j arrived at Ascencion
\\
Ascencon m advance of the squadron^ The negotiations were
reopened, and
'^^'
Jli!
'pi^
4 ,
^r)i THE UNITED STATES SUSTAINS ITS DIGNITY . WROAD
Commissioner nc>wlin made his ^U-mand for instant reparation. All this
time 1 la^. Officer Shuhnck was not idle. With such of our vessels as were
o su.tahlcMze he ascended the river, taking them throu,d> the difficulties
n .te, by ,ts currents, shoals and sand bars. an<l hrou.^du them to a position
t^^^Ve he town whrr. they were made ready for action in case of necessity
to open ,%P, The force within strikin..^ distance of i>ara^n,ay consisted of
.,740 men, bes.d.s the officers, and 78 ^tins, including 23 nine-inch shell
,cruns and one shell gun of eleven inches.
nn^ ?'t'^l^ •""Ji.^""" '^T'''^ ^"^ ^"^ '''''y '''■°"^^' arjruments with Lopez. It did
not take the I).ctator-Pres.dent ]ong to see that the United States meant
Wss, and that the tin.e ior trifling had passed and the time for serious
work had come. President Lopez's cerebral processes worked with re-
markable and encouraging celerity. Uy P'ebruary 5th. within less than
two weeks of the starting of the squadron fro.n Montevideo, Com:ni.sioner
Bowhn s demands were all acceded to. Ample apologies were made for
President Lopez ^""'"S: OH the ira/cr IViIc/i, aud pecuniary conv isation was
BrouKhtto given to the family of the sailor who had been killed. In
addition to this, a new commercial treaty was made, and
cordial relations were fully restored between the two governments
A period of more than thirty years now elapsed before any serious dif.
ficulty occurred with a foreign power. In ,891 an event took place that
hreatened to disturb our relations with Chili and possibly involve the
United States in war with that power. Happily the matter reached a peace-
ful sett ement. In January, of that year, civil war had broken out in Chili the
cause of which was a contest between the legislative branch of the government
""^n clim "^^ ^;^^'^^^^^'^"tive, for the control of affairs. The President of
Chill, General Balmaceda, began to assert authority which the
legislature, or "the Congressionalists," as the opposing party was called
resisted as unconstitutional and oppressive, and they accordingly proceeded
to mterfere with Balmaceda's Cabinet in its efforts to carry out the presi-
dents despotic will. ^
Finally matters came to a point where appeal to arms was necessarv
On the 9th of January the Congressional ^..rty took possession of the
greater part of the Chilian licet, the navy being I^ Wty . ; n.pathy with
them, and the guns of. the warships were .umed against Balmaceda -
Valparaiso, the capital, and other ports being blockaded K,- the ships
to^ a time Balmaceda maintained control of the capital and the southern
par. -,i the country. The key to the position was Valparaiso, which waa
strono i , .-titled, Balmaceda's army being massed there and olared ut
avaiiiuk; :of':t3. ' '
1. All this
sL'ls as were
e difficulties
a position
3f necessity
consisted of
L'-inch shell
ipez. It did
ates meant
for serious
d with re-
1 less than
inuiissioner
: made for
'sat ion was
killed. In
made, and
s.
serious dif-
place that
nvolve the
ed a peace-
1 Chili, the
overnment
resident of
which the
/as called,
proceeded
the presi-
necessary,
on of the
)athy with
maceda, —
the ships.
; southern
which was
nlaced at
THE tryiTED STATFS SUSTAINS ITS DIGM'IY ABROAD ^
At last the ConKressionalisis determined to attack Malmaceda at his
capital, and on Au^'ust 2- . landed every available fi-htin^^ man at their
disposal ^ Concon. abo r .^n miles north of Valparaiso. They were
attacked by the Dictator on the -d. there being twenty thousand men on
each side. I he Dictator had the worst of it. Then he rallied his shattered
forces, and mad(. bis last stand at Placilh. close to \'alpuraiso. on the 28th.
The battle was hot, the carnage fearful ; neither side asked for or received
quarter. The magazine rifles, with which the revolutionists were armed
did wonders. The odds were against llalmaceda; both his generals (uiar-
reled in face of the enemy ; his army became divided and de
moralized. In a later battle both of ais generals were kilK
The Overthrow
of Balmaceda
The valor and the superior tactics of General Canto, leader ol
the Congressional army, won the day. Halmaceda II d an eventual!
committed suicide, and the Congressionalists enterc the capital a\
triumph.
Several incidents meantime had conspired, during the progr ss of this
war, to rouse the animosity of the stronger party in Chili agai. t the United
States. Before the Congressional ,ts' triumph the steamsh 'lata, loaded
with American arms and ammunition for Chili, sailed from m bVancisco
and as thi^ was a violation of the nei trality laws, a United Si s war vessel
pursued her to the harbor of Iquique where she surrendered. Then other
troubles arose. Our minister at Valparaiso, Mr. Egan, was cii ed by the
Congressionalists, then in power, wit 1 disregarding internal al law in
allowing the American Legation to be made an asylum for the .. rents of
Balmaceda. Subsequently these refu<:ces were permitted to o aboard
American vessels and sail away. Th< (i Admiral Brown, of i , United
States squadron, was, in Chili's opinion, guilty of having acted , . a spy
upon the movements of the Congressi< lalists' fleet at Quinteros. .nd of
bringing intelligence of its movements t< Balmaceda at Valparaiso. This,
however, the Admiral stoutly denied.
The strong popular feeling of dislik. which was engendered by these
charges culminated on tne i6thof October in an attack upon American sea-
men by a mob in the streets of the Chilia capital. Captain Schley, com-
mander of the United States cruiser Baltimore, had given shore-leave to a
hundred and seventeen petty officers and seamen, some of a„ ..^ .
whom, when they had been on shore for several hours, were the Men 0"
set upon by Chilians. They took refuge in a street car, from
....!...., ,.o.revv,x, \u-^y v.cfc buou unvcn and m- icilessly beaten,
and a subordinate officer named Riggen fell, apparently lifeless. The
can sailors, according to Captain Schley's testimony, were sol
the " Balti-
more "
The Ameri-
n
*r
an(
"11
394
li
THE UNITED STATES SUSTAINS ITS DIGNITY A IS ROAD
conducting: tl,emsclv..s with propriety when the attack was made They
Teftlhr^™ 1 ■ "'" ""'^ '""" ''•^""*'' '^^*=" '=>^'=" f™™ ">-" b«f"- they
The assault upon those in tl,e street car seemed to be only a shmal for
a general upnsM,,, ; and a mob which is variously estimated at fr^m one
a itti" vhi'l";,, '•■""' "T"''^ •"'^.^'"' ""■■ ■^'"'°'-' ^""> -^'^ '->' tl-Hn
br, , ''" '"'■"■ "■'""" "" '"^'--^tiff'tion could tnul ^n,il,j, „f a„y
breach of the peace, were lk.ein.u for their lives before an. cwerwhelmin,^
crowd, am„„. wh.ch were a nuntber of the police of Valparaiso. 1 i's
affray eighteen sadors were stabbed, several dying fron, their wounds
Of course the United States government at once connnunicated with
he Chd,an autCnfes on the subject, e.pressir.g an intention to iuvesti.. e
S gnor Matta, the Chd.an tnmister of foreign affairs, was to the effect th.-t
thn, would not allow anything to interfere with her own official investi-
An examination of all the facts was made on our part. It was careful
and thorough, and showed that our lla. had been insulted in the pe' "s o
Amencan seamen. Yet, while the Chilian court of inquiry coukf present
An investisa. HO extenuating facts, that country refused at first to offer
min^red" ^l'"^"-y ''' '-^"P^^'-'-^tion for the affront. In the course of the
Mr Mc,nr. ^,^:;r'"^^P«"^l^''^^^ ^^'^'^^er Matta sent a note of instruction to
Mi. Montt, Chihan representative at Washington, in which he used the most
offensive terms ,n relation to the United States, and directed that the letter
should be given to the press for publication.
After waitiiig for a long time for the result of the investi<ration at
Valparaiso and hnding that, although no excuse or palliation had bc^en found
for the outrage the Chilian authorities seemed reluctant to offer apolo<w
tend r ^"' of the United States, in a n.essage t<. Congress, made an ex!
tended statement of the various incidents of the case ami its leoal aspect
and stated that on the .ist of January he had caused a peremptory com!
munication to be presented to the Chilian government by the American
minister at Santiago, in which severance of diplomatic relations was
If M ' M .°"'" t.'"''"'^' ^°' «'^t'^f''^^^i""- ^vhich included the withdrawal
ol Mr. Mattas insulting note, were not complied with. At the time that
this mes.sage was delivered no reply had been sent to the note
Mr Harrison's statement of the legal aspect of the case, upon which
the f^nal settlement of the difficulty was based, was that the presenr. of ^
warship oi any nation in a port belonging to a friendly power is by virtue
Jl a general invitation which nations are held to extend to each other • that
lade. They
before they
a signal for
It from one
fury that in
lilty of any
erwhehning
'O. In this
auuis.
icatecl witii
investiorato
irnment by
effect that
:ial investi-
tvas careful
persons of
i<-l present
it to offer
rse of the
ruction to
.1 the most
the letter
igation at
een found
r apology,
ide an ex-
■al aspect,
tory com-
Anierican
ions was
ithdrawal
:ime that
on which
nee of a
by virtue
ler; tliat
THE UNITED STATES SUSTAINS ITS DIGNITY ABROAD 395
Commander Schley was invited, with his officers and crew, to enjoy the
hospitality of Valparaiso; that while no claim that an attack which an
individual sailor may be subjected to raises an international The American
question, yet where the resident population assault sailors of CaseTre^"
another country's war vesstils, as at Valparaiso, animated by an ^'="*^'*
animosity against the governmc^u to which tlu-y belong, that government
must act as it would if the representatives or Hag of tiie nation had been
attacked, since the sailors are there by the order of their government.
Finally an ultimatum was sent from the State tlepartment at Washing.
ton, on the 25th, to Minister b^gan, and was by him transmitted to the
proper Chilian authorities. It demanded the retraction of Mr. Matta's note
and suitable apology and reparation for the insult anil injurv ri„i. ««
.•iiiTT.,, J ' cniii otiers an
sustained by the United States. On the 2Sth of January. Apology and
1892, a dispatch from Chili was received, in which the de- K^paratlon
mands of our government were fully acceded to, th-: offensive letter was
withdrawn, and regret was expressed for the occurrence. In his relation to
this particular case, Minister Egan's conduct received the entire approval of
his government.
While the United States looked for a peaceful solution of this annoy-
ing international episode, the proper preparations were made for a less
desirable outcome. Our naval force was put in as efficient a condition as
possible, and the vessels which were then in the navy yard were <'-ot
ready for service with all expedition. If the Chilian war-scare did nothtng
else, it aroused a wholesome interest in naval matters throughout the whole
of the United States, and by focusing atte ition upon the needs of this
branch of the public service, showed at once how lielpless we might become
in the event of a war with any first-class power. We may thank Chili that
to-day the United States Navy is in a better condition than at any time in
our history.
When the great Napoleon was overthrown, France, Russia, Prussia
and Austria formed an alliance for preserving the "balance of power" and
for suppressing revolutions within one another's dominions. This has been
spoken of in a preceding chapter as the " Holy Alliance." At the tiin.-
the Spanish South American colonies were in revolt, and the alliance had
taken steps indicating an intention to aid in their reduction, (xeorge Can-
ning, the English secretary of state, proposed to our country that we should
unite with England in preventing such an outrage against
civilization. It v/as a momentous question, and President
,'rson. Madison. Calhoun and
Monroe consulted with J<
John Quincy Adams, the secretary of state, before mak
The .Ion roe
Doctrine
m
J'il
I,,
mg answer,
The
t i
The Case of
Cuba
jjMi
396 TJfE UNITED STATES SUSTAINS ITS DIGNITY ABROAD
Cot'r ^•''''' n "'t'''' "'' ''""■^'="' '="''°*='' '" '''= =>""-' '"-sage .0
Congress .n December, ,8.3, a clause which formulated what has ever sin e
been know„ as the -Monroe Doctrine." It was written bv John Qu incv
PoZfof th T "T'"P' "" *^'' P-"°-'«"d their system to any
furt : ° hat'IheT'-^' " " ''"^^™"^ ''^ °"^ P^^"^^ ^'"'' -f^'y ^" -d
urther that the Amencan continents, by the free and independent condi
.on wh,ch they have assumed and maintain, are henceforth'not to b Tot
Bv 2 ' M^"'^ ' n '""" ^°'°"''^^"°" ''y -y European powers."
By the Monroe Doctrme the United States forn,ally adopted tlie posi-
.on of guard,an of the weaker An,erican States, and since its prc.n gaZ
there have been few aggres.,ions of European nations in America, and' none
m wh,ch the United States has not decisively warned them
oM. I he most striking instances may be stated. When
dunng the troubles in Cuba, France and Great Britain su^'
gested an alhance with the United States to look after affairs il that
quarter they were given plainly to understand that this country woud
attend to that matter itself and would brook no interference on the plrt of
ore,gn powers. It also intimated ti,at, in the event of Spain ..ZZ]^
authonty ,„ Cuba from any cause, the United States proposed ,0 act as
France in Mexico ^1^^ difficulties under which our government then labored
and the Fate Trance landed an armv in m^ • ^ , 'ciuuicu,
of Maximilian established nn ^ ? ^ ''''' overthrew the republic.
the Fmn. ^'f 7"^^^ ^" e'^P're. and placed Maximilian, a brother of
1 ne ivionroe Uoctrine ra\GpA iVo i,„ j ■ , . & *•" s<-' m.
bidden to take the "troops f 1 Me '^""Z \ "l'/""^'' ""^ P'^'"'^
Napoleon III. was quick .0 akeThe Wnt a" d t^ ^'' .'l' "t "^"' "■°""^-
imilian was advised to go J^h i but hV T,'^T 'f ''"'''■ "=""
he could maintain his feat upon Z m" J ''"''"'o' ''"'>''"^ "'^'
undeceived. The liberak sprang t J'"r T' "" "''^ 1"'<='='>'
army, and soon had h,m i , leir hand '"a f '"''', ""' ^'^^ '"^ ^■"^"
H. ,, , . ■ J u hands. A few words complete the storv
He was tried by court ma.-tial, condemned to death and shot Th A^A
m d.saster the most decided =.ttenDt to ser ° ^'"": ^""^ "!"• ^hus ended
of American guardianship"" " ^ ^' '*' "'"«'" tl.= Monroe Doctrine
OAD
message to
IS ever since
ohn Quincy
saitl that we
stem to any
afety;" and
ident condi-
•t to be con-
fers."
ed the posi-
omulgation
1, and none
irned them
:cl. When,
Britain sug-
irs in that
itry would
the part of
mg up her
to act as
European
ctrine was
'antage of
1 labored,
: repubHc,
brother of
I the new
to go ill,
re plainly
: trouble.
ly. Max-
ying that
s quickly
his small
the story,
us ended
Doctrine
THE UNITED STATES SUSTAINS ITS DIGNITY ADKOAD 397
A second effort, less piratical in its character, was the attempt of Great
Britain to extend the borders of British Guiana at the expense of Venezuela.
To a certain degree Great Britain seems to have had right
on its side in this movement, but its methods were those ^"iLundaryand
used by strong nations when dealing with weak ones, the the Monroe
demand of Venezuela for arbitration was scornfully ignored, •^<*'=*'''"®
and force was used to support a claim whose justice no effort was made to
show. These high-handed proceedings were brought to a quick termination
by the action of the United States, which offered itself as the friend and
ally of Venezuela in the dispute. President Cleveland insisted on an arbitra-
tion of the difficulty in words that had no uncertain ring, and the states-
men of Great Britain, convinced that he meant just what he said, submitted
with what grace they could. A court of arbitration was appointed, the
boundary question put into its hands to settle, and peace and satisfaction
reigned again. The Monroe Doctrine had once more decisively asserted
itself. By the decision of the court of arbitration each country got the
portion of the disputed territory it most ^ alued, and both were satisfied.
Thus peace has its triumphs greater than those of war.
These are not offered as the only occasions in which the United States
has come into hostile relations with foreign powers and has sustained its
dignity with or without war, but they are the most striking ones, unless we
include in this category the Mexican war. Various disputes of a minor
character have arisen, notably with Great Britain, the latest being that con-
cerning the Alaskan boundary ; but those given are the only instances that
seem to call for attention here.
;,■■»
ft
-11
1
i -
! ! li
1
I.
CHAPTER XXVII.
Webster and Clay and the Presentation of the Uni
on,
D
URING the first half of
the
0„,s,i„„.„„„. °P™;"' °[ "'« nation which tl,reatened its pface and pro
.e™a,P„„«, penty andto deal with wl,icl, called for tie mos earnes
leaders of ther:::':..:;: "a '^''r 't-'"-'''' '- ^^^^
. above their contrp'r f 1.^17^;':;,: r t^ '"° "" '°°'"^'' "'^^
staunch defender of the Union and H A", "'\ ^^"P''™^ °ra'°' ''■"d
whose hand for years stavex^ tl^'wT 77 "";■ ""= «^''*=='' P^^ce-maker,
' than once Che. JdTlh,vct%-|>-,' ''°''"'="' ''^"P"' ='"'' '"o^^
Clay had passed froftte scene ht'" '" I'T '="'^' ^'^»" " "^^ "°' ""'"
plunged t'l,e conntry [^V c W t andltd"":" U '•™"T^ ''""'''' '°
point of dissolntion. """ ""'°" ^'™°^' '° 'he
the ^z !r:^j':'::^!z':t"r '-■" ^^^^ " ^'^ ^"'■°" ^™- ^™™ '-•
There were othe s of lo P"'° °'" ""= '"^'i'"''"" "f slavery,
e otl crs of minor importance, prominent among them those of
Danger ,„ the '" f"^' "'"provement at government expense, and of state
fS ral" U " T'- "' '"^^P-"'--^' °f ^'e states unde the
.l>e existence of t "i::"; d' • " l^r '" ''T '"'° ™'>' "'^' "--'™«=d
manship and the mos^TerTid n„ l'" '"^ ""' "'''^'' "'"^ "°"-' ='■•"-
The subiect of 11,7 convincing oratory were called into play
internal improvements state r^lus ''"'"f - l»l-y-'ariff, currency,
tion of how to preserve ; \f .'''-'■''"'' subordinate to the main ques-
39S
many
patriotic
THE PRESERVATION OF THE UNION
399
statesmen, who, to save the Union, were ready to make any sacrifice and
join in any compromise. And high among these, for more than fifty years,
stood the noble figure of Henry Clay.
Not often does a man whose life is spent in purely civil affairs become
such a popular hero and idol as did Clay— especially when it is his fate
never to reach the highest place in the people's gift. '• Was there ever,"
says Parton, "a public man, not at the head of a state, so be-
loved as he ? Who ever heard such cheers, so hoarty, distinct Clay's Great
and ringing, as those which his name evoked? Men shed ''''P"'""*^
tears at his defeat, and women went to bed sick from pure sympathy with
his disappointment. He could ncL travel during the last thirty years of his
life, but only make progresses. When he left home the pul.)lic seized him
and bore him along over the land, the committee of one state passing him
on to the committee of another, and the hurrahs of one town dying away as
those of the next cauMit his ear,"
Born a poor boy, who had to make his way up from the lowest state of
frontier indigence, he was favored by nature with a kindly soul, the finest
and most effective powers of oratory, and a voice of the' most admirable
character ; one of deep and rich tone, wonderful volume, and sweet and
tender harmony, which invested all he said with majesty, and swept
audiences away as much by its musical and swelling cadences as by the
logic and convincing nature of his utterances.
After years of active and useful labor in Congress, it was in 1818 that
Clay first stepped into the arena for the calming of the passions of Con-
gress and the preservation of the Union, a duty to which he devoted him-
self for the remainder of his life. In tne year named a petition for the
admission of Missouri into the Union was presented in Congress, and with
it began that long and bitter struggle over slavery which did not end until
the surrender of Lee at Appomattox in 1865.
For years the sentiment in favor of slavery had been growing stronger
in the South. At one time many of the wisest southern statesmen and
planters disapproved of the institution and proposed its aboli-
tion. But the invention of the cotton gin bv Eli Whitnev in '^']f ^'f ^•^'"y
J ^, , , , •" Sentiment
1793, and the subsequent great development of the cotton
culture had decidedly changed the situation. By 1800 the value of the
cotton product had advanced to $5,700,000. In 1820 it had made another
great advance, and was valued at nearly $20,000,000. There was now no
thought of doing away with the use of slaves, but a si
rong sentiment had
arisen in the South in favor of extending the area in which slave labo
could be employed.
'. |.I
fiP
¥'■1 "
^Wmin f 9 r.i
f i ■■
400
r//ri PRESERVATION OF THE UNION
' i n.iii
In the North a different state of feehng existed. Slavery was beh'eved
to be a wrong and an injury to Ameri-^an institutions, though no movement
for Its abohtion had been started. Many people thought it ought to and
The Admission "^''"'^^ disappear in time, but there was no idea of taking steps
of Missouri to enforce its disappearance. But when, in the bill for the
admission of Missouri, there was shown a purpose of extend-
ing the area of slavery, northern sentiment became alarmed and a strong
opposition to this project developed in Congress.
.u J' T/'''' '"'''^''" revelation of a change of feeling in the South which
the North had not observed in its progress. "The discussion of this Mis-
souri question has betrayed the secret of their souls," wrote John Ouincy
Adams. 1 he slaveholders watched with apprehension the steady o-rowth of
the free states in population, wealth and power. !n 1790 the population
of the two sections had been nearly even. In 1820 there was a difference
of over 600,000 in favor of the North in a total of less than ten millions
In 1790 the representation of the two sections in Congress had been about
evenly balanced. In 1820 the census promised to give the North a prepon-
derance of more than thirty votes in the House of Representatives If
the South was to retain its political equality in Congress, or at least in the
senate, it must have more slave states, and there now began a vigorous
Jtruggle with this object in view. It was determined, if possible, to have
as many states as the North, and it was with this purpose that it fought so
hard to have slavery introduced into Missouri.
The famous " Missouri Compromise," by which the ominous dispute of
1820 was at last settled, included the admission of one free state (Maine)
and one slave state (Missouri) at the same time, and it was enacted that no
other slave state should be formed out of any part of the Louisiana
The Missouri ^^"^'^^''y "^^^^ of thirty-six degrees thirty minutes, which
Compromise ^^'^^ ^{^^ southern boundary line of Missouri. The assent of
opposing parties to this arrangement was secured largely by
the patriotic efforts of Clay, who, says Schurz, "did not confine hiiiTself to
speeches, * * * but went from man to man, expostulating, beseechincr
persuading, in his most winning way. * * * His success added great?"
to his reputation and gave new strength to his influence." The resuft, says
John Ouincy Adams, was "to bring into full display the talents and re-
sources and influence of Mr. Clay." He was praised as "the great pacifi-
cator "—a title which was confirmed by the deeds of his later life.
Clay served as secretary of state during the .administration of John
Quincy Adams, but in 1829, when Jacks6n, his bitter enemy, succeeded to
the presidency, he retired for a short season to private life in his beautiful
IS believed
movement
^ht to and
king- steps
ill for the
of extend-
d a strong
'Uth which
this Mis-
in Ouincy
growth of
)oi)ulation
difference
millions.
;en about
a prepon-
tives. If
ist in the
vigorous
to have
'ought so
ispute of
(Maine)
1 that no
-ouisiana
s, which
Lssent of
rgely by
mself to
eeching,
great
ult, says
and re-
t pacifi-
III:
3f Jo
ided to
eautifui
THE PRESERVATION OF THE UNION
401
Kentucky home. But he was not long to remain there; in 1831 he was
again elected to the Senate, where he remained until 1842. They were
stormy years. In South Carolina the opposition to the protective tariff had
led to the promulgation of the famous " nuliification " theory — the doctrine
that any state had the power to declare a law of the United States null
and void. Jackson, whose anger was thoroughly aroused, dealt with the
revolt in summary fashion, threatening that if any resistance to the cjovern-
ment was attempted he would instantly have the leaders arrested and
brought to trial for treason. Nevertheless, to allay the discontent of the
South, Clay devised his Compromise Tariff of 1833, under which ihe duties
were to be gradually reduced, until they should reach a minimum of twenty
per cent. In 1832 he allowed himself, very unwisely, to be a candidate for
the presidency, Jackson's re-election being a foregone conclusion. In 1S36
he declined a nomination, and Van Buren was elected. Then followed the
panic of 1837, which insured the defeat of the party in power, and the elec-
tion of the Whig candidate at the following uresidential election ; but the
popularity of General Jackson had convinced the party managers that suc-
cess demanded a military hero as a candidate ; and accordingly General
Harrison, "the hero of Tippecanoe," was elected, after the famous "Log
Cabin and Hard Cider campaign " of 1840. This slight was deeply morti-
fying to Clay, who had counted with confidence upon being the candidate
of the party. " I am the most unfortunate man in the history of parties,"
he truly remarked; "always run by my friends when sure to be defeated,
and now betrayed for a nomination when I, or any one else, would be sure
of an election."
In 1844, however, Clay's opportunity came at last. He was so obvi-
ously the Whig candidate that there was no opposition. The n
• Til* ^"^y ^s *i
convention met at Baltmiore In May, and he was nominated Presidential
by acclamation, with a shout that shook the building. Every- Candidate
thing appeared to indicate success, and his supporters regarded his tri-
umphant election as certain.
But into the politics of the time had come a new factor— the " Liberty
party." This had been hitherto considered unimportant ; but the proposed
annexation of Texas, which had become a prominent question, was opposed
by many in the North who had hitherto voted with the Whig party. Clay
was a slaveholder ; and though he had opposed the extension of slavery, his
record was not satisfactory to those who disapproved of the annexation of
Texas. In truth, the opposition to slavery in the North was rapidly gaining
political strength, while the question of the annexation of Texas was looked
upon as one for the extension of the "peculiar institution," since Texas
402
THE PRESERVATION OF THE UNION
1
I i
^K.^
WmP
^m\ '
^4
^■ii
■
^^Bi]c
H
^Hii'
\
I^^^B^'ft^
i
The Contest
of 1844
wou d. under the Missouri Comprcnise, fall into line as a slave state and
was large enough, if Congress should permit, to be cut up into a number ol
slave states. Clay was between two fires. He was distrusted
■ n the bouth ; while his competitor, I>olk, was pled.^ed to
^"f PO" 'he annexation of Texas. He was doubted °in the
Nor h as a Slav, .older. His old ene„,y, Jackson, used his influence strongl^
aga nst h„n. 1 he contest finally turned upon the vote of New York, and
tha proved so c Mse that tl,e suspense became painful. I'eople did not go
to lx:d va,t,ng for the delayed returns. The contest was singularly like
that of Blame and Garfield, forty years later, when the result again turned
upon a close vote m the State of New York. When at last tire <lecis"ve
news w.as rece.ved and the fact of Clays defeat was assured, the Whi.^s
broke out m a wad o agony all over the land. " It was," says Nathan Sar-
gent, as ,f the first-born of every fan.ily had been stricken down " The
descr,pt,ons we have of the grief manifested are almost incre,lible. Tears
vdwl'rh ; • "" T ""^ "'"' "^ ""' ""' ™°'"«"' •" "'e cities and
vd ages the bu.s,ness places were ahnost deserted for a day or two, people
The WM '"'" r "\ '''°"'" T *""^^ '" '"'' '""- -'-'had happened.
The Whtgs were fa,rly stunned by their defeat, kI the Democrats failed
to mdulge m demonstrations of triun,ph, it being widely felt that a great
wrong had been done. It was the opinion of „,any that [here would b^no
hope thereafter of e ectn,g the great statesmen of the country to the
presidency, and that tins high office would in future be attained only by
men of second-rate ability. ^ ^
The last and greatest work of the life of Henry Clay was the famous
Compromise o ,850, which has been said to have postponed for ten years
TheCompro. "«: yeat Civd War. At that period the sentiment a<rainst
n,lseo(,8s„ slavery was rap.dly increasing in the North and had <r°ained
great strength. Though the number of free and slave "states
populltion."'" '' '"" "'" '''' '"'■P^"'"S "^'^ '"'- i" ««-'"> -d
It was evident that slavery must have more territory or lose its political
.nfluence Snut ot,t of the northwest by the Missouri Compron,iseri wa
supposed that a great field for its extension had been gained in Texas .^rd the
tern o,y acqu.red from Mexico. But now Californiara part of this territory
wh ch ad been counted upon for slavery, was populated by a sudden rush
of northern mnn.grafon, attracted by the discovery of gold ; and a state
government was organized with a constitution excludhrg slavery thus
g.vmg the free states a majority of one. Instead of adding to the area of
slavery, the Mex.can territory see„,ed likely to increase the strength J{
THE PRESERVATION OF THE UNION
403
state, and
number oi
clistrusted
lcd»red to
ed in the
e strongly
York, and
id not go
ilarly like
in turned
t decisive
le Whigs
.than Sar-
n." The
2. Tears
:itie.s and
o, people
appened.
ats failed
t a great
lid be no
Y to the
only by
I famous
sn years
against
i gained
e states
ilth and
political
:, it was
and the
erritory
en rush
a state
y, thus
area of
igth ^i
freedom. The South was both alarmed and exasperated. Threats of dis-
union were freely made. It was clear that prompt measures must be taken
to allay the prevailing excitement, if disruption were to be avoided. In such
an emergency it was natural that all eyes should turn to the "great pacifi-
cator," Henry Clay.
When, at the session of 1849-50, he api)ear(Hl in tile Senate tt) assist, if
possible, in removing the slavery question from jjoHtics, Clay was an infirm
and serious, but not sad, old man of seventy-two. Me never lost his cheer-
fulness or faith, but he felt deeply for his distracted country. During that
memoral)le session of Congress he spoke seventy times. Often extremely
sick and feeble, scarcely able, with the assistance of a friend's
,.,, riy--ii 1 An Orator of
arm, to ciiml) the steps ot the Capitoi, he was never absent sevcnty-two
on the days when the compromise was to be debated. On
the morning on which he began his great speech, he was accompanied by a
clerical friend, to whom he said, on reaching the long flight of steps leading
to the Capitol, "Will you lend me your arm, my friend? for I find myself
quite weak and exhausted this morning." Every few steps he was obliged
to stop and take breath. " Had you not better defer your speech ?" asked
the clergyman. " My dear friend," said the dying orator, " I consider our
country in danger; and if I can be the means, in any measure, of averting
that danger, my health or life is of little consequence." When he rose to
speak 't was but too evident that he was unfit for the task he had under-
taken. But as he kindled with his subject, his cough left him, and his bent
form resumed all its wonted erectness and majesty. He may, in the prime
of his strength, have spoken with more energy, but never with so much
pathos or grandeur. His speech lasted two days ; and though he lived two
years longer, he never recovered from the effects of the effort. The ther-
mometer in the Senate chamber marked nearly 100 degrees. Toward the
close of the second day, his friends repeatedly proposed an adjournment ;
but he would not desist until he had given complete utterance to his
feelings. He said afterwards that he was not sure, if he gave way to an
adjournment, that he should ever be able to resume.
Never was Clay's devotion tc "^he Union displayed in such thrilling and
pathetic forms as in the course oi this long debate. On one occasion allu-
sion was made to a South Carolina hot-head, who had publicly
1 • 1 ,1 c ^' Airi /-I .1 Clay's Tribute
proposed to raise the tiag ot disunion. When Clay retorted to the Union
by saying, that, if Mr. Rhett had really meant that pro-
position, and should follow it up by corresponding acts, he would be a
iraiior, and added, "and I hope he will meet a traitor's fate," thunders o!
applause broke from the crowtled jjalleries. When the chairman succeeded
K
i
M
404
THE PRESERVATION OF THE UNION
PI!'
m
ijL««,«M
in restorin^r silence. Mr. Clay made that celebrated declaration which was so
frequently quoted in 1861 : "U Kentucky to-morrow shall unfurl the banner
of resistance unjustly, I will never fight under that banner. I owe para-
mount allegiance to the whole Union, a subordinate one to my own
state." Again : " The senator speaks of Virginia being my country. This
Union, sir, is my country ; the thirty states are my country ; Kentucky is my
country, and Virginia, no more than any state in the Union." And yet
again: "There are those who think that the Union must be pr-«*erved by
an exclusive reliance upon 'love and reason. That is not mv opinion. I
have some confidence in this instrumentality; but, depend'upon it, no
human government can exist without the power of applying force, and' the
actual application of it in extreme cases."
The compromise offered by Clay became known as the "Omnibus Bill,"
from the various measures it covered. It embraced the following provi-
sions : I. California should be admitted as a free state. 2. NewTviexico
and Utah should be formed into territories, and the question of the admis-
sion of slavery be left for their people to decide. 3. Texas should give up
The Omnibus ^'^^^ °^ ^^^^ territory it claimed, and be paid $10,000,000 as
Bill ^ recompense. 4. Tha slave-trade should be prohibited in
^ ^ the District of Columbia. 5. A stringent law for the return
of fugitive slaves to their masters should be enacted.
The question concerning Texas was the following : Texas claimed that
its western boundary followed the Rio Grande to its source. This took in
territory which had never been part of Texas, but the claim was strongly
pushed, and was settled in the manner above stated. The serious question,
however, in this compromise was that coacerning the return of fugitive
slaves. ^ When an effort was made to enforce the Fugitive Slave Law great
opposition was excited, on account of the stringency of its provisions. The
fugitive, when arrested, was not permitted to testify in his own behalf or to
claim trial by jury, and all persons were required to assist the United States
Effect of the marshal, when called upon for aid. To assist a fugitive to
Fugitivesiave escape was an offence punishable by fine and impris^'onment.
In the last two respects the law failed ; and its severe pro-
visions added greatly to the strength of the anti-slavery party, and thus
had much to do in bringing on the Civil War.
Side by side with Clay in the senate stood another and greater figure,
the majestic presence of Daniel Webster, one of the greatest orators the
world has ever known, a man fitted to stand on the rostrum with Demos,
thenes, the renowned orator of Greece, or with Chatham, Burke, or Glad-
stone of the British parliament.
lich was so
the banner
owe para-
) my own
try. This
icky is my
And yet
«ierved by
pinion. I
)on it, no
e, and the
ibus Bill,"
inj^ provi-
w Mexico
:he admis-
Id give up
00,000 as
liibited in
:he return
imed that
is took in
i strongly
question,
f fugitive
^aw great
ns. The
balf or to
ed States
igitive to
sonment.
vere pro-
and thus
;r 'figure,
itors the
I Demos-
or rilarl.
THli VKl'.SHK . ,
A' <
■ / •///•; UN /ON
4QS
In the hall of tht! Unitinl S ,ik n . , du anuary 26, 1830, oicurnnl
what may be considered the most lueiiiurHble sc( : in the annals of Coi.gresis.
It was then that Daniel Webster v. his fanv is ' K' ■ to
Hayne," — that renowned speech which has been I'tc \\r h n ^"
greatest oration ever niad(' in Congress, and which, ih ^^ iar-
reaching effect upon the public mind, ilid so much to shape the future destiny
of the American Union. That speech was Webster's crowniitg work, and the
event of his life by which he will be best known to posterity
Nothing in our history is more- striking than the contrast between the
Union of the time of W^ashini/ton and the Union of the time of Lincoln.
It was not merely that in the intervening seventy-two years the republic
had grown great and jjowerful ; it was that the j)opular sentiment toward
the Union was transformed. The old feeling of distrust and jealousy had
given place to a passionate attachment. It was as though a puny, sickly,
feeble child, not expected by its parents even to live, had come to be their
strong defense and support, their joy and pride. A weak league of states
had become a strong nation ; and when in 1861 it was attacked, millions of
men were ready to fight for its defence. What brought about this great
change ? What was it that stirred the larger patriotism that gave shape
and purpose to this growing feeling of national pride and unity? It was in
a great degree the work of Daniel Webster. It was he who maintained and
advocated the theory that the P'ederal Constitution created, not a league,
but a nation; that it welded the people into organic union, supreme and per-
petual. He it was who set forth in splendid completeness the picture of a
great nation, in:^;eparably united, commanding the first allegiance and loyalty
of every citizen ; and who so fostered and strengthened the sentiment of union
that, when the great struggle came, it had grown too strong to be over-
thrown.
No description of Daniel Webster is complete or adequate which fails
to describe his extraordinary personal appearance. In face, form and voice
nature did her utmost for him. So impressive was his pre- Webster's Per-
lence that men commonly spoke of this man of five feet ten sonal Appear-
inches in height and less than two hundred pounds in weight
as a giant. He seemed to dwarf those surrounding him. His head was very
large, but of noble shape, with broad and lofty brow, and strong but finely
cut features. His eyes were remarkable. They were large and deep-set,
and in the excitement of an eloquent appeal they glowed with the deep
light of the fire of a forge. His voice was in harmony with his appearance.
In conversation it was low and musical ; in debate it was high but full. In
moments of excitement it rang out like a clarion, whence it would sink into
»3
1. 1
II
III
!•' ' l^l^i
■ r
h
Im
Konal nag-
neti.sm of
Webster
if
notes o, the solo.nn richness of or,a:. tones, while the ,.ace and dignity of
Voice and Per. ^'« '"ann<r adcU.l greatly to the impressive d(.livery of his
words. hat wonderful quality which we call personal mag!
na.sn, he power of nnpressing by one's personality every
Webster U iHMng who con.es near, was at its height in Mr
Webster. Me never punished his children. It suffirrd when fh.l I i
-ong. to send for then, and look at then, in silent The o.k hltltr
of sorrow or anger, was rebuke and ,,unishn.ent enough
As an orator. Mr. Webster's most famous speeches were the- Plymouth
Rock address m .8.0 ; the liunk.. Mill Monument address, in .5 and his
ora.ons m the Senate in ,8,0 in reply to Hayne, and i .850 on 0''
?H'v::':f's tir''^^ """"^'^^^ ^^^ ^^'^ ^^-^'^ - reply rR^obe'r
Y. Hayne. of South Carolma. on the 26th of January. ,830. The Union
The Question of ^''' t'^';^''^^^-'"*^^!. and Webster rose to the utmost height of his
Nullification ""Rssioned genius in this thrilling appeal for its preservation
.t.. . U'c u "^"'•"''''^"^■^- ''^'^^^ ^^'^^■'^ti^»> under debate was the ri.rht of a
state to nulhfy the acts of Congress. Hayne. in sustaining the affi^rmat ve
: tactd Mf We^r^r"""' '-' '''-''' -'''''' ""-'' I'ngland^anThad
crrshtl! r" '"^'^ '^^^^""'^ personalities, rousing ^-the giant" to a
"There w^as," says Edward Everett, "a verv great excitement in
Washington growing out of the controversies of the'day. and 1 "Tc ion
of the South; and party spirit ran uncomn.only high. There „ "0
dow'n 'T'^'T' ''^^'"" "^ ^'^^ ^'''' "^ ''- -"^'-- membrs to break
"Mr. Hayne's speech was an eloquent one, as all know who ever read
It. He was cons,clered the foremost southerner in debate, except Pa hlun
who was v,ce-president and could not enter the arena. Mr. H y e w s tTe
chan,p,on of the southern side. Those who heard his speech feir mu C
a^aru, for two reasons; first, on account of its eloquence'and power and
second. becau.,e of ,ts many .personalities. It was thought by mTy who
heard ,t and by some of Mr. Webster's personal friends, that i^ wL m-
possibL for him to answer the speech
Everl't ''" llnew'f"'' "T", u "f '''' '"'' apprehension." said Mr.
tverett. I knew fro.n what I heard concerning; General Hayne's speech
H.yne'5SpeMh , " ;™^ =" very masterly effort, and delivered with a great
Inthesewte 'leal ot power and with an air of triumph. I was en-rag-ed
on that day in a committee of which I was chairman" and
could not be present in the Senate. But immediately after the adio^nmen'
jJ8t*WgW
TlfF, PRrSKRVATlON OF THE VIRION
407
tJignity of
ery of his
lonal mag-
ility every
It in Mr.
they did
c, \\ hether
riymouth
5 ; and his
on Clay's
to Robert
he Union
,'^ht of his
!servation
*ight of a
ffirmative
, and had
nt " to a
:ment in
le action
jemed to
to break
by a pre-
ver read
Calhoun,
was the
:lt much
wer, and
my who
was im-
aid Mr.
speech
a great
mgrag-ed
an, and
rnment,
I hastened to Mr. Webster's hoi -.r, with, I .ulniit, sonic lilth: trepidation,
not knowing how I shoiikl find liini. lUit I was (jiiite re-assured in a
moment after seeing Mr. Webster, and observing his entire cahnness. He
seemed tr as mucii at ease and as unmoved as I ever saw liini. Indeed,
at first I was a little afraid fro'i this that he w;is not (|uite aware of the
magnitude of the contest. I said at once ■
** ' Mr. Hayne has made a speech ?'
'• ' Yes, he has made a speech.'
" • You reply in the morning ?'
'•'Yes,* said Mr. Webster, ' I do not propose to l(;t the case go by de-
fault, and without saying a word,'
"'Did you take notes, Mr. Webster, c* Mr. Hayne's speech?'
" Mr. Webster took from his vest pocket a piece of paper about as big
as the palm of his liantl, and replied, ' I have it all : that is vvebster
his speech.' Prepares for
"I immediately arose," said Mr. Everett, "and remarked '^®'' ^
to him that I would not disturb him longer; Mr. Webster desired me not
to hasten, as he had no desire to be alone ; but I left."
"On the morning of the memorable day," writes Mr. Lodge, "the
Senate chamber was packed by an eager and excited crowd. Iwery seat on
the floor and in the galleries was occupied, and all the available standing-
room was filled. The protracted debate, conducted with so much ability on
both sides, had excited the attention of the whole country, and had given
time for the arrival of hundreds of interested spectators from all parts of
the Union, and especially from New England.
" In the midst of the hush of expectation, in that dead silence which
is so peculiarly oppressive because it is possible only when mai^y human
beings are gathered together, Mr. Webster arose. His personal grandeur
and hi ; majestic calm thrilled all who looked upon him. With perfect
quietness, unaffected apparently by the atmosphere of intense feeling about
him, he said, in a low, even tone :
'" Mr. President: When the mariner has been tossed for many days in
thick weather and on an unknown sea, he naturally avails himself of the first
pause in the storm, the earliest glance of the sun, to take his The Opening
latitude and ascertain how far the elements have driven him
from his true course. Let us imitate this prudence ; and
before we float farther on the waves of this debate, refer to the point from
which we departed, that we may, at least, be able to conjecture where we are
now. I ask for the reading of the resolution before the Senate.'
of a Qreat
Speech
4o8
THE PRESERVAriON OE THE UNION
1 1 , '^t
mi
^iKiji
iii
.11
•11
" ■'■'''■^ "^"'"S .sentence was a j.icce of consummate art. The simple
ex treTord,""'''''!'"" \ -"T' "'""''" '"^'"■'-' -'■-«' "- ='- -d
s,«ak,?if iM T ," '•• "'"^"^ ""■''*' ''"^"^ ^"''<^'' t')' di.'concerting the
speak. ,f ,t haJ been mamtained. Every one was now at Ins ease and
when , „,onotonous reading of the resolntion ceased, Mr, Webste; wa'
W-! k'' "uT"™' =""'' '"'' '"'^ "»'™=- '■" -"Pkte control,"
W,th breathless attention they followed him as he proceeded The
strong, mascu .ne sentence.,, the sarcasm, the pathos, the rea!onL the
burnmg appeals to love of state and country, flowed on unbrokln"' As
h,s feehngs warmed the fire came into his eyes; there was a glow in his
swarthy cheek ; h,s strong right arm seemed to sweep away res stIessW
the whole phalanx o his opponents, and the deep and Llodious cTdenc s
;ie Tf .r giorrrsSir ^^-^^ °^ '--'' " - '°^»"" '^^ ^^----^
heaven, may I not see h>m shmmg on the broken and dishonored fra<.ments
of a once glonous Umon ; on states dissevered, discordant, belligeren on
a land rent w„h c,v,l feuds, or drenched, it may be, in fraternal bl!od - let
A Magnificent ''"' '"'"'' ''"Sering glance behold rather the glori-
Peroratlon °"s ensign ol the republic, now known and honored throu.di-
out the earth, still full high advanced, its arms and tronhles
/rL/ , //I/'- ,1 '°' "' '™"° "° '^"•^'^ '"i^'^'-able interro,.atory as
»%«/ „ aU /.s ,«orth f or those other words of delusion and folly Ub^
^ tr ii":r;if '•"'''•'''^,;.'" '-t^^^^''^^<=' ^p-^'' =>" -^ - ''>- -
LlBEKTv iTn ■ r M, ""'""'"'• '''="'• '° "^^y "•"« American heart,-
L.BERn AM, U..„ON, NOW AND FOKEVKR, O.VE AXD I.NSEPARADLE I"
As the last words died away into silence, those who had listened looked
grand speeches wh.ch are landmarks in the history of eloquence • and e
men of he North and of New England went forth full'of he' p de of
prove to the world that this time no answer could be made.
Calhoun, the The great supporter of the doctrine which Hayne advo
Advocate „, cated and which Webster tore into shreds and fragml.; ^e
United States';tr!:'t;''wmC tt '''^^. ^ ^'^^^ ■■" "-
In M. • ■ ' ■"---''■S '^ao John L. Calhoun. That this man was sincere
.n h.s convction that slavery was morally and politically right, and beneficll
THOMAS JEFFERSON. (1743-1826)
ANURUVv- JACKSON. (1:07-1845)
II
■ j « jj
i 1
I i"
JOHN Qt'INCY ADAMS. (1767-1848)
ZACHARY TAYLOR, (i 784-1850)
.1 . I
i ' Ml
I 1
1 ^1
CilAUNCEY M iJiiMU'
GREAT AMERICAN ORATORS AND STATESMEN.
«•&=■;=
.SIEU.
ADV.
■
THE PRESERVATION 01- 11 n: UNION 411
alike to white and black, to North and Soutli, ii(> one has questioned. He
was on. of tlie most upri^rht of men; one devoid of pretence; or conceal-
ment ; a man of i)ure honesty of purpose and great ahility, and in conse-
quence of immense inlkience. His own state foHowed Ids lead wiih uncpies-
tioning faith, and it is not too much to say that the skav(>ry conlhct was in
great measure due to the doctrines which he unceasingly advocated for a
qu:\rter of a century.
Calhoun is equally well known for his state rights championship and
in connection with the effort of South Carolina to secede from the Union,
as a consequence of the tariff bill of 1828. This measure, which consider-
ably increased the duties on imports, aroused bitter opposition in the South,
where it was styled the "Tariff of Abominations." On its passage Calhoun
prepared a vigorous paper called tlie "South Carolina Exposi- The South
tion," in which he maintained that the Constitution limited tlie Carolina Ex=
right of Congress to exact tariff charges to the purpose of P"siUon
revenue ; that protective duties were, therefore, unconstitutional ; and that
any state had the right to declare an unconstitutional law null and void,
and forbid its execution in that state. Such was the famous doctrine of
" nullification."
This paper was issued in 1828, Calhoun being then Vice-President un-
der Jackson, and as such president of the senate. In 1829, the lono- debate
on the question : " Does the Constitution make us one sovereign nation or
only a league of separate states?" reached its height. Its climax came in
January, 1830, in the remarkable contest between Webster and Hayne,
above described. Webster showed that an attempt to nullify the laws of
the nation was treason, and would lead to revolution, in the employment
of armed force to sustain it.
To such a revolutionary measure South Carolina proceeded. After the
presidential election of 1832, Calhoun, who had resigned the vice-presi-
dency, called a convention of the people of the state, which t-, ^ ,.
... ' ' ' I lie Urdinance
passed the famous Ordinance of Nullification, declariuL'- ofNuliifica-
the 1828 tariff null and void in that state. *'°"
The passage of the ordinance created intense excitement throughout
the states. Everywhere the dread of civil war and of the dissolution of the
Union was entertained. Fortunately there was a Jackson, and not a
Buchanan, in the presidential chair. Jackson was not a model President
under ordinary circunistances, but he was just the man for the emergency of
this character, and he dealt with it much as lie had dealt with the Spaniards
in Florida. On December 10, 1832, came out his vigorous proclamation
against nullification. The governor of South Carolina issued a counter-
s'-
m
i^2
THE PRESERVATION OF THE UNION
m %
Calhoun Seeks
to Force th»?
Issue of
Slavery
rroclama.io„ and called out twelve thousand volunteer. A crisis seeded
J~ks»„ ,M ^"' ,;™- <;™g'-«^'^ P-->^«d a " Force Rill •■ to provide for the
N„ni«ca,i„„ -llect,on of the revenue in South Carolina, though Calhoun
.peeches. ,t rs^aM ^:^~:^^t: ^:'l ^T 'T'"' °' ^.'^
crL s" std^h""" Congress n^ade concessions to South Car ,f„' rft Te
passed. was through the efforts of Henry Clay as already specified
that th,s warcloud was d.ssipated. The tariff question settled
he slavery issue grew prominent. The agitation of this quel
Uon from , 835 to ,850, was chiefly the work of one man, John C
Mr. Wendell Phi lips miitT" 7' "''' J"" '^''"" "' "^- ^-^i™" »"d
vvennell rniMips might have borne no fruit during their lifetim,- if Cnl
to o" e1,"°' '" '' '^:,''-'-- '" -PPly them wfth mat ia'l mean
to force the issue on the North,- he once wrote; and he did force it
This chapter cannot be more fitly closed than witl, . .:■ ,
Harriet Martineau, in whose - RetrospLt of wt rl Tr vll" we'Id Z
following pen-picture of the three great statesmen abo r t ealc'l " Mr
Clay sitting upright on the sofa, with his snuff-box ever in hin^m^-wodd
-; w-e - hTha^u^-r, t^ii:::;::-,^:::^::^^
jokes, shaking the sofa with burst after burs, „f r l^ '' """""?
coursing to the perfect felicity of LL^icaTarfo'oI' °^^"■'?°"''>' ''-
illuminate an evening now and then Mr Calh ° ,V '=°"^ """""■ ™"'''
looks as if he had ne^er been b^ritldluldtv be eXir/"' ^)"
worth retaining as a curiosity, than asthlr'tery^u^ttlfur^"'' "°-
_H.e a piece of machin^er, se^t goingtLrtly ^^Tti I'^ 17^?
wmic yuu answer; lie either nats^jf^c Kw ,.ri-,o<- ' '^ ' ^'---i'--
3uiUbi,ity with wh. is in his heT/ndtSs' ^^^^ ';-- ^ " '"'° ^
I
5 seemed
le for the
Calhoun
ful of his
ce to the
ested on
reatened
arleston.
. and the
specified
1 settled,
lis ques-
JohnC.
ison and
t, if Cal-
' I mean
)n from
find the
: "Mr.
, would
e tone,
Y which
moder-
able to
racking
hly dis-
, would
n, who
would
1 for a.
1, illus-
'■ more
. He
ought
stops
into a
CHAPTER XXVHI.
The Annexation of Texas and the War with
Mexico.
WE have spoken, in Chaptt/ xxiii, of the revolt of Texas from Mexico
and the annexation of the newly formed republic to the United
States. In the present chapter it is proposed to deal more fully
with this subject and describe its results in the war with Mexico. In the
year 1821, after more than ten years of struggle for freedom, Mexico Gains
Mexico won its independence from Spain, and soon after its Indepen-
founded a constitutional monarchy, with Augustin de Iturbide, '•ence
the head of the revolutionary government, as emperor. This empire did
not last long. General Santa Anna proclaimed a republic in 1823, and the
emperor was obliged to resign his crown. In the following year he returned
to Mexico with the hope of recovering his lost crown ; but, on the contrary,
was arrested and shot as a traitor. Mexico is not a good country for
emperors. About forty years afterward, a second emperor, sent there by
France, was disposed of in the same manner.
The establishment of the republic was followed by earnest efforts in
favor of the settlement and development of the unoccupied territory of the
country, and Texas, a large province in its northeastern boundary, began to be
settled by immigrants, very largely from the United States.
1} o .u A • 1 . • 1 11. The Settlement
By 1830 the American population numbered about 20,000, of Texas
being much in excess of that of Mexican origin. These
people were largely of the pioneer class, bold, unruly, energetic frontiersmen,
difficult to control under a iy government, and unanimous in their detestation
of the tyranny of Mexican rule. Their American spirit rose against the
dominance of those whom they called by the offensive title of " greasers, '
and in 1832 they broke into rebellion and drove all the Mexican troops out
of the country.
It was this revolt that brought the famous Samuel Houston to Texas.
The early life of this born leader had been spent on the Tennessee frontier,
and during much of his boyhood he had lived among the Cherokee Indians,
who looked up to him as to one of their head chiefs. He fought under
413
m
f
414
ANNEXATION OF TEXAS-WAR WITH MEXICO
Jackson in the war of 1812, and was desperately wounded in the Creek
War. He subseqiumtly studied law, was elected to Co.igress, and in 1S27
The Career became governor of Tennessee. An unhappy marriage brou-ht
HousTor ;° "",^"^^ f^ P---"--^^ P--t of his career. A separatTon
from his wife was followed by calumnies on the part of her
proceeded to Arkansas, where for three years he lived with his boyhood
friends the Cherokees. The outbreak in Texas offered a promising oppor-
turn ty to a man of his ambitious and enterprising disposition, and he set
out lor that region .n December, 1832.
For two years after Houston joined fortunes with Texas there was com-
parative quiet ; but immigration went on in a steadily increasing stream
and the sentiment for independence grew stronger every day. The Mexi!
can government, in fear of the growing strength of Texas, ordered that the
War in Texas Tu" ^ '^'^''^ ^^ disarmed-a decree which aroused instant re-
bellion. A company of Mexican soldiers sent to the little
to V i of Gonzales, on the Guadalupe, to remove a small brass six-pounder
feU upon them with such vigor that they turned and fled, losing several men.
No Texan was killed. This battle was called " the Lexington of Texas "
1 hen war broke out again more furiously than ever. The Mexican
soldiers, who were under weak and incompetent commanders, were again
d spersed and driven out of the country. But now Santa Anna himself^ihe
Mexican dictator an able general, but a false and cruel man, took the field.
With an army of several thousand men, he crossed the Rio Grande and
marched against the Texans.
a.. -^^^ Tl ""^ ^'?'' °" '^'" ^^" ^"^""'^ R'^^'"' ^-^« defended by a
garrison of about one hundred and seventy-five men. Among them were
two whose names are still famous-David Crockett, the renowtd pioneer.
Tn^U ri ^T'^ ^'''"' "°'"^ ^""^ ^''' "^"••derous <' bowie-knife." his duels
and his deeds of valor and shame. The company was commanded by Colonel
Annf7 V'T' '-^T ' ^'""^ '^^"""- O" '^'^ Wroach of Santa
Anna they took refuge in the Alamo, about half a mile to the north of the town
.entnrv' T. "''' ""T ""^ ^"'''"' Franciscan mission of the eighteenth
;hr 7\ ^T'T ■^" "'"^ ^^ ^^°"' '^''^^ ^^^^^' surrounded by walls
three feet thick and eight feet high. Within the walls were a stone church
The Massacre ^nd several other buildings. For two weeks it withstood
llttlr ^^"'^ ^""^'^ ^^^^"It^- A shower of bombs and cannon-balls
iell incessantly within the walls. At last, after a brave de-
tense by the httle garrison, the fortress was captured, in the early morning
t
. Jii
■BBIffWWmw glB
ANNEXATION OF TEXAS— WAR WITH MEXICO
41s
the Creek
id in 1S27
;-e broujrlit
jeparation
irt of her
state and
boyhood
ng" oppor-
id he set
was com-
X stream,
he Mexi-
\ that the
istant re-
the little
pounder,
ans, who
iral men.
exas."
Mexican
re again
iself, the
;he field,
ide, and
2d by a
:m were
pioneer,
is duels,
Colonel
f Santa
letown.
hteenth
•y walls
church
thstood
on-ball.s
ave de-
lorning
1 '
t
of Sunday, March 6, 1836. After the surrender, Travis, Bowie and
Crockett, with all their companions, were by Sanf Anna's especial com-
mand massacred in cold blood.
But this was not the worst ; a few days afterwards a company of over
four hundred Texans, under Colonel P'annin, besieged at Goliad, were in-
duced to surrender, under Santa Anna's solemn promises of protection.
After the surrender they were divided into several companies, marched in
different directions a short distance out of the town, and shot down like
dogs by the Mexican soldiers. Not a man escaped.
While these horrible events were taking place, Houston was at Gonza-
les, with a force of less than four hundred men. Meetings were held in the
different settlements to raise an army to resist the Mexican invasion ; and a
convention of the people issued a proclamation declaring Texas a free and
independent republic. It was two weeks before General Houston received
intelliofence of the atrocious massacres at Bexar and Goliad, and of Santa
Anna's advance. The country was in a state of panic. Settlers were
everywhere abandoning their homes, and fleeing in terror at the approach
of the Mexican soldiers. Houston's force of a few hundred men was the
only defense of Texas ; and even this was diminished by frequent desertion
from the ranks. The cause of Texan freedom seemed utterly hopeless.
In order to gain time, while watching his opportunity for attack, Hous-
ton slowly retreated before the Mexican army. After waiting two weeks
for reinforcements, he moved toward Buffalo Bayou, a deep, narrow stream
connecting with the San Jacinto River, about twenty miles oeneral Houston
southeast of the present city of Houston. Here he expected and Santa
to meet the Mexican army. The lines being formed. General ""*
Houston made one of his most impassioned and eloquent appeals to his troops
firing every breast by giving as a watchword, " Remember the Alamo."
Soon the Mexican bugles rang out over the prairie, announcing the
advance guard of the enemy, almost eighteen hundred strong. The rank
and file of the patriots was less than seven hundred and fifty men. Their
disadvantages only served to increase the enthusiasm of the soldiers ; and
when their general said, " Men, there is the enemy ; do you wish to fight ?"
the universal shout was, "We do !" "Well, then," he said, " remember it
is for liberty or death ; rcmcynbr^- the Alamo!"
At the moment of attack, a lieutenant came galloping up, his horse
covered with foam, and shouted along the lines, " I've cut down Vince's
bridp^e," K;ich army had used this brido-p in comincr to the battle-field, and
General Houston had ordered its destruction, thus preventing all hope of
escape to the vanquished,
IV'
m
¥ i\
n
m
f
p
f
4x6
ANNEXATION OF THXAS-WAR mTH .W.SICO
t"
i tl I I
II
Then .,.. po.e7.it^/.r — r: i^^^i^:^^
rne B.... „, '-^-'. 'hough a hail st.uck General Ho." J vl t kle t flfc '
The patriots held 1 fire iTiir'' "■"'"' ''"""' "''= <=«'- ^^'i™-
very boson., and the vi„r o'ti^rtf rd" '," "'?'"^'">' ■•''"^<'^' '" '"-
tlie foe, who were al orrefl^nr f ? ' "''"''= " S'^ncral rush upon
patriots not haZ^bavonelT;''?;"'^ '■'-" "'"= '"™"^ ^''arge. Tl,e
Mexican rout be.an'rd'^llltl^l J^th^^^ ""'^T' '""'^^
an,on, .Ho. wa:Ca'ra::tr;' •^.r'' ^^™" '-'-' -' '"'">■•
Te J,trrve° bt\" !h:t,:::'r:uf m"""^^ t-, 't "- ^-"^ °^
"v-rw Lnj^ aLanciara oi IVlexico bevonrl tVi« p:^ r- i
never to return p^rf,^t ;,. . i . , L.t,\onci tne Kio Grande,
Houston becam at o ' hfl ' "'' '''"'' '""""" '"^"^•^'°"^- Genera
Plause foilowil him In "° ■'""" '" ''''-■"'^' "'"'°^' ""'-^-' ^P'
made the firs7pre i 'nt o^the"" '' """Tv '''"'' "'■''"■ ""'^ '■'=='-=''. ■"= ^^
in November! .835! '"" '''' ' "'"''' "'" Constitution adopted
and !: ;84^ t GreaUirh' •'"'^r' '''" •-■^"°"'^'^^-' ''V 'He United States,
overwhehn1n.,^o?; ,er ri ™"" t" "''»'""'■ '"'" P°P"'^'-" *-
their love for°thei iZ'r" ?'" '■""' ""='" P""'^'"^ ''="' '" "° -"=« "o"
of the •■ Lone s'r State " TT'V-'rr'" ''" ''''°' "' "'<= -"---"i™'
one star State to the Un,l«l States being from the first enter
Texas Applies tamed. In 1837 a formal innllrniinn f„ J • ."■ '"^^^ enter-
ir.-sr °^ '^<= ^--^^ uniontrirr " -n -f ,— t,?n-\::,::d
-ongly object TL'Trr"';"^"^ ""'"'"^ "> '"■■="''"->'• '' >>«'"'
the South. ' The controrrs ' Zn r^""","" '"' '"•'™^='' ^>- "'°- '-"
the area of slaverv v ^1 ^ "P°" ""= l""*^''"" "^ ">« extension of
others .ho t;;T;t:^'i:' ;::^^;::rLl:iC7u'r'"-'°H''r!'^
hoped would increase in value unde" UnitJj .sttfru;: ""' """" ""^'
and was'pr'mi 'enl '^';'PP°''"i°"- 'he question ren,ained open for years.
Cay, the^ Wi ■■ridire, ^ tfrtLr^l'tamts '^^^p' l^^';;:" o"^"^
Both Houses ^ C^^,ress^Sl t^ ^tSf J^lZ^TZ^ft:'.
ANNEXATION OF TliXAS-WAR WITH MEXICO
417
attack, and
licir works,
of the at-
kle, inflict-
I bleedin^r,
ire action.
)st in their
rush upon
I'g-e. The
it four the
le patriots
IS had six
md thirty,
; hands of
' Grande,
General
versal ap-
J, he was
I adopted
d States,
tion was
ense lost
nexation
5t enter-
5 a state
n found
it being
'se from
nsion of
h, while
ch they
r years,
Henry
Demo-
led the
yielded.
:is as a
Mexico Protests
State, and it was sijrned by President Tyler in the closing hours of his
administration. The offer was unanimously accepted bj- the legislature of
Texas on Jul)- 4, 1845, 'i'^^ it became a state of the American Union in
December of that year.
In admitting Texas, Congress had opened the way to serious trouble.
Though Mexico had taken no st(;ps to recover its lost province, it had
never acknowledged its independence, and stood over it somewhat like* the
dog in the manger, not prepared to take it, yet vigorously
protesting against any other power doing so. Its protest
against the action of the United States was soon followed by a more
critical exigency, an active boundary dispute. Texas claimed the Rio
Grande River as her western boundary. Mexico held that the Nueces
River was the true boundary. Between these two streams lay a broad tract
of land claimed by both nations, and which both soon sought to occupy.
War arose in consequence of this ownership dispute.
In the summer of 1845 President Polk directed General Zachary
Taylor to proceed to Corpus Christi, on the Nueces, and in the spring of
1846 he received orders to march to the Rio Grande. As soon as this
movement was made, the Mexicans claimed that their terri-
tory had been invaded, ordered Taylor to retire, and on his ^^^^^^^^
refusal sent a body of troops across the river. Both countries
were ripe for war, and both had taken steps to bring it on. A hostile
meeting took place on April 24th, with some loss to both sides. On receiv-
ing word by telegraph of this skirmish, the President at once sent a mes-
sage to Congress, saying : " Mexico has passed the boundary of the United
States, and shed American blood upon American soil. * * * War
exists, notwithstanding all our efforts to avoid it."
The efforts to avoid it had not been active. There was rather an
effort to favor it. Abraham Lincoln, then a member of yy^^^ Declared
Congress, asked pointedly if special efforts had not been Against
taken to provoke a war. But Congress responded favorably ^e'^'co
to the President's appeal, declared that war existed "by the act of Mexico,"
and called for fifty thousand volunteers.
The declaration of war was dated May 13, 1846. Several days before
this, severe fights had taken place at Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma, on
the disputed territory. The Mexicans were defeated, and retreated across
the Rio Grande. They were quickly followed by Taylor, who took posses-
sion of the town of Matamoras. The plan of war laid out embraced an
invasion of Mexico from four quarters. Taylor was to march southward
from his position on the Rio Grande, General Winfield Scott to advance on
-I I
\\\
;t I
4i8
ANNEXATION OF TEXAS~WAR WlfH MEXICO
%\
V'\
I' I
1
X
'A J
already despatched. •'' "" '° ""' ='""^'"--'' ''J' ' "-••' «l-<iition.
Taylor was quick to act after receiving reinforcements H. .A
on Septe„,ber 5.!,, and on the 9th reachfd Alont^re fs^ro^y oXd
Th. .s.„™,„, :"'-- '"7- . The Mexicans looked upcm this pl.ace as" os
..«„„.„e, ;";i-<--.^>f '<-■. " l^eing surrounded by luntain and r^! !•
quickly penet ate "' o tL'^t'll""' T' "' ''^'™^^'- ^^' "^ A-eri-:
sevcre'and blo::^'co:fl t oM'cV^Th^T "'"'" "f "'^^"' ""'^"^ '-'
Taylor a. °""' "^ ,M""'-<^y known as Buena Vista, a narrow nZ in
B„.„a v.... ass, w,th I„lls on one side and a ravine on the od, This
a splendid op, "t:',:;' '^o^ %z:7 "" r"' '"■••" ^■°°° -"^-^^ ---^
Mexican am,y who " l^ed o! 1 n f ™ ^""""■''.uler.in-chief of the
The b-,ttle th^t ^1 T ""■''" American force with 20,000 men
■ the^vt"' a':: A r ^d'to^r: rr'"-^""" "-"/-»"'—">"
perhaps have done ,0 but forth 1 Americans utterly, .-.nd would
tive service of their artMlery "^' °' """ ""^'""" ^"'^ "- «»-.
Hn.Jn^Xbiii:;:;:::!::.^^^/:::'; :„^°— :, r.:'^ ---. ■•- ^"
troops." Such were the alarmin,: word,s with wL the T" '""',
accompanied a s„„,„,ons to General Tav lor to '^"*" S™""'
Taylors answer was polite bt,t h l.f ■? surrender w.thin an hour.
summoning me to su render mv "r"""'' '" ^'""^ ""'^ "^ '1"^ ^^'^
I decline a!ceedi,; to;:':;:^!^^ '' '''"""°"' ' '^^^' '<=^^'= '° ^^ ">-
byhil^^rhaStX^^Tel^^^^^^
on the battlefield ulT smtythree years old-won his spurs
head was S fis e^e I" I""' ''"""^f'"'^^'^^'^-^- ^nd stout. His fore-
his hair s„ow:w te'a,d , ■ L"""'' fV^"' "- '"wer lip protruding,
and unassumin. character No "^r If,'"'^ "^'^ essentially humane
When he couicfescaprf om h^s '7 T"'^ '"'" ''™^ '" ='"'^1- '-!'-"■
trousers, and a s aw haT^d f i't^r d ""n t ''"™ '°"-'<-'bout. cotton
4 btraw nat, and, ,f ,t rained, an old brown overcoat. In battle
BATTLE OF RESACA DE LA PALMA
Captain May leaped his steed over the parapets, followed by those of his men whose horses could do a like feat, and was among fh»
gunners the next moment, sabering them right and left. General La Vega and a hundred of his men were made
prisoners and borne back to the American lines.
I'
"J
ANN/i.\AT/ON OF TFXAS- WAl^ WITH MEXICO
4"
.-».v
he was absolutely fearless, and invariably rotle a favourite white horse, alto-
gether regard! OS of attracting the enemy's attention. The old hero never
wavered when he heard of the approach of the dreadi-d Santa Anna. He
quietly went to work, and, having strongly garrisoned Salldlo. placed his
men so as to seize all the advantages the position offt-red.
Imagine a narrow valley between two mountain ranges. On the west
side of the road a series of gullies or ravines, on the east the sheer sides of
precipitous mountains. Such was the Pass of Angostura,
which, at one spot three miles from Buena Vista, could be The FJerd of
held as easily as Horatius kei)t the bridge in the brave days
of old ; and here was placed Captain Washington's battery of three guns, with
two companies as a guard. Up the mountain to the eastward the rest of the
American army was ranged, UKjre especially on a plateau so high as to com-
mand all the ground east and west, and only approachable from the south
or north by intricate windings formed by ledges of rock.
At nine o'clock on the morning of the 22d of February the advance
pickets espied the Mexican van, and General Wool sent in hot haste to
Taylor, who was at Saltillo. The Mexican army dragged its slow length
along, its resplendent uniforms shining in the sun. With much the same
feelings as Macbeth saw Birnam Wood approach, must many of the Amer-
icans have watched the coming of this forest of steel. Two hours after the
pickets had announced the van, a Mexican officer came forward with a white
flag. He bore the imperious message from the dictator the opening words
of which have already been quoted.
The fight on that day was confined to an exchange of artillery shots,
and at nightfall Taylor returned to Saltillo, seeing that the affair was over
for the time. But during the night t' c Mexicans made a movement that
put le small American force in serious peril. While the Americans
bivouacked without fires in the bitter chill of the mountain height, some
1,500 Mexicans gained the summit under cover of the darkness, and when
the mists of morning rose the Americans, to their surprise and chagrin, saw
everywhere before them the batallions of the enemy.
Up the pass soon came heavy force, in the face of Captain Washing-
ton's battery, while a rush, that seemed as if it must be irresistable, was
made for the plateau. Tb- fight here was desperate. The soldiers of
neither army had had any experience in battle, and an Indiana The Mexican
regiment retreated at the command of its colonel, and could Cavalry
not be rallied again. This imperilled the safety of all who Charge
remained, many of them being killed, while only the active service of the
artillery prevented the loss of the plateau, upon whose safe keeping
I
422
"4 '^
:: i
1 ( ' ' '
i.,i. ^
ANNEXATION OF TEXAS- WAR WITH MEXICO
<lep.nded the issue o^ ihe day. So fierce was the Mexican chame that
every cannon.er of the advanced battery fell beside his gun. and Captain
O Bnen was o bhy^ed to fall back in haste losing his guns. He replaced them by
two SIX pounders, borrowed from Captain Washington, who had repulsed the
attack m the pass. Meanwhile, more American artillery on O'Brien's left
was dnvnig the Mexicans back upon the cavalry opposed to the gallant
captani I he Mexican lancers charged the Illinois soldiers-- the very
earth d,d shake." It was not until the lan.ers were within a few yards of
O Brien that he opened fire. This gave the Mexicans pause, but with cries
of God and Liberty !" on they came. Once more the deadly cannonade-
O'Brien's \"°^^' r"'^- ^'^^'■'^" determined to stand his ground until
Battery ^"^ "oofs of the enemy's horses were upon him, but the
recruits with him. only few of whom had escaped from beine
shot down, had no stomach left for fighting. The intrepid captain again lost
his pieces, but he had saved the day. .
At this point the leisurely General Taylor, on his white horse, so easily
recognisable, came from Saltillo to the field of battle. North of thv chief
plateau was another, where the Mississippi Rifles, under Colonel Davis-
who. although early wounded, kept his horse all day-stood at bay. formed
into a V-shape with the opening towards the enemy. Nothing loth the
Mexican lancers rushed on, and the riflemen did not fire until they were
able to recognize the features of their foe and to take deliberate aim at their
eyes. 1 his coolness was too great to be combated.
For hours the active and deadly struggle went on. The Mexican
lancers made an assault on Buena Vista, where were the American bairaatre
and supply train, but were driven off after a sharp contest. At a later hour
of the day the brunt of the fight was being borne by the Illinois re.riment
and the Second Kentucky Cavalry, who were in serious straits when Taylor
sent to tlieir relief a light battery under Captain Bragg. It was quickly in
peril. The Mexicans captured the foremost guns and repulsed the infantry
support. ^
^Bragg appealed for fresh help. " I have no reinforcements to crive
you. 'Rough and Ready" is reported to have replied, "but Major Bliss
and I will support you " ; and the brave old man spurred his horse to the
The Work of ^Pf J"^^'^^ ^'^^ cannon. Unheeding, the Mexican cavalry
Captain Bragg rode forward— the day was now theirs for a certainty, " God
and Liberty !" their proud cry again rang out. Their' horses
galloped so near to Captain Bragg's coio-n of vanta^re thpt tiv^.V -'A-r- i--'
no time in which to pull them up before the battery opened fire with canis>
ter. As the smoke cleared, the little group of Americans saw the terrible
ANNEXATION OF TEXAS— WAR WITH MEXICO
423
arge that
d Captain
d them by
pulsed the
"ien's left
le gallant
the very
' yards of
n\\.\\ cries
lonade —
und until
but the
)m being
gain lost
so easily
he chief
Davis —
, formed
loth, the
ley were
k at their
Vlex
lean
^'i^^gage
:er hour
-giment
Taylor
ickly in
infantry
to give
3r Bliss
: to the
cavalry
, "God
horses
.-„ 1 — 1
-13 uau
can is-
:errible
work they had done in the gaps in the enemy's ranks, and heard it in the
screams of men and horses in agony. They reloaded with grape. The
Mexicans pressed on ; their courage at the cannon's mouth was truly mar-
velous. This second shower of lead did equal, if not greater, mischief.
A third discharge completely routed the enemy, who, being human, fled in
headlong haste over the wounded and the dead — no matter where. The
American infantry pursued the flying foe, with foolish rashness, beyond safe
limits. The Mexicans, all on an instant, turned about, the hounds became
the hare, and had it not been for Washington's cannon checking the Mexi-
can cavalry, who had had enough grape and canister for one day, they
would have been annihilated.
At six o'clock, after ten hours of fierce and uninterrupted fighting, the
battle came to an end, both armies occupying the same positions as in the
morning, though each had lost heavily during the day. General Taylor
expected the battle to be renewed in the morning, but with dajiight came
the welcome news that the enemy had disappeared. The five thousand had
held their own against four times their number, and the victory that was to
make General Taylor President of the United States had been won.
Meanwhile General Scott, the hero of Chippewa and Lundy's Lane in
1 8 14, had sailed down the Gulf with a considerable force to the seaport city
of Vera Cruz, which was taken after a brief bombardment. r>om here
an overland march of two hundred miles was made to the scott's Advance
Mexican capital. Scott reached the vicinity of the City of Against the
Mexico with a force 11,000 strong, and found its approaches Cityofriexlco
strongly fortified and guarded by 30,000 men. Yet he pushed on almost
unchecked. Victories were won at Contreras and Churubusco, the defences
surrounding the city were taken, and on September 13th the most formid-
able of them all, the strong hill fortress of Chapultepec, was carried by
storm, the American troops charging up a steep hill in face of a severe fire
and driving the garrison in dismay from their guns.
This ended the war in that quarter. The next day the star and stripes
waved over the famous " Halls of the Montezumas" and the city was ours.
On February ^, 1848, a treaty of peace was signed at the village of Guada
lupe Hidalgo, whose terms gave the United States an accession of territory
that was destined to prove of extraordinary value.
New Mexico, a portion of this territory, had been invaded and occupied
by General Kearny, who had taken Santa Fe after a thousand miles' march
overland. Before the fleet sent to California could reach there, Captain
John C. Fremont, in charge of a surveying party in Oregon, had invaded
that country. He did not know that war had been declared, his purpose
[I 111
424
ANNEXATION OF TEXAS— WAR WITH MEXICO
being to protect the American settlers, when the Mexicans threatened to
New Mexico T^.'''- ^^^'"^^^^ ^^^s one of the daring pioneers who made
and California '"^''' ^^V ^^er the mountains and plains of the West in the
days when Indian hostility and the difficulties raised by nature
made this a very arduous and perilous enterprise. Several conflicts with
the Mexicans, m which he was aided by the fleet, and later by General
Kearny, who had crossed the wild interior from Santa Fc, crave Fremont
control of that great country, which was destined almost to double the
wealth of the United States. Whatever he thought of the ethics of the
acquisition of Texas and the Mexican war, their economical advantages to
the United States have been enormous, and the whole world has been en-
riched by the product of California's golden sands and fertile fields
I '/;
CHAPTER XXIX.
The Negro in America and the Slavery Conflict.
WHEN, over two hundred and eighty years ago (it is in doubt
whether the correct date is 1619 or 1620) a few wretched negroes,
some say fourteen, some say twenty, were bartered for provisions
by the crew of a Dutch man-of-war, then lying off the Virginia coast, it
would have seemed incredible that in 1900 the negro population of the
Southern States alone should reach very nearly eight million Beginnin of
souls. African negroes had, indeed, been sold inta slavery ^the"sra*ve
among many nations for perhaps three thousand years ; but in its '*''■*"''=
earHer periods slavery was rather the outcome of war than the deliberate
subject of trade, and white captives no less than black were ruthlessly thrown
into servitude. It has been estimated that in historical times some forty
million Africans have been enslaved. The Spaniards found the Indian an
mtractable slave, and for the arduous labors of colonization soon began to
make use of negro slaves, importing them in great numbers and declaring,'
that one negro was worth, as a human beast of burden, four Indians. Soon
the English adventurers took up the traffic. It is to Sir John Hawkins, the
ardent discoverer, that the English-speaking peoples owe their participation
in the slave trade. He has put it on record, as the result of one of his famous
voyages, that he found "that negroes were very good merchandise in Hisp-
aniola and migfht easily be had on the coas- f Guinea." For his early
adventures of this kind he was roundly taken i ask by Queen Elizabeth.
But tradition says that he boldly faced her with the argument
that the Africans were an inferior race, and ended by con- '"nJ^I"
vincing the Virgin Queen that the slave trade was not merely
a lucrative but a perfectly philanthropic undertaking. Certain it is that she
acquiesced in future slave trading, while her successors Charles II. and James
II. chartered four slave trading companies and received a share in their
profits.^ It is noteworthy that both Great Britain and the United States
recognized the horrors of the slave trade as regards the seizing and trans-
DOrtation from Africa r>f thn ^\nhor\r^\r norri-/-»oo 1,-,.,<^ U^f^^f. «-h«.. ^^,.1J u_: .
" 'I'l'j ■••^••■•^.7, I'-'iij^ tj\-i\jii^ tiiey COuiu ui my
themselves to deal with the problem of slavery as a domestic institution. Ol
those horrors nothing can be said in exaggeration.
•1 !
Ri'I
k
1!]'
a4
425
Filf
1 I!
•J'U
'<KW
*ri*— ■;«
I 1
' i li
426 rw: NEG/;o in America and the sla very confuct
The institution of slavery, introduced as we liave seen into Virginia
grew at first very slowly. Twenty-five years after the first slavelTer^
anded the negro population of the colony was only three hundred. But
the cond.fons of agnculture and of cliu,atc were such that, once slavery
c«l„»lai Law. obtained a fair start, it spread with continually increasinf^
s'.X ^^P-f '• ^^^ ''1 ""= ^°'""'^' ^^--Wy P--4 one after
another a .senes of laws defining the condition of the negro
slave more and more clearly, and more and more pitilessly. Thus a d,s-
tmct,on was soon made between them and Indians held in servitude It
was enacted that ••all servants not being Christians imported into th
la d"shan ■■■■'"""^/^' '^"'--f-'h-Hives; but what shall come by
land shall .erve, ,f boyes or girles, „ntil thirty years of age; if men or
women, twelve years and no longer." And before the end of the century
hibZn'T^'? 7' '° <="'=°™P='='==d the negro with limitations and pro
h,b,t,ons, that he almost ceased to have any criminal or civil rights and be-
came a mere personal chattel.
nnd /o"fl°""f "'" "T''"'" ~'°"'"' slavery seemed to take root as readily
time thatrc T 'T ' "' '" ■)'' ^^°""'- " "^"^ "'"y =>"- ^ considerable
tune that soaal and commercal conditions arose which led to its gradual
Slavery in abandonment. In New York a mild type of negro slavery
^w'vork T'' '"Toduced by the Dutch. The relation of master and
slave seems m the period of the Dutch rule to have been free
from great seventy or cruelty. After the seizure of the government by the
Enghsh, however the u.st.tution was officially recognized and eve, en-
couroged. The slave trade grew in magnitude ; and here again we find a
ser,es of oppressive laws forbidding meetings of negroes, layingdown penalties
,or concealmg slaves, and the like. When the Revolution broke out there
were not less than fifteen thousand slaves in New York- a number greatly
m excess of that held by any other northern colony
Massachusetts, the hon,e in later days of so n,any of the most eloquent
aboht.on agitators, was from the very first, until after the war with Great
Bntam was we I under way, a stronghold of slavery. The records of ,633
tell of the fr,ght of Indians who saw a •■ Blackamoor" in a treetop, whom
they took for the dev.l u, person, but who turned out to be an escaped
Slavery i„ s ave. A few years later the authorities of the colony offici-
n..^.ch„. ally recognized the institution. To quote Chief Justice Par-
_ sons, ■ Slavery was introduced into Massachusetts soon after
us nrst settlement, and was tolerated until the ratification of the present
con.t.uuun ,n 1 700. i ne cunous may find in ancient Boston newspapers
no lack of such advertisements as thai, in 1728. of the sale of -two very
THE NEGRO IN AMERICA AND THE SLAVERY CONFLICT 427
likely negro girls," and of " A likely negro woman of about nineteen years
a.id a child about seven months of age. to be sold together or apart " A
Tory writer before the outbreak of the Revolution sneers at the Bostonians
for their talk about freedom when they possessed two thousand negro slaves
Lyen leter Paneuil, who built the famous "Cradle of Liberty." was him^
self at that very time, actively engaged in the slave trade. There is some
truth in the once common taunt o" the pro-slavery orators that the North
miported slaves, the South only bought them.
As with New York and Massachusetts, so with the other colonies
hither slavery was introduced by greedy speculators from abroad or ii
spread easily from adjoining colonies. In 1776 the slave
population of the thirteen colonies was almost exactly half a ""in^'SeXtol"
milhon, nine-tenths of whom were to be found in the southern *'•*"
states In the War of the Revolution the question of arming the negroes
raised bitter opposition. In the end a comparatively few were enrolled
and ,t ,s admitted that they served faithfully and with coura<re Rhode
Island even formed a regiment of blacks, and at the siege of Newport and
afterwards at Point's Bridge, New York, this body of soldiers fought not
only without reproach but with positive heroism.
From the day when the Declaratioa of Independence asserted "That
all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with
certain inalienable rights ; that among these are life, liberty and the pursuit
of happiness," the peoples of the new, self-governing states could not but
have seen that with them lay the responsibility. There is ample evidence
that the fixing of the popular mind on liberty as an ideal bore results
immediately in arousing anti-slavery sentiment. Such sentiment existed
in the South as well as in the North. Even North Carolina in 1786 de-
clared the slave trade of " evil consequences and highly impolitic." All the
northern states abolished slaverv, beginning with Vermont
in .777, and ending with New Jersey in ,804. It should be "fsSX
added, however, that many of the northern slaves were not ^""^^^
freed, but sold to the South. The agricultural and commercial conditions
m the North were such as to make slave labor less and less profitable, while
in the South the sociax order of things, agricultural conditions, and climate
were gradually making it seemingly indispensable.
When the Constitutional debates began the trend of opinion seemed
strongly against slavery. Many delegates thought that the evil would die
out or uscu. One thought the aboli .-n of slavery already rapidly ^oin^
on and soon to be completed. Another asserted that "slavery in time will
not be a speck in our country." Mr. Jefferson, on the other hand in view
\\.y.-
42S THB mr.RO /A- AMEklCA AND THE SLA VERY CONFLICT
of the raentioi, of slavery, declared roundly that lie trembled f,.r I,-
try when he remembered that Gnd was iust aL ,= , '"^'" ■■'"' '«"^ '>'•■* <^o"n-
and again that "every measure of ^Xe ou^ tbetr:^ o*;f "
eventual total extirpation of slavery from the United S ates " rf b ,•
states in the convention were South Carolina a,: Geo ^ -^t^
declared that their states would absolutely refuse ratification ,,??'"
sftuf-on unless slavery were recognized. The cl,-rmir s^ct io '^fi^Tv"
W upon, avoided the use of the words slave Ld slfver Z el"' v
recognized the institution, and even .rave the slave sf,fe ,h ^ V
senciing representatives to Congress on a bil o . „ a io„ drte^mtlbt
abiding to the whole number of free persons " thrL-'fifths of a X pe,'
..eg:o Slav'::, ""^^ ''^^^""^ "''''"^' '" --- " '-^ ^'-- "-dless 'to^ Z.
The entire dealing with the question of slavery, at the framinn- of the
Constitution, was a eries of compromises. This i, ,;en a,.Ln I , h f -1
definitely to forbid the slave tride from abroad! To", 'r; 2^:^
Compromises States had absolutery declined to li^fpn tr^ or,,,
l",i:r.r -"i^", --^ -Hct^heir freedl 'r^.^n^ .1:™™;
.0 make the ::^:^jz^^i::z':i:^')^7:':' ^- '-^-f-
President Jefferson urged Congress l r:;'!; ^ tit' rnt^y^froT^P '^''
her participation in those violations of human rights uhicl, haTe so loi^J
been continued on the unoffending inhabitants of Africa" Wh ^
was at once adopted, and by it hetvy fines were ntoTed on 1 1. " on"
fitting out vessels for the slave trade and also upon a tct X I'ZT.,
the trade, while vessels so employed became absolutely forfeited ^^Twete
actual piracy. The latter law, however, was of little practical value as It
was not unt, ,86. that a conviction was obtained und^r it. Then al las
when the whole slave question was about to be settled forever a sht
master was convicted and hanged for piracy in New York fo the c ime of
being engaged in the slave trade. In despite of all laws, however theTrlde
n slaves was continued secretly, and the profits were so enormous that" e
:fthe"unrdTa:: ^°""""" -"'-'''' '° -"'^'-^'^ ^'- '-- "- -"i'
The first quarter of a century of our history, after the adoption of the
■k-A bu-'th •■"'" "'"' '"'" ''""■ "'^ "'^'it"ti°" died a natural
lc..h, bu. there was no disposition evinced in the northern states to inter'
rere with it in the South. The first great battle took place Tn 8,0 over
for his coiin-
i urj^red again
imed for the
^he obstinate
eir delegates
I to the Con-
ctions finally
, but clearly
id vantage of
termined by
1 other per-
less to add,
ming of the
n the failure
he southern
proposition
this matter,
LS forbidden
ipproached,
)m all "fur-
ave so long
uch an act
all persons
engaged in
1 Twelve
laves to be
value, as it
en, at last,
er, a ship-
le crime of
, the trade
IS that the
e territory
ion of the
the future
a natural
s to inter-
1820 over
THE NEGRO IN AMERICA AND THE SLA VERY CONFLICT 429
the so-called Missouri compromise. Now, for the first time, the country
was divided, sectionally and in a strictly political way, upon issues which in--
volved the future policy of the United States as to the extension or restric-
tion of slave territory. State after state had been admitted
into the Union, but there had been an alteration of slave and ^he Slave Trade
free states, so that the political balance was not disturbed. Thus Ohio ..as
balanced by Lousiana, Indiana by Mi.ssissippi, Illinois by Alabama. Of th-
twenty-two states admitted before 1820, eleven were slave and eleven fror
states.
Immediately after the admi.ssion of Alabama, of course as a slave-
holding state, Maine and Missouri ai.plied for admission. The admission
of Maine alone would have given a preponderance to the free states, and
for this reason it was strongly contended by southern members that Mis-
souri should be admitted as a slave state. But the sentiment of opposition
to the e.xtension of slavery was growing rapidly in the North, and many
members from that section opposed this proposition. They had believed
that the ordinance of 1787, adopted simultaneously with the Constitution,
and which forbade slavery to be established in the territory northwest of
the Ohio, had settled this question definitely ; but this ordinance did not
apply to territory west of the Mississippi, so that the question really
remained open. A fierce debate was waged through two sessions of Con-
gress, and in the end it was agreed to permit the introduction of slavery
into Missouri, but to prohibit it forever in all future states
lying north of the parallel of 36 degrees 30 minutes, the ^^^ Missouri
southern boundary of Missouri. This was a compromise, ^'*'"P™"''««
satisfactory only because it seemed to dispose of the question of slavery
in the territories once and forever. It was carried mainly by the great
personal influence of Henry Clay. It did, indeed, dispose of slavery as a
matter of national legislative discussion for thirty years.
But this interval was distinctively a period of popular agitation. Anti-
slavery sentiment of a mild type had long existed. The Quakers had,
since revolutionary tim.es, held anti-slavery doctrines, had released their
own servants from bondage, and had disfellowshiped members who refused
to concur in the sacrifice. The very last public act of Benjamin Franklin
was the framing of a memorial to Congress in which he deprecated the
existence of slavery in a free country. In New York the y,^
Manumission society had been founded in 1785, with John slavtJy"senti.
Jay and Alexander Hamilton, in turn, as its nre.c.idents. '"®"'
But this early writing and speaking were directed against slavery in a
general way, and with no tone of aggression. Gradual emancipation and
11-
H
m\
11^!
430
TJIE NEC^O IN AMERICA AND THE SLA VERY CONFLICT
\l- V
'i' ' n
15 I
aggressive abolitionism be^an Garrison .n^'- • "" ""'^ ""^
slavery was a sin a^ainc-r r^ / , '"'°" f"^ ^^'^ ^^^'^'^y maintained that
"."tto " No union with slaveholde ""' ' "" '"" con.sp,cuously the
1 lie Abolitionists were, in numbers, a feeble banH ■ •,. , . u
pon:Lr;i:;:r;; rt^se"^: ""^ '-f--- --"""-
the nation Thev we 7.,1! " « P^pose of arousing the conscience of
was dra.."ed throul t ' ^"f ' "it'^' '"""'"'' "" >"" l^'""'- Harrison
throu.r|,°H,„ *- "' °' ^°^^°" "'"' ■•> ™Pe around liis neck-
n b ! -rc ui" r"^"' "; 'Y^ "^" "■^■^ ^'-^ ^'°-" -^ .1,
the day wi en th? furtive 7" " ■ ^ "^' n'"" "'^'^="''«' '" '"''I--. ""
them on his way back to hi ^''"■:' " ■""^""y ^urns, was marched through
men Mr rT • • '"'"''''■■ ""''" =* fc"'*'-d «' "early two thousand
^^:sZ:ry"!::Tr°°"'"°^^'^--^'^ "- "- Lion of states
o c»v»_i^ iciainea was 'an aLTeemenf wr^tU u^u i
flfaili " o.,.! 1 , 'i^» cement witli hell and a covenant with
thTs issue tle°AT^r°"''''r"""°" "^ *^ "on-slaveholding states o'
th, tssue the Abohfomsts spiu into two branches, and those who tl rew off
Sfvery ""'''^■^ .'he Const.tut.on to do away with slavery To the
.i->e, added ^^^':.::l o7 wr^^e^rZlh^"^'-" "^ '"
^id writts:: ^j:t-tdi ^--4'T"'^-- -"-"•-
^ier All H, «' ^'^^nnrng and Emerson, and the noble poetry of Whit
^J!l bt^i^thfpuM- :;• tn; r ^^rth'Trr --- r^
permanent existence of slaver'y was iL^S lith" t^rof^'T f^^e^
more' fir'i'°"';;e"re:tic:n of^ th"""''°" "^^ '""•='"='■'"« "-'' ^^ ^"^
reign of coLn ."ki rm" T th grLr "^^ "' ''^ "^^'""'"^ "^ ''^'•
mercial necessit,- Frnm ,k i^ ^ Plantation system a seeming corn-
early southern Ititesmr :' coX t^M^r^Cat '^" T'?'""' """^"-'' °'
•• now preserves in n„i„, i Calhoun s declaration that slavery
beingsfand^Xt •: S^t r^rr/;.!,!'- ^'""^ ^ ".^'f -^"i- l-a^
HosperU, of nearly half the state7i„-tl,e uZn"." '' ThrSi::- rw^^
THE NEGRO IN AMERICA AND THE SLAVERY CONFLICT 431
rega-ded in the South with the bitterest hatred. Attempts were even
made to compel the northern states to silence the anti-slavery orators, to
prohibit the circulation through the mail of anti-slavery speeches, and to
refuse a hearing in Congress to anti-slavery petitions. The c ,.,
• a f ^1 t' • 1 -11 . . ' r southern
mtluence of the South was still dommant in the North. Though Hatred of
the feeling against slavery spread, there co-existed with it Abolitionists
the belief that an open quarrel with the South meant commercial ruin ; and
the anti-slavery sentiment was also neutralized by the nobler feeling that the
Union must be preserved at all hazards, and that there was no constitutional
mode of interfering with the slave system. The annexation of Texas was
a distinct gain to the slave power, and the Mexican war was undertaken,
said John Quincy Adams, in order that "the slave-holding power in the
government shall be secured and riveted."
The actual condition of the negro over whom such a strife was being
waged differed materially in different parts of the South, and, under masters
of different character, in the same locality. It had its side of cruelty,
oppression and atrocity ; it had also its side of kindness on the part of
master and of devotion on the part of slave. Its dark side has been made
familiar to readers by such books as " Uncle Tom's Cabin," Dickens'
"American Notes," and Edmund Kirk's "Among the Pines;"
its brighter side has been charmingly depicted In the stories ^"^ sIltTr """^
of Thomas Nelson Page, Joel Chandler Harris, and Harry *" ^"""^^
Edwards. On the great cotton plantations of Mississippi and Alabama the
slave was often overtaxed and harshly treated ; in the domestic life of Vir-
ginia, on the other hand, he was as a rule most kindly used, and often a
relation of deep affection sprang up between him and his master.
With this state of public feeling North and South, it was with increased
bitterness and developed sectionalism that the subject of slavery in new
states was again debated in the Congress of 1850. The Liberty party,
which held that slavery might be abolished under the Constitution, had
been merged in the Free Soil party, whose cardinal principle was, " To
secure free soil to a free people," and, while not interfering with slavery in
existing states, to insist on its exclusion from territory so far free. The pro-
posed admission of California was not affected by the Missouri Compromise.
Its status as a future free or slave state was the turning point of the famous
debates in the Senate of 1850, in which Webster, Calhoun, Douglas and
Seward won fame— debates which have never been equaled in our history
for eloquence and acerbity. It was in the course of these debates th.nt Mr.
Seward, while denying that the Constitution recognized property in man^
Struck out his famous dictum, " There is a higher law than the Constitul
W;!
! ^
•I
! ' \
i
I
. I:
■ *
in
432
Iff
rt
-- ^.0.0 ,. ..,,,,, ,,, ,^^ ^^^^^^^ ^^^^^_^^_^
The F„„„v. '■■ict of Cc,l„,nl>ia, but enacted .'i '? "f' "■"■"''= '" '^e Dis-
si.v.L,».„, the Abolitionists this b , '"''""^'^ ^'•••"'= '■™- To
Kn-lereroun.! ,.„,„,„ '" '"if'tlvc slave law susnlnorl ,■„ '.
«.iir«,d '■''treme measures by the courr. ,„ .u '"""'"""' '" "s most
called it, infamous-Dred Scot ' '^"'"'--or as they
They defied it in every possible way The ■ n , ' """ ■"" f'"^' '° «■•«
outcome of this defiance. By it ^ ^ha n of "''T'''™""'' '^='''"='y -« 'he
from one to the other of which th, 1 "^ "■'"'""^ *=>' established
he reached the Canada border ' ' e ::;:" ftl '' "'«'" ""•" »< ^'s[
vas fron, lialtin.ore .0 New Yo k the^ ', '"•"'= ™""=-^ '" '^e East
hat most employed in the West was ^^m c"" '"™"^'' ''"^ England ;
-eon estmtated that not fewer than hrtv^ho, ,"';'" '° ''"™''' " '«=
to freedom. ''" """V thousand slaves were thus assisted
whiclfrs Xo^'nVr'ir ^ ^^'^^-^ ^-^^ -^ "- -tem territory
The Kansas-N^tras^B?,;!; ^u^rby'r f '-^^^^°" °< ^^"^
of the Missouri Compromise in tka, -H f, P "= "^^ '" '="<'" 'he repeal
should be carried in'to the' w te i He T'l^'T ^= '° -"-"- ^lav'ery
themselves. As a consequence imm ,'?• "'^, '^'"""°" "' 'he settlers
slavery and the pro-slave?y parties To' Kan" ""' f'"'" ''>' ^""' "^e ant
-8 a m,ajorityenabli„. it to'con "ihe pro^o ' T^ "T"""'' °" "^'-n-
■ ifrd' "r °' ^"^ °f violenc whichTo f '"''= ^°"^^''"''°"- Then
Bleedtng Kansas " became a phrase Tn all r ■■""°""'"' '° "'''^ «="••
1-e o„...„, ,„ ™ffi-s swaggered at .1 poira d^altT °T' "'°"''' J^^''-
K.„^ assisted emigrants sent to Kansaf byTf Ab 'r *"^ °"' ""=
The result of the election of^?., ^ Aboht.on societies.
Kansas a slave state, but a great pa t "f tb '''=«'-''^'"'-= °" "s face made
result : and a convention was I^ld*^ , t ' t '''?'?'? '''"'''' '° «eept this
should be free even if the laws fori:d bX i: -'f '""''"' *^' '^--s
resisted to a bloody issue." ^ Legislature should have to be
Prominent among the arm»,i
said, IS a national institution • but ■> T ""^^ ^^^'°"-
JohnBrownat slave." He believeH fho. 1 ' "°^^ "" §:ood for the
?-"' armed force, tlfho tTZ^T °"'' '" "P"' -■"■ ^V
' of slaves was for the slave! th.™ *'^' '" "'*'''= ''"'^e men
to coerce them by their masters „" 'hemselves to resist any attemr,f
li not stop to iiLure TotbHitie^L^^^' ^ ^^'^ ^ /--'c ', ttT
California to
ifle in the Dis-
ilave law. To
led in its most
s— or as they
fuel to fire.
Jway" was the
s estabh"shed,
t until at last
?s in the East
ew England ;
-'•oit. It has
thus assisted
ern territory,
f new states,
-t the repeal
-ther slavery
the settlers
^th the anti-
1 on obtain-
tion. Then
o civil war.
h. Border
•ive out the
n societies.
face made
accept this
lat Kansas
have to be
in Kansas
les action,
d for the
d with by
free men
/ attempt
n that he
tten law.
and as
THE NEGRO IN A Af ERIC A AND THE SLA VERY CONFLICT 433
the intended beginning of a great military movement was a ridiculous
hasco. To attempt to make war upon the United States with twenty men
was utter madness, and if the hoped for rising of the slaves had taken place
might have yielded horrible results. The execution of John Brown, that
followed, was the logical consequence of his hopeless effort.
But there was that about the man which none could call ridiculous. Rash
and unreasoning as his action seemed, he was still, even by his enemies
recognized as a man of unswerving conscience, of high ideals, of deep belief
m the brotherhood of mankind. Mis offense against law and peace was
cheerfully paid for by his death and that of others near and dear to him
AIniost no one at that day could be found to applaud his plot, but the
incident had an effect on the minds of the people altogether out of propor-
tion to Its intrinsic character. More and more as time went on he became
recognized as a martyr in the cause of human liberty.
Events of vast importance to the fut e of the negro in America now
hurried fast upon each other's footsteps : the f^nal settlement of the Kai as
dispute by its becoming a free state ; the formation and rapid growth of the
Republican party ; the division of the Democratic party into northern and
southern factions; the election of Abraham Lincoln ; the secession of South
Carolina, and, finally, the greatest civil war the world has known. Though
that war would never have been waged were it not for the negro, and though
his fate was inevitably involved in its result, it must be remembered that it
was not undertaken on his account. Before the struggle began Mr. Lincoln
said : " If there be those who would not save the Union unless they could
at the same time save slavery, I do not agree with them. If there be those
who would not save the Union unless they could at the same time destroy
slavery, I do not agree with them. My paramount object is to save the
Union, and not either to destroy or to save slavery." And the northern
press emphasized over and over again the fact that this was "r white man's
war." But the logic of events is inexorable. It seems amazing now that
Union generals should have been puzzled as to the question whether they
ought in duty to return runaway slaves to their masters. General Butler
settled the controversy by one happy phrase when he called the fugitives
" contraband of war." Soon it was deemed right to u«=e these
contrabands, to employ the new-coined word, ■\% th- South Slaves " Contra-
was using the negroes still in bondage, to aid in ti:<. non-fight- """* °' '^""
ing work of the army— on fortification, team-driving, cooking, and so on.
rrom thi«; it wa^ bn«" t "tpn j-u«.,._u _ _. . . % . , ,
- - ¥v=t„ iju. a ^lep, t.iuugu a step not caKen wiUioui much per-
turbation, to employ them as soldiers. At Vicksburg, at Fort Pillow, and
m many another battle, the negro showed beyond dispute that he could
434
\ 11
|) ^
■| •
T//£ Nj^GJiO IN AMERICA AND THF <;f avpk^v •
^'^- '^'-Al hj^y CONFLICT
fik^ht for his liberty Mn fi
;;- upon u,e „,,.^,.,- , ?^:';;-:. :::r'^,r r:,""--','^ '■> "»-• -- "-,„
the greatest avidity for fr.e.lon, ; 2^:^'- ,"' r,'"^''" "'^- "^'K »i'h
Behavior Of Women and chilflr^n e ^- ^'■°^'^''^' o'<J nien and youn.r
and h„|,eful, almost alw-,,.. , ' '>,"'^."''<-<'' '''ways enthusiastic
"f freedotn and of -self-support. Buw,,',? ^ '«"°""' "^ "^ "-""'"&
fo^ i.berty, his con.luct toward his o d L I' "'*>"" '''""'-■'' ""» ■"''d'-'y
^'l'"ost never did ,„■ seize the opp rtunltvT '7, "■'" ""^ ^'^■"*'^""=. ='"d
>vrr.ngs. The eloquent southern " ' ' '" ^'-■"K--'"<^« f"r his past
;; H.story has no parallel ,„ t If , h' : , 'h T"'' '■''^"^>' ^^' ^-^V. said :
'<= war. Often five hundred ne! rol t^ ■ "T" '" ""-' -^""""l"""ff
Touffh these dusky throngs the w',"™ 1 ,' ""f''' "''''^ '"'"'• -•'"'' >'«
!'"= ""protected hon,es rested i„ ^eace a ?" "^'"="' ''" ^'-'^'-''^ ""'l
have disbanded every southern arn y but no, ' ,'•"""' '"'''^'"•■^ '^«"W
It was with con.litions and^nll f "^ ""' "s'"*^''-"
-ep of emancipating the slaV 1: L .^ bv^P " ';''^"',''""' ■"" "'^ «-'
ber, ,86.. The proclan.ation was sine- "" ' ^'""'°^'' '" ^^P'™-
tron by the North and by the forei^,„ ^ "" '"'=''"'"<--' 1^"' "^ recep.
t e contest were such thlt it, :^ZTl '" '""""""'-• ^'^^^ "P™
after there was possible no question as to • "■ ""7 '■«"«"i>^«l- There-
. The Emancip,. in the United .States of A f'"'°','f ''*'''°"' "^ "«= '"^g™
IJo. Pr«.„.. ,,.,,,, „^„^ ,„.„;;— 1„^™ Wuh the Confederal
struction period whirh f^Il , , ^" ^'^^ "^"-called recon-
njuch from the over-.eal' of his . ,^ ca^ rtf' V"^'™ ^"'^^^«' ^''"'-t as
old n,asters, A „e,.o writer, vl o s / d . '' 'Tu- ""= P^^'J"'"" "^ '''^
hat the government gave the ne "ro ,1 ™" "' ^" '■^«' has declared
had the spelling book f that t p ^^ tL'!:T ^" ■'/^''^" ''^ ^'-''' I'-
to have been in the school houfeand tl^t s " ^^'f^'"'" *''^" ^e ought
A ''.ar''"' ""*''" '° ''"'" been " ■ ''''''^' ^ ""= ""^^'^ "ere ;ut
period began! and i'J thT 'negro "h^rbl! ''" ,"'""" ''"'' "'^^ '"'-hulent
factor, all the n.ore for that r! L has he U " , "™'"'"^"' ^^ ^ P"'"-'
slowly m the requisites of citi^enshb H T "f ''"'""« steadily though
force of circun,stances, turn his 7,. nt' ? t ^'"'"""^ "'=" ^<= ""st, by
educational, industrial and maL '"r Z J^ .' !..'"- -..'--• -'he; to'
".e record of his advance on these l.^es is tZL^::TtXt'Z
INFLICT
^^\ the war than
^^■lIlaIlt colored
'i'- war. Id its
It the flajr with
in and you n^r,
ds and ends of
ys enthusiastic
the meaning
<' this avidity
y^t'iierous, and
-e for liis past
tirady, said :
South during
lan, and yet
in safety and
arches would
iJt the final
1 '^"^ Septem-
ut its recep-
effeet upon
ed. There-
>f the negro
on fed e racy,
died recon-
d almost as
'tlice of his
IS declared
hould have
1 he ought
Is were put
THE NEGRO IN AMERICA AND THE SLAVERY CONFLICT 435
Mississipi,i alone, for instance, the negroes own onc-nlth of the entire pro-
perty m the state. In all, the n.^gro^.s of the South to-dnv possess two
hundre<l and fifty million dollars' worth of property. Everywhere through-
out the South white men and negroes may be found working together
The promise of the ne.^rn, race to-day is not so much in the develop-
ment of men of exceptional talent, such as Frederick Dou-las or Senator
Hruce. as in the general spread of intf-lligence and kncrwietkre. „
Ih<:s.uthern states have very generally .iven the ne^ro ' N^^rr o^^
equal educational opportunities with the whites, whil
while the
the South
eagerness of the race t(. learn is shown in the recenth' ascertained fact that
while tlie colored poijulation Juis increased only twtmty-seven per cent the
enrollment in the colored schools has increased one hundred and thirty-
seven per cent. Fifty industrial schools are crowded by the colored youth
of the Soutl,. Institutions of higher education, like the Atlanta Univer-
sity, the Hampton Institute of Virginia, and Tuskegee Colle-t, are doin.r
admirabl- .^-e.;': in turning out hundreds of negroes fitted to "educate thei'?
own rar ■. HcMv.rs and scholarships have been taken by colored young men
at Harair, atl jrnell, at Phillips Academy and at other m.rthern schools
and collefe ^. nf Uie highest rank. The fact that a young negro, Mr. Monran
was. in 1S90, elected by his classmates at Harvard as the class orator has a
a special significance. \ et there is greater significance, as a
negro newspaper writes, in the fact that the ecp.atorial telescope "^"iT^^nill
now used by the Lawrence University of Wisconsin was made the Negro
entirely by colored pupils in the School of Mechanical Arts of '^""
Nashville, Tenn. In other words, the Afro-American is n.Kiing his place as
an intelligent worker, a property owner, and an independent citizen, rather
than as an agitator, a politician or a race advocate. In religion, supersti-
tion and effusive sentiment are giving way to stricter morality. In educa-
tional matters, ambition for the high-sounding and the abstract is <dving
place to practical and industrial accpiirements. It will be many^'years
before the character of the negro, for centuries dwarfed and distorted by
oppression and ignorance, reaches its normal growth, but that 'the race
IS at last upon the right path, and is being guided by the true principles
cannot be doubted.
I
I!
tf'f
M
CHAPTER XXX.
Abral.a,,, Lincoln and the Work of En,ancipatioa.
"f ti.c a„,.. iu.r,„.s of history wlu.s/, ' ' ■';";""""" "< •'-"••"■>■ l.ut
a".onK the „„kor.s„f „„ „,.i„, ^■;,, ,'''''- "f."- chief r,,ure.
.nd Lincoln 'he preserv..,' will occupy -, niche in ,K •','"' ""= "■■'""= "'
to that of the fo„„dJr 'f" ""''''^ "' '»"'- "«=«
-l^eren. fro.n that with whicl, we rc.nr t ' ■ f f '"*"' /'"• '"'"~'" '^
Wh.le we venerate the one, we love ht ^ h ' VV '" "' '"^ """""'^y-"
figure, too .lignidecl for near a„nro-,ch H "•''''""«'"" «"'» » stately
t.on and loyalty; but in ad.litio ' th ;„ f'; """"--l-l respect, a.hnira-
a fee ,„, as for one very near and ,^Z I,':""'" """'"■"»''' "" "Section.
stru«,;f::X";fJ;:?:: :.::-::;« - •'- mner hi.„ry of the ,reac
after that stru,,le had . ttled t rirtatr- " ^"'""" '-' ''^■^•■"-
v.s,on was oi«cured l.j the near vie, 1, ' "'"■ Ko^-mment, our
their brief hour u|,on the sta... " o ,r " , ' 'ZT^ ^''■'"'" "''° "''"■''"«'
of those who would .na.nify'-thdr ow, Lr" "' T''"' "'^' '"•"' '■'--
concerning, son.e one fnTcion o t.r " ' ''"''' '"," ' '^"""''"« "'^' '-.s
■o proCain. the principle, which should'C';:::;: , 'rVM '"' r "-"^^
A <■„.. n.„ 'l'«M«tu,if the mist, and we are con, , ' """ "
great „,an who had no nril, ,r "'""^ '"■"" '" 1^"™ 'he
A Great flan
and
"'If ' 4
.L
at nan ' '^ "-^t, aiiu we are coininp- ht^tt^^ * i
Hiscritic. ^"-e^t n,an who had no pride of J ''""'^ ''^^
let Seward or Su.nner orMcClu ' ""' ""'^^ ^^^'^ ^^''^"'"^^ ^°
-i to be the guidin, spirit of thf ^^v^^ : ^V^ -^>^ ^^ .;-.ine hi...
that government the best service of wh^^^^T "^^^ ^^^''"^ wdh'ng to give
clearly tl,e real greatness of the e.dertl^ "" "T''^^'" ^^^^ -^ '"-«
t'on of his people, and too fas'f ^ t^ " T" ^"" -^'"^ ^"'' ""^* ^^^-^^ --
rad.cal for these ; who ..fused t nnke H * "^"-^^^^^^^^i-' ^^ those, too
negro, yet who saw the end r / h/, ' '"'^"^^ '"^'•^^'>-^ -ar for the
of his people, but the whole .eo le 1 ^^^V'""'"^' '"^^ '^^'' ""^ '-^ ^-tion-
sbv^r., o^.j .'•_...• . ^ People, away from the K-vn^ian ,!- /
/ ""^« v -.union, aiiU broutrhf fh«.„ •. • . " ^fc.>l'^'3n plagues of
436 '''°"^'^' ^'^*^'". tinued m sentiment and feeling.
ncipatlon.
t of the United
and Abraham
f a ceiiliiry hut
e chief liL;iires
ton it owed its
ul tile name of
- of fame next
Of Lincoln is
Ill's Country."
1 vvas a stately
•spect, admira-
our affection,
of the g^reat
t two tiecades
ernment, our
'Iio "strutted
Joud claims
"g the facts
It knowledge
'le. Time is
to know the
The Character
of Lincoln
IJNCOLN AND THE WORK or EMANCIPATION 437
to the borders of the promised land. We are comin,<( t<> appreciate that
the " l-atlier Abraham " who in that Red Sea passai^c of fraternal strife was
ready to listen to every taU- of sorrow, and whowantetl it said that he
"always plucked a thistle and planted a flower when he thought a (lower
would grow," was not only in this sense the fatlu-r of his
people ; but that he was a truly great statesman, who, within
the limits of human knowledge and human strength, guided
the affairs of state with a wisdom, a patience, a courage which belittle all
praise, and make him seem indeed a man divinely raised up, not- only to set
the captive free, Init in order that "government of the people, by the
people, and for the people, shall not perish from the earth."
It is not our purpose to tell the story of Lincoln's boyhood-his days
of penury in the miserable frontier cabins of his father in Kentucky and
Indiana, his struggles to obtain an education, his pitiful necessity of writing
his school exercises with cha: :oal on the back of a wooden shovel, his i-fforts
to make a livelihood when he had become a tall and ungainly, but strong
and vigorous, youth, his work at farming, rail-splitting, clerking, boating,
and in other occupations. A journey on a llat-boat to New Lincoln's First
Orleans gave him his firs^ acquaintance with the institution of Experience
slave-y with which he was thereafter to have so much to do. "* Slavery
Hero le witnessed a slave auction. The scene was one that made a deep
and abiding impression on his sympathetic mind, and he is said to have
declared to his companion, •' If I ever get a chance to hit that institution,
ni hit it hard:' Whether this is legend or fact, it is certain that he did get
a chance to hit it, and did "hit it hard."
Difficult as it was to obtain an education on the rude frontier and in
the extreme poverty in which Lincoln was reared, he succeeded by persistent
reading and study in making himself the; one man of learning among his
farming fellows, and one who was not long content with the occui)ations of
rail-splitting, flat-boating, or even that of keeping country store, which he
tried without success. He was too devoted to his books to attend very care-
fully to his business, which left him seriously in debt, , id he soon chose the
law as his vocation, supporting himself meanwhile by serving as land sur-
veyor in the neighboring district.
Lincoln's political career began in 1834, when his neighbors, who admired
him for his learning and ability, eUxted him to represent them in the Illinois
legislature. His knowledge was only one of the elements of his popularity.
He had acqinred a repulalion as a teller of (piaint and humorous stories ;
he was a champion wrestler, and could fight well if forced to; and he was
beginning to make his mark as a ready and able orator. In the legislature
ji^^i
iil
438
f.mC0,.^ ..WZ, rnj. work- of EMANCWATfOK
w
he became prominent enough to irain twice ,I,„ ■ •
.speaker. His pnncipal sefvice IZ. Z t:X:T""' "' "" """^ ''-
-n ..e „„„* :™l>-ven,e„ts. whose chief res t ' „'':i„::rt,T" "' J'''^
U^.,.,„e '" <l-bt. A significant act of his at thi" ia l?l";'- "^"'P'''
was to ion with a sln<rl. n !'*"> ''"5 '" '"s career
against the pas,sage 'of reso,!. ^ns f f rff" ,'" " ^T" I'™'-'
based their action on their belief that ••t" "*• "'« »ii.™rs
on both injustice and bad ,k li v " ' uTJTT"'" "' ><'-->• is fou^tded
-ake such a protest in .83; in I'^m u t ■ trZ- of ^ "",'"' ™'^"^^ '"
."oral courage was a possession of whici, il.T, f "°f"'"' °"^'"' ^"^
I" the meantime Lincoln had ill ," ■"'' •■"' ''''^""'lant store,
removed to Springfield, w,,er t f ^'r": ," f-" '-: -" '" '^^7 l>e
established reputation. He became ! '"/ "■''^'"P ^'h an attorney of
Knowledge of law. for this was ne Jer ,; aT^: b hTT',""' ^" ™'^" '^''^
and by reason of i,is sterling integrity. ^ h'wI, d' n t be '' ^tVt" '"'■'"'""'•
1, . • sentation, and more flnn ^ '"'■ "^ '^ P'^rty to niisrepre-
Lincolnasa . , , '^ '"^" once refusec to fnl-r. .. .
Uwyer '"volved such a result. He even wi. l^n , """ '"'^'"^^
which broucTht him unoyL \ u "^'^ ''' ''^^''^^^ ^ ^^^^
in his first case before the Unrd S S;;" ''^ .""'"^'^^' "^^^'"^'
ment that he had not been able to fuTL.Tu '^" ""^''^"''^^ ''^'^^
of the case, but had found several favtn'tU'^" "'^^'"'^^'"^^ ^'^ -"^e
to quote. tavonncr the opposite, which he proceeded
I he very appearance or such th nt^,.
far to win the ju'r ■ ; ,.u,d. when deeply s rre r-'" ""'' '"' '"'"' '■'•'^" e""'=
the inyincible logic of his arglent ^jT.^' "'" ''"'T "' '"'^ -.atory, and
"Yes." he was overheard tt s'rtt a t '"bVT °™
gam your case for you ; we can se" ■, wZ ^""/ """' ''^" ''""''tless
we can distress a widowed mother am ^ ""^"'r'""' ■" '°^'«-''«"l^ ;
thereby get for you the six hu.u ed do a to", f"'''^'' ''"'''''"• '"^
legal claim, but which rightfully belon ^ i . '°" ^^™' '° ^aye a
woman and her children as it does to ,„7'T '° "''■'' ""'^'' '" "«
some things legallj- right are not morally right «""?', /""'■■'"'"='■ "'"'
case, but w,ll giye you a little adyice for vvhid we > II 1 "°' "''^" J"""^
You seem to be a sprightly ener.r.tir L '''''"'S'^ you nothing,
your hand at maWng^si^ hu^nd::;^d*r:rso:: :th:r'w::^.'- ""' '° '^
In the United In 1 846 he accented n n...^" .'''''' ^"^V'
--»„. .riumphantly elected.tet; tiro -yVVhi'; ^2^ '"' ^'^
representatives from his stite Ac ^ , ^ ^^'^ ■'^^^"
his voice was nlwavs crj^^er -p, ' > .^ ^"t' . ^^ a member of the- Ho„.e
favor of considering the%et'i.ro;;;^:L\bil,';;:?:f ila^er;":;,!;*^ '°''"'. '"
Slavery and supporting
nOhr
" of his party for
system of public
ye Illinois deeply
'tl'ij- in his career
written protest
}'• I he signers
avery is founded
'oral courage to
tlicrn origin, but
undant store,
and \\\ fS37 he
1 an attorney of
: so much by his
as an advocate,
irty to misrepre-
ke cases which
abandon a case
-titude, making
unusual state-
'orting his side
1 he proceeded
list have gone
is oratory, and
ti^Ie opponent,
can doubtless
loggerheads ;
children, and
"ni to have a
nuich to the
member that
ot take your
you nothin^r.
'■ you to try
*ess and was
? the seven
thfj House
le voting in
1 supporting
LINCOLN AND THE WORK OF EAfANC/P.-iTION 439
the doctrines of the Wihriot proviso, which opposed the extension of
slavery to the territory acquired from Mexico.
As yet Lincoln had not made a striking figure as a legislator. He was
admired by those about him for his sterling honesty and integrity, but his
name was hardly known in the country at large, and there was "no indication
that he would ever occupy a prominent position in the politics of the nation.
It was the threatened repeal of the Missouri Compromise, in 1854, an act
which would open the western territory to the admission of slavery, that
first fairly wakened him up and laid the foundation of his remarkable career.
The dangerous question which Henry Clay had set aside for years, but
which was now brought forward again, absorbed his attention, and he grew
constantly more bold and powerful in his denunciation of the encroach-
ments of the slave power. He became, therefore, the natural champion of
his party in the campaigns in which .Senator Douglas undertook to defend
before the people of his state his advocacy of ''squatter sovereignty." or
the right of the people of each territory to decide whether it should be' ad-
mitted as a slave or a free state, and of the Kansas-Nebraska bill, by
which the " Missouri Compromise " was repealed.
The first great battle between these two giants of debate took place at
the State Fair at Springfield, in October, 1854. Douglas made a great
speech to an unprecedented concourse of people, and was the The Great Lin
lion of the hour. Th(; next day Lincoln replied, and his coln^nd Do"u".
effort was such as to surprise both his friends and his oppo- ^'"^ ^^^^^^
nents. It was probably the first occasion in which he reached his full
power. Ir he words of a frituidly editor: "The Nebraska bill was
shivered, anu like a tree of the forest was torn and rent asunder by the hot
bolts of truth. ... At the conclusion of this speech every man and
child fell that it was unanswerable."
But it was the campaign of 1858 that made Lincoln famous. In this
contest he first fully displayed his powers as an orator and logician, and v
the reputation that made him President. Douglas, his opponent, was nn
mensely popular in the West. His advocacy of territorial exoansion
appealed to the patriotism of the young and ardent ; his doctrine of popular
sovereignty was well calculated to mislead shallow thinkers ; and his power
in debate was so great that he became widely known as the " Little Giant "
But he- found a worthy champion of the opposite in Abraham Lincoln, who
:""" • ^- ■••--atv.d many ui his specious argumeiiLs, and succeeded in
inducing him to make a statement that proved fatal to his hopes of the
Presidency.
m
m
m
440
JK I
M
/./A'COZA' WAW 77/^ K^o^/f of EMANCIPATION
a ttrtov befl: i d '"'"" ''^ *'"<='' slavery culcl l,e excluded from
■tory befor<, ,ts adm.ss.on as a state, his friends suggested tliat
people ot the South miuht have fnr.n\-..» i^ i i • • * uc
election, and in tlie existing state of public feelintr mi.rht
Lincoln T..., P^^—tly destroy his political prospects. Lincofn could
HU sund "°t be moved. ■■ It is /«.," said he, •• and I ../// deliverTt a
. mv speech ^^^^ it^^i:!^^^ :^r--^
without them." The paragraph gave to the :or ^rf a rtemer'oT'r
p etl^Te::rfl?c^■"';''°""^^"'' =^™ "'"""'"p'-'- '''- ^-^^^^^^
war:a;i„r."' av;:; rtrn'r^' -/--^P-Position tha. ..freedor:
1-1 '«vcj^ :>et,tionai. A house civic ec ao-a n^f •"♦c^if" -j
™r ",y;;:nrrhaif r"^^? -^-"'-"' ~ -- S
-ived ; ", do nor::;::; the'ht: . :, ,"rut7rp:ct it":.:' '° "^ t
divided. It will become all one thing or al the o her fU '"'"' '° *"=
of slavery will arrest the farther spread of i!„°' '" "PPonen.s
mind shall rest in the belief T,. T , P "'*= " "'"='"'•' "'« Public
its advocate.:"; ,1,,^' 1. ''-";. ;f.'." !'":,™"^- of """-'<= extinction, or
sntes old „'"" !l ' ■"'"■■"" "" 't snail become alike lawful in all the
states.— old as well as new, North as well as South."
V
the question
sxcjuded from
J.£rgested that
: unless it was
by territorial
iciently satis-
n after larj-er
the battle of
erified. The
sition to the
he promulga-
(a Supreme
ake his slave
> slavery out
o\n defeated,
to command
hich startled
the Repub-
^1 been pre-
sly opposed
they would
iling, might
icoln could
leliver it as
expressions
2 victorious
lent of the
ard's " irre-
" freedom
tself," said
tidure per-
to be dis-
:ease to be
opponents
the public
inction, or
ill all the
LINCOLN AND THE WOKk' OF L.^fANCIPATION
441
Never had the issues of a political campaign seemed more momentous ;
never was one more ably contested. The triumph of the doctrine of
"popular sovereignty." in the Kansas-Nebraska bill, had opened the terri-
tories to slavery, while it professed to leave the question to be decided by
the people. To the question whether the people of a territory could
exclude slavery Douglas had answered, " That is a question for the courts
to decide," but the Dred Scott decision, practically holding
that the Federal Constitution j/uarantecd the ri^ht to hold The "Champion
• • .1 . • • , , , . of Freedom "
Slaves m tlie territories, seemed > make the pro-slavery cause
triumphant. The course of Douglas regarding the Lecompton Constitu-
tion, however, had made it possible for his friends to describe him as "the
true champion of freedom," while Lincoln continually exposed, with merci-
less force, the illogical position of his adversary, and his complete lack of
political morality.
Douglas claimed that the doctrine of popular sovereignty "originated
when God made man and placed good and evil before him, allowing him to
choose upon his own responsibility." But Lincoln declared with great
solemnity : " No ; God did not place good and evil before man, telling him
to take his choice. On the contrary, God did tell him that there was one
tree of the fruit of which he should not eat, upon pain of death." The
question was to him one of righi, a high question of morality, and only
upon such a question could he ever be fully roused. "Slavery is wrong,"
was the keynote of his speeches. But he did not take the position of the
abolitionists. He even admitted that the South was entitled, under the
Constitution, to a national fugitive slave law, though his soul revolted at
the law which was then in force. His position, as already cited, was that
of the Republican party. He would limit the extension of Lincoln's Views
slavery, and place it in such a position as would insure its on the Slavery
ultimate extinction. It was a moderate course, viewed from ^^u^**'**"
this distance of time, but in the face of a dominant, arrogant, irascible pro-
slavery sentiment it seemed radical in the extreme, cr'culated, indeed, to
fulfill a threat he had made to the governor of th > state. He had been
attempting to secure the release of a young negro from Springfield who was
wrongfully detained in New Orleans, and who was in danger of being sold
for prison expenses. Moved to the depths of his being by the refusal of
the official to interfere, Lincoln exclaimed : " By God, governor, I'll make
the ground of this country /< ^ hot /or the foot of a slave.'
Douglas was re-elected. Lincoln had h-rr^ly anticipated a different
result, and he had nothing of the feeling of defeat. On the contrary, he
felt that the corner-stone of victory had been laid. He had sai J i his
as
m
W
443
UMCOLN AND THE WORK OF FMANCIPATION
\'\'t I
1^
! 'i, I
opcnmj^ speech : "If I had to ch-aw a pen across my record, and erase my
who e ...e from s.^^ht. and I had one poor gift or choice left as to what I
should choose to save from the wreck. I should choose that speech, and
leave n. to the world unerased."
The great debate had made Lincoln famous. In Illinois his name was
a hor.hold word His stand for the liberty of the slave was on the lips of
the J.ocates of human freedom through all the country. Deep and wide-
The Cooper spread mterest was felt in the East for ihi. prairie orator and
Jj^tute when, in i860, he appeared by invitrUion to dehv..- an address
in the Looper Institute, of Nevr Yr.rl:, he wa ■ wdcomed by
an audience of the n.ental calibre of those who 01 old ganuued to hear
<-lay and Webster speak.
It was a deeply surprised audience. They expected to be treated to
somethmg of the freshn : s. but n),uch of the shallowness, of the frontier
region, and listened with astonishment and admiration to the dignified clear
and luminous oration of th< prairie statesman, h is said ihat those who
afterwards published the speech as a can^Da-j^n document were three weeks
in vt.rify.,. ,ts historical and other statements, so deep and abundant was
the learnng jt <: .played.
He had tnke,, the East by storm. He was invited to speak in many
places ui N-v England, and everywhere met with the most flattering
reception, which surprised almost as much as it delighted hi, i. It astonished
hmi to hear that the Professor of Rhetoric of Yale College took notes of
his speech and lectured upon them to his class, and followed him to Meriden
the next evening to hear him again for the same purpose. An intelligent
A Tour In '^''^'''' ^^^""^ ^° ^''"' "^ ^^^^ remarkable "clearness of your
New England Statements, the unanswerable style of your reasonincr, and
especially your illustrations, which are romance and p'athos
fun and logic, all welded together." Perhaps his style could not be better
described. He himself said that it used to anger him, when a child, to hear
statements which he could not understand, and he was thus led to form the
habit of turning over a thought until it was in language any boy could
compreliend. o j ]
It is not necessary to te)l in detail wh:it followed Lincoln had attained
the high eminence of being considered as a suitable candidate for President
and when the Republican Convention of i860 met in Chicago, he found him-
self looked upon as the man for the West. Seward was a prominent candi-
date, but his candidacy sank before that of the ^^oice of the westerners who
were roused to a frenzy ot enthusiasm when sr ,. .f the rails vvhich Lincoln
had split were bcr.., into the hall. He ./a^ ..minated on the third ballot
ah.
ON
<i, and erase my
eft as to what I
hat speech, and
s his name was
IS on the h*ps of
)eep and wide-
lifie orator, and
iv<;r an address
3 Wiilcomed by
rhcied to hear
> be treated to
of the frontier
Signified, clear,
hat those who
•c three weel<s
abundant was
speak in many
lost flattering
It astonished
took notes of
im to Meriden
An intelligent
rness of your
masoning, and
3 and pathos,
not be better
child, to hear
d to form the
ny boy could
I had attained
for President,
le found him-
niinent candi-
sterners, who
'hich Lincoln
third ballot.
LINCOLN AND THE WORK' OF FJfANCIPATlON
443
amid the wildest acclamations. In the campaign that followed Lincoln and
Hamlin were the triumphant candidates, winning thfir seats by a majority
of fifty-seven in the electoral college. The poor rail-splitter of lIIin(Ms had
lifted himself, by pure force of genius, to he President of the ^he Rail-
United States of America. PVom that time forward the apllttcr Made
life of Abraham Lincoln is the history of the great Civil President
War. His task w rs such as few men had ever faced before. The mighty
republic of the \\ est, the most promising experiment in self-government
by the people that the world had ever known, seemed about to end in failure.
No man did more to save it from destruction and start it on its future
course of greatness and renown than this western prodigy of genius and
rectitude.
Mr. Lincoln called to his cabinet the ablest men of his party, two of
whom, Seward and Chase, had been his competitors for the nomination, and
the new administration devoted itself to the work of saving the Union.
Every means was tried to prevent the secession of the border states, and
the President delayed until Fort Sumter had been fired upon before he
began active measures for the suppression of the rebellion and called for
seventy-five thousand volunteers.
The great question, from the start, was the treatment of the negro.
The advanced anti-slavery men demanded decisive action, and could not
understand that success depended absolutely upon the administration com-
manding the support of the whole people. And so Mr. Lincoln incurred
the displeasure and lost the confidence of some of those who had been his
heartiest supporters, by keeping the negro in the background and making
the preservation of the Union the great end for which he strove. He
repeatedly declared that, if he could do so, he would preserve the Union
with slavery, and further said, " I could not feel that, to the jhedreat
best of my ability, I had even tried to preserve the Constitu- Question of
tion, if, to save slavery or for any minor matter, I should the Civil War
permit the wreck of government, country and Constitution, all together."
Oidy when it became evident that the North was in accord with him in his
detestation of slavery did the President venture to strike the blow which
was to bring that perilous system to an end.
In the dark days of 1862, when the reverses of the Union arms cast a
gloom over the North, and European governments were seriously consider-
ing the propriety of recognizing the Confederacy, it seemed to Mr. Lincoln
that the time had come, that tlie North was prt^pared to support a radical
measure, and that emancipation would not only weaken the South at home,
but would make it impossible for any European government to take the
I 'I
If '
il
444
ikaalm
LINCOLN AND THE WORK OF EMANCIPATION
attitude tcwar.l slavery which would
eracy Action was delayed until a fav
{t:^\
-•c in\()lved i
n
orabh
recognizin^r the Con-
victory of An.ictamtlK-I>r;;w;m7;)UhrT™' '""""i"'' ""'' "^'^ "^<^
r.. ..,.„.. that h. was ab:;.r;w r;: ::;:,;:i-;:'"--7;" ^""''""^^''
ilonol Eman. It wn« •, =„l roclaiiiatioii of hmanciuatbn.
c.p.«„„ ' " ? ":?'"""'• '■'"= ''^•="''1^'" ''='d made a vow-^
invasion .^.o.^lCZ::^,2 '"r^T "^^-'l-'hat if the tid7of
hnai proclamation's: f.rr:!'';;™'',-''''--,™ f^'^' •'''"'
which indicates the devout spirit iH Ich X , ' I 1 "'"' '" ■''PP'-'''
this act, sincerely beheved to 1 e al al of , ' ''"' ''""■-■ ^ " ■^"'' "P""
tution upon n,ilhary nece sitv I i"voke , /' '• T''""""'' ''' ""•• ^""-''i"
kind and the .raci^us fav^^ ^f Al^fht^GoT"^""^""' ^"''•""'="' "' ■"^"-
had ti '^^^^"Ql^trnZorTor""'' "" r "' t.-^"'' "'"' "'-" '--°'"
. the war, of a dozei, , ff °/ /°'-^'!.'n Pol'cy, of finance, of the conduct of
dissensions i^tcabinf an 1 '^""'=' "P"" "'■" '"^ -'"tion. while
".ing but a p ea'anttne ""'' ' '"'T''^, '" '^'= '•'"">' "»'»'= ''« "^^ any-
and others, were stonrand abl ''""T k"""' ■''"'"°"' S'^"^^''' ^hase,
-ho held firmrin Ws ot^, h V"T' '^""'-" ""=" ""^ "^ ='™%-^ """.
yield then, to a'.y o his -^^b ." I 'T "' «"^<^'-"--«. =>"'' would no
at the bidding of^t^:: -^ir^-fr Sir '-- "'^ «-^ -"-
Upon what Lincoln called « the plain people "-the mass of hi
men hn r-miM .,i i . i^^^j^ji^ iiie mass or nis country-
he could always depend, because he. more than any other politcll
Lincoln and leader in our historv undrrsfno,! tU ^"y "^ner political
-; - advocate of liberty I's t wrLt:d hTlv.dettd
stronger and latrTe?^ But^^'i? /'", """-^^ °" °^ '^'^ '-"^"' '"-
an oppo!;e:rb:::i;;~[ t-r-^:;-^^;^-^ --
r i:Uu:t''dtpLr;;"'^^-"^'- °-'^^ ^^ "--' -^ °' ^' °'<^'-
l^"""*"' "ispatch to our mmister in Eneand in Mw iS«r , ,i- ■
the course to be niir=.,„,l . i , - 'k'anu, in may, i86l, outlining
orimnal dr,fr t ^ , """^^ "'^' P°^"' '">» b«en published in its
original draft, showing the work of the Secretary of State^^ and Presided
An AW. V; °'"f alt<=rations. Of this publication the editor of the
0,p,„„.,., ATor^A A,neruan Re.i^ says : •■ Many military me, w ,o h "
general of the war'^hi" "^""'^ "="?""• '^^"^ ^''-^'' "'■" ^ "- ^^^
finn - '7 *ar- I his paper will go far toward estahllsl.in„ l„v ..,„„.,
Xrtrstt^":,''"'""^'^'-" "^^^''^ ^<= intpossiblefor-anVin'tellC
person to study the paper thus published, the omissions, the alte^C
zin^r the Con-
mil after the
nd announced
emancipation,
nade a vow — ■
( the tide of
o free. The
:li an appeal
: " And upon
•y the Consti-
tient of man-
hich Lincoln
le conduct of
'lution, while
liis task any-
^vard, Chase,
ron^rer man,
id would not
fixed policy
his country-
lier political
r, matchless
^sident, and
hands into
itts senator
s own con-
himself not
5p of ques-
is advisers.
I, outlining
ihed in its
President
itor of the
< who have
IS the best
• >t J 1 v-puta-
intelliirent
Iterations,
ir
ROBERT EDMUND LEE. (1807-1870)
WILMAM T. 3HKKMAN (ibao--oyi;
^! I
m^^
^f^^
I- 1
i
•
ii
ryn
1 •
LINCOLN AND THE WORh' 01' EMANCIPATION
447
}.
l> "
•5S
the substitutions, without acknowledj^ing that they were the work of
a master niii and that the raw backwoodsman, not three months in oftice,
was the pe( .f any statesman with whom lie mi<^rl)t finil it nc-cessary to
cope. He wa , entirely willin-^ to grant to hi^ secretaries and t.- his generals
the greatest liberty of action; he was ready to listen to anyone, and to
accept advice even from hostile critics ; and his readiness made them think,
sometimes, that he had little mental \nn\'t:v of his own, and brought upon
him the charge of weakness; but, as the facts have become more fully
known, it has grown moic and more evident that he was not only the "best
general" and the "ablest diplomatist," but the :^rreatest man among all the
great men whom that era of trial brought to the rescue of our country.
And when the end came, after four years of desj^erate conflict ; when
Lee had surrendered and the work of saving the Union seemed complete ;
when the liberator was made, by the assassin's hand, the martyr
to that great cause which he had carried to its glorious termina- ^^.^ Assasina-
, , , , , , , tlon (>! Lincoln
tior a depth ot pathos was added to our memory of America's
noblest ' m, insuring him a fame thai was worth dying for, that crown of
human sympathy which lends glory to martyrdom.
The story of the end need hardly be told. On the evening of April
14, 1865, Abraham Lincoln was sliot by a half-crazed sympathizer with the
South. John Wilkes Hooth. The President had gor •, by special invitation,
to witness a play at l-'ord's Theatre, and the assassin had no difificulty in
gaining entrance to the box, committing the dreadful deed, and leajiing to
the stage to make his escape. The story of his pursuit and death while
resisting arrest is familiar to us all. Mr. Lincoln lingered till the morning,
when the little group of friends and relativ(;s. with members of the cabinet,
stood with breaking hearts about the de th-bed.
Sorrow more deep and universal cannot be imagined than enveloped
our land on that 15th of April. Throughout the country every household
felt the loss as of one of themselves. The honored remains lay for a few
days in state at Washington, and then began the funeral journey, taking in
backward course almost tl; rout which had been 'ollowed
four years before, when the new elected President went to The Or ief of the
1 • 1 1 /■ 1 . . . . People
assume his burdens of his high office. Such ' pilgrimage of
sorrow had never been witnessed by our pe( pie. It was followed by the
sympathy of the whole orld until the loved remains wre laid in the tomb
at Springheld, Illinois. Over the door < f the state hou.o, in the city of his
home, where his o\r neighbors lo( k their last ''areweil were these lines :
He left us borne up by our prayers;
He returns embalmed in OMr tears. "
ijti
M.
448
LINCOLN AND ////, mWK' or mANaPATION
i
."ciination ,o s.o„„, „f ns.M -..^HZ . f :„'„" «^" ««"-• -"' "«
«.«ant,c strength, 1„: wns diffident and mod "in he -xm m "t^"'' "'
sion of his face wis ku] ,nri »u^* i > 'xin int. i ho cxpres-
I-. i.iLc was s.ui, and that sadness Ueenened -!« tU.. ,., i i
and cause» for na.i.nal depression i'^cr..^rtC,J^^;Zf::Z^Z
.nj„(wu i*'''^'- "' """'"I 'l<J<-ct,on. On certain occasions !„■ w-is
almost overwhelmed bv it. Yet with ill ,1,;. h ^^
the readiest inventor. ,nd irath<.rers nf „, ""^ """ "'"= "'
able as told by hin, . le orfen«l 1,. , ^'"^ """"' "■'"'^ «'"'= '"''""■
for a puruosi. He set !,.,! ,„ .. ' J"""^^ "'=••'= usually
homely ..'v n " thlt t, I N ""^"'■"^'>"<= *<=i«l".v .|"-tion by the wi, of I
A signal iiiuiua ion : ' i': :;,:r;: .tr;' '""7"' "' 7"'" ■^-^'^ ""-•
.s.-ttle<l the question of dvm '>' aphorism by which he once
plan to swap'hrsrcrl:i':;f Il^elm ■>'^-""='' '" "'"'"'^"' ^ " " ^ ^^^
hiswo^ds, Tpo'n It :: ,;:'T"oXttld"b;:,::'^ ^r' "-= 't-'^ °'
of the socd fron, which thev sorunV H r Koouness and purity
remembered as lontr as he sto J f^f . , ^,''"y'^"'-'i "I^^ch will be
J f J jjaas awa). Yet It (jod wills that t continue ..nKi -,ii
OraiL °' ""'•'•qu't'^'l toil shall be sunk, and until every drop of blood
sword ; as wast'^ tlj^'th ' '"'] ^''^" '" '"' ">' -'-'- ^-^n' Clh h
jud>:m;nts of b I T '■' ^?" "S"' ^° ^"" i' "'-' b<= ^aid. 'The
juut.,nents of the Lord are true and righteous altogether' With mJi
toward none, with charity for all. with firmness in the rtht as God
•^
I owering
re, with its
(sse.ssecl of
"he cxpres-
Iraj^r^rccl on
licTfditary
ree from a
i-s he was
i'a.s one of
ere inimit-
innouncf^d
his dig-
re usually
e wit of a
ave done,
li he once
t is a bad
1 firmness
beauty of
nd purity
1 will be
be tolcf ;
a sacred
se to the
ch words
ind with
ourge of
until all
fty years
of blood
with the
d, ' The
I malice
d gives
bind up
tic, and
lerish a
CHAPTKK XXXI.
Grant and Lee and tlic Civil War.
IN several of the preceding chapters the causes which led the United
States into its great fratricidal war have been given. In the present
we propose to deal with the war itself ; not to describe it in lU^tail,—
that belongs to general history,— but to speak of its great soldiers ami its
leading events, which form the chosen topics of this work. Of lh(; states-
men brought into [)rominencc by the war, President Lincoln was the chief,
and we have given an account of his life. (Jf its famous jhedreat
soldiers two stand pre-eminent, Ulysses S. (irant and Robert Leflders of the
K. Lee, and around the careers of these two men the whole C'^«"^a'"
story of the war revolves. They did not stand alone ; there were others
who played leading parts,— fhomas, Sherman, Sheridan, McClellan and
others, on the Union side; Jackson, Johnston and others on the Con-
federate, — but this is not a work of biographical sketches, and our main
attention must be centred upon the two leading figures in the war, the
mighty opponents who linked arms in the desperate struggle from the
Wilderness to Appomattox.
Grant was a modest and retiring man. While others were strenuously
pushing their claims to command, he, an experit.nced soldier of the Mexican
war, held back and was thrust aside by the crowd of enterprising incom[)e-
tents, doing anything that was offered him, the coming Napoleon of the war
performing services suitable for a drill sergeant. Hut gradually men of experi-
ence in war began to find their appropriate places, and in August, 1861, Grant
was made brigadier-general and given command of a district
including southeast Missouri and western Kentucky. He
soon set out to meet the Confederates, and found them at
Belmont, Missouri, where he drove them back in a hard four hours' fifrht.
Then they were reinforced and advanced in such strength that Grant and
his men were in danger of being cut off from the boats in which they had
come.
*' W^e are surrounded," cried the nien, in some alarm.
"Well, then," said Grant, "we must cut our way out, as we cut our
way in," and they did. It was the only retreat in Grant's career.
449
Grant Takes
Command
,^1
t L
450
GRANT AND A/./f j^^ riir. CIVIL WAR
--4.
l<nveci'n„ au„.,„„ :^,V n.e „ T'"" "'• ""' ^""f'^''"'^'- n.cn.. fol-
Pa.i-nce of North »: sX „k b 2,1'''; ''^: '"'''' 'J^'^y '-"I "'e
te done. Marly i„ ,he followi, 7;,,, '' ^'"^ '^^^ '°' ^'-'-tLinff to
region where the ,.eople Zw „ it Zf'""" ^'"^ '°"^' '"" "'" "' '!'=
.rated upon the Potomac Tit McCI, ll" '"""""" ^'' '"■''''">• ^'>"'--"-
splen,li,l army which anoH e an.l "' '"'" ""^^'"'""^ •-•"'' ''r ig that
victory ; while the o 1^7, io' : " "l"!'"-"'"^ -- "> 1--' to final
A..Qu.e,„„,He ;"""<l!"wa,s the daily report, ' ■ A | "u ' ™ the It ' "
Potom«c tyrant, an obscure and nl „,.., . ' , . ' °'°"''"= ^
forward against l' it "Hr;:;:':,';,:"''^'^' T '"'"'"^
pushed along the roads arriWn,,? ! ""' ''''"' ••""' ■"■"" "^e men
as the result of a selt;: bo Zrdn t '"'P' '"^'-''-^'''^-"^ l-en captured,
turne.l his attention to I-o™ fen r"' '.^."V"',"'"-"-^- ^-ant innnediatel,:
part of the garrison tin" lu es w -"' ^'■'^" '"''■""■orced by a larg •
r.enerals Huclcner, l"loy n I'i, t;'"; '""" ''"" '''''"^- " «- l-l-l i'v
■mack was kept up. ^Z: "Z \ T°°° '""'■ ""'" ""•^'^ ''■-•>'» => f'""'
-d doubtless' kn'ew t t le T^, i, ""•"■;" T'^^' ''°''"' "'"' ^-'">
"l.«i..a,enmn,"se„tonthenorX„' tl f ' ," ;'*-"'•■"'■'' '"'"■ "^' "^X
to ask what tern-s of surren;i;:"w:;:M" ,'::;' j"' Z'" ^ '> "< '"'«.
Ti.«surre„a.r that brief, stern tnessage whicir h , 1 ,i "l"' '^?"" "="'
»' F»rt stirring the blood i„ , , , ' """"«l""" 'he North,
Uonelaan ,. ? mooil iji every oya heart ■ " N,, i„,.„. i .
.en, ;;:?:^:::r :,r h:i:!:ir" vvitl:;> n::;"'-' •" --
the whole country w.a, elec nfi, I T , ^""ry for the North, an,l
h..u.sehol<l word, and tl ™ , f „ w,''™' , '''i'' >' '" ""'^'^"^'^ ''--^- ^'
conditional Surrender ('ram ' h1 s .faT "'"■"^'' '" "" ''""• " ""■
his commission bearin,, date of I'Vhr ■'_ '"•■'J"r-general of volunteers,
of I'-»rt Uonelson. "° ""■^' '"■ '''°- ""^ ''='y °f 'he surrender
GA'ANT .INP LEE AND THE Cll'IL WAR ^5,
^xr:; ■.
M.ss.ss.,,,,,. In th.s batilr Sh.-nn.-ui was Grant's chi.f li..;t •„ '••'« ^erHbie
ant, anc the two nicn t..<f,wl I i , " ^ ^"'" '" ^'t'-'l- StruKRleat
err,... . . • , . . ''^''' ^'''^^'^ "^'^'''^^ tinalitics in tlu- Htt«burK
Kr test tr,al to wh.ch c-ithor had as yet bc.n l.xpos.d. The •-"'""«
batth; was one of th<,- turnint,-noinis „f the wir 'FM,.. r ( i
stron,.. under Albert Sidney J .hns.on o e the ';"^^'^'^'^*^^^'-^' ^o ocx3
the Union force of 40.000 nu- at Sh o O re AlT I '"""t 'T""?'
rows battle as when the v.ctory had actually been achieved "
send some of it t<, „ur other jrenerals."
It would doubth'ss have been l)eMf.r if »!,;. i i , .
in.' i.n„„i .,f whisky, ,u,i 1.,.. ,,;v.h./t'":r :';•■'"'■' "«'"■
......ns, .„ ,„eeci to seek a „.,.•. has,. „„ „„. J.,,,,,., k;,, ,,,, ,i,^,^^^.,.
,nv,..l Uy a s..c,„ul conlli,., at H„|, „„„, „,,;, „,,„, .„ " ^f -
lu. n.,s. sa.K.nnary .l.-f.a.s of tlu- U„ si,l,. .lurin,- .!„■ w„- Th'
repulse was in a m.^asiir.. n:lrieved l.v MeCI,.l|.„, , a ^ J
did not look very l,.i..|u '„r tl, I' '^''-^'""•"' '" AntH'tam, yet affairs
,, ^ P '■'"'" •'" ""-■ '■'"'"" wiise, and in lii(. w ■,• of ,X6j-A,
tllere was much depn-ssion in lj,e North -l-l, . , 11 , ""J-Oa
'i
1 'i K ,
'IP'
45a
GRANT AND LEE AND THE CIVIL WAR
*ki
ti-
the necessity o{ some signal success seemed urgent. Such a success
came in double measure in the following summer, at Gettysburg and at
VicKsiJurg. °
On a high bluff on the east bank of the Mississippi River, which
pursues a wuul.ng course through its fertile valley, stands the town of
V icksburg From this point a railroad ran to the eastward, and from the
opposite shore another ran westward through the rich, level country of
Louisiana. The town was strongly fortified, and from its elevation it com-
The vicksburg ^"''1"'' !!'^ 5'?'' '" ^^^^ directions. So long as it was held
Problem ^V ^'^^ ^confederate armies, the Mississippi could not be
opened to navigation ; and the line of railroad runnincr east
and west kept communication open between the western and eastern%arts
of the Confederacy. How to capture Vicksburg was a great problem ; but
It was one which General Grant determined should be solved
For eight months he worked at this problem. He formed plan after
plan, only to be orced to abandon them. Sherman made a direct attack at
the only place where a landing was practicable, and failed. Weeks were
spent in cuttmg a canal across the neck of a peninsula formed by a great
bend m the river opposite Vicksburg, so as to bring the gunboats throucrh
without their passing under the fire of the batteries ; but a Hood destroyed the
vvork. Meanwhile great numbers of the troops were ill with malaria or other
diseases, and many died. There was much clamor at Washington to have
Grant removed, but the President refused. He had faith in Grant, and
determined to give him time to vvork out the great problem.-how to get
below and in the rear of Vicksburg. on the Mississippi River
Ih.s was at last accomplished. On a dark night the gunboats were
successfully run past the batteries, although every one of them was more
or less damaged by the guns. The troops were marched across the penin-
s^ila. and then taken down the river on the side opposite the town ; and on
April 3oth the whole force was landed on the Mississippi side, on "high
ground, and at a point where it could reach the enemy.
The railroad running east from Vicksburg connected that city with
Pa.s.sinK the J^^^''^^""' ^'/^ «tate capital, which was an important railway
Batteries "-"^'•^'' ''^"^ 'rom which Vicksburg was supplied. Grant made
Ii.s movements with great rapidity. He fought in quick sue
cession a series of battles by which Jackson and several other towns were
captured ; then turning westward, he attacked the forces of Pemberton. drove
h.m back into Vicksburg. cut off his supplies, and laid siege to the place
1 he eyes of the whole nation were now centred on Vicksbun. More
than two hundred guns were brought to bear upon the place, besides the
GRANT AND LEE AND THE CIVIL WAR 453
batteries of the -unboats. In default c.f mortars, guns were imprcn'ised
by boring out tough logs, strongly bound with iron bands, which did .rood ser-
vice. I he people of Vicksburg took shelter in cellars and caves
to escape the shot and shell. Food of all kinds became very TheSieseof
scarce; flour was sold at five dollars a pound, molasses at '''"'''"'*^
twelve dollars a gallon. The endurance and devotion of the inhabitants
were wonderful Hut the siege was so rigidly and relentlessly maintained
chat there could be only one end. On July 3d. at ten o'clock, flags of truce
were d.splay(;d on the works, and General Pemberton sent a messa-e to
Orant asking for an armistice, and proposing that commissioners should
be appointed to arrange terms of capitulation.
On the afternoon of the same day. Grant and Pemberton met under
aa oak between the lines of the two armies and arranged the terms of sur-
render It took three hours for the Confederate army to march out and
stacK their arms. There were surrendered 31.000 men, 2 so cannon, and a
great quantity of arms and munitions of war. But the moral advantage to
the Union cause was far beyond any material gain. The fall of Vicksburg
carried with it that of Port Hudson, a few miles bcdow, which surrendered
to Banks a few days later ; and at last the great river was open from St
Louis to the sea.
The news of this great victory came to the North on the same day
uith that of Gettysburg, July 4. ,863. The rejoicing over Th«nr.,.v,
the. great triumph is indescribable. A heavy load was lifted JxTJt'
from the minds of the President and his cabinet. The North Their Effect
took heart, and resolved again to prosecute the war with energy. The
name of Grant was on every tongue. It was everywhere felt that he was
the foremost man of the campaign. He was at once made a major-general
m the regular army, and a gold medal was awarded him by Congress.
Grant's next striking victory was at Chattanooga, an important railway
centre in the valley of the Tennessee River, near where it enters Alabama
bouth of the town the slope of Lookout Mountain rises to a heicrht of
2000 feet above sea-level. Two miles to the east rises Missionary Ridge,
500 feet high. Both Lookout Mountain and Missionary Rid.rt. vvere
occupied by the army of General Bragg, and his commanding position,
strengthened by fortifications, was considered by him impregnable.
Ihe disastrous battle of Chickamauga, in September, 1863, had left
the Union armies in East Tennessee in a perilous siiuaticm. ch...^.«^..„.
t^cnerai i nomas, in Chattanooga, was hemmed in by the Con- and Chat"
federate forces, his line of :,upplies was endangerc-d. and his t^n^^K"
men and horses were almost starving. TIk- army was ou quarter rations.
454
C^.m-r AND LEE AND THE CIVIL WAR
-I
» '
l„ .'f I
r<.ads. Chattanooga occup^d In ,h"tr "'' ^""^"^"^^ "'""«"'<= 'niO'
for lira,.,, t„ takt by stor , b * it "T" ^T",!' T'" '"" ^'™"'>''>' '""iR-
'l.ehe,«h.swerethrol„i„to', et„:7 T i"'""^ "'"' "''^ ''''""'" "P°"
stiff and sore fron, a recent ace Z,' ."'' 't '"'"^''''" ">>«" f^'''"".
direct the campaign in ^ w::;:"'''*^'' '' ''"'""•^' °" "^'^ ^^ '"
Hold Chattanooira at all In 7-1 r,?^ r -n 1
he teletiraphed fron, Nal: e,„G^:,, ' "'''^."^ "'''^^'^ »» ^-" »^ Possible,'
.own until we starve,'' was thl brave ^eT " ^' "'" '■"'" ""^
be co';rnt:.aTj:rc;:ar;::rf' r- v-r'^^- "'^ "^•'-"' "-^ --p^ -
Lcokont Valley, wLic^ '1"" f 1 J^h ',7'"'' i' '""''^ '" ^^-'-'^"■•' '"
and shortened the Union line o '^ Tplf' ^^ t hu" '""" '''',='"••'"""''-
preparation for effective action h,. ! ' , , ' f""""''' ''""' >'itr"ro„s
demoralised condition in w i^ ^l^"" '"''/'"; '™°P» 'i''"! out of the
■nnuga. One ntonth after ha rival J T , "^T ""^ ''^f^'-" "^ Chicka-
Lookout Mountain and ML^.V^ ^^ "ytlc 'LTr^'^ """'^^ "'
the in,petuo„s bravery wii?;v c f^tl e .7^- "' "'" " "'"^^ ''"P"'"K "'a'n
the steep .nountain sicL, brisl ^ v ea ;:: 'Z"i "'";' '!'"' ^'' ""
troops out of their works at the poin ,f i ' "l ""^ ^""f«lerate
eral Hrag,/s staff afterward deTr^d 1 ' ,, '°''''- , •■^" °*"'- "' ^^"•
perfectly in>pre,,nable, and that w 1, h^ s- ^'tV u" '"•' """ >'"''''''"
turiny their ri/le-pits at the b-,s,. . ■ """' "'"''I"' ^'""- '^•'•P-
their he.d,p,arters', they^li:.^':^;,,:';;,; "••■««>■ '";""'"'" '""'''
every man of then, n„,st be drunk Hi , , >""'' ""'' """'«'" '''••"
and pictures,p,eness of eff.- lie ' " "" '""■••'"^' '"' ^"'''"""y
division of the Confeder.ev in ' 1 V ™"seq>.ences, which were the
After Grnnf. ''"'"■"•> '" 'he hast, were inestin,al.le.
he put aTtttad fi t'l, ^.-rrb '"^ '--^-/'T,'-^'"' ■'■•■" "•= »'-'"
-pun-in^tid,:::'::: '" r/^rr"' ''^'"^ ''-r- """■
opposin. for.^- ™: rtn!- -'" ^"^ ^- v^:-:!:'!; L!: tl^
opened t,p t. M^issippi. :;rxxi l:"a:;sj::;ifb;;t.:^hf;^-
(irant Made
Ueulenant-
Ueneral and
Commander.
In.Chief
•'1
'4
short of clothing.
?ad along the miry
:i strongly fortified
^»is batteries upon
ation when Grant,
lie, on his way to
soon as possible,"
We will hold the
;red the troops to
t Wall hatch ie, in
low Chattanooga
npt and vigorous
lifted out of the
-lefeat of Chicka-
orable battles of
nfederate troops
the country was
dguns werecap-
2 inspiring than
ht their way up
the Confederate
ofticer of Gen-
I their position
oojjs. after cap-
ountain toward
d thought that
1 for sublimity
hich were the
that he should
n Virginia tlie
■irs of lighting,
'^\.\\ the tide of
r as ever from
other hand,
latl driven the
-11 V'icksburg,
)oth the West
'i
«. «■ r , GENERA!. l.EE'9 INVASION Of THE NOMTU
rh«lu..fc.Ir™.e «r,„y „m|.,(;c,.„«l Ic- .*u, (Mvud.U ,1a \ur,(, -11 f NORTH
GRANT AND I. HE AND THE CIVIL WAR
457
" c
to 2 3
Si
o'-a
•o
u3
'5-S
•> !!
^ ."u
5 .h; •
5f S
op'
o '■ »
, 1*1 . >
rf V
II ^
J3 X
u 8 ,
5 "A
O 5g
5 " "
z
w
u
X
»-
a •»
M a.
Be
I
and the East. In response to the call for Grant, Congress revived the graih;
oJ lieutenant-general, which had been held by only one commander, Scott,
since the time of Washington ; and the hero of Fort Donelson, Vicksbnrg,
and Chattanooga was nominated to this rank by the President, confirmed
by the Senate, and placed in command of all the armies of the nation.
The relief of President Lincoln at having such a man in command was
very great. " Grant is the first .^'^tv/^ni/ I've had," he remarked to a friend.
" You know how it has been with all the rest. As soon as I put a man in
command of the army, he would come to me with a plan, and about as much
as say, 'Now, I don't believe I can do it, but if you say so I'll try it on,' and
so put the responsibility of success or failure upon mo. They all wanted
me to be the general. Now, it isn't so with Grant. Me hasn't told me what
his plans are. I don't know, and I don't want to know. I am glad to find a
man who can go ahead without me."
Never were the persistent courage, the determined purpose, which formed
the foundation of Grant's character, more clearly brought out than in the Vir-
ginia campaign of 1864, in which he commanded ; and never The Virginia
were they more needed. Well did he know that no single Campain of
triumph, however brilliant, would suffice. lie saw plainly that '*^<M-65
nothing but "hammering away" would avail. The stone wall of the Con-
federacy had too broad and firm a base to be suddenly overturned ; it had
to be slowly reduced to powder.
During the anxious days which followed the battle of the; Wilderness,
I'rank H. Carpenter, the artist, relates that he asked President Lincoln,
" How does Grant impress you as compared with other generals ?"
"The great thing about him," said the President, "is cool persistency
I of purpose. He is not easily excited, and he has the grip of a bull-dog.
When he once gels his teeth in, nothing can shake him ojf."
His great opponent, Lee, saw and felt the same ({uality. When, after
days of indecisive battle, the fighting in the Wilderness came to a pause, it
was believed in the Confederate lines that the Union troops were falling
back. General Gordon said to Lee, —
" I think there is no doubt that Grant is retreating."
The Confederate chief knew better. He shook his head.
"You are mistaken," he replied earnestly, -" quite mistakem. Grant is
not retreating ; he is not a retreating man."
The battles of SpotLsylvania and North Anna followed, and then came
...t- w,„sn5,sn!, cuuj!, ai -^--.-^t iiat.^'_i. 1 ucij Luaiii ciiajigcu ius Dase iu jaiUcs
river and attacked Petersburg. Slowly but surely the Union lines closed
in. " Falling back " on the Union side had gone out of fashion. South or
458
GRANT AND LEE AND THE CIVIL WAH
K* . *'
North, all could sec that now a steatly resistless force was back of the
Union armies, pushin^r them ever on toward Richmond.
Grant's losses in the final campaign were heavy, but Lee's slender
resources were wrecked in a much more serious proportion ; and for the
Confederates no recruitinj.- was possible. Their dead, who lay so thickly
beneath the fields, were the children of the soil, and there were none to
replace them. In some cases whole families were destroyed ; but the sur-
TheEndof ^'^'"'■Y'^''" [""-^'^^ ""• I" the Confederate lines around
The War ^ etersburcr there was often absolute destitution. An officer
who was there testified, shortly after the end of the struijcrle
that every cat and dog for miles around had been caught md eaten. Gnm;
was pressing onward ; Sherman's march through Georgia and the Carolinas
had proved that the Confederacy was an egg-shell ; Sheridan's splendid
cavalry was ever hovering round the last defenders of the bars and strir,es
Grant saw that all was over, and on April 7, ^865, he wrote that memorable
ietter calling upon Lee to surrender and bring the war to an end I ee
whose army was cut ofif beyond possibility of escape, was obliged to con-
sent, and the terrible four years' conflict ceased.
We have told the chief incidents in the career as a soldier of the great
Union general ; we have now to deal with that of his equally great oppo-
nent in the final year of the war, the brilliant commander of the Con-
federate forces. General Robert K. Lee.
Of all the men whose character and ability were developed in the Civil
War, there was perhaps not one in either army whose greatness is more
generally acknowledged than that of the man just named. His ability as
a soldier and his character as a man are alike appreciated; and while it
Character of " "^^ural that men of the North should be unwilling to
General Lee <-'"»««»e his taking up arms against the government, yet
. . ^^^''^^ ^^''^^ "°t prevented their doing full justice to his greatness
It is not too much to say that General Lee is recognized, both North and
South as one of the greatest soldiers, and one of the ablest and purest
men, that America has produced.
Lee, like Grant, was a graduate of West Point and had seen service in
the Mexican war, in which he won high honor. It was he who, when John
Brown made his raid against Harper's Ferry, was despatched with a body
of troops for his capture. The raiders had entrenched themselves in the
engine house of the arsenal, but Lee quickly battered down the door, cap-
tured them, and turned them over to the civil authoriti(;s.
Lee, ilic son of - Light Horse Harry Lee," a famous general of the
Kevolutionary War, cherished an attachment to the Union which his father
ah\txT ,{xi) /./■:/•: .ixn run civn. war
IS back of the
Lee's slender
I ; ami for the
lay so thickly
were none to
; l)ut the sur-
lines around
>n. An officer
f the striigirle,
eaten. Grant
the Carol inas
dan's splendid
rs and stripes,
lat memorable
m end. Lee,
bliged to con-
r of the great
\' great oppo-
of the Con-
■\ in the Civil
ness is more
-lis ability as
and while it
unwillino- to
o
LTnment, yet
lis greatness,
h North and
: and purest
en service in
•, when John
with a body
selves in the
e door, cap-
neral of the
:h his father
459
had helped him to form, and al the breaking out of the Civil War was in great
doubt as to what course he should take. \\v disapproved of secession, but
was thoroughly pervaded with the idea of loyalty to his state, -an idea
which was almost universal in the South, though not enter-
tained by the people of the North. He had great difficulty L«e'» l>evotion
in arriving at a decision ; but when at last Virginia adopted
an ordinance of secession, he resigned his commission in the United States
army. Writing to his sister, he said. " Though I recognize; no necessity for
this state of things, and would have forborne and pleaded to the end for
redress of grievances, yet in my own person I had to meet the question
whether I should take part against my native state. With all my devotion
to the Union, and the feeling of loyalty anil duty as an American citizen,
I have not been able to make up my mind to raise my hand against my
relatives, my children, my home. I have therefore resigned my commis-
sion in the army, and, save in defence of my native state. I hope I may
never be called upon to draw my sword."
It was not a case in which a soldier who believird in state supremacy
could long hesitate. V^irginia was invaded, and Lee drew his sword "in
defence of his native state," his first service being as brigadier-general
in Northwestern Virginia, where he was opposed to Geni.-ral Rosecrans.
Here no important battle was fought, and in the latter part of LeeinCom-
1861 he was sent to the coast of North Carolina, where he mandat Rich.
planned the defences which were held good against Union '"""''
attack until the last year of the war. After the wounding of (ieneral J. E.
Johnston at Fair Oaks, Lee was called to the command of the forces at
Richmond, and on June 3, 1862, took charge of the army defending the
Confederate capital.
The task before him was no light one. McClellan lay before Richmond
with a powerful and well-appointed army, and that city was in considerable
danger of capture. Hat tht; generals opposed to each other were of very dif-
ferent calibre. McClellan was of the cautious and deliberate order ; Lee was
one of those ready to dare all " on the hazard of a die." On June 26th he
made a vigorous assault on the Union army, and continued it
with unceasing persistence day after day for si.x days, driving ^^^ ^'^ ^"y'*
McClellan and his men steadily backward. On the final day, ^^ *
July 1st, the Union army, strongly posted on Malvern Mill, defeated Lee,
who suffered heavy loss. But McClellan continued to retreat until the
c^Ks. .«.*... ,,,,., ,, ttviivvt ntivt til
„,»-, «r u :_u
C Siege Oi i-viCfilViOjiu in^JiiiKiuiicu
Irl
iM
A few months passed, and then, with a sudden and rapid sweep north,
Lee fell upon the large army which had been gathered under General Pope,
%
460
It
riiiii
•i .
r.-:^ I I
GRANT n LRE AND T/f/- CIVfL WAH
on the old battlefidtl of liull Run n, ,.. . » ,,
ending in the disastrous dcf. 1 of P u T'i '' '"'"-■•'^ '""'^ P'^*^«-
lost 25 000 nu-n of whV '' ' ^" ''"' ^^^^^^^ '"^^^''^ ^^e Unionists
that citv vv.s ^^' f '■'' ^'*'"^' ^""'^ ^''*"*-*" ^'■''^'^ on ^^' 'sl.in.^ton
hopin, that thi. s, . would rise hi l,^^:;:;::!^ ''^ ^^'"^ •"^'^ ^^^^y'-^^'-
unio^: ;:: :i^^n^^!::.ur '" "^^^^''r'^ ^ '^^^-^ ^^^--^^ ^- ^'-
• "' ""^ great advantajre \vas gained h the catjturp of H -
rerry by Stonewill Inr^L-cr.« -.u , capture of Marpirs
results for th. Confed.-racv as Incl ZLT "7' ■'"' ™'"'''''^ '" '"
A few days later, on L Zu. f^th h T T^"'"^'' ■"""" "' """ ■*""■
.11 c)ept(.ml,cr 17th, the two late o|iponents. McClellan and
s«ond Bull Run 'T^'^' '"'' '" ""'1'" ^' Antietam, in th,- most bloody battle for
.n. A„...u™ he numbers engaged of the war. Lee had taken a dangemus
Harper's Ferr;.: the"" ™;?'l'-^ "'"^ '" •""''"'''*' J-^»" ^a-st
Had ^o.^z . '! :t;o?i/et:::;::: r^^ ;.'r ^'""r"'^-^'-
a measure i drawn bittle hnf f .« ^'cL, dlan. 1 he result was in
Burn'sllT'T' '.".rlh ""•' f ''r"*-" °f -'—'-' -s a successful one.
.4.000 men ... Confederate loss of ^.cx.. c::!™ f At^: 'JbrsTccrded^
Fredericksburg him, met with a similar defeat. Supolied with . 1 1 .
.. c.„„.. ^>V...ackedr::tThtn:elt:r
BHinant. .mo^-;:^.:;^'^:^^,;-^^
His great successes at I'redericksburg and Chancellorsville 1^,1 I . .
venture upon a daring but dangerous move.nent, an inva bno , e NoTt °
It was. as nil rf»:i/l».i-t- V^^,,. , . f % ^ , , _
I_r„^, • "." " ■"'" ' ^'"■'^^•^■^ssiui. General Meade, who reohr^^H
Hooker ,n contmand, followed the Confederates north wiih he Ttmost
4
fie took place,
the Unionists
C^on federates
I W ishin^'ton,
th another of
ito Maryland,
aiinch for t!ic
: of Harper's
md immense
'ahiable in its
"f liiill Run.
fcClellan and
'dy battle, for
I a dangerous
son against
Confederates
result was in
t he did not
w across the
brought his
rnment and
cessful one.
ember 13 th,
sing nearly
o succeeded
a splendid
ncellorsville
, through a
over 17,000
he death of
led Lee to
the North ;
:imore, and
'e him in a
10 replaced
he utmost
^9
GRANT AND I.EF. AND TIIH Cl\ll War
461
hast. ..m\ placed him If across their path at Gettysburg, in westt:rn Penn-
sylvania. On July ist. the advance columns of the two armies
met, and engaged in a preliminary struggle, which ended in a "^he Armies at
repulse of the Union forcers. These fell back and took up a *^''"^*'"''«
strong position on Cemeter; idge, where during the night they were
strong./ reinforced by the tr ps hurrying up from the south. During the
next two da, s the Union am y fought on the defensive, I.ee making vig(,r.
ous ouslaughts upon it and fighting desperately br- unsuccessfully to break
Meade's line or seize some commanding point. Ihc enc! of this fierce
struggle— which is ranked among the decisive battles of the world— came
on the 3d, when Lee launched a .powerful column, 15.000 jhe Union vi
strong, under lieneral I'.ckett, against the Union centre. It toryatliet-"
ended in a repulse, almost an annihilation, of the charging ^ysburg
force, and the great baftle was at an end. The next day Lee retreated.
He had lost in all abe ,000 men. The Union loss aggregated about
23,000.
The 4th of July, KS03, was in its way as great a day for the American
Union as the 4th of July, 1776, for it was the great turning point in the
war. On this day Grant took possession of Vicksburg, with 3(^000
prisoners, and cut the Confederacy in two. And on the same day L(-e
began his retreat, disastrously beaten in his last act of offensive warfare.
During the remainder of his career he was to stand on the
defence, until driven to bay and forced to surrender by the T"he ^thof July,
hammer-like blows of " Unconditional surrender Grant." '^^^
But while brilliant in offensive war, Lee was in his true element in
defence, and never has greater skill and ability, or more indomitable resis-
ance, been shown than in his struggle against his vigorous adversary,
(irant was appointed commander-in-chief of the Union armies, on March i,
I S64. Having sent Sherman to conduct a campaign in the South, he himself]
on May 4 and 5, crossed the Rapidan River for a direct advance on Rich-
mond. A campaign of forty-three days followed, in which more than 100,000
men, frequently reinforced, were engaged on either side. Grant j^e Great '
.came first into encounter with Lee in the Wilderness, near the struKKiefor
scene of Hooker's defeat a year before. Here, after two days R'chmond
of terrible slaughter, the battle (.nded without decided advantage to either
side, though the Union loss was double that of the Confederate.s.
Finding Lee's position impregnable, (irant advanced by a flank move-
ment to Spottsylvania Court House. Here, on May irth. Hancock, by a
desperate assault, captured Generals Johnson and E. H. Stewart, with looQ
men and 30 guns, while Lee himself barely escaped. But no fighting, how-
86
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462
GRANT AND LEE AND THE CIVIL WAR
\ ^i
ever desperate, co.Ul carry I.ee's works. Sheridan with his cavalry now
made a dashmg ra,d toward Richmond. He fought the Confederate cavalr^
ktlled thetr ablest general, J. E. B. Stuart, and refurned, havin. ffered m f^
damage, to Grant. On May ■7th, Grant, l,aving ex;cuted''anothl'r flank
movement, reached the North Anna River But Lee had fall rback w^h
h.s usual celenty, and the advancing army found itself again in ace If
strong entrenchments. As a vigorous attack failed to carry Les works
G.nt ,nade a th.rd flank march, which -brought him to. t^,e vicinitT':i
Here once more he found his indefatigable opponent in his front
very strongly posted at Cold Harbor. Grant, perhaps incensed a s dn'
h,s man always blocking up his road, hurled his tried troops upon
the tmpregnab e work, of the enemy. It was a vain effort, leading Inly !o
dread ul slaughter. The Unionists lost in this hopeless affair ove°r oo<^
Tutlol: ^"'^™""''^^' ^^'"'« "- Confederates eLaped practically t^
Grant now executed the most promising of his flank movement. He
secretly crossed the James River about June .jth and made a dash on
Orant's March '^e'e'-sburg, hoping to seize the railroads leading south and to
on Petersburg cut the Ime of supply of Richmond. But unforeseen delays and
. strong resistance enabled Lee to throw a force of his veterans
mto the town, and the movement failed. And now for months it tas a
question of attack and defence. Both sides threw up entrenchment, of
enormous strength, and the following fall and winter were occupied in an
mcessaut artdlery duel, marked by a few assaults, which had lit le effect
Other than that of loss of Hfe.
But during all this time Lee's army was weakening, while that of
Grant was kept „. full strength. At the end of MarchT 1865, tl e finj
events of the great struggle were at hand. Grant sent War;en and SI eridan
o the south of Petersburg, to cut the Danville and Southside Railroads
Lees avenues of supply. On April ist the Confederate righc win<. was
encountered and defeated at Five Forks, and on the following day the tvhoL
line of works defending Petersburg was successfullv assailed
Richmond could no longer be held. Lee evacuated it 'that ni^ht and
The End of the ^f ^.^^^ed towards Danville with about 35,000 men. But the
Conflict Union cavalry under Sheridan pursued with such celerity
that escape was cut off, and the Confederates were surrounded
at Appomattox Court House, and forced to surrender on April Z
i^cc naa made for inm-self a world-wide reputation. While the' bull
dog persistence of Grant had enabled him to crush army after army of the
a
GRANT AND LEE AND THE CIVIL WAR
his cavalry now
federate cavalry,
ing suffered little
d another flank
fallen back with
gain in face of
rry Lee's works,
'^ the vicinity of
It in his front,
2nsed at seeing
:d troops upon
leading only to
air over 10,000
ractically with-
3vements. He
ade a dash on
ig south and to
>een delays and
of his veterans
lonths it was a
renchments of
)ccupied in an
id little effect
while that of
[865, the final
1 and Sheridan
ide Railroads,
ghi wing was
day the whole
463
lat night, and
len. But the
such celerity
"e surrounded
1 Q. i86s.
hile the bull.
army of the
Confederacy, Lee had shown himself one of tl.e most brilliant of generals,
successful in all his assarlts except at Gettysburg, and almost withou i
peer in defensive warfare. Only the utter exhaiistion of the country behind
him and the slow grinding of his arn-y into fragments brought final success
to his opponents.
We can only rpfer briefly to the careers of some of the abler sub-
ordinate commanders in the war. First among them was Sherman, whose
exploits in great measure place him on a level with Grant and Lee.
In truth, there was no more brilliant operation in the entire war than his
famous "March throusfh Georgia. "
This striking event was the culmination of a series of successful battles
and flank movements, by which Johnston was gradually forced back from
Chattanooga to Atlanta. Here the able Johnston was removed and replaced
by the dashing but reckless Hood, who attacked Sherman shtrman's
fiercely, but only to meet a disastrous repulse. A final flank March on
movement, which cut off Hood's sources of supply, forced him Atlanta
to evacuate Atlanta, which Sherman occupied on September i, 1864. It
was the most brilliant success of the year, and Sherman became the hero of
the hour. Hood, finding that he could do nothing there, made a dash into
Tennessee, hoping to draw Sherman after him for the defence of Nashville.
Sherman had no intention of doing anything of the kind. The
removal of Hood from his vicinity was just what he wanted, and he
remarked in a chuckling tone, " If Hood will go to Tennessee I will be
glad to furnish him with rations for the trip." What he had in view was
something very different ; namely, to abandon his long line of supplies,
march across Georgia to Savannah, nearly three hundred miles away, and
live upon the country as he went, while destroying one of the richest
sources of Confederate supply.
The Confederate generals did not dream of a movement of such
unusual boldness, and left the field clear for Sherman's march. For a
month he and his men simply disappeared. No one knew narching
where they were, or if they were not aniiihilated. They had Through
plunged into the heart of the Confederacy, far away from all Georgia
means of communication, and the people of the North could only wait and
hope. " I know which hole he went in at," said Lincoln to anxious
inquirers, " but I know no more than you at which hole he will come out."
He came out at Savannah. He had cut a great swath, thirty miles
wide, through Georgia, his soldiers living off the country and rendering
it incapable of furnishing supplies for the Confederate armies, and on
December 23d he sent Lincoln a despatch that carried joy throughout the
!' 'Jii
I, ' -'v
I !l
,^!»^- :
46,t
m
M ii'
Ofi-Wr M'D LEE AND THE CIVIL WAR
wX one' 'JXi' ::rTf:/::r .If p/rr f '^' "- =■■'>■ °f Savannah,
twenty-five thousand bale, of cotton am.nun.tion, and about
■•n. ni:rh c:n,eToot ch:™.:;;;: ^rr', -t "^ r^"^ """• "-^^■
without a shot. Reaching No C-^ •' J'l" ? '""A^^^'^'i ■^"'- --"It,
SKe™a„ to Jol,nston but 11; °t « /"""^ ''""''='f "PP"^'^'-' •'•g.-'in
Marcea Lees surrend o "e 'l f • '"^' '°°^ ^^^"^ "'= "'•- °f
except to vied UP W^'f "m""^' ""^ '"-•'' ^"^ J"''-^""
saved the arn.y a Chick™ L*^ "'■ "'-■■■'""''''''=. -Phomas. wiu, l,ad
%htin. Hood'and tl dSd I""' '° "■",'"'"•= '" '"-' ""' ''-d-
so completely that it neve,- tt elet™/;;;;,"-'^' =""' '"'^'^--'^ '^ -">y
for spell r,:io:^.,::r'7ihi:i,?'; r ""'- r-^'^ '"- -"^ --^
General Eady with .0,000 nien o ' S,, n^:.: Vali '" "'* l""" ""''
General Earry, of its defenders the purnnse 1! *"• '•«'=<="''>• beared
RaMonWasi,. and possihlv nbl 7- "^ "^ '"^^ '° threaten Washin.rton
Su cLs a tended' EaHv'" '° '""'"' '"'' '"""^^ '"' ''^ 'I"'™-
feated Lew Wallace nel F ederic 'aL^^Tr-, "■= '"™^''^'' ^'"^y'^''' "-
which an i,nn,ediate attack mth; 7 1 ">« suburbs of Washington,
however, to attack tl e capt "f h ' P"* '" '"' ''^""- ^ot ven.urin,/
and cattle, to the Va e, wTe;e heT f "'",";- '' "'"' '^^^^^ ^P°"^ '" '--'s
'n one respect thi^^rve e, t' 1 t tn d "^ g"' ,^"'°' =" ^^™"-'--
weaken his forces to anv im,>„ , . ^™'" "■''' "ot induced to
in the Valley it n igh h^ "'Ct" 11^"'; b"1 " "''"" ''°--" >^^-"
sending Sheridan to take c'are o E rlv' ci,''"'J^'= r'"""'^'' ''""^^'f «'">
the growing hnpatience in the ct trv C T •"!? ,'"^ "■"'^' ^^=P"<=
propose a plan of operations buhrfiund^h"."^"f "'"• ^T''''^' '°
wtth the situation, and left hin, to hi: ow^devicls '■" "" '" '"" '""="
sheridi,;:!' ' :as':ct :« th'^ 'rr"°""r *'™«^^' '''^ ~n^. -a
and left, broke his ,ine:t, I'e^ry rect : ^Ts ^It if"' '''^•;"--" !"'" ^'^"«
•• Whirling to Washington, "Whirl v ti^-o, U "'' T '" "-'''-•S'-aphed
Through never «;„.„! '^''niing thiough Winchester." "I have
~- r; g ;t.ro.de:r"""7 ? ^'-^^ ^™'^--" s'--^-' "-
again atucked and^lefefte^Lr? atViIrs H-;';V'''""f^' ^'''"''"'
valley and into the gaps of the Blue Rid. t ' ^"'""'' '"'" °"' »' "'«
care^.°'rLtXtrat (^^ I,"": "T '^--^^^^ "^^ '" ^'-'^-'^
^"^PHsed by Early, the menl^^ -'nTc k it'^.i::Teri;V^o:f,:n-ttr:
14;
.M»^ :
1
AR
city of Savannah,
'nition, and about
iefly told. March-
led union assault,
self opposed again
place the news of
left for Johnston
rhomas, who had
o meet the hard-
lispersed his army
als that calls here
n 1S64 Lee sent
, recently cleared
aten Washington
is for its defence,
led Maryland, de-
sof Washinrrton.
iNot venturing,
: spoils in horses
k at Winchester,
not induced to
onevvall Jackson
ed himself with
'is time, despite
im, intending to
'as in full touch
! command, and
iked him ricrht
he telegraphed
tt-'i-." "I have
al Sheridan he-
rds. Sheridan
liini out of the
: in Sheridan's
iar C
reek
waj
and eighteen
:i!
>»
I
GRANT AND LEE AND THE CIVIL WAR
467
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guns and nearly a thousand prisoners were lost. Sheridan on his way back
from the capital, had stopped for the night at Winchester. On his way to the
front the next morning the sound of distant guns came to his ears. Per-
ceiving that a battle was in progress, he rode forward at full speed. Soon
he began to meet frightened fugitives, and guessed what had hai)pened.
Taking off his hat, he swung it in the air as he dashed onward at a gallop,
shouting, " Face the other way, boys ; face the other way. We're \roing
back to lick them out of their boots ! "
His words were electrical. The ." itives did "face the other way." As
he came nearer and met the retreating companies and regiments, he rallied
them with the same inspiring cry. Tiie men turned back. The Confederates,
who were rilling their camp, were astc unded to find a routed
army charging upon them. Dismay spread through their Sheridan's Ride
ranks, they were thrown into disorder, and were soon in full llight, havin:--
lost all the captured guns and twenty-four more, with a heavy loss in killed,
wounded, and prisoners. Since that day " Sheridan's ride " has been cele-
brated in song and story as the most dramatic incident of the war.
We have told some of the exciting events of the conflict from the
Union side. The Confederates also had their dashing generals and thrilling
deeds of valor. But this chapter is already so extended that we must con-
fine ourselves to an account of but one in addition to Lee, the renowned
Stonewall Jackson. It is well known how Thomas J. Jackson got this title
of honor. In the battle of Bull Run his men stood so firm amid the
disordered fragments of other corps, that General Bee called attention to
them: " Look at those Virginians! They stand like a stone wall." The
title of " Stonewall " clung to their leader until his death. His most famous
work was done in the Shenandoah Valley. In March. 1862, stonewall
he retreated before Banks some forty miles, then suddenly Jackson and
turned and with only 3,500 men drove him back in dismay. "'^ Exploits
But his most brilliant exploit was in April, when he whipped Milroy, Banks,
Shields, and Fremont, one after another, in the Valley, and then suddenly
turned, marched to Lee's aid, and helped to defeat McClellan at Gaines's
Mills, the first victory in the memorable six days' fight.
In August, 1862, he drove Pope back from the Rappahannock, and by
stubborn fighting held him fast until Longstreet could get up to aid in the
victory of the second Bull Run. We have told of his striking exploit at
Harper's Ferry, and how he won the day at Chanceilorsville. Here
he was wounded by a mistaken volley from his own men, was soon after at-
tacked with pneumonia, and died on May 10, 1863. Thus fell the ablest
man, after Lee, that the great contest developed on the Confederate side.
h :
M
.14
i
CHAPTER XXXII.
The Indian in the Nineteenth Century
'pHE relation of the American people to the Indians, since the first
1 ettlctnent of th.s country, has been one of conflict, wl,ich has bel
ahnost incessant ,n some sections of the land By the onenin.r of the
nme teenth century the red men had been driven back in greltTe s "re fro
the thirteen or,..„al states, but the tribes in the west wte s.Hl fr^ t ^
.nJr:'"" ^^ f, P™P°- '" '■';» ^''«P'er to describe the various relation,
both peaceful and warlike, which have existed between th,
whites and the red men durin, the century with which we are here crcerned
Tie close of the Revolutionary War brought only a partial cessation
of the In<l,an warfare. The red man was by no ineans c^s, osed ole u,"
his country without a struggle, and throughout the inte ior n li at is
now Indiana Illinois, and Wisconsin, and along the Ohio River he were
constant outbreaks, and battles of great severifv The .,„, r .' ,
brought forward the services of a yo^ung li::::::, Wi la m Ht ry"H : rt:"
who for many years had much to" do with Indians, both as m imry 0^
and as governor of the Indian territory In i8., aooeared ITL^
fnTstudf-Ttr" T' '^T' ■^"" '■"""^"« '.--" worTa e :::
and study Tecumseh, a mighty warrior of mixed Creek and Shawnee
blood, was one who dreamt the dream of freein.T his 00001! W H T
quence-and courage he urged them on, by skill he'co, bi d' he tHb ifa"
new alliance, and encouraged by British influence, he looked forward o !
great success. While he was seeking to draw the Southern Ind anH to h,'
scheme, his brother rashly joined battle with General Harriso! 1
utterly defeated in the fight which gained for Harn on ^ t Ue OM
Tippecanoe. Disappointed and disheartened at this destruction of his life
work, Tecumseh threw all his great influence on the British side in tltwt
Harri,„„.„d t !' '" '"'"f^" ''«'''' ™"^h destruction to the United
Tecumseh ^'="« "-oops- At Sandusky and Detroit and Chica<.o and at
other less important forts, the Indian power was severely felt
lerre Haute fhp vr„,,-,rv ^,.;„ v_ t L . ^cxci; icu ,
but aL Te
with such courage and readiness°of
463
aute the young captain Zachary Taylor met
th
e sav
ages
resources that they were finally repulsed
THE INDIAN IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY
469
ntury
IS, since the first
, which has been
le opening of the
L'at measure from
e still frequently
ogress westward,
i^arious relations,
ted between the
i here concerned,
partial cessation
Josed to give up
*ior, in what is
aver, there were
iHict in Indiana
4enry Harrison,
1 military officer
sd one of those
worth attention
and Shawnee
pie. With elo-
' the tribes in a
id forward to a
Indians into his
■rison, and was
he title of Old
tion of his life-
ide in the War
to the United
Chicago, and at
s severely felt ;
-t the savages
nally repulsed.
But rarely did a similar good fortune befall our troops ; and it was not until
after Commodore Perry won \ ictory for u , at Lake Erie, that Tecumseh
himself was killed, and the twenty-five hundred hulians of his force were
finally scattered, in the great fight of the Thames River, where our troops
were commanded by William Henry Harrison and Richard M. Johnson,
afterward President and Vice-President of the United States. For a little
time the Northwest had peace. But in the South the warfare was not over.
Tecumseh had stirred up the Creeks and Seminoles against the whites, and
throughout Alabama, Georgia, and Northern Florida the Creek War raged
with all its horrid accompaniments until 1814 ; even the redoubtable Andrew
Jackson could not conquer the brave Creeks until they were almost extermi-
nated, and then a small remnant remained in the swamps of Florida to be
heard of at a later time.
Before the new government of the United States was fully upon its
feet it recognized the necessity and duty of caring for its Indian population.
In 1775, a year before the Declaration of Independence, the Continental
Congress divided the Indians into three departments, northern, middle and
southern, each under the care of three or more commissioners, among whom
we find no less personages than Oliver Wolcott, Philip Schuyler, Patrick
Henry and Benjamin Franklin. As early as 1832 the young
nation found itself confronted with a serious Indian problem^ "^pS
created a separate bureau for the charge of the red men, and
inaugurated a definite policy of treatment. Speaking in general, we have
altered this policy three times. As a matter of fact, we have altered its
details, changed its plans, and adopted new methods of management as often
as changing administrations have changed the administrators of our Indian
afi'airs. But in the large, there have been three great steps in our Indian
policy, and these have to some extent own out of our changing conditions.
The first plan was that of the reservations. Under that system, as the
Indian land was wanted by the white population, the red man was removed
across the Mississippi and pushed step by step still further west ; and as
time went on and the population followed hard after, he was
eventually confined to designated tracts. Yet dispite the fact %'o^n"'"®"*
that these tracts were absolutely guaranteed to him, he was ° "^^
driven off them again and again as the farmer or the miner demanded the
land. In time a new policy was attempted, or rather an old policy was
revived, that of concentrating the whole body of Indians into one state or
territory., but the obvious impossibility of that scheme soon brought it to an
end. Less than thirty years ago the present plan took its place, that of
education and eventual absorption.
470
ft«
|C
#
P
■
7-/« /A.Z>/WA. W THE NINErmm-l, CENTURY
tains pr,„nisecl to fur, sh hun 1^ , ";''''™'^" "^ ""-• ««l<y M„u„.
Valley and .he No e t ^ ''« 7"" "^ ■'," """•• ''''"^ "'-'-iPl"
Nations were greatly in hewavof I '■ "" '" ""^ ■^"""' "'"^ '"i^e
removal of the latter bevoncT'L M •' " ""» "'°"' ""'' ""^ -'^"^ "f "«
Monroe several treaties'™ e, a t^^;'^''' '"'' '^-l^""- , 1^-'- President
kees, Chocta.s, Chickasaws Indtn;- l^Ly 'C rrlt 'r^^' ""'r
Tl :;„::, 7, now known as the Indian Territory.
leaders con,bining^„ blooc '', rtl ^' "l '""'' ''" "'"''"'""■ "''^
mans experience and educati, n I r ■"' "^'""-•"<=^» and the white
Cherokees, of unusnal abtyb ou.it , 'Z ' '""■''^^"='' '''''^' "< ''-
more favorable than of,c.o burred He ' "I"""''' ""''''•^ ~"''"'""»
the Indians, and it was not wTtho":; f^ '"' T'^^ °PP°^"' ^y '"" "■■''If
kind that the great southern "*-" ''""' '°'^'''^ »' '^''e than one
set aside for then! TZI X^l 'X''"' " "'^ '^'^ ^"" '^'"^ ''•'-'
John Ross and his associates that this I. ' °"''"^' '° ''"^ ^''«^<="y °f
in which no other land has eve ■'f' ■"""'''='' '° "^^m, in a way
hold it to-day by patent.t s: et't'hr::,': Jf^L" l'"''^" ""'? '"-^
manor house or a Viro-inin r.1 . .• T ^''^ ^^^ ^^ ^'i" «W Dutch
tribunals has no: SZ^/Zt:;^::^:!' '''^ j;!^^"''^^ ''< ^^-^ highest
obligations. To these men too VndM 7 ■ "■ '^"""'^''"^ "'«^= =°l<^'""
their tribes, do they owe an ;fe;i:e fo ° 1^ •'";"'°"='"" ^^'^ '""S '-i^l"
w_,... f''y.»''.-chpteserJ::re::atr";;Th:™T"""'
west with their bre h n ^h L! "r ' 7" t""'' ^°™« "' ^^m goin^
With these-about 4 ooo i a,llf„de"r";h "' """ "'™'"'"g '" F'-'da''
the government fought a s' „ "aTs't r '''"^""' '"'^ ^'''"'' °^«^'=''
a.estirj^~!-^;":-^^^^ The sav-
mLr ^d'-ont thaf :;:;:^;t: zz'1^ ?'-° -" -^o^ :!
Thus the Sae and Fo. trTe„'w7" ''™ °' '"'""^f"' ■•--'-'«•
Keokuk and one band w,-,, peaccabl """ "'", ^''^'''«'- ■•>"<' although
B.ac. Hawk and •- foHow:rsre'V-;:d-;:':- -^ ^^
JRY
iil)Ie need of the
le Rocky Moun-
The Mississippi
South the Five
I the work of the
Jntler President
Creeks, Chero-
: after another,
ncl took in ex-
\'vM\ Territory.
viHzation, with
i and the white
^1 chief of the
ider conditions
ed by full half
more than one
md fertile land
He sagacity of
them, in a way
' tribe. They
an old Dutch
af the highest
these solemn
long taught
governmental
1 the red men,
minoles, who
f them going
ig in Florida,
lief, Osceola,
'es and forty
le Seminoles
THE INDIAN IN Till- NINETEENTH CENTURY 471
force. The Indian Department failed to furnish corn enough for the new
settlement, and, going to seek it among the Winne'oagoes, the Indians
came into collision with the government. Therepfter ensued a series of
misunderstandings, and consequent fights, resulting in great HostlUtlcH with
alarm among the whites and destruction to the Indians. The is'orthem'^
story is the same story, almost to details, that has been fre- '•"''"'^^
quently seen since that time. After the fashion above described all the
removals have i)roceeded, the cause ever the same, the white man's greed
and the ferocity of the wronged and infuriated savage.
It is useless and impossible to give the details of all the various tribes
that have been pushed about in the manner described. In 1830 the Fast
was already crowding toward the West, and every succ(;eding decade saw
the frontier moved onward with giant strides. Everywhere the Indian was
an undesirable neighbor, and when, in 1849, the discovery of gold began to
create a new nation on the Pacific slope, a pressure began from that side
also, and the intervening deserts became a thoroughfare for the pilgrims of
fortune and the lovers of adventure. From year to year the United States
made fresh treaties with the tribes ; those in the East were Treatment of
gone already, those in the interior were following fast, and the Western
there hnd arisen the new necessity of dealing with those in '"'"a"*
the far West. One tribe after another would be planted on a reservation
millions of acres in extent and apparently far beyond the home of civiliza-
tion, and almost in a twelvemonth the settler would be upon its border,
demanding its broad acres. The reservations were altered, reduced, taken
away altogether, at the pleasure of the government, with little regard to
the rights or wishes of the Indian. Usually this brought about fighting,
and it produced a state of permanent discontent that wrought harm for
both settler and savage. The Indian grew daily more and more treacherous
and constantly more cruel. The white settler was daily in greater dancrer,
and constan*^- • more eager for revenge.
A new :')mplication entered into the problem. Tne game was fast
disappearing, and with it the subsistence of the Indian. It became neces-
sary for the government to furnish rations and clothes, lest he should starve
and freeze. Cheating was the rule and deception the every-day experience of
these savages. In 1795 General Wayne gained the nickname
of General To-morrow, so slow was the government to fulfill General •« To-
his promises ; and thus for more than a hundred years it was '"^""''"'^ "
to-morrow for the Indian. Exasperated beyond endurance, he was ever
ready to retaliate, and the horrors of an Indian war constantly hung over
the pioneer, During all this period we treated the Indian tribes as if they
47«
THE INDIAN W THE NINI-TKHNTII CKNrUKY
more than a ^ZZ7^^::X:^7 c""'"'^ We havo ,U
authority f<,r the st .tomon. th r 1 ^'•'"'^'■■'' ^'"^'■'"■"' i» '''e
by <i.y the ghatot ;',,;:' ;:';::: '--f - -,->• -ne or th,.,„. „a,
tl>e bitter fcclin,. „f c„„. ;, " ',, j'^,, T ,""•' T' "' '""">^- ^"''
madden hi,,,. ' "''' '° ''"i""^^^"-' ""= ■'"l ■"■I" as well as t„
o".i.reak was a „t„.„ inni^iv.^t' ,, ,,:'::ii t ''v7r"' " 1 Y'-
days as m the earlier period if u\. ' --I'^vays, m the latter
"- "Id warriors to ' « i ' li^.ZT.r """",'""'' "" ""^ ''"^' »'
MotI, ,l„. P '"> •"•■•" sl'l^l'ii'i; nu-ay so fast
Thestoux War ,." " "'"<-' "'«« e-terecl into the awful Si^n.x W „• in Min
ofi86j "esota in 1862. Sufferiu" fron, ,.il 1 ""
un<ler the loss ,.f , '""» ''""' l"l''d-i'l' "rouns, sM,artini;
was their opportu,ity\rr.v of "'"■,■■"', "',""'°'" "'^' ""^ '^'"l Wu°
most lK,^rid'l,,assacrc^:o' 'Im-Z r :- ;t "'''''°"-; '"-■^'"" ""=
which laste<l ,uore than 1 vear Z, 7-\ ' '^Kmnin^; of a struggle
fidelity of theChrist," In'l L 1 1::;::'! -"-^-^I'''-- for tl,e steadtt
white men owed tl,eir lives Po 1 '' '■""' "'""'' "''"'*= ''odies of
in Montana cans 1 h , ,vasl: ofr s'^'" '" '«^«' "«= *--ery of gold
set about defending it CrZ 1 '"•■^'""^^--™'i™. -"J Red Cloud
warrior, he fought the whke ,'an lo ,""; '"^' ^™" °'''' '^"' "" "'-n
of his race. ^ ' """ ^°"« ""'^ desperately and with the cunning
wont™: g:fe::t;;rf„:;:rth' '''""^' ""r. '^"'"^^ "-"--'■ ^^ »- ^^^
band of the Che " , es it'li ,t d'wid,'"^ ■ T '"^'^ °' P"'^^'' -'' ^' -'■•'"
General Sheridan .uad^hstiei?" "," "'"" "'='^ ^^h"- "oighbors.
mination, and in Nov ,1 er ■ 68 t'T '^^ ""^'"^' '"' "" ""^ "^ -'<'-
village and after a s^vere^l. ht d ,'"f ^''''"'' '"'' "'^"'' "l-k Kettles
hund'-re.l warriors a, dptul/lIJ^f' ''' ''''^'- ^'^^'"^ "-re than a
next year General Sherida lied ,,' w': I'a" ""'' ^"'''"■"- ''''^
mg grounds the treaty had reserved o tl, ^ ^'"1 Cl,eye„„es off the hunt-
«a,.„e o, and bravest of th" tribe LTd th'e "■ "T ,"" '''^""S^^'
ae„er.icu„. "umber of Civil VVar herl Pro ,V"''''- "''"■ ^
ter'sCom- ivt^t^ . , , ^^ ^'^ "^'^"es, Lrook, Terry, Custer xMiles and
McKenz.e, led our troops, and among the chiefs w 11 ,h
Snof. , T •, "''''" ' ^^"^ ^"^^ ^'^■^P^'-^t- stru..de Were Crtv H .^
Spotted Ia<l, notable warriors both. At the E.^rof H rr m''' ^"^
somemisunderstandin.rorp.is.inna'-M7rm r ^ ^'^" "°'""' ^y
f.ve compan.es to mee^'ne;ri;t ?e r^ust^r 'T"^^
-iny intee thousand savage Sioux. \U fought
>cm, aijrcfMn^' to
W^.- have made
•*^lu'iinaii is the
: ^r them. Day
<: of wronjr, and
nan as well as to
'■ threats of the
use of an Indian
ays, in the latter
on tJK; part of
: nway so fast,
ux War in Min-
fonns, smartin<r
the Civil War
ioux began the
i of a struggle
r the steadfast
vhole bodies of
scovery of gold
uid Red Cloud
, but no mean
th the cunninL'-
^d. As was its
:e, and a small
ite neighbors.
I war of exter-
Black Kettle's
more than a
liildren. The
i off the hunt-
the strongest
he order. A
:er, Miles and
s whom they
y Horse and
»ig Horn, by
left with only
He fought
THE INI)/ AN IN THE NINEIEENTII CENTURY
473
desperately until the last, but he was killed and his command so utterly des-
troyed that not a single man was left alive. The attempt to remove the
Modocs from California to Oregon in 1S72 was the signal for a new war; and
a year or two afterwards similar results followcid when it was attem[)teil to
push the Nez Perces from the homes they had sought in Oregon to a new
reservation in Idaho. This tribe, unch.-r its famous leader, Chief Joseph, was
hard to contpier. The military organization, the civilized method of warfare,
and the courage and skill of the tribe were publicly complimented i)y Gen-
erals Sherman, Howard and Gibbons, who declared Chief Joseph lo be one
of the greatest of modern warriors.
In 1S77, discouraged by tiie failure of our efforts to hold the Imlians in
check, it was determined by S -cretary Schurz, then in charge of the Depart-
ment of the Interior, to remo\e them all to the western part of the Indian
Territory, where the tribes in possession agreed to cede the necessary land.
It was hoped to create there an Indian commonwealth, but trouble arose from
the attempt to carry out the well-meant effort. A single story, the story of the
Northern Cheyennes, will illustrate the wrongs the Indian suffered, as well
as those he intl* ed. The Cheyennes, as ha'-- been seen, were a tribe of
valiant warriors ome of them at home in the hills of the North, some
residing in the hills of the South. The Cheyennes, Arapahocs, Kiowas
and Comanches were banded together in a close and common bond, and,
at first the friends of the government, had become frequently its enemies,
by reason of broken faith, cruel treatment, injustice, and downright wrong.
That chronicle of misery, " A Century of Dishonor," contains forty pages
of facts taken from the government records, which relate the Barbarous
inexcusable and indefensible treatment of the Cheyenne tribe Treatmentof
by the government, and their vain endurance of wrongs, inter- the Cheyennes
spersed with savage outbreaks, when human nature could endure no longer.
It includes the account of a massacre of iu;li)less Indian women and children
under a tlag of truce ; a war begun over ponies stolen from the Indians, and
sold in the open market by the whites in a land where the horse thief counts
with the murderer ; another incited by a rage against a trader who paid one
dollar bills for ten dollar bills ; and tells of whole tracts of land seized with-
out compensation by the United States itself.
The Northern Cheyennes had been taken by force to the Indian Terri-
torry, and in its severe heat, with scant and poor rations, a pestilence came
npon them. Two thousand were sick at once, and many died because there
was not medicine enough. At last three hundred braves, old men and young,
with their women and children, broke away and, making a raid through
Western Kansas, sought their Nebraska home. This was not a mild and
i J;3
iT-
474
wm
If^ f
H
me WDJ..,N IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY
peaceable tribe. It was fierr^ o„,i
How the Chey. times they drove back f h,^ tr,. . i "^"ncicsb terror. J hree
at Fort Robinson \n tl>at n om A , , '""■ 'r'"'^' ""= ""''■""■y ^^°--
-Hleraflagof truce ev wen ■ '^" T-"" "' '"^' '*" ''""'» <=»'"« ""t
broke loos: insi.le ' 'nl ^^t T ""'T""""'' ■''''™ I'-d'---"."
with the twisted iron. Th ey Lro H ™':/"\"" ^^r ''°^^^' ^""' f""«'"
like devils, they rushed ou int tl= LiX anrihe' " "T' "'"'' '"'"'""«
they were shot down lil<e do.rs ^ ^ ''"°*- -^"'-*" 'I'-'y- '■"«'■
IndianT:r TL't: leiuf d tTthe oH T™"/ ? *-'=""- '"■-"- «" "-
little n>ore certainty of ^^a" h ° bl ' T "'' '''^^'-'^'i-^. >™t with
fohowed by fighting, name'l o r '^f " '"^ "^ain starvation was
upon the white ,na,r Weri '2 ."'"", "'^ ''"''"' ''^ ""<=' °'"-S-
or Sioux in Dakota, it was IL^ "T^^ ^ ;';XTn°""Tr, '" ^T "'=•'''"•
danjfer menacing the white s.-ttler W 7 ^ '"• '"''' "'"stant
constant outragt upon -ed , a bv ' "^^ r''^ '"'^'"' ^'"'^
Pr..e„.o™. govern-:,... fou,:d : ^ w .oh^Tn^L::;' ^Tl' "","" '"^
Congress over t e\ ; i'^i; I'lr ""T '""T" '"^ '"" ""--»'
negotiated, and the ses b , d 'H „' ' "''=""' '^^"''"•'^ ""■'> J"^t
service. The necessity o on c V" "" "l^l^™'^'''--"-" '"^ the Indian
of a bill which was paJsed ."a 1" ! "s" "" """■""*= ' "" ^''" '™^ ^'-'-''
in the hands of PreLen Gra, t ; ' 1 T'' 'r""'» '"" '"""""^ "' ^"llars
and protection of thj i ,dh^ ,-1, " 'T' f '"^ •^■•'" «' '"' "'e civilisation
con,posed of nine pWl'^hrooic H '''"'' '"""' '° '■'■^"''' ■•> -'"'"i^ion
Indian and advise h'^ the X, '1-™^^ to overlook the affairs of the
and continues to this cby i T' iefi " '°'"'^'^'^'°" --ved without salary
followed. At the next C Ire a I """'" "'""^'^ ""''''""'
treaties with Indians, a"d t ' c L h 2vT """""'' '°''""'"« ••'"^ '""-
and rivals, as practically .hnasj;"l:,re '^ "'" "''"'^'"^ ' ""' f°-'«--
. .'";'■■"■"•"' "*77llad indirectly annth.T beneficent, U
ing in Its consequences Amon.r M, . I '"'"'-'"='-"" e^ult, most far-reach-
.- -. .«™i ... cr:i ■txrK-;:iK;,.t;i-^^^
its people were
terror. 'I'hree
t to face them,
irough Kansas,
icember. They
t ordered them
he imprisoned
mercury froze
iefs came out
l)andemonium
2s, and foui^lit
and, liowlino-
'en days later
-rether all our
ons, but with
tarvation was
ruel outrages
New Mexico,
vith constant
Indian, and
whites, the
s policy was
- of events.
J Houses of
s then just
the Indian
was devised
ns of dollars
civilization
commision
'airs of the
hout salary
>le measure
i: any more
; foreigners
t far-reach-
the Chey-
t, who was
1
.1 \\ii.> '-.. i;i \iNK
WILLIAM M. KIMKV
i;!;
■^r^r
liiti
Ml II
^^^B 1
s
^B i
i^^^B
^^H >?
< ^^Mi
^^m-t
1
jM
^^Kmi K
|«f
m
Mil
iJH
1
^ I
WmiKl.AW REIl
JULIAN HAWTHORNE
RICHARD HARDING OAVIS.
NOTED AMERICAN JOURNALISTS AND MAGAZINE CONTRIBUTORS^!"'''
CKT SHAW.
. vvAiriiRroN.
THE INDIAN IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 477
put in charge of the prisoners who had been sent to Fort Marion, Florida,
as a punishment worse than death. They were the wildest and fiercest
warriors, who had fought long and desperately. On their way East they
kdi' .'dieir guard, and repeatedly tried, one and another, to kill themselves.
B:. Captain Pratt was a man of wonderful executive ability, of splendid
courage and great faith in God and man. By firmness and patience and
wondrous tact he gradually taught the savages to read and to work, and when
after three years the government offered to return them to their captain Pratt
homes, twenty-three of them refused to go. Captain Pratt and his Cap-
appealed to the government to continue their education, and *'^®^
General Armstrong, with his undying faith in human beings as children of
one Father and his sublime enthusiasm for humanity, received most of them at
Hampton Institute, the rest being sent to the North under the care of Bishop
Huntington, of New York. In the end these men returned to their tribes
Christian men, and, with the seventy who returned directly from Florida,
they became a power for peace and industry in their tribe. Out- of
this small beginning grew the great policy of Indian education, and the long
story of death and destruction began to change to the bright chronicle of
peace and education.
What, then, is the condition of the Indian to-day? In number there
are scarcely more than two hundred and forty thousand in the whole coun-
try. Of these less than one-fifth depend upon the government for support.
All told, they are fewer than the inhabitants of Buffalo or Cleveland or
Pittsburg, yet they are not dying out, but rather steadily increasing. They
are divided and subdivided into many tribes of different characteristics
and widely different degrees of civilization. Some are Sioux — these are
brave and able and intelligent ; they live in wigwams or tepees, and are
dangerous and often hostile. Some are Zunis, who live in
houses and make beautiful pottery, and are mild and peace- "o^ the Indians
able, and do not question the ways of the Great Father at
Washington. Some are roving bands of Shoshones, dirty, ignorant, and
shiftless — the tramps of their race — who are on every man's side at once.
Some are Chilcats or Klinkas, whose Alaskan homes offer new problems of
new kinds for every day we know them. And some are Cherokees, living
in fine houses, dressed in the latest fashion, and spending their winters in
Washington or Saint Louis.
Yet these, and many of other kinds, are all alike Indians. They have
their own governments, their own unwritten laws, their own customs. As
a race they are neither worthless nor degraded. The Indian is not only
brave, strong, and able by inheritance and practice to endure, but he is
i
I'll
%
4/3
THE INDIAN IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY
1 !
patient under wrong, ready and eager to learn, and willing to undergo much
pnva ,on for that end ; usually affectionate in his family relations, grateful
o a degree, pure and careful of the honor of his wife and dauiditer ^ and
he ,s also patriotic to a fault. He has a genius for governme^it, and an
unusual interest in it. He is full of manly honor, and he Is strongly reli-
gious. His history and traditions have only recently been traced to^he de-
light and surprise of scientific students. His daily life is a thina of ela-
borate ceremonial, and his national existence is as carefully regulated as our
own, and by an intricate code. It is true that our failure to comprehend
his character and our neglect to study his customs have bred many faults
in him and have fostered much evil. Our treatment of him. moreo4r has
procluced and increased a hostility which has been manifested in sa^a^e
methods for which we have had little mercy.
But we have not always given the same admiration to warlike virtues
when our enemy was an Indian that we have showered without sMnt upon
ancient oaul or modern German. The popular idea of the Indian not only
Indian Character ^^'^^°"^^''^^e.^, |^'« character, but to a large degree his habits also.
and Habits ^^e" ^"e wildest tribes live for the most part in huts or cabins
made of logs, with two windows and a door. In the middle
is a hre. sometimes with a stovepipe and sometimes without. Here the
food IS cooked, mostly stewed, in a kettle hung gypsy-fashion, or laid on
tones over the fire Around the fire, each in a particular place of his own
lies or sits the whole f..mily.. Sometimes the cooking is done out of doors'
and in summer the close cabin is exchanged for a tepee or tent. Here thev
ive night and day. At night a blanket is hung up, partitioning the tent
for the younger women and if the family is very large, there are often two
tents, in the smaller of which sleep the young girls in charge of an old
woman These tents or cabins are clustered close together, and their in-
habitants spend their days smoking, talking, eating, or quarreling, as the
case may be Sometimes near them, sometimes miles away, is the a<rent's
house and the government buildings. These are usually a commissary build-
ing where the food for the Indians is kept, a blacksmith shop, the store of
he trader, school buildings, and perhaps a saw-mill To this place the
Indians come week by week for their food. The amount and nature of the
The Indian '^^'^^ '^"^^ ^°' ^^ ^""^^t'^^ ^^^Y g^-eatly among different
Agencies ^^''^es. But everywhere the Indian has come into some sort of
contact with the whites, and usually he makes some shift to
adopt the white man's ways. A few are rich, some own houses, and almost
universally, at present, government r-^hools teach the children something
of the elements of learning as well as the indispensable Fn<dish
THE INDIAN IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 479
The immediate control of the reservation Indian is in the hands of the
agent, whose power is ahnost absokito, and, like all despotisms, may be
very good or intolerably bad according to the character of the man. The
agencies are visited from time to time by inspectors, who report directly to
the Commissioner of India.. Affairs.— an officer of the Interior Department
and responsible to the secretary, who is, of course, amenable to the Presi-
dent. In each house of Congress is a committee having charge of all legis-
lation relating to Indian affairs. Besides these officials there is the Indian
Commission already mentioned. The National Indian Rights Association
and the Women's National Indian Association are the unofficial and volun-
tary guardians of the Indian work. It is their task to spread correct infor-
mation, to create intelligent interest, to set in motion public and private
forces which will bring about legislation, and by public meetings and private
labors to prevent wrongs against the Indian, and to further good work of
many kinds. While the Indian Rights Association does the jhe indran
most public and official work for the race and has laree in- Rights Asso.
fluence over legislation, the Women's Indian Association con- '^'^"°"
cerns itself more largely with various philanthropic efforts in behalf of the
individual, and thus the two bodies supplement each other.
Hopeless and impossible as it seemed to many when this effort began
to absorb the Indian, to-day we see the process well under way and in some
cases half accomplished ; and in this work the government, philanthropy,
education and religion have all had their share, and so closely have these
worked together that neither can be set above nor before the others. We
began to realize, it is true, that our duty and our safety alike lay in educating
the Indians as early as 18 19, when Congress appropriated $10,000 for that
purpose, and still earlier President Washington declared to a deputation of
Indians his belief that industrial education was their greatest
need ; but it is only within recent years that determined efforts ^rEdSTcation
have been made or adequate provision afforded. Beginning
with $10,000 in 1819, we had reached only $20,000 in 1877 ." but the appro-
priation for Indian education is now over $2,500,000. With this money we
support great industrial training schools established at various convenient
points. In them several thousand children are learning not only books, but
all manner of industries, and are adding to study the training of character.
There are more than 150 boarding schools on the various reservations
teaching and training these children of the hills and plains, and many
gather daily at the three hundred little day schools which dot the prairies,
some of them appearing to the unintiated to be miles away from any habi-
tation. This does not include the mission schools of the various churches.
I;i|
" ■ !,
.'..ill
i.. ';u
I'll
Mf
480
THE INDIAM IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY
\ !
H 1
But a 1 together it is hoped that in the excellent <rovernment schools now
provided, in the splendid missionary seminaries, and in the oreat centres of
light like Hampton and Carlisle and Haskell Institute, we shall soon do
something for the education of nearly or quite all the Indian children who
can be reached with schools. At present the daily school attendance is
over 20,000.
The two great training schools at the East, Hampton and Carlisle,
Hampton and li'^^ve proved object lessons for the white man as well as the
dian'sc'hoois ^"'''''"' ^""^ ^''^ opposition they constantly encounter from
those who do not believe that the red man can ever receive
civilization is in some sort a proof of their value. In the main, they and
all their kind have one end— the thorough and careful training in books and
work and home life of the Indian boy and girl— and their methods are much
alike. Once a year the superintendents or teachers of these schools go out
among the Indians and bring back as many boys and girls as they can per-
suade the fathers and mothers to send. At first these children came in dirt
and filth, and with little or no ideas of any regular or useful life, but of late
many of them have gained some beginnings of civilization in the day
schools. They are taught English first, and by degrees to make bread and
sew and cook and wash and keep house if they are girls ; the trade of a
printer, a blacksmith, a carpenter, etc., if they are boys. They study books,
the boys are drilled, and from kind, strong men and gentle, patient women
they learn to respect work and even to love it, to turn their hands to any
needed effort, to adapt themselves to new situations.
It is charged that the Indian educated in these schools does not remain
civilized, but shortly returns to his habits and customs. A detailed examina-
tion into the lives of three hundred and eighteen Indian students who have
The Effect of ^°"^ °"' ^^""^ Hampton Institute has shown that only thirty-five
Education have in any way disappointed the expectations of their friends
and teachers, and only twelve have failed altogether; and the
extraordinary test of the last Sioux war, in which only one of these students,
and he a son-in-law of Sitting Bull, joined the hostiles, may well settle the
question. A recent statement says that 76 per cent, of the school graduates
prove "good average men and women, capable of taking their place in the
great body politic of our country."
In 1887 a new step was taken for the advancement of the Indian, in
the passage of the Severalty Act, by which homesteads of 160 acres were
set aside for each head of a family willing to accept the proffer, and smaller
homesteads for other members of the family. These were to be free from
taxation and could not be sold for twenty-five years. They might be
THE INDIAN OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY
481
selected on the reservation of the tribe or anywhere else on the pubHc
domain. This allotment of land carried with it all the riirhts, privileges
and immunities of American citizenship. In case the Indian
should not care to take up a homestead, he could still become Thejeveralty
a citizen if he took up his residence apart from the tribe and
adopted civilized habits. The purpose was to break up the tribal organiza-
tion which had stood so greatly in the way of the beneficent purposes of
the government, and to convert each Indian into an individual citizen of the
United States.
The effort has been attended with highly encouraging success. Within
twelve years after the law was passed 55,467 Indians had taken up homesteads,
aggregating in all 6,7o8,6?8 acres. Of these agriculturists, more than 15,000
were heads of families, around whose farms were gathered the smaller ones
of the other members of the family. The change to the
independence and responsibilites of United States citizenship The Homestead
11 • 1 T 1- Indians
was so sudcien as to prove a severe stram to the Indian,
accustomed to consider himself a fraction of a tribe and lackintx the full
sense of individuality. Yet the failures have been very few, and we begin
to see our way clear to a final disposal of the long-existing Indian question.
As regards the effect of religious training upon the Indians, it may be
said to be quite encouraging. Of the 33,000 Sioux, for instance, 8,000 are
now church members. The Presbyterian Church numbers nearly 5,000
Indian members and 4,000 Sunday-school pupils ; while the total number
ot church communicants among the Indians is nearly 30,000.
Thus, with the close of the nineteenth century, there is good reason to
hope for the end of a serious difficulty that has confronted the whites since
their first settlement in this country nearly three hundred years ago. War,
slaughter, injustice, wrongs innumerable have attended its attempted solu«
tion, which long seemed as if it would be reached only when all the red men
had been exterminated. Fortunately it was justice, not slaughter, that was
needed, and the moment our government awoke fully to this
fact and began to practice justice the difficulty began to disap- ^!?^ !?"*';?"!f °*
T^j. ^ . ... ^ . ^ Indian Policy.
pear. 1 o-day just treatment, education, religious training are
rapidly overcoming the assumed ineradicable savageness of the Indian, while
the breaking up of the tribal system promises before many years to do away
with the political aggregation of the Indians, and distribute them among
the other citizens of our country as members of the general body politic.
Thus has the ninpfepnth rf>ntnt-\' hiinnjlir rlicnocprl of ^n o wrl'T-rqi-rl rM-r>Kl"i->-i
that threatened seriously the successful development of our nation a
century ago.
?7
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[i i:
I
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rjcjcsun
Fi
Pf
rtni I
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CHAPTER XXXIII.
The Development of the American Navy.
I N scarcely any department of hnman industry are the chans;es produced
* Whn r^''" ''V'"-'"'"'' '"°^^ ^'^'^'"•'•''>' ==- "'•-'""> tl'e navy.
«,nH u"''"'^ ™^' discovered the galleon and the caravel were the
s andard warsh.ps o the world-clumsy wooden tubs, towering high in he
a dCntmel' >! ' "1 ''''" ?"' "'"' ^ '^^^"^ ""■"''- °< -""cannons
and men armed w,th muskets and cross-bows. St.ch was the kind of vessels
V nouThedT ' r '-'°r^T'" """'Sjreat fleet invincible," whichta
vearT I ave n7 T '7 T '"'' ''^*'" "'"' °' ^^^'^i"- Three hundred
years have passed, and what is the warship of to-day? A low-lying hulk
N.V.. Arch., wh.ch throws a heaviershot than a galleon's whole broadside ;
lifted and .,.7, '"f '"^'^.^'y "'™"g'' "'<= ^ater by mighty steam engines ;
.ghted and steered by electr.c apparatus, and using an electric search.li<.h
that makes m.dn.ght as bright as day. All the triumphs of science a^nd
mon^rs r r 'T''}'"""' '" ""= P^^f^"'°" "f ''-- dreadful sea
monsters, a ,ngle one of which could have destroyed the whole Armada in
an hour and laughed to scorn the might of Nelson at TrafaL^ar
has won »'" ,d«^"=l°P"'™t of this modern warship no other nation on earth
the ea ha be ^ ,"" """^' ^'■•""'' '''' ^""°'« ^^^^^^ °< -'-h upon
have ^Wd °"', ^'"'^""^ "'^^"^^' ^^'"''^ "^ '"^^'^'^ and -engineers
ment ff n w '"" ' ''""r ^' '■" ^""'"'^^'^ •-""' -•'i'"-' '" 'h=i^ develop-
ment of new ,deas m naval architecture and warfare. Of all ocean exploits
^herE,:?',. Tm r'-, ^'"■'' ^elsonhimself scarcely showed such Indond-
., ;,■ J , P ' ■''"d intrepidity. And in the war of l8l2 Ameri-
can sh.ps and sadors took from Great Britain the credit of being the mistress
of the seas, wmmng gallantly in every conflict where the forces engacred were
at all near equality. ^ '='
fh. A^^''- ^"'"'^ ■'^°''^ °^ '^^ '^''^'^ '"''' ^''^^^ by that of the shipwrights
f ' on":""r"r? ''"'^^ '''^''' '^^^"-^^ ^^^y '-^ ^^"- ^hips than fhe';
suDeriorirv of l',^ .^heir success was also in great measure due to the
supenonty of their ordnance and the better service of their guns. It was
lavy.
n<res produced
1 in the navy,
avel were the
g high in the
imall cannons,
;ind of vessels
le," which was
bree hundred
3w-lying hulic
each one of
le broadside >
earn engines ;
c search-hght
science and
dreadful sea
e Armada in
r.
tion on earth
f which upon
nd engineers
beir develop-
:ean exploits
nme Richard
such indomi-
1812 Ameri-
the mistress
ngaged were
shipw^rights,
psthan their
due to the
ins. It was
\
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III
hi" • sli
Mi IWm
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THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE AMERICAN NAVY
4«5
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to the careful .si*;litin^r of tlic pieces that our sailors owed much of their
victorious career. While most of the British shot were wasted
on the sea and in the air, nearly all the American balls went '^"'^'•'"n
home, carrying death to the British crews and destruction to ""^ '*'"""* ''
their hulls and spars, while the American ships and sailors escaped in
great measure unharmed.
As regards the work of our naval inventors, it will suffice to say, that
the Americans, while not the first to plate vessels with iron, were the first
to do so effectively and to prove the superiority of the ironclad in naval
warfare. The memorable contest in Hampton Roads between the Monitor
and the Mcrrimac made useless in a day all the lleets of all the nations of
the world, and caused such a revolution in naval architecture and warfare as
the world had never known.
The fleet with which the United States entered the nineteenth century
was due to the depredations on American ships and commerce of the war
vessels of France and Great Britain. This roused great indignation, par-
ticularly against France. While England contented herself with stopping
American ships on the high seas and impressing sailors claimed to be of
British birth, France seized our ships themselves, under the pretext that
they had British goods on board, and if she found an American seaman on
a British ship — even if impressed — she treated him as a The Early
pirate instead of as a prisoner of war. Protection was felt American
to be necessary, and preparations for war were made. The "^^^^
small navy of the Revolution had practically disappeared, and a new one
was built. In July, 1798, the three famous frigates, the Constellation, the
United States, and the Constitntion — the renowned Old Ironsides — were
completed and sent to sea, and others were ordered to be built. Actual
hostilities soon began. French piratical cruisers were captured, and an
American squadron sailed for the West Indies to deal with the French
privateers that abounded there, in which work it was generally successful.
In January, 1799, Congress voted a million dollars, for building six ships of
the line and six sloops. Soon after, on February 9, occurred
the first engagement between vessels of the American and The Naval War
French navies. The Constellation, Captain Truxton, over-
hauled L Instirgente at St. Kitts, in the West Indies, and after a fight of an
hour and a quarter forced her to surrender The Constellation had three
men killed and one wounded ; L Insurgente twenty killed and forty-six
VvOUnucd.
Again, on Fel ruary i, 1800, Truxton with the Constellation came up,
at Guadeloupe, with the French Frigate La Vengeance. After chasing her
Il '
iA
486
^//A- n^r;:AoP,fy^^r or rm AArr^fCAN navy
awa- ami escaped ,0 Curn^oa w he 'o sh ^ ""l '''"'">' ^''••"'"^•''' <l^<-'»-
K''"."..) rruxton ree.ive<l a .0 1 Z| rr™/" '"'^ "»-'«'•"».'■ for his
THe';(e:!i:r:::i:^^^;^t^^„--^-^^.. ^7'- ^e. .s...,.
""«e.„ ,,,,ip,, ,i, „f ,^,,.^,^ w," o be k,L P"'V'' •■'" "■'^ "">■■ '•••ve
to d,.™,,, from the service all olfic^r, 'nv ' .™""""">- "' "'"""ission, and
ants, and one hundred and f.fty ,, d'hin , "'"" ^^T"''' "''"J'-^'" "'=>"™-
waspurchasedandnavy.yardsie ! r, \ "'" ""' "''"•-• fc™""''
York, Philadelphia, VV^4Co and N^r 1 1 '",f '""""'' ""^'-^ ^^-
appropriated for the completion o? ,ix\"? ' , "'^ ''' """'■"" ''""'•'^^ ^''er^
Nothing needs to be ,^ J h ''^^^nty-four gun ships.
of the Medi^erranearor^o'^ ■:;::,":""""-' T ^™'"- -•" ^'^ Pi™es
navy in the second war with GremXi ,' "]!;""':'' "", ^'""" '^'---n
w.th ,n chapters .xv. and xxvi l' he •' ^''^''^ '''''•'="''>''«=•-'" '''^alt
and the Cvil War there was it,l , "."'■■™' '''-''"'='=" 'l>at period
The naval operations dur g the Mexict""" "'""/'" ^'"=""" "-X
Some vessels were used in sa'e tif,c e^Tlor::''' "<=^^° "° S^^''-" ""P°«ance.
had to be asserted on some occa Ins but t r"' '" *^'"'''^' "' ^'^^'^
dered by the navy was the opem'n" uo 'f ' '""' 'T"""'"" '"^'^^ ^»-
-.Op.„,„,„, 7*1- After s.]:.e fruiles fi^rtl' t t^J'^^^^^'-'t ""=
o. Japan 'sland realm, Co„,„,odore Perry as seltHr'"'"'-' '""■ ""=
, by a resolute show of force he I, f« .""'her u. ,852, and
of commerce from Japan Th,, VJT '""<=«'«! 'n obtaining a treaty
the first step in its ieLrkable ;:ce„:c';rr"'' ^'''^" '° ""•■ "°^"' ^'^ -s
providL w!thrps'"of waf^Srel::"^ "f^^ ''^ ^^ poorly
s.on, ..early all of which were absent wP T' "'-'""' ^"^^''^'^ '" ^°'"™i-
were destroyed in southern p ts "„" tlT/""'"' "" ~™*'- ""--
one serviceable warship on the North At .,' '" "'' ^"- H'' only
soon overcome by buyin.. and b„ 1 I '■"" "" ' ' '^ ^'''fficmy was
=64 vessels in cLmTssTon tnd ^tf h^ ' ''' ^"'' °' ''" "-- - "
blockade. These vessels were a no Iset^'f' '" k" ^T"' ^^^ ""''-
every sor- cf craft-but they servld to tide 7 "^''^^ '■'^'S'^' ^'«"™«'->'.
With . 'i ;.!• V. „.e are nn, , '"''' '''"= e^er^ency.
"e are not Dartini nr „ „„^__.... , , " '
attention u. c g-e-j n^^^j — - v concerned, but must turn our
-vents of the war, those conflicts which served
<i'I ni^ht. In thr
■ shattered, drew
^ unfit for furthrr
•'.%'in«:. For his
^- Later in that
American vessels
- were restored.
1 the navy, save
commission, and
lirty-six lieuten-
lis time ground
:h, Boston, Sew
ion dollars were
s.
^vith i! J pirates
iinall American
-•ady been dealt
n that period
merican navy.
:at importance,
lityof America
nt service ren-
mmerce of the
urse with the
■r "'1 1852, and
lining a treaty
^orld, and was
is very poorly
!ls in commis-
3rld. Others
acturdly only
difficulty was
I there were
were under
ht steamers,
St turn our
^hich served
REAR-ADMIRAL JOHN CRITTENDEN WATSON REAR-ADMIRAL WINKIELU SCOTT SCHLEY
LEADING COMMANDER. OF OUR NAVY IN THE SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR
if
' 1
lit
.M
B'
i
•,M
~^I2aH9Ml«BMEHHH
THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE AMERICAN NAVY
489
UrJH LEK.
as turning points in nineteenth century warfare. And first and greatest
among these was the remarkable naval ijattle in llanipton Roads on
March 9, 1862.
The use of iron for plating the hulls of ships was not first adopted in
American war. This device was employed by luighuul and France in the
Crimean war in attacks on the Turkish ft)rts. The idea, however, was
American. As early as 181; Colonel lohn Stevens, of New „. , , .
^ . . The Idea of
York, made plans for an ironclad ship somewhat resembling irunplating
\}ci^ Monitor in type. Mis son Edwin afterwards performed of American
. , , ,, , 1 • n Origin
experunents with cannon balls against iron plate, and in 1044
Rob(!rt L. Stevens Ijegan the construction of a vessel to be plated with
43^-inch iron for the government. It was never finished, though in all nearly
$2,000,000 were spent upon it. New invention rendered it obsolete before
it could be completed, yet to it belongs the credit of inaugurating the tra
of the ironclad navy. After the Crimean war iM'ance and England both
built ironclad ships, the French La Gloirc being the first pariy ironclads
ironclad ever constructed. It was followed by the British ofdreat
Warrior, launched in January, 1861. Yet despite this enter- Britain and
• 11/- • f • France
prise, the fact remains that the nrst conception ot an iron-
clad ship belongs to the United States, and the lirst hostile meeting of two
ironclads took place in American waters.
At the opening of the American Civil War this idea was in the air,
and it was soon made evident that the era of wooden warships was near its
end. It is interesting to learn that the Confederates were the first to adopt
the new idea, the earliest ironclad of the war being produced by them on
the lower Mississippi. A large double-screw tugboat was employed, whose
deck was covered with a rounded roof, plated with bar iron one and a half
inches thick. This craft — named the Manassas after the first Confederate
victory — -made its appearance at the mouth of the Mississippi on the night
of October ^i, 1 861, and created a complete iianic in the
, . ,. , , -iM 1^ II The Ironclad
blockading fleet at that point. 1 he Manassas wrecked one "Manassas"
of her engines in attempting to ram the flagship Richmond,
and crept slowly back, at the same time as the alarmed fleet was hastening
away with all speed over the waters of the gulf.
While this event was taking place, two ironclads of more formidable
description were being built elsewhere, the meeting of which subsequently
was the most startling revelation to the nations of the earth ever shown in
naval warfare. The United States steam frigate Mcrrimac had been set
on fire at the Gosport Navy Yard, when hastily abandoned by the Federal
navy officers at the outbreak of the war. It was burned to the water's
! .''11
I !|
I m
'W
\v y
**W^Bi|&*^
C5 ' t J
miim '
■|^^H; ^
^Bpt-^^^i 1 '^^tj^^^K 'i
HBI
:!.!
I', ,1 ,
490
r//£ DEVELOPMENT OF THE AMERICAN NAVY
edge and sunk, but soon after the Confederates raised the hnll 1 • k
the side of any wooden vp«;<?p1 a 1/ 1 r ^^^ '"
were mounted two broadside batteries of four cmn Protection
stemanrl cf-^.^ T^i ^^ciLLt^ries oi lour guns each, and a crun at the
presented, and ships on these plan. :L.f ^^ n1;:^ert:Lr''""^ ^'^"^
Among those who pressed the adoption of li.rht ironc ads c->-. We f
penetratn,, o„r shallow harbors, river, and bayous, was Joh',, I H .^^
'o .e on. .;r i',: ^z:;iJt::z!^^7z^z:'S
covered by a flat deck rising only one or two fe^t abole water Th ^
armament of the vessel was to be a revolving turret aZt.nf . ^' ™ ^
well known to the government to be quite double the In ^7?"' "''''
of the Mottt/cr but it had the h:„ 1 . r "^th and breadth
depth of wateri^wVil^ttLttrvtr^'wirT^
received from time to time nf .1 Various sensational reports were
name of which'::: rhatlg^b ^ ^cSLT^t^SLf—^h'''^
Terfo^tTaS'o ihe^fl^rrth"""^"?" ^^^'" ;'■ --°^.^-^e t:
fi, ciiciy OI tne ncet and the maintenance of the blocknd^ WKm
the government hurried the construction of rU. ... :._,'?• _^^!^"
utmost, iittle faith was felt th;,f «n f.o m , """ "^'-^^^^^'s to lUe
cope with so powerful :!! ^^ Jr!^ IJTf^^Zj^t. Zit
THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE AMERICAN NAVY
491
formidable vessels of the navy, includintj \\\q. Minnesota , tlie twin ship of the
original Merrimac, the St. Laivrence, the Roanoke, the Congress and the Cum-
berland, were al! in Hampton Rhoads waiting the advent of the Merrimac.
On Saturday, the 8th of March, the Merrijnac appeared at the mouth
of the Elizabeth River and steamed directly for the Federal fle'Jt. All the
vessels slipped cable and started to enter the conflict, but the heavier ships
soon ran aground and became helpless. The Merrimac hurried on, and,
after firing a broadside at the Congress, crashed into the sides The Coming of
of the Cumberlaiid, whose brave men fired broadside after thcMer-
broadside at their assailant only to see their balls glance from "'"^'^
its mailed roof. An immense hole had been broken into the hull by the
prow of the Merrimac, and in a very few minutes the Cumberland sank in
fifty feet of water, her last gun being fired when the water had reached its
muzzle, while the whole gallant crew went to the bottom with their flag still
flying from the masthead. The Mei^rimac then turned upon the Congress,
which was compelled to flee from such a hopeless struggle, and was finally
grounded near the shore ; but the Merrimac : lected a position where her
guns could rake her antagonist, and, after a bloody fight of
more than an hour, with the commander killed and the ship
on fire, the Congress struck her flag, and was soon blown up
by the explosion of her magazine. Most fortunately for the
Federal fleet, the Merrimac had not started out on its. work
of destruction until after midday. Its iron prow was broken in breaching
the Cumberland, and, after the fierce broadsides it had received from the
Congress and the Cumberland, with the other vessels firing repeatedly
during the hand-to-hand conflict, the Merrimacs captain was content to
withdraw for the day, and anchor for the night under the Confederate shore
batteries on Sewall's Point.
The night of March 8th was one of the gloomiest periods of the war.
The Merrimac was sure to resume its work on the following day, and, with
the fleet destroyed and the blockade raised, Washington, and even New
York, might be at the mercy of this terrible engine of war. But deliverance
was at hand. The building of the Monitor had been hurried with all
speed, and this little vessel,—" a cheese box on a raft," as it was con-
temptuously termed — was afloat and steaming in all haste fhe Monitor in
to Hampton Roads. It entered there that night, and took up Hampton
a position near the helpless Minnesota in bold challenge to the
Merrimac. On Sunday morning, March 9th, the Confederate ironclad
came out to finish its work of destruction, preparatory to a cruise against
the northern ports.
The Fate of
the "Con-
gress " and
the " Cum-
berland"
>H
:! !
i \
4('
{ I
1,
f^p
492
TNE DEVELOPMENT OF THE AMERICAN NAVY
'•i f ! ; ; ,
co„flIf:eef„oft:t;tr Voir °"' '° '"^^' r- ^"« --^--y -^ ^^at
battle the defiant and invindble conl /''^ ''°"' °' ''^^P^''^''^
advisable to ,ive up the .ZuL^^:^:^ V^,''' ^^'"^ '°""^ '■
^.«.v:.Xt ::vor:ti:ii;e°;'th:' .1', '''^ ^""=", '™™p'> °' ^"^ ""'<=
single day, and f.™ ;,rt"thtpr:t:h:'rnd°' tV°''' '" ^
aggressive or defensive warfare has looked „ , / °' ^" ""'°"= "'
clad. To the neoole of fh. , '° '''^ Perfection of the iron-
discussion so co'rln hae fe^rall'IM: TT '' 1° ''"'''^'- ^'^ "^
itwasalmostundream;dof aslniml, „ '"' '"' than fifty years ago
that neither of those vessels whih in. ""P,""'"' °' ^"- " ^s notable
it at once the acceptej^elho:" Tafr:, at f:r1h ""t' '"' "'^'^
-ockhorns-hSr'-^^^^^^^^^^^^
^r;lhlto^-v.ti-'^^^^^
and soon after was made a hopeless wreerb^^l "",'^ "'" T^ abandoned.
The fate of the Monitor was e'v n Zelragic Th "7,? ■ ''"^V™ '«"'"^-
when being towed off Cape Hatteras shll , f- "'"^ December,
the bottom with part of her offir^r.? H '"""t"""^ '" ^ gale and went to
ticability of ironclads in naval^^ar '.'"J w- '" t' "'' ''"''' ""= P™^"
fleet was under construction a ter hlr o I? "''"' ''""" ^ *''"'^
in active service. °'™ '""''"'' ^"'^ some vessels already
of iro'!!;;fd'bo::s^rrein:ruii:fof ''""^ '- 1^ ^^^^^^ °' "-= --«. ^ «-.
these being begun-: ASry°rb7i:rsBi:r^^^
of later times. These were liUt ,)„ i V "' "'^ '""""s engineer
Piated with ^K-inch iTon f hefr °: op:r;"si'd 7'"=i rivers.eamers,
those that followed them saw m ,rh / ^^ ? ^'"^ ''"'^'- ^liese, and
ing Forts Henry and D;::i:o:"r ;„Tr!„'",:'l^ "f^™ ^'•™-. ''-"bard-
Island No. lo and darlno- ,h. ', ^-kVl "",""«'' ""^ "''e o( tlie forts on
batteries. ^ ""= '""'^''^ bombardment from the Vicksburg
/y
history of that
imander of the
ides, while its
■mancEuvre its
re one gun to
;he Merrimac
of desperate
ifore found it
of the little
s world in a
l11 nations in
of the iron-
^iliar, and its
ty years ago
It is notable
■e, and made
1, ever after-
ir which con-
a new incur-
jain venture
Norfolk by
that on the
abandoned,
;r magazine.
December,
nd went to
ht the prac-
^'n a whole
els already
3ast, a fleet
St, seven of
IS engineer
r steamers,
rhese, and
bombard-
e forts on
Vicksburg
THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE AMERICAN NAVY
493
?>':
But the most famous event in river warfare during the conflict was the
exploit of the daring Farragut in running past Forts St. Philip and Jackson on
the Mississippi with his fleet of wooden vessels, breaking their iron chain,
dispersing their gun-boats, and driving ashore the ironclad
Manassas. The Confederates had also an ironclad battery, F«f«g^t »" the
the Louisiana, but it proved of little service, and Farragut *»'ss>pp
sailed triumphantly thr ugh the hail of fire of the forts, and on the same
afternoon reached the wharves of New Orleans,
The most famous exploit of Farragut was the passing of the forts at
Mobile. It is worth a brief relation, f^r in this the resources of ironclad
warfare, as then developed, were fully employed, while the bottom of the
channel was thickly sown with torpedoes, a mechanism in naval warfare to
become of great importance in the following years. Farragut's main fleet,
indeed, was of wooden ships, but he had four monitors; while the Con-
federates, in addition to their forts and gunboats, had the ironclad ram Ten-
nessee, the most powerful floating battery ever built by them. This form-
idable craft— for that period— was plated with six inch iron armor in front
and five inch elsewhere ; and, while carrying only six guns, these were 6- and
8-inch rifled cannon.
The torpedoes, of which no fewer than i8o were sown in the channel,
were not quite ineffective, since one of them exploded under the monitor
Tecumseh, and she went down head first with nearly all her crew. The
Brooklyn, following in her track, halted as this disaster was
seen, her recoil checking all the vessels in her rear. Farracfut Farragut and
u^j4.i \ • r 1-1 , ,. ,, the Torpedoes
Had taken his famous stand in the shrouds, just under the
maintop, and hailed the Brooklyn as he came up in the Hartford. " What
is the matter?" he demanded. " Torpedoes," came back the reply. " Damn
the torpedoes!" cried Farragut, in a burst of noble anger. "Follow me."
As the Hartford passed on the percussion caps of the torpedoes were heard
snapping under her keel. Fortunately they were badly made, and no other
explosion took place.
The story of the battle we may briefly complete. The ships dashed
almost unharmed through the fire of the forts, driving the Confederate gun-
ners from their pieces with a shower of grape and canister ; and the contest
ended with an attack upon the Tennessee, whose stern-port shutters were
jammed and her steering gear shot away. Rendered helpless, she was
forced to surrender, and the fight was at an end.
The Confederates were singularly unfortunate with their ironclads. With
the exception of the temporary advantage gained by the Merrimac, all their
labor and expense proved of no avail. The last of these war-monsters,
\
I!
494
THJI DnVELOPMBNT OF THE AMERICAN NAVY
Lieutenant "^ -^"^ a few men, 111 a steam Innnr^K ^^ • i
cush,„s.„d sailed up the stream nt n X , I u' '"'^ ''' ''■"■S^ '°'-P=do.
tl.e"Albe. ,,„ .. ^l p, ''''•f" '\' "'Sl« to where the ironclad lay in her
marie" "^'^ *' rlymouth. A Tjr<)tprfln,T ^-,1, I i ^
Albemarle but Cushin!, In '', ? "S" S"="'<'<=d the
»'in,y logs, exploded the torpedf a It fo "f ^ T'' '? '•''""^'' "P °" '^e
leaped with his men into he st cam Th'^// %"''"' "' "^"^ ='">■ ="«'
in the rivers bottom and C„t ,T„ The^/fe,;„^/, ,^„k ,„ ^
series of thrilling adJe'ture? ^ ""'''■' '" "" "°^^="""2 "-t, after a
formrtiirx::; irraX'ri lc^ '-, '?r ^-^^ r '^-^ -"- '--
ype of an armed merchan sh n nro, ' ""T °"''^'. '"= ^™''=I"P '^"•'d be<=n of the
carrying a large numTe of mTil X Mo'.' "'' '■•"^^'^'' '^ ^"=^"'' ^^^
Ne„ Navies "J ^'eel carry.ng a few enormously heavy c^ms Tl,.
o. each Side 1 fbi" li^^ "'= ^"^P' T"^ '^^^ " ^'^^^^ ^ s
and manceuvring ^o .et n^howX" "l'"''^' '""' """"^ ^-^''^^'des,
was relegated to th? a" f r ve '" T^Tt T""' "' "? ""'"^-^" "^^^
with little pomp and ci'rcumstancTbut vi .' t ^e :"'" " 'f"' °' "='^'
within its ugly, black iron hull resources of science shut
.aditiv:::::/:,ria:*of'tf::is^:;;: ^^'^'r --^ "■■« "-ow that
sending a British frigate to the bottom ,o , ) "'," ""^ C.«AV„tf„,
sighting guns could do. E i sson a d W f "''■-'' Yankee ingenuity in
wooden navies to the hulk-vard and I . "' ,"'"' "'" ^'"''■*'-. =^"t
fighting-engines. Thes t Je he "reaT :" J" r" f' °' '"'" '"' "-'
Yet the American navy was grefdv leT !I 'I "' ' ''"'"'y-
Civil War, while foreign natio" So etn tl '," '' '"''" "'"'=^^'"8 ">=
Roads, were straining every ne^-vltl Kn "'"^ '^"^ht at Hampton
»-'clad ships, and t^o d^-pTh: ^,127 ircrnnl' i^ "^'
''T^r':;tMt^ TT"^ °' T'"^ throt^h'Zy'rch :
began to take advantage of the lessons Lt h/u °" l'" "'" '"'"' '"'^
is not our purpose to splk in detaroT:;:'!^^^:-:!, t^^^^^^
bhip and cruiser, the armor-piercing breech-loader fh„ ' "'■ ,"f. "''='" ™"le-
.-chine gun, the submarine tor;edoboat:1:ranlrirmn :rtlf:"'r
NAVY
ome alarm in the
)y a daring young
xploits of the war.
ig a large torpedo,
ronclad lay in her
Jogs guarded the
launch up on the
' of the ship, and
k to a muddy bed
ding fleet, after a
s the entire trans-
p had been of the
■ly, by steam, and
ess made it, after
ng fortress of iron
uns. The glory
ur tiers of guns
tling broadsides,
enemy— all that
2 engine of war,
s of science shut
c the blow that
he Constitution,
:ee ingenuity in
: Monitor, sent
f iron and steel
ntury.
: succeeding the
htat Hampton
ts of iron and
annon into an
1 many inches
at our govern-
lew lines, and
^d abroad. It
ieiclad battle-
iring gun, the
ne, the auto-
THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE AMERICAN NAVY 495
mobile torpedo, and other device's have come to make the naval warfare of
our day a wonderfully different thing from that of the past.
The United States began late to build a modern navy, but has made
highly encouraging progress, and while still far in the rear of Great Britain
and France in the number of her ships, possesses some of the finest
examples of naval architecture now afloat upon the waters.
Among commerce-destroyers the Columbia and the Minnca- ^Wa""^rid"the
polis, with their respective trial speeds of 22.81 and 23.07 "Hinnea-
knots, stand beyond any rivals to-day in the navies of Europe, '"'"^"
while the inventive naval engineering of the Americans is exemplified in
the double turrets of the Kearsarge and Kentucky, two additions to our
navy of original formation, and likely to give an excellent account of them-
selves should any new war occur.
Of modern fleets, however, far the most powerful one is that of Great
Britain, the government of which island shows a fixed determination to
keep its naval force beyond rivalry. This stupendous fleet forms the most
striking example of naval destructiveness the world has ever -phe Powerful
seen, and the nations of the world are entering the twentieth Fleet of Qreat
century with powers of warfare developed enormously beyond Britain
those with which they entered the nineteenth. We can only hope that this
vast development both in army and navy may prove to exert a peace-compel-
ling influence, and that every new discovery in the art of killing and destroy,
ing may be a nail in the coffin of Mars, the god of war.
1 11
TV"
iif.
iiti
t I
U < I
« :
CHAPTER XXXIV.
America's Conflict With Spain.
year of the nineteen hr.n? "' "'"^ ""^"' '" ^''"°^' "'« closing
the il;.e.ests of Z^i " T7.:. ::\"'°"'*f ""^■/"■^ '™<= f-'^"" '"
thouglu of territorial ac<fui,,i on d ,^/' T ' T' "' "'"J"'^^' = "''^
it. despite tl,e fact that \his c" ry .^i'd n' °, •'"°''™^ '^'"''"» '°
A Warm .he results; in its inceot ion f 7 , "'°'^' ""' °"'' °' '"'
causoo, sympafhv witl^ .^T ''"'"-•'"« '«■=''"& tlle sentiment of
"""•"""^ alone pre™ led a d T"' ''"'', '''"'"^ ^°P'^ °< ^uba,
end with a war entered [^ 1 f^rh .""r'<=<;'""' 'entury fitly reached it
very few instances n th 1° tlr . of7T' u t"'' '" ''"'"^ °"« °< '^'=
war fro„, purely philanthropic Ltivt '" '" "''^"^ ^ "^"°" ''^ S°- '°
It is !::^ rii" wrt'rrdTem:.:": "°^^ °^. ■'^■-'"•^ '^--^ '- ^nha.
colonial policy of Spain from the r^ f ',"' ?'' "■"'''>' '="'■''«' "" '^e
successful rebellion of he coToni s o thet ' "^"'^ "' ^"'"'"'- ''^'^
that country the lesson whi h EnXnd t "Tr" ""''"™' ^^"^'^ '° '^^^'^
and in Cuba was continued the ''■°'" ^ "''""^^ occurrence,
oppression which had driven 11,1,""' , '"''"" "' '''''""y '"«' "fficiai
the same, Cuba blazed in o rebel ioandf"'" '° "™"- ^'" ^^^"" --
island. rebellion, and for years war desolated that fair
affair'"!;" tsli!::;;^^rer-tt:l?'^r'^^ 'f-^ ^-^ p- '- '^«
displayed by Captain-General W;,""^;,^;,;'"^ ^'l'' '"'"■"^"''>'
centration" that stretched the forbearanc o7 tl ' , T'^''' °^ " ''''°"-
the breakinir Doint N 1 ^ ''''' "^ "'"^ country to
Oeneral Weylcr ' easing ponit. Not content wth fiirhtin.r th» r«l 1 •
.»d HI. Po^^fc, arms, the brutal Weyler evtendod 'h,\ ^ , '' '"
their «e,ds, Il-t^lh:::-;^ rf^ -^r:.^e --t
:;;:i:!r:Ct'^^j-^'i'-^---"-
^»^- — -- ■ • starvation. It was not until word came to
4g6
itry
lot less than 200,000 of
the helpless people had perished
U
; of the United
lost the closing
time fought in
conquest ; the
ives leading to
as one of its
; sentiment of
ople of Cuba,
tly reached its
ng one of the
3n has gone to
SENOR MONTERO
President of the Spanish Peace Commission, whose
painful duty required him to sign away his
country's colonial possessions.
GENERAL RAMON BLANCO
Who succeeded Weyler as Captain General of Cuba
in 1897. He was formerly Ciovernor-General
of the Philippine Islands.
ADMIRAL CEi^VERA SAGASTA
Commander of Spanish Fleet at Santiago. Premier of Spain during the Spanish-American War.
PROMINENT SPANIARDS, LAST HALF OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY
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THEODORE ROOSEVELT
POPULAR HEROES OF THE SPANISH
major-{;i.;nekal klwell a. oris
-AMERICAN WAR
AMERICA 'S CONFftn' WJ-^H SP. IN
4«>0
JN HOBSON
in this horrible manner, and that there; - icd no h' *" all'viation of the
frightful situation, that a practically u .i:rsal dc^manii f he erii-
ment to interfere. Si)ain was asked to fix a date in whii war )uld
l)e brouc^ht to an cwA, with the intimation that if the conli st was net con-
cluded or the independence of the island conc(;ded by that date, this country
woultl feel obliged to take decisivt.' steps.
No satisfactory answer was received, and anticipations of war filled all
minds, though many hoped that this dread ultimatum might be avoided,
when, in the last week of January, 1898, the battleship JA^/;/(r was ordered
to proce(-'d from Key West to the harbor of Havana. Her visit was
ostensibly a friendly one, but there had been riots in Havana which imperilled
th'i safety of American residents, to whom the Spanish inhabitants of that
city were bitterly hostile, and it was felt that seme show of force in that
harbor was imi)erative.
A terrible disaster succeeded. In one fatal instant, on the night of
February 15th, the noble ship was hurled to destruction and her cr(nv into
eternity. This frightful event took place about 9.45 in the evening, while
the ship lay quietly at anchor in the place selected for her by the .Spanish
authorities. Intense darkness prevailed in the harbor. Captain
<-• 1 ..... 11 • tU • .^^ The Sinking of
Sigsbee was writmg m his cabm, the men were m their cjuar- the "Maine"
ters below, when of a sudden came a terrible explosion that
tore the vessel asunder and killed most of her crew. So violent was the
shock that the whole water-front of the city was shaken as by an earthcjuake,
telegraph poles were thrown down and the electric lights extinguished. The
wrecked vessel sank quickly into the mud of the harbor's bottom, and a
great Hame broke from her upper works that illuminated the whole harbor.
Of three hundred and fifty-three men in the ship's company only forty-eight
escaped unhurt, and the roll-call of the dead in the end reached two hun-
dred and sixty-six.
This terrible event was the immediate cause of the war. It intensified
the feeling of the people and of their representatives in Congress to such
an extent that no other solution of the difficulty now seemed possible. The
popular indignation was increased when the court of inquiry announced that,
in its opinion, "the Mcmie was destroyed by a submarine mine." It was
universally felt that the disaster was another instance of Span-
ish malignity, the war-fever redoubled, and Congress unani- "ior^^ar*"*
mously voted an appropriation of $50,000,000 " for the national
defense." The War and Navy Departments hummed with the activity of
recruiting, the preparations of vessels and coast defenses, and the purchase
of war material and vessels at home, while agents were sent to Europe to
LL S. OTIS
fiflMP
500
AMEHICAS CONFUCr Wrm SPAIN
M M
\M
hostilities i,n,,.,Hlecl ,h. U, i cd S -, ! ^ ""^ ""' "" "''^"'^''-•- ^he"
a"".in,,ac.ivity,c„.,,,v.„ 'k , the ."'■' ""''^^•|»^«l '"^ war, but by
"egotratmns ivcnt on, it is true l„,f ,1,
P"rp»s.M,f)rainini,Mimeto nermit Amnr " '""" P""<^'V^»y "it'i the
sul-general Lee left HivMfon A , '^" """'"' '° '<-•"-"= <^"l^a. Con
McKinley sent a „e :^r.o Co?l^
-n,s the situation in C,l rec^h f ^ " "r" ' '"= '''-"""^•^'' '" <=="■"-'
-OSS policy and askin, ,„r ^0^^^:^;^"'^^^' "' ^l'^' '"■'"■
■n the name of civilization " he said T , """"" °' ''umanity.
April .8th, Congress responded "iM , "i ' I" ^",'''. ""'^' ^'"P"' »"
w. . ..„,„. '-% a deciration .If'lva; ^ rnl^ "r^^^'irr-^ ^'•^■
the fleet which had fathered a. T^„, iv "*^r^""a"y -'•^gan,
to Cuba with orders to blockade h; "' ^'^J' ^fst being despatched
O" the following day a "u w is"ue "fort IZ T" '''""^ ^'""^
the coming conflict. "^'^ '"'^ '^5,000 volunteers to serve in
war, rt nor;:;;ro"t:n ^^z " f r,"'™™^^ ^^^-^ '"- '<=" - ■>-
selves to a description of It lei ^ ■ ' "" ''^'^"' '"" '° <=onfine our-
plan of this work' I ma be sal '"k' """''="'"■ '" ='^'°«'^"- w'"' ''-e
part a naval one, and gate rt o na:!!' "'"''"■ "'^' "" "^"^ «- - g-at
great importance, so that h icl an te lin'';^"'""' °,' '"''"'' interest' and
which deals with the pro.-re; Xa J ' """''""'"''^ P^«-ding„„e,
there described the contel s of roncN , ,''"''"^' ""^ =^'""0'. We
other chapters have been told the s !T ''"""«' ""^ ^ivil War. I„
italian ironclads at t^T ba"le 'of tst: d'^oVf' r^^^™ ^"^'"- -^^
Pros«ss i„ ironclad fleets at the battle of L V ' hT?" """^ '^'''"==^'=
r' ""'■ "-,.«na. events in^a^^war are of the c^nttr tT" " 'f
making contest in Mnnlln 14 , . century, the epoch-
fisht off Santiago libor. If tlL^e.^its' '] "'' ''"'P"'-'"= "«'" -^
with those between the Cons^ /llTZfT u'""l T'""'' ^^ ^""'™^'«l
and Feu^eau.. a century before tTe, I , '""'' '"^'''' I^ Insurgc„,e
immense advance in nava'l wa fa'; wkhin 1^ P -7" striking clearness the
^ Of these two events the gr atl ^as th ^'t f ''^? '"™'^'=''-
Bay. War, it ,nust be remembered is ' ^i ,"'' ""''' P'="^'= '" Manila
ethics from that operative irpeace Tifo T"1 '^' ' '"'''"^'" ^y^'^" of
cause of the war. t'o strike ■the'^rnl, whrrt'e '"''""^".''V" -^"^^ »- '"^
-emana of prudence and military science:' Sp^i;!.;^ ^if iL^ToVet
L'd capital was
itacle. VV^hen
• vvar, hut by
hcd and com-
ally with the
Cuba. Con-
Jay President
'd in earnest
'eyler's lieart-
o( humanity,
: stop." On
liat were vir-
tually began,
r desjjatched
ading ports,
to serve in
at led to the
confine our-
ice with the
v-^is in great
nterest and
seeding one,
itury. We
1 War. In
ustrian and
nd Chinese
now to tell
the epoch-
night and
contrasted
Insiirgetite
irness the
I'ed.
in Manila
system of
a was the
i was the
It posses-
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IMHe
iHE PEACE COMMISSIONERS
«-'i-r.?&,s.t';sras-s?E^^
AMERICA'S CONFLICT WITH SPAIN
h<^:!>
1
sion in the eastern seas, the Phihppiiie Islands, off the southeastern coast of
Asia. There, in the bay of Manih\, near the larj^re city of that name, lay a
Spanish fleet, which, if left unmolested, mi<^rht seek our Pacihc Coast and com-
mit terrible depredations. In the harbor of Hong Kong lay a
squadron of American war-vessels under Commodore Dewey. ^'l)eJ|!e^"'''°" **'
Prudence dictated but one course under the circumstances.
There was flashed to L)ew(>y under sea and over land the telegraphic mes-
sage to "find the Spanish fleet and capture or destroy it." How Dewey
obeyed this order is the circumstance with which we are now concerned.
He lost no time. Leaving port in China on April 27th, he arrived off
the entrance to Manila Bay on the night of the 30th. An island lay in the
neck of the bay, with well-manned batteries on its shores. It was probable
that torpedoes had been planted in the channel. But George Dewey had
been a pupil of Farragut in the Civil War, and was inspired y^^^ ^^^,^
with the spirit of that hero's famous order, " Damn the tor- Entered
pedoes! Follow me !" Past Corregidor Island in the dark- Manila Bay
ne.ss glided the great ships, several of them being out of range of its
batteries before the alarm was taken. Then some shots were fired, but the
return fire from the squadron silenced the Spanish guns and the ships
passed safely into Manila Bay.
About five o'clock on the morning of May ist Dewey's fleet swept in
battle-line past the front of the city of Manila, and soon after rounded up
in face of the Spanish fleet, which extended across the mouth of Bakoor
Bay, within which lay the naval station of Cavite. There were ten of the
Spanish ships in all, with shore batteries to add to their defensive force,
while the effective American ships consisted of six, the cruisers Olympia,
Balthnorc, Raleigh, Boston, and the gunboats Pctyd and Concord] The
Spaniards had two large and four small cruisers, three gunboats and an
armed transport. They were not equal in size or weight of metal to the
American vessels, but their fixed position, their protection
by shore batteries, and the acquaintance of their officers with The Opposing
the waters in which they lay gave them an important advan- ^^^^^
tage over the Americans, which was added to by their possession of torpedo
boats and by* the mines which they had planted in the track of an attacking
fleet. Dewey and his men were, in fact, in a position of great peril, and if
the Spaniards knew how to work their guns none of them might leave that
bay alive. Fortunately for them the Spaniards did not know how to work
their guns.
On swept the gallant squadron of assault, the Olympia leading with
Dewey on the bridge. He had a look-out place protected by steel armor,
.ji.i.
1 (
i;t
i'sii
504
AMERICA'S CONFLICT WITH SPAIN
but he preferred to stand in the open and dare all peril from the Spanish
guns. The mines were there. As the flagship drove onward two of them
exploded in her path. Luckily ^he nervous hands at the electric wires
set them off too soon. Heedless of such perils as this Dewey pursued his
course, and at 5.40 a.m. opened fire, followed by the remainder of his ships.
The Deadly From that moment the fire was deadly and continuous, the
Work of the boom of the great guns seconded by the rattle of the rapid fire
American pjgces until the air seemed full of the roar of ordnance. The
Spanish returned as hot a fire, but by no means so effective.
While most of their shot were wasted on the waves, the bulk of those from
the American ships found a gcal, and death and destruction reigned in the
Spanish ships while their opponents moved on almost unharmed.
Back and forth across the Spanish lines swept Dewey's ships,
five^ times in all, at first at 5,000 yards distance, then drawing in to
a distance of 2,000 yards. And during all this time the great guns
roared their message and the small guns poured out their fiery hail, rending
the Spanish hulls and carrying death to their crews, while the flames
that shot up from their decks told 'that another element of destruction was
at work. Early in the fight two torpedo boats darted out towards the
Olyjnpia, but were met with a torrent of fire that sent one to the bottom
and drove the other hastily to the beach. Then, with an instinct of despera-
tion, Admiral Montojo drove gallantly out in his flagship, the Reina Chris-
The Fate cf the ^''^(^, with the purpose of engaging the Olynipia at shorter
Spanish Flag- range. At once Dewey turned his entire battery upon her.
ship J 1-1 i,,i
and poured \\\ shot and shell at such a frightful rate that the
Spaniard hastily turned and fled for the shelter of Bakoor Bay. But the
deadly baptism of fire with which she had been met proved the-end of her
career. Swept from stern to stem by shells as she fled, she burst ii '.o flames,
which continued to burn until she sank to a muddy death.
Meanwhile the Spanish ships and batteries returned the fire vigorously,
but with singular lack of effect. While they were being riddled and sunk,
the American ships escaped almost unhurt, and while hundreds, of
The Destruction ^^eir crews fell dead or wounded, not an American was
of the Spanish killed and seven men alone were slightly wounded. What
httle skill in aiming the Spaniards possessed was utterly dis-
concerted by the incessant and deadly American fire, and their balls and
shells screamed uselessly through the air to plunge into the waves.
At the hour of 7.35 Dewey withdrew from the fight, that he might see
how all things stood on his ships and give the men an interval of rest and
an opportunity for breakfast. He knew very well that the Spaniards must
AMERICA'S CONFLICT WITH SPAIN
505
tn the Spanish
d two of them
electric wires
ey pursued his
!r of his ships,
ontinuous, the
tf the rapid fire
"dnance. The
s so effective.
of those from
reigned in the
led.
►ewey's ships,
[rawing in to
e great guns
y hail, rending
lie the flames
estruction was
t towards the
to the bottom
let of despera-
; Reina Chris-
f)ia at shorter
ery upon her,
rate that the
3ay. But the
he" end of her
St ii .0 flames,
re vigorously,
led and sunk,
hundreds, of
imerican was
nded. What
as utterly dis-
leir balls and
ives.
he might see
al of rest and
laniards must
\
ti
a4
await his return. Fisfht and flight were alike taken out of them. When
he came back to the attack, shortly after 1 1 o'clock, nearly all the Spanish
ships were in flames and some rested on the bottom of the bay. For an
hour longer the fi ng continued on both sides. At the end of that time the
batteries were silenced and the ships sunk, burned, and deserted. The
great battle was at an end, and Dewey had made himself the hero of
the war.
When the news of the result reached Europe, the naval powers of the
nations heard with utter astonishment of the fighting prowess and skill of
the Yankees. Anything so complete in the way of a naval victory the
century had not seen before, and it was everywhere recognized that a new
power had to be dealt with in the future counsels of the nations. Americans,
previously looked upon almost with contempt from a mili- how the Nation
tary point of view, suddenly won respect, and Dewey took Rewarded
rank among the great ocean fighters of the century. His ^^®^
nation hastened to honor him with the title of rear-admiral, and finally with
that of admiral, its highest naval dignity, and on his return home in autumn
of the following year he was received with an ovation such as few Americans
had ever been given before. To his fellow citizens he was one of the chief
of their heroes, and they could not do him honor enough.
The second notable naval event of which we have spoken took place off
the harbor of Santiago, a city on the southern coast of Cuba, at a date after
that just described.
The finest fleet possessed by Spain, that under the command of Admiral
Cervera, consisted of four cruisers, the Christobal Colon, plated with a
complete belt of 6-inch nickel steel, and with a deck armor of steel 2 to 6
inches thick , and the Vizcaya, the Almirante Oquendo, and the Infanta Maria
IWesa, each of 6890 tons, with 10- to 12-inch armor and power- jhe Fleet of
ful armament. They were all of high speed, and were the Admiral Cer-
only vessels of which any dread was felt in the United States.
With them were three torpedo boats, the Terror, the Furor and the Pluion,
among the best of their class, and dangerous enemies to deal with.
This fleet lay in the Cape Verde Islands at the opening of the war.
From there, in May, it set sail, causing doubt and dread in American coast
cities while its destination remained unknown, and yielding relief when the
news came that it had reached some of the lowe- islands of the West
Indies. On May 21st it was learned that the dreaded squadron had reached
Santiago and was safely at anchor in its harbor.
The Atlantic fleet of the United States meanwhile had been partly
blockadincr the Cuban oorts. oartlv in searchinsr fof Cervera'i
igaged
mg
38
;|,
5o6
AMERICA'S CONFLICT WITH SPAIN
fleet, and there was a decided sensation of relief when the tidings from
Santiago were confirmed, Thither from all quarters the great ships of the
The Spanish ^^et hastened at full speed, battleships, cruisers, monitors, gun-
Ree^t at San- boats, and craft of other kinds, and soon they hung like' grim
birds of war off the harbor's mouth, determined that the
Spanish fleet should never leave that place of refuge except to meet
destruction. To the battleships of the fleet was soon added the Oregon,
which had made an admirable journey of many thousand miles around the
continent of South America, and barely touched land in Florida before it
was off again to take part in the great blockade.
The story that follows is, if given in all its details, a long one, but we
must confine ourselves to its salient points. Admiral Sampson, in command
of the American fleet, at first sought to lock up the Spaniards in their
harbor of refuge, by sinking a coaler, the Merrimac, in the narrow channel of
Santiago Bay. The work was gallantly and ably done by Lieutenant Hob-
The Sinking of ^on and his daring crew, but proved a failure through causes
thcMerrS. beyond his control. The Merrimac sank lencrthwfse in the
niac 1111 . ,
channel, and the passage remamed open. This being reco^r-
nized, the most vigilant watch was kept up, battle-ships, cruisers, and gun-
boats lying off the harbor's mouth in a wide semicircle, with their lookouts
ever closely on the watch.
On the morning of Sunday, July 3d. the long-lool:ed for alarm came,
in a yell form the sentinel on the Brooklyn, " There is a big ship coming
out of the harbor !" A like alarm was given on other ships, and Commodore
Schle>, on the Brooklyn, hastened to signal the fleet and to give the order,
"Clear ship for action." Almost in an instant the lazily swinging fleet
awoke to life and activity, and the men sprang from their listless Sunday
rest into the most enthusiastic readiness for duty.
Admiral Sampson, unfortunately for him, was absent, having gone up
the coast in the cruiser New York, and the direction of affairs fell to Com-
modore Schley. He was capable of meeting the emergency. It was soon
The Flight of evident that Cervera's fleet was coming out, the flagship,
SW s"*"'*** M'^^^i^ Maria Teresa, in the lead, the others following. On
''^ clearing the harbor headland they turned west, and the Amer-
icans at once set out in pursuit, firing as they went. " Full speed ahead ;
open fire, and don't waste a shot," shouted Schley. The Oregon had'
already opened fire from her great 13-inch guns, and was followed by the
battleships Texas, Indiana, and Iowa. The Brooklyn joined in with her 8-
and 5-inch batteries, and soon a rain of shells was pouring upon the devoted
fugitive ships. The Maria Teresa ran towards the Brooklyn as if with
tidings from
ships of the
lonitors, gun-
ing lil<e grim
led that the
ept to meet
the Oregon,
J around the
ida before it
one, but we
in command
irds in their
w channel of
tenant Hob-
'ough causes
hvvise in the
being recog-
:rs, and gun-
eir lookouts
alarm came,
ship coming
Commodore
'e the order,
'inging fieet
less Sunday
ng gone up
ell to Com-
It was soon
lie flagship,
owing. On
1 the A mer-
ged ahead ;
Oregon had
)wed by the
with her 8-
the devoted
as if with
AMERICA'S CONFLICT WITH SPAIN
507
intention to ram her, but the dang(;r was avoided by a quick swerve of the
helm, and Cervera's flagship turned again and sped away in flight.
The fugitive ships soon found themselves tlu; centre of llu; most terrific
fire any war vessels had ever endured, with tlie exception of a Hot Chase
those at Manila. Biof iruns and little rjuns joined in the fright- Down the
ful concert, shot after shot telling, while the response of the «-"•>"" '-oast
Spaniards was little more effective than that of their compatriots in Manila
Bay. One man killed on the Byooklyn was the sole loss of life on the
American side, while the unfortunate Spaniards were swept down by hun-
dreds.
The first ship to succumb to this hail of shells was the Maria Teresa, which
quickly burst into flames, and soon after ran ashore. Then the Brooklyn,
Oregon and Indiana concentrated their fire on the Almirante Oquendo,
which was similarly beached in flames. Next the Vizcaya drew abeam of
the loiva, which turned its fire from the Oquendo to this new quarry, pour-
ing in shells that tore great rents in her side, while the Vizcaya fired back
hotly but uneffectively. As the Spaniard drew ahead of the
laioa, the fire of the Oregon and Texas reached her, and ^''slianrrh^fleet
an 8-inch shell from the Brooklyn raked her fore and aft. The
next moment a great shell exploded in her interior, killing eighty men. She
was clearly out of the race, and ran in despair for the beach.
Meanwhile the Christobal Colon was running at great speed along the
beach, pursued by the American ships. Of these the Oregon and Brooklyn
alone were able to keep within hopeful distance. For an hour the chase
kept up, then the Oregon tried a 13-inch shell, which struck the water close
astern of the Colon, four miles away. Another was tried and reached its
mark. Soon after a shell from the Brooklyn pierced the Colon at the top
of her armor belt. Then she too gave up and ran for the beach. Admiral
Sampson, on the New York, reaching the scene in time only to receive the
surrender of her officers.
Perhaps the most telling work of the day was that done by the little
Gloucester, a yacht turned into a gunboat, which was commanded by
Richard Wainwright, one of the surviving officers of the The «• Glouces-
Maine. Two torpedo-boat destroyers had follovi'ed the Span- ter"and Her
ish ships from the harbor, and these were gallantly attacked ^^^^
and sunk by Wainwright in his little craft, thus finally disposing of the
second Spanish fleet with which the Yankees came into contact.
The annals of naval history record no more complete destruction of an
enemy's fleet than in the two cases we have described, and never has such
;.,i4
'"f
: '1,
4
i
.H
%
■
t
■
*
' ■ ■
r
I ^H
1
il
I
5o8
AMERICA'S CONFLICT WITH SPAIN
work been clone with so little loss — only one man being killed and a few
wounded in both American fleets. It taught the world a new
the War" ° lesson in the art of naval warfare, and admonished the
nations that the United States was a power to be [gravely con-
sidered in the future in any question of war.
We have told the only incidents of this short war with which we are
concerned. In the conflict on land there was nothing of special character.
An American army landed near Santiago and fought its fight to a quick finish
in the capture of that city; and a similar story is to be told of Manila;
while the attempted conquest of Porto Rico was cut short in the middle by
tlie signing of a peace protocol. In December a treaty of peace was signed
in which Spain abandoned her colonies of Cuba and Porto Rico, the latter
being ceded to the United States, while the Philippine Islands, the scene of
Dewey's great victory, were likewise ceded to this country. The latter,
however, was not to the pleasure of the island people, who took up arms to
fight for freedom from the dominion of the whites,
' 'ef as was the war, it had th.e effect -of radically changing the posi-
tion of the United States, which for the first time in its history became a
The United colonial power, and acquired an interest in that troublesome
States Made Eastern Question which reached, at the end of the century,
a Colonial ^ highly critical stage. Into what complication this new
Power . ^ '■
political relation is likely to lead the republic of the West
it is impossible to say, but this country will certainly play its part in the
shaping of the future destiny of the East.
lied and a few
le world a new
inionished the
be gravely con-
li which we are
icial character.
:o a quick finish
)ld of Manila;
the middle by
ace was signed
lico, the latter
Is, the scene of
The latter,
)ok up arms to
ging the posi-
jtory became a
at troublesome
)f the century,
tion this new
: of the West
ts part in the
CHAPTER XXXV.
The Dominion of Canada.
OCCUPYING the northern section of the western hemisphere lies
Great Britain's most extended colony, the vast Dominion of Canada,
which covers an immense area of the earth's surface, surpassing
that of the United States, and nearly equal to the whole of Europe. Its
population, however, is not in accordance with its dimensions, being less
than 5,000,000, while the bleak and inhospitable character of The Area and
much the greater part of its area is likely to debar it from Population of
= '■ , 1 1 ..• f Canada
ever having any other than a scanty nomad population, tur
animals bdng its principal useful product. It is, however, always unsafe
to predict. The recent discovery of gold in a part of this region, that
traversed by the Klondike River, has brought miners by the thousands to
that wintry realm, and it would be very unwise to declare that the remainder
of the great northern region contains no treasures for the craving hands
of man.
It is the development of Canada during the nineteenth century with
which we are here concerned, and we must confine ourselves, as in the case
of the other countries treated, to its salient points, those upon which the
problem of its progress turns. First settled by the French in the seven-
teenth century, this country came under British control in 1763, as a result
of the great struggle between the two active colonizing powers for domi-
nion in America. The outcome of this conquest is the fact ^^^^^^^,^ g^^,y
that Canada, like the other colonies of Great Britain, possesses History
a large alien population, in this case of French origin ; and it
maylurther be said that the conflict between Enghnd and France in
America is not yet at an end, since political warfare, varied by an occasional
act of open rebellion, has been maintained throughout the century by the
French Canadians.
The revolution of 1775 in the colonies to the south failed to gain adhe-
rents in Canada, which remained loyal to Great Britain and repelled every
attempt to invade its territory. It met invasion in the war of 1812 in the
same spirit, and despite the fact that there has long been a party favoring
509
il !
1; iiill
lli
!;i:
5 TO
THE DOMINIO.W OF CANADA
E ; f 1
M« •■
I
annexation to the United Sf^^es, the Canadians as a whole ;>.e to-day
amono- the most loyal colonial subjects of the home government of Great
Britain.
At the opening of the nineteenth century the population of Canada
was small, and its resources were only slightly developed. Its people did not
reach the million mark until about 1840, though since then the tide of
immigraticm has flowed thither with considerable strength and the popula-
tion has grown with some rapidity. In 1791 the original province of Quebec
was divided into Upper and Lower Canada, a political separation which by
no means gave satisfaction, but led to severe political conflicts. As a result
an act of union took place, the provinces being reunited in 1840.
Upper Canada, at the opening of the century, was only slightly devel-
oped, the country being a vast forest, without towns, without roads, and
practically shut out from the remainder of the world. The
Upper and , .
Lower Canada sparse population endured much sutt^ermg, which, in 1788,
deepened into a destructive famine, long remembered as a
terrible visitation. But it began to grow with the new century, numbers
crossed the Niagara River from the States to the fertile lands beyond,
immigrants crossed the waters from Great Britain and France, Toronto
was made the capital city, and the population of the province soon rose to
30,000 in number. Lower Canada, however, with its old cities of Quebec
and Montreal, and its flourishing settlements along the St. Lawrence River,
continued the most populous section of the country, though its people were
almost exclusively of French origin. The strength of the British population
lay in the upper province.
These historical particulars are desirable as a statement of the position
and relations of Canada at the opening of the nineteenth century, though
in the succeeding history of the country only an occasional event occurred
of sufficiently striking character to fit into our plan. We have already
detailed the events of the war of 181 2 on the Canada frontier, in which the
capture and burning of York (now Toronto) served as an excuse for the
subsequent indefensible burning of Washington by the British. Battles
were fought on Canadian soil in 18 14 at Chippewa and Lundy's Lane — the
-r.. «, . o latter the bloodiest battle of the war. But thoutrh the Ameri-
The War of 1812 .... '^
cans were victorious m these engagements, they soon after
withdrew from Canada — to which they have never since returned in a hostile
way. Many political complications have arisen between the two countries,
and at times sharp words have been spoken, but all the questions have been
amicably settled and the two countries remain fairly good friends, with only
iiuch disputes as too close neighborhood is apt to provoke.
THE DOMINION OF CANADA
m
511
~)lc .\.c to-cUiy
iiicnt of Great
ion of Canada
people did not
i\\ the tide of
nd tiie popula-
ince of Quebec
ation which by
s. As a result
840.
sli_L;htly devel-
Hit roads, and
\t world. The
hich, in 1788,
lembered as a
itury, numbers
lands beyond,
ance, Toronto
i soon rose to
;ies of Quebec
awrence River,
ts people were
ish population
~){ the position
entury, though
ivent occurred
have already
r, in which the
excuse for the
itish. Battles
ly's Lane — the
igh the Ameri-
ey soon after
led in a hostile
two countries,
Oils luive been
mkIs, with only
1
The leader ot public opinion in Canada during the three years' struggle
with the United States was a clergyman of the English church, John
Strachan, rector of York. Though a clergyman of the iMiglish establish-
ment, Strachan was by birth a Scotchman, and a decidedly pugnacious and
determined character, a man of courage, persistence, cunning and political
skill, whose ambition drove him forward, until, with his party, ^^^^ strachan
he formed in 1820 what was long known as the " T'amily and the
Compact," which for years ruled the country in an autocratic Family Com-
way. The governor and council were the tools of Strachan
and his allies ; tl.v^v filled the public offices with their favorites, and went so
tar as to drive Robert Gourlay, an honest and capable business man, from
the country, because he was so presumptuous as to retlect on the character
of their administration.
In 1824 their power was for a time overturned. William Lyon
Mackenzie, a Scotchman of impetuous disposition, started the Colonial
Advocate newspaper, which opposed the "Compact" so vigorously as to
arouse the hatred of its adherents. The office of the Advocate was gutted
by a mob, but Mackenzie recovered large damages, an opposition Assembly
was elected, and the Family Compact fell from power. Strachan however
was only temporarily defeated. A religious quarrel arose
which lasted for thirty years, and in which he played the leading Quar^^"*
part. This turned upon the use of what was known as the
"clergy reserve fund," an allotment of one-seventh of the crown lands for
the support of a Protestant clergy. A portion of this fund was demanded
by a Scotch Presbyterian congregation, but Strachan, who had a controlling
voice in its disposition, claimed it all for the English Established Church, and
entered into this new fight with all his old energy. He gained strong sup-
port, was promoted to the dignity of a bishop, founded King's College from
part of the fund, and, in 1853 obtained a transfer of the fund — which had been
placed at the disposal of the British Parliament for religious purposes — to
Canada. The controversy was finally settled in 1854, an act being passed
which secured their life interests to the clergy already enjoying them, while
the remainder of the fund was devoted to public education.
Thus for forty years and more John Strachan made himself the most
prominent and powerful figure in Upper Canada. Meanwhile a strained
condition of affairs existed in Lower Canada, due to the rivalry and struggle
for power of the inhabitants of French and British descent. The strife
became so intense as in 1837 to le.ad to open rebellion.
The great supremancy of the French in numbers gave them a decided
majority in the Assembly, and for years Louis Papineau was elected by
5^2
THE DOMINION OF CANADA
^'.,
them speaker of that body, though bitterly opposed by the British popula-
tion. When Lord Dalhousie, the governor-general, refused to recognize
him in this position, sufficient influence was brought to bear upon the home
French Suprem- government to have the autocratic lord transferred to India,
acy In Lower and the French retained their control of the Assembly A
Canada « r • ^u r i . : ^
reform m the government of the provmce was recommended
by a committe of the British Parliament, which resulted in 1832 in giving
the Assembly control of the local finances.
This gave the French Canadians a perilous power, and they endeavored
to rid themselves of the English judges and civil officials by a process of
financial starvation. Salaries were unpaid and the government was blocked
through lack of funds. The sharpness of the strife was added to by resolu-
tions in the British Parliament which condemned the Canadian legislature
and supported the council— an arbitrary body under the governor's control,
and in the British interest.
The strife eventually deepened into revolt. Both provinces vigorously
demanded that the council should be chosen by the votes of the people, and
thus truly represent the country. Lower Canada became violently excited
on this question ; funds known as " Papineau tribute " were collected ; the
liberty cap was worn; imported goods were replaced by homespun clothes,
and military training soon began. These movement's were followed by
hostile acts, the English " Constitutionalists " and the French " Sons of
Liberty " coming into warlike contact. But Sir John Colborne, the governor,
was a man of energy and decision, and quickly brought the
incipient rebellion to an end. The insurgents were attacked
and dispersed wherever they showed themselves, Dr. Nelson,
one of their leaders, was captured, and Papineau, the head of the revolt, was
obliged to escape across the border.
This movement in Lower Canada was accompanied by a similar revolt
in Uppei Canada under the leadership of William Lyon Mackenzie, the .
former opponent of the Family Compact. He, as a leader of the opposition
forces, had continued bitterly to oppose the oligarchy which controlled
Canadian affairs. Three times he was elected to the Assembly of Upper
Canada, and three times expelled by the tyrannical majority. The law
officers of Great Britain pronounced his expulsion illegal, and he was re-
elected by a large majority, but the arbitrary Assembly again refused to
admit him.
The result of this unlawful action was to make him highly popular, he
was elected the first mayor of Toronto, and the struggle went on m'ore
bitterly than ever. An unlucky expression he had used—" The baneful
The Revolt of
1837
THE DOMINION OF CANADA
513
domination of the mother country"— was now quoted against him as
evidence of disloyalty, and Mackenzie, exasperated by the acts of his
enemies, lost his self-control and entered into rebellion. He made a com-
pact with Louis Papineau to head a rising in Toronto on the ^^^^^^^,^,^
same day with the insurgent rising in Montreal. In furtherance ,^'j.beliion
of this he proclaimed a "Provisional Government of the
State of Upper Canada," gathered a force of eight hundred men, and
threatened Toronto with capture. But hesitation was fatal to his cause,
his men were attacked and dispersed, and he was forced to flee. On Navy
Island he Hung the flag of rebellion to the breeze, but he had lost his one
opportunity and the llag soon went down. Lack of prudence and patience
had put an end to a promising political career.
The suppression of this rebellion was followed in 1840 by the Act of
Union of the two provinces already mentioned. The population now began
to grow with considerable rapidity. From about 1,100,000 in 1840, it grew
to nearly 2,000,000 in 1850, and 2,500.000 in i860. And the (jrowthof
people were spreading out widely northward and westward, ^;;;";;J'7^^y
settling new lands, and stretching far towards the Pacihc
border. The industries of Canada, which had been greatly depressed by
the adoption of free trade in Great Britain, were revived by a treaty of
reciprocity in trade with die United States, and prosperity came upon the
country in a flood. u • • •
But political troubles were by no means at an end, and much irritation
arose from acts of citizens of the United States during the Civil War.
Refugees and conspirators from the south sought the Canadian cities, and
endeavored to involve the two countries in hostile relations. Fenian raids
were attempted from the United States, and there was much alarm, though
nothing of importance arose from the disturbed condition of affairs.
Iirtime the confederation which existed between the two larger pro-
vinces of Canada became too narrow to serve the purposes of the entire
colony. The maritime provinces began to discuss the question of local
federation, and it was finally proposed to unite all British North America
into one general union. This was done in 1867, the British Parliament
passino- an act which created the "Dominion of Canada.' organization of
The nliw confederation included Ontario (Upper Canada), ^J^^^"^^^"'""
Ouebec (Lower Canada), New Brunswick and Nova Scotia.
Four years later Manitoba and British Columbia were included, and Prince
Edward's Island in 1874. A parliament was formed consisting of a Senate
of life members chosen by the prime minister and an Assembly elected by
\\\i^ people. The formation of the dominion was soon followed by trouble,
"' .[
fl^t
5^\
THE DOA//N/ON OF CANADA
^nr^'Tf
this time arisin^r in the Indian country, over which the Cana<lian people
had rapidly extendi their authority. Louis Kiel, son of the leader of the
Metes (half-breed) Indians, headed a rebellion in 1869 and established a
The Riei Revolts l'''"^''^'""^!' y:overnmet t -xx Fort Garry. In the following year
the revolt collapsed on the arrival of General Wolseley at
this fort. Twice in later years Kiel attempted rebellion, the second time
in 1885. He was finally captured and executed, and the rebellious senti-
ment vanished with his death.
Shortly after the formation of the dominion. Sir John Macdonald
became a conspicuous figure in Canadian politics and for many years served
as prime minister of the country, He took part in the treaty of Washing-
ton, which referred to arbitration of the Alabama claim and other cpiestions
between Great Britain and the United Staters, and came near defeat in con-
sequence, since the parts of the treaty which referred to Canada were very
unpopular in that country. He was defeated in 1873 on the question of the
Canadian Pacific Railway, concerning which a great scandal had arisen,
with suspicion of wholesale bribery.' In 1878 Macdonald returned to the
premiership, which he continued to hold until his death in 1891.
Despite the scandal attending the Pacific Railway bill, that enterprise
was pushed forward with much energy, and, after desperate financial strug-
gles, was completed in 1886. It need scarcely be said that it has since
played a highly important part in the development of Canada. Under the
The Canadian liberal ministry of Alexander Mackenzie (1873-78) the coun-
Paclfic eaii. try prospered greatly for a time, but a period of financia'
stringency followed, and the people demanded commerical pro-
tection. This was given by the Conservatives, under Macdonald, in 1879 a
protective tariff being adopted as a measure of defence against the commer-
ical enterprise of the United States. The result was a rapid revival of trade
and wide-spread prosperity. In 18S0, by an act of the British Parliament
the control of all the British possessions in Canada— except Newfoundland'
which had not joined the Union— was transferred to the Dominion Parlia-
ment, and the country became in large measure an independent nation.
The important questions which have since that time arisen in Canada
have had largely to do with its relations to the United States and its
people. One of the most troublesome of these has been the question of
The Fishery ^\^ fisheries on ^He^banks of Newfoundland and the coasts of
Difficulties Nuva Scotia and Ncu rirunsvvick, P'or years the problem
of the rights of American fishermen on the Canadian coast
excited controversy. In 1877 the Halifax Fishery Commission awarded
THE DOMlNlihM Ol- CANADA
515
inadian people
l; leader of the
I established a
following year
II Wolseley at
le second time
bellious sent!-
in Macdonald
y years served
1 of Washing-
ther questions
defeat in con-
ada were very
ucstion of the
il had arisen,
:urned to the
I.
lat enterprise
nancial strusr-
: it has since
Under the
yS) the coun-
:l of financia'
Timerical pro-
Id, in 1879, a
the commer-
vival of trade
1 Parliament,
ewfoundland,
linion Parlia-
t nation.
:n in Canada
;ates and its
s question of
the coasts of
the problem
nadian coast
ion awarded
I
$5,500,000 to Groat liritain, to pay for the privileges granted to the Unittil
States, antl in 1SS8 a treaty was signed for the settlement of this vexa-
tious question.
The temporary removal of this difficulty was followed by the develop-
ment of a still more serious fishery controversy between the two countries,
that relating to the fur-seal fishery of Alaskp. The fur-seals, frequenting
the Pribylof Islands of the Bering Sea for breeding purposes, belonged to
the United States, which rented out the right of killing seals on these islantls
to the Alaska Commercial Com[)any, whose killing privileges were restricted
to ! 00.000 )'early. I^ut thes(? seals had a wide range of excursion at sea,
antl Canadian fishermen began to prey upon them in the open waters.
These depredations, beginning in 1886, reduced the herds by
1890 to such an extent that the Alaska Company could secure T'*]* ^"'"■Scal
only 21,000 skins in that year. 1 here was serious danger of
the extermination of the animals, and the United States took active
measures to prevent poaching on its preserves, as it regarded the work of the
Canadians. The controversy on this question became strenuous as time
went on, and it was seriously thought at one time that the easiest way out
of the difficulty would be to kill all the seals at once and so put an end to the;
problem. F"inally the two nations concernec' agreed to submit the question
to arbitration, and a decision was rendered in 1893, establishing a "protected
zone" of sixty miles around the Pribylof Islands. Unfortunately the ocean
ranofc of the seals is much wider than this, and the diminution of the herd
has still gone on. The difficulty, therefore, remains unsettled.
Sir John Macdonald died in 1891 and Sir John S. I). Thompson, a man
of marked abilit)', became premier in 1892. He lived, however, only until
1S94 and for i brief interval Sir Charles Tispper filled the office. I3efore
the end Jie year he resigned, and Sir Wilfred Laurier became premier,
he beinij the first French Canadian to hold that hiirh office. The most
important questions rising under his administration were those springing
from the discovery of gold on the Klondike River. This find
Avas made in the autumn of 1896, and as rct)orts quickly spread .^.^^'If °* ^^^
1 • • 1 r ■ -1 Klondike
of the richness of the diggings, a rush of miners, mainly
Americans, took place during the following year. But it was quickly
perceived that the region was not in Alaska, as at first supposed, but
in Canadian territory, and mining laws were imposed by the Canadian govern-
ment, including heavy fees and royalties, which were bitterly objected to
by the American miners.
But the chief question arising from the find was that concerning the
true boundary between the two countries. This had never been clearly
r
I, -I
li
"AM.
%-X"
Wf^'
5i^>
T//E DOMINION OF CANADA
|,s
l4; ^' 'hi
! ! 1
' i
L^ lJ.. J t if •
decided upon for the southern section of Alaska, and the natural desire of
Canada to obtain an ocean outing for the new gold district, which was being
very rapidly settled, soon stirred up a very active controversy.
rhe claim of Russia, transferred by purchase to the United States
called for a strip of land ten leagues wide from the coast backward. This
would have been definite enough had it been quite clear what constituted
the coast. The sea line of Alaska is marked by deep indentations, some of
which are open to question as to whether they should be considered oceanic
or inland waters. Such a one is Lynn Canal, which affords the natural
waterway to the mountain passes leading to the upper Yukon, by whose
A Boundary ^^^'^'^'^ ''^^ gold district can be most easily reached. This
Question '"j^'^' '"i"i'i'"g si.xty miles into the land, is less than six miles
wide at its mouth; and while the United States claimed
that It was part of the open sea, the Canadian government looked upon it
as territorial water, and demanded that the coast line should be drawn
across its mouth. Tids would have given Canada control of its upper
waters and tlie access to the sea from the Klondike region over its own
territory which it so urgently needed. It would also have given it pos-
session of Dyea and Skagi.a, two mining towns built and peopled by
Americans at the head of the canal, and whose people would have bitterly
opposed being made citizens of Canada.
As will be perceivt;d from the above statement a number of interna^
tional questions had arisen between the United States and Canada, of
which only the most urgent have here been mentioned. In 1.S98 an earnest
attempt was made to adjust these annoying problems, bj- liie appointment
of an International Commission, whose sessions began in the city of Quebec,
August 23, 1898. On the part of Great Britain and Canada the inember-
An Interna- •'^l^'P consisted of Lord Herschell, ex-Lord Chancellor of
misstn"""' ^r"-''''"^'' ^'•I'^i'-man, Sir Wilfred Laurier, the Premier of
Cana.la, Sir Richard J. Cartwright, Minister of Trade and
Commerce, Sir Louis 11. Davies, Minister of Marine and Fisheries, John
Charlton, M. P., and Sir James T. Winter, Premier of Newfoundland. The
American members were Charles W. Fairbanks, United States Senator
from Indiana, chairman, (i.-orge Gray, Senator from Delaware, Nelson
Dingley, Representative from Maine, John W. I-oster, former Secretary o^
State and ex-Minister to Spain, Russia and Mexico, John A. Kasson, former
Minister to Germany and Austria, and P. Jefferson Coolidge, former Min-
ister tn l-ranre. Senator (ir.iy resigned in September, to take part in Peace
Commission on the Spanish War, and was succeeded by Senator Charles J.
Faulkner, of West Virginia.
THE DOMINION OF CANADA
517
ral desire of
h was being-
ited States,
vard. This
constituted
)ns, some of
:red oceanic
tile natural
1, by whose
:hed. This
n six miles
tes claimed
ked upon it
1 be tlrawn
its upper
'er its own
ven it pos-
peopled by
ave bitterly
of interna-
Canada, of
an earnest
jpointment
of Quebec,
le niember-
mcellor of
Vemier of
Frade and
uries, John
land. The
*s Senator
"e, Nelson
icretary of
on, former
rmer Min-
t in Teace
Charles J.
The Questions
at Issue
The princii)al ([ueslions that came b(;fore this Commissicni for con-
sideration were the followint^ : I he adjustment of the dit'ticulties concern-
intr the Atlantic and Pacific coast fisheries and those still arisiuLT in. reference
to the fur-seals ; the establishment of a fixed bouiulary between Alaska
and Canada ; provision for the transit of merchandise to or from either
country across territory of the other, or to be delivered at
points in either country beyond the frontier ; the cjuestions of
labor laws and mininj^ ris^dits affectint; the subjects of either
country within the t(MTitory of the other ; a mutually satisfactory readjust-
ment of customs duties; an understand intj^ concerninj^ the placing of war
vessels on the t^jreat lakes ; arrangements to define and mark the frontier
line; provision for the conveyance of accused persons by officers of one
country through the territory of the other ; and reciprocity in wrecking
and salvage rights.
As will be perceived from this list of subjects to be considered, the
High Commission had abundance of work mapped out for it. While some
of the qu(-'stions were of minor import.ance and might be settled with
comparative ease, others were of high significance and likely to prove very
difficult to adjust. In fact, they proved beyoml the powers of the commis-
sion. Adjourning from Quebec to meet in Washington in The Paiiure of
November, the members continued in session there for several the Commis-
months longer, but adjourned finally in the spring of 1899 with- *""
out havino- been able to come to a dcjcision on the difficult matters involved.
Several of these (juestions, indeed, were of the most complex anil
vexatious character, particularly that ridating to the fisheries, which had
been a source of trouble and conflict through most of the century. As
respects the transport of goods of one country over the territory of the
other, it is a matter of much importance to Canada, which sends great
quantities of goods over United States territory for shipment abroad,
six times more Canadian grain, for instance, going by way of Buffalo, than
via Montreal and the St. Lawrence. The probUnn of reciprocal customs
regulations is also one of much importance to Canada, which ii)i{)orts more
merchandise from the United States than is sent by that ,, ,
■'_ Commerce of
country to all the remainder of the American Continent, Canada with
amounting in all to about $70,000,000 annually. In return the United
its exports to the United States amount to about $50,000,000,
the total commerce being of importance enough to call for special tariff
regulations between the two countries.
After the adjournment of the commission, efforts were made to adjust
the boundary question, so far as Lynn Canal was concerned, through an
n
518
THE DOMINION OF CANADA
LkJi'i
understanding between the two governments. The United States, in con-
sideration of the needs of Canada in the Klondike region, showed a disposi-
tion to concede temporarily to that country a tidewater port in the Lynn
Canal. But decided protests from commercial ports on the Pacific seaboard
caused the withdrawal of the proposed concession. A temporary adjust-
ment of the question was subsequently made, a line being drawn by officials
of the two countries which followed the mountian summits and cut off
Canada from access to the sea except accross United States territory.
The progress of Canada during the past quarter of a century has been
very great, while her population has increased in that period by nearly one-
half. Railways have spread like a network over the rich agricultural terri-
Rallway Prog- ^'''^' ''^°"^' ^^'"^ southern border land of the dominion, from
ressinCanada ocean to ocean, and are now pushing into the deep forest land
and rich mineral regions of the interior and the northwest,
their total length in 1899 being over 17,000 miles, a large mileage for a
population of 5.000,000. The most recent railway projected is one to the
Klondike region, which already has a Jarge population, and posses.ses in
Dawson City a thriving and enterprising headquarters of the mining region.
Canada has also been active in canal building, and has now under consider-
ation a project of the highest importance, namely, the excavation of a ship-
canal from Lake Huron to the St. Lawrence. This great enterprise, if
carried Into effect, will shorten the distance of commercial navigation by
hundreds of miles and be of untold advantage to the Canadian common-
wealth. It is proposed also to deepen the existing canals, so as to permit
the conveyance of ocean frieght without breaking bulk.
In manufacturing industry almost every branch of production is to be
found, the progressive enterprise of the people of the Dominion beincr
Manufacturing f^'f ^"^ '"'■^^ P'^^P^'-''^" ^^ ^^e goods they need being
Enterprise '"'^'^^^ ^^ ^^^"^e. I he best evidence of the enterprise of
Canada in manufacture is shown by the fact that she exports
many thousand dollars worth of goods annually more than she buys— Eng-
land being her largest customer and the United States second on the list
In addition to her manufactured products, Canada is actively agricultural,
and possesses vast natural wealth in the products of her rich mines, vast
The Yield of forests and prolific fisheries. The most recent of these sources
Predous of wealth are her mines of the precious metals, which yielded
over #6.000.000 in gold and $7,000,000 in silver in 1897,
shortly after the discovery of the Klondike deposits. The yield of those
lias since very greatly increased.
THE DOMINION OF CANADA
%
519
tes, in con-
d a disposi-
1 the Lynn
ic seaboard
ary adjust-
by officials
nd cut off
tory.
■y has been
nearly one-
turai terri-
Jiion, from
forest land
northwest,
eage for a
3ne to the
)ssesses in
no- region.
;' consider-
i of a ship-
terprise, if
igation by
I conimon-
to permit
)n is to be
lion beintr
eed being
erprise of
he exports
JVS — Engf-
)n the list,
fricultural,
lines, vast
se sources
ch yielded
ill xoy/,
i of those
Not only is the outside world largely ignorant of the importance of
Canada, but few of her own people realize the greatness of the countr)' they
possess. Its area of more than three and one-half millions of square miles
— one-sixteenth of the entire land surface of the earth — is great enouc-h to
include an immense variety of natural conditions and products This area
constitutes forty per cent, of the far extended British empire, while its
richness of soil and resources in forest and mineral wealth are as yet almost
untouched, and its promise of future yield is immense. The dimensions
of the dominion guarantee a great variety of natural attractions. There
are vast grass-covered plains, thousands of square miles of untouched forest
lands, multitudes of lakes and rivers, great and small, and c * * ^ r.
'^ ' extent and Re-
mountams of the wildest and grandest character, whose sources of the
natural beauty equals that of the far-famed Alpine peaks. Dominion
In fact, the Canadian Pacific Railway is becomino- a route of pilp-rimacre for
the lovers of the beautiful and sublime, its mountain scenery beinc un-
rivaled upon the continent.
The population of Canada varies in character according to location.
In Ontario the people are generally English. In Quebec, and many other
portions of what was formerly called Lower Canada, the original settlers
were rench, and their descendants are still in the majority and retain many
of the habits and customs of their mother country — so much so, in fact, that,
though England has ruled the land for about one hundred and fifty years,
'.c French language is still almost exclusively spoken. Even in the cities
< -X Montreal and Quebec the prevalence of the language makes the vistor
from Toronto feel that he is in a foreign city.
In the west, until a few years ago, the prevailing population was the
original Indian and the half-breed. But this element, though still numerous,
is fast being swallowed up or hi'Ulen by the throng of immigrants, who are
now pouring into that vast and resourceful region. ','se immigrants,
unlike those of the older eastern provinces, are mai'e up ol ail xiie Character of
the nationalities of northern luirope, the British Isles, however, the Canadian
being well represented. Out of this mixture a new people, Population.
combining-thegood and progressive elements of various nations, is springing
up. In this respect the Canadians of the northwest are much like the
inhabitants of the northwestern United States.
Population at present is densest on the southern borders of the country,
along the Great Lakes and the shores of the St. Lawrence. The interior is
■-')• Jpcit3';_t^- 3^;tncU, anu ao the iciLitliuc iiivJicuocri tnc uuid ui Wifiter, except
where the country is warmed by the winds of the Pacific, becomes more
intense, until, in the northern part of the dominion, it is practically impossible
r,
^IftT"''^
'i
1! 1
,-,
li
■
ii 1
II
ii
I If
ilr''
526
r///; DOMINION OF CANADA
for the Caucasian lace to live in comfort. Much of this unbroken wilderness
is covered with <ri(rantic forests, which make lumbering the chief industry of
that section, as agriculture is of the lower latitudes, In fact, lumbering
and agriculture are the chief industries of all sections except the sea-coasts,
where fishing interests are of great importance, and certain portions of the
great northwest. like the Yukon districts, where mining is predominant.
On the whole, Canada has before it a great future, and what its political
destiny will be no man can foresee.
In several conditions the people of Canada, while preserving the general
features of English society, are much more free and untrammeled. The
caste system of Great Britain has gained little footing in this new land,
where nearly evei ,■ farmer is the owner of the soil which he tills, and the
people have a feelmg of independence unknown to the agricultural popula-
tion of European countries. There has been great progress also in many
social questions. The liquor traffic, for instance, is subject to the local option
of restriction ; religious liberty prevails ; education is practically free and un-
sectarian; the franchise is enjoyed by all citizens; members of the parliament
are paid for their services ; and though the executive department of the
government is under the control of a governor-general appointed by the
queen, the laws of Canada are made by its own statesmen, and a state of
practical independence prevails. Recognizing this, and respecting the liberty-
loving spirit of the people. Great Britain is chary in interfering witli any
question of Canadian policy, or in any sense in attempting to limit the free-
dom of her great Transatlantic Colony.
rl
•i
W
f?
!
:ii wilderness
f industry of
;t, lumbering
le sea-coasts,
rtions of the
jredoniinant.
t its political
J the general
Tieled. The
lis new land,
tills, and the
ural popula-
dso in many
i local option
free and un-
e parliament
ment of the
nted by the
d a state of
^ the liberty-
tig witli any
mit the free-
RT. HON. SIR JOHN A. MACDONALI), G. C. li
I'rime Minister of Canada, 1878-1891.
RT. HON. J. S. ]). THOMPSON, K. C. M.(;.
Prime Minister of Canada, 1892-1894,
Kl. HON. SUt Wn.I'KJU I.AURIK.K.
Prime Minister of Canada, 181/).
ILLUSTRIOUS SONS OF CANADA
S i CHARLES TUPPF.R.
'J»(
•>\\
mm
f 1
11
DAVIU LlVIiSGSIONE
HENRY M. STANLEY.
UK. KRITHIOE NANSEN. ElKL J. K. E. I'EARY.
GREAT EXPLORERS IN THE TROPICS AND ARCTICS.
ning of the
Century
CHAPTER XXXVI.
Livingstone, Stanley, Peary, Nansen and Other Great
Discoverers and Explorers.
AT the beginning of the nineteenth century, long as man had previously
existed upon the earth, much more than half its surface was unknown
to the most civilized nations. Of the extensive continent of Africa,
for instance, only the coast regions had been explored, while the vast inte-
rior could fairly be described as the " Great Unknown." The immense con-
tinent of Asia was known only in outline. With its main features men had
some acquaintance, but its details were as little known as the
mountains of the moon. With America men were little bet- '^"orance of
the Fflfth fi
ter acquainted than with Africa. The United States itself had Surface at
been explored only as far west as the Mississippi, and that but the Begin-
imperfectly. The vast space between that great stream and
the Pacific almost wholly awaited discovery. The remainder
of the continent was divided into national domains, which were thinly in-
habited and very imperfectly known. Of the continental island of Australia
only a few spots on the border had been visited, and still less was known of
the broad region of the North Polar zone.
At the end of the century a very different tale could be told. The hun-
dred years had been marked by an extraordinary activity in travel, adven-
ture, and discovery; daring men had penetrated the most obscure recesses
of continents and islands, climbed the most difficult moun-
tains, ventured among the most savage tribes, studied the "^f^Explor rs
geographical features and natural productions of a thousand in the Nine-
regions before unknown, and learned more about the condi- teenthCen-
tury
tions of the earth than had been learned in a thousand years
before. The work of the century has no parallel in history except the
fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, when America was discovered and the
East Indies were explored, and the horizon of human knowledge was im-
mensely extended.
The great achievements of the century with which we have to deal were
performed by a large number of adventurous men, far too numerous even to
be named in this review.
39
523
ti
m.\
i
.^aJ^S^-J
524
i I
CHEAT DISCOVERERS AND EXPLORERS
The Notable
Fields of
Nineteenth
Century
Travel
In fact it would need a volume, and one of considerable extent to tell
even in epitome, the story of travel and exploration within the nineteenth
century Such a story, given in any fulness, would far transcend our pur-
pose, which IS confined to tlie description of the great events of the century
those of epoch-making significance, and which played leading parts in the
l)rogress of the period with whicli we are concerned. In this review, there-
fore, we may fairly confine ourselves to records of travel in
two regions of the earth, the continent of Africa and the
Arctic Zone, of both of which little was known at the opening of
the century, while the story of their exploration has been of
startling interest and importance. The interior of Asia and
America, while presenting problems to be solved, were not unknown in the
sense in which we speak of Africa, over which rested a pall of darkness as black
as the complexion of its inhabitants. Australia alone was unknown in a
similar sense. But the interior of that great island is practically a desert,
and its exploration possesses nothing of the interest which attaches to that of
Africa, a land which for many centuries has attracted the active attention
and aroused the vivid curiosity of mankind, while a satisfactory acquaintance
with It has been left for the latter half pf t'le nineteenth century.
Of the great travelers to whom we are indebted for our present knowl-
edge of this continent two stand pre-eminent, David Livingstone and Henry
M. Stanley, and we may deal with their careers as the pivots around which
the whole story of African exploration revolves.
The first of modern travelers to penetrate the interior of western
Africa to any considerable depth was the justly celebrated
Mungo Park, whose first journey to the Niger was made in
1795-96, and the second in 1805. He traced that important
stream through a large part of its upper course— finally losing his life as a
result of his intrepid daring. On the east coast, at a somewhat earlier date
(1768-73) the equally famous James Bruce penetrated Abyssinia to the head-
waters of the Blue Nile, which he looked upon as the source of the great
river of Egypt. About the same time the French traveler Vaillant entered
the continent at Cape Town and journeyed north for more than three
hundred miles, into the country of the Bushmen.
Such was the state of African exploration at the beginning of the century
under consideration. The travelers named, and oth< s of minor importance
had not penetrated fa from the coast, and the vast interior of the continent
remained almost uttt ly unknown. In fact the century was half gone before
anything further of consequence was discovered, the first journey of Dr.
Livingstone being made in 1849.
Famous African
Travelers
m\
GREAT DISCOVERERS AND EXPLORERS
<tent, to tell,
e nineteenth
end our pur-
the century,
parts in the
2view, there-
of travel in
ica and the
e opening of
lias been of
af Asia and
nown in the
ness as black
known in a
lly a desert,
es to that of
e attention
cquaintance
^ent knowl-
and Henrv
ound which
of western
celebrated
as made in
; important
lis life as a
earlier date
o the head-
f the great
mt entered
than three
he century
iiportance,
: continent
one before
ey of Dr.
525
David Livingstone, an enterprising man, of Scotch birth, left England
in 1840 to devote his life to missionary work in Africa. He had studied
medicine and theology, and was well equipped in every way for the arduous
and difficult work he had undertaken. Landing at Port Natal, he became
associated with the Rev. Robert Moffat, a noted African missionary, whose
daughter he afterwards married, and for years Ik! labored ^r. Uvlng-
perseveringly as an agent of the London Missionary Society, stone's Mis-
Me studied the languages, habits, and religious beliefs of a sionary Labor?
number of tribes, and became one of the most earnest and successful
of missionaries, his subsequent journeys being undertaken largely for the
advance of his religious labors.
His experience in missionary work convinced him that success in this
field of duty was not to be measured by the tale of conversions — of doubtful
character — which could be sent home every year, but that the [)roper work
for the enterprising white man was that of pioneer research. He could
best employ himself in opening up and exploring new fields of labor, and
might safely leave to native agents the duty of working these out in detail.
This theory he first put into effect in 1849, in which year he set out
on a journey into the unknown land to the north, the goal of his enter-
prise being Lake Ngami, on which no white man's eyes had ever fallen. In
company with two English sportsmen, Mr. Oswell and Mr.
Murray, he traversed the great and bleak Kalahari Desert,— Discovery of
1 • , , \ r 1 ■! . 1 .1 , , Lake Ngami
which he was the first to describe in detail, — and on the
1st of August the travelers were gladdened by the sight of the previously
unknown liquid plain, the most southerly of the great African lakes.
Two hundred miles beyond this body of water lived a noted chief
named Sebituane, the chief of the Makololo tribe, whose residence Living-
stone sought to reach the following year, bringing with him on this journey
his wife and children. But fever seized the children and he was obliwd to
stop at the shores of the lake. Nothing daunted by this failure, he set out
again in 1851, once more accompanied by his family, and with his former
companion, Mr. Oswell, his purpose being to settle among the Makololos and
seek to convert to Christianity their great chief. He succeeded in reaching
the tribe, but the death of Sebituane, shortly after his arrival, disarranged
his plans, and he was obliged to return. But before doing so he and Mr.
Oswell made an exploration of several hundred miles to the northeast, their
journey ending at the Zambesi, the great river of South Africa, which he here
found flowing in a broad and noble current through the centre of the continent.
The subsequent travels of Livingstone were performed more for
purposes of exploration than for religious labors, though to the end he
•|
\Wm- it
S«6
'Mm
m
iii
; * !
^'i;
C/i£A7 DISCOVERERS AND EXPLORERS
M.b I 1 .;^ • '''''''''^'' Lmyanti, the capital of the
Livingstone's ^':>'<o'«'o. ,n May, 1853. being received in royal style hv the
Journ,,y,rom chief and his people, by whom he was crreatlv esteemed H«
theZambesI next nsrenrU-rl fl,« 7 1 • • "^ s."-'^'-') t-sctcmed. Me
to the West ^^^cended the Zambesi, in search of some healthy hi<rh
coast and for a missionary station. Hut everywhere he found the
The start was made from Linyanti on November ii i<!c. ,h„ ►
.jscen<l,nff the Leeba to Lake Dilolo, which was re"d",l n Feban v fs-T
F.naly, o„ the 3.st of May, they came to the coas own of St Pa dt
Loanda, in Portinruese West Africa Thp.V 1^. 1 j ^
had been attended by nn,„berfe!rhards'i ■ ps '::! ^J:::^ZJ:TZ
c3d :t^r:rLti^-atz'"fitt^™:'--''^^^^^^
reached Like niloln .n T ^ ""'"^ „ " ^^^ ''^^ ""' '^?ain after a few months,
.^-acnecl Lake Dilolo on June 13, 1855, and Linyanti in September After
mightier one of the Niacmra U,..^ • 1 ,
fissure in the earth cats direct.y actrThe chaTnerof'T;,;;' wL":
.Ob . ,.at basin-shaped X^:L.:^^^: ^^^2::-
the depression havmg probably at onetime been filled withtan in, e "eirk '
whose waters were drained off when the earth split asunder o,bd
On went the untiring traveler, and on mL 20, .856 he reached th-
eas coast at the Portuguese town of Quillimane,'at ihe n<; th o 1 c Zat
bes,, m a frightfully emaciated condition He had in two and .1,, If
of travel, performed one of the most remarkable /olT,: Ter^fad u^::
The Firs, cross, 'hat tmie. First proceeding north from the Cape to Loanda
:;:f„r« 'l-™"?'', .™-'>-fi- degrees of latitude, he had for ll°e firs!
time m history, crossed the continent of Africa from oc-r to
ocean, tnrough as many degrees of longitude, while his discovenes in the
geography and natural history of the region traversed had been irlme'sl
GREAT DISCOVERERS AND EXPLORERS
527
1 oceaPi to
Livingstone returned to England in the latter part of the year and was
received with the highest enthusiasm, being welcomed as the first to break
through that pall of darkness which had so long enveloped the interior
of Africa. The Royal Geographical Society had already conferred upon
him its highest token of honor, its gold medal, and now honors and
compliments were showered upon him until the modest traveler was over-
whelmed with the warmth of his reception.
The desire to complete his work was strong upon him, and after pub-
lishing an account of his travels, in a work of modest simplicity, he returned
to Africa, reaching the mouth of the Zambesi in May, 1858. In 1859 his
new career of discovery began in an exploration of the Shire, uvlnRstone
a northern affluent of the Zambesi, up which he journeyed to Discovers
the great Lake Nyassa. another capital discovery. For several Lake Nyassa
years he was engaged in exploring the surrounding region and in furthering
the interests, of missionary enterprise among the natives. In one of his
, journeys his wife, who was his companion during this period of his travels,
died, and in 1864 he returned home, worn out with his extraordinary labors
in new lands and desiring to spend the remainder of his days in quiet and
repose.
But at the suggestion of Murchison, the famous geologist and his
staunch friend, he was induced to return to Africa, one of his main purposes
being to take steps looking to the suppression of the Arab slave trade, whose
horrors had long excited his deepest sympathies. Landing at the mouth of
the Rovuma River — a stream he had previously explored — on March 22,
1866, he started for the interior, rounded Lake Nyassa on the south, and
set off to the northeast for the great Lake Tanganyika— which had mean-
while been discovered by Barton and Speke, in 1857.
After his departure Livingstone vanished from sight and knowledge,
and for five years was utterly lost in the deep interior of the continent.
From time to time vague intimations of his movements reached the world
of civilization, but the question of his fate became so exciting a one that
in 1871 Henry M. Stanley was dispatched, at the expense of the propri'^or
of the New Y^ork Herald, to penetrate the continent and seek to discover
the long-lost traveler. 'Stanley found him at Ujiji, on the Stanley
northeast shore of Tanganyika, on October 18, 1871, the great in Search of
explorer being then, in his words, "a ruckle of bones." Far Livingstone
and wide he had traveled through Central Africa, discovp'-jng a host of
lakes and streams, and findinL-; many new tribes vvith strann- habits. Amonc-
his notable discoveries was that of the Lualaba River — Ti.e Upper Congo
— which he believed to be tlu- head-waters of the Nile. His work had been
it;
^ffl*
528
GKF.AT mSCOVKKBliS ANK EXPLORERS
TheDcthor su'itl" for Lake Danirweolo nn^ of i„-c ( , '"''". '■'•'"'<'
•hedrcnt atnrL,.rl „„• , /^,;°' °"^ """5 former discoveries. Hut
May,, .87, bviri, 7 r-"V"'^''''^,"'''''^''' •-""' ■'= ™^ f»""d. o"
•n,n= , I T ■ • '''"' '" ''"' '="'• kneeliris; by the side of hi, hpH
.hat t're ; ,4d^V roH^ri'-'^''"'-'^^^^ V' '■^'^■'"" ^fn-ca, .ost o,
travels had cove e \ h'^ " "f '^'""^ '■""' ""'''"" "<=" I>™l*- His
-ear the c^uaton^'dVor hJ^ Lr 'tni": ,:;k:';"^' '™7. '"^ fr^ -
all done leisurelv ind mrf-fnll, ^^'-'-'^''"' ^"^ ^"'"'^ '^eing
.0 .eo.raphi^i'rci^'i^-t ' .;ra r' ;:,r,'f "■r^*^ -' "- ."'■"-' ™'-
and lt:^le:tr:'^:;;:;:;r:r;l^rr:r';,'i^'^''' '°^ -^^^'r- •--•
career. After tlic discover! of I tt "''" <:""t'n<=nt during; his
.357. the latter s:;^:!: To LL^tas^^rST] '[ TT T'' 'P^^'=' '"
great Victoria Nvanzi thn l„ V j , "''' ''"■' '"^^d-waters of the
nuentiy this ^^'^^^ t'Vr ItL "" "'" 'T"""^ '"''''■
Nile, north of this I- ke wh 17^ 1 n ? ' '""'""y^i 'o tiie White
accompanied by ids htj^' wi^ ' "lied t' TsZ'T ''1^""' "^^*'-'
Victoria, which he named the AlberrN^anza ' ^ "'' ""' °' ""=
the sXirtrt 'tdr"a„!? :r^rt ■'?• ^" -" °" =• ^---^ -™-
ouo.m, anil at a later date various travelers exoloreH
his northern section of the continent, while in ,874-,^°"'
o ;; e,?t7"™" '"'''''' Livingstone's feat of cros.Ii;,
ers after Livingsto 'Is He^rVMl; T' ''■ r^' °' ^'"^-' '--'■
concerned. ^ ' '^"'"^y' *"'' "''°^<= ^oi-k we are next
While a reporter in the M-7n \^n,I- it u ^\ •
been sent to Crete to reno t uoon ,h { '■ '"' ™"='-P"^i"? '"an had
durin. the British Tnvasron Tnl ''%^'^™''";°" '" 'I'--" inland, to Abyssinia
=lr::-»;: S2r?"{r == »"™- ■™-'™ -
Other African
Travelers
GREAT DISCOVERERS AND EXPLORERS
m !
5«9
lost of Its long
ited at UjijI for
\ then started
scoveries. Hut
: iron frame of
tvas found, on
ide of his bed,
i,
Africa, most of
peoples. His
1 the Cape to
lis work being;
utmost value
linst the Arab
p\v.
African travel,
It during- his
ind Spekr;, in
waters of the
KMit. Subse-
> the White
>us traveler,
west of the
urney across
ers explored
574-75 Lieu-
crossing the
rican travel-
we are next
ng- man had
o Abyssinia
ion in that
nt him the
y, who pro-
ind Livincr-
lid Africa,''
Telegraph.
Setting out from Zanzibar in November, 1874, he proceeded, with a large
expedition, to the Victoria Nyanza, which he circumnavigated ; and then
journeyed to Tanganyika, whose shape a;\d dimension he similarly ascer-
tained. From these h»' proceeded westward to the Lualaba, „ . . .
, 1 • I I • . SUinley'5 Jour-
the stream which Livingstone had supposed to be the Nile. ney t^ the
How Stanley made his way down this great stream, overcom- Victoria Ny-
ing enormous difficulties and fighting his way through *""
hostile tribes, is too long a story to be told here. It must suffice to say
that he soon found that he was not upon the Nile, but upon a westward
flowing stream, which he eventually identified as the Congo — r great river
whose lower course only had been previously known. For ten months the
daring traveler pursued his journey down this stream, assailed by treachery
and hostility, and finally reached the ocean, having traversed the heart of
that vast "unexplored territory " which long occupied so wide a space on
all maps of Africa. He had learned that the interior of the continent is a
mighty plateau, watered by the Congo and its many large The Descent ol
affluents and traversed in all directions by navigable waters. the Great
Politically this rer^-rkable journey led to the founding of the Congo River
Congo F'ree Strtr', wi, ih embraces the central region of tropical Africa, and
which Stanley /a."; sent 10 establish in 1879.
In 1887 he s«it ouc on another great journey. The conquest of the
Egyptian Soudan ,y the Mahdi, described in a preceding chapter, had not
only greatly diminished the territory of Egypt, but had cutoff FZmin Pasha
(Dr. Edward Schnitzler), governor of the I'Lquatorial Province of Egypt,
leaving him stranded on the Upper Nile, near the Albert Nyanza. Here
Emin maintained himself for years, holding his own against his foes, and
actively c-ngaging in natural history study. But, cut off as he wa3 from
civilization, threatened by the Mahdi, and his fate unknown in Europe, a
growing anxiety concerning him prevailed, and Stanley was sent to find him,
as he had before found Livingstone.
Organizing a strong expedition at Zanzibar, the traveler sailed with his
officers, soldiers and negro porters for the mouth of the Congo, which river
he proposed to make the channel of his exploration. Setting out Stanley Goes to
from this point on March 18, 1887, by June 15th the expedition the Rescue of
had reached the village of Yambuya, 1,300 miles up the stream. ^'"'" '^^^"^^
Thus far he had traversed waters well known to him. F'rom this point he
proposed to plunge into the unknown, following the course of the Aruwimi,
a large affluent of the Congo which flowed from the direction of the great
Nyanza lake-basins.
Ill
.!'!
I!
f iinl
530
GREAT DISCOVERERS
It
was a tcrrihle journey which
•/AV; EXPLORERS
spread a forest of
th
seemiiu'-
ly inte
^ expedition now made. Hef
c.,nouscKvarfswhofonn,lH:f,,rcst-f„lk
nninahle extent
Ix^fore the travel
of C
ore It
lis indoinital
er were enornun.s, In.t n(. hanlsl
t^ntral y\f ri
peopled mainly by the
ca.
The difficult
'le coura<,re, and he ke
'I'P or danger could d,
'"'n on the shores of Albert Nv
pt resolutely „n ,nuil h
les
Hint
on th
ose of Lake 'I
Th
aiiganyika.
•inza, as he had fo
e met the lost
nnerly met Livin<rston
ree tunes in effect Stanley crossed
to Yamhuya for th
th,
It te rri I )I(. forest
'».i,^'iin. I'inally h
with Iimin antl his foil
'-' '";■" ''"'^ ^^"Pplies he had left th
since he returned
e made an overland jou
A Terrible
f-orest
•loui-ney
fr(
owers, who had h
riHiy to Zanzil
'e<Mi rescueil just
ere and journeyed back
* "•, on the east coast.
ni
l-iMU i,nn,i,„MU peril „f ov,.r I, /" , '" '""'■' '" ''■'^'^ t''^"
i"i<-nt by Si.mlcy <.„,|,.d I ),.,. '"' '■'■"■'"'"».' "f "'<-■ con-
'"' e sh,,,.. „f u,r.o years. Tl l Uit ' "" 'T '' "''"■ ''''^"'^ """""-!
■■"yal i" its S|.ie„,:.,r. A,n, ," ' h " T "'"' ^' "^"^1"'"" ^'l'"°»
Africa as fan,i,ia..,,,sa:;;r;::,:;:;:;''''''^^' '- ■"^'^'-' "- ■••"-■-• -■'
■■"'1 .Stanl,.y s,a„.l pre-eminent, le 2 i "" T" """">-"■ '•ivin.^st„„o
'-'v.n«st<,n,. as tl,e n.ission.ary e ,1. . T "«'"•'■»'" ">o<l-^n, travel:
'■•'■I'es an.i ,„a.ie his way hy „' / T'"' """ ,"'" '"^ "^ "- -va.-e
iHung those of force and dari,,.;" IV, i ,"■"."*>''' '^■•""■''«l '"'"ks, Lis arts
one of the j;reatest w,.rks of'the L , T ^"'^'^'■■^^ors have perforn,,-,!
'■I"ud which for so „,any cent,,, es 1 ! m' t' ""T"'''' "'■" "' ''f "".' ">-
L-xtent of inUTior .Africa. " '""' '''''"■'''-' ""•'" tile whole
I-<^avin,i; this r<-t;i„„ „f research ,..
'■•■-> 'h«- --.t of as earnest effor'.s"','., te';riM "T T^ •"'°'''" "'-'' '''•'•^
The E,pi„™,i„„ as ardent a .spirit of i„„ ,■ "•"■'Islups and has aronsed
«..h.Ar.,,c point in ,|,e st • """"."•"'""• "'<■■ Arctic Zone. At no
greater display „*f ' „ " ""-'-"tl. centnry do we hnd a
•■'Hl'Tance of suffering., an.l a ,nore tnu.il^dh,'!! .'T"'"!'"": •' "'"■•- l«'li.M,t
limits of innnan knowledge, than in ih " <l';tynnmat,„n to extend the
i'Uo whose secrets has actively "' i' "T^ "' '" "'"' """"• "■<■ '^-^-'">i
'cntury. ""'> "'"Inund <lunng the latter half of the
A number of voyaL'^ts w
ccntnries, and I lenry jlndson re'arl'v'',s"!/'"' 'V';'' "'^'""' '" '"""''■
la'"-l-f«. 'l-.'rees 30 ,ni„ntes i, w. ,7 Tf.' ^ '- """I' a.s the
"l-.nng of the nineteenth centnry exj. ' • ^>"'''''"^^'^"- ^^'i"' 'L-
ufy exploration grew more active, and
■'I
GREAT DISCOVERERS AND EXPLORERS
Before it
inly by the
: tiifficulties
oiild daunt
et the lost
-ivinsr.stonc
'u! returned
it-'>c.'d back
east coast,
•save them
►' the fana-
f the con-
continued
I vahiable,
>n ahnost
lo (hiring
iterior of
^'innstone
" travel :
e sava_<,rc
tanley as
. liis arts
-rfornu'd
"tins4- the
e whole
lich has
•iroused
At no
iind a
patient
'lid the
delvin<r
of the
former
as the
ith the
E, and
531
voyage after voyage was made ; but the distance north reached by Hudson
two centuries before was not surpassed until 1827, wht-n Parry reached 82
degrees 40 minutes nortli latitude in the same reinon of the r^ . ,,
,j , , . '^ Rarly hxpeJU
sea. lieyond these eliorts to |) •nc;trale the ice barrier, and the lions to the
discovery of some islands in the Arctic Ocean, nothing of »'ar North
special interest occurred until the date of Sir John I'ranklin's expedition,
which left England in 1.845 and disajjpean-d in the icy seas, every soul on
board perishing. This expedition was made famous by tht; many search
parties which were sent out in quest of the lost mariners.
Hy one of these parties the northwest passage from ocean to ocean,
around the Arctic coast of America, was traversenl in 1.S54. The fate of
Franklin and his men was not fully solvctl until 1.S80, when an American
expedition, under Lieutenant Schwatka, fouiul the last trac(-s left by the
unfortunate explorers.
As famous and as disastrous as the I'Vanklin expedition was the '* Lady
Franklin Bay Ivxpedition," conducted by Lieutenant C.reely, of the United
States army, which set out in 1881. This expedition was not st;nt for pur-
poses of polar research, but in pur aance of a plan to conduct a series of
circumpolar meteorological observations. The relief party of 1883, dis-
patched to the rescue of the explt)rers, was unfortunately put under the
control of militn.ry men, who not only failed to reach their destination, but
even to leave a supply of food where Greely and his men might justly
expect to fip I ne.
As a IV .,ult of this failure, th(! explorers were obliged to abandon their
ships and make their way southwards over almost impassable ice. In Octo-
ber th(;y reached Cape Sabine, one of the bh-akest s|)()ts in .,.,, ,» ., .
. « . irr ,, I 11 ■■• lhel»readful
the Arctic zone. If food had been left there for them all would ratcf the
have been well. But they looked in v.un for ihi; expected *'''*■■*-"'>' '*"'"*>'
supplies, and when, in June, 1884, Commodore Schley reached them with a
new ridief ship, starvation had almost completeil its work. Of ihe whole
party only six men surviveil. and a day or two more of delay would have
carried them all away. Among the survivors was thtMr leader. Lieutenant
Greely.
A disaster as fatal in character attended the JcanneHc expedition, sent
out by the Ni"io York llnaht in 1879, under Commander l)t .ong. to'jjush
north by way of Bering Strait. Tlu-. vessel was crushed by t,,^. ,,„,^,
the ice in 1882. aiul th(; crew made their way over the frozen " Jcannettc"
surf-ue past ,he New Siberian Islands to the mouth of the ^^-^^^^
Lena River, on the n<)i:th coast of Siberia. Here starvation attacked them,
and DeLong and many of his men miserably perished, their bodies being
; Ij
' f
i
532
CJ^EAT DISCOVERERS AND EXPLORERS
louncl by Engineer IVf 1 "ii
south to .he S7bcriun settlemen^Ld^l''''''' r'"r"'°"'' "'"' ^^^ P^^^ed
-.u.„e. f„. the .es.,e „f thJIroTlr^^t^n' -''"' ^"''^" "^ '>-°-"^
discover, if possible a practic-^l . ' '""■.P/'n'ose of this enterprise was to
of Europe 'and As'ia '^^^"ZTf ™"^"'-"S'> 'I'e waters north
E,p..„„„ Norde„skj6,d e^„. t f ^:V "'"' ''"^^^"- '" '«78
n°L^- ' •■"-"I--, of the Sw disf nS"' -irrt' "^ ^fP'"'"
making tile lon.r in„r„„ P', ""o party succeeded in
rope and Asia, winterinl. " B crinTst''"'; ' '' "°"'"^" ■'=°-'» »' Eu-
This vessel was the first'one .„ r„ "^, ,"•■"' ""'' '""'""''''"^ J-"''"" - '^19-
Norclenskjohlwasrewarciedbyb ",;,''' """''^-"'"'o" Pointof Asia, and
order of the Poie Star in his \Z2Z^ ^^u"" '"1 " ^°"""'^"''- "< ">«
several others of the co.rts of Ktm!ne ^*' """■''' "^ '^'^''""ion from
Since i8qo the wm-L- ,^f . i \
.870 Norden:h,,ld ,:i^: t:;,?;,t™'™ '-'••'^™ "- fo-s. ,„
u..„r.,, ■««3. penetrati4 ^ ^zi'::::!':;:^::^:^"'"' r ;-
ta Clree„u„d '"S a snow-clad elevation of 7 oon f , "'"' "=''"^'>-
Kobet li. p,,,r,, „f ,,° n„- '?i ^'-"'- '" '**S« I^icutenant
journey, and in ,888 Dr. I'nlhlofN.y ""' ^/■•"^'^ ^avy, „,ade a similar
'he southern part of the islan: I snoiXsV "■''■^" ^^^P'"^"' "--"^
In 1891 Peary proceeded with ' ""'^°'^'' ''""" east to west,
far up on the wes^ 'coas^ of'c , ,:':j" Ik'"*' '", '''^<^™"-k Bay, a locality
spring with a single conM«nio , ^ .^' u;"'^'■'-' ^'-'' °"' '" 'i'e following
section of the islan.l. Af er a renrirL-'-l 1*-'° '"'"""^ '""'' ""■• "orthern
the northeast coast of Gree:,: 'ats " T^'n V'^t'T ''.'''"-■^ '^ ''^^'"'^
ance of an area of broken stones im.ns, ,bli 1 i ? "''^' ''"' "'<= '•'PP^'r-
P~r,cr„,,e., to the far north l?;^ P ^^ '*-''^"''' ""^ '''^ p4r.^ss
-.H«r.„. faiied^t„„,ake farther pr::,res:'',;l:;;l::::r' "■' ^--'^•>'' ""'
becan,e n.nnerous. Vv!.herVve!'ln;'I„''a?'''" "' ,""^ '""'"^ ^"'"^ expeditions
n .894 to reach the pole by ;«;'"'"'""' ^''"^^
but h,s supporting vessel was crushed iL"' T'T,"" ■'^P"^'^-«- ™"te,
«hen near the 8.st parallel. He nr> I, -^ , . """ '"""''^ '" --"reat
'898-99, but was disabled by J,\^;£," --".i "dash for th. pole " in
out success. In ,894 P'rederick G I "''T "''''^'"^ '° ^>^'"rn with-
Fran. Joseph I,and,'l islan 1 egi™ , tT.r l", '"''f '''''"''''■ ^'^"^-^
'" 1872-74, and whose nort,„.,.„^.! ' . "''■'^"' ''>' ="> Austrian ex„e,lition
on this island .hre» ..:: ,"''•■'=•'" «as not kr- "
ree )ears. carefully exploring it, and
le remained
"1 1896 stood
on Its
:.:^i:^SSi::^mf?Mil4l(f m» . W g VS ;' ^ >*
GREAT DISCOVERERS AND EXPLORERS
533
had pushed
he heroically
Adolf Erik
rprise was to
waters north
:e. In 1878
by Captain
iicceeded in
lasts of Eu.
an in 1879.
>f Asia, and
^nder of the
notion from
forms. In
ond one in
i and reach-
Lieutenant
e a similar
■cr, crossed
h a locality
2 followinir
northern
le reached
»e appear-
^ prot^Rjss
iiney, but
'Peditions
attempted
:en route,
to retreat
pole " in
urn with-
'■. visited
^jH^dition
emained
d on its
northern extremity, near the Sist parallel, and in view of an open ex-
panse of polar waters. Jackson's most notable service to science was the
rescue of the daring explorer Nansen, whose expedition needs next to be
described.
Frithjof Nansen, whose crossing of Greenland has been mentioned,
soon after projected an enterprise of a new character. There was excellent
reason to suppose that a strong ocean current crossed the polar area, (low-
ing from the coast of the Eastern hemisphere across to Greenland and
down both shores of that island. I3y trusting to the drift in-
fluence of this current a vessel micdit be carried past che pole Hansen and His
Entcrorisc
and the long baffling mystery solved. Nansen accordingly had
a vessel constructed adapted to resist the most powerful crushing force,
and so formed that a severe ice pressure v/ould lift it to the surface of
the floe. In this vessel, the Fram, he set out in June, 1893, sailed east to
the vicinity of the New Siberia Islands, and there made fast his ship to an
ice floe, with the hope that the current would slowly carry ice and ship
across the polar area.
For three years Nansen and his crew were lost to all knowledge of man,
in these frozen seas, and all hopes of his return had nearly vanished
when he triumphantly reappeared, having achieved a marvelous success,
even though short of that which he had desired. For more than a year the
Fram had drifted slowly northward, and on Christmas eve, 1894, the lati-
tude of 83 degrees 24 minutes, reached by the Greely expedition, and the
highest yet attained, was passed. In March, 1895, Nansen left the ship,
dissatisfied with its slov; progress, and with one companion started on a
sledge journey to the north. But the ice grew so difficult to cross and his
dog teams so depleted in number, that, after a desper.ac effort, he was
obliged to give up the enterprise on April 7th. lie had then reached
latitude 86 degrees 14 minutes, being 200 miles nearer the pole than former
explorers had gor. ami within 300 miles of that "farthest nonh " point.
The vessel which he had left continued to drift north until it ^ansen•s
reached 85 degrees 57 minutes, when it turned southward. "Farthest
Here the sea was found to be deep, and the belief that the North"
pole might be surrounded by a land area was disproved. It lies probably
in a sea region of over 10,000 feet in depth.
Nansen and Johansen, his companion, finally reached the coast of
Franz Joseph Land, where they drearily spent the winter of 1895-96, living
on the flesh of bears and walrusscs, which they shot. In the spring they set
out to cross the ice to Spitzbergen, and after two unsucessful attempts had
the good fortune to meet Dr. Jackson on the shores of Franz Joseph Land.
I !l
in'
534
0/^EAT DISCOVERERS AND EXPLORERS
arrival in ,. L,„/„r cTviLrtii t nVo^r ^.t^l'^^ ~-< t'-i.
new i';u:f ^niif ,■ :r7 71:7- ^r- '-. ^^'^ --^- a
the pole as ori.n'nal as that of ' Nanfen / t' u""* =" P'^" °' ''^^'^hing
hopeful. This -.as .he ..aLg ^dvant 'Cof thr^'' '^ "'^^ '° ''■= '--
those of water. Mr. Anclrce was an tf "'"/"'■'•='"' °f air, instead of
po.ssible, by aid of a rope dra^ 2 T Tk""""'-,"' ^''Perience, and found it
balloon so„,e»hat aside' ro^lhTourseo'T;'''.'" '"t" "'" "'°"°" °' ^
suitable for his enterprise was cLst^ ed ndTn thet ''"°°" r"''"^'y
Andree', P.M set out for the north wl,l, , summer of ,897 he
r-"-. hopes of -ur„;„Tsu:c:isf7nTf— :.::'* ^v^r
adventurous ^-'::t', rndTt'r '"'-^-^ -"'-''e pla^oT; ^^
They have in all probabihty fallen v,cn,rT'''T°"' ''"'' '='''^'' '° ^^'-"•
northern zone. ^ '^'"""'* '° "'= 'errible conditions of the
In 1898 Lieutenant Pearv ipt ^..f , • /•
triun,ph, now equipped for a cont n,!.H f" ""= '""'^ "^ '"'= former
pole. Me prop'ose'd to es allkh denot of" '° •'"'^^ "^^ P™"-'™' "' "-
in the north, and .0 continue he e,ne PT'^">"» at successive points
*>shin, polar-ward from hiHa: 1 est f fth^ r^'^",' " T'"'''''' «"^">'
Norwe.y,an Captain Sverdrup proceeded^ the , '^ '"""" >''='"■ "'«
f <"«, with purposes analogou,s to those of P ■' ^'^^ ^'^ '" ""^ '""°'"
Italian Itince Lui,d, set ott for IW iLeprL H 'n '''^ ''""'"^""^
journey north, and proposing to devote seralyett",!" ^''"'PP-;'' <°' -
1 lius there ,s room for hope that th. Tl ^^*" '° '"e enterprise,
of the nineteenth century, or before the tw ."7 ^^ '^'"'^''^ '^>' "»= -"d
advanced. Meanwhile tie entrp L 'f ^'" ''' ■> '-'"'"^ '' ■"'''"^ ^''='"
neglected, has been actively rev ved l ^"T ^°\^' ^^P'oration, long
visited that region, and active steos are h T^'^''"'""'' ''^^<= '■«^'=«ntly
a larger scale. ^^^ '"" ''^'"g 'aken for its exploration on
*-■
f research it
eings in (he
: remarkable
pleted their
dward, their
ng events of
apped Franz
esearch. A
of reaching
to be more
r, instead of
nd found it
notion of a
1 seemingly
of 1897 he
w'ith ardent
Unhappily,
ans of the
to return,
ions of the
his former
lem of the
live points
Lry, finally
e year the
le famous
venturous
Jed for a
•rise.
y the end
tny years
on, long
recently
'ation on
CHAPTER XXXVII.
Robert Fulton, George Stephenson, and the
Triumphs of Invention.
IN no direction has the nineteenth century been more prolific than in that
of invention, and its fame in the iu'. ire is likely to be largely based on
its immense achievements in this fie^ld of human activity. It has
been great in other directions,— in science, in exploration, in political and
moral development, but it is perhc.ps in invention and the industrial adapta-
tion of scientific discovery that it stands highest and has done most for the
advancement of mankind. And it is a fact of great intentst that nuch the
most striking and important work in this direction has been
done by the Anglo-Saxon race, in many respects the most ^7!tMtyZ
enterprising and progressive race upon the face of the earth. Invention
For the beginning of this work, during the eighteenth century, credit must
be given to Great Britain, and especially for the notable invention of the
steam engine, which forms the foundation stone of the whole immense
edifice. But to the development of the .ork, during the nineteenth cen-
tury, we must seek the United States, whose inventive activity and the
value of its results have surpassed those of any other region of the earth.
We cannot confine ourselves to the nineteenth century in considerin^r
this subject, but must go back to the eighteenth, and glance at the epocir.
making discovery of James Watt, the famous Scottish en.n- , „, ,, .
^ , , . , "^ James Watt and
neer, to whom we owe the great movmg force of nineteenth the Steam
century industry and progress, and whose life extended until Engine
1819, well within the century. There exists an interesting legend that his
attention was first attracted to the power of steam when a boy, when sittin*--
by the fireside and observing the lid of his mother's tea-kettle lifted by the
escaping steam. It is not, however, to the discovery, but to the useful
application of steam 'power that his fame is due. 1 he use of steam as a
motive power had been attempted long before, and steam pumps used
almost a century before Watt's great invention. What he did was to pro-
duce the first effective steam engine, the parent machine upon which the
multitudinous improvements during the succeeding century were based.
535
■|
536
'iMi
THE TRIUMPHS OF INVENT/ON
'm
h t
• t
i«^.. ,
the ,rc.t triumphs t f ht er fidli™; " "' labor-savin. ,nachi„ery,
Nlnce-h developed to an extent not Z^ P™J"ctK>n were
won,, nee., a .Tll'lrj l":;:"^-^"'" 'r^^ ^^^^^^'^T't
all that has been do:,:t 7 , , Lc ;, rr,;'''"'" '" "-'"• ^^=" '" ^P""-.
.o a rapid review e, -.He leadlnt:;::!;'; T^:ZZ 7^^'"' -''-
Arkwri^^hi an.i ij^^:. .iToTo:: cttrhiTh'Tv' '■■ ■ '^'^^-•'
cotton manufacture. Thesr- were r ", i ^ ', ''^ -vatar-ie aids in
Eli Whitne, the Aa-erica"' irj^tc^' t^^ L^'^'l^'ins'Tl-'^'^ ^"f ">''" "^
cotton hbre was enormously chea^e,', 10... '■; I '" P™''','"'"'' "'
inventors of this period were John FUc Itt w^ose ffc I t^r ,''""'"^^'1
steamboat .as d,., .,d OliverEvans, who > ^^.^ot::m!^L^:;
the Eighteenth p.rrhtr.. .r » • , ''^"^ ^'"^^ ^^ ^'t^^ise a steam
moved as a stern-whee, st^^.i-oat ^n tL Sch l'*; '^RK.r C'^f "-
.nvent.on o; this period was the na,l machine o cob P . ''"""""
•795. though not fully developed until ,So A,,^ ' P""*^"'"' ''"
l.a:K,.wro„,,ht, and coit twentyXc cents '„o;) In"";' '"''' ^""^ ^"
ancient hand process was speedily broT.lt to an en 1 ',' "" '"•'"""'' "'«=
iws si,.:., been reduced to I ttle more t ^ , ^f '""'' ""= '"'"' "' "=>"=
made. Another famous A^ °^ ""= """ °' "W'^h they are
Blanchard. th L^tno abfe orwh:,:T'''°^- °' ""■''' '''"' ^^'^ T''°'»-
lathe, developed in -s,,, tr°:,;:'rni,^:^re!:;:n::-''= •^'■^-"-i
rnes..™.^. "otablere:e tL tearC:* ^^T^^'' '"^""l '"^ "o^'
several thousand year!, Z^or e h lb :' "Z::" T Z'^^-' '^ .^ PeHod of
the saa for rapid motion on the-wat..' 'CTvrnt 1^ l^u^ll
the stearr*
machinery,
in the suc-
ction were
Ijut almost
electricity,
time. It
1 epitome,
ourselves
'.nvenrion
od of ihe
ns of the
• Richard
>le aids in
:on-<rin of
iiction of
^-mericau
practical
achinery,
*lf a cen-
a steam
>ropelled
irds was
r famous
en ted in
were all
line the
of nails
:hey are
1 homas
anchard
:rivance
abor.
e most
Iter de-
:o man-
:nod of
travel
3n and
THE TRIUMPHS OF INVENTION 537
Stephenson brought these ancient systems to an end, and within a sincde
century produced a macrical change in the ability of man to make his w^ky
over the surface of land and sea.
The application of steam to the movement of boats had been tried by
several inventors in Great Britain and America in the eighteenth century,
the most successful being John Fitch, whose steamboat was used for months
on the Delware about 1790. But the earliest inventor to produce a com-
mercially successful steamboat was Robert Fulton, another American,
whose boat, the Clermont, was given its trial trip on the Hudson in 1807.
This boat, in which was employed the principle of the side paddle-
wheel, and which used a mo o powerful engine than lohn p „ . „ ,
T?;i.„u 11 1 . '^ •' Fulton s Boat
l^itch could command, was completed in August. 1807, and the " cier-
excited a great degree of public interest, far more than had '"°"'"
been given to the pioneer steamboat. Monday, September 11, 1807. the
time set for sailing, came, and expectation was at its highest pitch. The
friends of the inventor were in a state of feverish anxiety lest the enterprise
should come to grief, and the scoffers on the wharf were ready to give vent
to shouts of derision. Precisely at the hour of one the moorings were
thrown off, and the Clermont moved slowly out into the stream. Volumes
of smoke rushed forth from her chimney, and her wheels, which were
uncovered, scattered the spray far behind her. The spectacle was certainly
novel to the people of those days, and some of the crowd on the wharf
broke into shouts of ridicule. Soon, however, the jeers grew
silent, for it was seen that the steamer was increasing her speed. ^stramLt
Soon she was fairly under way, and making a steady pro- Trip Up the
gress up the stream at the rate of five miles per hour. The ""***""
incredulity of the spectators had been succeeded by astonishment, and
now this feeling gave way to undisguised delight, and cheer after cheer went
up from the vast throng. In a little while, however, the boat was observed
to stop, and the enthusiasm at once subsided. The .scoffers were again in
their glory, and unhesitatingly pronounced the enterprise a failure. But to
their chagrin, the steamer, after a short delay, once more proceeded on her way,
and this time even more rapidly than before. Fulton had discovered that
the paddles were too long, and took too deep a hold on the water, and had
stopped the boat for the purpose of shortening them.
This defect remedied, the Clermont continued her voyage during
the rest of the day and all night, without stopping, and at one o'clock the
next day ran alongside the landing at Clermont, the seat of Chancellor
Livingston. She lay there until nine the next morning, when she continued
u 1
5.38
THE TRIUMPHS OF INVENTION
II?
\ I
SR
her voyage toward Albany reichlncr fl,.. •.
The Effect Of •M'I'earancc of tlic steamer was ev,. ^r, ^ "
<l.es,e.m. p<K,,,lc hel.ekl wint thev . T ,'""• '^'"="- """I''"-'
-">"-- vonii.,,, „.,. a,:,":,ut \; rr ,;:.,'V',':"-^''- ,"—•
. „ . , -i'l> '•'-■< fins, an<l shakin,, the rive w , ? i ' " ' "■•■'"^''
rapully ,„ the face „f Imth win.l a-1 tkle S , ""• ^'"proaehing
the decks of their vessel, where uJv ■ ',"" "''•'™- ""-'"-^Ives /l.t on
.he .nonster had passed, ; ii^ t ^::i '." T '^■''""'■, "' ''— ""'■'
shore in dismay, leavin,. their vessclTto drift hT .""V"'" """''^ ^"^ "»=
The introduction rf the Ta, ho. ' ^" '' ''""" ""= ^'^'-■^""•
internal com,„erce of the Union „ '","' " 1'""'=^^"' ''"'l'""^ '" 'he
rivers whose swift currents h-,d el„ I T '° "•'^'«"''"" ">••>">■ important
and easy comn.unicat hi ,?:"!'" '? f'"^ "^<^' -' -'e rapid
practical>le. The public soo, T '"'""' P'''"'* "' 'h<; country
rapidly for stean,h:::lsTor 7 i ^ 1 ^ri'"'' ""■ •^"" "^''"^^^ ^^ '"
these as fast as possible sev e 7 , ^ """"■>■• '*"''"" '•''^""-■d
Ohio and MissisLpW rivers " " "'""''" '"''"■^ '"^ '»»'» °" 'he
at he^'= T,tiriter2;;i'trr:'"^="''-":"n' "■" '- «•---"
set out from the city of tha name i ^ ' '" "^","'" ■''"■""~^'' -hich
combined aid of win^:, and tr^rin'; ent^^lTh: '^'^;.-;:7°°' ">' "-
entirely by steam power was the Jfov,,/ ir,//, ,'^ , "' ""■'' '" ""^s
■833. A yearortvo later "he 6>f/ « / T '-l '"^'"aJian-built vessel, in
3« fee. Ion,, by,, feet !eam t""f7""''' "«= <^'-^' i™" ocean steamer-
the developmenVo "ea ~ a f^ "''''!' !" f""" ''">-^- ^-^ "■™
been enormous, and .a' extraotd n ,/ "" "I ""' '"'' ""^'" >™"=-- ''as
and speed of s earn vessel "1 ".^V'" '''7 '^'-■" "'''''^ '" "^ »-
took n,ore than nine clays .0 cr ss om Xw'^^o: ^ '' O " °"''-'" ''''"'"''
t.eve,op„e„. journey can be made now ' , ,, " Q"™-^'"-"- 'rhis
Of Ocean rf.<rnrrio c.; .1 ""'^ over five davs As
s...™er. , »7„t"^^' "'« fc---" 0«««/., whose, firs, voyage wafnnde
monster is 7^ A^^'l^T? ^"^.°'^=^ ^'«' --' ^"i't TWsTea^
is capable !, Mz!:;''^^^: t:!t:rz\ °' k"°°° '""^' -""^ ^^
unprecedented. I n.s lev.athan considerably outranks in dimensions^he S
tcrnoon. On
time — exactly
vessels. The
;ssels by the
liese simple
ij?e monster,
ly: the water
approach in,!^
-'Ives Hat on
terror until
lade for the
le stream,
otus to the
y important
made rapid
:he country
*rs came in
n executed
oats on the
be If la need
«^/^ which
iool by the
'St to cross
: vessel, in
steamer —
Since then
waters, has
n the size
n steamer
vn. This
iays. As ■
vas made
rhis sea-
, while it
[Jur with-
capacity
:he Greai
B H C
2 n
< I
n
± o
3 O
^ r
O
2 f>
° O
-■ o
IS
_ c
[
8 "
I
? o -
g m c
o r m
^ PI r
2: 5 2
I o
[
m I
1
f|^^H|
1
:"1
^^^^KCj
iH
^^^P
^m
^HHii
i ill, 1 !
X
a.
<
e
o
o
z
o
X
a.
►-
(A
lis
o 2
B „ „
= >>«
-"2"
3 I) 2
a a >-
e-g a
(^ u •*
^-i5
u
X
H
z
O
U
b.
IE
bl
a.
z
o
or
J « >»
« .3
a H «
S 3 "
x ;: «
•5 ti'S
— 30
•a .i t*
O ixg
•~ (I
•ag5
r///t- TRiu\frifSi or inve. '^ion
54t
hastcrn, ihc former ocean marvitl. and fitly typifies tiic pro^rrcssof tlu; century.
As will be renKinberecltiie (hrat liasUni proved a failure, while the Oceanic
is a pronounced success.
Important as h been the invention of the steamboat, it is much
surpassed by that of locomotive and the railroad, which have increased
the ease, cheapness, and rapidity of land travel and freight transportation
far more than steam navi<,ration has increased traffic l)y water. While the
sailing vessel falls short of the steamshi[) as an aid to commerce, the
difference b<'tween the two is very much less than that between the horse
and the locomotive, the iron rail and the ordinary road, and the railroad has
achieved a revolution in transportation equal to that made by the st(.'am
engine in manufacture.
The motor engine is, aside from the work of Oliver Kvans, already
mentioned, solely a result of nineteenth century enterpris*;. The railroad
came earlier, first in the form of tramways of wood ; the earliest iron rails
being laid in England about 1767. Hut it was not until after 1800 that an
attempt was made to replace the horse by the steam carriage on these roads.
Of those who sought to solve this problem, George Stephenson, a poor
Knglish workuigm m, stamis decidedly first. While serving as fireman in a
colliery, and later as engineer, he occupied himself earnestly in the study of
machinery, and as early as 1.S14 constructed for the colliery a traction engine
with two cylinders. This was seated on a boiler mounted (.n wheels, which
were turned by means of chains connected with their axles. It drew eight
loaded cars at a speed of four miles an hour. This was a clumsy affair,
weak in power, and inefficient in service, but it was much superior to any
other engine then in use, and was improved on greatly by his second engine,
built the following year, and in which he used the steam blast-pipe. These
early engines were not much esteemed, and the horse con- ,. a. t.
. 1 .. 1 1 , . , , - ueorKe Stephen-
tinuetl to be employed in preference, the first passenger rail- son and the
jad, the Stockton and Darlington, opened in 1S25, bein*-- run Locomotive
by horse-power. Meanwhile Stephenson ontinued to work on the locomo-
tive, improving it year after year, until his early ventures were far surpassed
in efficiency by his later. A French engineer, M. Seguin, in 1826, successfully
introduced locomotives in which im wed appliances for increasing the
draught were emi)loyed. At that time, h\ 1, inventors seem to have been
actively engaged on this problem, and when the Liverpool and Manchester
Railway, begun in 1825, offered premiums for the best ngines to be run at
iiigh speed, a number uf aj)plic.-in"s appeared. The \ n was (,-asily won,
in 1830, by Stej.henson's "Roiket," the most ellectr. j loci...iotive yet
produced. rhis antediluvian affair, as it would appear to-day, weighed
3fi
♦ #
Ma
T//E TKnmPUs OF INVENTION
""ly 4M tons, but was abK- to dr .v.- -, i i /
"^ '"-"-" '"■■'- - „ , :, , J';;:^;^ '/ -- -' - average speed
T*. P.*™. r„n alone i, a„,,i„,J ,1 1- " "^ T"^""^™ "'"'■■'■ When
rxt:^' =- -'""■™- or '..:'■; .,ir'i;-';:Ve: "■- s^-^r-^-
we owe the locomotive a, an ,ff ,■ ""^ Stephenson
idea S'^^^:::t r .:i:J:is'x^'- '-^^^-^^ -^ ^--^ ^^- '-
Un.ted States set then.selves' o ^he ,evH '"""'''"r 7' ^""^^'"^'^'^•^ "^ ^J-
I-nes of railway, for horse traction we '"'"' " '''''* P"^^'^''"' Short
motive, the " StourbricL^e I i ,' ' h: ' "' ^"arly dates, the first loco-
on a short line at Hone^ci!^ 'k' I -^^'^r'-f ^T, ^^^^^ and placed
first passen^rer railroad i„ the UniU SMtf '. "'" ""'' ^^'^'°' '''-
was trud the earlirst American-l . ll '' ''•'' T'' '" '^-^o, and on it
Cooper, the celebrated phila^: ll^ of rr;::^,f ^ 1^^^^^-^ «^ i^eter
. First Amerioin w.th a three and a half inch rvlin I •" '"''''" ^ ^"^ ^^''l''--
R.ilroad..„d made of old LHin hfrr I ^^""•^""'''■'^''''^"'^"'ar boiler
Locomotives , , ^ '^^'" 'Mrrels, and a fan blou/.^- ^ •
araucrht. Its \vf.l•,r^^ , oiower to increase the
lack .peed, „,aki„;the rl o,^' ',:,:: ^ .•'"alf tons. Yet it did n^
;;>; es. ,n an hour. Hut the first se "able A '"^' ,"'"^' '"-"y—
• Uest fnend," built at West I'oint N v ^"*='''"" '«o„,otive was th,-
Hambur;; Road, in South Carolinn in ".s" "1" °',' "'" Charleston an,l
•; Kocket ■• had been tried. Tl e ' U ' p^"" f^'^^ '■'"- Stephenson's
;l..rty miles an hour, and could draw a r ™T r '""''' '"^l"^ "'"« "'a"
forty to fifty passen,.ers, at twin r,nit ' '" , " °' '''^ '°='^''es, with
■; '^^''f ." l>owever, in design, a 7i " are ' " "'^ '"'<="°^ '" "-
the zeal of a negro firen.an, who sa „,','; 'T '" ," '"''''"' ™'' 'trough
of steau. The fireman shared th f™ rthel:'' "' '° ""^ ""= '-■'-P'^
Such was the railroad as it be.ran l°™mot,ve.
of telescopic magnitude. A. the end o^S,?',?'"'"' ?""'■ "T" ''^'^ " ''^
l..v.,„ . . '""'^^ °f --ailroad in the „ , ^ ,^ """''= '^'^^ "'*» » hundred
'development Of , , '"-' "' '"e United States anrl nr^K-,M .n <■
The Railroad elsewhere. At the end of the cerun;v n ^ ^ '"" ^"^^''
over iSo.ooo miles of niim.H ) ? '''""^'■>' ^'°"^ ^^ad
systems with more than Sock, miles of r^ck' t H t T' ""^'^^^ ^^"^^^^
about 450,000 miles of road -onlv xl a ^ '^''''^^ '^"•''^ 'here were
United States. ' °"'>^ '^° ^"^ '-^ ^alf times the mika^.e of the
As for the development rif fho i
track, etc., it has been enorn,o„s ' ,!°'"™'""'.? "'^ ■'ail-ad carriage, the
'rains is now a common speed,-wlii,; tLr'-Xs^f Xi'lnT^
averai,^" speed
ni'les. When
'e amazement
e Stephenson
f '»ic'clianism.
-rful, efificient
I nee, the new
ineers of the
Jleni. Short
he first loco-
I and placed
id Ohio, the
o, and on ft
5n of J^eter
a toy affair,
ilnilar boiler
n crease the
-t it did not
venty-seven
ive was the
■leston and
:ephenson's
more than
aches, witli
•«or to the
>d through
the escape
o day it is
a hundred
still fewer
alone had
e railroad
^ere were
^^e of the
•age, the
•assenger
i tons of
r/l£ T/?/[JA/P//S OF INVENTION
freight transportr 1 annually by the railroads of the world are incredibly
great We cannot here undertake to describe the notable feats of engineer-
ing wh.ch hau. carried railroads over rivers and chasms, over mountains
impassable otherwise except by sure-footed mules, across deserts too lu t.d
dry even for mule trains. •' No heights seem too great to-day, no vab m,
deep, no cartons too forbidding, no streams too wide; if commerce dcn.ands
It the engineer will respond and the railways will be built." The railroad
bridges of the country would make a continuous structure from New Vork
to San I'rancisco. and include many of the boldest and most ori.nnal as
well as the longest and highest, bridges in the world. The pioneer'niilroad
suspension bridge at Niagara Falls was as remarkable in its
day for boldness and originality as for dimensions and success "'■'-•^* Railroad
A single span of 821 feet, supported by four cables, carried "''''"'"
the track 245 feet above the river that rushed beneath. The cables were
supported by masonry towers, whose slow disintegration gave occasion for
an engineering feat even more notable than the original construction of the
bridge. 1 he first railroad bridge across the Ohio was at Steubenville. com-
pleted in 1S66; the first iron bridge over the Upper Mississippi was the
Burlington bridge of 1869. The first great bridge across the Mississippi
was Eads' magnificent structure at St. Louis, whose beautiful ste-el arches
of over 500 feet span each give no hint of the difficult problems that had to
be solved before a permanent bridge was possible at that point. It was
completed in 1874. Since then the great river has been frequently bridcred
for railroads, while its great branch, the Missouri, has been crossed by bridges
in a dozen places.
The steam railroad has been supplemented by the electric street rail-
way, which at the close of the century was being extended at a highly
promising rate. Passenger travel in cities by aid of the horse railway was
inaugurated about the middle of the century, the horse beginnin<r to be
replaced by the electric motor in 18S1, when the first railway of this char-
acter was laid in Berlin. A second was laid in Ireland in iScSj. But the
electric steel railway has made its greatest progress in the United States
where the first line went into operation at Richmond, Va., in 1888. This
adopted the overhead trolly system, since so widely employed, and the
length of line had increased to over 3,000 miles in 1892 and
15,000 miles in 1897. Since that date the progress of electric ^^'^ Electric
railways has been ei.ormous. they being extended from the ^^''-"''■^ ^^""^^
cities far into the country, where they come into active competion with
the steam roads. Electric locomotives are also in use, and the twentieth
' I
544
YHE TRIUMrffS OF INVENriON
4. >!•
TK LiKrall), which lias been extraordinary diirin- the c.Mitnrv ni
"»•;■;>"-« n, th,s dirc-cti,,,, perhaps the n„.st „„tahle is th. ,."."' er,,
nit^t'rrZui::''^ t"" ':? ""- "^■'^' "^ "- '■ '-. t^n.;;::,,' t"
atcci tiicaptr to-ilay tlian iron was not verv mniv v,..,rc. , i •
w..rki„. ,„ac,.i,K.ry the pro,ress has been v^/.^.^a ," r'„., ."r fiT,'
has the ,e,„„s of the A,„erica„ inventor ^een nior.; clL I.:',:;:,/:^!
"r;{J.r„J:°" ^;;:':|, ,'" ''"'•''"-y'-^-''^ -< wo-m-working nuchLery,
w„rM„r ''"'' ""^ "'°" '''-■''^■'- "><''>l>anis,n is en,ph,y«l TI.e r.-sul
ns<.fnl kin I '? " 'l''"'^; ""'''■'''•■' '" ""^'^'' ••""' "°»l' "f ""^ '"'»t varied and
•Mini kntds, formerly almost nnattainable by the rich -.r,. n,.w , ',T
mto the „„,sen„, of antiquities the slow and clnn.s • li , , , " ?,', f,'
";::;:' "^ 't "••'""'^•^ ':°"«"«'- •'•'■■■^ -■-ion, ^rii: a . ;
tion of phosphores matches on a lar.re scale "^
Mention of the friction match 'opens "to us one broad visti of nin.
teenth century i.rogress, too ,rreat to be more than gland at TZ
nnbraces the replacentent of wood bv coal for he.,,! ,t ! .f- •
."='" "f 'I";."-'--. "«-• f-nace, the coaldn.rning" g?a.e 'an 1^:,: ^.Hlt
>en,ences of l,ke character. As re,rar<ls the taLt ca wl ^a i^"
THE TRIUMPHS OF INVENTION
545
liich will }iavc
team road, the
:li came extra-
lie automobile
its end. It is
•avel that the
most notable
s most us(;fiil
S4' displaced at
)loyed in the
»s in iron and
century. Of
ssemer steel-
dition of the
h of making
;<> In iron-
J other field
icuously (.lis-
i,^ machinery,
The result
5t varied and
now within
of Common
icestors of a
luce to this
•done, the
s relt'Ljated
:el to which
' developed
tion of an
iie produc-
ta of nine-
at. This
inc ucvei-
irious con-
ich was in
common use diirinjjj tlie first third of the century, it seems as anticpiatcd
now as the pyramids. Various kinds of oil succeeded it as |»r„gress In
iiluminants, until the discovery of petroleum set them all illumination
aside, and gave the world one of its most useful natural ""** "*•""""«
products. Then came the illuminatinjjj gas, and finally the wonderful electric
light, whose brilliant glow lighted up the threshold of the twentieth
century. Petroleum, gas and electricity are also beginning to replace
coal for heating and cooking purposes, — as coal replaced wood, — and an out-
look into the future seems to rt.'veal to us the marvelous electric energy per-
forming these and a thousand other services; this energy yielded, not as now.
by costly fuel dug from the earth, but by power derived from falling water,
from moving air, from swelling tides and flowing currents, and even from
the direct light and h(;at of the sun.
We cannot undertak(i to describe in detail the inventions of the cen-
tury, ev(Mi all those of great service to mankind. A mere inventory of these
would more than fill this chapter, and we must contiiKt ourselvcjs to the
notable ones of American origin. Among the most important of these
may be named the sewing machin* a tl«;vice gradually approached through
a century of effort, but n't madi> workable until a poor ww- homc nnd the
chanic nam(;il I'^lias llowe attacked the problem, and worked ScwiijcAta-
it out through yttars of penury and disappoinimcni. Ii was '•'"«'
the lock-stitch and shuttle to which he owed his success, but these devices,
patented by him in 1846, were pirated by wealthy corporations, and years of
litigation w(.'r(! necessary beforct he gained his rights, lie Imally obtained
a royalty of five dollars for each machine mach; up to 1S60, and, after the
renewal of his patent in that year, one dollar for each machine. The num-
bers jjroiluci'd wert; sufficient to make him very wealthy, and l)y tlu; time
the original jjatents expired, in i<S77, ovt;r six million machines had been
produced and soKl by American manufacturers alone. Asitle from the vast
nimibi.T of sewing machinc^s now used in families, thos<; useil in factori(!S
are estimated to give (Mnploymt.'nt, throughout the work!, to over 20,cxx),ooo
women.
Another American invention of the greatest utilit) *s that of vulcani/.ed
India-rubbc^r, the production of a poor man nameil Charles (ioodytjar, who,
like Howe, spent years of his life and endured semi-starvation while persis-
tently exiH'rimenting. Heginning in 1834, it was 1839 before, doodycar and
after inmuiierable failures, he discovered the secret of vul- the Vulcanlna-
canizing the nd)ber by inenns of snlnh.ir. Hcfore that date »«""<>' «">>h«r
the softening effect of lu:at renilered rubber practically useless, but the
vulcanized rubber produced by Goodyear was, before his death in i860,
• !^ i
4
545
THE TRIUMPHS OF INVENTION
(' '
J
fircatly incroasod, and it rcce^ ^ 1 "' i"""" ""•" ''" """^^ ''••'' very
opens „p a new fi.-W o'Tt" u ' 7-T'" '" ■''•^•^"■''^ '•""' "^^-""= '■>«
demand. '" '""- "■'"'^'' '"■«' enornKn,,sly increase the
to .l,e labors of seve a c tnd bL, ,' T- ^""'^' ''"'"''' "^"">' ''<= "^^'-^d
telc,.apl, runs ov ■ » , ! :f°;'' •° ,"-•>' "^ "- -'-ad. T„,,av ,i,e
'ele,rapl, lines in ^X^^^^^^t^ IJ^T f ""'' ""' '•="»"■ "' ""=
5.000,000 miles, „f which more ,1 u "' "'*= '""'"'y ^'^'"''^ -er
phon,v-the ma veion . LrTel , ''""' '" '^"'"'"- '''l'^ ''■'-
developed in the fn,i n^r^rtf '''''' ~'"'"""' l^^' '^'-^'"'1- »'^" and
""•■es of wire in .he United Sites'"'"""'' ""'' ''^" "'" "^''^ ■' "'■"-"
Th„„,as Alva Kdison, o,, Ir"""" "'"""'"' ""-• ">'''^fati,,able
.elegraphy-the send n^o v LuT 1:';'""="" ''"'"^^'"^ '" '"""'i''-"
tones years or centurie' Zee ' ''""'' ■'''"'" '" ""^ ""^'"^^
ress ™'b:.:r::rin^::.tr :r;: '- "r '"'' -" "'""-'"'->■ .■™«-
bein« capable „f remarkal" J :'r'; 1^"'"^'' '"^ "-•^ '"-"""-
it is possible now to transmit nict,, es n ,'"» "' ""■^''••«es, while
wire. P'"'"" '"' *<=" «^ «""-<ls over the teleyraphic
•lu. it seen„!d' as he .;;':; r;'''">"'' »"^' "> """''<-rf"l "'e results
the very end „f the lCr„l T' ''''"'"''"' '••^''••''"•^•''' "'''-. ••«'
.-.nno,n,ced. as the diseoverv of ; "f, "V""^' remarkable r.-suhs was
- wuhout the aid of co„„ectin,-wires. Ihis -disio::^!;;: ^ZZ::
.^..-^
ment to 60,000
utility has very
J carria^^^e tires
ly increase the
e electric tele-
lily be credited
-a. The merit
:ipl(! of electric
Iphabet, which
niadi? irs way
844, was the
• To-day the
i leng^th of the
! beiiiir over
a. The te le-
nder Bell and
lalf a million
attention one
in(i(!fali (Table
in multiplex
li^de win; — \\\
other fields
veries is the
' the human
Uiir ori^dnal
dinary projr-
^ inventions
sa.<Tes, while
telejrraphic
cal science,
the r(;sults,
id, when, at
rttsidts was
This was
irouj4h the
ost others,
THE TRIUMPHS OF INVENTION
547
car.not be credited to one man alone. A number of scientists were experi-
menting with it simultaneously, but to Marconi is due the honor of a
successful and practical solution of the problem. It has long becm known
that electric energy can jjroduce effects through space by the inlluence
known as induction, in which a moving current causes a r<'vers( Marconi and
current to appear in a neighboring wire. By aid of the wireless
• \ \ I I • rr ^ 11 Telestraphy
very powerful currents now produc<!d this elfect may lie shown
at a considerable distance. Whether the. action in wireless telegraphy
is the result of induction, or of a direct passage of electricity through
space, must be left for scientists to ilecide, but the results are astonishing,
messa'jres havine been sent and received over distances of many miles. It
is not well to state how many miles, since the system is still in its inlancy, and
before these words are read, for all that can now Ix; affirmed to the contrary.
a message may be sent in this manner from America to luirope.
Wireless telegraphy is a combination of science and inve-ntion. Scien-
tifically the electric waves appear to (low out through the air in all directions
from the powerful currents employed. M(.'chanically a lofty pole seems
necessary, and by the aid of a directive contrivance the waves can be sent
in a fixed course. In the Marconi contrivance, the electric waves, when
received, are maile to pass through a vial containing metal filings, which are
caused to cohere so as to furnish a direct line of passage fv)r thr. current.
Marconi's sjjecial invention is a small tapper which strikers the vial of filings
and caus(!s them to fall asunder, thus breaking the current. The public at
large, however, is likely to be mort; interested in results than methods, and
in the system of wireless tel<;gra|)hy there is promise of a developnumt that
may sup[)lant all existing telegraphic systems during the century upon whose
threshold we stand.
In no field of effort have inventors b(;en more active or their results
more useful than in the production of labor-saving dttvices in agriculture.
In these we have to do with the yield of food, the virry corner-stone of life
itself, and whatevc^r seems to increase the product of thf; fields. i,abor.»avlnK
or to cheapen the nectrssaries of life, is of the most direct and Aiericuliural
..... 1 . I FM • I • I f f Implement*
imm(;diate utility to mankind. I his subj-jct, tiierelore, one ot
vital interest to all the farmers of our country, calls for sjjecial notice here.
Great inventions are not necessarily large or costly. The scythe is a
simple and inexpensive tool; yet the practical perfecting of it by Joseph
Jenks, almost at the outset of farm-life in New England, formed an,.epoch-
mark in agriculture. It was the beginning of a new order c^' lumg.-.. I'ut-
ting curved fingers to the improved scythe-blade and snv^h tlitl for the
harvester what had been done for the grass-cutter, gavt: hini'^in implement
li
548
i
lit
i
T/f£ TRIUMPHS OF INVENTION
which doubled or trpM^rl k.v cc •
th. A ^ffi^'cncy at a critical season, and furnished in
ground. For the .rent 1 „ P "f *"■"" 'f S'"™ °" ""•=^<^"
scythe and the'cradle have b ^ d^h^bvhf "'"a '''"'' >'"'"-"'"'''S' ""=
mowers and harvesters operated v 1 , '^ Amencan inventions,-
likely to remain foreve; a part o IT "■ ""•"" P''*^'-.-"'" they are
l-yond computation '^ ''"^ ''""' '-■T"P'"<--n'- Their utility is
reapi^ot" h tdV^n'th^:'™'';' ^•^"""■'' "^ ^ -"-"•'•'e -s the
y--.rs. The momenrour „e„ 1 ■' '' """"1'™^'^'! '"^ f°>- .l,ousand
they set about it, Ilrovemen !„ f"' "" ,'° '"="■"'-"- '"^ themselves,
granted by the Natio'Mp"™ Offi T b " r""'""'' "" ^"^^^ '''^^' '»'-'
iron. The best plow then n, .1, . ^ !; "' """^^"^^'^ P'"" "' -••"■
fruide, and harder to draw It Inc a shV r '"'''\'^^"'»^'^y "-'e, hard to
by the roadside black-sn.ith a hn 1 i 1 "™""'" '™"' ™"«''ly ^''■"P"'
shaped mould-board pi ed with i,,"" '"'"''"'^ "< -"<"'.="«■ ■•"' ill-
Only a stout man could hoi ' j a vl '7"' °' """■°'" ^■''"-P'--""-
that a colt can do with a n,od ern „ o I """ "'' """'"' ''" ""^"^
tion of many inventors, nota K 'r s de„t , '7™™"",''" -'a^'»-.l the atten-
various forms and m.- le a mil ™^n M ''™"' "''" '^•'''^'=''''"' ''^J «"l'
mould-board, to <letermine t t b :fsurr;'"'r "' "" ^''"'"^ "^ ""=
first to discover the i.nportcenr ,,,''' ''"' "''•' ^"'^- "« ''''^ 'he
the share and moul - . "l'" ."^ :7^.' '-'» f™'" 'he sole to the top of
line from front to rear lethr VW ' t- " ""= "'''"'' "' '^ '"™iKl"
to rear, should be str, Lht^ l^^ . , "k "-"-■"•;""- all lines, fron, front
S"il-in-law. -the best farnier in Vi-.rinln ■• <-"!• Kandolph, J,.fferson's
was the first to hitch two p o s^og XV 'Tnd" Al ■■' T''"", '■'"''■ ■'^"""■
b..-r of s,nall plow-points in' one inX „ ni led t 1 ■"' *' "",'"'"""'« '' "'""■
the inhnite variety of horse l>„... i " '™5' '" ""' Pfodu'-tion of
a-r .■•■•Hro Wood o N:wY ^ir sir'^l l' ""^ "''=• '"^ '^"'^""^ "-■
any other ,na„ . perfect the c'>st iron ^ ,"'' ''^"''"''''' '"'' '"°'-'= "'an
in Idaceof th,.,:.,.L,!l!w!''!- "" P'!^"' ""^ '" «-"- i's general use
1 I • 1 '- " i''^^-' "' "ic eariu,T (iavs HiccL-;iio.
and h,„ ph. as a fighter a,ainst stolid ^,:::J::''li:;2:::2:
The Develop,
ment of the
American
plow
THE TRIUMPHS OF INVENTION
549
nd furnished in
of its kind, and
■own on uneven
ain-cuttincr, the
n inventions, —
—still they are
Their utihty is
nerable as the
four thousand
For themselves,
iry first patent
d plow of cast-
made, hard to
ou^dily shaped
kI, and an ill-
ut saw-plates.
;ded for work
ijed the atten-
rini( ted with
shape of the
He was the
to the top of
of a strai<jht
;s, from front
s, on a plane
^ the import-
ng it by the
i^ears. Gov-
i method of
ensure the
1, Jefferson's
low. Smith
ii"i,i' a nuMi-
•odu^tioii of
special use.
i more than
i^^enera! use
m inventor,
'ice, for the
advancement of sensible plowing, cost him — what they ought to have gained
for him — a fortune. The use of cast-iron plows had become general by
1825.
The construction of plows has since been taken up by a multitude of
inventors, the most valuable of improvements, probably, comin^ through
the use of chilled iron, and the most promising from the ;vpplication of
steam-power to plowing. The increase in the working power ,„gpgj,,gQ|
of the farmer, from American improvements in plows, may be Working
estimated from the fact that two million plowmen, with as Power of
, , , , 1-1 . , the Farmer
many teams, would need to work every day m the year witli
the primitive plow to prepare the soil annually under cultivation in this
country. It would be impossible, under the ancient system, to do this
work within the brief plowing season.
The era of agricultural machinery began about 1825, its earliest p.iase
appearing in the application of horse-power to the threshing and cleaning
of grain. Already the American tendency to seek practical results by
the simplest means, and to make high-priced labor profitable by increasing
its efficiency, had been shown in the improvement of a wide range of farm-
er's tools, almost everything they had to use being made lighter, neater,
and more serviceable. The same improving, practical sense was displayed
in devising more complicated labor-saving machines, which made it possible
to do easily and directly what had been previously difficult or quite impos-
sible to do. Too often, however, the early inventor was defeate<l by the
lack of skilled labor and proper machine tools for making his improvements
commercially successful. As soon as the mechanic arts had been sufficiently
perfected and extended — largely by American genius — the development and
production of agricultural machinery bc-came rapid ami profitable.
Washinirton had tried a sort of threshing machint; as early as 1798;
and one of the first patents issued by the Patent Office; was for an improved
thresher; yet the ilail held the field until after 1.S25. In the following
twenty-five years over two hundred patents were "granted for improvements
in threshers, and since then the patents have numbered thou- j,,reshlnR
sands, Hy 1840, most of the grain was threshed by horse- Machines
driven machinery. In i8s;, v;hen a famour trial of rival and Their
, , , . r, ; , , . 1 . 11 I'^rformance
threshers was held m England, the American machme did
three times as much as the best linglish machine, and did it better. In a
',•;! 1 .-q'jent triril \\\ !'r;'.!v«' th.e .Tivera"^e work of exuerts with the flail beinj"
reckcncd as one, that of the best French machine was twenty-five ; of the
best t;.n;d!,ih machine, forty-one; while fill's American machine did the
■i
t
i
I
t
1
',
'U
550
THE TRIUMPHS OF INVENriON
i ■
Iff i f i
f.
work of seventv-frmr tk i-
tl.e efficiency o \ ^ ^Hin' InX "r'"'.' "' '—P"-- S-nOy increased
bushels a .lay ,o six o set, , ' ??'"*•' "'" "'"''"' f^"'" P"''"?'^ AOOO
c,:il '^ ..'^'"'^'■" """'•'^■•"i>l for as n.'le machine
-^!:ri:r-rt7rr::X^^t--^
F-nBland, .„ Ipp,, horL; .^.o "'uui, r^f "''•^" "",'''=• "•^"'™'-'>' '"
to the merit of inventors iL H ..*-"■'"' "'"' *-"■•■""■ ""'>' '"'J-^d
-Ivecl the pr.,blen,s vo V by ::;i ""' "-^f •■""',^-^. »'>" P-Cically
TH. *„.„,„„ have not been „d a" I" "'"''''^ "!'' ''^"''"' "'"' ">'^y
■...persana |l„,,evs mowing ,7- *, "" '" '''= ^'''-'^'V '^I'laced.
Mower. u^sLj i mowing machine of 1%-x hnj recii)ro,-,fi„„ !.„•
workme thrcAi.rl, sloit,.,l f,„ ■).)"•'" reciprocating knives
essential to all practical ^l^L ' « ■''• "" ''^"""''^ "'« ""'v ""v but
known as hnvn-,L.e" M ^o cr^LntTr" '''T "" ^"«''" '^l^
inowerii, ,Sj4, wliich he siilisen, H ' ■' '^"'"'""^'i"" --eaper and
sary basis of all rea, e s '" ,"^"'^'"' '. »" ""P^ved as to make it tl,e ncces-
A.nerican mowers ^,^4:. " ^ '^vrtiird 'r'd """ ""™•^^"■^
superiority over all others. demonstrate their
.heylavVTo LtslMrmr'iv "T"^' ""-'^^ ""■"^"'"- "^ «-'''--'"-• '-e
c"n.petitive trial 1 r" i '::'' .I" .f"" '" '"""''"" '" ■«='• '" "-
oats in twenty-two minutes;' e 'wii " ^"^T^- ""^"'"'^ ^'" »" -- "'
in seventytwo. In the later com, V i r'' '"'"""=' ^ the French
superior .^ciency ha be „,. '"""""• ,"™' ••""' ""-national, their
the efficiency of tl,rhurvl' ,''?",'' '>' "»'"'-'"l- % increasing
bin.lers), theL prochict oZAmJri ^ ">: '! *T' '"'^ '"" ''^ ""= ^'^
only to railroads in opening "rv^;""" ''-"^.f'V^f - !«« second
combination of reaiMTs ind tl,r, I, ' '"-'
most largely developed in Calif,^ h "".' " "^^''"^'" <>"<= "'"chine has been
tons ; and, pushed by thirty lui;,,,! ''"«?' '" "^'-* "'-'^ "-g'- -K^t
eighteen miles long in a day ove 'f 7 ' 'w™ty-t,vo feet wide and
tons of wheat, whici ^ t'X.! i"^''' i """'' >'"''''"« ^''""■' ^'^ "->y
•Ihemachine mplo^ a li'e Til ''''l' ■;'"■' ''■""^''"' "^ 7°° «"--k-
-four men, co. Ing^.i;,;'!;,:;,: a d^ L^wt s"""^'' ^'"^ " -^"^-^
Less I ni I w>r« '111 ».'.«.!:..-• ! II . ?> ' •
ance to agric;,,t;;;e:.;a;:b::;:';';rL;:de;x^^^^^ "' '"^^"™'-^''.'« «-'-
a immicuuc ot American inventions intended
THE TRIUMPHS OF INVENTION
551
to expedite and lighten the farmer's work — stump and stone extractors
for clearing the ground, ditching machines for drainage systems, fencing
devices, particularly the barbed wire fence, special plows for breaking up
new ground, harrows of many types, seeders, planters, culti-
vators, horse rakes, hay tedders and hay loaders, potato and variety of
rock diggers, corn buskers and shellers, cotton pickers, and Agricultural
, 111 1 I 1 • t Implements
countless other labor-saving tools and devices. In most cases
these improved appliances enable one man to do easily the work of several
working with primitive tools. With the help of machine planters and
seeders the farmer's work is made at least five times more efficient ; with
cultivators, ten times ; with potato diggers, twenty ; with harrowers, thirty ;
with mowers and harvesters, from twenty to sfty ; with corn buskers and
shellers, a hundred. The latest cotton harvester, employing a team, a
driver, and a helper, does the work of forty hand-pickers.
These agricultural machines, by greatly cheapening all food products,
have had a wider influence, probably, than any other group of .Xnii-rican
inventions. In connection with improvements in means of transportation —
largely of American origin — they have changed the food conditions of half
the world, making food more abundant, more varieil, more wholesome, more
secure, and vastly cheaper than ever before. At the same time they have
lightened the farmer's labor, shortened his hours of toil, increased his gains,
and quite transformed his social and industrial position.
The marvelous evolution in the nineteenth century, of which we have
mentioned only some of the more notable particulars, the whole story being
far too voluminous to deal with here, has had the result of immensely increas-
ing the wealth of the world and the cheapness and rapid tlistribution of pro-
ducts, and of placing within the ready control of mankind hundreds of
articles of art and utility scarcely dreamed of a century ago. In textile
production, in metal working, in the making of furniture, clothing and other
articles of ordinary use, in heating and illumination, in travel and transporta-
tion of goods, farm operations, engineering, mining ami p^ojuctive
excavation, and the production of the tools of peace and the Activity of the
weapons of war, in ways, indeed, too numerous to mention, the ^J.^^^J^^^^"**'
Inventive activity and the industrial energy of the nineteenth
century have added enormously to the variety and abundance of useful
objects at man's disposal, increased his wealth to an extraordinary extent,
aivl enabled hin.i to move over land and sea with marvelous ease and
speed, and to send information around the world with a rapidity that
almost annihilates time and space.
Ill
I,
55«
Tin-: TRIUMPHS OF INVENTION
i h
i^i 1
(I *
n K
i 51
= 1 i!
mercia enteror sf (^^ «,i,;^k . • • , ^'"icu states — the com-
commerce of e Un t^ s ..e" f '" " "°"^'' ''^"^ ^l"""''''- '^^^^^ "-''-"
years, and no L,o , .' u 'h";;?^^" '"^ --'^f-W.d within thirty
■ nnis to nearly $2,000,000,000 worth of ..oods annirillv
Co„„„ce„, ... ""-""f "<. "|l-l. are articles of export. I,„t\hi. "^e." i
vm.,suu. '^^ ■•';"• ""I'cattnjj tl,e actual commerce of this country
movement of ;"odsby'L^or,U'"''"T' '7 ''^ '""^""^ '""""«-*'• "-
the vast area of 1 e U ,1°] SrT' T' ''""' '"''"''' '™'" I''-"" '° l'»" "f
impossible even .0 ttin,:;! ' "" '""="' "' ^'''''' ™'"'"-" " '^
.he rlL^Trv: iS:'ir!;'"''v° ''"'^" ^'^'^'-^ ^™'"'"'--
the people of this CO,; tr 'T tfe : 'T .IfT"' '"• ' "" ""•'"'' °'
worth more\t/;:^ r ': :' ' /'inr -i-rr" '- ""; ™"'"^
Stephen Girard with an ..t.l t i '"■^>' >''-'''''" afterwards.
to-day, while 1^ ,f™era 71^ /"'""'■^ """"^ "' *'"' ^^^'^ "-'"'
very gW-atl^advanced '" "^ ^^^"'^ ''''""■^<^'' "^^ "^ -^'-^ ''-
road'I/opttrof.;:"^;';;::-''''' t-'^' ■• "-^^ •'■^ '""■ "- ^"^ -"•■
proportion of it The 7 , ? '"*'"' '° ='"''""' '°' ^ considerable
valLl at „v /j.^c^cri"' tl- -Hroads of the United States are
amounts to a very ''r^'ri, ^"^1 ' '■'"""■■'' P""'" "' ""--'^ ''"^'"'-"»=
lan,led l-ropertyof the U„ " i c, '7 """"="^'= ^""■''^'^ °f «"=»1'1' '» the
worth over' $"'0^ ^ ^"^^^/rT' ""^ "r""' P™''"" "' ""'^'' ^l°"<= -
dwellin..s and X'rT'T' r •' ^'■'" '''*='"^"' °f '^'=='l'l' consists in the
!ngs and mlhin " '"'' r ■•'""" '"'' '°""'' »"'» ^ '-"■"' - the build-
alfne are ut" t „: re tC^'t^^ ""'"'"T ^"°"= '"'"""' P™''-'^
a fifth great source 7we Ih * '°'°°°-°°°'«»-, " "i" -ffice here to name
th„.eo^ e-' " ■ '>'"• '"'"cs and their productions. „articulnHv
»Joo,ooo,ooo, that of ,ron more than $90,000,000 ; those c'
t.r*,i-
THE TRlUMnilS OF INVENTION
\\ progress is the
the Anirlo-Saxon
States— the com-
ll<'cl. The ocean
hied within thirty
goods annually,
lit this great sum
of this country,
' commerce, the
n part to part of
commerce it is
cing prominence
d the wealth of
ng year of the
from what they
in this country
:ars afterwards,
ars, was looked
immense riches
century, there
lollars, and the
uld be counted
ates possessed
<,'^reater wealth
ur citizens has
553
gold and silver more than $100,000,000. To these maybe adilcd an annual
production of n(,'arly $60,000,000 worth of copper, and as much of pt:iroleum
and its products — each of which nearly equals gold in value, — $12,000,000
worth of lead, and large values of other minerals ; the graml total being
over $750,000,000.
If these figures should be extended to cover the world, the total
sum of values would be something astounding. What we are principally
concerned with here is the fact that this vast total of wealth is Expansion of
very largely the result of nineteenili century enterprise, antl Vaiue.s Durinjs
mainly as ap,''d in Kuropeand the northern section of North the Century
America. What the percentage of increase in value has been it is (juite
impossible to state, but the wealth of the world as a whole is probably more
than double what it was a century ago, while that of such expanding coun-
tries as the United States has increased in a vastly greater proportion.
That this growth in wealth will goon during the twentieth century cannot be
doubted, but that the proportionate rate of increase will ecpial that of the
century now at its end may well be questioned, the inventive activity and
application of nature's forces within this century having reached a develop-
ment which seems to preclude as great a future rate of progress. The
nineteenth may, therefore, perhaps remain the banner century in materi^il
progress.
1 that the rail-
a considerable
ed States are
their business
wealth is the
which alone is
consists in the
li in the build-
nual products
here to name
s, particularjv
coal alone is
000; those cf
P
r| ' 'f
if
CHAPTER XXXVI IL
The Evolution in Industry and the Revolt
Vgainst Capital.
Th.c»„dltl„„, none of them revolutionary M,„„f,.,„r
--v.. ...n in ,i.i.n.,, ,,.. .reaVhiJ^'of't, .i::: ^ ^
mechanic aMe'To^l^.r Se^t^'r^ni;::"^' r'',' "^ ■•----
exi.st.s. Theworksi-oprijit;::; on";; t^'r'"!;'''""" ,''•■" "- '-"'^^^
worked «.itl. his app'rentiees. teacl^i ^ n t :: M '"f;'."''';'- ''"" ■"-'"
h,s craft, an.l giving then, knowledj'e of a co Ue e ./ . "7"'"'^ "'
portion of one as i;, .-r day. complete trade, not of a minor
The trade-uni, ;, i;ad its prototype in the P.iil,l n,., ,i •
sense a combi,! .v.r, ,.. labor for nrn,I *^ "' ""^ "=*' '" ""
worknten to protec ,hei call m r "" "*•'•""'' '">"'^^' '"" «' '""^ter
wuhout. In Ltl^w weC i, k''in.r'tif 'T'"' '^ ">--" f-"
ourselves in another world of hbo radc 1 iff" "T"""; " " '° '"'^
rounds us to-day. * '''""'"" ''"'" ''''" which sur-
It w-'s the steam-engine that procipit,-,ted the revolution Th-
invention rendered possible labor-saving machinerv r o t r *'''*'f'
The c.„» „, "I-"" the material, men btgan to «ork ,2 . ? h"^' '''7"'^
•heRevoiu. n.ediun, of machines. As a resuhilt f ^ '7""'" ""=
tianinthe tri,.« r„,i,ii,. 1- , * '^'■"'t the old househo d indus-
L.bors,.,em . 'V ' ^ '''«PP<^'fed. Engines and tnachines needed soe
, ., "'•''. ''"'"''"'t'-^ to contain them and lan-e s„„,. „f .^.,. . , f*
pu
paration of capital and labor W
teemh ccMUiiry opened with the factory system fully la
iin, and the nine-
unched upon the world.
t <Wia
EVOLUriOS IN IN D I /S TRY
555
The century with which we are concerrKul is the one of vast accinnula-
tions (if capital in sin^jle ha ', or uiul»;r the control of t oinpanies, the
concentration of labor in factories anti workshop., tiu- extraonlin.iry
development of labor-saving machines, the ^^rovvth of monopolies on the
one hand and of labor unions on the other, the revolt of labor against
the tyranny of capital, the battle for ' .rter hours and higher wages, the
coming of won m into the labor !m! 1 ^ rival of man, i le development of
economic theories and industrial «h nizations. and in stil' present Aspect
other ways the growth of a state ol altairs in the world of «f the ijibor
industry that had no counterpart in the past, anil which ax- ^'ues'^o"
hope may not extend far into the future, since it involv. , a condition of
anarchy, injustice, and violence that is certaitily not calculated to advance
the interests of mankind.
In past times wealth was largely accumulated in the hands of the
nobility, who had no thought of usi ig it prothictively. Such of it as lay
under the control of the com ilty was applied mainly for (ommercial
purposes and m usury, and i .irativeh little was used in manufacture.
This state of alfairs came souk , nat suddenly to an end with the invention
of the steam-engine and of labor-saving machinery. Capital
was largely diverted to purposes of jnanufacture. wealth grinv ^ Revolution
•ji 1 f 1 .,,... '" Industry
rrnidlyas a result of the new methods of protluction, the
11 ing of artich.s cheaply required costly plants in buildings and machinery
^\.^ich put it beyond the reach of the ordinary artisan, the old individuality
in labor disappeared, the number of employ(M-s largely diminished and that
of employees increased, and the medi;eval guild vanished, the workmen
finding themselves exposeil to a state of alfairs unlike that for which their
old organizations were devised.
A radically new comlition of industrial affairs had come, and the
intlustrial class was not prepared to m«:et it. I-lverywhere the employers
became supreme and the men were at their mercy. Labor was dismayed.
Its unions lost their industrial character and resumed their original form of
purely benevolent associations. Such was the state of affairs in the early
years of the nineteenth century. Industry was in a stage of transition, anil
inevitably suffered from the change. It was only at a later date that the
idea of mutual aid in industry revived, and the trade union — a new form of
association ailapted to the new situation — arose as the lineal successor of
the old society of artisans.
1 he trade union rescinbles the old industrial association in general char-
acter, and in modes of action, but is much more extensive and concentrated in
organization and far-seeing in management, in accordance with the vast
i
ii
1
MICROCOPY RESOLUTION TEST CHART
(ANSI ond ISO TEST CHART No. 2)
1.0
I.I
1.25
IIIIIM
I 3.2
1 4.0
2.5
2.2
2£
1.8
^ /APPLIED irvHGE
1653 EosI Main Street
Rochester, New York 14609 USA
(716) 482 - OJOO - Phone
(716) 288-5989 - Fa»
556
E VOL UTION IN IND USTR Y
'» 1 !l
s }\
&i^ ii 1 1 1
expans,on of ,„dustr,es and the changed relations of the worki„.M„a„
The new form of assocation was not welcomed by the en^ployers? X 1
The Trade Unlo„f""f'' ^^'"g'^'' ^ifar. 'fhey attacked it in tlie press in tlie '
„n:nn 1 A "'^"''"'"■'=' ™'"'>"^^<='-y "«ans at their Command. Hut tlie trade
un.on had come to stay, hostile legislation failed to destroy it and the
oppostfon of employers to check its growth. It slowly^' b 't ste.d !
advanced, .ncre.ased in strength and unity of purpose, gaLd 1 IX a e
thTfo"'7',T '" """ 'r"'" ■•' '^«='">- P-'-.ecl'i„stitttion a d^le ,
the powerful forces m modern industry.
condh-'*' "''f * ","'°" '''■"* ■'" '"■'■''"'" '" '^"»'""^'' '" *''i<:l> »"n"-y the modern
condmons of mdustry rap.dly gained a great development. It appeared n
a crude form near the end of the eighteenth century, one of t he e.r L t
H°:'ir;in7:: '^7 "^ ■;'"-'--•" --bhshed >, t,. dothtr^ r
Halilax ,n 1796. M.-my other unions were formed durin-^ the first twentv
years of the nu,eteenth century, in spite of persecution and a ten, ts at r7
press.on. It was not until ,8.5, however, that they gained le- "l re oc„i ioT
and not unfl ,37. that they obtained permanent prot^ection f:?t r pfol rty
and funds. Some of the earlier unions still survive, though n,any chan Jes
have taken place in their constitution. ^ changes
'" '.^50 a new departure was taken, in the formation of the Amahnm
ated Society of Engineers, one of the most perfect t^•oes of ' If, °
.n the world. It is organized for the mutual' bene t is Lmb:r,\:'::,"
as for protection against oppression by employers, and the annual ta.ru;"
.h" E„° f\f°° P" yf .■•• °f'«=" more. Others of the same character
follovved, and in all there are about ..000 trade unions in
Great Britain and Ireland, with a membership of nearly ...so^Tnd "
annual income of about $10,000,000.
The purposes of the union are various. The mutual aid and benefit
eature ,s secondary to the protective purpose, which is to secure the mos
avorable conditions of labor that can be obtained. This includes efforts to
raise wages and to prevent their fall, reduction of hours of labor and te
vention of tl..ir increase, the regulation of apprentices, overtinte piecework
::;d :rp',Tar " "'""""^^ "'■■■'^" ^'-'^ ■- "-' -mphca'ted relaf^ifsm;
It is generally acknowledged that the trade union has reached its
highest sta e of organization and power in Great Britain, and that the
Britis, workman, in consequence, controls the situation mo;e fully „ai„
any other country This form of organization has only of late vea s
appeared on the continent of Europe, freedom to contbine have beetden" d
of the workinLrman,
the employers, who
t in the press, in the
mmand. But the trade
destroy it, and the
slowly, but steadily
se, gained legislative
istitution and one of
h country the modern
ent. It appeared in
, one of the earliest
the cloth-workers of
ring the first twenty
and attempts at re-
led legal recognition,
ion for their property
lough many changes
on of the Amaliram-
es of a trade union
its members as well
the annual tax upon
ints to as much as
the same character
oo trade unions in
y 2,250,000, and an
tual aid and benefit
■> to secure the most
s includes efforts to
s of labor and pre-
vertime, piecework,
d relations of labor
>n has reached its
tain, and that the
more fully than in B
>nly of late years
: have been denied
!!
if I
In I
THE HERO OF THE STRIKE, COAL CREEK, TENN.
:89» a period of grei't labor aRitatlon began, lasting for iieveral yearn. One of the most hL-roic figures of ihos*
troublous times is Cclonel Anderson, under a ttan <'f truce, meeting the infuriated miners at Coal Creek.
^miiL i
', ' I
rJ f! i
EVOLUTION IN INDUSTRY
K .'<
>;9
o *•
•o 2
a o
«'?
O °"->
— -OTS
u. a 13
I- « s
CD "-a
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CO
sl
^s
— JJ
«2
".2
■Si.
•o a
a
I
o
•o
a
d
?
•a
S
to workmen In most countries until late in the century. There are excellent
unions in the Australian colonies, both these and those of the mother coun-
try being superior in onjjanization and influence to the trade unions of the
United Stater., thouirh those of the latter country have gained much in
power and cohesion in recent years.
The first ^reat combination of all trades was the International Work-
ingmen's Association, founded in London in 1S47, '^"<^^ ^'^" xh int ma-
tended to combine the industrial classes throughout Europe. tional Work-
Dr. Karl Marx fjave it a definite organization on the con- Insmen's As-
*- , T • 1 1 r • • sociation
tment m 1864, but it was there warped widely from its orig-
inal purpose, became a field for anarchists, and came to an end in 1872. In
the United States a general organization called the Knights of Labor was
formed in 1869, and at one time had a membership of a million, but has
now greatly decreased, being largely replaced by the American Federation
of Labor, an associc'.tion of trade unions of very large membership. Of
single trade organizations probably the most powerful in this country is the
Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners, with more than 60,000 members.
The International Typographical Union, the oldest in America, has a
membership of over 40,000, and there are many others of great strength.
The weapon of offense with which the labor organization '^"eks to gain
its ends is the strike, in which the artisans quit work for the purpose of
forcing en^ployers to grant their demands, and endeavor to prevent others
from taking their place. The reverse of this is the lock-out, an expedient
adopted by capitalists for the purpose of obliging workmen to yield to
their demands.
During the century under consideration strikes have been very numer-
ous both in England and America, many of them of great dimensions and
serious results. It must suffice to speak of some of the more important
of those within the United States. In 1803 occurred a strike of sailors
in New York, often spoken of as the first strike in this ^^ ^ ^
^ ... 1 he System of
country, though there seem to have been several in the the strike
preceding century. A strike of Philadelphia shoemakers
took place in 1805 and one of New York cordwainers in 1809, while as time
went on strikes became frequent, with varying results of success and
failure. Violence was at times resorted to, and in the early days strikers
were tried for conspiracy. As population increased and labor associa-
tions became stronger, strikes grew greatly in dimensions, and were fre-
quently attended with bloodshed and destruction. Such was the case
with the famous railroad strike of 1877, which interrupted iraffic over great
part of the country for a week, and resulted in acts of sanguinary violence at
;rt
J-s^
s6o
EVOLUTION IN INDUSTRY
n
""'"'■ ^trck:, "^Ty "'"' '''''''' "^'= ^^- '^'^ --ntia .ere
areat American ^^"fked and hves were lost, and the riilro'ul K,,;! i
great ;.:;::,:':" r:;'::'!^ "'"" ^'^7 ,""""=""' ^-^ --- °' "-" °f
began in Chica,"o„ M J f 886 in"" ■ " " V' ""'""^ ^^^^ ""^' "'»*
tHc 4th, when the dT order wa a. i't T ' '°'°°° '"'" '°°'^ P^""' 0'>
in the streets, wln'oh t" e oo Le ' ^ ' -'""' "° "^ '^^"'^'"'"'^ ™^ ''<='=••
and threaten „; 1 rrelTTr '"^'^P-^— """"' of the violent
thrown in theirlnidst: ChL! ed != t, tL::;, ^I^'-'k"'" ■'°'"'' ^^'^^
officers. This action xv,. A ^, ''""^ '^"""^ed about sixty of the
conntr, and excit:d';:e:.:,\::r::ite^st:i:f "-"" "■--'-- '^^
Ho™"Vrt' ^8""^'T' P'^l ^^ "^^ ^---S- ■'^-el.Worhs, at
worh„,en Hn;-; . ^ Jf it^f ' ^ T^""'^" ^""' '"°°'^^'-'- '"<=
disturbance became so . ent t n , r ? ^ ™'"' "'^' ""l^^- ^he
had to be called ou xt^ ea ft "Id rv'''"^' '°"^ °' ''-"^ylvania
railroad strike, directed a;iTt;eXirc:/\^^^
=:i: t'u^LTstr ;::rtrct- ^^""" -^ - - - ---^
tect the movement of the mails ' ■■'^° '° '""'""" "^^'^^ ^"^ P™"
have had tfec't ZI'^' '^"'"l' ''""^""^ '"^^-^ -"-^^ "' -'f-
sidL and o7 H^'°""' f'S'^' °' wholesome fear on both
ArMtrailo-and == ^es. and ol rendenng; each more likely to offer conre.donc
Pro,USH.H. ; - -n^lnlge in a costly and doubtful^strife^'lT ^^Z
ing .p, while in s^st , tre'C: hi ''''"^'■,' "'i""''"" '^ S™'-
their profits with their e3ov2 TV ^^ . '° ''"'■'= " P°"'°" "'
natin, in France, has bee^elTd: ' to o Ltrn: 'if '"'""" t^
proved very generally successful. Wo k ,e„ c 's f 2?" '" ^1
partners in the business nnd 1,-,^ ,l, ■ ""^y "•='''= ''eal
more and better wo k .„d 7" '"'^"'^''^ '° ^'="<=- They do
rials, so tharir ne ,^s ares'The' in"' "d"" T °'. '°°'^ ^"^ "-'-
-uchinstitutioWra:L^fr:tp.:-:-v;-
E VOL UTION IN IND USTR Y
561
But expedients which leave the existing system practically iinchancj^cd
can have only a temporary and partial utility. The cause of the difficulty
appears to lie deeper and to call for more radical chanijes. It is not easy to
believe that a system of perpetual protest and frequent strife is Experiments
a natural one, and it seems as if it must in the future be and Theories
replaced by some more peaceful and satisfactory relation be- Economics
tween capital and labor. During the nineteenth century the labor problem
has given rise to a number of experiments and th(."c)ries looking towards its
solution, an account of which is here in place.
The chief of the experiments alluded to is that of co-ope-' on, the
association of workingmen as producers, a democratic organization of labor
calculated, if successfully instituted, to bring the present system to an end,
and replace it by one in which the division into employer and :>mployee,
capitalist and artisan, will cease to exist, each workman embracing both of
these in his single person, the combined property of the group representing
the capital of the concern and the profits being equitably divided. This
seemingly promising solution of the problem has not hitherto proved satis-
factory in practice. In most cases experience and skill in management have
been wanting, and the placing of ambitious and influential members of the
association in the positions of business manager and financier, regardless of
their adaptation to these duties, has wrecked more than one promising
co-operative concern.
But while most of such manufacturing associations of workingmen
have failed, some have succeeded, and the story of the latter seems to show
that there is nothing false in the principle, the failure being due to the
results of injudicious management, as above indicated. The successful
associations have accumulated large capital, pay good dividends, and are
noted for the honesty of their operations and the unusual
industry of their members, each of whom feels that the profit ^^Assodations
from increased or superior product will come to himself. Of
co-operative institutions now in existence, the most famous is that of the
Rochdale Pioneers, founded at Rochdale, England, in 1844. This associa-
tion, organized by twenty-eight poor weavers with a capital of twenty-eight
pounds, at first as a distributive enterprise, is now a rich and nourishing
institution, which adds manufacturing to its distributive interests.
At first these poor pioneers, who had very slowly collected their small
capital of one pound each, opened a store to supply themselves with pro-
visions, having only four articles to sell— flour, butter, sugar and oatmeal.
They limited interest on shares to five per cent., and divided profits among
members in proportion to their purchases, a system which proved highly
\ 'i
\'
«;62
nVOfMTfON IN INDUSTRY
nclvanta,Lfeous. From the flr<jf tM. • •
of these „.ocia,o^: w:.,';": ,::ni:r ;:' rcrr/;°r;^ "^" ''r
/io,ooo,ooo, and profits of over z-,^ "^"loers, a capital of more than
foun<led at Manchester I VVho'esale wT '"'"'f ^'^ '" "*«t "^^^ -•''
a.Kl a second at Glasgow in 860 th! , *L ^"PP'y goods to these stores,
tion. This society ,Ccl ases andlonv^ 1 '"''' ,"™ '''""'"^"^ °"^ '-"'"-
steamships of its oli. which rffieXlL'o:.^^^^^^^ 7"^ ''' ""■"''- °'
facturinij industries are ijso Inro-n " ," ,'=' °" "'<= '^ontn.ent. Its manu-
Leiceste-r, soap wor^r^at trittwrot^^.'^ik'"'; ,f T ''''"''^^ "
factories elsewhere. There are in ,! rV n '" "^"""^y- a'"! o"'"
by retail societies, the IZ pro '^ ';^^^' '-'-■- carried on
probably consideraoly over /> oon o^ , ^ -nf' ' "'"""ntions being
above statement that tl e wl C„Tc„ "'" '^ P^^^^'^'^" f™-' '^^
Britain comprise one of the iml ,n„?- 'rP"""" ^"'"P^ses in Great
has become' firmly ^^ZZT^T^"^ ^^'^ ^''^ ''''
century, and max' jrrow enormon^]v Jn • matter half of the nineteenth
is likely to play i -^romi:::" ".^^ Z^^ZTJZ! b""^ "^"'"''' "
In no other country hn<. thJc f^ solution of the labor question.
profit-sharing has Tde'a ,c tre Ter" 1?°""'°" '"""''''"'■ '" ^--e
has met with slight succes f: STf^l' A t '"'^^ '""P^"''""
■ Co.„p„...,„„,„ taken the form of peop ™ ban^ TI^: ?„ •" •°''":;"°" '^^
E..r„p.aad at the little town of Delitzsch inS, "ngmated ,n .849
^'''' «-tly, there being sev^fth:. ro':.^^^:,.' g"''^'
business. Thretell': irG'^''^' '''° "^'"^°" -mberrrnL'Teryr:
associatio„sandr;::::i::a"air'::hneTt:"Va"™^
in Denmark. In Italy the people's bnnU I , ^"^'"'y fl"""shed
tl>ere are several hundreJ cTopera tve da'' '™f '"■''.^^^'^ l-°e-s, and
terprises. operative dames, bakeries and other en-
being'^oTdeX'e^d irtjEn'dtT'wr^^"^ T "f ""■■'^'' ^^^ ^'
tions of fishermen,':f ereameries 'ti b;:t^^'Vt" {"f V™ °' ='^^°^'='-
building societies have provided workmen ^ith niore'tr.'^o.ro^'^H'r;
EVOLUTION IN INDUSTRY
iccessful, and by
Is.'ilesof/8o,ocx).
in a high state of
g- before the date
lem being in the
"•tores are among
•bably over 1,500
al of more than
n 1S64 there was
^ to these stores,
ically one institu-
ns a number of
ent. Its manu-
'loe factories at
^itley, and other
3nes carried on
^ciations beino-
2ivecl from the
>rises in Great
untry, one that
the nineteenth
5 twentieth. It
■ question,
ed. In France
ry co-operation
-operation has
inated in 1849
lave flourished
in the German
J a very large
of productive
atly flourished
progress, and
nd other en-
ted States, it
ni of associa-
co-'operative
0,000 homes,
563
The co-operative store has not flourished, and associated manufacture has
made little progress, though profit-sharing has been introduced into many
large stores and factories.
Such is the status of the experimental development in associated
manufacturing and distributive enterprise. The theoretical phase of this
question has gone much further, and has given rise to an extensive popular
movement whose final outcome it is not easy to predict. This is really, in
its way, an extension of the co-()[)erative idea, being an attem[)t to make
co-operation national, the entire nation becoming one great co-operative
association, and the functions of "'overnment being extended to cover
production and distribution of the necessaries of life, in addition to its
present duties. This theory is most commonly known as The Theories of
Socialism, though also entitled Nationalism and Collect- Socialism and
ivism. Its main purpose is iuLUistrial reform, but it seeks to Anarch hm
produce by political means what the trade union has attempted to do by
non-political agitation. An opposite doctrine, which has many adhc-rents, is
known as Anarchism, whose platform contemplates tiie overthrow of existing
institutions and the rebuilding of society from its elements upon the basis of
local grouping. This doctrine has attracted to itself much of the ignorant
and violent element of the European populations, and has been seriously
discredited by the outrages committed by its members. Prominent examples
of these were the massacre of the police in Chicago, already mentioned, the
excesses of the Commune in Paris, and the acts of violence of the Russian
Nihilists. The theory itself is philosophical, even if impracticable, and has
been advocated by a number of able men who cannot be charged with its
excesses.
Returning to the doctrines of Socialism, it may be said that it was
preceded by the conception of Communism, or equal distribution of the
proceeds of labor among the members of a community. This '"".is long
since passed from the stage of belief to that of experiment,
many Communistic societies having been founded in both
ancient and modern times. The Essenes, prominent in Pales-
tine in the time of Christ, were one of the ancient examples. In modern
times the United States has been a favorite field for the founding of Com-
munistic societies, probably from the reason that they were less likely to
come into conflict with existing institutions than in Europe.
The best known of those societies of a religious character comprise the
Dunkers, founded at Ephrata, Pennsylvania, in 1713 ; the Harmony Society,
established in 1824, and still in existence at Economy, near Pittsburg; the
Separatist Community, established at Zoar, Ohio, in 1817; the Shakers,
Comnunlstlc
Societies
m
I
%
^iill n
5^4
\r- !
^4L
'm
!i
t:<I
EVOLVTION IN INDUSTRY
first ortranized at Wattrvliet N V ■
by John H Noycs, at Putne'y, '^^Zll't Vs^^ "'^ Perfectionists, founded
known, n„5;l,t be named, but it mint b ^ F ^'"''""^ ""'e"-^. l<^s^ vvell
"f [1.-0 organizations ,as b« m il"'',"' "''•"'''^ l-'-sistence of severa
thcr „,e„,bers.and is in no sens a p '^„t'ti, " " "''^"""■' '''^^^ °<
-nncple. Many of ,he,„ ,e>,uire ccTib' cv '"" .''■™»'""'=,— tncss of d.eir
fcct.on.st Society practiced frle love n„, [ I """"''"'• ^"'"''^ ''"^ I'<-t-
Proval of the co,„n,„„ity. ""' ^'°^''" "P h the strong disap.
of --" - tZui-stttci'irhTv:^::;';::'^, ': .^t™--™. a number
nent among tl.ese was that estabhl i; .t' Ovv" '"'""^■- '"""'■
sccuhrcom. Harmony, Indiana, Everv ,.(Tn 7 ",' '" '''*'''• ••" New
a^pSenu ^"«- °f •"- enterpril '„:]': '„ Z^f " ^'"'"°"= '">=
same principle were onr-,,^,1, I , "'mmumties on the
;;; -^ years, and the C^.„ite n^^rl:!: t^ e^d' I^IL^^S
pste^ ~ t:^; -^a::? f:::^i/r ■;-'" ---- ^'- -«-
It .ncluded the most remarkable 'rou„ "' r"'"^' ^'='^^- "> '84^.
m such an undertakins;, amon.. its ,? I '"?.'""' ^™'"<=n ever embraced
Dana, Rip.ey, Alco.t, a;;, oT Ve , 'w^rbt "^' ''"'"'°"- "-"'-ne,
a«c,nent was anytlu'ng but practTca ZZ "^' ""'• "^ ''"»">-» "'^n-
fonn of community su..<.es ed bv L ^•'"";^ '° '''" '^'"' ''" 'S47. The
dantly tried in the u';; ted stte, 7' ',''*''"^'' '''«°™'' -- ^bun!
■■phalanxes" were found i„ hi ;erV""^-""^.'= communities or
■^y '855. "'" ^^^'' '«42-53. THey had all failed
The result of these effnrfc f u>- .
be in co„,mon between tlte n.emberrtf wh'Tt"? "''"*= -^^^Wng shall
and none persisted for more than a few J '""^^"'^ ''^™ ^^^^ '""nded
rehg.ous fanaticism, does not soetk w! 1 f'^ "''"''" "''"'' sustained by
n-nism. The ,uass of the pL e Lve ' ^ '^\ """'''"'' "'•""'•« "^ ™-^
abrogation of the principle'of persoral re "' I f '"' '"'"' '™'" "' ^"^ "^
bkcly to prevent its, eve/beconlngZissf " ''^""'"' ^^f"" -^""^
Socialism was orisjinally similar to r ■
stood and advocated differs elsenh Mv ^;'""""""^'"' "^^ as now under-
-ve,op„.„.., ir^'*r-°-fp- - o^^Icuirrion" '^™^"^''= °'
sociaii.™ Nationalism, or the owner,! ' „f 11 ? ^" "a'n'amed.
all manufactures and the ' i P^-J^'ctive property and
complete distribution of profits amon , ^ "' ^' "'^ "^''°"' "''h ^e
to th^ corrmnn-. ' • ^ ""^^ amoncr the peooJe. on the h-A-l- >'• »? i
"' community oi the iabor or service of l.rh T '"^ ''^^"^
rvice ot each person, is the existing
EVOLUTION IN INDUSTRY
fectionists, founded
■al others, Jess well
•sistence of several
ious enthusiasm of
correctness of their
't-Ts, while the Per-
the strong disap-
nunism, a number
country. Promi-
»n 1S24, at New
e to promote the
"iniunities on the
I't they all failed
d in this country
erprise, first sug-
. Mass., \n 1 84 1,
n ever embraced
on, Hawthorne,
ts business man-
' '" 1S47. The
orist, was abun-
com muni ties or
had all failed
everything shall
e been founded
'e sustained by
nature of com-
from it, and its
il efTort seems
us now under-
■ principle of
sr maintained.
property and
tion, with the
s of the value
the existing
5^'5
form of Socialism. Originated and developed within the nineteenth cen-
tury, it has now become one of the prominent social antl political move-
ments of the age, and some brii:f description of it is here in ord(;r.
I'"" ranee is the birth place of Socialism in its primary form. Two writers,
Mably and Morelly, advanced a scheme for a communistic reorganization of
society about the midtlle of the eighteenth century, and in 1796 a commun-
istic conspirary to revolutionize the government, organizetl by a man named
Babeuf, at the head of a society called the lupials, was discovereil and sup-
pressed. Later arose Robert Owen in England, with his communistic
scheme, and St. Simon and Fourier in I'ance, wliose plans were only in
part communistic. A more properly Socialistic movement was attempted
by Louis Blanc in Paris during the revolution of 1848, when national work-
shops for the industrial classes of France were established. In Paris 150,-
CXX) workmen were employed in these shops, but they were closed after a
brief trial. Their failure, it is claimed, was largely the result of bad man-
agement. Of recent English Socialistic movements may be nanit:d that of
Maurice and Kingsley, the originators of Christian Socialism, which con-
iinues to exercise an important induence.
After 1850 the socialistic movement temporarily declined in I*" ranee
and Great Britain, but it gained a great impetus in Germany, under the
teachings of certain able and skillv.l advocates. German Socialism first
became active in 1863, through the efforts of Ferdinand Lasalle, though it
had earlier supporters. He proposed to establish a German
workman's republic, with himself as president ; but ended his ^ari*Marx
career in the following year, being killed in a duel. After
his death his system of "social democracy" fell under the control of the
notable Karl Marx, a writer of original genius, to whom Socialism as it
exists to-day is largely due. The International Association of Workingmen,
as reorganized by him in 1864, changed its purpose from an industrial to a
political one, and soon became a threatening compound of dangerous
elements. It was socialistic in aim, having, below its declared purpose of
the protection and emancipation of t'.i >. working classes, schemes for the
abolition of the wages system, the state control of all property, and the
grading of compensation for labor on the basis of time occupied, instead of
on the more logical basis of ability and industry shown and value of
product.
Karl Marx's famous work "Capital," is the ablest and most logical
exposition of the socialistic theory yet produced, and has exerted a power-
ful influence on recent thought. It set in motion a great political and
social movement which has grown with extraordinary rapidity, in spite of
5C6
lite'
^^^^^
im
mBHhji^i
^^■•'^
- iM
^^^Bw!
■-
fl
IH|^Pbbj
^^B'J''
^B?i
'1M^^ 1
.1.
INVOLUTION IN INDUSTRY
repressive laws aiMinst if -.,wi u
-ore .h,.,„ a n.illion e„ , riiol, '" "," """""•^ "' «,„siU,.a fy
l'""'lr«l thousands. ■'■^"'^•■'"<'" of society, has had a sale of .everal
and .!ix,:;r:dv!:r!::;:;:;:r t;^^'™;'' f™- "-^ "-^•■■-^ ^'-s
sulerable develop,,,.,,, i„ ,,|1 west ;, F„ :" " """.'^''"- " ''^'» '""I =' »"-
which country the Socialists for,, " ' / i""' ,''"'""'l^"->y i" (leru.any, in
as .887 polled c.|eve„ pe cent o tl, e M ''"'"'"' ''^'">'' ^^'''='> •'•^ -riy
"-"bership in „,. Keichst," L , Soo ■ ™''' ■■";' f '""' •'' ™"-lerabIe
">at liberalis,n obtained a majoH.y ^'.'.i.f kI'-T "' ■'" '••'^■"^■'>' '""«««'
<irow,h Of ,he '^'-•"""•y the Social Democrat „ «J1"'''; 1^' ''"" ''"''"' ''"=
Socialist Reichsta.' as contns,, ' * •""' 5« 'nen,bers in tl„.
Party In ,~ ". ^ Contrasted \v,th sj n,emli<Ts „f .,, ,•
Oormany "Conservatives, The reniainde, ,f Vi / "" ^''™^"
divided a,non,r a „,„„ J " ,• "* ^^^ ™™bers were
bein... the stronjrest, with ,04 IZZ if ,n ' "''' ^''-■^''"''^ °^ Centre
Socalisn, has ,„ade a re,„arkabl a vance T^r" '™'",""='^ '^"''^^'
less tlian forty years becon.e a power in P '''""'"'■>'' '''''^'"'S "'"'"•
■n the near future when it w. eTe coniroll"""'- ''''" """= "'^^ -'"«=
government. """ "^o^t'oHinii party in legislature and
recent^t'r.s^il^^p;;;" ttotolidc",' ''™"" "'"' '"^^^ '^P'^^'^y' Y-^ within
the Populist party, o'r,a,;?.:d ■„": ?^' nr""""' '" "" "^"'' S™""- "'
senators and eleven representative : ,r "™ "'"ff^"''^^'""" gained five
ong,n. I" .856, while its succerias o '^""S^''^?' , '" 'h« year of its
o gaining the adhesion of the Den,™ .t c ""'T"' " '''■"' "'^ »'^'^'"« <=ff--t
i>lank in its platfor,,,, but to some of i; Irs'' T' °"I'' '" ""^ ''"^^^ ^'l--
Tho Pop„,i3t probably very many c ti " o7 T ' '"'"""■ '^''^'^^ -«
by the Populists and fl„. , measures advocated
United States ,,,ay be ,,,Lh«;;:,,,i?; ''""f' "' ^«'='"-^'" "' ">e
■" other directions than that ^f nan" "m"T"^'' "''>l'"-^«'- '' is shown
century was particularly iud Lued 7tf "'°"' ■■""' "' "'<= -'' of the
ownership of street n.ihays .'work, '""^-"^t for the muuieipal
as public utilities. This n . ;e', ,e,r, t • "n "^^ °™' "^ "''^' ''^^ ^-^ "
country, several nations ..nC^l.^^^ ^'"'T ",' ^""'^"^ "'•" '" 'his
"--pal control of street raiLayJ ^nfZ;;^^^!:jtZ:^
o
EVOLUTION IN INDUSTRY
5fi7
iiimlHT of volumes
^t-' Had a phenom.
tlt-'iJ " M(;rric En«r.
tr of considerably
Hackward," Avhich
a sale of several
e vvorkinjT classes
It has had a con-
*Iy in Germany, in
ty, which as early
•d a considerable
larcrcly increased
t the end of the
members in the
f'f the German
members were
ricals or Centre
Jin these fig-ures,
y, having within
time may come
legislature and
idity, yet within
-apid growth of
■on gained five
e year of its
; striking effcx-t
:he Free Silver
es. There are
strongly social-
jres advocated
cialism in the
d- It is shown
e end of the
:he municipal
lat are known
'G than in this
plants, while
i is becomincr
o
jTcneral. In short, it would be ilifficult to point to a popular inovi-mcnt in
the history of the world that has made a mor(i rapid and sul)staiiiial ailvance
than has Socialism within the past ft)rty years.
As the nineteenth c(;ntury ap[)roached its en<l a new clcmtiU in the
economic situation, which had betM) (.lis[)laying itself in some mcasuri- for a
considerable nimiber of years, sutldenly assumed a striking prominence in
the United States, and remarkably transformeil the industrial situation.
This was the element of the combination of distributive and The Develop-
manufacturing enterprises, shown at first in tlu; growth of mcnt or the
the department stores and the [)ooling of manufacturing ''"""*
interests, and later in the formation of trusts and monopolies, powerful
corjjorations of industrial interests, which assumed gigantic proportions in
1898 and the succeeding years.
Several of these great organizations, absorbing all the factories or
plants of the special trades concerned into single vast corporations, have;
been in existence for years. Most jjrominent of these are the Sugar Trust
and the Standard Oil Company, which have eliminated the element of com-
petition from those industries and accumulated their i^rofits in the hands of
a few great capitalists.
The complet(i control of important productive inter(;sts gained by these
groups of ca[)italists has Instigated those connected with other Imcs of pro-
duction to similar' methods, and the formation of trusts has gone on at an
accelerating ratio, until all the great and many of the minor industries of
the country have formed trust organizations, while a large numljcr of (;stab-
lishments have been closed, and thousands of workmen and other employees
dismissed.
The result of all this has been to produce a statt ')f affairs in which
competition, so long considered the life of trade, is [jractic.dly eliminated
from many branches of industry, while the opportunities for
.,, . i-ii 1 • r Probable I ffect
mdividual enterprise, which have been active tor so many cen- ^^ Trusts
turies, have in great part vanished. An economic situation
seems at hand in which the mass of the community will be obliged to assume
the position of employees, the class of employers being reduced to a few
very rich men, absorbing the profits of industry and holding the remainder
of the community in a condition of galling servitude.
Such an undesirable condition of industrial affairs as is here threatened
has naturally aroused a strong feeling of opposition, and the forces of the
community arc being marshalled to prevent such a radical rt^volution in
industry. Just how the brake is to be applied is not clear. It is not easy
to prevent capital from pooling its forces, and legislation may fail to find a
i
568
EVOLUTION IN INDUSTRY
«l(,'od, <.ve„ by so,„. of ,„. t„,« potent^ fr^''""^"'^'-''' ^'J '^^know-
To w,„ „„ The abolition of i„,livichnl t^ ^"'^'f ''^"•'^ institutions.
• W. M„. eventually b.co.e all o',",^ ::',:: ""''^' "'= "-' -■''
. . socialistic communitv and fth \ "' " "°"''' ^"■- "' a
prmcpal objection to .socialisn, vHl' tf rc'r '?'^';"--"«nt continues the
l.at tl,e tyranny of a ,,r„„p of ir sp^n Ibl " , " '""^' '^<= '"''"^■"^ '° all
t ous to obtain enonnous wealth w I nn 1 "'''''""» "''P"""^'-^' •■""W-
chosen as the servants of the people and I >"'"''' "'■'" "'•■" "' "^-als
can ever become. '^ ' "- ^""^ ''"''J'-'ct to removal at their will
ne Jt;rattt"d;:rv:;f:;.,;'rs::'i''',:,'^™-' "-"-^ "-■ "- one
reducn,,, itself to this condit „ te ' , ^"'^'''" ^ "> ^ n,easure
■ s head in a sin,ilar „,„nner. ' i s ti tf,"'' ' "'r' '" '"""^ "" »«
'he many, and the relation into Jhich c ? f T'"' ""= '<=»' "'an with
can have, sooner or later, onlv J^ ' /"f" f"'' '^'l^- '>as now come
above said, the evolution ,,ow i^ ooernt °"'"'' °' '"" ^'""g^- As
vvard go backward until ZIZTZ^T T '""''''"' S'' back.
forward until industrial slavery ,r°Z/ ' 1 "' '!"'"'' •' '■''■gained, or .o
-'". M, the end, inevitably rebel U is , '■',',' '" "'"^'» '^^ "'e people
stop half way. one result or tl e othe,," ' ''• °' n '"' ^"^'' ■■' "oven,ent to i
.nd.VKlualism or a progress to co I c i i "m '"u ",'•"' '"^ '''"^'" " -'-' 'o '
'he people then.elves. The power isin thei", " t'" '*= '''^'^"''^ "l»n
An l„d„«rlal '° <^ast aside their differences and , ' ""' "'°'"™' ""^'y <^'<--ct
Revolution <="ceof agreat dan.rer or in intol n '•' ™"'"'"' """'' "'e pres-
to bring them to tlZT """'"'■"'^''■- ^""ation is the one thi„„
^est with the„,selves which Stat of ;"°" "'"°"- '" ^'cb a case i w M
.ndividuahsm and contpetitio:::; L: r'ol'7ir^^^.^' ''' "'' ^^^^^
a bance. I hough it is but dimly reco.vlz ' , '"^''T'""' ^'"^ '"dnstrial
ti>roes of a revolution, the final resu t " " ' "?''' °' ''"''"^'''y - b, the
a..d ,t must be left for the twenti h 1,1 ' "'"f'"', ''T' "^-^'-l—,
th.s revolution is to be. ""^^ '" '''^cide what the outcome of
CHAPTER XXXIX.
Charles Darwin and the Development of Science
SCIENCE by no means belongs to the nineteenth century. It has been
extant upon the earth ever since man began to observe and consider
the marvels of the universe. We can trace it i)ack to an age possibly
ten thousand years remote, when men began to watch and record the move-
ments of the stars in the heavens above the broad Babylonian plain. It
grew active among the Greeks of Alexandria in that too brief p^^..^^^^ <,,
period before the hand of war checked for centuries the pro- scientific Dis-
gress of mankind. It rose again in Europe during the medi- ^''^J.'"*' '" *•"*
seval period, and became active during the later centuries of
this period. In the centuries immediately preceding the nineteenth num-
bers of great scientists arose, and many highly important discoveries were
made, while theoretical science achieved a r- >arkal)le progress, its ranks
being adorned by such names as those of Copc.nicus, Kepler, Galileo, New-
ton, and various others of world-wide fame that might be given. Thus at
the dawn of the nineteenth century there existed a great groundwork of
scientific facts and theories upon which to build the massive future edifice.
This building has been going on with extraordinary rapidity during the
present century, and to-day our knowledge of the facts of science is im-
mensely greater than that of our predecessors of a century ago ; while of the
views entertained and theories promulgated previous to 1800, scientific Actl-
the great sum have been thrown overboard and replaced by vityofthe
others founded upon a much wider and deeper knowledge of ^^"^^^,7^ *''
facts.
New and important theoretical views of science have been reached in
all departments. Recent chemistry, for instance, is a very different thing
from the chemistry of a century ago. Geology has been largely trans-
formed within the century. Heat, once supposed to be a substance, is now
known to be a motion ; light, formerly thought to be a direct motion of
particles, is now believed to be a wave motion ; new and important concep-
lions have been reached concerning electricity and magnrrJsm ; and our
knowledge of the various sciences that have to do with the world of life is
extraordinarily advanced. As for the practical applications of science, it
569
i,l(
ih
'i
J.
I-+-
570
i «
nr^ *-^
may suffice to nrescn^ fK,. ^ i-
carr,.cl about like water in a bucket' ""^ ''^ ^'^''^^^^ '" - 'n-id and
-™c::r;tt: xit?::"--^^^ ■•--.." ai^o. be ^a.^ t^at
ol«ervat,on ; since that of the nast 1' r "'"<='f"'l> century tl,„u,,ht and
■fs tI,eories have been set a ide wh I H """"' ""' ""-' '^"'^ "f
"mes were but a drop in he bucket '"""'"^^ "''^-vations of forme
of those of the past luLred yetf " rrT"';"^ ""' "^^ ™^' ■"""■"'"
f-t^s, their application to the be'nefit of 'SV",' "'''""'■'°" °< --"''fie
work of the century under reWew and^n r '" '' ^''"°" -'«'>• '■>«
duced,n„,e wonderful and useful results ''""'°" ''^'^ --ntion pro-
Alfred Russell Wallace on„ f t
recent ,in,es, in his work endtled • Tl!e W °", tf""""''^'' ^^'^"''^'^ »'
Waiuco.. careful inventory of the disc C™tury," has made a
cZ-:^'- ''« P^iJress of Lnk : Ta ^rduT' 'HT'r^ '" ""'*
mto two erouDs fh„ b ' ^ ^"^' '^"'^ ^e divides them
d,scoveries achieved by nln^ ^viotst h^ "'"^ ^" ">^ epoch-making
'.^k,ng ,n the steps of pro,.ress o enull im "^T'"' ""'"y- ^"'l "'^ ^=-"5
■n the nmeteenth century? In theTt Z°h r."'"'^ '-ve been made
the h,,d,est rank, and the claims of some ' v r"f °"'^ '''''^^" "-"^ °f
are not beyond question, since they may no^ai; b'T '° ^"P^^"<= ^'^^
acter. He puts first in the list the fnll ^ °^ epoch-making char-
the Arabic notation, which lave '°^^?"""S. v.z. : Alphabetic writiL and
and discovery. Their h'v tors aTrLkl" '"T'"'- ""^'""^^ °' '<"-^dg
p.-eh,stor,c times. As the third grelt IcoT' '^ '"•"" "" '""''^^'' »'
the development of geometry. Com nt a^^ ^ '""""' •™<=^ ^e names
teenth century A. D., we find the mariner's c ' '"' '"•^"^' '° "'^ f°-
the prmt.ng press, both of which bevond P^''' """^ '" '^e fifteenth
and rank as alphabetic writi g f'^^:' Z"'°: '"."' "'^ ^=""« ^'--"^r
Phys.cal mvention or discovery^of leldiL ! "''""'"'^ ""'"^^ -e get no
a"'n.mg movement of the hu„L „;,• ;:j 3, '7°"^""' .'^"' i' -tnessed an
Ep»ch.M,ki„g great catalogue of advances of ,1 *^°° '""'' S^ave rise to the
OJ^ver. „, , ,, „, „^,,^^ ^,^^ .__ H a e o e seventeenth century. To
, of equal rank, the barometer "'^,"= "'=ope, and, though not
c asses as one discovery), and in otllr fie ds the"d "'"™°™"- (-"ich he
calculus of gravitation, of the law of o' net "'^ °^ ""= Jifferential
I ^j
SCIENCE
CHARLES DARWIN AND DEVPILOPMENT OF SCIENCE
57 1
ance of the atmos-
ed to a liquid and
most be said that
itury thouorht and
J and the bulk of
-vations of former
he vast multitude
ation of scientific
almost solely the
as invention pro-
hed scientists of
ury," has made a
entions to which
he divides them
le epoch-making
'. and the second
have been made
fifteen items of
a separate place
ch-making char-
-tic writing and
-s of knowledge
dim twilight of
imes he names
al to the four-
1 the fifteenth
same character
""y we get no
t witnessed an
ave rise to the
century. To
id, though not
sr (which he
^e differential
^e circulation
To the eip-ht-
m the evolu-
ni chemistry
and electrical science. This completes the list. To the above many would
add Jenner's discovery of vaccination and probably several others. Each
writer, in making up such a list, would be governed in a measure by his
personal range of studies, but no one would be likely to deviate widely from
the above list.
Now what has been the record Mice 1800? How does the nineteenth
cetury compare with its predeces - s? In Wallace's view it
, , , . .^ ... (ireat Dis-
IS not to be compared, as regards scientinc progress and dis- coveries of
covery, with any single century, but with all past time. In the Nine-
fact, it far outstrips the entire progress of mankind in the ages J*^*^"*. '-e"-
preceding 1800.
Estimating on the same basis as that which he previously adopted,
Wallace finds twenty-four discoveries and inventions of the first class that
have had their origin in the nineteenth century, against the fifteen enumer-
ated from all previous time.
Of the same rank Avith Newton's theory of gravitation, which comes
from the seventeenth century, stands out the doctrine of the correlation and
conservation of forces, one of the widest and most far reaching general-
izations that the mind of man has yet reached. Against Kepler's laws of
planetary motions from the seventeenth century we can set the nebular
theory of the nineteenth. The telescope of the seventeenth is matched by
the spectroscope of the nineteenth. If the first reveals to us myriads of
suns, otherwise unseen, scattered through the illimitable fields of space, the
second tells us what substances compose these suns and maintain their
distant fires, and, most wonderful of all, the direction and the rate in which
each is moving. Harvey's immortal discovery of the seventeenth century
finds a full equivalent in the germ theory of disease of the nineteenth.
The mariner's compass of the fourteenth century easily yields first
place to the electric telegraph of the nineteenth, while the barometer and
thermometer of the seventeenth century are certainly less wonderful,
though perhaps not less serviceable, than the telephone and phonograph
and the Rcintgen rays of our own day.
We may more briefly enumerate the remaining discoveries cited by
Wallace, partly, as will be perceived, mechanical, but mainly results of
scientific research. Early in the century came the inestima- (jg^jyi^nd
ble inventions of the railway engine and the steamboat, and scientific
somewhat later the minor but highly useful discoveries of the S*^P^ <**
. Proffrcss
lucifer match and of gas illumination. These were quickly
followed by the wonderful discovery of photography, than which few things
have added more to the enjoyment of man. Equally important in relation
iM
572
.1
' » i
(if
r '
hi
•(
■j'iji: 1 1 ,:. ja
of the age is that of the electrk H T „,Ch • "^ °^ "'" ^^^-^^^ discoveries
ment and utilization. ° '' "'"" "" feniarkably rapid develop.
perio'ur^r • ^;:::il;«;;-;,f-'-- - M,„,,, ,^^ discover, of the
.neasure,„ent of the velocity of li'iu a d he "'' ," r""'' ""= '''^«"
dust in meteorolo.n- The li.f , ™^ remarl;able utility of floatin,r
g'-i=>l age, the di^cove^y of tt !" , ""'' "" ^'^"'"S'^' *' ory of hf
the doctrines of en,bryoL° c jfvel """''""' "' '"="'• "''= «" ""=-7 ad
perhaps the greatest, Rar^int fa mo Te"' "f '"'' '"'' ''" ^"^ -'="-
°P«'j^^>;^Sp-.'cer into universal eTdution ' "'■^^•■'"" evolution-devel-
tempted"to"expancr'thi''s li'sT and"o,^hf' '" n '""""''' '"^'™"'^'^ ^"'''d be
twenty-four epoch-n.alcing dico^erirs ^^if. .^"^i^l.^ably to Wallace's
a twenty-fifth has arisen in th^ r ' ""'"' '"' ^°°^ was written
scientific ,„arve, of the e;,d of' e tr:V' "'"'"^ '^'=»-P'"'' ''-
poss,b,lmes to be perceived. Wc ,ni' .l' ^°""^ "' >"' '"' "^ ™st
andl„,uidairasof equal importance vf I, si "TT "'= ^''=^'^'''= "°'°'-
An interesting review of the °^ "'°''= enumerated,
nineteenth century was .fTered by Sir^Mi ? Tt" '" '''"'""' '^"""S the
Bnfsh Association in its .890 meet! /'"' I'^T'^^' ''^^''^^"t °? the
first touched upon chemistry. The anlntriT , \"= '''>' <)^°'^- He
Foster^s View, elements ex,sted_fire air Z,< , "'°"g'" that but four
on Recent correct notion of the ■ ""'' "'^"=''- Anything like a
, ""•'-- latter par 'of" L^ZZr" "' """^^ '^^'^■' f™™ '"«
Lavo,s,er revealed to the world te nature oT"'"'' "'"" ^^'^"'^^ -"^
long senes of fruitful discoveries "^^""^ ^"'' "'"=< 'ed to a
The whole history of electriri,,, -
last sixty or seventy years and rl!^ f ''■''™"' °' "="" '^ '^°"fi"ed to the
galvanic battery. F,lti na e ectr ^r,""/! '™'"/°"'^'^ '"— " "f t e
beyond curious laboratory exnerTm',ts J ' "^ "™' '^'" "°"''"S
gat.ous and discoveries of OeT t"d 1 ,7? ""f ""',''■ "'"- '"■ T''^ --st^
telegraph, dynan,o, trollev ca rnnd t 1 , '"'''^' '"''''='' '"ade possible the
the n,eans of producing as e;d/c'""-\ '°','°"'='' """''^'^ discovery of
.n .799. « '''^'^y ™^fent of electricity-first announced
Geology, too, he states to be a ne» K„
'n.?en,„us theories were entertained i re , """T"- ^'"'°"S'> ""'""°"'
o the strata rock, it was only auh doslX'" !^ ""f ^"'^ ^'^-'ficance
"" '° "^'°'"''- '-' '- -""'^ ^™«'. With ■t:rirs''i™T;oct ::
SC/EJVCE
"les of anaesthetics
great discoveries
bly rapid develop.
discovery of the
latter, the direct
utiHty of floating
icai theory of the
'le cell theory and
'; in pure science,
evolution — devel-
ientists would be
bly to Wallace's
'ook was written,
telegraphy, the
■ yet for its vast
e electric motor
numerated,
ence during the
'resident of the
nay quote. He
It that but four
Anything like a
dates from the
Priestley and
thus led to a
onfined to the
ive.ition of the
n, but nothincr
The investi-
le possible the
s discovery of
St announced
«
Ligh numerous
d significance
tury that men
s of rock, was
CHARLES DARWIN AND DEVELOPMENT OE SCIENCE
573
a vast book of history, each leaf of whicli told of periods of thousands or
millions of years. The slow processes of formation, and the embedding of
the remains of the animal and v(!getable life of those ancitMit times, were
only interpreted aright after Hutton, Playfair and Cuvier had wrestled witli
the problem,
With these interesting views of prominent scientists, we may proceed to
a more detailed consideration of the scientific triumphs of the century. To
present anything other than the headlights of its progress, in the space at
our command, would be impossible, in view of the extraordinary accumula-
tion of facts made by its many thousands of observers, and the multitude of
generalizations, of the most varied character, offered by the
thinkers in the domain of science. These generalizations Headlights of
vary in importance as much as they do in character. Many of "'^S'"^^*
them are evidently temporary only, and must fall before the future progress
of discovery ; others are founded upon such a multitude of significant facts-
and are of such inherent probability, that they seem likely to be as permanent
as the theories of Galileo, Kepler, Newton, and otliers of the older worthies.
Beginning with astronomy, the oldest and noblest of the sciences, we
could record a vast number of minor discoveries, but shall confine ourselves
to the major ones. Progress in astronomy has kept in close pace with
development in instruments. The telescope of the end of the century, for
instance, has enormously greater space-penetrating and star-defining powers
than that used at the beginning, and has added e.xtraordinarily to our
knowledge of the number of stars, the character of their groupings, and
the constitution of solar orbs and nebulae. These results have been greatly
addded to by the use of the camera in astronomy, the photo-
graph revealing stellar secrets which could never have been discoveries in
learned by the aid of the telescope alone. This has also the
great advantage of placing on record the positions of the stars at any fixed
moment, and thus rendering comparatively easy the detection of motions
among them.
But it is to a new instrument of research, the spectroscope, that we
owe our most interesting knowledge of the stars. This wonderful instru-
ment enables us to analyze the ray of light itself, to study the many lines by
which the vari-colored spectrum is crossed and discover to what substances
certain groups of lines are due. From studying with this instru- Revelations of
ment the substances which compose the earth, science has taken the Spectre
to studying the stars, and has found that not only our sun, ^^^^^
but suns whose distance is almost beyond the grasp of thought, are made
up largely oi chemical substances similar to those that exist in the earth.
; 1 1
i
! )
i '' ,
iJj
iihuw^ 'W^
574
^//-./.■/.« n,^,,,^ ^^^ n,y^,_^,,,„^^ o/.^cy.vvr^.
I^ffllmff' '
P! I' >
If «
second result of the use of thle • .
are true nebula. ;„ Z he 'v „ f ™"' ^ '''^^" '" P^"- 'l^'^' '''ere
yet gathered into o.bs, J^^X^ ^ ''^ <<- "^ vapor not
wh.ch have cooled until they l,ave cease, t„ "'"»•, great invisible orbs,
- the power of tracing the mot on if T" °1''"'^'- ^ "'''•'» '"^-It
'l-ect line to or from the eartf Z thil " "''f ""'' P^"^'"'*? ^ ■•>
many of the double or multiple st'ars L ' T'- "' " *'''" ^'""' f"""'' 'hat
late discovery in this directio nTrde "T ^ '''™""'' ^^"^'^ °"'^'-- A
appears single in the most „; erful tel ''' " ■ ''' n "^ ''°'='^ '^'^'^ -'^ich
stars, two of which revolve roun Za 1 1"?'' T"?' ""'== "P °f '"ree
crcle round a more distant compa^bn ^^ °"' ''°"^' ">>''<= ">«= 'wo
Late astronomy has revpnlf^r? f^
Before the nineteenth centXy '^1 n^oVkr' "T^'^ "' "'^ »'- '^"e-
ex,sted between Mars and JupL On the fi - ." '/ f "^ P'""^'''^^ bodies
■. 'So-Ceres, the first ofT asterol 7 °' *' ^•^"'"^^-■'^'""ary
Ne„ P.«. ,„ Three others we e soon di co " t^^'ff^' ™^ discovered"^
-f- began to be founV^^m'; i uiif ^r:^, Trtr^^d^^""^^
century not less fhan f^ i T f ^^ ^^^ ^"^1 of the
planetary bodies were known Of ot ier'd ' '"' '">' °' "'^^ -=t"
the newfactsdiscoveredconcerninc^ come sT""'" "' ""^^ ''"^"y ^^'^ to
the condition of the sun's surfacf T H , .'Tr^' P'^"^'^='"^ ^^'«"ites,
conditions of Mars and the Moo„ ,fe ,h " \"°:*V of the surface
covery of the planet Neptune et°;,ltr' °' ^'-'"""''^ ™S?=' '^e dis-
^ In the group of sciences k-'own'^n :;:;,?:"" ^""7 ""''''''■
-chemistry, light, heat, electricity and ZT ^ T"^ ""= "' Physics
equally decided and ma y of the dlcovel fT"-*" P^^^ess has been
Chemistry, as it exists Lday is almT^ / ,f"°^' ='='"''"g -?"ifiance.
Many ch.emical substances w7re known "n.h^^ I ''"'" °' "^^ -"'"^V-
■nto insignificance as compared wUhthoef fr'n' """ ""'"^^^ ''"^^
conceptions of earlier date, Daltons thTory oTJZl:i ^'l '^''^""'^'•"
THe«v.„„o, ;7°^'-- "-' =till exists. The viewr„J m'.taTned °'" 1
Chemistry ate m the nineteenth century in fact "'^ "'^"""^''-''"t.l
'"organic chemistry are seoarnteH f ''"~,"'*' "rgamc and
sap, is no longer held. Hundreds of n?„ " '''"='' °""'' "^V » ""'de
great complexity, have been made in thT" '"^T"'''' »>"« of them of
be classed as priperly witl nortt ic as wi^ T'^'-'^'T '°^^' ^"'^ »" -w
lias been closed, and there is now hut ?''"" ^"''^tances. The gap
cate chemical compounds si iTebeyL^'theT"''"-. """'' ''" "-' '"^^■
tK-n of „ ,^ ^^ any^it^ltltr'^^^-fP-;^ "^ '»*
become s.mply the chemistry of carbon-compounds. chemistry has
-•^CaafilBSfi iMtKt, ^;
to prove that there
dust or vapor not
great invisible orbs,
ght. A third result
h are passing- in a
las been found that
und each other. A
le Polar star, which
y made up of three
lours, while the two
3f the solar system,
ly planetary bodies
' century— January
s, was discovered,
er on smaller ones
by the end of the
% of these small
lay briefly refer to
■nets and satellites,
Ige of the surface
'n's rings, the dis-
-ntury research.
title of Physics
progress has been
-tling sig-nifiance.
of the century,
^ir number sinks
■y- Of chemical
the only one of
maintained — until
lat organic and
other by a wide
ome of them of
•"y, and can now
ices. The gap
the most intri-
. and the isola-
chemistry has
BARON F. H. ALEXANDER von HUMBOLDT.
LOUIS AGASSIZ.
CHARLES DARWIN.
ILLUSTRIOUS MEN OF SCIENCE. 19TH CENTURY
THOMAS H. HUXLEY.
II
1
■j
■
1
1
i
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1
1
1
1 ;
I:
iij
f ' g
^ ^9
m
'j
J"
r
i^
^^^^^^^^^^H^ '
^ i".
k M'iiN
11
PASTEUR IN HIS LABORATORY
%tk i * j^
''''"'"^--^'mB^s^^^
--._..„„. a ouicnce. Thehonnr nV\'K"'j"''' "' ">« Physiciai
Louis Pasteur, the eminen F~ ° u -hL ■ 'f '''^J?«>-y befones to
• ^--"- » ^neiiust and biologist. ~
CHARLES DARWIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENCE
577
One chemical theory of recent date, the vortex atom theory of Lord
Kelvin, has quickly met its fate, being abandoned by its author himself, but
the study of it has '••^en rich in results. It is now widely held that tlie
universe is made u^: ^f two great basic elements, ether and matter, or
perhaps one only, since it seems highly probable that the atom of matter is
a minute, self coherent mass of ether. It is further held as doubtful that
atoms ever exist alone, they being combined by their attractions into small
bodies known as molecules, which are in incessant motion, and to whose
activitv the physical force of the universe is largely due.
One of the most important chemical discoveries of the century was that
of the " periodic law " of the chemical elements, advanced by the Russian
scientist Mendeljeff, under which the weights of the atoms of the elements
were for the first time placed in harmony with each other, and a fixed
numerical relation shown to exist between them. We may conclude this
brief glance at the science by mention of the very high temperature which
the electric furnace has now placed at the command of chemists, and the
equally great refrigeration now attainable, by which the air itself can easily
be liquified and even frozen into a solid mass.
Light, naturally one of the earliest of the pnenomena oi nature to
attract the attention of man, was little understood until after the advent
of the nineteenth century. It was of old supposed to be a ^^ ,^ta„d,ts
substance of so rapid motion as to be practically instantaneous phenomena
in its movement through space. Even Newton looked upon
it as a substance given off by shining bodies, and it remained for Young, m
the beginning of the nineteenth century, to prove that light is not a sub-
stance but a motion, a series of rapid waves or undulations in a substance
extending throughout space, and known as the lumen iferous ether. The
idea that light is instantaneous in its motion also vanished when Roemer
discovered, by observing the eclipses of Jupiter's moons, that it takes about
eight minutes for the ray of light to travel from the sun to the earth.
A cannon ball moving at the rate of 1,700 feet per second would take
about nine years to make the same journey, the wave of light traveling at
the extraordinary speed of over 186,000 miles in a second. Yet immensely
rapid as is this rate of movement, we do not need to go to the sun and
planets to measure the speed of light, but can now do so, by the use of
delicate instruments, on a few miles of the earth's surface. This is one of
the great discoveries enumerated by Wallace.
The discoveries in relation to the constitution and cnaracteristics of
light made during the century have been so numerous that we must confine
ourselves to those of major importance. Much might be said about the
32
' ' 1
;i
U
578
Hip
C/IA/^LES D.mwiN AND DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENCE
twBa^'
^
lli
1
vet;r„rofre'::t'r:f ;:^"T' f ?":-"• "'-°^'-p''y. -<' the ,..
I ooservation is due. Among tiicsc steps <,f prosjress perhaps
-...,» «p,,c. graphy, a s.r.k.ng result of which is tite power, by aid , f pho-
motio„-,iv,„rSr:s'tTh: '^^ ^7^°-- '" P""->'"^' "'^i--'"
so marvelous ,t n "'„ n T "V""-"" '^''''"''' "°^ ^° <^°"""°" ■•'"'l
dis^overiesradT-r™ o :rby"the tn^er^f^^ ^"^ ''''i ^^""-^■^"'^
stated. The Ronton m,, Li V , ""■''"' ''ave been already
opaciuesufeLc: ?:„" 7.« In 1 T" "' ""'"=""« "'''"""'
as showing the exaTEl oTf "'^ '-g")'.
position aLcharacrr!rC;rL^;;retr'"^"^'=' "'""" ""^ '"^>'' '"=
name^oT^aLttaf J:7e;rs^-~ ^jri^V"^ """ "^-'^'^
incessant leanin-rabonrnf,!, 7 ?. ^''' ''*"" ''Sht. a motion, the
transferable ?:r; one It L"!"":,"' ""?^' *'' '"""™ t-'^' -^ily
.um of power in the ::t' e Ih s hr'^."! r:™"^ 'T '"^?; ■^"'-'-
Rumford, an American by birth, JlJ:;::r^[^:;Z:f Z puT- 1
H... .s. «o.e P°P"lar.form by Professor Tyndall, an English scienht in 1 i
""°" Radhnt hraf^"', '''^ ^ ^''= "' ^°-'" ■' l-^ished in "s' ^
ether. Tt may beu theTs 'V'"'r ""' ':^"''' '"-''"^' '•' ^■'-"'-■' »' ">e
able power in product!''. TT" '° ''eat phenonema that remark-
possessed. By tC fo mfr the'm" "f "'""'"' '"" "^'"P<=-'"- - --
By the latter'the mo 7 ot „? s^ ^mr/r" "'''"r; '"^'I "^ ^^P°"^^''-
The point of absolute 7ero fl If'' t- , n ^ ''"''''''' '''"'' ""''" '™^<=»-
is estLated to be at tl e temne r " r' '" ''=" "'°"°" "™''l ''-"^'^P'^'^.
below the freelg poi o ^'1: A "d ''' '?'T ""'"""=-^ ^'^'"''-''^
erees of this hn» b u , ^S'^* °' ™'^ *''l'in some forty de-
fiimri^'ti;Lte'c oV:^'^^^^^^^^^^^ lz:^T °' 'r"''-- - "'^ ^^^
of the very volatile element ;;tir4:tlirs:;tr ™'-' ^^'^-
is now rr^t'o b?:Ltit "b" '"' ['■^'"■.'r'^" "p"" - ^ ^"'^---.
andCorrela. motion^; nf ^K 1 r ^'^ '''''' considered to be
— "» brririe:;th'r::?":,:t:; r""'-"''^' ''^^"■""'™
of them into the other, al.d the Zl 1 ^"l '1/1^"=^ '° ~"-^' °-
correlation of forces means simp,/ that heat, l^^hf a d^ e":!- ;':,V^
CtTARLES DARWIM AND D/U'/u'.OPMKNT OF SCIENCF.
579
mutually tiansfonncd, and that no loss of motion or force takes place in
these changes from one mode of motion to another. In the operation of
the electric trolley car, to offer a familiar example, the heat power of coal is
f^.ist transformed into engine motion, tlien into electricity, then again into
light and heat within the car, then into mass motion in the motor, and
finally passes away as electricity. No better example of the "correlation of
forces" than this familiar instance could be adduced.
As regards the nature of electricity, though Innumerable observations
have been made during the nineteenth century and a vast multitude of facts
put upon record, we know little more than is above stat(;d. Hut if we turn
to the practical applications of electric power, it is to find th(;se standing
high among the great advances of the century. To it we owe the highly
important discoveries of the telegraph and the telephone ; the conversion
of engine power into electricity by the dynamo and the use of
this in moving cars, carriages and machinerv ; the stora-r-e Applications of
1 .... -..u •.. • M "i- • 1 ' , , . . '"? Electricity
battery, with its similar applications ; the use of electricity in
lighting and heating, the latter remarkably exemplified in the electric fur-
nace, which yields the highest temperature known on the earth ; the weld-
ing of metals by electricity ; the electrotype and electro-plating ; the con-
version of water power into electric force and its transportation by wire for
long distances ; the therapeutic uses of the electric current, and other
applications too numerous to mention.
In regard to the magnet, the handmaid of electric power, we know
little other than that the force displayed by it seems to be a result of some
mode of rotation in the atoms or molecules of matter, since all the effects
of magnetism can be produced by the rotary motion of the electric cur-
rent in spirals of wire. From this it is thought that the mole-
cular motion to which magnetism is due may be of an electric ^'''^ Principles
1^.111 r 1 . , o^ Magnetism
Character, though the permanence of the magnetic force
renders this very doubtful. It seems most probable that magnetism is
a result of some special condition of the ordinary, inherent motions of atoms
— not their iluctuating heat activities, but those fixed motions upon which
their organization and persistence depend. The readiness with which soft
iron can be magnetized and demagnetized by the use of the electric current
is of extraordinary value in the practical applications of electricity. To
this fact we owe the dynamo and the electric motor, with all their varied uses.
With this passing glance at the physical forces, we may proceed to the
consideration of the great science of geology, which, as above stated by
Foster, is a new-born science, almost wholly of nineteenth century develop-
ment. Geology as it now exists may be said to date from 1790, when
. i
fSo
CirARLES D.-iAnvm and DEVELOPAfnNT OF SCIENCi:
n \ I
prominent, his •• I'rincinL ..* f l ■', T ^ / ^'''"■''■'' '->"=" "'''"'''
.h<.- rocks werV " , u^; i;"::,!, r.^r'"*"?"''''"'' ""'=™^'"
UDlieivnU ,...1 • ■ , ^'^^'' "^ miahty Catastrophes, vast
^ inimals and ,./anr., these cataclysms hein^ followed by new
Progress ,„ ^'^^"^'""^ ^" ^'^^ --''1 ^f Hfe. Lyell contended that the Lrcel
c.eolo,y now at work arc of the same type as those which have been
always at work; that catastrophes have alwavs been lord nc
tha rcl new f-f "'"' "'r'' """' '"''^ '° ^^ -«y -ith tl.e old belief
b'lsis of tho oiuerioims. In this conception we have the
bass of the ,. cent ,eory of evolution, so thoroucdily worked out.nd
wideJv extendpri cin/-<^. r»^^. • » ,.• , " •' "^^'^<-ii out and
.an Lse,; '^fz^T^::^::^:!^^:^^-'- '^-
and ^i^:^^;^jzT^^i r:^;.r:!itet r-
Mypo.he.e, '°" ''°"=? ""t remain unquestioned. A new lopothesis was
nineteenth cent;":f the^ffetXt ^"^^7 ^'''^ ^'"^' ^^-^«= °' '^^
condensation or ,L:ufn:ht^:Ju'"ft::t::et:;oitf7Ll"^
stones with whici, sn.nre se-m- fill-r- ,-1 .,■?=>,'=• '^'=S''!'°"5 of 'hose meteoric
mutual attractions, become' i:teet:,:l:,":h;;;:,:r;coT-'" ""' T'
mi o.ign their collisions, and are
UfARL/SS DARWIN AND DEVl-LOPMENl OF SCIENCE
converted into liquids and gasos throu;j;h the heat thus evolved. It is pos-
sible that the visible nebula-, like the comets, are «,'reat volumes of such
meteors. This is the meteoric theory referred to in Wallace's catei^'ory
of great discoveries. It is still, however, i w from being esr i .ii-hed.
Meteorology, the study of the atmosphere and its paenomena, is
another science to which mt ch attention wis given during the century under
review, A vast number of facts have been lt;arned concerning the atmos-
phere, its alternations of heat and cold, f calm .lud storm,
of pressure, of diminution of density and loss of heat m """he Science of
ascendmg, and ot its lluctuations m humidity, wiih the varia-
tions of sunshine and cloud, fog, rain, snow, hail, lightning and other
manifestations.
The study of ihe winds has been a prominent feature in the progress
of this scieure, .ind our knowledge of the causes and character of storms
has been greatly developed. The thef)ry that storms are due to great rotary
movenviits in the atmosphere, immense cyclonic whirls, frecjucintly followed
by reverse, or anti-cyclonic, movements, has gone far to clear up the
mystery of the winds, while the destructive tornado, the terrific local whirl
in the winds, has been closeiy studied, though not yet fully undt-rstood.
These close observations of atmospheric changes have given rise lo tin:
Weather Bureau, by which the kind of weather to be looked for is pre-
dicted for the United States. Similar observations and predictions have
been widely extended among civilized nations. This is a practical ap^ 'lica-
tion in meteorology which has been of immense advantage, particularly
in the field of navigation.
Of the sciences with which the nineteentn century has had much to .lo,
those relating to organic life, classed under the general title of biology,
stand prominent, which includes botany and zoology. Sub- progress In the
siduary to these are the sciences of anatomy, physiology, em- Biological
bryology, psychology, anthropology, and several others of Sciences
minor importance. We have, here laid out before us a very large subject,
which has made remarkable progress during the past hundred years, mucl
too great to handle except in brief general terms.
Ji'' lotany and zoology alike, the development of the cell theory is one of
the most conspicuous advances of the century. It has been shown clearly
that all plants and animals are made up of minute cells, semi-fluid in consis-
tency, and principally made up of a highly organized chemical compound
known as protoplasm, which Huxley has denominated the ''physical basis of
life." These cells are the laboratories of the system. Motions and changes
take place within them. They increase in size and divide in_ a peculiar
' \\
I i
582
CHARLES DARWIN AMD DEVELOPMENT OE SCIENCE
f
1 J, f
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mi
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m
«'i
iff ' \
,'1
Hill 1 ^ if
■ %
■ i
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wtm '
iifil
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J
H^^^H^^^KM.1?
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manner thus grow„,g in number. Many of them have .self.no.ion like that
o a zzr r" r ■■"""'"■ ^-^^'""^ ''"-■'™'='' ■-■-'--- -<-■ « '"
pPmt a,d o • e ,"', ""'"" ''™'='"*^ °f ^"'■"••''^' "- ""-'-fibre of
they are the foun.htt.on stones of life, and the physical operations of the
highest be.ngs are n.ade „p of the combined and'hirn.oni fed a t viUes of
these myriads of minute cells. acuvitics ol
It would be in,possible. unless we should devote a volmne to the sub-
Tvaii^nuL r f .ar^r"? :nr^:rh'';i:'"'^^ "-' ^t-"'"™ -^
Ol varied lorms, with the consequent study of their
Classiflcaiion „, affinities, and their classification into family .rroups rau.rin,.
and local to major and general groups. Both ulants ind
anunals have been divided up iiuo a number of great orders rm In
the former instance from the microscopic bacteria'to h grj 't iTl i^hi:
organized e.vogens, and in the latter from the minute unicellu ar fo , s to
the mammalia. \Ve have here, aside from the cell-theory, d tl « " elt
progress m classification, nothing of epoch-making sign ficance to rf'er
and are obliged to dismiss these subjects with this brief' retn^ect
There are, however, two fields in which an important accumulation of
oil? ™t/°"^T"" "'^ "'" ^'=^" "■"''-=■ "--"f -"bry ""and
paleontology. he study of the organic cell by the microscope is one of
h basic facts of embiyology, since living operations take plac withh hi
cell. 1 he network of minute fibres, of which it is largely made u. is s n
Division „, the '° Sf" ''"° '™ star-shaped forms with a connecting spindle
cell of ..bres, the division of which in the centre is followed by the
division of the cell into two. This is the primary fact in rLro
duction, new cells being thus born. !n higher produc ion two eel s aris^ i"
from opposite sexes, combine, and their growth and division ."ve ise to f
organs and tissues of a new living being. It is the development of d. e
organs and tissues that constitutes the science of embryology
I he observation, under the microscope, of the sta.^es of ,h;. 1 l
ment has been of the highest value in the' study of aith iti i tZZ
aided greatly m the classification of animals. Many „ld idea die 1 .
when it was clearly shown that all life begins in a sin-^fe c U rom which H
organs of the new being gradually arise. The mos imporTalt t n
taught by embryology is that the CMiihrvn in .'ts develonm^,,, ^ ™" , '
various stages of its ancestry, resemLhng ^^ot' Z^ rotwoTr
lower animals, and gains for a brief time organs which some of its ancestors
F SCIENCE
CHARLES DARWIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENCE
583
possessed permanently. Of these facts the most sicrnificant is that the
embryo of man develops gill-slits like those which the fish ^i, c ,
, , . ,p,, , 1 he Sciences of
uses in breathmg. 1 hese are of no use to it and soon disap- the Embryo
pear, but their appearance is very stron<'- evidence that the '"'* **'® Fossil
fish form lay in the line of man's ancestry, and that man has developed
through a long series of the lower animals.
In palaeontology, or the study of fossil forms of animals and plant life,
we have the embryology of races as contrasted with that of individuals.
The study of the multitude of these forms which has been collected within
the past century has enabled man to fill many of the gaps which formerly
appeared to divide animal forms, and has furnished very strong arguments
in favor of the descent of new species from older ones. One of the most
striking of these facts is that in relation to the horse, of which a practically
complete series of ancestral forms have been found, leading from a small
five-toed animal, far back in geological time, through forms in which the
toes decrease in number and the animal increases in size until the large
single-toed horse is reached.
Two other organic sciences, those of anatomy and physiology, have
added enormously to our knowledge of animated nature. Anatomy, which
is of high practical importance from its relation to surgery, is a science of
ancient origin, many important facts concerning it having been discovered
by the physicians of old Greece and Rome. This study continued during
later centuries, and by the opening of the nineteenth the gross anatomy
of the human frame was fairly well known, and many facts in its finer
anatomy had been traced. In later anatomical work the microscope has
played an active part, and has yielded numbers of important revelations.
What is known as comparative anatomy has formed perhaps the most
important field of nineteenth century study in this domain of
science. Though this branch of anatomical study is as old as Comparative
Aristotle, little was done in it from his time to that of Cuvier, ^ *""^
who was the founder of the science of palaeontology, and the first to show
that the forms and affinities of fossil forms could be deduced from the study
of existing animals. If a fossil jaw were found, for instance, with the teeth
of a ruminant, it could be taken for granted that it came from an animal
whose feet had hoofs instead of claws. It is often said that Cuvier could
construct an animal from a single bone, and though this is saying much
more than the facts bear out, he did make some marvelous predictions of
this kind.
A notable triumph of the science of comparative anatomy was the pre-
diction made by Cope, Marsh, and Kowalcwsky, from the fact that specialized
i
:j i\
■84
CHARLES DARWIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENCE
mu one ' l" ' ''^^'" °^ "°^^ generalued structure, that an animal
must once 1-ve existed with affinities, on the one hand, with Wed
Prediction. ^mnials, and on the other with the carnivores and the lemurs
pSt? Jt'n '". "" --fulfilled in the discovery of the fossil
,„,,, ^^^"^^°^i;^ •" the Eocene deposits of the western United
library we keep together books which ^"T^^^It^ ''''^fZ:
Di,c„verte3l„ ^°"^ '?^^ gone on for many centuries, covering the various
Physiology, operations of motion, nutrition, respiration, nervous action
included undef Zt ''t,, "''^P™''""'""', ^''"' ""= '"^"^ ^'"°' '""'"0"^
cotrTn • , '°"S'' "''"y °f ""= f^'"^ of Pl'ysiology were dis-
cove ed .n earl.er centur.es, the scientists of the nineteenth havf been bu y
add,ng to tl,e hst, and a number of important discoveries have been
made. Promment among these is that of an.esthesia, the discovery that
by the mhalafon of certain gases a state of temporar^ insensibn.tv can be
produced, lastmg long enough to permit surgical and denta operations to
be performed w.thout pain; and that of antiseptical surgery, inwh h by the
emp oyment o other chemical substances, wLnds caf be kep free fr™,
w houTthe ''t^'°"^^"'^'■''™^^■ ^"'' ^"^S'-' °P.-^'-- 'e performed
w.thout the perdsfonnerly arising from inflammation,-the disease-produc
mg germs and poisons being kept out ^
..:: = 5r t;;:: s iz iz r;- .--£::,-.•
Living Threads 1 ,'' ^'^^T^ "^'^°"^ ""P^l^es travel along different nerve
of the Brain ^^'^^ ' ^nd that nervous and psychical events are the outcome
or the clashmp- of n^n'ou'^ in'*^-!' — -.- tU
have learned by experiment and observation that the pattern of the web
'=' SCIENCE
CHARLES DARWIN AND DEVELOPMENT OE SCIENCE
5«5
determines the play of the impulses , and we can already explain many of
the obscure problems, not only of nervous disease, but of nervous life, by an
analysis, tracking out the devious and linked paths of the nervous threads."
This observation links together the sciences of physiology and psycho-
logy, the latter the science of mental phenomena, the exact study of which
largely belongs to the nineteenth century. Broad as this subject is, and
much as has been done in it, few facts stand out with sufficient distinctness
to call for special mention here. The most famous psychical experiments
are those made on the brains of some of the animals below man, and espe-
cially on that of the monkey, by which the functions of the several sections
of the brain have been to some extent mapped out, the important fact being
discovered that each function is confined to a fixed locality in the brain, and
with it the accordant fact that certain regions of the brain control the mus-
cular movements of certain parts of the body. In consequence,
a particular affection of the hand, foot, or other region has often " *^ y
been traced to a diseased condition of some known part of the brain, and
the trouble has been removed by a surgical operation on that organ.
The sciences last named refer specially to man, in whom they have
been pc»' ticularly studied. Other sciences relating to him exclusively are
those of ethnology and anthropology, which belong almost solely to the
nineteenth century. Ethnology, the study of the races of mankind, has
been carefully and widely studied, and though the problems relating to it
have not yet been solved, a very fair conception has been gained of the
diversities and relations of mankind. Anthropology, embracing, as it does,
archseology, has been prolific in discoveries. Archaeological
research has laid out before us the pathway of man through )^a,*" p "*
the ages and shown his gradual and steady development,
through the successive periods of chipped stone and polished stone imple-
ments, of bronze and iron tools and weapons, with his gradual development
of pottery, ornament, art, architecture, etc.
The most striking and notable fact in anthropological science is the
total reversal of our ideas concerning the length of time man has dwelt
upon the earth. The old limitation to a few thousand years, everwhere held
at the beginning of the century, fails to reach back to a time when, as we
now know, man had reached a considerable degree of civilization. Back of
that we can trace him by his tools and his bones through a period many
times more distant, leading back to the glacial age of geology and possibly
to a much more remote era. Instead of man's residence upon the earth
being restricted to some 6,000 years, it probably reached back not less than
60,000, and possibly to a much earlier period.
n
586
lii:
■'.,■
Lfc
m
CHARLES DARWIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENCE
Among the minor sciences, there is one that has deserved that name
only w.thm the past thirty or forty years, the science of medicine. Formel
It was an art only and by no means a satisfactory one. Nothing was known
of the cause of the most virulent and destructive diseases-the infectuous
Development of t^ivers, the plague, cholera, etc. And the treatment of these
i^MeS: ^"^ \ ^'''' °^ "^^'■Jy ^^^ diseases, was wholly empirical.'
. , clependmg solely upon experiment, not at all upon scientific
D "due eel • ^,^l"^"r ' ''""'' ''^' ^^^^^'" ^^"^^^ '-^"^ ^^^^-i-1 compounds
produced certan. effects upon the system, and upon this phvsicians
edle^ofllK^ 1 "V^"7^'°" °^ ^h^ -"- of diseaies and litde'knowl-
edge of the physiological action of medicines.
This state of affairs was materially changed during the f^nal third of
he nineteenth century, as the result of an extensive serifs of observations
set in train in great part by Louis Pasteur. Professor of chemistry at the
Sorbonne in Pans, who was in large measure the originator of the germ
.heory of disease. The discovery that the fermentation which producrs
alcohol IS due to a microscopic organism, the yeast-plant, gave Pasteur the
due, and he soon was able to prove that other fermentations,-the lactic
acetic, and butyric, are also due to the action of living forms. It h^d
Pasteur and His '^^" ^""T- ^"""""^ '^'""^ '^'^ putrefaction of animal substance
Discoveries Y'''' ^^''''''^ '" ^^"^ '''"'^ ^^y- ^nd it has since been abundantly
of nn- 1 j^""^°"^^;f ^d '^'^' if these minute organisms can be kept out
of annual and vegetable, substances these may be preserved indefinitely.
century, the keeping of fruits, meats, etc.. by the process of air-ti^ht
cannino-. j t- vji a.n n^m
Pasteur next extended his observations to tile -silkworm, wliicl, was
PW 0:i "' 7r "'T", ""' '''' ^■■"°^' ™'"-' "- -'^ industry ,
Prance. Otliers before lum had discovered what were supposed to be
d,sease ger,ns n, tl,e blood of these worms. He proved po'sit.Vei; tha
hese bactena as they are called, are the cause of the disease, and that
nfecfon could be prevented by proper precautions. From he insec
1 asteur proceeded to the higher animals, and investigated the cause o
splenic fever, a dangerous epidemic among farm cattle. This he ako
proved to be caused by a minute forn. of lif" and that fowl cholera s d^
to st,ll another form of micro-organism. At a later date he studied hydro!
-■h-s was not the whole of Pasteur's work. He discovered not only
use of these d.seases, but a systen> of vaccination by which they could
the
VIM
SCIENCE
CHARLES DARWIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENCE
587
be cured or prevented. By " cultivating " the bacteria in various ways, he
succeeded in decreasing their dangerous properties, so that they would five
the disease in a mild form, — acting in the same way as vaccination does in
the case of small-pox, by enabling the animals to resist virulent attacks of
the disease.
Pasteur's work was performed largely on the lower animals. Others
have devoted themselves to the infectuous diseases which attack the human
frame, and with remarkable success, Robert Koch, a German physician,
applied himself to the study of cholera, which he proved in Koch and
[883 to be due to a germ named by him, from its shape, the the Comma
comma bacillus. He discovered about the same time the l^ac'liu?
bacterial organism which causes the fatal disease of tuberculosis, or con-
sumption. Other investigators have traced typhoid and yellow fevers,
diphtheria, and some other infectuous diseases to similar causes, and the
study of diseases of this character has at last gained the status of a science.
Methods of cure are also becoming scientific. These minute organ-
isms, once introduced within the body, tend to increase in number at an
amazing rate, feeding on the blood and tissues, and giving off substances
called toxines which in some cases are of highly poisonous character. To
overcome their effect inoculation of anti-toxines is practiced. These are
yielded by the same bacteria as produce the toxines, and inoculation with
them enables the system to resist the action of the toxin poisons.
We must dismiss this broad subject with this brief consideration, saying
further that it is still largely in the stage of experiment, and that many of
its theories must be left to the twentieth century for proof. Its study,
however, has been of inestimable value in another direction, that of antiseptic
surgery, a mode of treatment of surgical wounds introduced
by Sir Joseph Lister, and now used by all surgeons with the ge'ry'' "^
most beneficial effects. It being recognized that inflamma-
tion and putrefactive action in wounded tissues are due to the action of
disease germs introduced by the air or by the hands and instruments of the
operators, the greatest care is now taken, by the use of chemical substances
fatal to those germs, to prevent their entrance. As a result many diseases
once common in hospitals — pyaemia, septicaemia, gangrene and erysipelas —
have almost disappeared, fever and the formation of pus are prevented, and
healing is rapid and continuous, while surgeons now daringly and success-
fully undertake operations in the most secret recesses of the body, which
formerly would have led to certain death.
A secondary result of the germ theory of disease is the great advance
in hygiene, which, formerly almost non-existent, has now reached the status
I' 1 i
588 CHARLES DARWIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENCE
of a science.
The Science of
Hygiene
i '-u&l
It isbUll against tliese perilous germs that continuous oattle
is kept up, absolute cleanliness being the ultimatum at which
physicians aim. Disease germs lurk everywhere, and can
only be combatted by incessant care. The bacteria of cholera
and typhoid fever, for example, are known to be conveyed in water, and the
former epidemics of these diseases were in great measure due to the free
use of polluted water for drinking. Their ravages have been lar.^ely
arrested by boihng, filtering or otherwise purifying drinkin- water wliile
the free use of carbolic acid and other antiseptics in hospitals has put an
end to the reign of infection which once made those places hives of disease
We may f^tly conclude this chapter with reference to a subject several
times referred to in its pages, and which is looked upon as the o-reatest
scientific theory of the c.n.ary, that of evolution. The belief that new
species of animals and plants arise through development from older ones is
not of recent origin, but is at least as old as Aristotle. It was taucrht by
Harvey, Erasmus Darwin, Goethe, and others in the eighteenth century
but the f^rst attempt to develop a general theory of organic evolution was
made by Lamarck, in the early part of the sujcceeding century. Lamarck's
view, however, that the variations in animals are the result of efforts on
their part to gain certain results,— the neck of the giraffe, for instance
growing longer through its attempt to browse on leaves just out of reach -
did not gain acceptance, and it was not until after the middle of the century
that a more satisfactory theory was presented.
The theory of evolution, as now understood, was arrived at simulta-
Darwinand neously by Alfred Russell Wallace and Charles Darwin it
TecUon' ^'" ^""^"^^ ^"^"^^ ^""'^^"^ °"' ^y ^h^ ^^"e'- "^ his •' Origin of Species
by Means of Natural Selection," published in 1859. This
theory— that the changes in animals are due to the struggle for existence
among vast multitudes, and the survival of those whose natural variations
in form give them an advantage over their fellows in the battle of life— is
now accepted b>- the great body of scientists, while the general idea of evolu-
tion has been extended to cover all changes in the universe, inorganic as
well as organic. This extension has been the work of Herbert Spencer and
man)- other scientific and philosophical writers, and no domain of nature is
now left outside of the range of evolutionary forces. The argument which
makes man himself a result of evolution, and not a product of special creation
was the final one presented by Darwin, and has given point to a multitude
of observations in the science of anthropology made since his d.av;
' SCIENCE
Lt continuous oattle
ultimatum at whicii
erywhere, and ca.i
bacteria of cholera
:d in water, and the
ure due to the free
have been larg-ely
inkiniT water, while
xspitals has put an
es hives of disease,
to a subject several
'on as the greatest
le belief that new
from older ones is
It was taught by
ighteenth century,
anic evolution was
ntury. Lamarck's
2sult of efforts on
raffe, for instance
ist out of reach,—
Idle of the century
rrived at simulta-
'harles Darwin, it
Origin of Species
d in 1859. This
ggle for existence
natural variations
: battle of life — is
eral idea of evolu-
erse, inorganic as
■bert Spencer and
main of nature is
argument which
•f special creation,
nt to a multitude
Ills day;
; ^
H
mum^
'
kU^I^^HH
h
t
in
1
iT^
If
,
-:
i ^
1
'
:l -
CHAPTER XL.
Literature and Art in the Nineteenth Century,
^L
J-\
^<v
1%.
Nil
./
^SW-
>^
FOR ages the world has swarmed with writers. Ahiiost since man first
began to think he has Ijeen actively engaged in literary labor ; long,
indeed, before he had learned the art of writing, and when the work
of his mind could be preserved only in his memory and that of his fellows.
And the progress of man down the ages is starred with names that gleam
like suns in the firmament of thought, those of such oreat maeicians of the
intellect as Homer, Virgil, Dante, Chaucer, Shakespeare, Milton, and a
host besides. In this field of human effort, therefore, the -p^e Literary
nineteenth century has nothing peculiar to show. Its finest (HantsofFor-
labors are surpassed by those of others who lived centuries or ""«»• Times
ages ago. Here, almost alone in the circle of human labors, the century
we deal with stands on the level of many of its predecessors and below
that of others. Its single claim to distinction is an extraordinary activity
in literary production, and especially in the field of novelistic fiction, which
it may in great measure claim as its own. The novel before the nineteenth
century was a crude pioneer; within the century it has grown into a product
of the most advanced culture.
What has been said about literature may be repeated about art.
That, too, seemingly reached its culmination in the past, and the artists of
to-day*can merely seek to emulate, they cannot hope to surpass, those of
former centuries. Sculpture, for instance, reached its highest
stage of perfection in Greece, and painting in mediaeval
Europe ; and strive as our artists may, they seem incapable
of producing works of superior beauty and charm to those of
the long ago. The architecture of to-day is largely a rescript
of that of the past, the original ideas are few, nobler and more beautiful
conceptions are wanting. Of the remaining fine arts, music and poetry —
if we may class the latter in this category — the work of former centuries re-
mains unsurpassed, and the best that can be done with the nineteenth century
authors and artists is to mention their works and speak of their styles : it is
impossible to place them on a pedestal overlooking that of their predecessors
591
The Standing
of tlie Fine
Arts in t*^<*.
Past an le
Present
ri
593
II
r
^^TSJ^^TC'^S AND A,T ,N T„n NmETF.nNTH CFMTVaY
one ^^^^vt:::::^^;:^^:;^' '^^ '^r-- "^ - ■<-
is the United States, which h.d w^he bu it le wh h 7 TT'' ""''=
name of literature, prior to ,800 ^ll^ ) '""e which fairly deserves the
that a new world of thought was likelv to .T„ K } f *^ ' "*"' ^'•''' '"'"d
not alone. Contemporary JitI himCre a n ''k '?' ""'"■' '^""S ^^'
among them bein/williL CuH B^l^^t^ °' ^^f ' r^'.^^^^
An,erican c'assic, is perhaps unequalled in d;n,h of , I'''!'"'°P^;f' «"' an
of thought by the work of any other auhorn ? °" ""' «^''*"''""-
t> 1 •' "^"^' auunor oi ninete^pn v^nrc^ ^f
and ifeTs^ eTfriurSsTedt pt^^ T ^"'^ ^^""^^ "-H°/r dSined,
conception by a numb-erht sL^cr^s ::ir;t;;-;;rL:Lr^^^^^ ^".''
Lowell, men worthy to occudv a -'^ce^ K .c.'^ .u ^^"'"'^'^' Longfellow and
the century Of these, Lon'gfe l^w has g td ^h ""h" ''"^'■=' P"'^'' °'
however, through force of sliperior genfus but from"".h"' "''"''"°"' '*°''
T.p„e.„..e ::,^ r-' '"fV- -" ''"^Vo ut^ittroTrihf^^r
United states '^"^ handling, which have fitted iiis verse to tnn.h m, I
thT-'iuts-h-' ra!rs r ™- =— - ^'^^
works, of other A^r:™' p^" s, 'f^ wXl T y' oTt"^' "' ^"^^^'^='"
be named, we sliall mention only Edear Allan V^^l^. P"'""' '"«'''
and musical in tone of all our wri.e'fof verse the „>?"' "Z'^'"^' '" ^'^'^
Wendell Holmes; and Ralph Waldo Emerson who '' ' ^!f' °"^^^
polish and smoothness, is rich in poetic thought' '""' "'''^ '='^'""S
in-agLr atd'^l^lterf i'fTet:tioiro; eI:: ''"^'^^'^ '^^ ^'^^
manifest, and his essays' stand promineiTt lotg^he finTst 7ttrT'
of the century. They are exnresc^Prl Jn f ii-., , thought products
are little poeL in .l^en JlvTs'Xe' h' t'^'rk! aTel^^'t wit^'te T'
spirit of altruism and optimism ,,-,ti„,. th- mo« K - • *^ ''"^"
of the future of man and his instrtutions ^ '"' '''='='''"' ^'<=*=
' CENTURY
literature of at least
Tth century. This
fairly deserves the
>ous papers of the
itional Convention,
volutionary period,
5 country possessed
the days of Wash-
opular histories of
York." first taught
ght and woric, and
'aters. Irving was
aceful poets, chief
matopsis," still an
:ion and grandeur
years of age.
It rather declined,
ss of diction and
", Longfellow and
English poets of
reputation, riot,
sweetness, grace
:er of his them-:
•uch the heart of
ly a poet of rare
ists, his " Biglow
)rks of satire of
lal of An^erican
; powers might
original in style
»d genial Oliver
e, while lacking
that the rich
ade themselves
ought products
)f which many
^ith the finest
cheerful views
American
Novelists
UTERATURF. AKD ART m Tin: NINETEENTH CENTURY 5
Among popular American novelists James Fenimore Cooper standi
the pioneer, his tales of oc.an and Indian life, while of no superior merit as
hterature. holdmg a wide audience by their spirit of adventure and' care-
ful elaboration. Most original of our writers is Nathaniel Hawthorne
whose ' Scarlet Letter.', "Marble Faun," and other novels stand in a field of
theu- own among the productions of the century, and take rank with the best
of European productions. For the sensational and lurid tale Poe stands first
and h,s genms m this direction still brings him readers, despite the impossible
mc.dents of many of his plots. Of other novelists we may
name Harriet Beecher Stowe. with her famous "Uncle Tom's
Cabin ;" Howells. our leading naturalistic novelist • Edward
Everett Hale, made famous by his "Man Without a Country" Ed.vard
Eggieston. w.th the flavor of frontier life in his " Hoosier Schoolmaster"
Lew Wallace, who touched a deep vein of popular approval in his " Ben
Hur ; Henry ames too scholarly perhaps to be highly popular, but of the
nn.st hterary skdl ; Helen Hunt Jackson, whose " Ramona" depicts in thrill^
ing idealism the wrongs of the Indians; and-but we must stop here for as
we approach the present day novelists of merit so throng the field of view
that we cannot venture even to name them.
Not the least notable field of American literature lies in the domain of
history m which the authors of our country hold their own with the best of
those abroad. Irving's graceful, though not critical, works of „, .
history we have mentioned. Greatest in this field stands tt^Tted'
Bancroft, whose history of our country is a classic of world- ^t^t««
wide fame Close beside him may be placed Prescott. with his glowing
pictures of Spanish and Spanish-American life; Motley, the skilled and
popular historian of the Netherlands; Parkman, who brilliantly pictures for
usthe romance of French enterprise in America; McMaster. who may fairly
pose as the historian of the American people; and Parton. whose historical
biographies are among the most readable of American books of this
character.
Our greatest orators, men whose speeches have become literature hold
a p ace in the history of our country. The famous Webster and Clay and
Calhoun we have already described. Close after those come Sumner
Seward and others who stood high in the stirring period of the
Civil War and of reconstruction. Aside from public speakers '^'"®''''^*" ^''a-
devoted to statesmanship are many others of fame, including *""""
tjie eloquent Edward Everett; the daring anti-slavery orator. W-endell
rniiups; the earnest platform apostle of temperance, John B. Gou^rh • the
greatest of our pulpit orators, Henry Ward Beecher; the advocate of the
I' ,'
594
UmRATUHP. AND ART IN TRE NINETEENTH CENTURY
• forbids our n^i.^nr xTe ml.'" . n' "'""^ "'"" ^^^ "^^^ ^^ brevity
this domain oNte;.tureorhr '^"" ' '^•" °^ '^'""^^ -'^"'^ ^" "^'"^
sentatives;chi!,]':: ;^'l:'^^^^^^^^^ ,'- '-^7"^ p^p"^- -p-
Clemcns (Mark Twain). ''""^ ^"^ ^^^^^'"'^^ ^^^'""^l L.
the authl" ^f'Te 'unT ,' St^^ 'T" "^^^^ ^'^" '^ P'-^^'"^ ^^^^ «^
U-adin^ merit We mi.h hn ', '"/-^"^"^P^ *" "''^"^^ ^11 those of
In A«, , . ^ '''^''^ "^"'^^ in political economy HenrvC C-ir.^v •
in American h storv lolm F.-ci-.. . • tr , '^'"> "^nry L-,L.arey ,
le-i-wl in nv -^ ■ '" European church history, HenrvC
i-ea , and, m addition, em nenf nIIf^r^rc ;„ i i i . . ^ nt^my v..
with a "Jrea'tS.": cT'f''^'"' """" "r''^'" '™<' '° "^<= "'-'--'h century
great galaxy of famous wr.ters, loading back through many centuries
TheP„«so, ""= -^'ghteenth century is rich in great names, incluclins^
Gr«a.BHu„. among ,ts poets Pope, Burns, Cowperl'orny and Thompson^
novelists, ^r:^^^^::^l^::t^^ --- ^-
historians Gibbon, Hume anf' ^o^,^:^:"t' ::^^ttC^,;:Z':fT
mneteenth century with a galaxy of poets more bri „t than'h tpc. ed
up the standard of British poetry, including Tennyson, one o7 the r.re'o
art,s,s m words, the two Brownings, Matthew and Edwin Arnold wTl an
Morr,s, Swmburne, the Rossettis, and various others of lesser note amZ
wl,om we must include Alfred Austin, the latest though not the m"«
adm,red poet-Iaurea.e. These are but the elder flight 'of singing bTd
of the century, niany younger ones being on the wing, among whom a
present Rudyard Kipling leads the w- y ^
In the second field of imaginative literature, that of the novel the
Br,t,sh ,sles are abundantly represented, and by some of the mostfam;'
"ll't'farr"' xr" ""^-"f' ''"''/'"S '" "''^ ''"""^'" °f intellectual activity
H.:.r.„. The names alone of these writers form a catalogue rarely
Thackerav DfcZ r' I T^'^'f ""="•'•"""■ " "'" ^"«^« '° -™- Scott'
inackeray, Uickens, Bulwer, Charlotte Bronte and MaW,,„ P,„„„ .. .,..
inost prominent among a multitude of able writers, contlini'ngm'Iy Tames
ff CENTURY
our recent orators,
the need of brevity
humor calls to mind
nany popular repre-
favorite Samuel L.
a passing review of
name all those of
ny Henry C.Carey;
history, Henry C.
science, in philos-
v the vast advance
their feeble begin-
nineteenth century
gh many centuries,
names, including
y and Thompson ;
hnson ; among its
dsmith ; among its
:he portals of the
than has appeared
rld-famous Byron,
and Campbell, a
icult to match in
irs who have kept
e of the rarest of
I Arnold, William
sser note, among
'^\ not the most
of singing birds
among whom at
f the novel, the
the most famous
ellectual activity,
catalogue rarely
;e to name Scott,
n F-V3
. r,,. «_ iU -
ratio as tliC
ng many names
LITERATURE AND ART IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 595
high in merit and rich in variety of style. At the end of the century the
tieltl was crowded with writers of conspicuous skiH
History has reached a high level in th.^ har.us of some „f tlu. ablest
writers ui this field known in any age. including Macaulav. Freeman
Froude, Crote, Thirwall. Hallam, Merivale. Buckle, Leckey. Carlylc and
Green I wo (> these, Carlyle md Macaulay, have won as high a place in
the field of criticism and biogr .ph) as in that of history. In "art criticism
Kuskin occupies a unuiuc p(^,,tion, while theological subjects and reli-rious
thought are represented by such able exponents as Cardinal Newman
Dean Stanley, Canon Liddon. Dean Farrar, Martineau. What.-ly. Drummond
Spurgeon and many others. The great reviewers include Jef-
frey, Lydrely, Smith, Hazlitt, De Quincey, Foster- the wits «t»icr British
Sheridan, Hook, Jerrold, Smith and Hood; th.« philosophers ^"^^"""^
Stewart, Bentham. Brown, Hamilton, Spencer and Stuart Mill ; and the scien-
tists Owen. I<araday,Murchison, Darwin, Huxley, Tyndall and various others
The above named are merely some of the best known Hnglish writers ol
the century. If it were attempted to name all those of merit the list would be
wearisomely long. The same may be said of the literarv men of France of
whom many of world-wide fame flourished during the nineteenth century. ' Af
the beginning of the new age appeared the versatile Madame de Stael and
Chateaubriand with his famous "Genius of Christianitv.'" These ushered
in a host of able writers, of whom the leading lyric poets were Victor
Hugo, Beranger, Lamartine and Alfred de Musset, and the most nrom-
inent novelists Hugo, Dumas, Sue, Balzac, Dudevant (George prench n
Sand;, succeeded in later years by the younger Dumas, Tt^z.nT'"
Feuillet, Murger, Zola, About and a host besides. Dra- "'storians
matic writers have been little less numerous, and essayists and literary
critics of merit might be named by the dozen, among them the well-known
names of Renan, St. Beuve, Gautier, Taine, Girardin and Remusat.
Perhaps the most successful branch of recent French literature is his-
tory, around which a brilliant galaxy of great names has gathered. Prom-
inent among these are Guizot, Thierry and Thiers, to whom may be added,
as able writers of the history of their country, Sismondi, Michelet, Martin]
Barante and Mignet. Other workers in this field are Lamartine and Ville'
main, while in philosophy, sociology and the various branches of science
the writers have been numerous, and many of them of high ability.
The writers of Germany have been as prolific as those of England and
rrance, thoufi^h the crreatest namp<; of tlm- /-rMin^^Tr o,,^u ^;„„4-„ ^r ..t 1 .
as Goethe, Schiller, ancj Kant, belong to the closing period of the eighteenth
century, and have found no equals in the nineteenth. Kant
33
was succeeded
596
urn.Ara., ,^n ,,r ,. rn, ^.^,r,,^„r c^runv
m
a>Hl Ul.lancI, while „f ^CTITT V''""'' ^'■"'"' '^"'=k<-'".
ranks first. I-'iction was <^„n • , \''°"' °^ '^'«"- '''-"e Heine uncloubtecllv
authors who have dealt wi I, 't ;:;.;, ."''"'''■'"'^•■••.•-'■"' "-•''«. Famous
Moue I.„.,,.,e, the author of t t X^Z: .^^ "cr"'' ''"' ""^ ''^
fantast.c •• I'eter Schleullhl " uul Hoff "' '^'''"""^•■'°. with his
fantasy are of the first meri " l , ,' '^^"'"""' "''f'^ '•''■-^ °f wonder and
writers is Jeau I'au, Ri,|,t t', '"::''. "'"""S/'^n'-^ic and imaginative
-ikin. effect upon Ger„,an ho li .t hTt "■ """T"" "°^'^'^ ''^^ ^
German h.miorists, I^ritz Renter n K^nnms of the century. Of
In the field o scice a ""'''.'" ^"^'T "'^ '''»'"^ ' ""k-
Oe™.„ sc,.„. Scientific a : v^^' wT a '"■'■"" "^ ^'="-">' ''^ -''■
"'"'""■"^ Nature," etc -- „™ """'';"''"•— Cosn,os," ■. Views of
Among his n.ore famoussuc e Lor ""''m ■''' l^^" ^'''"'"l-'tly followed,
"razil; Tschudi, i„ Per. • enXs "■^"••'«'-. ""= '-rned traveler in
Cl>ina ; Barth, Vo.rel a ,i Seh ? , "»''^''' '" '-«>l" ^ GutzlalT in
Australia. " ' ""' ^^'>"'e„,fnrth, in Africa; and Leichhardt, ,'n
In scientific literature of h" 1 i
including Bessel, Encke, Madler in'l s'tr' "^."""""y '^ ^fong, its writers
berg, Liebig, Virchow, Vol He :,:„""»'" f ™"°">y.- ""'ler, Ehren-
and ."any others in nLtt.r.^l sci c ,ce "n ' ' ''J'^^'^^'' '^■■^^'"""f. ™n Baer,
cnt,cal e.vcellence, and en.braee Von i^anke r 'T""'"^? "■'" "' ""='"n^'-'^=ed
Heeren, Niebuhr, Neandor Men.el , ' '' ""'""««■•". ™n Muller,
critical stu<ly„,aybe nan.ed Wolf He naZ' H "T", '" ''''"°'°^'y =""'
Benecke, an<l Hau|>t Cntiml .''""'1""; 'l'<-' "brothers Grimm, Bopp
Hardenberg (Novali, Ti i T' n-'"'' '"'''"'"^ "'« 'w° Schie-e s von
This i^ by ,:'';.^r ■;;':,: '"?: ^'"^^ '■'-"" ™" ""-bold • ™"
authors of the nineteenth cenryl'tT \ 1 ,"" P^""'"="' G—
•he other nations of Europe. S,nv '7 1"' 1" '""^^ '^'■-1>' -'"'
Th ■ „ S'ates, as beinc fi, a Kt ^^ ^ >' ''' '■■■"''^'^'' "''"' "'<= U"i'e<l
The Literature . uLing, in a Jiterarv sense l-ir.Y»K, „ i: ,
ofRus5la '^-neteenth century It Ivu! c^ " ^. '"^""^'^ ^° ^^^^
date, lar^eK^ poets and f-"T ''"'"" °^ '"^^'' ^^ ^^^''li-
--•^dleuce of style was Nicholas K..^ -'""^ ""^ P''^^'^* ^^'"'ter of
iN.clioJas Kaianizui, whose famous <' History of the
'Til CENTURY
UJ.RATURE AND ART IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY ,,,
Russian Empire " becran to appear in iSi - P^ . i .
cries in ti.is penoci^,...,!,:;';;! ';, J:;: ;^^; -;■-■- "-—■'•
.ng to the world .,o„,c cl,ar,nin^r narratives in "-cr V '"'r" " l'""-^-"'^-
as a writer of fables wliil,. oH, '"•" "' ^^"'''- '^'i' Knioff won fame
K0..S0V, t,,e writer':? ,::i:;;;::j:-::::/'-^-'h-^^^^^
European fame was Ivan T„r..en,.ff Grem-s,' ""'" ^'
Count Leo Tolstoi, whoentered't, JlLdw h'^X- ::?,.':;;"' I'^^''^^ 1
which have won hin::ror!d:i;rf I':^;l::,: I nc.i::;^::f •^'■■^-"-
i..en'''ctivc',- ' i':"''"'""^^'''-'" "-^'i""^' ''^■"■••■•k. Sweden and Nor.a,- have
faZrd e r r ;:o 'T:T^t^^ r^-^r^"- " --'•••'
1,- 1 . 1- ^^^ '^"^' admired throu<rhout thr worM nr
;■ Friehiofs Saga" has won hin, a wofld-wide fam I vin:: L :;;':::;: h^
to the pr,nc,pal tnodern Ian,n,a.es, though with great losstj tiu
btauty of the ortgmal. Almquist. a ,nan of line u'enius and TK. A„,hor,
wale knowledge, was a poet and novelist of the ron.antic "' ""''"°
sUool, h,s novels mcluding •• liook of the Rose, I'he P ,lace " etr
wruers. the ;.^-L ^''k;:::;:;:' w^ ^.^di- iii^''^^ r™
ga,ned ,o„„, i,^ ;„ English translations. Fredrika R „'. I'. T:^
conntn'hf'"""'^ °'- "',' ?°''' "' ^""^"^ '^ Wergeland, the Schiller of his
connt.y h s works mcludmg tragedies, poems and satires Various h r
Chi7am '""^M '" "^"'"•' '"''"''"« "°^- J-'-"' '^i--"'f and ™ ^n r
o
f ch;
ig Norwegian novelists is Bjornson, the ^u.thor of
rming studies of tiie peasant life of h
a series
in English speaking countries. Others who h
are Thoresen and Lie. B
IS country, all which are popul
ave wrought in th(
ut most famous of the recent write
rs o
popular
same field
orway
598
w
Hi:
\%
ii!
n
LA A
's the dramatist Ibsen a ^hc^r-r. i i
The Danish ]iterafiirf» ^f *u
Baggesen, whose ly rfcTlck L J "'"''"'""' ""'"^^ °P«"«' with Jens
admired. The gre\t po^ orOelrk T ""' " '^°""''^ ^"'^'^ ^ -<= '-"'
produced tragedies of the hr I ' '""<=^«'-. "^ Oehlenschla..er who
■•The Gods of the nL •• is t: o,-"r' ^'h^ "'' •''"^"*" ^'^^ --■
character. Of the many o her n „• ? "°'''''' '"°''<-'"' ^^''^-^ of this
only the famous Hans Ch tt an A 1^""^°' '\^ ^™'->-- ^""11 name
words throughout the world. ""' ""''"^^ '°"^-'^'=^ are household
1 he literary fame of Qr.^,'
being few of nobble merit of :ce'nTdat:'\r T^^^ °' "'^ P^'' "--
regard to Italy, the latest of itslreat nol f^ ""= ^"'"^ '"-' b<= »aid in
■ 03. One of its most famous nle.e'nthcemtv"'":"^'^' '"''=^'- "^'"^ ■■'
wiiose pohtical romance, " Letters of T„ A ^ I"''"'' ''^' "g° ^°^°^'^.
became immensely popular Hi f. ^^° °""' Published about ,800
Monuments," an adSt ,yri ptt T '!,'=""-'«-<' '° be .■ T^e
W..e.on../;'-.^b eminence 'as a7o",a^d"ManXa':''°"'f^' ^
' dramatist, his "Betrothed T ™,™f"' as a novelist and
havmg a wide reputation as a vi d J l,,"-";;" , ^ ' P™'"-- Sposi "),
teenth century. We shall speak of In !, u '"""'^ "^ "'e seven-
work, -My Prisons," descrip^ve of ,is own '/ '"■ .^''"° ''^"'-- "bose
■" t^:[ir:':"' '-''beentitiyTa:!:^ - ^-''- '"--■ -
century authors of^Elpe"; wLrs^niref '""! "'' '"'=™°™"s "inetenth
fame, Hungary, for insta'n e, presents oL ."",%"""" "'^''^ ^"'"^ °f
works are read in all civilized lands Po,ad ''? "°^''"=' '"'''''■ *h°^«
people, has its famous novelists chief T "°, ^"^""^ "" """""i'- "'erely a
authorofthepopular-Quo Vadis. The «^'''"" '=<='"»' "' Sienkiewiez,
lands and of Switzerland, to the latter of'" V T, '" f '' °' "'« ^'''^"-
othercele. indebted for one of its Is ' "'' ""''^'' ^^tes was
SI -"f -'ed Louis 4a:r °of iTsr th:r''t ""t-^^ '"'^
in the nineteenth centurv h^. „ .1 "'erature of merit
the United States. Canada, fo ins"i'nce ha T '°f""^ '° '^'""P^ ^■"l
=!ame may be said of the Brit sh en^n ''''^P'■°''"'^«'' able writers, and the
u,h;i„ thp n-,f-- - - J^ritisn colonies of Ansfraiii nnd i;- 1, ir ■
; ^ "'"""^ " -pantsh-America have also producld noted a^ufhof'
t CENTURy
UTERATURB AND ART IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 5,,
no re^en t'advant " >' ''f ""^^ °' '"'^ ^' ■"'- "'^' '''"-'"- "- made
pas The Iliad "'of h" r'^P'"'"? '"^■"' ^^^'"'"S ^^ '^-'^ '"" "-
years and D.n^f 1 I ""■' °' ?^"'P''=' ''""=^ '^="='' ^"'"^^ ""--^^ tl,ousand
years and Dan e belongs to an early era of mediaeval Europe „ „ ,
—.^T^i 'V™r"'^ ■" =" s-'-^' -"-■ "-' of u,e ''irr^o,
comparative ment of authors in style and depth of thou.du "•- P-t
without regard to the character of their works. In a nfore special sense
tha of the d,st„,ctive varieties of literature, we may credit 'he' nb te "th
rrk7oflI '"T' """''' ''"'' "' P™Sress. 'fhe most „: i or
oratory, and other branches of imaginative and metaphysical thoutrht The
practice of accurate observation and the literature ari ing fro.n it are very
argely of nineteenth century development. The literature of ravel or
e s^rorthTt :f " S^-^^';"^-"- '° "- P-^ -ntury, and the same „ ^
be ad of that of science, the comparatively few sceintific treatises of the
past having been replaced by a vast multitude of scientific works. These are
m great measure confined to records of scientific observation and discovery
Theoretical science, while very active in the past century has . , ^'
yielded no works of higher merit than those of such dd" ''L'Z.T
writers as Aristotle, Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo, Newton and '■"'"'"«
others of the older worthies. But the gathering of facts has been enor-
mous, and great libraries of works of science to-day replace the scanty
volumes of a century ago. '•cancy
torv ^ ^ f '^^ 1 r"'"""-\ ''"'"^^ '^^^"^^ '^ •" '^^ ^°--'^ °f his-
tory. , le history of the past is largely the annals of kings and the story
of wars fhucydides, the philosophical historian of Greece, had few suc^
cessors before the century in question, within which written history has
grea ly broadened its scope, reaching to heights and descending to depths
una tempted before. Histories of the people have for the first time Teen
wntten. and the outreach of historical research has been made to cover
nst.tutions, manners and customs, morals and superstitions, and a thousand
t mgs neglected by older authors. History, in short, has at once beZe
philosophical and scientific, efforts being made in th , latter direction to
sweep into its net everything relating to man, and in the former to discover
the forces underlying the downward How through time of the human race
and to trace the influences which have given rise to the political, social and
other institutions of mankind.
^ A still more special field of nineteenth centurv literary development i^
mat ot the novel. Imaginative thought has existed fo/ long ages and
fictitious tales are as old as civilization, but in the ancient world these'were
Pi
?m
600
Z./TmAmj,i- AND AA-r m THE NINnTEBNTH CENTURY
■ate Greek .i„es, Ind h' d vX ^^V^rht ! T '"°'"" "°^'=' '^•=«^" '"
T..N„.e,.„. Middle A.es, tho Tf iled o r :; :hr'rt f T»"'' ""•
adventure were written, but it wis left ,^'""f "', "-"^l" ™™ance and
contcuporary Frer.ch authors to^'du e h.fac Tno^'l T'' T^ ""=
peopled by individual ,ne„ and w<;"e^ ns ead o T ' "T "^ ''"'°"
shows of ,nan in the abstract, as in ^^^r years '' 'P'^"''"^' P"''P^'^'
the e;;L::re:::;rir::s -rrf :^^~;:h " '"-- ^t,°'
..ent to mankind. Since i.i '^eiS li Lr o r:: 1 !:""""" ^"^°^-
•clous in quantity and r-markable fn n,, )•. ,. ""- ""^^' '^^^^^^^'own stupen-
and de^aded fln,s o? Ti r^ p'oX, i/,; Z^^^'T "" '""^' "°"'''^--
thou^rlu. Tl,,. n,„,d a, , o^ L!, 1 "^'''"' '''^i."""' °f ''""'an
i.uelll.c.t.al product- I'nlXacir It 7:1:^^' ''" '=""^"°™^'" °^
ideal pictures of life humor , hiLo I , ''' ™"'ance, literal and
a ..eat dra,net that\w:::\!; t;li;it:r:i:ti;^^^^^^
u-u! ^z u::r :;::net;ticf hr,!:r:i°"' -- r?^^ ■- --^
past century, that of the s.hool text book ''1^^''^ d-elop,„ent in the
™. ...BOO. were of the crud es^a d :tt i' ""a "h '^ " "'"'' ''''"'^
rnsr f ■ "-■ -''""^e of -rki ::£:^;; r::rtr:;c:h
education, and the pr"^ of "d u' ""^ S'-^'I'-^^-l-'P-ent i„ tnethods of
such that, whereas a Iry to ed'r; '""' "'""^'^ ^^^^^ ''■•'^ I--
belonsfs to the n,anv and i "f ■; '■"' """"'='' '° "'^ f«". " ""^
borders of civii.;dati:"' '-f ^ " '""» "''"'"' ""^^ ''^y-'' '"-
ing a degraded mino:^ '^hile a , .iTiuli::;" 7'" '"'' r'" ^'^ '^^"'"■
yielding the advanta^e^of the hig el 1" tT" ""' ""j------
multitude. *• 'Education to a constantly increasiniT
By no means the leasf -Tmono- fi,- - • i - •
has been the enonnousdevJ't:?, ;/'■"."•?."! ",' .'"^ "'""«""■ «"t"^y
if
^velopnient of book-making. The wide-s
pread
CENTURY
ble, fairy tale, and
*n novel be^an in
nued through the
evel of what may'
ddle of the eight-
1, is the character
guise of fiction.
:, character draw-
of romance and
Melding, and the
works of fiction
)eaking puppets,
the latter part of
e opening of the
of Scott, whose
itellectual enjoy-
as grown stupen-
a most worthless
igions of human
entire domain of
mce, literal and
-forming indeed
vav.
hie but not less
ilopment in the
i earlier periods
:er as compared
ned to smooth
ur schools. In
: in methods of
effect has been
the i(t\\^ it now
en beyond the
rite are becom-
iniversities are
ntly increasino-
teenth century
e wide-spread
LITERATURE AND ART IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 60 1
education of the people in recent times has created an extraordinary de-
mand for books, there being a thousand readers now to the one of a century
or two ago. This demnnd has given rise to as extraordinary a supply, which
is not offered in books alone, but in periodicals of the most varied character
and scope, including a multitude of newspapers almost beyond vast increase in
comprehension. The United States alone, in addition to its Booksand
numerous magazines, issues more than twenty thousand dif- Newspapers
ferent newspapers, of which the aggregate circulation reaches daily far up
into the millions.
The demand for reading matter could not have been a tenth part supplied
with the facilities of a century ago, but man's powers in this direction have
steadily increased. From the intellectual side, the advance in education has
provided a great number of men competent to cater to the multitude of
readers, as authors in various fields, editors, reporters, etc., an army of able
men and women being enlisted in this work. From the mechanical side,
invention has served a similar purpose ; the paper-making machinery, with
the use of wood as raw material, the mechanical type-setters, the rapid print-
ing-presses, and other inventions having not only enormously increased the
ability to produce books and newspapers, but cheapened them to such an
extent that they are now within the reach of the poorest. A century ago
such a thing as an one-cent newspaper was not known. Now a daily that
sells for more than a cent is growing rare. A century ago only a few dic-
tionaries, encyclopedias, and other works of reference were
in existence, and those were within the reach only of the well- ^','*^'^i'!!f^^
Use of Books
to-do. Now works of this kind are very numerous, and they
are being sold so cheaply and on such easy terms of payment, that they are
widely spread through the families of artisans and farmers.
In truth, the number of books possessed by wage-earners and agricul-
turists to-day is very much greater than those classes could possess a
century ago, and the character of these works has improved so greatly that
they serve a highly useful purpose in the advancement of popular education.
In addition to the actual ownership of books, there has been so great an
increase in libraries, and such an improvement in methods of distribution,
that books of all kinds are within the reach of the poorest of city people,
and measures are being taken to place them at the disposal of country
people as well.
At the opening of the century the free library was almost unknown.
At its close there was not a lartre citv in the United States without its free
library, and many small ones were similarly provided. In truth, the great
library development in this country has been within the latter half of the
602
LITERATURE AND ART IN NINETEENTH CENTURY
L
^Ml
crntury In 1S50 there were only eighty-one h-braries in the United
Nta es that contained over 5.000 volumes, and the total number of books
in them was less than a million.a much smaller number than could be found
The Develop. ^ the libraries of Paris alone. No sin-le American library
Libia's '''' "^^""^ ''^'^ contained over 75.000 volumes. In 1900 there
were more than a dozen with over 100,000 volumes each, some
'.f these possessing considerably over half a .nillion books. Thus the Boston
1 ubhc Library contained over 600,000 volumes, while a still larger number
was housed within the Congressional Library at Washington, in what is *he
hnest and most magnificently decorated library building in the world with
room to accoinmodate as many as 4,000,000 volumes. The great libraries
ot the United States are far surpassed in number of books bf those of the
leading capitals of Europe, and particularly by that of Paris, which con-
tains the enormous number of -more than 2,500,000 volumes.
What has been said about uu:rature can scarcely be repeated about art
I he nineteenth century has developed no new species of fine art, and in its
Art in Pa3t Pfo^Juctions in sculpture, painting, architecture and music has
Centuries g'^en us no works superior to those of the earlier centuries
Many names of artists of genius in this century could be
given, if necessary, but as these names indicate nothing original in style or
superior ,n merit there is no call to present them. The advance of the
nineteenth century has been rather in the cheap production and wide dis-
semination of works of art than in any originality of conception
In this direction the greatest advance has been made in pictorial art
Methods of engraving have been very greatly cheapened, and the photocrraph
has supplied the world with an enormous multitude of faithful counterparts
of nature. Among the many ways in which this form of art has been
applied, one of the most useful is that of book illustration. The ordinary
"picture-book" of the beginning of the century was an eye-sore of frightful
Cireat Progress character, its only alleviation being that the cost of ilhistra-
in^Pictorial tions prevented many of them being given. The " half-tone "
, , , , method of reproduction of photographs has made a wonder-
ful development in this direction, pictures that faithfully reproduce in black
and white scenes of nature or works of art being now made with such
cheapness that book illustrations of superior character have grown very
abundant, and it has become possible to illustrate effectively the^'daily news-
paper, la)ing before us in pictorial form the scenes of events that hap-
pened only a few hours before.
:entury
ies in the United
il number of books
han could be found
le American library
es. In 1900 there
volumes each, some
. Thus the Boston
still larger number
Ljton, in what is the
;■ in the world, with
The great libraries
ks by those of the
Paris, which con-
unes.
repeated about art,
fine art, and in its
ture and music has
: earlier centuries,
century could be
iriginal in style or
le advance of the
tion and wide dis-
:eption,
de in pictorial art,
id the photograph
thful counterparts
I of art has been
n. The ordinary
■e-sore of frightful
e cost of illustra-
The "half-tone"
i made a wonder-
eproduce in black
made with such
have grown very
ly the daily news-
events that hap-
t.
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L,
CHAPTER XLI.
The American Cliurch and the Spirit of Human
Brotherhood.
As the century draws toward its end. and men make careful survey of
the work it has wrought in the many and varied fields of human
activity, it is natural that each observer should take a special interest
in the department which constitutes his specialty. The statesman studies
the social and political phenomena and forces of the age. The scientist,
the educator, the manufacturer, the financier, the mercliant, find in their
respective spheres problems to be taken in hand and carefully investigated,
that the experience of the past may become wisdom for the future. While
this division of labor may tend to develop one-sided ness in the individual, it
provides ample material for the true student of history, who, by collecting
the data furnished by these various investigators, may make
wide and wise generalizations, and thus contribute to a more division of
complete study of human nature and human history. The ^"''"'"
increase of general interest among special observers and students will ensure
in due time co-operation, increased intelligence, and enthusiasm in the
promotion of the highest civilization.
As the procession of the years which form the most wonderful century
of human history closes its solemn march, those who look on time as
deriving its chief worth from its relations to eternity, and who estimate
civilization as it bears upon the immortal character of man, will of necessity
judge a century by its religious quality and results, asking : What place has
religion held, what work has it wrought, what errors have weakened it, what
are the tendencies which now dominate it, what are the opportunities which
open before it ?
The American type of Christianity is in advance of all other Christian
types, since it grows among and permeates political and American
social ideas and institutions which give it larger and fuller oppor- Type of
tunities than it has ever before known, opportunities to Christianity
develop humanity on all sides and in all relations. The American Church
is made up of all individuals, classes, societies, and agencies which bear the
Christian name or hold the Christian thought. It is not a "State Church."
605
'f
i
If ■
I*'
«r
6o5
r//£ AMERICAN CHURCH
ctucns) without visible co„« It: , '.•■■''^'"■■- (""'I "' a sense ..,11
.n.erfc.e„ce ; it gives f.ee.lom to a W ho t p^tTI 1-"°"' '^-^'^'••"'■™
, The d,stin,^nnshi„,r feature of A,l I" '■•''")' "r 'liscrimination.
call ■■ freedom ■• mean more amT,l,^""" 'f'^-"'"-!' ">akes what we
and reli.io„s freedon, of anyo^ land^rd T- f°T ""^ ^'^"' P"""-!.
fnctive character to the Ame can Chnr'^ ,' "■^^^■f°^'-- S-es a disi
individual has large and unhim ^ , " ""' ''"= liberty of the
Individual liberty l,ere is ac L' rbet"'''?.'";"^ ["' ^™"'"' -"' -"•o
v.s,ons for privileged classes, w obvtVe T "',""', ^' ^"^^''"■-"'■•'1 P-
and prerogative without n,or t of [iX^wn ,'"', "^ '"''"''■ '"•'P '"'^ P'ace
■s detrhnental to the well-bein/of : '■"','' "'''"'^ ""earned advanta..e
with ie "PPom,„ity,-te ibe^ ;„:,;:"'""'!■ . 'S'^ '■'-«>■ -'>-h carrle
rank of the highest; of the poor^ t to b " '", ""^. "''"'■™ '° ''^"'^l' "'«=
■gnorant to become the most learned . of ^."" ', '"''"^' ■ "^ "'« ™°^t
Dktl„gui.,hi„i; niost honored ; the liberfv „f '""'■" ''''"P''^"' '" become the
Feaiura o, can know, to be all , 1 r, * ^"'''^ '"'■"' '° '^"">^ all that he
;""'"" L„. .^ ^^^ so lo^g as 'doer;:: :■ t' '° ^" ">^' '- p'---
other man to know all that°he can know ^oC'^T "u'"" "'^ "»'" "^ •''"y
all that he pleases to do. It is tl e iC; ."''■'' ''^ <^^" ''<^. and to do
prerogatives of individuality nee I „„ ^ """T^ ^'°'^'"^' ^^^o, with all the
who have every induceme!; not ^ ^v'^o' " '^■■°"'-'--' °f "-n, and
regal nght of full personal developmen 1 1 wir''"f , '° '"''' °""='- '^'-
mutua a.d-every man helpin., e^erv ottr '^'''^'Y'^^'-" ''°- '° render
know be all that he can be, and to do a^ h tT'" T "^""^ ^" "'^' ''« ^a„
This, then, is the idea of A '"^ P''=^=«^ '» do.
who are brothers. This i^'th: dortre'of^'tl:'"?'"" ^ ^ "^''°" "^ ^l-'^'
the root of the goodly tree that cover ?'°""S American cen ury •
bending branches ; the vin hL t e rH« 1,""^ r^f^ "■'"' "^ '""-'f"' -' <
p anted ; this the lesson runnin. alo /the h '' °i "' '^°'-'' ""'^ ^od hath
of our national flag. It is necessan ,^ .L ' "'"'"^ °"' "^ "'^ '""^^
■dea of freedom and fraternity, "t is t 1 1 T "P^"'"™' ^^''h 'his great
»ng, but it must stand the test of p ac , eT I '"""''^ *^" ''" ^"-y^^ and
May th,s large Gospel of the Chr st be e'C ' '"' " ' ^^^^"^ °f ""'^ ^
become m spirit and fact a church ? Th i tl 1 'V "'"°"' '"'I ""'^ "^"o"
THE AMERICAN ClfURCff
ification of diverse
i<^J in a sense all
-'ithoiit Ic<,rislative
discrimination.
; makes what we
lie civil, political,
•efore gives a dis-
le liberty of the
owth and action.
3vern mental pro-
I, leap into place
arned advantage
rty which carries
ion to reach the
St ; of the most
d to become the
mow all that he
tliat he pleases
the right of any
^n be, and to do
^iio, with all the
od of man. and
2ach other this
I how to render
all that he can
Jo.
tion of equals,
rican century;
its fruitful and
our God hath
ut of the stars
\vith this great
in rhyme and
tpable of this?
ncl this nation
I'ght running
3 be the pur-
nerica is the
■edom of the
6)7
individual and the brotherhood of the race. And this thoui^rju is thoroui^hly
religious. It is pre-emint.-ntly Christian. It was taught, enforced, and iTlus-
trated by the Nazarene. It is asserting itself in our'civilization. The work
is now going on. It has not gone far. but. it is bound to go on to the blessed
end. The leaven is working every day. We are in the midst of the gre.it
experiment.
The American Church is not a State Church. It Is supported not by
law, but by love. No large subsidies corrupt it. No p<.litical complications
weaken it. Church and State serve each other best when the only bond be-
tween them is one of individual conviction and mutual confi- J .
1 'PI 1 • • r I T^ ... Development
dence. 1 he begmnmgs of the Republic were made by religi- of theAmerl.
ous men, who organized religious communities. They sought ^"" Church
our shores to secure religious liberty. Some of them may have; bec^i nar-
row, but they were true and brave. Some of the fetters that bound them
had been severed, but some still remained. They had not yet conceived the
idea of an emancipated and responsible individuality. Protestants [\vx\ from
the severities of Roman rule, and Romans from the oppressions of Protest-
ants. And it took a long time for Protestants to become free. Hut the
founders and fathers of the Republic were religious and God-fearing men.
They were simply pupils (' primary pupils " at that) in the school oflmman
rights and human brotherhood. The lessons were long and hard. It has
taken more than a century to get half through the "first reader," and there
is ample work for the century ahead, but as a people we are coming to see
the life of the Church in the aims and order of the State, and to learn that
God is in all history, that His claims upon men extend to all social relations,
sanctifying all secular and political life, and embracing charity, sympathy,
and justice in the minutest details of life, as well as awe, reverence and
worship.
Simultaneously with the rise of the Republic began the great Sunday-
school system, which went everywhere with the open Bible and the living
teacher, with inspiring Christian songs, attractive books for
week-day reading, juvenile pictorial papers, social gatherings, ^stifool'systein
and the stimulating power of friendly fellowship in religious
life. It brought the people together, old and young, learned and unlearned,
rich and poor. It did more to " level up " society than any other agency in
the Republic. It made the adult who taught susceptible and affectionate
childhood abetter citizen. It prepared the children to be wiser, more con-
nd
mor
e loyal citi
^cns in trie next generation, in tne wi
dcly
tended Methodist revival, and in the all-embracing Sunday-school moveme
we ^ee the hand of God fashioning the Nation and the Church, that tht
ex-
nt.
I :
I I
i I
I I
i-n
',i
6o3
Tim A^ri'JUCAM CHURCH
Iht okl warfare 1 ,:t vo™ tlu; I'rotestant denominations has virtually ceased
Co.„perat,on ,„ rel,„o„san<l refonnatory effort-the Youn, Me^C l^hH'"- ,n
Union Church AssociatKM., the Women's Ciiristian Ten,|».-rance Union the
A»,™:la,l„n, ■* ^nmg 1 eople s Society of Cliristian Endeavor, the Inter-
-oo,conve,=;i::i-::s';^;;:,:::r'-:;-;;:::-
he exchange of ,„ ts, the frequent ,n,ion revival meetin. lu- Id by re'
I another, the warm, personal friendships between representative
■..ersof the severa Clu,rches, the growth and enrichment of ' , Inom
nat,o al penod.cal hterature-these are some of the signs of tie hn"
thought now controlling our people. ^
The American Church, which 'imposes no creed but the creed of the
Rcpubhc, wh,ch knows no lines of division-sectarian, pohtical or ter!
The Value „f ntorial— but which seeks the well-being of the individual -.n^
RelWon in the fellowship of all true citizens will t" "'"^ ' '"^l •''nd
-»"- . iunuence in 'n.atters Hitler" ;:rdcr''re:;r:thi'S
questions; .t will carry conscientiousness and independ ce h o pc
powers, the rulers of this wo^, wer?b:;r tlT to^ tl ttfo^TZ
people. I was for them huu.bly to serve and uncomplainV.My to s, ffer
used to stand, and to be a thoughtful, conscientious, active consist.-nt
political duty ,s gtiilty of sin again.st both God and the nei<d,bo The
„. the purpose of ::vt^:':^j^i^z^:^ : tcr z
Its declaration the shackles have fnllpn TK^ S'^very. At
destroyed the Louisiana Lottery. ouji'e 'rZtdfr'^d T'
authority of law. the moral force of the nation i^^ Lse Us f ':„"' t"
.he pulpit and all o^e^-^; ^^f^ ,:!:::^r-7 ^ifr ^^^Z'
ight be promoted
crican Church are
eedoni and iinre-
enerous fraternity,
as virtually ceased.
1^' Men's Christian
-•ranee Union, the
eavor, the Inter-
rnationai Sunday-
lutiua Assemblies,
igs lield by repre-
)ni one denomina-
-n representative
nt of non-denom-
Ljns of the lar<rer
the creed of the
political, or ter-
ic individual and
neld an immense
ss great ethical
ice into political
not to take part
;s, the governing
id control of the
in'ngly to suffer,
nd where Caesar
ctive, consistent
)er who neglects
neighbor. The
- begin to know
the century ex-
of slavery. At
ed against and
i ballot, and the
itself and the
)n, and with all
political arena,
li the question
THE AMERICAN ClIURCIl fi...^
clisp],,;ci M, the United Stal.-s, its |,r„^;ress in the w„rl,l at lan-e has be,-,,
);rcat anil cncoiiraj- ni'. I'articulirlv 1,^,. ,1, ■ ■ ■. , ''".'•".-"• "''^ "<-' "
imnlf,.st,.,r n .. ,. •' t'l-'il-irl; has tni: spirit of sectarianism, stron-ly
vhle the sentiment of union an,l hrotherhood between churches of diffo ei t
sects has developed t<, a hi.^dlly enco,ira.,nnc; .le.Tee
Outside of Christendom tlie inlluenc,.s "of the relLnon of Christ
have been widely spread by the active and enthusias.ic^abors of ,i i'
sionanes, who have carried the less.ms of the Gospel, to all I nd I
cstahhsed Christianity anion, numerous tribes forme ' n J ,w t^s
of heathenism and idolatry. The success of these divot<.l imm It, bfe,
much es-s amon. peoples possessed of a reli.dous faith of a hi.dier ™de a
the Mohammedans. Hindoos, and Chinese, and perhaps the" *-'•""■"'
most important results of their labors everywhere have becm «i"l»".ry
those of education and civilization, necessary preliminaries *"'^"''
of tTdnc l;l:^:^^r' .""^''•■^^•'"P«' r-'-P--. -o ^. jnst comprehension
the principles of Christianity and the inculcation of advanced mord
sentiments and the high standard of the Golden Rtile
1 he religious history of the century does not end with the relation of
he progress o Christianity. There has indeed been some de'ree o
ea ton of heathenisn, upon Christian , . particularly in the c^e o
Biddhism whose doctrines have made ,.. _ir way into Europe and America
without has developed into what is knowi, as the Theosophical
society, which claims over 100,000 members in tlie Unit.-d New Religious
States alone. In addition may b, named various new reli'^ious "•»"""=""
outgrowths of home origin, including the Mormons, tl^ Spiritualists the
arisen "\r'r"'V °" '^^^ °' '"^ prominence. Similar new sects have
an en in Mohammedan and Hindoo countries, such as tl„. Habi „, ;„ Persia
and the Brahmo Somaj in India, these latter being distinctive reform on
the more ancient religious creeds and practices
What has been said above does not show the full extent of the ^elicriou,
movement with.n the century. There has been an active spirit of pro.res
made a '■"- °f denominational religion itself, and liberfl sentiment" ha
made a marked and promising advance. The former insistance upon creed
as the essential farfnr.n r^^i;^;--,, Kac rr^^ti,> i i- - -.
, , , , *■■ ^-''S=- = '^as greatly vvcaker.ed la iavor of its ethical
element, and the supremacy of conduct over creed is openly taught. Again
the old religion of fear is giving way before a new religion of love. tL^
f i
6io
I! *
THE AMERICAN CHURCH
doctrine of future punishment, and the attempt to swell the lists of church
members by insistence upon the horrors of Hades, are rarelv heard in
TheReiijcionof the pulpits of to-day, the old Hell-f^re con. option' having be-
Fearand of come at once too preposterous and too alien to the charact'er of
the All Wise and All Good to be any longer entertained except
by the most ignorant of pulpit orators. In truth, the doctrines of tI->
modern pulpit are rapidly rising towards the level of Christ's elevated tea-li-
ings, and inculcating love and human brotherhood as the essential elements
ot tlie Christian faith.
The growing spirit of liberalism has given rise to a large body of
moralists who repudiate the idea that faith in a creed is essential to salva-
tion and claim that moral conduct is the sole religious element that is
likely to inHuence the future destiny of mankind. Persons of this class
are specially numerous in the ranks of the scientists, whose habit of close
The Spirit of ob'^f''^']tion, and rigorous demand for established facts as the
Liberaiism ^'^^'^ ^^ ^'1 theoretical views, unf^t them for acceptance of anv
doctrines insusceptible of rigid demonstration from the scien-
tific standpoint. This requirement of hard and fast evidence, appealine
directly to the senses, and discarding all reliance upon the ideal or upon the
broad consensus of ancient belief, has no doubt been carried too far and
has yielded a narrowness of outlook which will be replaced by broader' con-
ceptions as psychological science develops. That it exists now, however
cannot be denied, and its adherents constitute a very large and influential
body. Yet It must be said that science and religion, for a cime widely
separated, are growing together, and that in all probability the final outcome
of modern thought and research will be an alliance between these two .rreat
forces, a religion which science can accept and a science in full aecord'with
religious views and principles.
_ If we now turn aside from religion as a whole, and consider only its
ethical side, it is to find an immense advance within the nineteenth century
The Movement ^he Standard of right conduct may not have risen, but the
in Ethics sentiment of human sympathy and of the brotherhood of man-
kind has very greatly developed, and human charity and
fellow feeling, a century or two ago largely confined within the limits of a
nation or a city, are now coming to embrace all mankind.
There has been a great amelioration in manners and customs within
the century, a great decrease in barbarity and cruelty. A few examples will
suffice to point this out. The barbarous practices in rey-ard to child hbor
existed in 1800 and much later h
selfish greed of employers giving rise to
ave often been depicted in lurid col
ors, the
a "massacre of the innocents
as
1^'. .
THE AMERICAN CHURCH ' g,,
declared and even more cruel in its methods than that of the time of Christ
1 housands of childrcMi in the days of our grandfathers were
simply tortured to death in dark and dank mines or crloomy Child Labor In
and unhealthy workshops, at an aoe when they should have ''"'""■'''
been alternating between the useful confinement of the schools and the
healthful freedom of the playgrounds and the fields. This state of affairs
happily no longer exists, and in the present condition of public sentiment
could not be reproduced. The world has grown decidedly beyond the level
ot such heartless cruelty.
The development of sympathy has t.ot confined itself to a redress of
the wrong-s of children, but has made itself manifest in attention to the
wrongs of workmen as a whole, factory inspection having put an end to
many unhealthful and oppressive conditions formerly prevailing, and saved
thousands of workmen from being poisoned in the midst of their daily
labors. And not only human beings, but dumb animals, have been reached
by the awakened sympathy of modern communities. A century a^o the
noble and patient horse was frequently treated with the o
utmost brutality, without a hand or a voice being raised in its C^tyT'
defence. This barbarity was accepted as a part of the estab- An'^ais
lished and necessary order of things, and dismissed with a shrug or perhaps
without a thought. To-day, in the more enlightened nations, this state of
thmgs has ceased to exist. Societies for the prevention of cruelty to
animals keep a close watch upon the brutally inclined, and have almost
put an end to cruel practices which formerly prevailed without a word of pro-
test, domestic animals being now protected as carefully as human beings
In no direction did the lack of kindly sentiment of a century a.ro
shou' Itself more decisively than in prison manacrement. We do not mean
to say that philanthropy did not then exist, but that it was far from beincr
the active sentiment it has become to-day, and was largely without effec't
upon legislators ; the condition alike of convicted crimina.- ^f debtors and
of those held for trial being in maiy cases almost indescn. 'y horrible
\v,Q first effective movement towards prison reform was made by John
Howard, in the latter part of the eighteenth century, but
public sentiment was so dulled towards the condition of '''•'««" Ke'o'-'"
prisoners that the horrors painted out by him were in great measure per-
mitted to continue. The legislators of England could not be awakened to
any active mterest in the inmates of the gaols.
When Elizabeth Fry made her first visit to the female department of
Newgate, the city prison of London, in 1813. she found a state of affairs
whose horrors, words are weak to conv<-y. The women inmates " were limited
i^
\ i
6X3
THE AMERICAN CHURCH
i ,
^:~,3^- HHf --^^^
gusting." ^ ""^ ^"^^'^ Of the place was quite dis-
ment, indeed, depended hrcrpi,. ^„ .1, . aescnbed. 1 heir treat-
iaii Officials a'n. L^'^l^^^-Z:^ THr^Lr 0?^^ '''
them was so common that nearly every one J'"" P'""''"- °y^"e""g
being often iaden with fetters, wh'i i: Zir" , nU .e hafed "i ^^ ''"'"f
the we,ght of these useless instruments of torture '°''" ''^
passed their time in absolute idleness or snenf /'°''^''°"- /^^^ prisoners
"the smell on hrst opening ^he door was "no " Zln^TI "^ '7'""= '
The jail hospitals were filled with infec ioT ctses atd I o ™ ' '""""
feet by nine, with closed windows, where rborhy iU wit f T™' "T"
prisoners, at first perfectly healthy, we e foundll:^^ t"' '"' °' *='
that the deadly jail fever raged as L epidem." in ucfpest 1 o L'nT
commumcated .tself to the judges before whom these wSe^irbro:;:
We have by no means told all the horrors of orison lif. n. .1 . • .
but will desist from giving any more of its pai:f°/, S^K "itt'ed'sc":;:: '.
impr„ve„e».,„ b« sa,d that an utterly different state of affairs now exists in
PrUo„ ur. all cml.zed lands, prisoners being treated as hun.an beings in"
pathy with .c::::!:;:^:^:::;:;'^::;::^"-';'' ^-'-^ °' p""'->""-
a universal cry of deprecati;^ in thetd."' Kl^dn":^ tlr the -^U
1 and n'nety-two
in with their chil-
anant, tried and
lan and his son.
ing. Many were
desperate from
n langiiaore, still
ihavior. Every-
:e was quite dis-
vere able to pay
d. Their treat-
y could pay the
tice of fettering
'en the untried
d into sores by
^ty, at as late a
te of things in
able condition,
All prisoners
ling and loose
t quarters con-
2nty feet long
by "sleeping
:hing terrible;
own a horse."
e room, seven
er, three other
IS no wonder
)les, and even
were brought
t that period, '
need scarcely
low exists in
an beings in-
f public sym-
would raise
low the rul(j
Tf/£ AMERICAN CHURCH
613
in dealing with criminals of all grades, and every effort is made to supply
them with employment, ajid to attend to the requirements of comfort and
cleanliness. Prisons are rapidly developing into schools for reform, and
with remarkable success where systems of this kind have been fully
developed.
The laws of a century ago were barbarous almost beyond conception
at the present day. Capital punishment, now confined to murderers, was
then inflicted for some twenty-five separate crimes, including forgery, coinino-
sheep or horse stealing, burglary, cutting and maiming, rick-burning, robbery!
arson, etc. There were, in fact some two hundred capital crini'es on the
statute books, but most of these had grown obsolete. Yet such
a minor offence as stealing in a dwelling house was a crime *^"*''*^' ''""'«''-
punishable by hanging, and men were occasionally executed on ""^"^ '" '^°**
the gallows for a small theft that would now subject them to onlv a few
months of imprisonment. It was not until after 1830 that an amelioration
m these severe laws began, and with such effect tb.at the number of persons
sentenced to death in England decreased from 458 in 1837 to fifty-six in
1839. After 1841 the death p^ialty was inflicted only for murder, thoucrh
seven other crimes remained capital by law until 1861.' "^
The practice of public executions was another barbarous feature of the
code, and the scenes aro- (he gallows at Tyburn, on the occasion of the
execution of any crimi ■[ note, were so disgraceful that it seems in-
credible that they could exist in any civilized land. Other
relics of the dark ages were the public exhibition of the ''"kHs^"^''"'
bodies of the executed, and hanging in chains on a gibbet, a
practice in vogue until 1832. In one case mentioned! at that late date, "a
sort of fair was held, gaming tables were set up, and cards were played
under the gibbet, to the disturbance of the public peace and the annoyance
of all decent people,"
It will suffice to say here that this state of affairs has been reformed
out of existence. Executions, restricted solely to murderers, now take place
wholly in private, and so great is the public desire to prevent suffering to
the condemned that the first electrical execution in New York raised a^'cry
of horror when it was announced that life did not cease within the few
seconds expected, but that the power of sensation continued for perhaps a
minute. In truth, in this instance, there was something of a hyper-sensibility
manifested, but one of a kind creditable to human nature.
The dt'velonment of the soirit of svnii.alhv with the poor and sufferinir
IS
by
no
ord
inary
34
means confined to the instances stated, but h
extension. The rapid progress of railroad and"steamsh
poor
as gained an extra-
ip com-
6i4
THE AAfRRICAN CHURCH
f
I L
; i
•11
Sympathy readies to tlic most remote „„,,., . benevolence
results of this feelin , J" ''"■"'"""' "'"= Kl°be. Notable
ameliorate the st.fferin, in Mu dtrj thrilte'a'mtrtl"" ''''■''"""' '°
by sympathy in Cuba, the earnest effort, ,r. . ', """" '"^"gated
Porto Rico, and the fervent fedinl " , l^'^^^' '"'"' '° "'<= '^'^"'ing in
Dreyfus. ^'•*=''"» "™"»«l '" favor of the unjustly punished
our i:r::/°r'::::i:''^;^':™;;,'~"'^^°^ :--voluminous beyond
ofthemostvariedcharacterlXbeenev "'; '"^"'""°"^ °f benevolence
and America, mainly thro, h oubli T' '' '"■''""'=''■ "''^•^ '" E»™Pe
T.C.... ;™""^"^eri,t^!;t;;istr;v::;„::-
^ 7"^ r ti *:;x - ::::S":i-.-" -p- '-
before seen ; the betterintf of the comHt f^ ' '° ■'' '''=g'''=<^ ""<=r
denccs, n,ethods of recreation 1' , "" P™'' ''>' ''"P'-"™d resi-
kindness is actively goin J" ","' "! r"','' '"" °"^" ""^ "' -'d and
to lift ntan fron, wLft and d : ' 1 V ■ !: "'/''^^ benevolence is striving
What is known as altm?sm,'T ""'''" •■'''™"^^'' ^""^itions
in part. co„,in. to be one ^f he Ltir'T'r "' ''=r°" ''"'''"- '^'
■s among the ntost promising si..„s of I '°' 'T "' ""= =•»"=• ^"d
abundantly prevalent still, yettltrui tic f ""• Selfishness, indeed, is
gifts for benevolent purpose!o a k 1 j . "^' " ^'P""^' °" "'<-' '"-^-<=. =>"<!
Hundred, of instanL'mighrbe„ame.d but ";"r"""'''">' •^''""'l-'-
one,AndrewCarnegieswi,^.andk^n K I "'l'" '""""-^ °"'-^'='™s to
fortune to the fo.nrding of p b L ^ '^';™r" ° ."^ ■•— of his great
better to bring man into aCd tio^of m ^',"^'' ''"''''"•'f ^°"''< ^"ve
becoming a willing object of charity " "'' "'" P^"^"' *"■" f™™
Certainly the Golden P,,i„ • i
are widely diing untotlr "aV tl r^^t^.^t- '," TT 'f "^ ''='^^' -'^ "-
A„ Advance, narrow idea of patrio Knw" K ''' ° '^'^ ''""^ ^Y- The old,
|P'H. o. ment of the brotherhood of nl'' T' ^"-'^ ^' ' ^"'^'"S ■=-""■
, '""7*"" ing its way upward trot:,;""",' '"' ^"""^™ '^ '"'''k-
has so long dominated the world I L 'f n 7 '' ™^'' "' '''^^"" "hich
«orid. and seihshness lose its .o.r::rs:^:nS;L;t rhi't' o'. r:
ng of the ends of
Je of all mankind
and benevolence
globe. Notable
een the efforts to
e war instigated
) th(
injustly punished
le starving in
luminous beyond
of benevolence
, alike in Europe
is no form of
empt at allevia-
are rising in all
a degree never
improved resi-
icts of aid and
ence is striving
iced conditions.
)w feeling, is,
the age, and
!iess, indeed, is
e increase, and
ably abundant.
2 ourselves to
le of his great
ig could serve
'ent him from
fays, and men
>y- The old,
rowing senti-
lism is mak-
ielfism which
tage, but the
forward with
n the social
-art of man.
r «
I
'>, '
:'";
M
1
1
n
mJ.
CHARLES HADDON SPURgEON
FREDERICK W. FARRAR
WRITERS OF RELIGIOUS CLASSICS
CHAPTER XLII.
The Dawn of the Twentieth Century.
THE nineteenth century saw the modern world in its makin.r. At it,
oponm. the long ,„edi.-eval era was just ceasin,, to exist. The
French Revo ut.on ],ad l,rou,d« it to a sudden and violent tern.ina-
.onn,I.rance andl,ad sown the seeds of the new ideas of equality and
fratern, y and the n.h.s of n,an widely over Europe. In the new worl a
great modern nation, mstmct with the most advanced ideas
of hberty and justice, had just sprung into existence, a nation ^"iTjlZl"
without royalty or nobility, and whose leaders were the S-eS ^
chosen servants, not the privileged masters, of the people «e«tevallsm
This grand political revolution, with which the cemury be.au was
paralleled with as notable an indusinal revolution. The inventio; of he
steam eng„,e ad brought to an end the medieval syste , uU L "
The old, individual, household era of labor, where every man could be hT
own master and supply his own capital, ceased to exist f costly lal or-s'wi„'
machines, needing large accumulations of capital, came into use ; grel't
s>stem, w-hich has had such an immen.se development in the nineteenth
century, began its remarkable career. '"ttcema
With the opening and progress of the nineteenth ceutu, y can.e other
r eiT'f tl'"""' "T""""'"- '"^«""°"' ^^-'''^'^ fi-' became active near
the end of the preceding century, now flourished until its
results seemed rather the work of magic than of plain human ''wo'^ntS''
thought and work. Science, which already had made son,e S^Te:1S
notable triumphs, gained an undreamed-of activity ond hun- '''•>«"^'
dreds of the deep secrets of the universe were unfolded. Discovery and
exploration achieved surprising results. At the beginning of the ccLury
ha f the world was unknown. At its end only the frozen realms of the
poles remained unexplored, and civilization was making its way into a hun-
dred haunts of ancient savagery. Literature and art, while they can claim
no works of acknowledged superiority as co„,pared ^ith the matter oil""
01 past centuries, Uave displayed a remarkable activity, and the number'of
meritorious books now annually issued is one of the most extraordinary
events of the century. 'uiiiary
C17
6r8
THE DAWN OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
wncrc u evidence. I^ree schools extend throughout tlie civih'zed world
^^:r:: t;;!7;;::^Hr^^^^'r^^'^^""'^'^^ '^^'-^ ^-^^ «^ ''^^' -^-
stepi^ng stone to un.yers.ty education, which i.as widened out
Progress In , """j'''^'" f^^'^'^X" I" '"^thods of education a marked
Education '-^^^''^nce has been made, while the text-books of to-day are
education i. . "^'' ''^^' '"P"'""'' '° ^'^"^^' °^ ^^^ ^''^'•'i^''- P^nod. And
cilsclurgL of h,s social, iiulustnal and political duties
hood it T''s teef' ''T'^T"' 1 ''^ '"'"' "' '""'"'y -'l '"""- ^^'her-
so far been sa,d, but wl„ch is of hiyh and si.sjnificant importance mmeh
In tlie beginning of the nineteenth century education exceDt of the
most elen,entary character was in great n^easureLnfined'o boys^' ,„ , "
TheEdu„„„„ ""=/'" Y ''-"''"^ °f Northampton, Mass., where Smiths
of Women "-"liege for women is now situated, voted ■■not to be at the
expense of schooling girls;" and in 1792 the selectmen „f
Newburyport decided that ■■during the summer moiuhs, when the bovs
and readi'n ' f ■ . ' "'" ^'"" """""' ^''^ '" -^'™"-" - g "™a
and ha f ? I'h: t' ^T""^ °'n"" '"^'^ '" ""^ ^"-"-"^ f- - h™
and a half. The site of this schoolhouse, to whii , as is believed women
were first admitted on this continent to an educ.uion at public expense i
girls schools the hrst on record, to be kept six months in the vear frZ
SIX to eight in the morning and on Thursday afternoon ' ' "
tions fo!? LV ,""•■ '■■ ■' '''• °"' ""' "P'"""^ '° S"is, and gradually ins.itu-
.01 s for the higher education of women were established, the pioneer
college which opened its door, to fh- f-^r -^-- 1 • -■ t Pionetr
.Q.,, Ti J ' . "^ '^'"^ ^^^ being uucrlin, in Ohio in
.833. The advance since then has been great, and at the op;„i„g of the
THE DAWN or THK TWENTIETH CENTURY 6,,
twentieth century there was not a college west „f the Alle.,,I,anies which
clen,ed to woman the full advantages of education, while the same was the
case ,n many of the older colle,,es of the East. In ,865 Matthew Vass r
oundcd u, Pou.<;hkeepsie, N. Y„ the first collefre exclusively
lor women lo this is now added Smith, Wellesley an,l *„„=„•, Col.
Bryn Mawr Colleges, within whose doors the highest advan- '"""
tages of education are to be obtained. The distinction between boys and
g.rls ,n educat,on, ,n short, has nearly ceased to e.xist in this country u,d i
in a fair way of vanishing in Europe.
In industrial occupation the advance of woman has been as .rreat A
century ago few avenues of labor were open to them outside the household
and such work as was performed was miserably paid for. At present there
IS not an industry which they desire or are suited to follow from which they
are debarred, and the last census enumerated four thousand differerU
branches of employment in which women were engaged. This was not only
in the lower, but .n many of the higher employments. Women physicians
are numerous, women lawyers and preachers are coming into the field
women professors teach in schools and colleges, and women authors have
given ussome of the best books of the century.
Politically the progress, while not so great, has b(.en encourarin. |,
the middle of the nineteenth century no woman had a right to vole and the
thought of woman suffrage was just being evolved. At the end of the
century women possessed the fullest privileges of the suffrage in the four
states of Colorado. Idaho. Wyoming and Utah, and partial suffrage in many
other states, while a much wider extension of this privile<re
seemed not far distant. In many European countries, and ^X'.Tr
in the British colonies of Australia, New Zealand, Cape Colony '^"'"e"
Canada, and parts of India, woman had won the right to vote,' under various
restrictions, for municipal and school officers. Such has been the pro^rress
in this direction of a half century. Progress
What else shall be said of the state of affairs at the dawn of the
twentieth century? Perhaps one of the most significant and promisin^r
movements of the time is that taken with the object of bringin<r war which
has raged upon the earth since the primitive days of mankind *
to an end. The movement in this direction, singularly '^"rnro'fThe"
enough, emanated from the monarch of the most unpro- Emperor of
gressive of civilized lands, but one whose size and power give '^"*^'*
prominence and influence to any proposition coming from its court On
August 24. 1898, Count Muravieff, Foreign Minister of Russia, by order of
620
i I
Tin- DAWN OF TlfF. TWF.NTIKTH CENTURY
tile Umperor Nicholas II., handed to the representative, of f ■
ments at St, I'etersl.urjr copies of -, „,-„„o.T r V "''"" ^"^^■■n.
«ive it below in full : P'"poMfon of such nnportance, that we
exce^il^aZlrr^hl'h^::,^^^ T" "^"^ ''■''^^"''•' -"-'™ °f '"e
existing condition., '^^ :^ Z! :^ T^Z l'"^'^",' 'T^T'-'T'^ '"
deavors of all Governments .should be ircteTlT "''■"" '■"■
"latrnanimous ide.is of His Miiestv fhn I luimanitanan and
been won ov,. to this vil: f.l e 'c -i roiri; "z:?^ ""''■'"• ""^-^
formityvyith the most essc-ntiil on,.!, , , , '"ft.v a.m is m en-
powerr;and the In,K.ia Go ^LetWnkr.t '''''""" "'^"^ "' ^'" ""^
favorable to .seeking; the means •"■""" '"°'"'-'"' ^™"'^' '«
peopLir'b™::^: r d;°:^L'tr:^'™' --- °' --^ ^"
progressive development of the ^rnTLn'llt' ''""■"^' "" '="'' '° "■<=
n,enth';::';:w:':^e:L;,';;tr:^-^vr,:^^^^^
:"ioiti;xr;fi:i^ir;rt;^r"T=^^
.hem.selves powerful alliances ''" ''"'" '"™ ^°"^'"''«'' '^<='--"
parti:;: Tiiii^r^rrprec^err-tireHiit^t^r^^^^^
.ncrease them, without shrinking, from any sacrihce """""' '°
.e bin'lrirrittixSc'::- r°^ >- ^-" -« - ^-^^ -o-
root ^Sbiir;:;::,::: •:;- ^t ■: tfntLK "r" r"' ^' *•= -^^
nations- labor and clpital are moslly diC n'thrr't!.'? "^"V "' • '"
and are unproductively consumed Hundred, Tf '".^ """'^«' '"'PPlication,
acquiring terrible en.dnes of destruction I , '""' "'= '^"^"""^ '»
the last work of scie^nce are destTned^' '' 't '""''■•'>' "'S'"'''^ ^'
•.leiicc, are aestmed to-morrow to ose nil tlio;- ,...1
consequence of some fresh discovery in the sime fie d M 1 ^' '"
economic progress, and the production of we hh-' . V='"°"='' ,"'""■•<=■
checked in development M,,.. " '="'"='' Paralyzed or
each po-ver i ase ey le s "rd'l'els f7r\'"\'' "" """'"'^"^^ °'
have set before themselves. ""= °'j™' '"^ governments
" The ecomomic crisis, due in a Preat narf f« i-i
.^.«/.««,and the continual dangfr wh^ 1 L'' rtf'™ °' •"^'"''"^"'^
material, are transforming the armtd oeacto , -""'""S^ "' "'^'•
burder wh:-l, fh 1 , peace of our days nto a r„,,!,in„
burden >vh.J, the peoples have more and more difficulty in bearing.""
mcc, tliat we
maments
THE DAWN Oh- TItn rm-NTir.TU CliNTURY 6j.
would 'LevH? ?■"',"" "';" '' "''^ ^'""^ "' "■'^■S» ""-^ '» >"= P-'onKc<l i,
vould mev.tahy l,.„l to the very cataclysn, i, is desired to avert and the
horrors whereof „,ake every ti,i„ki„g being sl,„dder in advance.
wnrdinI°or,'h"' '",'' '° "'"", '""■"■■'"' """'•""^'^ =""1 '^ »--k tl>e nteans of
he sir " "";""•' "'"'■' ^'" ""•'-'-'!"« the whole world-such is
the supreme duty to-day iitiposed upon all states
"Filled with this idea, His Majesty has been pleased to command me to
propose to all the governments whose representatives are accredited to the
Imperta Court the assembling of a conference which shall occupy itself
With this grave problem. ^ ^
"This conference will be. bj- the help of God. a happy presage for the
century which is about to open. It would converge into on^pow^rful fo .
the efforts of all states s.ncerely seeking to make the great conception of
universal peace triumph over the elements of trouble and discord, and it
would, at the same time, cement their agreement by a corporate consecration
of the principles of equity and right whereon rest the security of states and
the welfare of peoples."
This hopeful proposal did not. unfortunately, produce the result hoped
for by Its distmgu.shed promulgator. Doubt of the honesty of the czar
and his advisers, and mutual jealousies of the powers of Europe, stood
in the way of an acceptance of th<' proposition to reduce ^.
the enormous armaments of the great nations. Vet. despite fe're^raf"""
this, It was not without important results in the direction The Hague
of doing away with the horrors of war and bringing about the rei.rn of
peace upon the earth. A peace conference of representatives of the
nations, in accordance with the suggestion of the czar, was held at The
Hague, the capital of the Netherlands, in the spring of 1899. and resulted
m the adoption of a 'scheme of international arbitratio,. which is full of
promise for the future, as an important step in the direction of settling •
international disputes in the high courts of the nations instead of on the
bloody field of war. It proposes to adopt in regard to the nations the prin-
ciple long since in vogue in regard to their people, that of the legal in
place of the violent redress of wrongs and settlement of dis-
putes. A permanent court of arbitration is to be established '^''^^""••t of
composed of men amply competent to deal with the questions '"■'''*™"^"
likely to come before them, and enjoying the public confidence, to deal with
national disputes which previously had no other ready arbiter but the sword
i here is, it is true, no legal obligations upon nations to submit their differ
ences of opinion to this tribunal, but there is a high moral obli<ration
632
THE n.nVN OF T„l- nVKNTIETir CKNTURY
\ iv
Jii
.ion of ,l,e barbaric l^^^ol^^S^r'^'"^ "'" *'" '"'^" '°""'''^ ""•• »'«'''-
results of ni,..c..em,f. ';" i, ^ "^'n.^™ "7 "', "•%'•'"" ""P""--""
p:iKes. has ,„ail„ an cnorm,,,,. ■ ■ , ' ''''"''''^>' '"''"■•"ed in these
l^.bor-savi„. nuachinevl^rv /'"'","■ "" "" "^ "'"'"'y- "•^- '""■"'»" "'
the resultsT.f cac p 'rl' • ?, '•''•"'"'' '"'?' P"-<--- "f Pro. luetic, that
."ry ago. Who c lo h" , '" 'r'*' """^'' '''■■'••^"" "'^" ">"' "f a ccu-
hi r . 1 T"'"' ■ ;'''" "■''■'='>' ('^''•^^'i'-'' "-V 'I- -hirr of
M.chln„ viuci, nccl the eye rather than the ha.ul of the mechanic
cheapness, wh^e^^nr ■ t ti:. C"'t:f '"'"''"' "^ ^^"^^
way for the man with the machln, " "' ""= P"' '^ "■">""■''-<•• ™-king
cessiv?Lt:f"2"Srs'" ;'"r.f "''"", '>- '-" -" »l-own in the suc-
helcl in Paris Ynle fir rvea"oT;:''' "^ "= h"«.«l-a.ly stated, the first was
the closing year of the centun , r^ '7' ^^■'"'^' '"" '^^' """^ '"-•''' '" "^°°.
fairs, international and n=tio" I In be "m -'"p '''"''' ' '"^"= "'™'^- "^
surpassing its predecessr , i t „d " k" '" ^"™P%="«' •^"-"-. --"
exhibits, and each showin. new ™d b,,, V ™''"'>'/"'' °'-'="'"-'i.y of i's
middle of the century be cire th, ""'"'"'"" ^"=P^ °f ^J™nce. It was the
.ion of an internatil'n. '^il:'?, """r'"'' .-=?-"'«' ." .I>e concep-
I'cld in London ni's, T '"' "' *'"'''' "''
-"- '" Lt-r r'^- "-^ ^-" '-^-- n-":':L°uniL°stat
Columbian h' ::St^:^s M;jrifc;:Lr"""^'^f "• -^^^^^
indications of great pro.rress In H 7 ."-'""tfo 'n 1893, was full of
in the departufent o/d^ct ^^TuTZ ^"•«"-" 'f?^^' ""^^"^
the interval. .Still more si,n,i ion ''l'' remarkable advance in
of the United States was he n",' °"'"" "^^ ™''' '"''"""'tl Pfogress
i" .899. a display oT'comme ciat T .'^^P-'J^'-PO-i"" at Philadetphia
ment of AnJicin conXT ' t " .^rd:^; T',''' "" ''"'' '"'^^"P-
l>eld ,n the city which had establ ,ed he f ' . '™""^' ""'' ^"^"^
the world. -'onsncu tlie first great commercial museum in
.0 fc-^..4-9,9.., a s^m t'lL^C'Z:: T """"' ^'~°"".ed
i^A.o r^A..- I c ."'F'*^^"! t)> that of the import'; whir-K -^.^^1,^-1
J exports had increased to #1,030,278,148; the
^^S^^^
THE DA WN OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY (.^y^
import? reachini^r 1^827,402,462. In 1898 the total exports ac^nrrr^mtcd the
great s -m of $1,231.4X3.330; while the imports ft:ll to a h.wcT figure than
in 187;,, the total being $616,050,654. almost exactly one half the sum of
the exijorts. It must further be said that these exports are n .
no longer predominately agricultural, as in the earlier period. AmeHcT*"'
but that the mechanical products of the United States are being '^•""•"erce
sent abroad in a constantly increasing ratio. And a significant fact in this
rehition is that of our growing sum of exports to England herself, loner the
dominant lord of manufacture and commerce. This is strikingly indicated
m the sh.i)ment of locomotives for use on English railroads, and of iron
bridges for English use by the British authorities in Egypt, the rapidity and
cheapness with which American workshops can turn out their products
being the ruling elements in this remarkable diversion of trade.
The progress in other fields of human , ,; '-avor, as indicated at the
dawn of the twentieth century, has been . dually p -onounced. Science, for
example, manifests a wonderful activity, .- nU dispi ys results
of bewildering variety and great import.'nce • vvhile the **'""K''ess in
rapid and varied applications of scientific discoveries to *'^'"'*
useful purposes is one of the most significant signs of the age. Strikincr
recent examples of this have been the Rontgen ray and wireless telegraphy!
Politically the world has been by no means at rest during the century.
In 1800 despotisms, of greater or less rigidness, controlled most of the
countries of the world. The republic of the United Netherlands had been
overthrown, that recently established in France was sinking under the
autocracy of Napoleon, and the small mountain-girdled republic of Switzer-
land alone remained. Beyond the seas this was matched by a new republic
that of the United States, at that time small and of little importance in the
councils of the world. In 1900 a vast change manifested itself. The whole
double continent of America was occupied by republics,
Canada being practically one under distant supervision, Po"tJcal
rVance had regained its republican institutions, and Great ^'"'"*
Britain had all the freedom of a republican form of government. Through
all Western Europe autocracy had vanished, constitutional governments
having succeeded the absolutism of the past, and the only strongholds of
autocracy remaining in Europe were Russia and Turkey, in both of which
the embers of revolution were smouldering, and might at any moment burst
into flame.
These are not the only significant signs of progress which present
themselves to us at the dawn of the twentieth century. In truth, in a
hundred directions the world has been equipping itself for the new century,
kulutlon
634
THE DAWN OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
:
ok hT 7 ''^^.^''.'=f°^<= '< =» destiny unequalled in the history of the
S° '■ °f/P<=<^'»l importance to observe how prominent the An<rlo.
Saxon peoples have been h, the great advance whicl, we have chronicled.
Great Br, au,, and, following in her footsteps, the United States have
ofTwor 1 '' tT" "' "" '?f' "« "'.•'-f-=-in,.and commercial nat o
o the world. 1 he contracted boundaries of the British Islands long since
proved too narrow to contain a people of such expanding enterprise and
they have gone forth, ..conquering and to conquer." rettlin^and develop".
"n.I^r,'!"'". ;''" "n '^'=a'"'""i' °f *'"= t>ventieth century, the eiupire of
n,e«„,«„.t Great Br.tau, and its colonies covered an area of ,,.336,806
square m.les, mhabited by 38,,037.3;4 human beings. This
area ,s nearly one fourth that of the hal.itable land surface of the earth
and ,ts popu at.on quite one fourth of all mankind. The East India,;
passess.ons o th,s great empire are larger than all Europe without Russia
ad the North A.nencan on,=s, if their water surface be included, are large
^han the whole of Kiiroiie. ''"j,^-i
The other nations which have made a great advance in territory are
Russia w.d. .ts 8.644 100 square miles of territory, and the United States
with ,ts 3.602.990. But in both the hitter cases these are compact terri-
Territorial tones held not as colonies, which at any time may br-ak
t^LXZi ^""^?' ^^'V" i"''^^'"^ '""'-^ °^ ^'^^ "^^^'"--^J ^^---'•" Thi; is
particularly the case in the United States, whose territory
mad 'uo of?' ' '''"'1' '"-^ !"^"^^ homo^^enous population, and is not
made up of a conger.es of var.ed and dissatisfied tribes like those of Russia
Ihe remammg great territorial nation is France, which, with its colonial
acquisitions, covers 3.357,«56 square miles of territory. But France her-
self ,s only 204,. 77 square miles in extent, and h^T immense colonial
dominions in Afnca are held by so weak and uncertain a tenure as to count
tor little at present in the streni,rth of the nation
univeCsnt 1"'^'''"' ^''''/" ''T''''' ^'^^ ''^"""^ proposition to establish a
' Z ^""^^"T'.'-^ '^'^' ^''^ ^^^^ fonn of speech, spoken in 1801 by
20,000.000 people, IS now used by 125.noo.ooo. Russian comes next with
ProbaWe Future 90.000,000. German with 75.000.000, rVench with 55.000000
spee"ch ^^'''"':'\ '^"'^'^ 45,000,000, and Italian with 35.-00.000. The
of anv oth.r l'"'" '""■",''' .'" '^"" "'" "^ ^"^"^'^'^ '^^^ ^""^ ^"'-passed that
01 any other language, and it is said that two-thirds of the letters that pass
hrough the post-o.nces of the world are written and sent by people who
speak this cosmopolitan tongue.
This immense advance of the English form of speech is full of signifi-
cance. If ,t goes on, the question as to which is to become the dominant
listory of the
t the Anglo-
e chronicled.
States, have
srcial nations
ds long since
tcrprise, and
1 developing,
le empire of
f 11.336,806
sings. This
)f the earth.
East Indian
lout Russia,
i, are larger
territory are
nited States
mpact terri-
may break
n This is
?e territory
, and is not
t of Russia.
its colonial
'Vance her-
se colonial
as to count
establish a
in 1801 by
next, witii
55,ocxD.ooo,
000. The
assed that
5 that pass
eople who
of signifi-
dominant
77//:' DA IVN OF THF. TWENTIETH CENTURY 625
language of the world will settle itself by a natural process, and the neces-
sity of inventing a special form of speech will be obviated. English is
to-day the chief commercial language of the world, and is fast becoming
the polite tongue of Europe, a position held a century ago by French. By
the end of the twentieth century it may well have becme the only language
besides their own which the peoples of the earth will find it necessary to
learn. And its marked simplicity of grammatical form adapts it to this
destiny beyond any other of the prominent languages of mankind.
To return to the subject under consideration, tiiat of nineteenth cen-
tury progress, it may be claimed as due to several inlluences, materially to
the extended use of the forces of nature in mechanical processes, in which
it went far beyond any of the earlier centuries ; scientifically to the rapid
extension of observation and the vast collection of facts. While - „
.1 • r t i- . fluences Aid-
there was no superior faculty of generalization, this accumula- injc Develop-
tion of scientific facts added greatly to the probability of the """*"*
theoretical conclusions thence derived. Again, this activity in investigation,
and the great increase of the numbers engaged in it, are legitimate results
of the extension of education, and in a Ipr.je measure of the replacement of
classical by scientific instruction. The pr > ress in ethical sentiment is doubt-
less largely due to the same cause, that of educational development. This
has gone far to dispel the cloud of ignorance which formerly hung heavily
over the nations, to ripen human intelligence, to broaden man's outlook,
to extend his interest far beyond the range of his immediate surroundings!
and, by increasing his information and widening his mental grasp, to
develop his sympathies and enhance in him the sentiment of the universal
brotherhood of mankind.
The intense activity of the human mind in those late days, and the
quickness with which men take practical advantage of any new suggestion
of workable character, are strikingly exemplified in an example that is well
worth relating. In the famous sociological novel by Edward Bellamy,
entitled "Looking Backward," in which the author describes an ideal
community placed at a date near the end of the twentieth century, he
pictures a number of advanced conditions which he evidently hopes will
exist at that coming period. One of these is a newspaper on a new type,
a spoken instead of a written paper. By aid of telephone connections
running in all directions, the events of the day in all parts of the world
are to oe " phoned " to subscribers in their "homes, while great orations,
theatrical entertainments, concerts, etc., may be enjoyed without leaving
their rooms.
626
THE DAWN OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
'^'
ki;,'!
m
\ 9 •
of "3 appoints! tin We ar to 7'^ /t' m' •'"'■,^''="'"^ '" •-"'™"-
has had (or several years rsooken n '"'' °' '^"''='P'=''- """Barv,
i" which all the ne4 of ^h^ I ''"P" '""*='''''-= ^'■^'5*''''''- ^^^^^^^^^
subscrihers, who Ir:^!:^^^-^ 'rXr U^Ur'^" "^ ^ "^^
:r ■ : -I'ircir- :::rtr 4''- tf ---'-
hours of publicatio b :.„ iZa 8 ,0 ^ M ' Y ""' '"-'^'^ ^"'''^"'"' '"<=
tion „„tiT M , V i ' •' ""'' "^"""""'"S "ithout interrup.
ATekphoae ' ' "" " '■"■ 1--^'<:1> hour is devoted to some special
''"'-"' aLd f 11 "■ *^'";'7' ""■"' ''^'^^'^••'P'- Ji^patches Ton
instruction or entertainment "' ''"''"°"^' °' "'"^ '"-- °f
bring-s to our eyes clistant future
Th::::^:t;if ^,:f:-:- ;;r: -- trr^ ' ■ ^^ -'^-
directions, must be consiclererl.- ''"7' ^^^^^ as .t has been in various
of space, its ^^^^::^;^:::^s i^i^'^^z^'^rr 'i"^
of sem,-c,vili.ation and barl.arisnt. The UnitirStateVwesZ'Eurrpt
turyPr„sre», ^ '"''> ''='."'= "^f*" ">« ^eats of most active progress- Soan
few of its European seJtlemems "°^' "° P^"" ^' ""■ ^''-P' '" =>
Hindustan "^''' ^'"P"^^ "' ^^ina the response has been much less en
Y - -f-s -r^;; ::ti;;Lr:!i----^; '-'^ ?^
close of the nineteenth centur,, howevc^, this resistanc: To'Te thru.'.;;:
THE, DA WN OF THE TWENTIETH CENTUR Y 627
and mechanical invention*; nf tli» \Ar, „^ ■ n
prop.. .» ,1,., I„d „„„, b, ,1, „.,i „,„,.,, ™ • "" ,„''"""»l
:t,c\i:;-it- ;:;;, '- - '• ~- '"■" -i:~
1 he future of the remainde.- of the world is less issurerl TI, I
Sro,na, the ,„l,ab,tants of the islands of the I-,cif,c, the peopl,
ot the tropics in rrenerai nil nr<. lii^.i. ^ . , . ' AmonRthe
.He wheels^f p.oUt^J' the^ '^wIL' w/ltt:..:- h ^Cr"-
iTor o:r' ^^"^ '""'^' '"^ '"'"■"'"" ---^ '^ --^" - p-e „„
Yet it is not well to be too pessimistic i„ rejranl to this nr„l,l,.„, I,
must be remembered that the work of the nine,. 'uh c ^u ■ i ,h t^',,,!
raent has only fa.rly beyun ; what the results will be it is not sa'e to oTd ^^
To make th.nkers of these dull-n,inde,l savages an,, barbarian ilTpei.s
be the work of many eenturies. To make workers of them i, a far eas e
tas- , and c.v.lued processes ,„ay be active in all these lands o .before tl^e
n ,uo„s are ,n cond.t on to appreciate them. One n,ethod of "solvi n^ «
problem ,s already under way. In the Hawaiian Islands the native pt, ta. on
rap,dly d.sappeanng and being replaced by a no., one. In New 7e d md
.t has ,, „,,,,„,, f-Pi^-dand British in.migrants have t.lj ts
place. 1 he nat.ves are di„,inishing in numbers else^Wlere. as in Aus ll
The problem of c,vd,.ation in ,nany of the new lands is likely to be s Tved
;L„ ^f 7' "7; '*•'" '" ""^ ""■'^^'^ ^^■"'•^^ --""« ■'- <! ca so lu
tion ot the nrohU«m ic r,ryt- «•-> k.. i__i_ 1 /■ . . ^"'"
( , . , ^ ---•- "•- -^ f-''-: luukvu for. aiKi tile white man has Hp
£er's":ate" ''"" °' ''""' '""'= """-«--- poptdatio!;: to^
w
628
T/fB DAWN OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
%'^'*
W
varied prol.lo, I LTi '"■''' ''' "^"^ "'"'^''^^•^ ^^""S ^^ ^'ifR-" -^
umueu cannot well be questioned, but the directions this
c«„aui„„,„, progress w.ll take is far from easy to decide. In some of s
-«- P uses progress seems approaching its limiting point.^Mers
the develon„,ent of lunnTn i, , , ^,"° ""=''"' '"'P™bable that
poll, ai aid f bXs;^:r!ein:b-:tii"rti:::'°-'-'-' -
in the future us it Inf in ' •■ '"'T'' ''°" "^^'^''^-^P'^V -" advance
ultimate measu^ :, ':, Tnd rlpE '4 ' r ifV^^'" "'^^""^' "■^•"
Here at the end of th^ ..„► rapunty. Vet it is dangerous to predict.
powers. Andbyitss le ' ^T'"'V""''^" telegraphy, with untold
action of mnd upon mind '" '"''''' T"'"''' '^'«*.'-Phy,-the direct
tion may we be nno of fi, -I'l . ,. *''*"-^P""a-
appearing thr::,g!itr;:::r:::t^;:r^^
:;rdrt:rmi,::ir ^^"-^"'^ - - '^-^ ^-'-p™--- ^'- ^i^irtrf
ana ...t the limitations of natllr u^t :h:rit":t ft ^Ct^ '"'"" -"''
,„H 'more '-"" d ' f'r ' *'^" -'°'"^'^= "^ '^ S^-"- -'-"v of i„„.p..,„
cnturj. But an equal activity may long continue. While
'y
:e of the world
a difficult and
tet;nth century
directions this
In some of its
point, in others
I others it may
nj^robable that
It hand will be
I, less mechan-
osophical, less
approaching a
ly can advance'
nearing their
>us to predict.
', with untold
ly, — the direct
f telegraphing
lay have in it
condition are
ng machinery
>me machines
Tra n sport a-
Y of railroad
List check its
■ihip travel, it
an increased
iirection to a
view. It is
break down
lew progress
al principle,
irtain point,
af invention
ad before us
inue. While
^w
J\
Kl
>?
a
am
u
o
x
S I
,;; 3 g
i&
X
»-
<
O -ale S
o = .a
O -;a5
< ~ u u
kl
a.
<
C
u
>
z
3
u
z
O
I-
(0
u
I-
<
(9
U
_J
u
o
U9 '-J
rs;
S- 5 a
E 3 a
3TJ S
— a
■5 2
-= B
«•?
a
o
I
.o\
I
lij'
1)1
\i -
If , ' '
yifr
633
invent!
T//£ DAWN OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
appears to have yielded practically perfect results in some fields
great imperfection exists in others, and in these the minds of inventors
Probable Lines '^^^ve still alnindant room fori xercise. Thus while the bicycle
Acflvur '""T"' ''".''""'' ^"^ ''•'''''' ^"^^'"^^ perfection, the automobile is
only in its pioneer stage and may be capable of extraordinary
improvement. It is quite possible that the horse may in the near future
end his long career as man's chief instrument of carriage and traction
Navigation of the air is still in embryo, but it may in time supplant travel
on land and sea.
The possibilities in these and some ,.ther directions seem immense At
the beginning of the nineteenth century wood was the chief fuel, and had
in great measure to serve the needs of household and workshop. At the
dawn of the twentieth century coal had taken its place, a.id the forest had
been replaced by the mine. We look back with pity, not unmixed with con-
tempt on the slowness of our ancestors, slaves to the axe and the firebrand
Uur descendants of a century hence may lopk back with like feelinos upon
us. and marvel how we could c-nent ourselves with delvin.r in tlie deep
rocks of the earth's crust for fuel when far more abundant and useful
resources lay everywhere about us.
VVe are beginnin<,r to perceive, somewhat dimly still, the immensity and
inexhaustibility of these powers and are prospecting among thein with the
footsteps of pioneers. The powers of falling water have long been em-
Employment of ployed, but only recently has it been discovered^ that they
th^e Forcesof could be conveyed to a distance by means of the electric con-
„,, , ^"^^*^'' ^^"^ applied to motors for the movement of machinery
The electric plant at Niagara Falls is the greatest nineteenth century instal-
lation in this direction. Thousands of such plants may be installed in the
near future, and the flowing currents of electricity yield light, heat and
power in a profusion and with a cheapness that will quite throw coal out of
the race, and release the slaves of the mine from their age-old fetters.
Falling water is only one of these sources of natural power The
tidal rise and fall of the seas is another. The movement of the winds is a
third. Ihe vast heat contents of the sunlight is a fourth. The variable
and periodical character of these is capable of being overcome by methods
of storing energy, electrical or other, already somewhat developed and
doubtless capable of much further development.
This is one of the most promising directions that appear before us for
die^exemse of twentieth century invention. Yet, despite this and other
.ie.-.a3 Ox mventtvc activity, what we have said appears to hold good that
one by one ench of the varied lines of invention will reach its ultimatum
in some fields,
Is of inventors
liilc the bicycle
automobile is
extraordinary
le near future
and traction.
upplant travel
1 immense. At
fuel, and had
shop. At the
he forest had
lixed with con-
the firebrand,
feelmgs upon
g in the deep
It and useful
mniensity and
hem with the
mg been em-
ed that they
; electric con-
of machinery.
:entury instal-
stalled in the
^ht, heat and
w coal out of
fetters,
power. The
le winds is a
The variable
i by methods
:veloped and
before us for
lis and other
Id ^ood, that
s ultimatum,
chanical and
Scientific
Progress
T//£ DAWN OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 633
and gradually the activity of man in this direction decrease. While the
twentieth century may be as active in the development of mechanism as the
nineteenth has been, it seems unlikely to be more so, and in succeedinjr
centuries inventive activity must decline for want of fields in which to exer-
cise Itself.
In some other fields of mental activity a similar slackening of energy
may appear. Science has been as active as mechanics in the century just
closed, but in some of its fields of exercise an approach towards
a limiting point seems evident. Observational science has **°''«"»'« ^•
been phenomenally busy, and the multitude of facts collected '""*" '" ^*"
has been extraordinarily great ; so great indeed that in some
lines the facts remaining to be observed have become limited
Such IS the case in zoology and botany. The species of animals and plants
are by no means all known, but only the inconspicuous and those existing in
lands yet unexplored remain to be discovered. There is much room for
work st.ll in this field, but future labors must be more difficult and results
less abundant. The same can be said of several other fields of scientific
observation, such as chemistry, mineralogy, anatomy and physiology, and
others that could be named. Doubtless there is still large room for obser-
vation. but It must be in the finer and less evident domains of science the
surface facts having been largely gathered in. In theoretical science great
progress has also been made by such men as Copernicus, Kepler, Newton.
Young, Darwin and a host of others. But many important problems remain
o be solved, and human thought may profitably be exercised in this direction
tor a long time to come.
Yet it may be that the progress of the twentieth century will be
directed most largely towards fields of research or improvement which have
been secondary considerations, or have made only partial advance, in the
century we have been considering. These will perhaps be intellectual
rather than physical in character, and the advance social rather than material
Man has been struggling actively with inanimate substances ^, ,,
and physical forces and adapting them to his ends. There MentaT"'
he before him the world of the animate and the forces of society Activity
and the intellect, to be treated with similar activity. The political, moral
educational, and industrial problems of the day need to be taken hold ol
more decisively than ever before, and the reign of fraud, injustice, auto-
cratic power, unnatural inequality, ignorance, unnecessary want and suffering
etc., brought to an end. ^'
There has been, as above stated, very considerable political evolution
during the recent century, but the political condition of the world remains
634
THE DAWN OF THE TWENTIETH CEN'/OAy
' i
very far from satisfactory, even in civilized lands, and there is abundant
vestte If'^f "' " ""^ '"''■ "^'" "'" -' ^ «'-fie1 ,n^ ever,
rulers of he nat.ons have become .he chosen servants of the people as in
r ,1^1? ""'•""-'°'^ ""^ ^°-<:"ll<=<l monarchy of that kingdom has sunk to
a t,tle w,thout power. Nor will man be satisfied until the rule of th°
Purity In PollllcsP''""<:al t-oss rs snnilarly swc;pt aside an,' ■ . -sty in office ->nH
in elective methods secured This , ;„ ° .
activities, ol the ajte political instruction is sa.II. ,eeded. The masses need
o be taught heir duties and their rights. If .hey can once be Trough „
act together for their own interests and their own ideas of right and wrnnl
and cease to be led astray by the shibboleth of party or part! JZt
wdl be a rapid change in the state of public affai'rs, Jnd m'en be clZen for
Advance in education is not alone needed for this, but its accomoani
ment advance in moral standards, is .oually requisite. The moral pr3s
of mankind, which has been so mar!<.-d during the oast centnrv ;/ ,
go on to higher levels, and with every s.ep upCsXere . "d'oubtlesr :
demanded a higher standard of action in those who are called upon to ac!
as servants of the public. W. have not mentioned in this work o"" ol the
great evils of the age, the vice of intoxication, which has done so much to
nTettTn'tio'r^r:: """"''r' ^"^ '^ ''"- -'^ °' "-^ leadm; -nil
retention of the unworthy in power. Legal enactments have failed
The Vic „, '° P."' ^". ^"'' '° 'his indulgence in a debased appetite, but
lntemp.r.nce P"""^ op'mon is beginning to succeed where law has failed
Urunkenncss has ceased to be respectable, aid as a resu!-'
open intoxication among respectable people is growing ,„;re and n fre rare
At the same time the desire to be considered r'espe \i, . maki, u wat
downward among the people, and widening the held of its effect D nkTnl
decr^st^'Z '^ r™'^"' "'■"• • """"^'"^ '" ^--^ '^ plainly f
decrease. And with every step in .his direction the self-respect .,f the
people must grow, pauperism decrease, and an enlightened conceot r „f
public duty develop Whatever else the twentieth^en ury br'gs tbout
we may reasonably look for a great revolution in the political . Z f the
There is one farther fiplH nf M.r,,nt.vu ^„„.,,„.. ^.._ ^ .
the industri;,! TKo ^- . "" T —e.l ^^u^uvy progress to uc reviewed,
industnal. The nineteenth . ntury has reached its end leaving this
THE DAWN OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 633
great domain of human interests in a highly unsatisfactory condition.
The pro^^ress of labor during the century und( review has been considered
in a preceding chapter, and brought down to it^ listing state, in^u^t, in th
What the character of its progress will be in the twentieth "Twentieth
century is open to conjecture. While nothing concerning it Century
can be stated positively, some deductions from the present condition of
things may !»'• made.
Mankind for some thousands of years past has been subjected to
tyranny of various kinds, and in particular to the tyranny of the king, the
priest, aii ' the cash box ; the first controlling him by the power of the sword,
the second by that of superstition, the third by that of material wants. The
control of the first two of these have long been slippine awav ^.. .,.
t »u 'TL f I I • 1 • rr 5 """/ The King, the
irom them. 1 hat of the kmg has quite vanished in the most Priest, and
advanced lands, and the political equality of all men has been the Cash Box
assured. i hat of the priest has similarly vanished in these lands and is
diminishing everywhere, liberty of thought being made secure. That of the
cash-box, on the contrary, has growu as the authority of its rivals has
decreased, and it stands to-day as the gXK^,\. power in the most advanced
communities, it being particularly dominant 'in the United States.
Shall this third of the great tyrants of the world retain its supremacy?
Shall it not in its turn be < erthrown, and liberty and equality in tliis direc-
tion be also attained ? Certainly great progress is likely to be made in this
direction, whi lever the final outcome may be. For ages a state of protest
and quiet or a 've revolt against kingcraft and priestcraft prevailed. This
state now exists .a regard to the money power, the industrial classes of all
lands struggling bi' erly against it, and combining with a view to its over-
throw. Such ' Lite ' revolt, bitter, persistant, unrelenting, indicates
something innaieiy wn in the industrial situation, and cannot fail in the
end to have its effect. We may safely look forward to an amelionition in
the situation, even though we cannot tell how it is to be brought about.
The extraordinary activity of productive industry within the century
is the cause of the state of affairs which now exists. The W' Itli of the
world has increased enormously, and has fallen largely into tue h j of
»ndividuals. A century ago there was not a millionaire in our land, and few
in any land. Now they exist by the thousands, and millionaires two hun-
dred fold multiplied are not unknown. This vast accummula-
tion of wealth in single hands does not saiify its owners.
_. _l ^ ™& ' •^•-•"•-t rtitv; ■ -j-tldl J- -riVi-_5J- l,^--:ll uinmg ifitO
great corporatiois for the purpose of reducing expo uses, so that ti.o cost
of manufacture may be decreased, and donig away with ^petition, so that
The Vast
Growth of
Wealth
^
Sfp«>*'fi*^?^
636
if!
T//£ D.-niW OF THE TWENTIETtf CENTURY
M
Bira
reduce ,, grea, ,nass of .„. c„,„,n„„i.y .o'.he posiUon o ^,,^0 ^
Ku.op.„ ci.t: ,r^.c''rs .itirr- r u.:s.e^7a:r-^
f^:^'i:;;: = ; x: -.r;- r'- --'^^^r :^^
he rul,ng powers. Whether this cult of SocalL has co ne o 3 ^y and
nas in it sufficient force of fyrr.,.,fi, f^ • •. y* ^""
whether it is ,0 be classed with ,1 ^"" , ^" '^'"'"''' '"P-'-'^acy. or
played their oartsfnrT, , "f ^ P°P"'="' '"°™ments which have
Psychology begun Its development, and is full of promise of important
u n,ust su«ct^e:eXwr:^fe;::^:r:f oi-^f tnri' -^^--n
br;;':; t::;'' \ '"-' '-'' "' ™^' -^ -hlL^:J:ti:;:eth,:
St irrC hls,r ; ^"^ T"'^ "" ■'"^ '"^''^ '" "'- -o^k through the
nirefnth'tnT,.::' '^"''"" '''"'' '"' ''-"'-'- °' '^^ ™"'erfu^
}'
It of the trust
!at reduction of
ciency hvln^ to
njiloyees.
■xviii., with the
: of Sociahsm,
inclividualisni
railroads, etc.,
he people as a
irection some<
telegraphs by
r all municipal
ghts, etc., by
)ted by many
States, and is
•romises to be
i actively, and
TJuch alarm in
■ to stay, and
supremacy, or
i which have
say, only the
>rogress from
Id art, litera-
te we should
Perhaps the
:y, the study
mind from
i^oretical psy-
las recently
3f Important
phenomena,
les in which
tion we shall
through the
e wonderful
I
\
J