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Maps, plates, charts, etc., may be filmed at different reduction ratios. Those too large to be entirely included in one exposure are filmed beginning in the upper left hand corner, left to right and top to bottom, as many frames as required. The following diagrams illustrate the method: Les cartes, planches, tableaux, etc., peuvent dtre filmds d des taux de rdduction diffdrents. Lorsque le document est trop grand pour dtre reproduit en un seul clich6, il est film6 d partir de Tangle sup^rieur gauche, de gauche d droite, et de haut en bas, en prenant le nombre d'images ndcessaire. Les diagrammes suivants illustrent la mdthode. arrata to pelure, m d n 32X 1 i ■■ ■ 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 I 1 .IIIRI^I^IBPHIJII, l.l^^m.pi.lPHJ -J I ' !»'. ' ' ' ''W|i!''W!'*^ ^ "" v..inji{.>4ij%m}f^^^^ ■ 2 2 S 8 3 7 .♦•-•• • lUr^^i ••«' .' • .«' BtC 22 193? J CONTENTS. Chapter. Page, I. Introduction 1 II. Ec^ucation and the National Government 6 III. Sute Systems 13 IV. New York State Government 19 V. State Superintendent of Public Instruction 22 VI. The Department of Public Instruction . . 26 VII. Some School Statistics 31 VIII. School Commissioners 36 IX. School Districts and Maintenance 41 X. Rural Schools 46 XI School Programmes 61 XTI. The Course of Study 72 XIII. Examinations 82 XIV. The Training of Teachti-s . . 94 XV. Normal Schools 106 XVI. The State Normal College 114 XVII. City School Systems 124 XVIII. School Libraries 132 XIX. Manual Training 138 XX. Teachers at Work 151 XXI. Compulsory Education 159 XXII. University of the State of New York 166 XXIII. VassarCollege 181 XXIV. West Point Military Academy 186 Appendix 194 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK. CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION. In the spring of 1897, at the request of the Minister of Education, I visited the City of Albany and other places in New York for the purpose of gaininjj a know- ledge of the system of education in that State. A con- siderable part of my time was taken up in ascertaining from the Superintendent and his officers the methods adopted by the Department of Public Instruction in matters of administration, and in getting a knowledge of the extensive work carried on by the Board of Regents of the University of the State of New York. I visited a number of the leading schools in Buffalo, Syracuse, Albany, Poughkeepsie, West Point, New York 2 City and Brooklyn, and so far as time allowed endeav- ored to make myself acquainted with the systems of school organization, the methods of discipline, and the character and results of the teaching, I had also the privilege before returning of visiting some prominent educational institutions of Philadelphia and Washington. It had been my intention to report simply what I had seen in the work of the Normal Schools, High Schools, Manual Training Schools, Public Sdiools and Kinder- gartens. On further consideration I felt it would be more serviceable to combine with this object some description of the educational system of the State of New York- Among teachers the study of the systems of education adopted in different countries has of late years assumed more than ordinary importance. Pedagogical methods are based on principles which, from the nature of chil- dren, have much in common all the world over. At the same time the practical educationist must recognize the differences in systems of government, religious convic- tions and social conditions, which have to be dealt with in framing legislation as well as in adopting methods of school organization and of discipline. For several years, there has been much interest taken in American schools by many British and Canadian educationists. During more than a quarter of a century Ontario has repeatedly found it profitable to take notice of the school work done in many of the neighboring States. Frequently some of the most distinguished educationists from the other side have given valuable addresses to our teachers at a number of conventions. Toronto has been favored with several international gatherings at 8 which the presence of Americans has givtn much impetus to educational and philanthropic movements. My intercourse on several occasions with Americans at their educational associations and a perusal of the official reports that come regularly to this Department have given me valuable opportunities for gaining a knowledge of the school systems of several of the States. It is generally held by ihe people of this Province and acknowledged by many who are not Canadians that our system of education is, upon the whole, superior to the system which prevails in any one of the States. It would be folly, however, to infer either that our schools are perfect or that important lessons are not to be gained by examining the school systems of our neigh- bors. Self satisfaction is bad for the nation as well as for the individual. When no fault is found with our schools there is danger of educational stagnation. To hold fast that which is good and to add what may improve should be the aim of all persons who are interested in the work of education. I think no part of the Republic, not excepting even Massachusetts, presents a more valuable study to the educationist than New York. That state may not have schools that have gained as much fame as some schools in a few other states. I believe, however, no other part of the Union has made so much progi*ess in education within the last dozen years as the Empire State. The development in some directions will be regarded as wise by those who attach importance to some features of our own system. The wide area of the country, its immense population, its great resources. PIP ] !■ ! and its many large cities with their extensive trade and manufactures, bid fair to put New York educationally in the front place in the United States, as it is already commercially and politically. That there are weaknesses in its system of education, those most closely connected with its schools are prompt to admit. The educational system of New York State has many features which are worthy, I think, of imitation as well as of examination. It is difficult to describe the school system of another country without showing points of resemblance or difference between that system and our own. Indeed, any report to be valuable must afford an opportunity for comparisons. I am quite sensible, however, of the danger of arriving at conclusions without complete knowledge (which is not always available) of the facts. The school system of New York State, like that of Ontario, has been a matter of many years' growth. Its characteristics cannot be understood apart from the history of the political institutions of the country. Neither the United States nor Canada could adopt, without radical changes of another kind, some of the admirable features of the educational system that exists on the opposite side of the international boundary line. Our system of responsible government, principles of taxation and methods of municipal control are different from those to be found in the neighboring state. Much that I saw or became acquainted with I should like to see incorporated with our system, provided this could be done without disturbing certain principles of government to which Canadians, like other British subjects, are very much attached. Matthew Arnold used to say that he saw much to admire in the schools and colleges of France, but that it was always an important problem for the Enjrlishman to determine how far the introIJlii ?IP!PBWPP?PW!W^ R ■■ I mw^ ir- as President Grant termed it in his message of 1875, " the Church and the State forever separate." The well- known difficulties in the way of amending the American constitution have prevented the voice of the great majority of the people, so often expressed by Congress, from becoming the written law of the nation. The principle is, however, incorporated in the constitution of nearly every State, and its preservation has been deemed essential to the maintenance of republican institutions. The Federal Government has assisted education in several ways. In 1785 it was ordered that in the case of any new State added to the seventeen then in exist- ence, a special appropriation of one-sixteenth of the public land should be reserved for the purpose of supplying a school fund. Many of the States, since admitted, have sold the lands to provide the initial expense of providing school buildings, but many other States still derive con- siderable funds from this source. The Act is especially important because it put on record in the early days of the nation the American idea of the support of education by the State, in all its departments, from the district school of the open country to the State university. Pro- gress was often slow, and even in New England it required the great rousing word oi Horace Mann, like the " voice of one crying in the wilderness," to challenge the people of the older States to repent of their educa- tional shiftlessneGS. The Western States received the bulk of the early appropriations made by the national government to education. Charges of corruption and extravagance in connection with those grants were 9 frequently made, and the impartial historian of to-day- regards them as true. It is worthy of note that the zeal in behalf of education was not, however, lessened. Appropriations continued to be made. In 1876 the government of the United States distributed S42,000,000 as a " surplus " among the twenty-six States then exist- ing. Within the last thirty-six years, beginning with 1862, the government has given 9,600,000 acres of public domain to all the States for the encouragement of agri- cultural and mechanical education, and with very few exceptions this bounty has been well applied. The large expenditure made since the civil war for the education of the colored people of the South, the amounts provided for education in Alaska, and the expenditure regularly made from the first years of the Republic in behalf of the training of the Indians are further evidences of wide liberality on the part of the American people. It will, of course, be understood that military schools like West Point are controlled by the national government. The visitor to Washington who fails to see the Smith- sonian Institute and the National Museum misses some of the best sights presented at the federal seat of govern- ment. These institutions exert a great influence on the general education of the people. In the free distribution of the reports of the Smithsonian Institution we have afforded a noticeable example of the liberality of the United States in the cause of education. Its founder, James Smithson, an Englishman of noble descent, a graduate of Oxford, with, as far as is known, anti democratic tendencies, gained for himself a magnificent memorial at a comparatively small cost. The object of h'! 10 the extensive organization — a mere fraction of the cost of which is provided by the bequest of the founder — is to foster original researches and to provide publication. Few who visited the World's Fair at Chicago failed to examine those interesting collections that were brought from the Smithsonian Institute. In addition to the National Museum adjacent to the Smithsonian Institute, with the publications entitled " Contributions to Knowl- edge " and the unique feature of its operations providing a sort of international exchange, the Library of Congress now located in its magnificent new building, is an example of the value assigned to books that cannot fail to have its influence on every State of the Union. The Bureau of Education founded in 1867 at Washing- ton, is a section of the vast Department of the Interior. Many educationists of England have lamented that a bureau of this kind has not been established in London. It has no authority, but it is charged with the duty of collecting information and of gathering statistics regard- ing education, which have pr>,ved to be most valuable. It may be true that the figures cannot be depended upon for that accuracy which characterizes English blue-books, but they are approximately correct, and probably no educational reports are read with so much interest. Their value is not confined to Americans alone. Among the many excellent reports received at the Education Dt part- ment of Ontario, few of them are examined with more advantage than those prepared under the direction of the American Commissioner of Education. The Bureau publishes frequent reports and monographs on special departments of educational work. These are distributed iiJSr;^; 11 without stint throughout the country and have tended very much to create greater interest in school work. Numerous reports are received at the office from other countries and there is a great effort made to enable American teachers to learn som thing of the features of systetns of education in other lands The present Com- missioner, the Hon. W. T. Harris, LL.D., will be remem- bered by the educationists of Ontario, who recollect his able addresses at the National Education Association which met in Toronto in 1891. Dr. Harris was formerly the distinguished superintendent of Public Schools for the city of St. Louis. He has the reputation of being one of America's foremost writers on the Philosophy and Psychology of Education. In his office at Washington he is as ready to converse on educational questions and as desirous to give information as he is to oblige those who have correspondence with the Bureau on educational questions. The original objects of the Bureau (1) to collect sta- tistics and facts for the purpose of showing the progress of education in the several States, and (2) to diffuse information regarding the organization and management of schools have been kept in view. It was established from causes and for purposes very similar to those wbieh gave rise to the Royal Commissions that have been appointed in England from time to time. The following extract from the memorial presented to Congress, request- ing the establishment of the Bureau, shows clearly the purposes it was intended to fulfil : — "It was the unanimous opinion of tho Assocwtion that the interests of education would be greatly promoted by the cirg«nizati< n ■A '^^mm^^mm^immmmmmmmi'iiifmmmmmif/llli^l^^ 12 of such a bureau at the present time ; that it would render needed assistance in the estiblishment of school systems where they do not now exist, and that it would prove a potent means for improving and vitalizing existing systems. This it could acconipliah : — "1. By securing greater uniformity and accuracy in school statis- tics, and so interpreting them that they rnay be more widely availble and reliable as educational tests and measures. ' ' 2. By bringing together the results of school systems in different communities, states and countries, and determining their compara- tive value. "3. By collecting the results of all important experiments in new and special methods of school instruction and management, and making them the common property of school officers and teachers throughout the country. "4. By diffusing among the people information respecting the school laws of the different states ; the various modes of providing and disbursing school funds ; the different classes of school officers and their relative duties ; the qualifications of teachers, the modes of their examination, and the agencies provided for their Hpucial training ; the best methods of classifying and grading schools ; im- proved plans of schoolhouses, together with modes of heating and ventilation, etc. — information now obtained only by a few persons and at great expense, but which is of the highest value to all entrusted with the management of schools. "6. By aiding communities and states in the organization of school systems in which mischievous errors shall be avoided, and vital agencies and well tried improvements be included. "6. By the general diffusion of correct ideas respecting the value of education as a quickener of intellectual activities, as a moral renovator, as a multiplier of industry, and a consequent producer of wealth, and, finally, as the strength and shield of civil liberty." ~\rriaf\ ~ -^ ' -g»J ^t ffiw tt^aia.-ia CHAPTER III. STATE SYSTEMS. Though the system of education found in each State is one wrought out by itself, the encouragement given by the J^'ederal Government has had a very advantageous effect. The constitution of the Republic has guarded each State from the introduction of principles that are regarded as subversive of democratic institutions. Bo- fore the nation had reached the first half century of its growth the idea of the original New England system of public instruction had been adopted by every common- wealth in the Eastern, the Central, and the Northwestern States. Although the slaveholding States had not fully accepted the system, all were partly committed to it, and it only remained for the chief hindrance to universal education — the institution of slavery — to be removed, in order that every part of the Union should be influenced by higher ideals of human progress. The several states are not chained to any essential method of organization, discipline or kind of instruction. Each of them has been left to work out its own educational problem in accord- ance with the genius of its inhabitants. The nationality of the original inhabitants, and the circumstances under which the settlement of different parts was effected, had much to do with the nature of the system adopted. It is thus seen that the New England Puritans, the " Cava- liers" of Virginia and the Carolinas, the Quakers of Pennsylvania, the Dutch of New York, and the Germans ^4 m -r*r- iia«■.^Mfl^>l*«»», \ 1:C^^> 14 of Wisconsin evolved school systems which still retain in each case special characteristics. In the new States of ' the West there has been shi>wn a marked tendency to depart from the traditions, not only of Europe, but of the older States of the Union. It is only necessary to men- tion the State universities of Michigan and Minnesota, the city schools of Chicago and the common schools of Iowa to show the intention of the West to adopt only what is regarded as good of older systems. Some char- acteristics of nearly all the States are very noticeable. Among them may be mentioned (1) the desire to place higher as well as elementary education within the reach of all classes, (2) the determination to keep every kind of State supported institution free from sectarian control, and (3) the policy of having the training given in schools and colleges as practical as possible. There are besides certain tendencies which are apparent in nearly every part of the Union, and among them are the following : — (1) the adoption of improved methc>ds for the professional training of teachers, (2) more centralization in the statutes and regulations for the examination of teachers, (3) the uni6cation of courses of study for schools and for entrance to universities, (4) some efforts for the use of a uniform series of text-books, (5) free text-books for city schools, and (6) provisions for checking truancy. It will be of interest to notice some features which characterize the organization of systems in a few of the States : — Massachusetts has a State Board of Education, con- sisting of the Governor and Lieutenant-Governor and eight persons " i4)pointed by the Governor with the ad- 16 vice and consent of the Council," each to hold office eight years from the time of his appointment, and one to retire each year in the order of appointment. The Council holds in trust for the Commonwealth grants of lands or money for educational purposes. Its duties largely per- tain to compiling statistical information, giving sugges- tions regarding the management of the schools and in managing the State Normal Schools. The board may appoint its own secretary, who has a ."alary of $3,000, and who may be regarded as the official head of the system. He has extensive duties but his authority is not so great as that of the corresponding officer in New York State. In the other New England States the organization is somewhat like that of MaSvSachusetts. In Rhode Island the chief officer is* termed the " Commissioner of Public Schools." The council consists of the Governor and Lieutenant Governor and six other members elected by popular vote. The Governor is president and the Com- missioner secretary. One duty of the Commissioner is to " endeavor to secure uniformity in text-books and to promote the establishment of school libraries." In Con- necticut four persons are appointed (one every year) by the General Assembly as members of the board, of which the Governor and Lieutenant-Governor are ex ojfficio members. The board may — due notice having been given — direct what books are to be used in all its schools. Maine has a State Superintendent appointed as in Massa- chusetts. His term is three years, but he may be removed by the executive. One important part of his duties is to obtain " information as to the school systems , I ; ... 16 I of other States and countries." He has power to pre- scribe the studies to be taught in the common schools, but local authorities have the right to prescribe additional studies. The State Superintendent of New Hampshire holds office for two years. In Vermont the State Super- intendent is chosen by the General Assembly. In New Jersey the general supervision and control of public instruction is vested in a State board of education, consisting of the trustees of the school fund and eight members, who are appointed by the Governor, one from each Congressional district, by and with the advice of the people. It is '" provided that not more than four members of the board shall be of the same political party." The State Superintendent is appointed by the Governor, " by and with the advice and consent of the Senate,' for three years. His duties are to carry out the instructions of the State board and to enforce them. He has extensive powers in the matter of withholding grants when the provisions of the law have not been complied with. Pennsylvania has a State Superintendent of Public In- struction appointed by the Governor every fourth year " by and with the advice and consent of two-thirds of the Senate." He has power to decide " without appeal " or costs all controversies or disputes that may arise or exist among the directors or comptrollers of any district, or be- tween collectors or treasurers. He may remove any county superintendent tor neglect of duty. The board of Education in the State of Delaware consists of the governor, the secretary of state, and the three county superintendents. The members of the State board meet feteT.Wt..l>Miii|i,iiili, matm 17 annually. They receive no compensation for their ser- vices. The board may determine what text-books are to be used in the schools. The direction and control of education are largely in the hands of the three county superintendents, who are appointed annually by the Gov- ernor, and are required by law to be of " good moral character and well qualified, both intellectually and morally, for the office." In the southern States there are, in general, boards of education and superintendents as in many of the nor- thern States. The board for Virginia has only three members, the Governor, the Superintendent of Public instruction, and the Attorney-General. It has power to " appoint, discipline, and remove county superinten- dents," subject to confirmation by the Senate, to establish uniformity of text-books, etc. The Superintendent holds office for four years. He is elected as in New York. The board of Kentucky is constituted nearly like that of Virginia, but the State Superintendent is elected every four years. In North Carolina the State Superintendent is elected quadrennially by the people. The board consists of the Governor, Lieutenant-governor, Secretary of State, Treasurer, Auditor, and Superintendent. In the western States some additional features are noticeable in the organization of educational systems. Michigan has a board of education, one member being elected for six years every two years. The State Super- intendent and the secretary are ex officio members. The Superintendent is elected at each biennial election. In Illinois the State Superintendent is elected every four years. In Indiana the same officer is elected biennially. 2 ! ' ' ; : : i •r ?Sih'jJ*^*» 18* In Ohio the position is held for thres years, the officer who is called commissioner bein^ elected like the other State officers. The State board for the examination of teachers consists of five members appointed for five years by the State commissioner. It is provided that " not more than three shall belong to the same political party." In Minnesota the State Superintendent is appointed by the Governor " by and with the consent of the senate," and holds office for two years. This officer, with the governor and the president of the State university, con- stitute a board for the examination of pupils for admis- sion to that institution. The examiners appointed by the board receive $6.00 a day, " provided they are not receiving State pay for other services." In Iowa the State Superintendent, who is elected every two years, the president of the State university, the principal of the Normal School and two otlier persons, one " being a woman," appointed by the executive, constitute the board of examiners for teachers. In North Dakota the State Superintendent is elected at the same time and in the same manner as members of the legislature. Along with the other usual qualifica- tions it is provided by statute that he must be the " holder of a State certificate of the highest grade issued in some state, or be a graduate of some reputable univer- sity, college or normal school." The county superinten- dents are elected, but must hold a certificate of the highest grade or its equivalent. In South Dakota and in Nebraska the system is organized in about the same way as in North Dakota. Montana has a State board of eleven members, the Superintendent, who is a member, •Wa 19 being elected every four years. Colorado has a State board of education, consisting of the superintendent, who is president, the Secretary of State and the Attorney- gen- eral. The Superintendent is elected every two years. In Nevada the State board consists of the Governor, who is president, the Surveyor-general,and the Superintendent, who is secretary. The superintendent, who is elected every four years, has the most of the Stai>e Superinten- dent's extensive powers. The District Attorneys are ex-oficio county superintendents. In tlie state of Wash- ington the members of the board of education are appointed by the governor under the usual limitations. In California the State board consists of the governor, the president of the university, the professor of pedagogy in that institution, the principals of the State normal schools and the State Superintendent, who is elected every four years. CHAPTER IV. NEW YORK STATE QOVERNMENT. The State of New York has an area of 47,260 square miles, and a population, according to the last decennial census of the United States taken in 1890, of 5,997,853. According to the State census taken in 1892 the popul- ation is 6,513,344. It has a Governor, a Lieutenant- Governor, a Secretary of State, a Comptroller, a Treas- urer, an Attorney-General, a State Engineer and Sur- veyor ; Superintendents of Public Instruction, Insurance^ ! . I 20 Banking, State Prisons, Public Works, a Commissioner of Labor Statistics, three Railroad Commissioners. It has a Chief Judge of the Court of Appeals and six Associate Judges. The receipts of the Governmei ' in 1896 were $30,- 029,386. Of this sum $15,534,126 were received from the State tax, or what would be termed, if it existed in Ontario, " direct taxation." The rest of the revenue was made up as follows : Corporation taxes, $2,183,854 ; organizations (new corporation) tax, $563,951 ; inherit- ance, $1,796,652: excise tax, $3,564,014. The rest is canal improvement, loan, and tax and miscellaneous re- ceipts, amounting to $0,446,786. The State tax was 2.69 mills, compared with 3.24 mills the previous year. It w^as estimated that $3,000,000 would be raised from the new liquor tax law. The total property of the State in 1895 was esMmated at $4,368,712,903, of which real estate was placed at $3,908,853,377. The term for which the Governor and other elected officers serve is three years. In some of the States the term for such officers is four yeai-s, in otliers two years, and in a few one year. The principle of " Civil Service Reform," which received so much attention in national politics, has engaged the minds of the authorities of New York and other States. As a result of the State Civil Service Commission much permanency has by statute been given to the important offices of the State. Except in the case of the political (elective) heads of the several departments there is a general desire to keep the civil service free from political partizanship. The Governor of New York, as is the case in most of the States, has the fifri r i I iijj. i^ii HH . i iy jpi / i i iy M i 21 power of veto over legislation. There is, however, power given to the legislature to over-ride the veto. In recent years the Governor has not very often exercised the veto power. He is ^^ ^ head of the executive. He has no cabi- net as the President of the United Stales has, and he has no responsible minister in the English or Canadian sense. Withir> the range of the State constitution and the pro- visions oi the law the Governor is without control during the three years for which he is elected. As in the United states Government at Washington the executive of the State may not be in harmony with the legislative bodies. The Legislature consists of two bodies, the Senate, fifty members, and the Assembly, 150 members. The former is elected by popular vote for two years, and the latter for one year. Annual sessions are held at Albany, which is the seat of Goverimierc. Appropriations amounting to about $400,000 have been made to finish the State Capitol which I was informed had already cost between twenty and thirty million dollars. Throughout the Stale there is a very well defined sys- tem of town (township), city and county government. Universal suffrage prevails, but women have not the right to vote as they have in a few of the Western States. From its great wealth, and its important cities and its large population New York State has a commanding position in political, educational, and financial matters. It has now thirty-eight cities. The last to receive a charter was Waterliet with a population of about 14,000. There are no towns in our sense of the term, but a large number of its numerous " villages " have from 5,000 to 10,000 inhabitants. 'Ui ' If: r 22 It has been the rule that national politics is a pre- dominating factor in the politics of several States. New York State is an important element in determining the election for President every four years. It has often changed its political complexion and not unfrequently it is classed by both parties among the " doubtful " States It has had several very able men as Governors. Among the list are found the names of Seward, Seymour, Tilden, Cleveland, David J. Hill and Morton. The present Governor is the Hon. F. S. Black. CHAPTER V. STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION. In New York the State Superintendent of Public Instruction is elected by joint ballot of the Senate and Assembly on the second Wednesday of February next preceding the expiration of the term of the then incum- bent. His salary is $5,000 a year. He is an ex-o^cio trustee of Cornell University and a regent of the Univer- sity of the State of New York. He has the supervision of the Normal Schools He is required annually to sub- mit to the Legislature a report regarding the condition of the various schools under his supervision and regarding the estimates and accounts of expenditure He has power to make regulations for the examination of teach- ers, to grant certificates on examinations, and revoke the same. He has power to appoint the persons who are to conduct the examinations for teachers and to designate rmmmmmm 23 the places where the examinations are to be held. At his discretion he may issue a certificate without examination to any graduate who has had three years' experience as a teacher. He may endorse the diploma issued by a Normal School or a certificate issued by any State Super- intendent or State Board of Education. He may also issue temporary certificates valid in a school district for a period not exceeding six months. He has power to can- cel any certificate (with cause shown to his satisfaction) that has been awarded by a county commissioner, or to declare a diploma ineffective granted by any Normal School. He may remove from office any county commis- sioner or other school officer who has been guilty of wilful violation or neglect of duty under the statute, or who wilfully disobeys any decision, order, or regulation of the Superintendent. He may also withhold any share of the public money of the State from any district for wilfully disobeying any decision, order, or regulation of the Department of Public Instruction. There is no Board of Education for the State of New York, and the Superintendent is not responsible, like a member of the Government under our system, to the Legislature. During his term of office his powers are supreme within the provisions of the law. He has no council recognized by statute to advise or direct his course of action. He may obtain advice and r-eceive sug- gestions from any source he may deem expedient. As a matter of fact no State Officer has better facilities for get- ting advice than the Superintendent of Public Instruction. The officers of his department are his chief advisers. He has, besides the large body of county commissioners. 24 11! the city superintendents, and the leadinjij teachers and other educationists whose opinions are continually re- quested regarding matters with which the Superintendent has to deal. The office being elective, the political views of the candidate form an important factor in determining the contest. New York has been particularly fortunate in the choice it has made in the selection of superintend- ences. Some of its superintendents were re-elected several times. The present State Superintendent, the Hon. C. R. Skinner, LL.D., who was elected in 1895 and re-elected in 1898, has been long identified with educational work. He was Deputy Superintendent during the incumbency of Judge A S. Draper, who with great dis- tinction held the oflSce for six years. Dr. Skinner was last year the President of the National Educational Asso- ciation. The Hon. A. S. Draper, LL.D., is now President of Illinois State University. Both of these gentlemen have taken much prominence in the discussions of edu- cational questions, and both are well knov\n to many teachers and professors in Ontario. With varied experience in pubic life the present Superintendent has evidently secured a sound grasp of educational questions. From knowledge gained as a teacher, a journalist, a member of the State Legislative Assembly, a member of the House of Representatives, and as Deputy Superintendent, Dr. Skinner is able to discuss with force and intelligence the important topics affecting the schools of the country. An extract from his address at Milwaukee, in 1897, as President of the N.E. A., will show his general views regarding the scope of national education. 1 1 25 " What is the better education for the masses as we find them represented in our common schools ? Surely it mnst be the broad- est and best which our school systems are able to furnish — broad enough and strong enough to equip man and woman with power to got and to do the best things in life — to act well their part in society and in government. Education must begin with the young- est. It must be enjoyed by the poorest. It must be shared by the richest. It must be secured to the remotest settler in distant states and territories, and freely given to the humblest dweller in our great cities. It must reach and touch alike the stately avenue and the degraded slum. In brief, every child must be given and required to use an opportunity to develop the gifts with which God has en- dowed him, that he may grow to perfect manhood, to genuine cul- ture — a culture which in hovel or mansion stands for character. The best education for the masses is an education which will teach boys and girlsthe capabilities, and which will give them power to grasp opportunities, to accomplish resuU,p to realize worthy ambitions— to know themselves— to appreciate their limitations as well as their capacities — which will give them courage to endure adverse fortune should it come, and wisdom to enjoy prosperity — an education which will help people to help themselves — which will diminish suffering and discontent, and increase happiness ; which will encourage thrift and discourage shiftlessness ; which will lead people to enjoy that which they possess without envy; which teaches the dignity of labor, the value of money, the proper relation of labor to capital, and how they can be made to work together for the highest good of the State ; which teaches how to earn a living honestly and satisfactorily ; the necessity for diligence and economy ; how to live withiu their income ; how to accept life as they find it ; to know that poverty is neither a crime nur a disgrace if an honest life stands near it ; and tha^ riches alone cannot bring honor and happiness or make men great and good." mm WB^iPPpiP CHAPTER VI. THE DEPARXnENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION. This department of the public service is principally concerned with the various schools of the State including the Normal Schools. Under the direction of the superin- tendent are placed the management of teachers' institutes, the training classes, the examinations for teachers' certificates, the formation of school libraries, the enforc- ing of the law regarding truancy and several other matters pertaining to education. The authority of the department is in many respects much greater than thwt of Ontario. In this country disputed questions of school law are ordinarily left to the courts. In the State of New York the right of appeal to the Superintendent instead of to the courts gives the decision of the department very great value as precedents. The Consolidated School Law regarding appeals provides as f' ilows : ' Appeals to the Superintendent of Public Instruction. Section 1. Any person conceiving himself aggrieved in conse- sequence of any decision made — 1. By an^ school district meeting ; 2. By any school commissioner or school commissioners and other officers, in forming or altering, or refusing to form or alter, any school district, or in refusing to apportion any school moneys to any such district or part of a district ; 8. By a supervisor in refusing to pay any such moneys tt» any such district ; 4. By the trustees of any district in paying or refusing to pay any teacher, or in refusing to admit any scholar gratuitously into any school ; ptm mmm 27 5. By any trustees of any school library concerning such library, or any books therein, or the use of such books ; 6. By any district meeting in relation to the library ; 7. By any other official act or decision concerning any other matter under this Act, or any other Act pertaining to common schools, may appeal to the Superintendent of Public Instruction, who is hereby authorized and required to examine and decide the same ; and his decision shall be final and conclusive, and not sub- ject to question or review in any place or court whatever. Section 2. The superintendent, in reference to such appeals, shall have power — 1. To regulate the practice therein. 2. To determine whether an appeal shall stay proceedings, and prescribe conditions upon which it shall or shall not so operate. 3. To decline to entertain or to dismiss an appe vl, when it shall appear that the appellant has no interest in the matter appealed from, and that the matter is not a matter of public concern, and that the person injuriously affected by the act or decisi- n appealed from is incompetent to appeal. 4. To make all orders, by directing the levying of taxes or other- wise, which may, in his judgment, be proper or necessary to give effect to his decision. Section 3. The superintendent shall file, arrange in the order of time, and keep in his office, so that they may be at all times access- ible, all the proceedings on every appeal to him imder this title, including his decision or orders founded thereon ; and copies of all such papers and proceedings, authenticated by him under his seal of office, shall be evidence equally with the originals." The amount of work entrusted to the department is so great as to require very capacious (juarters in the State Capitol at Albany. The frequent visits of superinten- dents, commissioners, teachers, and other persons who have business to transact with the educational authorities, demand much of the State Superintendent's time. As might be expected the regular correspondence is heavy 28 and a large staff of officials is needed to perform the work. There is an impression among some persons that what is termed the " spoils system " prevails in full among our neighbors. It is a fact, however, that the attention given by the American people to the question of ' Civil Service Reform " is having the best results. Now and then some officer of the Government is so fond of politics as to forget his public duties, and as a consequence he " loses his head " with a change of administration. I was informed that instances of this kind were becoming rare. I met some officials at both Albany and Washington who had held their positions for twenty, and in some ca-es even thirty years. The Department of Public Instruction at Albanj'^, which is under the control of the State Superintendent, has a large stafi' of officers and clerks. The principal officers are the first deputy, the second deputy, the law clerk, the financial clerk, the statistical clerk, the confidential clerk, the examination clerk, four permanent examiners, a supervisor of teachers' institutes, five institute instruc- tors, two training inspectors, a lecturer, three inspectors under the compulsory education law, five stenographers, several junior clerks and some additional employes. This list does not include the staff entrusted with the work controlled by the Board of Regents of the University. The examinations alone of this body require a large number of examiners and clerks. The salaries of the officers and clerks of the State Superintendent range from $600 to $4,000, that of the first deputy. The annual Report of the Superintendent embraces two large volumes which furnish an abundance of useful statistics and 29 Buggestions. There are besides constantly issued by the department numerous circulars and instructions to school commissioners and other officei*s connected with the administration of the educational affairs of the State. In his first Report for 1896, Dr. Skinner refers to the work of the department as follows : " Few people have any idea of the volume of business transacted in the office of the State Superintendent of Public Instruction. Owing to the advancement of educational interests in our State during the past few years, it has multiplied in a much larger pro- portion than the growth and develoi)ment of the State in other directions would seem to warrant. " The examination of teachera for licenses, which was formerly conducted in each of the school commissioner districts of the State, was transferred to this department a few years ago by legislative direction, and while it is the only logical method of examining teachers, it has vastly increased the work. Some conception of its volume may be obbiined from a knowledge of the fact that there are more than 20,000 licensed teachers engaged in teaching in the 12,000 school districts of this State. The questions for these examinations are all prepared in this department, and are sent directly to every one of the 114 school commissioners in the State, where they are submitted to the teachers, and the answers thereto are all returned to this office for examination. This involves the careful scrutiny of more than 260,000 answer papers in every year, a record of which must be preserved, ready at all times for immediate reference. The accuracy with which this work must be done, and the care to be exercised in the reports from 12,000 school districts of the Stjite will be appreciated when it is remembered that the Consolidated School Law prohibits any district from sharing in the distribution of public funds in which the school is taught by an unlicensed teacher. " In addition to these examinations there is held in every county of the State an examination of candidates for free State scholarships at Cornell University, the answer papers in these examinations «Mwpiwlpi«pilpppiil mmmmmmm 30 being rotumod to this department for examination. There is also an exnmination held annually in eleven different cities of the State fur Stiite certificates, conducted in like manner. " By the last annual report of the comptroller it appears that there was disbursed through this department $1,034,557.24, which sum aggregates one-third of the total amount raised by taxation in the State. The distribution of this vast fund involves the gathering and tabulating of a vast volume of statistics, including the popula- tion of the State by school commissioners' districts, the number of teachers employed in each school district and in each city of the State. When it is remembered that there are one hundred and fourteen school commissioners' districts, thirty-seven city superin- tendents and thirty-two village superintendents, the vast propor- tions of the details of the work necessary to a compliance with the statutes is apparent. The seventy-seven teachers' training classes throughout the State for the pr warding the examinations for teachers will doubtless before long materially change these proportions. One thousand and thirty-three private 35 schools are reported with an attendance of 167,201 pupils. The State of New York has to some extent adopted the principle held in Germany that private schools owe duties to the public. In Ontario private schools are attended by comparatively few pupils and no provincial control over them is exercised. CHAPTER VIII. SCHOOL COMMISSIONERS. Ill the State of New York the schools not included in cities are under the supervision of commissioners who are elected by popular vote every three years. Female suffrage doee not exist, but women are eligible to the oflSce, and several women have been elected to these positions. No educational qualification is prescribed, but generally persons having experience as teachei-s are chosen. In case of vacancy the office is filled by the county judge, or if there is no county judge, by the State Superintendent. The salary is $1,000, and is paid by the government out of the free school fund, but the Board of Supervisors of the County may increase the salary, the increase to be raised by local taxation. A commissioner is allowed S200 for expenses, to be raised also by taxa- tion. He is removable by the State Superintendent for neglect of duty. The duties of a commissioner are about the same as those of an inspector in Ontario. He has. how- ^'''^^^^TWm^^^^^^^ w 36 ever, much more authority in other respects. He has a great deal to do in the matter of arranging the boundaries of school districts (sections). The expenses for changes which he finds necessary are to be met by the districts affected. He is required to examine all the schools within his district as often each year as may be practicable ; to enquire into matters relating to the course of study, text-books, discipline, the condition of the schoolhouses, sites, outbuildings, etc. ; to examine the district libraries, to advise trustees and other school officers regarding their duties, and particularly in respect to the construc- tion, warming and ventilation of schoolhouses, etc. He may direct the trustees to make any alteration or repair on the schoolhouse or outbuildings necessary for the health or comfort of the pupils, not to exceed the sum of $200, unless voted by the district. He may also direct the trustees to make any necessary alterations or repairs to school furniture, not to exceed $100. He may also require the trustees to abate any nuisance in or upon the premises, providing the same can be done at an expense not exceeding $25. The commissioner has also power by an order to con- demn a schoolhouse if he deems it unfit for use and not worth repairing, and to require the trustees to erect a new building without delay. His estimate of the cost is not to exceed $800, and while the ratepayers at a special meeting called for the purpose may determine the size of the building, the material to be used in its erection, they have no power to reduce the estimate made by the com- missioner more than 25 per cent, of such estimate. If '''»fB?!llf^»f^?»«*!5?ip«'"W'"^^ "■npn 37 the ratepayers fail to vote the necessary tax for the building, the trustees must contract for its erection and levy a tax to pay for the same. It is evident the legis- lature of the State of New York regards the interests of the children too important to be left to the direction of penurious trustees or ratepayers. As the average rural school receives from government about $140 there is ample justification for giving the extensive powers men- tioned to the officers of the department. In Ontario the trustees have more authority in such matters than in New York, but the inspectors have not the strong lever which is placed in the hands of commissioners. The comparison brings up again the advantages of centraliza- tion. The commissioner is required, under such rules as hrive been or may he prescribed by the State Superin- tendent, to examine persons proposing to teach in the schools of his district who do not hold Superintendent's Certificates or Normal School diplomas. The system adopted will be described in another place. If the district of any commissioner contains more than one hundred school districts the Board of Supervisors may divide such district of the county and form an additional district for which another commissioner will at the proper time be elected. The average number of school districts placed under the supervision of a commis- sioner is about the same as in Ontario. The salary can- not, however, be less than $1,000. On the average, com- missioners receive about the same remuneration as the corresponding officers in Ontario. It is well to notice that in England inspectors are appointed by the Govern- 38 ment, in Ontario by the county councils, and in New York by popular vote. The system of electing the chief oflBcers ia peculiar to the United States. I heard many objections raised to this method by Americans. A prom- inent educationalist from Illinois told me a few years ago that in that State the views of candidates on the " McKinley Bill " had more to do with their election than their scholastic attainments. In the State of New York the ordinary objections are made to the elective system, but it is only fair to Hay that a great many very com- petent commissioners are chosen. Some persons whom I met ^jref erred this method, and held that it secured commissioners who are progressive and not "educa- tionally dead." The great weakness in the New York system is the entire absence of any educational qualification for the position of commissioner. A person who has no experience in teaching cannot be a safe guide in matters of discipline and in methods of instruction. Broad and deep seholar- .ship is regarded in England as an essential element of an inspector's qualification. In New York State efforts to amend the law so as to secure better qualifications have so far failed It is maintained that many of the com- missioners used their influence with members of the Assembly to prevent amendments being made in this direction. The Superintendent points out the weakness of the system in the following words : '* Without doubt the weakest point in our school system to-day is along the lines of :jchool supervision. Since the inauguration of the uniform system of examinations, the teaching force has steadily advanced in efficiency, and there has been a marked improvement during the jjast few years. 39 "^^m t i Under the provisions of the Consolidated School Law, the duty of visitation, the supervision of the schools in the various localities, the power to alter school district boundaries, and the authority under certain conditions to cancel a teacher's license, by whomso- ever licensed, is vested in the school commissioners in the various commissioner districts of the State. These powers are in some respects extraordinary, and call for the exercise of the wisest judg- ment. They should be exercised only by officers possessing peculiar fitness for the performance of these duties. They touch the most vital interests of the people in their respective localities. I am aware that the great body of school commissioners of the State are earnest, conscientious men, anxious to wisely administer the duties of their office, and 1 am not reflecting upon those con- scientious commissioners when I stsite that, in my judgment, there are several commissioners in the State who could not, as a result of an examination, obtain the higher grades of certificates issued by this department. Yet the schools in these commissioner districts will depend for their efficiency very largely upon the work of the school commissioner. No amount of supervision from this depart- ment will supply the lack of intelligent supervision in the various localities on the part of the comniissioners. If it is desirable to insist upon a certain degree of qualification for a school teacher in the humblest district of the State, (and this proposition has passed beyond the realm of discussion) it would seem that there is no (juestion that the superior officer clothed by statute with such extended powers as a school commissioner, ought to be a person possessing some fixed qualification for the performance of tlie duties of his office. The schools of the State will never reach that degree of efficiency which the State has a right to demand, and which ia expected from the generous provision made for their support by the people, until this evil is corrected. Some standard of ({ualfication should be insisted upon, and the power of removal in case of the election of a person not pos'^essing these qualifications should be vested in the State Superintendent. A bill was prepared by this department and presented to the legislature early in its present .session providing an educational . I / . 1 II. .i| iw«i» iiitii^ y ii^| t i p>j apy^pByqiipjpp|piBP^^^p WWP iumppini^ 40 qualification on the part of candidates for the office of school com- missioner. It carried with it a proposition for an increase in the salary of commissioners throughout the Stnte. I am well aware that men of sufficient judgment, education, intelligence and integrity can not always be obtained at the meagre salary now provided by law. The salary has for many years remained as at present, and probably no raising of the standard is desirable until the legislature provides for an increase in compensation. I confess that I have been somewhat disappointed at the attitude of the commissioners with reference to this proposed legislation. The result of the opposition presented by them was that the bill was allowed to remain in the Senate committee, and nothing has been accomplished beyond call- ing public attention to the i^atter. At the time this legislation was pending, and while it waj being op;)0 ..''' by the school com- missioners of the State, certain giaie ^ inties with reference to the uniform examinations ae( contiu .t . some of the com- missioner districts of the State were brought to light, and investiga- tions are now pending in this departp>r.i'- (o '•emedv t'leae evils. It is with the utmost difficulty that I am able i-^ pyo,'M>e roports of visitation — the field of the greatest efficiency in the woi'ii of a com- missioner — from some of these officers. The uniform system of examinations, if honestly conducted, without doubt is the wisest system that has yet been inaugurated in the educational work of any State. If loosely conducted, if dishonest practices are permitted, if favoritism is shown in the conducting of the same, the inevitable result will be to weaken the whole system, and bring it into disrepute." ^p w^mtfrnmrn^mi^r^mmimi^m^^im^ wm CHAPTER IX. SCHOOL DISTRICTS AND HAINTENANCE. Each school commissioner sub-divides the territory of his district into school districts or sections. The rate- payers elect by ballot one or three trustees, a district clerk and a district collector, and if the ratepayers so determine, a treasurer. The titles of these officers indi- cate their duties in a general way. The ratepayers in annual meeting assembled have far more power than in Ontario. The trustees accordingly are much more limited in authority in New York than the same officers with us. In our rural school sections the people elect school trustees who are given a tolerably free hand in looking after the interests of the pupils. In New York the trustees are supposed to get instructions from the elec- tors. In Ontario the trustees are presumed to have received full authority to act on their own judgment in matters that concern the section. Reference to a few points will illustrate what is meant: The annual meeting of each district is held on the first Tuesday of August in each year, at 7.30 p.m. The right of voting is about the same as with us, women being eligible to vote. The ratepayers may vote a tax to purchase a site, to hire or purchase rooms or buildings for school purposes, to keep in repair and furnish the same with necessary fuel, furniture and appendages. They have power to vote a tax, not exceeding 25 dollars [41] ^1 42 in any one year, for the purchase of maps, globes and other apparatus, to vote a tax for the establishment of a school library, to authorize the trustees to insure the school property and generally to vote a tax to meet 8 outlays as the school section may recjuire, In a sense the ratepayers become a sort of assembly for furnishing money and the trustees a sort of executive for adminis- trative purposes. In Ontario the trustees have always had the power to build a new school and unless any part of the cost is to be paid in a subsecjuent year the rate- payers need not be consulted in the matter. New York does not give such authorit}'^ to trustees and, strange as it may seem to us, the ratepayers are also restricted. The statute of New York provides that " No tax voted by a district meeting for building, hi ring, or purchasing a schoolhouse, or an addition to a schoolhouse, exceeding the sum of five hundred dollars, shall be levied by the ^ ustees unless the comnussioner in whose district the schoolhouse of said district is to be built, hired or pur- chased or added to is situated shall certify in writing his approval of such larger siuii. And no schoolhouse shall be built in any school district of this State until the plan of ventilating, heating and lighting such schoolhouse shall be approved in writing by said .school commissioner." In New York no person can be elected a trustee who is unable to read and write. The electors have power to determine whether there be one or three trustees. If only one trustee, he serves for one year. If a vacancy occura in the office of trustee, a special meeting is called to elect a successor. If the ratepayers or trustees neglect their duty in the matter an appointment is made by the 43 commissioners. There is an excellent provision in the law to secure proper attention to cleanliness. If the trustees do not see that the outbuildings are kept in such condition as will not endanger the health of the children they may be removed from their office by the commis- sioner and the school grant withheld. Tn New York, from what I could learn, the principal difficulty in secin'ing efficient schools in the country is the employment of poorly qualified teachers. There are besides other drawbacks which are not peculiar to that State. The " rural school problem" is l)ecoming a serious question in several parts of the world. The manner in which the rural schools of New York are maintained presents some interesting features. In Ontario the expenditure for each school is almost entirely made up of (1) the government grant which is alxmt $1 per unit of average attendance, (2) a township rate of S150, with an additional $100 if there is an assistant teacher, and (3) a rate on the section to meet the balance required. It follows that with the exception of the small government grant, the cost of the school is met by direct taxation. A poor section is assisted by the wealthier sections of the township, but a poor township gets no help from w^ealthier municipalities. There is some inducement for a section to get an assistant teacher but not sufficient inducement if one teacher will answer. The plan of having a township tax has virtually ended the agitation of some years ago for the establishment of township boards of trustees. There is at present con- siderable agitation in New York as well as in several other States for the adoption of the township system. -1 ■f\ rrw ''.I4^«,«ljili^p»4ipffl!!l 44 The school moneys of the State of New York are raised in a difterent way from that of Ontario and are also apportioned on a different plan. The State Superinten- dent first sets aside the annual salaries of the school commissioners. He then sets apart to every city, incor- porated village having a population of 5,000 and upwards, and every union free-school district having a like popu- lation in which is employed a competent superintendent of schools, $800. He also sets apart to cities having more than one member of Assembly in the State legislature, $500 for each additional member. He then sets apart any money that may have been apportioned by the legislature for library purposes, and $6,000 for a con- tingent fund. A proportion is set aside to the Indians on the reservations for their schools. These sums having been set aside, the remainder is divided into two equal parts. The superintendent now appoints $100 to every district in the State. This is called the " district quota," and it is provided that a school must have been kept open for the full time of the preceding school year. For every additional teacher duly qualified (not a monitor) an additional sum of $100 is apportioned. The remainder of the school moneys is divided among the counties according to their 1 3spective populations. Cities that have special school laws receive their due share separate and apart from the remainder of the counties in which they are situated. Under this system it will be seen at once that every wealthy municipality not only pays for its own schools but assists poor municipalities. Apart from other questions that present themselves, and which it is not the 45 place here to discuss, a method of general taxation in sup^^ort of education is financially advantagous to rural schools. The State of New York in 1896, paid a total general school tax of $4,062,903, of which $8,500,000 was immediately distributed to the counties again. There are sixty counties in the '^^^Ate, and of these fifty- four receive more from this tax than they coDtributed to it. Erie county in which Bufialo is situated, paid $241,697 and received only $185,460; King's county in which Brooklyn is situated, paid $503,603 and received only $387,879 ; and New York county which includes the city paid $1,884,584 and received only $636,133. In every instance a coanty having no large city had an advantage from the State tax. ' It should be understood that the large cities — notably New York and Brooklyn — grumble at this condition, but the State Legislature satisfied that wealth should bear its due proportion of the tax for education, it is not at all likely to yield to the influence of even " Greater New York." If the same system were applied to Ontario, our large cities would be required to pay a heavier school tax and a corresponding relief would be granted to counties like Renfrew, Frontenac, Simcoe, Bruce, Lambton. u 4^' CHAPTER X. RURAL SCHOOLS. The rural school problem is one that has received a jjreat deal of attention in many States of the Union. Some few years ago the National Educational Associa- tion appointed a " Committee of Twelve " to consider the question, and its Report published in 1897 has become one of the valuable contributions to educational litera- ture which have been issued under the authority of that body. In the State of New York there has been much tliscussion with a view to a solution of this perplexing problem. The subject is an important one in every Pro- vince of the Dominion as well as in nearly every part of the Republic. In Ontario some features of the question give less trouble than they give to New York, but there is no doubt the i.eed of better rural schools is constantly felt. The schools in country districts have serious diflS- culties as compared with those of cities, and those diflB- culties arise from several well known causes. The question of maintenance to which I have already refeiTed is felt everywhere. The funds for the support of rural schools are generally provided from one or more of the following sources : — (1) the State (or Province), (2) the county, (3) the township, and (4) the school district or section. As already mentioned the rural schools in Ontario are maintained almost entirely from the first, third and fourth of these sources, but the salaries (in part) of the Inspector and the cost (in part) of the train- [46] 47 ing and oxaininations of Third ClaHs teachers are met from the second source. In tht» State of New York the large grant received fi*om the goverrnnent has the effect of distributing to some extent the burden of taxation •^vcr a wider area, but the absence of a (town) township . such as exists in Ontario presents greater inecjualities in school rates than is to be found with us. The system of municipal governuu'ut does not appear to furnish the sami! facilities as here for helping tlie weik .schools. The adoption of town.ship nistead of district boards is the only proposal that is seriously discu-ssed. It will be worth noticing that the desire to distribute over a wider area the cost of maintaining schools is not confined to Ontario or New York. On this matter the Report of the Committee of Twelve is valuable. :• •■ " I. Revenue. The great ruaouroo of the public schools is, and must continue c ,6, Home form or forma of public taxation. 2. Such areas or units of taxation should be created, or continued if already in existence, as will fully develop the sound American principle that the whole wealth of the state shall be made available for educating all the youth of the state. 3. To accomplish this end, resort must be had to the larger units of taxation, especially where population is sparse and wealth meagre. The following recommendations must be specifically iirged : (1) A liberal provision of funds from the state treasury ; (2) a county tax in at least all the county-system states ; (3) a town or township tax in the states where this civil division exists ; (4) taxes in special districts, that is, in cities and villages. The school district, in the commonly ' accepted sense of that term, is not a desirable taxing unit, but quite the contrary, and should be abolished as such unit. i ■■ , : I- m,- ■' ■ ""^ \ • I ,v,i , ■). ' <>vVVji.U'>.N>|,jffP!l^i^ i.Pl^iJ n.lJ^J^R^Hlip 48 1 1. — Distribution. 1. Funds raised by the large political or social units for general school purposes should be distribu<;ed in such a way as to bring the rich and the strong to the help of the poor and the weak. 2. Such rules of distribution should be adopted as will accomplish this end. In order to do this, distribution must be based, to a certain extent at least, upon fixed or arbitrary units ; that is, so much money must be given to the school or to the teacher. 3. The large taxing units should render a^sistanc^ to the small ones only upon the condition thai the small ones first do something for themselves. III. — Organization. 1. In the states where the town or mixed system of local govern- ment exists, the town or township-school system should, as far as practicable, be substituted for the district system ; in the couaty- py^om states the county-school system is the natural alternative to '..I : istrict system. ... In those parts of the country where existing physical and social conditions render it practicable, there should be such a con- solidation of rural schools as will diminish the existing number of schools, school-houses, and teachers, and bring together, at advantageous points, the pupils who are now divided and scattered among the isolated schools of the township or other similar districts. 8. There is urgent need of lengthening materially the time that the country schools, on the average, are in session each year. The ideal should be a minimum school year in each state of at least 160 or 180 days," The question of the proper supervision or inspection of rural schools is also a pressing one in the neighboring state. In Ontario it is more than a quarter of a century since we adopted our system of county supervision. Our inspectors must have the highest grade of certificates, and must have had at least Hve years' successful exper- ^mm wim^. 49 ience, of which three - must have been in public schools. Twenty inspectors in Ontario are university graduates and hereafter no person can obtain an Inspector's Certifi- cate who is not an honor graduate of a university, who is not a specialist from the Normal College, and who has not an experience gained in elementary schools. Expe- rience gained in a High School will not suflfice. The necessity of having some qualification for such positions is urged by the State Superintendent of New York in the part of his report which I have already quoted. Tn the Report on Rural Schools the importance of super- vision is very fully set forth : *' He can underatiind and sympathize with teachers hetter if he has an experimental knowledge of their work. No supervisor is so good as he who climbed from the lowest rounds and knows all the steps. That this is indispensable we are not prepared to state. There are some very excellent supervisors who have but little experience in teaching, but who have seen enough and studied enough to know how it ought to be done. Experience would have been helpful, however, in understandinc; the limitations of their work. '' First and foremost a supervisor should be able to instruct his teacher in the methods of organization and management of schools. This is particularly the cas6 in rural schools where so few teachers have acquired skill in teaching. But instruction with a teacher is like instruction with a child. There must be an awakening, an arousing, a hungering after instruction. The conditions of * being filled ' are that we must ' hunger and thirst.' The supervisor must inspire his teachers with a desik~> for better things. He should lead them to see that time is precious, and that the children in school this year may be on the farms next year and no more in school forever. They must know what to do and do it. The supervisor should be a source of inspiration. His corps of teachers must be alive, and eager and studious. The thing most to be ab- 60 horred in school work is the teacher dead to advancement in pro- fessional studies. The supervisor must rouse teachers to work out for themselves plans and methods for building up their schools, and must set forth the principles which should control them in their work. "The county superintendent, or the supervisor of schools in any rural community, should have had recent experience in the schools which he is to supervise. In cases where this is not possible, he should make a careful study of the peculiar surroundings of the schools of which he is to take charge. If the now departure which seems to be at hand in rural school education is to be a success, it must be carefully conducted in reference to those environments which are peculiar to each section. The supervisor who is to have a controlling influence in choice of text-books, in courses of study, in the selection and use of libraries, should be thoroughly convers- ant with the physical characteristics of his district, with the inter- ests of the people, with their sources of wealth and living, and with the home life of the children. Whether it be a mining or a grazing region, whether agriculture or horticulture pre- dominates as an interest, he should make himself at home in that domain of science or knowledge which will increase his usefulness as a school officer. " The supervisor can exert a wonderful influence in bringing the fireside to the support of the teacher. To do this he must be able to educate the people concerning their relation to the school, as to sending the children regularly, as to providing necessary material, such as books, etc. , as to allowing every teacher to pursue those methods of teaching which his skill and experience suggest as best suited to the wants of the school. At meetings of agriculture clubs, at town rallies, at educational " barbecues," at commencements, at spring festivals, at farmers' institutes, he should embrace every opportunity of saying a word for the schools, in order to arouee the people and interest them in the whole system of education. The columns of the county paper afford the supervisor a very ready means of reaching the people. Almost every farmer takes the county paper that comes weekly to his fireside, which gives the ■pa^i mmmm l'K-<.ILJM 51 news of the outside world and the doings of his neighbors. School news is an important item and should never be omitted. Every week the paper should contain something of educational interest from the pen of the supervisor, though not always over his signa- ture—suggestions for improvement, statistics of enrolment and attendance, new and better ways of teaching, plans for schoolhouse construction and decoration. The press is valuable to every teacher and helpful to the system of education by bringing farmers into sympathy with the great educational movements of the world. The press gives a larger audience, though it enforces a shorter address. But a little every week, full of variety and interest, will eventually build up a healthy sentiment in the county and educate parents as well as children. " The supervisor should have a direct or indirect control of the selection of teachers. The crisis in the history of schools is when teachers are to be chosen. No one is so welt qualified to choose them wisely as a faithful supervisor, and no one is more likely to do so conscientiously, since he knows the value of efficient teachers. This control can be given him directly or indirectly. If he does not wish to have the direct choice in individual instances, the same may be accomplished by giving him the pover to examine and license teachers for his supervisory district. No one, then, can be selected by the board of directors except such aa are approved by him. He prepares an eligible list to which the board is limited in making its choice. If the superintendent is conscientious and courageous in the preparation of this Hat, he can safely leave the responsibility of the individual appointments to the board. " [n many cases the questions for such examination are prepared at the state office. In some instances the county board conducts the examinations, and in a few the answer papers are sent to the state office for final examination and approval or rejection." The chief impediment to the improvement of rural schools in every place is the lack of thoroughly efficient teachers. It is too often the case that trustees fail to distinguish between a teacher of superior scholarship, of marked ability as a disciplinarian, of valued experience, ■'■ " ■ r^wi'i't/'ifvsf^" ''■'»i^«S»5»?!5W^ww:'¥'^pWp(f^ 52 and one far inferior in all these important elements. The engagements are from year to year. Re-engagement sometimes depends on the good wishes of a single trus- tee. To remedy matters it has been proposed in New York to adopt township boards. The shortness of the school year is not so serious as in some other States. In many parts of the Union it is less than 100 days, while in New York the school year is 160 days. The ten- dency of the population to move to the cities from the country appears to be general at the present day. It is undoubtedly due to great economic causes. The advance of science and the consequent increased application of skilled labor to various pursuits has lessened the number needed on the farm. There is more demand for machin- ery, and hence the departure of the " village blacksmith" and the shoemaker of the " corners " to the city. The number of pupils attending rural schools has as a result decreased. The situation has become much more serious in the New England States than in New York. In his last report, however, Dr. Skinner regards the condition as becoming serious : — " In 1870 there were no fewer than 1,600 school districts with an average daily attendance of less than ten pupils each, while the i3port8 for 1896 show more than 3,500 such districts, and it is safe to estimate that the average daily attendance for all strictly country schools in the State does not exceed ten pupils for each school. In hundreds of districts the number of school district officers exceeds the number of pupils in average attendance. Under such con- ditions it is practically impossible to maintain interest in the school work, either in the community or among the pupils and patrons ; the school ia conducted in a perfunctory manner, and school spirit is at a minimum. An instance recently came to my attention of a 53 teacher who asked to be released from an unexpired contract io teach in a school of two pupils, givint; as her reason that the hope- less task of endeavoring to arouse interest in stud}' under such conditions would drive her insane. " It may be argued that the law now provides for the annulling and consolidating of weak districts, but local sentiment stands in the way and clings to the old organization more from love of what it has been than from respect for what it is, until the results from such provisions of the law arc meagre and barren. From an economic point of view, the waste of the State school money under the district system is both startling and ludicrous. One of the officials of this Department reports visiting a country school in company with the school commissioner of the district, and tinding there a teacher at work on a piece of embroidery, but with no pupils in attendance. Enquiry elicited the information that the school had been in session three weeks without any pupils, and that there were only two childreit of school age in the entire dis- trict, both of whom were expected to attend school later on. It is certainly unfortunate that such a condition should be even possible in a State that stands first among the states in population, wealth and natural resources. "The clear, unbiassed judgment of Horace Mann, in regard to Massachusetts, pronounced over fifty years ago, still remains appli- cable to our own State, not only unchallenged, but affirmed again and again by the highest educational authorities throughout the United States and the world. The advisability of a change in our system has passed beyond the realm of discussion. Everywhere it has come to be recognized as the most important educational ques- tion before the people of our State. All others can afford to wait until it is Siolved. Better schools in our cities and villages but aggravate the evil by still further draining the rural schools, and thus reducing the school advantages of tliose residing in rural com- munities. " The better attendance of pupils at rural schools in Ontario is partly due to the fact that average attendance is an important factor in determining the grant paid to ir — rr 54 c-i each school. On the questions of the school year and regular attendance the report of the " Committee of Twelve " already referred to is of value. '* The school year must be lengthened to a full school year of nine or ten months. In many States a minimum length is pre- scribed by statute, but in few cases is this sufficient. Whatever efforts may be made for the improvement of the rural school, until there can be offered a ' year s work and a year's wage,' it will be difficult and often impossible to retain accomplished teachers for continuous service ; with this, many such teachers would choose this service, from family and social connections, and from a natural preference for rural life. •' In countries in which people are accustomed to the action of centralized authority, prescription settles the matter, as in France, where the school year is more than forty weeks ; in England where, as conditions of receiving the Government grant, the principal teacher must hold the government certificate of qualification ; the school premises mu8t be in good sanitary condition ; the staff, furni- ture and apparatus must be sufficient ; and the school must have met 400 tim^s {200 dayt) in the year. " In countries like our own, in which popular initiative in political matters has been the rule, success must usually come by other methods, and in this respect we have much to learn from our neighbors. In Canada the schools have been lengthened to a full school year mainly under .the stimulus given by the mode of dis- tributing the government grants. '' Letters and reports have been received from the different Provinces. By these it appears that the , average length of the school year was in Ontario 212 days ; in New Brunswick, 216 days ; in Nova Scotia, 198.7 days ; the full school year being 216 days, and some schools exceeding this limit. A report from Regina, the capital of the Northwest Territories, states that the full school year is considered to be twelve months less the holidays, amounting to seven weeks, but this limit cannot be attained where the sparseness of the population obliges the pupil to travel long distances, on account of the severity of the winters. 56 " Adding to our plan of requiring a minimum school year, the Canadian plan, already in a degree recognized in some recent school legirJation, of making the amount of government grant depend in a Ifti-ge degree upon the length of the school year and the average attendance, consolidating schools wherever practicable, and giving from the larger units of school administration to aid the smaller and weaker, the obstacle of the short term and insufficient compensa- tion can be removed." Regarding matters of Organization and Discipline the Report points out some of the well-known difficulties of rural schools: "It happens that ungraded rural schools with a very small attendance are to be found even in the most thickly peopled States, and often in proximity to cities. Rhode Island in 1895 reports 158 out of its 263 schools as ungraded, and sixty-four of them as con- taining fewer than ten pupils each ; three towns have in the aggre- gate thirty-nine schools averaging fewer than ten pupils. Vermont in 1893 reported 153 schools with six pupils or less each. Massa- chusetts in 1893-4 reported sixteen towns with an aggregate of nearly 100 schools with an average of eleven pupils. New York in 1891-5 reported 2,983 schools with fewer than ten pupils each, and 7,o29 with less than twenty. Other examples are mentioned in the report of the sub-committee on Maintenance. " A school with ten pupils of ages from five to fifteen years, of different degrees of advancement, some beginning to learn their letters, others advanced from one to eight or nine years in the course of study, cannot be graded or classified to advantage, but must for the most part be taught individually. The beginner who does not yet know a letter should not be placed in a class with another who began last year and can now read lessons in the middle of the primer. It will not do to place in the same class a boy beginning enumeration and another who has already mastered the multiplication table. The beginner in grammar has not yet learned the technique, and is confused and discouraged by the instruction [ 56 given to another pupil in his class who has already learned the declensions and conjugations. " Any attempt, in short, to instruct two or more pupils in a class when there is a difference of a year's work in their advancement, results in humiliating and discouraging the less advanced, and in making the maturer pupils conceited. Higher learning in the possession of a fellow man seems to an illiterate puraon as something magical, or bordering on the miraculous ; he can make combinations of thought which surprise those who are unused to them. The case is worse with the child in school. To him the elevation given by a year's study seems an endowment of nature and not a result of industry. Permanent injury to the pupils is very often occasioned by a wrong classification. For not only does the lower suffer from discouragement, but the higher pupil is necessarily injured by not being held to his best. The teacher is perforce obliged to adapt the lesson to the averat^e of the class. This does not give enough work for the advanced pupil although it gives too much for those below the average. There is not enough demand upon the first to continue the increase of his powers ; he becomes indolent and stops growing. For these reasons classification as above described ought not to be expected in the rural school ; it must remain ungraded, and as a result the teacher must resort to individual instruction wherever there are intervals of a year or more in degrees of advancement between pupils, and this is the actual practice in perhaps the majority of such schools. The older pupils at least should have separate grammar, history, and arithmetic lessons. It is understood by your sub-committee, as a matter of course, that even in a small school of six to ten pupils there may be two or more pupils of sufficiently near stages of progress to form one class — for example, two beginnprs in arithmetic, grammar, geo- graphy, or history. It may be that a dull pupil has already been studying arithmetic, grammar, or history for a quarter or a half year, and that a bright pupil just commencing the study would be able to keep up with him on a review from the beginning of the book ; but it would not do to place a dull pupil commencing a study with a bright one who had already a half year's start in it. -MM «p 67 It often happens that pupils placed in the same class at the begin- ning of the year separate widely in power to learn new lessons before the middle of the year. In such cases a class should be broken up to prevent the two-fold injury, namely, to the bright pupil by assigning him too short lessons, and to the dull pupil by assigning him more than he can well accomplish. The teacher, even after forming classes in writing, reading, and spelling, has twelve to fifteen lessons to hear in a forenoon and nearly as many more for the afternoon. There is an average of less than ten minutes for each recitation. The idea of the recita- tion or class exercise is that the teacher probe to the bottom the pupil's preparation of his lesson, and correct bad habits of study. If the pupil fails to master by sufticient industry the details — the facts and external items — the teacher counsels and reproves, requir- ing more work on the same lesson. If he finds that the details are mastered the teacher next tests the combinations, the thoughts that the pupil has used in counecting one fact with another and in seeing relations. Facts are connected so as to form a science when each one is made to throw light on every other fact, and all explain each. So a lesson is learned properly when the pupil can place each item in its systematic relation to the whole. He must under- stand the bearings of all ; he must think out the interrelations. Hence it happens that the good teacher is not satisfied with a memoriter recitation of the details of the lesson still less with a word for-word rendition of the text-book. Not the mere words of the book, nor even the disconnected facts or details which the words indicate, but to bring out the thought which unites these details and explains them, is the main object of the good recitation. But such a recitation requires time. The teacher cannot probe the pupil's knowledge in five minutes and correct his bad habits of study — nor in ten minutes. In the necessarily brief recitation of the ungraded school there is barely time to test the pupil's mastery of the external details of the lesson, the mere facts and technical words. It is for this reason more especially that the rural school has been the parent of poor methods of instruction — of pan-o memorizing and of learning words instead of things. }^. p.«i,iH-> -• [r:j !• ^nr" > ■ ■ ■ ■ I . ^ . ■ ^ * l.UJWl 58 At the beKiuning of this century only one-thirtieth of the inhabi- tants of the United States lived in towns of 8,000 people or upwards and more than 90 per cent, of all the public schools were ungraded schools. The question has often been asked how it is that so many able men who became scholars and statesmen and professionsl men of eminence could have come from schools as poor as the rural school is said to be. Such eminent men as were produced in those times came from the rural school ; there were few graduates from graded schools to compete with them. Of the men now living, past the middle age of life, nearly all received their early education in the rural ungraded school, because even as late as 1860 at least 80 per cent, of alt the public schools were ungraded, there being only 12^ per cent of the population resident in cities. The rural school threw on the pupil the burden of his education. He was obliged to get his knowledge from books, such books as he could come to possess. Bright pupils do pretty well by themselves if given good books and taught how to read and to understand the technique used in the elementary books of mathematics, grammar, and the other liberal arts. Any country boy who acquires a love for books, who has access to the best ones, and studies them with ene.c,'y« ^ill ^y middle age become a learned man. In the ideal classified school the teacher has two clacses of pupils^ each class containing within it pupils substantially at the same stage of advsnceraent. The pupils of a given class recite together in all the branches, and the teacher has a half hour for a lesson and can go into the dynamics or casual relations of the facts and events treated. Bach pupil in a class learns as much from bis fellow pupils as from the teacher direct ; for the teacher draws out of the class its store of observations and reflections on the topic of the lesson. He shows up the one-sidedness of the preparation of the individual pupil ; some hate neglected this point and some that other point. Each has probably neglected something. But, on the other hand, each of the diligent ones has brought forward something new that is valuable to his fellows. Each pupil finds through the recitation of the others that they have seen some things that had escaped his 59 notioOi although he supposed that he understood thorou((hly the book presentation of the subject. His teacher suggests many new ideas and criticises the one-sidedness of the views of the pupils, and also, it may be, of the text-book. All the statements of the book are brought to the test of verification— either through the child's experience or through other authorities. The child thus learns the method of study. The ideal ckutsified school can teach and does teach proper methods of study ; the rural school cannot do this effectively in its five or ton minute recitations. It is because of this that wise directors of education havu desired the consolidation of small schools into large schools wherever practicable. Two schools of ten each furnish on an average one-half as many recitations if united as they do when separate, owing to the possibility of pairing or classifying pupils of the same degree of advancement. Ten such schools united into one will give 100 pupils, with a possibility of classes of ten each, which can be more efficiently taught than before, because the pupil can learn more in a class than by himself. The class in the hands of a good teacher is a potent instrument for reaching all sides of the pupil's observation and reflection. Again, it is evident that five teachers can teach the 100 pupils united in one school far better than the ten teachers were able to teach them in the ten separate schools. If still further consolidation were possible and 400 pupils were united in one school, the classification might be improved to such a degree that a teacher could easily take the charge of two classes of twenty pupils, and ten teachers could do far better work for each pupil than was done by the forty teachers in the forty small rural schools before consolidation. Hence, economy becomes a great item in what are called " Union Schools." Your sub-committee, in this discussion of the advantages of classifying, and the corresponding disadvantages of the want of classi- fying, has assumed that as good teachers are supplied to the rural schools as to the schools of villacr^s and cities — teachers of expenence and skill, teachers of thorough academic and professional training in normal schools. It is assumed that States have made provision !i •f fS W' ■ '.^'T" 7 T*""#WPMP||, '■pi I 60 for good snlaries in the ungraded kcIiooIh, and that the liceiue to teacli requires profeoHional training. It in admitted aa a fact, however, that the average rural school teacher receiver a small salary — not more than one-half that of the teacher in the city or large village. It is ♦^rue, as rep(>rtepertaining to instruc- tion in ungraded schools are of such a character as not to yield to ordinary remedies." Various expedients have been proposed to remedy the evils of the rnral schools. Among them are the follow- ing : — (I) Improvement of country roads; (2) special appropriations for small schools as are made in Ontario from the " Poor School Fund " ; (3) the concentration of the liigher classes to some central school ; (4) more fre- quent conferences of the teachers of each township with the superintendent ; (5) the establishment of libraries in rural schools, and (6) the transportation to central schools. On this, the report presents views that are receiving much attention : "■^Transportation to Central Schools. —The collection of pupils into larger units than thu district school furnishes may be accomplished under favorable circumstances by transportating at State or local expense all the pupils of the small rural districts to a central graded school and abolishing the small ungraded school. This is the radical and effective measure which is to do great good in many sections of each State. As shown already by the Sub-committee on the Main- tenance of Schools, Massachusetts, in which the plan began under the town superintendent of Concord, Mr. John B. Tileston (about the year 1878 in Concord, or even earlier in the town of Quincy, see Appendix F"/, paid in 1894-95 the sum of ^76,608 for the trans- 61 portatinn of children from small rural rcIiooIb to central graded schools — 213 towns out of a total of 353 towns and cities using this plan to a greater or less extent, and securing the two-fold result of economy in money and the substitution of graded for ungraded schools. The spread of this plan to Maine, Vermont, New Hamp- shire, Connecticut, Rhode Island, New Jersey, Ohio, and some other States (see Report of Bureau of Education fur 1804-96, pp. 14C9-82), demonstrates its practicability. Experiments with this plan have already suggested improvements, as in the Kingsville experiment in Ohio, where the transportation reached in all cases the homes of the pupils and yet reduced the cost of tuition from $22.75 to $12.26 a year for each of the fifty pupils brought to tbj central school from the outlying districts." CHAPTER XI. 5CH00L PROQRAMMES. To settle upon a programme of studies for the schools has been a question which has received much attention in different countries, and the State of New York has had its share in endeavoring to find a satisfactory solu- tion of the problem. It is generally understood that the function of the schools is to assist in preparing pupils for the duties of after life and that too much attention cannot be given to education provided it is of the right kind. In the formation of character which is the chief aim of the teacher, the acquisition of knowledge has a vei V important place and without growth in knowledge there can be no intellectual or moral development. There is, ' wever, considerable difference of opinion among 62 educationists as to the relative value of different kinds of knowledge. It is moreover true that the value of a sub- ject often depends upon its usefulness as an instrument of mental discipline rather than as a source of informa- tion The main difficulty in d welding upon a programme of studies arises from the conditions to be found in a demo- cratic country where in the same school children are train- ed who will follow different pursuits. Only a very small proportion of the pupils enrolled in the Public Schools will ever attend High Schools. A still smaller proportion will enter Universities. The interests of all classes have to be considered and the great object educationists have tried to secure is to frame a couree that will serve the purposes of those who may attend a College or Univer- sity and at the same time prove to be a wise one for that gi'eat body of persons who must be satisfied with the training given in the Public Schools. There is, doubtless, a general concensus of opinion regarding the importance of the main branches of an elementary education, but no agreement is in sight as to when some of these subjects should be dropped or when some other branches of less practical importance should be taken up. It is only necessary to mention arithmetic, English grammar, algebra, botany, drawing and Latin, to indicate the great variety of opinions held on this question. What camplicates matters is that the future course of children cannot be determined. No one can safely predict the calling in life which a pupil, even of a High School, should follow. The age of caste is passed and the stabil- ity and progress of the nation cannot be assured if the -m^^m- 63 avenues to positions of trust and usefulness are denied to the children of the poorer classes. It will be an unfortun- ate day for civilization if the state should confine its duties to elementary education. The doctrine that those who desire a High School education should pay for it has only to be examined in order to have its absurdity exposed. Much public money has been expended on universities but the state has had the best of the bargain. Everyone will, however, admit that the great major- ity of children must at an early age earn a living for themselves. Any course of study that loses sight of this fact is faulty and therefore objectionable. A programme for PuV>lic Schools that is not the be.st for children who never enter a High School cannot be defended. The course prescribed for secondary schools should have in view not the few who go to a University but the much larger number who never get that far. No doubt pro- vision should be made to meet the aims of both cla.sses of students but there is no doubt that the interests of the great body should have the first consideration. In Ontario the majority of High School students never enter theThird Form and it is assumed that the subjects prescribed for the Primary examinations give the best training that can be fairly devised. Any other principle could scarcely be defended. To regard the principal function of the High Schools as that of preparing candidates for matric- ulation is no longer the prevailing view. Before 1871 the secondary schools of Ontario were virtually for the benefit of students who intended to enter a profession. When classics ceased to be compulsory the High Schools gained favor and made rapid strides in efficiency. They -i 1^ I '■ f ■■ 64 are no longer schools of a privileged class. Their popu- larity is largely due to the broadening of the curriculum in the direction of what is more practical. It may be safe to affirm that any policy which compels or induces students to take up in the lower Forms what will not benefit those who remain only a year or two at school is objectionable. The boy who is likely to enter a Univer- sity will, no doubt, show wisdom by studying Latin for instance, as soon as he is admitted to a High School. The policy cannot be defended if all other boys are persuaded for his benefit to do likewise. Better that the five per cent, should neglect Latin for a couple of years than that the ninety-five per cent, should give attention to any subject not in their interest. Fortunately under a good system which includes among its obligatory subjects of the lower Forms a good course of study for all students, the objects of each class may be satisfactorily secured. In this connection it is not out of place to quote the opinion of the Conniiittee of Twelve in the report on rural schools : " ¥our sub-committee has assumed that the course of study in the rural schools should be substantially the same as that of the city schools. The difl'orences should concern only minor details. It would, therefore, refer here to the report of the Committee of Fifteen for fuller details, and for the discussion of the grounds for selecting the several branches «>f the course of study. The course of study of the elementary schctol, whether urban or rural, should contain those branches which give the child an insigiit into the physical world and the means of conquering it for human uses, and al^o an insight into human nature and the motives that control the actions of men. The child should above all be taught how to combine with his fellows to secure reasonable ends. The windows of the soul are to be opened by the five branches of course ' Plipw^p^llliiwpp4tj|^iy|ip) K. w^mfm^ I IP iiuwujiif. mn, III I vw\^^ ■iipjj..jjii,)p|,pi|^_ii,|^p! G5 enabling the youth to 8ee(l) the conditions of inorganic nature by arithmetic and the elements of physics and chemistry ; (2) the con- ditions of organic nature by studying plants and animals, the land, water and air, and, besides these, the means that man invents and uses to connect each place with the rest of the world— these things belonging to geography. These two "windows" look out upon nature. The three others enable us to see man ; (3) literature and art as revealing human nature, arousing pure and high aspirations in the youth, and freeing him from narrow and mean views of life ; (4) the study of the structure of language, as found in the several subdivisions of grammar and rhetoric ; (5) history, which treats of the greater self — of man as a social whole. These five branches belong to all schools, for they relate to the substance of humanity and are necessary for entrance upon civiliza- tion. Besides arithmetic, geography, literature, grammar and history, there are collateral branches that each school should include — some of them information studies, such as oral courses in (he sciences, in history, and in the arts — others of the nature of dis- ciplines, or arts of skill, such as vocal music, gymnastics, manual training, the art of cooking, and some special attention to the ele- mentary principles of the useful arts practised in the neighborhood of the school, namely, farming, horticulture, grazing, mining, manu- facturing, or the like. in genet al these collateral branches should relate to the pupil's environment and help him to understand the natural features of that envinmment, as well as the occupations «)f his fellow-men in the neighborhood. There are two things to understand in this matter of the geography of the environnient. First, what it is and how it came to be — its land and water, its mounttiins and river valleys, its climate and soil, its productions, niinera; «°egetablc, and animal, and their peculiarities, how they differ frcjiu the productions of the rest of the world. Second, the means by wliicli manprocures fr<^5TTi t'l 67 WHter furmations in biH neighborhood, and giving him power to recognize in the visible landscape about him the invisible forces that worked in the past, and still are at work in the present, moulding these shapes and forms. On the basis of this knowledge of the elements of difference produced by nature in soil, climate and configuration of the landscape, he should explain the grounds and reasons for the counter process of civilization which struggles to overcome these differences by bridging the rivers and tunneling the mountains — by using steamboat and railway so as to unite each particular habitat with the rest of the world. He should see how man adapts to his needs the climate of each place by creating for himself a comfortable temperature, using for this purp«)se clothing and shelter, as well as fuels of wood and coal or deriveil from oils ai'd gases, t<»piotect from cold, and on the otlier hand utilizing ice or j)ower fans, and creating easy access to summer dwellings on the heights of mountains, or at the aeasiiore, to mitigate the heat. He turns the s«)il into a laboratory, correcting its lacks and deficiencies by adding what is neiessary to produce the crop which he desires. He naturalizes the useful plants und aiumalsof all climes to his own habitat. It is evident that the details of the prr)ces8 by which differences of soil, climate, and production arise, important as these are, should not be allowed to occupy so much of the pupil's time that he neglects to study the counter process of industry and cn his hands between the ages of ten and fourteen, but I l^elieve this can profitably be filled by proper instruction in the subjects already assigned to those grades rather than by the importation of others of doubtful utility. We rely upon thorough and systematic instruction in geography and history to do this work. Such thorough and systematic instruction will afford opportunity to the teacher for the fullest enrichment of the course that can be asked by any one at all cognizant of the con- ditions surrounding our couunon schools, for geography should include not only the subject as usually understood, but also the elements of botany, /.oology, astronomy, physiography, commerce, races, religions and gnvcnimcnts. Fully the same amount of time should be given to it as to arithmetic, and covering practically the same ages, six to fourteen. The w rk in history should comprise a thorough drill in American Historj ^eluding the elements of Civil Government, English History, and the outlines of Greek and Roman History. American History is a subject which is much neglected in our grsuunar scIhmiIs, to our everlasting discredit. There is no age when a ]>upirs mind is more impressionable, and a thorough study and drill in the events of our own history and their under- lying causes is of incalculable benefit in promoting love of country, a l(»ve for political history and a love of sound and helpful reading. The study of natural history in our primary and grannnar grades should be correlated with the work of language, dniwing and geography, and depends for its effectiveness uj)on the power of the teacher presenting the subject. This subject is not touched upon in a spirit of hostile criticism, nor is it attempted in any degree to outline all that should be studied in grannnar grades. On the contrary, I have omitted all I '^/As^;?'.,:-^:..^:'- yf-.rf 71 -;1 reference to foreign languages, which, in the case of modem languages may be taught where conditions permit or demand in the grammar grades ; the existence of such conditions can easily be recognized, but I earnestly deprecate the movement on the part of many teachers, writers and school authorities to set back into the lower grades subjects and methods of studying subjects which seem to me on the one hand to demand greater maturity for accurate comprehension, and on the other to crowd out subjects more essential to the great majority of pupils and better calculated to develop them for the business of this life. Time was when the object of the school was the development of the individual and when the personal equation of each pupil entered intl systems, for without good health the best educati 'n^'i;";"'-'"v^ CHAPTER XII. THE COURSE OF STUDY. For the use of the grades below the High Schools the Superintendent has issued a manual giving the course of study recommended to be followed by teachers. It is mainly intended for rural schools and presents an outline which is suggestive of the topics that should usually be studied in the different stages of the course. Teachers are left largely to their own discretion, but according to the reports of County Commissioners the manual is generally followed and is found productive of good results. It has tended to produce uniformity and this is a feature which it is impossible to notice without coupling it with the conditions long existing in the schools of this Pro- vince. Here a uniform course of study has been a marked feature in our system. In the State of New York great diversity was at one time prevalent in rural schools, but the tendency towards uniformity is most m 'r) ed. In city schools there is great variety in the court.cS 01 study, but the reports of the " Committee of Ten " and the " Committee of Fifteen " so well known to educationists, show the trend in nearly all the States in favor of a better system. It will be of interest to teachers and inspectors of Ontario to compare the programme of studies for the State of New York with that adopted in this Province. For the rural schools of the Empire State the only sub- jects for the average school of one department are read- [72] ,' ^Mj±^: '^'ft •^■' n in^, writing, spelling, language, arithmetic, geography, drawing, physiology, history, civil government and general lessons. The following are the details of the programme : FIRST YEAR. Rendimi. — Blackboard work. First reader begun. lfV»7t»if/. — Much written work on tablet, slate and blHokboard. Spelliny. — All words introduced in reading and other lessons. LtnifjHiUje. — Correct oral expression. Short sentences copied in script. ArifhmHii:. — First term : All combinations froml to 5, inclusive. Second term : Combinations U> 10. Problems involving addition, subtractio.i, multiplication and division. Ge.ograplnj. — Size, — relative, form, color, position, distance, direction ; some general ideas regarding climate, products, people and occupations. Physiolugy and Hygiene. — Lessons from text-bof)k. Drawing. — Color, form, botanicHl drawing and arrangement, measure, illustrative sketching. Oeneml Lessons. — Good morals and manners. Care of the per- son. Simplest elements in vocal music. Nature study. Literature. SECOND YEAR. • First Term. Reading. — First Reader completed. Writing. — Jormer lessons continued. tipelliiig. — Oral and written spelling of all words introduced. Language. — Correct oral and written forms taught in connection with other lessons. Arithmetic. — Combinations to 15. Reading and writing of numbers to 100. Fractions — halves, thirds and fourths. Geography. — Size, — absolute, form, color, position, distance, direction ; some general ideas regarding climate, products, people and occupations ; drawing to a scale the desk, school-room and yard. Physiology and Hygiene. — Lessons from text-book. •'■3 ■; .i y I .^i^^- ..im: ^,'V'¥!i«r*^K, -fvv'T'-rsa'ir 'M» ':« ■ •- uiyiff WW mm^ ^ y IJ^I-^WiPPPiPlPi!?!^^ 74 Drawing. — Color, fotm, botanical drawing and arrangement, measure, location, illustrative sketching. General Lensona. — Inculating good habits. Elements of vooal music. Nature Study. Literature. Items of useful knowledge. Sbconi) Term. Reading. — Second Reader begun. Writing. — F<»rmer lessons continued. Spelliny. — Former lessons continued. Language. — Former lessons continued. Arithmetic. — Combinations to 25. Reading and writing of numbero to 1,000. Addition and subtraction tableH completed. Fractions to and including tenths, numerator 1. Original c Tbrm. Readituj. — SupplenienUry rending of Second Render grndc. Writing. — Copy Bo»ik No. 1. Spdliiiff. — First term lesftons continued. LtdKjmuje. — Exercises in reproiluction, narmtion nnd description. Arithmetic. — Addition, Hul>traction nnd multiplication. Frnc- tionB(Been(»tes). Concrete work, with annlysis. Mentnl arithmetic. Geotfraphij, — Former lessons continued. f'h\jaii>l(Ta-»»»- <#•,«•* " fmm^i^mj^i^^^m^ w ^mwm- 76 SkCOMD TlRM. Rettdiug.— Third ReHder completed and much supplementary reading. Writhuj. — Copy Book No. 2. Spdliiig — First term lessons continued. Laiufiiage. — A continuation of first term's work. Elementary lesaons on imperative and exclamatory sentences, modifiers and form in letter writing. Arithmetic. — Fractions (see Manual). Problems involving all principles previously taught. Mental arithmetic. Roman notation tf» 1,000. Problems in linear measure. (reoyraphy. — First term lessoiiH continued. Lessons from wall map8, and review of town and county. Phytiology and Hygiene. — Lessons from text-book. Drawing.- Oeometric draiving : Measure, tools, ger)metric terms. probleniH, working, drawing, development. Lessons of first term continued Oeneral Li'stona. — Former lessons continued. FIFTH YEAR. FiRHT TbBM. Heading. — Fouith Reader begun. Much supplementary reading. Writin^f. — Cojjy Book No. 3. Si)elliug. — Words from various lessons and from spelling books. J^ttufnagv. — Former lessimH continued. Reproduction, narration and desf'ription. Elementary lessons on the noun and i^s classifica- tion as proper and counnon ; quotations ; the distinction between such w^ords an ait and set, riae and raise, teach and lenm ; letter forms, word analysis. Arithmetic. — Factors, multiples and divisors. G. C. D. and L. C. M. Reduction, addition and subtraction of fractions. Simple problems in avoirduiiois weight. Easy bills. Qengrttpfty, — Elementary lessons on North America and South America. 77 Fhynology and Hygiene. — Elementary lessons on the framework and the covering of the body, and the muscles. Ih'aiPinq. — Decorative drawing : Color, botanical drawing. Pic- torial draicinif. General Lestow. — Elementary science lessons. Literature. Vocal music. Rhetorical training. Second Tbbm. Reading. — Fourth Reader continued and supplementary reading;. Selections from classic literature and stories from American history, read in the school and at home. Writing. — Copy Book No. 3. Spelling. — As in preceding term. Language. —Former lessons continued. Singular and plural forms, poBsessives, adjectives. Review. Arithmetic. — Common fractions completed. Simple problems in li*iuid and dry measure. Problems involving all principles previ- ously taught. Geography — Europe, Asia, Africa and Australia. A thoroiigh review and completion of elementary geography. Physiology and Hygiene. — Elementary lessons on foods and drinks and digestion. l>rawing. — Geometric drawin4j : Measure, toolst, geometric terms, problemH, working drawing, development. Lessons of drat term continued. Geiieral Lessonf. — Former lessons continued. SIXTH YEAR. First Tehm. Reading. — Fourth Reader conipleteii, Supploment.iry reading. Writiiuf. — Copy Book No. 4. Spilling. — Spelling bf>ok and important words in various lesHons. ^■' 'T?f'?*"' «^^3»^P*T 78 L(mffnage, — Fnnnor lessons continued. Rcproiluction, narration and description. Elenientiiry les8r>ns on the comparison of adjec- tives ; clauses ; pronouns ; tliu distinction between such words as fnnntj, stmiige and odd, fewer and leiu. Word analysis. Arithmetic. — Review of common fractions. 'Hecimals. Problems involving all previous work. Mcntnl ari*^!imetic. Geinjraph\i. — Mathenuitical geography. Divisions of North Am- erica, the United States in particular. Ph[i»iohMjxi and Uyii'ieiw. — Klementary lessons on blood and breathing. Jh-nwiuij. —Ihatratitv dniwimj: Color, botanical drawing. Pic- toi iid drawitig. Getund LeHsoiut. — Vocal music. Science lessons. Literature. Rhetorical training. Calisthenic drill. I Sk«oni> Tkkm. Rettdiuij — Choice solections from standard authors. Writintj. — Copy Itook No. 4. Sitellituf From readers, spellers and other text-books, as in preceding t.eru)H. LunijiKuie. - ¥rk SUite houndarieH and natural features ; counticii ; principal rui)r'>«^.d Hystems ; citiuH and important towns ; minerals. (iroductK, fimniifactiires, govurnmvnt and education. Ki»ecial study of tht- county in which the school i« located. Phii»it>linjif tntfi U\iiiim^ Ki'iiicutary lessons on the nerves and the tivf Menses. Ihinrinij. — ilftniwhic drairin^ : lf«4uiure, tool?, geometric terms, problunis, working; drawing* 4*vel<'pmeut. Levona of first term continuMl GtHer«k m \v^'. 79 SEVENTH YEAR. ' I FiBST Term. Reading. — Fifth Reader, or choice selections from standard authorH. Writing. — Copy Book No. 6. Spflling. — Previous work continued. (iramnwr. — Reproduction, narrat'on and description. The sen- tence, kinds, analyHis of Himple sentences ; nouns, adjectives, verbs, ail verbs, and their classifications , comparison ; abbreviations, con- i.iotionH, capitals and punctuation; the {paragraph; quotations; word analysis. Aiiihmdi*:. — ConifM)und numbers completed. Problems involv- ing all j)rt'vi()us work. Oeo'irm^ .ij. — Review. South America, Europe and Ania. Phiistnlog\i anil Hiiyk'ne. — Review. The skeleton, muscles and skMi. Ih'riwitig. —Ue.cimitive drawing : Color, botanical drawing. Oco- ■nefnc dmnung : Measure, tools, geometric terms, problems. Pic- toiK<,l ihav'ing. (hnvral Lessoiu. — A continuation of [>i-evious lessons. (See sixth year, lirst term.) Current events. Second Term. Reading. — Classic literature. WrUing, — Copy Book No. (i. iSlp-.i.'jJijy.— Continuation of previous work. Grammar. — Former lessonn continued Clause and phrase, com- plements ; prepositions, oonjuuctiona and interjections ; i>er«on, number, gender and case : aniilysin ii:i(l parsing ; letters of friend- ship, businesH and recominendatioii ; punctuation of words in series, of words of addrtss, of words omitted ; the hyphen ; synonyms, appositives ; formal notes, telegrams, advertisements ; rambling sentences, natural order of words. Word analysis. Arithmetic. — Percentage, insurance, tjixes, commission, profit and loss. Problems involving all previous work. ^r^^^'fWWW^r^'^W^^^f^f^rW^r^^ m .• 80 Oeography, — Africa, Oceanica, stnndard time, and general review. Phy»iolo(fy and Hygiet e. — Dige(>Hon. Dramivg. — Lemons of first term continued. Geometric d fairing : Working drawing, development. General Lessons. — A continuation of previous lebsons. EIGHTH YEAR, FiBST Term. Reading.— ClaMic literature. One or two recitations a week. Oratnnuir.— Four lessons k -'viewed and eontinvied. Reproduc- tion, narration and description. Complex and compound sentences ; the interrogative sentence ; analysis and parsing ; verbs, — principal parts, regular and irregular, redundant and defective ; voice, mode, tense, person and number ; declension; punctuation; parenthencnl expressions ; synonyms ; literary style ; ambiguity ; newspaper articles, bills, essays ; word analysif«. Arithmetic. — Review of last term's work. Simple interest. Par- tial [myments — United States rule only. Problems. Phyndogy and Hygiene. — Review ; c'rculation and respiration, including voice. Th'awiHg. — Decorative dravnng : Color, bota';.ical drawing. Geo- nutric dravnng : Measure, tools, geometric terms, problems. Pic- torvd draitying. History. — Discoveries and explora ions ; Colonial period to 1703.. General Lesums. — (See sixth year, first term.) Current events. Making of simple apparatus and other useful articles. Second Term. Reading. — Same as preceding term. Grammar. — Former lessons continued. Position of muditiers ; conjugation ; infinitives and participles ; emphatic, interrogative and negative forms ; progressive and |»assive forms ; the dash ; direct and indirect ((uotations ; receipts, checks, ])romiNsory uutes, orders and drafts. Arithmeiu-. — Review of i>ercentage. Longitude and time. True and bank discount. Stocks. Metric system. f:. M I *::7f:"Tl^-. :::m - ft' 81 Physiology and Hygiene. — Nervous system and special senses. General review. Drawiiu). — Lessens of first t^mi continued. Geometric drawing : Working drawing, iBoiiietric projection, development. Hittory. — First term's work briefly reviewed, and continued to the close of the War of 1812. Geiteral LestMu.- Former lessons continued. NINTH YEAR. First Tekm. Chrammar. — Former les8f)nH reviewed and continued. Reproduc- tion, narration, description and ct>mpo8ition. Simple, complex and compound sentences ; analysi « and parsing ; semicolon and colon ; specific and general terms: brevity, force, ckarness, simplici v ; ligdres of speech — simile, metaphor ; climax ; periodic, loose and balanced sentences ; secretary's records, constitution and by-laws, amendments, n^oices, reports of committees, preamble and resolu- tions, book reviews, credentials, petitions, resolutions, remon- strances, announcements ; synonyms ; word analysis. Arithmetic. — Bills, ratio, proportion, partnership, square root, domestic exchange, mensuration. Ih-awing. — Geometric drawintf : Measure, tools, geometric terms, problem, development, working drawing, isometric projection. Decorative drawing : Color, botanical drawing. Pictorial drawing. History. — American history completed. History of the State of New York. Cieil Government. — Some elementary tvork. Special attention to the Constitution of the United States and of New York. Geography. — General review, preparatory to final examinations. General Lessons. — (See eighth year, first term.) Second Term. During this term, the pupils should pursue those studies of the course in which they have not yet passed tlie final examinations ; and if they are capable of doin^ more work than this, they should take up «me or more of the following subjects : Algebra, Ptvysical Geography, Book keeping. -tf^' RtiJiii8i'f ' ■"'•■^, A ' !?j^':'?,»!-*'j-',^1il''''% ^^ sri'^f^)- -^■^^*p?^Sl!!*'" P' CHAPTER XIII. EXAniNATIONS. The arguments in favor of uniform examinations for teachers' certificates, for matriculation to universities, and for entrance to the learned professions, are familiar to the educationists of this country, as well as of the United States and England. The advantages of having such examinations under the control of some central authority, removed from local influences, are well recognized by those who have to do with the administration of school affairs. The object of maintaining a proper standard of efficiency, and of making necessary progress in education cannot be secured if eveiy county and city has authority to pre- scribe a coui-se of study, to fix a standard of efficiency, and to appoint boards of examiners. The rivalry of different colleges and universities to draw students has also almost invariably tended to lower the standards of admission, and, as a consequence, to lower the attainments of graduates. The public interests should have first con- sideration in a matter of this kind, and although there are undoubtedly objections to uniformity and centraliza- tion in the matter of examinations, the State of New York has made, within recent years, a very ini|Mjrtant advance towards uniformity and the al>andonment of local control. Apart from the important examinations under the control of the Board of Regents of the Univer- sity of the State of New York, which are explained else- where, the State Superintendent of Educaiiun has exten- [82] i .1; Mt. *•• i 88 sive powers, under the provisions of the Consolidated School Act, regarding the requirements for teachers' certificates, the mode of conducting examinations, and the provisions governing examinations for State Scholarships in Cornell University. 1. Commissioners' Certificates are awarded to teachers on the results of examinations prescribed by the Depart- ment of Education. There are three grades, first, second and third, of such certificates. The examination papers are printed under the direction of the Department at Albany, forwarded to each County Commissioner under suitable instructions, somewhat similar to those followed in this Province, and after the answers are forwarded to the State Capital-and examined, certificates are sent to be signed by each County Commissioner concerned. The certificates are valid in the county, the first being issued for a term of five years, the second for three years, and the third for one year. No experience or training is required for the Third Grade. Ten weeks' experience is necessary for *^he Second Grade, and two years' experience is necessary for the First Grade. A First Grade Certifi- cate may be renewed, with the authority of the State Superintendent, by any School Commissioner in the State, but the Second Grade is renewed only upon re- examination. The examinations for the First Grade are held in March and August and continue two days, those for the Second Grade in January. March, April, June, August and September, continuing two days. The examinations for the Third grade are held at the same time. Certificates of this grade are limited to a parti- cular school or class, and cannot be awarded a second ■'Ife, 84 time to the Harae person. It is also provided that this certificate is not given until the candidate has made an engagement to teach, approved by the School Commis- sioner. Candidates are exempt from examination in any subject in which they have attained a standing of seventy- five per cent, or over at any previous exan)ination, held not more than six months liefore. They are required to pass an oral examination in reading, and a written examination in arithmetic, composition, geography, grammar, orthography, penmanship, physiology and hygiene, American history, and school law. The standing required for the Third Grade in each subject, and in fact, for most of the subjects of the other grades, is seventy -five per cent. Of course, as every experienced examiner well knows, percentages very imperfectly indi- cate the relative values of standard.^. The character of the question papers, and the rigidncss with which the answer papera are read, have always to be considered, if comparisons are made. For the Second Grade, the additional subjects of civil government, current topics, drawing, methods, and school economy are prescribed. For the First Grade there are the further additional sub- jects of algebra, bookkeeping and elementary physics. It should be remembered that the course in drawing is extensive, and that " current events " embraces a wide range of topics. Ft)r the First Grade, the subjects may be taken at one examination or in three successive examinations. For the Second Grade, attendance upon a Training Class, the course of which will be subsequently referred to, will be accepted in lieu of the required experience. Candidates may also pass in some of the 'k*«v, 85 f subjects at one examination, provided they take the remaining subjects not later than six months afterwardw. Besides the Firat, Second and Third Grade CertiHcates, Certificates are issued by Commissioners to candidates from the Training Classes. CertiHcates called " Training Class Certificates " are issued in the case of candidates who have attended a Training Class, and who have passed the examinations held at the same time as the exami- nation for Grade Certificates. A Training Class Certifi- cate is valid for three years, and is renewable under the same conditions as First Grade Certificates. The candi- date mu.Ht have been in attendance upon a Training Class for at least two terms, and must have taken at least 75 per cent, in each of the subjects for the Second Grade Certificate, and, in addition, a standing of 75 per cent, in all special subjects designated in the coui*sc of study for Teachers' Training Classes. " Dmwing Certificates " are also issued to those entitled to teach Drawing only, but thcv do not entitle the holders to teach any other branches in Public Schools, They ai*e valid for three years, and are renewable. Professional training is re- required in order that they may l)e awai-dcd. Candi- dates for " Drawing Certificates " must attain the stand- ing required for Third Grade Certificates, and, in addition, a standing of at least 75 per cent, on the special paper in Drawing. " Kindergarten CertificateH," iH.sued by Com- missioners, entitle the holdei's to teach in Kindergartens only, are valid for three years, and are renewable under the same conditions that First Grade Certificates are re- newable. Candidates for " Kindergarten Certificates " must have at least one year's professional training in m 86 Kindergarten work in a Normal School of the State, or in connection with a Training Class under the super- vision of the Department, or some other institution ap- proved by the State Superintendent. Candidates must obtain a standing of 75 per cent, each in methods, school economy, history of education, art of questioning, and 75 per cent, in the special examination iu the subjects of Kindergarten work. Certificates, qualifying the holders to teach vocal music, are also issued by the Commis- sioners. These certificates give no qualification to teach any other subject, are valid for three years, and are re* newable. In addition to the foregoing certificates, tem- porary licenses may be issued by the State Superinten- dent, on the recommendation of a School Commissioner. The provisions to be followed are substantially the same as in Ontario. Provision is made to enable unsuccessful candidates for First Grade Certificates to be awarded certiScates of the Second or Third Grade, if their attainments warrant. Unsuccessful candidates for State Certificates may be exempt from the examination of any subject for a Com- missioner's Certificate, provided they obtain 75 per cent, in the subject, which must have been taken not more than five years previously. It is provided that School Commissioners may, in their discretion, supplement the Uniform Examinations with additional questions, may demand a higher percentage, and, for sufficient reason, refuse to admit a candidate to the examination, or to grant him a certificate. A Commissioner is required to endorse a certificate awarded, under the Regulations for " Uniform Examinations," which has been issued by an- I ; 87 other School Commissioner in the State, or by the authorities of any city, which has adopted and is work- ing under the uniform system of examinations. This provision virtually makes Commissioners' CertiBcates, though nominally county licenses, licenses for the State. The records of all the examinations must be kept by the School Commissioners, and provision is made for a re- view of the answer papers, or, as it is termed in Ontario, an appeal. There is no provision in the Regulations for fees to be paid by candidates at the examinations, the entire cost being met by the State, which, as has already been mentioned, has ample power, by direct taxation, to meet all such expenditure. II. In addition to the certiticates issued under the pro- visions mentioned, the Normal School Diplomas qualify the holders to teach in any part of the State, and the School Law also authorizes the State department to issue, on the result of examinations. State Certiticates. The examinations for State Certificates are held annually in about twelve examination centres. A candidate must have had two years' successful experience in teaching in order to be admitted to the examination. The certificate awarded is for life, and qualities to teach in any Public School of the State. The subjects for examination are the following:— Group 1. algebra, arithmetic, American history, geography, grammar and analysis, ortho- graphy, penmanship, physiology and hygiene. Group 2. astronomy, bookkeeping, botany, chemistry, civil gov- ernment and school law, composition and rhetoric, drawing, general historj'^, general literature, geology, methods and school economy and philosophy of educa- A '"fi iiliiilii IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 I.I S IIIIIM III 2.2 IIM 12.0 1.8 1-25 1.4 1.6 6" ► V] <^ /}. ^^ <^1 <^ *>.»!f' ^;. 7 # /S Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14SB0 (716) 872-4503 iV ^^ o <• & \M % ?i:f <> •^^ &? i/.A Is piilipiiJililWi,Lpi4l!|iyp^||||p^ F * 88 tion, plane geometry, physics, ^and zoology. Latin may be substituted for zoology or astronomy. A standing of at least 75 per cent, is required in each of the subjects of Group 1, and an average standing of at least 75 per cent, in the subjects of Group 2, but no paper showing a standing of less than 50 per cent will be considered in this average. All candidates who obtain the required percentage in five or more of the subjects, exclusive of orthography and penmanship, but not in all, will be credited for these subjects, and a " Partial Certificate " issued. The remaining subjects may be taken within two years. This gives to candidates opportunities for three distinct yearly trials, ll is worthy of note that in the division of the exaraivinlions the method adopted in Ontario allows no such fle.':i'''i)ity as is permitted in the State of New York. In this Province the co-ordination and correlation of studies has recognition at the exami- nations as well as in the school programme. In fact, the liberal instalment plan which prevails so generally among our neighbors, if followed in Ontario, would make such disturbance in the organization of our High Schools as would become intolerable. It is not too much to say that our system, while giving perhaps greater prominence to examinations, recognizes more fully the importance of the educational effect upon the pupils attending our schools. With this object in view another feature of our system has much significance. A minimum on the total is exacted. Evidence of intellectual power or general proficiency has sufficient weight at our examinations to make up for the lack of a few marks in a subject. i 89 : f 3' Reofarding the question of uniform examinations the views of the State Superintendent are pronounced : "The system of uniform examinations '"continues to work satisfactorily, justifying its establishment in the increased efficiency in the teaching force. The results achieved during the past year under this method of examining and licensing teachers, have been more satisfactory than in any previous] year since its adoption. During the year 1896, 22,057 different candidates were examined, and of this number, 8,541 succeeded {in] obtaining certificates qualifying them to teach in the public schools of the State. It will therefore be observed that 13,613 candidates, or over sixty per cent, of those who entered examinations, failed to obtain certifi- cates. There were 524 first-grade certificates "earned and issued, an increase of more than forty per cent, over the number issued in the previous year, and a like increase is shown in the number of second- grade certificates issued, while there has been]a notable decrease in the number of third-grade. This result is one of the most substantial arguments in favor of this system of examinations, as it shows con- clusively the progressive spirit which has been infused into the teaching force of the State, and the advanced]|scholarship to which our teachers have attiiined." " The recommendation mad'j in my last 'annual report, relating to the examination and licensing of fteachers in cities, is renewed witli emphasis. No valid reasons have yet been assigned to show that the power to determine the method of examining and licensing teachers in cities should not be vested in the State Departmont of Public Instruction. The weakest feature of our school system is in the different standards set up in the different]cities, relating to the examination, licensing and employment of teachers. In some cities, even State certificates and Normal School diplomas are not accepted. This action cannot be justified. A State certificate, in my judgment, is the highest grade of certificate issued in the United States. liJ ■■ :..'■■ •^mf—^^mm^^^j^-^r^mr^^^fmi^m ,1 J .!J I i«»U . "^"^JIB^Ii^PffPBpp ""PipiP* r? 90 Circumstances have arisen in some of the cities in this State dur- ing the past year, showing the necessity of the State's having authority to determine the standard of qualifications which all teachers should possess. It should not bo recorded against the creditable record of this State in educational work, that there is a single city within our borders in which teachers are removed, or employed at the behest of any political organization, or for the pur- pose of increasing the power or political prestige of any individual. It has long been recognized by the highest educational authorities of the State and nation, that the power which examines candidates for teachers should never be authorized to give employment to persons thus examined. This proposition is firmly fixed in the estimation of our best educational workers. All rules and regulations governing the examination and licensing of teachers should emanate from a central authority and should be uniform throughout the State, suited to different grades and con- ditions, from the primary to the high school. If one city desires as high a standard as another it must accept like conditions. A certifi- cate to teach, good in one city should be good in another, subject to certain regulations, such as temporary employment for a year, as a test, etc. It seems absurd that Buffalo, Syracuse, Utica, Albany, New York and Brooklyn should each have a separate standard by whiih teachera are licensed." III. The State Superintendent has also control, through his Department, of the examinations held for State scholarships at Cornell University. This institution has certain important relations to the State of New York, and in some respects may be regarded as a State Univer- sity. The original charter provided that the University should annually receive students, one from each assembly district of the State, who should be entitled to free tuition. With the 128 assembly districts, and with a course of four years, this practically entitles the State to 512 free scholarships. Recent legislation, increasing the t'< ^ .■r\ -.■',■' 91 . number of assembly districts, makes the number of State scholarships available to be 600. As the total University expenses each year are about $500,000, the University practically gives free education to the value of about $140,000, the total number of students enrolled, being about sixteen or seventeen hundred. Apart from the endowment, no appropriation from the Treasury of the State of New York is made for the maintenance of Cornell University. Measures were taken, however, a few years ago to provide, at the expense of the State, a pedagogical department at Cornell University, in order to compensate the University authorities for its liberal provisions regarding free scholarships. The question of competitive examinations, from a pedagogical point of view, is one that has been discussed considerably by American educationists, as well as by educationists of other countries. It is quite evident that nearly all the arguments against competitive examinations for prizes in schools, may be used against . competitive examinations for scholarships. In the United States, however, as well as in Canada and England, methods of this kind have a traditional force, and those persons who display liberality in giving money for prizes and scholar- ships have not studied the evils arising from competitive examinations, which are so strongly condemned by nearly every writer of school management and discipline. Fortunately, the number of persons affected by compet- itive examinations is so limited that a system so generally condemned by educationists is tolerated, largely perhaps, because it is not regarded as becoming to check educational efforts, even though they should be sometimes unwisely W'WIW'^^lS^IIWflrm^i^W •> ♦ 92 directed. In the State of New York, the competition does not appear to be very keen, in view of the small number of candidates in each assembly district who aspire to these honors. In several counties the number of candidates examined is not much greater than the number of scholarships awarded. In some localities there is a scholarship for each candidate, while, in not a few counties, the scholai*ships are not sought. According to the last report of the State Superintendent, for the 128 scholarships awarded there were only 275 candidates examined. Under the provisions of the Statute, a candidate must be at least 16 years of age, and must have attended the common schools or academies of the State for six months during the year immediately preceding the examination. Students attending private schools or colleges are not eligible for these distinctions, the object aimed at being in the interests of the public schools. The regulations regarding the mode of conducting the examinations are somewhat similar to those for the examinations of teachers' certificates, except that a local board examines the answer paper of candidates, in view of the competi- tion in each case being restricted to the candidates of that district. The examinations are held annually in June, on question papers prepared by the Department of Education at Albany, and forwarded to the County Commissioners. (There is also a matriculation examina- tion for Cornell University held in September.) The subjects prescribed are English, algebra, arithmetic, and plane geometry, and either Latin, French or German, at the option of the candidate. Scholarships are not " 03 awarded to candidates unless they make 66f per cent, on the question papers submitted. In Literature about ten texts from different authors are prescribed, but in the other subjects the papers are not nearly so diflScult as those submitted at our Junior Leaving Examinations. Indeed, from a comparison of the examination papers set at various examinations of the State of New York, it will be acknowledged, I think, that while the questions cover a considerable range in many subjects, and call for a considerable amount of general knowledge, they are not nearly' so searching as those submitted to candidates at similar examinations in this Province; that is, the examination questions in Ontario call f ~r a larger amount of intellectual training, and would be regarded by most students with similar opportunities as much more difficult than those of our neighbors. At the same time, it will be admitted th it in some departments, particularly geography, natural science, drawing, and civil govern- ment, many -"I our students would fail if subjected to the tests applied to students in the State of New York. In " current topics " we hold no examinations. The whole question of written examinations is a pressing one in connection with all modem educational efforts, the difficulties surrounding the subject being largely those pertaining to the educational effect on the large body of students attending schools and colleges, whose efforts are necessarily directed by the character of the questions submitted by examiners. «i"»"p ^^^^^iPS^pipVPfl^^i^ - CHAPTER XIV. THE TRAINING OP TEACHERS. The question of securing good teachers for the schools is one wliich, for many years, has received much attention in nearly every civilized country. All other objects are largely subordinate to this one in so far as they have to do with the advancement of education. The State of New "York is making great progress in this direction. In addition to its Normal College and its ten Normal Schools, to which I shall subsequently refer, much has been accomplished by its efficient Teachers' Institutes, and Training Classes for rural schools, and by its Train- ing Classes for city schools It is worthy of remark that the lines upon which the authorities of New York State are moving are substantially identical with those which have been adopted in this Province. I. Under the provisions of the Consolidated School Act of the State of New York, it is the duty of the Superintendent of Public Instruction to appoint a Teachers' Institute once in each year, in each School Commissioner district of the State. As in the case of County Associations in this Province, the character of the work taken up is now mainly professional, although heretofore considerable attention was paid to subjects largely academic. The State Superintendent has power to determine the duration of each Institute, and to designate the time and place of holding the same. He has power to employ suitable persons, at a reasonable [94] ?^i^WP(^fW^^ "%^ 95 compensation to supervise and conduct such Institutes, and to provide such additional instruction as the interests of the schools may require. It is his duty to prescribe regulations for the government of the Institutes, and regulations regarding such certificates of recommendation as will furnish incentives and encouragement to teachers to attend meetings. It is the duty of every School Com- missioner, subject to the advice and direction of the State Supeirntendent, to notify all teachers, trustees and Boards of Education under his jurisdiction, of the time and place where the Institute is to be lield, and to assist the conductor in its organization. The Commissioner records the attendance of the teachers, notifies the trustees of the days attended by each, and transmits to the department a report, giving a list of all teachers in attendance, the number of days attended by each, and such other statistical information as may be required. The local expenses are partly borne by the Department. Teachers and trustees are empowered to have the schools closed during the time the Institution is in session, except that in the case of a village, having more than 5,000 inhabitants and employing a Superintendent, the closing of the schools is optional. No deduction of the salary of any teacher can be made by his trustees, attendance being compulsory. Wilful failure on the part of a teacher to attend the Teachers' Institute is considered sufficient cause for the cancelling of his certificate, and wilful failure on the part of trustees to close their schools during the holding of the Institute is considered sufficient cause for withholding the public moneys, to which such district would otherwise be entitled. ||'.lpiH»mj ■'7.pfT*»^"viHiU"!i|f"jJ|jMI-."",'i"\;''«l'V«I-' ppr^^-nT-wrr/ ^i^^^»i'=^j-' 96 The officers appointed in connection with the work of Teachers' Institutes consist of a supervisor, five Institute conductors, two special instructors in drawing, one instructor of primary work, and an Institute lecturer. It is also the rule that several professors of the Normal Schools and the Normal College give valuable assist- ance in connection with the work of the institutes, which usually last about a week. The forenoons of each day are generally taken up with meetings of the teachers of different grades, the teachers of elementary classes meeting in one room, those of inter- mediate classes in another, while the teachers of more advanced work meet by themselves. In the afternoons the different teachers meet together, and discuss questions of common interest. The importance attached to draw- ing in New York schools has necessitated the appointment of two special instructors in this department. Both are ladies, and the special instructor in primary work is also a lady. Much enthusiasm is shown by the inhabitants in many places where these Institutes are held. Large numbers attend the evening meeting, when programmes of educational interest to all classes are taken up. The official lecturer attends in many cases, lecturing on such topics as "Robert Bums," "Abraham Lincoln," "An Evening with the American Poets," and "The Making of the Nation." Greater interest is taken in these In- . stitutes than formerly, on account of the new system of uniform examinations, the improved regulations for Teachers' Training Classes, and the law prohibiting the issuing of certificates to persons under eighteen years of age. The work is becoming more strictly pedagogical in ms ^p 'JJWIfWi 97 character, and more satisfactory in results. According to the last report of the State Superintendent, 106 Institutes, attended by over 16,000 teachers, were held during the year. The total cost was something over »85,000. The Law also provides for Summer Institutes, and three were held, according to the last report, at Chautau- qua, Glens ^aUs, and Thousand Islands Park. A number of special instructoi*s had charge of these Institutes. The subjects taken up were non-professional as well as professional. The attendance was large, and many advantages are claimed by the meetings for teachers who had not opportunities for taking the usual courses at Colleges or Normal Schools. II. It has been found in the State of New York as it was found in Ontario, that the work of Teachers' Institutes, no matter how well conducted, cannot give that systematic training which every teacher needs. Accordingly, in the year 1894 a statute was passed for the organization of Teachers' Training Classes. Provision was made for an expenditure of $60,000 by the Education Department for the purposes of these classes. The State Superin- tendent designates the schools where such instruction is to be given, and the claims of each locality are recognized in the selections that are made. Each school so designated is required to instruct a class of not less than ten nor more than twenty ^five students, the instruction continu- ing for not less than sixteen weeks. The State Superin- tendent prescribes the conditions of admission to the classes, the course of instruction, and the rules and regulations under which the instruction is given, and at 7 'rs in the State, and pledge themselves to remain in the claw^ luring the year. The Principal and the School Commissioner must be satisfied of the moral character, attainments and aptness necessary to success in teaching of the stnlents enroll 0.^ Before admission they must hold as a .minimum qualification, a Third Grade Teacher's Cerfcilicate, and have attained a certain standard in civil government at the uniform examinations, or they must hold under the Regents, a preliminary certificate and fourteen academic " Counts," four of which shall be in English, two in American history, two in civil government, two in physiology, and the other four optional. The school year is divided into two terms of not less than eighteen or more than twenty weeks each. The class must consist of not less than ten nor more than twenty-five members. To secure the most promising students, candidates in making application are to give information regarding their attainments, experience, etc. Precautions are taken by Principals and ComrnisBioners to secure only those who intend to teach. Three p'^riods Km^' -;Va^«.?i-aV 100 m'i- in of forty-five minutes each n ust be occupied every day, with instruction on the topics laid down in the course of study. No Institution can be allowed more than S450 for any one term's instruction, the minimum amount being $180. In this respect there is an important difference compared with the Ontario system \/hen viewed in con- nection with our own County Model Schools. Payment for instruction is refused iii all cases where members of classes fail to enter the examinations unless such failures are satisfactorily explained in the Principal's report, and no allowance is made for any pupil who leaves the class before the expiration of the term, except by permission of the State Superintendent. A "Teachers' Training Class Daily Register" is furnished for each class in which the attendance is recorded, and this must be forwarded to the Department at the close of the term. The course of study is designed to meet the require- ments of the new uniform system of teachers' certificates, and to satisfy the conditions of admission to advanced classes in the Normal Schools of the State. During the first term are taken up arithmetic, geography, reading, history of education and drawing. Primary work in arithmetic and geography receives special attention. During the second term the course embraces language, including grammar, physiology and hygiene, school management and school law, and the art of questioning. Although the work is intended to be mainly professional, yet it is found desirable that the course should embrace reviews of the academic subjects prescribed, the object being to deal with such subjects as arithmetic, geography, .,.i..-,^:m iJI!"Ms1il!fe 101 etc. from a professional point of view. Besides receiving methods of teaching on the authority of the instructor, the members of the class are trained to observe critically and interpret intelligently the principles of teaching by being brought in contact with the pupils in the actual work of the school. For this purpose it is expected that a critic teacher at least twice a week will give an opportunity to witness practical work, either by taking the class to other departments of the school to observe the work of experienced teachers or by bringing pupils from other departments to receive a model lesson. As in the case of our County Model Schools each member of the class is given actual work in teaching by taking charge occasionally of several members of the training class, or by taking charge of a class in other departm* nts of the school. Special examinations in all subjects required for Second Grade Certificates, and in the additional professional subjects prescribed for Training Classes are held in January and June for the members of Training Classes. The examination continues three days, and those students who attain a standing of at least seventy-five per cent, in the different subje.cts are awarded professional certificates valid for three years. Upon the expiration of three years' successful teaching, these certificates arc renewable under the same conditions that First Grade Certificates are renewable. The programme of the examination embraces the history of education, school management, school law. the art of questioning, Ameiican history, orthography, civil government, drawing, geography, arithmetic, physiology, methods, composition and cur- liiHiiliiiiiiiiiMi ^\.''V'^*'.' .\'^^'^:^'.iJ'''^^, m i\l i '.: r.r aw Si*.!? 'hi * ■ » ~ 102 rent topics. Only some of tbese subjects are required tor the Third Grade Certificates. From what I could learn, the system would be much more efficient if higher academic standing were exacted from candidates before being admitted. Everyone I conversed with on the sub- ject favored the separation of the professional course from the non-professional requirements for teachers. III. A very important amendment was made by the State Legislature, requiring, after the Ist of January, 1897, that every city board of school trustees should be obliged to employ only professionally trained teachers. For many years the absence of professional training for teachers was a well known defect in the State, as well as in other parts of the Union. By the statute referred to, an appropriation of $100,000 from the Free School Fund was made to carry out the provisions of the law. The law provides that no person can be employed or licensed to teach in the Primary and Grammar Schools of any city empowered to employ a Superintendent, who has not had successful experience in teaching for at least three years, or in lieu thereof, has not completed a three years' course in a High School and graduated from the same, having taken a course of study of not less than three years approved by the State Superintendent, or from seme institution of equal or higher rank, and who, subsequently to such graduation, has not graduated from a school or class for the professional training of teachers, having a course of study of not less than 38 weeks. The law does not restrict any Board of Educa- tion from requiring additional qualifications, if it so determines ; nor does it affect the qualifications of 9,3 iiMii 108 \ teachers who have graduated from the Normal Schools. The Education Department of the State has prescribed a syllabus of studies, for those who are members of Train- ing Classes, and who, it is assumed, have graduated from the High Schools. The syllabus forms about fif- teen pages set forth in detail and includes psychology, the history of education, the art of questioning, school management, methods in arithmetic, geography, language, reading, spelling, drawing, American his- tory, civil government and school law. The course in drawing is a very extensive one, and is another evi- dence of the importance attached by the Americans to that subject. As might be expected, American history receives much prominence, and civil government involves many sub-divisions, as for instance : — Different forms of government, provisions and principles of the constitution (both of the United States and the State of New York), the legislative, judicial and executive departments of government ; the mode of electing, and the powers and duties of officers of the state and United States ; the government of counties, cities* etc. ; fundamental difierences of political parties ; caucuses, conventions, etc. The State Superintendent expects, and I think with good reason, the most valuable results from the law pertaining to the Teachers' Training Classes in cities. Indeed, some other States are likely to take advantage of the system. I had the privilege of seeing some of the^e classes in several cities, and formed a very high opinion of tl eir value. In Buffalo about forty students were enrolled in the class, end Superin- tendent Emerson informed me that the law lately inaug- >5. ^ .- *~£i:-.»i 104 r K It I iiv urated he regards as the most important movement in the recent educational history of the city. The lady Princi- pal of this class was trained in one of the New England schools. Her assistant, a Canadian, is a- graduate of St. Thomas Collegiate Institute. The work reminded me of our City Training Schools in Ontario, those of Toronto and Hamilton, though I think the possibilities greater in Ontario, with the higher standard of admission required, especially in the case of Hamilton. In the city of Poughkeepsie, I had the privilege of seeing a class of about twenty, all of whom were ladies, the only gentleman admitted having withdrawn a short time before. In the city of Syracuse, the gentleman in charge of the Training Class during the first part of the course is one of the teachers of the High School. After graduating from the High School, the candidates admitted to the Training Class of this city give five mouths to the study of subject matter,as a preparation for the State Uniform Examinations. A period of five months is then given to methods, theory and history of edu- cation, school law, etc., in connection with some practice work and observation still under the direction and criti- cism of the same instructor. The next half year is given to practice work in one of the Public Schools, where an actual application of the principles studied is found in the ordinary class work, under the special direction and criticism of a well qualified lady teacher. In adtlition, the teacher in training has charge of a class of pupils, whose instruction, discipline and education she is expected to manage. The largest Training Class which I visited was one in the city of Brooklyn. Mr. Gallagher, Kr.fi ^^fPf^pWPpSWpii mm' 105 who is Principal of this institution, has had charge of this kind of work for many years, and is aided by quite a* large number of efficient instructors. I found much enthusiasm displayed in the work of this class, which numbers about 200. The facilities for observation and practice are ample in a city so large, and the fairly high standard for admission that is exacted gives an oppor- tunity of having the work largely pedagogical. In a large city, like Brooklyn, a gi'ant of about $8,000 would be secured from the State, toward the expenditure incurred. With an attendance of about 50, a city would be entitled to a grant of about $2,000'. It is of course necessary for a city to supplement the aid received from the State, in order that the work may be carried on efficiently. Indeed it is worthy of note that this method of training city teachers, apart from State legislation, was adopted in many cities before the law of the State was enacted. The provision of the law, making these classes almost compulsory, and necessitat- ing professional qualifications on the part of teachers appointed, is expected to relieve boards of education of much importunity on the part of the friends of candir dates for positions in the city schools. CHAPTER XV. NORHAL SCHOOLS. In a circular published by the Bureau of Education, Washington, in 1891, entitled " Rise and Growth of the Normal School Idea in the United States," the author. Dr. J. P. Gordy, mentions that in general, the State of New York offers the amplest facilities for the training of teachers, and presents to teachers the strongest induce- ments to avail themselves of them, of the ditl'erent States of the Union. Some account has been given in the pre- ceding chapter of the Teachers' Institutes and Training Classes, under the control of the Department of Educa- tion, but it is to the State Normal Schools, of which ther ) are now eleven, and the Normal College, that the schools mainly look for a supply of the best educated and best professionally trained teachers that can be secured. The School of Pedagogy, New York City, the Teachers' Training College of the same place, now affiliated with Columbia University, and the School of Pedagogy, Buffalo, none of which is under the direct control of the State Superintendent, perform most valu- able functions in connection with the investigation of educational questions. The same may be said regarding the Chairs of Education established in some of the universities, but the Normal School idea recognizes more fully a very essential part of the means of training teachers, namely, observation and practice under the direction of those whose experience and high standing [106] pppipf?^J?lf*^3^ f!^^'-'iW^:v-r":^0^'':f!^:^ 107 entitle them to the position of safe guides. About fifty years ago, or about the time our own Normal School in Toronto was established, the State of New York made a good beginning by establishing a Normal School at Albany. Subsequently, the establishment of fi Normal School at Oswego, and its success under the able adminis- tration of the late Dr. £. A. Sheldon, have so fully shown the advantage of Normal Schools, that additional institu- tioBS have from time to time been established, and liberal appropriations made for their maintenance. The State Normal Schools, including the Normal College, are those of Albany, Brockport, Buffalo, Cortland* Fredonia, Geneseo, New Flatz, Oneanta, Oswego, Platts- burg and Fottsdam. Last year an additional one was opened at Jamaica. The expenditure for Normal Schools has increased from $278,654 in 1887 to $481,825 in 1896. An appropriation for the new Normal School vas made a couple of years ago, and it may be assumed that the annual outlay for Normal Schools will hereafter be not less than $525,000. The amount paid for instruction, according to the last report, was $161,707, the salaries of professors averaging about $15,000 for each Normal School. This does not include salaries for the academic, kindergarten and intermediate and primary departments, which cost for instruction $28,520. The amount expended for library and text-books, which are supplied to the students, was $30,593. Mileage of pupils is also paid, which amounted to $9,425. The total value of the property is estimated at $2,223,470. $20,621 were received in fees from pupils attending the academic and kinder- 9<€r ;•>'*•' F'^^^^^^T«W!^?r?JrfT'P^^^ 108 garten departments, and $4,046 from other sources. The institutions are therefore almost entirely sustained by the State appropriation. The total number of gradu- ates for the year was 860, of whom 714 were ladies. Each Normal School is subject to regulations made by the State Superintendent, which are carried out by a local board for each institution. The members of the local board are appointed by the State Superintendent. The management of each Normal School largely devolves upon the Principal, aided by his staff. Appointments are made by the State Superintendent on the recommen- dation of the Principal, when approved by the local board. As the Principal's advice is assumed to be reliable on a question of this kind, mistakes are not often made in the matter of appointments. Candidates for admission must be sixteen years of age, possess good health, good moral character, at least average ability, and a good knowledge of the common English branches. All appointments for admission are made by the State Superintendent, subject to the required exam- inations, upon the recommendation of the several School Commissioners or city Superintendents of schools. These officers are relied upon to recommend only such candi- dates as intend to teach, and are likely to become successful. Non-residents of the State are not encouraged to enter the Normal Schools, but provision is made for their admission by the payment of a tuition fee of $20 per term of twenty weeks. The school year begins the second Wednesday of September, and is divided into two terms of twenty weeks each. Admission may be gained without examination, by presenting certain evidences of __^ ^(■.'-lik&v ■ -Mm ''?^™ <^^ ""^^^^^^^ ■■mn^' isw'-TT^ ■■^>*"' ..?*r' 109 proficiency, namely, a diploma of a university or college of good standing, a State Certificate, a First Grade Certi- ficate issued by a Commissioner, a Training Class Certifi- cate, or a Second Grade Certificate issued by a Commis- sioner. The subjects of examination for admission are : — arithmetic, geography, grammar, composition, ortho- graphy, United States history, civil government, physiology and hygiene and penmanship, a minimum standing of seventy-five per cent, being required in all subjects. No student can complete the course upon less than two years' attendance, except in the case of those who present State Certificates, or standing as good from a university. It was my privilege to visit Buffalo Normal School, and through the courtesy of Dr. James N. Cassety, the principal, to be given an opportunity to learn something of its organization, the course of study, and the work of the teachers. There are four courses of study ; the Eng- lish, three years ; the Classical, four years ; the Scientific, four ypars ; and the Kindergarten and Primary, three years. In the English course, in the first term of the first year are taken up, arithmetic, grammar and compo- sition, physiology and zoology, linear drawing, vocal music, reading and calisthenics; in the second term, algebra, rhetoric, composition, botany and familiar science, physical geography and map drawing, reading, calisthen- ics and vocal music, and a course in reading in the history of the United States. For the second year, first term, the subjects prescribed are, algebra, geometry, rhetoric, chemis- try, essays; and for the second term, English literature, general history, perspective drawing, geometry and trigo- W^'^-^^'^^^''^f?^^^f'^^^ '• :■ "■■■* ;''-'"-k',''./'fy'.i^ 110 nometry, phjsics, and essays and select readings. For the third year, first term, the subjects are, school economy, civil government and school law, methods of teaching the elementary English branches, methods of giving object lessons, etc., essays and select readings, teaching in school of practice ; in the second term, the subjects are, psych- ology and science of education, mineralogy and geology, astronomy, methods of teaching, teaching in school of practice, and a course of reading connected with profes- sional work. In the classical course the main differences are that Latin and a choice of Greek, German and French are also prescribed. The scientific course includes all the subjects of the English course, together with a two years' course in each of two languages, students selecting from Latin, French, German and Greek. For the kindergarten and primary course, the progi-tmme is not as extensive in some subjects as that for either of the other Normal School courses. It includes, however, the usual work in kindergarten methods and practice, and a knowledge of educational works suitable for this class of teachers. The practice school, which is in the same building, is made up of classes of pupils from the city, with which the Normal School has made certain arrangements, which have been mutually advantageous. In the practice school of th'j Normal Schools a feature has been adopted which is said to work well. Each teacher in training, in the last part of the course, has charge for several weeks of a division of pupils, and has large responsibility in discipline and ins*-ruction. It isclairaed that in this way teachers have better opportunities of receiving that training which will fit them for taking charge of a school ■liH ■ jl..,W.|W|Wf!!|l| .ipV'JiP^-WWftlU^'fiW!^ i;^ mH L 111 than if they were assigned lessons to teach at certain hours. The work in Buffalo Normal School appeared to me to be of a high order, and the spirit displayed by the students especially good. Much attention is devoted to elementary science and drawing, doubtless) with the object of preparing teachers to meet the conditions prescribed in the new uniform course of studies. What especially dis- tinguishes the Buffalo Normal School from those of this province is the fact that with us students must have completed their academic coursct, had must have had one year's successful experience &s teachers before gaining admission. In Buffalo Normal School, a large part of the work is necessarily academic, many students giving their attention to what, in Ontario, would be mastered first in the High Schools. The number of graduates from the school, according to the last report of the State Superin- tendent, was eighty-three. The total enrolled in the Normal department was 443, in the Academic 8, in the Intermediate 221, and in the Primary and Kindergarten 228. Of the graduates, 29 took the Classical course, 8 the Scientific, and the rest the English course. The esti- mated expenditure for the year was $21,000. In noticing the cost of the New York State Normal Schools, one cannot help recognizing the comparisons that might be made with that of Ontario. In New York State, with the four years' course taken by many of the students, and with the small number who apparently attend for the final year only, the number of graduates is small in proportion to the total number of students enrolled The graduates of Buffalo Normal School, (a'jsuming that their chief object is that of preparing lii liiiiiiiiiliiiiiiiiHil iMMMi ^'i ■ '^^''Wr^^'l^l^^^^^^^ 112 '''^f' m: i. « " i. ■ L toacherN), cost about $250 each, and the 860 graduates of all the Normal Schools cost the State, on the basis of the total expenditure, between four and five hundred dollars each. In Ontario, with two sessions each year, there are over 400 graduates from Toronto and Ottawa, who cost the Province about $100 each. This comparison again draws attention to the important change made in Ontario years ago, whereby the academic course had to be com- pleted before candidates entered upon their professional training. There is a strong feeling among many educa- tionists of the State of New York in favor of the principle adopted in Ontario. The good work done at the Normal Schools would, I think, be much better if the students admitted were all High School graduates. A change of this kind would, however, require several very important amendments, which the Legislature does not appear yet prepared to make. To an outsider, however, it would appear that the efficient High Schools among our neigh- bors are sufficiently well equipped to undertake the entire non-professional work demanded by the requirements for teachers' certificates. The regulations for the examination of students for certificates at our Normal Schools place much power in the hands of each principal and his stafiT, although outside examiners prepare the papers for the final examinations, and test the ability of candidates in actual teaching. Practically, students who do well at our Normal Schools, as judged by the staflT, seldom fail at the final examin- ation. In the State of New York there is no provision for outside examiners, and the principal'and his staff who are doubtless in any case the best judges of the ability mmmm Mtti gm nf^Kfimmf ^r 113 of candidates, have full control, and their decisions, I understand, give general satisfaction. Last year the State of New York suffered a loss in the death of Dr. E. A. Sheldon, who, for so many years, occupied the position of Principal of Oswego Normal School. In kee[>ing with the unanimous sentiment of those who understood the noble character and eminent services of the late principal, the State Superintendent has authorized the collection of subscriptions from the children of the Public Schools, in order to erect a monu- ment to the memory of Dr. Sheldon. Having met Dr. Sheldon on several occasions, and knowing well his fine qualities and remarkable ability, I should like to pay a passing tribute in this report to his memory. More than once the distinguished Principal of Oswego Normal School attributed much of that inspiration in educational matters, which characterized his career, to the impulses which he received while visiting the Toronto Normal School years ago, when the late Dr. Ryerson was at the head of our school system. His last vi.sit to Ontario was in connec- tion with the annual convention of Normal School Princi- pals from the State of New York, which was held in Toronto a few years ago To not a few Canadians, as well as to the great body of teachers in the United States, the name of this distinguished educationist is held in high esteem, as that of a great and j^ood man. 8 -^•■'%l CHAPTER XVI. THE STATE NORHAL COLLEGE. More than fifty years ago, the ^. at American educator, Horace Mann, said that the first business of a Normal School consists " in reviewing and thoroughly and criti- cally mastering the rudiments of elementary branches of knowledge." The judgment of the New England school administrator has not only been accepted as sound, but the principle which he laid down has had an application more far-reaching than was at first intended. The Nor- mal College at Albany has special importance, from the fact that it was the first institution for the training of teachers established in the State. To teachers it has the additional interest that within its halls, and as its princi- pal, the famous writer on " School Management," David P. Page, was for some years engaged. His portrait, which adds to the adornment of the College chapel, brings to mind those pedagogical principles given in his " Theory and Practice of Teaching," which are still regarded as philosophical, notwithstanding the many professional works which have been published in modern times. The College buildings are situated in the most beautiful and attractive part of the city, fronting upon Washington Park, which, though not a part of the College property, is quite as valuable to the students as though it were. The surroundings present an air of homeness to the buildings, which are not in themselves pretentious in appearance. Indeed, the important work undertaken [luf PfP^ ■l«HWppP'!f-lP?»P- 116 at this Institution would suggest the need of a much larger building, and one in keeping with the many other fine buildings to be seen at the State Capital. The equip- ment, so far as the accommodations will allow, is very snMsfactory. There is a good collection of works of refer- ence, to which the students have access daily. Besides this, numerous libraries of the city, and especially the State Library, are free for the pui poses of the students. The reading-rooms afford ample opportunities for becom- ing acquainted with current literature. Every important periodical of value that is published in the country, or indeed in foreign countries, is found on the tables of the reading-rooms. Not the least important institution accessible to students is the Museum of Natural History, provided by the State at an expense of nearly a million and a half dollars, affording excellent advantages in studying p^eology, botany, zoologj'^ and entomology. It has one of the finest collection of specimens to be found in the United States, and is most valuable for educational purposes. There is besides the Dudley Observatory, which has much fame among institutions of the kind. Numerous lectures and entertainments are provided for the students from time to time. The students enrolled come from a large number of colleges and universities, as well as from the Normal Schools and High Schools of the State. It was my privilege to spend some time in looking into the work of the Normal College, and I am indebted to the efficient President, William J. Milne, Ph.D., LL.D., for much information regarding the character and aims of the institution. The staff numbers about twenty-one, W'"!^S»'>'iV' ^'if^W' * '•^?:!J5!!?W'W'.'" '^'"■.' !* " '•- , #1 ,m ■'^'■-^wpff'^WWIWWPPPp'P"^ l^^^i^^lliiipllfl 116 seven gentlemen and fourteen ladies. The design of the College is to fit students not only to become teachers in High Schools, but also to acquire such knowledge of ele- mentary work from the kindergarten up to the university, as will enable them to have charge of classes in all grades of school work, and to be prepared for the duties of school superintendents in cities and towns. It is in- tended that in the work of the institution its professional aims should be kept always in view, and that nothing should be taught or studied which does not bear directly upon the profession of teaching. The increasing interest which is taken in various countries in the study of peda- gogics has enhanced the value of philosophical methods of teaching, and has led to wider views regarding the scope of the teacher's work. In the Normal College at Albany it is especially recognized that no teacher can do High School work well, if he is ignorant of the elementary branches of knowledge ; or, in other words, if he is u .ifit to teach in the lower classes of the Public Schools. All persons who have the scholarship needful to enable them to under- stand and use the methods of teaching in an effective way, and who believe that they have those desirable, natural endowments, which will enable them to become educators, are invited to attend the classes, but care is exercised to discourage those who have not such qualifications, or who have little prospects of acquiring such attainments, to be enrolled. The courses of instruction include the English course, the Classical course, the course for Kindergarteners, as well as special courses, the Supplementary course, and the course for college graduates. To be admitted to the mmmmmm m&m^mmm^m^i^mmi^ 117 English course, candidates must be at least seventeen years of age, but greater maturity is desirable. In the case of those who do not present State Certificates, Nor- mal School Diplomas, or Diplomas from colleges or uni- versities, there is an examination prescribed for admis- sion. The subjects embraced in this examination are arithmetic, algebra (as far as quadratics), plane geo- metrJ^ grammar, rhetoric, English literature, political and physical geography, American history, general history, botany, physiology, zoology, physics, chemistry, astronomy, geology, bookkeeping, civil government, and elementary drawing. A full preparatory course in Latin or modem languages may be substituted for other subjects prescribed for entrance, but it cannot be allowed for any subjects except those commonly called Advanced Studies. The studies for the first year in the English course embrace, for. the first term, psychology, philosophy of education, methods of teaching arithmetic, geo- graphy, grammar, composition, reading and vocal music, daily discussion of educational themes, essays upon educational subjects, and preparation of devices for teaching. For the second term there are prescribed, methods of teaching algebra, physics, botany (ele- mentary), object loasons, geometry, history, zoology (elementary), civil government, drawing, physiology (elementary), and penmanship, daily discussion of edu- cational themes, essays upon educational subjects, pre- paration of apparatus and specimens. The course for the second year embraces, for the first term, methods of teaching chemistry, bookkeeping, mineralogy, rhetoric, solid geometry, physical geography, zoology, English H f^S^T!^i^^}i\'mW-Vm':W^rir ' ., • ' H''-'' '■''!»p. "!'*^""*^-'' f ':VWv''^ii'ps,-^^mi'*^"' '^r^'"'7!i!^'"^jff'^^)(^ffv^'''^'i!'- "^ *:-i!m'^!^m^Wf^.n if \ wf^^mlr^, K'4B'^ K-^S'^' (/ WuBr* ■Hit H^^ ' Hj^^ i ^B^Kt^ ^H^hJ IB ■ ^^1 ■ w. Ir..- 118 literature, botany, geology, physiology, familiar science and astronomy, daily discussion of educational themes> essays upon educational subjects, preparation of ap- paratus and specimens. For the second term are pre- scribed school economy, education, school law, history of education, sanitary science, kindergarten methodsi physical culture, methods of teaching political econ- omy, teaching in Model Schools. Those who complete this course successfully, receive Diplomas which license them to teach for life in the Public Schools of the State. To be admitticd to the Classical course, candidates must be also at least seventeen years of age, but no one is allowed to finish the course who is not at least twenty- one years of age. The standard for admission is to some extent about the same as for admission to the English course, except that trigonometry and solid geometry are also prescribed, and three Books of Caesar, six Orations of Cicero, six Books of Virgil's Aeneid, three Books of Xenophon's Anabasis, three Books of Homer's Iliad, and Latin and Greek prose composition. Instead of the requirements in Greek, candidates may offer a two years' course in French and German. Provision is made for exempting candidates who have taken certain courses at colleges, universities, normal schools, or high schools. The classical course embraces the work of two years, each year, as in the case of the English course, being divided into two terms. The work taken up is mainly distinguished from that in the English course by the addition of Methods in the languages. Those students who complete the classical course successfully, receive Diplomas licensing them to teach for life in the schools ■■■^ ■ .v'W W<^«ft«RM»Uf« ^rrw^a^w^'T!^' j|'4|iHiiJj;^i^l^i»;jy.^P»w^'ft'*'; ^ ^'''^^TfW|fHWp{JV- W'■'l"^^* • '^- W^^r' wy'';;pj'H'%niwii^pi!(!fjB;wyi.'?.t'i- 1 »'-;',ja',tj|!' i^'.' ?ij»>-fi^^''j!i»','JiMa8 119 of the State. They also receive the degree of Bachelor of Pedagogy. The Supplementary course, which is con- tinued for two terms, includes a large amount of reading pertaining to professional work. Between twenty and thirty standard works in Pedagogy are prescribed. Graduates from the English course receive the degree of Bachelor of Pedagogy upon their completing the Supple- mentary course, while graduates from the classical course receive the degree of Master of Pedagogy upon their completing the same course. No students are allowed to pursue the Supplementary course and receive the peda- gogical degrees without having completed either the English or the Classical course in the College. Provision is made in the Normal College to enable graduates of colleges and universities to select a course of study which m^^ be completed in one year. Upon their completing such course successfully, and showing their ability to manage pupils properly, they are granted diplomas, which are a license to teach, and the degree of Bachelor tf Pedagogy is conferred upon them. In the course taken up by graduates, the academic subjects are reviewed from the teacher's point of view. It is held that a graduate of a university does not, as a rule, know the subjects of study with that degi'ee of accuracy and detail which is important for those who are to become teachers. It is no reflection upon a university tbat even its honor graduates should be " plucked " in Methods, and it is no departure from the true purposes of an ex- amination in Methods to have such questions submitted as will test the accuracy of the candidate's non-profes- sional knowledge. It would be a mistake if the ordinary ,*fmtfm,-'im^'.^ v - Bfi«Wi*iiPWiiPpw5!"^^ "WPI 120 student in Arts were required, during his university course, to take up his work with that attention to details and with that logical order which are essential in the case of one who undertakes to teach a subject. Univer- sities and colleges may do their work well and at the same time send up students who fail to stand the tests which a proper examination in Methods would undoubt- edly demand. It is not unusual to tind a distinguished graduate in mathematics deficient in his knowledge of elementary arithmetic, and graduates who take a prom- inent place in the university lists in English literature and language may show a lack of that knowledge of grammar and composition which are essential to the teaching of these subjects. In view of these facts, it is in every way defensible, the plan of reviewing academic subjects in a professional school ; and, if time permitted, there is no doubt that this course would be taken more extensively than it is at all Normal Schools and Normal Colleges. For students who have the necessary Diplomas from colleges and universities, the time required at the Albany Normal College is about the same as that at our own Normal College in Ontario. Provision is also made iu the State Normal College for students w^ho desire to take a special course, and who have had several years' experience as teachers. It is found that many teachers employ empirical methods too often, and the mistakes made as a result of a lack of professional training are discovered only after years have been employed in ex- perimenting upon the children under their control. The special courses are intended to complete the work pre- scribed for the English course. There are, in addition, -- ^ w ^mffj^mmf^mwium ■^mniM|^g;^^«^I^W1)^^nPl^fi|pmv>9' n i «"[>' TfTv 121 elective courses for students who desire to master certain departments of professional work. Diplomas are not granted to such students, nor are degrees conferred. In connection with the good work done at the State Normal College, I should like especially to mention the Kindergarten department. Among the several interest- ing classes of children which I saw in the State of New York engaged in Kindergarten work, none pleased me more than the one which I had the pleasure of observing in connection with Albany Normal College. Although Dr. Milne has much reputation as a mathematician and also as a metaphysician, his interest in the work of the Kindergarten children is as great as in that of other de- partments of the institution. The Kindergartner in charge of this class appears to have that special aptitude so much needed in w ork of this kind. The little children are well supplied with the appliances suitable for their work, and their enthusiasm and happiness, as well as the en- thusiasm and love for children displayed by the lady in charge, were to me very noticeable. I think any Kinder- gartner who visits the New York schools should not fail to pay a visit to Albany Normal College. One of the most distinguished Kindergartners in America, Mrs. James L. Hughes, of Toronto, is a graduate of Albany Normal College. The management of the State Normal College is en- trusted, like that of each Normal School, to a local Board. The Executive Committee in charge of the College con- sists of the State Superintendent, who is Chairman, and four other gentlemen, residents of Albany. As in the case of each Normal School, the Board properly relies ' '■vAi.»'''»w,..M''S"!'^'7.T''^ w**»'¥r'>'i''*'-'^''"'-!"'/^'" f^>V'v|**^"Wi«)!i^f«-M«,"i!j;iijpp^5f'wn| 122 largely upon the judgment of the Principal in the man- agement of the institution. According to the last report, the attendance for the year in the normal department was 314, in the model department 442, and in the kinder- garten 44. The average age of students in the normal department is 24 for gentlemen and 21 for ladies. The number who graduated during the year was 85, of whom 75 were ladies. The number of gi'aduates in the Col- legiate course, all of whom held university degrees, was 10, in the Classical course 20, in the English course 35, in the special course 13, and in the Kindergarten course 6. One student, a lady, received the degree of Master of Pedagogy. As the College is a State institution, it is maintained almost entirely by the Government, with the exception of fees received from pupils of the academic, intermediat > and primary departments. There is no charge for instruction to those students taking the couise of training, who are residents of the State, and text-books are supplied them. Persons not resi ». HilfM"WJW" P"^" iJ'l'i f .VWl"."?!.* i*W!T^,";-#,!J 123 Schools being an injury to the pupils, the opinion gener- ally prevails that instruction is much more effective than in the ordinary schools of the locality which have a high reputation for efficiency, largely from the close attention paid to the character of the work carried on. While acknowledging the high character of the work done in the Albany Normal College, a person acquainted with the system in Ontario cannot help but coLclude that under regulations such as exist in this Province, much better results would flow from the expenditure of the $29,600 which the State furnishes. Much of the work in the Albany Normal College, on account of the comparatively low standard for admission, must be largely academic. Eighty-five graduates would appear a small number for the expenditure incurred,and if only university graduates, or those of attainments fully as high, were admitted, the results of the College work should be much more valuable. A change of this kind M'ould, however, necessitate important amendments in the School Act of New York State, which, so far as I could learn, are not seriously considered at present. If only graduates of Albany Normal College were eligible to teach in High Schools, to hold positions as County Commissioners or Superintendents of city .schools, the work of the insti- tuti(m would be practically the same as that of the Ontario Normal College. Attendance at a Normal College will always be comparatively limited if persons who have never attended a Training School, and who may not even have high academic qualifications, are eligible to be appointed to the most responsible positions in connection with the schools. CHAPTER XVII ' CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS. The desire of giving the local authorities as much con- trol as possible in the management of all public affairs is quite noticeable in connection with many features of the school systems of cities. Experience of government in educational matters has brought a great deal of light to the matter of school administration. Certain questions are undoubtedly such as should be left to the locality to settle, while in other matters centralization has decided advantages. The efforts that are made to draw the line between what should be reserved for the central authori- ties and what should be left to the ratepayers concerned present some very interesting problems. In the State of New York statutes passed many years ago gave to some districts almost absolute control in educational matters, and the State Superintendent points out in his last report the serious impediments to uni- formity which have, as a consequence arisen. There are, besides, the conditions which are the result of giving large cities, by special charters of the Legislature, special powers, and thus relieving such corporations from the general educational laws of the State. This is particu- larly noticeable in the case of the city of New York, but the principle is not confined even to the very large cities, and in many places the number of trustees or commis- sioners, the number and qualifications of superintendents and teachers are matters of local arrangement, under the [124] WT-,'»«,W.Tj/« ,t'"'i"H!i 125 special privileges granted by the Legislature. In very few instances have Boards of Education absolute control regarding the amount of money to be levied for educa- tional purposes. Generally, the common council has a veto power in some shape, though that veto power may be exercised in different ways. In regard to the number of members of Boards of Education, there does not appear to be any uniform rule. Sometimes a city may have many more members on its Board than a city twice its size. The City of New York^ for instance, which controls the schools of over a million and a half people, has had only twenty-one members on its Board of Education. Syracuse has nineteen, Poughkeepsie twelve, and Brooklyn forty-five. The first Boards in most cases were chosen at popular elections and the members were ward representatives. This had the effect of mixing education with aiunicipal politics, and to avoid objections to this condition of affairs, in many cities the members of the Board are elected from the city at large, and do not represent any particular locality. In some cities in various parts of the United States, the mayor appoints the Board, often with the advice and consent ot the Council, but even with such arrangements, politics cannot be avoided. The City of Buffalo has, however, no Board of Education. In this respect its condition is very peculiar. By a special Act of the Legislature, passed years ago, it received a charter which placed all school legislation in the hands of the City Council. The City Superintendent is an officer elected by the people, and is the head of the City Depart- ment of Education. It appears that this system has been wm^wr-r^r-^'nwg^miifTmrwjlfW''''''^'^^ 126 adopted in a few of the cities in the South and in the West, but the plan does not appear to be received favor- ably by any class of educationists. From the reports respecting the Buffalo schools, made by Dr. Rice in the Forum, I had expected to find very inferior schools in the City of Buffalo. I am inclined to think, however, that there is considerable good teaching even under a system such as exists in Buffalo. The City Superin- tendent, though elected by the people on a " ticket" appears to be well qualified for his position, and from what I could gather the schools of the city are making much progress under his supervision. There is u. Board of Examiners for Buffalo, consisting of five persons appointed by the mayor for five years, their terms of office being so arranged that one is appointed ^ach year. The City Superintendent designates the subjects and the scope of the examination for teachers in each grade, and the examinations are conducted by the Board of Exam- iners. It is more than probable that the new system of City Training Schools, made compulsory by statute, will have great advantages in a cit^ like Buffalo, where political influences are said to have much to do with the administration of school affairs. The members of the Board of Education for the City of Albany are appointed by the City Council. The Board consists of seven mem- bers, one being appointed every year for a term of seven years. I was informed by Mr. Cole, the City Superin- tendent, that the plan adopted there had bee in exist- ence several years, and it gave general satit^faction. There is evidently a good system of organizatiou for the schools of the State Capital, and the experience of a place of 127 this size is worth considerable. In the City of Brooklyn, members of the Board of Education are appointed by the mayor, and may reside in any part of the city. They are chosen for three years, one-third appointed annually. Appropriations for the schools must be voted by the City Council. The Supei iiitendent is elected by the Board of Education, and the examinations for teachers are con- trolled by a Board of Superintendents. The City of New York has an extensive organization. There are thirty-five Boards of School Inspectors for the thirty- five districts into which the city is divided, each Board being composed of five Inspectors. The Board of Edu- cation consists of twenty -one members, who are appointed at large by the mayor. They hold office for three years, one-third being appointed annually. The City Superin- tendent is elected by the Board of Education, and there is a Board of Superintendents charged with the exami- nation of teachers. The City Board of Superintendents consists of the City Superintendent of Schools and four- teen assistants. There are, besides, a Supervisor of Manual Training, a Supervisor of Sewing, a Supervisor of Kindergarten Instruction, two Supervisors of Physical Education, and a Supervisor of Cooking. While in New York and Brooklyn, I heard much of the important changes to be made in school matters in 1898. The Act passed by the State Legislature gives Greater New York a Board of Education, with control over ten thousand teachers and half a million pupils. The Central Board consists of nineteen members, eleven representing New York, which is composed of the boroughs of Manhattan and Bronx, six representing Brooklyn, and ii V 128 one each of the other two boroughs. These members of the Central Board are elected by the local School Boards of each of the five boroughs, and the new Board was organized in February. Besides a City Superintendent, the Central Board appoints a Secretary, a Superintendent of School Buildings, a Superintendent of School Supplies, Auditors, Chief Clerk, and as many other subordinates as it deems necessary. The City Superintendent and four other persons, appointed by the Central Board, have full control regarding the examinations of teachers. The new charter leaves the school system of each borough about the same as formerly. The present Commissioners serve out their terms, and will form the School Board , but will not be members of the Board of Education. A similar change applies to Brooklyn, which is allowed its forty-five members, as formerly In the various cities of the State of New York, and in fact in nearly all cities throughout the Union, there is no divided authority in school matters, such as pertains to many places in Ontario, where we have High School Boards, Public School Boards, Public Library Boards, and Separate School Boards. Usually, the City Superinten- dent has large powers, which pertain to both Elementary and High Schools. It may be assumed that the success- ful City Superintendent is a person not only of high scholarship, but acquaintance with Elementary Schools, as well as the work of High Schools. It not unfrequently happens that an appointment to the position of Superin- tendent, when vacant, is made by promoting the High School Pi cipal. Much is claimed by educationists for this method ot having all the educational interests under t . f !l i 129 the direction of one Board, and with one responsible head. It is urged that under one administration there is less danger of jealousy between those connected with Elementary Schools and with the High Schools. It is held that there can really be no antagonistic interests between High Schools and Public Schools, and that more unity is a result of having responsibilities not separated. A very noticeable feature of the school sj^stem of the State of New York, and one which prevails generally throughout the Union, is the readiness of the people to provide free education, not simply for pupils in the elementary classes, but throughout the entire school course. High Schools in the Empire State are Public Schools, controlled by the Board of Education of each locality, and therefore, under the provisions of the Statutes, free to the children of all ratepayers within the district. Occasional crusades against free High Schools have I ? 3n made. The well known arguments that those who want a High School education should pay for it themselves, and that the State should not be obliged to furnish free education beyond what is required for admission to the secondary schools, have been put for- ward on several occasions, but with the inevitable result that more liberal opinions prevail. Now and then, at municipal elections, demagogues have used the usual line of arguments in endeavoring to capture the votes of the unthinking electors, but it is creditable to the intelligence of the so called working classes that only temporarily have they been led to disregard their own interests by arguments of this nature. In most cities, pupils are supplied with free text books up to the High School, and 9 JL I 130 even in a few cases free text books are supplied the students of the High Schools. The amount of money expended for High Schools in such cities as Buffalo, Syracuse, Albany, Brooklyn, and lately in New York, indicates very clearly that the electors have decided that wealthy citizens owe a duty to the poorer classes beyond what pertains merely to elementary education. The very large contributions made to Manual Training Schools and Public Libraries is another instance of the liberal views held on the question of education by the American people. One feature in connection with most of the cities I visited is to be deplored, though Canadians, in this respect, show just as much shortsightedness. It is not uncommon to find enormous sums expended for public parks and gardens, while wretchedly low expenditures are made to provide handsome grounds in connection with Public Schools. Indeed, in the cities of New York, Brooklyn, Buffalo and Albany, it is no uncommon thing to find large buildings erected for school purposes without any school grounds whatever attached. Anyone who has strong views with regard to what should be done in the interests of education, cannot help but think the claims of the children should have more consideration than those of the adult population. Blocks of buildings will often be demolished and removed to provide for public squares, while a proposal to expend a comparatively small amount for school grounds will be resisted by those wealthy rate- payers, who are able but unwilling to provide for chil- dren what, in all large cities, is urgently needed. In the City of New York, some schools with an attendance of 2,000 or 3,000 pupils have not one square foot of ground m^ 131 for the pupils to stand on, except the public street, after making their exit from a building of several stories. The salaries paid teachers in city schools are higher, as a rule, than in cities of the same size in this Province. In Poughkeepsie, the Superintendent recieves a salary of $1,800, and the Principal of the High School a similar amount. There are five teachers in the High School, with an attendance of 146. The assistant teachers in the High School are all ladies, with salaries ranging from $750 to $5,000. In Syracuse, the High School Principal receives a salary of $3,000. The salaries of male assistants, of whom there are are five, range from $2,000 to $800. There are about twenty female assistants, with salaries ranging from $800 to $550. In Buffalo, the High School Principal receives a salary of $2,500, the salaries of his male assistants ranging from $1,600 to $1,500. There are about twenty female assistants, with salaries ranging from $1,500 to $450. The Principals of the Buffalo Public Schools receive in the neighborhood of $1,600. The salaries of other teachers are graded from that amount to about $400- In some of the Brooklyn High Schools, salaries to the Principals of about $4,000 have been paid. In the City of New York, only until this year, under the organization of Greater New York, has it had what are called High Schools. Under the constitution of the enlarged metropolis, salaries of about $6,000 are expected to be paid the High School principals. Until this year salaries paid principals reached in a few cases about $fS,000. The lowest salaries paid were about $600. With the cost of board in a city like New York, the ladies who 132 receive only $600 would not cause much envy to female teachers in our own cities. The average salary of teachers in cities is $725. For the schools of Greater New York the minimum salary of male Principals for Public Schools is to be $2,750 ; the maximum $3,250 ; for female Principals, minimum, $1,700, maximum $2,300 ; male assistants' salaries are graded from $1,080 to $2,160, and female assistants' from $573 to $1,290. CHAPTER XVIII. SCHOOL LIBRARIES. One who visits the cities of almost any State in the American Union cannot fail, if he makes observations in this direction, to notice the very large sums that are expended for Public Libraries, and the magnificent accommodation which is provided for such institutions in the very large cities. There is evidently a settled determination on the part of the American people to give the citizens ample opportunity to make themselves acquainted with standard works of science, history, literature and political economy. Unfortunately, as is the case in Canada, . the taste of readers, though much improving, as the result of an improved system of educa- tion, is still too much confined to fiction and works of an ephemeral character. In the State of New York the enterprise shown by the Board of Regents of the Univer- sity will be shown in a subsequent chapter. The Super- 133 intend ent of Public Instruction has also, under the powers granted him by the Legislature, given a great impetus to the establishment of School Libraries, and to the intro- duction of Supplementary Reading in the Public Schools. Public sentiment is only beginning to be fully alive to the necessity of doing more in the direction of supplying good reading matter to the pupils attending the Public Schools. While acknowledging the great services which Public Libraries give to the adult population in cities and towns, it is evident that the needs of the children, in the past too much neglected, are now only beginning to receive due recognition. To spend thousands of dollars in getting books for a Public Library is praiseworthy. To spend an equal amount in providing books accessible to students at High and Public Schools is still more worthy of praise. If the reading of school children is properly directed, it may be assumed they will read judiciously when they become men and women. An ordinary Public Library is an institution worthy of support, but it is not nearly HO deserving of the support of the people as a School Library. In some cities of the State of New York, the Public Library is located in the principal school building, and with its thousands of volumes available without difficulty to the pupils, it performs a service far more valuable than if it were under a separate management, and not readily accessible to those attending the Public Schools. In a large city a Public Library as well as School Libraries should be provided, but the latter should have first consideration. It is to be deplored, also, that the eflforts, until lately, put forth have generally had reference to the claims of >, ii | >>ij l. i yyf i U in) » " ' ■ J ' iygi *" i " *■ '^ipf i Ju.y i' ■•*«l»**»*«ii"'*^WP«*« I i i iii> m i i i nj i»^ •^~»|'W^P»T»"~T" 134 towns and cities, while the interests of rural districts had been too much ignored. If any class of the population of a nation should have first consideration in a matter of this kind it is that class of persons who, living remote from cities and towns, have few opportunities for obtain- ing books, and who are too often shut out from the means of self-improvement available to those in urban municipalities. Steps are being taken in many States in the west, as well as in those of the East, to supply a much needed want by means of travelling libraries. The State of New York, like the State of Wisconsin, has accom- plished much for the agricultural classes of late years. A better method, however, and one evidently more cal- culated to be permynen^ i results, is the establishment of libraries in the va i . iral schools throughout the State. Under the pro /isions of the Consolidated School Law of the State of ^^'ew Yori' ^n-ovision is made for establishing a Sjhool Library, umie:' tije management of the trustees, in every school district. The law provides that any school district which expends from five to ten dollars for the purpose of providing a School Library, will receive an equal amount from the State appropriation. Prior to purchase of the books, and before any State money is paid, the trustees are required, in every instance, to submit to the State Superintendent lists of the books proposed to be purchased, and his approval is necessary before the books can be bought. There is, of couise, a similar provision in the case of cities. As might be expected, some school trustees, on account of a lack of interest in educational matters, do not take advantage of the liberal appropription made by the Legislature. It is wmjm^m^mm;9m^ "WW m^mifu"«w^?m"fi': \fsnwm-^m.m"^ '/'W'WP'!i'."f *■ " ""J, '.'J.^' ^ ".^^i.^-Vm-'iW, f"«.«'<.'WWW^v'i*Ji 1 135 gratifying, however, to notice that all through the State, trustees are beginning to realize the immense advantages that are calculated to flow from an expenditure of this char- acter. Great interest is taken in counties where the Com- missioners urge trustees to take advantage of the provisions of the law, and appearances go to show that the establish- ment of School Libraries in county districts will do a most valuable work for a class of children whose needs are too often neglected. Care is no doubt necessary in the selec- tion of books, and precautions are constantly required to prevent volumes from being lost. In the matter of Supplementary Reading in the Public Schools, the State of New York, through the Department of the Superintendent, has taken great interest. A manual pertaining to " School Libraries and Reading " has been issued by the Department, which gives a great deal of valuable information respecting the advantages of reading, the selection of books, laws and regulations pertaining to their introduction, suggestions regarding the best methods of purchasing books, and instructions regarding the best means of taking care of School Libraries. A course of Reading has been recommended for the pupils of each grade of the Public Schools. Con- siderable latitude is allowed with respect to the books to be procured, but the lists for the different years have been prepared with such care that the manual must prove of very great service to the teachers of rural districts. In rural schools, owing to the large number of classes which the teacher has to instruct, there is considerable time, which the pupils might devote to Supplementary Reading, during the day. Many publishing firms in ^^ Ml "H | l« . ai i l, ,| i it iif;i i. T iJnt i T ■.itrii- assnsBE: 136 the United States, like the publishing firms in England, have issued a large number of standard works, suitable for Supplementary Reading, at very low prices. Selec- tions from many standard authors can be procureil in fair binding, from fifteen to twenty-five cents a volume, and an expenditure of about ten dollars each year would be trifling for each school, but would, in a few years, enable all the school children in the section or district to have accessible all the good books that they would have time to read. Most of the teachers to whom I conversed on the matter were enthusiastic in their praise of Supple- mentary Reading, and I was told by some educationists that a decrease in the number of novels taken from Libraries was (juite perceptible, as a result of the culti- vation of a better taste for literature in the Public Schools. Regarding the importance of School Libraries in his last annual Report the State Superintendent uses the following language : • "In this process of character-building, then, the library becomes the student's quarry ; as such, it deserves the fostering care of the State and the most thoughtful consideration of those who are in immediate charge of the pubhc schools. The safety of the State, as well as the highest good of the individual, demand not only that every child shall learn to read, but that he shall acquire a discrim- inating taste in choosing matter to be read. One of the first difficulties encountered, particularly in elementary schools, is the lack of suitable material ; for, although great sums have been expended for school library purposes, the books have been selected principally with a view to the needs of the advanced student. When it is remembered that the first eight years of school life carry the child through a formative period of greater consequence than any which follows, and that the State, through the public schools, then exercises over all the children a control which it is r 187 immediately thereafter forced by withdrawals to relinquish in the case of ninety-tive per cent, of them, the duty of providing the moat favorable conditions for intellectual and moral growth at this early stage is apparent. Seventeen hundred and forty-seven districts outside the cities last year received from the State for library purposes sums ranging from $5 to $25 each. These sums, which were more than duplicated in many cases, were expended for books which have, in a measure, satisfied the intellectual craving of many a solitary country boy and girl. The practice of placing a choice collectio»i in every grammar school, and of adopting an elementary course in reading, as has been done in some villages and cities, is spreading. I have suggested that, for the sake of economy, selections from the main local library, adapted to the several grades, be passed about in sets from time to time. The local authorities should not wait for the pupils to take the initiative in this matter, for many, unsolicit- ed, would never do it. It is a pleasure to note, among the hopeful signs of the times, the awakening interest of educators in this subject. The work of pioneers in this direction is more generally known and appreciated, authors of high merit more commonly use their efforts in the prei)aration of matter suitable for the young, and the higher institutions of learning are providing wider opportunities for gain- ing a thorough and ajjpreciative knowledge of the masterpieces of literature. From both a pedagogic and economic point of view, it is important that selections for the school library be made with great care in order that the best may be sifted out from the vast number of volumes listed by publishers and dealers, and those which are vicious, weak, faulty in style, inferior in workmanship, or otherwise unsuitable may be rejected. Recognizing the practical difficulty of the task, I have caused a classified list to be prepared and issued for the guidance or information of purchasers. The list is accom- panied by suggestions on reading, and the selection and care of books. It is also accompanied by a graded and classified list of mat«rial for courses in reading." H l!»^."(! CHAPTER XIX. HANUAL TRAINING. A large amount of attention has been given by educa- tionists of late years to the subject of Manual Training. In the United States, as well as in England and Germany, the question is much discussed. A great many persons have had erroneous views, regarding the object to be gained by the establishment of Manual Training Schools. The introduction of subjects of an industrial character into the public school course has also met with consider- able opposition, on account of the misconceptions that have arisen. It has been too frequently assumed that the principal object to be gained is the training of boys and girls for diiferent occupations. The impression has been made that the purpose is to turn out pupils who may be skilled in the work of different trades. It should be understood, however, that the purpose of Manual Training is not to prepare persons to become skilled mechanics or artisans, but to receive those educating influences v/hich will be of service to them in whatever occupation they may follow. The introduction of Manual Training into the schools of the United States has had the effect of silencing some critics of the educational system already existing. It should be understood that its claims are not based on economic but on educational grounds. Pupils should give attention to the departments of Manual Training for the same reasons that they give attention to the branches of science, literature and mathe- [138] ■Vlplmluljl 13D maticH. The object of the school is not to prepare lx)ys to beoome carpenters, slioeniakers or blacksmiths, but to give them such training as will enable them to become industrious and useful citizens. There is no doubt that with the decay of the system of apprenticeship, some arguments may be used for a course of training that will supply advantages that formerly existed, but it is held tliat attention t" Manual Training, if it tends to lesson the attention which pupils give to rending, writing, arith- metic, geography, grammar and history, cannot well be defended. No amount of Manual Training can ever make up for training in literature and science. Any tendency to lessen the importance of the ordinary branches of the school course is to Vje deplored. If the child should be deprived of the opportunity of instruction in those sub- jects, he will lack in that intelligence which every citizen should possess. It should be felt that it is the training in good habits, and not the acquisition of knowledge, which has most value in the education received at school. The public school is not excelled as an agency in the inculcation of industry, neatness and self-control. The boy who is not trained in good habits will fail in life, no matter how skilful he may be in tlie handling of tools. It is not the farmer or the mechanic who works hardest that is most successful, but rather the one whose intelli- gence and morals have been best directed. The majority of children will, however, be required to earn their living by manual labor. More intelligence than formerly is now demanded in nearly every walk of life. The course of study of a school is evidently defective if boys and girls receive any training that unfits them for ih \r 140 ordinary occupations. Under these circumstances, Manu- al Training Schools have been established, and a course of training adopted in the public schools which will, to some extent, secure the same object. Sewing is a form of Manual Training which can be car- ried on at small cost, as a separate building is not requir- ed, and the material necessary is very simple. It is a department which readily receives the support of all clas- ses of ratepayers. In most large cities of the United States, it has become the usual custom to require girls attending the Public Schools to give some attention, in the higher grades, to sewing. It has been felt that even those who come from comfortable homes too often show a lack of this kind of knowledge, which should be sought by every woman. Not to speak of the attention which has been given to this department in Technical Schools, like the Drexel Institute in Philadelphia, the Pratt Institute in Brooklyn and the Armour Institute in Chicago, an opportunity is now presented, by which all the children enrolled in the Public Schools in many cities may acquire a fair knowledge of this part of Manual Train- ing. Perhaps no city has given more attention to the subject than the city of New York, yhere it was intro- duced for the first time as a branch of Manual Training in 1887. The success of the work was so clearly proven that sewing is now taught in some fifty departments, with the prospects of its speedy introduction into many other schools. Instruction begins in the third primary grade and continues through the fourth grammar grade, mak- a course of four years. A lesson of one hour a week is given by special teachers. Last year there were engaged 141 twenty-two special teachers, who j^ave instruction to about 10,U00 children. All the necessary materials are supplied by the board of education, and cost about 25 cents for each pupil. Like other subjects of the Public School course, a graded system of instruction is pursued. At first, the girls are taught the proper position when sewing, name and use of implements, threading needles, making knots, basting stitches one quarter of an inch in length, outlining geometrical designs, etc. The material in the lowest class consists of a couple of pieces of unblea- ched muslin, needles, thimbles, colored thread and boxes to hold the work. The pupils are (juestioned concerning the lesson, and required to give an explanation, regard- ing the nature of the processes. Care is taken to give proper direction, regarding the use of the scissors and the care of materials. In the next grade, attention is given to basting, sewing with small, even, running stitches, cut- ting straight lines and bias lines, and trimming muslin. Then follow overcasting, the back stitch, seam, French fell, etc. Teachers are expected to pass around among the pupils, who retain their seats and receive individual instruction where needed. In higher grades, additional material is supplied, such as table linen, different kinds of muslin, calico, flannels, Cashmere,worsted needles, man- ilia paper, etc. Instruction is given regarding button- holes, sewing on buttons, weaving on cardboard, stocking darning, tucking, measuring and running, gathering, etc. In the higher grades, what is called "busy work" begins. Here, the materials are, as a rule, furnished by the pupils, as the articles when completed belong to them. Atten- tion is given to the making of cushions, small pillow 142 cases, overhanded patchwork, needle books, button bags, bibs, small aprons, table linen, mending garments, tucked aprons, etc. Throughout the course the teachers are re- quired to exercise great care, so that the eyesight of the girls is not strained in the sewing lesson. A child who makes repeatedly crooked stitches and uneven lines is presumed to show this defect as a result of poor light or bad eyesight. Timely suggestions to the child or to her parents are often made, in oi*der to arrest what might be a permanent difficulty. On dark, cloudy days oral les- sons only are given. During such lessons, instruction is given on the manufacture of needles, thimbles, thread, the growth of cloth, the weaving of cloth, wool, silk, flax, etc, dyeing and printing, the quality and quantity of materials, etc. There is, besides, what is called the ' Extended Course," where some opportunity is given to girls in the higher classes to learn something about dress- making and other operations in sewing, with a view to future usefulness. In some of the schools of the large cities, attention has been given to some departments of domestic science. There is some difficulty in the case of young pupils, in giving information that will be intelligible in matters pertaining to household science, such as laundry work, food economics, home sanitation, household economy, home nursing, etc. In the case of the more advanced pupils, a course in cookery has been instituted in several places, and special instructors have been appointed for the purpose. There is much more difficulty, however, in awakening an interest than there is in the department of sewing. There is, besides, more expense connected with •^^^ 143 a course in cookery, as a result of the cost of equipment, such as a supply of stoves, gas, cooking material, etc. In some large institutions, like Pratt Institute, aniple facili- ties have been made for giving a scientific knowledge in various sub-departments of domestic science. In the New York and Brooklyn schools, the Boards of Education have taken the matter in hand, and a beginning has been made in the Public Schools. In most other cities, how- ever, so far as I could gather, efforts in this direction were undertaken by independent organizations. In many places, associations of ladies have undertaken the work, and good results have followed. In Buffalo, an organiza- tion called the Women's Union has formed classes from different Public Schools, and instruction of a valuable nature has been given in cooking. The pupils are taught the simple forms of every day cooking, such as making bread, cooking vegetables, making tea and coffee, cooking and warming meats, etc. Weekly classes are formed from October to May,and the City Superintendent reports that substantial benefit has resulted to the pupils at no cost to themselves. The directors of the Union raise all the money necessary for the material required. Doubt- less, scientific instruction in cooking involves a knowledge of chemistry and other departments of natural science, which it is difiicult to make clear to pupils who have not already acquired a good Public School education. In this connection, however, it is worthy of note that with the subject of natural science in the Public Schools, a wide coulSc is given in some cities in hygiene, physics, botany and elementary chemistry. In the schools of the City of Now York,the general course in cooking embracea u.iiif, I If,, !iiwi;upi|»w«>mn|<^^pfi^«gppi^|P!ii^^ 144 information that might be given, as a rule, to all pupils. The class is made acquainted with the materials which compose the tissues of the human body ; the principal chemical elements ; the constituents of water ; the effects of muscular action on the tissues, etc. ; how food makes up for the wasting of the tissues ; and how the tissues are constantly renewed, repaired and sustained. The nature of the principal foods used is explained ; the advantages of good cooking in the matter of digestion ; the nutriment value of different kinds of foods ; the nature of starch, sugar, sulphur, lime, etc. ; the relative values of different kinds of foods, as milk, bread, meat, fruit, etc. The pupils are made acquainted with the effects of heat in the process of cooking ; different kinds of fuel ; nature of combustion ; the effects of heat on water ; and the importance of preserving a suitable tem- perature in the preparation of the different materials used. The chemical effects of overheating on bread, meat, etc., are explained ; the nature of baking powders ; leaven; food of infants ; danger of dyspepsia, etc. Instruction is also given regarding the use of stoves, ovens, etc. ; the importance of keeping vessels clean ; the use of different cooking utensils ; dangers of acids and fats on copper ; dangers of old plumbing, etc. Valuable information is also given regarding the purchasing of food ; means of discriminating between what is wholesome and unwhole- some ; how to know fresh vegetables, fresh meats, fresh eggs, young poultry, fresh fish, etc. Pupils are also told how to understand the butchers' names for the various parts of meat ; how to know good beef, mutton, etc. Manual Training has already attained a position in the «,JWf»lfi|ipi 145 schools of the United States, which practically settles its future. As soon as its true edacative value is known, there is no doubt it will take its place along with science, literature and mathematics in the curriculum of educa- tional institutions. As a preliminary to Manual Train- ing, drawing is essential, and in the State of New York especially in the city schools, it is a common thing for a stranger on visiting classes, to be shown the work of the pupils in drawing. Work in the shops in carpentering or modelling would be difficult,unless a preparatory course in freehand, geometrical and model drawing were previ- ously taken up. It is only in the High Schools, as a rule, that much advanced work is to be found in Manual Training, although in the Public Schools of the City of New York an extensive course has been prescribed and carried out in a number of the Primary and Grammar Grades. After securing a knowledge of elementary drawing, which calls for attention to the various geome- trical forms, such as triangles, circles, parallelograms, etc., the use of simple tools begins. The various terms familiar to carpenters are soon mastered, and the use of the jack-knife, the jack plane, the draw-knife, the chisel, gauge, hammer, etc., are explained. It is surprising with what interest pupils apply themselves in making different objects from the material supplied. They talk about the " mitre joint," the " mortise," " end dovetail," " side dove- tail," " stubmortiae," " oblique scarf joint," " dovetail box," etc., with the same familiarity that pupils ordinarily speak of pronouns and verbs, or acids and bases. One of the most interesting classes in connection with wood- work, which I saw, was that of the Albany High School. 10 iSjisx: I ! I i I i 1 I 146 No attempt is made here to give attention to anything beyond woodwork, but the teachers are evidently at home with their classes, and pupils display as much interest and enthusiasm as in the exercises in algebra or Latin. In no school under the control of a Board of Education did I see a better equipped institution for Manual Train- ing than the High School Manual Training School of Brooklyn. For years the City Superintendent, Mr. W H. Maxwell, has given much attention to this department of school work, and the Manual Training High School, established in 1893, is one that should be visited by everyone who has a desire to see how Manual Training is carried on. Here, as well as in other places, the real object of Manual Training is constantly put forth. It is held that Manual Training aims at the broadest and most liberal education ; that it develops and strengthens physical powers; renders more active the intellectual faculties ; and thus enables pupils to acquire with great readiness and thoroughness the academic education that, in this institution, goes hand in hand with Manual Train- ing. The ordinary subjects of a High School course are part of the curriculum. It is interestingtonotice with what readiness boys and girls, after being instructed one hour in algebra, history, Latin or literature, will repair the next hour to the shops, put on their working aprons, and engage in woodwork, ironwork or other operations of the Manual Training department. The institution is not attended exclusively by those who purpose following industrial pursuits, as I was informed that the graduates of the Manual Training School sometimes become teachers, or, having matriculated in one of the universi- 147 ties, turn their attention to a profession. It is contended that an institution of this kind is based upon the appreciation of the dignity, as well as the value, of intelligent handicraft and skilled manual labor, Oppor- tunities are given for symmetrical and harmonious education ; habits of thrift are inculcated; a spirit of self- reliance developed ; facilities made available to aid those who are willing to aid themselves. The most famous institution in the State of New York, devoting attention to Manual Training, is the Pratt Institute in the City of Brooklyn. I am indebted to Mr. Charles R. Richards, the director of the Depart- ment of Science and Technology, for much information which I gathered on my visit to the institution last June. The Pratt Institute was established in 1887, beginning with twelve students. It reached an enrollment, in 1896, of 2,561 students. Organized at first with the main object of giving instruction in the trades, it has devel- oped into its present organization by the growth of ideas, and the force of experience and circumstances. It has been found wise to concentrate efforts in certain specified lines, and the result has been the consolidation of some departments and the exclusion of some work at first taken up. The present organization includes seven de- partments : the High School ; the department of Fine Arts ; of Domestic Art ; of Domestic Science ; of Science and Technology ; of Kindergartens ; and of Libraries. A marked feature in its history has been the evolution from the original idea of a purely Technical School to that of a school for the training of teachers. It has furnished many well (qualified teachers for other institu- ;!^ 148 N tions, in the departments of Fine Arts, Domestic Art, Domestic Science, Science and Technology, etc. The main building, which is in itself a very large structure, has not been found sufficient to give the accommodation required. There have been provided in addition a building for Science and Technology, a Gymnasium, a High School building, a Library building, and a new building for the Trade School. It is the object of the Institute to provide facilities by which persons, who desire to engage in educational, artistic, scientific, domestic, commercial, mechanical, or allied pursuits, may secure the foundation of a thorough knowledge, theoretical and practical, or may improve themselves in those occupations in which they are already engaged. The work is prosecuted upon several lines, with four distinct aims in view. 1. Educa- tional, pure and simple, the object being mainly attained in the High School. 2. Normal, the ultimate aim being the preparation of the student to become a teacher, in one or more of the departments taken up. 3. Technical, the aim being to secure practical skill in the various branches of the Fine, Industrial and Domestic Arts, as well as the handicrafts, the applied sciences, and the mechanical trades. 4. Supplementary and special, the object being to benefit those who wish to supplement the training of school or college by attention to special sub- jects, conducive to more intelligent direction of domestic, financial, social, or philanthropic interests. The equip- ment includes such appliances as are found in Technical Schools, such as laboratories, museums, etc. The Insti- tute is under the control of a board of trustees, with a secretary as executive officer. The heads of the various m ■l-i' wif.i« iiij-iuji .w(j»,i W^ •^' »,■ •■' I lyu iiwui inpi J « 149 departments constitute the faculty, each member of which is directly responsible for the work of his depart- ment. In nearly all departments, morning, afternoon and evening classes are held. The mode of instruction is by lectures and oral questions, followed by written examina- tions. Certificates and diplomas are awarded to gradu- ates The High School course does not differ materially from what is found in a first- class High School, except that Manual Training forms a prominent feature of the course. For the first year, boys are required to take up bench work in wood, and girls sewing. The second year, wood-turning, pattern making, foundry moulding are prescribed for boys, and dressmaking, emergencies and home nursing for girls. In the third year, forging is the course in manual work for boys, and millinery for girls. Boys take up machine shop work in the fourth year, and girls cookery and dressmaking. There are, besides, good c mrses in language, history, mathematics, science, civics, and physical culture. The languages include Latin, French and German. Mathematics embraces a great deal of applied, as well as pure mathematics. It is need- less to add that the work in Manual Training is of a very high order. In the department of Fine Arts, archi- tecture, clay modelling and wood carving have much prominence. The department of Domestic Art embraces the Normal Course, including instruction in sewing, dressmaking, millinery, drawing, art needle work and physical culture. The department of Domestic Science has also its Normal Course. Instruction is given in chemistry, bacteriology, marketing, cookery, invalid cookery, laundry work, household art, home sanitation, I'll I ."J"" '■1» ll « ii f', ii W i *' *U', ii a H l fa t»i . iiaaj«ttv.' (! 150 household economy and public hygiene. In the depart- ment of Science and Technology, the Normal Course embraces drawing, and mechanic design, applied elec- tricity, mechanical drawing, mechanism, physics, chemis- try, the use of the steam engine, strength of materials* carpentering, machine work, plumbing, house, sign and fresco painting, etc. The department of Kindergartens furnishes training in Froebel's methods to those who have the care of children. The Normal Course is one of two years. A very extensive cuniculura is prescribed, embracing, besides the ordinary study for kindergartners, English language and literature, drawing, science, music, physical culture, and one year's practice in the Kinder- garten in teaching, A Mothers' Course is also taken up in connection with this department, the object being to enable mothers to gain an understanding of the princi- ples of the Kindergarten, and to learn how they may apply them in their homes. In this connection, a Nurses' Course is also provided. The Free Public Library department has been one of rapid growth. Instruction is given in library economy, such as the classification and cataloguing of books, proof reading, typewriting, accounts, literature and language, printing, bookbinding, engrav- ing, etc. All applicants for instruction in Pratt Institute are admitted on trial, the minimum age being fourteen. Fees, varying from $10 to $25 per term of three months, are required. It would be impossible, in a short para- graph, to give any adequate description of the extensive work taken up in this institution. A feature of the Institute, which attracted my attention particularly. mmm 151 was the Normal Courses in the various departments. Much attention is given to the history and science of education. A knowledge of pedagogy of a thorough character is aimed at. One of the most interesting classes in psychology, which it was my privilege to see in any institution, I noticed in connection with Pratt Institute. It is worthy of note that psychology receives much prominence in connection with the courses pre- scribed for teachers in all institutions in the United States. CHAPTER XX. TEACHERS AT WORK. One of the principal objects I had in view, while visiting the schools in the State of New York, weis to see the teachers actually engaged in their work. I met scores of teachers in various cities, and spent many hours in noticing the way in which instruction is given. It is a pleasure to spend some time in buildings which are commodious and well equipped, and which furnish every facility for making school life pleasant. Many of the teachers whom I saw were doubtless well trained for their duties. To principals and inspectors I am indebted for many opportunities of understanding the system of organization adopted, the methods of teaching practised, and the kind of discipline enforced. It too often happens, as in Ontario, that the teacher in cliarge of a class has far too many pupils to manage, iM'immimm'iml^ iy >""V'""l l' =;a^ i;iF9P(p?piwmn^n m^^^ ^ 'TT . '■-f 152 and the amount of individual instruction that can be given is correspondingly small. Too often there appeared to me to be a greater desire on the part of teachers to show to a visitor the results of their work, than to give him a chance to see how instruction is carried on. In this respect, I think there is a difference between the teachers on the other side and those in Ontario. In this Province, at least in the High Schools and in the graded public schools, teachers show more readiness to go on with the work of their classes than I noticed in the State of New York. I cannot say that teachers with us appear more at ease than they do in the New York schools, but a visitor is more likely to hear them explaining matters to their pupils than teachers on the other side. With us, however, I think pupils are not so ready to answer the teacher's questions. It is not an uncommon thing in New York schools (I presume the same applies to other States) for a pupil to receive a question, and give an answer re- quiring statements lasting several minutes. The pupils seem to be better talkers there than here, and show, so far as my observation went, more willingness to go to the blackboard and give demonstrations, or to stand up and give explanations that exhibit considerable com- mand of language. While the oral work is very creditable, I cannot say so much in favor of the character of the written work of the pupils. In the schools of Ontario, there is more prac- tice in written exercises. Work is put on paper more creditably, and greater facility is displayed in written examinations. Our teachers show fully as much concen- tration of purpose in managing a class. There appears PHP 158 to be a greater disposition with teachers on the other side to enlarge and give information on related subjects. The teachers in the State of New York appear to be well informed, especially in matters pertaining to American history, geography, and the constitution of the country. Indeed, the teachers of the United States appear to recog- nize the importance of acquiring a large amount of infor- mation upon a variety of subjects, and this information is constantly utilized in connection with the work of the school. Free use is made of the blackboard, charts and scientific apparatus. Except in the case of our best High Schools and Collegiate Institutes, I think the schools in the State of New York are better equipped for the teach- ing of science. One feature arrested my attention particularly, in visiting the New York schools. The pupils appear to be very happy in their work, and the relations between them and the teachera are of a very pletisant character. Answers are promptly given to the teacher's questions, and the absence of fear on the part of the pupils is quite noticeable. The conversational method of instruction is quite common. I saw very little that could in any way be regarded as harsh, and pupils appeared free from any serious anxiety, regarding the answers to be given. The manner of the teachei-s is generally encouraging, and pupils regard them as their friends. It is quite evident the authority of the teachers is well upheld by School Boards. In a number of the large cities, provision is made for Truant Schools, and the effect is to free the ordinary public schools from badly behaved children. 154 Perhaps the best example of discipline, which I saw, was presented in a large school in the 24th District in the City of New York, at Ist Ave. and 86th St. I was informed that it had more pupils in attendance than any other public school in the world. The number of pupils enrolled is about 3,500. There are between 70 and 80 teachers. The school is situated in .", congested part of the city, and the children belong to various nationalities. Germans, Norwegians, Poles, French, Italians, and other nationalities are represented. One cannot but admire the liberality of the citizens of New York in providing such educational privileges for pupils who, in many cases, cannot have the best home surroundings. In company with Dr. Haney, one of the supervisors from Superinten- dent Jasper's office, I spent the better part of the school day in observing the work done in the different rooms. The order and decorum exhibited are evidences of good dis- cipline, and the promptness with which pupils gather at nine o'clock, and go to their respective rooms, is very noticeable. In the City of New York, corporal punish- ment is entirely prohibited in the schools, and, po far as I could judge, its abolition is regarded as beneficial. Neither in Canada, nor elsewhere in the United States, have I ever noticed better behaved children than in this school. Their manner shows politeness, and an evident appreciation of what is being done for them by the city. The order, though excellent, has little resembling military discipline. The work of the school goes on like clock- work, and I was informed that instances of disobedience were quite rare. ■*!,ll- 155 One of the most important (|uestion9 of Bchool organiza- tion is that of the judicious promotion of pupils. The plan of adopting a final written examination, as the only test of ability to enter a higher class, is passing away in the New York schools, as well as in those of Ontario. The objections to this plan, which formerly was adopted in most schools, are quite apparent to every teacher. No one written examination, and especially no written tests conducted by outside examiners, can fairly determine the fitness of pupils for promotion. At the same time, it is felt that promotions, if based solely upon the estimate of the teacher, are open to serious objections. A combina- tion of the two systems seems desirable. In the New York schools, records of the standing o? the pupils in the class are kept by each teacher in charge and with proper safe-guards, such estimates determine who go into a higher class. Generally, promotions are made yearly, although very strong objections against having only yearly pro- motions have brought in expedients for advancing pupils before the regular time, if their attainments warrant. The estimate made of the ability of the pupils by the teachers in New York are based more on oral tests than in this country. Indeed, the pupils in the schools of this Province would ordinarily, I think, do better with written tests, and those in the American schools with oral tests. Doubtless, a combination of both is preferable. Superin- tendent Emerson, of Buffalo, says : " The conditions of promotion in every case are punctual and constant attendance, high rank, good conduct, good health and the consent of parents." The plan of using " good con- duct" as a factor in making promotions has much to ^^Sf;.W""JI ^.^..Wf^V^r- ■ \- -'mmm um^^^^^^^ig^it^^^H^^mm "^"^^^^fWf^ I ■ i 166 ) I commend it. The effect is advantageous from the side of discipline, and in the hands of a judicious principal or superintendent, the benefits are quite apparent. It is quite common in graded schools in the United States to have each division divided into two or more sections, the pupils in some fjubjects being taught txjgether, while in other subjects the pupils of one section " recite" while those in the other sections prepare work at their seats. Another plan which prevails in some of the schools of New York is that of making promotions in some cases which are probationary. If a pupil is behind in his work, but shows evidence of application he is permitted to go to a higher class, and prove his fitness for the work. In some of the large cities, an ungraded class is formed where backward pupils and those who may be deficient in certain subjects are placed under a teacher, who is presumed to be well qualified to take charge of an un- graded school. Upon the whole, the evils that some- times are associated with graded schools may be over- come by judicious expedients of this character. In the American schools great eflorts have been made to implant a spirit of patriotism in the mind of the rising generation. There is no doubt of t\w advantage of the teaching of patriotism, provided there is no tendency in the direction of "jingoism." The text-books, especially those dealing with history and geography, give ir-^orii»a- tion which is no doubt calculated to inspire the young with a love of country, and a desire to imitate the great pe: nonages who have figured in the formation of ilie nation. By a Statute of the Stai,o of New York, it is provided that the United States flag shall be displayed on Els I ! %y 157 or near school buildings during school hours. The State Superintendent in obedience to instructions issued to the school authorities, reports that this provision of the law is being observed, and is having a very fine influence on the children attending the various schools throughout the State. It is a common thing to celebrate the birth- days of distinguished persons, like Washington, Lincoln, Sumner and Garfield. The literature of Longfellow, Whittier, Bryant and Bancroft receives special attention on the birthdays of the authors. Indeed, it may be questioned whether the attention paid to American litera- ture is not out of proportion to its importance. A promin- ent feature in connection with the inculcation >,i patrio- tisQi is the celebration of days made famous by battles in the late Civil War. The day before Decoration Day has become distinguished in American schools by celebra- tions, in whicli the children and the public generally take part. While at Syracuse I attended one of these demon- strations in the High School. Besides choice music, vocal and instrumental, recitations, including especially " Lincoln's speech at Gettysburgh," several inspiring addresses were made by veterans of the war. The senti- ments uttered by these " comrades" were received as might be expected, with enthusiasm and applause. On Memorial Day the " Grand Army of the Republic" parades the streets, the graves of the dead are visited, the children taking their part in such celebrations. While these celebrations are received with much favor through- out the North, they are not regarded with universal favor in the South, judging by opinions which I heard expressed at Washington. The opinion is sometimes mentioned 158 I I i I that a hostile feeling towards Eugland is fostered among American children. I think this view is exaggerated. [I saw much and heard a great deal to convince me that England's greatness and goodness are not overlooked in the instruction given to the pupils in the [Public Schools of the United States. Whatever spirit of a hostile nature is engendered, it is heard from the political platform rather than from the teacher's desk. There is an impression among some people that chil- dren in the American schools are not kept under sufficient restraint. What I saw in the work of teachers in the State of New York would not lead me to form any such opinion. Boards of trustees give large powers to super- intendents and teachers. Teachers who understand their duties have little fear that their authority will not be sustained. Whatever lack of respect is shown to authority and order in the United States is not the result, I think, of any neglect or mistake on the part of teachers. The Public School is one oi' the best agencies to promote good citizenship, and the disregard of law and order may generally be attributed to defective systems of training exhibited in European countries, whicli have not yet been abandoned in the home by the immigrant part of the population. Instruction in the evils of intemperance is obligatoiy. The schools are opened by reading a portion of the Scriptures, without comment. This exercise is conducted with reverences and the attention of the pupils is always secured. I was informed that scarcely any objection is ever raised by parents to such devotional exercises, and that practically all denominations of Christians, as well as some who are not Christians, are wii^mwi 159 represented in the different classes. The Public Schools are really valuable agencies in implanting and maintain- ing the principles of Christianity, and the teachers in the State of New York, like the teachers in our own Province, are almost invariably on the side of religion. CHAPTER XXI. COnPULSORY EDUCATION. An Act was passed in 1894 by the State of New York, to provide for the compulsory education of children. Under the provisions of this law, every child between eight and sixteen years of age is required to attend school, unless equivalent instruction is received elsewhere by a competent teacher. Every child between fourteen and sixteen years of age, not regularly and lawfully engaged in any useful employment or service, and every child between eight and twelve years of age is required to attend as many days annually, during the period between the first day of October and the following June, as the Public School is in session. It is further provided that every child between twelve and fourteen must attend at least eighty consecutive days of the school year. If instruction is })r()vi(le i elsewhere, it must be at least substantially equivalent to what is given in the Public School of the city or district. In the case of private schools, occasional absences, not amouriting to irregular attendance, an* allowed upon such excuses only as would Bi.in i M" ' I .M l i i|» " i««P 160 be allowed at a Public School. Parents or guardians, who violate the provisions of the law, are punishable for the first offence by a fine not exceeding $5, and for each subsequent offence by a fine not exceeding $50, or by imprisonment not exceeding thirty days, or by both fine and imprisonment. It is unlawful for any person, firm or corporation to employ any child between the ages of eight and twelve years in any business or service what- ever, during any part of the term during which the Public Schools are in session. It is also a misdemeanor to employ any child between twelve and fourteen years of age, who does not, at the time of such employment, present a certificate sij^ned by the Superintendent of the schools, certirying that such child has complied with the law relating to attendance at school during the school year, between September and July. A penalty of $50 may be imposed for a violation of the law in this respect. The records of attendance kept by teachers are open for inspection by persons duly authorized to look after the provisions for enforcing the Act. Boards of Trustees and Superintendents have important duties to discharge, in connection with the provisions of the law. It appears that the law has had a salutary effect in many cities, but in rural districts the experience of New York is about the same as that of Ontario. Much improvement is, however, expected from an amendment to the law, for the appointment of town (township) attendance officers, for the enforcement of the Statute in rural districts. Indeed, in many matters pertaining to the administration of the school law, defects arise when important powers are left to the school district or section. 161 In order to have the law more eflfectively enforced, the State Superintendent has authority to appoint inspectors, whose duties are to see that the law is observed through- out the State. Three officers are appointed for this pur- pose, who visit different parts of the State, confer with the local authorities, and make such recommendations to the Department of Public Instruction as will enable the State Superintendent to have the law satisfactorily observed. As might be expected in many localities, teachers and trustees have shown, thus far, a lamentable indifference to the attendance of children, and even main- tained that it was not their duty to see that the children attended school, but simply to instruct those that were willing to be present. More difficulty, however, appears to have arisen in coonection with private schools, where the records of attendance are often so defective as to be almost useless, and where information is frequently given grudgingly or flatly refused. The enforcement of the law has brought to light a deplorable lack of school accom- modation in some cities of the State. It was found that thousands of children in New York, Brooklyn, Buffalo, and other large cities were denied the advantage of Public School education, because of inadequate accommo- dation. The effect has been to create an agitation for better school accommodation, and in this way alone, many advantages may result. It is a serious reflection upon the conditions of modern society, to find that in the large city of New York, $1,000,000 more is appropriated for the police than for the schools. This condition is especially remarkable when account is taken of the very large sums expended for education, and for the distribution of free 11 162 text-books. Compulsory education h&s brought to the front the question of free text-books for the pupils of the Public Schools. The State Superintendent regards the adoption of the free text-books system as the natural corollary of compulsory attendance. The adoption of free text-books is not the only question which compulsory education has pressed upon the atten- tion of the public. Truant schools are necessary, if the law is to be made effective. The law provides that the attendance officer may arrest, without warrant, any child between eight and sixteen years of age, found away from home, and who then is a truant from instruction. The child thus arrested is to be delivered to the custody of a person in parental relation to the child, or of a teacher from whom such child is then a truant. In the case of habitual and incorrigible truants, however, it is the duty of the officer to bring them before a police magistrate for commitment to a truant school. The officer is required to report promptly such arrest, and the dis- position made by him of such child, to the school authorities of the place. The school authorities of any city or school district have power to establish truant schools, or to set apart rooms in Public School buildings, for children between eight and sixteen years of age, who are habitual truants from instruction, or who are insubordinate or irregular in attendance. A school or room of this kind is known as a truant school Persons convicted of crimes or misdemeanors other than truancy, cannot be committed to such schools. The school authorities may provide for the confinement, main- tenance, and instruction of such children in schools. iP^pipi||PPiP^^f«f!PPPf^^ 163 Provision is also made, by which children may be confined and maintained in private schools, orphans' homes, or similar institutions. The confinement at a school of this kind is conducted with a view to the improvement and to the restoration, as soon as practicable, of such child to the institution elsewhere which he may be lawfully required to attend. The school authorities of any city or school district, not having a truant school, may make arrangements with any other city or district having a truant school, for the confinement, maintenance and instruction of truants. Industrial training must be furnished in every truant school. The municipality is required to pay the expenses incurred in the case of truants from the locality. Any city or district, which wilfully omits and refuses to enforce the provisions of the Act, after due notice, may have one-half of all the Public School moneys with- held by the State Superintendent. In order to carry out more efficiently the provisions of the . Compulsory Education Law, the sum of $12,000 is appropriated for the purpose. This amount is expended mainly for the salaries of the State Inspectors, travelling expenses, printing, etc The establishment of truant schools has not yet become general. Already such institutions have, however, been, established by Brooklyn, Rochester and Syracuse. It is contended that State truant schools are a necessity, and that the establishment of such institutions cannot be left to the authorities of any locality. So far, good results Are reported to have followed. It is claimed that the attendance has considerably increased ; that the estab- 4 :,>jj ■w^ 164 lishment of even one room for an ungraded class made up of truants has had a beneficial effect upon the discip- line of the pupils in the various schools of the city. It has relieved teachers from the annoyance arising from the care of unruly pupils ; has saved ordinary pupils from contamination arising from badly disposed children, and in this respect has generally raised the moral tone of the schools. It will be of interest to learn the opinions of the Superintendents of cities, where truant schools have been established. Superintendent Milton Noyes of Rochester, in a letter bearing date of September 9th, 1896, writes as follows : " Respecting the value of a school for the detention of and instruction of truants in this and in every city there is no question. The influence of our local truant school is apparent here and in surrounding counties. I estimate an increase of about a thousand pupils in our city schools as directly due to the maintenance of that school during the past eighteen months. Its value has reached beyond the mere que. '.on of increased attendance. It aids in the orderly operation of our schools and their discipline. It stimulates a wholesome respect for authority among all classes of persons. The inmates have imbibed many valuable lessons not the least of which are obedience, self-control, self-respect and love of study. A few well- equipped truant schools receiving commitments from surrounding districts would be of lasting value to the future welfare of the State." Superintendent A. B, Blodgett of Syracuse, after giving the cost of maintaining their truant school, and the expense per pupil on average daily attendance, adds : \ . .1"'. n„„„M,.^ ,,, „p ,|,p, JJJ|,„l,ip^p.pq^jpp,|J^|p|| 165 " Some Superintendents may ask, ' Does it pay ? ' Yes, it does, and I had almost said, ' a thousand fold.' Surely any expense is proper in taking from the streets, from the slums and from a multitude of improper and vitiat- ing surroundings the boys who have been accustomed to go their own way. While the attendants of the school have profited very materially and give promise of better things, the deterrent effect has perhaps been the most salient feature of the enforcement ot the law. To my mind the best results can and will only be obtained when the State can see its way to establish several truant schools under the control of the State Department of Public Instruction. Smaller cities and towns, as well as the country districts, can not maintain a school that shall meet the provisions of one of the best laws that was ever enacted Tor the welfare of the careless and viciously , inclined children of the commonwealth." Superintendent William H. Maxwell of Brooklyn, in an interview in the Brooklyn Elagle of June 7th, 1896, speaking of the salutary effect of detention of boys in theii truant school, says : " Those who have been feeling their way to the right management of this institution have often tried their experiments with fear and trembl- ing for the result. They are not without evidence, how- ever, that their experiments have been reasonably successful. Since February of the present year, about twenty boys have been conditionally released ; that is. because of apparent reformation they have been permitted to return to their day schools as long as their attendance is regular and their deportment good. So far, I am happy to say, there has not been a single case of back-sliding." CHAPTER XXII. UNlVBRSirV OP THB 5TATB OP NEW YORK. While at Albany, I had a special object in getting information regarding the examinations conducted by the Board of Regents of the University of the State of New York. For much information which I secured, I am particularly indebted to Mr. J. R. Parsons, Jr., the efficient director of this department of the University work. It should be understood, however, that the examinations* though of an extensive character, constitute only a portion of the work under the management of the Regents. The object of the University as defined by the Legislature is to encourage and promote higher education. Its field includes not only the work of academies, colleges, uni- versities, professional and technical schools, but also educational work connected with libraries, museums, courses for university extension, and in fact, various agencies, which have for their object the promotion of education beyond the ordinary elementary branches. The University is an institution of many years standing and growth, and differs in certain very important respects from national universities, like that of Toi-onto in Ontario, or Ann Arbor in Michigan. The University of the State of New York is a supervisory and administrative institu- tion. It is not an institution for teaching. It is a State department, and constitutes at the same time a federa- tion of more than eight hundred institutions of higher and secondary education. [166] I I 1,1 liia i|iiAii^iB ""■iW"',"^!,/! '.!':,!5P "fw»'?w!i!W"p;'iv^""-'i- ■''■ '"■■•i"" ' ww-i^i'MP.^l^f" r-M.*.' 167 The University of the State of New York has not the dose relationship with the Department of Public Instruc- tion which exists between the Education Department of Ontario and the Provincial University. It is ^(ovemed by a Board of Regents, twenty-five in number, nineteen bein^ elective. The ex officio members are the Governor, the Lieutenant-Qovemor, the Secretary of State and the State Superintendent of Public Instruction. The elective Regents are chosen in the same manner as United States Senators. They receive no salary, and are the only public officers in New York that are chosen for life. The officers of the Board are elective, and consist of a Chancellor and a Vice-chancellor who serve without salary, and a Secretary. The Secretary is the executive and financial officer. He is placed under official bonds, and is respon- sible for the safe-keeping and proper use of the Uni- versity seal, and of the books, records, and other property Itelonging to the Board. He is also responsible for the proper administration and discipline of the various offices and departments of the University. Along with many other important powers and duties, the Regents have " power to incorporate, and to alter or revoke the charters of universities, colleges, academies, libraries, museums, or other educational institutions ; to distribute to them funds granted by the State for their use ; to inspect their workings, and require annual reports under oath of their presiding officers ; to establish exam- inations as to attainments in learning, and confer on successful candidates suitable certificates, diplomas and degrees, and to confer honorary degrees." The Regents apportion annually a fund of $106,000 to academies and 168 high schools, the distribution being based on the results of instruction, and the general efficiency of such institu- tions. The main tests of the efficiency of the instruction are the Regents' Examinations. A sum of $25,000 is expended for the benefit of free public libraries. Institu- tions receiving grants are obliged to raise certain amounts as a condition. The institutions of the University include all institutions of higher education incorporated in the State. They cannot have legal existence in New York without being entitled to the many privileges, and subject to the regulations provided alike for all institutions of the University. The University suggests a federation somewhat analogous to the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge. The work of the University is generally executive, although in granting charters to all educational institutions, it performs functions usually exercised by State Legislatures. Its examination department shows functions of the local examinations of Oxford, Cambridge and London, and to some extent, functions like those exercised by the Education Department of Ontario, regarding the High School examinations. Perhaps the organization most closely resembling the University of the State of New York is the University of France, as it was organized in the early part of this century. Indeed , the Legislature of New York had modelled the institu- tion after that of France. The Annual Meeting of the Regents is held in Decem- ber, and special meetings are held whenever business requires. The University Convocation, which is a very important gathering, is held in July. The topics dis- ^^^mm 109 cussed include educational problems of the nation as well as of the State. The examination department of the Board of Regents was made a distinct section of the work in 1889, although arrangements had been made for this purpose several years before. In 1865, academic examinations were in- stituted. These included the subjects arithmetic, geog- raphy, grammar, reading, writing and spelling. At first, full control was given to the principals of high schools and academies, to settle the results of these examinations, but since 1870, the Regents have retained the power to set aside any decisions of the local authorities, regarding the academic examinations. As a matter of fact, how- ever, it seldom happens that an appeal sets aside the award made by principals. The examinations in these ele- mentary subjects serve as High School Entrance Examin- ations, with the exception that high schools are at liberty, to use any other tests they may think proper, and it is not necessary that any high school should lay claim to any of the funds at the disposal of the Re;{ents. In 1878, examinations were instituted in twenty advanced acadc' mic studies, and there has been a steady growth in the number of candidates and the number of centres at which the examinations were held. The original purpose of the Regents' examinations was to determine what pupils had attained the rank of acade- mic students, and thus to determine the share which the school should receive from the academic fund. It is claimed that the institution of these impartial tests, applied in a systematic manner, have enabled the Uni- versity to compare the results of instruction in different 170 1 1 is iii-i Ill, !' sections of the State, and to suggest important methods of raising the poorer schools toward the standards of the best. It is held that the examinations thus conducted are the best lever for securing better work from teachers, and more systematic and continuous study from students. Regarding the preliminary examinations, although the results are settled by the local authorities, it virtually comes to this, that the principal of the high school, with the aid of his assistants, determines who pass the exam- inations. The superintendent of the city schools may, however, take the place of the principal, but county com- missioners have no voice in these examinations. Indeed, it is well to remember that the relations of counties to high schools, as found in Ontario, has nothing eorre ^jond- ing to it in the State of New York. The higher acade- mic examinations held at the different high schools cor- respond, to a considerable extent, to the -matriculation examinations, as conducted in this Province. What will perhaps surprise many High School Pfiasters is the fact that the local authorities (virtually tlie principal and his staff) determine who receive these certificates. There is a Central Board, which prepares the questions for exam- ination, but except in case of an appeal, the papers are not examined at Albany. The Regents have a rijj;ht to cancel any examination, where laxity lias been sliown by the principal. As might be expected, there is room for a variety of standards, and a High School, which is anx- ious to "graduate" a large number of students. Iihs a temptation to pass candidates with a low standard. The examination certificates, awarded l)y the Board of Regents, are accepted for admission to most univeraities, and tor HPPMHWIHMi 171 entrance to the professions, and may have value in se- curing teachers' certificates. Regarding the academic certificates awarded by the Board of Regents, the feature that will be moat striking to High School Teachers in this Province is the plan adopted, by which the principal decides who passes the examinations. He receives the question papers from Albany ; arranges so that the papers may be submitted to the candidates, in accordance with the time-table ; makes all necessary provision for the local expenses incurred ; and, in a report, specifies the marks assigned in the different subjects, in the case of each applicant. In most parts of the United States, there is what is termed the system of " graduation " from the high schools, and in the State of New York, the Regents' examinations very often are utilized in this connection. There is not, in the nighboring State, the same incentive for " drawing " pupils from the county as in Ontario, and one temptation is absent, which would arise if the same plan were adopted in Ontario. If the standard of a school should be found low, representation would be made by the Board of Regents, and a higher standard would be demanded, if the grant is to be paid. It will occur at once to many teachers in Ontario that the method of distributing the grant on the results of the Regents' examinations has a close resemblance to the method of " payment by results," which was in vogue in Ontario durintj the time of the intermediate examina- tions. Many teachers in this Province have a clear recollection of some of the evils arising in conneciion with that system, and would not look with favor upon I I!' I Ill ■■< II <,<• ' p 172 the somewhat similar system which is followed by our neighbors. I heard some objections to the Regents' ex- aminations on this ground, but so far it does not appear that the " payment by results " principle has been strongly objected to. The questions set are not as rigid in most dera,nments, as in Ontario, bat in science, drawing and civil government, more extensive knowledge is required of candidaten. A candidate who is guilty of fraud at an examination may be punished by fine and imprisonment. Tlie law in Ontario is not so severe. It has been the rule, generally, to give many "alternative " (juestions. It has been held with us that it is very hard to give questions of e(|unl degree of difficulty, and that many (juestions on the same paper, wliere a choice is allowed, often serve to confuse candidates. Another feature which chanicterizi's tlu* Regents' examinations, and indeed many other examina- tions in the United States, is the privilege of allowing candidates to pass in different subjects at diff'erent times. As no percentage on the total is re(|uired, this can be done mor« readily than in Ontario. If, however, the Regents' i'xainiiiation.s were to bec(/me general among students of thr high schools, it is (|uite probable the evil effects on th«' organization of the school would call for some such method as is fojlowiid in this Province. It WOfuA lt«' difficult to predict what further developments will be n»adt'. in connection with the Regents' examina- Uotm, which have undoubtedly been cmducted with C»f», and wh»«h have had a valuable inffuence uptm sec- ondary t/iucntion. One ac(|uainted with the growth of our My«t«m cannot help, however, but beli«'ve that many 173 important changes are almost sure to be made as regards the mode of examining the papers, the style of the ques- tions, and the value to be as^jigned to the certificates awarded. It is only fair to mention that many high authorities have spoken very favorably of the examina- tions conducted by the Board of Regents. The United States Commissioner of Education writes as follows : — " It is unquestionable that the New York State Re- gents' examinations have tended to raise the average stand ird of instruction in the academies and high sclioolsi i<) extend and improve such school programmes, to bring schools and colleges together by doing away with useless diversities of admission requirements in colleges, and to Mtimulate som(> of the communities which maintain these schoolf. to give them better support and to take pride in their Ktanding. These are great services which deserve the re-ipectful attention of the other States of the Union and of all persons interested in the creation of an Ameri- can system of secondary vaJuahU' collections in mineralogy, g«'ology, z«K)lc>gy etc. The law also includes wm y .|>9i" •-■^ 177 in the Museum a department of scientific research. The duties are carried on by persons skilled in the several departments of Science. Work of this kind has been conducted for over half a century, and the State has expended for the purpose about $1,500,000. The Museum is constantly increased by gifts and by annual grants from the Legislature. The administrative department of the Board of Regents is organized with a number of standing committees. The College Council consists of five members, representing the five leading universities of the State ; the Convoca- tion Council numbers, five ; the Principal's Council, five ; the Library Council, five ; the State Board of Examiners, twenty-one ; the Dental Board, eight ; and the Veterin- ary Board, five. As might be expected, the work of administration requires a large University staff and em- ployes. Of the administrative department itself there are nineteen officers, clerks, pages and stenographers, with salaries ranging from that of the secretary, who is paid $5,000. The actual salary payments of this depart- ment amount to about $20,000. The inspection division has five officers, the highest salary being $3,000, and the total amount $8,384. The examination department has about tliirty-ono permanent officers, clerks, sub-examiners and "^tcaographers, and in addition some thirty-eight persons employed at a monthly salary, for certain periods of the year. The salaries of the examination department range from $3,000, that of the director, the total cost for the examinations being $31,237. (It is to be understood that the examinations for teachers' certificates are not included, as the expenditure for this purpose is under 12 il!;l il mlM ) ilfi 1'' I' I li mm i ,1-1; (,■ m I ' EMI * 17vS the control of the State Superintendent.) There are about twenty-eight officers and other employes, in con- nection with the State Library, eleven connected with the extension department, besides some fourteen em- ployed for various duties. The State Museum depart- ment has some six officers engaged in the work. Accord- ing to the last report, the cost of the administrative department was $25,063 ; of the examination department, S31,237; of the State Library department, $39,782 ; of the public libraries division, $29,965 ; and of the State Museum some $19,000. About 162 letters are received each day at the Regents' office, in addition to about 300 other documents. In addition to letters there were sent out during one year, by express, packages to the number of 8,213. The thoroughness and efficiency with which the im- mense work entrusted to the Board of Regents is per- formed, will occur to anyone who visits the department at Albany. To a person familiar with the system of Ontario, what will appear difficult to underatand is the wisdom of having two bodies attend to many mattera, which might well be undertaken by one administrative department. It is difficult to believe that two independ- ent departments should have jurisdiction in the matter of public libraries, the management of examinations, and other matters that come under the control of the Depart- ment of Public Instruction and the Board of Regents In the matter of examinations, we are quite familiar, in this Province, with the policy followed in consolidating the various examinations for matriculation to four or five Universities; to the professions of law, medicine, den- .VW^IMJ 170 tistry, pharmacy, etc.; and the non-professional examina- tions for teachers' certificates. By having one examina- tion to answer for these various purposes, the cost has been greatly lessened, and the convenience of teachers, as well as students, secured. There has been much discus- sion in the State of New York, regarding what is tenned the " double-headed syHtem." which has tended to dupli- cate and parallel the work of the Regents' office, and that of the Department of Public Instruction. It is con- tended that the two departments should, in reality, form two divisions of a single State Department of Education. Some years ago, an agitation for a change in this direc- tion brought the question into prominence. Unfortu- nately, some of the leaders in the movement, in making an attack upon the work of the Regents, took grounds which were regarded as hostile to higher education. The friends of the High Schools took issue with the so called friends of elementary education, ard as a result, the movement for reform was impeded. The State of New York has shown that, while it is especially interested in the education of the masses, it cannot be led away by the cry that too much is expended for higher education. Again, the movement for consolidation has come to the front, and it is claimed that the Board of Regents and the Department of Public Instruction may unite their forces, so as to carry on their work free from rivalry, jealousy, or unnecessaiy duplication. It is difficult to understand why, in the same high School, there should be conducted, upon courses of study practically the same, examinations for matriculation and for obtaining the non professional attainments required for teachers' cer- 180 tificatcs. The view here expressed is put very forcibly in a recent number of the Educational Revietv, a maga- zine which is ably edited by Dr. Nicholas Murray Butler, of Columbia University, who is a member of the College Council of the Board of Regents. " On the other hand, the Department of Public Instruc- tion should give similar unqualified credit to the Regents' credentials and avoid paralleling their examination sys- tem for any purpose or in any degree. New York State is cursed by too many examinations now ; it is examina- tion mad, and to develop a second set of Tests, parallel to the first, is an indefensible waste of money and an inex- cusable educational blunder. A New York State prin- cipal recttntly directed our attention to the fact that within one month his school had been inspected three times by three different officers from Albany. As his school was a secondary school it fell, of course, properly under the jurisdiction of the Regents, and the Regents' records concerning it were entitled to official acceptance by all other State officers. " During the last few years a similarly wasteful and indefensible duplication of library work has grown up This ought to be stopped without delay. " Mr. Dewey and Mr. Skinner enjoy the complete con- fidence of the teachers of the State, and they owe it to themselves, and to the work entrusted to them, to use that contidence to simplify and economize supervision and administration, and to make a single educational system for the Empire State. They are strong enough to do it, and the best sentiment of the State expects them to do it." CHAPTER XXIII. VASSAR COLLEQE. Among the many ladies' colleges, privately endowed, in the United States, one of the most famous is Vassal* College, situated in the City of Poughkeepsie, 73 miles from the City of New York. On my way from Albany, I had the privilege of visiting this institution, and learn- ing many things pertaining to its character from the President, Rev. James M. Taylor, D.D., LL.D. The grounds of the College cover 200 acres, with several miles of gravel walks, tennis courts, a lake available for boating and skating, an athletic field, and other facilities for outdoor recreation. The College buildings comprise the main building, a structure 500 feet long, containing students' rooms, apartments for officers of the College, recitation rooms, chapel, library, dining room, parlors etc. The rooms are finely finished, and present accom- modations of the most desirable character. In addition to the main building, there are Strong Hall, for the con- struction of which the appropriation of the trustees was supplemented by a gift of S35,000 from Mr. John T). Rockfeller ; Windsor Hall, for the accommodation of those for whom room cannot be provided on the campus ; the Frederick F. Thomp.son Library, containing 25,000 volumes ; the Vassar Brothers Laboratory of physics and chemistry, containing lecture rooms, lalwratories, with tables for 110 students; the Biological Laboratory, for advanced work in Zoology, Anatomy,and Embryology : [1811 Hi ^> %.. '^^ \>. IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 I.I «- IIIIIM |50 IIIIIM m 2.0 1.8 |l.25 1.4 1.6 ^ 6" — ► V] <^ /2 7 '/ M Photographic Sciences Corporation ^

<^ 23 WEST M JN STREET WEBSTER, NY. MS80 (716) 872-4503 '.'■'w.' ■ .'^■wi'|'iw»if'!i''i!'-'"'"-ii""niffw^f3;"P" 182 IS! I I' r the Mineralogical and Geological Laboratories, furnished with requisite apparatus; the Museum of Natural History, with more than 10,000 specimens, besides models, relief maps, sections, etc.; the Art Gallery, containing a collec- tion of oil and water- color paintings ; the Hall of Casts, containing specimens of all the great periods of sculpture ; the Eleanor Conservatory, comprising specimens of plants tj pical, from various parts of the world ; the Anatomical Cabinet, containing articulated and non-articulated skele- tons, to elucidate the topics studied ; the Astronomical Observatory, which in itself has acquired much fame ; and the Alumnar Gymnasium. There are, besides, the new buildings, wh'ch were nearly completed when I visited the institucion. They are the result of another gift of Mr Rockfeiier of $100,000, one of these buildings providing for lecture rooms, and other rooms of various sizes. The other building is a resident hall, similar in design to Strong Hall, and will accommodate about 100 students. It is needless to add that the equipment in the various buildings is of the finest to be found in any institution oi the kind in the United States. The government of Vassar College is entrusted to a Board of twenty-nine trustees, many of whom live in Poughkeepsie, New York, Brooklyn, New England, and other parts of the United States. The President is assisted by some fifty-four professors, about forty of whom are ladies. Nearly all the members of the faculty are graduates of prominent universities or other pro- minent educational institutions. The management is non-sectarian, but distinctly Christian, as its founder, Matthew Vassar, willed that it should be. Services are COTiducted by clergymen of various churches. Provision is made for the regular study of the Scriptures. There is a Young Women's Christian Association, and other organizations, including various literary, scientific, and musical societies. Examinations for admission are held at the College in June and September, and continue four days. There are also examinations for admission in June, held in Chicago, Cleveland, St. Louis, Washington, Omaha, San Francisco, and other cities. Students are admitted without exami- nation on the presentation of certificates, showing that they have the attainments icquired for admission. In this respect, the plan followed is quite common in the case of admission to many American universities. Ap- plicants for admission must be at least sixteen years of age. With every application there must be a deposit of $10 in order to secure room. Candidates are examined in the following subjects : English, which includes selec- tions from Milton, Pope. Shakespeare, Addison, Gold- smith, Coleridge, Southey, Carlyle, Lowell and Haw- thorne ; the History of Greece, Pome, England and the United States ; mathematics, including algebra, arith- metic, geometry ; Latin, embracing selections from Caesar, Cicero and Virgil, besides compositions ; Greek candidates being obliged to read at sight easy passages from Homer, and to render any English passage into correct Greek ; German or French, which may be substituted for the second language, the amount being about what is re- quired for matriculation in Toronto University. There are special courses for students who do not wish to take the regular undergraduate course of four years. 184 Many students attend with the object of receiving in- struction in painting and music. Like many other insti- tutions in the United States, courses are prescribed for students who desire to qualify themselves as teachers. Provision is made for admitting to an advanced standing students who have already taken up, in other places, con- siderable of the course. The majority of students attend with the purpose of taking the baccalaureate degiee. Like most universities, certain subjects are obligatory in some of the years for all students, while options are allowed in other departments. Latin, Greek, French and German are the principal languages taken up, although instruc- tion is given also in Sanscrit and Italian. The study of psychology is required of all candidates for a degree. Ethics is also a compulsory subject. The elective courses embrace many departments and sub-departments. Very wide courses are given in the various departments of Mathematics and Natural Science. Astronomy has been made one of special importance. The equipment for physics, chemistry, mineralogy, geology, biology, physi- ology and hygiene ofters great advantages in those sub- jects. History, economics and sociology, as well as art and music, receive much attention. In common with many American institutions, a large number of scholar- ships have been provided. Indeed, the friends of Vaasar College appear to regard the matter of scholarships as one of great value in the endowment of the institution. Last year, some 530 students were enrolled in the different courses. At the time I visited the institution* many ladies were taking the final examination for the B A. degree. From the last records, it appears that 120 185 were admitted to this degree, and seven to the degree of M.A. The M.A. degree is conferred upon Bachelors of Arts who have pursued a course of advanced non- professionpl study. Residence for one year is required, but provision is made by which the degree may be given after an approved course of two years has been taken, in the case of those studying in absentia. Degrees in Music are also conferred It would appear to follow that the wealthier and better endowed an institution of learning is, the more expensive it becomes for students. Only in the case of young women in wealthy circumstances can a course at Vassar College be taken. The minimum fees amount to $400, but this sum does not include what is required for drawing or painting, which amounts to $100, for solo singing, $150; Pianoforte, $100; instruction on the organ, $100, and many additional items. There are, besides, charges for medical attendance, text-books, stationery, drawing instruments, and many other articles. A young lady would find it very difficult to take a four years' course at Vassar College with less than two or three thousand dollars. The institution is, however, well attended. The work is of no superficial character. Some twenty or thirty States are represented by the students enrolled in the different years, although the majority come from the State of New York. Unlike some ladies' colleges, Vassar has little to do with work that is taken up in the High School. Students admitted have passed examinations about as difficult as those required for matriculation in a university, and a degree from the institution, though not as suggestive of high <*^'-''>}«. 186 scholarship as those from the best American universities stands fully as well as those obtained from a large number of institutions that grant B.A. degrees. CHAPTER XXIV. WEST POINT MILITARY ACADEMY. On my way from Poughkeepsie to New York, I spent a short time at West Point, and gained some knowledge of the character of the famous military institution, which has been for many years conducted at that place by the United States Government. The situation of the place itself, with its high elevation on the banks of the Hudson River, and the historic associations pertaining to it, give the locality much interest to the many visitors, who call there from all parts of the United States. The large amount expended by the national Government, in con- nection with this institution, and the high rank of those to whom its management is intrusted, as well as the care taken in the selection of applicants for admission, furnish evidences of the importance attached to the military training for which the academy has been distinguished- There are about forty-three assistant professors and instructors, in addition to the superintendent, command- ants and cohimissioned professors. Except seven professors, all oflficers and instructors of the academy are oflScers of the army, who are detailed for the duty usually for a period of four years. For the purpose of discipline and tactical instruction, the cadets are organized 187 as a battalion of four companies, each under the super- vision of an instructor of tactics, with officers and non- commissioned officers who are selected from the cadets themselves. In arranging for the admission of students, provision is made so as to have one cadet at the academy from each congressional district and territory, and the District of Columbia. The representatives or delegates in Congress have virtually the selection of candidates from the districts which they represent. The President also rtppcints ten cadets at large. Candidates must be between seventeen and twenty -one years of age, of good health, and in every way presumed to be fit for military training. They must be well versed "n reading, writing, orthography, arithmetic, elements of English grammar, descriptive geography (particularly of America), and the history of the United States. The course o2 study embraces the usual branches pre- scribed for military institutions. The subjects include, infantry, artillery and cavalry tactics, and military police and discipline ; mathematics, including algebra, geometry, trigonometry, mensuration, surveying, descriptive geometry, analytical geometry, deferential and integral calculus ; English, French and Spanish languages ; draw- ing, comprising topography with pencil, ink and colors, etc.; heat, chemistry, electricity, mineralogy, and geology ; natural and experimental philosophy, comprising mech- anics with applications, acoustics, optics, and astronomy ; ordnance and gunnery ; history, geography, and ethics ; law, including general principles, international law, constitution of the United States, etc.; rules and articles 188 of war, courts- martial ; practical military engineering, military and civil engineering, and the science of war. In the course of study, a system of numerical marks is adopted, by which the proficiency of a cadet's daily recitations is measured. These marks are taken into account in making up the merit rolls in each branch, as well as in the general class standing. The academy at West Point has more than ordinary interest for anyone who has given attention to the matter of discipline, not simply such government as is peculiar to military schools, but such principles of government as, to some extent, characterized every well conducted High School It is intended that the intellectual development secured at this institution should be of a high character, but still more importance is attached to the development of that moral character so essential in military matters, and so important in connection with the actions of every person, in any calling of life. The students enrolled have received their preliminary training at various kinds of public and private schools. They represent all classes of society, from the cultured to the ignorant, from the rich to the poor ; and come from the simplest cottages, as well as the brown stone palaces of New York, Boston and Chicago. As might be expected, their ideas of life are, as a consequence, various in character. Many are no doubt models of truthfulness and modesty, while others have not escaped the contaminating evil influence to be found in many phases of city life. In a few days after admission, the fifty or sixty enrolled begin their four years of probation. External inequalities disappear. The accommodations are alike for all, and each has the 189 same duties to perforin. No express parcels from wealthy houses can be received. No one is allowed to have money. Any indication of the affluence of lionie is soon wanting, and until the course is completed, the same course of conduct is expected from all who have been admitted. In the class-rooms the same equality exists. The cadets are divided into small sections of eight or ten members for the purpose of instruction. The section- rooms I re constantly visited by the professor in charge of a dfoartment. Every two days, or oftener, each student recites in the presence of his professor. The most accurate record of the scholarly performance is kept by the instructor, and checked and verified by the pro- fessor. It is aimed to secure absolute and complete jus- tice in awarding marks. Once each week, the marks of each cadet for each recitation are publicly posted. Every student can thus compare his work with that of every other member of his class. The certainty that each student must recite each day, aiid that no failure can possibly be hidden, obliges each one to prepare his lessons with a thoroughness and faithfulness which it is difficult to secure under any other system. From a military point of view, the effect on the moral character is immediate and excellent. There is no shirking of duty, and it is understood that every instance of shirking produces its penalty. If a recitation is unsatisfactory, not only is a low " mark " given, but it is assumed that there has been a dereliction of duty, and confinement to quartera during Saturday and Sunday afternoons is given as a punish- ment. Twice dunng each academic year there are pub- 190 lie written and oral examinations, in the presence of the whole faculty. I was interested to know what proportion of students endured such severe discipline, and completed the course. I was told that very many withdrew after some months' experience in the institution. The .strict di.scipline evi- dently produces the survival of the fittest. The severe penalties are constantly before the eyes of every student. They are administered, however, with almost perfect justice, and with promptness and almost inexorable cer- tainty. The idle, the careless, and the vicious are soon eliminated from the school. There is no difficulty in having vacancies promptly filled, and those who complete the course are brouj^ht forward to a high point of diligent and persevering attention to duty. It is evident that, in the case of those who are physically or intellectually unable to master the extensive course prescribed, the academy is ill adapted. Still less is it adapted to tho.se who are unwilling to submit to those features of discip- line which develop strong moral character. The effect of the discipline is regarded as tending to develop the principal, simpler and sturdier moral virtues. Punctuality and promptness are insisted on in various ways. Obedience is the centre of the whole system. Order is enforced with respect to the care of arms, clothes, books and quarters of the students, etc. Respect for superiors is cultivated, and regard for their fellow cadets is developed. No one can visit this institu- tion and converse with the instructors and with the cadets themselves, when not on duty, without coming to the conclusion that every possible effort is put forth to 191 implant those features of character that are essential to the true gentleman. In countless ways outward respect is taught. Perfect, simple, absolute truthfulness is incul- cated. Written " explanations " from cadets are common. Any departure from correctness in such written state- ments is sure to bring disgrace. Any cadet who descends to practise prevarication may expect to be court-mar- tialed fr.i " conduct unbecoming a cadet and a gentle- man." Guilt of this kind may cause the cadet to be promptly dismissed the service. If one is known to be guilty of lies or theft towards a comrade he is privately notified to tender his resignation. It is universally agreed among the cadets that no one of their comrades can be permitted to violate his honor, even to shield others from the severest punishments, still less to shield himself. A code of honor of this kind is doubtless highly artificial, but it has a remarkable effect in the matter of discipline. There are many features of discip- line pertaining to a military academy which would, of course, be out of place in connection with a High School. At the same time, valuable lessons in government may be learned from an academy like that at West Point. Espe- cially is that feature to be commended which puts each student, to a considerable extent upon his honor. In- deed, it would be diflScult to notice the bearing of students and instructors towards one another, as well as towards strangers, without coming to the conclusion that a high object of the institution is to equip its graduates with an abundance of what may be termed " good manners." As might be expected, the principal officers of the State militia are trained at military institutions. One ■**lf*'^**^ ■Pi 192 authority states that for such positions 145 have been trained at the West Point Academy. Two hundred and seventeen of its graduates have become civa engineers, and 131 professors and teachers. The highest positions in the United States have been held by graduates of this academy. It has furnished 1 president of the United States, 4 members of Cabinets, 11 ministers to foreign courts, 21 members of the Senate and House of Repre- sentatives, 14 Governors of States, 77 members of State Legislatures, and 76 State officers of various grades. In addition, the same authority states that the institution has educated 41 presidents of universities and colleges, 32 principals of academies and schools, 69 superintend- ents of railways, 13 judges, 185 lawyers, 20 clergymen, 121 merchants, 72 manufacturers, 228 farmers ; besides bankers, artists, architects, physicians, etc. In this con- nection I might say it is no uncommon thing to find colleges and universities in the United States preserving records of the various callings in life that are filled by graduates of such institutions. West Point Military Academy has had much influence in encouraging the establishment of cadet corps in vari- ous High Schools throughout the United States, This influence is assisted very much by the recollections of the rebellion, which the older generations preserve. In connection with many High Schools, the practice has be- come quite popular of having organizations of the stud- ents, who are trained by some officers of the militia or retired members of the regular force. Many of the teach- ers in High Schools have themselves become proficient in military matters, and a member of the staff very fre- 193 ice kri- hi» of In e- d- or h- in e- quently has charge of the cadet corps. The plan, so far as I could observe, works very satisfactorily. The thor- oughness and character of the discipline can be much better maintained by one who is skilled in school man- agement and who knows the difference ' etween military discipline and school discipline. When an officer connec- ted with tlic army or militia has charge of a cadet corps, there is too great a tendency to magnify the military aims of the company, while the disciplinary purposes are lost sight of. It is held that schools should give attention to military drill not with the special objo^'t of tiring the young with warlike ardor, but rather with t he purpose of securing that kind of obedience which should characterize every well governed school. Indef i, any tend, iicy to cultivate a spirit of jingoism among boys > a High or Pul>ao School should be deplored. That kind of patriot- ism is not valuable which fosters any hatred of other nations. True patriotism may, however, be taught with- out any appeals to the horrors and bloodshed of war. In accordance with this view, companies may be organized and trained with great advantage wherever the boys attending an institution are sufficient in number and of the age necessary to form efficient cadet corps. 13 'PW'WPiiPiPiiPifii^^ APPENDIX. ■> In connection with my enquiries regarding school matters in Philadelphia, I confined my attention exclus- ively to two important institutions of that city. Philadelphia can boast of having perhaps the finest school building in the world devoted to Normal School purposes. The building for the girls' Normal School is four stories high, and contains a commodious assembly room capable of seating about 1,400 persons. The chapel will seat over 450. There is a large gymnasium, two physical and two chemical laboratories, and a laboratory for natural history. The library is large, the room being fitted up in the most approved style. There are eighteen class-rooms for Normal School students, six- teen for Model School students, and five for kindergar- tens. There is a lunch room in the basement for students, and another in one of the upper stories for teachers. Teachers' dressinjj rooms are situated on each o or, and the general accommodations for students and pupils are complete and convenient. Provision is made for manual training in the basement, which is high and well lighted. There is also a modelling room for school observation, and another for a play-room Tor pupils of the Model School. The methods adopted for heating, lighting and ventilating the building appeared to me to be superior to any methods of the kind I had seen elsewhere. The commodious and beautiful character of the Principal's oflSce and the library, and the quiet, yet rich tones in which the walls of the building are decorated, present a [194] 195 *r, '• beauty which in itself must be a source of educatiou to the students enrolled. The furniture is simple in character, yet admirably adapted for the purposes intended. No one, I think,, can visit this building with- but concluding that it is a gem of architecture, and one that deserves the admiration of the citizens. Mr. Brooks, the City Superintendent of Schools, takes a jusi pride in the girls* Normal School. If regard is paid to the symmetry of proportion of the building, the complete- ness of its arrangements, the elegance of its finish, and the attractiveness of the equipment, it is doubtful if any other Normal School in the world presents a character so satisfactory. Through the courtesy of Mr. Cliff, the Principal, I was given an opportunity to learn much regarding the work ' of the Philadelphia Girls' Normal School. Between 400 and 500 students are taking the course of training. Nearly all those in attendance were from the city, and graduation at the High School is required, in order to gain admission. The course taken up is an extensive one, and embraces about the same subjects as are taken up in the Normal Schools of the State of New York. Very much attention is given to Science, and the superior equipment of the institution gives more than ordinary facilities for acquiring a knowledge of the department. It is intended that the course taken up should be entirely professional, but much of the teaching would, in Ontario, be regarded as academic. Much time, however, is given to a review of the various subjects of the High School course, and " methods " embraces instruction in arith- metic, history, science, etc., from a pedagogical point of if*' m^mf^^i^^^f^mm^fm^^^mm'f^miF ■r?s !■!" 'WipPRWBWWfWt^'W" 196 view. Considerable attention is given to kindergarten work. The two principal teachers of this department are graduates of Toronto Normal School. In connection with the Model School, I do not think the opportunities for practice are greater than in the Ontario Normal Schools, but with a two years course, the methods of instruction, to some extent, make up for the apparent lack of sufficient facilities for observation and practice. The character of the work done in this institution brings up the question very forcibly of the advantages of giving much time to a review of academic work, in connection with the training given in a school for teachers. The separation of professional from non-professional work is becoming recognized as sound in principle. At the same time, there is a growing conviction in many quarters that Normal Schools should provide for a full review of academic work from a pedagogical point of view. It is also held by many educationists that a final examination should be held not simply on "methods" but on academic subjects. The Drexel Institute was founded in 1891 by Mr. Anthony J. Drexel. The object of the institute is the extension and improvement of industiial education, as a mean3 of furnishing better and wider avenues of employ- ment to young men and women. The founder's gifts to the institution amount to $3,000,000, of which $1,000,000 has been spent upon the buildings and the equipment. The remaining $2,000,000 has been invested and the revenue applied to maintenance. Students are therefore privileged to attend the institution by the payment of 197 very moderate fees. Besides the instruction given in the various departments, important work is done through the means of free public lectures and concerts during the winter months. In this connection, the library and museum are also made to co-operate. The building is classic in design, and commodious in arrangements. The ptyle of architecture and the beauty of decorations are quite in keeping with the objects and aims of the foun- der. It is only necessary to notice the main plan of the building, the stately portal which is the principal en- trance, the decoration of the arch, the great central court, 65 feet square, with its decorated ceiling, to be convinced that few inetitutions on the continent present more points of excellence in architectural design. The auditorium is capable of seating 1,500 persons. The library and reading-room contain over 21,000 volumes, and are supplied with the leading periodicals relating to art, science and technology. The museum embraces spe- cimens in every department of industrial art. The dec- orative arts of Egypt, India, China, Japan and Europe are here represented. Indeed, the formation of a museum of fine and industrial art was part of the origi- nal scheme approved by Mr. Drexel. His deep interest in this project was shown by the gifts he made to the museum during his life time, and by the bequest of his pictures and other art objects at the time of his death. The growth of the museum has been so rapid that it has not been deemed advisable to print a general catalogue of the collections. Anyone who is an admirer of art will find few more interesting institutions to visit than that of Drexel. ^vppilifiilpipiOT>^ipplllliiii^^ m The institution is managed by* a Board of Trustees. The President of the Institute, Dr. James IdacAlister, was for several years the superintendent of Philadelphia schools, and his knowledge of art and other departments of scholastic work give him special fitness for the important position which he now holds. The officers of instruction and administration number about 66, besides some dozen connected with the library, museum and offices The institute is organized in several dep&.rtments, the aim being especially to give prominence to those lines that have special reference to art, science and industrial pur- suits. The department of defined and applied art in- cludes the school of illustration, the school of drawing, painting and modelling; the course in design and dec- oration ; and the course in architectural drawing. This department, as well as each of the other departments, is under the control of a director, who is assisted by several instructors of the various branches included. The de- partment of mechanic arts has a three years' systematic cr^irse in mechanics, mechanical drawing, free-hand drawing, science, English, history, civics, and economics, and shop work in wood and iron. The department of science and technology includes electrical engineering (three years' course), a course of two years' in machine construction, a course of two years in mechanical draw- ing, besides several courses in mathematics, physics and chemistry. The amount of machinery employed in this department, and the technical skill required on the part of the instructors, will strike very forcibly anyone who visits the institution. 199 f:';: The department of commerce and finance has for its director Prof. Seymour Eaton, who is a Canadian and a graduate of Toronto Normal School. In its general fea- tures this depaHment is intended to resemble the com- mercial schools of Europe, and to place commercial education in a higher position, in view of its relations to the great business world. Too often the purposes of a commercial course are supposed simply to furnish a knowledge of bookkeeping. Here the whole range of business is presumed to engage the attention of students. Perhaps no other field opens up so many avenues for prominence as that of business, and the aim of this de- partment in Drexel is to provide students with such knowledge and training as will enable them to grasp the great variety of topics which comes within the range of the successful business man. The course embraces the ordinary divisions of bookkeeping, together with type- writing, correspondence, commercial geography, civics, etc., and also the history of commerce, commercial law, political economy, the mechanism of commerce, etc. The department of domestic science and arts includes courses in household economy and cookery, courses in dressmaking and in millinery. The branches in this de- partment embrace physics and chemistry, biology, laundry work, business training, domestic economy re- garding the home, the house, furnishing the house, clothing, nursing, etc. In cookery are embraced general and invalid cookery, the housekeeper's course, course for waitresses, etc. In the department of domestic science, and in fact in nearly all the departments, there is what is termed a " normal course." In this respect, the object m m ^^^^^^ .1 ^.l !,W IJ . I I I .ii.N|.iiJli!q-;^^pii;pnilfHII«Piqpna^|P* ^■im"*^iifP»'>:-,, '''■•^ r V-' 204 J?, plan of having a separate institution for those who took the commercial course was sound. Most educationists with whom I conversed on this question were of the opinion that it was better to have a commercial depart- ment of the same High School, and that in this way better results could be secured at a smaller outlay. If a premium is put on the study of languages there is difficulty in securing fair play in a secondary school for what is termed a " practical education." Indeed, the question of the programme of studies is at the bottom of many school difficulties. mm m^rimmm^m